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Desperate Japanese head to 'suicide forest' - CNN.com Desperate Japanese head to 'suicide forest' Story Highlights Forest with stunning views of Mount Fuji is also known as place to die Counselors now roam Aokigahara Forest, hoping to help the desperate Suicides in Japan were 15 percent higher in January than a year earlier Officials fear more people will kill themselves amid the tough economy By Kyung Lah CNN AOKIGAHARA FOREST, Japan (CNN) -- Aokigahara Forest is known for two things in Japan: breathtaking views of Mount Fuji and suicides. Also called the Sea of Trees, this destination for the desperate is a place where the suicidal disappear, often never to be found in the dense forest. Japan's Aokigahara Forest is known as the "suicide forest" because people often go there to take their own lives. Taro, a 46-year-old man fired from his job at an iron manufacturing company, hoped to fade into the blackness. "My will to live disappeared," said Taro. "I'd lost my identity, so I didn't want to live on this earth. That's why I went there." Taro, who did not want to be identified fully, was swimming in debt and had been evicted from his company apartment. He lost financial control, which he believes to be the foundation of any stable life, he said. "You need money to survive. If you have a girlfriend, you need money. If you want to get married, you need it for your life. Money is always necessary for your life." Taro bought a one-way ticket to the forest, west of Tokyo, Japan . When he got there, he slashed his wrists, though the cut wasn't enough to kill him quickly. Need to talk to someone? Web site:   Befrienders Worldwide He started to wander, he said. He collapsed after days and lay in the bushes, nearly dead from dehydration, starvation and frostbite. He would lose his toes on his right foot from the frostbite. But he didn't lose his life, because a hiker stumbled upon his nearly dead body and raised the alarm. Taro's story is just one of hundreds logged at Aokigahara Forest every year, a place known throughout Japan as the "suicide forest." The area is home to the highest number of suicides in the entire country. Japan's suicide rate, already one of the world's highest, has increased with the recent economic downturn. There were 2,645 suicides recorded in January 2009, a 15 percent increase from the 2,305 for January 2008, according to the Japanese government. The Japanese government said suicide rates are a priority and pledged to cut the number of suicides by more than 20 percent by 2016. It plans to improve suicide awareness in schools and workplaces. But officials fear the toll will rise with unemployment and bankruptcies, matching suicide spikes in earlier tough economic times. "Unemployment is leading to this," said Toyoki Yoshida, a suicide and credit counselor. "Society and the government need to establish immediate countermeasures to prevent suicides. There should be more places where they can come and seek help." Don't Miss Special:   Mental health Yoshida and his fellow volunteer, Norio Sawaguchi, posted signs in Aokigahara Forest urging suicidal visitors to call their organization, a credit counseling service. Both men say Japanese society too often turns a cold shoulder to the unemployed and bankrupt, and breeds a culture where suicide is still seen as an honorable option. Local authorities, saying they are the last resort to stop people from killing themselves in the forest, have posted security cameras at the entrances of the forest. The goal, said Imasa Watanabe of the Yamanashi Prefectural Government is to track the people who walk into the forest. Watanabe fears more suicidal visitors will arrive in the coming weeks. "Especially in March, the end of the fiscal year, more suicidal people will come here because of the bad economy," he said. "It's my dream to stop suicides in this forest, but to be honest, it would be difficult to prevent all the cases here." One year after his suicide attempt, Taro is volunteering with the credit counseling agency that helped him get back on his feet. He's still living in a shelter and looking for a job. He's ashamed, he said, that he still thinks about suicide. "I try not to think about it, but I can't say never. For now, the will to live is stronger."

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Spice Pages: Wasabi (Wasabia japonica, Japanese horseradish, わさび, 山葵) Japanese horseradish Kochu-naengi, Gochu-naengi, Gyeoja-naengi, Kyoja-naengi, Wasabi; San’gyu (Wasabia japonica var koreana) Lithuanian The so-called wasabi root is a rhizome, a vertical underground stem bearing the leaves. In Japan, it is preferred fresh, but outside of Japan, this spice is only available dried (pale green powder) or in form of a green paste. The most common Japanese cultivars are the dark green daruma wasabi [達磨山葵, だるまわさび] and the paler but hotter matsuma wasabi [真妻山葵, まつまわさび]. Many, if not most, of the brands of Wasabi powder and wasabi paste are actually fakes and consist mainly of coloured horseradish . When buying, remember that wasabi can never be cheap. In Japan, fresh wasabi leaves are often used as an aromatic decoration. Sensory quality Strongly pungent and lachrymatory, like horseradish , but somewhat more pure and fresh. See negro pepper for more about pungent spices. It should be noted that the pungent taste is not discernible in the dried root until it has been treated with water for a few minutes. If tried without previous contact with water, it tastes bitter (see also zedoary ). Main constituents Like its relatives in the cabbage family, wasabi owes its pungency to isothiocyanates. Two glucosinolates have been identified in the root: Sinigrin (90%), which is also the characteristic aroma compound of black mustard and horseradish , and traces of glucocochlearin. These tasteless compounds are enzymatically hydrolyzed to the pungent mustard oils , respectively. Isothiocyanate total of fresh wasabi is around 0.2%. Wasabi flower www.utougi.com Further trace com­ponents identified in the volatile fraction are 6-methyl­thio­hexyl iso­thiocyanate, 7-methyl­thio­heptyl iso­thiocyanate and 8-methyl­thio­ocytl iso­thiocyanate. These compounds, ω-methyl­thio­alkyl iso­thiocyanates, are characteristic for wasabi and are often suspected to be responsible for the character­istic taste so much loved by Japanese connoisseurs. Short-chain homologues of these compounds appear, however, also in the Italian herb rocket . Origin Japan. The plant is very difficult to grow, as it does best in flowing water; roots grown traditionally on the banks of mountain streams (sawa wasabi [沢山葵, さわ山葵, さわわさび]) are considered better than those grown with modern hydroponic technology. More recently, wasabi cultivation has been tried in New Zealand and in the West of America to cater to the Japanese community. In Chinese, wasabi is known as shan kui [山葵] (literally mountain sunflower ). The name wasabi, which has entered most Western languages, is Japanese. In Japan, wasabi was originally written in Kanji as 和佐比 which would be read wasahi in modern language; but this notation is no longer used. Instead, the plant’s name is usually written in Hiragana [わさび] or sometimes in Katakana [ワサビ]. The modern Japanese Kanji writing [山葵] parallels the Chinese, but is uncommon due to its irregularity: The single kanji mean yama [山] mountain . The plant name holly­hock refers to Althea rosea, an ornamental closely related to marshmallow, but unrelated to wasabi. Note that although the name is written yama aoi , it is always spoken wasabi. See Sichuan pepper for a more detailed explanation of Kanji readings. A basket of wasabi roots. Nevertheless, there are some European names for wasabi that translate the Kanji literally as mountain holly­hock , e. g., Dutch berg­stokroos or German Berg­stockrose. The equivalent English name, mountain holly­hock , more often refers to a true relative of holly­hock, Iliamna rivularis (Malvaceae/ Malvales/ Dilleniidae ), than to wasabi. Many Western languages have borrowed the Japanese name to denote wasabi, sometimes adjusting the word to their own sound system. Some languages use descriptive compounds that name wasabi as a variant of the better-known horseradish , e. g., French raifort du Japon, Dutch Japanse mierikswortel, Russian Yaponskij khren [Японский хрен] and Finnish japaninpiparjuuri, all of which mean Japanese horseradish . Another interpretation of wasabi’s nature is reflected by the Hungarian name zöldtorma green horseradish Japanese namida [涙, 泪, なみだ] means tear in everyday speech; if spoken in a sushi bar, however, it will be interpreted by the sushi cook as a wish for an extra-large amount of the lachrymatory wasabi. Sorting Wasabia names (www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au) Wasabi information (member.nifty.ne.jp) Pacific Farms: About Wasabi Urban Agriculture Notes: Wasabi Pacific Coast Wasabi Ltd: Wasabi – The Background Story New Zealand Wasabi Ltd: Meet Wasabi Wasabi – The Best Accompanist of Sushi Sushi Vocabulary (bento.com) Sushi History (eatsushi.com) Making Sushi – a Complete Guide Wasabi by Elisabeth Andoh (mangajin.com) Wasabi plants in cultivation www.utougi.com Wasabi  is a spice known ex­clusively in Japan; it is mostly served to dishes con­taining dif­ferent kinds of raw fish, which are so popular in Japan and rapidly winning friends also in the West. Some­times, wasabi paste is mixed with soy sauce (wasabi-jōyu [山葵醤油, わさび醤油, わさびじょうゆ]) yielding a table condiment popular for grilled steaks and going well with tempura, Japanese (but Portuguese-influenced) deep-fried battered vegetables or sea foods (see perilla ). Wasabi grater made from shark skin (samezaya-oroshi [鮫皮おろし]) Photo: Wolfgang Kehmeier Close-up to the wasabi grater Photo: Wolfgang Kehmeier Wasabi paste is made by grating fresh wasabi root on a grater to a very fine texture; most conservative cooks will use graters made from shark skin (samezayano- wasabi- oroshi [鮫皮のワサビおろし]), yet metal graters are also in use. Since wasabi roots are difficult to come by outside of Japan (and would be even more difficult to pay for if one by chance stumbles over them), Western sushi bars will typically use prepared wasabi paste sold in tubes or dried wasabi as a powder; both, and particularly the latter, are often not true wasabi (hon-wasabi [本山葵, 本わさび, ほんわさび]), but rather imitations made from horseradish or mustard powder with chlorophyll as an vegetable green pigment. Needless to say, Japanese connoiseurs would rate such surrogates as a far, far inferior material. The cuisine of Japan cannot be imagined with ingredients anything less than most fresh. This is easy to understand in the case of raw fish, which changes its taste rapidly and can host dangerous bacteria very quickly. In Japan, fish must be fresh enough to not develop any fishy odour. On the other side, Japanese cooks put much less emphasis on spices and flavouring; it is seen more desirable to let the ingredients’ flavour stand for itself. The pure and clean pungency of wasabi fits very well to this somewhat Spartan concept of tastes. Even in Europe, the Japanese are well-known for their affection to raw fish, but love to this exotic foodstuff is not restricted to Japan at all (see lime about Mexican ceviche). In Japan, the simplest form of raw fish is called sashimi [刺身, さしみ] and consists simply of absolutely fresh fish in thin slices which are dipped into soy sauce and wasabi paste. More known in the West is sushi, which very often, but by no means necessarily, contains raw fish. Basically, sushi (properly spelled zushi in compounds) [鮨, 寿司, すし, スシ] is short grain rice cooked with sugar and vinegar (and thus tasting slightly sweet–sour). After cooling, the rice is brought to a flat, plain shape and topped with some flavourful food (nigiri-sushi, nigiri-zushi [握り寿司, 握り鮨, 握鮨, 握りずし, にぎりずし]). As an alternative, the sushi may be placed on dried seaweed (nori [海苔, のり]) and then rolled up; thus, the cylindric rice bits famous in the West are obtained (maki sushi, maki zushi [巻鮨, 巻寿司, まきずし]. A variant of this design is the so-called inside-out, where the rice is outside of the nori leaf. Some maki types may be seasoned with sesame oil for extra flavour; toasted sesame seeds are a common coating for the rice surface of the inside-out maki. Wasabi plant The most com­mon variants of sushi contain raw fish or raw sea foods, e. g., salmon (sake [鮭, さけ, しゃけ]), tuna (tekka [鉄火, てっか] or maguro [鮪, まぐろ]), shrimp (ebi [蝦, 蛯, 海老, えび]) or squid (ika [烏賊, 墨魚, いか]), but there are also sushi types without fish: Scrambled egg (tamago [卵, 玉子, たまご] egg ), fresh carrot or cucumber (kappa [かっぱ]), and pickled vegetables, predominantly radish (oshinko [お新香, 御新香, おしんこ]). Sushi employing fried or boiled (or even raw) meat is less common, but not unheard of. Sushi is commonly served with soy sauce, wasabi paste and pickled ginger gari [がり, ガリ], which are thin slices of young ginger in a sweet–sour brine. Gari usually has pale pink colour (although there are also colourless variants); this color develops during pickling without addition of any colouring agents. Fragrant herbs like perilla , water pepper or young leaves of Sichuan pepper (kinome) are also possible decorations for sushi. Since sushi is so popular in Western countries, new variants are being created every day, some of which use ingredients which are not at all typical for Japan (avocado, cheese, tomatoes with basil ). Indeed, sushi is as versatile as the Western concept of sandwich and it can be seen as a special Japanese version of sandwich that substitutes bread by another processed cereal, boiled rice. From that analogy it becomes more understandable that almost everything that can appear on top of a slice of bread has also been tried to make into a sushi — often (though certainly not always) with amazing success.

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Michael Jackson - Biography - IMDb Michael Jackson Biography Showing all 246 items Jump to: Overview  (5) | Mini Bio  (1) | Spouse  (2) | Trade Mark  (10) | Trivia  (180) | Personal Quotes  (48) Overview (5) 25 June 2009 ,  Holmby Hills, Los Angeles, California, USA  (acute propofol and benzodiazepine intoxication and involuntary manslaughter) Birth Name Mike Mikey Smelly - called this by Quincy Jones because " Michael wouldn't say ‘funky.’ He’d say ‘smelly jelly.’" Height 5' 9" (1.75 m) Mini Bio (1) Michael Joseph Jackson was born in Gary, Indiana on August 29, 1958, and entertained audiences nearly his entire life. His father, Joe Jackson , had been a guitarist, but was forced to give up his musical ambitions following his marriage to Katherine Jackson (née Katherine Esther Scruse). Together, they prodded their growing family's musical interests at home. By the early 1960s, the older boys Jackie, Tito and Jermaine had begun performing around the city; by 1964, Michael and Marlon had joined in. A musical prodigy, Michael's singing and dancing talents were amazingly mature, and he soon became the dominant voice and focus of the Jackson 5 . An opening act for such soul groups as the O-Jays and James Brown , it was Gladys Knight (not Diana Ross ) who officially brought the group to Berry Gordy 's attention, and by 1969, the boys were producing back-to-back chart-busting hits as Motown artists ("I Want You Back," "ABC," "Never Can Say Goodbye," "Got to Be There," etc.). As a product of the 1970s, the boys emerged as one of the most accomplished black pop / soul vocal groups in music history, successfully evolving from a group like The Temptations to a disco phenomenon. Solo success for Michael was inevitable, and by the 1980s, he had become infinitely more popular than his brotherly group. Record sales consistently orbited, culminating in the biggest-selling album of all time, "Thriller" in 1982. A TV natural, he ventured rather uneasily into films, such as playing the Scarecrow in The Wiz (1978), but had much better luck with elaborate music videos. In the 1990s, the downside as an 1980s pop phenomenon began to rear itself. Michael grew terribly child-like and introverted by his peerless celebrity. A rather timorous, androgynous figure to begin with, his physical appearance began to change drastically, and his behavior grew alarmingly bizarre, making him a consistent target for scandal-making, despite his numerous charitable acts. Two brief marriages -- one to Elvis Presley 's daughter Lisa Marie Presley -- were forged and two children produced by his second wife during that time, but the purposes behind them appeared image-oriented. Despite it all, Jackson's passion and artistry as a singer, dancer, writer and businessman are unparalleled, and it is these prodigious talents that will ultimately prevail over the extremely negative aspects of his seriously troubled adult life. - IMDb Mini Biography By: Gary Brumburgh / gr-home@pacbell.net Spouse (2) Fluid and energetic dancing Trivia (180) Through his "Heal the World" Foundation, Jackson spearheaded airlifts of food and medical supplies to war-torn Sarajevo, instituted mentoring, immunization and drug-abuse education programs and paid for a Hungarian child's liver transplant. Second child, with Debbie Rowe , daughter Paris-Michael Katherine Jackson, is born. [April 1998] Wife, Debbie Rowe , gave birth to a son, named Prince Michael (Michael Joseph Jackson Jr.), in Beverly Hills, California. [February 1997] Macaulay Culkin is godfather to his three children. Married Lisa Marie Presley in La Vega, Dominican Republic, by Judge Hugo Francisco Alvarez Perez. Witnesses present were Thomas Keough and Eve Darling (Lisa Marie's ex-brother-in-law and his wife, ex-sister-in-law). [May 1994] Shares with Carlos Santana the record for most Grammys won in one year, with eight. First solo artist to generate four top ten hits on the Billboard charts on one album with "Off the Wall." First artist to generate seven top ten hits (USA) on one album with "Thriller." Until August 2011, he was the only artist in history to generate five #1 hits (USA) from one album with "Bad". Katy Perry has since tied this record with her album "Teenage Dream". With Lionel Richie , co-wrote the song "We Are the World," and was one of its performers. His 1982 album "Thriller" is the biggest selling album of all time, with confirmed sales of over 51 million, and claimed sales of over 100 million copies worldwide. His 1991 album "Dangerous" is one of the biggest selling album of all time, with over 20 million copies sold worldwide. His 1987 album "BAD" is one of the biggest selling albums of all time, with over 20 million copies sold worldwide. Brother of (in this order) Rebbie Jackson , Jackie Jackson , Tito Jackson , Jermaine Jackson , La Toya Jackson , Marlon Jackson , Randy Jackson and Janet Jackson . Copied his moon walk after mime Marcel Marceau in "walk-against-the- wind" pantomime techniques. Wrote and recorded a song called "On the Line", produced by Kenneth 'Babyface' Edmonds , for the film Get on the Bus (1996) that was not included on the soundtrack for the film. The name of his 2700-acre ranch near Santa Ynez, California, is Neverland Valley Ranch. It contains Jackson's house, an amusement park co-designed by Macaulay Culkin , a private theater and dance stage, and exotic animals. He is being sued by two former financial advisors for $25 million over alleged unpaid expenses. Jackson denies owing them anything. [September 2001] Had a skin disease called vitiligo. Was a Jehovah's Witness. Uncle of Jermaine Jackson II , Valencia Jackson , Brittany Jackson , Marlon Jackson Jr. , Stevanna Jackson . His estate contains a child's mini coaster, Zipper, Bumper cars, Merry go round, octopus, Giant slide and rocking dragon.. There is also a full size basketball court, water wars section (for water gun fights) 2 Trains, (one steam train) and a zoo where he has various exotic animals including elephants, giraffes, alligators, a tiger and even an Anaconda. He does not own the right to the entire Beatles catalogue. For example, the family of the late George Harrison own songs he wrote, including "Something," and Sony music owns 50% of the catalogue after Jackson sold it to them because he needed the money. Son of Katherine Jackson , and Joe Jackson . Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001 (as a solo artist). Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1997 (as a member of the Jackson 5 ). Jackson shocked his fans when he dangled his third child, infant Prince Michael II , over a balcony on the fourth floor of a Berlin, Germany hotel for all hovering fans to see. He later stated that he made "a terrible mistake.". [November 2002] Starting with Michael Jackson: Black or White (1991), Jackson and his record company refer to his music videos, before or since, as "short films," never "videos". Has his look-alike puppet in the French show Les guignols de l'info (1988). Is the godfather of Michael Gibb, son of The Bee Gees front man Barry Gibb . He and his lawyer, Mark Geragos, sued jet charter company XtraJet for invasion of privacy. The firm allegedly installed hidden cameras to tape the two's confidential attorney-client conversations. A California judge has barred the firm from releasing or selling any footage it may have obtained. [November 2003] In 2002 had planned to produce and star in the movie "The Nightmares of Edgar Allan Poe", about the last years of writer Edgar Allan Poe . He was to star as the famed 19th century author (who was Caucasian), and had written music for the film as well. For a charity event held at the Neverland Ranch in September 2003, for the first time ever, he invited an artist from the outside to perform there. It was Yannick Harrison , also known as Jay Kid, from Denmark that performed a number of his interpretations of Michael Jackson songs for the specially invited guests. Has sold over 750 million albums worldwide. Was present at the private funeral service for Maurice Gibb . He was voted the 35th Greatest Artist of all time in Rock 'n' Roll by Rolling Stone. His favorite The Beatles '' song is "Come Together" - his version of the song is on "History - Past, Present and Future.". Was found not guilty on ten counts of child molestation on 13 June 2005 due to lack of evidence. Ranked #11 in VH1's list of the "100 Greatest Kid Stars" with his brothers as the Jackson 5 . He was (along with Tito Jackson ) co-best man at Liza Minnelli 's and David Gest 's wedding. Tatum O'Neal , was Jackson's first girlfriend and allegedly his first real love. However, she denied this in her book, saying that he only kissed. His hit song "Bad" from 1987 was initially supposed to be a duet with fellow 80's superstar Prince. Prince said in an interview that he did not wish to sing the line "Your butt is mine". Ex-brother-in-law of James DeBarge . President Ronald Reagan wanted to award a special White House medal to Jackson, Bob Hope and the late John Wayne in 1984. However, future Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Roberts advised against the proposal, saying the award was too much for a pop singer. Received a Presidential Humanitarian Award from President Ronald Reagan at the White House in May 1984, in recognition of Jackson's contribution to the government's campaign against drunk driving. "Beat It" was used in television advertisements. Jackson joined Chris Tucker , Tony Bennett , former president Bill Clinton and members of the Democratic National Committee at Harlem's Apollo Theatre in New York for a concert fundraiser. Tucker co-hosted the event with actress Cicely Tyson , while Rubén Blades , k.d. lang and Bennett performed. Jackson sang a medley of songs that included "Black or White" and "Smooth Criminal", and was joined by Jane's Addiction guitarist and former Red Hot Chili Peppers Dave Navarro for a portion of his set (24 April 2002). Attended a memorial service for the late actor Marlon Brando in August 2004, along with Warren Beatty , Jack Nicholson and Sean Penn . Addressed the Oxford Union on the subject of child welfare and his new initiative "Heal the Kids". (6 March 2001) Was asked to write and perform the songs for Batman (1989), but had to turn it down due to his concert commitments. In January 2000 Jackson announced he was considering retiring from the music industry, citing his weariness at publicity as a reason. In 1997, Jackson released an album of new material coupled with remixes of hit singles from the "HIStory" album titled "Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix". He dedicated the album to his friend Sir Elton John , who had helped him through his addiction to prescribed painkillers. It went on to sell 6 million copies worldwide, making it the biggest selling remix album of all time. His album "HIStory: Past, Present and Future - Book I" has sold 16 million copies worldwide since its release in 1995, making it the biggest selling multiple-disc album of all time. His 2001 album "Invincible" sold over 10 million copies worldwide. In January 1993 Jackson performed during the halftime show at Super Bowl XXVII. It drew the largest viewing audience in the history of American television. In a move named by Jackson's advisers as "refinancing," it was announced in April 2006 that Jackson had struck a deal with Sony and Fortress investments. In the deal Sony may be allowed to take control of half of Jackson's 50% stake in Sony/ ATV Music Publishing (worth an estimated $1 billion) which Jackson co-owns. Jackson would be left with 25% of the catalog, with the rest belonging to Sony. In exchange, Sony negotiated with a loans company on behalf of Jackson. Jackson's $200m in loans were due in December 2005 and were secured on the catalog. Jackson failed to pay and the Bank of America sold them to Fortress investments, a company dealing in distressed loans. However, Jackson hasn't as yet sold any of the remainder of his stake. The possible purchase by Sony of 25% of Sony/ATV Music Publishing is a conditional option; it is assumed the singer will try to avoid having to sell part of the catalog of songs including material by other artists such as 'Bob Dylan' and Destiny's Child . As another part of the deal Jackson was given a new $300 million loan, and a lower interest rate on the old loan to match the original Bank of America rate. When the loan was sold to Fortress investments they increased the interest rate to 20%. Winner of the Brit Award for International Male in 1989. Winner of the British Phonographic Industry Award for International Solo Artist in 1988. Winner of the British Phonographic Industry Award for International Solo Artist in 1984. Was a frequent guest at the infamous "Studio 54" On 27 May 2006, Jackson accepted a Legend Award at MTV Japan's VMA Awards in Tokyo. It was his first public appearance since being found not guilty in his child molestation trial almost a year earlier. The award was honoring his influence and impact in music videos over the past 25 years. Despite a number of surgeons' claims that Jackson has undergone multiple nasal surgeries as well as a forehead lift, thinned lips and cheekbone surgery, Jackson wrote in his 1988 autobiography "Moon Walk" that he only had two rhinoplastic surgeries and the surgical creation of a cleft in his chin, while attributing puberty and diet to the noticeable change in the structure of his face. Jackson hired film director Martin Scorsese to direct the video for the "Bad" album's title track. When the 18-minute music video debuted on television, it sparked a great deal of controversy as it was apparent that Jackson's appearance had changed dramatically. Although Jackson's skin color had been a medium- brown color for the entire duration of his youth, his skin had gradually become paler since 1982, and had now become a light brown color. This was now so noticeable that the entire press took out widespread coverage on it and claimed that Jackson had bleached his own skin. In 1993 Jackson claimed that his changing skin color is due to a skin disorder vitiligo whilst on The Oprah Winfrey Show (1986). Performed at the ball for President Bill Clinton 's first inauguration on 20 January 1993. "Michael Jackson: The Ultimate Collection", his third greatest hits package in less than ten years, sold 250,000 copies worldwide following its release in October 2004. "The Essential Michael Jackson", another greatest hits package, debuted at a surprisingly high Number 2 on the UK charts and sold 200,000 copies within five months. In the United States it only reached Number 96 and soon disappeared. Recorded an anti-war song about the US invasion of Iraq, "We've Had Enough", which was included on his greatest hits package "Michael Jackson: The Ultimate Collection". His greatest hits compilation "Michael Jackson: Number Ones" sold 6 million copies worldwide following its release in November 2003, peaking at Number 1 in most countries except the United States. It had been planned at the last minute after "Resurrection", a follow-up to his 2001 album "Invincible", was canceled. Fortress Investment Group foreclosed and took possession of Jackson's half- interest in the Sony/ATV Music Publishing company, estimated to be worth $1 billion, as well as the entire MiJac Music Publishing company. (December 2005) Promotional videos of his songs directed by, among others, John Landis and John Singleton have cost more than some motion pictures. Paid $1.5 million in 1999 for the Best Picture Oscar awarded to David O. Selznick for Gone with the Wind (1939). Announced his intention to record a charity single dedicated to the victims of Hurricane Katrina entitled, "I Have This Dream". Ciara , Snoop Dogg , R. Kelly , Keyshia Cole , James Ingram , Michael Jackson's brother Jermaine Jackson , Shanice , the Shirley Caesar and The O'Jays all supposedly lent their voices to the charity song. At the time, Jackson's spokesperson, Raymone K. Bain, said the list of performers included Mary J. Blige , Missy Elliott , Jay Z , James Brown and Lenny Kravitz . All of these artists later appeared to be no longer participating. The Katrina Charity Single remains unreleased. He was a close friend of the former child star Mark Lester . Lester is godfather to Jackson's children. Although the two had not spoken for several years before his death. He was never related to Elvis Presley by marriage since Presley died many years before his marriage to Lisa Marie. Is spoofed in Eminem 's music video "Just Lose It". Jackson was fired from Two Seas Records, with whom he had signed a recording contract in April 2006 for one album. The album had been set for a fall 2007 release. (September 2006) California state authorities ordered Jackson to close the Neverland Ranch and fined him more than $100,000 for failing to pay the staff there or maintain proper insurance. (March 2006). When Jackson performed in England in 1982, he asked to meet former actor Mark Lester . "He wanted to meet someone who had a similar background, a child star," Lester said. The result was a lifelong friendship. Presented with an "Artist of the decade" award by Elizabeth Taylor in 1989, proclaiming him "the true king of pop, rock and soul". Ordered to pay Debbie Rowe $60,000 for legal fees in their battle for custody over of their two children. Los Angeles Judge Robert Schnider gave Jackson until 28 September to obey the order. Rowe had asked for $195,000, but the judge noted that she had received eight million dollars in the divorce. (6 September 2006). In October 2002 it was revealed by various international banks that Jackson was in financial debt into the tens of millions of dollars due to various unpaid loans. Some of his favorite pastimes were water balloon fights and climbing trees. He wrote several songs sitting in his favorite tree at Neverland, which he called Giving Tree, because it was so inspiring. Did not tour America after the BAD tour in 1987. Received a Special Award for a Generation at the Brit Awards in 1996. Received the World Music Award for world's best-selling album of all time, "Thriller", at the Monte Carlo Sporting Club, on 8 May 1996. Received the Diamond Award for selling more than 100 million albums at the World Music Awards in London on 15 November 2006. Ended more than a year of speculation by buying the British music publishing company ATV Music for a reported £34 million ($50 million) in August 1985. The company owned 40,000 songs, including the Northern Songs catalog which contained all The Beatles songs up to their Apple Days. Jackson outbid Coca-Cola, EMI, CBS (who thereafter looked after the catalog for Jackson) and a very disappointed Paul McCartney , who had originally tried to buy Northern Songs for £21 million ($35 million) in 1981 and then later - again unsuccessfully - in conjunction with Yoko Ono . 1st May 2001: His video for "Thriller" was voted at #1 by VH1 on their countdown of the Top 100 Greatest Videos Of All Time. At #2 was "Like A Prayer" by Madonna . Won a poll of superstars to have his image on a stamp issued by the Virgin Islands in July 1985. He asked that the Virgin Islands donated all revenue (the stamps were priced between 60 cents and $1.50) to welfare and education. Disappointed his fans by singing a few lines from "We Are the World", accompanied by a children's choir, after he had been rumored to perform his 1982 hit "Thriller" as a triumphant comeback at the World Music Awards at Earls Court, London. Jackson left the stage to audible boos from the audience - some of his fans had paid up to £500 a ticket to see him perform. (15 November 2006). Filed complaints against the Independent Television Commission and the Broadcasting Standards Commission of the UK following the documentary Living with Michael Jackson: A Tonight Special (2003). Held his first live concert in four years at Madison Square Garden, New York, in early September 2001. He was paid £10 million for two concerts. Originally intended to begin his solo career when he turned eighteen in 1976, but financial problems forced him to remain with the Jackson Five, renaming themselves The Jacksons for legals reasons, until 1979. While Jackson has claimed 104 million sales for his 1982 album "Thriller", the Guinness Book of World Records has put the figure at 51 million copies sold as of 2006. A $10 million lawsuit filed by Jackson was dismissed by a US judge. The lawsuit was filed against a man from New Jersey who was allegedly in possession of items and memorabilia that Jackson claims were stolen. (14 January 2006). In 1997 a survey declared Jackson the most famous person in the world, ahead of Pope John Paul II and then US President Bill Clinton . It is clear in the opinion of a number of plastic surgeons that Jackson has undergone extensive plastic surgery and it may be said that he is hardly recognizable as the same person he was as an adolescent, but the effectiveness of his cosmetic surgery has been hotly debated. He was the highest earning singer of 1988-1989, with $125 million from his worldwide "BAD" album tour. Honored by CBS as the "top selling act of the Eighties" in March 1990. Jackson was seen by a record 500,000 people during his seven day stand at Wembley Stadium in July 1988. Moonwalker (1988) was certified as the all-time top selling music video in March 1989. Attended James Brown 's funeral in Augusta, Georgia. (30 December 2006). Inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame for his outstanding contribution to British music and integral part of British music culture. [November 2004] He returned to live in the United States on 24 December 2006, setting up residence in Las Vegas. On 13 June 2003, the day after his neighbor and friend of 25 years Gregory Peck died, Jackson went to Peck's house to help his widow plan the memorial service. Peck had once publicly praised the singer as a model parent. The music video for his song "Thriller" was with 13 minutes the longest music video ever, until this record was broken by Mike Skinner with the video for the song "When You Wasn't Famous". Jackson greeted thousands of US troops in a US army base south of Tokyo on 10 March 2007. About 3,000 troops and their family members gathered in a fitness center at Camp Zama. Jackson, after shaking hands with and thanking the troops personally for their service, spoke to the crowd gathered, saying, "Those of you in here today are some of the most special people in the world. It is because of you in here today, and others who so valiantly have given their lives to protect us, that we enjoy our freedom." Jackson also attended a ceremony at the camp for an army member being promoted and put a pin on his uniform. At his peak, Jackson was reportedly worth around $1 Billion. Inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2002. His 1979 debut solo album "Off the Wall" has sold around 20 million copies worldwide. His 2001 album "Invincible" was his first full album of new material for ten years, since 1991's "Dangerous". Fell out with Quincy Jones after the producer cut half the songs from his 1987 album "BAD". In a 2006 interview with "The Daily Telegraph" newspaper, Jones admitted he had not spoken to Jackson for years. Diagnosed with lupus in 1984. Claimed to have given $300 million to charity, more than any other celebrity apart from Oprah Winfrey . Childhood school friend of David Gest . Attended the funeral of his close friend Ryan White in April 1990. Longtime supporter of AIDS research and over thirty-two more charities. In the early 1970s while still very young and a member of the Jackson 5 , appeared on The Dating Game (1965). Roles were reversed; Michael asked questions and picked a date from three eligible "bachelorettes". Is a fan of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. A special 25th anniversary edition of his 1982 album "Thriller", entitled "Thriller 25", sold an estimated 3 million copies worldwide. Upon his death, many fans left remembrances at the Hollywood star, located at 1541 Vine Street, awarded to a long time radio talk show host also named Michael Jackson. Upon hearing of this, the radio commentator said, "I am willingly loan it to him and, if it would bring him back, he can have it. He was a real star. Sinatra, Presley, The Beatles and Michael Jackson.". The Jacksons were awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Recording at 1500 Vine Street in Hollywood, California. Made an out-of-court settlement with the family of 13-year-old Jordie Chandler for an estimated $15 million in January 1994 following allegations of sexual abuse against children. Owed an estimated $435 million in debts at the time of his death. At the time of his death Jackson was living in a rented mansion once owned by the actor Sir Sean Connery in the Holmby Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles. His favorite movie as a child and teenager was Oliver! (1968). Celebrities provided varied comments after Jackson's sudden death. Madonna and Diana Ross released statements saying they could not stop crying. Jackson's former wife, Lisa Marie Presley , said the singer had told her he was afraid he would end up like Elvis Presley , her father. Elizabeth Taylor , a long-time friend, said she, "can't imagine life without him." Liza Minnelli told CBS, "When the autopsy comes, all hell's going to break loose, so thank God we're ­celebrating him now." Jamie Foxx , stated: "We want to celebrate this black man. He belongs to us and we shared him with everybody else.". Following his death, U.S. President Barack Obama sent a letter of condolence to the Jackson family, and during a press conference the Press Secretary Robert Gibbs said that President Obama viewed Jackson as a "spectacular performer, and a music icon". In Congress, Representatives Diane Watson and Jesse Jackson Jr. asked members to observe a moment of silence. MTV and BET began airing his music videos, and ran two news specials, until 8 p.m. EDT the following day of his death. The news of his death spread quickly online, causing websites to crash and slow down from user overload. Both TMZ and the Los Angeles Times, two websites that were the first to confirm the news, suffered outages. His death triggered an outpouring of grief. Fans gathered outside the UCLA Medical Center, his Holmby Hills home, the Apollo Theater in New York, and at Hitsville U.S.A., the old Motown headquarters in Detroit where his career began, now the Motown Museum. Streets around the hospital were blocked off, and across America people left offices and factories to watch the breaking news on television. An Amazon spokesperson said that the website sold out of all of his CDs, and those of the Jackson 5 , within minutes of the news of his death breaking. He had been scheduled to perform 50 sold-out concerts to over one million people at London's O2 arena, from July 13, 2009 to March 6, 2010, which he implied during a press conference would have been the final concerts of his career. Unfortunately he passed away before he could perform any of these shows. His rehearsals for the tour were documented in This Is It (2009). On the day of Jackson's death, Los Angeles Fire Department (LAFD) paramedics received a 911 call at 12:21 pm (19:21 UTC), and arrived three minutes and seventeen seconds later, at which point Jackson was reportedly not breathing. The recording of the emergency call was released by the LAFD on June 27, 2009. Paramedics are reported to have wanted to pronounce him dead at the scene, but a doctor insisted he be taken to a hospital. CPR was performed on the way to the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, where they arrived at 1:14 pm (20:14 UTC), and continued for an hour. He was pronounced dead at 2:26 pm (21:26 UTC). Producer Keya Morgan gave Jackson a ring that once belonged to Marilyn Monroe . Following the week of his death, his album sales collectively spiked over 2000%. The Staples Center Michael Jackson memorial service non-performing VIP attendees included Sean Combs , Larry King , Barbara Walters , Jaleel White , Lil' Kim , Spike Lee , Don King , Vicki Roberts , Nicole Richie , Dionne Warwick , Kim Kardashian West , and Kris Jenner . Music website Amazon sold as many Jackson albums in the 24 hours after his death as in the previous 11 years. His gold coffin seen at his memorial is a rare design called the Promethean. It cost $25,000 and is made of solid bronze but is 14-carat gold-plated with a hand-polished mirror finish and lined with velvet. It is identical to the coffin used to bury James Brown in 2006 - which may have inspired Jackson after he saw it when Brown lay in state. His memorial service from the Staples Center on Tuesday, July 7th 2009 brought the Internet's second largest day ever in terms of total traffic. In the 1980s, Jackson and Queen lead singer Freddie Mercury became close friends and recorded three songs together - "Victory", "State of Shock" (later recorded by Mick Jagger ) and "There Must Be More To Life Than This". All are demos and have never been officially released. The Elephant Man (1980) was one of his favorite movies. Spent his last days at a rented mansion at 100 North Carolwood Drive in Los Angeles. The property was once owned by Sean Connery . An Andy Warhol head-and-shoulders portrait of Jackson made the cover of Time magazine on March 19, 1984. He died on the same day as Farrah Fawcett . Both were in California at the time. She died at 9:28 a.m PDT, he was pronounced dead at 2:26 p.m. after hours of unsuccessful resuscitation. It is estimated that Michael Jackson 's earnings in the six months following his death on June 25 2009 will top the entire $149 million (£90 million) made by Jimi Hendrix since he passed away in 1970. (Jackson's estate subsequently grew from £3.5 million at the time of his 2009 death to £400 million or $679 million by 2014). Two months after his death, just before what would be his 51st birthday, and the day of his burial, his Number Ones album surpassed Taylor Swift's highly successful album Fearless as the best selling album of 2009 at that point. He had a long standing relationship with Cherokee Studios, reaching back to his days with the Jackson 5. It was during an early Jackson 5 recording session at Cherokee that Shelley Berger, longtime Motown Manager, first realized his talent, telling Rolling Stone Magazine he would be "the new Sammy Davis." Later, he came back to Cherokee to record his multi platinum breakout solo Album Off the Wall. His relationship with Cherokee continued throughout his solo career, culminating in the recording of what went on to become the best selling album of all time, Thriller (over 51 million albums sold worldwide). Holds 10 different Guinness World Records. In 1991, Sony Pictures Entertainment announced a top secret film project called "MidKnight" which would star Jackson as meek young man by day, who secretly changes into a heroic singing and dancing knight at the stroke of midnight. The film was part of Jackson's $1 billion re-up with Sony Music. But the project fell apart due to contractual issues as well as the 1993 child molestation allegations. Jackson received his very first screen kiss in the John Singleton -directed music video, "Remember the Time" (1992), when he kissed Iman (playing Queen Nefertiti to Eddie Murphy 's Pharaoh). Achieved the dubious distinction in 2009 of meriting the number three position on Forbes magazine's list of "Top-Earning Dead Celebrities". Jackson's posthumous earnings of $90 million were surpassed only by Yves Saint-Laurent and Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II (as Rodgers & Hammerstein). Kept a pet chimpanzee, Bubbles . Jackson's music video "Liberian Girl" (1989) comprises what is arguably the most star-studded ensemble of cameos in pop music history. In order of appearance are: Beverly Johnson , Malcolm-Jamal Warner , Sherman Hemsley , Brigitte Nielsen , Paula Abdul , Carl Weathers , Whoopi Goldberg , Quincy Jones , Jackie Collins , Amy Irving , Jasmine Guy , Rosanna Arquette , Billy Dee Williams , Lou Diamond Phillips , Olivia Newton-John , John Travolta , Corey Feldman , Steven Spielberg , Deborah Gibson , Ricky Schroder , Blair Underwood , 'Weird Al' Yankovic , Bubbles , Suzanne Somers , Lou Ferrigno , Don King (and "Son"), Mayim Bialik , Virginia Madsen , David Copperfield , Emily and Richard Dreyfuss , Danny Glover , Olivia Hussey , Dan Aykroyd and Steve Guttenberg . Jackson appears only at the very end manning a camera on a crane. Directed by James Yukich . Ever since he was a boy, Michael Jackson was a fan of the Three Stooges, especially Curly Howard. In fact, for the Curly biography "Curly: An Illustrated Biography of the Superstooge" (Citadel Press, 1985), written by Curly's niece Joan Howard Maurer, Michael wrote the Foreward. The irony here is that both men died at roughly the same age: Curly at forty-eight, Michael at fifty. Fan of Fulham Football Club (English Premier League soccer club), based at Craven Cottage, Fulham, London, England. Fellow fans include Elizabeth Hurley , Lily Allen , Hugh Grant , Pierce Brosnan , Hugh Laurie , Benicio Del Toro , Daniel Radcliffe and Andrew Johnston . Performed live with Britney Spears in September, 2001. Together they performed Jackson's song "The Way You Make Me Feel" at the Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Special in Madison Square Garden. This was Jackson's last live performance of the song in front of an audience. Michael Jackson did sketches and drawings. Uncle of Yashi Brown , Austin Brown , Dealz , Jermajesty Jackson , Jaafar Jackson , Donte Jackson , Genevieve Jackson , Taryll Jackson , Taj Jackson , and T.J. Jackson . Was close friends with Lou Ferrigno . Jackson invited Ferrigno to be his personal trainer to prepare for the 'This Is It' concerts. Ferrigno had appeared in the "Liberian Girl" short film in 1989 and they remained friends until Jackson's death in 2009. The film This is It about Jacksons scheduled 50 performances it the O2 Arena in Londen is the highest grossing documentary and concert movie of all time. Greatest hits compilation released on 17th November 2003, entitled "Michael Jackson: Number Ones", with one new song entitled "One More Chance". [November 2003] Cardiff, Wales: Concert being planned to honor The King of Pop on October 8, 2011 at Millennium Stadium, featuring Aguilera, Christina, Robinson, Smokeey, Gree, Cee Lo and others. [August 2011] Arrested and charged with sexually abusing a 12-year-old boy. [November 2003] Acquitted on all charges in the child molestation and intoxication of a minor trial. [June 2005] Trial for charges including molestation and intoxication of a minor begin. Expected to last at least 6 months. [February 2005] Accepted Guinness World Record award for Greatest Album of all time, at London's Earls Court. [November 2006] Resides in Bahrain, a Muslim country that is located on the Southern part of Persian Gulf. [September 2005] The iconic red jacket he wore in his Michael Jackson: Thriller (1983) was sold for $1.8 million at Julien's Auctions in Beverly Hills (27 June 2011). In 2008 while at a Halloween party with his kids, people thought he was a Michael Jackson impersonator and played "Thriller" when he walked in. He had and extremely good memory with many people even claiming he had a photographic memory. He could remember names, stories, and information relating to encounters with people many years before. He was a huge fan of Marvel comics and a close friend of Stan Lee, to the point of wanting to buy the company in the 1980's. Akon said that a reason for the This Is It series of shows was that Michael's kids had never actually seen him perform. It has been implied that much of his self-described Peter Pan persona as an eccentric and somewhat childlike man was created and imposed by his managers. Wesley Snipes, who got to know him while making the ''Bad'' music video, was surprised at his ability to hold long and detailed conversations about topics such as psychology, metaphysics and social issues. He was widely known to be a very private man. In one of his videos "Leave Me Alone," the video talked about negative and false stories about him after "Thriller.".

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Michael Jackson | Rolling Stone artists > M > Michael Jackson > Bio Michael Jackson Bio No single artist – indeed, no movement or force – has eclipsed what Michael Jackson accomplished in the first years of his adult solo career. Jackson changed the balance in the pop world in a way that nobody has since. He forced rock & roll and the mainstream press to acknowledge that the biggest pop star in the world could be young and black, and in doing so he broke down more barriers than anybody. But he is also among the best proofs in living memory of poet William Carlos Williams' famous verse: "The pure products of America/go crazy." When Jackson died on June 25th, 2009, of apparent cardiac arrest in Los Angeles at age 50, the outpouring of first shock, then grief, was the largest, most instantaneous of its kind the world had ever known, short of the events of September 11th, 2001. What immediately became obvious in all the coverage is that despite the dishonor that had come upon him, the world still respected Michael Jackson for his music – for the singles he made as a Motown prodigy, for the visionary disco he made as a young adult, for Thriller, a stunningly vibrant album that blew up around the world on a scale we'll never see again, for his less impactful but still one-of-kind later work, even for his cheesy ballads. In 2009 Jackson was the biggest-selling artist in the world. Michael's father, Joe Jackson, was a crane operator during the 1950s, in Gary, Indiana – a place in which, according to Dave Marsh's Trapped: Michael Jackson and the Crossover Dream, quotas were imposed on how many black workers were allowed to advance into skilled trades in the city's mills. Michael's mother, Katherine Scruse, was from Alabama but was living in East Chicago, Indiana, when she met Joe. She had grown up hearing country & western music, and although she entertained her own dreams of singing and playing music, a bout of polio had left her with a permanent limp. Joe and Katherine were a young couple, married in 1949, and began a large family immediately. Their first child, Maureen (Rebbie), was born in 1950, followed by Sigmund (Jackie) in 1951, Toriano (Tito) in 1953, Jermaine in 1954, La Toya in 1956 and Marlon in 1957. Michael was born on August 29th, 1958, and Randy was born in 1961. Janet, the last born, wouldn't arrive until 1966. Michael and his siblings heard music all the time. Joe had a strong inclination toward the rowdy electric urban blues that had developed in nearby Chicago, and also for early rock & roll. Along with his brothers, Joe formed a band, the Falcons, and made some modest extra income from playing bars and college dances around Gary. When the Falcons folded, Joe retired his guitar to a bedroom closet, and he guarded it jealously, just as he did everything in his domain. Katherine, though, sometimes led her children in country-music singalongs, during which she taught them to harmonize. Soon he was working all his sons into an ensemble. Though Joe was at heart a blues man, he appreciated that contemporary R&B – Motown and soul – was the music that attracted his sons. Joe groomed Jermaine to be lead singer, but one day, Katherine saw Michael, just four at the time, singing along to a James Brown song, and Michael – in both his voice and moves – was already eclipsing his older brother. She told Joe, "I think we have another lead singer." Katherine would later say that sometimes Michael's precocious abilities frightened her – she probably saw that his childhood might give way to stardom – but she also recognized that there was something undeniable about his young voice, that it could communicate longings and experiences that no child could yet know. Michael was also a natural center of attention. He loved singing and dancing, and because he was so young – such an unexpected vehicle for a rousing, dead-on soulful expression – he became an obvious point of attention when he and his brothers performed. Little Michael Jackson was cute, but little Michael Jackson was also dynamite. By Joe's own admission he was unrelenting. "When I found out that my kids were interested in becoming entertainers, I really went to work with them," he told Time in 1984. "I rehearsed them about three years before I turned them loose. I saw that after they became better, they enjoyed it more." That isn't always how Michael remembered it. "We'd perform for him, and he'd critique us," he wrote in Moonwalk. "If you messed up, you got hit, sometimes with a belt, sometimes with a switch…I'd get beaten for things that happened mostly outside rehearsal. Those moments – and probably many more – created a loss that Jackson never got over. Again, from Moonwalk: "One of the few things I regret most is never being able to have a real closeness with him. He built a shell around himself over the years, and once he stopped talking about our family business, he found it hard to relate to us. We'd all be together, and he'd just leave the room." Around 1964, Joe began entering the Jackson brothers in talent contests, many of which they handily won. A single they cut for the local Steeltown recording label, "Big Boy," achieved local success. "At first I told myself they were just kids," Joe said in 1971. "I soon realized they were very professional. There was nothing to wait for. The boys were ready for stage training, and I ran out of reasons to keep them from the school of hard knocks." In 1966, he booked his sons into Gary's black nightclubs, as well as some in Chicago. Many of the clubs served alcohol, and several featured strippers. "This is quite a life for a nine-year-old," Katherine would remind her husband, but Joe was undaunted. "I used to stand in the wings of this one place in Chicago and watch a lady whose name was Mary Rose," Michael recalled. "This girl would take off her clothes and her panties and throw them to the audience. The men would pick them up and sniff them and yell. My brothers and I would be watching all this, taking it in, and my father wouldn't mind." Sam Moore, of Sam and Dave, recalled Joe locking Michael – who was maybe 10 years old – in a dressing room while Joe went off on his own adventures. Michael sat alone for hours. He also later recalled having to go onstage even if he'd been sick in bed that day. Michael and his brothers began to tour on what was still referred to as the "chitlin circuit" – a network of black venues throughout the U.S. (Joe made sure his sons kept their school studies up to date and maintained their grades at an acceptable level.) In these theaters and clubs, the Jacksons opened for numerous R&B artists, including the Temptations, Sam and Dave, Jackie Wilson, Jerry Butler, the O'Jays and Etta James, though no one was as important to Michael as James Brown. "I knew every step, every grunt, every spin and turn," he recalled. "He would give a performance that would exhaust you, just wear you out emotionally. His whole physical presence, the fire coming out of his pores, would be phenomenal. You'd feel every bead of sweat on his face, and you'd know what he was going through…You couldn't teach a person what I've learned just standing and watching." The most famous site on these tours was the Apollo in New York, where the Jackson 5 won an Amateur Night show in 1967. Joe had invested everything he had in his sons' success, though of course any real recognition or profit would be his success as well. While on the circuit, Joe had come to know Gladys Knight, who was enjoying a string of small successes with Motown, America's pre-eminent black pop label. With the encouragement of both Knight and Motown R&B star Bobby Taylor, Joe took his sons to Detroit to audition for the label. In 1969, Motown moved the Jackson family to Los Angeles, set them up at the homes of Diana Ross and the label's owner, Berry Gordy, and began grooming them. Michael remembered Gordy telling them, "I'm gonna make you the biggest thing in the world…Your first record will be a number one, your second record will be a number one, and so will your third record. Three number-one records in a row." In 1959, Gordy founded Tamla Records – which soon became known as Motown – in Detroit. By the time he signed the Jackson 5, Motown had long enjoyed its status as the most important black-owned and -operated record label in America, spawning the successes of Smokey Robinson and the Miracles, the Temptations, Mary Wells, the Four Tops, and Diana Ross and the Supremes, among others. In contrast to Stax and Atlantic, Motown's soul wasn't especially bluesy or gritty, nor was it a music that spoke explicitly to social matters or to the black struggle in the U.S. By its nature the label exemplified black achievement, but its music was calibrated for assimilation by the pop mainstream – which of course meant a white audience as much as a black one (the label's early records bore the legend "The Sound of Young America"). At the time, rock music was increasingly becoming a medium for album-length works. By contrast, Motown maintained its identity as a factory that manufactured hit singles, despite groundbreaking albums by Stevie Wonder and Marvin Gaye. Gordy was looking for a singles-oriented group that would not only deliver hits for young people, but would also give them somebody to seize as their own, to identify with and to adore. The Jackson 5, Gordy said, would exemplify "bubblegum soul." The Jackson 5's first three singles – "I Want You Back," "ABC" and "The Love You Save" – became Number One hits as Gordy had promised, and so did a fourth, "I'll Be There." The group was established as the breakout sensation of 1970. Fred Rice, who would create Jackson 5 merchandise for Motown, said, "I call 'em the black Beatles…It's unbelievable." And he was right. The Jackson 5 defined the transition from 1960s soul to 1970s pop as much as Sly and the Family Stone did, and at a time when many Americans were uneasy about minority aspirations to power, the Jackson 5 conveyed an agreeable ideal of black pride, one that reflected kinship and aspiration rather than opposition. They represented a realization that the civil rights movement made possible, and that couldn't have happened even five or six years earlier. Moreover, the Jackson 5 earned critical respectability. And though they functioned as a group, there was no question who the Jackson 5's true star was, and who they depended on. Michael's voice also worked beyond conventional notions of male-soul vocals – even worked beyond gender. Cultural critic and musician Jason King, in an outstanding essay, recently wrote, "It is not an exaggeration to say that he was the most advanced popular singer of his age in the history of recorded music. His untrained tenor was uncanny. By all rights, he shouldn't have had as much vocal authority as he did at such a young age." For at least the first few years, Michael and his brothers seemed omnipresent and enjoyed universal praise. But soon they experienced some hard limitations. The music they were making wasn't really of invention – they didn't write or produce it – and after Michael was relegated to recording throwback fare like "Rockin' Robin," in 1972, he worried that the Jackson 5 would become an "oldies act" before he left adolescence. The Jackson 5 began pushing to produce themselves and to create their own sound. Stevie Wonder and Marvin Gaye had demonstrated an ability to grow and change – and sell records – when given creative leeway, and with 1974's "Dancing Machine," the Jacksons proved they could thrive when they seized a funk groove. Motown, however, wouldn't consider it. "They not only refused to grant our requests," Michael said in Moonwalk, "they told us it was taboo to even mention that we wanted to do our own music." Michael understood what this meant: Not only would Motown not let the Jackson 5 grow, they also wouldn't let him grow. Michael bided his time, studying the producers he and his brothers worked with. "I was like a hawk preying in the night," he said. "I'd watch everything. They didn't get away with nothing without me seeing. I really wanted to get into it." In 1975, Joe Jackson negotiated a new deal for his sons – this time with Epic Records, for a 500 percent royalty-rate increase. The contract also stipulated solo albums from the Jacksons (though the arrangement did not include Jermaine, who married Gordy's daughter Hazel and stayed with Motown, creating a rift with the family that lasted for several years). Motown tried to block the deal, and in the end stopped the brothers from using the Jackson 5 name; the group would now be known as the Jacksons. Epic initially placed them with Philadelphia producers Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff, but it wouldn't be until 1978's Destiny that the Jacksons finally seized control over their own music and recast their sound – sexy and smooth in the dance-floor hits "Blame It on the Boogie" and the momentous "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)," and reflecting a new depth and emotional complexity in songs like "Push Me Away" and "Bless His Soul." Destiny, though, was merely a prelude: By the time the album was finished, Michael was ready to make crucial changes that would establish his ascendancy as a solo artist. He fired his father as his manager and in effect found himself a new father, producer Quincy Jones, whom Michael connected with while filming The Wiz (a reworking of The Wizard of Oz). Jones was a respected jazz musician, bandleader, composer and arranger who had worked with Clifford Brown, Frank Sinatra, Lesley Gore, Count Basie, Aretha Franklin and Paul Simon, and he had written the film scores for The Pawnbroker, In Cold Blood and In the Heat of the Night. Jackson liked the arranger's ear for mixing complex hard beats with soft overlayers. "It was the first time that I fully wrote and produced my songs," Jackson said later, "and I was looking for somebody who would give me that freedom, plus somebody who's unlimited musically." Specifically, Jackson said his solo album had to sound different than the Jacksons; he wanted a cleaner and funkier sound. The pairing proved as fortuitous as any collaboration in history. Jones brought an ethereal buoyancy to Jackson's soft erotic fever on songs like "Rock With You" and "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough," and in a stunning moment like "She's Out of My Life," Jones had the good sense to let nothing obscure the magnificent heartbreak in the singer's voice. The resulting album, Off the Wall – which established Jackson as a mature artistic force in his own right – has the most unified feel of any of his works. It was also a massive hit, selling more than 5 million copies in the U.S. alone by 1985. Michael Jackson had in effect become one of the biggest black artists America had ever produced, and he expected Off the Wall to win top honors during the 1980 Grammy Awards ceremony. Instead, it received only one honor, for Best Male R&B vocal. The Doobie Brothers' "What a Fool Believes" won for Record of the Year, and Billy Joel's 52nd Street won Album of the Year. Jackson was stunned and bitter. "My family thought I was going crazy because I was weeping so much about it," he recalled. "I felt ignored and it hurt. I said to myself, 'Wait until next time' – they won't be able to ignore the next album…That experience lit a fire in my soul." Jackson told Jones – and apparently others as well – that his next album wouldn't simply be bigger than Off the Wall, it would be the biggest album ever. When Thriller was released in November 1982, it didn't seem to have any overarching theme or even a cohesive style. Instead, it sounded like an assembly of singles – like a greatest-hits album, before the fact. But it became evident fast that this was exactly what Jackson intended Thriller to be: a brilliant collection of songs intended as hits, each one designed with mass crossover audiences in mind. Jackson put out "Billie Jean" for the dance crowd, "Beat It" for the white rockers, and then followed each crossover with crafty videos designed to enhance both his allure and his inaccessibility. Yet after hearing these songs find their natural life on radio, it was obvious that they were something more than exceptional highlights. They were a well-conceived body of passion, rhythm and structure that defined the sensibility – if not the inner life – of the artist behind them. These were instantly compelling songs about emotional and sexual claustrophobia, about hard-earned adulthood and about a newfound brand of resolution that worked as an arbiter between the artist's fears and the inescapable fact of his fame. "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'?" had the sense of a vitalizing nightmare in its best lines ("You're stuck in the middle/And the pain is thunder/Still they hate you, you're a vegetable/They eat off you, you're a vegetable"). "Billie Jean," in the meantime, exposed the ways in which the interaction between the artist's fame and the outside world might invoke soul-killing dishonor ("People always told me, be careful of what you do/'Cause the lie becomes the truth," Jackson sings, possibly thinking of a paternity charge from a while back). And "Beat It" was pure anger – a rousing depiction of violence as a male stance, as a social inheritance that might be overcome. In sum, Thriller's parts added up to the most improbable kind of art – a work of personal revelation that was also a mass-market masterpiece. It's an achievement that will likely never be topped. Except, in a sense, Jackson did top it, and he did it within months after Thriller's release. It came during a May 16th, 1983, TV special celebrating Motown's 25th anniversary. Jackson had just performed a medley of greatest hits with his brothers. It was exciting stuff, but for Michael it wasn't enough. As his brothers said their goodbyes and left the stage, Michael remained. He seemed shy for a moment, trying to find words to say. "Yeah," he almost whispered, "those were good old days…I like those songs a lot. But especially—" and then he placed the microphone into the stand with a commanding look and said, "I like the new songs." He swooped down, picked up a fedora, put it on his head with confidence, and vaulted into "Billie Jean." This was one of Michael Jackson's first public acts as a star outside and beyond the Jacksons, and it was startlingly clear that he was not only one of the most thrilling live performers in pop music, but that he was perhaps more capable of inspiring an audience's imagination than any single pop artist since Elvis Presley. There are times when you know you are hearing or seeing something extraordinary, something that captures the hopes and dreams popular music might aspire to, and that might unite and inflame a new audience. That time came that night, on TV screens across the nation – the sight of a young man staking out his territory, and just starting to lay claim to his rightful pop legend. "Almost 50 million people saw that show," Jackson wrote in Moonwalk. "After that, many things changed." He was right. That was the last truly blessed moment in Michael Jackson's life. After that, everything became argument and recrimination. And in time, decay. At the time, we knew that Michael Jackson was an immensely talented young man – he seemed shy but ambitious, and he certainly seemed enigmatic. Nobody knew much about his beliefs or his sex life; he rarely gave interviews, but he also didn't land himself in scandals. He did, however, describe himself as a lonely person – particularly around the time he made Off the Wall. Former Los Angeles Times music critic Robert Hilburn recently wrote of meeting Jackson in 1981, when the singer was 23, that Jackson struck him as "one of the most fragile and lonely people I've ever met…almost abandoned. When I asked why he didn't live on his own like his brothers, instead remaining at his parents' house, he said, 'Oh, no, I think I'd die on my own. I'd be so lonely. Even at home, I'm lonely. I sit in my room and sometimes cry. It is so hard to make friends, and there are some things you can't talk to your parents or family about. I sometimes walk around the neighborhood at night, just hoping to find someone to talk to. But I just end up coming home.'?" In any event, Michael Jackson seemed clearly reputable – eminent though not heroic, not yet messianic, and certainly not contemptible. Thriller placed seven singles in Billboard's Top 10 and also became the biggest-selling album in history (presently around 50 million copies or more), and at the 1984 Grammy Awards, Jackson finally claimed his due, capturing eight awards, including Album of the Year and Record of the Year. Then, months later, it was announced that Michael would be setting out on a nationwide tour with the Jacksons. He hadn't wanted to undertake the venture but felt obliged ("Those were slim shoulders on which to place such burdens," he wrote of his lifelong family pressures). It was during this period that a backlash first set in against Jackson, though from the press more than from the public. The mid-1980s was a time when many in the music press had misgivings about mass popularity – especially if it seemed to represent a homogenized or acquiescent culture. Michael Jackson, after all, wasn't an artist with a message of sociopolitical revolution, nor did his lyrics reflect literary aspirations. To some then – and to some now – he represented little more than an ambition for personal fame. But there was a trickier concern at play. The racial dimensions of Jackson's image proved complex beyond any easy answers at that time, or even since. Some of that was attributable to charges that Jackson seemed willing to trade his former black constituency for an overwhelmingly white audience – otherwise how could he have achieved such staggering sales figures in the U.S.? But what probably inspired these race-related arguments most – the terrain where they all seemed to play out – was the topography of Jackson's face. With the exception of later accusations about his sexual behavior, nothing inspired more argument or ridicule about Michael Jackson than that face. In his childhood, Jackson had a sweet, dark-skinned countenance; many early Jackson 5 fans regarded him as the cutest of the brothers. J. Randy Taraborrelli, author of Michael Jackson: The Magic and the Madness, has written, "[Michael] believed his skin…'messed up my whole personality.' He no longer looked at people as he talked to them. His playful personality changed and he became quieter and more serious. He thought he was ugly – his skin was too dark, he decided, and his nose too wide. It was no help that his insensitive father and brothers called him 'Big Nose.'?" Also, as Jackson became an adolescent, he was horribly self- conscious about acne. Hilburn recalled going through a stack of photos with Jackson one night and coming across a picture of him as a teenager: "'Ohh, that's horrible,' [Jackson] said, recoiling from the picture." The face Jackson displayed on the cover of Thriller had changed; the skin tone seemed lighter and his nose thinner and straighter. In Moonwalk, Jackson claimed that much of the apparent renovation was due to a change in his diet; he admitted to altering his nose and his chin, but he denied he'd done anything to his skin. Still, the changes didn't end there. Over the years, Jackson's skin grew lighter and lighter, his nose tapered more and more and his cheekbones seemed to gain prominence. To some, this all became fair game for derision; to others, it seemed a grotesque mutilation – not just because it might have been an act of conceit, aimed to keep his face forever childlike, but more troublingly because some believed Jackson wanted to transform himself into a white person. Or an androgyne – somebody with both male and female traits. Michael Jackson wanted his next album to be bigger than Thriller, which was of course too much to ask. Jackson was also seeking vindication. He felt misjudged and maligned by much of the criticism heaped on him after the 1984 Victory Tour. Some of the scrutiny he received about his "freakishness" – his devotion to his animals as if they were his friends, his ongoing facial reconstruction, scornful charges that he slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to maintain his youthfulness – was judgmental, even moralistic. Worse, too much of it came from reporters and gossip columnists, even political commentators, who displayed little if any real appreciation for Jackson's music and little respect for the sheer genius of his work. At that time, Jackson's art was still his best way of making a case for himself. In 1987, he released Bad, his much-anticipated successor to Thriller. If not as eventful and ingenious as Off the Wall and Thriller, Bad was as good as any album he ever made. It was taut and funky, it had snap and fever, it radiated rage and self-pity but also yearning for grace and transcendence – particularly in "Man in the Mirror," a song about accepting social and political responsibility, and about the artist negotiating his way back into the world. Bad sold millions and launched five Number One singles, three more than Thriller, but because it couldn't match the accomplishments of Thriller, it was viewed as a flop. Jackson then staged his first solo tour later that year. On several nights, I saw him turn in inspiring performances that also served as timely reminders of a sometimes overlooked truth about him: Namely that whatever his eccentricities, Michael Jackson acquired his fame primarily because of his remarkably intuitive talents as a singer and dancer – talents that were genuine and matchless and not the constructions of mere ambition or hype. Though he had the lithe frame of Fred Astaire, the mad inventiveness of Gene Kelly, the sexy agony of Jackie Wilson, the rhythmic mastery of James Brown – or of Sammy Davis Jr., for that matter – nobody else moved like Michael Jackson. Certainly nobody else broke open their moment in one daring physical display like Jackson. He didn't invent the moonwalk – that famous and impossible backward gliding movement from his Motown 25 performance of "Billie Jean" – but it didn't matter. He had defined himself in that moment and dared anybody else to match it, and nobody ever did. During the Bad tour his moves were breathtaking, sometimes unexpected. In 1988, he was again nominated for key Grammy Awards including Album of the Year, but he was up against hard competition. Artists like U2 and Prince had fashioned the most ambitious and visionary music of their careers – music that reflected the state of pop and the world in enlivening ways. More to the point, in 1988 there was suspicion among many observers that Jackson's season as pop's favorite son had passed. He would win no Grammys that year. In the Rolling Stone Readers' poll, Jackson placed first in six of the readers' "worst of the year" categories (including "worst male singer"); in addition, The Village Voice Critics' Poll failed to mention Jackson's Bad in its selection of 1987's 40 best albums. This was a startling turnaround from four years before, when Jackson and his work topped the same polls in both publications. Michael Jackson never really regained momentum or ambition after the negative reaction to Bad. He had finally left the family home in Encino and built his own fortress estate known as Neverland, about 100 miles north of L.A., with an amusement park and train rides redolent of Disneyland. It became a place where he brought the world to him, or at least that part of the world he seemed to care about, which mainly included children – the people, he said, he felt most at home with, since part of him wanted to experience and share the childhood he felt his father and entertainment career had deprived him of. But it was also Michael's appetite for the company of children that would create the most lamentable troubles in his life. In 1993, a story broke that Jackson was accused of molesting a 13-year-old boy with whom he had kept frequent company. It was a terribly serious accusation, and given his fondness for the company of children, the charges seemed all too credible to some observers. The story played big in not just tabloid newspapers but in some mainstream media as well. No criminal charges were filed, but in 1994 Jackson settled the matter out of court (reportedly for something in the vicinity of $20 million), which struck many as a tacit admission to the allegations. Jackson, though, categorically denied the claim. He later told British journalist Martin Bashir that he simply wanted to put the issue behind him. The episode did enormous damage to Jackson's image, and perhaps to his psychology as well. It was during that time that, according to some, he developed a dependency on medications that stayed with him through the rest of his life. (Jackson's need for drugs may also have stemmed from pains attributable to various surgeries.) That same year he unexpectedly married Lisa Marie Presley, the daughter of rock & roll's most eminent pioneer, Elvis Presley. Some saw it as an effort to both rehabilitate and bolster his image by asserting a heterosexual authenticity, and by linking his name to even greater fame. The marriage lasted 18 months. Presley has never spoken negatively of Jackson, only affectionately, saying in the days after her ex-husband's death that she left him only because she felt she couldn't save him from himself. Jackson married again in 1996, this time to a nurse from his dermatologist's office, Debbie Rowe. The couple had two children, son Prince Michael Jackson and daughter Paris Michael Katherine Jackson. Apparently, the children were the true objective of the marriage for Jackson; the couple divorced in 1999 and Rowe gave up custody of the children. (Rowe has admitted in the past that Jackson wasn't the children's biological father, but rather that they were conceived by artificial insemination.) Through the course of all this, sadly, Jackson's musical drive fell off, and the music that did emerge was only sporadically successful. His new music was often a testament of self-justification. In "Childhood," a song from 1995's HIStory: Past, Present and Future, he put forth his case for his otherness: "No one understands me/They view it as such strange eccentricities/It's been my fate to compensate/For the childhood I've never known/Before you judge me, try hard to love me/Look within your heart, then ask/Have you seen my childhood?" His hurt and anger also began to come out more in his body over the years. Sometimes his expression looked terrified, his eyes peering over surgical masks or from behind the cover of a burqa. Other times he moved with an explosive fury, as in those moments at the end of his infamous but incredibly successful 1991 video for the song "Black or White." Those movements seemed so different from the joyful ones of years before. But despite good moments – and too many treacly and self-aggrandizing ones – Michael Jackson's 1990s music had no real presence in the ongoing current of popular culture. His final album, Invincible, from 2001, yielded a few adventurous tracks – Jackson was finally accommodating the stylistic and cultural innovations made by hip-hop and other urban music forms – but overall it wasn't enough to live up to its title. This isn't to say that Michael Jackson was no longer a huge star but rather that his legend had transmuted: He was now known for his excesses and bad choices. He lived in a castle; he contracted another baby, Prince Michael II (whose mother has never been identified); and he then recklessly dangled the baby over a balcony in Berlin. Sometimes you had to wonder whether Jackson had any real idea how his actions struck the world – which is perhaps OK, unless you expect the world to love you unconditionally. Jackson's most egregious lapse of judgment became evident in a notorious 2003 interview with Martin Bashir, in which the singer professed that he still shared his bed at Neverland with children who were not his own. During one point in the broadcast, Jackson sat holding the hand of a 13-year-old boy, a cancer survivor, and explained what he saw as the innocent and loving nature of that behavior. The public response was swift and hypercritical; many thought that despite the accusations he had faced in 1993, Jackson could still act as he wanted with impunity. The reaction was so devastating to Jackson that, according to some rumors, later that year he attempted a morphine overdose; at the very least, some observers declared Jackson had committed career suicide. The controversy became as serious as possible when the boy in the video accused Jackson of fondling him. This time, the matter went to trial. The horrible drama that Jackson had landed in was in keeping with the dominant themes of his life and art: his obsessions with stardom, mystery, hubris, fear and despoiled childhood. If the charges were true, one had to wonder what Jackson truly saw when he looked at the childhoods of others. Was he capable of disrespecting their innocence, just as his own was once ruined? But if the charges weren't true, then one had to ask what measure of satisfaction could be won in his ruin? The 2005 trial was the spectacle everybody expected it to be – a drama about justice and celebrity, sex and outrage, morality and race. Even though it dragged on, it was clear the prosecution didn't have a case so much as it had umbrage. The trial was a farce – it's dismaying the case ever made it to trial – and Jackson was acquitted on all charges. But the damage done seemed, in many ways, final. Jackson walked out of the courtroom that day a shaken, listless man. His finances were also coming undone; he had been spending ludicrous sums and he'd mismanaged his money – which took some doing, since he had made such a vast fortune. The biggest star in the world had fallen from the tallest height. He left the country and moved to Bahrain; he was only occasionally seen or heard from. Nobody knew whether he could recover his name, or even preserve his considerable music legacy, until early 2009, when he announced an incredibly ambitious series of 50 concerts – which he described as the "final curtain call" – to take place at London's O2 arena, beginning July 13th. On June 24, 2009, as Rolling Stone reported, "Jackson ran through a six-hour dress rehearsal of his concert at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. More than a dozen people who witnessed the final rehearsal -- from his promoter to his choreographer to his musicians -- all agree on one thing: Jackson was better than he'd ever been. He popped, just like he had in his glory days, singing and out-dancing the young pros that surrounded him. 'He was so brilliant onstage,' recalls his tour director, Kenny Ortega. 'I had goose bumps.'" The next day he was dead. Reports in the aftermath of Jackson's death revealed a disturbing dependence on Ambien and other prescription drugs. Jackson's autopsy report ruled his death a homicide, stating that Dr. Conrad Murray – Jackson's live-in physician -- wrongfully administered the sedative propofol to his patient. On February 8, 2010, Murray was charged with involuntary manslaughter. Jackson's 2002 will stated that his estate would give 40 percent to both his mother Katherine and Michael's children; the remaining 20 percent would go to charity. As of February, 2010, Jackson's estate had earned 100 million since his death, though claims on the estate exceeded $22 million. Joe Jackson was not named as a benefactor in the will. This Is It, the documentary that covers the rehearsals for the O2 shows, grossed more than $250 million worldwide, and with vaults of unreleased music due out in the future, the Jackson estate will likely surpass Elvis Presley's in terms of earnings. In the days that followed his death, Jackson was everywhere. Makeshift memorials sprung up around his star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and outside Harlem's Apollo Theater. His music blared from radios all across the world and his CDs flew off the shelves. 1.6 million people registered for a chance to win tickets to Jackson's public memorial at the Staples Center. At the memorial, Magic Johnson, Brooke Shields, and other celebrities paid tribute, and Stevie Wonder sang "Never Dreamed You'd Leave in Summer." The most moving moment came from Jackson's eleven-year-old daughter Paris, who made her first ever public statement: "Ever since I was born, Daddy has been the best father you could ever imagine," she said. "And I just wanted to say I love him — so much." In the wake of his death, everyone in the world seemed to talk of his or her favorite Jackson song, or favorite Jackson dance move or favorite Jackson video. I'll never forget that night back in early 1983, when onstage in Pasadena, California, at the Motown 25th anniversary show, Michael Jackson gave his first public performance as a mature artist staking his own claim, vaulting into that astonishingly graceful, electrifying version of "Billie Jean." Dancing, spinning, sending out impassioned, fierce glares at the overcome audience, Jackson did a powerful job of animating and mythologizing his own blend of mystery and sexuality. I'd never seen anything quite like it before. Maybe I never will again. Michael Jackson didn't just grab the gold ring: He hooked it to a new bar and set it even higher, and nobody has yet snatched it with quite the same flair or results. Adapted from Triumph & Tragedy: The life of Michael Jackson (2009)

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Michael Jackson Books Biography Moonwalker Dancing The Dream Amazon.com MOONWALK This book was Michael Jackson's first autobiography published by Doubleday in 1988. The book was released in both hardcover and paperback. In 'Moonwalk', Michael talks for the first time about his life, from his early Jackson 5 days, through the making of his albums , Off The Wall, Thriller and Bad. He touches on some of the most prominent rumours that have surrounded his career. The book contains many never-before-seen photographs from the Jackson family archives, as well as photos taken of Michael throughout his lengthy career, and artwork drawn by Michael himself. The book was a USA best seller. 'Moonwalk' is no longer in print, so can not be found in regular book stores but may be found in our MJstore subject to availability. MOONWALKER - THE STORYBOOK This book was written by Michael Jackson and published by Doubleday in 1988. This is a children's story based on the short film 'Smooth Criminal' (from the film Moonwalker) in which Michael's friend Katy is kidnapped by the evil 'Mr. Big' who is planning on getting the children of the world addicted to drugs. Michael and his friends Sean and Zeke must save Katy and stop Mr. Big before it's too late. 'Moonwalker - The Storybook' includes over 50 full color photos from the short film 'Smooth Criminal'. DANCING THE DREAM This book was published by Doubleday in 1992 and was written by Michael Jackson. The book contains 28 essays and reflections, 17 poems, 84 color and black and white photographs, and 20 pieces of other artists artwork. Michael writes on topics such as creating his dance and music, children, religion, life, love, and autobiographical reflections. 'Dancing the Dream' is no longer in print, and so can not be found in regular book stores but may be found subject to current availability in our own MJStore.

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Michael Jackson - Moonwalk (Autobiography) - Free eBooks Download free ebooks download Author: , Date: 19 Oct 2010, Views: Michael Jackson - Moonwalk (Autobiography) Publisher: Doubleday | ISBN: 0385247125 | 59 pages | 1988 | File type: PDF | 630 KB Moonwalk is an autobiography written by American musician Michael Jackson. The book was first published in February 1988, less than a year after the release of Jackson's Bad album, and named after Jackson's signature dance move, the moonwalk. The book was edited by Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and reached numb er one on the New York Times Best Seller list.

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All Michael Jackson Biography History Bio     In 1968 the Bobby Taylor and The Vancouvers discovered the Jackson five and from there they got an audition for Berry Gordy of Motown Records. The Jackson 5 signed for Motown and moved to California. Their first 4 singles, "I Want You Back", "ABC", "The Love You Save", and "I'll Be There" all made US No1 hits. The Jackson 5 recorded 14 albums and Michael recorded 4 solo albums with Motown. The Jackson 5 stayed with Motown until 1976, wanting more artistic freedom they felt they had to move on and signed up with Epic. The group name Jackson 5 had to be changed as it was owned by Motown, so they reverted to The Jacksons as they had be known in the early days. Brother Jermaine married Berry Gordy's daughter and stayed with Motown. Youngest brother Randy joined in his place. The Jacksons had a number of hit records and in total made 6 albums between the years of 1976 and 1984. In 1977 Michael made his first film debut when he starred in the musical 'The Wiz' playing Scarecrow with Diana Ross in the lead role of Dorothy. It was at this time Michael met Quincy Jones who was doing the score for the film. Michael teamed up with Quincey Jones as his producer for his first solo album with Epic Records. The album titled " Off The Wall " was a big success around the world and the first ever album to release a record breaking 4 No1 singles in the US. In 1982 Michael Jackson released the world's largest selling album of all time, ' Thriller '. This album produced 7 hit singles, breaking yet again more records, and went on to sell over 50 million copies worldwide. Michael was keen to use music video or short films as he called them to promote his singles from the album. He worked with the best directors and producers, using the latest technology and special effects for the hit song ' Billie Jean '. The short film 'Thriller' used the latest make-up artists technolgy combined with fantastic dancing and cherography, to produce a 14 minute video, with a start, a middle and an ending. So successful was this video that 'The Making Of Michael Jackson's Thriller' became the world's largest selling home video combined with soaring album sales. In 1983 Michael performed the now legendary moonwalk for the first time on the 'Motown 25 years' anniversary show. This performance alone set Michael undoubtable into the realm of a superstar. In 1984 Michael won a record breaking 8 Grammy awards in one night . The awards were for his work on the 'Thriller' album and his work on the narrative for the 'ET Storybook'. On December 9th 1984 at the last concert of the Jackson's Victory Tour, Michael announced he was splitting from the group and going solo. In 1987 Michael released his much awaited third solo album, titled ' Bad ', and lauched his record breaking first solo world tour. 1988, Michael wrote his first autobiography, Moonwalk, talking for the first time on his childhood and his career. At the end of the 1980s Michael was named 'Artist Of The Decade' for his success off of his 'Thriller' and 'Bad' albums. In 1991 Michael signed with Sony Music the largest ever recording contract and released his fourth solo album, ' Dangerous '. He toured world again in 1992, taking his concerts to countries that had never before been visited by a pop/rock artist. Also Michael founded the ' Heal the World Foundation ' to help improve the lives of children across the world. In 1994 Michael married Lisa Marie Presley, daughter of rock legend Elvis Presley. The marriage only lasted for 19 months, as they divorced in 1996. 1995 saw Michael release a fifth solo album, ' HIStory ', which was a double album, first half new material and second half half greatest hits. Michael toured again over a legs covering a 2 year period. In between legs of the tour on November 14th 1996, Michael married for his second time to Debbie Rowe who was a nurse that Michael had met in the treatment of his skin pigment disorder. Together they had their first child Prince Michael Joseph Jackson jr born on February 13 1997 and a daughter Paris Michael Katherine Jackson born on April 3rd 1998. In 1997 Michael released the remix album ' Blood On The Dance Floor ' which also contained 5 new song linked with a 38min film "Ghosts". This film Michael played 5 roles using the latest special effects and make-up artistry, combined with his dance and music. In September, 2001 Michael celebrated his 30th anniversary as a solo artist with two concerts to be held in New York, USA. Many artists such as Whitney Houston, Usher, Destinys Child, Shaggy and many more performed there own and Michael Jacksons past songs. Michael then reunited with all of his brothers and performed there biggest hits. Michael then went onto perform solo some of his biggest hits. In October 2001 Michael released the album ' Invincible ' releasing only 2 singles including the big hit " You Rock My World ". Shortly after the albums release there were rumours of a rift with Sony Music and a clear lack of promotion of the album. The second single " Cry " was released with a very poor music video which did not feature Michael and no other singles were released. In November 2003 a new single " One More Chance " was released as a single and was also a track on new compilaition album " Number Ones ". In March 2009, Michael annouced a shock comeback tour at the O2 Arena in London to start in July 2009, intially for 10 dates but the total grew to a sold out 50 dates with over 750,000 tickets sold. All sold tickets sold out within minutes of being released. On June 25th 2009 Michael Jackson died suddenly of a reported cardiac arrest. He was 50 years old.

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Michael Jackson timeline | World History Project Michael Jackson b. Aug 29 1958 d. Jun 25 2009 Michael Joseph Jackson was an American singer-songwriter, actor, and businessman. Called the King of Pop, his contributions to music, dance, and fashion, along with his publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades. More The eighth child of the Jackson family, he debuted on the professional music scene along with his brothers as a member of The Jackson 5 in 1968, and began his solo career in 1971. In the early 1980s, Jackson became a dominant figure in popular music. The music videos for his songs, including those of "Beat It", "Billie Jean", and "Thriller", were credited with breaking down racial barriers and with transforming the medium into an art form and promotional tool. The popularity of these videos helped to bring the then-relatively-new television channel MTV to fame. With videos such as "Black or White" and "Scream", he continued to innovate the medium throughout the 1990s, as well as forging a reputation as a touring solo artist. Through stage and video performances, Jackson popularized a number of complicated dance techniques, such as the robot and the moonwalk, to which he gave the name. His distinctive sound and style has influenced numerous hip hop, post-disco, contemporary R&B, pop, and rock artists. Michael Jackson timeline Michael Joseph Jackson was born in Gary, Indiana (an industrial suburb of Chicago, Illinois) to a working-class family on August 29, 1958. The son... Read more 1969 In August 1969, shortly before Michael turned 11, the Jackson 5 opened for Diana Ross at the L.A. Forum, and in December, they issued their debut... Read more 1972 "Ben" is a number-one hit song recorded by the teenaged Michael Jackson for the Motown label in 1972. The song, the theme of a 1972 film of the... Read more 1974 In 1974, during a performance on "Soul Train," Jackson introduced a dance called the robot, made of moves that were mimicked on dance floors across... Read more 1978 The Wiz is a 1978 American musical film produced by Motown Productions and Universal Pictures, and released by Universal on October 24, 1978. An... Read more 1979 Off the Wall is the fifth studio album by pop musician Michael Jackson, released August 10, 1979 on Epic Records. The album follows Jackson's... Read more Nov 30 1982 Thriller is the sixth studio album by American recording artist Michael Jackson. The album was released on November 30, 1982 by Epic Records as the... Read more Jan 2 1983 "Billie Jean" is a dance-pop R&B song by late American recording artist Michael Jackson. It was written by Jackson and produced by Quincy Jones for... Read more Feb 14 1983 "Beat It" is a song by American recording artist Michael Jackson. It was written by Jackson and co-produced by Quincy Jones for the singer's sixth... Read more Mar 25 1983 The moonwalk or backslide is a dance technique that presents the illusion that the dancer is stepping forward while actually moving backward,... Read more Jan 27 1984 While filming a Pepsi Cola commercial at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, he suffered second degree burns to his scalp after pyrotechnics... Read more Mar 14 1985 Donga (Thief) is a Telegu film which was released on March 14, 1985. This film was directed by A. Kodandarami Reddy, and stars Chiranjeevi and... Read more Aug 31 1987 Bad is the seventh studio album by Michael Jackson. It was released on August 31, 1987 by Epic/CBS Records. The record was released nearly five... Read more 1988 Moon Walk is an autobiography written by American musician Michael Jackson. The book was first published in in 1988, a year after the release of... Read more 1993 Dangerous - The Short Films is a collection of "short films" by Michael Jackson released initially on VHS, in 1993 released by Buena Vista Home... Read more Feb 10 1993 Jackson gave a 90-minute interview with Oprah Winfrey in February 1993, his first television interview since 1979. He grimaced when speaking of his... Read more Aug 17 1993 In 1993, Michael Jackson was accused of abuse by Evan Chandler, on behalf of his then-13-year-old child, Jordan Chandler. Jackson and Jordan had... Read more Nov 12 1993 Jackson began taking painkillers, Valium, Xanax and Ativan to deal with the stress of the allegations made against him. By the fall of 1993,... Read more May 26 1994 In May 1994, Jackson married singer-songwriter Lisa Marie Presley, the daughter of Elvis Presley. They had first met in 1975 during one of... Read more Jan 18 1996 Presley and Jackson divorced less than two years after getting married in the midst of Jackson's child sexual abuse scandal and, at the time, it... Read more Nov 15 1996 During the Australian leg of the HIStory World Tour, Jackson married dermatologist nurse Deborah Jeanne Rowe, who bore him two children, a son,... Read more Feb 13 1997 During the Australian leg of the HIStory World Tour, Jackson married dermatologist nurse Deborah Jeanne Rowe, who bore him two children, a son,... Read more Jul 17 2007 Thriller is a viral video featuring the dancing inmates of a high security penitentiary. In 2007, the inmates of Cebu Provincial Detention and... Read more Jun 25 2009 2:18PM LOS ANGELES -- Pop star Michael Jackson has been taken to UCLA Medical Center by ambulance suffering from cardiac arrest, fire officials... Read more Jun 25 2009 3:09PM

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Beat It | Michael Jackson Official Site Director: Bob Giraldi Primary Production Location: Los Angeles, California Michael Jackson’s short film for “Beat It” was the second of three short films produced for recordings from Thriller, which continues its reign as the biggest selling album of all time with worldwide sales in excess of 105 million as of June 1, 2016 and in December, 2015 became the first ever album to be awarded triple diamond status by the RIAA for US sales alone. The “Beat It” single reached No. 1 in six countries in the spring of 1983, including three consecutive weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100—becoming the fifth-highest selling single in America that same year. Alongside “Billie Jean,” “Beat It” gave Michael two songs in the Top 5 of the Billboard Hot 100 at the same time, a rare feat. “Beat It” was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 9, 1983, and Platinum on February 14, 1989. The song won two Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Best Rock Vocal Performance – Male. “Beat It” landed on Rolling Stone’s 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and The 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time. Michael allowed “Beat It” to be used for a national public service commercial against drunk driving, prompting a Presidential Humanitarian Award from Ronald Reagan in 1984. The short film featured a set of rival inner city gangs (featuring a mix of dancers and actual Los Angeles gang members) united by Michael’s impassioned message of nonviolence. “I felt ‘Beat It’ should be interpreted literally, the way it was written, one gang against another on tough urban streets,” Michael wrote in his 1988 autobiography Moonwalk. “It had to be rough.” Michael’s wardrobe in “Beat It”—a zippered red leather jacket, black pants, white socks and black loafers—is still one of the most recognizable outfits in music history. The “Beat It” short film is one of Michael’s most awarded works of art. It won two American Music Awards for Favorite Video (Pop/Rock) and Favorite Video (Soul/R&B) and four Billboard Video Awards, including Best Overall Video and Best Choreography. In 1983, it was named Video of the Year in both critic’s and reader’s polls in Rolling Stone. In 1992, the short film was inducted into the Music Video Producers Hall of Fame. MTV ranked “Beat It” as the 12th greatest music video of all time in 1999, one of three entries of Jackson’s on the chart alongside “Thriller” and “Billie Jean.” Additional Content

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BIOGRAPHY: Michael Jackson Lifetime twitter BIOGRAPHY First taking to the stage at the age of just 11 as part of his family's gig The Jackson 5, Michael Jackson grew quickly into the superstardom which would both reward and plague his life. An apparently unstoppable creative and financial force through the highs of his career, 'The King of Pop' struggled with a confused and turbulent private life that was often made appallingly public. In the wake of his shock death though, it is for his artistry - and not his controversies - that he will be remembered and sadly missed. Jackson was born 29 August 1958, in Gary, Indiana, to an African-American working-class family. His father, Joseph Jackson, had been a guitarist but had put aside his musical aspirations to provide for his family as a crane operator. Believing his sons had talent, he molded them into a musical group in the early 1960s. At first, the Jackson Family performers consisted of Michael's older brothers Tito, Jermaine, and Jackie. Michael joined his siblings when he was five, and emerged as the group's lead vocalist. He showed remarkable range and depth for such a young performer, impressing audiences with his ability to convey complex emotions. Older brother Marlon also became a member of the group, which evolved into the The Jackson 5. Behind the scenes, Joseph Jackson pushed his sons to succeed. He was also reportedly known to become violent with them. Michael and his brothers spent endless hours rehearsing and polishing up their act. At first, the Jackson 5 played local gigs and built a strong following. They recorded one single on their own, 'Big Boy' with the b-side 'You've Changed', but it failed to generate much interest. The Jackson 5 moved on to working an opening act for such R&B artists as Gladys Knight and the Pips, James Brown, and Sam and Dave. Many of these performers were signed to the legendary Motown record label, and it has been reported that Gladys Knight may have been the one to tell Motown founder Berry Gordy about the Jackson 5. Impressed by the group, Gordy signed them to his label in 1968. Relocating to Los Angeles, Michael and his brothers started work on their music and dancing with their father as their manager. They lived with Gordy and also with Supremes singer Diana Ross when they first arrived there. In August 1969, the Jackson 5 was introduced to the music industry at a special event, and later served as the opening act for the Supremes. Their first album, 'Diana Ross Presents the Jackson 5', hit the charts in December of that year. It's first single, 'I Want You Back', hit No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in January 1970. More chart-topping singles quickly followed, such as 'ABC', 'The Love You Save', and 'I'll Be There'. At the age of 13, Jackson launched a solo career in addition to his work with the Jackson 5. He made the charts in 1971 with 'Got to Be There' from the album of the same name. His 1972 album, 'Ben', featured the eponymous ballad about a rat. The song became Jackson's first solo No. 1 single. For several years, Michael Jackson and the Jackson 5 maintained a busy tour and recording schedule, under the supervision of Berry Gordy and his Motown staff. Gordy wrote many of the songs recorded by the group and by Michael Jackson as a solo artist. The group became so popular that they even had their own self-titled cartoon show, which ran from 1971 to 1973. Despite Jackson's individual achievements and the group's great success, there was trouble between the Jacksons and their record company. Tensions mounted between Gordy and Joseph Jackson over the management of his children's careers, and their level of participation in making their music. The Jacksons wanted more control over their recordings, which led to most of the Jacksons breaking ties with Motown in 1975. Jermaine Jackson remained with the label and continued to pursue a solo career, having previously released several albums—none of which had matched the success of his younger brother Michael. Now calling themselves the Jacksons, the group signed a new recording deal with Epic Records. With 1978's 'Destiny', Michael Jackson and his brothers (which by now included younger brother Randy) emerged as talented songwriters, penning all of the record's tracks. Working with producer Quincy Jones, Michael Jackson wowed the music world with his next solo album, 1979's 'Off the Wall'. It featured an infectious blend of pop and funk with such hit tracks as the Grammy Award-winning 'Don't Stop 'til You Get Enough', 'Rock with You', and the title track. He also found success with the ballad 'She's Out Of My Life'. The overwhelmingly positive response to Michael's latest solo album also helped buoy the Jacksons' career as well. 'Triumph' (1980) sold more than one million copies, and the brothers went on an extensive tour to support the recording. Jackson, however, began to branch out on his own more. Teaming up with rock legend Paul McCartney, Jackson sang on their 1982 duet, 'The Girl Is Mine', which nearly reached the top of the pop charts. The song also appeared on his next solo album, 'Thriller' (1982), which generated seven top 10 hits. On a television special honoring Motown, Jackson performed 'Billie Jean'—eventually a number one hit—and debuted his soon-to-be-famous dance move called the moonwalk. Jackson, a veteran performer by this time, choreographed the dance sequences for the video of his other No. 1 hit, 'Beat It'. His most elaborate video, however, was for the album's title track. John Landis directed the horror-tinged video, which featured complex dance scenes, special effects, and a voice-over done by actor Vincent Price. The video for 'Thriller' became immensely popular, boosting sales for the already successful album. It stayed on the charts for 80 weeks, holding the No. 1 spot for 37 weeks. In addition to its unparalleled commercial achievements, 'Thriller' earned 12 Grammy Award nominations and won eight of those awards. Jackson's Grammy victories showcased the diverse nature of his work. For his songwriting talents, he received the Grammy Award for Best Rhythm and Blues Song for 'Billie Jean'. Jackson also won Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male for 'Thriller' and Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male for 'Beat It'. With co-producer Quincy Jones, he shared the Grammy Award for Album of the Year. At the top of his game creatively and commercially, Jackson signed a $5 million endorsement deal with Pepsi-Cola around this time. He, however, was badly injured while filming a commercial for the soda giant in 1984, suffering burns to his face and scalp. Jackson had surgery to repair his injuries, and is believed to have begun experimenting with plastic surgery around this time. His face, especially his nose, would become dramatically altered in the coming years. That same year, Jackson embarked on his final tour with the Jacksons to the support the album 'Victory'. The one major hit from the recording was Michael Jackson's duet with Mick Jagger, 'State of Shock'. In 1985, Jackson showed his altruistic side, co-writing and singing on 'We Are the World', a charity single for USA for Africa. A veritable who's who of music stars participated in the project including Lionel Ritchie, Ray Charles, Bob Dylan, Willie Nelson, Bruce Springsteen, and Tina Turner. Releasing his follow-up to 'Thriller' in 1987, Jackson reached the top of the charts with 'Bad'. It featured five No. 1 hits, including 'Man in the Mirror', 'The Way You Make Me Feel', and the title track, which was supported by a video directed by Martin Scorsese. Jackson spent more than a year on the road, playing concerts to promote the album. While successful, 'Bad' was unable to duplicate the phenomenal sales of Thriller. Raised as a Jehovah's Witness, Jackson was a shy and quiet person off-stage. He was never truly comfortable with the media attention he received and rarely gave interviews. By the late 1980s, Jackson had created his own fantasy retreat—a California ranch called Neverland. There he kept exotic pets, such as a chimpanzee named Bubbles, and had his own amusement rides. To some, it seemed that Jackson perhaps was exploring a second childhood. He sometimes opened up the ranch for children's events. Rumors swirled around him, including that he was lightening the color of his skin to appear more white and slept in a special chamber to increase his life span. In 1991, Jackson released 'Dangerous', featuring the hit 'Black or White'. The video for this song included an appearance by child star Macaulay Culkin, and was directed by John Landis. In the video's final minutes, Jackson caused some controversy with his sexual gesturing and violent actions. Many were surprised to see the Peter Pan-like Jackson act in this manner. Jackson's music continued to enjoy wide-spread popularity in the upcoming years. In 1993, he performed several important events, including the half-time show at Superbowl XXVII. Jackson gave a rare television interview, which aired that February. Sitting down with Oprah Winfrey, he explained that the change in his skin tone was the result of a disease known as vitiligo. Jackson also opened about the abuse he suffered from his father. Allegations of child molestation against Jackson emerged later that year. A 13-year-old boy claimed that the music star had fondled him. Jackson was known to have sleepovers with boys at his Neverland Ranch, but this was the first public charge of wrongdoing. The police searched the ranch, but they found no evidence to support the claim. The following year, Jackson settled the case out of court with the boy's family. Other allegations emerged, but Jackson maintained his innocence. In August 1994, Jackson announced that he had married Lisa Marie Presley, daughter of rock icon Elvis Presley. The couple gave a joint television interview with Diane Sawyer, but the union proved to be short-lived. They divorced in 1996. Some thought that the marriage was a publicity ploy to restore Jackson's image after the molestation allegations. Later that same year, Jackson wed nurse Debbie Rowe. The couple had two children through artificial insemination. Son Prince Michael Jackson was born in 1997 and daughter Paris Michael Jackson was born in 1998. Rowe and Jackson divorced in 1999 with Jackson receiving full custody of their two children. He would go on to have a third child, Prince Michael Jackson II, with an unknown surrogate. Jackson's musical career began to decline with the lukewarm reception to 1995's 'HIStory: Past, Present, and Future, Book I', which featured some of his earlier hits as well as new material. The record spawned two hits, 'You Are Not Alone' and his duet with sister Janet Jackson, 'Scream'. 'Scream' earned Michael and Janet a Grammy Award for Best Music Video, Short Form that year. Another track from the album, 'They Don't Care About Us', however, brought Jackson intense criticism for using an anti-Semitic term. By the release of 2001's 'Invincible', Jackson was better known as an eccentric whose quirks were reported in the tabloids than as a performer. The album sold well, but stories of his odd behavior started to overshadow his talent. He often appeared in public wearing a surgical mask, and he hid his children's faces under veils. In 2002, Jackson made headlines when he seemed confused and disoriented on stage at an MTV awards show. Soon after, he received enormous criticism for dangling his son, Prince Michael II, over a balcony while greeting fans in Berlin, Germany. In a later interview, Jackson explained that "We were waiting for thousands of fans down below, and they were chanting they wanted to see my child, so I was kind enough to let them see. I was doing something out of innocence." But many were unforgiving of the star's behavior, with former fans and media outlets clamouring to have Child Protective Services take Jackson's children from him. Jackson's reputation was served another blow in 2003 with the television documentary, 'Living with Michael Jackson'. British journalist Martin Bashir spent several months with Jackson, and he got Jackson to discuss his relationships with children. He admitted that he continued to have children sleepover at his ranch, even after the 1993 allegations. Jackson said that sometimes he slept with the children in his bed. "Why can't you share your bed? That's the most loving thing to do, to share your bed with someone," Jackson told Bashir. Jackson faced more legal woes in 2004 when he was arrested on charges related to incidents with a 13-year-old boy the previous year. Facing 10 counts in all, he was charged with lewd conduct with a minor, attempted lewd conduct, administering alcohol to facilitate molestation, and conspiracy to commit child abduction, false imprisonment and extortion. The resulting 2005 trial was a media circus with fans, detractors, and camera crews surrounding the courthouse. More than 130 people testified, including Macaulay Culkin who appeared on Jackson's behalf. He said that he had been friends with Jackson as a young teen. While he had stayed over at the Neverland Ranch, he told the court that Jackson never tried to molest him. Jackson's accuser also appeared via videotape and described how Jackson had given him wine and molested him. On 14 June 2005, Jackson was acquitted of all charges. His reputation, however, was effectively destroyed, and his finances were in shambles. Thanks to mounting legal bills, the singer no longer had a bank account and was unable to maintain even his most basic finances. Jackson soon found refuge in his friendship with the prince of Bahrain, Prince Salman Bin Hamad Bin Isa Al-Khalifa, who wired Jackson the money needed to pay Neverland's utility bills. He then invited the pop star to his country as a personal guest. In Bahrain, the prince provided Jackson with more than $7 million, not including living expenses. He also built the singer a recording studio, hired him a "motivational guru" and helped Jackson to entertain family at Christmas. In return, Jackson promised to collaborate with the prince on a new album on Al-Khalifa's record label, as well as write an autobiography, and create a stage play. None of the work materialised, however, and Jackson soon faced litigation from his friend for reneging on his promises. In even greater financial straits, Jackson defaulted on the $23.5 million loan owed on his Neverland Ranch in 2008. Unable to part with certain items, including the crystal gloves he used in performances, Jackson sued to block the auction of some of his personal items from the home the following year. Around this same time, the largely reclusive Jackson announced that he would be performing a series of concerts in London as his "final curtain call." There had been some speculation regarding whether the fragile singer would be able to handle the rigors of 50 concerts. Despite all of the allegations and stories of odd behavior, Jackson remained a figure of great interest, as demonstrated by the strong response to his concert plans; set to appear at the O2 Arena in London, England, beginning 8 July 2009, Jackson saw all the tickets to his 'This Is It' tour sell out in only four hours. But Jackson would never get to experience the success of his comeback tour. On 25 June 2009, Jackson suffered cardiac arrest in his Los Angeles home. He was rushed to the hospital after his heart stopped and CPR attempts failed, but he died later that morning. He was 50-years-old at the time of his death. News of Jackson's death resulted in an outpouring of public grief and sympathy. Memorials to Jackson were erected around the world, including one at the arena where he was set to perform and another at his childhood home in Gary, Indiana. On 12 July 2009, a televised memorial was held for fans of the King of Pop at the Staples Center in downtown Los Angeles. While 17,500 free tickets were issued to fans via lottery, more than an estimated one billion viewers watched the memorial on television and the Internet. The Jackson family held a private funeral on 3 September 2009, for the immediate family and 200 guests at Forest Lawn Memorial park in Los Angeles. The celebrity mourners included former child star Macaulay Culkin, ex-wife Lisa Marie Presley, and actress Elizabeth Taylor. A film documenting Jackson's preparations for his final performance entitled 'This Is It', hit theaters in October of 2009. The film, featuring a compilation of interviews, rehearsals and backstage footage of Michael Jackson, made $23 million in its opening weekend and sky-rocketed to No. 1 at the box office. 'This Is It' would go on to make more than $260.8 million worldwide, and become the highest grossing documentary of all time. With this final tribute, the family hoped to finally have closure on the passing of Michael Jackson. But in February 2010, the coroner released an official report detailing the cause of Jackson's death. The results revealed that the singer died from "acute propofol intoxication." The overdose worked in combination with a number of other sedatives to shut down the star's weakened heart. Jackson reportedly used the drugs, with the aid of personal physician Dr. Conrad Murray, to help him sleep in the evenings. He was also reported to have a dependency on the painkiller, demerol and may have been taking sedatives to help him withdraw from the drug. Conrad later told police that he believed Jackson had developed a particular addiction to propofol, which Jackson referred to as his "milk". He had the drug administered by I.V. in the evenings in 50 mg dosages, and Murray was attempting to ween the pop star off the drug at the time of Jackson's death. A police investigation revealed that Murray was not licensed to prescribe most controlled drugs in the state of California. The steps he took to save Jackson also came under scrutiny, as evidence showed that the standard of care for administering propofol was not met, and the recommended equipment for patient monitoring, precision dosing and resuscitation were not present. As a result, Jackson's death was ruled a homicide, and Murray found himself at the center of an involuntary manslaughter investigation. The Jackson family also began pursuing measures that would have Murray's medical license revoked. The family is in continuing litigation with Murray. Meanwhile, the Jackson family has attempted to move forward with their lives. As dictated in his will, Jackson's children were placed in the care of their grandmother, Katherine Jackson. In respect to their father's wishes, Paris, Prince Michael and Prince Michael II (also known as "Blanket") have been kept largely out of the limelight, appearing publicly only a few times in the last year. They stepped up to the mic in 2009 to speak to fans at their father's funeral, and again in January 2010 to accept a posthumous Lifetime Achievement Award for their father at the Grammys. Two albums of unreleased material have been released, the first, entitled 'Michael' was released in 2010 and 'Xscape' was released in 2014.

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Michael Jackson AutoBiography Michael Jackson AutoBiography Michael Jackson was born in Gary, Indiana, on a late summer night on August 29, 1958; the seventh of nine children. Father Joe Jackson was born in Arkansas. In 1949 Joe married Katherine Scruse, whose people are from Alabama. Joe Jackson had his own band, "The Falcons", they would practice after work in the living room of their house in Gary. Joe soon discovered the talent of his sons and founded the family band "The Jacksons". They would later become "The Jackson 5". Little Michael always watched his brothers rehearse - when he was about 5 years old he joined the group and became the lead singer of The Jackson 5. Michael's first public appearance was at a school program in the first grade in 1963 [Garnett Elementary School in Gary]. Wearing black pants and a white shirt, he sang "Climb Ev'ry Mountain" from The Sound of Music. The reaction was overwhelming. Michael: "When I finished that song, the reaction in the auditorium overwhelmed me. The applause was thunderous and people were smiling; some of them were standing. My teachers were crying and I just couldn't  [Michael's parents] believe it. I had made them all happy. It was such a great feeling. I felt a little confused too, because I didn't think I had done anything special. I was just singing the way I sang at home every night. When you're performing, you don't realize what you sound like or how you're coming across. You just open your mouth and sing." Soon Joe was grooming the band for talent contests. Michael: "We'd perform for him and he'd critique us. If you messed up, you got hit, sometimes with a belt, sometimes with a switch. My father was real strict with us - real strict." At the age of 6, Michael and the Jackson 5 started collecting trophies with their act at various talent shows or amateur nights. A local record studio, Steeltown, owned by Mr Keith, gave the Jackson 5 their first chance - the single "Big Boy" was released in 1968. They even got radio play in Gary and became a big deal in their neighborhood.  In winter 1968, they finally reached what they were so hard working for. Motown Records took them under contract.  [Big Boy Single] Berry Gordy, owner of Motown Records, promised: "Your first record will be number one, your second record will be a number one, and so will your third record. Three number one records in a row. You'll hit the charts just as Diana Ross and the Supremes did." All the big Motown stars had emigrated to California along with Berry Gordy after he moved from Detroit - and so did the Jackson family.  Suzanne de Passe was having a great effect on their lives. She worked for Motown, and it was she who trained them religiously once they moved to Los Angeles. She also became a manager for the Jackson 5.  [Michael, Berry & Suzanne] Freddy Perrin, Bobby Taylor and Deke Richards, who, along with Hal Davis and "Fonce" Mizell, were part of the team that wrote and produced their first singles. Together these guys were called "The Corporation".  When "I Want You Back" was released in November 1969, it sold 2 million copies in 6 weeks and went to number one. Their next single, "ABC", came out in March 1970 and sold 2 million records in 3 weeks. When their third single, "The Love You Save", went to number one in June of 1970, Berry's promise came true.  The Jackson 5's first major TV show was "The Hollywood Palace", a big Saturday night show, hosted by Diana Ross. They performed "I Want You Back" live. However, the Jackson 5 made their very first TV appearance on the "1969 Miss Black America Pageant" show, performing "It's Your Thing" in August of 1969.  "I'll Be There" was their real breakthrough song. Michael: "It was the one that said, 'We're here to stay.' " It was number one for 5 weeks!  The Jackson 5 became the first group ever to have 4 number one hits in a row!    [On tour] The crazy days of the big Jackson 5 tours started with a big arena tour in the fall of 1970. When "Never Can Say Goodbye" was a big hit in 1971, they played 45 cities that summer, followed by 50 more cities later that year.  They traveled with a tutor called Rose Fine who made sure they did their lessons. Michael: "My appearance began to really change when I was about 14... I became subconsciously scarred by this experience with my skin. I got very shy and became embarrassed to meet people because my complexion was so bad. It really seemed that the more I looked in the mirror, the worse the pimples got. My appearance began to depress me... Eventually, things changed. I started feeling differently about my condition. I've learned to change how I think and learned to feel better about myself. Most important, I changed my diet. That was the key." In the fall of 1971 Michael's first solo record "Got To Be There" came out.    [Cartoon Show] The same year, The Jackson 5's Saturday morning cartoon show started appearing over network televison. Michael's first real involvement with films came when he sang the title song for the movie "Ben" in 1972. The song went to number one and is still a favorite of Michael. At only 13 years of age, Michael won a Golden Globe Award for his performance and later even got his first Academy Award nomination. By the time "Ben" came out, they knew that they were going to go around the world. In 1972 they began their first overseas tour with a visit to England.  Michael: "We had three years of hits behind us when we toured Europe that first time, so there was enough to please both the kids who followed our music and the Queen of England, whom we met at a Royal Command Performance. [Meeting the Queen of England] England was our jumping-off, and it was different from any place we'd been before, but the farther we traveled, the more exotic the world looked. We saw the great museums of Paris and the beautiful mountains of Switzerland. Europe was an education in the roots of Western culture and, in a way, a preparation for visiting Eastern countries that were more spiritual..." Australia and New Zealand, their next stops, were English-speaking, but they met people who were still living in tribes in the outback. Michael: "They greeted us as brothers even though they didn't speak our language. If I'd ever needed proof that all men could be brothers, I certainly had it during that tour."  The Jackson 5 released "Dancing Machine" - following the new "disco music" trend. Michael: "When it came out in 1974, I was determined to find a dance move that would enhance the song and make it more exciting to perform - and, I hoped, more exciting to watch. So when we sang 'Dancing Machine' on 'Soul Train', I did a street-style dance move called Robot. That performance was a lesson to me in the power of television. Overnight, 'Dancing Machine' rose to the top of the charts, and within a few days it seemed that every kid in the United States was doing the Robot. I had never seen anything like it."   [In the 70's] Their problems with Motown began around 1974, when The Jackson 5 told Motown in no uncertain terms that they wanted to write and produce their own songs as they didn't like the way their music sounded at the time. Motown not only refused to grant their requests, they told them it was taboo to even mention that they wanted to do their own music. Michael: "I really got discouraged and began to seriously dislike all the material Motown was feeding us... When I feel that something is not right, I have to speak up. I know most people don't think of me as tough or strong-willed, but that's just because they don't know me. Eventually my brothers and I reached a point with Motown where we were miserable but no one was saying anything. My father didn't say anything. So it was up to me to arrange a meeting with Berry Gordy and talk to him. I was the one who had to say that we - The Jackson 5 - were going to leave Motown. I went over to see him, face to face, and it was one of the most difficult things I've ever done. If I had been the only one of us who was unhappy, I might have kept my mouth shut, but there had been so much talk at home about how unhappy we ALL were that I went in and talked to him and hold him how we felt. I told him I was unhappy... I knew it was time for change, so we followed our instincts, and we won when we decided to try for a fresh start with another label." On May 28, 1975 they signed a contract with Epic Records [CBS], taking effect on March 1976.    [One of Randy's 1st appearances] Jermaine, now Berry's son-in-law, decided to stay with Motown as his situation was more complicated than the others.  When he left the group, Marlon had a chance to take Jermaine's place. Randy officially took Michael's former place as bongo player and the baby of the band. In June of 1976 Michael and his brothers were staring in the weekly CBS "Variety Show - The Jacksons" [first announced in January of 1973]. "It was a dumb move to agree to do that show and I hated every minute of it", Michael said later.  The show was based on the successful Jackson 5 Las Vegas cabarett shows [which Michael, opposite to this new show, enjoyed doing].  Michael: "I think a TV series is the worst thing an artist who has a recording career can do... I'd never do it again... I'm not a comedian. I'm not a show host, I'm a musician."    "Somehow, the show was a big hit. CBS really wanted to keep us, but I knew that show was a mistake." After the contract with Motown ended, Motown said that the group's name was the company's registered trademark, and that the Jackson 5 couldn't use it when they left. That was a hardball, of course, so the group called themselves "The Jacksons" from that time on.  The first album they cut for Epic was simply called "The Jacksons" - containing the number one record "Enjoy Yourself" and "Show You The Way To Go". The second album for Epic was "Going Places" - different from their first - there were more songs with messages and not as many dance songs.  In September of 1977 Motown had bought the rights to film the Broadway show known as "The Wiz", an updated, black-oriented version of the great movie "The Wizard Of Oz". Michael: "Motown bought 'The Wiz' for one reason, and as far as I was concerned, it was the best reason possible: Diana Ross." Diana was going to play Dorothy and encouraged Michael to audition. He auditioned for the part of the Scarecrow because he thought this character best fit his style. Michael: "When I got the call back from the director, Sidney Lumet, I felt proud but also a little scared." It took 5 hours to do Michael's make-up and transform him into the Scarecrow and this 6 days a week. Michael loved to do this movie: "I'The Wiz' gave me new inspiration and strength." "The script was clever and showed me [as the Scarecrow] pulling bits of information and quotations out of my straw while not really knowing how to use them. My straw contained all the answers, but I didn't know the questions... [The Wiz] ...We were doing the crows' scene that day. The other guys wouldn't even have their heads visible in this scene because they'd be in crow costumes. They seemed to know their parts backward and forward. I'd studied mine too, but I hadn't said them aloud more than once or twice. The directions called for me to pull a piece of paper from my straw and read it. It was a quote. The author's name, Socrates, was printed at the end. I had read Socrates, but I had never pronounced his name, so I said, 'Sohcrates', because that's the way I had always assumed it was pronounced. There was a moment's silence before I heard someone wisper, 'Soc-ruh-teeze'. I looked over at this man I vaguely recognized. He was not one of the actors, but he seemed to belong there. I remember thinking he looked very self-confident and had a friendly face. I smiled, a little embarrassed at having mispronounced the name, and thanked him for his help. His face was naggingly familiar, and I was suddenly sure that I had met him before. He confirmed my suspicious by extending his hand - 'Quincy Jones. I'm doing the score.' " Michael actually first met Quincy Jones in Los Angeles when he was about 12 years old. "I was little at the time, but I vaguely remember Sammy Davis introducing me to Q." Their friendship really began to blossom on the set of "The Wiz", and it developed into a father-and-son relationship. After "The Wiz" Michael called Quincy Jones and said, "Look, I'm going to do an album - do you think you could recommend some producers?" "I wasn't hinting. My question was a na�ve but honest one. We talked about music for a while, and, after coming up with some names and some half-hearted hemming and hawing, he said, 'Why don't you let me do it?' "  "I really hadn't thought of it... So I stammered something like, 'Oh sure, great idea. I never thought about that.' Quincy still kids me about it."   [The dream team] With this phone call, the work of the most successful and best team in the 80's began - Quincy Jones and Michael Jackson! In December of 1978 The Jacksons were back with a bang! The album "Destiny" was their biggest success as an album and also the first record for which The Jacksons had total creative control. With the exception of "Blame It On The Boogie", all songs were written by the group. The album was a major success!  The Jacksons also launched their own production company, "Peacock Productions".  In 1979 Michael turned 21 years old and began to take full control of his career. Michael: "My father's personal management contract with me ran out around this time, and although it was a hard decision, the contract was not renewed." "Did it change the relationship between me and my father? I don't know if it did in his heart, but it certainly didn't in mine... All I wanted is control over my own life." "I wanted my first solo album [for Epic] to be the best it could be." For "Off The Wall", Michael teamed up with a new producer - it is the legendary Quincy Jones. "I was so glad that my outside source was a good friend who also happened to be THE perfect choice for a producer." The "Off The Wall" album was originally going to be called "Girlfriend". Paul and Linda McCartney wrote a song of that title with Michael in mind before they ever met him. Michael: "Paul McCartney always tells people this story about me calling him and saying we should write some hit songs together. But that's not exactly how we first met...  ...Paul McCartney and I first met at that [Harold Lloyd estate] party. He said, 'you know, I've written a song for you.' I was very surprised and thanked him. And he started singing 'Girlfriend' to me at this party." They promised to get together soon, but different projects and life just got in the way for both of them and they didn't talk again for a couple of years. Paul ended up putting the song on his own album "London Town".  Michael: "The strangest thing happened when we were making 'Off The Wall'; Quincy walked up to me one day and said, 'Michael, I've got a song that's perfect for you.' He played 'Girlfriend' for me, not realizing, of course, that Paul had written it for me originally. When I told him, he was astonished and pleased. We recorded it soon after and put it on the album. It was an incredible coincidence."   [Michael, Quincy & Bruce] Quincy's engineer, Bruce Swedien put the final touches on the songs and mixes. Up to today, Bruce still works with Michael and they're very good friends. "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough" means a lot to Michael because it was the first song he wrote as a whole. Michael: "I'Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough' was my first chance, and it went straight to number one. It was the song that won me my first Grammy [as a solo artist]." Two of the biggest hits were "Off The Wall" and "Rock With You". Songs that would send everyone home in a good mood. And then there was "She's Out Of My Life".  Michael: "Sometimes it's hard for me to look my dates in the eye even if I know them well. My dating and relationships with girls have not had the happy ending I've been looking for. Something always seems to get in the way. The things I share with millions of people aren't the sort of things you share with one." "But I got too wrapped up in 'She's Out Of My Life'. In this case, the story's true - I cried at the end of a take, because the words suddenly had such a strong effect on me. I had been letting so much build up inside me. I was 21 years old, and I was so rich in some experiences while being poor in moments of true joy. Sometimes I imagine that my life experience is like an image in one of those trick mirrors in the circus, fat in one part and thin to the point of disappearing in another. I was worried that would show up on 'She's Out Of My Life', but if it touched people's heartstrings, knowing that would make me feel less lonely." "I didn't really have any girlfriends when I was in school. There were girls I thought were cute, but I found it so difficult to approach them. I was too embarrassed - I don't know why - it was just crazy.   My first real date was with Tatum O'Neal. We met at a club on Sunset Strip called 'On The Rox'. We exchanged phone numbers and called each other often. I talked to her for hours; from the road, from the studio, from home. On our first date we went to a party at Hugh Hefner's Playboy Mansion and had a great time. She had held my hand for the first time that night at 'On The Rox'. When we met, I was sitting at this table and all of a sudden I felt this soft hand reach over and grab mine. It was Tatum. This probably wouldn't mean a lot to other people, but it was serious stuff to me. SHE touched me. That's how I felt about it.   [Michael & Tatum] In the past, girls had always touched me on tour; grabbing at me and screaming, behind a wall of security guards. But this was different, this was one-on-one, and that's always the best." Tatum: "One time when Michael as over, he played the drums, my brother played guitar, and someone else played another instrument, and we had a jam session. I had the tape of it, but I lost it somewhere." [Tatum O'Neal in an interview, 1995]  Michael: "Ours developed into a real close relationship. I fell in love with her [and she with me] and we were very close for a long time. Eventually the relationship transcended into a good friendship. We still talk now and then, and I guess you'd have to say she was my first love - after Diana Ross." Tatum O'Neal says later in an interview that she thinks that "She's Out Of My Life" describes their friendship at that time.    [Michael & Diana] Michael: "When I heard Diana Ross was getting married, I was happy for her because I knew it would make her very joyous. Still, it was hard for me, because I had to walk around pretending to be overwhelmed that Diana was getting married to this man I'd never met. I wanted her to be happy, but I have to admit that I was a bit hurt and a little jealous because I've always loved Diana and always will." "Another love was Brooke Shields. We were romantically serious for a while..." Finally, in August of 1979, the album "Off The Wall" was released and it became a tremendous success. Michael Jackson is the first singer ever to spawn 4 Top Ten singles in the US from one album ["Off The Wall"], two of which became number one hits. In Britain, for the first time in music history, a record 5 hit singles were released, "Girlfriend" being one of them.  [Michael & Brooke] The album exceeded all expectations and was hugely successful on both the Pop and Black album charts. With the release of this album, the world got to see a new Michael Jackson.  With "Off The Wall" Michael becomes the Prince of Pop!  At the Grammy Awards for 1979, Michael got nominated for "Best R&B Vocal Performance" and also won in his category. Michael: "Although 'Off The Wall' had been one of the most popular records of the year, it received only one nomination: 'Best R&B Vocal Performance'. I remember where I was when I got the news. I felt ignored by my peers and it hurt. People told me later that it surprised the industry too... I said to myself, 'Wait until next time - they won't be able to ignore the next album.' I watched the ceremony on television and it was nice to win in my category, but I still was upset by what I perceived as the rejection of my peers. I just kept thinking 'Next time, next time.' " "I can be brutally objective about my work as I create it, and if something doesn't work, I can feel it, but when I turn in a finished album - or song - you can be sure that I've given it every ounce of energy and God-given talent that I have. 'Off The Wall' was well received by my fans and I think that's why the Grammy nominations hurt. That experience lit a fire in my soul. All I could think of was the next album and what I would do with it. I wanted it to be truly great." And yes, the next time at the Grammy Awards, something will happen that the world has never seen before...  Right after "Off The Wall" was finished, Michael plunged into making the "Triumph" album with his brothers. It was released in September of 1980, entered both the Black and Pop album charts peaking at number one and ten respectively and remained on both charts for 29 weeks.  "I'Heartbreak Hotel' had revenge in it and I am fascinated by the concept of revenge. It's something I can't understand. The idea of making someone 'pay' for something they've done to you or that you imagine they've done to you is totally alien to me... If this song ['Heartbreak Hotel'], and later 'Billie Jean', seemed to cast women in an unfavorable light, it was not meant to be taken as a personal statement. Needless to say, I love the interaction between the sexes; it is a natural part of life and I love women. I just think that when sex is used as a form of blackmail or power, it's a repugnant use of one of God's gifts." The upcoming "Triumph" tour was going to be a big undertaking. They had special effects arranged for them by the great magician Doug Henning.  The release of "Off The Wall" in August of 1979, the same month Michael turned 21 and took control of his own affairs, was definitely one of the major landmarks of Michael's life. It meant a great deal to him because the album's eventual success proved beyond a shadow of a doubt that a former "child star" could mature into a recording artist with contemporary appeal.  For the next project, the album "Thriller", which was originally going to be called "Starlight", Michael teamed up again with Quincy Jones, Rod Temperton, and many of the musicians who played on "Off The Wall".  Michael: "I remember being in the studio once with Quincy and Rod Temperton while we were working on 'Thriller'. I was playing a pinball machine and one of them asked me, 'If this album doesn't do as well as 'Off The Wall', will you be disappointed?'    I remember feeling upset - hurt that the question was even raised. I told them 'Thriller' had to do better than 'Off The Wall'. I admitted that I wanted this album to be the biggest-selling album of all time. They started laughing. It was a seemingly unrealistic thing to want." Michael got together with Paul McCartney again; their collaboration produced "Say Say Say" and "The Girl Is Mine".  Eventually, Quincy and Michael chose "The Girl Is Mine" as the obvious first single from "Thriller".  "Not My Lover" was a title they almost used for "Billie Jean" because Q had some objections to calling the song "Billie Jean", Michael's original title. He felt people might immediately think of Billie Jean King, the tennis player.  "A lot of people have asked me about that song, and the aswer is very simple. It's just a case of a girl who says that I'm the father of her child and I'm pleading my innocence because 'the kid is not my son'." "This kind of thing has happened to some of my brothers and I used to be really amazed by it. I couldn't understand how these girls could say they were carrying someone's child when it wasn't true. I can't imagine lying about something like that." For "Beat It", Eddie Van Halen agreed to play the session for them and gave an incredible guitar solo.  But also Steve Porcaro [Toto], Steve Lukather, Greg Phillinganes, Louis Johnson and Vincent Price, to name but a few, collaborated with Michael on the album.  Eventually Michael and Q came under tremendous pressure from the record company to finish "Thriller". Michael: "When a record company rushes you, they really rush you, and they were rushing us hard on 'Thriller'. They said it had to be ready on a certain date, do it or die. So we went through a periode where we were breaking our backs to get the album done by their deadline. There were a lot of compromises made on the mixes of the various tracks, and on whether certain tracks were even going to be on the record. We cut so many corners that we almost lost the whole album.   [With Quincy & Spielberg] When we finally listened to the tracks we were going to hand in, 'Thriller' sounded so crappy to me that tears came to my eyes. We had been under enormous pressure because while we were trying to finish 'Thriller' we also had been working on 'The E.T. Storybook', and there had been deadline pressure on that as well. All these people were fighting back and forth with each other, and we came to realize that the sad truth was that the mixes of 'Thriller' didn't work. We sat there in the studio, Westlake Studio in Hollywood, and listened to the whole album. I felt devastated. All this pent-up emotion came out. I got angry and left the room. I told my people, 'That's it, we're not releasing it. Call CBS and tell them they are not getting this album. We are NOT releasing it.' Finally I realized I had to do the whole thing - mix the entire album - all over again... When it was done - boom - it hit us hard. CBS could hear the difference too. 'Thriller' was a tough project." On December 1, 1982 the album "Thriller" was released and has changed the history of music forever.  "Thriller" becomes the biggest-selling album of all time - selling over 51 million copies worldwide and providing a record of 6 Top Ten singles - the most ever from one album.  [Thriller Album] Both records appear in The Guinness Book Of World Records and have never been broken up to this date!!!  "Thriller" [LP] held its number one position on the U.S. charts for an unrivaled 37 [!] weeks during a 122 week residency.  Michael: "Ever since I was a little boy, I had dreamed of creating the biggest-selling record of all time. I remember going swimming as a child and making a wish before I jumped into the pool. Remember, I grew up knowing the industry, understanding goals, and being told what was and was not possible. I wanted to do something special. I'd stretch my arms out, as if I were sending my thoughts right up into space. I'd make my wish, then I'd dive into the water. I'd say to myself, 'This is my dream. This is my wish', every time before I'd dive into the water." Michael Jackson becomes the undisputed King of Pop and reigns over his title up to today - unrivaled!  For the first video, "Billie Jean", Steve Baron was chosen as director. For the first time in history of MTV, a music video told a story - and was not just a collage of images. "Billie Jean's" video made a big impression on the MTV audience and was a huge hit. It's also seen as a major breakthrough for black artists, who had previously been ignored by the channel. Michael Jackson was in fact the first black artist to be added the MTV's playlist! Before that, MTV refused to play videos by black artists. Michael has changed that forever...  On May 16, 1983 Michael performed "Billie Jean" on "Motown 25th: Yesterday, Today, Forever", a television special in honor of Motown's 25th anniversary. More than 47 million Americans saw that show. After that, many things changed...    [Motown 25] Wearing his now legendary glittery black jacket together with a black fedora for the first time as well as the already known white glove, Michael started to perform "Billie Jean" and showed the world for the first time ever what would become Michael Jackson's greatest trademark - the Moonwalk! "I could tell that people in the audience were really enjoying my performance. My brothers told me they were crowding the wings watching me with their mouths open, and my parents and sisters were out there in the audience. But I just remember opening my eyes at the end of the thing and seeing this sea of people standing up, applauding." Some people in the audience said later it seemed as the whole world stood still when Michael performed the Moonwalk.  In their February 19th, 1999 issue, "Entertainment Weekly" described the historic performance: "One small step for man, one giant glide for pop culture: Michael Jackson unveils his physics-defying Moonwalk during the song 'Billie Jean' and leaves even rocket scientists scratching their heads." "We spent hours in the editing room discussing every shot", says Don Mischer, producer-director of the NBC special. "He had a great sense of theatre."  Everyone was moonstruck!  It was clear to everyone that the next single and video should be "Thriller". Michael chose John Landis ["An American Werewolf in London"] to direct the video, knowing Landis would be perfect for it.  Furthermore, John Branca, Michael's attorney, came up with a great idea. He suggested they make a separate video about the making of the "Thriller" video. Michael: "It seemed odd that no one had ever done this before. We felt sure it would be an interesting documentary..."     [Thriller Video Clip] In February of 1984 "Thriller" made its debut on MTV and it truly revolutionized the art of making music videos and forever changed the future of making videos.  With the release of this music video, Michael Jackson made history and forever changed MTV! "Thriller" was the first music video produced completely and entirely to be a short film.  At the end of the Millennium, "Thriller" will be chosen as the best music video of all time!  Michael: "My brother Jackie came to my house and said, 'Are you watching this show that's on TV? All they do is play music. It's MTV.' I put it on and thought the concept was interesting. What I didn't like were the videos that were a collage of images; I thought that if I were to do one, I would do something with a little more entertainment value. My dream was to make something with a beginning, a middle and an ending, like a short film." After the video debuted on MTV, CBS [Epic] released "Thriller" as a single and sales of the album went crazy. According to statistics, the "Thriller" film ["The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller"] and the release of the single resulted in 14 million additional album and tape sales within a 6 month periode. At one point in 1984, they were selling one million records a week.  On March 30, 1984 the video "The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller" was released and becomes the biggest-selling music video of all time. Michael: "The success of 'The Making of Thriller' was a bit of a shock to all of of." This record will later only be broken once...  Guess by whom...  [The Making of Thriller VHS] On January 16, 1984 Michael Jackson won for the first time in the history of the American Music Awards 8 of the desirable trophies.    [At the Grammys] But most important, the 26th Annual Grammy Awards were to be chosen. On February 28, 1984 Michael won 8 [!] Grammys in ten categories: Album Of The Year ["Thriller"], Best Pop Male Vocal ["Thriller" LP], Record Of The Year ["Beat It"], Best Rock Male Vocal ["Beat It"], Best R&B Male Vocal ["Billie Jean"], Best New Song Of The Year ["Billie Jean"], Producer Of The Year [with Quincy Jones] and Best Children's Recording ["E.T. - The Extra Terrestrial" with narration by Michael Jackson]. Michael's date for the evening was Brooke Shields.  It is the most ever won in a single year and entered The Guinness Book of World Records. On February 23, 2000 Carlos Santana tied Michael's 17 year [the Grammy's for 1983 were chosen at the beginning of 1984] record for winning the most Grammy's in one year when he won 8 Grammy's for his album "Supernatural". Thus, these two artists now share the distinguished record for winning most Grammy Awards in one year. Santana told reporters backstage that it was "a real honor'' to tie Michael Jackson's record.  On January 24, 1984 the shooting of the first Pepsi commercial began.  The US$ 5 million endorsement contract was signed on November 11, 1983 between Michael Jackson, The Jacksons and Pepsi-Cola, involving sponsorship of the "Victory" tour and two TV commercials. [Pepsi Press Conference] [Pepsi commercial] [The accident] During the filming of the second Pepsi commercial on January 27, 1984 Michael suffered second and third degree scalp burns as sparks from the bombs [for pyrotechnical effects] set his hair on fire.  Miko Brando [Marlon Brando's son and Michael's personal secretary] was the first person to reach Michael and he was the one who did smother the flames with his hands. Michael was rushed to Cedar Sinai Medical Center and was later moved to Brotman Memorial Hospital for treatment. The next day, January 28, 1984, Michael was released from hospital.  Later, Michael received US$ 1'500'000.-- from Pepsi which he immediately donated to the Michael Jackson Burn Center.  On February 27, 1984 MTV previewed the two 60 second commercials free of charge.  The next day, February 28, 1984, at the 26th Annual Grammy Awards, The Jacksons' Pepsi commercials were aired during the telecast and are amongst the most successful and most popular ads ever, and the first and only set of advertisements ever to be included in the weekly "TV Guide" listings.  On July 2, 1984 "Victory", by the Jacksons, was released. The album became a hit and was also the last album of The Jacksons as a group.  On July 6, 1984 The Jacksons' "Victory" tour's opening concert was performed at Arrowhead Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri. Reunited with Jermaine, The Jacksons did 55 shows over the course of 5 months, criss-crossing America and Canada with the most ambitious design and execution ever created for the concert stage. It took 4 months to construct it.  On December 9, 1984 the group performed the last concert of the "Victory" tour. During "Shake Your Body [Down To The Ground]", Michael announced his split from The Jacksons.  The tour grossed a record of US$ 75 million and was the biggest tour any group had ever done [!], in huge outdoor stadiums. Over 2 million people came to see The Jacksons. And thanks to Michael Jackson, for the first time Pepsi-Cola overtook their arch-rivals, Coca-Cola.      [The Victory Tour] Michael donated all his performance money from this tour to charity. "For me, that was what the 'Victory' tour was all about - giving back", he says later.    [Walk of Fame] On November 20, 1984 Michael was honored with a star on the Walk Of Fame [Hollywood Boulevard] in front of the Mann's Chinese Theatre. His star, which has the number 1'793, is between the stars of country singer Lefty Frizzell and actress Lupe Velez.  Michael becomes the first celebrity to have 2 different stars dedicated to him, having first received one as a member of The Jacksons in the 70's. Two hours after the 12th Annual American Music Award ceremony on January 28, 1985 Michael and 44 other artists gathered secretly for 10 hours at A&M Recording Studios in Los Angeles to record "We Are The World". The song was written by Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie at Michael's home in early 1985.  Michael: "I wrote the song with Lionel Richie after seeing the appalling news footage of starving people in Ethiopia and the Sudan."   [USA for Africa] On March 7, 1985 "We Are The World" was released and made music history.  On April 5, "Good Friday" and "We Are The World" was broadcast simultaneously by over 8'000 radio stations around the world.  The song created recording history by becoming the first ever Multi-Platinum single and being certified in all categories [Gold, Platinum, Multi-Platinum] within the space of one month. The single is the industry's first ever Multi-Platinum single!  "We Are The World" entered the Guinness Book Of World Records as the biggest-selling single of all time and stayed at the top position until in 1997 Elton John's tribute song to Princess Diana, "Candle In The Wind '97 / There's Something About The Way You Look Tonight", becomes the biggest-selling single of all time.  Today, "We Are The World" still is the second biggest-selling single of all time and with absolutely no doubt is and will probably forever be THE number one world hymn! "We Are The World" won 4 Grammy Awards for Song Of The Year, Record Of The Year, Best Pop Performance By A Duo Or Group, and Best Music Video [Short Form].  "USA for Africa" ["United Support of Artists for Africa"] raised a record of US$ 200 million. The money was given to Ethiopia to fight famine.  In August of 1985 Michael Jackson purchased the "ATV Back Catalogue" for US$ 47.5 million. The catalogue [publishing rights], today worth 3 times as much, comprises over 4'000 compositions, including 251 songs by The Beatles as well as hits by Pat Benatar, Little Richard, The Pointer Sisters and The Pretenders. Michael already owns the publishing rights to the Sly Stone collection as well as a collection of 60's hits. Michael rewarded his attorney John Branca and then-manager Frank Dileo each with a Rolls Royce for their help in negotiating the "Beatles deal".  On July 24, 1985 it was announced that Michael Jackson will star in a 3-D science-fiction musical film, "Captain EO", to be shown exclusively at Disneyland and Disney World. Michael: "I'Captain EO' came about because the Disney Studios wanted me to come up with a new ride for the parks." "I flew up to San Francisco a couple of times to visit George at his place, Skywalker Ranch, and gradually we came up with a scenario for a short film that would incorporate every recent advance in 3-D technology. 'Captain EO' would look and feel like the audience was in a space-ship, along for the ride."     [With Lucas and Coppola] More than a year after this first announcement, "Captain EO" ["EO" is Greek for "dawn"], Michael's 17 minute space fantasy 3-D movie, premi�red on September 12, 1986 at Epcot Center in Disney World, Florida. The film, directed by Francis Ford Coppola ["Dracula"] and produced by George Lucas ["Star Wars"], becomes [and up to today still is] the most expensive film -"minute-for-minute" - ever made. [Estimated costs for the 17 minute film - US$ 30 million]. Michael stars in the title role alongside Anjelica Huston, and two new songs by Michael were featured: "Another Part Of Me" and "We Are Here To Change The World". After its premi�re at Disney World Florida, the 3-D movie was shown at all 4 Disney Theme Parks [Florida, California, Japan, France] with tremendous success and became one of the main attractions of the parks. "Working on 'Captain EO' reinforced all the positive feelings I've had about working in film and made me realize more than ever that movies are where my future path probably lies", Michael says later.      [Pepsi announcement] Only 4 months before the premi�re of "Captain EO", Michael made history again. On March 12, 1986 a press conference announced the new Pepsi-Cola contract with Michael Jackson. Michael enters The Guinness Book Of World Records and is acknowledged by them as having the largest endorsement agreement in history between an individual and a major corporation [Pepsi-Cola]. A record of US$ 15 million were reported. After "We Are The World", Michael decided to retreat from public view. For 2 1/2 years he devoted most of his time to recording the follow-up to "Thriller", the album that came to be titled "Bad".  Michael: "Why did it take so long to make 'Bad'? The answer is that Quincy and I decided that this album should be as close to perfect as humanly possible." The album, produced by Quincy Jones and co-produced by Michael, features a duet with Stevie Wonder, a duet with Siedah Garrett and other great musicians such as Greg Phillinganes, Steve Porcaro, David Paich, Paulinho da Costa, Steve Stevens to name but a few.  Finally, on August 31, 1987 the album "Bad" was released worldwide [except in England, where August 31 is a bank holiday] with copies leaving the record shops faster than assistants could fill the shelves.  Tower Records in London sold 200 copies in the first hour of trading while CBS [Epic] estimated that some 150'000 copies would be sold at the end of the first day's trading. In Amercia, fans stood in line outside shops from New York to Los Angeles and extra staff was hired to cope with the demand.  The album entered the US Pop and Black album charts at number one, holding its position for 6 and 18 weeks respectively and remained on the Pop charts for 87 weeks, 38 of which were spent in the Top 5. This broke a record of 26 weeks in the Top 5 set by The Eagles' "Hotel California". In Britain, "Bad" hold the number one position for 5 weeks and remained on the charts for 109 weeks consecutively.  The album becomes a tremendous success and yes, Michael made history with it again: "Bad" became the second biggest-selling album ever.  Michael: "It's very hard to create something when you feel like you're in competition with yourself because no matter how you look at it, people are always going to compare "Bad" to "Thriller". You can always say, 'Aw, forget 'Thriller',' but no one ever will!"   [Bad World Tour] [With Siegfried and Roy] On September 12, 1987 Michael kicked off his first ever solo tour at the Korakuen-Stadium [meanwhile known as Tokyo Dome] in Tokyo, Japan.  Michael had invited the magicians Siegfried and Roy to create illusions for his "Bad" tour and, in return, wrote a special number, "Mind Is The Magic", to open their show at the Mirage Hotel in Las Vegas. Siegfried and Roy are Las Vegas' number one entertainment attraction and since its opening in 1981, their spectacular illusion show has never played to a single empty seat!  On March 1, 1988 the new four Pepsi ads with Michael were previewed at a specially arranged Press Conference. One day later, during the 30th Annual Grammy Awards telecast, the innovative Pepsi commercials by Michael premi�red.  The commercials were so popular, they were requested specifically by Soviet officials to be aired on Soviet television. They were the first American ads to air in the Soviet Union, and were seen by an estimated 150 million Soviets.  On April 20, 1988 "Moonwalk", Michael Jackson's long-awaited autobiography, which had been edited by Jacqueline Onassis, was published by Doubleday.  The book is a memorable journey to the very heart and soul of a modern musical genius. At the age of 29, Michael could look back to 24 years stage experience. [Moonwalk - autobiography] Within 2 weeks, "Moonwalk" was top of the Best Sellers List in Britain with the first 70'000 print run having sold out. A reprint of 12'500 was ordered, followed by a second reprint of 30'500 a week later.  In America, "Moonwalk" entered the Best Sellers' Lists of the "Los Angeles Times" at number one and the "New York Times" at number 2, moving up to the number one position in its second week on the chart. These two book charts are considered the most important in the publishing industry. Within a few months, it was announced that "Moonwalk" had sold in excess of 450'000 copies in 14 countries around the world.  "Moonwalk" is dedicated to one of Michael's all-time idols, the late, great Fred Astaire.  In "Moonwalk" Michael talks openly about his youth, his family, his first love, plastic surgery, and his wholly exceptional career and the often bizarre and unfair rumors that have surrounded it.  Michael: "When I first became well known, I had a lot of baby fat and a very round, chubby face. That roundness stayed with me until several years ago when I changed my diet and stopped eating beef, chicken, pork, and fish, as well as certain fattening foods. I just wanted to look better, live better, and be healthier. Gradually, as I lost weight, my face took on its present shape and the press started accusing me of surgically altering my appearance, beyond the nose job I freely admitted I had, like many performers and film stars. They would take an old picture from adolescence or high school, and compare it to a current photograph. In an old picture my face would be round and pudgy. I'd have an Afro, and the picture would be badly lit. The new picture would show a much older, more mature face. I've got a different hairstyle and a different nose. Also, the photographer's lightning is excellent in the recent photographs. It's really not fair to make such comparisons. I'd like to set the record straight right now. I have never had my cheeks altered or my eyes altered. I have not had my lips thinned, nor have I had dermabrasion or a skin peel. All of these charges are ridiculous. If they were true, I would say so, but they aren't. I have had my nose altered twice and I recently added a cleft to my chin [which today is not really seen as "plastic surgery"], but that is it. Period. I don't care what anyone else says - it's my face and I know!"   [Neverland Valley Ranch] In May of 1988, Michael moved out of Hayvenhurst, the family's Encino home, to his recently purchased ranch in the Santa Ynez Valley about 100 miles north of Los Angeles. The 2'700 acre "Sycamore Valley Ranch" was soon renamed "Neverland Valley Ranch" from Michael's favorite book, "Peter Pan", the boy from Never Never Land. On May 18, 1988 "Moonwalker", Michael's first movie in which he plays the leading role, was previewed at the "Cannes Film Festival" in the South of France. The movie is scheduled for a Christmas release.  With "Dirty Diana" reaching the number one position on July 2, 1988 Michael became the first artist to have 5 number one hits from one album ["Bad"]. No one else had achieved this before! Michael is featured in The Guinness Book of World Records as the artist with the most number one hits in the 80's - no other artist [male and female] has had more number one hits in the 80's than the King of Pop!!!  In late October of 1988, "Moonwalker" made its debut in Japanese theatres. And finally on December 26, the movie was released in Europe. Although, "Moonwalker" received mixed critics, it was a success in both Japan and Europe. In Britain and France, it was reported that people were standing in line in front of the movie theatres.      [Michael's movie - Moonwalker] Michael's then-manager Frank Dileo decided not to release "Moonwalker" in the US movie theatres. On January 10, 1989 "Moonwalker" was released on video in America. In just over one month, it sold 600'000 units in the States. And this was just the beginning.  "Moonwalker" debuted at number one on Billboard's Top Music Video Cassette chart and stayed there for 22 weeks before being replaced by himself, with "Michael Jackson: The Legend Continues".  On January 24, 1989 after only 2 weeks on release, "Moonwalker" is reported to have outsold "The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller". With this, Michael broke his own record, pushing "The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller" to the second position. Up to today, "Moonwalker" is the biggest-selling music video of all time followed by "The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller" as the second biggest-selling music video of all time.  With this, Michael made history again. He holds the top 2 positions for the most selling music videos of all time.  Also, on January 27, 1989 Michael played the 123rd and final show of the "Bad" tour at the Los Angeles Sports Arena.    [Bad World Tour] The "Bad" tour broke all existing records and became the biggest tour ever done up to that date. The "Bad" World Tour attendance figures total 4.4 million, making Michael's 16 month tour [September 12, 1987 - January 27, 1989], which played in 15 countries, the largest in history. The tour became also the highest grossing concert tour, grossing over US$ 125 million, more than any other entertainer has ever grossed on a single tour. Michael will break his "tour records" a couple years later. During his European leg of the "Bad" tour, Michael was earning UK� 3'425 a minute. Michael had negotiated a deal worth UK� 20 million, of which he received 90% of the preceeds from all concerts. After paying his entourage of 140, he was left with profits of around UK� 400'000 per show.  On February 14, 1989 it was announced that Michael and his manager Frank Dileo, were to part company. No real reason was given for the abrupt split, leaving the media to speculate about possible causes, suggesting that Dileo was trying to be bigger than Michael, that his managing technique was too flamboyant and that he tried to promote him as a wacky person.  Dileo managed Michael's career from March 20, 1984 to February 14, 1989. [Michael with then-manager Frank]   [Commercial - Michael Raisin] On July 28, 1989 Michael became the newest claymation member of the Raisin Family by appearing in their new TV commercial called "Michael Raisin". Michael's speaking voice is used in the ads, but his singing voice on the song "I Heard It Through The Grapevine" couldn't be used because of his exclusive contract with Pepsi. Michael agreed to lend his image to the commercial after working with the claymation creator on "Moonwalker". On September 13, 1989 a press conference was held to announce Michael's new endorsement deal with "L.A. Gear". The two year deal called for Michael to design and market a line of sportsshoes and sportswear as well as appear in commercials. On December 18, 1989 reports confirmed that Michael's planned greatest hits album, "Decade", was shelved due to an avalanche of new material, prompting thoughts of a brand new album instead, much to the delight of his fans.  In spring of 1990, movie theatres began airing commercials for "L.A. Gear" using Michael Jackson's music, "Wanna Be Startin' Something", but Michael himself did not appear in the commercials. The teaser ads were later aired on TV.    In July of 1990, the first publicity pictures of Michael Jackson's "L.A. Gear" campaign began to circulate in magazines. His eight year old niece, Brandi, daughter of elder brother Jackie, was featured in the promotion and appears in the TV ads.  Michael's first TV commercial in nearly 4 years was heralded a creative breakthrough by the industry. A month later, in August, commercials for "L.A. Gear" with Michael began airing in movie theatres.     [L.A. Gear ads] On August 18, 1990 it was announced that Michael had hired Sandy Gallin as his new personal manager.  On March 20, 1991 in New York City, the biggest deal in music history was announced between Michael and Sony, who bought CBS in 1988. The Japanese-owned multi-national corporation signs Michael to a 15 year, 6-album record and film contract.  Michael enters the Guinness Book of World Records as the highest paid entertainer in the music industry and up to today still holds his record. The Guinness Book of World Records reports that the contract is worth US$ 890 million [US$ 1 billion is estimated].  Michael received an US$ 18 million cash advance for the forthcoming album, plus a $ 5 million bonus for this and each of his next 5 albums.  Michael, now the highest-paid entertainer in the music industry, receiving a royalty rate of 25% on each album sold. He is also CEO of his own record label, Nation Records [which was renamed to MJJ Productions later], for which he will receive US$ 1 million per annum. The lucrative deal is reported in the press as setting new standards for cost and scope.  On April 17, 1991 a tiny Indie dance label, Nation Records, threatened to see Michael in court if he uses their name for his own record label. Katherine Canoville says that they have been trading under the name for 3 years and have developed an international reputation. Michael changed the name of his record label to MJJ Productions.  At the MTV Video Music Awards in September of 1991, it was announced that MTV's most important award, the "Video Vanguard Award" has been renamed "The Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award". Bon Jovi were the first recipients.  In November of 1991, 30 second ads directed by David Lynch began airing on TV to promote the long-awaited, forthcoming release of Michael Jackson's new album that came to be titled "Dangerous".      [Black Or White Video Clip] Finally, on November 14, 1991 "Black Or White", the first music video from Michael Jackson's "Dangerous" album was broadcast simultaneously in 27 countries with an estimated audience of 500 million people. It was the largest audience ever to view a music video!  The video features Macauley Culkin, Michael's niece Brandi, Bart Simpson, George Wendt [who played Norm in "Cheers"] and rapper Heavy D, director was once again John Landis ["Thriller"].  After the premi�re of Michael's new video, the press went crazy. The new Michael Jackson video was an event in itself! After 4 years of waiting, Michael was back with a bang!  Only hours after its premi�re, "Black Or White" was in the TV News around the world. The premi�re of the video was immediately followed by uproar regarding the video's somewhat violent final segment [Panther Scene], which caused widespread controversy.     [Black Or White Video Clip] Parents in particular were disturbed by the violence and sex enacted by Michael breaking windows and simulating masturbation. Michael's publicist said that Michael's dance sequence is meant to portray Jackson's interpretation of the panther's wild and animalistic behavior. Michael agreed to edit out the final 4 minutes of the video, and issued a statement.  Michael: "It upsets me to think that 'Black Or White' could influence any child or adult to destructive behavior. I've always tried to be a good role model and, therefore, have made these changes to avoid any possibility of adversely affecting any individual's behavior. I deeply regret any pain or hurt that the final segment of 'Black Or White' has caused children, their parents or other viewers." But "Black Or White" was not only a spectacle because of the "Panther Scenes" but also because it was the first music video ever to use the so called "Morphing" Special Effects. This revolutionary technique was used in only 2 movies ["Willow", "Terminator 2"], but NEVER before in music videos. Michael is again a pioneer!  The single rose to the number one position - a tremendous success! "Black Or White" which features Guns N' Roses guitarist, Slash, is developed from a track which was intended for the "Bad" album [the beginning part that Slash plays]. In 1989, when Michael began to work on "Dangerous", he asked Bill Bottrell, who wrote the rap lyrics and co-produced the track, to dig it out of the vault.  What the music world had been waiting for for 4 years, happened on November 21, 1991: For the first time in 20 years, an album was released on a Thursday instead of the traditional Monday - Michael Jackson's "Dangerous".  Threats of parallel imports lead to the decision for a Thursday release date, after it was learned that US rack-jobbers and wholesalers were to receive copies of "Dangerous" on November 21, 5 days before the scheduled official release date.  "Dangerous" entered the Top 75 album chart in Britain at number one holding its position for 1 week and remained on the charts for 96 weeks. "Dangerous" is the fastest selling number one album of all time [Michael will later breake his own record] and makes history by entering the charts at number one just 3 shopping days after its release.  "Dangerous" debuted on the US Pop album chart at number one, holding its position for 6 weeks. "Dangerous" debuted at number 11 on the US Black album chart, reaching number one in its 4th week and holding its position for 12 weeks.  In America, Tower Records on Sunset Boulevard opened at midnight [November 24] to sell copies of "Dangerous" and also unveiled a giant 25-foot, roof-top display.  The "Dangerous" sleeve, which took 6 months to complete, is the creation of Mark Ryden who worked with both Sony Music Senior Art Director, Nancy Donald, and Michael to develop the very symbolic, acrylic glaze painting.  Michael wanted the cover to be mysterious and for people to interpret the images for themselves. [Dangerous Album Cover] For the first time since "Off The Wall", Michael did not work with Quincy Jones as producer. Instead he worked with the industry's hottest producers and technical innovators of the 90's: Teddy Riley, Bryan Loren, and again Bruce Swedien. With Teddy Riley, the godfather of "New Jack Swing", which merges hip-hop beats with soul crooning and had dominated the R&B charts in recent years, Michael followed the trend. "Dangerous" becomes a tremendous success all over the world!  On February 3, 1992 Michael held a press conference at Radio City Music Hall in New York to announce plans for a new world tour to raise money for his newly-formed "Heal The World" Foundation.  Further to this, Michael signed a Pepsi endorsement deal in front of the media.     [Dancing The Dream] On June 18, "Dancing The Dream" by Michael, a book of poetry and essays, was published by Doubleday. "I have founded the 'Heal The World' Foundation to be the voice of the voiceless: the children," Michael said on June 23, 1992 during the press conference about his "Heal The World" Foundation.    [Dangerous World Tour] On June 27, 1992 the "Dangerous" World Tour kicked off at the Olympic Stadium in Munich, Germany. Michael played to a sell-out crowd of 72'000 ecstatic fans, who saw him perform 18 numbers, including 4 songs from his new album. The end of the show hit headlines all over the world when "Michael" jet-packs out of the stadium and over the heads of his fans. In August, Michael sold the film rights to his "Dangerous" tour concert to America's Home Box Office [HBO] for UK� 12 million. The deal is the highest ever paid for a live concert. HBO ads - "He's not coming to America, he's coming to HBO" - were published. The special received the highest TV ratings in the history of HBO [21.4% rating, 34% share]. On January 31, 1993 Michael performed a medley of "Jam", "Billie Jean" and "Black Or White" and "Heal The World" at the Super Bowl XXVII Halftime Show in the Rose Bowl Stadium, Pasadena, California before an audience of 100'000 in the stadium and 133.4 million on TV.  With this, Michael made history again: Michael's Super Bowl half-time spectacular performance, televised live on TV, broke a record with the highest-ever viewership of 133.4 million viewers, unbroken up to today! A distinction, which also earned him an entry in the Guinness Book of World Records.      [Super Bowl] On January 28, 2000, just after the '00 Superbowl XXXIV, Michael's performance of '93 was chosen as the best performance of ALL the past Super Bowl performances by "USA Today" Gordon Forbes.     [Oprah Winfrey interview] Only 10 days later, another TV sensation: "Michael Jackson Talks... To Oprah", Michael's first TV interview in 10 years, was telecast LIVE from Neverland Valley, attracting over 100 million viewers around the world. The interview became the most-watched TV interview of all time [highest-ever viewership for an interview] and holds this record up to today. And in the history of TV, the event is the 4th most watched telecast [viewership] ever! It's THE event of the year 1993! During the interview, Michael revealed that he suffers from Vitiligo, a skin disorder which destroys the pigmentation of the skin, and therefore lightens ones skin color. It's the first time Michael talked about it. But he also talked about his relationships. Here's a short excerpt of the interview:  Oprah: "Do you go out, do you date?" Michael: "Yes." Oprah: "Who do you date?" Michael: "Well, right now it's Brooke Shields. Well, we try not to be everywhere, go everywhere, it's mostly at home, she'll come over, I'll go to her house, because I don't like going out in public." Oprah: "Have you ever been in love?" Michael: "Yeah." Michael: "Yes, and another girl." The TV special included the premi�re of "Give In To Me".    [Michael with Brooke] [Grammy Legend Award speech] On February 24, 1993 Michael and his date, Brooke Shields, attended the 35th Annual Grammy Award ceremony. During the ceremony, Michael was honored with the Grammy Legend Award.  The Grammy Legend Award is the most important award in the music business! It's the top honor in the recording industry, given for ongoing contributions and influence in the recording field.  The award was presented to Michael by his sister Janet, who enjoys great success herself. On August 24, 1993 Michael kicked off the second leg of his Dangerous tour in Bangkok, Thailand at the National Stadium.  At 270 feet, the "Dangerous" stage is wider than the widest American stage at New York's Radio City Music Hall, which measures 190 feet.  Also on that day [August 24], reports surfaced in the media that Michael is under criminal investigation for child abuse by the Los Angeles Police Department. Investigator Anthony Pellicano says the accusations are the result of a failed attempt to exort money from Michael Jackson. It transpires the boy's father, Evan Chandler, a dentist in Beverly Hills, wanted Michael to fund movie projects for him, so he could become a full-time screen-writer. When this request was refused, he threatened to make child molestation allegations against his son public.  Howard Weitzman read a statement to the press from Michael, in which he states there was NO wrong-doing from his part and that he intends to continue his world tour.  The molestation story will dominate newspapers, magazines, and scandal TV shows for many months to come.  On November 9, 1993 Elizabeth Taylor and her then-husband Larry Fortensky flew to Mexico City to join Michael. In the meantime, the biggest media hunt had begun.  On November 11, Michael performed his 5th concert in Mexico to a capacity audience of 100'000. Sadly, this concert would prove to be the last.  After the concert, Michael left Mexico with Elizabeth Taylor and Larry Fortensky, stopping off in Canada and Iceland. From there Michael was diverted to Ireland and finally landed at Luton Airport, England. Elizabeth Taylor flew on to Gstaad, Switzerland, and the media hunt for Michael Jackson began.  One day later, on November 12, 1993 Michael announced that he is cancelling the rest of his tour and that he is seeking treatment for a dependency on painkillers. He explains that the stress from the false allegations made against him caused him to become dependent on the painkillers to get through the tour.  Michael's whereabouts remain unknown, leaving the media to speculate widely.  Michael's "Dangerous" World Tour was a tremendous success. It is the biggest tour any performer had done, breaking his own record from his "Bad" tour. Michael toured with the biggest [widest] stage ever [2 floors], worked together with the magicians Siegfried and Roy and David Copperfield for the special tricks. Especially the beginning of the show, the so-called "toaster", where Michael is catapulted on stage and the end of the show, where "he" jet-packs out of the stadium, showed once again why Michael Jackson is the greatest performer of all time! [Dangerous World Tour] On November 24, 1993 the administration of Michael Jackson's music catalogue, ATV Music, moved from MCA Music to EMI Music Publishing. It is reported to be the largest deal in music publishing's history, earing Michael Jackson up to US$ 200 million with an up-front payment of US$ 100 million.  On December 10, 1993 Michael proved all the sceptics wrong by returning home to the United States. On December 22, 1993 Michael took to the airwaves in his own defence. It's the first time he gives a personal statement on TV. CNN, CBS, NBC and ABC all carried his statement broadcast live from his Neverland Valley Ranch.  Michael: "I have been forced to submit to a dehumanising and humiliating examination by the Santa Barbara County Sheriff's Department and the Los Angeles Police Department earlier this week. They served a search warrant on me which allowed them to view and photograph my body, including my penis, my buttocks, my lower torso, thighs and any other areas that they wanted... The warrant also directed me to co-operate in any examination of my body by their physician to determine the condition of my skin, including whether I have Vitiligo or any skin disorder [Michael already talked about Vitiligo with Oprah. His skin disorder was officially confirmed now]. Throughout my life, I have only tried to help thousands upon thousands of children to live happy lives. It brings tears to my eyes when I see any child who suffers... Don't treat me like a criminal, because I am innocent!" On January 26, 1994 after 6 months of hard negotiations, the lawyers representing both sides in the molestation case against Michael finally reached agreement. An out of court settlement, which both sides have been working towards, is agreed for an undisclosed sum.  The nightmare was over!  One day later, on January 27, Reuters News Service reported that the photos taken of Michael Jackson's genitalia DID NOT match his accuser's description given to the police!!! Little coverage was given to this in the press - whereas months before they had been trashing Michael. On February 19, 1994 "The Jackson Family Honors" took place in Las Vegas. Michael did not perform but presented 2 awards. His date for the evening was Lisa Marie Presley.    [With Lisa Marie in Las Vegas] Michael was already seen in company of Lisa Marie on February 2, when they attended a concert by The Temtations in Las Vegas.  Michael spent most of the time in New York, working busy on his new album. He booked into a 3 bedroom duplex apartment at Trump Tower.     [Marriage ceremony] On May 26, 1994 Michael Jackson married Lisa Marie Presley in the Dominican Republic in a ceremony which last 12 minutes. Civil Judge was Hugo Francisco Alvarez P�rez. Eva Darling, a friend of Lisa Marie's, and Darling's husband, Thomas Keough, Lisa Marie's former brother-in-law [he is the brother of Lisa's first husband Danny Keough], were witnesses. No members of Michael's family were present. The marriage will not become public until July 11. July 11: The press covered news that Michael has married Lisa Marie Presley. CNN reported that 3 separate spokespeople from Michael emphatically denied that Michael has married the daughter of Elvis Presley. A spokeswoman for Presley couldn't deny the report, because she was unable to reach Lisa Marie.  On August 1, 1994 after weeks of rumors, it's official. Michael had indeed married Lisa Marie Presley. The bride, announcing that her name was now Lisa Marie Presley-Jackson, released a statement through MJJ Productions: "I am very much in love with Michael. I dedicate my life to being his wife. I understand and support him. We both look forward raising a family and living happy, healthy lives together." The official statement gave no details of the marriage or where it took place.  With this marriage, the 2 biggest names in showbusiness were united: Jackson and Presley. In the media, the marriage of the King of Pop, Michael Jackson, to the daughter of the King of Rock 'N' Roll, Lisa Marie Presley, was entitled as "THE Marriage of the Century"!  On September 08, 1994 Michael opened the 11th Annual MTV Video Music Awards with his wife.  Their 120 second appearance stole everyone else the show as Michael swept Lisa Marie into his arms, and tenderly kissed her in public for the very first time. [MTV VMA's '94] The next day, it's THE event in the media all over the world. Some refered to it as "The Kiss of the Century", others compared the kiss to the famous kissing-scene in "Gone With The Wind" between Scarlett O'Hara and Rett Buttler.   [Vibe magazine] In May, 1995 Michael's "new look" was unveiled for the first time as he posed with Quincy Jones in the June edition of Vibe magazine.  Finally, on May 29, 1995 "Scream", the first single from Michael's forthcoming album "HIStory", a duet with sister Janet, was released around the world.  In the US, the single made history by debuting at number 5 in the Billboard Charts, making it the highest debut ever in the 37-year history of the Billboard Hot 100, toping the previous record held by The Beatles with "Let It Be" which entered the chart at number 6 in March of 1970!!! Michael will later break his own set record!  What the world had been waiting for for 4 years, happened on June 15: Michael's long-awaited new album, "HIStory" was released around the world. The double album is made up of 15 greatest hits and 15 new songs, 150 minutes of music. Statues of Michael Jackson constructed by his record company were ceremoniously unveiled in several European cities to tie in with the Jackson bust which appears on the cover of the album.  A day before [June 14], Michael and Lisa Marie granted their first interview as a couple to ABC's "Primetime". The interview, held by Diane Sawyer, was broadcast live around the world.  The interview became the second-most-watched [viewership] interview of all time [the most-watched interview of all time is up to today Michael's interview with Oprah].     [Primetime interview] In 1997, Monica Lewinsky's interview with Barbara Walters entered at the second position, pushing the Michael and Lisa interview to the 3rd position.     [Scream Video Clip] During the "Primetime" interview, the video for "Scream" premi�red. The futuristic video clip, directed by Mark Romanek, earned Michael another record and is featured in The Guinness Book Of World Records as the most expensive video of all time: US$ 7 million did it cost to make "Scream".  The video clip, in which Michael again took the art of making videos to another level, is seen as groundbreaking for the future of computer animated clips!  5 days later, on June 20, 1995 "HIStory" entered the US Billboard LP Charts at number one, like in many other countries around the world.  The album "HIStory" is undisputed the most important album in Michael's career, after what he had to go through in 1993. And it's without a doubt the most personal. With "HIStory", Michael told "his story" about the false allegations, the lies, the avaricious people, the tabloids - the Jackson case.  "HIStory" became a tremendous success all around the world and clearly [!] answered the question: "Will he make history or is he history?" The album proved once more why Michael is the world's greatest entertainer and the undisputed King of Pop.  And Michael indeed made history with "HIStory": The album becomes the biggest-selling double album of all time! [reported by MTV USA]. It became also the fastest-selling album in Michael's career. Unprecedented 7 million copies were sold worldwide in the first week!!!  Michael collaborated on the album with top producers such as David Foster [Michael did already work with him on "Off The Wall"]. In the 90's, David Foster became by far the most successful producer of the decade, producing Whitney Houston's "I Will Always Love You", "I Have Nothing", "Run To You" and hits for Madonna, "You'll See", and later in 1999 for Mariah Carey, "After Tonight". Other producers are Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Dallas Austin and R. Kelly. "HIStory" features appearances by supreme names such as Janet Jackson, The Notorious B.I.G., Shaquille O'Neal, Slash, Steve Lukather, Boyz II Men, Steve Porcaro, to name but a few.   [Single cover] On August 15, 1995 "You Are Not Alone", the second single from "HIStory" was released in America, and went on to create chart history by becoming the first ever song [single] to go straight in at number one on the US Billboard's Hot 100 Singles Chart!!! This has never happened before in the history of the Billboard single-charts!  Michael broke his own record which he set with "Scream" 2 1/2 months ago ["Scream" entered the Billboard charts at number 5, being the then-highest entry of all time].  The number one position is the highest possible debuting position on the single-charts. This record can only be tied but never be broken. Michael was honored with the "Billboard Hot 100 Achievement Award" for having the first ever single in the history of the Billboard charts, "You Are Not Alone", to debut at number one on the charts!  On September 7, 1995 Michael gave a stunning performance at the opening of the 12th Annual MTV Music Video Awards. Michael's performance and the standing ovation he received proved unquestionably his continued popularity with the public in general, and his ability to excite and satisfy a live audience. Every other performer at the show praised Michael, from alternative band Weezer to Notorious B.I.G..  Chris Connely of MTV said the backstage area was filled with celebs trying to get a spot in the wings to watch Michael.  Michael went on to pick up 3 awards for Best Dance Video, Best Choreography and Best Art Direction for his and Janet's video "Scream".  [MTV VMA's '95]   [Wetten dass...?] - 1995 On November 4, 1995 Michael performed for the first time on the most popular European show "Wetten dass...?" ["Wanna bet...?"] in Germany. The TV special became the biggest TV event throughout Europe [viewership] with 18 million viewers in Germany and another 25 million throughout the rest of Europe. It's THE event of the year 1995 in Europe. On December 6, 1995 Michael was rushed to Beth Israel Medical Center in New York after collapsing at rehearsals for his HBO special "One Night Only". Early reports from the Center indicated that Michael was suffering from gastro-enteritis, dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Michael was due to play at the Beacon Theater on the 8th and 9th. The shows were canceled.  On January 19, 1996 "USA Today" reported that Lisa Marie Presley-Jackson filed for divorce from Michael yesterday [January 18], ending a 19-month marriage that merged pop royalty. A statement from Jackson spokesman Lee Solters said the two "have mutually agreed to go their separate ways. However, they remain good friends." Irreconcilable differences were given as reason. Michael got married to Lisa on May 26, 1994 in the Dominican Republic.  On February 28, 1996 Michael won a Grammy for "Best Video Short Form" for "Scream" at the 38th Annual Grammy Award ceremony.  In March of 1996, it was reported on MTV USA that Michael's "HIStory" album is the biggest-selling double album ever!  On March 19, 1996 at a press conference in Paris, Michael announced plans for his new company, "Kingdom Entertainment", a Paris-based multimedia corporation, jointly owned with Saudi Prince, Al-Walid bin Talal bin Abdul Aziz al-Saoud.   [World Music Awards 1996] On May 8, 1996 after a great "Earth Song" performance at the World Music Awards, Michael received a record-breaking total of 5 [!] of these prestigious awards!  The World Music Awards honor the world's greatest-selling recording artists of the year in the various categories and the best-selling recording artists of the year from each of the major record-buying countries around the world. These awards are unique in that, they are based purely on record sales, hence it is the record-buying music fans who determine the winners. On September 7, 1996 Michael launched his "HIStory" World Tour with a high-tech spectacle in Prague, playing to over 125'000 people!!! During his stay in the Czech capital Michael had received police escorts throughout the ancient city, and been treated like royalty.  The spectacle show hit the news around the world, especially Michael's opening [arrival] in the Spaceship MJ 2040!  [HIStory World Tour] On October 2, a new official Michael Jackson product - a soft drink - was launched. The fizzy fruit drink carrying the byline "fresh - cool - magic" is called "Mystery", and will be sold on the tour and to retail outlets. "Mystery" is described as an "energy" drink made from fruit and plant extracts and vitamins and minerals.  On November 4, 1996 news broke that Debbie Rowe is carrying Michael's first child. [Liz Smith reported in her column in the San Francisco Chronicle as follows: "Congratulations and good luck to Michael Jackson and Debbie Rowe, the woman who is reported to be carrying his first child."]  On November 11, "Sisterella", the musical stage production of a black version of "Cinderella" which Michael Jackson co-produced, won an incredible 8 NAACP Theatre Awards at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. The show was a huge success in the Pasadena Playhouse earlier that year, and is in preparation for New York showings.      [Marriage ceremony] On November 14, 1996 Michael married Debbie Rowe, a former nurse, in a civil ceremony in his presidential suite at the Sheraton-on-the-Park Hotel in Sydney.  Hotel publicist, Brian Walsh, told the media that Michael has married again, saying that Jackson, 38, married Rowe, 37, before a handful of friends in the Sheraton-on-the-Park Hotel only hours after kicking off the Australian leg of his "HIStory" World Tour.  Walsh: "The ceremony was attended by a few friends and people from the tour entourage. Debbie has known Michael for a long time and has been with the entourage for a while and they have a lot of friends in common." In a written statement distributed on the Internet global computer network, Michael said: "Please respect our privacy and let us enjoy this wonderful and exciting time." The wedding took place only ten days after Michael announced Rowe, who nursed him while he was being treated for a rare skin disorder [Vitiligo], was to give birth to his child early next year. On January 4, 1997 Michael ended the first leg of his "HIStory" tour in Honolulu, Hawaii. The two concerts held on January 3 and 4 at the 35'000-seat Aloha Stadium made history - no other musical act ever sold out the stadium, and Michael sold out 2 shows in less than 24 hours, a record time. It's his first U.S. tour stop since 1989. Hawaii promotor Tom Moffatt said: "I've never seen anything like it... there's been nothing even close to this - The Rolling Stones, Elton John, Julio Iglesias, The Eagles... ." [HIStory World Tour] On February 13, 1997 Michael Jackson's wife Debbie Rowe gave birth to a healthy baby boy at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. Michael was present at his son's birth. The boy is named Prince Michael Junior Jackson. According to MTV News the birth time was 1:07 am [PST].   [Michael with his son Prince] Michael: "Words can't describe how I feel... I have been blessed beyond comprehension and I will work tirelessly at being the best father that I can possibly be. I appreciate that my fans are elated, but I hope that everyone respects the privacy Debbie and I want and need for our son. I grew up in a fish bowl and will not allow that to happen to my child. Please respect our wishes and give my son his privacy." 3 days later, on February 16, Michael arrived in company of Elizabeth Taylor to celebrate her 65th birthday at the star-studded gala, "Happy Birthday Elizabeth - A Celebration Of Life" at Pantages Theatre in Hollywood. Michael was making his first appearance since the recent birth of his son, whose godmother is Elizabeth Taylor. Michael performed "Elizabeth, I Love You", which he wrote especially for the occasion, and sat by Elizabeth's side throughout the show.  [With Elizabeth] On March 21, 1997 Sony Music presented Michael with a special award to signify sales of 100 million singles and albums OUTSIDE of the United States, since his first solo album for Epic Records in 1979, "Off The Wall". On April 2, Michael's new video "Blood On The Dance Floor", from his forthcoming remix album "Blood On The Dance Floor / HIStory In The Mix" was premi�red on VH1 in the U.S.      [Blood... Video Clip] The same day in Germany, safes containing the latest single were shipped to DJ's across the country, opened at a specific time and played.   Airplanes, with white banners reading "Michael Jackson - Blood On The Dance Floor", flew across various parts of Germany for promotion of the new single and album. On April 27, Michael Jackson debuted at number one in the U.K. charts with his single "Blood On The Dance Floor". Michael's latest single was a chart-hit in many countries around the world!    [Hall of Fame] On May 6, 1997 The Jackson 5 were inducted into the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame. At the induction ceremony, held at the Renaissance Hotel in downtown Cleveland Ohio, Michael was joined on stage by his brothers. Diana Ross presented the awards to the Jackson 5 and said that "... since the beginning of their careers, I feel very much as if they are my children...". The Jackson 5 did not perform but brought Berry Gordy, founder of Motown Records and their mentor, onto the stage to share this very special moment. Michael to Mr Gordy on stage: "Berry, you promised us four consecutive number one records. You delivered them all... I'll never forget it. I just want you to know that without you and my mother and father, I don't think we'd be here... and of course God." Michael also thanked his parents who were in the audience, "Mother and father, you were there to protect us with unselfish love. Because you were there, we are here," he continued, "Now we are in the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame, so... whatever you call our name... I promise, I love all of you. We'll be there!" Berry Gordy: "The Jackson 5 gave black kids in the ghetto a license to dream, and many of those same kids went on to realize their own dreams. They had something for everybody."  Parke Puterbaugh of the "Rolling Stone" magazine described the scene as, "Gordy and Michael are paying each other the highest tribute and compliments. It's almost more of a reconciliation than the Motown 25th Anniversary TV special. It really is quite a moment!"  On May 8, 1997 Michael's new short film "Ghosts" was shown at the 50th Cannes Film Festival. Michael attended the screening which took place at midnight in the main auditorium. Michael received excellent critics for his acting, the ground-breaking special effects and for the story of the film itself. "Ghosts", with excellent critics, a great success for Michael. [In Cannes] [With Steven Spielberg] [Ghosts] The film was directed by Stan Winston and written by Stephen King and Michael Jackson. Plans for the film were already confirmed in May 1994. News said that Stan Winston, the special effects wizard who worked with Michael on "The Wiz" in 1978, is involved in Michael's planned musical remake of the fantasy film, "The Seven Faces Of Dr. Lao". Their collaboration turned out to be the film "Ghosts". On May 14, "Ghosts" received its U.K. premi�re. The film also premi�red in various other European cities - very successfully. "Ghosts" had already been premi�red in 11 selected Sony Movie Theatres in the US [on November 5, 1996] and in Tokyo, Japan [on December 19, 1996]. Michael was present at the Tokyo premi�re of his 35-minute short film.  Also, on May 14, 1997 Michael Jackson's first ever remix album "Blood On The Dance Floor / HIStory In The Mix" was released. The album contains 13 tracks, with 5 new songs and 8 previously unreleased remix versions from the "HIStory" album. Work on the album had taken place all around the world as Michael had been touring, and the remixes had been done by many of the leading producers and creators in this field.  "Blood On The Dance Floor / HIStory In The Mix" becomes a success all around the world and proves all critics wrong. The album earns Michael another record: "Blood On The Dance Floor / HIStory In The Mix" becomes by far the biggest-selling remix album of all time and holds this record up to today!  On May 31, 1997 Michael kicked off the second leg of his "HIStory" World Tour with a sold-out performance in Bremen, Germany.  In 1997, the results of an official survey revealed that 99% of the world's population between 5 - 65 years know who Michael Jackson is. Michael is therefore the most famous person of all time! At the second position is Pope John Paul II followed by the King of Rock 'N' Roll, Elvis Presley, at number 3.  On August 6, a special screening of Michael Jackson's film "Ghosts" was shown at the opening night of the 1997 Palm Springs International Short Film Festival in California. Bruce Fessier described the festivities in an article published in the "Dessert Sun" the following day, "The opening night of the 'Palm Springs International Short Film Festival' showcased the potential of short film and video and the talent of Michael Jackson. Almost 450 people filled the Palm Springs Dessert Museum's Annenberg Theater on Wednesday to view 2.5 hours of film... and a screening of Jackson's 40-minute short musical film, 'Ghosts', with remarks by its director, Stan Winston... the night ended with praise for Jackson. The crowd buzzed over the special effects in 'Ghosts' and the skill Jackson exhibited by playing all the lead characters with diverse looks and voices. Winston said 'Ghosts' is a hit in Europe but can't get promoted here because 'people believe what they read' about Jackson. 'I stand here and say he's a really great guy', Winston said."  On August 27, 1997 news broke that singer Joni Mitchell and Sony / ATV Music Publishing signed a major deal [effective July 1, 1997] to administer Ms Mitchell's music catalogue. Sony / ATV is a joint venture owned equally by Sony Corporation and Michael Jackson, and is the world's 3rd largest [!] music publishing company. The firm will handle requests to license Ms Michell's songs worldwide for use in various outlets, including film and television, except for Australia, Italy and Britain.      [HIStory World Tour] On October 15, 1997 Michael's "HIStory" World Tour ended with a sold-out concert in Durban, South Africa.  The "HIStory" tour broke all existing records - Michael Jackson's "HIStory" World Tour is the biggest world tour any solo performer had ever done!!! The tour also broke the legendary record set by the Rolling Stones with their "Voodoo Lounge" World Tour!  The "HIStory" tour spanned the globe with stops in 56 cities on 5 continents, and included 82 concerts to about 4.5 million loving fans.  With this, Michael broke his previous record which he set with the "Dangerous" World Tour. Michael toured with the widest stage anyone had ever toured with, and the mega show featured special effects by magicians David Copperfield and Siegfried and Roy.    During the SECOND [!] leg of the "HIStory" tour, Michael performed 40 shows, grossed over US$ 83.5 million and had a total attendance of 2'035'189. This equals to an average $ 2'087'853 gross and 50'880 attendance per show! These statistics are for the second leg of the tour only! In a interview with "LIFE" magazine, which hit newsstands on November 24, 1997, Michael himself revealed the exciting news that he and Debbie are expecting their second child! Michael also told "LIFE" magazine that Prince's godparents are Elizabeth Taylor and Macauley Culkin.  On February 11, 1998 news broke that Michael Jackson is nominated for the 1998 NOBEL PEACE PRIZE - Michael is among the record 130 nominees for 1998's Nobel Peace Prize, along with Pope John Paul II and US President Bill Clinton.  Nominations for the Peace Prize can be made by members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, members of some national legislatures and governments, previous laureates and university professors of history, philosophy and political science, among others. The 1998 prize will be presented on December 10, the anniversary of the death of Alfred Nobel, the Swede who invented dynamite and endowed the prizes in his will. The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded in Oslo. Michael did not win the Nobel Peace Prize for 1998 but it is already a HUGE HONOR to be nominated!  During the Second Annual World Animation Celebration, held in February '98 in Pasadena, California, "The Simpsons" creator Matt Groening finally confirmed that Michael had, indeed, lent his voice to the 1991 episode entitled "Stark Raving Dad", but the credits identified him with the pseudonym John Jay Smith. The true identity of the person behind the voice was kept secret... until then. Matt Groening further revealed that Michael also composed the song "Do The Bartman" that was included on the 1991 disc "The Simpsons Sing The Blues".  [Includes Do The Bartman] Matt Groening: "It was always amazing to me that no one ever found out that Michael Jackson wrote that song... He was a big fan of the show."  Michael did also sing the background vocals on "Do The Bartman" together with Brian Loren. Brian Loren, producer of the song, confirmed this in an interview.    [TIME magazine] "TIME" magazine dated March 9, 1998 celebrated its 75th Anniversary with a special commemorative issue, documenting the last 75 years. On the cover was a collage of past covers, incl. the March 19, 1984 Michael Jackson cover titled "Why He's A Thriller". Michael's 1984 cover was the 5th biggest-selling issue in "TIME" magazine's history. Princess Diana's commemorative issue after her death was number one. To be on the cover of "TIME" magazine is seen as a major step. On April 3, 1998 Paris Michael Katherine Jackson, Michael and Debbie's second child, was born at 6:26 am, weighing 7lb. 7oz and 20 1/2" long.  "I wanted to name her Michael after Michael, but Michael said no. So we decided Paris because that's where she was conceived. Michael because I really want Michael's name in her name and Katherine after his mom," Debbie said in an interview.  In the November 9, 1998 issue, "The Mirror" [UK tabloid] apologized to Michael Jackson for false statements it published in 1992 [in an issue of "The Mirror"]. A out-of-court settlement is reached in Michael's lawsuit against "The Mirror":  Back in 1992 prior to Michael Jackson's then world tour we published some photos of Michael Jackson, particularly close up photos of his nose and face. We suggested that they showed him to be hideously disfigured and scarred. He immediately issued legal proceedings against us strongly denying the allegations. During the course of the proceedings we recently went to Los Angeles together with an eminent expert in plastic surgery to view his face close up. The inspection showed that, in fact, his face is not disfigured. As a result our lawyers met with Mr Jackson's lawyers and a confidential deal was thrashed out bringing an overdue end to the legal proceedings which we are both happy with. We also apologised for the suggestion that he was hideously disfigured or scarred. We saw for ourselves this was not the case. Both sides last night expressed their satisfaction that the litigation has been amicably resolved. ["The Mirror's" apologoy to Michael Jackson].    [In the Bahamas] On December 12, 1998 Michael attended the Grand Opening of Sun International's US$ 450 million "Royal Towers of Atlantis Resort" on Paradise Island in the Bahamas. Michael performed "Heal The World" - other performers were Stevie Wonder, Natalie Cole, N-Tyce, Tevin Campbell, James Ingram, Stephanie Mills and many more. Among the 1'600 invited guests for the "Celebration of Atlantis Rising" were Leonardo DiCaprio, Julia Roberts, Oprah Winfrey, Sidney Poitier, Donald Trump, Denzel Washington, Quincy Jones, to name but a few. On March 20, Michael appeared for the second time on the German television show "Wetten dass...?" ["Wanna bet...?"] to announce that he will hold 2 charity concerts: "Michael Jackson and Friends", one in Munich, Germany [June 27, 1999], and one in Seoul, South Korea [June 25, 1999].   [Wetten dass...?]   Michael's appearance attracted the same record-breaking viewership of 18 million in Germany alone, like his first appearance on November 4, 1995. Michael's now second appearance is again a mega event for both the fans and the press! On June 10, 1999 the first "Michael Jackson Dance Studio" [previously in the media announced as the "Michael Jackson Entertainment School"] was opened in Tokyo, Japan. Two days later, on June 12, Michael purchased the "Best Picture Oscar Award" statuette [Academy Award] of the all time classic film "Gone With The Wind" for US$ 1'542'500 at an auction at Sotheby's in New York.  The Oscar statuette had been awarded to the film's producer David O. Selznick for his 1939 film.  This makes Michael's bid the highest price EVER paid for Hollywood memorabilia. [The previous record set in 1996 was US$ 607'500 for an Oscar won by Clark Gable for the film "It Happened One Night"].  Sotheby's auction house quoted Michael as expressing that he had always wanted to own that particular Oscar.    [MJ & Friends in Seoul, Korea] "Michael Jackson and Friends" - [The Power of Humanity / What More Can I Give] hold 2 sell-out stadiums spellbound - the first in Seoul [June 25] and the second in Munich [June 27] were both sold out as expected. In Munich Michael performed to a sell-out audience capacity of 60'000 and in Seoul to a sell-out audience capacity of 45'000. Among the stars who performed at "Michael Jackson and Friends" were Mariah Carey, Vanessa Mae, Slash, Ringo Starr, Boyz II Men, Andrea Boccelli, to name but a few.  It is THE charity concert event of the year 1999.  Among the audience were many national and international stars such as Oprah Winfrey, many stars who also performed there - and everyone was waiting for the King of Pop, Michael Jackson.  The event raised US$ 3.3 million for needy children of the world for UNESCO, Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.  And Michael made history again with the Internet webcast of "Michael Jackson and Friends".      [MJ & Friends, Munich, Germany] MCY.COM [the company which had acquired exclusive ONLINE rights to the "Michael Jackson and Friends" concert taking place on June 27, in Munich, Germany] announced in a press release that the online Internet broadcast of the June 27 benefit concert "Michael Jackson and Friends" recorded over 10 million hits, breaking the world record for a single online broadcast. The release states: Never before in the history of the Internet has a single broadcast received a response of this magnitude. In sharing this benefit concert with their online audience MCY.com provided further awareness and support to UNESCO, The Red Cross, and Nelson Mandela's Children's Fund; the beneficiaries of the event. On October 8, 1999 spokesman Howard Rubenstein said in a statement that Michael and wife Debbie filed for divorce.  Rubenstein: "Michael and Debbie remain friends and they ask that the public respect their desire not to further comment or speculate upon the reasons for their decision."  Michael Jackson and Debbie Rowe had married in Sydney, Australia on November 14, 1996. They have two children together, Prince Michael Junior and Paris Michael Katherine.  At the end of the Millennium, Michael Jackson's "Thriller" was chosen as the # 1 Greatest Video Ever Made by the most important US music channel, MTV, and the biggest-selling US magazine, "TV GUIDE", as they teamed up to select the 100 best videos ever from 19'000 videos that aired on MTV over the past 18 years. The five criteria: creativity and innovation, longevity, performance, music, and cultural impact.  What a great honor!  [TV GUIDE magazine] [MTV USA interview] Lisa Bernhard, "TV GUIDE's" senior editor, who also interviewed Michael, said that "Thriller" was chosen because it was "innovative and ambitious for its time".  "Michael saw a lot of images [in videos] that didn't make sense. He brought videos to a new level. It shifts planes - from B-movie to horror story to dancing and back to a traditional narrative. He broke the doors open on videos."  In connection with the great news that "Thriller" was chosen as the # 1 Greatest Video Ever Made, Michael granted an exclusive interview to "TV GUIDE" and MTV USA. Furthermore, he presented a new look. MTV USA aired the exclusive interview as the peak of its "100 Greatest Videos Ever Made" countdown.  What a great way to end the year 1999 and start into the new Millennium! Great news on January 4, 2000: MTV Asia celebrated the end of the Millennium in a big way by selecting and airing the Top 2000 music videos and Michael Jackson's "Thriller" was chosen as the # 1 Video by MTV Asia. MTV Asia aired all 2000 videos on their "Top 2000 Playlist" countdown with Michael leading at the number one position!  On February 10, 2000 it was reported that Michael has selected "The Firm" as his new management company. "The Firm", a two-year-old company described as "one of the hottest music management teams in the world", is headed by Jeff Kwantinetz and Michael Green. John McLain, a family associate and former high-ranking A&M executive, will remain involved in managing Michael Jackson.  On May 10, 2000 Michael was honored with an award as THE BIGGEST SELLING ARTIST OF THE MILLENNIUM by the World Music Awards in Monaco.  This award is unique as it is based purely on record sales! Now it's official, NO artist [male or female] has sold more records in MUSIC HISTORY than the King of Pop, Michael Jackson!  During his acceptance speech, Michael thanked HRH Prince Albert of Monaco and especially his fans and promised the world "you ain't seen nothing yet!".    [WMA's '00] Now the world is waiting for Michael Jackson to release his long-awaited - maybe last - album. Michael describes his yet-untitled new CD as "happy, dance music, relationship stuff" - the media / people who had the chance to listen to some of Michael's new stuff for the album gave the work excellent critics!  Both the music industry and the fans are looking forward to the comeback of the King of Pop.  Whatever the media say about Michael Jackson, they all agree on one thing: There was never, there is not and there will probably never be a bigger star than Michael Jackson! Michael Jackson is without the shadow of a doubt the world's biggest star!  US' biggest-selling magazine, "TV GUIDE", said it all best in their issue at the end of the Millennium: "The legend is almost too large to comprehend but never fails to fascinate. Michael Jackson is the ONCE AND FUTURE KING!!!"  On October 4, 2000 news broke that Michael has finished recording the new album and that the album is now in mixing stage. Michael Jackson and engineer Bruce Swedien hope to be done with this crucial and final artistic stage by late January 2001. Provided everything goes in accordance with this working schedule, the new album could exit the mastering stage in the Spring of 2001 and be ready for a release early in the Summer of 2001.    [Carousel of Hope Charity Gala] [Congratulating Ricky Martin] On Saturday, October 28, 2000 Michael attended the "Carousel Of Hope" Charity Gala at the Beverly Hills Hilton Hotel [California, USA] in company of his friend Dame Elizabeth Taylor and presented a new look.  During the charity gala, hosted by Jay Leno, more than 50 plates, which had been painted by celebrities, were auctioned and Michael Jackson had been one of the stars that had painted a plate for the good cause.  The "Carousel of Hope" Ball raised more than US$ 6 million benefiting the Children's Diabetes Foundation.  Marvin and Barbara Davis, founder of the "Carousel of Hope" evening of charity fund-raising, were hosting a lavish lunch for the out-of-town guests plus participants in the fundraiser. Barbara Davis had also told Michael Jackson "Ricky wants to meet you.'' At the end of the event, Michael appeared on stage and congratulated Ricky Martin on his live performance before taking the applause from the crowd. Among those who stopped by to hug Michael Jackson was Berry Gordy Jr., his discoverer. Also Suzanne De Passe. Other celebrities attending the charity gala were Shirley MacLaine, Carrie Fisher, Joan Collins, David Foster, Toni Braxton, Sidney Poitier, Gregory Peck, Neil Diamond, Dustin Hoffman, Morgan Freeman, Pierce Brosnan, Goldie Hawn, Kurt Russell, Jennifer Love Hewitt, Sylvester Stallone, Charlotte Church, to name but a few.  October 31, 2000: Further news on Michael's planned movie "The Nightmare Of Edgar Allen Poe" was revealed. Gary Pudney to "The Columbus Dispatch": "Michael Jackson will move to Montreal with his two children in early 2001 to prepare for the shooting of his long-planned movie." Production is to begin in March and Michael will act in the leading role and also will be executive producer, with Gary Pudney and Jim Green.  Gary Pudney told columnist Marilyn Beck: "Michael's not going to look exactly like Poe, but you won't be able to tell the difference between them 10 minutes into the picture, it's going to be absolutely spectacular, full of gruesome goodies - and concluding with all the ghosts Poe wrote about coming back to haunt him at the end of his life. We'll also be hiring six to eight other incredible actors to help bring Michael up to snuff, he'll have an acting coach prior to production and during shooting."  Michael is currently writing the theme song, which he will sing. Gary Pudney: "He wants to concentrate on films, we're already planning on more Poe films, and there are one or two other pictures we are also talking about doing. Michael is wired into the hierarchy of Hollywood - people like Marlon Brando and Elizabeth Taylor, with whom he wants to work - and vice versa." The exciting news about Michael's plans to play Edgar Allen Poe was revealed for the first time in an interview with "TV GUIDE" magazine dated December 4 - 10, 1999.  On Monday, November 20, 2000 Michael Jackson attended the birthday party of Rabbi Shmuley Boteach in Englewood, New Jersey, USA. For Elissa Mingino, a 7 year old girl, who is suffering from leukaemia, a dream came true as she met her favourite singer: Michael Jackson. 10 days later, on November 30, 2000 Michael received the Angel of Hope Award at the Angel Ball Honors in New York. President Clinton, Michael Jackson and Jordan's Queen Noor were honored for their work to fight cancer at a star-studded black-tie dinner to raise $4 million for a cancer foundation.  Introduced by 'NSync Members Lance and J.C.:  "...No artist does as much to make the world a better place, and no other celebrity is more humble about his good work. What else can I say about him, he's bad, he's a thriller, and he's here.  The greatest living recording artist in the world, number one superstar. King of Pop. On behalf of the G & P Foundation it's a great honour to present the Angel of Hope Award to Mr Michael Jackson..."  [Angel Ball Honors] [With Denise Rich] A very honored Michael Jackson:  "I'm honored Mr President to receive this award in your presence and I wanna thank you all for years of dedication and service that you rendered to the American people. You have been an incredible president and I love you... ...Cancer is the number one killer of children. And it is only when we join together on evenings like this, that we can summon the courage and determination to stop it from ever robbing another child of the precious gift of life or a parent of the joy of watching their child grow. God bless you all for all the love and support you have offered this evening and I love you all very much. Thank you."   [At Tommy Mottola's wedding]   On Saturday, December 02, 2000 Michael Jackson took a front row seat at St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York for the wedding of Sony boss Tommy Mottola and Thalia Sodi. He did not attend the party after the wedding ceremony.  Some of the 1'200 invited friends included Donna Summer, Gloria Estefan, Rosie O'Donnell, Marc Anthony, Emilio Estefan, Jennifer Lopez, Robert De Niro, Saul Kerzner, Danny DeVito, Joe Pesci, Ricky Martin, Bruce Springsteen, Julio Iglesias, Tony Bennett, to name but a few.  On December 13, 2000 news broke that Michael will be inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame - for his achievements as a solo artist - on March 19, 2001. What a honor!!  "I am thrilled and humbled to receive this great honor. I could not ask to be in better company than the list of fellow inductees. Each and every one is a master from whom I have learned. My sincere thanks to the rock and roll historians and experts who have chosen me." Musicians become eligible for induction twenty-five years after the release of their first album, and sidemen become eligible twenty-five years after the commencement of their career. Michael was already inducted along with the rest of the Jackson 5 in 1997.    [In New York] [With Whitney] On Tuesday, December 19, 2000 a gorgeous looking Michael Jackson made a surprise appearance at WKTU's "Miracle On 34th Street" concert at New York's Madison Square Garden and sent thousands of concertgoers into hysterics!!  As part of the grand finale, all performers lined up across the stage and the orchestra started The Jacksons' hit "Shake Your Body [Down To The Ground]". Michael came out from the wings to wild applause and cheering. Unfortunately, for the crowd, he didn't perform, telling the audience that he had laryngitis, but he did wish everyone happy holidays. Surprise presenter Whitney Houston jumped up and down and hugged Michael. Before he left the stage, he promised the packed house, "The best is yet to come!" The charity concert feat. performances by Whitney Houston, Marc Anthony, Destiny's Child, Ricky Martin, Christina Aguilera, Brian McKnight, Melanie C, 98 Degrees, Lara Fabian, Gloria Gaynor, Deniece Williams, Jon Secada...Toni Braxton served as emcee for the event. January 01, 2001:  Finally online: http://www.neverland-valley.com !! Happy New Year 2001! On January 03, 2001 news broke that Michael will attend a debate at New York City's Carnegie Hall on Valentines Day '01 - benefiting his newly founded charity "Heal The Kids" - what a great start into the new year for Michael Jackson fans!! More great news for Michael Jackson fans on January 09, 2001: It is confirmed that Michael will address The Oxford Union together with Rabbi Shmuley Boteach, the man who's shaken the Jewish establishment on both sides of the Atlantic. It is at this event that the duo will announce the official launch of their new foundation, "Heal The Kids". The event is scheduled for March 06, 2001. Another surprise at the end of the month of January 2001 - Michael is to attend Adrian Grant's 10th Annual MJ Day in London, England [U.K.] on March 07, 2001. It is the very first time Michael Jackson will attend such a fan event! [With Mother Love] [With Shmuley] The long awaited Valentines Day - February 14, 2001:  A special evening at New York City's Carnegie Hall for Michael Jackson, Rabbi Shmuley Boteach, Mother Love, Loveline's Dr. Drew Pinsky, Dr. Stanley Greenspan, publisher Judith Regan, attorney Johnnie Cochran, Temptation Island host Mark L. Walberg as well as for fans who traveled to New York City from all over the world:  A debate entitled "Love, Work & Parenting: Can You Be a Success in the Bedroom and the Boardroom?" to introduce the newly founded charity of Jackson and Boteach "Heal The Kids". From Rabbi Shmuley Boteach's introduction:  "This initiative, 'Heal The Kids', is designed to save us from the worst kind of hell: a life where you are surrounded by people and you're still totally alone; a life where your children don't talk to you about meaning, but rather about your being a pay station for PlayStation; a life where the TV always blared, but your soul was never bared; a life where shopping at Barney's came before playing with your children and their Barneys...a life where surfing the Internet for content came before searching hearts for meaning." "Who would've believed one day we'd hear of parents bored of their children turning on fantasy television - 'Star Wars', 'The Wizard of Oz'? Have you ever heard of escaping your children's reality by escaping into someone else's reality?" "We're talking about you having deprived them of every child's birthright: the right to feel loved without deserving it, to feel admired without earning it."  Rabbi Shmuley Boteach, who co-founded "Heal The Kids" with Jackson last year, introduced Jackson, saying that "the real Michael Jackson isn't famous for the moonwalk, he's famous for�his love for children."   [Carnegie Hall] From Michael Jackson's introduction:  "Tonight, we're here in the world's most famous concert hall to hear an entirely different kind of music, a loftier melody.... This music I speak of is...more harmonious than a thousand voices joined in a hymn, and more powerful than all the world's percussive instruments combined....  That sound is the sweet sound of love. That sound has become a forgotten refrain. Instead of dinner conversations, there is the noise of video games. Instead of regular conversations between parents and children about drugs or violence, there is the deafening sound of silence."  "Who would have believed that the sound of children at their playgrounds would be replaced by the sound of automatic machine-gun fire? That the sound of little girls skipping rope would be overshadowed by the frantic screams of little children dodging bullets? Yet, instead of loving our children more, we install metal detectors in our schools."  "With two children of my own, I know what it means to balance the demands of family and career - and let's not even talk about finding a date for myself. Rabbi Shmuley keeps telling me he'll find me the perfect woman. My response is, 'As long as she's not a journalist.' " Mother Love, who openly wept during Jackson's speech, spoke extensively about her 28 years of marriage, while Regan expounded on the difficulties of single motherhood.  The event ended with a short question-and-answer session, followed by brief closing words from Jackson, who explained he would give more details about love and family at the next "Heal The Kids" event that will take place at Oxford University in Great Britain.  He promised a speech "certain to surprise you". Launched about the same time is the official website for Michael Jackson's "Heal The World Foundation". Be informed about upcoming events, Heal The Kids, Teach The World by visiting this great site!  Although Michael broke his foot, he promised his fans that his plans to attend the Oxford Union were "far too important to me to allow a broken foot to keep me from this commitment", and so he arrived in London on March 04, 2001 for a very busy week:  March 04, 2001:  Early Sunday afternoon, Michael Jackson checked in at the Lanesborough Hotel in London. Later that day, Michael Jackson went shopping in London with friend actor Macaulay Culkin. They went to the HMV records store and bought a selection of CD's.  March 05, 2001:  Michael Jackson had lunch with friends Uri Geller and Shmuley Boteach in a restaurant in the center of London. Later in the afternoon, he accompanied them to the Royal Institute of British Architects to attend a brief ceremony for the launch of a new book co-written by Boteach and Geller. [At Heathrow Airport]   [Book launch] The book is entitled "The Psychic And The Rabbi - A Remarkable Correspondence" and consists of a series of letters that the two men exchanged over the past years.   March 06, 2001:  Michael Jackson arrived at the Oxford Union this evening at 8:45 pm.  His arrival at the Union was originally scheduled at 6 pm but a last-minute appointment with a doctor [following shooting pains in his broken foot] delayed his departure to Oxford.  In the company of friends Uri Geller and Rabbi Shmuley Boteach, Michael Jackson addressed the Oxford Union as expected. He made a very deep and touching speech that moved the audience:  Michael: "I am humbled to be lecturing in a place that has previously been filled by such notable figures as Mother Theresa, Albert Einstein, Ronald Reagan, Robert Kennedy and Malcolm X... ...Friends, I do not claim to have the academic expertise of other speakers who have addressed this hall, just as they could lay little claim at being adept at the moonwalk, and you know, Einstein in particular was really terrible at that... ...But I do have a claim to having experienced more places and cultures than most people will ever see. Human knowledge consists not only of libraries of parchment and ink, it is also comprised of the volumes of knowledge that are written on the human heart, chiselled on the human soul, and engraved on the human psyche... ...I would therefore like to propose tonight that we instal in every home a Children's Universal Bill of Rights, the tenets of which are:  The right to be loved, without having to earn it  The right to be protected, without having to deserve it  The right to feel valuable, even if you came into the world with nothing  The right to be listened to without having to be interesting  The right to be read a bedtime story without having to compete with the evening news or EastEnders  The right to an education without having to dodge bullets at schools  The right to be thought of as adorable [even if you have a face that only a mother could love]... ...If you enter this world knowing you are loved and you leave this world knowing the same, then everything that happens inbetween can he dealt with..." Click here to read Michael's entire Oxford Union speech. Michael Jackson has proved to be the most popular guest in its 178-year history with more than 20'000 people [!!] applying to attend.  A major success for Michael who was entitled "King of Oxford" by people attending this extraordinary event!   [At Uri Geller's wedding] March 07, 2001:  Uri Geller renewed his vows to wife Hanna in a traditional Jewish ceremony. The wedding took place at the magician's mansion in the small town of Sonning, Berkshire, England. Michael Jackson attended the ceremony and acted as best man. A large tent had been set in the garden for the 130 guests. Wearing a white kipa, Michael sat at the chuppah, the Jewish wedding canopy, and followed the ceremony with great interest and curiosity, sporting a joyful smile. As best man, his duty was to hand Uri Geller the wedding ring. As soon as the ceremony ended, a musical band played traditional Jewish music. Michael enjoyed the music so much that he stood up and tried to move to it for a few seconds untill his broken foot became too painful. As the traditional ceremony was ending, close family members and special guests went to see Michael to thank him and hug him, a honoring gesture. In the evening, Michael Jackson appeared on stage at London's Hammersmith Apollo for Adrian Grant's 10th Annual Michael Jackson Day.  His scheduled appearance happened at the end of the evening's program, which consisted of tribute performances by artists such as Shola Ama, Damage and the London Community Gospel Choir.  [MJ Day 10] Michael Jackson was introduced on stage by Rabbi Shmuley Boteach. In front of 3'000 hectic fans, the King of Pop said: "Thank you all for coming here. I'm overjoyed and humbled by the incredible entertainment I have seen tonight. You're beautiful and I love you. I'm still working on the new album. Two more months... But it will be incredible, I can assure you. I love you all from the bottom of my heart, thank you." Proceeds from the evening went to Michael Jackson's "Heal The Kids" initiative, including money from an auction held at the beginning of the show where special Michael Jackson items were sold to the highest bidders, including a black hat, a birthday phone-call and Michael's jacket worn at the World Music Awards in May 2000. March 08, 2001:  Tonight, at 8 pm, Michael Jackson was planning on attending "Madame Melville", a theatre play with actor Macaulay Culkin. However, due to sudden shooting pains in his broken foot, he had to cancel his evening out. Earlier today, Michael Jackson had expressed his deep thanks to his fans for their amazing support in London.  March 09, 2001:  Friday morning, Michael Jackson left London. Another story finally put to rest. In the final chapter of a trial that started in 1995, Michael Jackson has been totally cleared of plagiarism allegations brought about by Italian songwriter Al Bano in 1992. The Rome appeals court has ruled that Michael Jackson was not guilty of plagiarism allegations and didn't steal a part of the melody of Al Bano's 1987 song "I Cigni Di Balaka'' in composing "Will You Be There".  In May 1999, a lower court in Rome found Michael Jackson guilty of plagiarism and ordered him to pay court costs. But Michael Jackson's lawyers appealed the decision. This week's ruling finally puts an end to this criminal trial.  In 1999, in a separate civil case inititated by Al Bano and involving the same song, a Milan court had also found Michael Jackson not guilty of copyright infringement.  [Hall of Fame induction] [Backstage] Great honor for Michael Jackson 10 days after his very successful London trip. On March 19, 2001 Michael Jackson was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist.  Michael, who broke his foot recently at his ranch, hobbled on stage after a tribute by boy band 'NSync. "As you can see, there's not going to be any moonwalking tonight," said Jackson.  In a short speech, Jackson thanked Motown founder Berry Gordy and Diana Ross, whom he called his "second mother". He also paid tribute to his parents for blessing him with his talent. "To me, the gift of music has been a great blessing, from the time I was a child," Jackson said.  Jackson's 1982 "Thriller" is the biggest selling album in history! Michael was already inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame along with the rest of the Jackson 5 in 1997.  Musicians become eligible for induction 25 years after the release of their first album. Madison Square Garden 7-10 2001 With the Jackson 5 and Britney spears Michael Jackson Won Artist of the Millinuom Award 2002 On April 16, 2001 news broke that Michael will perform live in New York! The King of Pop is celebrating his 30th anniversary as a solo artist with a regal concert. Among the celebrities slated to appear are Jill Scott, Whitney Houston, Britney Spears, 'NSync, Marc Anthony and Shaggy, said Cheri Fine, Jackson's spokeswoman.       The concert will also mark a reunion between Jackson and his brothers, the first time all of them have performed together since the 1980s. In a statement, Jackson, 42, said: "I am very excited to celebrate my 30th anniversary as a solo artist with such a distinguished array of talent, friends and fans. I look forward to performing live and reuniting with my brothers on this special night." It is anticipated that Jackson will duet with both Houston and Spears, as well as performing material from his long-awaited solo album, tentatively due for release later in the year. With the Jackson 5, it is anticipated the group will perform a medley of their greatest hits. The event will reunite Jackson and his brothers for the first time since the '80s, with the Jacksons teaming with 'NSync on at least one song, according to Jackson's publicists. According to a press release from Jackson's publicists, the show's lavish production will include a 300-member gospel choir, a 200-member children's choir, a 48-piece orchestra, 40 dancers and 12 background singers. The show will climax with "40 Pop, R&B and Country legends singing together" in tribute to Jackson, the press release said. The concert will be taped for broadcast on television, Fine [Jackson's publicist] said. On June 06, 2001 news hit the world that Michael has completed recording of new album! Twelve days later, on June 14, 2001 WKTU Radio in New York let the cat out of the bag when it announced the title of Michael's new album: "Invincible". One day before, June 13, 2001 producer David Gest confirms that "Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration, The Solo Years" is a go! The all-star salute to the King of Pop is confirmed for two concerts at Madison Square Garden, will feature more than 200 stars and take place in New York on September 7, 2001 and September 10, 2001. CBS announced they will broadcast the mega event in fall as a two-hour special on CBS. On June 15, 2001 Sony Music and Michael Jackson confirmed the final release date for "Invincible" for September 25, 2001, later it will be postponed to October 29, 2001. On June 19, 2001 news broke that Michael Jackson had chosen "You Rock My World" to be the first single to be released from the forthcoming album.   [With Jay-Z] [With Jay-Z] June 28, 2001 Jay-Z, the headliner at Thursday's "Hot 97 Summer Jam 2001", shocked the sold-out crowd at Long Island's Nassau Coliseum when he brought Michael Jackson onstage during a break in his performance. Although Michael didn't perform, just his presence was enough to elicit the loudest pop of the night from a crowd that had already seen performances by Ja Rule, Destiny's Child, R. Kelly, Ludacris, Eve, Nelly and Outkast. Jackson's only words to the crowd were "I love you all" before he exited the stage, but Jay-Z fans can expect to hear more from him. According to Roc-a-Fella Records, Jackson will make a guest appearance on Jay's next album, and although Jay attempted to return the favor, his contributions are not currently scheduled to appear on Jackson's long-awaited new LP. On July 11, 2001 it was announced that "You Rock My World", the King of Pop's first single off "Invincible" will not be commercially released in the U.S.A. On July 31, 2001 tickets went on sale for "Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration, The Solo Years" - and had virtually sold out the two concert dates set for Friday, September 7, 2001 and Monday, September 10, 2001 at Madison Square Garden in less than five hours, with ticket prices ranging from US$ 45.-- to US$ 2'500.--!! On August 01, 2001 Michael launched his official website with own domain, www.michaeljackson.com. On August 17, 2001 Michael's long-awaited first single off "Invincible", titled "You Rock My World" premi�red on the US radio station "Jammin 105.1". An unidentified source leaked the song to the radio without authorization from Sony Music or Michael Jackson. At the end of the month, on August 30, 2001 Michael Jackson, opened up the Nasdaq stock market. Shortly after he pushed the opening button, the singer, who celebrated his 43rd birthday on Wednesday, was presented with a huge birthday cake and a vintage poster of Shirley Temple. "I'm deeply moved at this very special moment for me," said Jackson. "Thank you David and Wick and Nasdaq. Thank you so much. I love you and all the fans. Thank you." Michael was also presented with an award by Nasdaq Chief Executive Hardwick Simmons.   [MTV Awards] [MTV Awards] Thursday, September 06, Michael Jackson made a surprise appearance at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York where the MTV Video Music Awards were being held. The King of Pop appeared on stage as part of 'NSync's performance of the song "Pop". Michael Jackson surprised the crowd with a short but dazzling dance number. His cameo made headlines all over the world and was considered by observers and critics as the highlight of the show. Michael Jackson played two amazing shows at Madison Square Garden on September 07 and 10. Read what New York Daily News' Sept. 8th edition had to say about the first show [Sept. 07]: His U.S. concert return packs Garden [By Isaac Guzman and Leo Standora] Michael Jackson took the stage at Madison Square Garden last night to show the world he still counts himself the King of Pop. Seeking to recapture the magic that put "Thriller" and "Bad" among the best-selling albums ever, he performed with a galaxy of stars in his first U.S. concert in 11 years. Reuniting with his brothers for a medley of hits recorded when they were the Jackson 5, and heating up the auditorium with a steamy version of "They Way You Make Me Feel" with a miniskirted Britney Spears, Jackson once again rocked his fans' world. When Jackson donned his trademark sequined jacket, single sequined glove and black fedora, then launched into an electric version of "Billie Jean", the crowd went ballistic. "He's still to it", announced one fan, as Jackson danced up a storm with his moonwalk, pop and lock, the robot and a series of eye-popping spins.     [30th Anniversary] The bash began at 08.40 p.m. - a full hour late - amid earsplitting cheers, applause and squeals of delight as Whitney Houston, Usher and Mya belted out "Wanna Be Starting Something" while 24 dancers in caveman outfits hotstepped it across the stage. The 43-year-old Jackson watched the opening number in a kind of off-stage royal reviewing box with his father, Joe Jackson; Elizabeth Taylor, draped in a purple boa, and actor Macauley Culkin. Boy band 'Nsync, icon Liza Minelli and Latin crooner Marc Anthony did their thing onstage for the lavish tribute to Jackson's 30 years as a solo artist. Among others who attended or performed were Jill Scott, Destiny's Child, Shaquille O'Neal, Chris Tucker and Gladys Knight. Nearly 1'000 fans waited on the steps of the post office across from the Garden when Michael's brothers - Jermaine, Jackie, Marlon and Tito, of the 70's-era Jackson 5 - arrived early for the show. The high point of the show came when Taylor brought Jackson onstage with his brothers. Going back to their moves and dance steps from the Jackson 5 days, the brothers stopped the show with a medley of hits including "I Want You Back", "ABC", "Rockin' Robin" and "I'll Be There". The concert ended at 12.25 a.m. with an ensemble rendition of "We Are The World". The second show will be taped for broadcast on CBS TV in November. On September 20, 2001 "You Rock My World" hit the US Billboard Charts at # 10 - a huge accomplishment for a single that is not available commercially and is based on airplay points alone. Some of America's biggest popstars, led by Michael Jackson, are to record a single - "What More Can I Give" - to raise money for the victims families and survivors of last week's terrorist attacks in New York, a press release stated on September 20, 2001. The list of participants so far includes Jackson [who will produce the track], Britney Spears, Destiny's Child, N Sync's Justin Timberlake and Backstreet Boy Nick Carter. "I believe in my heart that the music community will come together as one and rally to the aid of thousands of innocent victims," said Jackson. "There is a tremendous need for relief dollars right now and through this effort each one of us can play an immediate role in helping comfort so many people. We have demonstrated time and again that music can touch our souls. It is time we used that power to help us begin the process of healing immediately." Michael Jackson's statement to Rolling Stone magazine on last week's terrorist attacks in the US: "I'm not one to sit back and point the finger and say, 'Oh, I feel bad for what happened to them'. I want to do something, to give to help those who lost their parents, who lost their mothers and their fathers. Those are our people. Those are our children. Those are our parents. I want the whole world to sing [What More Can I Give], to bring us together as a world, because a song is a mantra, something you repeat over and over. And we need peace, we need giving, we need love, we need unity." On Friday, September 21, 2001 Michael Jackson's new, fantastic short film premi�red throughout the world [with the exception of the U.S.A.]. On September 26, 2001 the clip premi�red on TRL in the U.S.A. The short film, directed by Paul Hunter, is showing the "King of Video" in a new look. The story was written by both Michael Jackson and Paul Hunter. The video clip is starring Michael Jackson, Chris Tucker, Kishaya Dudley, Marlon Brando, Michael Madsen and Billy Drago. Responsible for the choreography of the simply amazing dance routines were Michael Jackson, Anthony "Tone" Talauega and Richmond Talauega.   [You Rock My World] On Monday, October 08, 2001 Michael Jackson's first single off "Invincible", titled "You Rock My World" hit the stores. Two days later, on October 10, 2001 www.cc.com confirmed that Michael will perform on Sunday, October 21, at RFK Stadium in Washington, DC at "United We Stand - What More Can I Give". A star-studded music spectacular to raise money in support of the recovery efforts from the September 11th attack on America.     [Cover of the re-releases] On Monday, October 15, 2001 all four re-issues ["Off The Wall", "Thriller", "Bad", "Dangerous"] containing previously unreleased material plus a new booklet with new photos, were officially released. ABC sealed a deal with event producer Clear Channel Entertainment to air the "United We Stand" special on November 01, 2001. On Sunday, October 21, 2001, Michael took over the stage again, performing "Man In The Mirror" and "What More Can I Give". "United We Stand: What More Can I Give?" raised about $ 2 million through the sale of more than 46'000 tickets. It was one of three benefit concerts over the weekend. Under a spray of red, white and blue confetti, Jackson - joined onstage by the other artists - sang his new song written for the attack victims, "What More Can I Give?". To the families of the victims, Jackson said, "You are not alone. You are in our hearts, in our thoughts and in our prayers." [United We Stand]   [Invincible Cover] On Monday, October 29, 2001, Michael Jackson's first studio album in six years, "Invincible" had officially been released [US release date: October 30]. The absolutely amazing album is available in five different colors [cover] - for a limited time - and features over 77 minutes of new, groundbreaking and truly invincible music! Without a shadow of a doubt the best album of the last six years!!! "Invincible", the most recent release from Epic Records Group superstar Michael Jackson, had claimed the #1 spot on charts in countries around the world including The U.S., The U.K., Australia, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, Hungary, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey. Mega event on November 08, 2001 at New York's Tme Square: Thousands of Jackson fans gathered in the streets surrounding the Virgin Megastore, where the King of Pop emerged on a small stage covered with red carpet. After greeting the crowd, Jackson signed autographs within the store for a select few, as he promotes current album and worldwide chart-topper "Invincible". On Monday, November 12, 2001 "Greatest Hits: HIStory Volume I" had been released [US release date: November 13].The disc feat. 15 remastered greatest hits and 72 minutes of music that made history. [Outside Virgin] [Album Signing] On November 14, 2001 again invincible news: In one of the most competitive nights so far this year on American television, the King of Pop proved invincible in preliminary ratings released this morning. "Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration" had trumbled the competition, including ABC's "NYPD Blue" - garnering an 18 percent share of the TV audience. Michael Jackson's 30th Anniversary concert special draw a record 25.7 million American viewers this Tuesday, November 13th, on CBS. On November 11, 2001 figures revealed: as of then, "Invincible" had sold an astonishing 4.4 million copies worldwide - in just 2 weeks!!! On December 03, 2001 "Cry", the second single release off "Invincible" had been commercially released. The release feat. the previously unreleased track "Shout". Sadly, it would prove to be the last single release off "Invincible". The single was not commercially released in the U.S.A., instead "Butterflies" should have been commercially released but it was canceled later. Good news followed two days later, on December 05, 2001 radio station KIIS-FM announced that the King of Pop will make a special appearance at "KIIS-FM's Jingle Ball", taking place on December 19, 2001 at Staples Center, Los Angeles. Also on that day, news broke that Michael will be Best Man at Liza Minnelli's and David Gest's wedding in March next year. Plus, also on December 05, 2001 the NAACP Image Awards announced six nominations for Michael Jackson's new album and the "30th Anniversary" for next year's NAACP Image Awards.   [Jingle Ball]   On December 21, 2001 Michael Jackson made a special appearance at "KIIS-FM's "Jingle Ball" in Los Angeles, receiving the "Lifetime Achievement Award". With the words "I love you very much" and "Merry Christmas" Michael left the stage. At the end of the year, on December 30, 2001 it was announced that Michael will attend the "American Music Awards" next year, and be awarded with the "Artist of the Century Award".   [At the AMA's] A great start into the new year for Michael Jackson: On January 10, 2002 the King of Pop made a special appearance at the "29th Annual American Music Awards" and was presented with the "Artist of the Century" Award. As Jackson took the stage to a standing ovation, he thanked a long list of people, including actor Marlon Brando - "my other father" - and then split. Acts who perform on the earlier show generally do not get invited to the more prestigious Grammy Awards in February, putting Jackson in a fix. He had initially backed out of the American Music Awards altogether, prompting show producer Dick Clark to file a $ 10 million lawsuit against Grammys boss Michael Greene for unfair competition. On January 17, 2002 it was announced that Michael's vocals are used on "It's Not Worth It" - a brandnew song off Brandy's new album titled "Full Moon", due in stores March 05, 2002. On February 09, 2002 Michael Jackson made a brief appearance alongside Elizabeth Taylor at the "Art for AIDS" fund-raiser held at Laguna Art Museum in Laguna Beach, California. At the beginning of the event commemorative t-shirts signed by various stars including Michael, Bob Dylan, Madonna, Ringo Starr, Sharon Stone, Halle Berry and others were auctioned. Michael's, which was signed twice, went for an amazing $ 700, well above the average. [At "Art for AIDS"] Michael and Elizabeth arrived late, to the strains of "Elizabeth, I Love You". Both stars appeared later briefly at a private $ 2'500 per plate dinner, also in support of the fund-raiser. On February 11, 2002 the "16th Annual Soul Train Music Awards" announced that Michael Jackson is nominated in the category Best R&B/Soul Album, Male for "Invincible". Great news two days later, on February 13, 2002 it was announced that Michael Jackson, Sting, Barry Manilow and Randy Newman are amongst the latest names to be inducted into the "Songwriters Hall of Fame". The songwriters will be honored during the "33rd Annual Songwriters Hall of Fame" induction ceremony and dinner in June, at Manhattan's Sheraton New York Hotel and Towers. A songwriter must have been a "professional" for over 20 years and penned a significant canon of music to be included in the coveted list. On February 23, 2002 Michael won three awards [out of six nominations] at the "33rd Annual NAACP Image Awards" which took place at the Universal Amphitheatre, Universal City, CA. Michael won for Best Variety Special: "Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration", Best Performance in a Variety Special: "Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration" and Best Music Video: "You Rock My World". However, Michael did not attend the ceremony. Three days later, on February 26, 2002 another public appearance: Michael Jackson's Neverland Entertainment invested $ 15 million - $ 20 million in Mark Damon's production and distribution company MDP Worldwide, making Michael and his new producing partner Raju Patel major shareholders in the company. Michael Jackson showed up along with longtime friend Elizabeth Taylor and "Rush Hour" helmer Brett Ratner to tout the deal. Until his arrival, it was not clear whether Michael Jackson would show up at the event, but suddenly he appeared from a nearby dining room and entered the dinner tent to a standing ovation, arm in arm with Elizabeth Taylor. After making it to their thronelike chairs onstage, Michael Jackson took to the microphone and explained his decision to invest in MDP and enter the independant film business. "I dream great dreams," Michael Jackson said. "Everything I've achieved started with a dream, and of all the dreams, this is the one I am most passionate about. The painter paints, the sculptor sculpts, but they just capture a glimpse of life - of the subject. And film, this medium, you live with the protagonist, you suffer with the protagonist, you laugh with the protagonist, you despair with the protagonist. It's the most artistic, influential medium of all. I am very proud of what we're doing, and I promise you wonderful and fantastical things to come." After his onstage appearance, the notoriously shy King of Pop elaborated in an interview about his plans for Neverland Pictures. He said he will be involved in all aspects of the company, such as reading scripts, plucking talent and directing. "I have a lot to express in film," Michael Jackson said, revealing that his favorite movie is "To Kill a Mockingbird." "I'll be doing the whole thing, behind and in front [of the camera]. I love it." [At Liza Minnelli's wedding] Mega wedding in New York: on March 16, 2002 Michael arrived with Elizabeth Taylor for Liza Minnelli's and David Gest's wedding. Elizabeth Taylor and actress Marisa Berenson stood as maids of honor and Jackson and his brother, Tito, childhood friends of Gest, were the best men. The ceremony, at the 147-year-old Marble Collegiate Church on New York's Fifth Avenue, was the first for Gest, 48, who orchestrated Michael Jackson's tribute concert at Madison Square Garden in September. For Liza Minnelli, it was her fourth time. Guests included Diana Ross, Patricia Neal, Luther Vandross, Lauren Bacall and Carol Channing. Others on the list of more than 200 invited guests included music icon Sir Elton John and Kiss frontman Gene Simmons, actors Michael Douglas, Kirk Douglas, Anthony Hopkins, composer Andrew Lloyd Webber, and property tycoon Donald Trump. On March 29, 2002 it was announced that Michael Jackson will make a special live performance at the "American Bandstand 50th Anniversary" TV special. The 2-hour special will commemorate the 50th anniversary of famous TV show American Bandstand. It will air on ABC on May 3rd. Shortly after, on April 11, 2002 another performance was announced: Michael's participation to the Democratic National Committee's "Every Vote Counts" event that will take place in New York City on April 24 at the Apollo Theatre in Harlem. On Saturday April 21, 2002 Michael Jackson performed "Dangerous" at the "American Bandstand 50th Anniversary" TV special in Pasadena, California. He did his "Dangerous" performance twice. The show will be aired on May 05th on the ABC network. On his way into the taping, Michael stopped to greet adoring fans who had gathered to support the King of Pop.   [At the Apollo Theatre] On April 24, 2002 Michael Jackson rocked the US Vote: Michael had given a rare performance to launch a campaign aimed at persuading United States citizens to register to vote. Jackson was greeted by an enthusiastic crowd at the Apollo Theatre in Harlem, New York, performing "Dangerous", "Black Or White" and "Heal The World". The iconic venue saw Jackson perform there in his youth, as well as Ella Fitzgerald, Billie Holiday and Stevie Wonder. The pop superstar shared the stage with former president Bill Clinton and singers Tony Bennett and kd lang at a concert that raised almost $ 3m for the Democratic National Committee. The money would be used for the new "Every Vote Counts" campaign, the committee said. The 1'400 audience members paid up to $ 5'000 each to see the array of stars, which also included comedian Chris Tucker and actress Cicely Tyson. Mr Clinton introduced Jackson as "one of the most remarkable performers in American history" - but he did not accompany him on the saxophone, as some had hoped. Shortly after news changed: Michael breaks his silence in his feud with Sony's boss Mottola about the lack of promotion for this new album "Invincible" - read below a report published in The Mirror: Michael Jackson and his record company boss Tommy Mottola are at war over the music legend's fading career. The self-styled King of Pop has sold more than 120 million albums in a 24-year solo career with the giant Sony corporation but in an astonishing attack, Jackson, 42, accused the company's chief Tommy Mottola of: SABOTAGING his career by refusing to release any singles from his latest album "Invincible", which would have helped world-wide sales of the struggling record, FAILING to advertise and promote the album during a record-breaking US television special about the superstar and WRECKING possible plans to sign a lucrative record contract with another label. Troubled Jackson has told close friends that he is disgusted with the treatment he has received. A pal said: "Michael wants out of Sony, and he believes that some of the highest people in that company are hoping to make him pay the price for his disloyalty. The company has have stopped all promotion on the "Invincible" album, prevented him from releasing singles and basically sabotaged his career. Jackson is furious at Mottola and any working relationship they had is now over. They are the two most powerful men in music going head to head in an all out war." Poor sales of "Invincible", the star's seventh for Sony-owned Epic Records, has sparked the bitter row which has been kept a secret until now. Michael believes the feud has been triggered by his shrewd business ventures which will entitle him to 50 per cent of Sony's revenue even if he leaves the record label. In 1995 Jackson merged his music publishing catalogue, which contains more than 1'000 songs including 251 Beatles titles, with Sony's publishing catalogue. Sony and Jackson share the cash in a 50-50 split of the catalogue earnings, which DOESN'T include his own albums. Jackson fulfiled his contractual obligation to Sony by releasing "Invincible" - and a future greatest hits album - and wants to leave the company while still making a huge profit from them. The source said: "Tommy Mottola is angered by all this to say the least. Michael believes that Tommy wants to make sure that all the time and money invested over the three-year "Invincible" project will be lost. Michael sees it as a punishment for him outsmarting the corporate minds of a record company that is already in financial difficulty." He staged two Jackson Five reunion concerts at New York's Madison Square Garden to mark his comeback. Both concerts sold out in FIVE hours grossing more than $ 12 million. The shows were then televised by CBS last November netting a record-breaking 26 million viewers - the most watched TV speciality programme in that network's history. But sources claim that despite requests from the star his record company failed to place a television advert publicising his new album during the broadcast. The insider said: "It was crazy. It was the perfect platform to sell the album to a massive TV audience. Sony claimed CBS had no airspace for the advert. Jackson again put in the request for a repeat airing of the show in January but they said there was no air space - this is bizarre when the show on TV is a Michael Jackson concert." Then Jackson recorded an all-star tribute to the Victims of September 11 which included stars such as Ricky Martin, Destiny's Child, Shakira, Celine Dion and Gloria Estefan. But despite the commercial power of such a line up Sony did not release the song, much to Jackson's bewilderment. The source added: "This song was to raise money for charity and there's no doubt that it had so many stars involved that it could have been a success. " Jackson offered to create a Sony Playstation game which would have attracted considerable interest. "He also offered to participate in film ventures for Sony Pictures for no fee as a part of his own promotional effort." Neither offer was accepted, said the source. Jackson's sudden loss of popularity has baffled the music industry and fans alike. His last major album, "HIStory", released in 1995, was the biggest selling double album of all time. He toured and sold out arenas around the world including the RDS in Dublin and Wembley Stadium for three nights. Then in 1997 he released "Blood On The Dance Floor" as a remix album. Despite critics in the media branding it a failure, it was the biggest selling re-mix album of all time. Yet by the end of March Sony had deleted "Invincible" from their international priority list of projects. As a comparison, his last album "HIStory" didn't cease to be an international priority until more than TWO years after its release. A source said: "Even if Michael walks out of Sony today he gets half the revenue that many of their artists are bringing in. That's a bitter pull to swallow for bosses at the company who probably feel that Michael has outwitted them. In retaliation they are making it as difficult as possible for Michael to be appealing to any record company. Poor album sales, a lack of promotion and the frustration this will cause amongst fans will really hinder Michael's ambitions. Lots of the fans have started to think that Michael is not interested in music any more and has given up. But this couldn't be further from the truth. Even when he launched "Invincible" late last year he was working around the clock to make it a success. He even staged a record signing in New York where thousands of fans got to meet him - he had never done that before. What has happened can not be put down to simple indifference. Only five years ago Michael was still on top of the pop world and selling millions of records. He is still regarded by people in the music industry as the most talented and gifted artist in the world. Record companies would still fall over themselves to sign him up and he has already received a number of high profile offers It's only a matter of time before Michael signs up with a new company and he's determined to overcome this problem. Despite the rumours that have been created around him he is still determined to keep a high profile in the music business. Michael believes he is still a big player in the music business and all the facts to date would still suggest that. But because the album has dropped away so quickly many are presuming that Jackson has lost the old magic. It just doesn't make sense that his new album has disappeared without trace."   [In London] On June 15, 2002 Michael made his first appearance regarding the Sony affair at a demonstration against Sony in London, U.K. The unprecedented event took place in front of the European offices of Sony Music, in Great Marlborough Street, central London. Michael Jackson made a surprise appearance at the demonstration, standing on the top deck of an open-top sightseeing bus. Later that day, he appeared at the party of U.K. based fanclub, "MJNI" where he openly talked about Sony. Read below what Michael had the say: "I want to thank all the great, incredible talents. As long as you play the music, I want to dance! [referring to Ernest Valentino] I want to thank this guy for a wonderful performance. I thought Bryton McClure was amazing, too. He's a great singer as well. Anyway, I first wanted to say, I really don't like to talk that much. I really don't. I prefer performing than talking. I really want you to know what I say. The tradition of great performers: from Sammy Davis Junior, James Brown, to Jackie Wilson, to Fred Astaire, Gene Kelly. The story is usually the same, though. These guys worked really hard, and they're crabbed, for the story ends the same. They are usually broken, torn and usually just sad, because the companies take advantage of them, they really do. And being the artist that I am, at Sony I've generated several billion dollars for Sony, several billion. They really thought that my mind is always on music and dancing. It usually is, but they never thought that this performer -myself- would out think them. So, we can't let them get away with what they're trying to do, because now I'm a free agent. I just owe Sony one more album. It's just a box set, really, with two new songs which I've written ages ago. Because for every album that I record, I write -literally, I'm telling you the truth- I write at least 120 songs every album I do. So I can do the box set, just giving them any two songs. So I'm leaving Sony, a free agent, owning half of Sony. I own half of Sony's Publishing. I'm leaving them, and they're very angry at me, because I just did good business, you know. So the way they get revenge is to try and destroy my album. But I've always said, you know, art -good art- never dies. And Tommy Mottola is a devil! I'm not supposed to say what I'm going to say right now, but I have to let you know this. [Points to crowd.] Please don't videotape what I am going to say, ok? Turn it off, please. [Pausing, then changing his mind] Do it, do it, I don't mind! Tape it! Mariah Carey, after divorcing Tommy, came to me crying. Crying. She was crying so badly I had to hold her. She said to me, 'This is an evil man, and Michael, this man follows me'. He taps her phones, and he's very, very evil. She doesn't trust him. We have to continue our drive until he is terminated. We can't allow him to do this to great artists, we just can't. I just wanted to let you know, I appreciate everything you've done, you've been amazing. "You're so loyal! [Scanning the audience]. Diana, everybody, Waldo, all the people here! I love you all. You've been amazing, I love you! But still, but still, I promise you, the best is yet to come!" On July 03, 2002 "MIIB - Men In Black II" premi�red in the movie theatres and surprised its viewers with a cameo appearance by Michael Jackson as "Agent M". Both critics and the public praised Michael's performance.   [In New York] Three days later, on July 06, 2002 Michael Jackson protested with some 150 people in front of Sony Music Headquarters in New York. Earlier that day, in front of a crowd of 350 people inside Sharpton's National Action Network headquarters in Harlem, Jackson said of Mottola: "He's a racist, and he's very, very, very devilish." Following the demonstration, Jackson attended a fan event where he was awarded with the "30th Anniversary Fan Award". Music artists, producers and executives, including Michael Jackson, demanded Tuesday [July 09] better treatment for blacks from major record companies. Jackson addressed panelists at the Rev. Al Sharpton's National Action Network headquarters in Harlem, but ducked into a stretch limousine before he could be asked about his attack on Tommy Mottola, head of Sony Music Entertainment. It's official: On August 23, 2002 People Magazine reported that Michael became daddy again!! People magazine reported that the "King of Pop" has a 6-month-old boy, whom he calls Prince Michael II. The identity of Prince Michael's II mother was kept a secret. On August 29, 2002 news broke that Michael is singing back-up on Monica's new album [same titled first single] "All Eyez On Me". Also on August 29, 2002, Michael's birthday, the King of Pop was named the "Artist Of The Millennium," on MTV's Video Music Awards in New York City. The award was presented to him by Britney Spears. "When I was a little boy growing up in Indiana if someone told me I'd be getting the artist of the millennium award, I'd never believed it," Jackson said from the stage. [MTV Awards]   [In Las Vegas] On September 08, 2002 Michael Jackson recorded a video message to the German people to express his concern and condolences following the devasting floods that have afflicted the country. Michael's message was as follows: "To the people of Germany, I send my deepest concern, my deepest and most heart-felt condolences. You are NOT alone. I am here in spirit with you and you are in my prayers. Remember God is with you, and have faith in the fact that this too shall pass. All my love and caring, I love you forever. Thank you." Michael invited one German family with four children to Las Vegas to meet him and spend the weekend with him. The family is one of the many victims that lost everything in the floods. And even more, he donated some items, personally signed in Las Vegas, to be auctioned in support of the victims. [World Art Award] On November 02, 2002 Michael was awarded with the "World Art Award" by Michael Gorbatshov. However he did not personally attend the event.     Michaels video-taped message: "Dear guest of honor, dear Mr. Gorbatshov. It is a great honor for me to be selected by Mr. Gorbatshov and the jury to receive the World Arts Award 2002. This year the motto of the World Awards, peace and tolerance; these values are especially dear to me. In my own heart and mind I stand united with you for peace, love and tolerance for the world. I would like to thank Mr. Guenter Stampf, Mr. Georg Kindel and I thank President Michel Gorbatshov. I love you very much. Thank you so much. Thank you." [In court] [In court] On November 13, 2002 Michael took the witness stand in Santa Maria, California, in a $ 21 million lawsuit by his longtime promoter that accuses the singer of backing out of two millennium concerts. The German-based promoter alleges he was left with hundreds of thousands of dollars in expenses after Jackson dropped out of the performances, which were to take place Dec. 31, 1999, on both sides of the international date line in Honolulu and Sydney, Australia. About 100 cheering fans greeted the performer outside Santa Barbara County Superior Court. Some held signs reading "Free Michael." About 30 people watched inside the courtroom after winning a lottery for seats. Jackson's attorney, Zia Modabber, said in his opening remarks Tuesday that it was Avram who postponed the concerts when he met with Jackson's representatives in October 1999. Modabber said Avram, who had agreed to pay Jackson $ 15 million, realized the shows would not be as profitable as he had hoped. [Arrival for the court] On November 14, 2002 Michael appeared for the second time in court. At one point, Miller questioned Jackson's contention that he had worked toward the concerts by practicing dance moves and making plans to include magic in the act. "Magic?," Miller said. "Yes, magic, as in abracadabra," Jackson answered, drawing appreciative laughs from spectators. [In court] On day later, on November 15, 2002 Michael took the witness stand in Santa Maria, California for the third time. Jackson maintains that it was Avram, not he, who canceled the shows over concerns they would not be profitable. In testimony Friday, Jackson said he could not recall numerous meetings and discussions about the shows. On November 21, 2002 Michael received the "Pop Artist Of The Millennium" award at the "Annual Bambi Awards" in Berlin, Germany. Thank you...Thank you...Thank you very much. [towards Boris Becker] How are you? [Becker: I'm well]. [Bambi Awards] Thank you so much for the nice words. Oh boy. [Michael takes reading glasses out of his pocket] I'm sorry, I have to wear these reading glasses. Oh Jesus...here we go. Dear Dr. Burda, dear Dr. Turnhofer, ladies and gentlemen. I have wonderful memories of my visits to Germany. Coming back to Berlin...Berlin, a city so full of energy - it's very special to me. Berlin, ich liebe dich! [German for: Berlin, I love you!] September 11 has changed our world. Not long ago the Berlin wall came down. But recently new walls have been built. In 1989, people in Germany said: "Wir sind ein Volk." [German for: We are one nation.] We are Germans. We are Armenians. French, Italian, Russian, American, Asian, African... many other nationalities. We are Christians, Jewish, Muslim and Hindu. We are black, we are white. We are a community of some many differences, so complex and yet so simple. We do not need to have war!!! And to the children of Germany I want to say this: We need you! The world needs you! Please go for your dreams. Whatever your ideals...you can become whatever you want to become. Become an astronaut or famous scientist, famous doctors. And of course become an artist...[he grins] ... and maybe you get a Bambi award like me. I want you to know that I love Germany and that you have a very special place in my heart. I love you so much ... really! Always appreciate the gift of life. Be happy and have fun. I love you."   [In court] Back in the U.S.A., on December 04 and 05, 2002 Michael appeared for the fourth and fifth time in court. Michael was again greeted by hundreds of fans outside the courtroom. Five days later, on December 09, 2002 the "Annual Billboard Awards" awarded Michael with a special Billboard award for his 1982 album "Thriller" [Epic], which spent more weeks at No. 1 [37] than any other. Actor/comedian Chris Tucker was on hand at Michael Jackson's Neverland Ranch to present the King of Pop with his award. "I'm very honored, very happy," Jackson said. "I thank my fans around the world. I couldn't be me without you." On January 10, 2003 the L.A. Times reported that Sony boss Mottola is out!! Sony's Japanese brass informed Tommy Mottola that the company was unwilling to renew the extraordinarily lucrative financial provisions in his contract when it ran out in August 2004, those sources said. On January 15, 2003 Michael attended Bee Gee Maurice Gibb's funeral in Miami Beach. Gibb's private funeral was held at Riverside Funeral Chapel at noon. Five days later, on January 20, 2003, a mega announcement: Michael Jackson is to be the subject of a fly-on-the-wall documentary after Martin Bashir was granted permission to follow the singer for eight months. Granada say Bashir was given "unprecedented and exclusive access" to Jackson for the 90-minute profile, which will be shown on ITV1 on Feb. 03, 2003 as a Tonight with Trevor McDonald special. Bashir's previous high profile subjects have included Princess Diana and Michael Barrymore Tonight editor, James Goldston, said: "The film is an extraordinary insight into the life of one of the most famous and controversial figures in the world. "We have been filming with Michael Jackson throughout one of the most turbulent periods in his life. The results are utterly compelling - viewers will not believe what they are seeing." [Living With M.J.] [Living With M.J.] On February 03, 2003 "Living With Michael Jackson" aired on U.K.'s ITV1. The interview will air later all around the world... and a storm began. Michael spoke openly about money, plastic surgery, his childhood, Prince Michael II and much more. But instead of portraying Michael in a fair way, Bashir tried all he could to twist things in the wrong way. However, most of the viewers did not fall for Bashir... after the interview viewers all around the world expressed their support for Michael. Three days later, on February 06, 2003 Michael released a press statement: "Today I feel more betrayed than perhaps ever before, that someone who had got to know my children, my staff and me, whom I let into my heart and told the truth, could then sacrifice the trust I placed in him and produce this terrible and unfair program," Jackson said in a statement released in London. "Everyone who knows me will know the truth, which is that my children come first in my life and that I would never harm any child." Debbie Rowe, Michael's ex-wife and mother of two of his children, was quoted as supporting him. "It breaks my heart that anyone could truly believe that Michael would do anything to harm or endanger our children: they are the most important thing in his life," she said, according to the statement, released by a London public relations firm. Figures released Wednesday showed a television documentary on Jackson attracted 10 times as many viewers as an exclusive interview with the Iraqi leader -- despite the threat of imminent war. The controversial interview, conducted by Labor politician Tony Benn and broadcast Tuesday, boosted the audience figures for Channel 4 news by 500'000 to 1.5 million, a spokesman for the program said. But while ratings for the interview peaked at 1.7 million, the Jackson show broadcast on rival channel ITV Monday drew an audience of 15 million. In the U.S.A. the interview attracted nearly 27 million viewers on ABC. Michael strikes back!!! On February 20, 2003 Fox aired outtakes from the controversial interview with Martin Bashir titled "Michael Jackson, Take Two: The Interview They Wouldn't Show You." The outtakes, coming from Michael's private camera man, will later be shown all around the world and showing closely how things really were and how much Martin Bashir commented Michael on his abilities as a father, Neverland etc... opposite to what was shown during his interview. "The film shows extraordinary scenes of Martin Bashir praising the way Michael treats children and commenting on how good a father he is," a statement said. "The Jackson footage clearly shows that Bashir was actually continuing to praise Michael's abilities as a father and [shows] Bashir making statements about how he feels it is a pity that the world is so quick to criticize Michael." "On the face of it, either Martin Bashir was lying to Michael or was misleading his audience on the voiceovers on the film," a statement said, adding that Bashir had been aware he was being filmed during his interviews. On February 28, 2003 Michael Jackson won an early skirmish Friday in his legal fight to ban a British television company screening unseen footage from a controversial behind-the-scenes documentary about him. The American singer had asked the High Court in London to grant an injunction preventing Granada Media Group showing any more footage from its hugely popular "Living with Michael Jackson" show but lawyers for both parties said they had managed to reach a private agreement. Granada's lawyer, Geoffrey Hobbs, told the court that his client had agreed not to exploit copies of the program or any out-takes until a full hearing of the case after March 31. On March 14, 2003 the Superior Court jury in Santa Maria decided in the case Avram vs. Jackson: Entertainer Michael Jackson reneged on a contract with Marcel Avram and will have to pay the concert promoter $ 5.3 million for failing to perform at two millennium concerts. Both sides claimed victory following announcement of the jury's verdict, which came after a week of deliberations. Jackson's attorneys said the $ 5.3 million ruling was a success considering the amount that Avram sought in the lawsuit. "Facing the realities as they are, it was a victory," said Zia Modabber. Steve Cochran, Jackson's lead attorney, would not discuss his client's financial status, but did call the ruling a "financial success." "Mr. Avram wanted to take off [Jackson's] head for $ 34 million," he said. "It was in his interest to fight."

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Michael Jackson Biography - life, family, childhood, children, story, history, mother, young, son, book Michael Jackson Biography Gary, Indiana African American entertainer, singer, and songwriter Aperformer since the age of five, Michael Jackson is one of the most popular singers in history. His 1983 album, Thriller, sold forty million copies, making it the biggest seller of all time. Through his record albums and music videos he created an image imitated by his millions of fans. Career planned in advance Michael Joe Jackson was born in Gary, Indiana, on August 29, 1958, the fifth of Joe and Katherine Jackson's nine children. The house was always filled with music. Jackson's mother taught the children folk and religious songs, to which they sang along. Jackson's father, who worked at a steel plant, had always dreamed of becoming a successful musician. When this failed to happen, he decided to do whatever it took to make successes of his children. He tried to control his children's careers even after they were adults. The struggle for the control of the musical fortunes of the Jackson family was a constant source of conflict. The Jackson boys soon formed a family band that became a success at amateur shows and talent contests throughout the Midwest. From the age of five Michael's amazing talent showed itself. His dancing and stage presence caused him to become the focus of the group. His older brother, Jackie, told Gerri Hershey in Rolling Stone, "It was sort of frightening. He was so young. I don't know where he got it. He just knew. " Discovered by Motown The Jacksons' fame and popularity soon began to spread. While performing at the Apollo Theater in New York City's Harlem neighborhood in 1968, Motown recording artist Gladys Knight (1944–) and pianist Billy Taylor discovered them. Later that year singer Diana Ross (1944–) became associated with the boys during a "Soul Weekend" in Gary. With Ross's support, the Jacksons signed a contract with Motown Records. Berry Gordy (1929–), the famous head of Motown, took control of the Jacksons' careers. By 1970 the group, known as the Jackson Five, was topping the charts and riding a wave of popularity with such hits as "ABC," "The Love You Save," and "I'll Be There," each of which sold over one million copies. The group also appeared on several televised specials, and a Jackson Five cartoon series was created. Gordy quickly recognized Michael's appeal and released albums featuring him alone. These solo albums sold as well as those of the Jackson Five. The group managed to survive Michael's voice change and a bitter break with Motown Records in 1976, but as the Jackson family they continued to fight with each other and with their own father. In 1978 Michael Jackson appeared in The Wiz, an African American version of The Wizard of Oz. He sang the only hit from the film's soundtrack album ("Ease On Down the Road") in a duet with the star, Diana Ross. His success as the Scarecrow was a preview of what was to come in his videos, for Jackson seemed to care Michael Jackson. Getty Images . most about dancing. (He later dedicated his autobiography [the story of his one's own life] to dance legend Fred Astaire [1899–1987], and the autobiography's title, Moonwalk, refers to a dance that Jackson made popular.) Unbelievable success While working on The Wiz, Jackson met producer Quincy Jones (1933–). They worked together on Jackson's 1979 album Off the Wall, which sold ten million copies and earned critical praise. In 1982 Jackson and Jones again joined forces on the Thriller album. Thriller fully established Jackson as a solo performer, and his hit songs from the album—"Beat It," "Billie Jean," and "Thriller"—made him the major pop star of the early 1980s. The success of Thriller (with forty million copies sold, it remains one of the best-selling albums of all time) and the videos of its songs also helped Jackson break the color barrier imposed by radio stations and the powerful music video channel MTV. By 1983 Jackson was the single most popular entertainer in America. In 1985 Jackson reunited with Quincy Jones for USA for Africa's "We Are the World," which raised funds for the poor in Africa. Jackson's next two albums, Bad (1987) and Dangerous (1991), were not as hugely successful as Thriller, but Jackson remained in the spotlight throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s. In 1992 he founded "Heal the World" to aid children and the environment. In 1993 he was presented with the "Living Legend Award" at the Grammy Awards ceremony and with the Humanitarian (one who promotes human welfare) of the Year trophy at the Soul Train awards. Rocked by scandal Despite Jackson's popularity and good works, he became the subject of a major scandal (action that damages one's reputation). In 1993 a thirteen-year-old boy accused Jackson of sexually abusing him at the star's home. Jackson settled the case out of court while insisting he was innocent. The scandal cost Jackson his endorsement (paid public support of a company's products) contract with Pepsi and a film deal. His sexual preference was called into question, and his public image was severely damaged. In 1995 Jackson was criticized following the release of his new album HIStory: Past, Present, and Future, Book I. One of the songs on the album, "They Don't Care About Us," seemed to contain anti-Semitic (showing hatred toward Jewish people) lyrics (words). To avoid further criticism, Jackson changed the lyrics. He also wrote a letter of apology to Rabbi Marvin Hier, head of the Simon Wiesenthal Center for Holocaust Studies, who had protested the lyrics. Marriage and fatherhood In 1994 Jackson shocked the world when he married Lisa Marie Presley, daughter of the late (deceased) rock legend Elvis Presley (1935–1977). Many felt that the marriage was an attempt to improve his public image. In August 1996 Jackson and Presley divorced. In November 1996 Jackson announced that he was to be a father. The child's mother was Debbie Rowe, a long-time friend of Jackson. They married later that month in Sydney, Australia. On February 13, 1997, their son, Prince Michael Jackson, Jr., was born in Los Angeles, California. The couple's second child, daughter Paris Michael Katherine Jackson, was born in 1998. Rowe filed for divorce from Jackson in October 1999. Jackson and his brothers were elected to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1997. Later that year another album, Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix, containing new versions of songs from HIStory along with five new songs, was released. The album received good reviews, and the world continued to be fascinated by the talent and career of Michael Jackson. In 2000 Jackson's promoter sued him for $21.2 million for backing out of two planned concerts the previous New Year's Eve. In 2001 Jackson, while delivering a lecture at Oxford University in England to promote his Heal the Kids charity, described his unhappy childhood and proposed a "bill of rights" for children that would provide for the right to an education "without having to dodge bullets." Later that year Jackson was again elected to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, this time as a solo performer. Jackson also released a new album, Invincible, in October 2001. For More Information

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Michael Jackson Best Tribute Ever - YouTube Michael Jackson Best Tribute Ever Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Apr 19, 2013 ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ BIOGRAPHY on Michael Jackson The Bio History of Michael Joseph Jackson began when he was born on the 29th of August 1958 in Gary, Indiana. He was the 7th of nine children. (brothers: Sigmund "Jackie", Toriano "Tito", Jermaine, Marlon, Steven "Randy", and sisters Rebbie, Janet and La-Toya Jackson.. In 1977 Michael made his first film debut when he starred in the musical 'The Wiz' playing Scarecrow with Diana Ross in the lead role of Dorothy. It was at this time Michael met Quincy Jones who was doing the score for the film. Michael teamed up with Quincey Jones as his producer for his first solo album with Epic Records. The album titled "Off The Wall" was a big success around the world and the first ever album to release a record breaking 4 No1 singles in the US. In 1982 Michael Jackson released the world's largest selling album of all time, 'Thriller'. This album produced 7 hit singles, breaking yet again more records, and went on to sell over 50 million copies worldwide. Michael was keen to use music video or short films as he called them to promote his singles from the album. He worked with the best directors and producers, using the latest technology and special effects for the hit song 'Billie Jean' The short film 'Thriller' used the latest make-up artists technolgy combined with fantastic dancing and cherography, to produce a 14 minute video, with a start, a middle and an ending. So successful was this video that 'The Making Of Michael Jackson's Thriller' became the world's largest selling home video combined with soaring album sales. In 1983 Michael performed the now legendary moonwalk for the first time on the 'Motown 25 years' anniversary show. This performance alone set Michael undoubtable into the realm of a superstar. In 1984 Michael won a record breaking 8 Grammy awards in one night. The awards were for his work on the 'Thriller' album and his work on the narrative for the 'ET Storybook'. On December 9th 1984 at the last concert of the Jackson's Victory Tour, Michael announced he was splitting from the group and going solo. In 1987 Michael released his much awaited third solo album, titled 'Bad', and lauched his record breaking first solo world tour. 1988, Michael wrote his first autobiography, Moonwalk, talking for the first time on his childhood and his career. At the end of the 1980s Michael was named 'Artist Of The Decade' for his success off of his 'Thriller' and 'Bad' albums. 1995 saw Michael release a fifth solo album, 'HIStory', which was a double album, first half new material and second half half greatest hits. Michael toured again over a legs covering a 2 year period. In between legs of the tour on November 14th 1996, Michael married for his second time to Debbie Rowe who was a nurse that Michael had met in the treatment of his skin pigment disorder. Together they had their first child Prince Michael Joseph Jackson jr born on February 13 1997 and a daughter Paris Michael Katherine Jackson born on April 3rd 1998. In 1997 Michael released the remix album 'Blood On The Dance Floor' which also contained 5 new song linked with a 38min film "Ghosts". This film Michael played 5 roles using the latest special effects and make-up artistry, combined with his dance and music. In September, 2001 Michael celebrated his 30th anniversary as a solo artist with two concerts to be held in New York, USA. Many artists such as Whitney Houston, Usher, Destinys Child, Shaggy and many more performed there own and Michael Jacksons past songs. Michael then reunited with all of his brothers and performed there biggest hits. Michael then went onto perform solo some of his biggest hits. In October 2001 Michael released the album 'Invincible' releasing only 2 singles including the big hit "You Rock My World". Shortly after the albums release there were rumours of a rift with Sony Music and a clear lack of promotion of the album. The second single "Cry" was released with a very poor music video which did not feature Michael and no other singles were released. In November 2003 a new single "One More Chance" was released as a single and was also a track on new compilaition album "Number Ones". In March 2009, Michael annouced a shock comeback tour at the O2 Arena in London to start in July 2009, intially for 10 dates but the total grew to a sold out 50 dates with over 750,000 tickets sold. All sold tickets sold out within minutes of being released. On June 25th 2009 Michael Jackson died suddenly of a reported cardiac arrest. He was 50 years old. Source:

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12 Thrilling Facts About Michael Jackson's 'Thriller' - Rolling Stone By Gavin Edwards October 29, 2013 Michael Jackson's video for "Thriller" was released nearly 30 years ago, on December 2nd, 1983. Director John Landis (The Blues Brothers, An American Werewolf in London) extended the track — the seventh and final single released from the Thriller album — into a nearly 14-minute-long musical horror film, letting Michael indulge his monster-movie fantasies. It got saturation play on MTV and has been seen more than 149 million times on YouTube. Just in time for Halloween, here's 12 things you might not have realized the first time, or the 200th time, you watched it: More News All Stories 1. All "Thriller," Some Filler The video cost half-a-million dollars; at the time, it was the most expensive video ever made. But CBS Records wouldn't pay for a third video from Thriller, and MTV had a policy of never paying for clips. Jackson and Landis funded their budget by getting MTV and Showtime to pay $250,000 each for the rights to show the 45-minute The Making of "Thriller." (MTV reasoned that if they were paying for a movie, they were circumventing their own policy.) Landis nicknamed the stretched-out documentary The Making of Filler. Courtesy of Sony/Legacy 2. Before songwriter Rod Temperton came up with "Thriller," Michael Jackson's working title for the album was Starlight. Temperton, a British native formerly of the funk band Heatwave, also wrote "Baby Be Mine" and "The Lady in My Life" for Thriller (and earlier, had penned "Rock with You" and "Off the Wall" for Jackson). Courtesy of Sony/Legacy 3. Michael Jackson's faith seeped in. The opening title card ("Due to my strong personal convictions, I wish to stress that this film in no way endorses a belief in the occult") was inserted due to Jackson's Jehovah's Witness faith. Another manifestation of his piety, according to producer Quincy Jones : During the recording of Thriller, in a studio in the Westlake district of Los Angeles, "a healthy California girl walked by the front window of the studio, which was a one-way mirror facing the street, and pulled her dress up over her head. She was wearing absolutely nothing underneath." Jones stared, as did Temperton — but Jackson hid behind the mixing console so he couldn't catch a peek. Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images 4. "Thriller" is a coming-of-age story. "In adolescence, youngsters begin to grow hair in unexpected places and parts of their anatomy swell and grow," director John Landis explained, regading the role of  the werewolf metaphor in cinematic history . "Everyone experiences these physical transformations in their bodies and new, unfamiliar, sexual thoughts in their minds. No wonder we readily accept the concept of a literal metamorphosis." In other words, undergoing a lycanthropic transformation was a safe way for Michael Jackson to experiment with puberty. Dave Hogan/Hulton Archive/Getty Images 5. "Thriller" had a Playmate. Jackson's "Thriller" costar, former Playboy Playmate Ola Ray, also appeared on Cheers and in Beverly Hills Cop II, but her only other notable music video was "Give Me the Night" by George Benson (a single also written by Rod Temperton and produced by Quincy Jones!), on a date with Benson that involves hot dogs and champagne. That video's biggest special effect: Benson playing guitar on rollerskates. 6. Fred Astaire could've been a "Thriller" extra. Hollywood legend Fred Astaire, a fan of Jackson's dancing (Jackson personally taught him to moonwalk), attended a "Thriller" rehearsal. Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, who edited Jackson's Moonwalk autobiography , logged some serious hours: When they were filming at 3 A.M. in a bad neighborhood in east Los Angeles, she was hanging out in Jackson's Winnebago.  Fred Sabine/NBCU Photo Bank 7. The "Thiller" choreographer was a "Beat It" gang member. Choreographer Michael Peters also did the epic dance sequences in Pat Benatar's "Love Is a Battlefield" and in Jackson's "Beat It" video (where he played one of the gang leaders — the one dressed in white, with sunglasses and a mustache). He won a Tony for his work on Dreamgirls and died of AIDS in 1994, at just 46 years old. 8. The appeal of zombie-dancing is global. The largest number of people doing the "Thriller" zombie-dance routine, according to the Guinness Book of World Records: "13,597 participants in an event organised by the Instituto de la Juventud del Gobierno del Distrito Federal at the Monumento a la Revolucion, Mexico City, Mexico, on 29 Aug 2009." 9. There should not be business classes based on "Thriller." John Landis on the motivations behind making "Thriller" and its huge financial impact: "The reality is, it was a vanity video. Everything that happened on 'Thriller' happened because Michael wanted to turn into a monster. None of it was planned. I want to make that clear, because there was a course taught at the Harvard Business School on 'Thriller,' and it was complete bullshit." Courtesy of Sony/Legacy 10. "Thriller" may have the ability to possess you. As a nine-year-old child, Cee Lo Green was so scared of "Thriller," he would flee the room whenever the video came on TV: "If he could be possessed, then I damn sure could be possessed, because Michael was so much stronger than I." Art Streiber/NBC/NBCU Photo Bank via Getty Images 11. The video looks great even when it's rendered in Lego. 12. Vincent Price's "lost rap" is fantastic. When horror-movie legend Vincent Price (House of Wax, Edward Scissorhands) recorded his spoken word, he did a whole verse that got cut: "The demons squeal in sheer delight / It's you they spy, so plump, so right / For though the groove is hard to beat / Yet still you stand with frozen feet / You try to run, you try to scream / But no more sun you'll ever see / For evil reaches from the crypt / To crush you in its icy grip."

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MICHAEL JACKSON 2003�2006: Trial, acquittal and the aftermath   In November 2003, Michael Jackson and Sony Records released a compilation of his number-one hits on CD and DVD titled Number Ones. The compilation has sold over six million copies worldwide. On the album's scheduled release date, while Michael Jackson was in Las Vegas filming the video for "One More Chance" (the only new song included in the Number Ones compilation), the Santa Barbara Sheriff's Department searched the Neverland Ranch and issued an arrest warrant for Jackson on charges of new child molestation. Jackson was accused of sexual abuse by Gavin Arviso, who appeared in the Living with Michael Jackson documentary earlier that year. The allegations later led to a trial in which Jackson was found not guilty of all charges .   Jackson converted to the Nation of Islam on December 17, 2003. Later in 2005, because of his links with the Bahrain Royal Family, he converted to Sunni Islam.   Marlon Brando, who was a frequent user of the Internet , informed Jackson on February 8, 2004 that the declarations made by Jordy Chandler relating to the 1993 child molestation allegations had been published on the internet site The Smoking Gun. This happened when Jackson was about to start an interview with journalist Ed Bradley for 60 Minutes. Jackson immediately left the studio and did not conduct the interview. Jackson also attended Brando's memorial service in 2004 along with Sean Penn, Jack Nicholson and Warren Beatty.   Also on August 6, 2004, Man In The Mirror: The Michael Jackson Story debuted on VH1 starring Flex Alexander as Michael Jackson.   Rapper Eminem parodied new allegations raised against Jackson by Gavin Arviso in his music video for "Just Lose It" in 2004. The clip caused controversy and fueled Jackson to make a statement.   The People v. Jackson trial began in Santa Maria, California on January 31, 2005 and lasted less than a month.   On June 10, Jackson's PR, Raymone Bain was reportedly fired. Jackson's now-defunct website cited that "MJJ Productions regretfully announces the termination of Raymone Bain and Davis, Bain and Associates. We thank you for your services". Bain later told the Associated Press that she had not been fired and that only Michael Jackson, not his production company (operated at the time by his brother, Randy Jackson), could fire her. Bain continues releasing press statements and answering media enquiries on behalf of Michael Jackson, and was named general manager of The Michael Jackson Company, Inc. on June 27, 2006.   On June 13, Jackson was acquitted of all ten charges, including four additional lesser ones. CNN later reported that one of the jurors, Ray Hultman, believed he had committed child sex crimes in the past but there was not enough evidence to prove it, and he and another juror announced impending books on their experiences in the trial.   In September 2005, it was reported that Ray Hultman, one of the jurors, took legal action against the publisher of his book about experiences in the trial, claiming heavy portions were plagiarized from a Vanity Fair article. Hultman also stated he felt "threatened" by the jury foreman Paul Rodriguez and regretted acquitting Jackson.   After being acquitted of the child molestation charges, Jackson relocated to the Gulf island of Bahrain, where he reportedly bought a house formerly owned by a Bahrain MP. Jackson allegedly spent his time in the Gulf writing new music, including a charity single dedicated to the victims of Hurricane Katrina entitled, "I Have This Dream". Ciara, Snoop Dogg, R. Kelly, Keyshia Cole, James Ingram, Michael Jackson's brother Jermaine, Shanice, the Reverend Shirley Caesar and The O'Jays all reportedly lent their voices to the charity song. After many delays, the single was not released, despite being announced on September 13, 2005. At the time, Jackson's spokesperson, Raymone Bain, said the list included Mary J. Blige, Missy Elliott, Jay-Z, James Brown and Lenny Kravitz. It later appeared that these artists were no longer participating. The charity single remains unreleased.   In 2006, allegations of sexual assault were made against Jackson by a man who claims Michael Jackson molested him, intoxicated him with drugs and alcohol, and forced him to undergo unnecessary cosmetic surgery. Michael Jackson's lawyer Thomas Mesereau, who successfully defended him against allegations of child molestation in 2005, said "the charges are ridiculous on their face. They will be vigorously defended".   2006�present: Visionary, Tokyo and the World Music Awards   In February 2006, Jackson's label released Visionary - The Video Singles, a box set made up of twenty of his biggest hit singles, each of which were issued individually week by week over a five-month period.   An appeals court ruled on February 15, that a lower court improperly terminated Deborah Rowe's parental rights to her two children with pop star Michael Jackson, opening the door to a possible custody battle between the singer and his ex-wife. The retired judge, Steven M. Lachs, acknowledged in 2004 that he failed to have state officials do an independent investigation into what was in the best interests of the children. As of September 29, 2006, the case has reportedly been settled according to the lawyers representing each party.   On March 9, 2006, California state labor officials closed the singer's Neverland Ranch and fined him $69,000 for failure to provide employment insurance. The state "stop order" bars Jackson from "using any employee labor" until he secured required workers' compensation insurance. In addition to being fined $1,000 for each of his 69 workers, Jackson is liable for up to 10 days pay for those employees who now are no longer allowed to report to Neverland for work. Thirty Neverland employees have also sued Jackson for $306,000 in unpaid wages.   Soon after this payment, Jackson's spokesperson announced on March 16, 2006 that Jackson was closing his house at Neverland and had laid off some of the employees but added that reports of the closing of the entire ranch were inaccurate. There have been many reports of a possible sale of Neverland, but nothing tangible has been reported yet.   In a move named by Jackson's advisors as "refinancing", it was announced on April 14, 2006 that Jackson had struck a deal with Sony and Fortress Investments. In the deal Sony may be allowed to take control of half of Jackson's 50% stake in Sony/ATV Music Publishing (worth an estimated $1 billion) which Jackson co-owns. Jackson would be left with 25% of the catalogue, with the rest belonging to Sony.   In exchange, Sony negotiated with a loans company on behalf of Jackson. Jackson's $200m in loans were due in December 2005 and were secured on the catalogue. Jackson failed to pay and the Bank of America sold them to Fortress Investments, a company dealing in distressed loans. However, Jackson hasn't as yet sold any of the remainder of his stake. The possible purchase by Sony of 25% of Sony/ATV Music Publishing is a conditional option; it is assumed the singer will try to avoid having to sell part of the catalogue of songs including material by other artists such as Bob Dylan and Destiny's Child. As another part of the deal Jackson was given a new $300 million loan, and a lower interest rate on the old loan to match the original Bank of America rate. When the loan was sold to Fortress Investments they increased the interest rate to 20%. None of the details are officially confirmed. An advisor to Jackson, however, did publicly announce he had "restructured his finances with the assistance of Sony".   On April 18, 2006, Michael Jackson signed a management deal with English music producer Guy Holmes. Holmes is the recently appointed CEO of Two Seas Records, with whom Jackson has signed a recording contract for one album. The album is set for a fall 2007 release.   On May 27, 2006, Michael Jackson accepted a Legend Award at MTV Japan's VMA Awards in Tokyo . It was his first major public appearance since being found not guilty in his child molestation trial almost a year earlier. The award honors his influence and impact on music videos in the last 25 years. Following the award ceremony, Jackson also made an appearance on SMAPxSMAP.   In 2006 F. Marc Schaffel, a former associate of Jackson, filed a suit for millions of dollars allegedly owed to him after working with Jackson on an unreleased charity record named "What More Can I Give" and documentaries. Florida businessman Alvin Malnik, who had advised Jackson, appeared in court and stated that Jackson appeared to be bewildered by financial matters. Schaffel claimed to have made frequent loans to the singer totaling between $7 million and $10 million. Schaffel had received an urgent plea from Jackson for $1 million so that Jackson could buy jewelry for Elizabeth Taylor so that she would agree to sign a release for her involvement in a Fox special.   These court proceedings also brought to light unsuccessful projects planned with the actor Marlon Brando, including a dual interview at the actor's private island near Tahiti , and a DVD on acting. Brando's son Miko Brando, a long time bodyguard and assistant to Jackson stated "The last time my father left his house to go anywhere, to spend any kind of time... was with Michael Jackson". "He loved it... [He] had a 24-hour chef, 24-hour security, 24-hour help, 24-hour kitchen, 24-hour maid service".   On July 14, 2006, the jury awarded Schaffel $900,000 of the original $3.8 million he sued Jackson for, which Schaffel later reduced to $1.6 million, and finally to $1.4 million. The jury also awarded Jackson $200,000 plus interest of the $660,000 that Jackson claimed he was owed by Schaffel. The trial revealed that Schaffel had been dismissed after Jackson learnt of his past work as a director of gay pornography. Schaffel claimed that Jackson "once wanted him to go to Brazil to find boys for him to adopt. He later modified that statement to "children" to expand Jackson's family". Jackson's lawyer Thomas Mundell said that he had never heard the allegation during the pre-trial investigation and that "it was an effort to smear Mr Jackson with a remark that could be interpreted to hurt him in light of the case against him last year".   On July 31, 2006, a federal judge allowed a $48 million claim against Jackson and one of Jackson's trusts for unpaid fees and breach of contract. All parties were ordered to reappear in court in September.   On November 2 and November 3, 2006, Access Hollywood aired a special Michael Jackson in Ireland which showed Jackson and will.i.am of The Black Eyed Peas in the process of recording Jackson's new album.   On November 14, 2006, Sony officially released the Visionary box set. He also visited the London office of the Guinness World Records. There, he received eight awards: "Most Successful Entertainer of All Time", "Youngest Vocalist to Top the US Singles Charts" (at the age of 11 as part of the Jackson Five), "First Vocalist to Enter the US Singles Chart at Number One" (for "You Are Not Alone"), "First Entertainer to Earn More Than 100 million Dollars in a Year", "Highest Paid Entertainer of All Time" ($125 in 1989), "First Entertainer to Sell More Than 100 Million Albums Outside the US", "Most Weeks at the Top of the US Albums Chart" (for the album Thriller) and "Most Successful Music Video" (for the music video Thriller).   On November 15, 2006, Michael Jackson received the Diamond Award, for selling over 100 million albums, at the World Music Awards. This was his second public appearance at an awards show since the trial of 2005. Despite substantial publicity prior to the event, he did not perform "Thriller", limiting his performance to "one verse and one chorus" of "We are the World". Coverage of the event noted that Jackson "looked uncomfortable at times" and called the appearance "an unhappy return to the London stage". According to the head of public relations for the World Music Awards (Julius Just), the sound was cut due to a noise curfew. Officials at Earl's Court, the arena where the event was held, have said that this was not the case and that they had "accommodated the show and the show's organisers by obtaining an extension to our licence in order to allow the show to run to eleven o'clock".   2005: Live In Bucharest: The Dangerous Tour Television The Jacksons TV Show was an animated series that first aired on June 16, 1976 and last aired on March 9, 1977. It starred Jackie, Tito, Marlon, Michael, Randy, Rebbie, LaToya, and Janet Jackson. The Simpsons, Season 3 Episode 1, "Stark Raving Dad". The episode first aired on September 19, 1991. He was credited as John Jay Smith.[99] Video games Michael Jackson's Moonwalker is an arcade game that was ported to the Sega Mega Drive /Sega Genesis and Sega Master System and various 8-bit home computers, including the Amiga , which sported more levels and better graphics. Sonic The Hedgehog 3 features sampled noises from Jackson and his instrument players who worked for him at the time. Due to his 1993 scandal some songs written by him were removed; however the original game still contains some content from him and his team although Jackson is uncredited. New Sega PC "retro" versions do not contain any of the material from Jackson or his team. Space Channel 5 for the Sega Dreamcast featured Michael Jackson in the later levels. Space Channel 5 Part 2, a dance game for the PlayStation 2 and Sega Dreamcast also featured Michael Jackson in the later levels. Ready 2 Rumble Round 2 is a fighting game for the PlayStation 2 and Sega Dreamcast featuring Michael Jackson as a hidden character. Grand Theft Auto: Vice City for the PS2 , PC , and Xbox includes two songs by Michael Jackson: "Billie Jean" and "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'".

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Recording Technology History Recording Technology History on lateral groove Edison ad from LC 1877 - Edison made the first recording of a human voice ("Mary had a little lamb") on the first tinfoil cylinder phonograph Dec. 6 (the word "Halloo" may have been recorded in July on an early paper model derived from his 1876 telegraph repeater) and filed for an American patent Dec. 24. John Kruesi built this first practical machine Dec. 1-6 from a sketch given to him by Edison that was made Nov. 29 (not on "Aug. 12" that Edison mistakenly wrote on another sketch in 1917). When Kruesi heard Edison's first words Dec. 6, he exclaimed "Gott in Himmel!" (but these words for "God in Heaven" were not recorded and thus have been forgotten). Others before Edison had tried to record sound, but Edison and his tinfoil phonograph were the first to succeed. 1878- Edison was granted patent 200,521 on Feb. 19 for a phonograph using cylinders wrapped with tinfoil with 2-3 min. capacity. None of these early fragile tinfoils have survived, but after Edison experimenters used different recording materials, such as the lead cylinder of Frank Lambert that is known today as the oldest surviving playable cylinder ("One o'clock, Two o'clock"), and the brass discs of Augustus Stroh in England ("mama" and "papa"). 1881 - Charles Tainter at the Volta Lab made the first lateral-cut records , but without any practical machine to play them back. 1885 - A second type of phonograph was invented by Chichester Bell and Charles Tainter; they were granted patent 341,214 on a machine that they called the "Graphophone" using wax-coated cylinders incised with vertical-cut grooves; see photos from Smithsonian and the essay Tainter and the Graphophone. 1887 - A third type of phonograph was invented by Emile Berliner; he was granted patent 372,786 for a "Gramophone" using a non-wax disc photo-engraved with a lateral-cut groove; see pictures of the three rival phonographs. 1887 - Edison filed an application Nov. 26 for patent 386,974 on an improved phonograph using a battery-powered electrical motor and wax cylinders, but neither he nor the graphophone inventors were able to mass-produce copies. 1888 - Emile Berliner demonstrated an improved early gramophone May 16 at the Franklin Institute using a flat 7-inch disk with lateral-cut grooves on one side only, hand-cranked at 30 rpm with 2-min. capacity; Berliner was the first to mass-produce hard rubber vulcanite copies from a zinc master disk. 1889 - The Columbia Phonograph Co. was organized January 15 by Edward D. Easton with rights to market a treadle-powered graphophone; however, Easton would have more success selling music rather than business machines, especially cylinders of the popular United State Marine Band under John Philip Sousa . Easton produced the first record catalog in 1890, a one-page list of Edison and Columbia cylinders. Cylinder vs. Disc 1890 - The first "juke box" was the coin-operated cylinder phonograph with 4 listening tubes that earned over $1000 in its first 6 months of operation starting the previous November 23 in San Francisco's Palais Royal Saloon, setting off a boom in popularity for commercial nickel phonographs that kept the industry alive during the Depression Nineties. 1893 - Emile Berliner finally began to succeed with his new U. S. Gramophone Company; in 1894 he made and sold 1000 machines (some electric-powered, most hand-powered, but no spring motor yet) and 25,000 records (7-inch hard rubber discs). The Berliner Gramophone Co. was incorprated Oct. 8, 1895, and Berliner discovered in 1896 that shellac from the Duranoid Co. was better than hard rubber for records; Frank Seaman created the National Gramophone Co. Oct. 19, 1896. 1894 - in December, Guglielmo Marconi made radio history when at the age of 20 he invented his spark transmitter with antenna at his home in Bologna, Italy. He took his "Black Box" to Britain in Feb. 1896 and although it was broken by custom officials, he filed for British Patent number 12039 on June 2, 1896, and began to build a world empire of Marconi companies. 1896 - Eldridge Johnson improved the gramophone with a motor designed by Levi Montross and his own patent 601,198 filed Aug. 19, 1897, for a simple and inexpensive machine that became the most popular disc phonograph by 1900; he then merged his Consolidated Talking Machine Co. with Berliner's company to create the Victor Talking Machine Co. in 1901 with the "little nipper" dog as trademark. 1897 - shellac discs replaced vulcanite, but the typical heavy steel stylus tracking at 9 oz. caused heavy wear; with the introduction of low-cost talking machines such as the Columbia Eagle graphophone and the Edison Gem cylinder and the Berliner improved gramophone , strong growth in sales began of commercial cylinders and discs, mostly classical and Tin Pan Alley songs. 1898 - Valdemar Poulsen patented in Denmark on Dec. 1 the first magnetic recorder, called the "telegraphone," using steel wire; he exhibited his device at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and formed the American Telegraphone Co. in Nov. 1903 after Congress validated his American patent 661,619. Indestructible cylinder case, see record labels 1900 - Thomas Lambert developed a successful method of mass-duplicating "indestructible" cylinders of celluloid; his patent 645,920 described making a copper negative matrix by electrolysis from a wax master, and using heat and pressure to "mould" durable celluloid copies from the matrix. Although Lambert's patent was upheld by the courts, Edison would use expensive lawsuits to drive Lambert's company and the Indestructible Phonograph Record Company out of business by 1907. 1902 - Edison introduced "Gold Molded" cylinders for $.50 each with an improved hard wax surface and able to be mass-produced by a molding process; in Europe "Red Seal" 10-inch discs with 4-minute capacity were sold for $1.00, each featuring famous European artists, such as tenor Enrico Caruso and baritone Mattia Battistini. The first Red label records were made in Russia by Fedor Chaliapan, singer for the Imperial Opera, who recorded 10 records for Fred Gaisberg and the Gramophone Co. April 11 in Milan; Victor began to import these celebrity labels in 1903 and became the leading seller of classical music records. The 10-inch disc would quickly become more popular that the previous 7-inch standard disc that could only play for 2-3 minutes. 1903 - Eldridge Johnson began to sell the Victor IV phonograph, the first model equipped with his tapered tone arm, patent 814,786 filed Feb. 12. 1904 - The Odeon label was created in Germany by the International Talking Machine Co. to sell double-sided discs that Zonophone had pioneered in South America in 1902, based on patent 749,092 by Ademor Petit, yet it was still impossible to put an entire symphony on a single disc that could play both sides for no more than 10 minutes. HMV in England recorded in 1903 the first complete opera, Verdi's "Ernani" on 40 single-sided discs. Odeon pioneered something called the "album" in 1909 when it released the "Nutcracker Suite" by Tchaikovsky on 4 double-sided discs in a specially-designed package. 1906 - Columbia announced in July the Velvet-Tone thin and flexible laminated shellac record with paper core, following the proposal of Marconi who had visited the Bridgeport plant of the American Graphophone Company. This record had less surface noise than regular shellac records. 1906 - Victor introduced the first all-enclosed cabinet phonograph that by 1907 was being widely advertised as the "Victrola" upright with enclosed tapered horn; Victor would spend $50,000,000 on print advertsing and $17,000,000 on catalogs and brochures by 1929, creating the generic name victrola that is applied to all phonograph players designed as furniture. 1906 - William Randolph Hearst in October began to use cylinder recordings of his speeches in the election campaign for governor of New York. The wax graphophone masters were made by Columbia in New York City, electroplated and molded, played at public meetings and distributed to libraries for public check out. Dictaphone 1907 see pictures 1907 - The Dictaphone Corporation was organized when the Columbia Graphophone Co. sold its business machine division. 1908 - John Lomax, on his first trip west, recorded a black saloon keeper in San Antonio singing "Home on the Range" on an Edison cylinder and the lyrics were written down and published in the book "Cowboy Songs and Frontier Ballads" by Lomax in 1910 and the song became a national favorite; Lomax and his son Alan would record 10,000 songs for the Library of Congress Archive of the American Folk Song. 1910 - John McCormack signed his recording contract with the Victor Co. that would result in hundreds of recordings made over the next 20 years. 1911 - Edwin S. Pridham and Peter L. Jensen in Napa, California, invented a moving-coil loudspeaker they called the "Magnavox" that was used by Woodrow Wilson in San Diego in 1919. 1912 - Edison introduced celluloid blue Amberol cylinders that played for 4 minutes. When played with a diamond stylus, the new cylinder had low surface noise that resulted in higher acoustic quality than flat discs. 1913 - Edison finally conceded victory to the flat disc when he began to sell the Diamond-Disc players and recordings. The Diamond discs had a surface of Condensite plastic laminated to a solid core and a thickness of 1/4 inch. Condensite was a resin plastic like Bakelite, the first artificial plastic patented in 1909 by Leo Baekeland. The players used the same Diamond Point Reproducer used in the Blue Amberols but tracked at heavier force; see pictures of the Diamond Disc phonographs. 1914 vacuum tube by AT&T came from radio 1914 - ASCAP founded to enforce 1909 Copyright Act. 1915 - U.S. Navy seized Telefunken radio station at Sayville, Long Island, that was using Telegraphone wire recorders to send high speed transmissions to Germany. 1915 - Edison suggested in 1915 that the U.S. create a Naval Research Laboratory - picture of Edison sculpted from life. 1916 - Theodore Case founded his Case Research Laboratory in Auburn, New York, to develop a sound-on-film recording system for motion pictures to compete with Edison's sound-on-cylinder system; Case and Earl Sponable developed the Thalofide photo-electric cell used by the Navy in WWI to transmit secret messages by infrared light. 1917 - Over There recording written by George M. Cohan, performed by Billy Murray. "Written in 1917 and introduced by the famous singer Nora Bayes, this World War I hit became the anthem for America's war effort." (from Library of Congress ) 1918 - first wartime actuality sound recording of gas shell bombardment. 1918 - Poulsen's 1898 Denmark patent expired; Germany developed improvements to the wire telegraphone; see picture. New Popular Music Columbia Grafonola ad from Literary Digest, 1919/09/27 1917 - The first "Jazz" record "Livery Stable Blues" was recorded by the all-white Original Dixieland Jass Band from New Orleans, according to The Origins of Big Band Music. Jazz recordings stimulated the recording of the blues, first popularized by vaudeville performer Ma Rainey who became the first successful blues singer in 1902 and later recorded 100 songs 1923-1928 for Paramount as the "Mother of the Blues," by black composer W. C. Handy in 1911, and by Mamie Smith who recorded the first vocal blues song, "Crazy Blues" in 1920, on the Okeh label. 1919 - Gennett Record Company in Indiana began to make lateral-cut records and was sued by Victor. Smaller labels such as Okeh, Vocalian, Compo joined Gennett in defending its claim that lateral-cut was in the public domain. Gennett won case 1921 before Judge Learned Hand and won appeal 1922 before Judge Augustus Hand, cousin of Learned. Gennett became one of the largest record producers in the nation, releasing some of the earliest jazz records of Jelly Roll Morton and opened the gates for smaller independent companies to record their own records. early RCA radios, from NMAH 1920 - David Sarnoff in January proposed in a 28-page memo the "Sales of Radio Music Box for Entertainment Purposes" and led RCA into cross-licensing patents with AT&T and Westinghouse and to leadership in the broadcasting and recording industries by the end of the decade. 1920 - KDKA in Pittsburg inaugurated commercial radio when it was the first radio station to receive its commercial call letters from the Department of Commerce Oct. 27; it began regular scheduled broadcasting Nov. 2 with the returns of the presidential election, and continued broadcasting every evening from 8:30-9:30 pm. 1921 - Public address amplifiers and speakers developed by AT&T since 1916 were used at the Armistice Day ceremonies at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington Cemetery. 1921 - majority record sales began decline from $106 million high due to the growth of live radio, but new kinds of minority music become popular. Bessie Smith, from LC 1921 - The Coon-Sanders Novelty Orchestra in Kansas City recorded "Some Little Bird" for Columbia, began regular radio broadcasts Nov. 1922 on the clear channel station WDAF, and recorded 65 songs for Victor 1924-32, becoming one of the nation's most popular big bands of the Jazz Age. 1923 - Bessie Smith's first record "Down-Hearted Blues" was an important landmark on The Blue Highway, selling 750,000 copies for the Columbia label in one year, and making Smith the "Empress of the Blues." Her recording of Handy's classic "St. Louis Blues" with Louis Armstrong on cornet for Columbia in 1925 was one of the finest records of the era, and led her to star in the 1929 RCA Photophone two-reel sound film St. Louis Blues with an all African American cast. 1923 - New York's WHN broadcast of the influential big band led by Fletcher Henderson. 1923 - Fiddlin' John Carson's "Little Old Log Cabin in the Lane" became the first hit country record. 1924 - Chicago's WLS started the National Barn Dance radio show. 1925 - The Rice-Kellogg research paper was published, establishing the basic principle of the direct-radiator loudspeaker with a small coil-driven mass-controlled diaphragm in a baffle with a broad midfrequency range of uniform response. On Nov. 28, WSM in Nashville ("We Shield Millions" slogan of owner Edwin Craig's National Life and Accident Insurance Co.) began its Barn Dance radio show (hosted by George D. Hay who had previously hosted the WLS Barn Dance show) that in 1927 became the Grand Ole Opry broadcast from WSM's Studio B on the new NBC network. The Grand Ole Opry moved to the the Ryman Auditorium in 1943 and with the Acuff-Rose1942 studio and WSM's 1947 Castle Studio would attract recording companies to Nashville's Music Row. Bing Crosby in 1939 Electrical Era pictures 1926 - Bing Crosby recorded his first record "I've Got the Girl" with an old carbon mic; hired by Paul Whiteman to sing with Harry Barris and Al Rinker as "The Rhythm Boys" and began to use the new microphones developed by Bell Labs that encouraged the "crooner" sound when held close to the singer's mouth; see Der Bingle Technology for Harry Lillis Crosby's influence on records, radio, movies, audio and video tape recording. He is the No. 1 recorder of songs (1600 songs on 400 million records); the No. 1 recorded song in history remains White Christmas (35+ million copies sold since 1942); the first pop singer to win an Academy Award for Best Actor (in the 1944 film Going My Way); the No. 1 film box office star 1944-49; the No. 1 radio star 1931-1957. 1927 - Ralph Peer held recording sessions on State Street in Bristol TN for the Victor company using the new electrical recording equipment made by Western Electric. The Bristol sessions have been recognized as "Big Bang of Country Music" that helped to launch the careers of the Carter Family and Jimmie Rodgers, the first commercially successful modern country music artists. 1929 - Paul Whiteman's Old Gold Special was the first national big band promotional road show. Electric Era Replaces Acoustic Era - see pictures and articles 1925 - first electrically-recorded discs and Orthophonic phonographs go on sale, using Western Electric system developed at AT&T's Bell Labs over the previous 10 years, making it now possible to record whole orchestras and symphonies and even sound motion pictures (see Sound Recording Research at Bell Labs ). 1925 - Warner Bros. joined Walter J. Rich to create the Vitaphone Co. and in October began making experimental sound pictures in the Warner Vitagraph studio in Brooklyn. 1926 - Vitaphone Co. signed a contract April 20 with AT&T to develop sound pictures using the electrical recording system of Western Electric, using 16-inch acetate-coated shellac discs at the new recording speed of 33 1/3 rpm in synch with film reel by electric motors; Warner Bros. moved the Vitaphone studio to the Manhattan Opera House in May and made some short subject musical films such as Volga Boatman on May 24 before releasing Don Juan on Aug. 6, the first full-length film with sound recorded for the musical scenes. 1926 - Charles Brush sold the first piezo-electric featherweight stylus. 1927 - On Jan. 1, Western Electric created Electrical Research Products, Inc. (ERPI) to license motion picture technology to the motion picture producers and exhibitors; Fox had acquired a Western Electric license in Dec. 1926 to use the AT&T electrical sound system in ts theaters to show Fox Movietone newsreels made with the rival sound-on-film method, starting Apr. 20 with marching West Point cadets; condenser mic 1928 from Neumann History in July, Warner Bros. moved the Vitaphone production to Hollywood in the first studio built for sound; The Jazz Singer premiered Oct. 6, the first commercial sound film with spoken dialogue. 1927 - Automatic Music Instrument Co. of Grand Rapids (AMI) introduced the all-electric coin-operated phonograph, the "juke box," to replace coin-operated pianos, but few built before 1934. 1928 - Georg Neumann started his microphone company in Berlin and began production of the CMV3 "Neumann Bottle" condenser microphone. 1928 - John Baird in England developed an early form of mechanical television and recorded moving images and sound on Phonovision wax discs but Vladimir Zworykin in the U.S. and Manfred von Ardenne in Germany perfected the cathode ray tube for electronic television by 1929. 1929 - RCA began making "transcription" discs of vinyl "Victrolac"* from optical soundtracks for radio stations to play on the air; Magnavox developed the hum-bucking coil that reduced loudspeaker hum; final production of Edison cylinders and discs; merger of RCA and Victor.   *Sometimes incrorrectly spelled "Vitrolac". 1930 - Bing Crosby recorded his first solo "I Surrender, Dear" and became the nation's most famous crooner; signed by Bill Paley to CBS in 1931 and sponsored by G.W. Hill's Cremo Cigars; more radio stations began to play records of all kinds. Thuras loudspeaker 1933, from AT&T Archives 1930 - Albert L. Thuras filed patent No. 1,869,178 on Aug. 15, 1930, granted July 26, 1932, for the bass-reflex principle, and worked at Bell Labs on other designs significant in loudspeaker history 1931 - RCA tried to market coarse groove discs of "Victrolac"* vinyl plastic that ran at 33-1/3 rpm "professional" speed, but it failed to replace popular 78 rpm consumer speed; however, the professional transcription disc coated with cellulose acetate remained the standard transcription disc for radio station recording until magnetic tape was adopted in 1948. *Sometimes incorrectly spelled "Vitrolac". 1931 - In April Leopold Stokowski with his Philadelphia Orchestra used the vertical-cut recorder equipped with a new moving coil pickup with sapphire stylus developed at Bell Labs by Arthur C. Keller to improve the dynamic range of cellulose acetate discs pressed from gold-sputtered wax masters. When Stokowski later at Bell Labs in New York City heard the record of a performance of the "Roman Carnival" by Berlioz made on Dec. 1, 1931, he said it was the finest recording he had ever heard. 1931 - Empire State Building opened May 31 in New York City with music piped into its elevators, lobbies, observatories. 1931 - The EMI studio that opened Nov. 12 at Abbey Road in London, was the largest sound recording studio in the world; Louis Sterling hired Alan Blumlein to install Blumlein's own electrical recording system and Sterling stopped paying royalties to Western Electric. Alan Blumlein patented the "binaural" (stereo) recording method in England. Music for the Masses Rock-Ola 12-selection mechanism used in juke boxes 1933 - Homer Capehart sold Simplex changer mechanism to Wurlitzer, sold juke boxes to distributors who installed music systems in post-Prohibition grilles and taverns. 1934 - first U.S. advertisement for "High Fidelity" records; Duo Junior record player attachment for radios sold for $16.50. 1934 - Rock-Ola, Seeburg, Wurlitzer introduced multiple-selection nickel juke boxes; number installed in U.S. increased from 25,000 to 300,000 by 1939; Bing Crosby became #1 selection, spurring sales of his 35-cent Decca label songs. 1934 - Signal Corps General George Squier founded Muzak to sell recorded music to homes in Cleveland for $1.50 per month on 3 channels. 1934 - Swing music began in December with Benny Goodman on NBC's Let's Dance. Elvis at White House from National Security Archive 1935 - Hit Parade sponsored by G.W. Hill's Lucky Strike 1935 - New York's WNEW is first music and news radio station; Martin Block was one of the first disc jockeys in his Make Believe Ballroom and earned $500,000. 1935 - Elvis Presley was born January 8 and died in 1977 after selling 41 million albums, recording 107 Top-40 hit songs, making 33 movies, and shook hands with President Richard Nixon (photo at right of meeting 12/21/71) However, Bing Crosby who also died in 1977 recorded 1600 hit songs, sold 500 million records, made 61 movies, but probably never shook Nixon's hand. 1942 - Armed Forces Radio Service created to distribute programs to soldiers overseas. By January 1946, 1030 vinylite 16-inch transcription discs of 8240 popular and classical songs had been produced as part of the Basic Music Library for the AFRS. 1928 - Dr. Fritz Pfleumer patent in Germany for application of magnetic powders to strip of paper or film. 1931 - Pfleumer and AEG begin to construct the first magnetic tape recorders. 1932 - BASF of I.G. Farben joined with AEG of Telefunken to develop magnetic tape recording using Pfleumer patent; by 1934, BASF is able to manufacture reels of plastic-based tape. 1935 - first public demonstration of BASF/AEG "Magnetophone" at Berlin Radio Fair. 1936 - first BASF/AEG tape recording on Nov.19 of live concert by Sir Thomas Beecham. 1939 - independent invention of the wire recorder in U.S. by Marvin Camras at Armour Research Foundation and sold to military during World War II; wire recorders such as the Webster pictured at right were popular with amateurs until the late 1950s. 1940 - David Sarnoff of RCA installed first secret recording devices in the White House for 11 weeks, from June to October, using the same optical Phonofilm method used in RKO films. 1941 - The quality of the Magnetophone in Germany dramatically improved with the use of high frequency biasing developed by Weber and Von Braunmuhl at AEG. 1944 - 3M Co. (Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing) began tape coating experiments in U.S. under Ralph J. Oace. Tape Recording Comes to America 1945 - Signal Corps Captain John Mullin found Magnetophones at Radio Frankfurt in Germany and 1000-meter reels of 6.5mm ferric-coated BASF tape with 20-min capacity; he mailed 2 machines to U.S. with 50 reels of tape, and after the war worked on them to improve the electronics. Crosby with early Ampex home model ca. 1948, from Ampex Corp. one of the first RCA 45 rpm players, from the Smithsonian Elvis statue on Beale Street in Memphis Soundmirror tape recorder by the Brush Development Co. 1946 - Mullin demonstrated Magnetophones at San Francisco Institute of Radio Engineers on May 16, and Harold Lindsay told Ampex boss Alexander M. Poniatoff who began work on developing a U.S.-made magnetic tape recorder. 1947 - Mullin demonstrated Magnetophones to Bing Crosby Enterprises in June. NBC had refused to record his show, Bing moved to ABC with Philco sponsor in the fall, brought with him Mullin's Magnetophones to tape his new season shows and dub to 16-inch transcription disc for broadcast starting Oct. 1 - see Der Bingle Technology article on Bing Crosby. 1948 - 1st U.S.-made Ampex Model 200 tape recorders arrived for Crosby show #27 along with 3M Scotch 111 gamma ferric oxide coated acetate tape. War of the Speeds 1948 - Columbia introduced on June 21 the first 12-inch 33-1/3 rpm micro-groove LP vinylite record with 23-minute per side capacity, developed by Peter Goldmark in 1947, using players made by Philco. 1949 - RCA Victor introduced 7-inch 45 rpm micro-groove "Extended Play" vinylite record and player; article from RCA Review, later records made of polystyrene. In September, Capitol became the first major label to support all three recording speeds of 78, 45, 33-1/3 rpm. 1951 - war of the speeds ended as Victor sold LPs and Columbia sold 45s. Rock and Roll 1947 - Big 6 record companies controlled majority industry: Columbia, Victor, Decca, Capitol, MGM, Mercury; but teenagers rejected majority music style, giving opportunity to the rise of new small independent labels. 1947 - Roy Brown recorded one of the earliest "rock and roll" songs Good Rocking Tonight on DeLuxe label, although the name was common in early blues recordings such as Trixie Smith's 1922 My Man Rocks Me With One Steady Roll. 1949 - Todd Storz of Omaha's KOWH created Top 40 after observing customers in a bar play the same juke box selection over and over. 1950 - Muddy Waters recorded Rollin' Stone for the Aristocrat label of Leonard and Phil Chess on Maxwell Street in Chicago, at the end of Highway 61, "the road to freedom" followed by many black blues singers from the Miss. Delta to Chicago. Waters electrified the blues and helped create rock and roll. 1951- Sam Phillips in his studio in Memphis used his Ampex 350 tape machine to record Rocket 88, written by Ike Turner, sung by Jackie Brenston, and sold to Leonard and Phil Chess in Chicago who released it as the 78 rpm Chess record #1458. The sale of this master tape allowed Phillips to start his own Sun Records label. 1952 - Alan Freed started Moondog's Rock and Roll Party in Cleveland after visit to Leo Mintz's record store. 1953 - Elvis Presley in the summer made his first recording (a personal disc for himself, not for his mother's birthday that was in the spring) at the Sun studio of Sam Phillips in Memphis; the second recording by Elvis at Sun was That's All Right released July 19, 1954, taped on the two Ampex 350 recorders Phillips used to create the "slapback" audio delay that became a trademark sound of Sun records. 1954 - Bill Haley recorded rhythmic Shake, Rattle and Roll and Rock Around the Clock on Decca, due to the success in 1953 of his first national rock hit Crazy Man Crazy on Essex label. 1955 - Sam Phillips on Nov. 10 sold his recording contract with Elvis to RCA and Colonel Tom Parker for $35,000. 1956 - Elvis Presley recorded Heartbreak Hotel on January 10 in Nashville at his first session for RCA in the RCA Studio on 1525 McGavock Street, and A Big Hunk o' Love June 10, 1958, in the new Studio B on Music Row. According to the Elvis Presley Studio Recordings RCA erased most of its tapes from the 1950s for later reuse, but a good transfer of the original, spliced A Big Hunk o' Love master can be found on the CD "All Time Greatest Hits", PD90100(2) From Stereo to Cassette 1945 - Paul Klipsch patented the Klipschorn folded horn speaker. The innovations in speakers and amplifiers and tape recorders after World War II contributed to the birth of a"Hi Fi" era that produced stereo and transistor radios and cassette tape players. 1949 - Magnecord added a 2nd head to its PT-6 tape recorder (the mono model was first introduced at the May 1948 NAB show) to create one of the first open reel stereo tape recorders; see tape recorder ads. Willi Studer in Herisau, Switzerland, made his first Dynavox tape recorder that evolved into the Revox A36 by 1953, and after moving to a new factory in Regensdorf near Zurich in 1960, began to produce the 2 and 4-track Revox D36. 1949 - Frank H. McIntosh and Gordon J. Gow sold the first McIntosh 50W1 Unity Coupled Amplifier, producing 50 watts at less than 1% distortion from 20 Hz to 20,000Hz. 1951 - Stefan Kudelski in Switzerland built the first Nagra portable, self-contained tape recorder with wind-up motor, and Max Grundig in Germany introduced the Reporter tape recorder. 1954 - Acoustic Research introduced the small AR-1 bookshelf loudspeaker that used the acoustic suspension principle developed by company co-founders Edgar Villchur and Henry Kloss. This was soon followed by the $89 AR-2 and by the AR-3 with improved domed tweeters in 1958. 1954 - RCA Victor sold the first prerecorded open reel stereo tapes for $12.95. 1954 - Regency TR-1, first transistor portable radio introduced by I.D.E.A. Co. of Indianapolis - see note on the Chrysler Imperial 1956, from the Imperial Home Page ) question of who made the first such radio. 1956 - The Chrysler Imperial 16-2/3 rpm record player with 7-inch ultramicrogroove records developed by Peter Goldmark. 1957 - May 28 the National Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences was founded in Hollywood by Paul Weston of Columbia, Lloyd Dunn of Capitol, Sonny Burke of Decca, Jesse Kaye of MGM and Henri Rene and Dennis Farnon of RCA Victor, with Jim Conkling of Columbia as its first president, and began to grant the annual Grammy Awards in 1959 for the best recordings and performers of 1958. Tom Stockham received the first Technical Grammy Award in 1994. 1958 - world standard for stereo records established, and first stereo LPs sold; new generation of Hi-Fi components adopt stereo. Koss introduced stereo headphones. stereo 'phones 1958, from Koss Museum 1959 - Seeburg sold the " Background Music System " with 16-2/3 rpm records. 1962 - Henry Kloss introduced the KLH Model 11 portable stereo, the first transistorized record player, with the changer/amplifier and two speakers folding into a three-piece suitcase. Kloss had left his previous partner Edgar Villchur at Acoustic Research and founded KLH in 1957 with Malcolm Low and J. Anton Hofmann. 1963 - Philips demonstrated its first compact audio cassette using high-quality BASF polyester 1/8-inch tape that ran at 1-7/8 ips; sold the next year in the U.S. with the Norelco Carry-Corder dictation machine, but the demand for blank tape used for personal music recording was unanticipated by Philips. 1966 - U.S. cars equipped with 8-track stereo cartridge tape players developed by William Lear (who founded the Learjet aviation company in 1962), Ampex, and RCA. 1969 - Dolby Noise Reduction introduced for pre-recorded tapes. Video Tape Recording first Ampex video tape recorder, 1956, from History of Television 1950 - "Jack Mullin, then Bing Crosby's recordist and chief engineer, began working at the newly established electronics division of Crosby Enterprises to develop a magnetic TV recorder" - from Tape Recorder History by Jerry Whitaker. 1951 - Ampex team led by Charles Ginsburg began work on a video tape recorder (VTR) in October; Bing Crosby Enterprises demonstrated an experimental 12-head VTR at 100 ips. 1953 - Vladimir K. Zworykin and RCA Labs demonstrated Dec. 1 a longitudinal VTR running very fast at 360 ips over 3 heads with AM sound. 1956 - Ampex demonstrated first practical quadraplex VTR at Chicago NAB show April 14, using 2-inch wide 3M tape at 15 ips over rotating head assembly recording at a slant on tape surface with AM sound; over next 4 years sold 600 units at $75,000 each, mostly to big network stations. 1956 - CBS broadcast the first network television show with videotape Nov. 30, Douglas Edwards and the News, for West Coast delayed broadcast. 1957 - Ampex and RCA pooled patents to develop compatible color and B&W VTR. 1959 - first mobile Ampex VTR unit. 1959 - Toshiba in September demonstrated prototype helical scan model VTR-1, with 2-inch tape running at 15 ips over just one head. After the demonstration, Sony began to develop the helical scan VTR. 1960 - Ampex shared VTR patents with Sony and Sony shared transistorized circuitry with Ampex. 1961 - JVC (founded as the American-owned Victor Co. of Japan in 1946, but owned by Matsushita since 1953) demonstrated helical scan color VTR with 2 heads. 1961 - Sony marketed helical scan VTR, the PV100, adopted by American Airlines in 1964 for in-flight movies; Ampex sued Sony in 1966. 1963 - Sony marketed first home VTR for $995, open reel 1/2-inch helical scan deck. 1964 - Ampex joined with Toshiba to market U.S.-designed VTRs in Japan. Philips cassette 1965 - Sony introduced first consumer 1/2-inch format helical scan VTR and priced under $3000. Philips introduced the compact cassette for consumer audio recording and playback on small portable machines such as the Norelco Carry-Corder 150. 1967 - In March, the Ampex HS-100 color video magnetic disc recorder is used for rapid playback in normal, slow, or stop action, at the ABC "World Series of Skiing" in Vail, Colorado, marking the beginning of "instant replay" on commercial television. 1968 - CBS introduced EVR using film in a cassette; 20th Century Fox agreed to sell movies in EVR; but the format faced growing competition by 1972 from videocassette formats introduced by RCA, Sony, Ampex and Avco, all seeking to develop a new consumer market for home VCRs. 1969 - RCA demonstrated SelectaVision that played pre-recorded cassettes but did not record. 1969 - Sony introduced first videocassette, the 3/4-inch U-Matic one-hour tape, available in U.S. by 1971. For the first time, Sony allowed other manufacturers to sell machines that could play the cassette, and thus succeeded in establishing a world standard for the 3/4-inch videocassette. 1970 - Ampex introduced the Instavision that it had developed with Toshiba; N.V. Philips introduced its own videocassette recorder (VCR) format in Europe; AVCO introduced a solid state compact Cartrivision VCR. 1972 - Phillips demonstrated a laserdisc playback-only deck. 1972 - Sears and Wards sold CartriVision, but too many competing VCR formats caused all to fail by 1973. Betamax Battles 1975 - Sony introduced in November in the U.S. the Betamax consumer VCR (console only) for $2295 with one-hour 1/2-inch tape cassettes for $15.95. Sony sought to created a standardized format, as it had done with the U-matic in 1969, by getting 7 other companies to agree to produce machines that would play the Beta cassettes. 1976 - JVC introduced in October in Japan the VHS format VCR for $885. 1976 - Sony introduced a Betamax VCR deck for $1300 and began aggressive advertising claiming that it "can actually videotape something off one channel while you're watching another channel" and "build a library of your favorite shows." MCA/Universal and Disney filed lawsuit finally won by Sony in 1984. 1977 - RCA announced in March it would sell VHS with 4-hour tapes. 1978 - Pioneer developed the LaserDisc that was first used by General Motors to train Cadillac salesmen. Pioneer began selling home LaserDisc players in 1980. 1979 - Sony introduced Betascan in April that allowed visible picture while fast-forwarding. Sony Walkman 1979 - Sony introduced the TPS-L2 Walkman portable audio cassette player, inaugurating a new era of personal music listening; the Sony family of portable personal music players would grow to include over 500 models, from the original pocket-sized 14-oz Walkman to the D-88 Pocket DiscMan of 1988 to the DAT Walkman TCD-D3 of 1991 to the MiniDisc of 1992 to the digital Discman of 1999. According to Sony's press release, in the 20-year history of the Walkman devices, 100 million units were sold in the U.S. creating a $1 billion industry. By 1983, more pre-recorded audio cassettes (236 million) were sold than LPs, a decline in the big vinyl discs that was accelerated in the 1980s by the compact disc digital revolution. 1980 - Sony introduced first consumer video camcorder. 1983 - Sony introduced the Beta HiFi VCR with high-quality FM sound. 1985 - Sony introduced the 8-mm format in April; the VHS group, led by JVC, brought out a compact version of VHS, known as VHS-C, but it only recorded for 20 minutes. 1988 - Super-VHS video format equalled 8-mm in picture quality but not in sound quality. 1989 - Sony introduced the Hi8 video format and the Sony CCD-V99 camcorder. Sony's first CD player 1982 - first digital audio 5-inch CD discs marketed, merging the consumer music industry with the computer revolution 1985 - Sony and Philips produced the standard for Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) computer discs that would use the same laser technology as the audio CD. 1987 - Digital Audio Tape (DAT) players introduced 1988 - for the first time, CD sales surpassed LP sales, leaving CD and cassette as the two dominant consumer formats; more than 1/2 of TV households own a VCR; the first transatlantic fiber-optic cable carried up to 37,000 telephone transmissions and began to replace satellites for telephone communication. 1990 - Canada began digital radio that used the L-band . 1993 - Digital HDTV Grand Alliance in October selected Dolby AC-3 to provide digital surround sound for the emerging technology of digital television . 1994 - Global Big 6 control $30 billion record industry: Philips (owns Polygram, A&M, Mercury, Island), Sony (owns CBS Records), Matsushita (owns MCA, Geffen), Thorn-EMI (owns Capitol, Virgin), Time Warner, and Bertelsmann (owns RCA Records) 1995 - By September, all companies in the DVD consortium agreed to DVD standards. 1996 - DVD players started selling in Japan, and began in 1997 selling in the U.S. 1997 - San Diego's MP3.com was founded in November by Michael Robertson; Another digital pioneer company was founded in San Diego in August 1998, Packetvideo, that became a leader in cell phone mobilemedia. 1998 - Jonell Polansky produced the first 24-bit 48-track digital recording session at Ocean Way on Nashville's Music Row 1998 - Aug. 6 the first HDTV set went on sale for $5,499 to the public in San Diego, a 56-inch Panasonic set that was developed at the company's research and development center in San Diego and manufactured in Tijuana. 1998 - The Last Broadcast premiered Oct. 19 as "the first desktop feature film" produced and exhibited digitally, co-sponsored by Texas Instruments using its DLP digital cinema projector. 1999 - TiVo and Philips announced March 31 in a press release shipments of "the first personal TV system." Apple's iPod The 5 largest record companies in the U.S. controlled 84% of the 755 million albums sold in the U.S. in 1999: 26.3% by Seagram's Universal (owns MCA, Polygram), 16.2% by Sony Music (owns Columbia), 16% by Bertelsmann's BMG (owns RCA Victor), 15.7% by Time Warner's Warner Music, 9.4% by EMI. 2000 - Disney released on Jan. 1 Fantasia/2000 in the IMAX film format with 6-channel digital sound. 2001 - Apple Computer introduced on Oct. 23 the iPod portable music player. 2002 - Annual world production of DVD-Video discs surpassed VHS cassettes, according to IRMA industry statistics: DVD increased from 1.08 billion in 2001 to 1.74 billion in 2002; VHS declined from 1.533 billion in 2001 to 1.33 billion in 2002. 2003 - DVD-Video rentals increased 51.2% and VHS rentals dropped 29% from the previous year; DVD-Video sales increased 42.2% to $12.1 billion and VHS sales dropped 34.8% to $2.4 billion, according to Video Store Magazine. 2004 - The first HD car radio was sold Jan. 5 in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, according to the iBiquity Digital Corp. press release, "the biggest revolution in radio since the advent of FM broadcasting more than fifty years ago." 2005 - Apple introduced on Jan. 11 the iPod Shuffle solid-state music player.

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100 Years of Radio - California Historical Radio Society 100 Years of Radio Navigation Menu 100 Years of Radio by Mike Adams  |  Learn more about Mike’s research and publication  | Back by Popular Demand: The Emmy-Nominated 1985 PBS Series, “ Radio Collector ” | RADIO BROADCASTING HISTORY BY DECADES: The Technology, The Programming, The Business 1900-1910 – BIRTH 1. THE INVENTION OF THE WIRELESS TELEGRAPH: Guglielmo (Bill) Marconi has ideas for an invention that will (a) replace the wired telegraph and transatlantic cable, (b) help ensure the safety of ships at sea. Marconi sends, in 1901, his famous S (dit dit dit) in Morse code from England to Canada. 2. FROM WIRELESS TELEGRAPH TO WIRELESS TELEPHONE: Inventors like Lee de Forest and Reginald Fessenden want to find a wireless substitute for the wired telephone. The human voice could add a nuance to communication not possible with the telegraph, but people like Marconi decry it, saying it will not be private and others will be able to hear it. 3. THE FIRST BROADCAST: In 1906 at Brant Rock MA, Fessenden plays his violin, sings a song, reads a bible verse or two into a wireless telephone of his own invention. This is the first broadcast and it happens Christmas Eve, 1906. It is a broadcast because it is designed for more than one listener (not 2-way) it is pre-announced. His goal is to find financial backers. 4. LEE DE FOREST : Probably the most important person in the development of radio, de Forest does two important demonstrations of wireless telephone; (1) in 1907 he equips the Navy fleet with his wireless telephone, an arc transmitter, and plays phonograph records to shore stations as the fleet comes into ports like San Francisco, and (2) in NYC he broadcasts on several occasions well-known opera singers to an audience of reporters. He wants to bring culture into homes. 5. CHARLES HERROLD : In San Jose, Herrold in April 1910 is quoted in a notarized affidavit published in a national magazine, “we have given wireless phonograph concerts to amateur men in Santa Clara Valley,” one of the very first published references to what we now know as the activities of radio broadcasting to an audience of more than one. He operates a wireless training schools, The Herrold College of Wireless and Engineering in a building at the corner of First and San Fernando. 1910-1920 – EXPERIMENTATION 1. CHARLES HERROLD: Between 1912 and 1917 Herrold and his students are broadcasting music and talk on a regular schedule to a growing San Jose audience. College radio. He also broadcasts every day to receiving stations at the Pan Pacific International Exhibition in 1915. 2. WORLD WAR ONE: April, 1917. All amateur wireless stations are ordered shut down, silent, so that the Government can use radio for defense purposes. The war is important to radio technically as the vacuum tube, invented earlier by de Forest is improved for war communication, and all other radio patents are pooled for defense reasons. 3. LEE DE FOREST: After the wartime ban on wireless ends in 1918 he sets up a station in High Bridge NY, and broadcasts music, news, election returns, etc to NYC, this time using his vacuum tube as a transmitter. The Federal Radio Inspector shuts him down saying “there is no place on the ether for entertainment.” Most still believed that radio should be for two-way communication, and there was general agreement that the Navy would be in charge of all radio. De Forest comes to San Francisco and sets up another station in 1919 and broadcasts daily. 4. FRANK CONRAD: Meanwhile, in Pittsburgh, PA a Westinghouse Corporation engineer named Frank Conrad had been allowed by the government to be on the air during the war to develop the de Forest vacuum tube into a transmitter for the war effort. He uses a phonograph to test the audio; he gets calls from a few experimenters who are, in defiance of government order, illegally listening to his tests. He plays records to this clandestine audience every Saturday Night. 1920-1930 – RADIO ARRIVES 1. LICENSED RADIO BROADCASTING: Conrad’s company, Westinghouse, asks him to go on the air on a regular basis to send out music and they’ll sell radios to pay for the service. They apply for a commercial radio license and in November, 1920, KDKA goes on the air to broadcast the election returns of the Harding-Cox presidential contest. Westinghouse takes out ads in the newspaper advertising radios for sale to the home consumer. This station receives the first official government license. The dark years of war give way to peace and prosperity. 2. BROADCASTING’S DECADE: Within a few years there are hundreds of stations entertaining thousands of people who buy or build their own receivers, mostly crystal sets with earphones. Under a government-sanctioned agreement, the Radio Corporation, RCA is formed to manage the patents for the technology of the receiver and transmitter. General Electric and Westinghouse are allowed to make receivers, Western Electric is allowed to build transmitters and AT&T is allowed to engage in “toll broadcasting” and “chain broadcasting.” 3. TECHNOLOGY: The decade begins with people listening to home made crystal sets with headphones, progresses to large battery-operated sets with dozens of dials and a horn speaker to electric console radios designed as fine furniture, single knob tuning and loudspeakers. 4. ADVERTISING: By 1923, WEAF in New York accepts the first “radio ad.” Because this station is owned by AT&T, it is the only station allowed to engage in “toll broadcasting” under the RCA agreements. Other stations are already advertising because no one can stop them. Many stations are owned by businesses and their only reason for broadcasting is to sell something. 5. NETWORKS: Having broken the AT&T monopoly on “chain broadcasting” NBC and CBS are formed as the first radio networks by the late 1920s. 6. REGULATION: The radio dial is filled with hundreds of poorly regulated transmitters, many interfering with each other to the point where no one can get clear reception. The Federal Radio Commission is formed and the Radio Act of 1927 is passed which re-assigns stations to clearer frequencies, and for the first time makes radio stations operate in the public interest, convenience and necessity. The decade ends with radio as a fully formed industry. Amos and Andy is #1. The roaring 20s will give way to the great depression. A major social change is on the way. 7. PRODUCT PLACEMENT: Mike Adams writes a book called the Radio Boys and Girls , all about early wireless & radio. McFarland Publishing, 2015. 1930-1940 – RADIO MATURES 1. RADIO AS A BIG BUSINESS: The depression and people begin to listen to and depend on radio to uplift them during a major economic crisis. President Roosevelt is the first “radio president” and his “fireside chats” help to give confidence to Americans during their darkest hour. 2. BIG SHOWS: Big stars, big salaries, big unions; programming is national over NBC red & blue, CBS, Mutual networks. Programming consists of variety, comedy, soap operas, serious drama, live music, quiz shows 3. THE DECADE OF THE SPONSOR: Advertisers, through their agencies, own and control entire programs, hire and fire talent. Shows are named for the sponsor. Scary. 4. THE FCC IS FORMED: In 1934, it replaces the FRC and regulates radio. Their mandate is very similar to the old FRC. At the start of the decade they try to clean up the content of broadcast ads and claims, even take a few self-described “radio doctors” off the air. By the end of the decade they will complain that radio is not local enough, that the un-licensed national networks control the programming but the stations are licensed to serve local communities. 5. PRESS-RADIO WARS: Newspapers fear that the immediacy of radio news will drive them out of business. They refuse to let radio stations read from their pages until after the papers hit the streets. Eventually AP and UP are formed, and CBS radio forms a news departments. 6. RADIO-MUSICIAN WARS: The musicians union, trying for even more power refuses to let their musicians perform on radio until new agreements are worked out. Some stations play records of foreign artists not covered by the AF of M. 7. EDWIN ARMSTRONG INVENTS FM: Only the engineers care that there is a new delivery service that eliminates the static and noise and the bad audio AM. Station owners are making a fortune and they don’t want to make existing receivers obsolete. FM will sleep until the 1970s. 8. WAR IN EUROPE: Walter Cronkite, Edward R. Murrow, and others build their reputations as the first radio journalists. By the end of the decade radio is an important source for news. 1940-1950 – RADIO SERVES 1. WWII: Radio is the voice of the war effort. Entertainers soothe a confused public, news reports inform. Radio unites. 2. TELEVISION STANDARDS: In June 1941 the NTSC determines that television will be 525 lines, 60 fields, interlaced scanning. In December, 1941 Pearl Harbor involves us in the War and industry is converted to war materials. 3. POST-WAR AFFLUENCE: After the war ends in 1945, Johnny comes marching home, gets a good job, gets married, buys a home in the suburbs, buys a car and refrigerator, even a new radio or two. The babies that result will become a major population by the mid-50s. 4. TELEVISION ARRIVES: By the late 1940s, television catches on. The years 1948 – 1952 are growth years for TV like the early 1920’s were for radio. Programming is mostly controlled by the same networks and sponsors as radio. Rural areas will not get TV until the decades end. 1950-1960 – RADIO STRUGGLES 1. RADIO WITH PICTURES: All the big stars and programs and advertisers that made the 1930s and 1940s the “golden age of radio” defect to TV. Radio must localize, play records. 2. MOVIES SUFFER: TV is such a novelty that people actually stay home from the movies. The movies fight back with gimmicks like cinemascope, 3-D, big spectacles. They forget the scripts. 3. ROCK AND ROLL EMERGES: By the mid-50s, white entertainers who imitated and emulated black R&B singers from the 1940s were starting to be heard in big cities like New York and Cleveland. Elvis Presley and others were getting air play and selling records. Local radio is changed as some disc jockeys begin to sell records and mirror and influence the emerging youth culture, the baby boomers (born beginning in 1946) growing up into consumers. 4. RADIO IS ALMOST SAVED: By the end of the 50s, rock and roll artists are on TV. Imagine radio, being both on and ultimately being revived by the medium that almost killed it earlier. 5. FORMAT RADIO: Todd Storz, sitting in a restaurant in the mid 1950s, noticed how teens-to-be-soon-to-be-known-as-baby-boomers would always play the same songs over and over again on the jukebox. Why not make radio programming like that, short play lists, repeated. 6. RADIO NETWORKS EVOLVE: With all the entertainment programs going to television, and with most radio becoming disc-jockey-based, radio networks are left with only news. 7. SPOT RADIO: By the end of the decade, entire sponsor control of programming gives way to advertisers being able to buy a 30 or 60 second spot within a program. Now an advertiser could “participate” in the sponsorship of a program instead of owning it outright. Partly this change was hastened by the “blacklisting” of writers, announcers and musicians by advertisers who believed that some radio people had communist ties, wanted to overthrow the government. 1960-1970 – RADIO REINVENTS 1. TOP 40 AM DOMINATES: Probably based on the early work of programmers like MacClendon and Bill Drake, hundreds of AM stations embrace a “top-40 time and temperature” format. The saying, “be bright, be brief” was, it seemed, posted in every control room. Stations played three minute songs. The music was still controlled by cynical old white men. There were lots of jingles and promotions. Programming, music and contests are now targeted to a specific age group (12-35) based on demographic research showing this group has money to spend on good and services. The newly affluent middle class. 2. MIKE ADAMS: In 1963 Mike, now the CHRS Webmaster, makes his debut on WCOL-AM, a “top-40” AM station in Columbus, Ohio. Why is this significant? It’s not really, but Mike is the writer of this Web history and can do whatever he wants. 3. BEATLES: In 1963, just as the AM top 40 stations seemed to be sounding tired, a group of British acts arrived to influence the world music scene. Led by the Beatles and Stones, AM top-40 would rebound because of the new music. 4. UNDERGROUND AND PROTEST: The stage is about to be set for big changes. The audience would provide the catalyst for change. Suddenly there is much more music, much of it bold, most of it not controlled by traditional companies, much of it coming out of San Francisco and LA, much influenced by the 1968 Monterey Pop Festival. Campus war protests as the baby boomers hit college and fear the draft. Drugs and sexual experimentation. KSAN-FM . 5. FM MAKES A COMEBACK: For a system that was invented nearly 40 years earlier, it took a long time for FM to overtake AM. Pop music was better and it demanded a delivery service that sounded as good as a home audio system. AM stations still refused to play the new music from albums and were suddenly facing new competition from FM stations that would play the music. 1970-1980 – RADIO BORES 1. RADIO IS PREDICTABLE: AM Top 40 begins the decade with lock on the ratings. Even though it’s sound was stale, in some markets more than 50% of the people using radio are still tuned by habit to that “one big legendary AM station.” By the middle of the decade most of these major stations were struggling. AM stations even tried to meet the challenge by going “stereo” but no one cared. The big FM’s would rule by the decades end. 2. RADIO MAKES LOTS OF MONEY: The big music stations, once AM and now FM were making lots of money. There are plenty of listeners and times are good as far as jobs and money. Advertisers want to buy radio. There is even Disco on FM! 3. FORMATS FRAGMENT: There are no longer just two formats, top-40 on AM and progressive rock” on FM; now there are soft hits, old rock, new rock, classic rock, disco, young soul, old soul, Latino, etc. Each station has only a small segment of the audience. 4. RADIO NETWORKS RETURN: With inexpensive satellite technology available to every station, hundreds of new radio networks emerge and die, mostly offering music formats delivered by big city DJ’s. Smaller stations automate with them but it makes the station less local-sounding, less-appealing to listeners and sponsors. 1980-1990 – RADIO STRUGGLES 1. DE-REGULATION: The Reagan administration de-regulates the industry. Stations now have to satisfy the demands of the marketplace instead of the demands of Federal regulation. Freely Translated: if it doesn’t make immediate money for your station, don’t do it. News and public affairs suffered. If you were a news writer, reporter and reader as every station had to employ in the 1970’s, now your station was no longer required to have news. 2. BUY-SELL BUY-SELL: Like the house you bought for a high price in the late 1980’s, the radio station you also bought is worth less than you paid. This means cutbacks, more automation, less news and public affairs types. In the 1980s almost half of the radio stations changed hands. 3. NEW OWNERS, NEW CHALLENGES: For young people seeking a career in radio the good news was if you are good at sales, promotion or production of promotions, you’ll work. 4. A SMALLER PIE: The number of stations swelled to 12,000 and in major and large markets, there were perhaps 100 to 200 stations vying for listeners. The era of Niche Programming and formats begins and now there is a format for every narrow interest. Again, less people have to do more. To succeed you have to be above average, tenacious, persistent. 5. AM TRIES A COMEBACK: Helped with new technical regulations, promises of fewer stations and an expanded AM band, the FCC and station owners try to save AM one more time. 1990-2000 – RADIO COMPETES 1. AUTOMATION SAVES THE DAY: Less people do more work. New radio station owners want to cut costs, use automation to run three stations at once. One office, engineering, announcing staff, three stations at once. No union problems because the unions in radio are practically irrelevant. 2. NEW GROUP OWNERS & DUOPOLIES: One company can now own 25-25-25 plus and in San Jose and San Francisco some companies own many stations. In this market most of each day is automated. 3. DIGITAL TAKES OVER RADIO TECHNOLOGY: Now an entire day can be stored, edited and broadcast using the hard drive of a computer. Production that used to involve splicing tape is now done with the click of a mouse. Analog devices like cart machines will disappear by 2004, to be replaced with computer memory. 4. NEW DELIVERY SERVICES: Digital stuff, DBS, DMX, Internet, etc; all future non-FM delivery services. Still, AM is around after almost 100 years. And just like the transition to television, current owners want to be first in line when licenses are issued for these new services. 5. TALK RADIO’S DECADE: Rush, Conservative politics, and suddenly many struggling AMs are revived and saved again by talk radio. 2000-2010 – OUR DECADE IN BERKELEY 1. CHRS saves the building of local AM classic KRE: In the 1973 film, American Graffiti, legendary DJ Wolfman Jack is seen on the air in a radio studio, also seen answering the door of an art deco-looking building. That is KRE in Berkeley, once covered with modern-day graffiti. Our Society has restored this historical piece of California radio history. It was our headquarters. 2015 – THE PATH FORWARD After having lost our lease at KRE due to bankruptcy and sale, we purchased for our museum a building on Alameda Island in the Bay Area close to Oakland and San Francisco. See the details 1. Stay tuned to radio on your iPad, iPhone, maybe you even have a real radio! See us if you want one. JOIN US! THE CHRS eBAY STORE “KSAN’S LIVE JIVE” CD A benefit CD pulled from an incredible music archive that includes hundreds of KSAN live broad- casts. Proceeds go to CHRS and its Bay Area Radio Hall Of Fame.  CLICK HERE TO ORDER “KSAN’s LIVE JIVE” CD CHRS / BARM NEWS

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History of EMI | EMI Archive Trust > About > History of EMI Whatever the culture, whatever the society, wherever there are people, there is music. Throughout most of history, music could only be heard by those immediately around the musician. Music was a live, transient art form. Then, just before the turn of the nineteenth century, everything changed……. 1887-1919 In 1887, Emile Berliner, invented his ‘Gramophone’ method of recording and reproducing sound using discs, a process that would revolutionise the way music was heard and experienced. EMI’s history starts at one of the companies that Berliner formed: The Gramophone Company in London. Established in 1897, it took the lead in bringing together the new sound recording machines and musicians. Initially, the medium was largely shunned by established stars, as many saw it as something of a gimmick. The Gramophone Company however realised that these artists were the key to introducing recorded music to wider audiences. Through forging relationships with these stars, within a few years its roster of artists included Adelina Patti, Nellie Melba and, perhaps most significantly, the Italian tenor Enrico Caruso. Over the course of his career, The Gramophone Company released some 240 Caruso records, and his substantial sales and resultant fame around the world – not to mention his significant royalty earnings – persuaded many other artists to embrace the new technology. The Gramophone Company was internationally-minded right from the start. Within a year of being formed, subsidiaries were established across much of Europe and just a few years later the company was operating across Europe, Russia and the Middle East as well as in Australia, India, China and parts of Africa. By 1906, less than 10 years after starting up, over 60 per cent of the company’s revenues came from outside the UK. The Gramophone Company wasn’t the only music company formed in London in 1897. In the same year The Columbia Phonograph Company, EMI’s other genealogical thread, opened for business. Established by the American Columbia Phonograph Company General, Columbia traded in cylinder records and the ‘graphophones’ that played them. For the first few years of the music industry these cylinders outsold Berliner’s flat gramophone records before the tide began to turn in favour of discs towards the end of the century’s first decade. Columbia too expanded rapidly oversees, doing business across Europe and in Egypt by 1903. By 1914 The Gramophone Company was selling nearly four million records a year, but the outbreak of the First World War that year caused serious disruption to its Columbia’s business as their factories were largely turned over to the manufacture of munitions. By the end of the war The Gramophone Company had lost its sizeable German business and was unable to regain control of it (it is still operating today as the classical label Deutsche Grammophon). The company had also lost all of its operations in Russia due to the war and the Russian Revolution. 1920-1929 By the 1920s, the music industry was back on track and was soon booming as consumers bought more and more music. Columbia had recording contracts with some of the top conductors of the day including Sir Thomas Beecham, whilst over at The Gramophone Company, their leading artist of the time was the British composer and conductor Sir Edward Elgar. The company also produced recordings from the great orchestras such as the Berlin Philharmonic and the Vienna Philharmonic. In 1926, The Gramophone Company released its first million seller: O For The Wings of a Dove from Mendelssohn’s Hear My Prayer, sung by 14-year-old Ernest Lough on the HMV label. During the decade, Columbia expanded through a number of acquisitions of record companies in Europe, including Odeon in Germany, Pathe in France and, in 1926, the Parlophone label in London, which had a roster of classical artists including one of the leading tenors of the time, Richard Tauber, and which today is still one of EMI’s most important labels. The technology of recording and producing records was also improving. During the mid-1920s the Gramophone Company began releasing double-sided discs and in 1926 electrical recording was introduced with consequent dramatic improvements in quality. 1930-1949 Everything was on a steady upward curve for the Gramophone Company and Columbia until the 1930s when the Great Depression hit. Before the decade was out, sales of records had plummeted by over 80%. In response to this new business climate, in 1931 The Gramophone Company and The Columbia Graphophone Company agreed to a merger. The new company was called Electric and Musical Industries, or EMI as it became known. Both The Gramophone Company and Columbia had their own research and development departments, and not long after the formation of EMI, Alan Blumlein, a remarkable EMI scientist who had joined the company from Columbia, developed the world’s first system for recording and playing stereo sound, although given the depressed nature of the market, stereo recordings would not be widely commercially available for another 25 years. As well as stereo technology, under the genius of Blumlein the EMI labs also gave birth to electrical television (allowing the UK to be the first country in the world to launch a public television service) and radar, which would be of great benefit to the Allied effort during World War II. After the end of the war, further technological developments were introduced into the industry. For the first time magnetic tape recorders became available for studios, allowing artists to perform several takes of any given song instead of having to make the recording all in one go as before. Tape also made live performances outside the studio much easier to record. EMI’s research labs were very involved in the development of tape and the company started designing and selling its own models. Another key development came in 1948 when the first vinyl 33rpm LP was released in the US. Together with the new 45rpm singles, these formats were cheaper, lighter and more durable than the old 78rpm shellac records. An LP could also hold 25 minutes of music on each side, much more than a 78. Both were instantly popular and dramatically expanded the market for music. 1950-1959 At this time, EMI was the licensee for the major record companies RCA Victor and Columbia Records (the US-based descendant of the original parent company of Columbia Graphophone) outside of North and South America. Among the artists on RCA was a young singer from Mississippi called Elvis Presley. His first records outside the Americas, starting with Heartbreak Hotel in 1956, were released by EMI on its HMV Pop label. Over the next two years EMI released a dozen or so of the first Elvis hits including Blue Suede Shoes, Love Me Tender, Hound Dog and his first UK number one, All Shook Up. However the license agreement between EMI and RCA ended in 1957 when RCA established its own office in London. Columbia had similarly decided to self-market its releases itself internationally and ended its agreement with EMI in 1952. Together Columbia and RCA supplied most of EMI’s US music, so in response EMI went looking for American artists of its own. In 1955 it bought one of the largest US record companies, Capitol Records. Capitol, based on the West Coast of America, had an impressive roster of artists including Frank Sinatra, Nat King Cole, Peggy Lee, Dean Martin, Les Paul and Gene Vincent. As well as developing its roster of American artists, EMI increased its investment in UK talent such that within a decade EMI releases accounted for about 40 per cent of the UK pop music chart. Artists signed to EMI in the 1950s included Adam Faith Shirley Bassey, Frankie Vaughan, Max Bygraves and Alma Cogan, all of whom enjoyed considerable success and were leaders of a British pop explosion. And there was the most successful of them all, Cliff Richard. After his first record, Move It, was released by EMI in 1958, Cliff Richard would go on to become one of the most successful and enduring artists in British pop music. 1960-1969 If the 1950s saw British pop music grow, in the 1960s it exploded. And EMI was right at the forefront, not least due to a new band that had just signed to the company’s Parlophone label. Although The Beatles first single, Love Me Do, only reached number 17 in the UK charts, it didn’t take British record buyers long to realise what they were missing. The follow-up, Please, Please Me, went to number two and the world of popular music has never been the same since. Before the year was out The Beatles released From Me To You, She Loves You and I Want To Hold Your Hand. All three went to number one – the first of their 17 UK number ones. In addition to The Beatles, Epstein also brought other ‘Merseybeaters’, including Gerry and the Pacemakers and Cilla Black to EMI. In one year, 1963, EMI releases accounted for 15 out of the 19 number one singles. The following year eight EMI artists held the number one position in the British singles chart for a total of 41 weeks. This success was also mirrored in the US, where in addition to Capitol Records signing The Beach Boys, EMI concluded a license deal with Tamla Motown. The company’s roster during the 1960s and 1970s was simply incredible – Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, Diana Ross and the Supremes, the Jackson Five, The Temptations, Smokey Robinson, the list goes on. By the 1970s, EMI could rely on two out of every three Motown releases being a hit, an unheard of success ratio in the music business. 1970-1979 EMI had always been a very international company with offices all over the world, but it had mostly been the company’s classical records that had sold overseas. The huge explosion in pop music led by The Beatles and the other British (mostly EMI-signed) bands who followed in their wake changed all that and gave the company an unprecedented global outlook. In the late 1960s, a new kind of music began to emerge – ‘progressive’ rock. EMI established ‘Harvest’, a dedicated label to cater specifically for this more left field style of music. By the early 1970s their roster included Deep Purple and The Pink Floyd. The year before Pink Floyd’s seminal Dark Side of the Moon, EMI signed their first deal with Queen. With their intricately written songs and Mercury’s outrageous flamboyance, Queen sold millions of records and firmly established a reputation as one of the best live acts in the world. On the business side, the 1970s saw EMI acquire the cream of UK music publishing. The company already had a small publishing operation called Ardmore and Beechwood which began expanding with the acquisition of the Keith Prowse and Central Songs catalogues in 1969 and the Affiliated Music Publishers group in 1973. Renamed EMI Music Publishing in 1974, the division expanded further in 1976 with the purchase of the Screen Gems and Colgems libraries from Hollywood studio Columbia Pictures, giving EMI a major presence in film music. In 1979, US record label Liberty/United Artists was acquired by EMI. The company included the storied Blue Note Records. From its unrivalled roster to its photography and design, Blue Note is a musical icon. Established in 1939, the Blue Note catalogue includes jazz greats such as Miles Davis and Thelonious Monk. 1980-1991 By the start of the 1980s, the record industry was suffering from a severe sales decline. Together with the end of the disco phenomenon, this left the field wide open for new genres to emerge. One of the first heavy metal bands to make an impression on the charts was the EMI-signed London five-piece Iron Maiden. Over twenty years later, the band are still recording for EMI, still tour relentlessly, and are leading a new generation of rockers all over the world. Other genres of music emerging at this time were electronic and sample-based, such as house and techno and hip-hop. Arguably the most influential band for all these is Kraftwerk, who began experimenting with computers and electronic music in the 1970s. Other successful artists for EMI at the start of the 1980s included Kate Bush and Duran Duran. The late 1980s and early 1990s were a period of huge change for EMI. Having released its first recordings on the new CD format in 1983, the silver shiny discs accounted for the majority of albums sold by EMI by the 1990s. Around this time EMI also embarked on a series of business deals that would transform the company. In 1989 SBK Entertainment World, a music publishing company whose catalogue included Singin’ In The Rain, Wizard of Oz and Santa Claus Is Coming To Town, was acquired, making EMI Music Publishing the undisputed world leader. In the same year, EMI acquired a 50% stake in Chrysalis Records. Formed in 1969, Chrysalis Records was the company behind artists ranging from Jethro Tull to Blondie. Then in 1990 EMI Music Publishing was expanded again with the acquisition of the Filmtrax catalogue which further extended EMI’s leadership in music publishing, and the following year EMI bought the remaining 50% of Chrysalis Records, taking full ownership of the label. 1992-2006 1992 was a year of huge change for EMI as it was in this year that the company bought the Virgin Music Group, at the time the largest independent music company in the world with a roster of artists that included the Rolling Stones. This series of deals in the 1990s completely transformed and re-energised EMI, and the company headed into the decade with new momentum. There were a number of key signings as many of today’s best known artists, including Radiohead and Blur, started their careers. From Cliff Richard onwards, EMI has been the home to the UK’s top music stars, a tradition that has continued over the last decade with the most successful British pop band, the Spice Girls, and the country’s biggest male artist, Robbie Williams. EMI continued to grow and bring successful companies and entrepreneurs into the Group. In 1996, 50% of the Jobete music publishing catalogue, which was established by Motown founder Berry Gordy and includes over 15,000 classic Motown songs, was acquired. EMI purchased the remaining stake in 2003 and 2004. EMI Music Publishing expanded further in 1999 with the acquisition of 40,000 song copyrights from the Windswept Pacific catalogue and a majority stake in UK publisher Hit & Run. Given that the roots of EMI stretch right back to the very start of recorded sound and that the company invented stereo recording, it’s hardly surprising that EMI has stayed at the forefront of technological change in the industry. EMI’s first websites went live in 1993 and 1994 and EMI was the first company to release a digital album download, David Bowie’s Hours, back in 1999. EMI also launched the first internet video single, Lenny Kravitz’s Dig In in 2001 and in 2002 was the first major music company to make new music available digitally at the same time as it is on the radio. Emi Archive Trust Our objectives are: “the advancement of education and research and, in particular, to foster and promote the study and appreciation of the art techniques and development of sound recording and the history of the sound recording industry”. Recent happenings

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History of Record Labels and the Music Industry by Alex Cosper Introduction 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s The beginning of the recording industry is often thought of as Thomas Edison's patent on phonograph technology in the late 19th century. While rudimentary sound capturing experiments began in the early 1800s with tuning forks, these soundwaves were unable to be reproduced. The concept of recording advanced with the 1857 patent of the "phonautograph," which was awarded in France to Edouard-Leon Scott de Martinville, an inventor who was also a typesetter and bookseller. Scott de Martinville had been inspired by how photographs preserved images, which he believed could be done with sound. But his experiments did not have a good solution yet for playback. In fact, it took many more decades for scientists to figure out how to make those early recordings audible to the human ear. Edison was clearly the first mass marketer of both phonographs and cylinders that stored audio. Although this device did not catch on, it became an early prototype for recording equipment. Clearly, Edison's phonograph three decades later had similar features to the phonautograph. A big difference was that his recordings were made on wax instead of paper. The next major milestone that opened the door for actual mechanical reproduction of sound was a process called "photoengraving," which was an existing process that another French scientist named Charles Cros applied to sound reproduction. His ideas filled the missing link between recording and playback. This concept was designed to be an improvement of the phonautograph, pressing metal printing plates on metal discs and cylinders. Cros refined the idea later in the year and called it a "paleophone." Unfortunately, he was also a poor poet who did not have the means to invest in building this machine. Both Scott de Martinville and Cros died before the 1890s, which was really the first decade that recordings became popular with the public. In November 1877, the same year that Cros envisioned and documented his sound reproduction ideas, Edison announced his invention of the phonograph, which was covered in Scientific American and several news publications. As early as May 9 that year the Chicago Daily Tribune reported that Edison was experimenting with a "talking machine." Edison was awarded a US patent the following February. Edison initially wanted to create an answering machine to record calls following the introduction of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876. Edison called it a "talking machine" while it was officially called the "phonograph." The machine was based on capturing soundwaves through a horn to a diaphragm that vibrated, moving a stylus (needle), which cut grooves into tin foil that rotated on a cylinder. Sound could be reproduced when the cylinder was played back on the same machine. Initially, listeners needed earphones to hear this sound. Bell's team helped Edison improve the audio quality from cylinders by developing wax-covered cardboard cylinders in 1886. This team also came up with an improved recording stylus that moved vertically while carving grooves into the material, leading to a US patent of the "graphophone," awarded to Chichester Bell (Alexander's cousin) and Charles Sumner Tainter. They held their patents under the name Volta Laboratory Association. Bell and Tainter went on to launch the Volta Graphophone Company in 1886. This company was taken over by Edward Easton a few years later as the name changed to the American Graphophone Company, a subsidiary of the North American Phonograph Company until 1894. A hybrid of the phonograph and graphophone was patented in 1887 by Emile Berliner, who developed a "disc record gramophone." Based in Washington DC, Berliner was an immigrant from Germany. Even though Edison had tested discs as an alternative to cylinders in his early experiments, he preferred cylinders while Berliner believed in discs and emerged as another one of Edison's first competitors. Edison eventually realized his tin foil cylinders were inferior, so by 1887 he shifted to wax cylinders. In May 1889 the era of the "phonograph parlor" began in San Francisco. These listening centers created a new industry that allowed people to pay a nickel per selection for listening experiences. Within the next five years phonograph parlors spread across major American cities, ushering in the first era of the recording business. At the same time, most major cities had at least one phonograph company that made recordings. The 1880s and 1890s were recession eras, so many people could not afford Edison's $150 machine. But in 1894 Columbia introduced a $40 spring-motored machine that started becoming popular in the home market. Soon the sale of recordings began to rival sheet music. The very first phonograph company had been called the Edison Speaking Phonograph Company in 1878. In 1896 Edison changed the name to the National Phonograph Company. By this point Easton's company was called the Columbia Phonograph Company, named after its location in Washington DC. It started in 1888 as a marketer and licensee of Edison phonograps and cylinders. Meanwhile, Berliner established the American Gramophone Company in 1891 and the United States Gramophone Company in 1893. The American Graphophone Company was the first to go international by setting up offices in London and Paris in 1899. Berliner was the first disc manufacturer to issue 7 inch 78 rpm records, which could hold two minutes of audio. By contrast, Edison's cylinders turned at 120 rpm, causing them to wear out faster. On the other hand, the faster they spun, the louder the sound, which was Edison's focus in the 1890s, as he worked on increasing the speed through the decade. The battle between Berliner's discs and Edison's cylinders would be settled within the next decade as Berliner emerged the "victor." Coincidentally, after Berliner transferred his patents to associate Eldridge Johnson while maintaining a share of the company, the name was changed to the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1901. Although Edison founded the huge conglomerate General Electric in 1892, he would prove to be unsuccessful at marketing music in the next century, as Edison Records collapsed in the Great Depression while Columbia and Victor survived as the biggest record labels. Billboard Advertising was launched in 1894 as an entertainment trade magazine that reported on news about amusement parks, circuses, vaudeville and music business activity. Although the magazine did report on popular music, it did not develop weekly music charts until the next century. At that time, other trade magazines such as The Phonoscope and The Phonogram published monthly music songs lists, although they were not ranked by a scientific methodology. The book Joel Whitburn's Pop Memories 1890-1954 lists the first number one song in history as the marching band classic "Semper Fidelis" by U.S. Marine Band on August 2, 1890, issued on Columbia.

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History's Dumpster: The History of Cassettes History's Dumpster for Smartphones, Tablets and Old/Slow Computers http://historysdumpster.blogspot.com/?m=1 Sunday, July 15, 2012 The History of Cassettes The advent of the cartridge style tape began with the usual seven words that begin the road to any invention. Fourteen if you count those other seven nasty words (that usually precede these): "There's GOT to be a better way!" Tape, like the wire recordings that came before them were on spools or reels and had to be hand threaded through the playback mechanism. A time consuming feat in itself for the average person.  And prone to accidents. When the first reel tape became available to the masses, it had immediate advantages over the vinyl records of the time. First, they were in stereo years before the first stereo LPs were available. They didn't scratch or have surface noise (other than a very low level audible hiss. Noise reduction would be another 15 years away.) And best yet, you could record 3 hours of uninterrupted, high quality music or radio broadcasts per reel. But to a consumer base who were used to instant playback as offered by records, they didn't want to waste time setting up and threading a reel of tape and take the risk of any clumsy and at the time, expensive accidents. No matter what the audio advantages were. RCA noticed this and sympathized. And ever the innovators, they began work on a simple, self threading style of tape and unveiled it in 1958.                                           Blank tapes, as well as pre-recorded titles like these, were made available. They were played on machines like this; Most of these machines and tapes still work gloriously after all these years. Note the RCA plug inputs on the side of the unit. They're STILL compatible with home stereo/computer inputs/outputs of TODAY with a simple cheap patch cord! It did impress an number of people. But the problem was it was still big and bulky. And reel tape deck machines shrank in size over early '60s. Super small, but not super sounding Philips developed the Compact Audio Cassette in 1963. At the time, it was only one of several competing cartridge based formats (including RCA's cartridge) designed to simplify tape recording.  The very first cassette tape recorder, from 1963 The very first cassette tape, 1963 The format initially offered fairly poor fidelity and was marketed for voice recording and dictation. It's super slow speed, 1 7/8 ips pretty much made sure of that.   But Philips approached Sony Corporation in Japan after realizing that Japanese acceptance of the new format would vastly improve the chances of success in America and Europe. After some hardball negotiation, Philips agreed to license the system to Sony without royalties. In fact, by 1965 Philips had opened the format up to other manufacturers free of charge.   Technology improved quickly, including an ability to play stereo tapes, and new tape formulations soon assured a higher quality sound from the cassette than the earliest tapes.  One of the very first pre-recorded cassette tapes. From 1968. Pre-recorded cassettes quietly appeared on the market in the late '60s and at first, didn't gain much traction. First, there were few car stereos.....  ....and very few high-end home units at the time to play them on. The  8-Track was still the dominate portable tape playing medium. Most cassette players were tinny sounding mono portables.   And cassette tapes, for all their improvements still sounded pretty bad compared to the reel tape and even the 8-Track. But it was soldiers in the Vietnam war that quickly embraced the cassette for it's small size and ease of mailing to and from home. By the dawn of the '70s, things began looking up. Even more improvements, such as Dolby noise reduction and increasingly better tape formulations started putting cassettes on nearly the same par as the other tape formats. Ampex and Sony were the companies that REALLY pushed for the cassette's survival in it's early days and paved the way for other companies such as Maxell, Memorex and TDK.... Remember when pre-recorded cassettes came in boxes and colours like THIS? Ever try to REMOVE a cassette from one of THESE things? It's vice like grip made for an epic struggle that often took about 5 minutes average just to remove the thing from it's case! New, easier opening cases, similar to what blank cassette manufacturers were using for their products were introduced by the major record companies a few years later..... The first Cr02 (chrome) blank cassette tapes came out in the early '70s. These tapes were not compatible for recording in a Normal bias cassette deck because the erase head needed to re-record over a chrome tape had to be much more powerful than a Normal bias erase head as well as the recording head itself had to be more powerful to make a loud enough recording on them. But a normal bias cassette deck can PLAY a chrome tapes (or later metal formulations, which required even more powerful erase/record heads) perfectly well. For those with unswitchable Normal bias decks, increasingly better Normal bias formulations appeared to put the lowly Normal bias tape nearly on par with the chrome tapes  By 1975, cassette tape was starting to overtake the 8-Track as the popular tape format of choice and by the mid-late '70s, the first car stereo cassette players and stereo portables had become popular and the cassettes had improved to the point where it rendered the reel tape pretty much redundant beyond radio stations and professional recording studios. New hope for those left behind with 8-Track machines The Sony Walkman was introduced in 1979 and acceptance of the cassette as a serious home and portable medium started really taking off.  In 1980. The British New Wave group Bow Wow Wow released the first cassette single "C·30 C·60 C·90 Go!" in the UK.    By 1983, pre-recorded cassettes were actually starting to outsell vinyl LPs. Record companies began doing extra gimmicks such as adding extra songs to the cassette versions of their albums to help foster the trend. Blank cassettes were also unbelievably cheap. And I do mean CHEAP..... New looks to the cassettes themselves helped improve the staid appearance of the typical cassette. Remember THESE things? (1985) In 1985, Warner/Reprise broke the mold of the old bland pre-recorded cassette look by introducing clear cassette shells and cases for their pre-recorded cassettes, starting with Prince's Around The World In A Day album and Brothers In Arms from Dire Straits.  It was in part a reaction to the look of the newly introduced CD, but also illustrated a higher quality mechanism and should the tape have problems, you could directly see what the problem was. Other record companies quickly followed - except for RCA and Columbia/Epic. They would use standard cassette shells and cases until 1989. ...and who could forget THESE? The standard playing time of a blank cassette tape was 60 to 90 minutes which corresponded to the typical playing time of a complete album for each side. There were 30 minute and 40 minute tapes available in the '70s (they were phased out by the beginning of the '80s) and some 120 minute tape lengths and TDK even made an insane 180 minute tape. The problem with the longest lengths (120 and especially 180 minute tapes) were they were on EXTREMELY thin tape, which were far more prone to stretching and breakage (the manufacturers themselves advised that you should not rewind or fast forward these tapes.) Due to the thinness of the tape, they also suffered from an effect called "print through", in which loud passages from adjacent layers of tape would increasingly echo through the tape several seconds earlier during playback. But with the introduction of the CD, the running time of a typical album increased by nearly 10 minutes. And the polymer backing had to be strengthened to allow rewind/fast forward capability as well as eliminating the print through effect, as CDs had a much wider dynamic range and louder volume level than a typical vinyl album or cassette. 110 minute cassettes were introduced by 1987. 1987 also saw the rebirth of the cassette single, this time for the US market. Which the recording companies hoped would jump start the sagging market for pop singles as sales of the 45 RPM record began to seriously decline. A&M records released Bryan Adams "Heat Of The Night" as a cassette single, the first one since the Bow Wow Wow cassette mentioned earlier. Note the unusual case. "O" slipcards would be introduced by Warner/Reprise a few weeks later with their first cassette singles and all recording companies - including A&M, immediately followed suit. The mid '80s to the mid '90s were the glory days of the cassette tape. And CD prices were still ridiculously expensive ($15 - $20 average). A lawsuit targeting the major record labels for overcharging the public in the late '80s and '90s for CDs resulted in CD prices dropping to nearly the same price as cassettes. And cassettes themselves got a high tech upgrade when the DCC (Digital Compact Cassette) was invented. They played and recorded special DCC tapes and even standard analog cassettes. DCC Cassette tape DCC Recorder/player But the tide really started turning in the late '90s with CD-Rs. With the new MP3 format and computers and some stereos capable of playing MP3 discs, a single all 128kb bitrate MP3 CD could play continuously for over 12 HOURS.  The last American major label pre-recorded cassettes were released in 2005. (In some areas such as India, Thailand and Indonesia, pre-recorded cassettes are STILL being manufactured.) But like all audio formats once considered "obsolete", they never truly are. And like vinyl, the cassette is enjoying a new revival too. Not from long time tape heads, but a new generation who are tired of virtual mediums like MP3s and want something PHYSICAL and retro-cool. As well as independent DIY rock groups who are sick of the corporatization of digital mediums and want something real instead of mass copied MP3s and CDs Bless 'em all......

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History of Long Play Records-- Great Inventions Early history RCA logo with Nipper, the RCA/HMV dog. A sound recording and reproduction device utilizing what were essentially disc records was described by Charles Cros of France in 1877 but never built. In 1878, Thomas Edison independently built the first working phonograph, a tinfoil cylinder machine. He intended it to be used as a voice recording medium, typically for office dictation. The phonograph cylinder dominated the recorded sound market beginning in the 1880s. Lateral-cut disc records were invented by Emile Berliner in 1888 and were used exclusively in toys until 1894, when Berliner began marketing disc records under the Berliner Gramophone label. The Edison "Blue Amberol" cylinder was introduced in 1912, with a longer playing time of around 4 minutes (at 160 rpm) and a more resilient playing surface than its wax predecessor, but the format was doomed due to the difficulty of reproducing recordings. By November 1918 the patents for the manufacture of lateral-cut disc records expired, opening the field for countless companies to produce them, causing disc records to overtake cylinders in popularity. They would dominate the market until the 1980s. Production of Amberol cylinders ceased in the late 1920s. Materials Edison cylinder phonograph ca. 1899 Early disc records were originally made of various materials including hard rubber. From 1897 onwards, earlier materials were largely replaced by a rather brittle formula of 25% "shellac" (a material obtained from the excretion of a southeast Asian beetle), a filler of a cotton compound similar to manila paper, powdered slate and a small amount of a wax lubricant. The mass production of shellac records began in 1898 in Hanover, Germany. Shellac records were the most common until the 1950s. Unbreakable records, usually of celluloid (an early form of plastic) on a pasteboard base, were made from 1904 onwards, but they suffered from an exceptionally high level of surface noise. In the 1890s the early recording formats of discs were usually seven inches (nominally 17.5 cm) in diameter. By 1910 the 10-inch (25.4cm) record was by far the most popular standard, holding about three minutes of music or entertainment on a side. From 1903 onwards, 12-inch records (30.5cm) were also commercially sold, mostly of classical music or operatic selections, with four to five minutes of music per side. Such records were usually sold separately, in plain paper or cardboard sleeves that may have been printed to show producer of the retailer's name and, starting in the 1930's, in collections held in paper sleeves in a cardboard or leather book, similar to a photograph album, and called record albums. Empty record albums were also sold that customers could use to store their records in. While a 78 rpm record is brittle and relatively easily broken, both the microgroove LP 33â…“ rpm record and the 45 rpm single records are made from vinyl plastic which is flexible and unbreakable in normal use. However, the vinyl records are easier to scratch or gouge. 78s come in a variety of sizes, the most common being 10 inch (25 cm) and 12 inch (30 cm) diameter, and these were originally sold in either paper or card covers, generally with a circular cutout allowing the record label to be seen. The Long-Playing records (LPs) usually come in a paper sleeve within a colour printed card jacket which also provides a track listing. 45 rpm singles and EPs (Extended Play) are of 7 inch (17.5 cm) diameter, the earlier copies being sold in paper covers. In 1930, RCA Victor launched the first commercially available vinyl long-playing record, marketed as "Program Transcription" discs. These revolutionary discs were designed for playback at 33â…“ rpm and pressed on a 30 cm diameter flexible plastic disc. In Roland Gelatt's book The Fabulous Phonograph, the author notes that RCA Victor's early introduction of a long-play disc was a commercial failure for several reasons including the lack of affordable, reliable consumer playback equipment and consumer wariness during the Great Depression.[1] However, vinyl's lower surface noise level than shellac was not forgotten, nor was its durability. In the late 30's, radio commercials and pre-recorded radio programs being sent to disc jockies started being stamped in vinyl, so they would not break in the mail. In the mid-40's, special DJ copies of records started being made of vinyl also, for the same reason. These were all 78 RPM. During and after World War II when shellac supplies were extremely limited, some 78 rpm records were pressed in vinyl instead of shellac (wax), particularly the six-minute 12" (30 cm) 78 rpm records produced by V-Disc for distribution to US troops in World War II. In the 40's, radio transcriptions, which were usually on 16 inch records, but sometimes 12 inch, were always made of vinyl, on 78 RPM. Beginning in 1939, Columbia Records continued development of this technology. Dr. Peter Goldmark and his staff undertook exhaustive efforts to address problems of recording and playing back narrow grooves and developing an inexpensive, reliable consumer playback system. In 1948, the 12" (30 cm) Long Play (LP) 33â…“ rpm microgroove record album was introduced by the Columbia Record at a dramatic New York press conference. In 1949, RCA Victor released the first 45 RPM single, 7" in diameter, with a large center hole to accommodate an automatic play mechanism on the changer, so a stack of singles would drop down one record at a time automatically after each play. A Soviet-era "Bones" record, scratched onto a discarded x-ray print. During the reign of the Communist Party in the former USSR, records were commonly homemade using discarded medical x-rays. These records, nicknamed "Bones", were usually inscribed with illegal copies of popular music banned by the government. They also became a popular means of distribution among Soviet punk bands; in addition to the high cost and low availability of vinyl, punk music was politically suppressed, and publishing outlets were limited. Speeds Earliest rotation speeds varied widely, but between 1900-1925 most records were recorded between 74-82 rpm. In 1925, 78.26 rpm was chosen as the standard because of the introduction of the electrically powered synchronous turntable motor. This motor ran at 3600 rpm with a 46:1 gear ratio which produced 78.26 rpm. In parts of the world that used 50 Hz current, the standard was 77.92 RPM, which was the speed at which a strobe disc with 77 lines would "stand still" in 50 Hz light. Thus these records became known as 78s (or "seventy-eights"). This term did not come into use until after World War II when a need developed to distinguish the 78 from other newer disc record formats, an example of a retronym. Earlier they were just called records, or when there was a need to distinguish them from cylinders, disc records. Standard records was also used, although the same term had also been used earlier for two-minute cylinders. After World War II, two new competing formats came on to the market and gradually replaced the standard "78": the 33â…“ rpm (often just referred to as the 33 rpm), and the 45 rpm. The 33â…“ rpm LP (for "long play") format was developed by Columbia Records and marketed in 1948. RCA Victor developed the 45 rpm format and marketed it in 1949, in response to Columbia. Both types of new disc used narrower grooves, intended to be played with a smaller stylus - typically 0.001" (25 µm) wide, compared to 0.003" (76 µm) for a 78 - so the new records were sometimes called Microgroove. In the mid-1950s all record companies agreed to a common recording standard called RIAA equalization. Prior to the establishment of the standard each company used its own preferred standard, requiring discriminating listeners to use preamplifiers with multiple selectable equalization curves. A number of recordings were pressed at 16â…” RPM, but these were mostly used for radio transcription discs or narrated publications for the blind and visually impaired, and were never widely commercially available. The older 78 format continued to be mass produced alongside the newer formats into the 1950s, and in a few countries, such as India , into the 1960s. As late as the 1970s, some children's records were released at the 78 rpm speed. The commercial rivalry between RCA Victor and Columbia Records led to RCA Victor's introduction of what it had intended to be a competing vinyl format, the 7" (175 mm) /45 rpm disc. For a two-year period from 1948 to 1950, record companies and consumers faced uncertainty over which of these formats would ultimately prevail in what was known as the "War of the Speeds". (See also format war ) Eventually the 12" (300 mm) 33â…“ rpm LP prevailed as the predominant format for musical albums, and the 7" (175 mm) 45 rpm disc or "single" established a significant niche for shorter duration discs, typically containing one song on each side. The 45 rpm discs typically emulated the playing time of the former 78 rpm discs, while the LP discs provided up to one half hour of time per side (though typically 15 to 20 minutes). The 45 rpm discs also came in a variety known as Extended play (EP) which achieved up to 25 minutes play at the expense of attenuating (and possibly compressing) the sound to reduce the width required by the groove. From the mid-1950s through the 1960s, in the US the common home "record player" or "stereo" would typically have had these features: a three- or four-speed player with changer (78, 45, 33â…“, and sometimes 16â…” rpm); a combination cartridge with both 78 and microgroove styluses; and some kind of adapter for playing the 45s with their larger center hole. The large center hole on 45s allows for easier handling by jukebox mechanisms. RCA 45s can also be adapted to the smaller spindle of an LP player with a plastic snap-in insert known as a 'spider'; such inserts were prevalent starting in the 1960s. Deliberately playing or recording records at the wrong speed was a common amusement. For example, playing the song "I'm on Fire" from Bruce Springsteen's 33â…“ LP at a 45 speed gives the singer a falsetto singing voice that sounds very much like Dolly Parton. Subsequently, playing a 45 rpm recording of Dolly Parton at 33â…“ gives her a voice a husky, almost masculine tone. Canadian musician Nash the Slash took advantage of this speed/tonal effect with his 1981 12" disc Decomposing, which featured four instrumental tracks that were engineered to play at any speed (with the playing times listed for 33â…“, 45 and 78 rpm playback). Faster playback made the tracks sound like punk rock or power pop, while slower speeds gave the songs a thick, heavy metal effect.   Explanation The normal commercial disc is engraved with two sound bearing concentric spiral grooves, one on each side of the disc, running from the outside edge towards the centre. Since the late 1910s, both sides of the record have been used to carry the grooves. The recording is played back by rotating the disc clockwise at a constant rotational speed with a stylus (needle) placed in the groove, converting the vibrations of the stylus into an electric signal (see magnetic cartridge), and sending this signal through an amplifier to loudspeakers. Single-Record (45 rpm) 12" (30 cm) 45 rpm extended-playing ( 12-inch (30 cm) single , Maxi Single and EP ) format 12" (30 cm) 78 rpm format, 4-5 minutes 10" (25 cm) 78 rpm format, 3 minutes 7" (17.5 cm) 45 rpm ( single ) format 7" (17.5 cm) 45 rpm extended-playing ( EP ) format   Less common formats Structure of a typical record The majority of records are pressed on black vinyl . The colouring material used to blacken the transparent PVC plastic mix is carbon black, the generic name for the finely divided carbon particles produced by the incomplete burning of a mineral oil based hydrocarbon. Carbon black increases the strength of the disc and renders it opaque. 200x 33 rpm vinyl record Some records are pressed on coloured vinyl or with paper pictures embedded in them ("picture discs"). These discs can become collectors' items in some cases. During the 1980s there was a trend for releasing singles on colour vinyl— sometimes with large inserts that could be used as posters. This trend has been revived recently and has succeeded in keeping 7" singles a viable format. Vinyl record standards for the United States follow the guidelines of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).[2] The inch dimensions are nominal, not precise diameters. The actual dimension of a 12 inch record is 302 mm (11.89 in), for a 10 inch it is 250 mm (9.84 in), and for a 7 inch it is 175 mm (6.89 in). Records made in other countries are standardized by different organizations, but are very similar in size. The record diameters are typically 300 mm, 250 mm and 175 mm. There is an area about 6 mm (0.25″) wide at the outer edge of the disk, called the lead-in where the groove is widely spaced and silent. This section allows the stylus to be dropped at the start of the record groove, without damaging the recorded section of the groove. Between each track on the recorded section of an LP record, there is usually a short gap of around 1 mm (0.04") where the groove is widely spaced. This space is clearly visible, making it easy to find a particular track. Towards the label centre, at the end of the groove, there is another wide-pitched section known as the lead-out. At the very end of this section, the groove joins itself to form a complete circle, called the lock groove; when the stylus reaches this point, it circles repeatedly until lifted from the record. Automatic turntables rely on the position or angular velocity of the arm, as it reaches these more widely spaced grooves, to trigger a mechanism that raises the arm and moves it out of the way of the record. The catalog number and stamper ID is written or stamped in the space between the groove in the lead-out on the master disc, resulting in visible recessed writing on the final version of a record. Sometimes the cutting engineer might add handwritten comments or their signature, if they are particularly pleased with the quality of the cut. When auto-changing turntables were commonplace, records were typically pressed with a raised (or ridged) outer edge and label area. This would allow records to be stacked onto each other, gripping each other without the delicate grooves coming into contact, thus reducing the risk of damage. Auto changing turntables included a mechanism to support a stack of several records above the turntable itself, dropping them one at a time onto the active turntable to be played in order. Many longer sound recordings, such as complete operas, were interleaved across several 10-inch or 12-inch discs for use with auto-changing mechanisms, so that the first disk of a three-disk recording would carry sides 1 and 6 of the program, while the second disk would carry sides 2 and 5, and the third, sides 3 and 4, allowing sides 1, 2, and 3 to be played automatically, then the whole stack reversed to play sides 4, 5, and 6. Progress, and the war of the speeds 45 rpm records, like this one from 1955, often held a single - one especially popular tune from a particular artist - with a flip side, a bonus for owners. About the same time the most common substance for making 33 rpm disc records became vinyl, while 45 rpm discs were made from either vinyl or polystyrene. All speeds of records were made in various sizes, mainly 17.5, 25, 30 cm (~7, 10 and 12 inches diameter); the 17.5 cm (~7-inch) being most common for the 45 rpm, the 25 cm (~10-inch) for the 78 (and the first few years of 33â…“ production), and the 30 cm (~12-inch) for the 33 from the mid 1950s on. Vinyl quality The sound quality and durability of vinyl records is highly dependent on the quality of the vinyl. During the early 1970s, as a cost-cutting move towards use of lightweight, flexible vinyl pressings, much of the industry adopted a technique of reducing the thickness and quality of vinyl used in mass-market manufacturing, marketed by RCA Victor as the "Dynaflex" (125 g /m²) process. Most vinyl records are pressed on recycled vinyl. New "virgin" or "heavy" (180-220 g/m²) vinyl is commonly used for classical music, although it has been used for some other genres. Today, it is increasingly common in vinyl pressings that can be found in most record shops. Many classic rock albums have been reissued on 180 g/m² vinyl. Modern albums are also commonly pressed on 180 g/m². Many collectors prefer to have 180 gram vinyl albums, and they have been reported to have a better sound than normal vinyl. These albums tend to withstand the deformation caused by normal play better than regular vinyl. Since most vinyl records are from recycled plastic, it can lead to impurities in the record, causing a brand new album to have audio artifacts like clicks and pops. Virgin vinyl means that the album is not from recycled plastic, and will be devoid of the possible impurities of recycled plastic. While most vinyl records are pressed from metal master discs, a technique known as lathe-cutting was introduced in the late 1980s by Peter King in Geraldine, New Zealand.[3] A lathe is used to cut microgrooves into a clear polycarbonate disc. Lathe cut records can be made inexpensively in small runs. However, the sound quality is significantly worse than proper vinyl records, and lathe cut records tend to degrade further in quality after repeated playing. Stereo and beyond In 1958 the first stereo two-channel records were issued – by Audio Fidelity in the USA and Pye in Britain, using the Westrex "45/45" single-groove system. While the stylus moves horizontally when reproducing a monophonic disk recording, on stereo records the stylus moves vertically as well as horizontally. One could envision a system in which the left channel was recorded laterally, as on a monophonic recording, with the right channel information recorded with a "hill-and-dale" vertical motion; such systems were proposed but not adopted, due to their incompatibility with existing phono pickup designs (see below). In the Westrex system, each channel drives the cutting head at a 45 degree angle to the vertical. During playback the combined signal is sensed by a left channel coil mounted diagonally opposite the inner side of the groove, and a right channel coil mounted diagonally opposite the outer side of the groove.[4] It is helpful to think of the combined stylus motion in terms of the vector sum and difference of the two stereo channels. Effectively, all horizontal stylus motion conveys the L+R sum signal, and vertical stylus motion carries the L-R difference signal. The advantages of the 45/45 system are: greater compatibility with monophonic recording and playback systems. A monophonic cartridge will reproduce an equal blend of the left and right channels instead of reproducing only one channel. Conversely, a stereo cartridge reproduces the lateral grooves of monophonic recording equally through both channels, rather than one channel. a more balanced sound, because the two channels have equal fidelity (rather than providing one higher-fidelity laterally recorded channel and one lower-fidelity vertically recorded channel); higher fidelity in general, because the "difference" signal is usually of low power and thus less affected by the intrinsic distortion of hill-and-dale recording. This system was invented by Alan Blumlein of EMI in 1931 and patented the same year. EMI cut the first stereo test discs using the system in 1933. It was not exploited commercially until a quarter of a century later. Stereo sound provides a more natural listening experience where the spatial location of the source of a sound is, at least in part, reproduced. The development of quadraphonic records was announced in 1971. These recorded four separate sound signals. This was achieved on the two stereo channels by electronic matrixing, where the additional channels were combined into the main signal. When the records were played, phase-detection circuits in the amplifiers were able to decode the signals into four separate channels. There were two main systems of matrixed quadrophonic records produced, confusingly named SQ (by CBS) and QS (by Sansui). They proved commercially unsuccessful, but were an important precursor to later 'surround sound' systems, as seen in SACD and home cinema today. A different format, CD-4 (not to be confused with compact disc), by RCA, encoded rear channel information on an ultrasonic carrier, which required a special wideband cartridge to capture it on carefully-calibrated pickup arm/turntable combinations. Typically the high frequency information inscribed onto these LPs wore off after only a few playings, and CD-4 was even less successful than the two matrixed formats. Other developments Under the direction of C. Robert Fine, Mercury Records initiated a minimalist single microphone monaural recording technique in 1951. The first record, Kubelik/Chicago's performance of "Pictures at an Exhibition" was described as "being in the living presence of the orchestra" by the NY Times music critic. The series of records was then named “Mercury Living Presence.â€� In 1955 Mercury began 3-channel stereo recordings, still based on the principle of the single microphone. The center (single) mic was of paramount importance, with the two side mics adding depth and space. Record masters were cut directly from a 3-track to 2-track mixdown console, with all editing of the master tapes done on the original 3-tracks. In 1961 Mercury enhanced this technique with three-microphone stereo recordings using 35mm magnetic film instead of half-inch tape for recording. The greater thickness and width of 35mm magnetic film prevented tape layer print-through and pre-echo and gained extended frequency range and transient response. The Mercury Living Presence recordings were remastered to CD in the 1990s by the original producer, using the same method of 3-to-2 mix directly to the master recorder. On a small number of early phonograph systems and radio transcription discs, as well as some entire albums, such as Goodbye Blue and White by Less Than Jake, the direction of the groove is reversed, beginning near the centre of the disc and leading to the outside. A small number of records (such as Jeff Mills' Apollo EP or the Hidden In Plainsight EP from Detroit's Underground Resistance) were manufactured with multiple separate grooves to differentiate the tracks (usually called 'NSC-X2'). X2 was pioneered by Ron Murphy and Heath Brunner from Sound Enterprises (formerly National Sound Corporation), a record mastering company in Detroit. In the late 1970s "direct-to-disc" records were produced, aimed at an audiophile niche market. These completely bypassed the use of magnetic tape in favor of a "purist" transcription directly to the master lacquer disc. Also during this period, "half-speed mastered" and "original master" records were released, using expensive state-of-the-art technology. The early 1980s saw the introduction of "dbx-encoded" records, again for the audiophile niche market. These were completely incompatible with standard record playback preamplifiers, relying on the dbx compandor encoding/decoding scheme to greatly increase dynamic range (dbx encoded disks were recorded with the dynamic range compressed by a factor of two in dB: quiet sounds were meant to be played back at low gain and loud sounds were meant to be played back at high gain, via automatic gain control in the playback equipment; this reduced the effect of surface noise on quiet passages). A similar and very short lived scheme involved using the CBS-developed "CX" noise reduction encoding/decoding scheme. Also in the late 1970s and 1980s, a method to improve the dynamic range of mass produced records involved highly advanced disc cutting equipment. These techniques, marketed as the CBS Discomputer and Teldec Direct Metal Mastering, were used to reduce inner-groove distortion. ELPJ, a Japanese-based company, has developed a player that uses a laser instead of a stylus to read vinyl discs. In theory the laser turntable eliminates the possibility of scratches and attendant degradation of the sound, but its expense limits use primarily to digital archiving of analog records. Various other laser-based turntables were tried during the 1990s, but while a laser reads the groove very accurately, since it does not touch the record, the dust that vinyl naturally attracts due to static charge is not cleaned from the groove, worsening sound quality in casual use compared to conventional stylus playback.     Recording the disc For the first several decades of disc record manufacturing, sound was recorded directly on to the master disc (also called the matrix, sometimes just the master) at the recording studio. From about 1950 on (earlier for some large record companies, later for some small ones) it became usual to have the performance first recorded on audio tape , which could then be processed and/or edited, and then dubbed on to the master disc. A record cutter would engrave the grooves into the master disc. Early versions of these master discs were soft wax, and later a harder lacquer was used. The mastering process was originally something of an art as the operator had to manually allow for the changes in sound which affected how wide the space for the groove needed to be on each rotation. Sometimes the engineer would sign his work, or leave humorous or cryptic comments in the run-off groove area, where it was normal to scratch or stamp identifying codes to distinguish each master. [ edit ] Mass producing records The soft master known as a lacquer would then be electroplated with a metal, commonly a nickel alloy. This and all subsequent metal copies were known as matrices. When this metal was removed from the lacquer (master), it would be a negative master since it was a negative copy of the lacquer. (In the UK, this was called the master; note the difference from soft master/lacquer disc above). In the earliest days the negative master was used as a mold to press records sold to the public, but as demand for mass production of records grew, another step was added to the process. The metal master was then electroplated to create metal positive matrices, or "mothers". From these negatives, stampers would be formed. The stampers would be used in hydraulic presses to mould the LP discs. The advantages of this system over the earlier more direct system included ability to make a large number of records quickly by using multiple stampers. Also, more records could be produced from each master since molds would eventually wear out. Since the master was the unique source of the positive, made to produce the stampers, it was considered a library item. Accordingly, copy positives, required to replace worn positives, were made from unused early stampers. These were known as copy shells and were the physical equivalent of the first positive. The "pedigree" of any record can be traced through the stamper/positive identities used, by reading the lettering found on the record run-out area. Packaging and distribution A psychedelically coloured record. Singles are typically sold in plain paper wrappers, though EPs are often treated to a cover in similar style to an LP. LPs are universally packaged in cardboard covers with a paper liner protecting the delicate surface of the record. Also, with the advent of long-playing records, the album cover became more than just packaging and protection, and album cover art became an important part of the music marketing and consuming experience. In the 1970s it became more common to have picture covers on singles. However, many singles with picture sleeves (especially from the 1960s) are sought out by collectors, and the sleeves alone can go for a high price. LPs can have embossed cover art (with some sections being raised), an effect rarely seen on CD covers. Records are made at large manufacturing plants, either owned by the major labels, or run by independent operators to whom smaller operations and independent labels could go for smaller runs. A band starting out might get a few hundred disks stamped, whereas big selling artists need the presses running full time to manufacture the hundreds of thousands of copies needed for the launch of a big album. Records are generally sold through specialist shops, although some big chain stores also have record departments. Many records are sold from stock, but it is normal to place special orders for less common records. Stock is expensive, so only large city center stores can afford to have several copies of a record.   Record labels Record companies organised their products into labels. These could either be subsidiary companies, or they could simply be just be a brand name. For example, EMI published records under the His Master's Voice (HMV) label which was their classical recording brand, Harvest for their progressive rock brand, home to Pink Floyd. They also had Music for Pleasure and Classics for Pleasure as their economy labels. EMI also used the Parlophone brand in the UK for Beatles records in the early 1960's. In the 1970's successful musicians sought greater control, and one way they achieved this was with their own labels, though normally they were still operated by the large music corporations. Two of the most famous early examples of this were the Beatles' Apple Records and Led Zeppelin 's Swan Song Records In the late 1970's the anarchic punk rock movement gave rise to the independent record labels. These were not owned or even distributed by the main corporations. In the UK, examples were Stiff Records who published Ian Dury and the Blockheads and Two Tone Records, label for The Specials. These allowed smaller bands to step onto the ladder without having to conform to the rigid rules of the large corporations.   Disc limitations Shellac Shellac 78's are brittle, and must be handled carefully. In the event of a 78 breaking, the pieces might remain loosely connected by the label and still be playable if the label holds them together, although there is a loud 'pop' with each pass over the crack, and breaking of the needle is likely. Breakage was a very common accident in the shellac era. In the 1934 novel, Appointment in Samarra, the protagonist "broke one of his most favorites, Whiteman's Lady of the Evening ... He wanted to cry but could not." A poignant moment in J. D. Salinger's 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye occurs after the adolescent protagonist buys a record for his younger sister but drops it and "it broke into pieces ... I damn near cried, it made me feel so terrible." [ edit ] Vinyl Vinyl records do not break easily, but the soft material is easily scratched. Vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops. In extreme cases, they can cause the needle to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backwards, creating a "locked groove" that repeats the same 1.8 seconds of track (at 33â…“ rpm) over and over again. Locked grooves were not uncommon and were even heard occasionally in broadcasts. Vinyl records can be warped by heat, improper storage, or manufacturing defects such as excessively tight plastic shrinkwrap on the album cover. A small degree of warp was common, and allowing for it was part of the art of turntable and tonearm design. "Wow" (once-per-revolution pitch variation) could result from warp, or from a spindle hole that was not precisely centered. As a practical matter, records provide excellent sound quality when treated with care. They were the music source of choice for radio stations for decades, and the switch to digital music libraries by radio stations has not produced a noticeable improvement in sound quality. Casual ears cannot detect a difference in quality between a CD and a clean new LP played in a casual environment with background noise. There is controversy about the relative quality of CD sound and LP sound when the latter is heard under the very best conditions (see Analog vs. Digital sound argument). The limitations of recording and mastering techniques had a greater impact on sound quality than the limitations of the record itself, at least until the 1980s. A further limitation of the record is that with a constant rotational speed, the quality of the sound may differ across the width of the record because the inner groove modulations are more compressed than those of the outer tracks. The result is that inner tracks have distortion that can be noticeable at higher recording levels. 7" singles were typically poorer quality for a variety of the reasons mentioned above, and in the 1970s the 12" single, played at 45 rpm, became popular for DJ use and for fans and collectors. Another problem arises because of the geometry of the tonearm. Master recordings are cut on a recording lathe, where a sapphire stylus moves radially across the blank, suspended on a straight track and driven by a lead screw. Most turntables use a pivoting tonearm, introducing side forces and pitch and azimuth errors, and thus distortion in the playback signal. Various mechanisms were devised in attempts to compensate, with varying degrees of success. See more at phonograph .   Frequency response and noise In 1925, electric recording extended the recorded frequency range from acoustic recording (168-2000 Hz) by 2½ octaves to 100-5000 Hz. Even so, these early electronically recorded records used the exponential-horn phonograph (see Orthophonic Victrola) for reproduction. The frequency response of vinyl records may be degraded by frequent playback if the cartridge is set to track too heavily, or the stylus is not compliant enough to trace the high frequency grooves accurately, or the cartridge/tonearm is not properly aligned. The RIAA has suggested the following acceptable losses: down to 20 kHz after one play, 18 kHz after three plays, 17 kHz after five, 16 kHz after eight, 14 kHz after fifteen, 13 kHz after twenty five, 10 kHz after thirty five, and 8 kHz after eighty plays. While this degradation is possible if the record is played on improperly set up equipment, many collectors of LPs report excellent sound quality on LPs played many more times when using care and high quality equipment. Gramophone sound suffers from rumble, low-frequency (below about 30 Hz) mechanical noise generated by the motor bearings and picked up by the stylus. Equipment of modest quality is relatively unaffected by these issues, as the amplifier and speaker will not reproduce such low frequencies, but high-fidelity turntable assemblies need careful design to minimise audible rumble. Room vibrations will also be picked up if the pedestal - turntable - pickup arm - stylus system is not well damped. Tonearm skating forces and other perturbations are also picked up by the stylus. This is a form of frequency multiplexing as the "control signal" (restoring force) used to keep the stylus in the groove is carried by the same mechanism as the sound itself. Subsonic frequencies below about 20 Hz in the audio signal are dominated by tracking effects, which is one form of unwanted rumble ("tracking noise") and merges with audible frequencies in the deep bass range up to about 100 Hz. High fidelity sound equipment can reproduce tracking noise and rumble. During a quiet passage, woofer speaker cones can sometimes be seen to vibrate with the subsonic tracking of the stylus, at frequencies as low as about 0.5 Hz (the frequency at which a 33-1/3 rpm record turns on the turntable). At high audible frequencies, hiss is generated as the stylus rubs against the vinyl, and from dirt and dust on the vinyl. Columbia and RCA 's competition extended to equipment. Some turntables included spindle size adapters, but other turntables required snap-in inserts like this one to adapt RCA's larger 45 rpm spindle size to the smaller spindle size available on nearly all turntables.   Equalization Due to recording mastering and manufacturing limitations, both high and low frequencies were removed from the first recorded signals by various formulae. With low frequencies, the stylus must swing a long way from side to side, requiring the groove to be wide, taking up more space and limiting the playing time of the record. At high frequencies noise is significant. These problems can be compensated for by using equalization to an agreed standard. This simply means reducing the amplitude at low-frequencies, thus reducing the groove width required, and increasing the amplitude at high frequencies. The playback equipment boosts bass and cuts treble in a complementary way. The result should be that the sound is perceived to be without change, thus more music will fit the record, and noise is reduced. The agreed standard has been RIAA equalization since 1952, implemented in 1955. Prior to that, especially from 1940, some 100 formulae were used by the record manufacturers.

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History's Dumpster: The History of The 45 RPM Record History's Dumpster for Smartphones, Tablets and Old/Slow Computers http://historysdumpster.blogspot.com/?m=1 Friday, August 24, 2012 The History of The 45 RPM Record In the late 1940s, record sales were great. The Depression and the war had passed and America was entering a new period of comfort and affluence. Just sit back and relax, Truman was going to take care of everything. But there WAS one little problem......the records themselves. Recording technology had changed tremendously since Emile Berliner's first gramophone records in the 1890s. We had gone from unresponsive acoustic recording horns and direct to disc master recording to full electrical recording and tape masters. But very little had changed with the records themselves. They still rotated at 78 RPM, still made of noisy shellac and extremely fragile. Berliner Gramophone Record, 1897 RCA Victor 78 RPM Record, 1948 In 1948, Columbia Records unveiled the 33 1/3 RPM long playing record. It played for about 20 minutes per side and made of thick and much quieter vinyl. The first LP Record, 1948 RCA Victor, Columbia's long time rival was also working on a newer and better record at the same time as Columbia. When Columbia came out with the LP record, RCA scrambled on it's own project and in 1949, unveiled the 45 RPM record. " "Texarkana Baby" Eddy Arnold (1949) , the world's first commercially released 45 RPM record. The RCA 7" inch 45 RPM record was cute, VERY small, and RCA's very colourful vinyl (each genre of music had it's own colour of vinyl!) made it an instant hit with younger people. Popular releases were on standard black vinyl. Country releases were on green vinyl, Children's records were on yellow vinyl, Classical releases were on red vinyl, "Race" (or R&B and Gospel) records were on orange vinyl, Blue vinyl/blue label was used for semi-classical instrumental music and blue vinyl/black label for international recordings Eventually, RCA soon ended it's coloured vinyl lines due to the price of the coloured vinyl compared to the standard black. It also employed "The World's Fastest Record Changer" Here's the demonstration record that came with one of these players...... But the 45 RPM record and RCA 45 players DID have a few problems. First, the players could only play 45 RPM records. Nothing else. Second, classical music fans still had to put up with the same mid-movement breaks that plagued symphonic fans since the dawn of classical recording. Something the 33 1/3 RPM record rarely had. This era in the turn of the '50s was called "The Battle of The Speeds" Some people preferred the 33 1/3 RPM LP, others the new 45 RPM players and old timers who insisted on the 78 RPM speed. The other major labels mostly aligned with the 33 1/3 RPM LP for albums (Capitol however released albums in all three speeds) and 45 and 78 RPM for singles. The 78 RPM single began disappearing in the early '50s and the 78 RPM speed regulated to children's records through hand-me-down phonographs from their parents. The last American commercially released 78 RPM singles appeared in 1959, however they were still made for children's records and older jukeboxes until 1964. And thus began the era of the 45s. An era that lasted 40 wonderful years. Before the cassette tape , CD and MP3 player, 45s were the perfect portable personal music medium. Remember these? And the 45s themselves were super cheap too, less than a dollar each. Fun to collect, share and trade with friends. While some kids had baseball cards and comic books, others had 45s. Portable battery operated phonographs were also made for taking your music anywhere. Check this little baby out!  And another one..... And who could forget THESE? Also known as "spiders" The very first Stereo 45 RPM record was introduced by Bel Canto Records in June of 1958.  In the UK, Japan and some European countries 45s were pressed with detachable centres. In other European countries, 45s were pressed with a standard 45 spindle hole. The reason there were detachable centres was for compatibility with some foreign record changers (like the early RCA changer, which was extremely popular) and jukeboxes. US 45 Thai 45 Lebonese 45 45s also had the B-side. Most were a second, non-single track from the parent album. But sometimes, it would be a live track, an instrumental version of the A-Side song, an outtake from the parent album session. Or sometimes, a completely original song. Most of the B-sides of Elton John's 45s had songs recorded just for them, as Elton John felt it gave his fans better value for their money. And they did. Most of them are collector's items and many were never released to CD. There's also been the question of how long can one side of a 45 play. Most 45s run from 2-5 minutes. John Lennon once asked this to George Martin in 1968 and George Martin, after some experimenting, found the answer - 7 minutes, 11 seconds. And thus the playing time of "Hey Jude".      But bear in mind he was also taking into account standard groove width and the automatic record changer, which was very popular in those days. If he went any longer, he risked tripping the automatic changing mechanism of many of these record changers (this record did on many of them regardless.) (UPDATE: Thanks to John Cerra for reminding me that "Hey Jude" was actually the SECOND longest pop 45 of the '60s and that "MacArthur Park" Richard Harris was actually LONGER than "Hey Jude" by 9 seconds (7:20) and was released earlier than "Hey Jude". My brain isn't what it used to be. - Larry) However, this wasn't the longest 45 side ever. That distinction belongs to Bruce Springsteen on the B-side of his 1987 single "Fire", a live version of "Incident of 57th Street". It clocked in at just over 10 minutes (10:03) I'm sure there could have been longer. But I haven't seen any. (UPDATE 4/30/15 - Wayne Whitehorne says "Longest one I've ever seen is "Lunar Sea" by Camel, Janus J-262 (B side) 10:27. Shortest one I've seen is " Beside " by The Fastest Group Alive, Valiant V-754 (B side) :35". Both have been verified.) "Little Boxes" The Womenfolk (1964) at 1:03 actually charted in the Billboard Hot 100! But that's the fun of record collecting. Just when you think you've seen and heard it all.....Surprise! By the beginning of the '80s, sales of 45s were beginning to gradually slip as sales of cassettes and blank tape began ushering the "mixtape" era. CBS noticed this and test marketed the  one sided single . In 1987, A&M released the first cassette single and other record companies quickly followed suit. By 1990 however, record companies began discontinuing the 45, except for jukebox releases and collector's items. However with the vinyl resurrection of the last few years, many companies are back to pressing vinyl. But there's something about the 45 that an MP3 simply can't mimic. It's REAL. Just the right size. Something you can hold. And no matter what next big thing comes along, they'll NEVER go out of style. Posted by

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The Edison Cylinder Phonograph Over the Years By Mary Bellis Updated August 16, 2016. The phonograph was developed as a result of Thomas Edison's work on two other inventions, the telegraph and the telephone. In 1877, Edison was working on a machine that would transcribe telegraphic messages through indentations on paper tape, which could later be sent over the telegraph repeatedly. This development led Edison to speculate that a telephone message could also be recorded in a similar fashion. He experimented with a diaphragm which had an embossing point and was held against rapidly-moving paraffin paper. The speaking vibrations made indentations in the paper. Edison later changed the paper to a metal cylinder with tin foil wrapped around it. The machine had two diaphragm-and-needle units, one for recording, and one for playback. When one would speak into a mouthpiece, the sound vibrations would be indented onto the cylinder by the recording needle in a vertical (or hill and dale) groove pattern. Edison gave a sketch of the machine to his mechanic, John Kreusi, to build, which Kreusi supposedly did within 30 hours. Edison immediately tested the machine by speaking the nursery rhyme into the mouthpiece, "Mary had a little lamb." To his amazement, the machine played his words back to him. 1.  Disputes Over Dates Although it was later stated that the date for this event was on August 12, 1877, some historians believe that it probably happened several months later, since Edison did not file for a patent until December 24, 1877. Also, the diary of one of Edison's aides, Charles Batchelor, seems to confirm that the phonograph was not constructed until December 4, and finished two days later. The patent (#200,521) on the phonograph was issued on February 19, 1878. The invention was highly original. The only other recorded evidence of such an invention was in a paper by French scientist Charles Cros, written on April 18, 1877. There were some differences, however, between the two men's ideas, and Cros's work remained only a theory, since he did not produce a working model of it. 2.  Scientific American Edison took his new invention to the offices of Scientific American in New York City and showed it to staff there. As the December 22, 1877, issue reported, "Mr. Thomas A. Edison recently came into this office, placed a little machine on our desk, turned a crank, and the machine inquired as to our health, asked how we liked the phonograph, informed us that it was very well, and bid us a cordial good night." Interest was great, and the invention was reported in several New York newspapers, and later in other American newspapers and magazines. The Edison Speaking Phonograph Company was established on January 24, 1878, to exploit the new machine by exhibiting it. Edison received $10,000 for the manufacturing and sales rights and 20 percent of the profits. As a novelty, the machine was an instant success, but was difficult to operate except by experts, and the tin foil would last for only a few playings. 3.  Future Uses Ever practical and visionary, Edison offered the following possible future uses for the phonograph in North American Review in June 1878: Letter writing and all kinds of dictation without the aid of a stenographer. Phonographic books, which will speak to blind people without effort on their part. The teaching of elocution. Reproduction of music. The "Family Record"--a registry of sayings, reminiscences, etc., by members of a family in their own voices, and of the last words of dying persons. Music boxes and toys. Clocks that should announce in articulate speech the time for going home, going to meals, etc. The preservation of languages by exact reproduction of the manner of pronouncing. Educational purposes; such as preserving the explanantions made by a teacher, so that the pupil can refer to them at any moment, and spelling or other lessons placed upon the phonograph for convenience in committing to memory. Connection with the telephone, so as to make that instrument an auxiliary in the transmission of permanent and invaluable records, instead of being the recipient of momentary and fleeting communication. Eventually, the novelty of the invention wore off for the public, and Edison did no further work on the phonograph for a while, concentrating instead on inventing the incadescent light bulb. 4.  Other Inventors In the void left by Edison, others moved forward to improve the phonograph. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell won the Volta Prize of $10,000 from the French government for his invention of the telephone. Bell used his winnings to set up a laboratory to further electrical and acoustical research, working with his cousin Chichester A. Bell, a chemical engineer, and Charles Sumner Tainter, a scientist and instrument maker. They made some improvements on Edison's invention, chiefly by using wax in the place of tin foil and a floating stylus instead of a rigid needle which would incise, rather than indent, the cylinder. A patent was awarded to C. Bell and Tainter on May 4, 1886. The machine was exhibited to the public as the graphophone. Bell and Tainter had representatives approach Edison to discuss a possible collaboration on the machine, but Edison refused and determined to improve the phonograph himself. At this point, he had succeeded in making the incandescent lamp and could now resume his work on the phonograph. His initial work, though, closely followed the improvements made by Bell and Tainter, especially in its use of wax cylinders, and was called the New Phonograph. 5.  Edison Phonograph Company The Edison Phonograph Company was formed on October 8, 1887, to market Edison's machine. He introduced the Improved Phonograph by May of 1888, shortly followed by the Perfected Phonograph. The first wax cylinders Edison used were white and made of ceresin, beeswax, and stearic wax. Businessman Jesse H. Lippincott assumed control of the phonograph companies by becoming sole licensee of the American Graphophone Company and by purchasing the Edison Phonograph Company from Edison. In an arrangement which eventually included most other phonograph makers as well, he formed the North American Phonograph Company on July 14, 1888. Lippincott saw the potential use of the phonograph only in the business field and leased the phonographs as office dictating machines to various member companies which each had its own sales territory. Unfortunately, this business did not prove to be very profitable, receiving significant opposition from stenographers. Meanwhile, the Edison Factory produced talking dolls in 1890 for the Edison Phonograph Toy Manufacturing Co. The dolls contained tiny wax cylinders. Edison's relationship with the company ended in March of 1891, and the dolls are very rare today. The Edison Phonograph Works also produced musical cylinders for coin-slot phonographs which some of the subsidiary companies had started to use. These proto-"jukeboxes" were a development which pointed to the future of phonographs as entertainment machines. In the fall of 1890, Lippincott fell ill and lost control of the North American Phonograph Co. to Edison, who was its principal creditor. Edison changed the policy of rentals to outright sales of the machines, but changed little else. Edison increased the entertainment offerings on his cylinders, which by 1892 were made of a wax known among collectors today as "brown wax." Although called by this name, the cylinders could range in color from off-white to light tan to dark brown. An announcement at the beginning of the cylinder would typically indicate the title, artist, and company. In 1894, Edison declared bankruptcy for the North American Phonograph Company, a move that enabled him to buy back the rights to his invention. It took two years for the bankruptcy affairs to be settled before Edison could move ahead with marketing his invention. The Edison Spring Motor Phonograph appeared in 1895, even though technically Edison was not allowed to sell phonographs at this time because of the bankruptcy agreement. In January 1896, he started the National Phonograph Company which would manufacture phonographs for home entertainment use. Within three years, branches of the company were located in Europe. Under the aegis of the company, he announced the Spring Motor Phonograph in 1896, followed by the Edison Home Phonograph, and he began the commercial issue of cylinders under the new company's label. A year later, the Edison Standard Phonograph was manufactured, and then exhibited in the press in 1898. This was the first phonograph to carry the Edison trademark design. Prices for the phonographs had significantly diminished from its early days of $150 (in 1891) down to $20 for the Standard model and $7.50 for a model known as the Gem, introduced in 1899. 6.  Early Cylinders Standard-sized cylinders, which tended to be 4.25" long and 2.1875" in diameter, were 50 cents each and typically played at 120 r.p.m. A variety of selections were featured on the cylinders, including marches, sentimental ballads, coon songs, hymns, comic monologues and descriptive specialities, which offered sound reenactments of events. The early cylinders had two significant problems. The first was the short length of the cylinders, only 2 minutes. This necessarily narrowed the field of what could be recorded. The second problem was that no mass method of duplicating cylinders existed. Most often, performers had to repeat their performances when recording in order to amass a quantity of cylinders. This was not only time-consuming but costly. The Edison Concert Phonograph, which had a louder sound and a larger cylinder measuring 4.25" long and 5" in diameter, was introduced in 1899, retailing for $125 and the large cylinders for $4. The Concert Phonograph did not sell well, and prices for it and its cylinders were dramatically reduced. Their production ceased in 1912. A process for mass-producing duplicate wax cylinders was put into effect in 1901. The cylinders were molded, rather than engraved by a stylus, and a harder wax was used. The process was referred to as Gold Moulded, because of a gold vapor given off by gold electrodes used in the process. Sub-masters were created from the gold master, and the cylinders were made from these molds. From a single mold, 120 to 150 cylinders could be produced every day. The new wax used was black in color, and the cylinders were initially called New High Speed Hard Wax Moulded Records until the name was changed to Gold Moulded. By mid-1904, the savings in mass duplication was reflected in the price for cylinders which had been lowered to 35 cents each. Beveled ends were made on the cylinders to accommodate titles. A new business phonograph was introduced in 1905. Similar to a standard phonograph, it had alterations to the reproducer and mandrel. The early machines were difficult to use, and their fragility made them prone to failure. Even though improvements were made to the machine over the years, they still cost more than the popular, inexpensive Dictaphones put out by Columbia. Electrical motors and controls were later added to the Edison business machine, which improved their performance. (Some Edison phonographs made before 1895 also had electric motors, until they were replaced by spring motors.) Dictating Systems At this point, the Edison business phonograph became a dictating system. Three machines were used: the executive dictating machine, the secretarial machine for transcribing, and a shaving machine used to recycle used cylinders. This system can be seen in the Edison advertising film, The Stenographer's Friend, filmed in 1910. An improved machine, the Ediphone, was introduced in 1916 and steadily grew in sales after World War I and into the 1920's. In terms of playing time, the 2-minute wax cylinder could not compete well against competitors' discs, which could offer up to four minutes. In response, the Amberol Record was presented in November 1908, which had finer grooves than the two-minute cylinders, and thus, could last as long as 4 minutes. The two-minute cylinders were then referred to in the future as Edison Two-Minute Records, and then later as Edison Standard Records. In 1909, a series of Grand Opera Amberols (a continuation of the two-minute Grand Opera Cylinders introduced in 1906) was put on the market to attract the higher-class clientele, but these did not prove successful. The Amberola I phonograph was introduced in 1909, a floor-model luxury machine with high-quality performance, and was supposed to compete with the Victrola and Grafonola. In 1910, the company was reorganized into Thomas A. Edison, Inc. Frank L. Dyer was initially president, then Edison served as president from December 1912 until August 1926, when his son, Charles, became president, and Edison became chairman of the board. Columbia, one of Edison's chief competitors, abandoned the cylinder market in 1912. (Columbia had given up making its own cylinders in 1909, and until 1912 was only releasing cylinders which it had acquired from the Indestructible Phonographic Record Co.) The United States Phonograph Co. ceased production of its U.S. Everlasting cylinders in 1913, leaving the cylinder market to Edison. The disc had steadily grown in popularity with the consumer, thanks especially to the popular roster of Victor artists on disc. Edison refused to give up the cylinder, introducing instead the Blue Amberol Record, an unbreakable cylinder with what was arguably the best available sound on a recording at the time. The finer sound of the cylinder was partly due to the fact that a cylinder had constant surface speed from beginning to end in contrast to the inner groove distortion that occurred on discs when the surface speed slowed down. Partisans of Edison also argued that the vertical cut in the groove produced a superior sound to the lateral cut of Victor and other disc competitors. Cylinders, though, had truly peaked by this time, and even the superior sound of the Blue Amberols could not persuade the larger public to buy cylinders. Edison conceded to this reality in 1913 when he announced the manufacture of the Edison Disc Phonograph. The Edison Company did not desert its faithful cylinder customers, however, and continued to make Blue Amberol cylinders until the demise of the company in 1929, although most from 1915 on were dubbed from the Diamond Discs.

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A Brief History of The Walkman - TIME Follow @TIME Attention, the 160 million or so owners of an Apple iPod MP3 player: take out those white earbuds and listen for a second. Before the iPod became ubiquitous — way, way before — there was the Walkman. The portable cassette players, first introduced 30 years ago this week, sold a cumulative 200 million units, rocked the recording industry and fundamentally changed how people experienced music. Sound familiar? (See TIME's list of the most influential gadgets and gizmos.) The Walkman wasn't a giant leap forward in engineering: magnetic cassette technology had been around since 1963, when the Netherlands-based electronics firm Philips first created it for use by secretaries and journalists. Sony, who by that point had become experts in bringing well-designed, miniaturized electronics to market (they debuted their first transistor radio in 1955), made a series of moderately successful portable cassette recorders. But the introduction of pre-recorded music tapes in the late 1960s opened a whole new market. People still chose to listen to vinyl records over cassettes at home, but the compact size of tapes made them more conducive to car stereos and mobility than vinyl or 8-tracks. On July 1, 1979, Sony Corp. introduced the Sony Walkman TPS-L2, a 14 ounce, blue-and-silver, portable cassette player with chunky buttons, headphones and a leather case. It even had a second earphone jack so that two people could listen in at once. Masaru Ibuka, Sony's co-founder, traveled often for business and would find himself lugging Sony's bulky TC-D5 cassette recorder around to listen to music. He asked Norio Ohga, then Executive Deputy President, to design a playback-only stereo version, optimized for use with headphones. Ibuka brought the result — a compact, high-quality music player — to Chairman Akio Morita and reportedly said, "Try this. Don't you think a stereo cassette player that you can listen to while walking around is a good idea?" All the device needed now was a name. Originally the Walkman was introduced in the U.S. as the "Sound-About" and in the UK as the "Stowaway," but coming up with new, uncopyrighted names in every country it was marketed in proved costly; Sony eventually decided on "Walkman" as a play on the Sony Pressman, a mono cassette recorder the first Walkman prototype was based on. First released in Japan, it was a massive hit: while Sony predicted it would only sell about 5,000 units a month, the Walkman sold upwards of 50,000 in the first two months. Sony wasn't the first company to introduce portable audio: the first-ever portable transistor radio, the index card-sized Regency TR-1, debuted in 1954. But the Walkman's unprecedented combination of portability (it ran on two AA batteries) and privacy (it featured a headphone jack but no external speaker) made it the ideal product for thousands of consumers looking for a compact portable stereo that they could take with them anywhere. The TPS-L2 was introduced in the U.S. in June 1980. The 1980s could well have been the Walkman decade. The popularity of Sony's device — and those by brands like Aiwa, Panasonic and Toshiba who followed in Sony's lead — helped the cassette tape outsell vinyl records for the first time in 1983. By 1986 the word "Walkman" had entered the Oxford English Dictionary. Its launch coincided with the birth of the aerobics craze, and millions used the Walkman to make their workouts more entertaining. Between 1987 and 1997 — the height of the Walkman's popularity — the number of people who said they walked for exercise increased by 30%. (See TIME's special report "1989: The Year That Changed the World.") Sony continued to roll out variations on its theme, adding such innovations as AM/FM receivers, bass boost and auto-reverse on later models. Sony even made a solar-powered Walkman, water-resistant Sport Walkmans and even devices with two cassette drives. But cassettes, like any technology, weren't going to last forever. With the introduction of compact discs in 1982 the format began to go the way of the 8-track itself. Sony, however, was fairly quick to jump to new formats: it introduced the D-50 portable CD player a year after the first compact discs were sold, and later rolled out MiniDisc and MP3 players under the Walkman brand. (Its insistence for several years on sticking to a proprietary digital music format, ATRAC, left it far behind Apple's iPod in terms of market share.) Since its launch, Sony has released more than 300 different models across all formats; it currently makes Walkman-branded MP3 players, phones and even portable DVD players. Its newest device, the Walkman NWZ-X1000, features a 3-inch OLED screen, 32 gigabytes of memory and WiFi connectivity. But the company still makes play-only cassette Walkmen, too — its latest model to be released in the U.S. was the WM-FX290 in 2002.

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60 years of Marantz are all about the music | What Hi-Fi? 60 years of Marantz are all about the music 12th June 2013 Marantz is celebrating its 60th anniversary, and the story behind the founding of one of today's best-known hi-fi and home cinema companies is a familiar one: Saul B Marantz – music lover, amateur musician and photographer – started making hi-fi products in the early 1950s simply because he was sure he could do it better. In fact the history goes back further than that: born in 1911 in Brooklyn, New York, Marantz (seen above around 1940) starting building audio equipment soon after leaving military service during World War II. Here's a specially-produced video covering 60 years of Marantz history: Saul Marantz: from in-car to in-home Legend has it that, having moved to the New York suburb of Kew Gardens, Saul Marantz decided to improve the radio in his home by removing the set from his 1940 Mercury car and installing it indoors – after all, he hardly ever listened on the road! Making the radio work involved building some additional electronics, and out of this came four years' work leading to the design of his Audio Consolette, a high-quality preamplifier. This was in the early days of the LP, which was launched in 1948, and the equalisation curves – the pre-emphasis added to overcome the limitations of the record and give high fidelity sound, and which required re-processing on playback – were yet to be standardised. LP? 45rpm? Early format wars Depending on which company's records you played, different settings were required to get the best sound, not to mention that in the early days of the LP, there was a format war between Columbia's 33.3rpm LP and RCA Victor's 45rpm disc. It would be a while before efforts were made to standardise the pre-emphasis, and thus the equalisation curve required on playback: the Audio Engineering Society set its own 'AES curve', designed to be adopted by amplifier manufacturers, but Columbia had is own curve, as did RCA and others. In fact, the Consolette had settings for no fewer than 36 types of LP and 45rpm equalisation curves: it was valve-driven and mono, of course – the stereo LP was still some years off, arriving in 1958, and it would be almost a decade and a half before Marantz started making 'solid state' (or transistor-based) components. The genius of the preamplifier designed by Saul B Marantz was that it had settings for all these curves: he initially made the device for his own use, but word spread, and people started asking him to make them one, too. In 1952 Marantz decided to make 100 units of the Audio Consolette, selling at $153. He was still operating on what was almost a kitchen-table scale – the products were actually made in the basement of his Kew Gardens home (above) –, but in less than a year more than 400 had been made, such was the demand. Not surprisingly, Marantz decided to step up to a commercial scale, and in 1953 the Marantz company was started. In 1954 it launched what was by then called the Model 1 preamplifier, the production version of the Audio Consolette, selling for around $150. In those days it was common to buy products either for installation into pieces of furniture, or complete with a cabinet for standalone use: the Model 1 was $20-30 more if you wanted it with a cabinet. Also not surprising is that the Model 1 preamplifier was followed by the Model 2 mono power amplifier, seen above with the Model 1 in a recent Marantz history display. By now Marantz had been joined by engineer Sidney Smith, who became the chief engineer  for the power amp, and shared Saul Marantz's obsession with making the most of audio quality to deliver the best possible musical performance. Selling for around $200, the Model 2 delivered 40W, or 20W when used in triode mode, and the basic design would go on to be at the heart of the less powerful Model 5 of 1958, designed for use in multi-amplifier systems to make the most of the then-new stereo system. But I'm getting (only slightly) ahead of myself: in the intervening period Marantz had built a two-way offboard electronic crossover, the Model 3, and an upgrade power supply for use with the Model 1 or Model 3. Oh, and had moved to new premises at 25-14 Broadway, Long Island, where it seems there is now a branch of Dunkin' Donuts! 1958 also saw the arrival of a stereo adapter for the Model 1, but it was the end of that year before Marantz launched what would be seen as the first of a run of classic products, the Model 7 stereo valve preamplifier (above). Selling for $249 without cabinet, it was followed by the Model 8 stereo power amp in 1959 – effectively two Model 5s in a single chassis, and delivering 2x30W for $237 (or $246 fitted with a grille cage over the valves). The amp would later be improved to create the 1961 Model 8B, with a heady 5Wpc power increase from a circuit base on that of the Model 9 mono power amp, which had been launched in 1960, and was capable of 70W maximum output. The Model 9 (above) was also notable for being the first Marantz power amp with a front panel – until then, they'd been very industrial-looking devices designed to be hidden away – and for the first appearance of the Marantz 'porthole' power meter, a styling cue still found on the company's 2013 products. But one of the most sought-after Marantz products was just around the corner: in 1961 Richard Sequerra had joined the company, and together Marantz, Smith and Sequerra worked on the Model 10, the company's first tuner for the FM stereo radio service, launched in the States in 1961. In 1962 the company showed a prototype of the Model 10, using an oscilloscope tube display for tuning/multipath indication, and in 1963 the Model 10B was launched, complete with 3in oscilloscope. The price? $650, but this hardly covered the massive investment the company made in developing the tuner over more than three years: in a later interview Marantz would say that even his wife had to put up money to keep the company going, and that the 10B finally sold was an attempt to take the Model 10, of which less than 100 were made, and find a way of making some money from the thing with a little judicious juggling of components. The tuner that almost cost the company He said that 'Many people feel, to this day, that the 10B was the best tuner ever made. When they were new, the last price [in the early 1970s] was about $750, retail, and I stll felt I was putting a free hundred dollars in every box.' Marantz also noted the way the price of the product rose on the collector's market, saying that when he was in Japan in the mid-70s, used 10Bs were already selling for 'about $3700' and that he'd later heard of them changing hands for 'over $10,000'. Prices may have softened a little, but you should still expect to pay $5000 or more for one in excellent condition, and probably a lot more for one of the rarer versions such as the original Model 10 or the version with a rack-mount faceplate. Despite the fact that Marantz made thousands of Model 10Bs, or perhaps because it made so many, making a loss on each one, the product almost destroyed the company, and an offer from Superscope to take over the company came just at the time when Marantz said 'we were thinking of closing up, of finding some way to get out'. Superscope took over the company in 1964, moving it from New York to California the next year. In 1966 Marantz products began to be made in Japan in partnership with Standard Radio (which would nine years later change its name to Marantz Japan), and in 1968 Saul Marantz retired as president of the company bearing his name. But talking of new technologies, Marantz also had a stake in the TV market, as this set on show at the history exhibition demonstrates: starting in the black and white era, it still had TVs on its books well into the age of the flatscreen, More after the break and in later years built a strong reputation as a manufacturer of projectors, with models all the way up to the massive VP-10S1 below. Anyway, back to the history, and 1965 had seen the arrival of the first solid state Marantz products, in the form of the Model 7T preamp and, a year later, the Model 15 stereo power amp, and in 1968 came another of those classic Marantz  products, and the start of a long line of receivers: the $595 Model 18. Solid-state, and with an FM tuner built-in, it retained the oscilloscope and had the company's Gyro Touch flywheel tuning control, and in later years Marantz would take the tuner section from this receiver and attempt to recreate the appeal of the Model 10B with the Model 20. It would go on to be the first of many 'battleship' Marantz receivers, such as the 2600 (above) and the 2275, and the company was proud of the solidity of build and reliability of its products, as shown in the 'testimonial' ad below. Changing hands The 1964 sale to Superscope would be the first of several changes of ownership for Marantz: in 1980 Superscope sold its 50% holding in Marantz Japan, and trademark and marketing rights worldwide (excluding the USA and Canada) to Dutch company Philips. The story goes that Philips USA didn't want a fifth brand – it already had Sylvania, Philco, Philips and Magnavox 'on the go', as I explained in my piece earlier this year marking the end of Philips' consumer electronics activities – and it would be many years before Marantz was again completely united. By the time Philips effectively took over selling Marantz to most of the world, the company had already been joined by someone set to be a significant figure in the its future development. Ken Ishiwata, seen left way back then, moved to Marantz Europe, having been headhunted from Pioneer in 1978, as technical co-ordinator. He was sent back to Japan for three months to learn about the Marantz way, and as he told me in a piece I wrote celebrating his 30 years with the company , 'The Marantz understanding of amplifiers was way beyond me: the company spent five years training its engineers in the American way of making amplifiers.' Within two years Ishiwata had been appointed Product Development Manager, not least because both good audio and the Marantz ethos was deep-seated. He recalls that 'by the time I was ten, and the first stereo LPs were being made, I was making my first amplifier. 'About that time, a friend of mine's father, who was a real audiophile with his own wonderful listening room, invited me round to hear a record by Julie London' – a singer whose music Ishiwata still uses for demonstrations getting on for 40 years later. In fact, her recording of Come On-A My House, one of those first tracks Ishiwata heard, was a focal point of his recent '60th anniversary' demonstrations to Marantz and Denon retailers. 'I knew the disc, but as soon as it played, it was like Julie London was there. 'Wow!' I said, "What did you change?" And he pointed to a gold fascia – it was the Marantz Model 7c preamp" For the past 35 years, Ishiwata and Marantz have been inextricably linked: he was there when Philips (and thus Marantz) started making their first CD players, starting with the CD-63 (above). Ishiwata says 'That was another great opportunity for me: I had been working with analogue audio until then, and didn't know anything about digital. I learned so much from the Philips engineers.' Also around this time Ishiwata was contacted by Saul Marantz, by then in his 70s, who said 'I have done as much as I can with mono and stereo LPs; now it's your turn to do something with compact disc.'   The start of the Special Editions With the torch so clearly passed on to hime from the company founder, Ishiwata who started the Marantz concept of specially-tuned products, though he admits the whole idea started out of expediency. Sometime around the mid-1980s, just a few years after the launch of CD , Marantz had a stockpile of its CD-45 players. These used Philips' 4x oversampling 14-bit Continuous Calibration technology, at a time when the Japanese rivals were trumpeting their use of 16-bit. Consumers automatically assumed that 16 was better than 14, and so 'We had this huge stock of 14-bit players, and they weren't selling. Some of my colleagues wanted to dump them on the market for just £100 each, but I said 'We're not going to do that' – instead I spent just £8 apiece tuning them, then took the tuned models out to reviewers and retailers as 'the most musical CD player in the world"'.   LE becomes SE becomes OSE becomes KI Signature The tuned model – the CD-45LE – shifted 2000 units in a fortnight, and the idea led to a stream of Special Edition models, both from Marantz and from other companies. In fact, so many of the rivals were jumping on the SE idea that Marantz started calling its tuned products OSE – Original Special Edition – to show it got there first. However, no rival could market a KI Signature product, the idea being to select affordable models with potential from the range, tune them using 'cost no object' strategies, and still sell them at a sensible prices. Tuned to sound the way Ishiwata wanted, rather than compromised by cost or other concerns, the KI Signature products came with exclusive badging and a signed certificate. Not only did they prove to be best-sellers, but for many people the 'KI' range also brought Ishiwata out from the Marantz backrooms and into the spotlight. And it's clear he still has a lot of affection for the models, despite initial reservations from some that consumers wouldn't pay a significant premium for a tuned product As Ishiwata says, 'Remember the first KI Signature product, the CD-63MkII KI Signature? I think it's still one of the most musical CD players we've produced.' Yes, I remember it – from overhearing the initial discussions of the idea, through 'come and hear this' sessions involving early morning flights on unfeasibly small planes from London to the almost as small Eindhoven airport, to the arrival of the player on the market. Throughout the process, it was clear Marantz – and Ishiwata – was on to something special. I also get the feeling that the fact the first Signature model, seen above in its very limited copper finish, shares a model number with the very first Marantz CD player, the CD-63 of 1982, won't have been lost on Ken… In Ishiwata's time at Marantz, the company has produced many classic models, and some striking ones, too, from the TT 1000 turntable (above) to the NA-11S1 network music player (below), both of which featured in his celebratory demonstration. Then there was the compact MusicLink range of the early 1990s, the battery-driven SC-5 preamp and SM-5 power amp of 1994, the massive Project T1 valve power amps (above) of the same year, and most recently the new Consolette system (below), launched last year. And Marantz has changed hands once or twice again during its history, the US operation being unified under the Philips-owned Marantz Company of Japan in 1990, and in 2001 bought out by Marantz Japan to create Marantz Japan Inc. Finally in 2002 Marantz and Denon came together to form D&M Holdings, which changed again more recently to D+M Group. Phew! Saul B Marantz 1911-1997 Saul B Marantz died in January 1997, aged 85, just a year after Marantz had launched replica versions of some of his earliest designs as Marantz Classics. In his retirement from the company he started, he'd also found time to found high-end speaker manufacturer Dahlquist, from which he retired again in 1978, and almost to the end of his life was developing and helping new speaker brands. But from the early days of home-made Consolettes to the modern-day iPod/streaming system of the same name, engineered by Ishiwata, now Marantz Brand Ambassador, as a 60th birthday tribute and packed with references to classic Marantz products (plus some very up-to-date technology), the Marantz way of thinking has been the same. As Terry O'Connell, Marantz MD, puts it, ‘When one of our engineers, either in Japan or Europe, auditions a transformer or a DAC, for example, they're not interested whether it’s good or bad, only how it performs with other components.’ She explains that, ‘Developing a new product is like assembling a sports team: with enough money, you could get the best players in the world but that doesn’t mean they are going to win. The whole team must interact harmoniously, each individual player must be excellent, but must also help ensure all his teammates perform to their best abilities as well. ‘All Marantz design engineers understand this and fortunately, we have a very experienced team, especially in Japan. They live and breathe this philosophy at every stage of new product development.’ Ishiwata demonstrated it with music at the recent dealer conference, starting with pre-LP mono recordings (Benny Goodman at Carnegie Hall in 1938), direct-cut discs and even a 12in single, played on a Marantz TT1200 turntable through Model 7, Model 9s and Tannoy Prestige speakers. The demonstration progressed through CD and SA-CD to DSD downloads played on the NA-11S1, today's top-end Marantz preamp and power amps (run bridged), and Boston Acoustics M350 speakers. Ishiwata has also played a major part in the design of those speakers – after all, one of his very first tasks at Marantz had been as a development engineer for the company's speakers, at the time coming from the States and not at all well-suited to the European market. These days the Boston speakers are designed with a team of Europe-based consultants, and Ishiwata knows their characteristics very well, which is why he used them for this demonstration in one of his typical ‘difficult room’ toe-in set-ups – in other words, almost facing each other! Of the Marantz design process, he says that ‘Of course we have electronic tools and instruments, but these can only measure sonic parameters in a static way. 'Instruments can only measure instantaneously, like a camera taking a picture of a dancer. ‘The image will be extremely precise, but it will show nothing of the dynamics, speed and rhythm of the dancer. Music is also dynamic. Its tone, volume, pitch, and intensity continuously change. ‘That’s why every time we work on a product, we measure its quality by referencing a piece of music that we absolutely know sonically and perceptually from its original source. 'Only then can we relate the character of each component as a part of a whole.” Or as Terry O’Connell puts it, 'On every piece of printed literature we publish, on every website and every advert, we state Because music matters. But this isn't just a slogan, or a piece of marketing. 'It's a philosophy that has driven our company from the very beginning, and I believe it's what makes Marantz stand out from other audio solution manufacturers.'

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When did the compact disc overtake the vinyl record? When did the compact disc overtake the vinyl record? Message Bookmarked Bookmark Removed And how did sales of cassette tapes ever compared to either format? You can read these questions however you will: overtake in terms of dollars, in terms of numbers sold, etc. A google search didn't turn up this information. As for me, I bought vinyl records until about 1986, whereupon I switched to cassette; I didn't get a CD player until about 1993. After a few years sticking with the CD, I started buying vinyl again around 1997. For reference, I was born in 1977. I get the sense that I was very late to the compact disc; perhaps it overtook vinyl in 1988? 1989? Earlier? ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 03:37 (seven years ago) Permalink Some numbers at the end of this article - ― svend , Monday, 3 August 2009 03:39 (seven years ago) Permalink so cassettes outsold LPs and CDs combined at the end of the 1980s! WTF. ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 03:42 (seven years ago) Permalink most are probably filling out landfills or salvation army stores right now. ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 03:42 (seven years ago) Permalink also: will the classical-music market ever drive technological innovation in music reproduction again? (as it did with the 33RPM LP and the CD.) ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 03:44 (seven years ago) Permalink I was born in 1977 and I never bought anything by cassette during my childhood and early teen years. I didn't get a cd player until I was 15(1992). I didn't start buying vinyl (for dance music and cd's for other stuff) until my late teens(1995) and I have been exclusively vinyl for maybe the last 4-5 years. I offer this as an example because no one I knew as a kid bought anything but cassettes. They went into your walkman, they went into the car stereo, and they went into your boombox. In my mind, young people didn't start having CD's until the early 90's. Once I got a stereo with a CD player, I bought a Sony Discman a short while later and that is when my purchases switched over to CD exclusively. This was kind of a bummer because I lived a few miles away from The Record Collector in Redford, Michigan. It was close enough that I could ride my bike down there on a summer day. They used to have this huge used cassette section and everything was stupid cheap. An expensive tape was like 3.99, most of them were 1.99. I was a great way for a young kid to take chances on new stuff in the days before the internet. I didn't have older siblings, so I had to figure all this stuff out for myself through trial and error. I bought a lot of crappy music in those days but I also stumbled into some gems. Moving to CD was a bummer because used stuff was in the 7-10 dollar range back then. ― your original display name is still visible (Display Name) , Monday, 3 August 2009 03:57 (seven years ago) Permalink I was born in 1986 and didn't have a CD player until around 98 or so. I was all cassette until then. ― k. k3ller & public admin log (The Reverend) , Monday, 3 August 2009 04:08 (seven years ago) Permalink also: will the classical-music market ever drive technological innovation in music reproduction again? (as it did with the 33RPM LP and the CD.) I doubt it because there isn't much money to be made there anymore. I don't consider myself an expert, but has most new symphony recording moved offshore because production costs are just too high in the US. There really isn't much left to be done with music technology. The fidelity can only go so high before the playback equipment is better than our biology. The main thing that is still left is improving compression technology so that lossless 24/96 recordings are smaller than mp3s. The only other thing is improving the software so that it can finally replace the outboard stuff that still cannot be fudged in the box. Once that happens, there really isn't anywhere left to go that is strictly about recorded music. After that, the only things left will be bluring the lines between film/music/and video games and working out new user interfaces for the instruments of the future. Those things are interesting, but by that point it will not strictly be about "recording" anymore. ― your original display name is still visible (Display Name) , Monday, 3 August 2009 04:12 (seven years ago) Permalink i got a cd player around 89-90. i stopped buying vinyl around 1985 and bought tape pretty heavily for that 5 year period. i regret it because cassettes are a bs format and i swallowed the death of vinyl mindset just like all the other dorks. ― velko , Monday, 3 August 2009 04:12 (seven years ago) Permalink A more direct way to answer that question is that Guitar Hero is the next step in music reproduction. I haven't heard any development plans regarding Cello Hero or Conductor Hero. Passive media is going to become an anachronism in the next couple decades. There isn't enough of a classical market to drive the funding needed to make hi-tech commercial product happen. ― your original display name is still visible (Display Name) , Monday, 3 August 2009 04:18 (seven years ago) Permalink the first cd my family bought was the La Bamba soundtrack. first cd I ever owned was the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle soundtrack. apparently only soundtracks were allowed in my household. and as far as cassettes, shit, man, those things still had prevalence as late as like the 2000s. I mean they weren't selling anywhere near as much but stores still carried them enough to a degree that I still bought them through like 2001. cuz I was a cheap motherfucker, which is why I own the Marshall Mathers LP on cassette like a fucktard. ― Cyberdune Butt (Elvin Wayburn Phillips) , Monday, 3 August 2009 04:19 (seven years ago) Permalink yeah, I remember the store at the mall having a small cassette section through like 2004-05 ― k. k3ller & public admin log (The Reverend) , Monday, 3 August 2009 04:33 (seven years ago) Permalink ugh i wish i hadn't been so cheap. had to buy so many albums twice cuz of all the good stuff i stupidly bought on cassette in the 00s. ― Cyberdune Butt (Elvin Wayburn Phillips) , Monday, 3 August 2009 04:35 (seven years ago) Permalink i had forgotten that a big reason i was late in moving to CDs was simply that they were more expensive than cassettes, and didn't turn up used in the same numbers. like the poster above, i bought many of my cassettes used for $3–$5, and a lot more from Columbia House for even less than that. for the same reason the first CDs i bought were catalogue titles, like dylan and aretha franklin albums (not yet remastered, available new for $7 or $8). i've bought a lot of things twice for this reason -- first on cassette, then on CD. i got rid of the vast majority my cassettes some time after college, ca. 1999–2000. soon after i banished the cassette deck to my mom's basement. but ironically (?) many of the CDs i bought to replace cassettes (like all the smiths albums) i've since converted to MP3 and gotten rid of in turn. there's probably some kind of lesson there, for example, that i don't owe the record industry much. ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 05:32 (seven years ago) Permalink IIRC it wasn't until the mid-late 1990s that Columbia House and BMG Music Service started offering CDs for the same kinds of deals they had been offering cassettes. am i mistaken in this? i do recall holding off on joining the CD version of the club because not just the list prices (outrageous $20 for a new album on CD) but the "discount" prices were much higher than those for cassettes, like 60% higher. ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 05:33 (seven years ago) Permalink The New York Times produced a convenient infographic a day ago to answer the question, oddly enough ― bendy , Monday, 3 August 2009 05:43 (seven years ago) Permalink wow, thanks! ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 05:45 (seven years ago) Permalink if you believe that graph, it's shocking how little the so-called "vinyl comeback" has impacted overall sales. i had to squint to even detect any uptick in the past few years. ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 05:47 (seven years ago) Permalink But also, the combined CD-downloads histogram bars of 2008 are pretty comparable to the "2008 dollars" of 1978's 8track-LP-single-cassette. I look at that chart and if confirms my suspicions: CDs by the late-90s had a HUGE margin. ― bendy , Monday, 3 August 2009 05:52 (seven years ago) Permalink yeah, i think a growing consensus says that by the late 1980s the industry was growing accustomed to HUGE profit margins. this is precisely why they were quickly gobbled up by major multinational media corporations, and i think it's the reason why they were so critically reluctant to embrace digital formats or anything that would threaten the centrality of the CD. ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 06:09 (seven years ago) Permalink if the industry could have somehow allowed themselves to shrink back to pre-1980s size, they might not be in the same hole. but that's a HUGE what-if. first of all, i'm not sure their corporate parents would have permitted it. second, who WOULDN'T get addicted to huge profits? ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 06:10 (seven years ago) Permalink Does that casette figure up top include blanks? That would go quite some way to explaining the disparity - casettes were the only easy to record to blank media until the CDR came along which wasnt til the mid 90s at least. ― seagulls are assholes (Trayce) , Monday, 3 August 2009 06:11 (seven years ago) Permalink i doubt it; i imagine it's prerecorded music only, otherwise it would through the comparison out of whack. ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 06:12 (seven years ago) Permalink Yeah fair point - I was just thinking though that I only ever bought like, one or 2 proper albums on casette. Sure, I used them a lot when it was the only portable media but only by recording my vinyl to blanks. I stuck to vinyl right up to and beyond when I got my CD player in 1990, I think it was. ― seagulls are assholes (Trayce) , Monday, 3 August 2009 06:14 (seven years ago) Permalink That NY Times graph's quite amazing. Can't believe sales of 8 tracks were worth $3.1 billion dollars in 1978, or have I misread the figures and that's the cumulative amount? ― DJ Angoreinhardt (Billy Dods) , Monday, 3 August 2009 06:52 (seven years ago) Permalink well, that's adjusted for inflation (that is, the actual dollar figure was less, but it's $3.1 billion in today's cash), but yeah it's still a lot of money. and where are all those 8-tracks now? ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 07:31 (seven years ago) Permalink In Finland the cassette was certainly more prevalent than vinyl or CD at least in the latter half of the 80s and for the first couple of years to the 90s. I was born in 1979, and in that era none of the kids/teens I knew bought anything on vinyl, it was all cassettes. I think vinyl was mostly bought by "music hipsters" (due to better sound quality?), whereas cassettes was what regular people bought. CDs became more prevalent than cassettes around 1993 I think. ― Tuomas , Monday, 3 August 2009 08:20 (seven years ago) Permalink I started buying CDs around 1992 and, though I never stopped buying vinyl, by '94 or so I was 80% CD and even my later audiophile adventures didn't change that figure much. I probably own fewer than a dozen pre-recorded cassettes but I do remember them being the default format for a lot of people (the advent of the in-car CD player was probably a major blow to their popularity). Woolworths had a pretty impressive back-catalogue on cassette (far more so than CD or vinyl, it seemed); an audiophile friend of mine, fairly bizarrely, bought most of his music on tape between 1988 and 1994 (he had a high-end Nakamichi deck). He then spent the second half of the '90s replacing everything with CDs. ― Michael Jones , Monday, 3 August 2009 08:30 (seven years ago) Permalink I listened to a lot of 45rpm pop singles as a kid. Then did some cassette time with an early Walkman. As soon as I started buying records for myself, it was always vinyl. Vinyl was cheaper than any other format, and in plentiful supply. This was like 1984-1992. I guess I got a cd player in '92 and pretty much only bought CD's used. It was primarily a cost issue. In the late 90s, most records I wanted to buy weren't readily available on vinyl. So I just combed through CD bins to find cheap and used copies of whatever I was into. I also bought records and CDs from bands on tour; direct. Since I started to DJ in the last 6-7 years, I've gone back to buying 99% of my music on vinyl only. CDs just feel like plastic coasters to me a lot of the time. I get too many promos. I hate them. But when I buy a new record of a release I'm really excited about and feel that heavy vinyl, I get really happy. ― Nate Carson , Monday, 3 August 2009 08:37 (seven years ago) Permalink But very recently I got a car with a cassette deck and I bought a lot of 17 Rush cassettes of ebay. That's all I keep in the car. ― Nate Carson , Monday, 3 August 2009 08:38 (seven years ago) Permalink My first friend to get a CD player got his in 1990, and his parents bought him CDs of most of the albums he liked that he owned on cassette; he gave me the cassettes. I got one in 1992, shortly before I left for college. I had/still buy things on vinyl, cassette, and CD. Cassettes I'll buy at the thrift store for 50 cents/$1. I'll buy vinyl if I can't find something on CD and want to support the local shop or the artist. I got about 50 or so records for free when I worked at the music library in college and they were converting their collection to CD, when possible. There was also a summer flood at one point, and some of the records I got had covers with water damage. Almost all of these are classical and opera. ― free jazz and mumia (sarahel) , Monday, 3 August 2009 08:38 (seven years ago) Permalink (xpost to Michael) Very simlar for me: I bought nothing but vinyl until early 1992. Around then my stylus became very unreliable so I started buying some stuff on cassette. Then at the end of the year I got a new stereo (with a CD player) so from 1993 onwards about 80% of what I bought was on CD. I'm guessing Britain was behind America in adopting this technology: when my Dad got his first CD player in 1989 this was a BIG DEAL - I don't think I'd ever heard a CD before and I was expecting some kind of magical sound transformation. ― Teh Movable Object (Nasty, Brutish & Short) , Monday, 3 August 2009 08:41 (seven years ago) Permalink The first time I heard a CD was probably in 1985. It was the main theme from Star Wars and at the time it sounded amazing. I realized later it was mostly because it was played LOUD. ― Nate Carson , Monday, 3 August 2009 08:47 (seven years ago) Permalink my uncle and aunt had a CD player ca. 1986. i think they eventually had soundtracks for e.g. LA BAMBA and TOP GUN, not to mention barbara streisand records, andrew lloyd webber, etc. i remember listening to their STAND BY ME soundtrack a lot. their oldest son, who would have been born about 1966, only had vinyl and he used to sit me down in front of his collection, give me a pack of C90s, and tell me to dub whatever i wanted. sweet. i got the buzzcocks, lots of reggae records, etc. that way. their middle son was the first young person i knew to have his own CD player; he had one of the first "boom boxes" (or cheap all-in-one stereos, at least) to include a CD player. i remember him having the 3rd english beat album, which i still love. i also remember trying to dub it, by turning on the CD player and the tape deck at the same time. i left for lunch and when i came back i retrieved the cassette. days later when i went to play it, i realized that the CD had been skipping constantly over the same 1-2 second snippet for 45 minutes, so i had some kind of avant-garde minimalist piece on my hands. anyway. boring story. ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 09:13 (seven years ago) Permalink Not a boring story at all. Well, not by my standards. My first experience of CD was probably REM's Green, which did sound fantastic because my brother's Arcam/Ruark stereo was leagues better than the 1978 Crown music-centre I was used to. My first experience of CD in my own home was the first Tindersticks album (yes, I know - the vinyl had an extra track); though I'd been buying CDs for 18 months or so, I was actually taping them at friends' houses as I didn't have playback gear myself. Finally bought a CD player and was completely smitten. Mazzy Star's So Tonight... was the other CD I bought that day. ― Michael Jones , Monday, 3 August 2009 09:18 (seven years ago) Permalink Am I right in thinking that Brothers In Arms was the first big CD release, the album that started driving consumers towards the new format? I think cassettes were the dominant format for 2-3 years in the late 80s before CDs took over, but I could be wrong. This is from a UK perspective, maybe it was different in the US. My tape deck self-destructed recently so I binned it, and can't really imagine replacing it, which is a shame because I still have about 20 cassettes. Um, maybe Hated In The Nation by GG Allin goes for big bucks on ebay in that format... ― Matt #2 , Monday, 3 August 2009 09:50 (seven years ago) Permalink My memory is that the change happened relatively quickly. In 1988 my band's was given a CD release as well and none of us had anything to play it on. The record company logic was that little enough stuff was available still, and people with the new tech would buy any old shite, just to have something to play. I remember distinctly less than 3 years later, in Dublin anyway, it was very difficult to find new releases on vinyl. The megastore had banished them completely. I didn't get a CD player until '93 - a cast off - and the first record i remember buying in the new format was Crooked Rain, Crooked Rain, because i couldn't find it on vinyl - Slanted and Enchanted had presented no such problem. I never particularly liked buying CDs and my level of new music consumption dropped drastically until the early years of this decade as a result. ― sonofstan , Monday, 3 August 2009 10:37 (seven years ago) Permalink Awesome infographic, thanks. That graph seems to put the peak of the cassette single at 1998! Totally not what I expected. I always thought the UK might have been a little behind the US on abandoning cassettes and picking up CDs, since my friends at school were still buying tapes and many of them were unable to listen to CDs until about 1994, but '98 seems pretty late. I remember in '98-'99 the cassette section was pretty much being squeezed out at my local music shops - bought a bunch of tapes cheap, which was cool, except that even 2 years later I never listened to tapes. (My local Virgin/HMV/Our Price were cutting down their tape sections at that time to make shelf-space for prerecorded MINIDISC albums - not even graphed!) ― a passing spacecadet , Monday, 3 August 2009 11:33 (seven years ago) Permalink Regarding western Europe, CD's seemed to become big between 1987-1988. This was also caused by independent labels starting to release their stuff on CD. For example: a metal lover had no reason to buy a cd-player before 1986, as there was hardly anything available to his liking. That all changed in the aforementioned time-period. Around 1990 most stores had switched to selling cd's exclusively. The majority of new releases wasn't made available on vinyl anymore too, around that time. ― Sebastian (Royal Mermaid Mover) , Monday, 3 August 2009 11:40 (seven years ago) Permalink That all changed in the aforementioned time-period. Around 1990 most stores had switched to selling cd's exclusively. I can only speak for Finland, but this certainly wasn't the case in here. Up until 1992 or 1993 the stores carried more cassettes than CDs, and even though CDs became more prevalent than cassettes around 1993, most stores still had a cassette section for the next 5 years or so. ― Tuomas , Monday, 3 August 2009 11:46 (seven years ago) Permalink Yes, I would have said pretty much the same for the UK. Certainly don't recall CDs outnumbering tapes in 1990, though this was around the time that CDs started to really take hold. ― Keith , Monday, 3 August 2009 11:47 (seven years ago) Permalink I can only speak for the Netherlands, I guess. Pre-recorded cassettes have never been popular around here. People bought their stuff on vinyl and taped it themselves for use in the car. ― Sebastian (Royal Mermaid Mover) , Monday, 3 August 2009 11:49 (seven years ago) Permalink Yes, I would have said pretty much the same for the UK. Certainly don't recall CDs outnumbering tapes in 1990, though this was around the time that CDs started to really take hold. Yeah, my Dad got a CD player in '90 or '91, and while the technology was hardly new then we only knew one other person with one, and I remember the racks being fairly limited (maybe one aisle to four tape aisles, though this was at a W H Smith, but music was a much bigger part of their business back then IIRC) when I went to buy myself my first CD to play on it. CDs probably took up the majority of floorspace here in the UK since about '92, and cassettes finally died in the late 90s. Vinyl has been relegated to a small back section (mostly dance 12"s, some horribly overpriced new indie LPs) for as long as I remember. ― a passing spacecadet , Monday, 3 August 2009 12:00 (seven years ago) Permalink I was an early CD adopter I guess-- I started buying music on vinyl around 1983 but by 1985 I was only buying CDs. My music-loving older brother, who was a big influence on me, was also a bit of an audiophile, and he said CDs were the only way to go. I never bought music on cassette and have probably only bought 10 or so such tapes in my life to listen to in the car. During the '80s and early '90s, before portable CDs, I would tape my CDs to listen to in the car or on my Walkman. In the late '90s I started buying music on vinyl again, almost always used. ― Mark , Monday, 3 August 2009 12:17 (seven years ago) Permalink i can remember buying a few mainstream things on vinyl up until the late 80s, even though my family switched to mostly cassette buying sometime in the mid 80s. i can remember buying cassette singles especially into the early 90s, i guess it was Christmas '92 when i got a little shelf system with a CD player on it. and after then i bought only CDs for mainstream music, with vinyl creeping back in around 94 when i discovered punk shows and cheap vinyl shops around my high school. in 97 i started deejaying and the huge percentage of what i buy is vinyl. i do still buy CDs, especially underground releases that are CD only as well as some classic jazz and neo soul things that i might also have on vinyl but want for more convenient listening. i used cassettes up until 2003 or so since that's what my cars had in them, and i never owned a portable CD player so all my walkman type devices were cassette as well up until then. i was mostly copying CDs and LPs and making mixtapes, though i would raid the used sections at the local Record Exchanges and score ridiculously good shit for $.50-$2 on cassette. i do recall that when i started working at a mainstream music shop in late 98, new cassettes still had a decent sized section, but they were hidden in the back and very few people every fucked with them. we also sold used CDs, and being in the middle of the college section of town we did a huge business with them at that time. ― pipecock , Monday, 3 August 2009 14:26 (seven years ago) Permalink 1. I had forgotten that cassette sales surpassed vinyl sales for about 4-5 years before CD sales did. 2. Amazing the fall of 8-tracks, going from their peak sales to no sales in only 4 years. ― Josefa , Monday, 3 August 2009 15:57 (seven years ago) Permalink Amazing the fall of 8-tracks, going from their peak sales to no sales in only 4 years. The SDP of audio formats. ― Michael Jones , Monday, 3 August 2009 16:03 (seven years ago) Permalink It think it's easy to forget about the dominance of cassettes 'cause they were generally along periphery of the shop. I had no idea vinyl profits had completely sputtered by the late 80s, 'cause it took up so much floorspace. That explains why vinyl so suddenly vanished around 1990. I bought a goodly number of LPs during the vinyl cash out at that time, but the last few new records I could easily procure on LP were "Trompe Le Monde" and "Look Ma, No Head" which were already relegated to a single bin of LPs at my regular record shop. That would have been late 1991. I think they had more space for 7" at that point. I bought mail order for about a year, but by 1993, stopped trying to support LPs. A few years later, in Pittsburgh, I found myself working and living across the street from Jerry's Records, just as he decided to forgo CDs and only deal in his massive backlog of vinyl. Uninterested in contemporary rock at the time, I lived off of his $4 and $5 LPs for a long time. Never liked CDs too much, and was happy MP3s came along to solve all the problems of portability, $17 retail prices, and cracked jewel boxes. ― bendy , Monday, 3 August 2009 17:05 (seven years ago) Permalink I offer this as an example because no one I knew as a kid bought anything but cassettes. They went into your walkman, they went into the car stereo, and they went into your boombox. In my mind, young people didn't start having CD's until the early 90's. Once I got a stereo with a CD player, I bought a Sony Discman a short while later and that is when my purchases switched over to CD exclusively. This is exactly my experience. My parents bought their first CD player in 1989 and switched from cassettes to CD-exclusive. Before that, though, the last piece of new vinyl my parents ever bought was the 45 rpm single for Hall & Oates' "Method of Modern Love." My memory's hazy, but 1984-1985 may have been the last time my household was vinyl-exclusive. I do know that the first tape I ever bought with my own money was Wham!'s Make It Big in '85. Although I bought my first CD in 1990 (the first Michael Penn album), I stuck with cassettes until I got a real job, then would by them intermittently throughout the nineties. Places like Best Buy would stock cassettes until 1998 or 1999 for ridiculously low prices. The last new cassette I bought: Massive Attack's Mezzanine My car still has a tape deck, and I play my old tapes all the time. ― Heric E. (Alfred, Lord Sotosyn) , Monday, 3 August 2009 17:12 (seven years ago) Permalink goddam i thought Display Name was like 40 ― unban dictionary (blueski) , Monday, 3 August 2009 17:25 (seven years ago) Permalink xpost Funny how old formats survive in cars - I've just gotten my first car to have a CD player (it's a mere 12 yo) and the boxes of CDs that have been nearly untouched for the past 5 years are out of their box and back in circulation: more than that, CDs are ridiculously cheap in charity shops now, so lots of stuff I wouldn't but at vinyl prices gets a look in. ― sonofstan , Monday, 3 August 2009 18:05 (seven years ago) Permalink my first cassette purchase, i think, was "he's the DJ, i'm the rapper"!! ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 18:08 (seven years ago) Permalink my last, i think, was the motown box set -- "hitsville USA." at one point one of the tapes broke, and i actually convinced the record store to let me have a CD copy and i just paid the difference! ― amateurist , Monday, 3 August 2009 18:09 (seven years ago) Permalink i can never remember whether my first was De La Soul's 'The Magic Number/Buddy' single or the Ghostbusters 2 soundtrack ― unban dictionary (blueski) , Monday, 3 August 2009 18:10 (seven years ago) Permalink Remember the "cassette-only bonus track"? The Police's Synchronicity had one, maybe the first I can recall. ― Josefa , Monday, 3 August 2009 19:04 (seven years ago) Permalink When did they invent cassette singles? I don't remember them at all when I was buying 7 inches in the 80s. Did CD singles come after or before? ― Teh Movable Object (Nasty, Brutish & Short) , Monday, 3 August 2009 20:16 (seven years ago) Permalink late 80's for sure. My stepmother got a CD player in maybe 1985, the first thing I heard on it was Gregorian chants. "Wow, when they stop singing it's like totally silent" was the reaction. I went through a very brief period in 1989 where I bought stuff on cassette because the vinyl was hard to find ( I specifically remember having to do this with Camper Van Beethoven and Public Enemy albums). Then I got involved with a gal who had a CD player, and started buying CDs in 1990. By the time we broke up in 1993 I had more CDs than she did. ― sleeve , Monday, 3 August 2009 20:20 (seven years ago) Permalink When did they invent cassette singles? I don't remember them at all when I was buying 7 inches in the 80s. Did CD singles come after or before? Good question. I bought my first "cassingles" (The Escape Club's "Wild Wild West" and lol Robert Palmer's cover of "Early in the Morning") in fall '88, but I'm sure they were available earlier. I still bought the occasional 7" (the Bangles' "In Your Room," the Stones' "Mixed Emotions") well into 1989, though. Fun fact: Roxette's "Listen to Your Heart" was the first single to hit #1 unavailable on vinyl. ― Heric E. (Alfred, Lord Sotosyn) , Monday, 3 August 2009 20:57 (seven years ago) Permalink My current car only has a tape deck, and I still have about five tapes (including, oddly, Squeeze by Velvet Underground that a friend copied for me). What's funny is that I haven't really been bothered by this (no long road trips though). It's kind of nice not worrying about track selection or anything. Too much trouble to fast forward or reverse. Me and "Ride Captain Ride" are just enjoying getting to know each other. Weird trivia that matters to nobody but me: the first two Dustdevils albums sound better (more bass) on cassette than on vinyl. People always compare CD to vinyl, but I'm sure there are other cases where cassette takes the prize. ― dlp9001 , Monday, 3 August 2009 21:05 (seven years ago) Permalink like this one: L.A.M.F. - Take the Taste Test ― sleeve , Monday, 3 August 2009 21:12 (seven years ago) Permalink i had "It Takes Two" and "Me Myself & I" on cassingle. so they definitely had them by '88 ― ^prizes the praise of the media, and the Europeans (will) , Monday, 3 August 2009 21:13 (seven years ago) Permalink There were 3-inch CD singles in 1987: They Might Be Giants had one for "Don't Let's Start" (maybe more properly called an EP - it had 4 songs). Robyn Hitchcock had one for "Balloon Man" circa '88 and I remember owning a Lisa Lisa & Cult Jam one around that time. You may recall the adaptor you had to use to make them fit the CD tray. ― Josefa , Monday, 3 August 2009 21:58 (seven years ago) Permalink "People always compare CD to vinyl, but I'm sure there are other cases where cassette takes the prize." i still listen to a lot of old metal and rap on tape. i prefer it, actually. i always thought that a lot of 80's rap on tape sounded better than cd or vinyl. (a lot of rap albums from back then - not 12 inch singles - were pressed on the cruddiest vinyl and a lot of rap CDs back then were just put on cd really badly. but that's true of a lot of 80's CDs. so, i guess i should say that i like old rap either as 12 inch single or tape. again, with old metal, a lot of cruddy vinyl used by cheap-ass metal labels. this wasn't a problem with tapes. and they really did often sound better.) ― scott seward , Monday, 3 August 2009 22:34 (seven years ago) Permalink Bryan Adams' "Heat of the Night" b/w "Another Day" was released as a cassette single by A&M Records on March 13, 1987, making it the first to be released in the U.S. after the industry had agreed to introduce the format on a wide scale and to begin phasing out the production of 45-rpm singles. In contrast to the earlier Go-Go's single, which was packaged in a regular cassette box, the Bryan Adams single was issued in a unique outer snap-open soft black plastic case with a red colored cassette shell. This case was not used on later single issues and most companies issued them in the new low-cost cardboard slipcase packaging with only one or two opting for the regular type cassette box. ― Anatomy of a Morbius (Alfred, Lord Sotosyn) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 13:07 (seven years ago) Permalink I thought Bow Wow Wow released the first cassette single? When was that, 1980? ― Aw naw, no' Annoni oan noo an' aw (Tom D.) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 13:12 (seven years ago) Permalink ... not in the US though, I imagine ― Anatomy of a Morbius (Alfred, Lord Sotosyn) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 13:16 (seven years ago) Permalink Do anyone think it dawned on the record companies that digital storage without a physical product was on the way and the CD was an attempt to go back to the well one last time? or did they seriously believe it would remain a high value 'top- end' kind of thing? it must have been clear that they cost 2p to make and that the copying process wasn't anything like as complex as making a vinyl record, so that, quite soon, folk would be making them at home. ― sonofstan , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 13:23 (seven years ago) Permalink You seem to assuming there that record companies employ people with brains ― unban dictionary (blueski) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 13:25 (seven years ago) Permalink Do anyone think it dawned on the record companies that digital storage without a physical product was on the way i don't think they could have forseen this in 1981-82. ― amateurist , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 13:28 (seven years ago) Permalink considering they tried to foist minidisc on us as the CD's successor i doubt it really MD (and DCC) surely intended to replace cassette? Or was that just the revisionist line in the late-'90s after MD/DCC had flopped first time round? Not sure what the state of the art was wrt psychoacoustic compression in 1981-82; I think they were doing clever things with masking codecs on speech but anything usable for music must've seemed a long way away. The processing power required was probably in the realm of yr LOL mainframe. ― Michael Jones , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 13:52 (seven years ago) Permalink did they seriously believe it would remain a high value 'top- end' kind of thing? I've long had this image in my head of the CD being introduced in a boardroom meeting, and a John Hammond/Amhet Ertegun-era oldster saying, "But if each disc is a perfect copy, what prevents anyone from making a perfect copy for themselves?" and being laughed at by the younger executives, who explain that they have to be made in clean rooms by guys in air-tight suits. ― bendy , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 14:10 (seven years ago) Permalink Good old Wikipedia: A derivative technology developed originally for DCC is now being used for filtering beer. Silicon wafers with micrometer scale holes are ideal for separating yeast particles from beer. The beer flows through the silicon wafer leaving the yeast particles behind, which results in a very clear beer. The manufacturing process for the filters was originally developed for the read/write heads of DCC players. ― Michael Jones , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 14:14 (seven years ago) Permalink I've long had this image in my head of the CD being introduced in a boardroom meeting, and a John Hammond/Amhet Ertegun-era oldster saying, "But if each disc is a perfect copy, what prevents anyone from making a perfect copy for themselves?" and being laughed at by the younger executives, who explain that they have to be made in clean rooms by guys in air-tight suits. LOL Just on the notion of what tech was available at the time - in my mind the first sampling technology (fairlights, the emax), and the first stirrings of digital recording seem contemporary with the introduction of the CD and i know there were lads in studios who foresaw that becoming cheaper and home based. Put it another way; ― sonofstan , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 14:25 (seven years ago) Permalink Bow Wow Wow never released a cassette single. Their first ever release was an old-fashioned 7" vinyl single called "C30 C60 C90 Go!," which was a song about home-taping. The group's next release was an 8-song cassette called Your Cassette Pet. That was their only cassette-exclusive production & after that it was back to vinyl (and eventually the Your Cassette Pet tracks were reissued on vinyl). ― Josefa , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 15:29 (seven years ago) Permalink (and eventually the Your Cassette Pet tracks were reissued on vinyl). which caused some controversy, as mclaren had promised otherwise -- as if mclaren was ever one to keep a promise/be consistent. ― amateurist , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 15:59 (seven years ago) Permalink "Do anyone think it dawned on the record companies that digital storage without a physical product was on the way" i think if they did see it coming, they wouldnt have persevered with cds, considering how easy it is to rip cds to mp3s and fileshare them. ― titchy (titchyschneiderMk2) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 16:11 (seven years ago) Permalink they should have stuck with vinyl basically. ― titchy (titchyschneiderMk2) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 16:12 (seven years ago) Permalink Re: Bow Wow Wow, McLaren may have been free of the group by then. I'm thinking he was gone from "I Want Candy" on... The Cassette Pet tracks came out on vinyl a couple of months after "Candy." ― Josefa , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 16:13 (seven years ago) Permalink 1979-1985 - Vinyl LPs and 45s. It really started to give me a complex when a brand new record would still have excruciating pops and clicks on our crappy Montgomery Ward stereo. It seriously gave me a nervous tick. When I play CDs of albums I had 30 years ago, I still cringe at the place where the vinyl used to skip. 1985-1988 - The era of walkmens and boomboxes/mini stereos with double cassette decks, woo hoo! Does anyone remember the particular smell of the new clear cassettes? If I were to smell it today, it would give me a Smiths/Cure/New Order flashback. I continued to buy boxes of blank cassettes until about 1998, when I got a CD burner. 1988 - Bought my first CD player, hooked up to my mini stereo. It sounded way better than the cassettes with their muddy noise reduction. First CDs were Joy Division - Substance and Dukes of Stratosphear comp. 1994 - I read an article that solid state technology was the future of music storage. If I had money to invest in chip manufacturers, I would have. 2009 we supposedly will finally have high-capacity 2TB SDXC cards, though it might not be 'til 2010 for that much storage. Vinyl in 2009, LOL. I continued to buy used vinyl for my radio show because a lot of stuff wasn't available on CD yet. I also bought some indie 45s, a good way to sample bands. My turntable broke around 1997 and I didn't bother getting another. ― Fastnbulbous , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 16:15 (seven years ago) Permalink i love when i buy old vhs tapes and they have store stickers that say: suggested retail price: $89.99 your price: $69.99 THOSE were the days. i can't believe i was actually buying laserdiscs in the early 90's! what was i thinking? ― scott seward , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 16:35 (seven years ago) Permalink i'm really glad i had no money in the 90s ― unban dictionary (blueski) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 16:41 (seven years ago) Permalink I actually really liked minidisc. It's sort of academic now, but it was a fun format. I miss buying vintage wooden cream cheese containers on eBay (which held minidiscs perfectly). Xpost. ― dlp9001 , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 17:28 (seven years ago) Permalink those who record gigs still use minidisc, so until something better comes along to replace it then it will still have that niche market. ― pfunkboy (Herman G. Neuname) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 17:50 (seven years ago) Permalink I picked up a HI-MD minidisc two years ago, and its great for digitizing LPs. There's something about having real buttons to start and stop recording that makes it a lot easyier than trying to input it to a computer. And you can walk around playing that LP side while doing chores, and split up the tracks and mark the titles. No fiddling with WAV editors, etc. ― bendy , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 17:53 (seven years ago) Permalink Started listening to bought music in 1992, this was all on tape bar my Mum & Dad's vinyl copy of ABBA: The Album. Saved up and bought a CD/tape boombox (with two tape decks of course) about a year or so later, first purchase being Now! 23 which I bought in a bargain bin the same day. Bought a mixture of CDs and tapes throughout the '90s (mostly the former), some singles on vinyl too. Anyone else remember the brief mid-'90s trend for £4.99 new cassette albums (Ash's 1977 and the self-titled Charlatans album, both of which my brother bought)? I carried on using cassettes for copying other peoples' CDs/vinyl through uni though, this was up to about 2002. I don't think I've got any tapes left, there was a box at my parents' house but I think I threw them all away... ― Gavin in Leeds , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 17:57 (seven years ago) Permalink Clear enough that in the UK/Ireland it was the cassette that killed vinyl, not the CD. Seems if you were born anytime after 1970, you were unilikely to have had the money or the equipment to support a vinyl habit as a kid, and so went straight to cassette and from there to Cd after school/ college ― sonofstan , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 18:21 (seven years ago) Permalink "Do anyone think it dawned on the record companies that digital storage without a physical product was on the way" i think if they did see it coming, they wouldnt have persevered with cds, considering how easy it is to rip cds to mp3s and fileshare them. CDs came out in the late 70s, before the IBM-compatible PC was even introduced (with its 640K max of RAM, and 360K floppy disc or cassette storage), so the idea that home production of 700 MB recordings was just around the corner is not valid (Moore's law be damned!). The record companies invented themselves 20+ years of raking in heretofore undreamed-of money; they did the right thing, businesswise. ― nickn , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 20:07 (seven years ago) Permalink Anyone else remember the brief mid-'90s trend for £4.99 new cassette albums (Ash's 1977 and the self-titled Charlatans album, both of which my brother bought)? I had the Ash tape at £4.99! Only reason I bought the album was it was so cheap. ― pfunkboy (Herman G. Neuname) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 20:17 (seven years ago) Permalink Am I right in thinking that Brothers In Arms was the first big CD release, the album that started driving consumers towards the new format? Yeah, I remember reading back around 1985 or early '86 that Dire Straits were, at that point, the bestselling CD artists in the brief history of the format - not just "Brothers", but their entire back catalog. ― Stop wishing death on people just for the cool thread titles (Myonga Vön Bontee) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 21:00 (seven years ago) Permalink The record companies invented themselves 20+ years of raking in heretofore undreamed-of money; they did the right thing, businesswise. Guess that's true. if you look at the NYT graphic above, peak year for Cds ('99) was worth double the peak year for Vinyl ('78) - still though, the world was richer, there were whole new parts of the world that weren't markets in '78 opened up..... I guess i'm wondering if the growth had much to do with the medium? (it was cheaper to make, cheaper to ship and store etc.) ― sonofstan , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 21:04 (seven years ago) Permalink I think that graphic is from RIAA data, so they're American stats. And it's based on profit, not units sold. ― bendy , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 21:12 (seven years ago) Permalink I didn't get a cd player until about 1989, and even then I bought a large amount of vinyl. I never bought many tapes because I'd heard people thought vinyl sounded better though how much better it sounded on the shitty stereo I had from Montgomery Wards was debatable. ― akm , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 22:12 (seven years ago) Permalink The only stand-alone CD player I've owned is a Sony Discman earned through Camel Cash. Thank you Joe! ― bendy , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 22:20 (seven years ago) Permalink i love when i buy old vhs tapes and they have store stickers that say: suggested retail price: $89.99 your price: $69.99 ― scott seward ^^^lol i remember this well, you'd see the release calendar for vhs tapes and the retail price for the dead pool was $100 or something ― omar little , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 22:25 (seven years ago) Permalink They still do this on Half.com. You search for like an old New Yorker video and it'll say list price $99.99 and then you'll save $49.99 cause somebody in Debuque is fool fishing. ― The Wild Shirtless Lyrics of Mark Farner (C. Grisso/McCain) , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 22:31 (seven years ago) Permalink I got my first CD player in 1985, and I bought a portable "car" model (supposed to be more shock-resistant) a few years after. I ended up not using the portable one in my car because leaving the $200 player and a stack of CDs in there seemed like a bad idea, so when the home deck died I hooked up the portable, and I'm still using it. I don't remember when I switched from vinyl to CDs, probably when the price differential wasn't that much. I pretty much wouldn't dream of buying vinyl today unless it's a cheap, used LP, of something I'm kind of interested in. (Last purchases: 4 jazz LPs for $3, and before that the 2 Mick Ronson LPs for $1 each.) ― nickn , Tuesday, 4 August 2009 22:50 (seven years ago) Permalink Does anyone remember the particular smell of the new clear cassettes? If I were to smell it today, it would give me a Smiths/Cure/New Order flashback. Yes, yes, a thousand time yes! I miss that smell, vinyl doesn't have that weird chemical printing plant smell. I love the smell of offset print barely given enough time to dry and then shrink wrapped in a very tight package. It is one of my favorite childhood smells.

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The History of Vinyl Records | Our Pastimes The History of Vinyl Records By Tim Neely Chad Baker/Jason Reed/Ryan McVay/Photodisc/Getty Images Today's vinyl records aren't that much different from those that were introduced in the 1940s. The styles of music and the artists have changed, and a few refinements have improved their sound quality, most notably the introduction of stereo sound in the late 1950s, but the basic record has not. Before Vinyl, There Was Shellac: 78s When Thomas Edison invented the phonograph in 1877, the playback medium was cylindrical in shape. Emile Berliner changed that in 1888 by creating a flat disc to be played on what he called a gramophone. Over a period of several decades, these records became standardized at a speed of approximately 78 rpm and in sizes of 10 and 12 inches in diameter, the larger ones usually for classical music. They were made of a shellac-based compound that proved both noisy and brittle. Also, because of their short length, several changes of side were necessary to listen to, for example, a movement of a symphony. Long-Playing Records Came Next In 1931, the RCA Victor Company introduced an early version of a long-playing record, but it failed to catch on and was all but dead by 1933. The Depression and World War II inhibited further attempts to create a more modern record. After several years of research, Columbia introduced a microgroove 33 1/3 rpm long-playing record in 1948. Unlike the standard 10-inch 78 rpm record, which could play about 3 1/2 minutes on one side, the new “LP” could hold 15-plus minutes on one side of a 10-inch record and up to 25 minutes on one side of a 12-inch disc. Also, these new records were made of a vinyl compound rather than the easily breakable shellac of 78s. The larger discs were originally meant for classical music and the smaller for non-classical, but by 1955, the 10-inch LP had been superseded by the 12-inch version. The 45 RPM Single Followed Denise Scott-jackson/Hemera/Getty Images Less than a year after Columbia's LP, in March 1949, RCA Victor introduced its own microgroove vinyl system — a 7-inch disc that played at 45 rpm. (It's been said that the speed came from subtracting 33 from 78, but there may be [more to it than that] (https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1O1oKDSwQF-9BLRseArSbj5YQ-z7BAPBpB-08kdCK2l0/pub?start=false&loop=false&delayms=3000&slide=id.g78e9a7dc4_02).) These were closer in concept to the 78s they ended up replacing, as they became the preferred method for singles. RCA also invented a special record changer to go along with the discs, which is why they have the large hole in the middle rather than the small hole of 33s and 78s. For a few years, record labels issued albums in sets of 45s as well as on long-playing LPs. In 1952, the extended-play 45, which became known as the “EP,” was introduced to replace those boxes of 45s, but once again these EPs rarely served more than a niche market, though some Elvis Presley EPs were huge sellers in 1956. Most labels phased out EP releases by the early 1960s, though Capitol released a Beatles EP in 1965, and RCA issued one last Elvis Presley EP in 1967. Two Ears, Two Sounds: Stereo Records The next innovation in records was the stereo disc, which was introduced in 1957. Stereo recording began on some films as early as 1939, and by 1954, several labels were recording in stereo. Reel-to-reel stereo tapes were sold before stereo records were because there were several competing ideas on how to make stereo records, and no one could agree which was best. Finally, an independent label, Audio Fidelity, chose one of the methods and started to release stereo records in 1957. The major labels followed, and by 1959, many new LPs were being issued in mono and stereo at the same time. Stereo 45s followed but didn't catch on at first; they began to reappear in 1968, and almost all labels were releasing stereo singles by 1973. Monaural LPs began to be discontinued in 1967, and by the end of 1968, virtually all new albums were in stereo only. Some older releases were converted using various methods into fake stereo; these albums are generally avoided except to complete a collection. Vinyl Records Today Most of the refinements in records since then have been to improve what is already there. In the 1970s, quadraphonic (four-channel) sound failed to catch on because of incompatible competing formats. Other techniques, including half-speed mastering and metal mastering, are attempts to improve the stereo sound. Because vinyl records can become scratched, warped and dirty, other formats slowly took over. Eight-track and cassette tapes were introduced in the 1960s; by the mid-1980s, more cassettes than vinyl records were sold. In 1982, the digital compact disc came to market and superseded both cassettes and LPs by 1991. Though the pops, ticks and warping of vinyl were not an issue with CDs, the shiny metal discs have their own problems, which led audiophiles, disc jockeys and collectors back to the old-fashioned vinyl record. References

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Vinyl LP Records - Collector Information | Collectors Weekly Overview eBay Auctions Show & Tell Articles There is something about holding a vinyl LP in the palms of your hands, touching only the platter’s edges lest you smudge, soil, or scratch the grooves incised in its inky surface. As you tilt the disc so that it catches the light, the tracks show up as fuzzy concentric bands, each delineated by a darker, thinner bar of dead space. That wide band in the middle of side one of The Doors must be the seven-minute version of "Light My Fire." Flip it over, and the last band on side two is even fatter, the 11-plus-minute opus, "The End." It’s time to give this vintage vinyl a spin. Records as we know them today (or knew them, before the rise of CDs and digital music) have been around since 1930, when RCA manufactured a 12-inch vinyl disc that was meant to be played at 33 1/3 revolutions per minute (RPM). RCA’s vinyl records produced a lot less playback noise than the shellac records that dominated the market, but the Great Depression was no time to introduce a new entertainment product with limited manufacturer support, so vinyl didn’t catch on. It took until 1948 for that to happen. That’s when Columbia introduced its own 12-inch, 33 1/3 vinyl monaural record, which it branded as the LP for Long Play. Today, the letters LP are treated like the word "Kleenex," which is to say that it’s technically a brand name, but we use it as if it was the generic description for vinyl records. For fans of early rock ’n’ roll, key vinyl LPs to collect include 1955’s Rock Around the Clock, the first 12-inch LP that Bill Haley & His Comets cut for Decca. The following year, a teenage singer named Frankie Lymon, who was sort of the Michael Jackson of the 1950s , released The Teenagers Featuring Frankie Lymon, which included their hit "Why Do Fools Fall In Love." Other pioneers of rock include Chuck Berry, whose 1957 LP called After School Session on Chess Records is a classic of the genre. Another Chess artist was Bo Diddley, whose 1958 Bo Diddley included such early hits as "Who Do You Love?" And then there was Elvis Presley , whose eponymous 1956 debut was the first rock ’n’ roll album to top the charts and sell a million copies. Tracks included the King’s famous cover of Carl Perkins’s "Blue Suede Shoes." For jazz fans, collectible LP choices range from Dixieland to West Coast Cool. From 1952 on, Chet Baker recorded numerous albums, many of them live, accompanied by the likes of Charlie Parker and Gerry Mulligan on labels with names like Fresh Sound, Pacific Jazz, and Blue Note ... Another early jazz LP pioneer was Louis Armstrong, whose trumpet work and vocals on the soundtrack for the 1956 film High Society contributed to its brisk sales (Bing Crosby’s duet with Grace Kelly, plus other tracks by Frank Sinatra , didn’t hurt, either). Armstrong had another film-related hit in 1963, when an LP version of Hello Dolly! was released to capitalize on his best-selling single from the movie. During the 1960s , a painful (to the ears) transition from mono to stereo took place. In many cases, monaural recording sessions were turned into stereo LPs during post-production, with predictably poor results. For collectors, some of the "pure" mono recordings of that decade are therefore highly prized. These include the 1963 Parlophone release of Please Please Me by The Beatles , the first Rolling Stones album in 1964, mono versions of Pink Floyd ’s 1967 The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, and the Grateful Dead ’s first album, also from 1967. In fact, LPs by psychedelic bands like Floyd and the Dead are a genre of collecting unto itself. Known as Psych Rock , bands include 13th Floor Elevators, The Chocolate Watchband, and H.P. Lovecraft. In some cases, particular LPs are considered classics of this trippy art form, such as the Jefferson Airplane’s 1967 After Bathing at Baxter’s, which was reportedly mixed based on how well it would sound while the listener was on LSD. Yet another highly collectible genre of vintage LPs is Progressive Rock, also known as Prog Rock . This late-1960s to 1970s phenomenon includes bands like Gong, Tangerine Dream, King Crimson, Yes, and Rush. Regardless of genre, one of the best things about LPs is their generous size, which gave rise to a flood of covers with gorgeous and/or provocative artwork. There are the colorful covers of 1960s Psych records , to be sure, but go back in time a little bit and you can collect Mid-century Modern graphics disguised as 1950s and 1960s jazz albums . Some album covers are simply legendary: Andy Warhol designed a cover for The Rolling Stones’s Sticky Fingers that featured an actual working zipper. The Who’s Tommy came with a cover-size booklet filled with art and lyrics. Robert Rauschenberg designed a clear plastic cover for the Talking Heads’s Speaking in Tongues. And if you want a copy of The Beatles’s infamous "butcher" version of Yesterday and Today, you’ve got to go back to the original vinyl. Today, numerous contemporary musicians are choosing to release their music not just on CD and digitally but on vinyl, too. In 2007, Radiohead famously offered music files of its In Rainbows album to its fans for whatever they wanted to pay. The potentially risky gambit did not seem to hurt sales of the vinyl version of the 10-song collection—In Rainbows was the best-selling vinyl LP of 2008. Grunge bands such as Nirvana and Pearl Jam embraced vinyl from the beginning of their careers. A rare version of Nirvana’s Nevermind was issued with a multi-colored, mottled, "splash" design on the vinyl itself. As for Pearl Jam, one of the bestsellers on eBay continues to be its four-disc recording of a benefit the band performed in 2003 at Seattle’s Benaroya Hall. The discs, which are red like the album’s cover, were issued in an edition of 2,000. The price in 2004 was $40 for the set. Today, you’d be lucky to find a sealed copy for under $500. Best of the Web (“Hall of Fame”) Vinyl Divas Vinyl Divas pays homage to international female opera singers of the LP era. Chronicling more than 800 singers, the… [ read review or visit site ] 317X Despite its mysterious title, 317X is plain and simple—an online gallery of vintage LPs, with a 1950s vintage fee… [ read review or visit site ] Mybeatles.net Jesse Barron's collection of Beatles 45s, picture sleeves, magazines, books, and memorabilia. Browse singles and al… [ read review or visit site ] Association of Vogue Picture Record Collectors This great site, from the Association of Vogue Picture Record Collectors, offers detailed background information an… [ read review or visit site ] The Remington Site Since 1999, the Remington Site has offered classical music collectors a glimpse into Remington Records, an independ… [ read review or visit site ] Clubs & Associations

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Buying Guide: The Best Record Players For Your Listening Pleasure | The Huffington Post Buying Guide: The Best Record Players For Your Listening Pleasure 10/28/2012 12:25 pm ET | Updated Oct 29, 2012 Shana Ecker Editor Fred Flare While there have been several new forms of media introduced into the market over the last few decades to improve the way we listen to and record music, vinyl records haven't gone extinct, and there is good reason behind that. This format provides a sound that is unlike any other, and is still considered an excellent source for quality audio. Whether you are an audiophile or a vinyl novice, we have consulted the experts in the field to bring you a buying guide for the best record player for your listening pleasure. Which type of records will you be playing? Scott Shaw, an audio solutions expert with Audio-Technica explained that most records are one of three types, "78s," "33 1/3s" and "45s," which are named after the time it takes them to spin, or revolutions per minute (RPM) . While many new players will be compatible with all three, some will not, so consult the manual to make sure before you take it home. How has the technology changed over the years? The short answer? Not much, at least since the 1970s. Crosley Radio's Director of Product Development , Ty Mattheu says that motor manufacturing has improved, making the sound more consistent, in addition to new technologies in parts, like the introduction of a carbon fiber arm that won't wear down your records. Shaw confirms that the biggest improvement to turntables is the ability to connect to USB enabled devices in addition to an RCA connector. This allows users to potentially convert their vinyl collection to MP3 digital files to preserve them, since records can get scratched or damaged, but still retain the sound quality. Many current models also have AM/FM radio, a casette deck and CD player. Which style should you buy? Mattheu explains that some models have internal speakers and an amplifier, while others are designed to plug into your at-home stereo system. While your stereo's speakers are probably larger and will produce a better sound, units with their own speakers are portable and more cost-efficient. Also, many Crosley models are made from wood, and Mattheu tell us that the advantage is that this material is a natural shock-absorber in addition to being naturally acoustic, allowing the music to sound warmer and richer. Of course plastic doesn't do quite as good of a job, but if you prefer portability, these units are very light-weight. How do you maintain your player? Luckily modern players are mostly maintenance-free, but you may have to replace your needle, or stylus . Mattheu says Crosley units use a diamond needle, and you should be able to get 10,000 hours of playing time before it wears out. Also, with some models it is possible you may have to change the rubber belt which can stretch or wear, but this is also quite simple. Shaw also recommends a record care kit to prolong the life of your vinyl as well as using a soft brush to dust the needle occasionally. These tips will keep your record player working well for years to come. To see some of the record players models that are on the market now, click through the slideshow below. Record Player Buying Guide

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Duran Duran Music : home New Duran Duran Dates Added in CA in March! Just announced! Duran Duran will be performing two shows at Agua Caliente Resort in California on March 17th and 18th, 2017. Shows in Dallas, Houston, Miami, Atlanta during this same general time frame will be announced in the New Year. During the same time period the band will be playing three South American Lollapalooza dates: Click here Posted on 12-11-16 New dates added - Duran Duran in Maryland on New Year's Eve & Jan. 1st “Official” announce Monday, October 24th: Duran Duran will perform at The Theater at the brand new MGM National Harbor on Saturday, Dec. 31 at 10:30 p.m. and Sunday, Jan. 1 at 9 p.m. Tickets for Duran Duran range from $125 to $300, including applicable service charges, and go on sale Friday, Oct. 28 at 10 a.m. EDT. Tickets can be purchased online at mgmnationalharbor.com or ticketmaster.com . Posted on 10-23-16 Members Only Section in the Duran Duran Webshop! Membership definitely has its privileges lately - and DD VIP Members are no exception! All members of the Duran Duran VIP Fan Community already get a 10% discount at check out, but now they have their own section! Just click in to the Duran Duran Web Shop , hit the VIP tab on left side, put in your user details, and explore your very own shopping area, with special items and further discounts. Make sure you visit the site often, as the merchandise, and great offers, will always be changing! Happy Shopping! How did 2016 shake out for the members of Duran Duran? Read below! Click here Posted on 12-27-16 Duran Duran's John Taylor & Roger Taylor Collaborate with At-Risk Youth on New Track - "No Rewind" - Premiering Today on Rollingstone.com November 22nd, 2016 - (Burbank, CA) - Duran Duran bassist John Taylor and drummer Roger Taylor collaborated with at-risk youth from the charity Road Recovery to produce, mix, and record an original dance-rock song, "No Rewind," which premieres today on RollingStone.com. The song is available to purchase exclusively at CrowdRise through a download-for-donation campaign. All proceeds will go to support NYC-based non-profit Road Recovery's youth programs. Road Recovery was founded in 1998, and involves music professionals mentoring at-risk youth through creative workshops, live concerts, and recording projects. Click here Posted on 11-22-16 Posted on 12-08-16 Duran Duran's "Last Night in the City" featuring Kiesza Duran Duran is thrilled to be premiering their brand new video for “Last Night in the City" (featuring Kiesza) on the one year anniversary of the release of their album, Paper Gods. Posted on 09-10-16 New Member Only Q&A with Tour Goddess Vikki Walked! Backstage Coordinator - a job every young girl or boy aspires to? Maybe after reading this amazing Q&A with Vikki Walker they will. She really takes us in to the belly of the Duran Duran tour and shares some tricks of the trade and tales from the road! Check out her fun Q&A in the Exclusive section! Posted on 01-10-17 Winners! VIP Fan Community 4 Weeks of December Giving! Congratulations to ALL the Duran Duran VIP fan community Four-Weeks-of-December giveaway WINNERS!!!!! Click onward to see if you are one of the winners of a signed Paper Gods CD, 2017 Duran Duran Calendar, Duran Duran book or VIP Fan Community package! Click here Posted on 12-25-16 Simon! Nick! Roger! John! Year End Kafes 2016!! Every December, all four band members meet in Katy’s Kafe to discuss the year that has just passed. First up -and on video no less - JT, who had some surprising - and maybe some not so surprising - things to say about his highlights (and one or two lowlights) from 2016! Up next, Roger T! Sitting down in the December Kafe to discuss the end of the year, Roger unwraps a bounty of year end thoughts. Tune in! Third in the line up - Nick Rhodes, who took some time away from his bustling holiday schedule to chat with the Kafe about all the things he loved this year (a lot of arty stuff). Closing down the year is our one and only front man, SLB! A little audio trouble (sorry!) didn't stop us from chatting about all the things that made SLB "go" this year! Check out the EXCLUSIVE section of the fan community website! Posted on 12-12-16 John participated in the Bass Player Live guitar clinic last month. He did a great Q&A with Incubus bassist Ben Kenney. You can watch the entire clinic Click here Posted on 11-16-16

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Olympic Games Timeline | HistoryOnTheNet Olympic Games Timeline Last Updated: 01/17/2017 - 11:35 For more information on counter-intuitive facts of ancient and medieval history, see Anthony Esolen's  The Politically Incorrect Guide to Western Civilization .     Athens, Greece First Olympics First recorded evidence of the ancient Olympic games. The games were held at Olympia. There was only one event - the men's 200m sprint. 490BCE Greece First Marathon The messenger Pheidippedes ran 42km from Sparta to Athens to bring the news of the Greek victory at the battle of Marathon. 424BCE Greece Decline With large numbers of young men having to go to fight against the Spartans there were fewer athletes able to train and compete in the games and so they began to fall into decline. 394CE The Roman Emperor, Theodosius I, abolished the games claiming they were a pagan event. 1612 Cotswolds, UK Cotswold Olympick Games Robert Dover, a barrister, founded the Cotswold Olympick Games. The games featured horse racing, fencing, shin-kicking and throwing the hammer. 1766 Englishman Richard Chandler discovered the site of ancient Olympia. 1796 France French Olympic Revival L'Olympiade de la République was an olympic-style yearly competition held between 1796 and 1798 in France. 1850 Shropshire, UK Wenlock Olympian Games An Olympic-style yearly sports festival was established in Much Wenlock, Shropshire, UK by Dr William Penny Brookes. It continues to this day. 1859 Greece Zappian Games Dr William Penny Brookes persuaded Greek Evangelis Zappas to stage a revival of the ancient Olympic games. Brookes sent 10 pounds to be used as prize money. 1875 A German-funded team of archeologists excavated the site of ancient Olympia. 1890 Shropshire, UK Pierre de Coubertin visited Much Wenlock Pierre de Coubertin was invited to attend the Much Wenlock games by Dr William Penny Brookes. 1894 France IOC founded The International Olympic Committee was founded by Baron Pierre de Coubertin who took the title of President of the committee. Coubertin suggested that the Olympics be re-established as an international four-yearly event to be hosted by different countries each time. 1896 Athens Greece First Modern Olympic Games The first modern Olympic games was held in Athens, Greece. All winners were presented with an olive branch and a silver medal. 1900 Paris, France Women competed for the first time Paris hosted these games without a stadium. Most events were held in the Bois de Boulogne and swimming events were held in the river Seine. Women competed for the first time. 1904 St Louis, USA Gold, silver and bronze medals were introduced Gold, silver and bronze medals were introduced. Winners of events were given a gold medal, second place a silver medal and third place a bronze medal. 1908 London, UK Olympic Stadium For the first time the Olympics take place in a purpose built stadium. Figure skating was introduced as an Olympic sport. Australia and New Zealand competed together as Australasia. 1912 Stockholm, Sweden Competitors from all 5 continents Athletes from all 5 continents take part. A public address system and electric timing devices were used for the first time. The Decathlon and Pentathlon were introduced for the first time. 1914 Pierre de Coubertin designed the Olympic symbol of 5 interlocking rings.   1916 Due to be held in Berlin this games was cancelled due to World War One 1920 Antwerp, Belgium Doves first released The Olympic rings symbol was used for the first time. It was depicted on a flag with a white background which has been used ever since and is known as the Olympic flag. The opening ceremony saw doves, which symbolise peace, released for the first time. Austria, Bulgaria, Germany, Hungary and Turkey were not allowed to take part because they were defeated in World War One 1924 The first Winter Olympics were held in Chamonix France 1924 The games returned to Paris France 1928 The second Winter Olympics held in St Moritz, Switzerland 1928 Summer Olympics Olympic Flame first lit Amsterdam had previously bid for the 1920 and 1924 games. The Olympic flame was lit for the first time and burned throughout the entire competition. At the opening ceremony Greece led the athletes procession with the host nation at the end for the first time. 1930 Uruguay First FIFA World Cup Jules Rimet abandoned all hope of incorporating football into the Olympic games and established a separate competition - the FIFA World Cup. 1932 First Winter Olympics in America 1932 Los Angeles, USA Summer Olympics First use of a photo finish camera. First time winners stood on a tiered stand with national flags raised above them 1936 Alpine skiing was introduced for the first time. 1936 First televised Olympics Summer Olympics First Olympics to be televised, however the footage could only be watched on local television. Basketball became an Olympic sport for the first time and was won by the USA. 1940 Cancelled due to World War Two 1944 Cancelled due to World War Two 1948 Germany and Japan were not invited to take part 1948 Dubbed the 'Austerity Games' as there was no money to fund a lavish spectacle. 1948 Stoke Mandeville Games Forerunner to Paralympics Sir Ludwig Guttmann organised a sports event for recuperating British veterans of World War Two to coincide with the London Games. It was called the Stoke Mandeville Games after the leading rehabilitation hospital at Stoke Mandeville and became an annual event. 1952 After much discussion Germany and Japan were allowed to compete 1952 Snow had to be imported into the country before the games could even begin. 1956 Boycotts Summer Olympics Iraq, Lebanon and Egypt boycotted the games in protest at the British, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt (Suez Crisis) Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland boycotted the games in protest at the Soviet invasion of Hungary The People's Republic of China boycotted the games in protest at the games' recognition of Formosa (now Taiwan) 1960 Squaw Valley, USA Winter Olympics The games were awarded to Squaw Valley despite its not being a city but a winter sports resort 1960 Many events took place in the ancient ruins around the city. 1960 Paralympics   Sir Ludwig Guttmann brought a team of disabled athletes to compete in a games parallel to the Olympics. The name was shortened to Paralympics. 1964 Innsbruck, Austria Winter Olympics Warm weather meant that the Austrian army had to bring lorry loads of snow from alpine regions before the games could begin 1964 First Olympics held in Asia 1968 Grenoble, France Winter Olympics An Olympic ban on branded equipment was revoked after many competitors protested that without donated equipment from sponsors they would not be able to compete at all 1968 Summer Olympics First Olympics held in Central America.  Tommie Smith and John Carlos both give the 'black power' salute as the US national anthem is played in protest against racial prejudice in America. 1972 First Winter Olympics to be held in Asia. 1972 Black September terrorists killed 11 members of the Israeli Olympic team 1976 Innsbruck, Austria Winter Olympics Originally awarded to Denver, USA but transferred to Innsbruck when Denver rejected the offer due to costs 1976 Montreal, Canada Summer Olympics 31 nations boycotted the games as a protest against the New Zealand rugby team's recent game with South Africa Increased costs together with a reduced number of visitors nearly bankrupted Montreal 1980 The Winter games were held at Lake Placid for a second time 1980 Western boycott, Summer Olympics 61 Nations refused to compete in these games as a protest against Russia's invasion of Afghanistan. 1984 Torvill and Dean, GB skaters scored perfect 6's for their Bolero routine 1984 Eastern boycott Summer Olympics 15 communist block countries refused to compete in these games in retaliation for the boycott of the Moscow Olympics 4 years earlier. Romania was the only communist block country to take part and came 2nd in the medals table. 1986   Amateur status requirement dropped The IOC agreed to drop the requirement that competitors taking part in the Olympics had to have amateur status. The official Olympic Charter was amended accordingly. 1988 The Winter games were extended to 16 days 1988 Seoul, South Korea Summer Olympics 11 medalists disqualified for using banned substances. The cost of the games was met by the sale of TV broadcasting rights. 1992 Albertville is the smallest place to host an Olympics 1992 Barcelona, Spain Summer Olympics Former Soviet Union members competed as a Unified Team and Germany competed as one nation following the collapse of the Soviet Union. 1994 winter Norway's only Olympics to date 1996 Atlanta, USA Summer Olympics Television rights were sold for a record sum and Coca-Cola was a major sponsor of these games. 1998 Women's ice hockey débuted at this Olympics 2000 Steve Redgrave won a fifth consecutive gold medal in rowing. 2002 Salt Lake City, USA Winter Olympics Despite members of the IOC accepting sweetners from the NOC Salt Lake City did not lose the right to stage these games. 2004 Athens, Greece Summer Olympics The games returned to Athens. The cost involved in staging the Olympics, especially with regard to increased security provision following the 9/11 terror attacks led to delays and venues were completed only just in time. 2006 The second Winter Olympics held in Italy 2008 Beijing, China Summer Olympics 43 world records and 132 Olympic records were broken during the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing. Michael Phelps won 8 gold medals in swimming the most ever at a single Olympics 2010 The first games to hold its opening ceremony indoors 2012 The games return to London for the third time 2014     For more information on counter-intuitive facts of ancient and medieval history, see Anthony Esolen's The Politically Incorrect Guide to Western Civilization © 2008. You can find it at  Amazon  or  Barnes & Noble. You can also check it out by clicking on the buttons to the left. Quiz:  6 Important Islamic Advances in Medieval Medicine While medieval European medicine was still mired in superstitions and the rigid Catholic teachings of the Church, the advent of Islam in the 7th century A.D. gave rise to impressive growth and discoveries in many scientific fields, especially medicine. Islamic scholars and doctors translated medical texts from all over the known world, including the Greeks and Romans, Persians and Indians. They not only gathered... Read More Theriac: History's Amazing Wonder Drug From the 1st century A.D. to the late 19th century, one medical compound reigned supreme over all other remedies: theriac. First concocted by a Greek king worried about poisons, theriac went from being a general antidote to snake bites to an all around panacea, used to treat everything from asthma to warts, including the Black Plague. Famous doctors throughout this long history experimented with the drug and... Read More Crazy Potions and Nasty Nostrums: Six Bizarre Medieval Medicines If you think, as some do today, that many drugs used as medicines are potentially deadly, consider what people living in medieval times were prescribed as curative agents—from ground up corpses to toxic mercury to crocodile dung. The annals of medieval medical history are full of substances that make us cringe. Yet people believed in these cure-alls and willingly took them when prescribed by a doctor of the... Read More Engines of Destruction: Roman Advancement of Siege Warfare The Neo-Assyrian Empire used earthen ramps, siege towers and battering rams in sieges; the Greeks and Alexander the Great created destructive new engines known as artillery to further their sieges, and the Romans used every technique to perfection. That is to say, the Romans were not inventors, but they were superb engineers and disciplined, tough soldiers who fought against great odds and won, repeatedly. Engines of Destruction: Helepolis, the Massive Siege Engine that Failed Demetrius I, King of Macedon, invented many siege engines including battering rams and siege towers. For the Siege of Rhodes, he created the Helepolis, the Taker of Cities, a huge armored siege tower containing many heavy catapults. The island city of Rhodes maintained its neutrality among the warring nations of the time, although it remained friendly to Ptolemy I of Egypt, the enemy of Demetrius of... Read More

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TRIVIA - SPORTS TRIVIA - SPORTS TRIVIA HOME ` Fun sports trivia questions and answers - Ty Cobb, the Olympics, little league baseball, Boxing, Tennis, Cross Country Bike Racing What is the distance between bases on a little league baseball field? 60 feet. What college once had 22 members of the Phi Beta Kappa honor society on its football team? Dartmouth, in 1925. What was the first sport in which women were invited to compete at the Olympics? Tennis, at the 1900 games in Paris. Charlotte Cooper of Great Britain was the first gold medalist. What sport was the first to be filmed---and who filmed it? The sport was boxing; the man who did the filming, Thomas A. Edison; the year, 1894. Edison filmed a boxing match between Jack Cushing and Mike Leonard in a studio on the grounds of his laboratory complex in West Orange, New Jersey. How many home runs did baseball great Ty Cobb hit in the three world series in which he played? None. Sports trivia questions and answers about baseball, football, boxing, the Olympics, NBA, NFL, Deion Sanders... �@ What Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher hit a home run in his first major league at-bat--and never hit another? New York Giant knuckleballer Hoyt Wilhelm, in 1952. What baseball player hit the only home run of his 212-year major league career off his own brother? Joe Nickro in 1976. Nickro, a pitcher with the Houston Astros, hit a four-bagger off his brother Phil, who was pitching fro the Atlanta Braves. Houston won the game, 4-3. What 1921 sporting event took up all of the first 13 pages of The New York Times --except for a little space on the front page devoted to the formal end of World War I? The July 2nd heavyweight championship bout between Jack Dempsey and George Carpenter, the first fight to gross over $1 million in gate receipts. Dempsey won in a fourth-round knockout. In the National Football League, how many footballs is the home team required to provide for each game? 24--although from 8 to 12 are usually used. Brooks Robinson and Carl Yastrzemski hold the major league baseball record for playing the greatest number of seasons with the same team. How many years did they play-- and with what teams? 23 years. Third baseman Robinson played with the Baltimore Orioles from 1955 to 1977; Carl Yastrzemski, outfielder/first baseman, played with the Boston Red Sox from 1961 to 1983. Why is the site of a boxing match called a ring when it's square? Boxing rings were originally circular. In the very first Boston Marathon, 15 runners competed. How many finished? 10. How long is the average pool cue? 57 inches. Under the rules outlined in the charter of the International Olympic Committee, how much pure gold must there be in each gold medal awarded to first-place winners? At least 6 grams. Silver medals must be at least .925 sterling silver. What professional ice hockey star didn't hang up his skates until he was 52? Gordie Howe, who played in 1,687 games in the National Hockey League. What is the state sport of Alaska? Dog-mushing. Who was the first athlete to hit a major league home run and make a professional football touchdown in the same week? Jim Thorpe, in 1917. He did it a second time in 1919. Deion Sanders was the second athlete to accomplish the feat---70 years later in 1989. Who was the famous great-great-grandfather of San Francisco 49er quarterback Steve Young? Mormon leader Brigham Young. Who was the first professional athlete to win championship rings in two major sports? Gene Conley. He pitched for the Milwaukee Braves team that won the 1957 World Series, and was on the Boston Celtic teams that won National Basketball Association championships in 1959,1960 and 1961. How long and wide is the balance beam used in Olympic gymnastic competition? Length, 16 feet 3 inches; width, 4 inches. What sport besides football did famed fullback Jim Brown compete and excel in while he attended Syracuse University in the mid 1950s? Lacrosse. He made All-American. How much did a one-minute TV spot cost advertisers on the first Super Bowl broadcast in 1967? $85,000. How many of the four Grand Slam trophies in tennis are gold; how many are silver? Only the Wimbledon trophy is gold; the others--for the U.S. Open, the French Open and the Australian Open--are sliver. Sports Trivia - Athletes, Sporting Events, Bobbie Riggs, Arthur Ash, Golf, Chris Evert, Hockey, Triple Crown, and more. In which US state were the last summer Olympics of the century held? Georgia.

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Interesting Olympic Facts about the Games Ten True and Funny Interesting Facts from Past Olympic Events Rope Climbing took place in the following years: 1896, 1904, 1906, 1924, 1932. Rudimentary gym skills were all it took to win Olympic gold in the early 20th century it appears, as this event basically consisted of shimmying up a rope. Club Swinging occurred in 1904 and 1932. This consisted of swinging a club festooned with ribbons around your body and head.  Strange but true. Tug-of-War between 1900 -1920.  Indeed this trickiest of sports favoured by rather overweight beer drinkers in pubs was actually considered an Olympic event.  We hear competitive tug-of-war gave way to another short-lived event: the 40m three-legged race. In wrestling at the Stockholm Games in 1912, the light heavyweight final between a Swede, Anders Ahlgren, and a Finn, Ivar Bohling, lasted nine hours.  Since neither had gained an advantage over the other, no gold medal was awarded. Each received a silver medal. Motor boating was an official sport at the 1908 Olympics. It was frowned upon because the competitors were often out of sight of the watching crowds. Polo was played at the Olympics in 1900, 1908, 1920, 1924, and 1936. In 1912, in Stockholm, the first electric timing devices and public address system was used at the Olympics. Ralph Craig ran in the 100m for the USA in 1912.  He next competed in the Olympics in the USA yachting team, some 36 years later in 1948. The key word "amateur" was eliminated from the Olympic Charter in 1971. American swimmer Michael Phelps holds both the record for most gold medals won at an Olympic Games, eight, and most career gold medals with 14. Interesting History of Olympic Medals At the first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896, silver medals were awarded to the winners and bronze to the second place getters. Olympic gold medals haven't been pure gold in years. The 1912 Olympics was the last time that gold medals were solid gold.  Ever since, they've been silver with gold plating. Starting in Amsterdam 1928, all Summer Olympic medals featured the same design: a Greek goddess, the Olympic Rings, the Coliseum of ancient Athens, a Greek vase, a horse-drawn chariot.  Each host city then adds their own design together with with the year and the number of Olympiad.  The host city has control over the design of the reverse side of the medal. In 1900, in France, Olympian winners got paintings instead of gold medals. Gold, silver and bronze medals weren't given out until the third modern Olympics in 1904. The French gave the winners paintings because they believed they were more valuable. Incidentally, more athletes than spectators attended the 1900 Paris Olympic Games. ¤ More Interesting Olympic Games Facts No women competed in 1896, as de Coubertin felt that their inclusion would be "impractical, uninteresting, unaesthetic, and incorrect." The first black athlete to compete at the Olympics was Constantin Henriquez de Zubiera, competing for France in 1900. The Berlin 1936 Olympiad was the first games to be televised. The only Olympian ever to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize was Philip Noel-Baker of Great Britain, who won the silver in the 1500 metres in 1920. The first Winter Olympic Games were held in Chamonix, France in 1924. Norway has won the most medals (263) at the Winter Games. In Beijing 2008, equestrian rider Hiroshi Hoketsu became the oldest Japanese Olympic representative at age 67. Hoketsu also took part in the 1964 Tokyo Games at the age of 23 where he finished 40th in the show jumping event. In order for a sport to be considered for inclusion in the Olympics it must be 'widely practiced' by men in at least 75 countries and on four continents, and by women in at least 40 countries and on three continents.  ф Interesting Facts about the London 2012 Olympics Olympic sites are chosen by secret ballot, so we're not sure how London beat Paris for the 2012 Summer Olympics. Some blame French President Jacques Chirac, who insulted Britain before the vote by saying, "After Finland, it's the country with the worst food."  France's bid wasn't getting British support anyway, but Finland had two IOC members, and some speculate that they were swing votes in the 54-50 outcome.

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1890-1947 1890-1944 A.D. In some places multiple entries occur for a particular year, but not necessarily arranged in chronological order [by month]. - E.M. 1890 - European Domination - "In this period [1890-1900], Europe reached the peak of its power. Four centuries earlier, it had been a materially backward region, not to be compared in wealth and culture with the great empires of Asia. It had been at the mercy of Asian invaders, prostrate before the Mongols in the thirteenth century, and unable to fend off the Ottoman Turks in the sixteenth century.    "Yet by 1890, the American continents, Australia, and New Zealand were ruled by the descendants of Europeans. Virtually all of Africa and the Pacific islands have been carved up and placed under European domination. In Asia, large tracts such as Siberia and India were under the direct control of Europeans, while independant nations such as the Ottoman Empire, Persia, Afghanistan, Siam, and China were under continual and increasing European pressure and interference. In all the world, the only nation that seemed to be at once non-European and strong was Japan, and that was at the price of adopting much European technology and culture." [Based on: Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 438]  *Links: http://www.euratlas.net/history/europe/1800/index.html 1890 - Most Influential Nation / Great Britain - "Of all the European powers, Great Britain, on a world-wide scale, was predominant. The British empire included roughly a quarter of the land area of the world, and roughly a quarter of its population as well. Its strong economy and its strong navy made it the most influential nation in the world, and much of that part of the world that it did not own outright, nevertheless, remained under economic subjection to it." [Based on: Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 438] 1890 - Strong Earthquake / Corralitos, California - April 24th, 1890: "Earthquake location: Corralitos, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1890 - Motion Picture - May 22nd, 1890: "Thomas Edison shows a short 'motion picture' to a group in his workshop." *Links: http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bledison_timeline.htm 1890 - Idaho  - July 3rd, 1890: "The 43rd American state." 1890 - Wyoming  - July 10th, 1890: "The 44th American state." 1890 - German Helgoland - "On July 11, 1890, Britain had given Germany the tiny island of Helgoland just off the northwest German coast in return for Germany giving up certain of its claims in East Africa. The East African territory would have meant little to Germany but it built up Helgoland into a first-class naval base, and apparently the British didn't forsesee this." [Based on: Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 442] 1890 - 1st Electric Chair Execution - August 6th, 1890: "William Kemmler, a convicted murderer, is the first man to be executed in the electric chair." 1889 - "Therese de l'Enfant Jesus de la Sainte Face" - September 24th, 1890: "[....] Th�r�se entered the Carmelite order on 9 April 1888. On 10 January 1889, after a probationary period somewhat longer than the usual, she was given the habit and received the name: Th�r�se of the Child Jesus. On 8 September 1890, Th�r�se took her vows; the ceremony of taking the veil followed on the 24th, when she added to her name in religion, 'of the Holy Face', a title which was to become increasingly important in the development and character of her inner life.[68[....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_de_Lisieux] 1890 - Polygamy Ban / U.S.A. - September 25th, 1890: "The Mormon church bans polygamy." 1890 - Sequoia National Park - September 25th, 1890: "Sequoia National Park, California, established." 1890 - Yosemite National Park - October 1st, 1890: "Yosemite National Park, California, established." 1890 - Sioux Massacre / Wounded Knee - December 29th, 1890: "In a major battle at Wounded Knee, U.S. troops massacre 350 Sioux Indians who were en route to a Ghost Dance celebration. The Battle of Wounded Knee becomes symbolic to Indian people." 1980 - Birth / Benjamin H. Freedman - "Benjamin H. Freedman was one of the most intriguing and amazing individuals of the 20th century. Mr. Freedman, born in 1890, was a successful Jewish businessman of New York City who was at one time the principal owner of the Woodbury Soap Company.    "He broke with organized Jewry after the Judeo-Communist victory of 1945, and spent the remainder of his life and the great preponderance of his considerable fortune, at least 2.5 million dollars, exposing the Jewish tyranny which has enveloped the United States."   1890 - 1st Cracker Jack - "First box of Cracker Jack produced." 1890 - The Golden Bough - "In nonfiction, James George Frazer (1854-1941) wrote The Golden Bough, published in two volumes in 1890, and greatly expanded later, which was a study of ancient myths and rites that were darker and more primitive than the Greek myths." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 441]  1890 - Earthquake Trivia / 1890 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1891 1891 - Neptune-Pluto Conjunction - "Neptune-Pluto [7-8 Gemini] conjunction [1891-1892]. Neptune-Pluto cycles last about 495 years - half a millennium. The movements of Pluto, in history, seem to chart the actual mechanics of fundamental factual change. Pluto's keyword, 'transformation', has 'form' in the middle of it. The movements of Neptune chart evolving social imagery and perceptual constructs - ideas, beliefs and contexts of understanding. When event-fundamentals and beliefs-perceptions interact, we get the basic undertow of history and its themes. Thus, in Neptune-Pluto cycles, we see a basic driving-force which moves and drives historic tendencies and trends. What humans do with this is what makes our world." [Link: 1 ] *Trivia: "In terms of specific events, the 1890s were a relatively quiet period – the Europeans were by now world masters, by both fair means and foul – and they were beginning to lose the initiative too, to their colonised subjects. But first, there were some seeds to sow. The decades around the 1890s saw the beginning of flight, the internal combustion engine, electrical technologies, plastics, pharmaceuticals, corporate multinationals, telegraphy, psychotherapy, the new age movement (Theosophy and spiritualism), socialist parties, third world nationalism, feminism (suffragettes), quantum physics, nuclear technologies... and a few other things which, within a century, were to change our world. Not a small, uneventful seed-point! The action lay not in major events, but in rooms and workshops where major innovations were gaining ground. " [Based on: http://www.isleofavalon.co.uk/GlastonburyArchive/ephem/ef-ab.html] *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1800/ae_1891.pdf *Trivia: "According to the Pythagorean/NeoPlatonic Greeks and Egyptians, with each Cycle culmination and for a hundred years on either side of it, it was prophesied that an influx of special souls would be incarnating - variously called savants, masters, teachers, messiahs, avatars, and bodhisattvas by different traditions - whose chosen work was to raise overall planetary consciousness. Right on schedule, the 20th century, which marks the beginning of a new Phoenix Cycle [1,900-2,100], has already seen the advent of numerous great minds and spirits. As we approach the peak year of 2,000 in the present cycle, many more are prophesied to arrive." [Link: 1 ] 1891 - Founded / Radha Soami Satsang Beas - 1891:    Radha Soami Satsang Beas (RSSB) was founded by Baba Jaimal Singh Ji Maharaj in 1891 at a site called Dera Baba Jaimal Singh on the West bank of the River Beas in the Punjab of Northern India. [1] Jaimal Singh was one of six people who over a period of about nine years came to be regarded as spiritual successors of Shiv Dayal Singh, the first Satguru of “Radhasoami Faith,” often referred to as Sant Mat, a movement of Surat Shabd Yoga, which includes esoteric teaching about the Shabd. A chart of this RSSB lineage and the five other successor lineages helps show the connections among many of the Sant Mat guru lines and branches. [2] The RSSB lineage of spiritual leaders with the dates of their births, deaths, and tenures is as follows: Baba Jaimal Singh (1839 – 1903): 1891 – 1903 Baba Sawan Singh (1858 – 1948): 1903 – 1948 Sardar Bahadur Jagat Singh (1884 – 1951): 1948 – 1951 Maharaj Ji Charan Singh (1902 – 1990): 1951 – 1990 Baba Gurinder Singh (1954 – ): 1990 – Present Adherents worldwide number in the neighborhood of 2,000,000 people. [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radha_Soami_Satsang_Beas] 1891 - U.S. Copyright Act - March 4th, 1891: "U.S. Congress adopts the International Copyright Act." 1891 - Foreign Relations / Russia & France - July 24th, 1891: "Once Russia had been ousted, against its will, from the German alliance, it became possible for France to consider the possibility of substituting for Germany. France had already been investing money in the industrialization of Russia, and that was a beginning. On July 24, 1891, a squadron of French ships visited St. Petersburg, just three weeks after William II of Germany visited London. The French, however, managed things better. They made a big parade of Franco-Russian friendship, and Alexander III of Russia, that apostle of reaction, actually listened to a French band play the 'Marseillaise,' the hymn of revolution." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 447]  1891 - Major Earthquake / Japan - October 27th, 1891: "Earthquake location: Mino-Owari, Japan. Earthquake magnitude: 8. Number of recorded fatalities: 7,273."   1891 - Basketball - December 1891: "Basketball invented by James Naismith for the Y.M.C.A." 1891 - Egypt Exploration Fund - "Since we are primarily concerned with ancient history at this stage, let us consider the Memorandum and Articles of Association of the Egypt Exploration Fund, first established in Britain in 1891 to expedite archaeological digs in Egypt. In this document it is expressly stated that the Fund's objective is to facilitate surveys and excavations 'for the purpose of elucidating or illustrating the Bible narrative'. In other words, if something is found which supports, or can be said to support, the Old or New Testaments then we, the public, will be informed. Anything which does not support the scriptures will be designated 'myth'. When unearthed fossils began to overturn the six-day creation story in Victorian times, the zoologist Philip Gosse actually went so far as to say that God had purposely inserted fossils into the rocks to test and try the Christian faith!" [Laurence Gardner, Genesis of the Grail Kings, pp. 76-77]  1891 - End Feud / "Hatfields & McCoys" - "The 'Hatfield & McCoy' feud ended." 1891 - Leasing by Whites / Native American Indian Lands - "Provisions are made for the leasing by whites of allotted Indian lands." 1891 - Escalator - "Jesse W. Reno invented the escalator." 1891 - Patent / Kinetoscope - "Thomas Edison patents the Kinetoscope or first movie machine." 1891 - 1st Practical Glider / Germany - "Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896) was the first to build practical gliders capable of keeping a man in flight for an extended period. He flew his first glider in 1891, and gliding became a daredevil sport in the 1890s, as ballooning had been in the 1790s. This continued even though Lilienthal himself died after a glider crash in 1896." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 443]   1891 - Earthquake Trivia / 1891 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1. Number of earthquake deaths: 7,273." - E.M. 1892 1892 - Panama Canal Lottery Scandal / France - "Corruption, which is endemic in all societies, errupted explosively in connection with the projected building of a Panama Canal. This was to be under the leadership of Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had successfully built the Suez Canal. De Lesseps was the president of the Panama Company, and what the company needed was capital. They set up a stock lottery that raised 1.5 billion francs from those who bought chances and were rewarded with stock that they expected would make them rich, rich, rich. It was the Mississippi Bubble of nearly two centuries earlier and it ended precisely the same way. The money raised by the lottery was frittered away by mismanagement and through being misappropriated by scoundrels. In the end, the whole thing collapsed, and the money invested disappeared. By 1892, the continuing uproar over this had forced the government to take legal action against any crimes that might have been committed, and it quickly became apparent that the Panama Company had bribed legislators liberally to allow the lottery to take place and to look the other way as it was mishandled. It was made all the worse because it became apparent that the government had done its best to coverup and whitewash the corruption. Some of the principal money-handlers were Jewish bankers, which helped exacerbate French anti-Semitism." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, pp. 445-446] 1892 - Opening / Ellis Island, New York - February 14th, 1892: "Ellis Island, in New York, opens as immigration center." 1892 - Communicating With "Martials"? - "The April 13, 1892 edition of the newspaper Spectator carried an article entitled, Telegraphing to Mars with solar signals. This was one of the first articles  that dealt with the language difficulties involved in communicating with the martials, (Martials was 19th century slang for Martians)." [Tim Swartz, The Lost Journals of Nikola Tesla, p. 39] 1892 - Strong Earthquake / Vacaville, California - April 19th, 1892: "Earthquake location: Vacaville, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.4. Number of recorded fatalities: 1."   1892 - Strong Earthquake / Winters, California - April 21st, 1892: "Earthquake location: Winters, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.4. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1892 - Crash / U.S. Stock Market - June 27th, 1892: "The New York Stock Exchange crashes." 1892 - 1st Gloves Boxing Match - September 7th, 1892: "First boxing match in which contestants wore gloves [James Corbett v. John L. Sullivan]." 1892 - U.S. Pledge of Allegiance - "Francis Bellamy, who was active in the Christian Socialist movement, penned the pledge [in 1892], without referring to the deity. His original text: I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." [Source Document: The New York Times, October 2003] *Trivia: "On September 8th, 1892, the pledge appeared in 'Youth's Companion magazine; 12 million schoolchildren recited it for the first time on Columbus Day, October12th, 1892. 'My Flag' was changed [years later] to 'the Flag of the United States of America' out of fear that immigrants would salute their native flags." [Source Document: The New York Times, October 2003] 1892 - Birth / J.R.R. Tolkien - "Reportedly born  in 1892: Writer (The Lord of the Rings, etc.) J.R.R. Tolkien." 1892 - "Independent Labor Party" / Great Britain - "James Heir Hardie (1856-1915), a coalminer, managed to gain a Parliamentary seat in 1892. He went on to found the 'Independent Labor Party.' " [Based on: Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 439]  1892 - Grand Canyon Forest Reserve - "The Grand Canyon Forest Reserve [later a national park] is established in Arizona." 1892 - Thermos Bottle - "Dewar invented the 'Dewar flask' (or 'thermos bottle') in 1892." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 440] 1892 - Internal Combustion Engine - "Rudolf Diesel invented the internal combustion engine." 1892 - Eruption / Comet 17P Holmes - November, 1892: "Comet Holmes [17P / Holmes] has erupted twice before [2007], in Nov. 1892 and Jan. 1893. [....]" [Based on: http://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=10&month=11&year=2007] 1892 - Antitoxin / Diptheria - "In 1892, Emil Adolf von Behring (1854-1917), a German scientist, won the Nobel Prize for developing an antitoxin to the childhood disease diptheria." 1892 - 1st Driver's Licenses - "The first driver's licenses are issued by the police in Paris, France." 1892 - THE THEOSOPHICAL GLOSSARY by H.P. Blavatsky (published in 1892)." 1892 - Earthquake Trivia / 1892 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2. Number of earthquake deaths: 1." - E.M. 1893 1893 - Labor Day Trivia / U.S.A. - "The first observance of Labor Day is believed to have been a parade of 10,000 workers on Sept. 5, 1882, in New York City. By 1893, more than half the states were observing a 'Labor Day' on one day or another. President Grover Cleveland signed a bill June 28, 1894 - designating the first Monday in September as Labor Day." [Based on: Article (A toast to U.S. workers), p. A3, S.L.P.D., 09/04/06] *Trivia: "[....] Labor leader Eugene V. Debs assumed leadership of the Pullman strike. [....] Some 12,000 federal troops, about half the entire U.S. Army at the time, were sent to Chicago to assist the strikebreakers. The Pullman company announced on July 18 [1894] that it would reopen and hire only employees who signed 'yellow dog contracts' promising never to join unions. On Aug. 3, [1894] the strike was declared ended. Debs went to prison, and the ARU [American Railway Union] collapsed. [....]" [Based on: Other Views page article (An Illinois railroad fight gave a nation a holiday) by John J. Dunphy, p. B9, S.L.P.D., 09/04/06] 1893 - Eruption / Comet 17P Holmes - January, 1893: "Comet Holmes [17P / Holmes] has erupted twice before [2007], in Nov. 1892 and Jan. 1893. [....]" [Based on: http://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=10&month=11&year=2007] 1893 - Birth / Paramahansa Yogananda - January 5th, 1893: "P�rom�hongsho Joganondo, Hindi: ... January 5, 1893–March 7, 1952), was an Indian yogi and guru [originally known as Mukunda Lal Gosh]. He was instrumental in bringing the teachings of meditation and Kriya Yoga to the West. His book, Autobiography of a Yogi, has introduced several generations to the timeless wisdom of India. [....]" (Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda) *Trivia: "[....] Among Paramahamsa Yogananda's many direct disciples are: Daya Mata, Roy Eugene Davis, Donald Walters (a.k.a. Swami Kriyananda), J. J. Lynn (a.k.a. Rajarshi Janakananda), Smt. Gyanamata, Yogacharya Oliver Black, Bob Raymer, and Paramahamsa Hariharananda." [Based on: http://www.hariharananda.org/english/who_we_are/kriya/kriya_linage.htm] 1893 - U.S. President / Grover Cleveland - March 4th, 1893: "The 24th American President, Grover Cleveland [Democrat], begins his term." 1893 - Bankruptcy / Webster Publishing Co. - April 18th, 1893: "The Charles L. Webster and Co. publishing firm declares bankruptcy." 1893 - Crash / U.S. Stock Market - June 27th, 1893: "U.S. Stock Market crash. In 1893, financial panic led to bank foreclosures and a four-year national economic depression." 1893 - Foreign Relations / Russia & France - "On October 13, 1893 ... a Russian squadron finally returned the French visit [to Russia in 1891] by steaming into Toulon harbor for another love feast." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 447]  1893 - World Parliament of Religions / Chicago - September 11th-27th, 1893: "[....] The 1893 Parliament, which ran from September 11 to September 27, had marked the first formal gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions. Today it is recognized as the occasion of the birth of formal interreligious dialogue worldwide. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Parliament_of_Religions] *Trivia: "Swami Vivekananda at the World Congress of Religions. September 11, 1893." [Based on: http://www.swamij.com/swami-vivekananda-1893.htm] *Trivia: "[....] Abroad, he had some interactions with Max Mueller. Nikola Tesla was one of those influenced by the Vedic philosophy teachings of the Swami Vivekananda." [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda] *Trivia: "Swami Vivekananda was the first Indian to be invited to accept the chair of Oriental Philosophy at Harvard University. India celebrates National Youth Day on his birthday. Vivekananda Vidyapith Academy of Indian Philosophy and Culture in NJ, USA, is named after him. The Swami Vivekananda International Convention Centre, inaugurated in April 2005 in Pailles, Mauritius, is also named after him." [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda] - [T.D. - 01/07/07] 1893 - Political Disposition / Austria-Hungary - "Austria's long-time Prime Minister, Eduard von Taffe (1883-1895), had granted concessions to the Czechs and Poles and brought some of them into the government. This was enough to satisfy those Czechs and Poles who were land owners and conservatives, and kept things going. It aroused the furious opposition of the German nationalists, however, for they wanted no concessions. It was also insufficient to satisfy the more nationalist Czechs and Poles, who clamored for more reform. Taafe offered universal male suffrage on October 10, 1893, but the Germans were horrified at giving non-Germans an equal vote, and the minorities scorned the offer as insufficient. When the bill was rejected all around, Taafe resigned on October 19, 1893. He was succeeded by Kasimir Felix, Count Badeni (1846-1909), who was of Polish origin. [....] On the whole, he [Kasimir Felix] proved a failure and resigned on November 28, 1897." [Based on: Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 444]  1893 - Indian Appropriations Act - "The Indian Appropriations Act contains provisions to eliminate Indian agents, transferring their responsibilities on reservations to superintendents of schools." 1893 - Right to Vote Amendment / Colorado - 1893: "Colorado is the first state to adopt an amendment granting women the right to vote." [Based on: Everyday section article (Women's History Timeline), p. E4, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 03/21/06] 1893 - Zipper - "American, W.L. Judson invented the zipper." 1893 - Wavelength Research - "Wilhelm Wien (1864-1928) demonstrated, in 1893, that the higher the temperature of a substance, the shorter the wavelength of the peak radiation that it produces. Wien tried to work out an equation that would describe the manner in which all wavelengths of radiation could be emitted by a body that would produce them all (a 'black body')." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 443]  1893 - From the New World - "In music, Dvorak composed his most famous symphony, From the New World, in 1893." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 445] 1893 - The Tale of Peter Rabbit - "Beatrix Potter begins writing The Tale of Peter Rabbit." 1893 - The Evolution of Humanity / William Scott-Elliot - "Scott-Elliot was an investment banker and amateur anthropologist. An early member of the London Lodge of the Theosophical society, in 1893 he wrote The Evolution of Humanity, issued as part of the Transactions of the London Lodge (issue 17).[1] [NP] Scott-Elliot came into contact with theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater who said he received knowledge about ancient Atlantis and Lemuria from the Theosophical Masters by 'astral clairvoyance.' Leadbeater transmitted his clairvoyant findings to Scott-Elliot, who undertook scholarly research to back them up. Despite Leadbeater's contributions, Scott-Elliot was listed as the sole author of the resulting book The Story of Atlantis, which was published with a preface by Alfred Percy Sinnett.[2] [NP] In 1899 he was awarded the T. Subba Row Medal for his contributions to 'esoteric science and philosophy'. In 1904 he added detail on Lemuria in The Lost Lemuria, attempting to use contemporary scientific evidence to back up Leadbeater's claims. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Scott-Elliot] 1894 1894 - Franco-Russian Alliance - "On January 3, 1894, a Franco-Russian alliance was established, and they agreed to fight together if war was forced on either of them by any member of the Triple Alliance. Finally, for the first time in a quarter of a century, France had an ally, and Bismark, who was still alive (he was to die in 1898) must have been chagrined indeed." [Based on: Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 447]  1894 - Birth / Kirpal Singh - February 6th, 1894: Sant Kirpal Singh (6 February 1894–21 August 1974) was a Guru who was born in Sayyad Kasran, a part of the Punjab which now belongs to Pakistan. He taught the unity of all religions and the birthright of man to attain self-knowledge and God-knowledge. Under the guidance of his Surat Shabd Yoga or Sant Mat guru, Baba Sawan Singh, of Radha Soami Satsang Beas, (see also "A brief life-sketch of Hazur Baba Sawan Singh Ji" [1] and "How I met my Master" [2]) he says he experienced what is described in the scriptures about God. According to his disciples, he dedicated his whole life to the ideal of unity: the brotherhood of man under the fatherhood of God. [....] Sant Kirpal Singh's legacy may lie chiefly in the wealth of books he wrote during his lifetime; the Master made all of these works available without copyright, saying "the gifts of God, like sunlight, are all free." [....] [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirpal_Singh] 1894 - Conjunction? / Sirius A, B & Sun - 1894 "[....] Every 49.9 years, the two stars in the system, Sirius A and B, come as close together as their orbits allow, creating huge magnetic storms between them. [....] What does this mean to life on Earth? The last time it occurred, in 1944, humanity was locked in the greatest conflict ever seen in history, World War II. It happened again, almost 50 years later, in June, 1993. [....] A new picture of the universe is emerging, one of a vast cosmic interdependence and connectedness. From first cosmos to last electron, the whole universe is a complex of coils within coils, spirals within spirals, magnetic fields within magnetic fields. The stars are interconnected to each other, exchanging particles and gases constantly, all flowing down the magnetic field lines or arteries of the galactic body. Scientists now feel it’s very likely the galaxy's coiled field lines diverge into intergalactic space where they may ultimately be connected to other galaxies. Are these tendrils of energy the nervous system of the galaxy, relaying information from star to star, galaxy to galaxy, on and on? One can only wonder." - Denise St. Denis [Based on: http://www.souledout.org/cosmology/cossynthreflects/sirius.html] - [T.D. - 12/28/07] 1894 - Assassination / French President - June 24th, 1894: "French president M. F. Sadi-Carnot (1837-1894) was assassinated by an Italian anarchist. He was succeeded by Jean Paul Pierre Casimir-Perier (1847-1907), who later resigned on January 17, 1895." 1894 - Labor Day Trivia / U.S.A. - June 28th, 1894: "The first observance of Labor Day is believed to have been a parade of 10,000 workers on Sept. 5, 1882, in New York City. By 1893, more than half the states were observing a 'Labor Day' on one day or another. President Grover Cleveland signed a bill June 28, 1894 - designating the first Monday in September as Labor Day." [Based on: Article (A toast to U.S. workers), p. A3, S.L.P.D., 09/04/06] *Trivia: "[....] Labor leader Eugene V. Debs assumed leadership of the Pullman strike. [....] Some 12,000 federal troops, about half the entire U.S. Army at the time, were sent to Chicago to assist the strikebreakers. The Pullman company announced on July 18 [1894] that it would reopen and hire only employees who signed 'yellow dog contracts' promising never to join unions. On Aug. 3, [1894] the strike was declared ended. Debs went to prison, and the ARU [American Railway Union] collapsed. [....]" [Based on: Other Views page article (An Illinois railroad fight gave a nation a holiday) by John J. Dunphy, p. B9, S.L.P.D., 09/04/06] 1894 - Initiation / Sawan Singh - October 15th, 1894: [....] After several conferences with Baba Ji [Baba Jaimal Singh] I was thoroughly convinced and received Initiation [into the secrets of surat shabd yoga] from him on the 15th day of October, 1894. The turning point in Sawan Singh's life came when he met his spiritual guru, Baba Jaimal Singh, and took initiation under him in the path of surat shabd yoga (union of the soul with the divine inner sound). Such was Sawan's readiness that in just over nine years he became an acknowledged master within the Sant Mat and Radhasoami traditions. In fact, except for Maharaj Charan Singh, the Satguru at Beas from 1951 to 1990, Sawan Singh attracted the largest following of any shabd yoga master in history, initiating more than 125,000 people into the mystic practice. [....] [Based on: http://vclass.mtsac.edu:930/phil/saint.htm] 1894 - Russian Tsar Nicholas II - November 1, 1894: "Alexander III's destruction of the rebellion further angered the working class, but his death in 1894 brought his son Nicholas II to power. The workers were quieted, for a while. Nicholas II was much like his father but lacked a strength of character. He believed the empire would return to the old ways if just left alone. Because he did advocate rapid industrialization, work days were lengthened, pay was decreased, and the workers became even more angry. Realizing what he had done, he shortened the workday to 11.5 hours. Still unhappy, the workers began to follow the ideas of Marx in earnest and by 1898, most university students were following Marx." 1894 - Conservative Jewish Movement / United States - "The Conservative Judaism movement [1890's] emerges in the United States. Anti-Semitism increases throughout France and many Jews begin to actively support the idea of establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine." 1894 - Alfred Dreyfus Conviction - December 22nd, 1894: "Captain Alfred Dreyfus is convicted by a French army court-martial." 1894 - Japan  Attacks China - "Japan attacks China." 1894 - Planning / Modern Olympic Games - "Planning for the first modern Olympic Games begins." 1894 - Archaeological Discovery / Minoan Civilization - "Arthur John Evans (1851-1941) was an archaeologist who, beginning in 1984, conducted digs in Crete that revealed details concerning the early Minoan civilization that, until then, had only been hinted at in some of the Greek myths." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 440] 1894 - Discovered / Argon Gas - "John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919), and William Ramsay (1852-1916) discovered the gas argon in 1894, and each received a Nobel Prize for the feat." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 440] 1894 - 1st Motion Picture Copyright? - January 9th, 1894?: "First motion picture is copyrighted." [Based on: Leo Laporte's 2005 Technology Almanac, p. 2 ] [my copy gives a date of 894, which I assume is a typo - E.M.] 1894 - The Jungle Book - "Rudyard Kipling publishes The Jungle Book." 1894 - Afternoon of a Faun - "Among the French musicians of this period was Achille-Claude Debussy (1862-1918), best known for his symphonic poem Afternoon of a Faun (1894)." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 448] 1894 - The Holy Science / Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri - 1894: "The Holy Science is a book written by Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri in 1894 under the title Kaivalya Darsanam. Sri Yukteswar states that he wrote The Holy Science at the request of Mahavatar Babaji.[1] The book compares parallel passages from the Bible and Bhagavad Gita in order to show the unity of all religions.[2][3] [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holy_Science] 1895 1895 - Trivia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1895 1895 - Increasing temperature? / United States - "[...] Across the scientific spectrum there is near universal agreement that human activity had an impact on climate change. According to the report ['This week's ... National Climate Assessment report'] , the average temperature in the United States has been increasing steadily since 1895, with most of this change occurring since 1970. [... .]" [Based on: Article (It's time to pay attention to climate change / We should 'honor our role as faithful stewards' of the creation.) by Rev. Christopher Keating, p. A10, S.L.P.D., 05/10/14] *Links: http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report 1895 - Resignation / Jean Paul Pierre Casimir-Perier, France - "Jean Paul Pierre Casimir-Perier (1847-1907) eventually fell afoul of the 'Dreyfus Affair' and on January 17, 1895, resigned and returned to his business affairs. He was succeeded by Francois Felix Faure (1841-1899), whose life was also hounded by the Dreyfus Affair." [Based on: Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 447] 1895 - Cuban Revolt - February 25th, 1895: "Cuban's begin revolt against Spanish." 1895 - Kiel Canal / Germany - "In June 1895, Germany opened the Kiel Canal, which cut across the isthmus just south of Denmark and allowed easy access between the North Sea and Baltic Sea for ships that would no longer have to sail all around Denmark to do so. It had obvious commercial possibilities, but Germany was thinking of it largely as a way of making sure that warships could be transferred between the two seas rapidly at need." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 442] 1895 - Mark Twain Lecture Tour - July 14th, 1895: "Mark Twain begins a 12 month around-the-world lecture tour." 1895 - Died / Lahiri Mahasaya - September 26th, 1895: "Lahiri Mahasaya died on September 26, 1895. [1]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahiri_Mahasaya#cite_note-garland-5] 1895 - Strong Earthquake / Charleston, Missouri - October 31st, 1895: "Earthquake location: Charleston, Missouri. Earthquake magnitude: 6.6. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1895 - Liquid Air - "In 1895, Karl Paul Gottfried von Linde (1842-1934) devised a system of cooling that was efficient and automatic so that liquid air became not merely a laboratory curiosity but a commodity that could easily be produced in tank-loads." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 444] 1895 - Invention? / Radio - "In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi invented 'wireless telegraphy' otherwise known as the radio." *Trivia: "The U.S. Supreme Court, in a landmark decision dated June 21, 1943, Case No. 369, overturned Marconi's basic patent for the invention of radio because Tesla's [Nickola Tesla's] patent on the four-tuned circuit predated Marconi's patent. Marconi had simply copied Tesla's work. [....] Marconi's two-tuned circuit system was the same as that advanced by Heinrich Hertz and was no more a viable system of radio than that advanced by Mahlon Loomis in 1872 ... long before Hertz or Tesla." [Intro by Timothy Green Beckley, The Lost Journals of Nikola Tesla, p. 7] 1895 - Discovered / X-Rays - November, 1895: "William Konrad Roentgen (1845-1923), a Greman physicist, discovers X-Rays." *Trivia: "X rays discovered [1896] by Wilhelm Rontgen." [Based on: Ultimate Visual Dictionary of Science, Timeline of Discoveries, p. 15, Barnes & Noble Books - 2005] 1895 - Anti-Saloon League / U.S.A. - December 18th, 1895: "National Anti-Saloon League founded, 1895." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 99] 1895 - "FitzGerald Contraction" - "The first to attempt an explanation of the negative results of the Michelson-Morley experiment of the previous decade was George Francis FitzGerald (1851-1910). He pointed out, in 1895, that the results could be explained if it were assumed that all objects in motion contracted in the direction of motion in accordance with a certain equation relating the speed of motion to the speed of light. The contraction would reduce the length of the object to zero at the speed of light, so that this 'FitzGerald contraction' made it seem that motion faster than the speed of light in a vacuum was impossible." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, pp. 439-440]  1895 - The Time Machine - "H.G. [Herbert George] Wells published The Time Machine." 1895 - Earthquake Trivia / 1895 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1896 1896 - Utah  - January 4th, 1896: "The 45th American state." 1896 - Failure / Cecil Rhodes - January 6th, 1896: "Jameson Raid causes the government of Cecil Rhodes to fail." 1896 - Rhodesian Revolt - March 20th, 1896: "Revolt against Rhode's chartered company begin in Rhodesia [Zambiabwe]." 1896 - 1st Modern Olympic Games / Athens, Greece - April 6th, 1896: "The modern Games were revived in 1896 in Athens by a French baron, Pierre de Coubertine, whose heart is entombed in a memorial in ancient Olympia, about 200 miles southwest of Athens." [A.P., 03/14/04]   1896 - Super tornado / St. Louis, Mo. - May 27th, 1896: "May 1896 [St. Louis, Mo.] had been stormy, warm and humid. The midafternoon of May 27 was a sticky 86 degrees when thick, low clouds began swirling, then turned ominously green [....] A tornado formed near Hampton Avenue and roared over the hospitals and asylums on the heights along Arsenal Street. No one died. That stroke of good fortune wouldn't hold. [....]" [Based on: Article (The Great Cyclone of 1896 devestated St. Louis / A Look Back - Super tornado formed near Hampton Avenue and churned toward East St. Louis, killing 255.), p. B3, S.L.P.D., 05/29/11] 1896 - Great Earthquake / Japan - June 15th, 1896: "Earthquake location: Sanriku, Japan. Earthquake magnitude: 8.5. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1896 - Klondike Gold Rush - August 17th, 1896: "George Carmack discovered gold in Rabbit Creek starting the Klondike Gold Rush." 1896 - Creation / Nobel Prize - December 10th, 1896: "Alfred Nobel died, and created the 'Nobel Prize'." 1896 - 1st IQ Test / Paris, France - "In Paris, Alfred Binet contrived the first IQ [intelligence] test for chldren." 1896 - U.S. Segregation Status / Plessy Vs. Ferguson - "U.S. Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson ruling sets out 'separate but equal' doctrine that becomes legal basis for widespread segregation in public schools." [Based on Article, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 05/17/04] 1896 - Rubber Heel - "American, H. O'Sullivan invented the rubber heel." 1896 - Beta Particle Radiation - "In 1896, the French physicist, Antoine Henri Becquerel (1853-1908), found that a uranium compound was the source of unexplained radiation. Some of the radiation he discovered in 1899 consisted of speeding electrons, called 'beta particles' eventually. Becquerel received a Nobel Prize for this." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 447]  1896 - Enzyme Research - "In 1896 ... Eduard Buchner (1860-1917) ground up yeast cells, filtered the material, and obtained a nonliving solution that could produce the fermentation [of sugar]. No enzyme, therefore, required a living cell to do its work, and for this Buchner received a Nobel Prize." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 443] 1896 - The Jewish State - "In 1896, a Hungarian-born Jew, Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) wrote a pamphlet entitled: The Jewish State." 1896 - "Queen Moo and the Egyptian Sphinx" - 1896: The first recorded use of the term "Naacal" is contained in Augustus Le Plongeon's work from 1896, "Queen Moo and the Egyptian Sphinx." From pages xxiii - xxiv of the preface: "Perhaps also will be felt the necessity of recovering the libraries of the Maya sages (hidden about the beginning of the Christian era to save them from destruction at the hands of the devastating hordes that invaded their country in those times), and to learn from their contents the wisdom of those ancient philosophers, of which that preserved in the books of the Brahmins is but the reflection. That wisdom was no doubt brought to India, and from there carried to Babylon and Egypt in very remote ages by those Maya adepts (Naacal - "the exalted"), who, starting from the land of their birth as missionaries of religion and civilization, went to Burmah, where they became known as Nagas, established themselves in the Dekkan, whence they carried their civilizing work all over the earth." According to Augustus Le Plongeon, the Naacals were the missionaries of Mayan religion and civilization. Le Plongeon advocated that the original, great civilization was in Central America which contrasts with Churchward's view. [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naacal] *Trivia: "The next known published use of the word occurred in 1926 when James Churchward used the term in his book, The Lost Continent of Mu, Motherland of Man. [NP] According to James Churchward, the Naacal were the people and civilization of the lost continent of Mu, as well as the name of their language." [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naacal] *Trivia: In volume 2 of "The Life and Teaching of the Masters of the Far East," Baird T. Spalding makes this remark about the 'Naacals': "The teachings that Buddha received came from the same source as did those of Osiris but in a different way. The teachings that Buddha contacted came from the Motherland direct to Burma, brought there by the Naacals. Osiris' teachings came direct to him, as his forefathers lived in the Motherland and when he was a young man he had gone to the Motherland to study." David Bruton, Spalding's biographer revealed in "Baird T. Spalding As I Knew Him" (IEP, 1956) that Spalding's books were a magical autobiography and essentially fiction. Therefore the inference that the Naacals themselves are a fiction or modern myth is strengthened. [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naacal] 1896 - The Story of Atlantis / William Scott-Elliot - 1896: "William Scott-Elliot (sometimes spelled Scott-Elliott) (d.1930) was a theosophist who elaborated Helena Blavatsky's concept of root races in several publications, most notably The Story of Atlantis (1896) and The Lost Lemuria (1904), later combined in 1925 into a single volume called The Story of Atlantis and the Lost Lemuria. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Scott-Elliot] 1896 - Earthquake Trivia / 1896 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1897 1897 - "Diamond Jubilee" / Great Britain - "Great Britain celebrated the 60th anniversary ['Diamond Jubilee'] of the coronation of Queen Victoria." 1897 - U.S. President William McKinley - March 4th, 1897: "The 25th American President, William McKinley [Republican], begins his term. McKinley was the 3rd American President assassinated. Incidentally, Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield, and William McKinley were all Republicans." *Trivia: "In American schoolbooks it is claimed that it was all for the good that the Democratic candidate for president in 1896, William Jennings Bryan, was not elected, since he was against the gold footing and the 'sound money' of the banks (that is money that creates debt). Bryan explained in his 'Cross of Gold' speech at the Democratic National Convention, in Chicago on July 9, 1896: 'When we have restored the money of the Constitution, all other necessary reforms will be possible, and that until that is done there is no reform that can be accomplished.'    "Bryan was not elected, and 17 years later, in 1913, Congress passed a bill (introduced by the Masonic President Woodrow Wilson), that purported to repeal the right of the Congress to issue currency and transferred this right to a 'federal reserve' funding system.    "Congressman Charles A. Lindbergh, father of the famous aviator, had the following to say about this: 'When the president signs it, the invisible government of the money brokers has become legalized. The worst legal crime of the century is a fact. The day of reckoning is only a few years removed.' " [Based on: article by Juri Lina, The Barnes Review, September/October 2004, p. 11] 1897 - Foreign Relations / Austria Hungary & Russia - "On April 30, 1897, Austria-Hungary came to an agreement with Russia to keep things in the Balkans as they were. It was the best Austria-Hungary could manage. [Based on: Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 445]  1897 - Great Earthquake / India - June 12th, 1897: "Earthquake location: Assam, India. Earthquake magnitude: 8.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 1,500."   1897 - Strong Earthquake / Calaveras Fault, California - June 20th, 1897: "Earthquake location: Calaveras fault, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1897 - 1st Zionist Congress - August 27th, 1897: "In 1897, the first Zionist Congress takes place. The movement of Zionism [dedicated to founding a Jewish state] was founded by Theodor Herzl in the late 1800s as a response to the Dreyfus Affair in France. Alfred Dreyfus, a French army officer, was falsely convicted of treason and imprisoned but was later exonerated when it was proved he was a victim of an anti-Semitic conspiracy. American Jewry provided relief for many of the east European Jews who suffered as a result of World War I." *Trivia: "Two hundred delegates attended the first Zionist Congress in Basel Switzerland, some even from the United States." [Based on: Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 445] 1897 - dies natalis / Therese de l'Enfant Jesus de la Sainte Face - September 30th, 1897: "[....] In August 19, 1897, Therese received her last communion. In July 1897, she made a final move to the monastery infirmary, where she died on 30 September 1897 [from tuberculosis] at the young age of 24. On her death-bed, she is reported to have said: 'I have reached the point of not being able to suffer any more, because all suffering is sweet to me.' [....] By the Apostolic Letter Divini Amoris Scientia (The Science of Divine Love) of 19 October 1997, Pope John Paul II declared her one of the thirty-three Doctors of the Universal Church, one of only three women so named, the others being Teresa of Avila (Saint Teresa of Jesus) and Catherine of Siena. Th�r�se was the only saint to be named a Doctor of the Church during Pope John Paul II's pontificate. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_de_Lisieux] 1897 - Alfred von Tirpitz / German Navy - "In 1897, Alfred von Tirpitz (1849-1930) was placed in charge of the German navy. It was his ambition, and Willian II went along with it eagerly, to strengthen that navy by building many ships of the latest design." [Based on: Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, pp. 442-443] 1897 - Russian Naval Forces / Port Arthur, China - December, 1897: "Russian naval forces occupied Port Arthur on the China Peninsula." 1897 - Oscilliscope - "In 1897, Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), a German scientist, invented the oscilliscope." 1897 - Diesel Engine - "Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) invented an internal-combustion engine in 1897 that could use petroleum fractions that were higher-boiling and cheaper than gasoline, and that required no electrical spark for ignition, merely forceful compression. Such engines were heavy, but could be used effectively in heavy vehicles such as buses, trucks, and ships." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 444] 1897 - Giant Ferris Wheel - "The Giant Ferris Wheel [rising 220 feet] is built in Vienna, Austria's, Prater." 1897 - Closed Circuit Television - "Jan Sczcepanik invents first [crude] closed circuit television." 1897 - Steam Turbine / Turbinia - "Charles Parsons put his steam turbine to startling use in 1897. He had built a turbine-powered ship, the Turbinia, that was capable of moving at a speed of 35 knots with scarcely any vibration or noise. At the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, when the British navy was holding a stately review, the Turbinia, at top speed, flashed past those ships. Nothing in the water could catch it. Naturally, steam turbines became a popular item at once for shipbuilders." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 440] 1897 - Causative Agent / Malaria - "Ronald Ross (1857-1932) discovered the causative agent of malaria, which turned out to be a protozoan. It was the first case of an infectious disease known to be caused by a non-bacterial agent." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 440] 1897 - Conclusive Evidence? / Electrons - "In 1897, Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940) was able to show conclusively that cathode ray particles consisted of speeding particles carrying a negative electric charge and with a mass only 1/1837 that of the lightest atom, hydrogen. The new particle was named the 'electron,' a name first proposed as the unit of electricity by George Johnstone Stoney (1826-1911) in 1891. The electron was the first 'subatomic particle' (one smaller than an atom) to be discovered. Thomson won a noble prize for this." [Based on: Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 440] 1897 - Dracula - "Abraham ('Bram') Stoker published the now classic vampire story, Dracula." 1897 - The Invisible Man - "H.G. [Herbert George] Wells published The Invisible Man." 1897 - Tom Sawyer's Conspiracy - "Mark Twain begins writing Tom Sawyer's Conspiracy, never completed." 1897 - The Chronicle of Young Satan - "Sam Clemens begins writing The Chronicle of Young Satan, never completed." 1897 - Earthquake Trivia / 1897 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2. Number of earthquake deaths: 1,500." - E.M. 1898 1898 - Explosion / U.S.S. Maine - February 15th, 1898: "The battleship, U.S.S. Maine is blown up at Havana Cuba." *Trivia: "On Feb. 15, 1898, the battleship Maine blew up in Havana Bay, prompting Congress on April 25 to declare war on Spain. Spain sued for peace on Aug. 12, thus ending the Spanish-American War after 110 days. The tax levied to pay for it lasted 108 years [until 2006!]. But as of Aug. 1 of this year [2006], the Internal Revenue Service will stop levying the 3 percent excise tax on long-distance telephone service imposed in 1898 to pay for the war. Amazingly, in those days the president actually paid for misbegotten wars in cash instead of putting them on the national credit card. [....] As the years went by, Congress kept 'forgetting' to remove the tax, and by last year it was raising $5.6 billion annually. The tax shows up on your phone bill as one of the dozen or so taxes and surcharges added to basic service. Last week, after years of being sued by businesses looking for refunds, the IRS finally announced it would stop collecting the tax on long-distance service. The 3 percent tax on local service will remain in place, though some members of Congress are lobbying to remove that too. [....]" [Based on: Opinion Page article (Finally. Forget the Maine), p. B8, S.L.P.D., 05/31/06] 1898 - Agra Lineage / Brahm Sankar Misra - "1898-1907: "Brahm Sankar Misra 1898-1907" 1898 - Building Begun / Modern German Navy - "On March 28, 1898, money was voted by the legislature ... and the building of a modern German navy was begun." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 443]  1898 - Strong Earthquake / Mare Island, California - March 31st, 1898: "Earthquake location: Mare Island, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1898 - Strong Earthquake / Mendocino County, California - April 15th, 1898: "Earthquake location: Mendocino County, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.8. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1898 - Spanish-American War - April 21st, 1898: "Spanish-American War begins." 1898 - U.S. Military Nurses / Civilan Status - 1898: "More than 1,500 women serve as military nurses [Spanish-American War] with civilan status." [Based on: St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. A10, 07/10/05] 1898 - Curtis Act - "Curtis Act dissolves tribal governments, requires Indians of abolished Indian nations to submit to allotment, and institutes civil government for Indian Country, with the purpose of extending the effects of allotment policy to the Five Civilized Tribes." 1898 - Independence / Philippines - June 12th, 1898: "Philippine insurgents declare independence." 1898 - Hawaii - August 12th, 1898: "The United States annexes Hawaii." 1898 - Assassination / Empress Elizabeth, Austria-Hungary - September 10th, 1898: "Empress Elizabeth of Austria-Hungary was assassinated by an Italian anarchist. Francis Joseph's nephew, Francis Ferdinand (1863-1914), became the new heir to the throne." 1898 - Railroad Plan / Berlin to Baghdad - "On November 17th, 1898, Germany began to plan a railroad from Berlin to Baghdad in Iraq, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire. This was with the obvious intention of increasing German influence in the Middle East, which alarmed both Great Britain and Russia. What's more, Germany was increasing its meddling in China and that upset Japan. In short, where Bismark had carefully secured the friendship of all the European powers but France in the 1870s and 1880s, William II, in the 1890s, was managing to alienate all the European powers with the exception of Austria-Hungary." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 443] 1898 - Saturn / Pluto Opposition - December 6th, 1898: "The planets Saturn and Pluto stand opposed in the signs of Gemini and Sagittatius. A similar opposition will occur on September 11th, 2001." 1898 - End / Spanish-American War - December 10th, 1898: "Spanish-American War ends [Treaty of Paris]. With victory, the U.S. wins control of Puerto Rico, the Phillippines, Guam, and Cuba." 1898 - German Lease / Kiaocchow Peninsula, China - "Germany extracts a 99 year lease on the Kiaocchow Peninsula from China." 1898 - Ministry / Lalaji Maharaj Ajudhia Prasad - "Lalaji Maharaj Ajudhia Prasad / Ministry:1898 to 1926 / Guru:Shiv Dayal Singh / Successors: Gur Prasad / Center:Peepal Mandi, Agra / Distinctions: Blood son of Rai Salig Ram; instrumental in the development of the Central Administrative Council. / Sources: Biography of Huzur Maharaj; Radhasoami Faith; and Correspondence with Certain Americans (all six volumes)." 1898 - Ministry / Maharishi Data Dayal Shiv Brat Lal - "Maharishi Data Dayal Shiv Brat Lal / Ministry: 1898 to 1939 [Most likely did not begin his guru ministry, however, until the beginning of the 20th century] / Guru:Rai Salig Ram / Successors: Faqir Chand; Nandhu Singh; and Sheri-Boa Dutt (Pir Munga) / Center: Lahore; Gopiganj / Distinctions:Perhaps the most prolific author in the history of Radhasoami; estimated to have authored over 3,000 books and pamphlets. / Sources: Light on Ananda Yoga; Dayal Yoga; and Shabd Yoga." 1898 - Telegraphone - "Valdemar Poulsen invents the telegraphone, a predecessor to the tape recorder." 1898 - Roller Coaster - "Edwin Prescott patented the roller coaster." 1898 - Liquid Hydrogen - "In 1898, he [Dewar] succeeded in liquefying hydrogen at a tempersture of only 20 degrees above absolute zero. That left the newly discovered helium as the only gas still unliquefied." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 440] 1898 - Radium & Polonium - "Marie Sklodowska [Polish-born] and Pierre Currie discover the elements Radium and Polonium." 1898 -  What Is Man - "Sam Clemens begins writing What Is Man." 1898 -  The Great Dark - "Sam Clemens writes The Great Dark." 1898 - War Of The Worlds - "H.G. [Herbert George] Wells published War Of The Worlds." 1898 - Concerning the Jews - "Sam Clemens writes Concerning the Jews." 1898 - The Memorable Assassination - "Sam Clemens writes The Momorable Assassination, 1st published in 1917." 1898 - Earthquake Trivia / 1898 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2." - E.M. 1899 1899 - Mt. Rainier National Park - March 2nd, 1899: "Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, established." 1899 - Major Earthquake / Cape Yakataga, Alaska - September 4th, 1899: "Earthquake location: Cape Yakataga, Alaska. Earthquake magnitude: 7.9. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1899 - Major Earthquake / Yakutat Bay, Alaska - September 10th, 1899: "Earthquake location: Yakutat Bay, Alaska. Earthquake magnitude: 8.0. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1899 - Alfred Dreyfus Pardon, France - September 19th, 1899: "France pardons Alfred Dreyfus without vindicating him." *Trivia: "President Faure, who had been an anti-Dreyfusard, had died earlier in the year and he was succeeded by Emile Francois Loubet (1838-1929), who was a Dreyfusard. Hoping to end the Affair, he remitted the sentence and pardoned Dreyfus. Eventually, of course, Dreyfus was entirely exonerated and all who had suffered on his behalf ... were rehabilitated." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 447] 1899 - Boer War / South Africa - October 11th, 1899: "The Boer War begins in South Africa." 1899 - Boxer Rebellion / China - "In 1899, China's Boxer Rebellion began as a secret society." 1899 - Beta Particles - "In 1896, the French physicist, Antoine Henri Becquerel (1853-1908), found that a uranium compound was the source of unexplained radiation. Some of the radiation he discovered in 1899 consisted of speeding electrons, called 'beta particles' eventually. Becquerel received a Nobel Prize for this." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 447]  1899 - Vacuum Cleaner - "J.S. Thurman patented the motor-driven vacuum cleaner." 1899 - Speed of Sound - "An important Austrian scientist of the decade [1890-1900] was Ernst Mach (1838-1916). [....] He is best remembered today because his work on airflow caused him to recognize the sudden changes that came when an object moved at the speed of sound." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 445] 1899 - Concerning the Jews - "Mark Twain publishes Concerning the Jews." 1899 - How To make History Dates Stick - "Sam Clemens writes How To make History Dates Stick, 1st published in 1914." 1899 - The Future Of The Ameriacn Negro - "Booker T. Washington publishes, The Future Of The Ameriacn Negro." 1899 - Earthquake Trivia / 1899 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2." - E.M. Earthquake Trivia / 19th Century - "Number of notable earthquakes this century [19th]: at least 28. Number of earthquake deaths this century: at least 129,467." - E.M. 20th 1900 - Map of Europe - "Map of Europe: A.D. 1900." 1900 - "Quantum Theory" / Modern Physics - "Wilhelm Wien (1864-1928) demonstrated, in 1893, that the higher the temperature of a substance, the shorter the wavelength of the peak radiation that it produces. Wien tried to work out an equation that would describe the manner in which all wavelengths of radiation could be emitted by a body that would produce them all (a 'black body'). Wien failed in this, but Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (1858-1947) succeeded in 1900, by assuming that energy could only be given off in fixed amounts. These energy-packets were extremely tiny and Planck called them 'quanta.' It turned out that Planck's 'quantum theory, made it possible to look at all of physical science in a new and much-improved way, so that everything before 1900 is called 'classical physics' and everything afterward is 'modern physics.' Both Wein and Planck received Nobel Prizes for their work." [Based on: Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 443] *Trivia: "[....] Quantum theory contains within it some apparent conceptual paradoxes that even after 80 years remain unsolved. An electron appears to be both a wave and a particle. So does light. Moreover, the theory gives only statistical predictions of subatomic behavior. Our ability to do any better than that is limited by the uncertainty principle, which tells us that we cannot measure a particle's position and momentum at the same time. The theory yields only probabilities. A particle - an atomic electron, say - can be anywhere until we measure it; our observation in some sense determines its state. All of this suggests that quantum theory does not tell the whole story. As a result, in spite of its success, there are many experts who are convinced that quantum theory hides something essential about nature that we need to know. [....]" [Based on: Lee Smolin, The Trouble with Physics, p. 6 (3rd paragraph), copyright 2006] 1900 - Ground-Breaking / N.Y.C. Subway System - March 24th, 1900: "Ground-breaking ceremony for N.Y.C. subway system, 1900." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 105] 1900 - Hawaii Territory - June 14th, 1900: "Hawaii becomes a U.S. terroritory." 1900 - U.S. President William McKinley - June 16th, 1900: "President KcKinley re-elected with Theodore Roosevelt as his vise-president." 1900 - China Declares War on Western Allies - June 21st, 1900: " 'Boxer's' take Peking, and China declares war on western allies." 1900 - Zeppelin - July 2nd, 1900: "Ferdinand Adolf August Heinrich von Zeppelin (1838-1917) flew his first craft on July 2, 1900. For the first time, human beings could move through the air against the wind."  [Based on: Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 444] 1900 - Assassination / King Humbert I, Italy - July 29th, 1900: "King Humbert I is assassinated in Italy." 1900 - 2nd Olympic Games / Paris, France - "In 1900, the 2nd Olympic Games were held in Paris, France."   1900 - Sam Clemens / New York - October, 1900: "Sam Clemens returns from Europe and lives at 14 West Tenth Street, New York." 1900 - Major Earthquake / Alaska - October 9th, 1900: "Earthquake location: Kodiak Island, Alaska. Earthquake magnitude: 7.7. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1900 - U.S. Submarine - October 12th, 1900: "America's first real submarine, the U.S.S. Holland [SS-1], is commissioned." 1900 - German Chancellor / Berhard Heinrich Martin Karl van Bulow - "On October 16, 1900, Holenlohe resigned and, in his place, Willian II appointed Berhard Heinrich Martin Karl van Bulow (1849-1929) to the post of Chancellor." [Based on: Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 443] 1900 - Ministry / Maharaj Saheb Brahm Shankar Misra - "Maharaj Saheb Brahm Shankar Misra / Ministry: Early 1900's to 1907 [did not succeed Rai Salig Ram immediately, since he was unsure for a year or two who was to be the rightful successor] / Guru: Rai Salig Ram / Successors: Maheshwari Devi; Kamta Prasad Sinha / Center: Benaras; Agra / Distinctions: Highly educated, receiving his Master of Arts in 1884; founded the Central Administrative Council in 1902 in Agra; and developed the idea of interregnum (period of time when no guru is publically manifested). / Sources: Discourses on the Radhasoami Faith by Maharaj Saheb [Brahm Shankar Misra]; Solace to Satsangis by Maharaj Saheb [Brahm Shankar Misra]; and Radhasoami Faith: History and Tenets by S.D. Maheshwari." 1900 - Atoms? - "At the beginning of the twentieth century, few physicists believed in atoms." 1900 - AACP - "The American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy was founded in 1900 as the Conference of Pharmaceutical Faculties, while the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy was established 4 years later." 1900 - 1st Tractor - "Benjamin Holt invented the first tractor." 1900 - U.S. Hall Of Fame - "The first election of membership into the Hall Of Fame For Great Americans." 1900 - Use of Fingerprints - Francis Galton, in this decade [1890-1900], worked out the use of fingerprints as an identifying device." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 440] 1900 - Discovered / T-Rex - "The first discovery of a fossilized T-rex Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton." 1900 - 1st Hamburger  Served - "First hamburger served." 1900 - Lynching Trivia / U.S.A - December, 1900: "Congress rejects a bill to make lynching a federal crime." 1900 - Discovery / Tryptophan - "Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861-1947) discovered tryptophan, an important amino acid, in 1900." [Based on: Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World, p. 440] 1900 - The Tale of Peter Rabbit - "Beatrix Potter, publishes The Tale of Peter Rabbit which she wrote in 1893." 1900 - The Interpertation of Dreams - "Sigmund Freud publishes The Interpertation of Dreams." 1900 - Earthquake Trivia / 1900 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1901 1901 - Astronomic Configuration - Uranus-Pluto [Sagittarius/Gemini] opposition [1901-1902]." 1901 - Commonwealth of Australia - January 1st, 1901: "Commonwealth of Australia founded." 1901 - Oil Discovered / Beaumont, Texas - January 10th, 1901: "Oil is discovered in Beaumont, Texas - the first major oil discovery in U.S. history." [Based on: Leo Laporte's 2005 Technology Almanac, p. 2] 1901 - King Edward VII / Great Britain - January 22nd, 1901: "Queen Victoria dies; Edward VII becomes king of Great Britain." 1901 - Trivia / Sam Clemens - "Sam Clemens works on The Secret History of Eddypus, the World Empire, February never completed." 1901 - U.S. Protectorate / Cuba - March 2nd, 1901: "The Platt Amendment to Cuba's constitution makes that country a U.S. protectorate." 1901 - Strong Earthquake / Parkfield, California - March 3rd, 1901: "Earthquake location: Parkfield, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.4. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1901 - Birth / Manly P. Hall - March 18th (Pisces), 1901: Manly Palmer Hall (March 18, 1901 - August 29, 1990) was a prolific Canadian-born author and mystic. He is perhaps most famous for his work The Secret Teaching of All Ages: An Encyclopedic Outline of Masonic, Hermetic, Qabbalistic and Rosicrucian Symbolical Philosophy, which he published at the age of twenty five; the first line of which is, "Philosophy is the science of estimating values." He has been widely recognized as a leading scholar in the fields of religion, mythology, mysticism, and the occult. Carl Jung, when writing Psychology and Alchemy, borrowed material from Hall's private collection. In 1934 Manly P. Hall founded the Philosophical Research Society in Los Angeles, California, dedicating it to an idealistic approach to the solution of human problems. The PRS claims to be non-sectarian and entirely free from educational, political, or ecclesiastical control, the Society's programs stress the need for the integration of philosophy, religion, and science into one system of instruction. The PRS Library, a public facility devoted to source materials in obscure fields, has many rare and scarce items now impossible to obtain elsewhere. In 1973 Mr. Hall was recognized as a 33� Mason (the highest rank possible in the Scottish Rite), at a ceremony held at PRS on December 8th. In his long career, spanning more than seventy years of dynamic public activity, Mr. Hall delivered over 7,500 lectures in the United States and abroad, authored over 150 books and essays, and wrote countless magazine articles. [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manly_P._Hall] 1901 - Pan-American Exposition / Buffalo N.Y. - September 3rd, 1901: "Pan-American Exposition opens in Buffalo, N.Y. demonstrating the latest inventions in farming, medicine, communications, transportation, and housewares.  Record numbers of visitors from around the world are expected to attend." [Link: 1 ] 1901 - President William McKinley / Buffalo N.Y. - September 5th, 1901: "William McKinley opens the Pan-American Exposition." 1901 - Shot / U.S. President William McKinley  - September 6th, 1901: "President McKinley was shot by Leon Czolgosz in Buffalo, NY." 1901 - Fatality / U.S. President William McKinley - September 14th, 1901: "President McKinley dies from his wound." 1901 - U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt - September 14th, 1901: "The 26th American President, Theodore Roosevelt [Republican], begins his term." 1901 - Assassination / Russian Minister of Education - "In 1901 they [Jews] assassinated Bogolepov, the Czar's Minister of Education." [Link: 1 ] 1901 - Sam Clemens  / New York - October, 1901: "Sam Clemens moves to Riverdale, New York." 1901 - Radio Receiver - "The first radio receiver, successfully received a radio transmission." 1901- Discovery / Ancient Greek Computer - "[....] The Antikythera mechanism, found in 1901 in a shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, is thought to have been made more than about 100 B.C. Its purpose was a mystery for than 100 years, but in 2006, researchers used new scanning technology to examine the heavily encrusted fragments. [NP] They concluded that the device originally contained 37 gears that formed an astronomical computer. Two dials on the front show the zodiac and a calendar of the days of the year that can be adjusted for leap years. Metal pointers show the positions in the zodiac of the sun, moon and five planets known in antiquity. Two spiral dials on the back show the cycles of the moon and predict eclipses." [Based on: Los Angeles Times article (Ancient computer tracked passage of time, Olympics), p. A7, S.L.P.D., 07/31/08] 1901 - Birth / Walt Disney - December 5th, 1901: "Reportedly born [Chicago] on this date in history: Walter Elias Disney [Walt Disney]." 1901 - The Death Disk - December, 1901: "Mark Twain publishes, The Death Disk." 1901 - Up From Slavery - "Booker T. Washington publishes, Up From Slavery." 1901 - To The Person Sitting in Darkness - "Mark Twain publishes, To The Person Sitting in Darkness." 1901 - Earthquake Trivia / 1901 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1902 1902 - Fatality / Cecil Rhodes - March 26th, 1902: "Cecil Rhodes dies." 1902 - Volcanic Eruption / Santa Maria, Guatemala - "Volcanic eruption date(s): April 24th, 1902. Number of recorded deaths: 1,000." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 491] 1902 - Volcanic Eruption / Mount Pelee, Martinique - May 8th, 1902: "Mount Pel�e, on the island of Martinique in the Caribbean Sea, erupted at 7:50 a.m. on May 8, 1902. A giant black plume darkened the sky, while a superheated cloud of hot ash, toxic gases, and magma fragments raced down the volcano's sides at hurricane-force speeds. Within minutes, the city of St. Pierre had been destroyed, its 30,000 inhabitants dead." *Trivia: "Volcanic eruption date(s): May 8th, 1902. Eruption location: Mt. Pelee, Martinique. Number of recorded deaths: 28,000." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 491] 1902 - Independence / Cuba  - May 20th, 1902: "Cuba becomes independent nation." 1902 - Crater Lake National Park - May 22nd, 1902: "Crater Lake National Park established in Oregon." 1902 - End / Boer War, South Africa - May 31st, 1902: "The Treaty of Vereeniging ends the Boer War in South Africa." 1902 - Died / Swami Vivekananda - July 4th, 1902: "On July 4, 1902 at Belur Math near Kolkata, he [Swami Vivekananda] taught Vedanta philosophy to some pupils in the morning. He had a walk with Swami Premananda, a brother-disciple and gave him instructions concerning the future of the Ramakrishna Math. The same day, Vivekananda left his mortal body at the young age of 39." [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda] 1902 - Transatlantic Radio Signal - December 11th, 1902: "Marconi transmits the first transatlantic radio signal." 1902 - Reclamation Act - "Reclamation Act encourages settlement of the American West by whites through subsidies for water development." 1902 - Assassination / Russian Minister of Interior - "In 1902, they [Jews] murdered Sipyagin, Minister of Interior in 1902." [Link: 1 ] 1902 - Air Conditioner - "In 1902, Willis Carrier invented the air conditioner." 1902 - Biologies Control Act - "Congress enacted the Biologies Control Act to license and regulate interstate sale of serums, vaccines, and antitoxins used to prevent or treat diseases in humans." 1902 - Was It Heaven? or Hell? - "Mark Twain publishes, Was It Heaven? or Hell?." 1902 - Volcano Trivia / 1902 - "Number of volcanic eruptions [and, or] notable volcanic events this year: at least 2. Number of deaths: 31,000." - E.M. 1903 1903 - Wind Cave National Park / South Dakota - January 3rd, 1903: "Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota, established." 1903 - U.S. Suffrage Convention - March 24-30, 1903: "The National American Woman Suffrage Association holds the largest annual convention to push for women's voting rights in its 34-year history." [Link: 1 ] 1903 - Jewish Fatalities / Russia - "More than 600 Jews are murdered in the town of Kishinev, Russia, Easter." 1903 - "A Square Deal" / U.S.A. - September 7th, 1903: "Theodore Roosevelt promises 'A Square Deal,' at the N.Y. State Agriculture Association." [Link: 1 ] 1903 - Sam Clemens / Italy - October 24th, 1903: "Sam Clemens and family move to Florence, Italy." 1903 - Independence / Panama - November 3rd, 1903: "Panama declares its independance from Columbia." 1903 - Crayons - "Edward Binney and Harold Smith co-invented crayons." 1903 - Airplane - December 17th, 1903: "Wright brothers make first powered, heavier than air, flight at Kitty Hawk. .The Wright brothers invented the first gas motored and manned airplane." 1904 - British Expedition / Tibet - December 1903: "[....] The British took a few months to prepare for the expedition which pressed into Tibetan territories in early December 1903. The entire British force numbered over 3,000 fighting men and was accompanied by 7,000 sherpas, porters and camp followers. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet] *Trivia: "[....] In 1904, a British expedition to Tibet, spurred in part by a fear that Russia was extending its power into Tibet, invaded Tibet, hoping that negotiations with the 13th Dalai Lama would be more effective than with Chinese representatives.[37] When the mission reached Lhasa, Younghusband imposed a treaty which was subsequently repudiated, and was succeeded by a 1906 treaty[38] signed between Britain and China. [NP] In 1910, the Qing government sent a military expedition of its own under Zhao Erfeng to establish direct Chinese rule and deposed the Dalai Lama in an imperial edict, who fled to British India. Zhao Erfeng defeated the Tibetan military conclusively and expelled the Dalai Lama's forces from the province, he was nicknamed "Zhao the Butcher" for crushing the Tibetan army. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet] 1903 - "Sawan Singh" Ministry / India - 1903? "[....] Because of his exceptional spiritual state, Sawan Singh was appointed by Baba Jaimal Singh to be his successor shortly before his death in 1903. Sawan Singh carried on his master's mission with remarkable aptitude, spreading the message of humankind's divine heritage throughout India. [NP] Sawan Singh gathered a large following of disciples from around the world. Among his devotees were Dr. Julian P. Johnson, Dr. Pierre Schmidt, Col. C.W. Sanders, Sant Kirpal Singh (founder of Ruhani Satsang), Sant Darshan Singh (founder of Sawan-Kirpal Mission), Baba Somanath, Pritam Das, and several government officials in both the British and Indian ranks. [NP] Huzur Sawan Singh died on April 2, 1948, just days after appointing Jagat Singh as his spiritual successor. [....] [Based on: http://vclass.mtsac.edu:930/phil/saint.htm] *Trivia: "[....] It was also interesting to see that Jaimal Singh, the founder of the Beas Radhasoami group, had also studied with Salig Ram, as well as Shiv Dayal Singh, the founder of Radhasoami. And Sawan Singh had contact with the Sant Sat Gurus of the Parent Faith as well. Sawan attended the satsang of Babuji on a few occasions, and when he did so he sat on the floor at the feet of Babuji amongst the other satsangis. Sawan Singh was the last of the Beas gurus to have direct contact with the Sant Sat Gurus of the Parent Faith. Is this why both Jaimal and Sawan's writings seem so much more alive than any that followed them in the Beas teaching? Is this why Paul [Paul Twitchell] once observed that the line of spirituality in the Beas group stopped with Sawan Singh? [....]" [Based on: Dialogue in the Age of Criticism, Chap. 12]   1903 - 1st Baseball World Series - "First World Series of baseball played." 1903 - Assassination / Governor of Ufa  - "Bogdanovich, the Governor of Ufa was murdered in 1903." 1904 1904 - Autobiography / Sam Clemens - January, 1903: "Sam Clemens begins dictating his autobiography." 1904 - Beginning / Russo-Japanese War - February 8th, 1904: Japanese sneak attack on Port Author begins the Russo-Japanese War." *Trivia: "American Jacob Schiff was the wealthiest Jewish banker in the world as head of the international bank of 'Kuhn, Loeb & Co.' Note here that Schiff 'floated the large Japanese War Loans of 1904-1905 which made their victory over Russia possible.' At the end of the article we read that Schiff 'used his financial influence to keep Russia from the money markets of the U.S.' Also note that Schiff controlled all of the railroads in the U.S. and 'suppressed ruinous competition.' [Note: This would be like allowing one person to own all of the Air Lines today and 'suppressing all competition.' He also controlled the Central Trust Bank and Western Union.]. Thus, with all this money power, Schiff was able to prevent the Czar from obtaining loans to raise armies for a defense against the Japanese. Schiff formed called 'The Friends of Russian Freedom.' Its purpose was to agitate for the overthrow of the Christian Czar. This group, with the help of the Japanese, ran an anti-Czar indoctrination campaign among the 50,000 Russian soldiers taken as POWs during the war. They returned home ready to support the Jewish revolution." [Link: 1 ] 1904 - Fatality / Olivia L. Clemens - June 5th, 1904: "Olivia [Livy] Langdon Clemens, S.L.C's wife, dies in Florence, Italy." 1904 - Major Earthquake / Alaska - August 27th, 1904: "Earthquake location: Fairbanks, Alaska. Earthquake magnitude: 7.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1904 - 3rd Olympic Games / St. Louis, Mo. - "In 1904, the 3rd Olympic Games were held in Saint Louis, Missouri."   1904 - Peter Pan - December 27th, 1904: "Sir James Barrie produced the play, Peter Pan And The Lost Boy's in England." 1904 - The Lost Lemuria / William Scott-Elliot - 1904: "William Scott-Elliot (sometimes spelled Scott-Elliott) (d.1930) was a theosophist who elaborated Helena Blavatsky's concept of root races in several publications, most notably The Story of Atlantis (1896) and The Lost Lemuria (1904), later combined in 1925 into a single volume called The Story of Atlantis and the Lost Lemuria. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Scott-Elliot] 1904 - Birth / Joseph Cambell - "Born this year in history: Mythologist, Joseph Campbell [d. 1987]." 1904 - Birth / Kay-Dee Twitchell - Reportedly born this year in history: Kay-Dee Twitchell. She was the older sister of Paul Twitchell, the modern day founder of Eckankar. - E.M.   1904 - Assassination / Premier von Plehve - "Premier von Plehve was murdered in 1904." 1904 - Earthquake Trivia / 1904 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1905 1905 - Physics Trivia - "In 1905, Albert Einstein was twenty-six. He had failed to find an academic job in spite of the fact that his early work on the physics of heat radiation alone would come to be seen as a major contribution of science. But that was just a warm-up. He soon zeroed in on the fundamental questions of physics: First, how could the relativity of motion be reconciled with Maxwell's laws of electricity and magnetism? He told us in his special theory of relativity. Should we think of the chemical elements as Newtonion atoms? Einstein proved we must. How can we reconcile the theories of light with the existence of atoms? Einstein told us how, and in the process showed that light is both a wave and a particle. All in the year 1905, in time stolen from his work as a patent examiner." [Based on: Lee Smolin, The Trouble with Physics, p. ix (5th paragraph - Introduction), copyright 2006] 1905 - Bloody Sunday / Russia - January 22nd, 1905: "In 1905, the first in a series of Russian revolutions was to happen. Nicholas II ordered the protesters shot. This massacre became known as 'Bloody Sunday.' Protests and riots continued to spread until Nicholas was forced to allow the people some form of constitutional government. A Duma, or Congress was elected in that year and began to provide representation for the people. Officials were elected, but the Czar always had the overriding power of veto. Three Dumas were elected, right until 1914, the beginning of World War I." 1905 - 100 mph Car / Napier - January 31st, 1905: "Napier first car to go more than 100 mph (104.65), 1905." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 101] 1905 - Great Earthquake / Kangra, India - April 4th, 1905: "Earthquake location: Kangra, India. Earthquake magnitude: 8.6. Number of recorded fatalities: 19,000."  [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 208] 1905 - Great Earthquake / Mongolia - July 9th, 1905: "Earthquake location: Mongolia. Earthquake magnitude: 8.4. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1905 - End / Russo-Japanese War - September 5th, 1905: Russo-Japanese War ends." 1905 - Assassination / Grand Duke Sergei - "Grand Duke Sergei the Czar's uncle was murdered in 1905." 1905 - Special Theory of Relativity - "Albert Einstein writes his paper on the Special Theory of Relativity and made famous the equation, E = mc2."  1905 - A Humane Word For Satan - "Mark Twain publishes, A Humane Word For Satan." 1905 - Earthquake Trivia / 1905 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2. Number of earthquake deaths: 19,000." - E.M. 1906 1906 - Opposition / Uranus-Neptune - "The Uranus-Neptune [Capricorn/Cancer] opposition of 1906-1910 brought Einstein's Theory of Relativity, the first Russian Revolution, and an intense transition into the twentieth century world-view. Dominated by USA and USSR, the century was to buzz with airplanes, cars, telephones and movies, isolating people into busy, complex, torn lives." 1906 - Forward Pass Made Legal / Football - January 12th, 1906: "Forward pass made legal in football, 1906." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 101] 1906 - Great Earthquake / Columbia-Ecuador - January 21st, 1906: "Earthquake location: Columbia-Ecuador. Earthquake magnitude: 8.8. Number of recorded fatalities: 1,000."   1906 -  Major Earthquake / San Francisco, California - April 18th, 1906: "Earthquake location: San Francisco, California. Earthquake magnitude: 7.8. Number of recorded fatalities: 3,000."   *Trivia: "At 5:13 a.m. on April 18, 1906, San Francisco experienced one of the strongest earthquakes ever recorded. It is estimated that the quake was 7.7 to 7.9 on the Richter Scale. More than 3,000 people lost their lives in the quake and the fires that followed. The fires alone destroyed 28,000 buildings in the city - nearly every single one!" [Based on: Everyday page article (The Great Quake of 1906), p. E4, S.L.P.D., 04/18/06] 1906 - Platt National Park / Oklahoma - June 29th, 1906: "The Platt National Park, Oklahoma, is established." 1906 - Mesa Verde National Park / Colorado - June 29th, 1906: "The Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, is established." 1906 - Vindication / Alfred Dreyfus - July 12th, 1906: "A French court vindicates Dreyfus." 1906 - Great Earthquake / Chile - August 17th, 1906: "Earthquake location: Valparaiso, Chile. Earthquake magnitude: 8.2. Number of recorded fatalities: 20,000."   1906 - What is Man? - August, 1906: "Mark Twain publishes, What Is Man?" 1906 - 4th Olympic Games / Athens, Greece - "In 1906, the 4th Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece." 1906 - Constitutional Revolution / Iran - "On September of 1906, Mozzafar-ed-Din Shah Qajar (Kadjar) signed the Electoral Law of Persia. Then, on December 30, 1906, a few days before his death, he signed the Fundamental Law of Persia, providing the country with a constitution modeled on the Belgian and French examples. The 33 articles of the Electoral Law and the 51 articles of the Fundamental Law gave the country a bicameral legislature, separation of powers, checks and balances, an executive modeled on the French system with a monarch as head of state, and guarantees of fair representation and political rights for the people of Persia. This development brought Edward G. Browne, the famous chronicler of the Persian Constitutional Revolution, to proclaim jubilantly:    Does history afford many instances of a nation making such conspicuous advances in public spirit and morality in so short a period as were made by the Persians during the period under discussion? I venture to think that parallels will not easily be found.    "And though this early victory for constitutionalism would have its setback in 1908-09, constitutionalism would ultimately remain in Persia until its demise through a British engineered coup in 1925 against the legitimate government of Persia under Soltan Ahmad Shah." [Links: 1 ] 1906 - Burke Act - "Burke Act amends the General Allotment Act, giving the Secretary of the Interior authority to remove restrictions on allotted Indian lands." 1906 - Bear Market / U.S.A. - September 1906: "[....] The bear market began after the market peaked in September 1906. By November 1907, the total value of all listed U.S. shares had plunged 37 percent, according to Bruner, and at least 25 banks and 17 trust companies had collapsed. [....]" [Based on: Bloomberg News article (Goof Friday market close: More of panic or prayer?) by Chris Dolmetsch, p A36, S.L.P.D., 03/22/08] 1906 - Land Seizure / Pueblo Indians - "U.S. Federal government seizes fifty thousand acres of wilderness land, the Blue Lake region in the mountains of New Mexico, sacred to Taos Pueblo Indians, and makes it part of a national park." 1906 - Assassination / Gen. Dubrassov - "Gen. Dubrassov was murdered in 1906 (his soldiers put down the Jewish revolution of 1905.)." 1906 - Work Beginning / Panama Canal - "U.S. Army Corps of Engineers begins work on the Panama Canal." 1906 - Sonar - "Lewis Nixon invents sonar." 1906 - Bakelite - "Bakelite, the first thermo-setting plastic was formed in 1906 by the Belgian-born American chemist Leo Hendrik Baekeland." 1906 - U.S. Food & Drug Act - "Congress laid the foundation for modern food and drug law when it passed the Food and Drugs Act of 1906. The original Food and Drug Act was signed by President Theodore Roosevelt. The act prohibited interstate commerce in misbranded and adulterated foods, drinks, and drugs." 1906 - Published / Special Theory of Relativity - "Albert Einstein publishes his theory on the special theory of relativity." 1906 - Earthquake Trivia / 1906 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 3. Number of earthquake deaths: 24,000." - E.M. 1907 1907 - Lenin Leaves Russia - February 3rd, 1907: "Nicolai Lenin leaves Russia." 1907 - Birth / Katharine Hepburn - May 12th, 1907: Born this date in history: Katharine Hepburn. She lived to age 96 [06/29/2003] and died of natural causes in Old Saybrook, Conn. 1907 - Crash / U.S. Stock Market - March 13th, 1907: "Financial panic plunges U.S. stock market. Economic depression begins." *Trivia: "[....] 'The panic itself occurred in October 1907, although in March of 1907 there was a significant break in the market.' [NP] Jeffrey A. Hirsch, editor of 'Stock Trader's Almanac,' said that downturn started March 13, when the Dow Jones industrial average tumbled 3.9 percent, and continued the next day, when it lost 8.3 percent. Good Friday in 1907 fell on March 29, when, he said, the Dow climbed 2.5 percent. [NP] The bear market began after the market peaked in September 1906. By November 1907, the total value of all listed U.S. shares had plunged 37 percent, according to Bruner, and at least 25 banks and 17 trust companies had collapsed. [NP] Among them were New York's Knickerbocker Trust, where rumors of financial problems triggered a run on banks in the city and contributed to the crash, according to the NYSE's website. The crisis ultimately prompted the creation of the Federal Reserve system. [....]" [Based on: Bloomberg News article (Goof Friday market close: More of panic or prayer?) by Chris Dolmetsch, p A36, S.L.P.D., 03/22/08] 1907 - British New Zealand - September 27th, 1907: "New Zealand becomes a dominion of the British Empire." 1907 - Great Earthquake / Central Asia - October 21st, 1907: "Earthquake location: Central Asia. Earthquake magnitude: 8.1. Number of recorded fatalities: 12,000."  [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 208] 1907 - Oklahoma  - November 16th, 1907: "The 46th American state. When the Oklahoma Territory, including the Indian Territory was admitted as a state. The citizens of Oklahoma sought to have Indian lands on the market and subject to taxation." 1907 - "Great White Fleet" / U.S.A. - December, 1907: "The 'Great White Fleet' sent on around the world by president Roosevelt." 1907 - Joseph Stalin / Russia - "Joseph Stalin robs the State Bank transport to finance the Bolshevik party in Russia." 1907 - Trivia / "Mother's Day" - "(1) One day each spring in ancient Greece, people held celebrations in honor of Rhea, whom they called Mother of the Gods. (2) During the 1600s, people in England celebrated a day called "Mothering Sunday." On that day servants were released from work to spend the day with their mothers. (3) In the U.S., the idea of Mother's Day was first suggested by Julia Ward Howe in 1872 as a day dedicated to peace. (4) In 1907, Ana Jarvis passed out carnations at her mother's church in Grafton, West Virginia - one for each mother in the congregation. She did this in memory of her own mother. (5) In 1908, St. Andrew's Methodist Church in Grafton, West Virginia held a Sunday service honoring mothers. (6) In 1909, Mother's Day services were held in all 46 states [U.S.A.] plus Canada and Mexico. (7) In 1912, West Virginia became the first state to adopt an official Mother's Day. (8) In 1914, President Woodrow Wilson signed a resolution establishing Mother's Day." [Based on: Everyday section, p. E6, S.L.P.D., 05/09/06] 1907 - Zionist Congress / The Hague - "In 1907, during the Zionist congress at The Hague, delegates of the Poale-Zion parties of various countries assembled at a conference and organized the Poale-Zion Weltverband ('World Organization') which watches over the international interests of the Poale-Zion in the Zionist and the Socialist worlds Fund, which is collected from Jews all over the world, is administered by the 'World Organization.'    "Through its propaganda in the Socialist International and the English Labor Party the 'organization' has succeeded in securing a favorable attitude towards Zionist alma on the part of Socialists and labor leaders. As a result, a Jewish home in Palestine is one of the points in the peace program of the 'International' and of the English Labor Party." [Link: 1 ] 1907 - Agra Lineage / Bauji' Mahewari Dev - " 'Bauji' Mahewari Devi 1907-1913 [woman guru?]" 1907 - Japanese Immigration Ban / United States - "President Theodore Roosevelt signs legislation barring Japanese laborers from immigrating to the U.S." 1907 - Color Photography - "Color photography invented by Auguste and Louis Lumiere." 1907 - General Theory of Relativity - "Albert Einstein begins work on his General Theory of Relitivity." *Trivia: "Albert Einstein publishes [1915] his general theory of relativity." [Based on: Ultimate Visual Dictionary of Science, Timeline of Discoveries, p. 15, Barnes & Noble Books - 2005] 1907 - Administration / U.S Food & Drug Act - "The Bureau of Chemistry, headed by Dr. Wiley, began administering the Food and Drug Act." 1907 - Uncle Remus And Brer Rabbit - "Joel Chandler Harris publishes Uncle Remus And Brer Rabbit." 1907 - Earthquake Trivia / 1907 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1. Number of earthquake deaths: 12,000." - E.M. 1908 1908 - Public Smoking Ban / U.S. Women, N.Y.C. - January 21st, 1908: "Smoking in public places in N.Y.C. became illegal for women, 1908." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 101] 1908 - Frederick Cook / North Pole - April 21st, 1908: "Frederick Cook claims to have reached the North Pole." 1908 - Sam Clemens / Connecticut - June 18th, 1908: "Sam Clemens moves into his new home, Stormfield in Redding, Connecticut." 1908 - Comet Impact? / Russia - June 30th, 1908: "A comet strikes the earth at Tunguska, Russia." 1908 - Belgian Congo - August 20th, 1908: "Leopold II hands over the Congo Free State to Belgium." 1908 - 1st Horror Film - "The first horror film premired [based on R. L. Stevenson's Dr. Jeckll and Mr. Hyde]." 1908 - Birth / Lyndon B. Johnson - August 27th, 1908: Reportedly born this date in history: Lyndon B. Johnson, the 36th U.S. president." 1908 - 5th Olympic Games / London, England - "In 1908, the 5th Olympic Games were held in London, England."   1908 - General Motors Co. - September 16th, 1908: "The General Motors company is incorporated." 1908 - 1st Model "T" Ford - October 1st, 1908: "The first Ford model 'T' automobile, is manufactured in Detroit, Michigan. Price, $850." 1908 - 1st Driver's Licenses' / U.S.A. - "In 1908,  Rhode Island issued the first driver's licenses' in the U.S.A." - E.M. 1908 - Major Earthquake / Italy - December 28th, 1908: "Earthquake location: Messina, Italy. Earthquake magnitude: 7.5. Number of recorded fatalities: 83,000." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 208] 1908 - Earthquake Trivia / 1908 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1. Number of earthquake deaths: 83,000." - E.M. 1909 1909 - N.A.A.C.P. - February 12th, 1909: "The N.A.A.C.P. is founded." 1909 - Fatality / Geronimo - February 17th, 1909: "Geronimo, Chiricahua Apache indian chief, dies." 1909 - U.S. President William Taft - March 4th, 1909: "The  27th American President, William Taft [Republican], begins his term." 1909 - Motion Picture Censorship - "The National Board of Censorship of Motion Pictures formed and begins censoring film content." 1909 - Passed / 16th U.S. Amendment - July 12th, 1909: "16th U.S. Constitutional amendment ['Income Tax authorized'] passed." [Link: 1 ] 1909 - Halley's Comet - September 11th, 1909: "Halley's Comet is photographed nearing the Sun." 1909 - Birth? / Paul Twitchell - October 1909: One of the more credible birthdate's attributed to Paul Twitchell, the modern day founder [1965] of ECKANKAR, the Religion of the Light & Sound of God. - E.M.  *Links: http://www.littleknownpubs.com/Dialog_BirthDate.htm 1909 - Astronomic Configuration - October 22nd, 1909: "Sun [27 Libra], Moon [24 Capricorn], Mercury [12 Libra D], Venus [11 Sagittarius], Mars [25 Pisces R], Jupiter [2 Libra], Saturn [19 Aries R], Uranus [17 Capricorn], Neptune [19 Cancer], Pluto [26 Gemini R]."   1909 - Earthquake / Kentucky - October 23rd, 1909: "One of the 13 earthquakes listed for 1909 occurred shortly after midnight of October 22. It was a 4.5 magnitude quake, centered on the Mississippi River, about 30 miles from Paul’s [Paul Twitchell's] first home in Paducah, Kentucky." [Based on: Dialogue in the Age of Criticism, Chap. One]   *Trivia: 4.5 is NOT a great earthquake. NOT a major earthquake. NOT even a strong earthquake by today's standards. - E.M. *Links: http://tinyurl.com/4b5tbwk               http://tinyurl.com/4mxssux 1909 - Agra Lineage / Babuji' Madhav Sinha - " 'Babuji' Madhav Sinha 1909-1949 (overlap woman guru) end Agra gurus." 1909 - NHL - "The National Hockey Association is formed." *Trivia: "National Hockey League formed [November 22nd], 1917." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 97] 1909 - 1st Military Airplane - "First military airplane built by Wilbur and Orville Wright." 1909 - Trivia / "Mother's Day" - "[....] In 1909, Mother's Day services were held in all 46 states [U.S.A.] plus Canada and Mexico. [....]" [Based on: Everyday section, p. E6, S.L.P.D., 05/09/06] 1909 - Electron Measurement - "First accurate measurement of the electrical charge of the electron." 1909 - Fatality / Chief Red Cloud - "In 1909, Chief Red Cloud of the Oglala Sioux, died." 1909 - 1st American Credit Union - "First American Credit Union organized in New Hampshire." 1909 - Status / Native American Reservation Lands - "Teddy Roosevelt issues executive orders transferring 2.5 million acres of timbered Indian reservation lands to national forests." 1909 - A New Planet - "Mark Twain publishes, A New Planet." 1909 - The Story of the Negro - "Booker T. Washington publishes, The Story of the Negro." 1909 - Earthquake Trivia / 1909 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1910 1910 - Opera / Live Radio - January 13th, 1910: "Opera was heard live for first time on radio, 1910." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 101] 1910 - Mark Twain / The Turning Point In My Life - February, 1910: "Mark Twain publishes, The Turning Point In My Life." 1910 - Perihelion / Halley's Comet - April 20th, 1910 A.D.: "1P/1909 R1, 1910 II, 1909c (20 April 1910)" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_Comet] *Trivia: The April 1910 approach was notable for several reasons: it was the first approach of which photographs exist, and the comet made a relatively close approach, making it a spectacular sight. Indeed, on May 18, the comet transited the Sun's disk, and the Earth actually passed through its tail. At the time, the comet's tail was thought to contain poisonous cyanogen and gas. The popular media picked up this fact and, despite the pleas of astronomers, wove sensational tales of mass cyanide poisoning engulfing the planet. In reality, the gas is so diffuse that the world suffered no ill-effects from the passage through the tail. [NP] Many people who claim to remember seeing the 1910 apparition are in fact remembering a different comet, the Great Daylight Comet of 1910, which surpassed Halley in brilliance and was actually visible in broad daylight for a short time about four months before Halley made its appearance." [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_Comet] 1910 - Fatality / Samuel Langhorne Clemens - April 21st, 1910: "Samuel Langhorne Clemens, Mark Twain, dies." 1910 - Birth / Al Lewis - April 30th, 1910: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor (Grandpa - The Munsters), Al Lewis." 1910 - Trivia / Halley's Comet - May 1910: "[....] ... As the comet reached its greatest magnitude and brilliance in May of 1910, its tail stretching over more than half the vault of heaven ..., King Edward VII of Great Britain died. On the European continent, a series of political upheavals culminated in the outbreak of World War I in 1914. [NP] The belief, or superstition, associating Halley's comet with wars and upheavals was fed by much that was coming to light about events that coincided with its previous appearances. The Seminole Indians' revolt against the white settlers of Florida in 1835, the Great Lisbon Earthquake of 1755, the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in 1618, the Turkish seige of Belgrade in 1456, the outbreak of the Black Death (bubonic plague) in 1347 - all were accompanied or preceded by the appearance of a great comet, which was finally recognized as Halley's Comet, thus establishing its role as the messenger of God's wrath. [....]" [Based on: Genesis Revisited (Copyright 1990), by Zecharia Sitchin, pp. 65-66] 1910 - From India To The West / Hazrat Inayat Khan - July 5th, 1882: "Inayat Khan (1882-1927) brought Sufism from India to the West in 1910, and taught in Europe and the United States until 1926." [Based on: Postscript for Parabola article (The Soul's Journey, Inayat Khan), Vol. XXI, No. 2 (The Soul), 1996, p. 59] 1910 - Record Rain / Cherrapunji, India - July 12th, 1910: "India's financial capital was paralyzed Wednesday [07/27/05] by the strongest rains ever recorded in the nation, with torrential downpours marooning drivers, snapping communication lines and leaving at least 200 people dead statewide. [....] While Wednesday's precipitation was still being totaled, officials said parts of the city had been hit by up to 37.1 inches of rain Tuesday [07/26/05], much of it falling just over a few hours. India's previous heaviest rainfall, recorded in the northeastern town of Cherrapunji - one of the rainiest places on earth - was 33 inches on July 12, 1910, said R.V. Sharma, director of the meteorological department in Bombay [....]" [Based on: A.P., 07/28/05] 1910 - "Stolen Generation" / Australia - 1910 - 1970: "Australia will apologize [February 13th, 2008?] for theft of children / Aborigines were taken from families from 1910 to 1970." [Based on: Title for A.P. article, p A8, S.L.P.D., 01/31/08] 1910 - Prohibition / Native American Sun Dance - "The United States government forbade the Sun Dance among the plains Indians, giving the use of self-torture as the reason." 1910 - Talking Motion Picture - "Thomas Edison demonstrated the first talking motion picture." 1911 1911 - Volcanic Eruption / Mt. Taal, Philippines - "Volcanic eruption date(s): January 30th, 1911. Number of recorded deaths: 1,400." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 491] 1911 - Birth / L. Ron Hubbard - March 13th, 1911: "Son of naval commander Harry Ross Hubbard and Ledora May Hubbard, Lafayette Ronald Hubbard was born on March 13, 1911 in Tilden, Nebraska. At the age of two, he and his family took up residence on a ranch outside Kalispell, Montana, and from there moved to the state’s capital, Helena. [....] It was also through these early years Ron first encountered another culture, that of the Blackfoot Indians, then still living in isolated settlements on the outskirts of Helena. His particular friend was an elderly medicine man, who was, as he wrote, an 'outlaw and interesting, a full-fledged Blackfoot Medicine Man... a small boy’s dream.' [NP] Establishing a unique friendship with the normally taciturn Indian, Ron was soon initiated into the various secrets of the tribe, their legends, customs and methods of survival in a harsh environment. At the age of six, he became a blood brother of the Blackfeet, an honour bestowed on few white men. [....]" [Based on: http://lron.hubbard.org/pg002.html] 1911 - Dissolution / U.S. Standard Oil Co. - May 15th, 1911: "Supreme Court dissolves the Standard Oil Company, the largest corporation in America, for violating anti-trust rules." [Link: 1 ] 1911 - Strong Earthquake / California - July 1st, 1911: "Earthquake location: Calaveras fault, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.5. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1911 - Sun Yat-sen / Republic of China - "The republic [1911-1949] that Sun Yat-sen and his associates envisioned evolved slowly. Sun Yat-sen died of cancer in Beijing in March 1925, but the Nationalist movement he had helped to initiate was gaining momentum." 1911 - Assassination / Peter Stolypin, Russia - "Peter Stolypin, the Prime Minister, offered vast new tracts of land to the peasants which threatened the Communist Jews of their base of support among poor Gentiles. Thus the Jew terrorist, Mordecai Bogrov, assassinated Stolypin in September 1911. He shot him in the back of the head during a gala in Kiev attended by the Czar and his Court. The Jew tailor Yevno Azev was convicted of heading the assassination squads and executed in 1911. He was also a founder of the Social Revolutionary Party." [Link: 1 ] 1911 - Discovered / Machu Picchu - "Hanging from the clouds, the citadel of Machu Picchu- unknown to the Spanish conquerors of the Incas- remained hidden from the outside world until discovered by explorer Hiram Bingham in 1911. Here the 'Sons of the Sun,' as the Inca lords called themselves, worshiped their host of gods, including the mighty Inti, who personified the sun itself.  A sacred rock is called the 'hitching post of the sun,' reflecting a tradition that worshipers once tethered the god to it, lest they stray too far from their domain." [Link: 1 ] 1911 - Electric Ignition - "Charles Franklin Kettering invents the first automobile electrical ignition system." 1911 - Atomic Nucleus - "Atomic Nucleus discovered by physicist Ernest Rutherford." [Based on: Ultimate Visual Dictionary of Science, Timeline of Discoveries, p. 15, Barnes & Noble Books - 2005] 1911 - Particle Accelerators - "Most physicists became convinced of the existence of atoms, during the twenty years spanning the last decade of the nineteenth century and the first decade of the twentieth. The first experiments that can be said to have detected atoms, which used the first, primitive elementary particle accelerators, were not done until just after this period, in 1911/12." [Lee Smolin, Three Roads To Quantum Gravity] 1911 - Trivia / U.S. Food & Drug Act - "In US vs. Johnson, the Supreme Court ruled that the 1906 act did not prohibit false therapeutic claims but prohibited only false and misleading claims as to the identity of the drug. The Sherley Amendment, enacted to overcome the ruling in US vs. Johnson, prohibited labeling medicines with false therapeutic claims intended to defraud the purchaser. Inadequacies in the Food and Drug Act of 1906 had shown up almost from the time of its passage. The Bureau of Chemistry in the Department of Agriculture, charged with administering the law, had sought several revisions [the Sherley Amendment and the Net Weight Act of 1913], which required a declaration of the quantity on packaged food products." 1911 - Matter and Memory - "First published in 1911 by Henri Bergson, Matter and Memory. 6th impression: 1950." 1911 - Volcano Trivia / 1911 - "Number of volcanic eruptions [and, or] notable volcanic events this year: at least 1. Number of deaths: 1,400." - E.M. 1911 - Earthquake Trivia / 1911 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1912 1912 - Jewish Socialist Federation - "The birth of the Jewish Socialist Federation in 1912 must be recognized as the most important landmark in the history of the Jewish Socialist movement in this country [U.S.A.]. The Federation was the outgrowth of a previous organization, the Jewish Socialist Agitation Bureau which for a period of seven years led a precarious and inconsequential existence. The Agitation Bureau was organized at a time when the idea of Jewish nationalism began to spread its roots in the minds of the Jewish workmen. It is to the glory of the Jewish Socialist Bund in Russia that the question of nationalism, which in the minds of the Socialists of the older generation was synonymous with oppression and subjection, was forced into the foreground. The idea became ever more popular that nationalism and internationalism are by no means mutually exclusive terms, and that genuine internationalism is possible only when all nations are guaranteed full and equal rights.    "The heroic fight of the Bund against the old Russian autocracy caused thousands of its members and followers many of them exiles to Siberia or under rigid surveillance by the gendarmes, to flee to this country [U.S.A.]! But they would not resign themselves to inactivity, and as a result a net of Bund branches was spread throughout the United States and Canada. For a number of years these branches, whose primary object was to collect funds for the Bund in Russia, were the most active and influential bodies in the Jewish radical world. Their members formed the vanguard of the Workmen's Circle (Arbeiter Ring).    "This anomaly became particularly striking after the great influx of political refugees which the abortive Russian revolution of 1905 had swept to these shores.    "Zionist-Socialism however, was enriched by an extraordinary new force: B. Boruchev, he introduced a theory which was necessarily very popular among the Jewish masses, who were at that time Socialistic through and through. He contended that only through a land of their own in Zion could the Jewish people have a proletariat, and that Zionism ought therefore to join forces with Socialism. Zionism thus received a Marxist basis, and appealed strongly to the masses.    "Boruchov, with the assistance of other intellectual comrades - a number of them students - took charge of a number of periodicals in Russian and Yiddish, which the Russian Government suppressed one after the other. (In Russian: 'The Jewish Workmen's Chronicle' and 'The Hammer'; In Yiddish: 'The Proletarian Idea,' the 'Forward,' and an edition of books called the 'Hammer.')" [Link: 1 ] 1912 - New Mexico  - January 6th, 1912: "The 47th American state." 1912 - End / Chinese Qing Dynasty - February 10th, 1912: "End of China's Qing Dynasty." 1912 - Gregorian Calendar / China - "In 1912, the Chinese adopted the Gregorian calendar." 1912 - Arizona  - February 14th, 1912: "The 48th American state." 1912 - Titanic Sinking - April 15th, 1912: "The Titanic hit an iceberg and sank." 1912 - Passed / 17th U.S. Amendment - May 13th, 1912: "17th U.S. Constitutional amendment  ['Senators elected by popular vote'] passed." [Link: 1 ] 1912 - Volcanic Eruption / Alaska - June 12th, 1912: "[....] On June 6th, 1912 a tremendous blast sent a large cloud of ash skyward and the eruption of the century was underway. People in Juneau, Alaska, about 750 miles from the volcano, heard the sound of the blast – over one hour after it occurred. [NP] For the next 60 hours the eruption sent tall dark columns of tephra and gas high into the atmosphere. By the time the eruption ended the surrounding land was devastated and about 30 cubic kilometers of ejecta blanketed the entire region. This is more ejecta than all of the other historic Alaska eruptions combined. It was also thirty times more than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens and three times more than the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, the second largest in the 20th Century. [....]" [Based on: Geology.com article (Novarupta / The Most Powerful Volcanic Eruption of the 20th Century) *Link: http://geology.com/novarupta/] 1912 - 6th Olympic Games / Stockholm, Sweden - "The games enter the modern age, using electronic timing devices and a public address system for the first time. American Jim Thorpe wins the pentathlon and decathlon. Thorpe later admits to having made $25 a week playing minor-league baseball three years earlier. He is declared a professional and ordered to return his medals. Thorpe died in 1953, but the IOC returned the medals to his family 30 years later." [S.L.P.D., 08/13/04]   1912 - Pluto / Cancer - September 10th, 1912: Pluto 0 degrees Cancer. ... *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1912.pdf 1912 - 1st Tank - "The first tank patented by Australian inventor De La Mole."  1912 - Trivia / "Mother's Day" - "In 1912, West Virginia became the first state to adopt an official Mother's Day. [....]" [Based on: Everyday section, p. E6, S.L.P.D., 05/09/06] 1912 - Motorized Movie Cameras - "Motorized movie cameras invented, replaced hand-cranked cameras." 1912 - A Textbook of Theosophy - "A Textbook of Theosophy, by C. W. Leadbeater [1912]." [....] We often speak of Theosophy as not in itself a religion, but the truth which lies behind all religions alike. That is so; yet, from another point of view, we may surely say that it is at once a philosophy, a religion and a science. It is a philosophy, because it puts plainly before us an explanation of the scheme of evolution of both the souls and the bodies contained in our solar system. It is a religion in so far as, having shown us the course of ordinary evolution, it also puts before us and advises a method of shortening that course, so that by conscious effort we may progress more directly towards the goal. It is a science, because it treats both these subjects as matters not of theological belief but of direct knowledge obtainable by study and investigation. It asserts that man has no need to trust to blind faith, "because he has within him latent powers which, when aroused, enable him to see and examine for himself, and it proceeds to prove its case by showing how those powers may be awakened. It is itself a result of the awakening of such powers by men, for the teachings which it puts before us are founded upon direct observations made in the past, and rendered possible only by such development. [....] [Based on: http://www.sacred-texts.com/the/tot/chap01.htm] - [3rd paragraph] *Link: http://www.sacred-texts.com/the/tot/index.htm 1913 1913 - Income Tax Authorized / U.S.A. - February 3rd, 1913: "The 16th U.S. Constitutional amendment ['Income Tax authorized'] was ratified just one year before WWI. The first U.S. federal income tax [of 3 per cent] was introduced January 1st, 1862 to finance the Civil War." [Link: 1 ] 1913 - Birth / Rosa Parks - February 4th, 1913: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Civil rights pioneer, Rosa Parks." 1913 - U.S. President Woodrow Wilson - March 4th, 1913: "The 28th American President, Woodrow Wilson [Democrat], begins his term." *Trivia: "It was made sure that Morgan's [John Pierpoint Morgan's] candidate, the Freemason Thomas Woodrow Wilson, was elected president. His campaign was financed by Jacob Schiff, Bernard Baruch, Henry Morgenthau, New York Times publisher Adolph Ochs and other powerful Jewish financiers and Freemasons.    "The high-ranking Freemason Edward Mandel House, by many historians considered the 'actual' president of the United States during Wilson's administration, proposed in his novel Philip Dru: Administrator (1912), which was published anonymously, a transition to a progressive income tax and a central bank. These requirements were known from the Illuminati fivepoint program. House was in favor of forming a world government and adopting the kind of socialism Marx dreamed of. To accomplish this he was willing to use political fraud." [Based on: article by Juri Lina, The Barnes Review, September/October 2004, p. 11] *Trivia: "I [Benjamin H. Freedman] was liaison to Henry Morgenthau, Sr., in the 1912 campaign when President Wilson was elected, and there was talk around the office there. I was 'confidential man' to Henry Morgenthau, Sr., who was chairman of the finance committee, and I was liaison between him and Rollo Wells, the treasurer.    "So I sat in these meetings with President Wilson at the head of the table, and all the others, and I heard them drum into President Wilson's brain the graduated income tax and what has become the Federal Reserve, and I heard them indoctrinate him with the Zionist movement. Justice Brandeis and President Wilson were just as close as the two fingers on this hand. President Woodrow Wilson was just as incompetent when it came to determining what was going on as a newborn baby." [Based on: article by Benjamin H. Freedman]  1913 - Ratified / 17th U.S. Amendment - April 8th, 1913: "17th U.S. Constitutional amendment ['Senators elected by popular vote'] ratified." [Link: 1 ] Trivia: Pluto 0 degrees Cancer (July 10h). http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1913.pdf 1913 - Birth / Gerald R. Ford - July 14th, 1913: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former U.S. President, Gerald R. Ford." 1913 - Completion / Panama Canal - October 10th, 1913: "The Panama Canal was completed." 1913 - Crossword Puzzle - December 21st, 1913: "Crossword puzzle debuted, 1913." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 99] 1913 - Pluto 0 / 7 Degrees Cancer - December 22nd, 1913: Pluto 0 / 7 degrees Cancer. *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1913.pdf 1913 - Established / U.S. Federal Reserve System - December 22nd, 1913: "U.S. Federal Reserve System established. Instead of a single central bank, like the First and Second Bank of the United States, 12 Federal Reserve districts are established each with its own reserve bank. All national banks have to become members of the system and the state banks are given conditional permission to join. Banks are also allowed to establish branches abroad." [Link: 1 ] *Trivia: "The Federal Reserve bill was presented the night of December 22, 1913, when most of the members of the congressional committee were asleep. That same day the bill hastily was pushed through the House of Representatives and the Senate, President Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act and control over money supply was transferred from Congress to private Masonic bankers. Four times earlier the American people had managed to get rid of a central bank, but not the fifth time.    "The Federal Reserve Act was hailed as the victory of democracy over the money trusts, which was hardly the case. Paul Warburg immediately began working at the Federal Reserve for a salary substantially less than that he received as a banker. Neither the president, members of Congress nor the secretary of treasury have any authority over the Federal Reserve.    "The Federal Reserve System is actually a cartel of 13 large private banks, of which the Bank of New York is the most important.    "President Woodrow Wilson allowed the national debt to grow from $1 billion to $455 billion. Interest became the third largest post of the federal budget." [Based on: article by Juri Lina, The Barnes Review, September/October 2004, p. 11] 1913 - Electron Shells - "Electron Shells around nucleus of atom proposed by Neils Bohr." [Based on: Ultimate Visual Dictionary of Science, Timeline of Discoveries, p. 15, Barnes & Noble Books - 2005] 1913 - Patented  / Ecstasy - "The Merck Chemical Company patented, what is now know as, ecstasy." 1913 - Fatality / George Westinghouse - "Westinghouse and Tesla [Nikola Tesla] were consummate friends, but after Westinghouse died in 1913, the company forgot about its chief benefactor and Tesla fell victim to hard times." [Intro by Timothy Green Beckley, The Lost Journals of Nikola Tesla, p. 5] 1913 - Atlantis and Lemuria / Rudolph Steiner - 1913 [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_Race] 1913 - Man: Whence, How and Whither / Annie Besant - 1913 [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_Race] 1914 1914 - Physics Trivia - "[....] In 1914, a Finnish physicist named Gunnar Nordstrom found that all you had to do to unify gravity with electromagnetism was increase the dimensions of space by one. He wrote the equations that describe electromagnetism in a world with four dimensions of space (and one of time), and out popped gravity. Just by the extra dimension of space, you got a unification of gravity with electromagnetism that was also perfectly consistent with Einstein's special theory of relativity." [Based on: Lee Smolin, The Trouble with Physics, p. 39 (2nd paragraph), copyright 2006] 1914 - Birth / George Basselo ["Superman"] - April 6th, 1914: "He was born George Basselo on April 6, 1914, in Woodstock, Iowa [he died. 06/17/1959]. [....]" [Based on: A.P. article (Suicide or Murder?) by Bob Thomas, p. E1, S.L.P.D., 09/08/06] 1914 - Strong Earthquake / Reno, Nevada - April 24th, 1914: "[....] Nevada is the third most seismically active state in the U.S. behind California and Alaska. Reno's last major quake measured 6.1 on April 24, 1914." [Based on: News Services article (More minor quakes hit area; no injuries reported), p. A8, S.L.P.D., 06/09/08] 1914 - Pluto / Cancer - May 27th, 1914: Pluto at 0 degrees Cancer. ... *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1914.pdf 1914 - Assassination / Francis Ferdinand, Austria - June 28th, 1914: "In June 1914, a Serbian nationalist murdered Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne." 1914 - Beginning / World War I - "What happened? World War I broke out in the summer of 1914. There are few people here my age who remember that. Now that war was waged on one side by Great Britain, France, and Russia; and on the other side by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey.    "Within two years Germany had won that war: not only won it nominally, but won it actually. The German submarines, which were a surprise to the world, had swept all the convoys from the Atlantic Ocean. Great Britain stood there without ammunition for her soldiers, with one week's food supply - and after that, starvation. At that time, the French army had mutinied. They had lost 600,000 of the flower of French youth in the defense of Verdun on the Somme. The Russian army was defecting, they were picking up their toys and going home, they didn't want to play war anymore, they didn't like the Czar. And the Italian army had collapsed.    "Not a shot had been fired on German soil. Not one enemy soldier had crossed the border into Germany. And yet, Germany was offering England peace terms. They offered England a negotiated peace on what the lawyers call a status quo ante basis. That means: 'Let's call the war off, and let everything be as it was before the war started.' England, in the summer of 1916 was considering that - seriously. They had no choice. It was either accepting this negotiated peace that Germany was magnanimously offering them, or going on with the war and being totally defeated.    "While that was going on, the Zionists in Germany, who represented the Zionists from Eastern Europe, went to the British War Cabinet and - I am going to be brief because it's a long story, but I have all the documents to prove any statement that I make - they said: 'Look here. You can yet win this war. You don't have to give up. You don't have to accept the negotiated peace offered to you now by Germany. You can win this war if the United States will come in as your ally.    "The United States was not in the war at that time. We were fresh; we were young; we were rich; we were powerful. They told England: 'We will guarantee to bring the United States into the war as your ally, to fight with you on your side, if you will promise us Palestine after you win the war.    "In other words, they made this deal: 'We will get the United States into this war as your ally. The price you must pay is Palestine after you have won the war and defeated Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey.' " [Based on: article by Benjamin H. Freedman - See Link]   *Links: http://www.sweetliberty.org/issues/israel/freedman.htm *Trivia: "[....] Last week [February 2005], as the president's $82 billion supplemental budget for Iraq and Afghanistan reached the House, some Republicans expressed skepticism about many of its provisions, particularly the $658 million earmarked to build a new U.S. embassy in Baghdad. The $82 billion would push the total cost of the war efforts to more than $300 billion, about 80 percent of which has gone or will go to the Iraq operation. Adjusted for inflation, that exceeds the $200 billion cost of World War I and is approaching the $350 billion spent on the Korean War. Between 1962 and 1975, the United States spent more than $600 billion in today's dollars in Vietnam. We're almost halfway to that figure in just two years in Iraq. And that understates the war's cost. The money for the war is on top of the more than $420 billion a year already allocated for the Defense Department. It costs $100,000 a year to feed, house, equip, train and maintain every U.S. soldier, before he or she ever gets to Iraq. [....] [Based on: Editorial, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. B6, 02/21/05 - paragraph indents removed - E.M.] 1914 - Non-Nurse Roles / U.S. Military Women - 1914-1918: "Women are recruited by the Navy to fill non-nurse roles, such as secretarial and communication tasks." [Based on: St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. A10, 07/10/05] 1914 - Birth / Jack LaLanne - September 26th, 1914: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Fitness expert, Jack LaLanne." 1914 - FOR SOLDIERS ON CHRISTMAS 1914, PEACE ON EARTH, IF ONLY FOR A DAY - December 25th, 1914: " FOR SOLDIERS ON CHRISTMAS 1914 , PEACE ON EARTH, IF ONLY FOR A DAY" [Based on: Title for Washington Post article, p. A21, S.L.P.D., 12/26/14] 1914 - Pogroms / Russia - "The pogroms continue in Russia which results in further Jewish immigration [1900-1914] to Western Europe, North America, and Palestine." 1914 - Japanese Economy - "Japan's industry is greatly stimulated by the war. By 1918 Japan has passed from being a debtor to a creditor country." [Link: 1 ] 1914 - French National Debt - "The French national debt rises [1914-1918] from 28 billion to 151 billion francs and the note issue increases over 6-fold." [Link: 1 ] 1914 - British National Debt - "Despite the huge revenues raised from taxation the British national debt rises [1914-1918] tenfold. The government fails to use its bargaining power, as the only really massive borrower in wartime, to get money at low rates of interest." [Link: 1 ] 1914 - Ruling / U.S. Department of Agriculture - "In U.S. vs. Lexington Mill and Elevator Company, the Supreme Court ruled that the Department of Agriculture was not required to establish that articles containing poisonous or deleterious substances will affect the public health, only that they may do so." 1914 - Gas Mask - "Garrett A. Morgan invents the gas mask." 1914 - Trivia / "Mother's Day" - "(1) One day each spring in ancient Greece, people held celebrations in honor of Rhea, whom they called Mother of the Gods. (2) During the 1600s, people in England celebrated a day called "Mothering Sunday." On that day servants were released from work to spend the day with their mothers. (3) In the U.S., the idea of Mother's Day was first suggested by Julia Ward Howe in 1872 as a day dedicated to peace. (4) In 1907, Ana Jarvis passed out carnations at her mother's church in Grafton, West Virginia - one for each mother in the congregation. She did this in memory of her own mother. (5) In 1908, St. Andrew's Methodist Church in Grafton, West Virginia held a Sunday service honoring mothers. (6) In 1909, Mother's Day services were held in all 46 states [U.S.A.] plus Canada and Mexico. (7) In 1912, West Virginia became the first state to adopt an official Mother's Day. (8) In 1914, President Woodrow Wilson signed a resolution establishing Mother's Day." [Based on: Everyday section, p. E6, S.L.P.D., 05/09/06] 1915 1915 - Major Earthquake / Avezzano, Italy - January 13th, 1915: "Earthquake location: Avezzano, Italy. Earthquake magnitude: 7.5. Number of recorded fatalities: 29,980." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 208] 1915 - Examples of Genocide? / Armenia - 1915-1916: "Armenia (Turkey): More than 1 million Armenians killed." [Based on: Reuters, World Almanac and KRT - St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. A12, 06/26/05] *Trivia: "[....] Turkey has acknowledged the killing of up to 1.5 million Armenians over a period of several years beginning in 1915, as the Ottoman Republic was falling apart, but it vehemently rejects any effort to classify them as genocide. It says that many Turks were also killed at the time. [....]" [Based on: New York Times article (Genocide resolution is sure to anger Turkey, Bush warns House), p A8, S.L.P.D., 10/11/07] 1915 - Sinking / Lusitania - May 7th, 1915: "The Lusitania is sunk by a German submarine; 128 American passengers are lost." [Link: 1 ]  1915 - National Workmen's Committee - "The National Workmen's Committee was organized in the early part of 1915, by representatives of the four leading radical organizations, viz.: The Workmen's Circle, the United Hebrew Trades, the Jewish Socialist Federation of America, and the Forward Association." [Link: 1 ] 1915 - Major Earthquake / Nevada - October 3rd, 1915: "Earthquake location: Pleasant Valley, Nevada. Earthquake magnitude: 7.1. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1915 - Birth / Frank Sinatra - December 12th, 1915: "Reportedly born this date in history: Muscian / Entertainer, Frank Sinatra." 1915 - Birth / Barbara Billingsley - December 22nd, 1915: Reportedly born this date in history. American actress ('Leave It to Beaver", etc.), Barbara Billingley (Born Barbara Lillian Combes). Barbara died October 16th, 2010. She was 94. 1915 - Pyrex - "Eugene Sullivan and William Taylor co-invented Pyrex in New York City." 1915 - General Theory of Relativity - "Albert Einstein publishes his general theory of relativity." [Based on: Ultimate Visual Dictionary of Science, Timeline of Discoveries, p. 15, Barnes & Noble Books - 2005] 1915 - Earthquake Trivia / 1915 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2. Number of earthquake deaths: 29,980." - E.M. 1916 1916 - 1st U.S. Congress Woman - "Jeanette Rankin [R-MT] becomes the first woman elected to Congress." [Link: 1 ]  1916 -  Bolsheviks / Russia - "By 1916, the people of Russia had had enough. Nicholas was forced to abdicate his throne in favor of his brother Mikhail. Mikhail refused and the reign of the Czar was over. Between the years 1916 and 1919, several groups would attempt to gain power in the Russian Empire. A group known as the Bolsheviks would eventually come to power." 1916 - Canceled / Olympic Games - "In ancient times, wars were suspended during the Games. In modern times, war suspends the Games. World War I cancels the Olympics." [S.L.P.D., 08/13/04]   1916 - Palestine for Israel? - October, 1916: "Now England had as much right to promise Palestine to anybody, as the United States would have to promise Japan to Ireland for any reason whatsoever. It's absolutely absurd that Great Britain, that never had any connection or any interest or any right in what is known as Palestine should offer it as coin of the realm to pay the Zionists for bringing the United States into the war. However, they did make that promise, in October of 1916. And shortly after that - I don't know how many here remember it - the United States, which was almost totally pro-German, entered the war as Britain's ally.    "I say that the United States was almost totally pro-German because the newspapers here were controlled by Jews, the bankers were Jews, all the media of mass communications in this country were controlled by Jews; and they, the Jews, were pro-German. They were pro-German because many of them had come from Germany, and also they wanted to see Germany lick the Czar. The Jews didn't like the Czar, and they didn't want Russia to win this war. These German-Jew bankers, like Kuhn Loeb and the other big banking firms in the United States refused to finance France or England to the extent of one dollar. They stood aside and they said: 'As long as France and England are tied up with Russia, not one cent!' But they poured money into Germany, they fought beside Germany against Russia, trying to lick the Czarist regime.    "Now those same Jews, when they saw the possibility of getting Palestine, went to England and they made this deal. At that time, everything changed, like a traffic light that changes from red to green. Where the newspapers had been all pro-German, where they'd been telling the people of the difficulties that Germany was having fighting Great Britain commercially and in other respects, all of a sudden the Germans were no good. They were villains. They were Huns. They were shooting Red Cross nurses. They were cutting off babies' hands. They were no good. Shortly after that, Mr. Wilson declared war on Germany." [Benjamin H. Freedman]   1916 - Saturn in Leo - October 17th, 1916 - August 12th, 1919: "On this date in history, the planet Saturn entered the sign of Leo." - E.M. 1916 - Birth / Walter Cronkite - November 4th, 1916: "Reportedly born on this date in history: CBS news anchorman, Walter Cronkite." 1916 - Birth / Kirk Douglas - December 9th, 1916: "Kirk Douglas (born Issur Danielovitch, Russian: ... December 9, 1916) is an American stage and film actor, film producer and author. [...] Douglas was born Issur Danielovitch in Amsterdam, New York, the son of Bryna 'Bertha' (n�e Sanglel) and Herschel 'Harry' Danielovitch, a businessman.[3] His parents were Jewish immigrants from Gomel, Belarus.[4][5] [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Douglas] 1916 - Trivia / U.S. Health Insurance - "American Association for Labor Legislation campaigns [1916-1920] for insurance to provide income for sick workers and their families." [Source: Institute of Medicine, 10/04/04] 1916 - Stainless Steel - "Stainless steel invented." 1916 - Radio Tuners - "Radios tuners invented, that received different stations." 1917 1917 - Leon Trotsky / N.Y. City - January 13th, 1917: "Leon Trotsky (real name: Bronstein) was exiled from Russia and came to New York City on January 13, 1917. The Russian Jews who owned Vitagraph Movie Studies in Brooklyn gave Trotsky a job. He appeared in three films including 'My Official Wife' starring Clara Kimball Young. Ironically, Trotsky played the part of a Russian revolutionary. While in New York, Trotsky met with Schiff who saw in him the perfect revolutionary. Schiff had his 'Friends of Russian Freedom' locate 267 other Yiddish speaking Russian Jew exiles. He arranged for President Woodrow Wilson to give them U.S. passports so they could not be refused entry into Russia. Also, Schiff gave Trotsky $10 million (that is in 1917 dollars, which today would be worth hundreds of millions). Later Schiff would transfer another $15 million to Lenin." [Link: 1 ] 1917 - Birth / Zsa Zsa Gabor - February 6th, 1917: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress, Zsa Zsa Gabor." 1917 - First Jazz Recording - March 7th, 1917: "First jazz recording released, 1917." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 105] 1917 - Soviet St. Petersburg - March 14th, 1917: "The first 'Soviet' seized control of the city of St. Petersburg on March 14, 1917, while the nation was in turmoil over their defeats by the Germans during World War One. 'The New York Times' of March 24, 1917, reports that Jacob Schiff sent the following telegram to members of his 'Friends of Russian Freedom': 'Will you say for me to those present at tonight's meeting how deeply I regret my inability to celebrate with the Friends of Russian Freedom the actual reward of what we had hoped and striven for these long years.' (Schiff was obviously referring to the spreading Communist revolution in Russia.)" [Link: 1 ] 1917 - Abdication / Russian Czar - March 15th, 1917: "The Russian Tsar [Czar] abdicated." 1917 - U.S. Virgin Islands - March 31st, 1917: "U.S. purchases the Virgin Islands from Denmark." 1917 - Russian Revolution - April, 1917: "The Bolsheviks were a group of Marxists led by Vladimir Ilich Lenin. Lenin was a great writer and philosopher that eventually would rule all of Russia. The Bolsheviks were able to overthrow the Provisional Government of Russia in April, 1917 and began to win the support of the military. Lenin advocated a country that was run by the people. He believed that the workers were oppressed by the Czar and that it was important to the future of the people that all monarchical power be returned to the people. This type of democracy advocated by Lenin quickly began to disappear. Lenin simply could not win the revolution without absolute control of the Bolsheviks. He took power for himself and eventually became the first President of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The Romanov family, which had ruled the country for 300 years from the seventeenth century, were deposed." [Link: 1 ] 1917 - U.S. Enters WWI - April, 1917: "The United States formally declared war against Germany and entered the conflict in Europe. Fighting since the summer of 1914, Britain, France, and Russia welcomed news that American troops and supplies would be directed toward the Allied war effort. Under the command of Major General John J. Pershing, over two million U.S. troops fought on battlefields in France." [Link: 1 ]  Trivia: Pluto 2 degrees Cancer http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1917.pdf *Trivia: "The Zionists in London had sent cables to the United States, to Justice Brandeis, saying 'Go to work on President Wilson. We're getting from England what we want. Now you go to work on President Wilson and get the United States into the war.' That's how the United States got into the war. We had no more interest in it; we had no more right to be in it than we have to be on the moon tonight instead of in this room. There was absolutely no reason for World War I to be our war. We were railroaded into - if I can be vulgar, we were suckered into - that war merely so that the Zionists of the world could obtain Palestine. That is something that the people of the United States have never been told. They never knew why we went into World War I.    "After we got into the war, the Zionists went to Great Britain and they said: 'Well, we performed our part of the agreement. Let's have something in writing that shows that you are going to keep your bargain and give us Palestine after you win the war.' They didn't know whether the war would last another year or another ten years. So they started to work out a receipt. The receipt took the form of a letter, which was worded in very cryptic language so that the world at large wouldn't know what it was all about. And that was called the Balfour Declaration.    "The Balfour Declaration was merely Great Britain's promise to pay the Zionists what they had agreed upon as a consideration for getting the United States into the war. So this great Balfour Declaration, that you hear so much about, is just as phony as a three dollar bill. I don't think I could make it more emphatic than that." [Benjamin H. Freedman]   *Trivia: "As the result of having entered WWI, the U.S. national debt increased from about $1 billion in 1916 to $25 billion in 1920." [Link: 1 ] 1917 - Key Canadian Victory / WWI - April 9th, 1917: "Queen Elizabeth II of Britain and the prime ministers of Canada and France presided over a ceremony Monday [04/09/07] marking the 90th anniversary of a breakthrough victory by Canadian soldiers in World War I. [....] The assault by Canadian troops on April 9, 1917, allowed the Allies to capture a key German defense position after earlier attempts by the French and British failed. [NP] The Canadians seized the ridge quickly, but the success came at a heavy price, including about 3,600 deaths." [Based on: News Services article (Key Canadian victory in WWI is marked), p. A6, S.L.P.D., 04/10/07] 1917 - Race Riot / East St. Louis, Mo. - July 2nd, 1917: "The only way I [Eric Mink] could get into Left Bank Books [Central West End] was sideways. [....] The crowd had come to hear Harper Barnes - writer, novelist, reporter, editor, former boss, former colleague and my friend for some 30 years - read from, talk about and sign his new book, 'Never Been a Time' (Walker & Co., New York, 2008. [NP] It was July 2, the 91st anniversary of the subject of his book: the 1917 East St. Louis race riot that killed at least 100 people and injured hundreds more, the vast majority of them black people, the vast majority of them innocents caught up in cold-blooded mob killing, much of which took place as white police and white National Guard troops watched and either did nothing or aided the white killers. [....] And so, in East St. Louis in July 1917, in the wake of race riots earlier in the 20th century in Pierce City, Mo., Evansville, Ind., Springfield, Ohio, and Springfield, Ill., this happened: [NP] With little provocation or none at all, white mobs methodically chased black men, women and children through the streets; yanked them off streetcars; beat them with fists and clubs; forced them to the ground and kicked their faces, stomachs and groins; split open their heads and torsos with paving stones; stabbed them; hanged them; shot them and set them on fire. [....]" [Based on: Other Views page article (Race and remembrance) by Eric Mink, p. B9, S.L.P.D., 07/23/08] 1917 - Total Lunar Eclipse - "July 4th" 1917 - National Hockey League - November 22nd, 1917: "National Hockey League formed, 1917." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 97] 1917 - Passed / 18th U.S. Amendment - December 18th, 1917: "18th U.S. Constitutional amendment ['Liquor abolished'] passed." [Link: 1 ] 1917 - Balfour Declaration - "Great Britain issues the Balfour Declaration which states that the British government 'views with favor' the building of a Jewish home land in Palestine. Consequently, Jewish immigration to this region increases." *Trivia: "The Balfour Declaration was merely Great Britain's promise to pay the Zionists what they had agreed upon as a consideration for getting the United States into the war. So this great Balfour Declaration, that you hear so much about, is just as phony as a three dollar bill. I don't think I could make it more emphatic than that." [Benjamin H. Freedman]   1917 - Forced Patent Period - "The restrictions on allotments and the 'Forced Patent' period [1917-1920] began. Thousands of patents were issued, discontinuing federal guardianship of Indian lands. As a result, many Indians lost their land to whites." 1917 - Elected U.S. Communists - "In 1917 Benjamin Gitlow, of Russian Jewish parents, was one of the first Communists elected to office (as state Assemblyman from the Bronx)." [Link: 1 ] 1917 - Jewish Bund / United States - " 'The Jewish Communal Register' of 1917 - 1918, published by the Kehillah (Jewish communal government) states that Russian immigrant Jews brought 'socialism' (meaning 'Communism') to America. It is important to note that the most violent organization involved in the overthrow of the Czar of Russia was The Jewish Bund, headed by Abramovitch and Lieber. The three other revolutionary parties included the all-Jewish Mensheviks (headed by Martov and Dan), the Social Democrats, a front for Gentiles but headed by the Jew Danishevsky and the Bolsheviks headed by Lenin who has only recently been revealed to be of Jewish descent. Note that the Bund sent money back to their comrades in Russia. More important is the remark that the failed revolution of 1905 in Russia caused 'a great influx' of Jews to immigrate to the U.S. The truth is that over one million Marxist Jews flooded into the U.S." [Link: 1 ] 1917 - Cost of Mailing a Letter? / U.S.A. - "Cost of stamp for mailing a letter in U.S.A.: 3 cents." [Based on: S.L.P.D. article (Cost of mailing a letter will jump to 39 cents next week [January 2006]), p. C1, S.L.P.D., 01/03/06] 1918 1918 - Jewish Financing / Communism - "The U.S. Foreign Relations Committee of 1918 released a report on the international Jewish banks which were financing Communism. In each case they were banks owned by Jews. The Jew Olof Aschberg of Sweden's 'Nya Banken' is referred to as 'The Bolshevik Bank'. Note that this bank 'is financed in America by the Guarantee Trust Co.' This bank was controlled by Jacob Schiff." [Link: 1 ] 1918 - Birth / Andrija [Karel] Puharich - February 19th, 1918: "One of the savants that did the most to fill the heads of credulous seekers with addled metascientific proselytizing was Andrija [Karel] Puharich, the CIA mystic who discovered Uri Geller, the Cyprus-born Israeli 'psychic.' Puharich was born in 1918. He received a medical degree from Northwestern University in 1947. Upon graduation, Puharich developed a slavish interest in clairvoyance and dabbled in theories for electronically enhancing and synthesizing psychic abilities. He joined the Army and took part in certain 'parapsychology' experiments. The Washington Post reported in 1977 that Puharich also worked in the Army's Chemical and Biological Warfare Center at Fort Detrick, Maryland, and has 'lectured the Army, Air Force and Navy on possibilities for mind warfare. Expert in hypnotism as well as microelectronics.'    "Puharich took a fatal fall down a flight of stairs in January 1995. Researcher Terry Milner peeled away the cover stories and found that the true Puharich bore little resemblance to the hallucinatory shaman touted by his devotees." [Alex Constantine, Virtual Government, pp. 11-12] 1918 - Worldwide Pandemic / Spanish Flu - "The so-called Spanish Flu pandemic of 1918 to 1919, was believed to have been a mutant virus that jumped from animals. It killed 20 million to 100 million people." [Based on: New York Times, 09/30/04] *Trivia: "500,000 Americans and an estimated 20 million people worldwide died from the Spanish flu." [Based on: News Services article, S.L.P.D., 11/17/04] 1918 - Communist Control / Bavaria, Germany - "Some background is in order: In 1918-1919 the Communists took over Bavaria for a few days. Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht and a group of other Jews took over the government for three days. In fact, when the Kaiser ended the war he fled to Holland because he thought the Communists were going to take over Germany as they did Russia and that he was going to meet the same fate as the Czar. So he fled to Holland for safety, for security." [Benjamin H. Freedman]  1918 - British Invasion / Iran - May? 1918: "Britain Invades Iran." [Links 1 ] 1918 - Birth / Mike Wallace - May 9th, 1918: "Reportedly born on this date in history: CBS News correspondent, Mike Wallace." 1918 - Birth / Pauline Phillips - July 4th, 1918: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Advice columnist (the original 'Dear Abbey'), Pauline Phillips." 1918 - Birth / Nelson Mandela - July 18th, 1918: "Reportedly born on this date in history: President, Nelson Mandela." 1918 - Died / "Swami Premananda" - July 30th, 1918: "The name 'Swami Premananda' given to Baburam by Swami Vivekananda at the time of accepting the monastic orders, was a true reflection of his basic trait universal love. Born to affluent parents on December 10, 1861, Baburam completed his early schooling in his village of Antpur (Bengal), came to Calcutta for higher education and joined the Metropolitan Institution. There he had the privilege of having Sri `M' ( Mahendranath Gupta ), the celebrated author of The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna as his Headmaster and Rakhal ( Swami Brahmananda) as his class-mate. It was the latter who was instrumental in taking Baburam to Sri Ramakrishna. Sri Ramakrishna examined Baburam's features in his own, rather queer, way and was satisfied about his high spiritual potentialities. Increased contacts with Sri Ramakrishna intensified Baburam's inherent spiritual thirst which had been manifesting itself even from his childhood. After the passing away of Sri Ramakrishna, Baburam, along with his brother-disciples like Narendranath ( Swami Vivekananda ) and Rakhal embrace the monastic life, becoming 'Swami Premananda.' He spent most of his life in the monasteries at Baranagore, Alambazar and Belur taking care of worship, internal management and training of the new monastic recruits. [....] The deadly disease of Kala Azar took him on the 30th July 1918. [....]" [Based on: http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/1863/prem.html] 1918 - Birth / Paul Harvey - September 4th, 1918: "Reportedly born on this date in history: ABC Radio commentator, Paul Harvey." 1918 - Major Earthquake / Puerto Rico - October 11th, 1918: "Earthquake location: Puerto Rico. Earthquake magnitude: 7.5. Number of recorded fatalities: 116."   1918 - Birth / Billy Graham - November 7th, 1918: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Evangelist, Billy Graham." 1918 - Strong Earthquake / B.C. Canada - December 6th, 1918: "Earthquake location: Vancouver Island, B.C., Canada. Earthquake magnitude: 7.0. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1918 - Radio Circuit - "The superheterodyne radio circuit invented by Edwin Howard Armstrong. Today, every radio or television set uses this invention."  1918 - Sedition Act / U.S.A. - "[....] Political scientist Dave Adler of Idaho State University specializes in presidential war powers. He says, 'During times of war, presidents push the envelope. They assert powers that often rise above constitutional powers.' [....] 'The founders were extremely nervous about presidential authority,' said law professor Geoffrey Stone of the University of Chicago, who wrote 'Perilous Times,' a book about wartime restrictions on civil liberty. 'It's not for the president to decide these things on his own in secret.' [....] Wilson [U.S. President Woodrow Wilson], Congress and the courts supported the Sedition Act of 1918, similar in spirit to the discredited Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798. The 1918 law made it illegal to 'utter, print, write or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about' the government, the Constitution, the American flag or 'the uniform of the Army or Navy of the United States.' The law was repealed three years later. President Harry Truman suffered a rare wartime rebuke in 1952, when the Supreme Court blocked the plans for a federal takeover of the steel industry in the Korean War. Truman wanted to avert a strike that he feared would disrupt war supplies. But the court concluded that he needed congressional approval. [....]" [Based on: Knight Ridder Newspapers article (Presidential powers test is long-standing battle), p. A3, S.L.P.D., 12/22/05] 1918 - Shot / Russian Czar - 1918: "Preliminary results of genetic analysis carried out on the remains discovered in the Ural Mountain in July 2007 show they belong to the last Russian czar's children, the region's chief forensic expert said Tuesday. [NP] The remains of a boy and a young woman were exhumed near Yekaterinburg, where Czar Nickolas II, his wife, their four daughters and son, and several servants, were shot by the Bolsheviks in 1918. They are believed to be Nicholas II's heir, Alexis, and daughter Maria. [....] Remains of the czar and family members were also discovered near Yekaterinburg in 1991. They were authenticated and buried in the St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg in 1998, although forensic examination results have been challenged since then. The Russian Orthodox Church, which has cononized the murdered Romanov family, called the 1998 burial 'a political show.' " [Based on: News Services article ( YEKATERINBURG, RUSSIA / Tests confirm remains are of czar's children), p A4, S.L.P.D., 01/23/08] 1918 - Earthquake Trivia / 1918 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2. Number of earthquake deaths: 116." - E.M. 1919 1919 - U.S. Edge Act - "U.S. Edge Act to promote foreign banking indirectly permits bank branches. This amendment to the Federal Reserve Act allows the chartering of corporations for the purpose of engaging in international or foreign banking. Despite the legal prohibition of branch banking these corporations can be set up anywhere, including other states in the US." 1919 - Forced Labor / Soviet Union - "The Soviet system of forced labor camps was first established in 1919 under the Cheka, but it was not until the early 1930s that the camp population reached significant numbers." [Link: 1 ] 1919 - Communist-Sponsored Christian Deaths - "In the Soviet Union, the communist party, run mostly for the benefit of its Jewish founders who made up approximately 90% of the founding fathers and administrators of the Soviet Union, hid behind their leftist doctrine which had been designed to undermine Christianity in the name of materialism and social science. These administrators of the Soviet Union who were detailed in reports to the U.S. State Department from Russia in 1919 were instrumental in instructing their cohorts to send out Jewish commissars like Kaganovitch and Beria to kill approximately 100 million White European Christians whom they called 'reactionary bourgeoisie' for correctness in 1920-1940. What they meant by 'bourgeoisie' were Russia's Christians. In addition to killing the Christian peasants under the materialist aegis of communism, the churches and parochial schools were confiscated or burned as were their Christian towns; the priests were either murdered or sent to prisons, and all vestiges of Christianity were as nearly as possible expunged. Once the Christians in an entire area were killed, the Jews brought in new non-Christians, atheists, who were relocated there to re-establish the economic exploitation of the emptied lands in agricultural communes similar to the kibbutzim programs in Israel which were begun at the same time. At this point in history, the Jews and Zionists in power declared anti-Semitism to be a capital crime, because the Christians who were being killed by these communist Jews in Russia had developed groups to protect themselves and were critical of the Jewish excesses in the matter of their own genocide with whom they naturally refused to cooperate without fighting for their very lives. The accusation of anti-Semitism in Russia became a mandatory death sentence to any Christian fighting against the Jewish oppression of Christianity in the Soviet Union, especially if these Christians even identified the names of the many thousands of Jews in control of their anti-Christian extermination policy. The Jewish-led anti-Christian genocide in Russia was basically a totally Jewish-run and definitely anti-Christian Affair using communism and anti-reactionary programs as the ideological communist 'cover' for wiping out Christianity. The Jews basically ran the Russian government and hid behind its skirts as they carried out their murders across the Russian Continent. It was never reported in the United States, because the media was controlled mostly by Jewish owners who were uninterested in exposing Americans to an atrocity by Jews. Only Henry Ford, who owned his own newspaper, got the word out, and he was severely criticized as being anti-Semitic for his honesty in exposing this matter of Christian genocide by the Jews. In China, more than 80 million oriental peasants were killed by the Chinese Communist Party which learned from the Russians how to run a revolution. Especially sought out for instant extermination during The Big March and beyond were those peasants who were Christians, Buddhists, or Islamics and anyone else associated with a religion or philosophy or God concept who were non-materialistic in thought. Like Russian Liberals, the Chinese communists did not want 'other leaders' and 'other systems' teaching their people. Religion in China, as in Russia, was called the 'opiate of the people' and, as in Russia, this was used to justify the mass murder of priests, devotees, and other adherents of non-communist religions. Today in China, Christians are still being mistreated, and many churches are inundating the west coast of the United States with Chinese Christian refugees desperate to escape the on-going anti-Christian purges. The great international conspiracies of communism, socialism, liberalism, Masonry, and Zionism were always interconnected and have created all of our world wars, cold wars, economic depressions, and divisive genocidal conduct throughout the world, mainly because their conspirators who have created these agencies of death carried an anti-Christian agenda which was hidden behind the false curtain of secular materialist intellectuality. Those believing there is no international conspiracy going back more than one hundred years cannot explain the existence of the State of Israel without studying the conspiracies stemming from the Zionist World Congress in the 1800's whose final fruit is Israel itself as well as the two world wars, communism, the secret Balfour Declaration under which Zionists promised Britain they would bring the United States into the First World War using their blackmail of President Wilson over his sexual liaisons at Princeton (a la Benjamin Freedman's books), the 3-day communist takeover in Germany in 1919 under Rosa Luxembourg whose Jewish-Communist Conspiracy resulted in the abdication of the Kaiser who crossed into Denmark for safety, the collapse of the German front due to Jewish-inspired leftist armaments production strikes in Germany in the middle of the war, the later Christian genocide of 1920-1940 by the Zionists in Russia, the Jewish-inspired world blockade of Germany in 1933 (see Freedman), and the Jewish-Zionist German diplomatic assassination in Poland in 1937 which triggered Krystal Nacht and the persecution of Jews by the nearly starved Germans. Most of the adherents had little idea they were being manipulated by persons who, in the background, were orchestrating genocide against members of their own societies, and that type of hidden agenda and hidden genocide is a major point in the correct administration of worldwide conspiracies. These conspiracies are also being carried out in America and Europe today where immigration is supported in order to eliminate as many Christian Europeans as possible from the world stage. In reality, these outcomes were planned more than one hundred years ago and outlined in little read but always available Jewish, Masonic, and communist publications composed mostly by Zionist anti-Christian conspirators bent on genocidal acts and world domination by moneyed interests." [Link: 1 ] [Article paragraph indents untranscribed to save space. See link -E.M.] 1919 - Birth / Andy Rooney - January 14th, 1919: "Reportedly born on this date in history: CBS commentator, Andy Rooney." 1919 - Ratified / 18th U.S. Amendment - January 16th, 1919: "18th U.S. Constitutional amendment  ['Liquor abolished'] ratified." [Link: 1 ] 1919 - Treaty of Versailles - April 2nd, 1919: WWI officially ends [Treaty of Versailles]." *Trivia: "When the war ended, and the Germans went to Paris for the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 there were 117 Jews there, as a delegation representing the Jews, headed by Bernard Baruch. I was there: I ought to know.    "Now what happened? The Jews at that peace conference, when they were cutting up Germany and parceling out Europe to all these nations who claimed a right to a certain part of European territory, said, 'How about Palestine for us?' And they produced, for the first time to the knowledge of the Germans, this Balfour Declaration. So the Germans, for the first time realized, 'Oh, so that was the game! That's why the United States came into the war.' The Germans for the first time realized that they were defeated, they suffered the terrific reparations that were slapped onto them, because the Zionists wanted Palestine and were determined to get it at any cost." [Benjamin H. Freedman]  1919 - Emerging Kingdom / Yugoslavia - 1919-1941: "A kingdom resulted from the fall of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires after World War I. King Alexander renaimed the region Yugoslavia and set up a virtual dictatorship in 1929." [Based on: St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. A12, 06/26/05] *Link: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/map/yugoslavia/ 1919 - Volcanic Eruption / Mt. Kelut, Java, Indonesia - "Volcanic eruption date(s): May 19th, 1919. Number of recorded deaths: 5,000." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 491] 1919 - Solar Eclipse - "Einstein's Eclipse [May 29th]" 1919 - Physics Trivia - "In 1919, the great British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington led an expedition off the west coast of Africa to conduct an experiment, which ended by confirming that the gravitational field of the sun indeed bends light. This effect was observed during a total solar eclipse, which made it possible to see, near the rim of the occluded sun, the light from stars that were actually directly behind the sun. [....]" [Based on: Lee Smolin, The Trouble with Physics, p. 43 (5th paragraph), copyright 2006] 1919 - Passed / 19th U.S. Amendment - June 4th, 1919: "19th U.S. Constitutional amendment ['Women's suffrage'] passed." [Link: 1 ] *Trivia: "1919: The amendment giving women the right to vote is passed by the House of Representatives and the Senate. It is then sent to the states for ratification. 1920: The 19th Amendment to the Constitution granting women the right to vote is signed into law." [Based on: Everyday section article (Women's History Timeline), p. E4, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 03/21/06] 1919 - Birth / Joseph Wapner - November 15th, 1919: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Judge Joseph Wapner." 1919 - Trivia / Glen Gardner N.J. - "Glen Gardner is located at the extreme western border of Lebanon Township and was formed from Lebanon and Bethlehem Townships in 1919. Known for many years as Eveland's Tavern for John Eveland who kept a tavern here, it later became known as Spruce Run Mills and Sodom. The village and post office were officially changed to Glen Gardner in 1871 in honor of the Gardner Brothers who established a chair and frame factory here." 1919 - Toaster - "The pop-up toaster invented by Charles Strite." 1919 - Arc Welder - "The arc welder invented." 1919 - Flip-flop Circuit - "The flip-flop circuit invented." 1919 - Short-wave Radio - "Short-wave radio invented." 1919 - Cost of Mailing a Letter? / U.S.A. - "Cost of stamp for mailing a letter in U.S.A.: 2 cents (?)." [Based on: S.L.P.D. article (Cost of mailing a letter will jump to 39 cents next week [January 2006]), p. C1, S.L.P.D., 01/03/06] 1919 - Physics Trivia / Ernest Rutherford - "Ernest Rutherford converts nitrogen nuclei into oxygen nuclei." [Based on: Ultimate Visual Dictionary of Science, Timeline of Discoveries, p. 15, Barnes & Noble Books - 2005] 1919 - Volcano Trivia / 1919 - "Number of volcanic eruptions [and, or] notable volcanic events this year: at least 1. Number of deaths: 5,000." - E.M. 1920 1920 - Japanese Depression - "Japanese economy enters a chronic depression. By 1920 the boom generated by the First World War has petered out and a depression starts." [Link: 1 ] 1920s - Bolshevism / Europe - "[....] Once the Church discovered the Talmud and understood the threat which the Jews posed to the social order, she had to do something, if for no other reason than to head off the mob violence that knowledge of the subversive nature of the Talmud was sure to generate among Christians. The natural reaction to the threat of Jewish subversion is violence, a reaction that can be seen at the time of the first crusade, at the time of the Chmielnicki pogroms in 1648, and at the time when Bolshevism threatened the social order of Europe during the 1920s and 30s. [....]" [Based on: E. Michael Jones, editor of Culture Wars] 1920 - Conflicting Promises / Palestine - "After World War I, British agents made conflicting promises concerning Palestine to Arabs and Jews, which led to anti-Jewish riots in Palestine in 1920 and 1929. Also After World War I, anti-Semitism grew in Europe, especially in Russia and Germany, leading to eventual official government policies of anti-Semitism in those countries." 1920 - Birth / Isaac Asimov - January 2nd, 1920: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Author, Isaac Asimov [d.1992]." 1920 - Birth / Ravi Shankar - April 7th, 1920: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Sitar player, Ravi Shankar." 1920 - Birth / John Paul Stevens - April 20th, 1920: "Reportedly born on this date in history: U.S. Supreme Court Justice, John Paul Stevens." 1920 - Failed Revolt / Iraq - June, 1920: "The 1920 revolt by tribes against British forces occupying Iraq failed. It began in June 1920, and order was not fully restored until February 1921, according to historian David Fromkin in his 1989 book 'A Peace To  End All Peace.' Fromkin, who says the uprising apparently  was triggered by the government's effort to levy taxes, put British casualties in the fighting at nearly 2,000, including 450 dead." [Knight Ridder Newspapers, 01/29/04] *Trivia: "In 1920 Iraq became a British League of Nations protectorate and a year later, London installed Faisal I of the Hashemite dynasty as king of Iraq. Earlier, Faisal I was king of Greater Syria [today’s Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine] until he became the victim of a French-led 'regime change'. " [Links 1 ] 1920 - Ratified / 19th U.S. Amendment - August 18th, 1920: "19th U.S. Constitutional amendment ['Women's suffrage'] ratified." [Link: 1 ] 1920 - Birth / Mickey Rooney - September 23rd, 1920: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Mickey Rooney." 1920 - Olympic Games / Antwerp, Belgium - "In 1920, the Olympic Games were held in Antwerp, Belgium."   1920 - Birth / Timothy Leary - October 22nd, 1920: "Dr. Timothy Francis Leary (October 22, 1920 – May 31, 1996) was an American writer, psychologist, futurist, and advocate of psychedelic drug research. An icon of 1960s counterculture, Leary is most famous as a proponent of the therapeutic, spiritual and emotional benefits of LSD. He coined and popularized the catch phrase 'Turn on, tune in, drop out.' [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Leary] 1920 - 1st Commercial Radio Station / U.S.A. - November 2nd, 1920: "November 2, 1920: KDKA, the first commercial radio station in the United States, goes on the air in Pittsburgh. [....]" [Based on: DISCOVER magazine (June 2007) article (TIRELESS WIRELESS / HOW RADIO CHANGED EVERYTHING ) by Guy Gugliotta, p. 26] 1920 - Great Earthquake / China - December 16th, 1920: "Earthquake location: Ningxia-Kansu, China. Earthquake magnitude: 8.6. Number of recorded fatalities: 200,000."   1920 - Founded / "Self-Realization Fellowship" - "The Self-Realization Fellowship is a religious organization founded by Paramahansa Yogananda in 1920 and based in Los Angeles, California. The group carries on Yogananda's teachings, including Kriya Yoga, a form of yoga the group claims originated millennia ago in India. To this end, it conducts correspondence courses in this discipline. It also publishes Yogananda's writings, lectures, and recorded talks; oversees temples, retreats, meditation centers, and monastic communities bearing the name Self-Realization Order; and coordinates the Worldwide Prayer Circle, which it describes as a network of groups and individuals who pray for those in need of physical, mental, or spiritual aid, and who also pray for world peace and harmony. The organization has headquarters in Los Angeles, maintains several temples in other California cites and in Phoenix, Arizona, and maintains other facilities throughout the United States and internationally. SRF also has a sister organization in India called Yogoda Satsanga Society of India. [....]" (Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Realization_Fellowship) 1920 - Band-Aid - "The Band-Aid [pronounced 'ban-'dade] invented by Earle Dickson." 1920 - Tommy Gun - "The tommy gun patented by John T Thompson." 1920 - Free Energy Device - "Around 1920, Moray [Dr. T. Henry Moray of Salt Lake City] produced his first elementary device that delivered measurable electrical power, and he continued to work diligently on energy devices when he had time. In the 1920's and 1930's he steadily improved his devices, particularly his detector tube, the only real secret of the device according to Moray himself." [Tim Swartz, The Lost Journals of Nikola Tesla, p. 109] 1920s - Global Warming Trivia / Nikola Tesla - "It is amazing to consider that Nikola Tesla, sometime in the 1920's first wrote in his personal journals his thoughts concerning the buildup of greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere. These gases, caused by manmade and natural pollutants were to eventually cause the planet's overall temperature to increase to such a point that the polar icecaps would melt, flooding the coastlines. As well, weather patterns would change dramatically bringing about fierce storms, droughts in some areas and floods in others. Agriculture would be destroyed and life as we know it would cease to exist." [Tim Swartz, The Lost Journals of Nikola Tesla, p. 120] 1920 - The Lost Continent of Mu / Col. James Churchward - "In 1920, the British-born Churchward came out with his first in a series of five books, The Lost Continent of Mu ...." [added typo corrections] [Based on: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/atlantida_mu/esp_lemuria_7.htm] - [T.D. - 11/22/08] 1920 - Earthquake Trivia / 1920 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1. Number of earthquake deaths: 200,000." - E.M. 1921 1921 - Increase / U.S. Banks - "Number of banks in the US increases [1860-1921] by over 19 times. During the same period bank numbers fall in other advanced countries but in the US a peak of nearly 30,000 is reached in 1921." [Link: 1 ] 1921 - U.S. President Warren Harding - March 4th, 1921: "The 29th American President, Warren Harding [Republican], begins his term." 1921 - Birth / John Glen - July 18th, 1921: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former U.S. senator & astronaut, John Glen." 1921 - Birth / Monty Hall - August 25th, 1921: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Game show host, Monty Hall." 1921 - Socialist Party Convention - September 1921: "The power of the Communist Party was demonstrated at the September 1921 convention of the Socialist Party. Draper writes: 'The final blow to the Socialist Party was the defection of the Jewish federation at a convention in September 1921. The entire group defected to the Communist Party. The Socialist Party membership fell to its lowest point 11,019." [Link: 1 ] 1921 - 1st Robot - "The first robot was built. Artificial life begins." 1921 - Snyder Act - "The Snyder Act made the Department of the Interior responsible for Indian education, medical, and social services." 1921 - Trivia / "Tavistok Institute" - [....] The ideology of American foundations was created by the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations in London. In 1921, the Duke of Bedford, Marquess of Tavistock, the 11th Duke, gave a building to the Institute to study the effect of shellshock on British soldiers who survived World War I. Its purpose was to establish the "breaking point" of men under stress, under the direction of the British Army Bureau of Psychological Warfare, commanded by Sir John Rawlings-Reese. Tavistock Institute is headquartered in London. Its prophet, Sigmond Freud, settled in Maresfield Gardens when he moved to England. He was given a mansion by Princess Bonaparte. Tavistock's pioneer work in behavioral science along Freudian lines of "controlling" humans established it as the world center of foundation ideology. Its network now extends from the University of Sussex to the U.S. through the Stanford Research Institute, Esalen, MIT, Hudson Institute, Heritage Foundation, Center of Strategic and International Studies at Georgetown, where State Dept. personal are trained, US Air Force Intelligence, and the Rand and Mitre corporations. The personnel of the corporations are required to undergo indoctrination at one or more of these Tavistock controlled institutions. A network of secret groups, the Mont Pelerin Society, Trilateral Commission, Ditchley Foundation, and the Club of Rome is conduit for instructions to the Tavistock network. [....] [Based on: barefootsworld.net article ( - TAVISTOCK - THE BEST KEPT SECRET IN AMERICA / CONSPIRATORS' HIERARCHY: THE STORY OF THE COMMITTEE OF 300 ) by Dr. John Coleman, 08/18/97] - [T.D. 12/02/06] - [see link] *Link: http://www.barefootsworld.net/tavistok.html  1921 - North-South Partition / Ireland - 1921: "In 1921, Ireland was partitioned into a mostly Protestant north and mostly Roman Catholic south." - E.M. 1921 - Founded / Council on Foreign Relations - 1921: "Founded this year in history, the Council on Foreign Relations." - E.M. See: http://www.cfr.org/ 1922 1922 - Birth / Betty White - January 17th, 1922: "Betty Marion White Ludden ... better known as Betty White, is an American actress, comedian, singer, author, and television personality. [...] Born Betty Marion White in Oak Park, Illinois, on January 17, 1922, she is the daughter of Tess Curtis (n�e Cachikis), a homemaker, and Horace Lawrence White, a traveling salesman and electrical engineer [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty_White] 1922 - Birth / Dick Martin - January 30th, 1922: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Comedian, Dick Martin." 1922 - Major Earthquake / Cape Mendocino, California - January 31st, 1922: "Earthquake location: Cape Mendocino, California. Earthquake magnitude: 7.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1922 - Strong Earthquake / Parkfield, California - March 10th, 1922: "Earthquake location: Parkfield, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.1. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1922 - Birth / Carl Reiner - March 20th, 1922: "Carl Reiner ... is an American actor, film director, producer, writer, and comedian. He has won twelve Emmy Awards and one Grammy Award during his career. [...] Reiner was born in the Bronx, New York, the son of Bessie (n�e Mathias) and Irving Reiner, who was a watchmaker. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Reiner] 1922 - Jewish Communist Party Members - "Draper writes that the first daily newspaper of the Communist Party was the Yiddish 'Freiheit' launched on April 22, 1922. It would be two more years before they would start a paper for Gentiles. The famous ex-Communist Whittaker Chambers, (who exposed Alger Hiss as a Soviet spy), was an early editor of The Daily Worker. He wrote that the party held separate meetings for 'English speakers' and for Yiddish speakers (Jews). Chambers said that the Yiddish meetings were always the largest ! They were called 'foreign language groups.'    "Whitaker Chambers former editor of 'The Daily Worker' said that two Jewish college professors recruited him into the Communist Party. Chambers also said that Jews made up the largest bloc in the party.    "Draper writes that fewer than 25% of the members were born in the U.S. and only about 10% spoke English only. This proves that its foreign makeup had to be mainly Jewish. One reason being that all Gentile East European immigrants were strongly anti-Communists.    "The Communist Party membership built up to over 100,000 by 1939 and from 50% to 75% were Jews. Also, 25,000 members lived in New York City and this group was almost entirely Jewish. (Hundreds of thousands of other Marxist Jews supported the party and were known as 'Fellow Travelers.' The party controlled several labor unions including the 'Ladies Garment Workers Union' which was made up of some 6,000 Jewish women. They were all Communist Party supporters.    "The power of the Communist Party was demonstrated at the Sept. 1921 convention of the Socialist Party. Draper writes: 'The final blow to the Socialist Party was the defection of the Jewish federation at a convention in Sept. 1921. The entire group defected to the Communist Party. The Socialist Party membership fell to its lowest point 11,019." [Link: 1 ] 1922 - Birth / Jack Klugman - April 27th, 1922: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor [Oscar, 'The Odd Couple'], Jack Klugman." 1922 - Birth / Judy Garland - June 10th, 1922: "Reportedly born this date in history: Judy Garland." 1922 - USSR Begins - "By late 1922, the Bolsheviks had organized the Marxists of Ukraine, Beloruss, and Transcaucasia to form a 'socialist republic' with Russia. The Soviet Union had arrived." 1922 - Status / British Palestine - "As part of the settlement ending World War I, the Ottoman Empire was dismantled, and Britain governed Palestine with a League of Nations mandate. Under the British [who endorsed the Zionist vision of a national homeland in Palestine], Jewish immigration steadily increased, alarming local Arabs. Riots and terrorism erupted as both sides lashed out at each other - and the British. As pressure mounted after World War II, Britain turned to the UN for a solution." [N.G.M./October/2002] 1922 - Hyperinflation  / Germany - "Germany suffers from hyperinflation [1922-1933]. The situation gets so bad that wages are paid as frequently as twice a day to give people a chance to spend them before the notes lose their value. Other countries agree to ease the burden of war reparations. A new, interim currency, the Rentenmark, secured on mortgages on land and industrial property, restores stability." [Link: 1 ] 1922 - Insulin Invented - "Insulin invented by Sir Frederick Grant Banting." 1922 - Earthquake Trivia / 1922 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2." - E.M. 1923 1923 - Economic Decline / USSR - "In 1923, Lenin began to travel all over the former Russian Empire trying to seek support from the old guards of the Czar. He was unsuccessful. These old leaders were much more willing to keep control for themselves than allow Lenin to command. Lenin ordered Trotsky, who had become the leader of the military, now called the Red Army, to send in troops to these areas as a show of strength. Eventually, all former empire lands were returned to Lenin, with the notable exception of the Baltic States. From 1921 to 1924, the economy of the Soviet Union was in shambles. The mismanagement of the Czars and the civil war left the ruble, the USSR's main currency, practically valueless. Lenin was unable really to do anything about this and most of the country headed for famine. When Lenin died in 1924, many believed that the USSR was doomed to die with him." 1923 - Gregorian Calendar  / Eastern Orthodox Church - "When the Eastern Orthodox church accepted the Gregorian calendar in 1923, 13 days were 'lost'." 1923 - Major Earthquake / Cape Mendocino, California - January 22nd, 1923: "Earthquake location: Cape Mendocino, California. Earthquake magnitude: 7.2. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1923 - Birth / Charles E. Yeager - February 13th, 1923: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former U.S. test pilot, Charles E. "Chuck" Yeager." 1923 - Birth / Ed McMahon - March 6th, 1923: "Reportedly born on this date in history: TV personality, Ed McMahon." 1923 - Birth / Henry Kissinger - May 27th, 1923: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former U.S. Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger." 1923 - Birth / Bob Dole - July 22nd, 1923: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former U.S. senator, Bob Dole." 1923 - U.S. President Calvin Coolidge - August 2nd, 1923: "The 30th American President, Calvin Coolidge [Republican], begins his term." 1923 - Birth / Shimon Peres - August 21st, 1923: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Israeli politicar leader, Shimon Peres." 1923 - Major Earthquake / Japan - September 1st, 1923: "Earthquake location: Kanto, Japan. Earthquake magnitude: 7.9. Number of recorded fatalities: 143,000."   1923 - Birth / Charlton Heston - October 4th, 1923: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Charlton Heston." 1923 - Birth / Bob Barker - December 12th, 1923: "Reportedly born on this date in history: TV host, Bob Barker." 1923 - Discovery / Temple of Ur - "In the early 1900's, the builders of the Baghdad railway placed a station about 120 miles north of Basra because the landmarked site was a recognized travellers' rest. Here, an enormous solitary hill rose above the desert - a hill known to the Bedouins as Tell al Muqayyar [Mound of Pitch]. But some thousands of years ago this desert waste was a lush, fertile valley with cornfields and date groves. As was soon to be discovered, within this great mound was the towering multi-levelled Temple of Ur, along with the rest of the ancient city.   "In 1923 , the archaeologist Sir Charles Leonard Wooley, with a joint team from the British Museum and the University of pennsylvania, set out to excavate the mound because some years earlier a collection of very old texts, engraved on stone cylinders, had been unearthed near the summit. One of these cylinder-seals [as they became known] had revealed the name of Ur-nammu, King of Ur in about 2,010 BC, and so it was determined that this was probably the location of Abraham's home." 1923 - Television - "The television or iconoscope [cathode-ray tube] invented by Vladimir Kosma Zworykin." 1923 - Traffic Signal - "Garrett A. Morgan invents the traffic signal." 1923 - The Mysticism of Sound - 1923: "The Mysticism of Sound, by Hazrat Inayat Khan. Original copyright date 1923." [Source link: http://vclass.mtsac.edu:930/phil/center.htm   ] The Supreme Being has been called by various names in different languages, but the mystics have known him as HU. . . the only name of the Nameless. . . The word Hu is the spirit of all sounds and of all words, and is hidden within them all, as the spirit in the body. It does not belong to any language, but no language can help belonging to it. This alone is the true name of God, a name that no people and no religion can claim as their own. [Based on: The Mysticism of Sound, by Hazrat Inayat Khan, pages 64-65 (original copyright date 1923)] 1923 - Earthquake Trivia / 1923 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2. Number of earthquake deaths: 143,000." - E.M. 1924 1924 - Stalin / Soviet Union - "From 1924-1928, a vast power struggle between Stalin, Trotsky, and Kerensky took place. Stalin, being the more vicious of the three immediately began to form alliances with people throughout the new Cominterm, a new Congress to replace the Duma [eventually it would be called the Politburo]. Kerensky was taken care of because of his own erratic behavior in the military. Trotsky however, had his own political aspirations and had followers of his own. Trotsky began to organize the people to his cause to keep the USSR from Stalin. Stalin was able to have him exiled from the country. Trotsky moved to Mexico where Stalin had him killed in 1940. Stalin became the outright dictator of the Soviet Union. He moved away from Lenin's policies and began to institute his own. Lenin believed in more democracy and less government. Stalin believed in death for all who opposed him." 1924 - Birth / Doris Day - April 3rd, 1924: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress-singer, Doris Day." 1924 - Birth / George H.W. Bush - June 12th, 1924: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former U.S. President, George H.W. Bush." 1924 - Birth / Don Knotts - July 21st, 1924: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor-comedian, Don Knotts." 1924 - Summer Olympic Games / Paris, France - "In 1924, the Summer Olympic Games were held in Paris, France. In 1924, the Winter Olympic Games were held in Chamonix, France."   1924 - Birth / Jimmy Carter - October 1st, 1924: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Future U.S. President, Jimmy Carter." 1924 - Birth / William Rehnquist - October 1st, 1924: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Future U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice, William Rehnquist." 1924 - Indian Citizenship Act - "The Indian Citizenship Act This act confers U.S. Citizenship on all Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States. The act’s purpose was to curtail the demand for indigenous identity among Native Americans. For example, the Hopi and Onondaga refused to acknowledge the act by issuing their own tribal passports." 1924 - Trivia / Christopher B. Coleman - "Christopher B. Coleman, a director of the historical Commission and Historic Bureau at the Indiana State Library from 1924, produced an updated commentary on The Treatise of Lorenzo Valla on the Donation of Constantine. In the event, the very fact that this work came out of America, and not out of Britain or Continental Europe, made it easy enough to contain - as a result of which very little, outside the occasional encyclopaedic reference, has been written concerning the Donation during the past century. But the fact remains that it still exists as the very document which has enabled the Church to maintain control of monarchical, political, military and educational affairs for well over 1200 years." [Laurence Gardner, Realm Of The Ring Lords, p. 23] 1924 - Loudspeaker - "The dynamic loudspeaker invented by Rice and Kellogg." 1925 1925 - Modern Quantum Mechanics / Quantum Physics - [....] The term quantum (Latin, "how much") refers to discrete units that the theory assigns to certain physical quantities, such as the energy of an atom at rest .... The discovery that waves could be measured in particle-like small packets of energy called quanta led to the branch of physics that deals with atomic and subatomic systems which we today call Quantum Mechanics. The foundations of quantum mechanics were established during the first half of the 20th century by Werner Heisenberg, Max Planck, Louis de Broglie, Niels Bohr, Erwin Schr�dinger, Max Born, John von Neumann, Paul Dirac, Albert Einstein, Wolfgang Pauli and others. Some fundamental aspects of the theory are still actively studied. [....] Modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when the German physicist Heisenberg developed matrix mechanics and the Austrian physicist Schr�dinger invented wave mechanics and the non-relativistic Schr�dinger equation. Schr�dinger subsequently showed that the two approaches were equivalent. [....] [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Mechanics#History] - [09/10/06] 1925 - "Regime Change" / Iran - " 'Regime change', the Bush administration's stated goal for Iraq, is a ritual that both Washington and London practiced vigorously in the Middle East over the last century. Regime change usually meant the insertion of a proxy or a puppet regime in order to maintain influence over a state and its resources. It was about security, too. The United States and Great Britain shared a common desire to control Soviet expansion in the Middle East by removing leaders that were suspected of being friendly with Moscow. As theaters for the power struggle between the Soviets and the Anglo-Americans, both Iran and Iraq produced a string of notorious regime changes. A British-led 'regime change' - a coup- in 1925 Iran replaced the Qajar dynasty with Reza Khan, a nationalist Iranian Cossack military officer, who was crowned 'Shah' [king of kings], with the title Reza Shah Pahlavi. The British occupied Iran after WW II to prevent Iran, more specifically Iranian oil, from falling into the hands of Nazi Germany and to protect an oil supply route to the Soviet Union, a British ally during the war." [Links 1 ] 1925 - Solar Eclipse - "NYC's Winter Morning Eclipse [January 24th]." 1925 - Birth / Paul Newman - January 26th, 1925: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Paul Newman." 1925 - Strong Earthquake / Quebec, Canada - March 1st, 1925: "Earthquake location: Charlevoix, Quebec, Canada. Earthquake magnitude: 6.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1925 - Major Earthquake / Yunnan, China - March 16th, 1925: "Earthquake location: Yunnan, China. Earthquake magnitude: 7.1. Number of recorded fatalities: 5,000." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 208] 1925 - Birth / Yogi Berra - May 12th, 1925: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Baseball Hall of Famer, Yogi Berra." 1925 - "Saint Theresa" - May 17th, 1925: "[....] Th�r�se was beatified on 29 April 1923 and canonized on 17 May 1925, by Pope Pius XI, only 28 years after her death. Her feast day was added to the Roman Catholic calendar of saints in 1927 for celebration on 3 October.[81] In 1969, 42 years later, Pope Paul VI moved it to 1 October, the day after her dies natalis (birthday to heaven).[82] [....] By the Apostolic Letter Divini Amoris Scientia (The Science of Divine Love) of 19 October 1997, Pope John Paul II declared her one of the thirty-three Doctors of the Universal Church, one of only three women so named, the others being Teresa of Avila (Saint Teresa of Jesus) and Catherine of Siena. Th�r�se was the only saint to be named a Doctor of the Church during Pope John Paul II's pontificate. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_de_Lisieux] *Links: http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16772               http://www.therese-de-lisieux.catholique.fr/Editorial-January-2010.html?lang=fr 1925 - Birth / Barbara Bush - June 8th, 1925: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former First Lady (U.S.A.), Barbara Bush." 1925 - Strong Earthquake / Clarkston Valley, Montana - June 28th, 1925: "Earthquake location: Clarkston Valley, Montana. Earthquake magnitude: 6.6. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1925 - Strong Earthquake / Santa Barbara, California - June 29th, 1925: "Earthquake location: Santa Barbara, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.8. Number of recorded fatalities: 13."   1925 - Birth / Mike Douglas - August 11th, 1925: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former TV talk show host, Mike Douglas." 1925 - Birth / B.B. King - September 16th, 1925: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Blues singer, B.B. King." 1925 - Birth / Margaret Thatcher - October 13th, 1925: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former British prime minister, Margaret Thatcher." 1925 - Birth / Angela Lansbury - October 16th, 1925: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress, Angela Lansbury." 1925 - Birth / Johnny Carson - October 23rd, 1925: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former 'Tonight Show' host, Johnny Carson." 1925 - Trivia / Gurdwara Act of 1925 - November 1st, 1925: "[....] The Act came into force on November 1, 1925 with a gazette notification from the government of Punjab. According to the Act a Central Gurdwara Board elected by the Sikhs was to be the custodian of all-important Sikh places of worship. [....]" *Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiromani_Gurdwara_Prabandhak_Committee 1925 - Birth / Dick Van Dyke - December 13th, 1925: "Richard Wayne Van Dyke ... known professionally as Dick Van Dyke, is an American actor, comedian, writer, and producer with a career spanning six decades. [...] Van Dyke was born in West Plains, Missouri, to Loren (nickname 'Cookie') and Hazel (born McCord) Van Dyke, but he grew up in Danville, Illinois. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Van_Dyke] 1925 - Mechanical Television - "The mechanical television, a precursor to the modern television, was invented by John Logie Baird." 1925 - Trivia / Biological Weapons - "The Geneva Protocol was set up. It prohibited the use of biological and chemical weapons in warfare. It did not, however, ban the research or production of this type of warfare. The United States and Japan were the only major country not to ratify the protocol." 1925 - Lessons on Evolution / John Scopes - "In 1925, high school teacher John Scopes was convicted [in Alabama] of giving lessons on evolution." 1925 - Timeline / Stanford Research Institute - "1925: Stanford University Professor Robert E. Swain champions the idea of an interdisciplinary research institute within the University. Early supporters include Stanford alumnus and trustee, U.S. President Herbert Hoover." [Based on: sri.com article (History of SRI International, 1925-1930s) [�2006 SRI International 333 Ravenswood Avenue, Menlo Park, CA 94025-3493] - [T.D. 12/02/06] *Link: http://www.sri.com/about/history/1930.html 1925 - The Story of Atlantis and the Lost Lemuria / William Scott-Elliot - 1925: "William Scott-Elliot (sometimes spelled Scott-Elliott) (d.1930) was a theosophist who elaborated Helena Blavatsky's concept of root races in several publications, most notably The Story of Atlantis (1896) and The Lost Lemuria (1904), later combined in 1925 into a single volume called The Story of Atlantis and the Lost Lemuria. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Scott-Elliot] 1925 - Earthquake Trivia / 1925 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 4. Number of earthquake deaths: 5,013+." - E.M. 1926 1926 - Birth / Joe Garagiola - February 12th, 1926: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Baseball Hall-of-Fame sportscaster, Joe Garagiola." 1926 - Birth / Alan Greenspan - March 6th, 1926: "Reportedly born on this date in history: U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman, Alan Greenspan." 1926 - Birth / Jerry Lewis - March 16th, 1926: "Jerry Lewis ... is an American comedian, actor, singer, film producer, screenwriter and film director. [...] He was born Joseph Levitch (some sources say Jerome Levitch)[2] in Newark, New Jersey, to Russian Jewish parents. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Lewis] 1926 - Birth / Hugh Hefner - April 9th, 1926: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Playboy magazine founder, Hugh Hefner." 1926 - Birth / Queen Elizabeth II - April 26th, 1920: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Britain's Queen Elizabeth II." 1926 - Birth / Ann B. Davis - May 6th, 1926: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress (Alice, 'The Brady Bunch'), Ann B. Davis." 1926 - Birth / Don Rickles - May 8th, 1926: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Comedian, Don Rickles." 1926 - Birth / Andy Griffith - June 1st, 1926: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Andy Griffith." 1926 - Unratified / Child Labor Amendment - June 2nd, 1926: "Unratified child labor amendment." 1926 - Birth / Tony Bennett - August 3rd, 1926: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Tony Bennett." 1926 - Birth / Fidel Castro - August 13th, 1926: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Cuban President, Fidel Castro." 1926 - Birth / Chuck Berry - October 18th, 1926: "Charles Edward Anderson 'Chuck' Berry (born October 18, 1926) is an American guitarist, singer and songwriter, and one of the pioneers of rock and roll music. [...] Born in St. Louis, Missouri,[8] Berry was the fourth child in a family of six. He grew up in the north St. Louis neighborhood known as 'The Ville,' an area where many middle class St. Louis people lived at the time. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Berry]  1926 - The Lost Continent of Mu: Motherland of Man / James Churchward - [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Churchward] 1926 - Strong Earthquake / California - October 22nd, 1926: "Earthquake location: Monterey Bay, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.1. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1926 - The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) - November 15th, 1926: "The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) is an American commercial broadcasting television network and former radio network headquartered in the GE Building in New York City's Rockefeller Center with additional major offices near Los Angeles and in Chicago. NBC is sometimes referred to as the "Peacock Network", due to its stylized peacock logo, created originally for its color broadcasts. Formed in 1926 by the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), NBC is the oldest major broadcast network in the United States. In 1986, control of NBC passed to General Electric (GE), with GE's $6.4 billion purchase of RCA. GE had previously owned RCA and NBC until 1930, when it had been forced to sell the company as a result of antitrust charges. After the 1986 acquisition, the chief executive of NBC was Bob Wright, until he retired, giving his job to Jeff Zucker. The network is currently part of the media company NBCUniversal, which is a joint venture of Comcast and General Electric since 2011 (and before that, jointly owned by GE and current Universal Music Group parent Vivendi). As a result of the merger, Zucker left NBC and was replaced by Comcast executive Steve Burke. NBC has 10 owned-and-operated stations and nearly 200 affiliates in the United States and its territories.[1][2] Archival footage from a majority of the NBC owned-and-operated stations is available for perusal and purchase through the NBCUniversal Archives. NBC broadcast the film industries second most important award ceremony, The Golden Globes Awards. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC] 1926 - Earthquake Trivia / 1926 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1927 1927 - Decline / Bank of Taiwan - "Japanese financial crisis started by a run on the Bank of Taiwan. Taiwan became a Japanese colony in 1895 and therefore the crisis spreads to Japan. As many as 37 Japanese banks are closed, at least temporarily." [Link: 1 ] 1927 - Transatlantic Phone Service - January 7th, 1927: "It took 50 years from the invention of the telephone to make transatlantic phone calls. On this date in 1927, Bell Laboratories and the British Post Office engineered the first two-way conversation (using radio) between New York and London. Over the next few years the service spread throughout North America and Europe." [Leo Laporte's 2005 Technology Almanac] 1927 - Major Earthquake / Japan - March 7th, 1927: "Earthquake location: Tango, Japan. Earthquake magnitude: 7.6. Number of recorded fatalities: 3,020."   1927 - Birth / Joseph Ratzinger - April 16th, 1927: Reportedly born on this date in history: Joseph Ratzinger. Cardinal Ratzinger, after being elected Pope on April 19th, 2005, changed his name to Pope Benedict XVI. - E.M. 1927 - Major Earthquake / Tsinghai, China - May 22nd, 1927: "Earthquake location: Tsinghai, China. Earthquake magnitude: 7.9. Number of recorded fatalities: 200,000."   *Trivia: "Earthquake location: Nan-Shan, China. Earthquake magnitude: 8.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 200,000." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 208] 1927 - Birth / Jerry Stiller - June 8th, 1927: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor-comedian, Jerry Stiller." 1927 - Who Brings the Truth? / J. Krishnamurti - "Who Brings the Truth? By J. Krishnamurti. / An address delivered at Eerde, the International Headquarters of the Order of the Star, August 2,1927.  See link: *Link: http://norea.net/krishnamurti/truth.htm - [T.D. - 01/13/08] 1927 - Birth / Peter Falk - September 16th, 1927: "Peter Michael Falk (September 16, 1927 – June 23, 2011) was an American actor, best known for his role as Lt. Frank Columbo in the television series Columbo. [...] Born in New York City, Falk was the son of Michael Peter Falk, owner of a clothing and dry goods store, and his wife, Madeline (n�e Hochhauser),[4] an accountant and buyer.[5] [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Falk] 1927 - United Independent Broadcasters Inc. - September 18th, 1927: "[...] The network has its origins in United Independent Broadcasters Inc., a collection of 16 radio stations that was bought by William S. Paley in 1928 and renamed the Columbia Broadcasting System.[3] Under Paley's guidance, CBS would first become one of the largest radio networks in the United States and then one of the big three American broadcast television networks. In 1974, CBS dropped its full name and became known simply as CBS, Inc. The Westinghouse Electric Corporation acquired the network in 1995 and eventually adopted the name of the company it had bought to become CBS Corporation. In 2000, CBS came under the control of Viacom, which ironically had begun as a spin-off of CBS in 1971. In late 2005, Viacom split itself and reestablished CBS Corporation with the CBS television network at its core. CBS Corporation is controlled by Sumner Redstone through National Amusements, its parent. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS] 1927 - Birth / Roger Moore - October 14th, 1927: "Sir Roger George Moore, KBE (born 14 October 1927), is an English[1] actor, perhaps best known for his role as British secret agent James Bond in the official film series between 1973 and 1985, and also as Simon Templar in The Saint, between 1962 and 1969. [...] Moore was born in Stockwell, now part of the London Borough of Lambeth, in London. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Moore] 1927 - Major Earthquake / California - November 4th, 1927: "Earthquake location: Lompoc [offshore], California. Earthquake magnitude: 7.1. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1927 - FDIA - "A separate law enforcement agency was formed, known as the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration." 1927 - Electronic Television - "Philo Taylor Farnsworth invented a complete electronic TV system." 1927 - Earthquake Trivia / 1927 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 3. Number of earthquake deaths: 203,020." - E.M. 1928 1928 - Uranus in Aries - January 14th, 1928: "The planet Uranus (Orbital period roughly 84 Earth years.) enters the sign of Aries. *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1928.pdf 1928 - Birth / Darwin Gross - January 3rd, 1928: Reportedly born this date in history, Darwin Gross, the 972nd (1971-1981) Living Eck Master (d. 03/08/08). 1928 - Birth / Fats Domino - February 26th, 1928: "Antoine Dominique 'Fats' Domino Jr. ... is an American R&B and rock and roll pianist and singer-songwriter. He was born and raised in New Orleans, Louisiana. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fats_Domino]  1928 - Russian Industrialization - "In 1928, Stalin completely changed the course of the Soviet Union that Lenin had set. He forced 'collectivation' on the farmers and peasants. A collective farm is an incredibly large farm owned by the government that the peasants were 'allowed' to live on and work. Those who refused were killed. The farmers very quickly realized that to oppose Stalin in any way meant exile or death. Stalin also began a massive industrialization campaign. Industry was given a quota system. They were required to reach production targets of military and popular good regardless of the cost. Many people worked 12-15 hour days to keep up with these quotas. Finally, convinced that the factory owners were too concerned about themselves to manage effectively; he ordered his own people to take over. By 1933, all industry was being run by the state. The people were mistreated and overworked for little reward. Of course, they could have stopped working and be murdered by the officials of a newly formed organization, the KGB. The KGB became the eyes, ears, and enforcer of all of Stalin's policies." 1928 - Boom / U.S. Stock Market - "Stock Market boom [1928-1929] in U.S. The Fed takes no effective action to stop the boom getting out of control." [Link: 1 ] 1928 - Discovered / City of Ugaritic - "In the spring of 1928 a Syrian farmer was plowing his field when he uncovered a stone over a grave. Archaeologists were called in which led to the discovery of the nearby ancient city of Ugarit." [Link: 1 ] *Trivia: "It was not until the 1850's that documentary evidence of pre-biblical history first came to light, and this was followd twenty years later by some published texts. Not until the late 1920s were the first in-depth translations released into the public domain - translations of scribal record considerably older than the original Old Testament. As the archaeologists progressed their excavations, these ancient clay tablets and engraved cylinders emerged in their tens of thousands from the very Bible lands of Adam, Noah, and Abraham, and they were in large measure contemporary with the Old Testament's patriarchal and dynastic eras. More importantly, and perhaps surprisingly to some, many of their accounts were immediately familar, and it soon became obvious that these were the models for stories written down in retrospect by the Israelite compilers of Genesis." [Laurence Gardner, Genesis Of The Grail Kings, p. 5] 1928 - Pluto 17 Degrees Cancer - July 22nd, 1928: Pluto 17 degrees Cancer. *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1928.pdf 1928 - Birth / Jimmy Dean - August 10th, 1928: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Jimmy Dean." 1928 - Summer Olympic Games / Amsterdam - "In 1928, the Summer Olympic Games were held in Amsterdam. At this Olympics, the Olympic flame was introduced for the first time, and women participated in track and field events. In 1928, the Winter Olympic Games were held in St. Moritz, Switzerland."   1928 - Paul Twitchell / Paris, Kentucky? - 1928-1931: "Well [D.M. to D.L.], go back and re-read the Who's Who article. You'll see it says quite clearly that Paul was in Paris the year after he graduated from high school. Exactly like it said in Brad Steiger's book. Well, except for the fact that it was Paris, Kentucky, not Paris, France!" [Based on: http://www.littleknownpubs.com/Dialog_careers1.htm] 1928 - Founded / Opus Dei, Spain - [....] Opus Dei, a conservative, largely lay movement within the Catholic church, has been shrouded in mystery and myth since its founding in Spain in 1928. [....]" [Based on: article, p. A1, S.L.P.D., 10/09/05] 1928 - Oxford English Dictionary -  "In 1928, The Oxford English Dictionary was published." - E.M. 1928 - The Secret Teachings of All Ages / Manly P. Hall - 1928: "What you hold in your hands is a volume of the ages. Originally published in 1928 by the mystical scholar and sage Manly P. Hall (1901-1900), this book - like none before it and none that have followed - is a codex to the ideas and mysteries that resonate within the symbols, myths, and philosophies that have guided humankind since its earliest efforsts at self-knowledge. [....]" [Based on: The Secret Teachings of All Ages, p. 1 (2003 Reader's Edition)] 1929 1929 - Zionism / Palestine - "In 1929, leading non-Zionists joined with Zionists to found the Jewish Agency to help Jews settle in Palestine, since the western nations [including the United States] had imposed rigid immigration quotas." 1929 - U.S. President Herbert Hoover - March 4th, 1929: "The 31st American President, Herbert Hoover [Republican], begins his term." 1929 - Dissolution Speech / Jiddu Krishnamurti - August 3rd, 1929: "[....] His new direction reached a climax in 1929, when he rebuffed attempts by Leadbeater and Besant to continue with the Order of the Star. Krishnamurti dissolved the Order during the annual Star Camp at Ommen, the Netherlands, on 3 August 1929[83] in front of Annie Besant, three thousand members, and a radio audience.[84] In the so-called Dissolution Speech, he stated that he made his decision after 'careful consideration' during the previous two years, ... . [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddu_Krishnamurti#Break_with_the_past] 1929 - Birth / Bob Newhart - September 5th, 1929: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Comedian-actor, Bob Newhart." 1929 - Virtual Dictatorship / Yugoslavia - October 3rd, 1929: "A kingdom resulted from the fall of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires after World War I. King Alexander renaimed the region Yugoslavia and set up a virtual dictatorship in 1929." [Based on: St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. A12, 06/26/05] *Links: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/map/yugoslavia/ 1929 - Pluto 19 Degrees Cancer - October 24th, 1929: Pluto 19 / 38 degrees R. Cancer. *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1929.pdf 1929 -   Crash / U.S. Stock Market - October 24th, 1929: "The economic Boom, which had followed the period of reconstruction after the First World War, and the defeats inflicted on the workers movement across the world in the mid-1920s, came to an abrupt end with the Wall Street Crash of 24 October 1929, which triggered off the Great Depression. Bankruptcies and skyrocketing unemployment spread from the US to every country in the world, except the USSR, where production continued to expand after the devastation of the Wars of Intervention [1918-1922]. The Depression lasted into the late 1930s with 14 million unemployed in the US alone, most with little means of support. The suffering and senseless wastage of human life - dumping of food in the sea, closure of factories as well as millions left to rot in idleness - had turned large numbers of workers to communism; in Europe huge street battles were being fought between million-strong fascist and communist parties. In vain efforts to insulate their own economies from the worldwide economic drought, almost all countries in the world erected trade barriers making export goods to other countries just as impossible as producing for non-existent domestic markets. Even in the U.S., Roosevelt had been elected with widespread popular support for the New Deal — to introduce universal welfare, protect workers' right, the government to take a leading role in the economy and clamp down on business.    "To millions of workers queuing at soup kitchens in the West and of labouring for near-starvation wages, the USSR was looking very much like a workers' paradise. As the job market began to pick up with the beginning of recovery in the U.S. and escalating war-spending in Europe, the organised workers' movement began to show real signs of readiness to challenge the institutions which had overseen all this misery. Only the beginning of World War Two and the urgent need to crush Fascism in Germany and Japan postponed a worldwide revolutionary upsurge." [Links: 1 ,  2 ] 1929 - The Great Depression - "Widespread bank failures and the surviving banks' curbs on lending cause businesses of all kinds to go bankrupt [1929-1930]. The U.S. net national product falls by over half." [Link: 1 ] 1929 - Status / English National Debt - "In 1815 it [English National Debt] was 885 million pounds and in 1945 it had grown to 22.5 billion pounds. By 1995 the national debt had risen to more than 300 billion pounds, equal to 45 percent of GNP."   "Not even the Macmillan Committee, which was appointed in 1929, managed to find out who governed the Bank of England. Only one name has leaked out—that of Rothschild. All great wars have been started and financed by the economic conglomerate emanating from one single banking family—the Rothschilds.    "In the Netherlands, secret societies had been able to found a central bank as early as 1609. About 40 of the world's most important central banks were established in a similar way as that of the Bank of England. In that way the Masonic bankers ruled the long-term development in the world with loan interest as a method, the central banks as middlemen, the politicians as dummies and the people as ignorant wage slaves. The Freemason-controlled banks thus can govern political life by acting without being seen. The English people strengthened the power of these invisible Freemasons through paying taxes during three centuries. Central banks were supposed to keep the economy stable." [Based on: article by Juri Lina, The Barnes Review, September/October 2004, p. 9] 1929 - Decline / U.S. Industrial Production - "Between 1929 and 1933 American industrial production dropped 48.7 per cent." 1929 - Major Earthquake / Nova Scotia, Canada - November 18th, 1929: "Earthquake location: Grand Banks, Nova Scotia, Canada. Earthquake magnitude: 7.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1929 - Birth / Dick Clark - November 30th, 1929: "Reportedly born on this date in history: TV personality / producer, Dick Clark." 1929 - Birth / William Safire - December 17th, 1929: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Newspaper Columnist, William Safire." 1929 - Career Trivia / Paul Twitchell - 1929: "[....] 1929; track Coach, Tilghman H. S., Paducah, 1929-30-31; athletic director Murray State Teachers Coll., 1931-33; Western State Teachers Coll., Bowling Green, Ky., 1933-35; asst. director Ohio State Univ., fall of 1935; municipal recreation director, Paducah, since 1935. Contributor of articles to Athletic Journal. Office: Campbell Bldg. Mome[sic]: 1625 North Twelfth St., Paducah, Ky." [Based on: Who's Who in Kentucky, 1935?] [Based on: http://www.littleknownpubs.com/Dialog_careers1.htm] 1929 - Earthquake Trivia / 1929 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1930 1930 - Birth / Gene Hackman - January 30th, 1930: "Eugene Allen 'Gene' Hackman[1] (born January 30, 1930) is an U.S. actor and novelist. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Hackman] 1930 - Birth / Joanne Woodward - February 27th, 1930: "Joanne Gignilliat Trimmier Woodward ... is an American actress and producer of television and theatre. [...] Woodward was born in Thomasville, Georgia, daughter of Elinor (n�e Trimmier) and Wade Woodward, Jr., who at one point was vice president of publisher Charles Scribner's Sons. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanne_Woodward] 1930 - Birth / Sandra Day O'Connor - March 26th, 1930: "Reportedly born on this date in history: U.S. Supreme Court Justice, Sandra Day O'Connor." 1930 - American Interplanetary Society - April, 1930: "In April, The American Interplanetary Society was founded in New York City by David Lasser, G. Edward Pendray, and ten others for the purpose of promoting interest in space travel.  It was later renamed the American Rocket Society." [Link: 1 ] 1930 - Birth / Clint Eastwood - May 31st, 1930: "Clinton 'Clint' Eastwood, Jr. (born May 31, 1930) is an American film actor, director, producer, composer and politician. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clint_Eastwood 1930 - Birth / James Nabors - June 12th, 1930: "James Thurston 'Jim' Nabors (born June 12, 1930) is an American actor and singer. Born and raised in Sylacauga, Alabama, Nabors moved to Southern California because of his asthma. While working at a Santa Monica nightclub, The Horn, he was discovered by Andy Griffith and later joined The Andy Griffith Show, playing Gomer Pyle, a gas station attendant whom some described as dim-witted. Nabors himself has stated that the Gomer character was not so much dim-witted; he just wanted to see the good in people.[1] The character proved popular, and Nabors was given his own spin-off show, Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. [....]" *Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Nabors 1930 - Birth / Ross Perot - June 27th, 1930: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Business executive, Ross Perot." 1930 - Birth / Neil A. Armstrong - August 5th, 1930: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former U.S. astronaut, Neil A. Armstrong." 1930 - Birth / Sean Connery - August 25th, 1930: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Sean Connery." 1930 - Birth / Adam West - September 19th, 1930: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Adam West [Batman]." 1930 - Birth / Ray Charles - September 23rd, 1930: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Ray Charles." 1930 - Kummersdorf Proving Grounds - December, 1930: "December 17th marked the establishment of a rocket program Kummersdorf.  It was also decided that the Kummersdorf proving grounds would be equipped to develop military missiles. On December 30th, Robert Goddard fired an 11 foot liquid fueled rocket to a height of 2000 feet at a speed of 500 miles per hour.  The launch took place near Roswell New Mexico." [Link: 1 ]   1930 - Physics Trivia - "The working out of Einstein's insights [1905] took the next quarter century. By 1930, we had his general theory of relativity, which makes the revolutionary claim that the geometry of space is not fixed but evolves in time. The wave-particle duality uncovered by Einstein in 1905 had become a fully realized quantum theory, which gave us a detailed understanding of atoms, chemistry, matter, and radiation. By 1930, we also knew that the universe contained huge numbers of galaxies like our own, and we knew they were moving away from one another. The implications were not yet clear, but we knew we lived in an expanding universe." [Based on: Lee Smolin, The Trouble with Physics, p. ix (6th paragraph - Introduction) - x, copyright 2006] *Trivia: "[....] The early attempts at unified-field theories took place before quantum mechanics was completely formulated, in 1926. Indeed, a few of the quantum theory's proponents had interesting speculations about the relationship between the extra dimensions and quantum theory. But after 1930 or so, there was a split. Most physicists ignored the problem of unification and concentrated instead on applying quantum theory to a vast array of phenomena, from the properties of materials to the processes by which stars produce energy. At the same time, those few who persisted in working on the unified theories increasingly ignored quantum theory. These people (Einstein included) worked as if Plank, Bohr, Heisenberg, and Schrodinger had never existed. They were living after the quantum-mechanical revolution but pretending to work in an intellectual universe in which that revolution had never occured. [....]" [Based on: Lee Smolin, The Trouble with Physics, pp. 51 (4th paragraph) & 52, copyright 2006] 1930s - "Rastafari Movement" - 1930s: "The Rastafari movement is a monotheistic, Abrahamic, new religious movement that arose in a Christian culture in Jamaica in the 1930s.[1][2] [....] There are three main sects or orders of Rastafari today: the Nyahbinghi Order, Bobo Ashanti and the Twelve Tribes of Israel. All agree on the basic principles of the divine status of Haile Selassie and the importance of black images of divinity. Many Rastafari do not belong to any sect and the movement as a whole is loosely defined and organized. [....] Emperor Haile Selassie I, whom some of the Rastafarians call Jah, was crowned "King of Kings, Elect of God, and Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah" in Addis Ababa on November 2, 1930. The event created great publicity throughout the world, including in Jamaica, and particularly through two consecutive Time magazine articles about the coronation (he was later named Time's Person of the Year for 1935, the first Black person to appear on the cover), as well as two consecutive National Geographic issues around the same time. Haile Selassie almost immediately gained a following as both God and King amongst poor Jamaicans, who came to be known as Rastafarians, and who looked to their Bibles, and saw what they believed to be the fulfilling of many prophecies from the book of Revelation. As Ethiopia was the only African country to be free from colonialism, and Haile Selassie was the only black leader accepted among the kings and queens of Europe, the early Rastas viewed him with great reverence. [....]" *Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafari_movement - [T.D. - 07/09/10] 1930 - Trivia / Navajo Education? - "The Senate investigating Committee on Indian Affairs disclosed the use of kidnapping techniques by BIA school officials trying to educate Navajo children." 1930 - Brotherhood of the White Temple - Maurice Doreal was the name adopted by Claude Doggins as head of the Brotherhood of the White Temple, an occult fraternity headquartered in Sedalia, Colorado. Doreal was born in Sulfur Springs, Oklahoma. As a youth he became interested in Tarzan, which quickly broadened into a general interest in fantasy and science fiction literature, and by 1950 his library included some 5,000 titles. His interests also expanded to the occult. He served in World War I, after which, he claimed, he spent eight years in Tibet. He also claimed to have visited the occult center in the middle of Mt. Shasta in northern California. [NP] Doreal founded the Brotherhood of the White Temple in 1930, and spent much of his life writing the brotherhood lessons and a series of pamphlets, called the Little Temple Library, on a wide variety of occult-related topics from Atlantis to UFOs. He claimed to have gained his knowledge from his contact with the Great White Lodge of Masters, those who have passed beyond their earthly experience and now seek to guide humanity in its evolution. [NP] Doreal began work on new headquarters for the brotherhood in Sedalia in 1946, during the height of anxieties over possible atomic war. The location, a valley enclosed by 1,500-foot mountain walls, was believed to be a protected site. Headquarters moved in 1951. Two years later Doreal predicted that the biblical Battle of Armageddon would begin very soon, and residents stored foods against the coming hard times. [NP] Doreal died in 1963, and the brotherhood has continued to the present using his many writings as their authoritative literature. Sources: Kossy, Donna. Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief. Portland, Ore.: Feral House, 1994. *Link: http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-doreal - [T.D. - 05/09/10] *Trivia: " FROM SHASTA TO TIBET ... Maurice Doreal was born Claude Doggins of Sulfer Springs, Oklahoma in 1898 (or so I have heard). He looked more like a feed-store owner or small-town banker than the guru he became to his thousand or so followers. He founded his 'Brotherhood of the White Temple' in 1929, naming it after a group of 'Masters' of the same name often invoked by Helena P. Blavatsky's successor Annie Besant (the 'New Age' Theosophical leader - Branton). He claimed that after serving in the First World War, he traveled to Tibet and spent eight years studying there with the Dalai Lama. Doreal amassed one of the world's largest and finest occult and science-fiction libraries - over thirty thousand volumes - but all he seemed to distill out of his studies was a long series of repetitive and poorly-written, but highly imaginative, booklets on occult subjects, written between about 1940 and his death in 1963. It is still possible at this writing, though, to send away for 'Mysteries of Mt. Shasta,' 'Mysteries of the Gobi,' 'Polar Paradise,' and similar booklets for a few dollars each from the Brotherhood of the White Temple Inc. in Sedalia, Colorado. *Link: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Ancient-Mysteries/message/4369 - [T.D. - 05/09/10] 1930 - Guy Warren Ballard / Mt. Shasta, California - "[....] Ballard [Guy Warren Ballard (July 28, 1878 – December 29, 1939] visited Mount Shasta, California in 1930, where he met another hiker who identified himself as Saint Germain.[1] Mr. Ballard's experiences take place within the larger North American mountain ranges. Ballard provided details of his encounters in a series of books Unveiled Mysteries and The Magic Presence, using the pen name 'Godfr� Ray King.' [NP] Guy Ballard, his wife Edna, and later his son Donald, it is believed, became the 'sole Accredited Messengers' of Saint Germain. Their teachings form the original nucleus for what are today called the Ascended Master Teachings." [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Ballard] 1930s - Aviator & Writer / L. Ron Hubbard - "His earlier accomplishments are similarly impressive. As a barnstorming aviator through the 1930s he was known as “Flash” and broke local records for sustained glider flight. As a leader of expeditions, he is credited with conducting the first complete Puerto Rican mineralogical survey under United States protectorship and his navigational annotations still influence the maritime guides for British Columbia. His experimentation with early radio directional finding further became the basis for the Long Range Navigational system (LORAN). And, as a lifelong photographer, his works have been displayed in galleries on two continents, with the definitive exhibition of his photographs, still drawing tens of thousands every year. [NP] Among other avenues of research, Mr. Hubbard developed and codified an administrative technology that is currently utilized by more than four thousand organizations worldwide, including multi-national corporations, charitable bodies, political parties, schools, youth clubs and hundreds of small businesses. Likewise Mr. Hubbard’s internationally acclaimed educational methods are utilized by thousands of academic institutions, while his equally acclaimed drug rehabilitation program has proven five times more effective than other such programs." [http://www.lronhubbard.org/profile/intro01.htm] *Trivia: "[....] He directed two expeditions, the Caribbean Motion Picture Expedition, a two-and-a-half month, 5,000-mile voyage aboard the four-masted schooner, Doris Hamlin, and the West Indies Mineralogical Expedition, which completed the first mineralogical survey of the island of Puerto Rico under U.S. rule. Upon his return to the United States, and with scientific grants few and far between, he began to write his way to fame and fortune, supporting his research by becoming one of the most popular writers of the 1930s. [....]" [http://lron.hubbard.org/pg006.html] 1930 - Man and the Stars - 1930: MAN AND THE STARS , Director of the Perkins Observatory, Ohio Wesleyan University, WHITTLESEY HOUSE, McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC., NEW YORK � 1930 *Link: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6767424 1931 1931 - Birth / Robert Novak - January 17th, 1931: "James Earl Jones ... is an American actor who in a career of over 50 years has become known as 'one of America's most distinguished and versatile'[2] and 'one of the greatest actors in American history.'[3] [...] James Earl Jones was born in Arkabutla, Mississippi, son of Robert Earl Jones (1910–2006), an actor, boxer, butler, and chauffeur who left the family shortly after James Earl's birth, and his wife Ruth (Connolly) Jones, a teacher and maid. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Earl_Jones] 1931 - Birth / Robert Novak - February 26th, 1931: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Political columnist, Robert Novak." 1931 - Birth / Mikhail S. Gorbachev - March 2nd, 1931: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former Soviet President, Mikhail S. Gorbachev." 1931 - Birth / Roy Eugene Davis - March 9th, 1931: "Roy Eugene Davis (born 9 March 1931) is an American spiritual teacher and author. He is associated with the kriya yoga tradition and is a direct disciple of the Indian guru Paramahansa Yogananda. [....] Davis was ordained by his guru in 1951[2] and was appointed as the minister of the Phoenix, Arizona, Self-Realization Fellowship Center. Following the death of Yogananda in 1952, Davis left SRF in 1953. After spending two years in the U.S. Army medical department he started travelling all over the U.S. and in Europe, India and Japan as an independent spiritual teacher. Toward the end of the sixties he settled in Lakemont, Georgia, where he was invited to be the director of a spiritual organization (Christian Spiritual Alliance). After a few years he became the head of the organization and changed its name into 'Center for Spiritual Awareness'. The organization has small meditation groups in the United States, Canada, Africa and Europe.[3]." *Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Eugene_Davis 1931 - Birth / Hal Linden - March 20th, 1931: "Hal Linden ... is an American stage and screen actor, television director and musician. [...] In 1975, he landed his best known role as the titular character in the television comedy series Barney Miller. [...] Linden was born Harold Lipshitz in New York City. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Linden] 1931 - Birth / William Shatner - March 22nd, 1931: "William Alan Shatner (born March 22, 1931) is a Canadian actor, musician, recording artist, author and film director. He gained worldwide fame and became a cultural icon for his portrayal of James T. Kirk, captain of the USS Enterprise, in the science fiction television series Star Trek from 1966 to 1969, Star Trek: The Animated Series from 1973 to 1974, and in seven of the subsequent Star Trek feature films from 1979 to 1994. [...] Shatner was born ... in the C�te Saint-Luc neighborhood of Montreal, Quebec, Canada, the son of Anne (n�e Garmaise) and Joseph Shatner, a clothing manufacturer. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shatner] 1931 - Birth / Leonard Nimoy - March 26th, 1931: "Leonard Simon Nimoy ... born March 26, 1931) is an American actor, film director, poet, musician and photographer. Nimoy's most famous role is that of Spock in the original Star Trek series (1966–1969), and in multiple film, television, and video-game sequels. [...] Nimoy was born in Boston, Massachusetts in the West End,[5] to Yiddish-speaking Orthodox Jewish immigrants from Iziaslav, Soviet Union (now Ukraine). [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Nimoy] 1931 - Birth / Willie Mays - May 6th, 1931: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Baseball Hall-of-Famer, Willie Mays." 1931 - Graduates High School? / Paul Twitchell - May 1931: Here is a direct quote: "Wilson Gantt, dean of admissions and registrar, says the school's records show Twitchell graduated from Tilghman High School in Paducah in MAY 1931 and entered MURRAY that September. He remained a full-time student until March of 1933, Gantt said." Hmm.... Hey, Doug, what does this do to that profile? [See: http://www.littleknownpubs.com/Dialog_careers1.htm] *Links: http://www.thetruth-seeker.com/scanindexsubAcss.aspx?indexID=150 1931 - Liquid-Fuled Rocket - May 14th, 1931: "In Austria, Friedrich Schmiedl fired the world's first mail carrying rocket. David Lasser's book, THE CONQUEST OF SPACE, was published in the United States.  May 14: VfR successfully launched a liquid-fueled rocket to a height of 60 meters." [Link: 1 ] 1931 - Birth / Regis Philbin - August 25th, 1931: "Reportedly born on this date in history: TV host, Regis Philbin." 1931 - Birth / Barbara Walters - September 25th, 1931: "Reportedly born on this date in history: ABC News correspondent, Barbara Walters." 1931 - Birth / Dan Rather - October 31st, 1931: "Daniel Irvin "Dan" Rather, Jr. (born October 31, 1931) is an American journalist and the former news anchor for the CBS Evening News. [...] Daniel Irvin Rather, Jr. ... was born on October 31, 1931, in Wharton County, Texas, the son of Daniel Irvin Rather, Sr., and the former Byrl Veda Page. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Rather] 1931 - FDA / U.S.A. - "In 1931, the FDIA became known as the Food and Drug Administration [FDA]. The Caustic Poison Act provided warning labels and antidotes on 10 dangerous or corrosive substances packed in containers for household use." 1931 - Electric Vehicle? - "In 1931, under the financing of Pierce-Arrow and George Westinghouse, a 1931 Pierce-Arrow was selected to be tested at the factory grounds in Buffalo, N.Y. The standard internal combustion engine was removed and an 80-H.P. 1800 r.p.m electric motor installed to the clutch and transmission. [....] This vehicle, powered by an A.C. motor, was driven to speeds of 90 m.p.h. and performed better than any internal combustion engine of its day. One week was spent testing the vehicle. Several newspapers in Buffalo reported this test. When asked where the power came from, Tesla [Nikola Tesla] replied, 'From the ethers all around us.' Several people suggested that Tesla was mad and somehow in league with sinister forces of the universe. He became incensed, removed his mysterious box from the vehicle and returned to his laboratory in New Yor City." [Tim Swartz, The Lost Journals of Nikola Tesla, p. 113] 1931 - Status / World Gold Stock - "U.S. and France hold 75% of world's gold stock. This figure is reached by September. During the previous 6 weeks over �200 million worth of gold was withdrawn from London." [Link: 1 ] 1931 - Gold Standard Abandoned / Britain - "Britain abandons the gold standard. This marks the beginning of the move from classical to Keynesian economics. The Commonwealth [except Canada], Ireland, Scandinavia, Iraq, Portugal, Thailand, and some South American countries follow Britain off gold." [Link: 1 ] 1931 - The Children of Mu / Col. James Churchward - The Children of Mu, by Col. James Churchward [Based on: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/atlantida_mu/esp_lemuria_7.htm] - [T.D. - 11/22/08] 1932 1932 - U.S. Federal Home Loan Banks - "U.S. Federal Home Loan Banks created. Eleven of these banks are set up to provide housing finance." [Link: 1 ] 1932 - Reconstruction Finance Corporation - "President Hoover sets up the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. Its purpose is to provide emergency financing for US financial institutions and to help agriculture, commerce and industry." [Link: 1 ] 1932 - Passed / 20th U.S. Amendment - March 2nd, 1932: "20th U.S. Constitutional amendment ['Presidential, Congressional terms'] passed." [Link: 1 ] 1932 - Goddard Rocket - "Von Braun and his colleagues demonstrated a liquid-fueled rocket to the German Army.  It crashed before the parachute opened, but Von Braun was soon employed to develop liquid fueled rockets for the Army. On April 19th, the first Goddard rocket with gyroscopically controlled vanes was fired.  The vanes gave it automatically stabilized flight. In November, at Stockton N.J., the American Interplanetary Society tested a rocket design that they had adapted from VfR designs."  [Link: 1 ] 1932 - Birth / Casey Kasem - April 27th, 1932: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Announcer, Casey Kasem." 1932 - Summer Olympic Games / Los Angeles - "In 1932, the Summer Olympic Games were held in Los Angeles. Attendence was low, due to the depression. In 1932, the Winter Olympic Games were held in Lake Placid, NY."   1932 - Birth / Richard Dawson - November 20th, 1932: "Richard Dawson (November 20, 1932 – June 2, 2012) was an English-American actor, comedian, game show host and panelist in the United States. He was best known for his role as Corporal Peter Newkirk on Hogan's Heroes, being the original host of the Family Feud game show from 1976–1985 and 1994–1995, and for being a regular panelist on the 1970s version of Match Game on CBS from 1973 to 1978. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawson] 1932 - Major Earthquake / Nevada - December 21st, 1932: "Earthquake location: Cedar Mountain, Nevada. Earthquake magnitude: 7.2. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1932 - Major Earthquake / Gansu, China - December 25th, 1932: "Earthquake location: Gansu, China. Earthquake magnitude: 7.6. Number of recorded fatalities: 70,000." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 208] 1932 - "Council of Nine?" - "We were amazed to discover that links between the modern phenomenon of the Council of Nine and various occult organizations and esotericists such as Synarchy, Aleister Crowley and Alice Bailey had already been brought together with a 'Council of Nine' as far back as the 1930s. Under the bizarre pseudonym of 'inquire within'', research by Christina Stoddard, former head of a schismatic Golden Dawn order called the Stella Matutina, appeared in two books, Light-Bearers of Darkness (1935) and The Trail of the Serpent (1936). They sounded a warning about the creation of new religious belief systems by apparently independent - but in fact connected - groups. Stoddard herself, like Schwaller de Lubicz and Alice Bailey, held extreme right-wing views, but even she was disturbed by what she saw as the increasing iron grip of Synarchy on the esoteric world.    "Stoddard discussed Saint-Yves's Synarchist objectives, specifically the control of the three pillars of society, political, religious and economic institutions. She pointed out that this seemed to be happening in the religious sphere. Unlike the days when Christianity was the only sanctioned religion in the West, there were many different belief systems, making this area harder to control. To reverse this trend, the religions must first be unified, not by trying to supplant them, but by absorbing their main elements and effectively creating a new global religion. The best way of achieving this goal would be for some authoratative and charismatic leader to take control by explaining that God or the gods have, over the course of history, revealed certain truths to different people, which manifested as apparently disparate religions. But they all emanated from the same God. All that was needed was an understanding of the fundamental principles and the higher levels of spirituality to which mankind may now aspire. Tellingly, Stoddard gave as the prime example of this Synarchist synthesis the doctrines of Alice A. Bailey.    "The Trail of the Serpent describes a secret rivalry between Reuben Swinburne Clymer and H. Spencer Lewis, who both claimed to be the legitimate head of American Rosicrucianism. Clymer (a 32nd degree mason), claimed that he had been given his authority by no less a person than the social reformer Paschal Beverly Randolph (1825-75) - a friend of Abraham Lincoln - whom the European Rosicrucians had authorised to take the Order to America in 1852, many years before H. Spencer Lewis founded AMORC. The resulting dispute led to Clymer taking the matter to court, which found in his favor and accepted his registration of the title 'Rosicrucian' in 1935.    "Clymer claimed that the doctrines of his society, the Fraternitas Rosae Crucis, were endorsed by a secret order that directed it from France - called the Council of Nine. He published a letter from them in 1932, which proclaimed:    This is the new Dispensation, and the work of the Spiritual and Mystical Fraternities must be re-established throughout the world, so that all peoples may be taught the Law and thereby enabled to apply it towards universal improvement as the only means of saving mankind... We, the Council of Nine, have selected your organization, as one of the oldest in America, to help do this work. [The Stargate Conspiracy, Lynn Picknett & Clive Prince, pp. 287-288]" 1932 - Particle Accelerator - "First particle accelerator built by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton." [Based on: Ultimate Visual Dictionary of Science, Timeline of Discoveries, p. 15, Barnes & Noble Books - 2005] 1932 - Cost of Mailing a Letter? / U.S.A. - "Cost of stamp for mailing a letter in U.S.A.: 3 cents." [Based on: S.L.P.D. article (Cost of mailing a letter will jump to 39 cents next week [January 2006]), p. C1, S.L.P.D., 01/03/06] 1932 - Examples of Genocide / Soviet Union - 1932-1933: "Soviet Union: About 7 million Ukranians killed." [Based on: Reuters, World Almanac and KRT - St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. A12, 06/26/05] *Trivia: "Parliament adopted a bill Tuesday [11/28/06] recognizing the Soviet-era forced famine as an act of genocide against the Ukrainian people in a vote seen as a victory for pro-Western President Viktor Yushchenko. [NP] The 1932-33 famine, known here as 'Holodomor' or 'Death by Hunger,' was orchestrated by Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin and killed 10 million Ukranians, almost one-third of its population at the time. [NP] The recognition opens the door to potential legal consequences, including compensation for famine victims and recognition of the famine by the United Nations as genocide against Ukrainian people. Ten countries, including the United States, have already recognized the famine as genocide. [NP] Moscow strongly opposes calling the famine genocide, contending that it did not specifically target Ukranians." [Based on: News Services article ('Holodomor' is ruled an act of genocide), p. A12, S.L.P.D., 11/29/06] 1932 - Earthquake Trivia / 1932 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2. Number of earthquake deaths: 70,000." - E.M. 1933 1933 - The "Great Purge" / Russia - "After forming the KGB, Stalin began to realize that many of his own generals and officials believed that he had betrayed Lenin, and were conspiring to have him removed from power. Stalin immediately ordered the KGB to begin mass executions of certain high ranking officials and the exile of others. The period from 1933-1937 became known as the 'Great Purge.' " 1933 - Passed / 21st U.S. Amendment - January 20th, 1933: "21st U.S. Constitutional amendment ['Amendment 18 repealed'] passed." [Link: 1 ] 1933 - Ratified / 20th U.S. Amendment - January 23rd, 1933: "20th U.S. Constitutional amendment ['Presidential, Congressional terms'] ratified." [Link: 1 ] 1933 - Birth / Yoko Ono - February 18th, 1933: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Yoko Ono." 1933 - Premiere / "King Kong" - "Entertainment highlights during the week of Feb. 26-March 4: 'King Kong,' starring Fay Wray, had its New York City premiere." [Based on: A.P. article, p. C5, S.L.P.D., 02/27/06] 1933 - Great Earthquake / Sanriku, Japan - March 2nd, 1933: "Earthquake location: Sanriku, Japan. Earthquake magnitude: 8.4. Number of recorded fatalities: 2,990."   1933 - U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt - March 4th, 1933: "The 32nd American President, Franklin D. Roosevelt [Democrat], begins his term." *Trivia: "In 1933, the U.S. government did what no one would tolerate today. By executive order, it confiscated private property. Specifically, under Franklin D. Roosevelt's Presidential Order No. 6102, Americans were required to turn in all the gold they owned. The purpose of the order was 'to provide relief in the existing national emergency in banking, and for other purposes.' [....] That year, 1933, marked the last time gold coins were minted for general circulation. [....]" [Based on: Article by Peter Rexford, p. C3, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 09/05/05] 1933 - New Deal - "Roosevelt launches his New Deal. Roosevelt's first action is to declare a national bank holiday closing every bank in the U.S. After a week the Federal Reserve Banks reopen and later other banks are allowed to reopen if investigators declare them solvent. This restoration of confidence in the financial system is a necessary preliminary to the New Deal involving aid to industry and agriculture." [Link: 1 ] 1933 - Status / Unemployment, U.S.A. - March 1933: "Between 1929 and 1933 American industrial production dropped 48.7 per cent. The American National Research League estimated the number of jobless in March 1933 was 17,920,000. In Germany there were more than six million unemployed." 1933 - Birth / Ruth Bader Ginsburg - March 11th, 1933: "Reportedly born on this date in history: U.S. Supreme Court Justice, Ruth Bader Ginsburg." [*check date] 1933 - Strong Earthquake / Long Beach, California - March 11th, 1933: "Earthquake location: Long Beach, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.4. Number of recorded fatalities: 115."   *Trivia: "March 10th, 1933: "An earthquake near Long Beach, Calif., measured 6.4, 1933." [Based on: The Old Farmer's Almanac (2006) by Robert B. Thomas, p. 105] 1933 - Birth / Carol Burnett - April 26th, 1933: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress-comedian, Carol Burnett." 1933 - Birth / Willie Nelson - April 30th, 1933: "Willie Hugh Nelson (born April 30, 1933)[1] is an American country music singer-songwriter, as well as an author, poet, actor, and activist. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Nelson] 1933 - Birth / James Brown - May 3rd, 1933: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, James Brown." 1933 - Drive-In Movie Theater / U.S.A. - Entertainment highlights during the week of June 1st - 7th, 1933: The first drive-in movie theater opened, in Camden, N.J. [Based on: A.P. article ( THAT WAS THE WEEK THAT WAS ), p. E3, S.L.P.D., 06/03/08] 1933 - Birth / Joan Rivers - June 8th, 1933: "Reportedly born (Gemini) on this date in history: Comedian, Joan Rivers." 1933 - Birth / Gene Wilder - June 11th, 1933: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Gene Wilder." 1933 - Nazi Party / Germany - "The Nazi party takes power in Germany." 1933 - Status / German Camps - "Professor Tansill, of Georgetown University, who had access to all the secret papers of the State Department, wrote in his book, and quoted from a State Department document written by Hugo Schoenfelt, a Jew whom Cordell Hull sent to Europe in 1933 to investigate the so-called camps of political prisoners, who wrote back that he found them in very fine condition. They were in excellent shape, with everybody treated well. And they were filled with Communists. Well, a lot of them were Jews, because the Jews happened to comprise about 98 per cent of the Communists in Europe at that time. And there were some priests there, and ministers, and labor leaders, and Masons, and others who had international affiliations." [Benjamin H. Freedman]  1933 - German Chancellor Adolf Hitler  - "Adolf Hitler becomes German Chancellor. The social turmoil resulting from mass unemployment leads to Hitler's installation as Chancellor. Thereafter Germany's financial system and the economy in general are geared to rearmament." [Link: 1 ] 1933 - Holy War Against Germany? - July, 1933: "After a while, the Jews of the world called a meeting in Amsterdam. Jews from every country in the world attended this meeting in July 1933. And they said to Germany: 'You fire Hitler, and you put every Jew back into his former position, whether he was a Communist or no matter what he was. You can't treat us that way. And we, the Jews of the world, are serving an ultimatum upon you.' You can imagine what the Germans told them. So what did the Jews do?    "In 1933, when Germany refused to surrender to the world conference of Jews in Amsterdam, the conference broke up, and Mr. Samuel Untermyer, who was the head of the American delegation and the president of the whole conference, came to the United States and went from the steamer to the studios of the Columbia Broadcasting System and made a radio broadcast throughout the United States in which he in effect said, 'The Jews of the world now declare a Holy War against Germany. We are now engaged in a sacred conflict against the Germans. And we are going to starve them into surrender. We are going to use a world-wide boycott against them. That will destroy them because they are dependent upon their export business.    "And it is a fact that two thirds of Germany's food supply had to be imported, and it could only be imported with the proceeds of what they exported. So if Germany could not export, two thirds of Germany's population would have to starve. There was just not enough food for more than one third of the population." [Benjamin H. Freedman]  1933 - Popeye the Sailor Man - Entertainment highlights during the week of July 13-19, 1933: Popeye the sailor man appeared in his first cartoon. [Based on: A.P. article ( THE WEEK THAT WAS ), p. E2, S.L.P.D., 07/15/08] 1933 - Boycott Status / Germany - August 1933: "Now in this declaration, which I have here, and which was printed in the New York Times on August 7, 1933, Mr. Samuel Untermyer boldly stated that 'this economic boycott is our means of self-defense. President Roosevelt has advocated its use in the National Recovery Administration,' which some of you may remember, where everybody was to be boycotted unless he followed the rules laid down by the New Deal, and which was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of that time.    "Nevertheless, the Jews of the world declared a boycott against Germany, and it was so effective that you couldn't find one thing in any store anywhere in the world with the words 'made in Germany' on it. In fact, an executive of the Woolworth Company told me that they had to dump millions of dollars worth of crockery and dishes into the river; that their stores were boycotted if anyone came in and found a dish marked 'made in Germany,' they were picketed with signs saying 'Hitler,' 'murderer,' and so forth, something like these sit-ins that are taking place in the South." [Benjamin H. Freedman]  1933 - Birth / Jerry Falwell - August 11th, 1933: "Reportedly born on this date in history: The Rev. Jerry Falwell." 1933 - Local Currency Prohibited / Austria - "The Austrian National Bank on September 1, 1933, prohibited the printing of any local currency." [Based on: article by Juri Lina, The Barnes Review, September/October 2004, p. 13] 1933 - Birth / Robert Blake - September 18th, 1933: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Robert Blake." 1933 - Enters College? / Paul Twitchell - September, 1933: "What I [David Lane] do know is that Stephen D. House, Registrar at Western Kentucky University, writes that Twitchell entered college in September 1933 at the recorded age of 22. [....] Take another look [D.M. now speaking to D.L.] at that letter from the Registrar at Western Kentucky University. It doesn't say what you think. It says that Paul listed his age as 22 upon his 'admission' to Western State, not when Paul entered college. Also, the Registrar includes the correction to an earlier error he had made when he writes that Paul attended Western State from September 1933 through January 1935, "not from September, 1932, as given in my earlier correspondence. [NP] Why did he make that error? Was it because in fact the Sept. 1932 date was the date of Paul's admission? Admission does take place before attending, correct? Paul would have been 22 on Sept. 1932, if he was born Oct. 1909, right? [NP] The 1933-35 date for Paul attending Western State does match the Who's Who bio." [See: http://www.littleknownpubs.com/Dialog_careers1.htm] 1933 - Birth / Larry King - November 19th, 1933: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Talk show host, Larry King." 1933 - Major Earthquake / Baffin Bay, Canada - November 20th, 1933: "Earthquake location: Baffin Bay, Canada. Earthquake magnitude: 7.4. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1933 - Birth / Tim Conway - December 15th, 1933: "Thomas Daniel 'Tim' Conway ... is an Emmy award-winning American comedian and actor, who has worked in sitcoms, sketch comedy and film. [...] Conway was born in Willoughby, Ohio, a suburb of Cleveland, to a Romanian mother, and grew up in nearby Chagrin Falls.[2] [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Conway] 1933 - Ratified / 21st U.S. Amendment - December 15th, 1933: "21st U.S. Constitutional amendment ['Amendment 18 repealed'] ratified." [Link: 1 ] 1933 - Julian P. Johnson / Beas India - "Johnson [Julian P. Johnson], a native Kentuckian and distinguished surgeon, left his medical practice in California and traveled to Beas, India, in order to serve his guru, Sawan Singh. From 1933 to 1939, Johnson devoted much of his time to writing about his master and his experiences in the Radha Soami path." [See link: ] *Trivia: "That religions often evolve out of other past religions is a well known phenomenon: witness Christianity's emergence from Judaism. What is not so well known, however, is how certain religions try to genealogically dissociate themselves from their historical roots. Eckankar is a classic case in point.    "Founded in 1965 by Paul Twitchell, one-time disciple of Swami Premananda, Kirpal Singh and L. Ron Hubbard, Eckankar owes much of its theology to Radhasoami. Indeed, as Lane, Melton, and others have pointed out, most of Paul Twitchell's writings are derived from two Radhasoami publications, With a Great Master in India and The Path of the Masters (both authored by Julian P. Johnson in the 1930s). Certainly, it is not surprising that religious doctrines can at times appear to be similar, but what is surprising is when a religion which has borrowed much of its history, doctrine, and terminology from another tries to consciously deny its putative association. [....]" [Based on: http://www.geocities.com/eckcult/rsch3.html] 1933 - Movie Contract / Shirley Temple - Entertainment highlights during the week of December 17th-23rd, 1933: "Five-year-old Shirley Temple signed a movie contract with Fox. Her age was later changed to make her appear a year younger." [Based on: A.P. article ( THE WEEK THAT WAS ), p. D5, S.L.P.D., 12/18/06] 1933 - FDA Revision - "The FDA expressed the need for a complete revision of the basic Act of 1906. The first bill was introduced in the Senate, launching a 5-year legislative battle." 1933 - Kurt Lewin / U.S.A. - [....] [...] A German refugee, Kurt Lewin, became director of Tavistock in 1932. He came to the U.S. in 1933 as a "refugee", the first of many infiltrators, and set up the Harvard Psychology Clinic, which originated the propaganda campaign to turn the American public against Germany and involve us in World War II. In 1938, Roosevelt executed a secret agreement with Churchill which in effect ceded U.S. sovereignty to England, because it agreed to let Special Operations Executive control U.S. policies. To implement this agreement, Roosevelt sent General Donovan to London for indoctrination before setting up OSS (now the CIA) under the aegis of SOE-SIS. The entire OSS program, as well as the CIA has always worked on guidelines set up by the Tavistock Institute. [....] [Based on: barefootsworld.net article ( - TAVISTOCK - THE BEST KEPT SECRET IN AMERICA / CONSPIRATORS' HIERARCHY: THE STORY OF THE COMMITTEE OF 300 ) by Dr. John Coleman, 08/18/97] - [T.D. 12/02/06] - [see link] *Link: http://www.barefootsworld.net/tavistok.html  1933 - A.I.S. No. 2 Rocket - "At Stanten Island, New York, the American Interplanetary Society launched it's No. 2 rocket, and watched it attain 250 feet in altitude in 2 seconds." [Link: 1 ] 1933 - Solid & Liquid Fuel Rocket -  "The Soviets launched a new rocket fueled by solid and liquid fuels, which reached a height of 400 meters.  The launch took place near Moscow." [Link: 1 ]  1933 - U.S. Agricultural Adjustment Act - "Existing financial institutions are given greater resources and their efforts coordinated through the Farm Credit Association. The Thomas Amendment to the Act authorizes an increase in note circulation, a reduction in the dollar's gold value, and promotes and subsidizes official purchases of silver." [Link: 1 ] 1933 - U.S. Home Owners Loan Corporation - "U.S. Home Owners Loan Corporation created. Like the Federal Home Loans Banks created the previous year this institution is intended to combat the depression by stimulating the building industry." [Link: 1 ] 1933 - U.S. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation - "U.S. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation created. Through payments of a small premium by practically all banks a fund is set up to guarantee repayment of customers' deposits." [Link: 1 ] 1933 - The Sacred Symbols of Mu / Col. James Churchward - The Sacred Symbols of Mu, by Col. James Churchward. [Based on: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/atlantida_mu/esp_lemuria_7.htm] - [T.D. - 11/22/08] 1933 - Earthquake Trivia / 1933 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 3. Number of earthquake deaths: 3,000." - E.M. 1934 1934 - U.S. Gold Reserve Act - "The official price of gold is raised from $20.67 to $35 per ounce, a substantial devaluation of the dollar, and the internal circulation of gold is ended." [Link: 1 ] 1934 - U.S. Silver Purchase Act - "The Act obliges the government to buy large quantities of silver. This raises its price in world markets to such an extent that China is forced off its silver standard and many other countries demonetize their silver currencies. Thus in the long run the Act reduces the demand for silver, contrary to the intention of its supporters." [Link: 1 ] 1934 - Trivia / GULAG, Russia - "By 1934 the GULAG, or Main Directorate for Corrective Labor Camps, then under the Cheka's successor organization the NKVD, had several million inmates. Prisoners included murderers, thieves, and other common criminals-along with political and religious dissenters. The GULAG, whose camps were located mainly in remote regions of Siberia and the Far North, made significant contributions to the Soviet economy in the period of Joseph Stalin. GULAG prisoners constructed the White Sea-Baltic Canal, the Moscow-Volga Canal, the Baikal-Amur main railroad line, numerous hydroelectric stations, and strategic roads and industrial enterprises in remote regions. GULAG manpower was also used for much of the country's lumbering and for the mining of coal, copper, and gold. Stalin constantly increased the number of projects assigned to the NKVD, which led to an increasing reliance on its labor. The GULAG also served as a source of workers for economic projects independent of the NKVD, which contracted its prisoners out to various economic enterprises. Conditions in the camps were extremely harsh. Prisoners received inadequate food rations and insufficient clothing, which made it difficult to endure the severe weather and the long working hours; sometimes the inmates were physically abused by camp guards. As a result, the death rate from exhaustion and disease in the camps was high." [Link: 1 ] 1934 - Trivia / FM Radio - January 5th, 1940: "Edwin H. Armstrong gave the first formal demonstration of FM radio to the Federal Communications Commission on January 5, 1940. Armstrong had completed his first field test of the technology on June 9, 1934: on May 20, 1940, the FCC officially took Channel 1 off the television band and allotted it to FM. The FCC assigned FM the frequencies between 42 and 50 MHz, enough for 40 FM channels, and authorized commercial service beginning January 1, 1941." [Based on: Leo Laporte's 2005 Technology Almanac, p. 7] 1934 - Great Earthquake / Bihar, India - January 15th, 1934: "Earthquake location: Bihar, India. Earthquake magnitude: 8.1. Number of recorded fatalities: 10,700."   1934 - Birth / Hank Aaron - February 5th, 1934: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Baseball Hall-of-Famer, Hank Aaron." 1934 - Birth / Tina Louise - February 11th, 1934: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress, Tina Louise." 1934 - Birth / Florence Henderson - February 14th, 1934: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress, Florence Henderson." *Links: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Henderson 1934 - Birth / Ralph Nader - February 27th, 1934: "Ralph Nader ... is an American political activist, as well as an author, lecturer, and attorney. [...] Nader was born in Winsted, Connecticut. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Nader] 1934 - Birth / Sam Donaldson - March 11th, 1934: "Reportedly born on this date in history: ABC News correspondent, Sam Donaldson." 1934 - Birth / Shirley Jones - March 31st, 1934: "Shirley Mae Jones ... is an American singer and actress of stage, film and television. [...] Jones was born in Charleroi, Pennsylvania, a suburb of Pittsburgh, to Methodist parents Marjorie (n�e Williams), a homemaker, and Paul Jones, owners of the Jones Brewing Company. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Jones] 1934 - Birth / Shirley MacLaine - April 24th, 1934: "Shirley MacLean Beaty (born April 24, 1934), known professionally as Shirley MacLaine, is an American film and theater actress, singer, dancer, activist and author, well known for her beliefs in New Age spirituality and reincarnation. She has written a large number of autobiographical works, many dealing with her spiritual beliefs as well as her Hollywood career. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_MacLaine] 1934 - Strong Earthquake / Parkfield, California - June 8th, 1934: "Earthquake location: Parkfield, California. Earthquake magnitude: 6.1. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1934 - Birth / Jamie Farr - July 1st, 1934: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Jamie Farr." 1934 - Birth / H. Norman Schwarzkopf - August 22nd, 1934: "Reportedly born on this date in history: U.S. Gen H. Norman Schwarzkopf." 1934 - Birth / Barbara Eden - August 23rd, 1934: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress ('I Dream of Jeannie'), Barbara Eden." 1934 - Birth / Sophia Loren - September 20th, 1934: "Sophia Loren (... born Sofia Villani Scicolone on 20 September 1934) is an Italian actress. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia_Loren] 1934 - Birth / Brigitte Bardot - September 28th, 1934: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress, Brigitte Bardot." 1934 - Birth / Julie Andrews - October 1st, 1934: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress-singer, Julie Andrews." 1934 - Trivia / A-2 Rockets - "In December, Von Braun and his associates launched 2 A-2 rockets, both to heights of 1.5 miles." [Link: 1 ]  1934 - With a Great Master in India - "With a Great Master in India, by Julian P. Johnson, was originally published in 1934. Subsequently published: Beas, India: Radha Soami Satsang Beas, 1982." - E.M. *Links: http://www.scribd.com/doc/30324325/Julian-Johnson-With-a-Great-Master-in-India 1934 - Founded / Philosophical Research Society - "[....] In 1934 Manly P. Hall founded the Philosophical Research Society in Los Angeles, California, dedicating it to an idealistic approach to the solution of human problems. The PRS claims to be non-sectarian and entirely free from educational, political, or ecclesiastical control, the Society's programs stress the need for the integration of philosophy, religion, and science into one system of instruction. The PRS Library, a public facility devoted to source materials in obscure fields, has many rare and scarce items now impossible to obtain elsewhere. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manly_P._Hall] 1934 - Cosmic Forces of Mu / Col. James Churchward - Cosmic Forces of Mu [in two parts, 1934-35], by Col. James Churchward. [Based on: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/atlantida_mu/esp_lemuria_7.htm] - [T.D. - 11/22/08] 1934 - Earthquake Trivia / 1934 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2. Number of earthquake deaths: 10,700." - E.M. 1935 1935 - U.S. Banking Act - "The changes this makes in the Federal Reserve System have the effect of shifting power away from New York and the Federal Reserve Districts towards Washington." [Link: 1 ] 1935 - Birth / John Denver - January 9th, 1935: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Bob Denver." 1935 - Trivia / Soviet Famine - [....] One of the principal but little known operations of the Rockefeller Foundation has been its techniques for controlling world agriculture. Its director, Kenneth Wernimont, set up Rockefeller controlled agricultural programs throughout Mexico and Latin America. The independent farmer is a great threat to the World Order, because he produces for himself, and because his produce can be converted into capital, which gives him independence. In Soviet Russia, the Bolsheviks believed they had attained total control over the people; they were dismayed to find their plans threatened by the stubborn independence of the small farmers, the Kulaks. Stalin ordered the OGPU to seize all food and animals of the Kulaks, and to starve them out. The Chicago American, February 25, 1935 carried a front page headline, SIX MILLION PERISH IN SOVIET FAMINE; Peasants' Crops Seized, They and their Animals Starve. To draw attention from this atrocity, it was later alleged that the Germans, not the Soviets, had killed six million people, the number taken from the Chicago American headline by a Chicago publicist. [....] [...] Just as in the Soviet Union, in the early 1930s, when Stalin ordered the Kulaks to give up their small plots of land to live and work on the collective farms, the American small farmer faces the same type of extermination, being forced to give up his small plot of land to become a hired hand for the big agricultural trusts. The Brookings Institution and other foundations originated the monetary programs implemented by the Federal Reserve System to destroy the American farmer, a replay of the Soviet tragedy in Russia, with one proviso that the farmer will be allowed to survive if he becomes a slave worker of the giant trusts. [....] [Based on: barefootsworld.net article ( - TAVISTOCK - THE BEST KEPT SECRET IN AMERICA / CONSPIRATORS' HIERARCHY: THE STORY OF THE COMMITTEE OF 300 ) by Dr. John Coleman, 08/18/97] - [T.D. 12/02/06] - [see link] *Link: http://www.barefootsworld.net/tavistok.html  1935 - Launch / Goddard Rocket - "In March, a rocket of Robert Goddard's exceeded the speed of sound." [Link: 1 ]  1935 - Major Earthquake / Taiwan (Formosa) - April 21st, 1935: "Earthquake location: Taiwan (Formosa). Earthquake magnitude: 7.4. Number of recorded fatalities: 3,276."  [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 208] 1935 - Launch / Goddard Rocket - "In May, Goddard launched one of his gyro-controlled rockets to a height of 7500 feet, in New Mexico." [Link: 1 ]   1935 - Major Earthquake / Quetta, India - May 30th, 1935: "Earthquake location: Quetta, India. Earthquake magnitude: 7.5. Number of recorded fatalities: 50,000."  [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 208] 1935 - 1st Film / Jimmy Stewart - Entertainment highlights during the week of July 9th-15th, 1935: Jimmy Stewart's first film, "The Murder Man," opened. [Based on: A.P. article, p. C2, S.L.P.D., 07/10/06] 1935 - Launch / Russian Liquid Powered Rocket - "In 1935, the Russians fired a liquid powered rocket that achieved a height of over eight miles." [Link : 1 ]  1935 - Signed / U.S. Social Security Act - August 14th, 1935: "Social Security Act passes. But Franklin D. Roosevelt responds to pressure from the American Medical Association, the insurance industry and business by cutting national health insurance from the legislation." [Source: Institute of Medicine, 10/04/04] 2011 - Birth / Ron Paul - August 20th, 1935: "Reportedly born this date in history: Ron Paul." 1935 - Birth / Frank Robinson - August 31st, 1935: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Baseball Hall-of-Famer, Frank Robinson." 1935 - Birth / Jerry Lee Lewis - September 28th, 1935: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Jerry Lee Lewis." 1935 - Birth / Julie Andrews - October 1st, 1935: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer-actress, Julie Andrews." 1935 - Birth / Peter Boyle - October 18th, 1935: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor ('Everybody Loves Raymond' [the Grandfather]), Peter Boyle." 1935 - Strong Earthquake / Quebec, Canada - November 1st, 1935: "Earthquake location: Timiskaming, Quebec, Canada. Earthquake magnitude: 6.2. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1935 - Birth / Woody Allen - December 1st, 1935: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor-director, Woody Allen." 1935 - Birth / Phil Donahue - December 21st, 1935: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Talk show host, Phil Donahue." 1935 - Founded / Tyson Foods - "[....] Tyson Foods was founded in 1935 with headquarters in Springdale, Ark. It produces [2005] chicken, beef and pork products and has about 114,000 employees in the United States and worldwide." [Based on: S.L.P.D. article, p. C2, 08/09/05] 1935 - Advent of ECKANKAR - "Since the advent of ECKANKAR into the modern world, starting about 1935, the crises in human affairs have become more intense and now seem at the bursting point. It appears that this ancient teaching which has made its way back into the attention of the world, after lying dormant for centuries, is here for a purpose. That is to bring a stronger spiritual strength to all those who become  its followers. [....] The Ancient One, the agent of God, whom we call the Messiah, or the Godman, appears in the world with every new age. Now he has appeared with the age-old teachings of ECK, which will give the human race a spiritual boost, taking many over the crisis into the realm of God. The way will be perfectly clear now that many can see where the path of God is leading them." [Based on: ECKANKAR, Compiled Writings Volume 1, Paul Twitchell - Copyright 1975 by Gail T. Gross, p. 123] 1935 - Meeting? / Paul Twitchell & Sudar Singh - "[....] Paul was learning how to put the truths he found on the inner planes into writing. He had a very difficult time figuring out a way to present Eckankar to this society. The earliest mention of his use of the word Eckankar was about 1960 or 1961. He said he had come across the teachings through Sudar Singh in a general way as early as 1935, then studied them in depth with Rebazar Tarzs starting in 1951. But the teachings were difficult for him to bring out, because nobody cared. [....]" [Based on: Article (Getting the ECK Message Out) by Harold Klemp - see link] *Link: http://www.eckankar.org/Masters/Peddar/man.html#training 1935 - Birth / Mahmoud Abbas - "Reportedly born this year in history: Palestinian Authority leader, Mahmoud Abbas. Abbas was born in Safed, in what is now Israel." 1935 - Atmospheric Ceiling? - STETSON SPEAKS ABOUT ATMOSPHERIC CEILING / NO MAN-CARRYING BALLOON CAN REACH IONOSPHERE / Published: Thursday, December 05, 1935 http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1935/12/5/stetson-speaks-about-atmospheric-ceiling-pstating/ 1935 - Introduced / Monoploy Board Game - "In 1935, Parker Bros. introduced Monopoly, a real estate trading game that has gone on to become the world's best-selling game, with more than 250 million copies sold in more than 80 countries to date [2006]. [....]" [Based on: Other Views page article (The Atlantic City of Monopoly: It's the real thing) by Rod Kennedy Jr., p. C11, S.L.P.D., 06/08/06] 1935: - Category 5 Hurricane / Florida Keys - "[....] Since 1928, only 28 Category 5 hurricanes have formed in the Atlantic Ocean and, of those, only eight have struck land, three of them in the United States. Those three were an unnamed strom that hit the Florida Keys in 1935; Camille, which hit Mississippi in 1969; and Andrew, which struck southern Florida in 1992." [Based on: News Services article, p. A7, S.L.P.D., 09/22/05] 1935  - Monsanto PCB Contamination, Alabama - "An Alabama jury found Monsanto and its corporate successors [Solutia Inc.] guilty [February 2002] of releasing tons of PCBs in Anniston between 1935-1979." 1935 - Hurricane Trivia / 1935 - "Number of notable hurricanes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1935 - Earthquake Trivia / 1935 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 3. Number of earthquake deaths: 53,276." - E.M. 1936 1936 - Birth / Alan Alda - January 28th, 1936: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Alan Alda." 1936 - Birth / Burt Reynolds - February 11th, 1936: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Burt Reynolds." 1936 - Born / Brad Steiger - February 19th, 1936: Steiger was born on 19 February 1936 in Fort Dodge, Iowa, to a mother and father who were farmers. He claims to have lived "in a haunted house with thumps, bumps, doors opening and closing, and men and women walking around all night in period costume." [....] He began writing when he was a school teacher in his native Iowa when he had writings published in Fate Magazine and other publications. [....] *Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Steiger - [T.D. - 01/17/10] *Trivia: Popular writer on UFOs, reincarnation, and related paranormal subjects. Steiger was born Eugene E. Olson on February 19, 1936, in Bode, Iowa. He was educated at Luther College (1953-57) and the University of Iowa (1963). From 1957 to 1963 he was a high school English teacher in Clinton, Iowa, and then a literature and creative writing instructor at Luther College, Decorah, Iowa, from 1963 to 1967. In 1965 his first book, Ghosts, Ghouls and Other Peculiar People, was published. A series of paperbacks began to appear in 1966, and in 1967 Steiger became a full-time writer and lecturer on paranormal and ufological subjects. [....] [Based on: http://www.novelguide.com/a/discover/eop_02/eop_02_04325.html - [T.D. - 01/17/10] *Links: http://www.bradandsherry.com/brad.htm 1936 - Jet Propulsion Laboratory - March 1936: "Scientists from the California Institute of Technology began rocket testing near Pasadena, CA.  This marked the beginning of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.  The Smithsonian Institution printed Robert Goddard's famous report, 'Liquid Propellant Rocket Development,' in March." [Link: 1 ]   1936 - Died / Sri Yukteswar - March 9th, 1936: "In 1935, Yogananda returned to India for a last visit with his great guru (right). (Sri Yukteswar passed away on March 9, 1936.) Traveling by ship and automobile through Europe, Palestine, and Egypt, he arrived in Bombay in the summer of 1935." *Link?: http://www.ananda.org/autobiography/ 1936 - Birth / Antonin Scalia - March 11th, 1936: "Reportedly born on this date in history: U.S. Supreme Court Justice, Antonin Scalia." 1936 - "Back In The Saddle Again" / Gene Autry - Entertainment highlights during the week of April 15-21, 1936: Singing cowboy Gene Autry recorded "Back In The Saddle Again." [Based on: A.P. article, p. B3, S.L.P.D., 04/16/07] 1936 - Birth / Glen Campbell - April 22nd, 1936: Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Glen Campbell. 1936 - Flooding / New England - Spring, 1936: "[....] In the spring of 1936, torrential rain over 13 days caused flooding in New England that was blamed for 150 to 200 deaths." [Based on: A.P. article (New England flooding could be the worst since 1930s), p. A2, S.L.P.D., 05/16/06] 1936 - Civil War / Spain - July 18th, 1936: "The Spanish Civil War begins." 1936 - Birth / Kris Kristofferson - June 22nd, 1936: "Kristoffer Kristian "Kris" Kristofferson (born June 22, 1936) is an American country music singer, songwriter and musician as well as a film actor. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris_Kristofferson] 1936 - Birth / John McCain - August 29th, 1936: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Sen. [R.-Ariz.] John McCain." 1936 - Olympic Games / Berlin, Germany - "In 1936, the Olympic Games were held in Berlin, Germany."   *Trivia: "The very first Olympic torch relay was conceived by Carl Diem, the organizer of the 1936 Berlin Olympics, and staged by Joseph Goebbels, head of the Nazi propoganda machine for Adolf Hitler. Sadly, it went off without a hitch. [....] Since 1936, when the Berlin Olympics served as Hitler's coming-out party, the Olympics have had geopolitical ramifications. There's too much symbolism, too much money and too much international prestige on the line. That's what makes this situation rife with opportunity. [....]" [Based on: Opinion Page article ( OUR VIEW OLYMPICS ) p. C6, S.L.P.D., 04/08/08] 1936 - Birth / David Carradine - December 8th, 1936: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, David Carradine." 1936 - Birth / Mary Tyler Moore - December 29th, 1936: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress, Mary Tyler Moore." 1936 - The Flaming Door: Mission of the Celtic Fold Soul - The Flaming Door: Mission of the Celtic Fold Soul, by Eleanor C. Merry, 1936. Quotes: "And that which came to meet the soul (as light and sound come to meet our outer eyes and ears) was called HU, the spiritual world." (p. 137) "The God HU was the all-ruling Divinity of Western Celtic mythology. He represented the power and the glory of the spiritual world." (p. 153) "The Mysteries of HU revealed the other pole of human life: the ascent out of the body into the 'glorified' state of expansion of the consciousness in the spiritual world." (p. 153) "And HU could bring music to the consciousness of waking man and teach it to him, because he himself could hear in sleep the harmonies of the spheres, and his passage from waking to sleeping to waking was unbroken by any obliteration of consciousness. This was always the summit of initiation experience." (p. 165) *Link: http://www.sourcetext.com/hupage/Secular/secular.html - [T.D. - 12/08/10] 1937 - Paul Twitchell / Paducah, Kentucky - Reportedly home during the flood of 1937. *Link: http://www.thetruth-seeker.com/scanindexsubAcss.aspx?indexID=21 1937 - Trivia / Goddard Rocket - "Von Braun and his team relocated to a special, purpose-built rocket testing facility at Peenemunde on the Baltic Coast of Germany. Russia established rocket test centers in Leningrad, Moscow and Kazan. Goddard watched one of his rockets fly to higher than 9,000 feet, on March 27. This was the highest altitude attained by any of the Goddard Rockets." [Link: 1 ]   1937 - Birth / Tom Smothers - February 2nd, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Comedian, Tom Smothers." 1937 - Broken Levee / Mississippi River - January 25th, 1937: "After engineers blew up the Birds Point levee in 1937, the Ohio River fell 1 foot over three days at Cairo, Ill. It rebounded 2 feet before cresting one cold, miserable week later. [....]" [Based on: Article (For misery, 1937 was worse, and deadly / Broken levee, broken lives - Population was much higher then, and dozens died or lost their lives.) by Tim O'Neil, p. A8, S.L.P.D., 05/04/11] 1937 - Birth / Colin Powell - April 5th, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former U.S. Secretary of State, Colin Powell." 1937 - Birth / Seymour Hersh - April 8th, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Investigative reporter, Seymour Hersh." 1937 - Birth / George Takei - April 20th, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor ("Star Trek" - Mr. Sulu), George Takei." 1937 - Birth / Jack Nicholson - April 22nd, 1937: "John Joseph 'Jack' Nicholson (born April 22, 1937) is an American actor, film director, producer and writer. He is renowned for his often dark portrayals of neurotic characters. His twelve Oscar nominations make him the second most nominated actor of all time, behind only Meryl Streep, and tied with Katharine Hepburn. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Nicholson] - [T.D. - 04/22/12] 1937 - Birth / Saddam Hussein - April 28th, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: The former president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein." 1937 - German Austria - "Adolf Hitler annexed Austria in 1937 and swept into Poland two years later." 1937 - Birth / George Carlin - May 12th, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Comedian, George Carlin." 1937 - Considerable Energy / Nikola Tesla - July 11th, 1937: "I have devoted much of my time during the year past to the perfecting of a new small and compact apparatus by which energy in considerable amounts can now be flashed through interstellar space to any distance without the slightest dispersion." [Nikola Tesla, New York Times, July 11th, 1937] 1937 - Birth / Bill Cosby - July 12th, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Comedian, Bill Cosby." 1937 - Revelation / Nikola Tesla - July 12th, 1937: "The kinetic and potential energy of a body is the result of motion and determined by the product of its mass and the square of its velocity. Let the mass be reduced, the energy is reduced by the same proportion. If it be reduced to zero, the energy is likewise zero for any finite velocity." [Nikola Tesla, New York Sun, July 12th, 1937, p. 13] 1937 - Major Earthquake / Salcha, Alaska - July 22nd, 1937: "Earthquake location: Salcha, Alaska. Earthquake magnitude: 7.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1937 - Birth / Peter Jennings - July 29th, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: ABC News anchorman, Peter Jennings." 1937 - Birth / Dustin Hoffman - August 8th, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Dustin Hoffman." 1937 - Birth / Robert Redford - August 18th, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Robert Redford." 1937 - Pluto / Leo - October 7th, 1937: Pluto at 0 degrees Leo; November 26th, R. ... *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1937.pdf 1937 - Birth / Loretta Swit - November 4th, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress, Loretta Swit." 1937 - Birth / Marlo Thomas - November 21st, 1937: "Margaret Julia 'Marlo' Thomas (born November 21, 1937) is an American actress, producer, and social activist known for her starring role on the TV series That Girl (1966–1971). She also serves as National Outreach Director for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. [NP] Thomas was born in Detroit, Michigan, the eldest child of comedian Danny Thomas (1912–1991) and his wife, the former Rose Marie Cassaniti (1914–2000). [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlo_Thomas] 1937 - Premiere / "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" - December, 1937: "Entertainment highlights during the week of Dec. 19-25: The Walt Disney annimated movie 'Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs' [Disney's first full-length animated film in color] premiered in Los Angeles." [Based on: A.P. articles, 12/20/04 & 12/18/06] 1937 - Birth / Jane Fonda - December 21st, 1937: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress, Jane Fonda." 1937 - U.S. Food & Drug Law - "Elixir of sulfanilamide killed 107 persons, showing the need to establish drug safety before marketing and to enact the pending food and drug law." 1937 - Earthquake Trivia / 1937 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1." - E.M. 1938 1938 - Anti-Semitism / Germany - "The boycott continued for some time, but it wasn't until 1938, when a young Jew from Poland walked into the German embassy in Paris and shot a German official, that the Germans really started to get rough with the Jews in Germany. And you found them then breaking windows and having street fights and so forth.    "Now I don't like to use the word 'anti-Semitism' because it's meaningless, but it means something to you still, so I'll have to use it. The only reason that there was any feeling in Germany against Jews was that they were responsible for World War I and for this world-wide boycott. Ultimately they were also responsible for World War II, because after this thing got out of hand, it was absolutely necessary for the Jews and Germany to lock horns in a war to see which one was going to survive. In the meanwhile, I had lived in Germany, and I knew that the Germans had decided that Europe is going to be Christian or Communist: there is no in between. And the Germans decided they were going to keep it Christian if possible. And they started to re-arm. In November 1933 the United States recognized the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union was becoming very powerful, and Germany realized that 'Our turn was going to come soon, unless we are strong.' " [Based on: Benjamin H. Freedman]    1938 - Communist Jews? / United States - "Arnold Leese, a great British expert on the Jewish problem wrote in 1938: 'When the Jews leave Russia Communism will collapse.' World Jewry is today relocating in America. Thus the real threat of Communism in our country has just begun.    "Communism is not dead by any means and in fact is far more of a threat today than ever before. The Communist Party USA infiltration of the Democratic Party has been a meticulous operation. Herein lies the present danger of a Communist takeover of America under the name of their newest communist front which is the modern National Democratic Party." [Link: 1 ] 1938 - Birth / Bob Eubanks - January 8th, 1938: "Robert Leland 'Bob' Eubanks (born January 8, 1938) is an American television/radio personality and game show host, best known for hosting the game show The Newlywed Game on and off since 1966. [...] Eubanks was born in Flint, Michigan, but was raised primarily in Pasadena, California, where he grew up listening to music, most notably favorites like Frank Sinatra and Doc Watson. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Eubanks] 1938 - Strong Earthquake / Maui, Hawaii - January 23rd, 1938: "Earthquake location: Maui, Hawaii. Earthquake magnitude: 6.8. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1938 - Birth / Charley Pride - March 18th, 1938: "Charley Frank Pride ... is an American country music singer, musician/guitarist, recording artist, performer, and business owner. Pride was born in Sledge, Mississippi, one of eleven children of poor sharecroppers [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charley_Pride] 1938 - Pluto / Leo - August 4th, 1938: Pluto at 0 degrees Leo *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1938.pdf 1938 - Birth / Kenny Rogers - August 21st, 1938: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Kenny Rogers." 1938 - Birth / Elliott Gould - August 29th, 1938: "Reportedly born on this date in history: actor, Elliott Gould." 1938 - Psychic Observer Magazine - August 1938: "Psychic Observer and Chimes (Magazine) / Prominent American Spiritualist magazine founded in 1974 by the merger of Chimes and the Psychic Observer. The Psychic Observer Corporation was founded in 1937 in Jamestown, New York, by Ralph and Juliette Pressing. The first issue of the Psychic Observer appeared in August 1938. In 1957 the Pressings retired and Agnes F. Reuther became editor. Two years later Tom O'Neill acquired the periodical, then issued as a tabloid. In 1960 he was informed by Andrija Puharich, then a young researcher, that he had discovered several of the more prominent mediums at Camp Chesterfield engaged in a conspiracy to conduct fake materialization s�ances. Puharich presented the photographic proof, pictures taken with an infrared camera. O'Neill published the pictures and announced the findings as a dark day for Spiritualism. [NP] As a result of the expos�, O'Neill almost went bankrupt, as advertisers loyal to the camp pulled their support from the periodical. He relocated his publishing enterprise to North Carolina and for a brief period published under another title. [NP] O'Neill died in 1965 and the Psychic Observer ceased publication. In 1968 it was purchased by Alice Tindell and moved to Washington, D.C. It was issued as an open forum magazine, but in effect it was the periodical of the National Spiritual Science Center, the church headed by Tindell. It was published by the ESPress, the church's publishing concern. Henry Nagoka edited the new publication. [NP] Chimes began in 1942 under the editorship of Bert Welch and his wife. It was later purchased by June and Leighton Denton. Chimes, Inc., the publishing company, also had a book distribution service and facilitated the Dentons' healing ministry. Chimes faithfully served the American Spiritualist community for a generation until it was discontinued as an independent publication in 1974. [NP] Psychic Observer and Chimes was discontinued after the July/ October 1981 issue." Copyright � 2001 *Link: http://www.novelguide.com/a/discover/eop_02/eop_02_03712.html 1938 - CBS Radio Play / "The War of the Worlds" - Entertainment highlights during the week of Oct. 29-Nov.4, 1938: The radio play "The War of the Worlds," starring Orson Welles, aired on CBS. Using fake news bulletins and simulated on-scene reports to portray an invasian by Martians, the broadcast sparked panic among listeners who thought the dramatized events were authentic. [Based on: A.P. article ( THAT WAS THE WEEK THAT WAS ), p. D2, S.L.P.D., 10/30/06] 1938 - Birth / Patrick J. Buchanan - November 2nd, 1938: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Commentator, Pat J. Buchanan." 1938 - Great Earthquake / Shumagin Islands, Alaska - November 10th, 1938: "Earthquake location: Shumagin Islands, Alaska. Earthquake magnitude: 8.2. Number of recorded fatalities: 0."   1938 - Birth / Gordon Lightfoot - November 17th, 1938: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Gordon Lightfoot." 1938 - Birth / Ted Turner - November 19th, 1938: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Broadcasting and sports mogul, Ted Turner." 1938 - Birth / Dick Smothers - November 20th, 1938: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Comedian, Dick Smothers." 1938 - Birth / Rich Little - November 26th, 1938: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Impressionist, Rich Little." 1938 - Discovered / Nuclear Fission - December 1938: "Scientists Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, and Lise Meitner discover nuclear fission. Bombarding an atom of radioactive uranium with neutrons causes its nucleus to split, releasing a massive burst of energy." [Based on: N.G.M., August 2005, p. 102] 1938 - Birth / Jon Voight - December 29th, 1938: "Reportedly born this date in history: American actor, Jon Voight." 1938 - Meeting? / Paul Twitchell & Sudar Singh - Writes Twitchell, ". . . I found this to be true of Sudar Singh, the strange mystic of Allahabad, in the summer of 1938, when I visited him with my step-sister." [Based on: In My Soul I Am Free, by Brad Steiger] [....] According to Steiger's account (which also gives no dates), it would be in the late 1930's, early 1940's, when Twitchell visited India. Yet, according to Twitchell's actual birth date (1908-1912), it would have to be the late 1920's when he visited India. In both cases, however, there is no proof, documentary or otherwise, to support Twitchell's self-claimed travels to India. The doubtful nature of Twitchell's travels gains further support when we learn that the first mention of his guru Sudar Singh is not until the January 1964 issue of Orion Magazine. Before that time, Twitchell makes no reference to the elusive Indian master. [....] [Based on: http://webspace.webring.com/people/de/eckcult/chapters/tmsm5.html] *Trivia: [....] Mr. Bhattacharya has indicated that Sudar Singh was alive in 1938. He did not meet him after that for he did not visit Allahabad afterwards until the 60's. He does not know when Sudar Singh died. [....]" [Based on: A.R.E. post by Rich (03/29/07) quoting Mark Alexander] *Trivia: Wisdom of the Heart, Book 2, p .57 1938 - Breakthrough of Magnitude / L. Ron Hubbard - "[....] Organising the tremendous body of data he had acquired — from his travels, research and experiments — he embarked upon a new experimental path, this time to determine how cells functioned. And following an elaborate series of experiments in early 1938, he made a breakthrough of magnitude — he isolated the common denominator of existence: SURVIVE.  [....]" " [http://lron.hubbard.org/pg006.html] - [T.D. - 09/13/08] *Trivia: "[....] That man was surviving was not a new idea. That this was the single basic common denominator of existence was. [NP] The predominant theory of the time held that life was simply a chance chain reaction in a sea of ammonia. Disproving this materialistic belief and forming the basis for all his later work, his findings were compiled into a philosophic manuscript, Excalibur, written during the first weeks of 1938. [....]" [http://lron.hubbard.org/pg006.html] - [T.D. - 09/13/08] 1938 - Dedication / Self-Realization Church of All Religions, Washington D.C.  - "[....] Joyous dedication of a Self-Realization Church of All Religions took place in 1938 at Washington, D.C. Set amidst landscaped grounds, the stately church stands in a section of the city aptly called 'Friendship Heights.' The Washington leader is Swami Premananda, educated at the Ranchi school and Calcutta University. I had summoned him in 1928 to assume leadership of the Washington Self-Realization Fellowship center.  [....]" [Based on: http://www.reluctant-messenger.com/yogananda/chapter_48.htm] - [T.D. - 01/07/07] 1938 - U.S. FDC Act - "The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic [FDC] Act of 1938 was enacted and contained the following new provisions: 1) Extended coverage to cosmetics and devices. 2) Required predistribution clearance for the safety of new drugs. 3) Eliminated the Sherley Amendment requiring proof of intent to defraud in drug misbranding cases.  4) Provided for tolerance for unavoidable poisonous substances. 5) Authorized standards of identity, quality, and fill of containers for foods. 6) Authorized factory inspections. 7) Added the remedy of court injunction to previous remedies of seizure and prosecution." 1938 - Created / Fanny Mae - "U.S. Federal National Mortgage Association created. The Association, known as Fanny Mae, increases the availability of finance for housing." [Link: 1 ] 1938 - Trivia / U.S. Sovereignty? - [....] [...] In 1938, Roosevelt executed a secret agreement with Churchill which in effect ceded U.S. sovereignty to England, because it agreed to let Special Operations Executive control U.S. policies. To implement this agreement, Roosevelt sent General Donovan to London for indoctrination before setting up OSS (now the CIA) under the aegis of SOE-SIS. The entire OSS program, as well as the CIA has always worked on guidelines set up by the Tavistock Institute. [....] [Based on: barefootsworld.net article ( - TAVISTOCK - THE BEST KEPT SECRET IN AMERICA / CONSPIRATORS' HIERARCHY: THE STORY OF THE COMMITTEE OF 300 ) by Dr. John Coleman, 08/18/97] - [T.D. 12/02/06] - [see link] *Link: http://www.barefootsworld.net/tavistok.html  1938 - High Speed Fuel Pumps - "Robert Goddard began to develop high speed fuel pumps, in order to better outfit liquid fueled rockets." [Link: 1 ]   1938 - Earthquake Trivia / 1938 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2." - E.M. 1939 1939 - Great Earthquake / Chillan, Chile - January 25th, 1939: "Earthquake location: Chillan, Chile. Earthquake magnitude: 8.3. Number of recorded fatalities: 28,000."  [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 208] 1939 - Pluto / Leo - February 7th, 1939: Pluto at 0 degrees Leo, R.; June 14th, D. ... *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1939.pdf 1939 - Birth / Ray Manzarek - February 12th, 1939: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rock musician (The Doors), Ray Manzarek." 1939 - The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) - April 30th, 1939: "The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) is an American commercial broadcasting television network and former radio network headquartered in the GE Building in New York City's Rockefeller Center with additional major offices near Los Angeles and in Chicago. NBC is sometimes referred to as the "Peacock Network", due to its stylized peacock logo, created originally for its color broadcasts. Formed in 1926 by the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), NBC is the oldest major broadcast network in the United States. In 1986, control of NBC passed to General Electric (GE), with GE's $6.4 billion purchase of RCA. GE had previously owned RCA and NBC until 1930, when it had been forced to sell the company as a result of antitrust charges. After the 1986 acquisition, the chief executive of NBC was Bob Wright, until he retired, giving his job to Jeff Zucker. The network is currently part of the media company NBCUniversal, which is a joint venture of Comcast and General Electric since 2011 (and before that, jointly owned by GE and current Universal Music Group parent Vivendi). As a result of the merger, Zucker left NBC and was replaced by Comcast executive Steve Burke. NBC has 10 owned-and-operated stations and nearly 200 affiliates in the United States and its territories.[1][2] Archival footage from a majority of the NBC owned-and-operated stations is available for perusal and purchase through the NBCUniversal Archives. NBC broadcast the film industries second most important award ceremony, The Golden Globes Awards. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC] 1939 - Birth / Lee Majors - April 23rd, 1939: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Lee Majors." [Based on: S.L.P.D., p. D2, 04/23/07] 1939 - Trivia / Atomic Bomb Research - August 2nd, 1939: "Albert Einstein ... urged on by fellow scientist Leo Szilard ... writes to President Franklin D. Roosevelt to warn that the U.S. must not fall behind Germany in atomic bomb research." [Based on: N.G.M., August 2005, p. 102] 1939 - Hollywood Premier / "The Wizard of Oz" - "Entertainment highlights during the week of Aug. 10-16, 1939: "The Wizard of Oz" premiered in Hollywood. [Based on: A.P. article ( THAT WAS THE WEEK THAT WAS ), p. E2, S.L.P.D., 08/12/08] 1939 - Birth / Clarence Williams III - August 21st, 1939: "Reportedly born on this date in history: actor ['Mod Squad'] Clarence Williams III [the tall black guy]." 1939 - Birth / Lily Tomlin - September 1st, 1939: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Comedian-actress, Lily Tomlin." 1939 - Hitler's Army / Poland - September 1st, 1939: "Hitler's army invaded Poland on September 1st, 1939." - E.M. 1939 - Pluto 2 Degrees Leo - September 3rd, 1939: Pluto at 2 / 8 Leo. *Link: http://www.astro.com/swisseph/ae/1900/ae_1939.pdf 1939 - Beginning / World War II - September 3rd, 1939: "Stalin and Hitler hated each other, but respected each others military might. They signed a treaty called the 'Non-Agression Pact of 1939.' This treaty stated that they would never go to war against each other and that they would divide Poland and the Baltic States between them. In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland and while the world panicked as Britain and France declared war on Hitler, starting World War II, Stalin very quietly moved in and took the Baltic States and half of Poland. The world didn't even realize what Stalin had done until months later and quickly let him off the hook when he explained that he was only 'protecting' these people from the Germans. He proved himself justified in June of 1941, when Hitler broke their agreement and invaded the Soviet Union. Hitler easily crushed the Red Army." *Trivia: "The Jews are blamed for Germany's misfortunes and are placed in concentration camps. In the Nazi concentration camps [1939-1945], more than six million Jews were reportedly tortured, gassed, starved or otherwise killed; about one-third of the world's Jewish population." *Trivia: "Nearly 10 million Jews, Gypsies and Slavs killed in Nazi occupied areas." [Based on: Reuters, World Almanac and KRT - St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. A12, 06/26/05] *Trivia: "More than 1,600 tons of the country's [U.S.A.] stockpiled mustard agent has been destroyed [2005] to meet the terms of a chemical weapons treaty, an Army spokesman said Friday [03/11/05] The mustard agent was the last batch stored at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, 35 miles northeast of Baltimore, and represented about 5 percent of the nation's total stockpile, said the spokesman. The banned liquid blisters the eyes, skin and lungs. It had been stockpiled at Aberdeen since World War II. The mustard agent was destroyed to help meet the 2012 Chemical Weapons Convention Treaty deadline for destroying chemical weapons." [Based on: News Services, S.L.P.D., p. 28, 03/12/05] 1939 - Noncombat Roles? / U.S. Military Women - 1939-1945: "All military branches recruit women for noncombat roles. More than 200 nurses die in the war, and 432 servicewomen are killed." [Based on: St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. A10, 07/10/05] 1939 - Birth / David H. Souter - September 17th, 1939: "Reportedly born on this date in history: U.S. Supreme Court Justice, David H. Souter." 1939 - Birth / Paul Hogan - October 8th, 1939: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor ("Crocodile Dundee"), Paul Hogan." 1939 - Birth / Ralph Lauren - October 14th, 1939: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Fashion designer, Ralph Lauren." 1939 - Birth / Grace Slick - October 30th, 1939: "Grace Slick (born Grace Barnett Wing; October 30, 1939) is an American singer, songwriter, and former model, best known as one of the lead singers of the rock groups The Great Society, Jefferson Airplane, Jefferson Starship, and Starship, as well as for her work as a solo artist from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s. Slick was an important figure in the 1960s psychedelic rock movement, known for her witty lyrics and powerful contralto vocals. [...] Grace Barnett Wing was born in Evanston, Illinois, to Ivan W. Wing (1907–1987) and Virginia (n�e Barnett; 1910–1984), the latter a direct descendant of passengers of the Mayflower).[1] [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Slick] 1939 - Birth / Dick Smothers - November 20th, 1939: "Richard Remick 'Dick' Smothers (born November 20, 1939) is an American actor, comedian, composer and musician. He is best known for being half of the musical comedy team the Smothers Brothers, with his older brother Tom. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Smothers] 1939 - Birth / Tina Turner - November 26th, 1939: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Tina Turner." 1939 - Earthquake / Erzincan, Turkey - December 26th, 1939: "Earthquake location: Erzincan, Turkey. Earthquake magnitude: 7.8. Number of recorded fatalities: 32,700."   1939 - German A-5 Rockets - "German scientists fired, and recovered, A-5 rockets with gyroscopic controls that attained seven miles altitude and eleven miles range." [Link: 1 ]    1930s - Trivia / Von Neumann's Proof - "Fundamentally, it is our consciousness which in some way literally brings into being the dimension or reality we experience, manifesting it from what are to us realms of infinite potentials. This was demonstrated in a mathematical form known as Von Neumann's Proof, developed by Hungarian-born physicist Janus Eric Von Neumann and published in the 1930's in his book The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Physics, known even today as 'the bible' among quantum physicists. (More about Von Neumann later.) Other developments have demonstrated that time as it is commonly conceived of, a linear progression from past to present to future, does not ultimately exist. [....]" [Based on: article by By John A. Quinn [ STRANGE SCIENCE FACT 1939 - Twitchell J. Paul / Gulf Oil Co. - 1939: Clerk at Gulf Oil Co. *Link: http://tinyurl.com/499za8m 1939 - Trivia / U.S. Health Insurance - "Reform-minded members of Congress propose a series of bills to create universal health insurance. None wins approval."  [Source: Institute of Medicine, 10/04/04] 1930s - Mercury Poisoning / Minamata Bay, Japan - "Japan's top court ordered the government Friday [10/15/04] to pay $703,000 in damages to victims of the Minamata Bay mercury poisining. The ruling came 22 years after the case was filed over an industrial pollution disaster that killed more than 1,700 people and caused mothers to give birth to deformed babies.    "The Minamata poisoning incident was Japan's worst case of industrial pollution. Since the 1950's, hundreds of people have contracted Minamata disease - a neurological disorder caused by mercury poisoning - from eating tainted fish. The disease was first discovered in the 1950s and named for Minamata Bay in southern Japan, where a company dumped tons of mercury compounds.    "The court said the government and Kumamoto prefecture (state) failed to stop chemical manufacturer Chisso Corp. from dumping tons of mercury compounds into Minamata Bay beginning in the 1930s." [News Services, 10/16/04] 1939 - Coins of Gold - "Reportedly, the first published book by Paul Twitchell [The modern day founder of Eckankar - 1965] was entitled Coins of Gold, first printed in 1939." [E.M.]   1939 - Green Memories - Green Memories (Poetry), by Paul Twitchell 1939 - The Path of the Masters - "The Path of the Masters was first published in France in 1939; its author was Julian P. Johnson. [....] It should be noted that Johnson never saw the book in its final published form, as he died in 1939 shortly before it came out. A number of rumors have cropped up concerning Julian Johnson's death, and this may be a good place to clarify what actually happened. Apparently, Johnson got into a fairly heated debate with a younger friend of his named Paul [not Paul Twitchell] over health treatments. During the heat of the debate Johnson either tripped or was pushed and hit his head on a rock. He subsequently died from his injuries on the way to the hospital. Since there was some confusion over what actually transpired (Was it an accidental fall on Johnson's part? Or, was it an accidental fall caused by Paul who pushed Johnson to the ground?), there was naturally a lot of speculation (which led to gossip) about Johnson's death. Even today some uninformed observers claim Johnson was murdered. According to witnesses who were in India at the time, though, Johnson's death was a tragic accident and nothing more."  [See link:  ] *Trivia: "Whilst writing these lines we are deeply grieved in thinking of the author [Julian P. Johnson] so recently departed in the middle of the preparation of this publication [The Path of the Masters, 1939], leaving us the heavy responsibility of correcting the proofs of this book for which he worked with so much ardor and love." [Based on: Dr. Pierre Schmidt, October 1939; Preface to: The Path of the Masters, Sixteenth Edition, 1997, p. xxx] *Trivia: "Julian Johnson was killed in a fight at the Dera when he walked into his bungalow and caught a man making love to his Indian wife." http://www.angelfire.com/band/radhasoamisantmath/ [1/3 down] *Trivia: "The Master, the audible life stream, and spiritual liberation during this lifetime - these three constitute the substance of this book." [The Path of the Masters, Sixteenth Edition 1997, p. 18] *Link: http://www.archive.org/stream/ThePathOfTheMasters/ThePathOfTheMasters#page/n1/mode/2up 1939 - Golden Age of Science Fiction / L. Ron Hubbard - "Mr. Hubbard continued to fund his research by his ever more popular fiction writing. His stories and novels spanned every genre from adventure and travel to mystery, western, romance, science fiction and fantasy. Writing not of machines and robots but of real people and real adventures, he pioneered a whole new era of science fiction writing as one of the creators of what came to be known as the 'Golden Age of Science Fiction.' [....]" [http://lron.hubbard.org/pg007.html] *Trivia: "[....] Then came the war. [NP] When the U.S. entered World War II, Mr. Hubbard was commissioned as a lieutenant (junior grade) in the U.S. Navy and served as a commander of corvettes. He saw action in both the Atlantic and Pacific, and thoroughly distinguished himself in the eyes of those who served beneath him. Yet he was not a man who enjoyed war, and having seen enough killing to last him a lifetime — and the effects of that bloodshed on men’s sanity — he vowed to redouble his efforts to create a saner world. [....]" [http://lron.hubbard.org/pg007.html] 1939 - Earthquake Trivia / 1939 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 2. Number of earthquake deaths: 60,700." - E.M. 1940 1940 - Zionist Conspirators? - "The Works of Benjamin Freedman http://www.best.com/~jdulaney/jews.html Benjamin Freedman was a One-Time Jewish Zionist Conspirator who felt guilty and told all. Freedman who was a Jewish conspirator turned patriot spilled the beans on Zionism in the 1940's and 1950's, spending millions in telling the conspirators' stories including the Wilson and Roosevelt and NYC-Moscow-Zionism connections to the American public. The International Jew by Henry Ford http://www.pohlynx.com/~politics/antisemi/internat_jew.html Much maligned, but an excellent starting point bringing out many facts about the Jewish connection to the stock markets, international banking, the Semitic-NYC-Moscow Express, the liberalization of America, and other incendiary historical facts which you will never see in the New York Times. When you realize that Ford owned his own newspaper and the damage done to Zionist conspiracies by that paper, you will understand the deep Jewish need to control all media. Crossposted References Assembled by George V. Cousins for Internet." [Link: 1 ] 1940 - Trivia / FM Radio - January 5th, 1940: "Edwin H. Armstrong gave the first formal demonstration of FM radio to the Federal Communications Commission on January 5, 1940. Armstrong had completed his first field test of the technology on June 9, 1934: on May 20, 1940, the FCC officially took Channel 1 off the television band and allotted it to FM. The FCC assigned FM the frequencies between 42 and 50 MHz, enough for 40 FM channels, and authorized commercial service beginning January 1, 1941." [Based on: Leo Laporte's 2005 Technology Almanac, p. 7] 1940 - Birth / Tom Brokaw - February 6th, 1940: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former NBC news anchorman, Tom Brokaw." 1940 - Birth / Ted Koppel - February 8th, 1940: "Reportedly born on this date in history: ABC news anchor, Ted Koppel." 1940 - Birth - Smokey Robinson - February 19th, 1940: "William 'Smokey' Robinson, Jr. ... is an American R&B singer-songwriter, record producer, and former record executive. [...] Robinson was born in Detroit and raised in the city's North End section. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smokey_Robinson] 1940 - Birth / Chuck Norris - March 10th, 1940: "Carlos Ray 'Chuck' Norris ... is an American martial artist and actor. [...] Norris was born in Ryan, Oklahoma, the son of Wilma (n�e Scarberry) and Ray Norris, who was a mechanic, bus driver, and truck driver. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Norris] 1940 - Birth / James Caan - March 26th, 1940: "James E. Caan ... is an American actor. [...] Caan had a sister, Barbara, and has a brother, Ronald.[3][4] He grew up in Sunnyside, Queens, New York City. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Caan] 1940 - Birth / Al Pacino - April 25th, 1940: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Al Pacino." 1940 - Fatality / Effie T. Twitchell - April 26th, 1940: "Effie Troutman Twitchell died on April 26, 1940, of a liver disorder."   [Death record, Department of Human Resources; Franfort, Kentucky, Registrar of Vital Statistics.] 1940 - Major Earthquake / Imperial Valley, California - May 19th, 1940: "Earthquake location: Imperial Valley, California. Earthquake magnitude: 7.1. Number of recorded fatalities: 9."   1940 - Birth / Ringo Starr - July 7th, 1940: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rock star, Ringo Starr." 1940 - Olympic Games / Helsinki, Finland - "In 1940, the Olympic Games were held in Helsinki, Finland. The games were canceled after Soviet troops invaded Finland."   1940 - Birth / Alex Trebek - July 22nd, 1940: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Game show host (Jeopardy), Alex Trebek." 1940 - Birth / Don Imus - July 23rd, 1940: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Radio personality, Don Imus." 1940 - Official Debut / Bugs Bunny - Entertainment highlights during the week of July 27-Aug. 2, 1940: The cartoon character Bugs Bunny made his official debut when Warner Brothers released the animated short "A Wild Hare." [Based on: A.P. article ( THAT WAS THE WEEK THAT WAS ), p. E2, S.L.P.D., 07/29/08] 1940 - Birth / Martin Sheen - August 3rd, 1940: "Ram�n Antonio Gerardo Est�vez (born August 3, 1940), better known by his stage name Martin Sheen, is an American film actor best known for his performances in the films Badlands (1973), Apocalypse Now (1979), Wall Street (1987), The Departed (2006), and The Amazing Spider-Man (2012), and for his roles as the Illusive Man in the Mass Effect video game trilogy and President Josiah Bartlet in the television series The West Wing (1999–2006). [... .]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Sheen] 1940 - Birth / Raquel Welch - September 5th, 1940: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress, Raquel Welch." 1940 - Birth / Frankie Avalon - September 18th, 1940: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer-actor, Frankie Avalon." 1940 - Paul Twitchell / Calcutta, India? - September, 1940: Talks in Calcutta, India. [Based on: ECKANKAR Compiled Writings, Volume I, p. 185, Copyright 1975, Gail T. Gross] 1940 - Tripartite Alliance / Japan, Germany & Italy - September 27th, 1940: "On September 26th, 1940, the United States embargoed steel shipments to Japan, and the next day Japan joined Germany and Italy in a tripartite alliance." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World] 1940 - Birth / Richard Pryor - December 1st, 1940: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Comedian-actor, Richard Pryor." 1940 - Birth / Dionne Warwick - December 12th, 1940: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Dionne Warwick." 1940 - R.A.F. Rockets - "The Royal Air Force used rockets against the Luftwaffe planes in the Battle of Britain." [Link: 1 ]    1940 - Color Television - "Peter Goldmark invented modern color television."  1940's - Died? / Sudar Singh - Q: "Was there a Living ECK Master before 1965?" HK: "Yes, there was. This was Sudar Singh from India who died in the 1940s. Then Rebazar Tarzs, the torchbearer of the leadership of ECK who had been the Living ECK Master some time before, came in. He took the leadership until 1965, when Paul Twitchell had earned the right. Paul Twitchell had to earn it, as did all the others. There has been an unbroken succession of ECK Masters that goes quite far back. Some of them are described in 'The Spiritual Notebook.' [....]" [Based on: How To Find God, p. 162] *Trivia: "[....] As we began research in a number of different areas around the world, we got reports that Sudar Singh had lived and really was an ECK Master. Many ECKists have experiences with Rebazar Tarzs, Yaubl Sacabi, Fubbi Quantz, and other ECK Masters, but very few see Sudar Singh. As it turns out, he did live and work in Allahabad. Paul mentioned he died around the 1940s, but it seems to have been around 1955. [....]" [Based on: Harold Klemp, The Secret Teachings, p. 246] *Trivia: "[....] After Sudar Singh passed on, I went through a series of studies under various teachers, similar to Meher Baba, who had nineteen during his chela period. [....]" [Based on: ECKANKAR, Compiled Writings Volume 1, Paul Twitchell (Copyright 1975 by Gail T. Gross), p. 12. Compiled from Introduction to ECKANKAR, Copyright 1966, p. 2] 1940 - FDA Transferred to FSA - "The FDA was transferred from the Department of Agriculture to the Federal Security Agency." 1940 - Freelance Writer / Paul Twitchell - 1940: [....] Twitchell who took to the task of free-lancing in 1940 has sold and published more than 100 articles, stories and poems. Approximately 75,000 words in the form of news items, syndicated stories, magazine fiction, articles, and features reached this new all-time record, to appear over Twitchell's name. His works have been received by such institutions as Harvard, Yale, University of Michigan, Dartmouth and many others, while the Kentucky library at Western State College of Bowling Green, Kentucky collects every word he writes for their files. He has been exploiting legends, stories and news of the lower river country of Western Kentucky in a style which has caught the public eye so well that the Literary Florida Magazine is reputed in saying that he is to become a great Kentuckian.    "During 1940 Twitchell reached his peak in December in which he scored a serial, two fiction, one article and numerous syndicated features and stories. In the Fireside Chatter of West Albany N.Y. appeared the first installment of UNTIL TOMORROW, a serial while two short pieces of fiction BURIED TREASURE and A MOTHER'S JOB came out in the Whip Magazine of Washington, D. C. and West Albany. His article A GREAT NAVAL EXPLOIT, was in Our Navy, the official publication of the Naval Department. [....]" [Based on: http://www.littleknownpubs.com/Dialog_careers2.htm] *Trivia: "[....] Until 1940 he had no intention of becoming a writer. He was answering telephones for an oil company in Paducah when, one day, he thought it would be nice if he were a writer. So he sat down and wrote a story which he called "Old Cap'n Bagby and Mr. Scratch." The story was mailed and started collecting rejection slips until it was read by the editor of The Waterways Journal. He's the fellow who called Twitchell a genius. [....]" [Based on: The Courier-Journal, Louisville, Kentucky, Roto Magazine Section, dated November 7, 1943] - [See: http://www.littleknownpubs.com/Dialog_careers2.htm] *Links: http://www.thetruth-seeker.com/scanindexsubAcss.aspx?indexID=9               http://www.thetruth-seeker.com/scanindexsubAcss.aspx?indexID=10 1940s - Signals Intelligence Network [SIGINT] / U.S.A. - 1940s: "[....] There has been a Signals Intelligence network in the U.S. since the 1940's. The NSA [National Security Agency], Ft. Meade has in place a vast two-way wireless RNM [Remote Neural Monitoring] system which is used to track subjects and non-invasively monitor audiovisual information in their brain. This is all done with no physical contact with the subject. RNM is the ultimate method of surveillance and domestic intelligence. Speech and 3D sound, and subliminal audio can be sent to the auditory cortex of the subject's brain (bypassing the ears) and images can be sent into the visual cortex. RNM can alter a subject's perceptions, moods and motor control. Speech cortex/auditory cortex link has become the ultimate communications system for the intelligence community. RNM allows for a complete audiovisual brain-to-computer link. [....]" [Based on: http://www.cyberspaceorbit.com/SigintInfo.htm] 1940 - Earthquake Trivia / 1940 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1. Number of earthquake deaths: 9." - E.M. 1941 1941 - Birth / Joan Baez - January 9th, 1941: "Joan Baez ... is an American folk singer, songwriter, musician, and a prominent activist in the fields of human rights, peace, and environmental justice. [NP] Baez was born on Staten Island, New York in 1941.[4] [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Baez] 1941 - Birth / Neil Diamond - January 24th, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer-songwriter, Neil Diamond." 1941 - Birth / Aaron Neville - January 24th, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Aaron Neville." 1941 - Birth / Dick Cheney - January 30th, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: U.S. Vice President, Dick Cheney." 1941 - Birth / Nick Nolte - February 8th, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Nick Nolte." 1941 - Discovered / Plutonium - February 1941: "U.S chemist Glenn Seaborg and his colleagues discover plutonium. Its fissle properties, like highly enriched uranium's make it a suitable explosive ingredient in nuclear weapons." [Based on: N.G.M., August 2005, p. 102] 1941 - P.T. / Algiers? - March, 1941: Talks in Algiers. [Based on: ECKANKAR Compiled Writings, Volume I, p. 189, Copyright 1975, Gail T. Gross] 1941 - Birth / Mike Love - March 15th, 1941: "Michael Edward 'Mike' Love ... is an American singer/songwriter musician with The Beach Boys. [...] Mike Love's mother, Emily (known as 'Glee') Wilson was the sister of Mary and Murry Wilson, a family resident in Los Angeles since the early 1920s. Glee married Edwin Milton Love, the son of the founder of the Love Sheet Metal Company, in 1938. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Love] 1941 - Non-Aggression Pact / Japan & Soviet Union - April 13th, 1941: "Japan signs a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union." 1941 - Birth / Pete Rose - April 14th, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former baseball player, Pete Rose." 1941 - Our Navy / Paul Twitchell - April 1st, 1941. - When the Navy Got Caught in the Woods, by Paul Twitchell 1941 - "Divided" / Yugoslavia - April 17th, 1941 - October 20th, 1944: "Adolf Hitler divided Yugoslavia in 1941. Thousands of Serbs, Jews and Gypsies were killed by Croats and Germans, sometimes with the help of Bosnian Muslims. A civil war followed. Almost 1 million Yugoslavs died." [Based on: St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. A12, 06/26/05] *Links: http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Yugoslavia.html#Serbia 1941 - Birth / Bob Dylan - May 24th, 1941: Born on this date in history: Singer, Bob Dylan [Robert Zimmerman]. 1941 - CBS - July 1st, 1941: "[...] The network has its origins in United Independent Broadcasters Inc., a collection of 16 radio stations that was bought by William S. Paley in 1928 and renamed the Columbia Broadcasting System.[3] Under Paley's guidance, CBS would first become one of the largest radio networks in the United States and then one of the big three American broadcast television networks. In 1974, CBS dropped its full name and became known simply as CBS, Inc. The Westinghouse Electric Corporation acquired the network in 1995 and eventually adopted the name of the company it had bought to become CBS Corporation. In 2000, CBS came under the control of Viacom, which ironically had begun as a spin-off of CBS in 1971. In late 2005, Viacom split itself and reestablished CBS Corporation with the CBS television network at its core. CBS Corporation is controlled by Sumner Redstone through National Amusements, its parent. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS] 1941 - 1st Commercial TV Station / U.S.A. - July 1st, 1941: "[....] July 1, 1941: WBNT, the first commercial TV station, starts broadcasting. [....]" [Based on: DISCOVER magazine (June 2007) article ( TIRELESS WIRELESS HOW RADIO CHANGED EVERYTHING ) by Guy Gugliotta, p. 26] 1941 - Navy Commission / L. Ron Hubbard - July 1941: "[....] In July 1941, five months before the attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. Navy finally yielded to Hubbard's entreaties, and gave him a commission in the Reserve. (Jon Atack: A Piece of Blue Sky, pg 69) [NP] On his U.S. Navy Reserve commission papers, issued in July, 1941, he was designated a volunteer for "Special Service (Intelligence duties)," an assignment he requested. His service record shows that when he was eventually called to permanent active duty in November, he was indeed posted as an 'intelligence officer.' [NP] After receiving his Naval Reserve commission, Hubbard was not immediately called to active duty. By this time he was employed as a civilian by the Navy in New York City, working with public relations and recruiting. He was only on active duty for two weeks between his commissioning in July and the end of November. He was ordered to the Hydrographic Office, Bureau of Navigation, in Washington, DC. There he annotated the photographs he had taken during his trip to Alaska the year before. (Jon Atack: A Piece of Blue Sky, pg 71) [....]" [Based on: http://www.freezone.org/timetrack/1940ies_earlier.html] - [T.D. - 06/03/10] *Trivia: "Phoenix Project: ...evolved out of the Philadelphia Project in the 30's and 40's, when the Navy attempted to make ships invisible." 1941 - Office of the Coordinator of Information / U.S.A. - July 11th, 1941: "Office of the Coordinator of Information created by order of President Franklin D. Roosevelt." 1941 - Rocket-Assisted Airplane - "In July, the first U.S. based launch of a rocket assisted airplane took place.  Lt. Homer A. Boushey piloted the craft." [Link: 1 ]       1941 - Mortar-Fired Bomb / U.S.A. - "The U.S. Navy began developing 'Mousetrap,' which was a ship-based 7.2 inch mortar-fired bomb." [Link: 1 ]   1941 - Our Navy / Paul Twitchell - August 1st, 1941. - Not the Sword but the Hat, by Paul Twitchell 1941 - Birth / Martha Stewart - August 3rd, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Lifestyle guru, Martha Stewart."    1941 - Ground Broken / U.S. Pentagon Building - "On September 11, 1941, ground was broken for the construction of a vast new building to serve as the headquarters of America's military forces - the Pentagon." 1941 - Our Navy / Paul Twitchell - September 15, 1941. - The Commodore Bagged an Army, by Paul Twitchell 1941 - The Geomagnetic Blitz of September 1941 - September 18-19, 1941: "... on 18–19 September 1941, the Earth experienced a great magnetic storm, one of the most intense ever recorded. [... .]" [Based on: https://eos.org/features/the-geomagnetic-blitz-of-september-1941] 1941 - Trivia / Germany vs. USSR - "By October of 1941, the German armies had Moscow and Leningrad [formerly St. Petersburg, and named after Vladimir Lenin] surrounded. The Soviets were caught off guard by the technological superiority of the Germans. Hitler, however, was a poor history student. He failed to learn Napolean Bonaparte's lesson of over one hundred winters before [1812-14] when he was forced to retreat to France in the middle of the Russian winter. The German armies, outfitted in only summer clothing, were caught in the open when winter hit and it was a simple matter for the Soviets to cut their supply lines. Hitler lost over one million troops and this became a major turning point in the war. With the American entry in the war in 1941 the tide changed. Germany was in retreat on all fronts. The USSR quickly took back all Soviet land and began to push its way into eastern Europe. With the Americans and the British pushing the Germans back in the West it was only a matter of time before Hitler surrendered." 1941 - Birth / Chubby Checker - October 3rd, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rock 'n roll icon, Chubby Checker." 1941 - Birth / Jesse Jackson - October 8th, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rev. Jesse Jackson." 1941 - Birth / Paul Simon - October 13th, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer-musician, Paul Simon." 1941 - Birth / Helen Reddy - October 25th, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Helen Reddy." 1941 - Our Navy / Paul Twitchell - November 1st, 1941. - Revolutionary Hero by Paul Twitchell *Link: http://www.wartimepress.com/archives.asp?TID=Our+Navy&MID=Navy&q=68&FID=63 1941 - Birth / Art Garfunkel - November 5th, 1941: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Art Garfunkel." 1941 - U.S. Plan for War with Germany? - December 4th, 1941: "[....] Historian Thomas A. Bailey wrote: 'Roosevelt repeatedly deceived the American people during the period before Pearl Harbor.... He was faced with a terrible dilemma. If he let the people slumber in a fog of isolationism, they might fall prey to Hitler. If he came out unequivocally for intervention, he would be defeated' in the 1940 election. On Dec. 4, 1941 - three days before Pearl harbor - the Chicago Tribune and Washington Star-Ledger broke the story that FDR had already drafted a plan for war with Germany, a plan that entailed a 10-million-man army invading Germany by the middle of 1943. Democrats and Republicans alike saw this as further proof that FDR had been lying all along. Some suggest that a U.S.-flagged schooner was sent into Japanese waters that same day specifically to to provoke a fight. Roosevelt got Pearl Harbor instead, which was a surprise but which nontheless 'rescued' the president, in Hofstadter's words, from the 'dilemma' of needing to start a war the American people opposed. [....]" [Based on: Other Views page article by Jonah Goldberg, (Even if Bush did lie, so what?), p. B9, S.L.P.D., 11/28/05] 1941 - Japanese Attack / Pearl Harbor - December 7th, 1941: "On November 26th, 1941, a strong Japanese fleet set out to sea, heading for Pearl Harbor. On the morning of Sunday, December 7th, 1941, planes from the Japanese fleet struck and caught the United States utterly and completely by suprise. Of eight battleships present, three were sunk, another capsized, and the rest seriously damaged. Other lesser vessles were also damaged." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World] *Trivia: "[....] The attack on Pearl Harbor and other military bases on Oahu lasted two hours, killing 2,390 people, wounding 1,178, leaving 21 U.S. ships heavily damaged and 323 aircraft damaged or destroyed. The sunken battleship Arizona still holds the bodies of hundreds of sailors killed." [Based on: News Services article (Hundreds gather to remember attack), p. A3, S.L.P.D., 12/08/05] 1941 - Japanese Attack / Clark Field - December 8th, 1941: "The day after Pearl Harbor, on December 8, the Japanese struck at Clark Field near Manilla. It is hard to believe, with the news of Pearl Harbor ringing throughout the world, that the planes at Clark Field were unready, with the crews at lunch or loafing about. More than half the planes were destroyed." [Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Chronology Of The World] 1941 - Nazi Business Partner / Prescott Bush - December 13th, 1941: "On December 13, 1941, six days after the attack at Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt signed the 'Trading With the Enemy Act'. This act banned business dealings with the enemies of the United States. Prescott Bush ignored this and continued to do business with the Nazis." [D. A. Friedrichs] [Link: 1 ] 1941 - Software Computer - "Konrad Zuse's Z3, the first computer controlled by software." 1942 1942 - Birth / Stephen Hawking - January 8th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Physicist, Stephen Hawking." 1942 - Birth / Muhammad Ali - January 17th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former heavyweight boxing chamopion, Mohammad Ali." 1942 - Birth / Graham Nash - February 2nd, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rock singer-guitarist, Graham Nash." 1942 - Birth / Carole King - February 9th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer-songwriter, Carole King." 1942 - Birth / Kim Jong Il - February 16th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: North Korean Leader, Kim Jong Il." 1942 - Birth / Lou Reed - March 2nd, 1942: "Lewis Allan "Lou" Reed ... is an American rock musician, songwriter, and photographer. [...] Reed was born at Beth El Hospital in Brooklyn and grew up in Freeport, Long Island. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou_Reed] 1942 - Birth / Aretha Franklin - March 25th, 1942: "Aretha Louise Franklin ... is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and pianist. [...] Within two years after Aretha's birth, Franklin's family moved to Buffalo, New York. [...] In early 1946, prior to Franklin's fourth birthday, the family moved to Detroit, Michigan, where they eventually settled. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aretha_Franklin] 1942 - Birth / Barbra Streisand - April 24th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress-singer-director, Barbra Streisand." 1942 - Birth / John Ashcroft - May 9, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: 79th United States attorney general, John Ashcroft." 1942 - "White Christmas" / Bing Crosby - Entertainment highlights during the week of May 25th-31st, 1942: Bing Crosby recorded "White Christmas." [Based on: A.P. article ( THAT WAS THE WEEK THAT WAS ), p. D2, S.L.P.D., 05/28/08] 1942 - Chain-Reaction Research / U.S.A. - "In June 1942, the army took over the task of organizing all chain-reaction research into a full-blown bomb program, code-named the Manhattan Engineer District. Gen. Leslie R. Groves, the man who had just built the Pentagon, was in charge of the top-secret project." [Link: 1 ] 1942 - Radiation Exposure / St Louis Mo. - "Cold War-era nuclear workers at Mallinckrodt Chemical Co. in St. Louis received doses of radiation up to 2,400 times those considered acceptable today, according to an unprecedented government report. [....] Dusty, sloppy and hazardous conditions were routine at Mallinckrodt's uranium-processing plant, which operated from 1942-1957, according to a report presented at a meeting in St. Louis on Wednesday [10/29/03]. One section describes a worker scooping uranium by hand with a piece of cardboard because mechanized equiptment had failed. [....] Additionally, the repot acknowledges that workers were not monitored for radiation exposure at all in the first three years the plant was open, from 1942-1945. Only sketchy data exists for the next two years, until a full-scale health program was institued in 1948. [....] The occupational safety institute already has released four site profiles and has 15 more pending. About 350 former nuclear sites nationwide are part of the compensation program, including eight other sites in the St. Louis region. [....] Mallinckrodt refined uranium ore for the national defense program. In April 1942, federal officials asked Mallinckrodt to convert its chemical plant into a uranium processing facility to help with the war effort. Three months later, the plant produced a ton of uranium a day. By December the plant had produced enough uranium to supply a nuclear reactor in Chicago, the first step in the Manhattan Project to develop the atomic bomb. Over the next 12 years, the plant processed more than 50,000 tons of uranium products. The St. Louis plant closed after the work moved to Weldon Spring [Mo.] in 1957." [Sara Shipley, St. Louis Post-Dispatch] *Trivia: "A group of workers who got cancer after processing uranium at a St. Louis factory in the 1940s will get $150,000 each from the federal government. The Department of Health and Human Services on Tuesday [04/12/05] approved automatic compensation to a group of workers exposed to radioactive material at the main Mallinckrodt Chemical Co. plant in downtown St. Louis between 1942 and 1948. [....]" [Based on: Post Dispatch-Washington Bureau article, S.L.P.D., pp. B1-B3, 04/13/05] *Commentary: Roughly 60 years later??? - E.M. *Trivia: "Some 109 nuclear waste sites in 27 states, Puerto Rico and territorial islands of the Pacific would remain dangerous for centuries according to a new report by the US National Research Council." [08/08/2000] 1942 - OSS / United States - June 13, 1942: "The office of Strategic Services [formerly the Office of the Coordinator of Information, and later the CIA.] was established in June 1942 with a mandate to collect and analyze strategic information required by the Joint Cheifs of Staff and to conduct special operations not assigned to other agencies. In 1945 the OSS was abolished and its functions transferred to the State and War Departments." 1942 - Birth / Paul McCartney - June 18th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rock singer-composer-musician, Sir Paul McCartney." 1942 - Birth / Mick Fleetwood - June 24th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Musician, Mick Fleetwood." 1942 - Birth / Harrison Ford - July 13th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Harrison Ford." 1942 - Birth / Jerry Garcia - August 1st, 1942: "Born this date in history, Grateful Dead guitarist and singer, Jerry Garcia." 1942 - Concept Advanced / Hydrogen Fusion Bomb - Summer 1942: "U.S. physicist Edward Teller advances the concept of a hydrogen fusion bomb, many times more powerful than an atomic bomb." [Based on: N.G.M., August 2005, p. 102] 1942 - Animated Feature / "Bambi" - Entertainment highlights during the week of August 13th-19th, 1942: Walt Disney's animated feature "Bambi" premiered at radio City Music Hall in New York. [Based on: A.P. article, p. C2, S.L.P.D., 08/14/06] 1942 - Birth / Robert De Niro - August 17th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Robert De Niro." 1942 - Enlistment & Marriage / Paul Twitchell - "In 1942, Paul Twitchell enlisted in the U.S. Navy and married [08/12/42] Camille Ballowe." [See link:  ] 1942 - Manhattan Project Director / U.S. Army Gen. Leslie Groves - September 1942: "Army Gen. Leslie Groves ... is named director of the Manhattan Project, the secret U.S. effort to build an atomic bomb. Groves recruits Robert Oppenheimer ... as scientific director." [Based on: N.G.M., August 2005, pp. 102-103] 1942 - "Strange As It Seems" / John Hix - October 13th, 1942: "On October 13, 1942, John Hix ran an item about Twitchell in his 'Strange As It Seems' column for United Features Syndicate, Inc.: 'The family of Paul Twitchell, U.S.N.R., has its name on the war record of every American war! He is the cousin of Robert Barret Winch, the first American killed overseas in World War I!' " [Based on: IN MY SOUL I AM FREE (ISBN 0-914766-11-2), by Brad Steiger (Copyright 1968?), p. 54] 1942 - Birth / Penny Marshall - October 15th, 1942: "Carole Penelope 'Penny' Marshall (born October 15, 1942) is an American actress, producer, and director.  [...] Marshall was born in the Bronx, New York City, the daughter of Marjorie Irene (n�e Ward), a tap dance teacher who ran a dance school, and Anthony Wallace Marshall, a director of industrial films and later a producer.[2] [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny_Marshall] 1942 - "Hitler's Angel" / Prescott Bush - October 20th, 1942: "Prescott’s dreams of riches began to crumble in the summer of 1942. The New York Tribune had discovered and written on the Bush-Thyssen connection. The Tribune hung the moniker of 'Hitler’s Angel' on Bush. On October 20, 1942, after investigation by the US government, Vesting Order 248 was executed. The order stated…    "Under the authority of the Trading with the enemy Act, as amended, and pursuant to law, the undersigned, after investigation, finding:    "(a) That the property described as follows: All of the capital stock of Union Banking Corporation, a New York corporation, New York, New York, …[identifying E. Roland Harriman, Cornelius Lievense, Harold D. Pennington, Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, H.J. Kouwenhoven and Johann G. Groeninger as shareholders] …    "… all of which shares are held the benefit of Bank voor Handel en Scheepvaart, N.V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, which bank is owned or controlled by members of the Thyssen family, nationals of German and/or Hungary …    "(b) That the property described as follows …is an interest in the aforesaid business enterprise held by nationals of an enemy country or countries, and also is property within the United States owned or controlled by nationals of a designated enemy country… deemed it necessary in the national interest, hereby vests such property in the Alien Property Custodian, to be held, used, administered, liquidated, sold or otherwise dealt with in the interest of and for the benefit of the United States….    "With that, Prescott Bush lost his power in the Union Banking Corporation. Bush resigned as managing director in 1943, but still retained his stock interests. For the remainder of the war, he engaged in fund raising activities and became the founder of the United Services Organizations (USO)." [D. A. Friedrichs] [Link: 1 ] 1942 - Birth / Judy Sheindlin - October 21st, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: TV's Judge, Judy Sheindlin ('Judge Judy')." 1942 - Birth / Annette Funicello - October 22nd, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actress, Annette Funicello ." 1942 - Birth / Martin Scorsese - November 17th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Movie director, Martin Scorsese." 1942 - Birth / Calvin Klein - November 18th, 1942: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Fashion designer, Calvin Klein." 1942 - New York City Premiere / "Casablanca" - November, 1942: "Entertainment highlights during the week of Nov. 20-26: " 'Casablanca,' starring Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman, premiered in New York City. Its nationwide release was in early 1943, which made the film ineligible for a '42 Oscar." [A.P., 11/21/05] 1942 - 1st Self-Sustaining Manmade Nuclear Chain Reaction - December 2nd, 1942: "Enrico Fermi, a Nobel Prize-winning emigre from Italy, presided over the first self-sustaining manmade nuclear chain reaction, which took place December 2, 1942, at the University of Chicago. University of California physicist Robert Oppenheimer became scientific director of Los Alamos National Laboratory." [Link: 1 ] 1942 - Trivia / U.S. Heatlth Insurance - "War labor Board permits employers to offer health insurance as a fringe benefit to offset a wage and price freeze." [Source: Institute of Medicine, 10/04/04] 1942 - Trivia / U.S Pledge of Allegiance - "The original pledge of allegiance, minus the reference to God [that was inserted in 1954], was adopted in 1942. Congress endorsed the hand-over-heart gesture during the same year [1942]." 1942 - 1st Digital Computer - "John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry built the first electronic digital computer." 1942 - Anthrax Tests / Scotland - "The British conducted anthrax tests on sheep in Scotland. The island, where the testing took place is believed to still be infected with anthrax spores. It is uninhabited." 1942 - Trivia / Rocket Development - "The U.S. Air Force launched it's first air-to-air and air-to-surface rockets. After a failed attempt in June, Germans managed to successfully launch an A-4 (V2) rocket, in October.  It traveled 120 miles downrange from the launch pad." [Link: 1 ] 1942 - Biological Weapons Research / U.S.A. - "In 1942, the United States began research into biological weapons." 1940s - Discovery / Bacteria-Killing Antibiotics - "Reportedly, bacteria-killing antibiotics were discovered [imagine that] in the 1940's." 1942 - Notable Songs of 1942 - "White Christmas" (Bing Crosby) 1943 1943 - Died / Nikola Tesla - January 7th, 1943: "Tesla died January 7, 1943, alone, and all but forgotten, in a New York hotel room, paid for by a meager stipend provided by the Yugoslavian government. Today, industries prosper and flourish, the world surges from the power his fertile mind created, radios blare with news and music, their transmission made possible by his great intellect, all telling us that the forgotten genius, Nikola Tesla, was here." [Intro by Timothy Green Beckley, The Lost Journals of Nikola Tesla, p. 5] *Trivia: "When Tesla died on January 7, 1943 at the age of 86, representatives at the Office of Alien Property, at the request of the FBI, went to the Hotel New Yorker and siezed all of Tesla's belongings. Two truckloads of papers, furniture and artifacts were sent under seal to the Manhattan Storage and Warehouse Company. This load was added to the almost thirty barrels and bundels that had been in storage since the 1930's and the entire collection was sealed under orders from the OAP. Strange behavior, considering that Tesla was a legal American citizen." [Tim Swartz, The Lost Journals of Nikola Tesla, p. 10] 1943 - Birth / Richard Moll - January 13th, 1943: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor (tall cop - Night Court), Richard Moll." 1943 - Birth / Joe Pesci - February 9th, 1943: "Joseph Frank 'Joe' Pesci ... is an American actor, comedian and musician, known for his collaborations with Robert De Niro. [...] Pesci was born in Newark, New Jersey. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Pesci] 1943 - Birth / Christopher Walken - March 31st, 1943: "Ronald Walken ... known professionally as Christopher Walken, is an American actor who has appeared in more than 100 movies and television shows [... .] Named for actor Ronald Colman,[3] Walken was born Ronald Walken in Astoria, Queens. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Walken] 1943 - Birth / Ken Osmond - June 7th, 1943: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor (Eddie Haskell of 'Leave It to Beaver'), Ken Osmond." 1943 - Inventor of "Radio" / Nikola Tesla - June 21st, 1943: "The U.S. Supreme Court, in a landmark decision dated June 21, 1943, Case No. 369, overturned Marconi's basic patent for the invention of radio because Tesla's patent on the four-tuned circuit predated Marconi's patent. Marconi had simply copied Tesla's work." [Intro by Timothy Green Beckley, The Lost Journals of Nikola Tesla, p. 6] 1943 - Birth / Geraldo Rivera - July 4th, 1943: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Broadcast journalist, Geraldo Rivera." 1943 - Birth / Christine McVie - July 12th, 1943: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer-musician, Christine McVie." *Link: http://www.fleetwoodmac.org/christine-mcvie.php 1943 - Birth / Mick Jagger - July 26th, 1943: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rock star, Mick Jagger." 1943 - Birth / Ronnie Spector - August 10th, 1943: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer (the Ronettes), Ronnie Spector." 1943 - Birth / Roger Waters - September 6th, 1943: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rocker (Pink Floyd), Roger Waters." 1943 - Birth / Julio Iglesias - September 23rd, 1943: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Julio Iglesias." 1943 - Birth / Steve Miller - October 5th, 1943: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer-musician, Steve Miller." 1943 - Birth / Chevy Chase - October 8th, 1943: "Cornelius Crane "Chevy" Chase (/?t??vi/; born October 8, 1943) is an American comedian, writer, and television and film actor. [...] Chase was born in Lower Manhattan, New York City. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevy_Chase] 1943 - American Broadcasting Company (ABC) - October 12th, 1943: "The American Broadcasting Company (ABC) is an American commercial broadcasting television network. Created in 1943 from the former NBC Blue radio network, ABC is owned by The Walt Disney Company as of 1996 and is part of Disney–ABC Television Group, formerly ABC-TV. Its first broadcast on television was in 1948. It is the largest broadcaster in the world by revenues. As one of the Big Three television networks, its programming has contributed to American popular culture. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company] 1943 - Philadelphia Experiment - October 28th, 1943: "The Philadelphia Experiment supposedly took place at the Philadelphia Naval Yards." [Link: 1 ] 1943 - U.S. Naval Reports: The Philadelphia Experiment - "Allegedly, in the fall of 1943 a U.S. Navy destroyer was made invisible and teleported from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Norfolk, Virginia, in an incident known as the Philadelphia Experiment. Records in the Operational Archives Branch of the Naval Historical Center have been repeatedly searched, but no documents have been located which confirm the event, or any interest by the Navy in attempting such an achievement.    "The ship involved in the experiment was supposedly the USS Eldridge. Operational Archives has reviewed the deck log and war diary from Eldridge's commissioning on 27 August 1943 at the New York Navy Yard through December 1943. The following description of Eldridge's activities are summarized from the ship's war diary. After commissioning, Eldridge remained in New York and in the Long Island Sound until 16 September when it sailed to Bermuda. From 18 September, the ship was in the vicinity of Bermuda undergoing training and sea trials until 15 October when Eldridge left in a convoy for New York where the convoy entered on 18 October. Eldridge remained in New York harbor until 1 November when it was part of the escort for Convoy UGS-23 (New York Section). On 2 November the convoy entered Naval Operating Base, Norfolk. On 3 November, Eldridge and Convoy UGS-23 left for Casablanca where it arrived on 22 November. On 29 November, Eldridge left as one of escorts for Convoy GUS-22 and arrived with the convoy on 17 December at New York harbor. Eldridge remained in New York on availability training and in Block Island Sound until 31 December when it steamed to Norfolk with four other ships. During this time frame, Eldridge was never in Philadelphia." [Link: 1 ] *Other Links: http://www.softwareartist.com/philexp.html *Trivia: "[....] In the late 1940s, realizing that the Phoenix Project lines of research, if properly harnessed, controlled and developed, had astonishing and un-dreamed-of possibilities, clandestine government agencies reopened Pandora's Box. [NP] The worst problems encountered during the Philadelphia Experiment were the extraordinarily destructive and bizarre effects on the human beings who were aboard the battleship used in the experiment. The ship and crew allegedly disappeared from sight for some time: devastating psychological damage as well as horrifying physical results such as sailors being embedded in the metal of the ship when it did reappear (rematerialize) were reportedly some of these effects. [NP] Janus Von Neumann, who was the director of the Philadelphia Experiment, (staying on after Tesla had quit in disgust over his concern about just such effects upon people) was called upon to find out more regarding how human beings were impacted by entering other time-space dimensions and to develop technology which could allow people to do so without severe damage. [NP] Von Neumann, who unlike Tesla had little use for metaphysics or parapsychology, soon found himself unable to avoid coming to terms with both the psychic and spiritual aspects of human beings in addition to the material or physical level. Suffice it to say that some element of a person, often called a spirit or soul, must remain in sync with his/her original time-space lock which begins at the time of physical conception (incarnation) while transferring to or returning from other dimensions, if such wide scale destructive results are to be avoided. [NP] Von Neumann, exercising once again his prodigious mental abilities, came up with the world's first electronic computer, which had the capability to calculate certain time- space referencing factors with absolute precision -- a necessity for what was to be accomplished; in addition, psychotronic equipment was created which could receive, reconfigure and transmit radio-type frequencies generated by thoughts from the human mind (frequencies which do exist and can be picked up by what are commonly called 'psychics' (no, they're not all phony); and by extension, devices which could externally and artificially alter or 'control' people's minds. [....]" [Based on: article by By John A. Quinn [ PANDORA'S BOX ] @ http://www.crystalinks.com/montauk1.html] - [T.D. - 05/03/07] *Other Links: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montauk_Project 1943 - Birth / John Kerry - December 11th, 1943: "Reportedly born on this date in history: U.S. Democratic Senator, John Kerry." 1943 - Birth / Keith Richards - December 18th, 1943: "Keith Richards (born 18 December 1943) is an English musician, songwriter and founding member of the English rock band The Rolling Stones. [...] Keith Richards is the only child of Bertrand Richards and Doris Dupree Richards. He was born at Livingston Hospital in Dartford, Kent. His father was a factory worker who was injured in World War II during the Normandy invasion.[4] [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Richards] 1943 - Trivia / World Events 1943 - "Norbert Weiner describes cybernetics; First nuclear reactor at Oak Ridge, Tenessee; Antibiotic drug penicillin introduced; Casablanca conference by Roosevelt and Churchill; Play 'Oklahoma' opens on Broadway; Big Inch, world's longest oil pipeline from TX to PA, opens; Jitterbuggers wear Zoot Suits; Rachmaninoff dies; Pay-as-you-go income tax system instituted in USA; Film 'Casablanca' wins Academy Award; Albert Hofmann, Swiss chemist, discovers LSD; Italy surrenders as U.S. troops land in Sicily; Ralph Vaughn Williams composes his Symphony No. 5 in D; First portable kidney dialysis machine invented; Barnes Wallis invents the bouncing bomb; In U.S. the world's longest oil pipeline the 'Big Inch' is dedicated; Comedian Bob Hope entertains U.S. troops through the U.S.O.; The Andrew Sisters' harmonies lift wartime spirits; First wire recorders used in the military; ABC network created out of NBC." [Link: 1 ] 1943 - Construction / Uranium Enrichment Plant, U.S.A. - "Building the world's first full-scale uranium enrichment factory - a 45-acre monster [Oak Ridge, Tennessee] that was the biggest industrial structure in the world at the time - took 18 months amid the race for the first atomic bomb. [NP] Six decades later [2008], federal authorities think they finally have a handle on just how long it will take to clean up and tear down the long-shuttered relic of the Manhattan Project: about 15 years. [....] K-25 is expected to be leveled by late 2010, and the rest of the site finished by 2016. The deteriorating state of a contaminated building also filled with PCBs, asbestos and radioactive uranium adds to the urgency. [....] The government built K-25 and its supporting buildings for $500 million in 18 months from 1943 to 1945. Cleaning it up is projected to cost $3 billion. [....] K-25 was code-named 'K' for designer Kellex Corp.. It produced the fissionable uranium-235 isotope and was the largest industrial building under one roof in the world, employing 12,000 people and consuming one-tenth of the nation's electric power at the time. [....]" [Based on: A.P. article (Atomic cleanup may take 15 years / Plant built for WWII A-bomb project will be demolished.), p A3, S.L.P.D., 06/02/08] 1943 - Married / Kay-Dee & Paul Iverlet - "Reportedly married this year in history: Kay-Dee [Paul Twitchell's sister] and Paul Iverlet." [Based on: Dialogue in the Age of Criticism, Chap. 1]   1943 - Optional Recitations / U.S. Pledge of Allegiance - "The Supreme Court ruled that recitations of the pledge of allegiance should be optional." 1943 - DARKNESS AND THE DEEP - 1943: "There in the illimitable, countless millions of years ago, occurred one of those stupendous explosive births that rearrange the destinies of the suns. One of the smaller suns, a white-hot incandescent chaos, with its surface flowing away in vast streamers and tails, burst under the antagonism of its elements, and hurled upon darkness its broad sheets of flame." - Vardis Fisher *Link: http://www.avclub.com/articles/box-of-paperbacks-book-club-darkness-and-the-deep,10127/ 1942 - Solar Radiation and the State of the Atmosphere - 1942: "Solar Radiation and the State of the Atmosphere was published by Harlan Stetson in The Scientific Monthly in 1942." http://www.machiventamelchizedek.org/Revelations_Personal/World-Destiny/WD-Ch-25-How_The_Devil_Got_Into_533.htm 1944 1944 - "New Age" - "The term 'New Age' in its contemporary sense can be traced back at least to 1944. That year, American artist and philosopher Walter Russell published the essay 'Power Through Knowledge' in which he discussed '…this New Age philosophy of the spiritual re-awakening of man…' [....] After Russell's death in 1963, the term that he apparently coined took on a life of its own. The name New Age was popularized by the American mass media during the late 1980s, spurring the assimilation of spiritual thinking, as well as many digressions to ideas of the original works. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Russell] - [T.D. - 07/21/08] 1944 - U.S. Long-Range Rocket Development - "January 1st marked the beginning of long-range rocket development, by the California Institute of Technology.  This testing resulted in the Private-A and Corporal rockets." [Link: 1 ] 1944 - Birth / Jimmy Page - January 9th, 1944: "James Patrick 'Jimmy' Page ... is an English guitarist, songwriter and record producer. [NP] Jimmy Page was born to James Patrick Page and Patricia Elizabeth Page (n�e Gaffikin)[4] in the West London suburb of Heston, which today forms part of the London Borough of Hounslow. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Page] 1944 - Birth / Frank Sinatra Jr. - January 10th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Frank Sinatra Jr." 1944 - Birth / Joe Frazier - January 12th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Former boxing champion, Joe Frazier." 1944 - Birth / Jerry Springer - February 13th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Talk-show host, Jerry Springer." 1944 - Birth / Roger Daltrey - March 1st, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rock singer (The Who), Roger Daltrey." 1944 - Birth / Diana Ross - March 26th, 1944: "Diana Ernestine Earle Ross ... is an American vocalist, music artist and actress. [...] Diana Ross was born at Hutzel Women's Hospital in Detroit, Michigan on March 26, 1944. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Ross] 1944 - Birth / Gabe Kaplan - March 31st, 1944: "Gabriel W. "Gabe" Kaplan ...  is an American comedian, actor, poker commentator, and professional poker player. [NP] He was born in Brooklyn, New York. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabe_Kaplan] 1944 - Birth / George Lucas - May 14th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Movie producer, George Lucas." 1944 - Birth / Joe Cocker - May 20th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Singer, Joe Cocker." 1944 - Conjunction? / Sirius & Sun - "[....] Every 49.9 years, the two stars in the system, Sirius A and B, come as close together as their orbits allow, creating huge magnetic storms between them. [....] What does this mean to life on Earth? The last time it occurred, in 1944, humanity was locked in the greatest conflict ever seen in history, World War II. It happened again, almost 50 years later, in June, 1993." [Based on: http://www.souledout.org/cosmology/cossynthreflects/sirius.html] - [T.D. - 12/28/07] 1944 - D-Day Invasion / Normandy, France - June 6th, 1944: "U.S., Allied forces invaded Europe at Normandy on 'D Day,' June 6, in greatest amphibious landing in history." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 548] 1944 - Birth / Ray Davies - June 21st, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rock singer-musician (The Kinks), Ray Davies." 1944 - Signed / G.I. Bill of Rights, U.S.A. - June 22nd, 1944: "GI Bill of Rights signed by Pres. Roosevelt June 22, providing benefits for veterans." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 548] 1944 - Birth / Jeff Beck - June 24th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Rock musician, Jeff Beck." 1944 - Birth / Gary Busey - June 29th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Gary Busey." 1944 - Birth / Jan-Michael Vincent - July 15th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Jan-Michael Vincent." 1944 - Bretton Woods Conference - July 1944: "The Bretton Woods Conference of July 1944 set up the World Bank, GATT and the IMF and post-war monetary arrangement by which the US dollar took the place of gold as the medium of international exchange." *Trivia: "Crushing national debt in many developing nations is producing armies of 'career terrorists,' Noreena Hertz writes in 'The Debt Threat,' a chilling look at perilous trends threatening the planet's stability and viability [....] Hertz builds a case that unemployment and a lack of educational, health and other services provide the environment for fatalistic world views to grow. And those deprivations are direct results of the debt burdens many of the world's poorest nations carry, she contends. Because of the debt payments owed to the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, export credit agencies, commercial banks and other lenders, the government's don't have money left to provide adequate social services or to invest in infrastructure and jobs. As a result, Hertz writes, people become susceptible to extremist groups and drug dealers. [....] But terrorism is only one part of the debt threat Hertz spells out. She also focuses on environmental perils that are growing, including global warming. Debt-burdened countries must use their cheapest resources, so they cut forests, drain wetlands and burn areas for agriculture, causing pollution and other environmental devestation." [Based on article by Cecil Johnson, The Fort Worth Star-Telegram, posted in The St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. C5, 02/04/05] 1944 - Birth / Sam Elliott - August 9th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor, Sam Elliott." 1944 - Canceled / Olympic Games - "In 1944, the Olympic Games were canceled because of World War II."   1944 - Beginning / The United Nations - August 21st, 1944: "Representatives of the U.S. and other major powers met at Dunbarton Oaks, Washington D.C., Aug. 21-Oct. 7, to work out formation of postwar world organization that became the United Nations." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 548] 1944 - German V-2 Rocket - "In September, the first fully operational V2 rocket was launched against London, from Germany.  Over a thousand V2's followed." [Link: 1 ] 1944 - Paul Twitchell / Pacific Ocean - September 2nd, 1944: THE DAILY INEPENDENT, MONESSEN, PA, By CHARLES B. DRISCOLL says Paul is in the Pacific. http://docs.google.com/uc?id=0B0KObtCQpPKbYzJjM2MzOTctMTJhZS00NDU0LWFlOTUtNTU1ZTVkZmJlNDdm&export=download&hl=en_US 1944 - Birth / Michael Douglas - September 25th, 1944: "Michael Kirk Douglas (born September 25, 1944) is an American actor and producer, primarily in movies and television. [...] Douglas was born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, the first child of actor Kirk Douglas and Bermudian-born actress Diana Dill. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Douglas] 1944 - Birth / Anne Robinson - September 26th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: TV Host ('The Weakest Link'), Anne Robinson." 1944 - CBS Debut / "The Adventures of Ozzie & Harriet" - Entertainment highlights during the week of Oct. 7-13, 1944: "Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet" made its debut on CBS radio, on the Nelsons' ninth wedding anniversary. [Based on A.P. article ( THAT WAS THE WEEK THAT WAS ), p. E2, S.L.P.D., 10/09/07] 1944 - U.S. Forces / Philippines - October 20th, 1944: "U.S. forces landed on Leyte, Philippines, Oct. 20." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 548] 1944 - Birth / Jon Anderson - October 25th, 1944: "Jon Anderson (born John Roy Anderson on 25 October 1944)[1] is an English singer-songwriter and musician best known as the former lead vocalist in the progressive rock band Yes.[1] [...] Jon Anderson was born John Roy Anderson in Accrington, Lancashire, England, to Albert and Kathleen Anderson. His father was from Scotland whilst his mother was of Irish ancestry.[1] Anderson dropped the "h" from his first name in 1970.[1] [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Anderson] 1944 - Birth / Frank Joseph Collin - November 3rd, 1944: "Francis Joseph Collin (born November 3, 1944) formerly served as the leader of the National Socialist Party of America, whose plan to march in the predominantly Jewish suburb of Skokie, Illinois was the centerpiece of a major First Amendment decision by the U.S. Supreme Court, National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie. Collin lost that position when his own Jewish ancestry came to light. Later he became a prominent New Age author. [....]" [Based on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Collin] - [T.D. - 04/04/10] 1944 - 4th Term / President Roosevelt, U.S.A. - November 7th, 1944: "Roosevelt elected to 4th term as president, Nov. 7." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 548] 1944 - Birth / Danny DeVito - November 17th, 1944: "Reportedly born on this date in history: Actor-director, Danny DeVito." 1944 - Passed / Federal Highway Act, U.S.A. - November 29th, 1944: "Federal Highway Act passed by Congress, Nov. 29, creating national system of interstate highways." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 548] 1944 - Great Earthquake / Tonankai, Japan - December 7th, 1944: "Earthquake location: Tonankai, Japan. Earthquake magnitude: 8.1. Number of recorded fatalities: 1,223."   1944 - Battle of the Bulge / France - December 16th, 1945: "Battle of the Bulge, failed Nazi counteroffensive, waged Dec. 16, 1944, to Jan. 28, 1945; 500,000 Americans fought." [Based on: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2005, p. 548] 1944 - Test Fired / Private-A Rockets, California - December 1944: "Between the 1st and 16th of December, twenty four Private-A rockets were test fired at Camp Irwin, CA." [Link: 1 ]  1944 - Plutonium Production & Uranium 235 Enrichment / U.S.A. - December 1944: "As part of the Manhattan Project, large-scale plutonium production begins in Hanford, Washington; at a plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, uranium 235 is enriched." [Based on: N.G.M., August 2005, p. 103] 1944 - Shah Returns to Iran - "During World War II, Iran gained strategic importance to the allies, not only because it was an oil-rich country, which the allies didn't want to fall under control of Nazi Germany, but Iran had become an important corridor for the Americans to funnel arms to the Soviet Union. During this same time period, the Iranian people had risen in opposition against Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran, and forced him into exile in South Africa.    "In 1944, the exiled Shah of Iran died in South Africa. His 22-year-old son returned to Iran with the backing of the occupying allied powers, and once again the reign of the Pahlavi regime resumed. The Shah depended upon the support of the United States to keep him in power, and after the war, American influence in Iran grew. American's military presence increased as the Cold War heated up. Iran was no longer viewed as a corridor to the Soviet Union, but as important bunker against the spread of communism. The regime of the new Shah proved to be no less corrupt than that of his father." [Links: 1 ] 1944 - Trivia / World Events 1944 - "D-Day invasion by Allied Forces at Normandy in France; Battle of the Bulge; US soldiers march down Champs d'Elysees in Paris; First jet planes are British Gloster Meteor and German Messerschmidt Me 262; Eisenhower appointed supreme commander of allied forces in Europe; In U.S. G.I. Bill of Rights provide benefits for returning veterans; TS Eliot publishes his 'Four Quartets'; Eisenstein completes first part of film 'Ivan the Terrible'; Crooner Frank Sinatra sings to 30,000 screaming bobby soxers in New York." [Link: 1 ] 1944 - Earthquake Trivia / 1944 - "Number of notable earthquakes this year: at least 1. Number of earthquake deaths: 1,223." - E.M.

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The History of Boxing Boxing History Boxing Boxing, often called "the manly art of self-defense," is a sport in which two competitors try to hit each other with their glove-encased fists while trying to avoid each other's blows. The competition is divided into a specified number of rounds, usually 3 minutes long, with 1-minute rest periods between rounds. Although amateur boxing is widespread, professional boxing has flourished on an even grander scale since the early 18th century. Rules Amateur fights consist of 3 rounds, professional fights from 4 to 15 rounds. The recognized length of championship fights is 12 rounds. In most countries, professional boxing is the more popular version, but the rules vary because there is no true governing body. Even in the United States, boxing regulations vary from state to state. In all boxing, however, winners are determined either by a decision of the judges (who keep points or round victors on a scorecard as the fight progresses), the referee, or both. The winner also may be decided by a knockout, in which one rival is sent to the floor by a punch and cannot get up within 10 seconds. A doctor or referee can declare the boxer injured or defenseless even if there is no knockdown. A tied or even match is ruled a draw. The boxing ring is actually a square, 12 to 20 ft (3.7 to 6.1 m) on each side and enclosed on each side by three or four ropes. Gloves have been worn by boxers as a general practice since 1892. Gloves are made of leather, have no finger holes except for the thumb, and weigh from 8 oz (227 g) for amateur bouts down to 6 oz (170 g) for professional and all title bouts. Early History Boxing originated when a person first lifted a fist against another in play. Different eras of the sport have been distinguished by the use or nonuse of fist coverings. The ancient Greeks believed fist fighting was one of the games played by the gods on Olympus; thus it became part of the Olympic Games in about 688 BC. Homer has a reference to boxing in the Iliad. During Roman times the sport began to thrive on a wide scale. Boxers fought with leather bands around their fists for protection and sometimes wore metal-filled, leather hand coverings called cesti, resulting in bloody, often duel-to-death, battles. Boxing diminished after the fall of Rome. It was revived in the 18th century in England and became especially popular during the championship reign of James Figg, who held the heavyweight title from 1719 through 1730. Boxing became a workingman's sport during the Industrial Revolution as prizefights attracted participants and spectators from the working class. Organization was minimal at first, and the bouts of those eras resembled street fights more than modern boxing. The second heavyweight champion, Jack Broughton of England, drew his own set of rules for his own fights, and these were recognized in 1743. They outlawed some of the gorier aspects that the sport had acquired, such as hitting below the belt line. Instead of a ring of spectators--hence, the name ring--Broughton insisted upon a squared-off area. His rules governed what is known as the "bareknuckle era." Modern Era In 1866 the Marquess of Queensberry gave his support to a new set of rules, which were named in his honor. These rules limited the number of 3-minute rounds, eliminated gouging and wrestling, and made the use of gloves mandatory.. Bareknuckle bouts did not cease immediately but did begin to decline. A new era dawned in 1892, when James J. CORBETT defeated the last of the great bare-fisted fighters, John L. SULLIVAN, under the new rules With the growing popularity of boxing, especially in the United States, weight classes other than the unlimited heavyweights emerged. These classes became popular as world championships were held at the new weights. Currently, there are eight major professional divisions: flyweight (up to 112 lb/50.8 kg); bantamweight (118 lb/53.5 kg); featherweight (126 lb/57.2 kg); lightweight (135 lb/61.2 kg); welterweight (147 lb/66.7 kg); middleweight (160 lb/72.6 kg); light heavyweight (175 lb/79.4 kg); and heavyweight (unlimited). In recent years there has been some recognition of junior weights, or between-weights, such as junior lightweight and cruiserweight. Because of its violent nature and its identification with betting, boxing has had a controversial history. There have been periodic efforts to outlaw the sport. The November 1982 death of South Korean boxer Duk Koo Kim, for example, prompted two editorials in the Journal of the American Medical Association (Jan. 14, 1983) calling for a ban on all boxing. The results of a study by an AMA-sponsored scientific council appeared in that same issue, and the council, expressing the official AMA position, called not for a ban but for improved controls and medical facilities at ringside, centralized record keeping, and standardization of safety regulations. Despite these periodic efforts, boxers remain internationally famous, particularly heavyweight champions, most of whom, in this century, have come from the United States. Among the best heavyweights have been Muhammad ALI, Jack DEMPSEY, Jack JOHNSON, Joe LOUIS, Rocky MARCIANO, Gene TUNNEY, Corbett, and Sullivan. Outstanding champions in the lighter weights have included Benny Leonard, Mickey WALKER, Barney Ross, Henry ARMSTRONG, and Sugar Ray ROBINSON. Louis, Marciano, and Ali benefited greatly--both in popularity and financially--from the promotion of televised fights. Asia and Latin America have produced many champions in recent years in some of the lower weight classes, which are less popular in the United States. The Communist bloc has done exceedingly well in Olympic competition. Michael Katz Bibliography: AAU Official Boxing Handbook, 1981-1982; Durant, J., The Heavyweight Champions, 6th ed. (1976); Fleischer, Nat, Fifty Years at Ringside (1958; repr. 1977); Fleisher, Nat et al., A Pictorial History of Boxing from the Bare Knuckle Days to the Present, rev. ed. (1987); Liebling, J. J., The Sweet Science (1951; repr. 1981); Morrison, Ian, Boxing: The Records (1986); Ring Record Book (annual); Sammons, J. T., Beyond the Ring: The Role of Boxing in American Society (1987); Sugar, Burt, One Hundred Years of Boxing (1982).

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History of Boxing History of Boxing You are here: Home / About Fight Club® / History of Boxing History of Boxing History of boxing: Boxing is a sport of fighting with fists, also called pugilism (literally fist fight) and prizefighting (in other words, the fight for prizes/money). Boxing has been included in the Olympic Games program since 1904. For centuries people used their fists to resolve disputes before someone thought of organizing such fights as entertainment. BC Period There is a clear evidence that boxing existed as early as 1500 BC, on the Crete Island. The modern researchers insist that such duels had been known even earlier than that, in Africa, specifically in the region of modern Ethiopia. The hieroglyphic scriptures dated back to the year 4000 BC revealed the popularity of this sport throughout the Nile Plateau and all over the Egypt, after the latter had conquered Ethiopia. The enhancement of the Egyptian civilization through the Mediterranean region and the Middle East caused boxing to spread its influence. In the year 686 BC boxing became an essential part of the Olympics. However, ancient boxing barely resembles the sport we admire today. All fights were carried out on open plots, where the spectators formed a living arena. The fight normally lasted until one of the opponents was seriously injured. Although the first boxers primarily fought for glory, the winner was also granted the gold, livestock or other trophies. To protect wrists and hands the fighters braided their fists and sometimes two thirds of their forearms with thin soft leather straps. By the 4th century BC the straps were made of harder leather and were used not just as an arm protection gadget but turned the fists into the kind of assault weapon. Later, in the Roman Empire, the leather straps were armored with special copper and iron brackets used in gladiators’ fights which usually ended with the death of one of the fighters. Minoan youths boxing, Akrotiri (Santorini) fresco. Earliest documented use of 'gloves'. Common Era With the spread of Christianity and the collapse of the Roman Empire, fist fights ceased to exist as an entertainment and were forgotten for several centuries. The first official bout was registered in England in 1681. And since 1698 regularly scheduled boxing matches were conducted in the Royal Theater in London. Gradually London became the center for provincial boxing champions seeking fame, glory and money. That very reason was an incentive for the boxing development in London in particular. In those bouts each boxer’s remuneration as well as the percentage of stakes gambled by spectators were settled. The fighters did not use gloves and did not follow common rules. Weight classification was not determined, which resulted in only one Champion announcement. The lightweight boxers were often beaten. Though rounds were determined, a fight usually lasted until one of the opponents was unable to continue the fight. It was not prohibited to attack an opponent even after he fell to the ground. These conditions existed until mid-XVI century. Despite the fact that the boxing was outlawed, it was gaining more and more popularity. In 1719, James Figg, the favorite of the public and the winner of many boxing matches, was proclaimed the Champion of England and held the title for fifteen years. Jack Brownton, one of James Figg’s followers, made an attempt to turn fist-fighting matches of the time into real athletic competition. In 1743 Jack Brownton wrote the first Code of Rules, and those rules, with minor modifications, were used until 1838, when they were replaced by the updated ‘London Prize Ring Rules’. Broughton abolished the fighting methods widely used by his predecessors (mostly the tactics of drunkard’s boozy brawls in pubs), giving the preference to hands fight only. The boxers were forbidden to punch beneath the waist. Under Brownton’s rules, the fight lasted until one of the fighters was knocked down. If he then was unable to enter the ring and take his stand within one-yard range from his opponent, he was considered a loser. It was forbidden to punch the opponent after he was beaten, his handlers had 30 seconds to get him into position on one side of the square, facing his opponent. Jack Brownton was recognized as the ‘Father of Boxing’. He opened a training gym to coach his followers. He also invented ‘mufflers’, the first boxing gloves, to protect boxers’ hands and faces. When Jack Slack had beaten Brownton, the fights for the title of Champion became more regular. The boxing lost its appeal as something extraordinary, and the public’s interest towards this sport decreased slightly, though such fighters as Daniel Mendoza and John ‘Gentleman’ Jackson were still extremely popular. Daniel Mendoza weighed 160 pounds (76 kg) and had a strong and quick left punch. After his victory over Mendoza, Jackson contributed to the financial qualification model of prizing that gave boxing more respectability. In 1814, in London, The Boxing Society was founded. The London Prize Ring Rules, which were widely used both in England and America were adopted by that Society in 1838. These rules were used for the first time in 1838, when James ‘Deaf’ Zamnet lost his title of The Champion of England in his fight versus William ‘Bendigo’ Thompson. The fight was conducted on the 24 square feet ring, bounded by two ropes from each side. When one of the fighters fell on the ring floor, the round was ended. At that time, the injured boxer was attended to in the corner of the ring during a 30-second break. After a 30-second break, the opponents were to take their stands in the ring center and the next round would begin. If one of the opponents did not enter the ring center within eight seconds, the other one was proclaimed a winner. It was forbidden to curse, quarrel, hit with heads and legs, and to hit beneath the waist on the ring. All those actions were claimed inappropriate during the ring fighting. Queensberry Code of Rules: Though the ‘London Prize Ring Rules’ Code of Rules turned boxing into a more civilized sport, quarrels and cursing, not uncommon among the old-fashioned pugilists from the lower society classes, shocked the upper-class audience of the English society. It became obvious that existing bo had to be modified. In 1867 John Gram from the Chamber of Amateur Sport Club proposed the new Code of Rules, where methods and rules of boxing were described. Those rules were called after John Szolto Douglas, the Queensberry marquis. The new ‘Queensberry’ Rules differed from those of ‘London Prize Ring Rules’ in four key area: Opponents had to wear padded gloves The round lasted for three minutes of fighting, with a one minute break required Any other kind of fighting except for using hands was forbidden Any of the boxers who touched the ring floor had to stand up within 10 seconds, otherwise he was claimed to be beaten and the fight proclaimed ended. Those rules also contained the classification based on the sportsman’s weight category (group). At first, the newly adopted rules were neglected and disregarded by professionals, who proclaimed them to be too “unmanly” and continued boxing in accordance with the “London Prize Ring Rules”. However, a great deal of young boxers gave their preference to the “Queensberry” Rules. James “Jam” Mace was the first sportsman who won the Champion of England title among heavyweight boxers in 1861. James “Jem” Mace, who was the first boxer to use the padded gloves in such competition, greatly contributed to the popularity of the “Queensberry” Rules. John L. Sullivan, a famous American boxer of the time, expressed his discontent with the fact that the World Championship was arranged in accordance with the “Queensberry” Rules. In 1889 in a small London suburb where the World Championship among heavyweight boxers was conducted, Sullivan insisted on knuckle-bared boxing, without using gloves. In 1889 Sullivan defended the Champion’s title among heavyweight boxers against Jake Karline, boxing knuckle-bared, for the last time. Because in England this rule was proclaimed unlawful the bout was conducted in the United States. After that fight a number of legal issues forced Sullivan to defend his Champion title against James J. Corbet using the padded gloves and in accordance with “Queensberry” rules. Economic Incentive In the beginning of the XX th century, the boxing became probably one of the shortest way to glory and wealth. The center for professional boxing promotion gradually moved to the USA. This was primarily caused by the growing US economy, as well as by a great number of immigrants arriving there from all over the world. The extreme poverty and hunger forced thousands of Irish people to seek sanctuary in the New World. By 1915 the Irish became the dominating national group in the professional boxing, representing such boxers as Terry McGovern, “Philadelphia” Jack O’Brien, Mike (“Twin”) Sullivan and his brother Jack, Packey McFarland, Jimmy Clabby, Jack Britton and many others. A number of talented boxers from Germany, Scandinavia and the Central Europe emerged as well. The outstanding Jewish sportsmen, such as Joe Choynski, Abe Atell, “Battling” Levinsky and Harry Lewis who were actively boxing until 1915 were followed by the second wave of such boxers, as Barney Ross, Benny Leonard, Sid Terris, Lew Tendler, Al Singer, Maxie Rosenbloom and Max Baer. One cannot help remembering such world famous American boxers of Italian origin, as Tony Canzoneri, Rocky Marciano, Johnny Dundee and Willie Pep. Meanwhile, the black Americans also started to reach the great boxing heights. Peter Jackson, Sam Langford, Joe Walcott, and George Dixon are among the African Americans who reached the peak of glory in boxing in the USA. Joe Gans who won the Worlds Championship in lightweight group in 1902 and Jack Johnson, who became the first black champion among heavyweight boxers in 1908. Due to racism the participation of black Americans in the world boxing championships was highly hindered. Sullivan refused to defend his World Champion title against black Jackson, and Jack Dempsey, also known as “Manasa Mauler” refused to bout versus black Harry Wills. Johnson was not recognized as the champion due to his skin color, and after multiple persecutions, he was forced to leave the USA. Black American boxers persecution lasted until the “Great Depression” of 1929. In 1937 the black boxer Joe Louis won the World Champion title among heavyweight boxers and became one of the most noted boxers. Henry Armstrong, “Sugar” Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, Ezzard Charles, “Jersey” Joe Wolcott, Floyd Patterson, Sonny Liston, Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier also won the World Champion titles in various weight groups. In the last quarter of the twentieth century the black fighters dominated other boxers. “Sugar” Ray Leonard, “Marvelous” Marvin Hagler, Thomas Hearns, Larry Holmes, Michael Spinks and Mike Tyson are among them. Spain also contributed with its famous boxers, such as Carlos Monzon, Pascual Perez, Roberto Duran and Alexis Arguello. Pancho Villa from the Philippines was the first Asian boxer who won the World Champion title in the lightweight group in 1923. In the late 20s the Eastern Asia presented a great number of boxers, who were successfully fighting for the highest titles in the professional boxing. Development of Amateur Boxing: Marquis John Szolto Douglas, the developer of the “Queensberry” Rules, initiated the first amateur boxing competitions in 1867. In 1880 the Amateur Boxing Association (ABA) was founded and since 1881 the first regular championships had been arranged among amateurs. In 1888 in the USA the Amateur Sporting Union (AAU) was founded and since then annual national championships among amateurs had been conducted. In 1926 the “Chicago Tribune” arranged the “Golden Gloves” amateur competitions with the status of national championship, which were competing with bouts arranged by AAU. The law forbidding the AAU to control more than one Olympic sport was passed in 1978 in the USA. This resulted in the establishment of the USA Amateur Boxing Federation (USA/ABF). The amateur boxing quickly gained polpularity worldwide. This resulted in the arrangement of international tournaments, held every year, every two years, or as in the Olympic Games case, every four years. European Games, Commonwealth Games, Pan-American Games, All-African Championships, World Military Games are among internationally recognized competitions among amateur boxers. All amateur competitions are conducted under the control of Association Internationale de Boxe Amateur – AIBA), established in 1946 with its headquarters in London. In 1950 the Soviet Union joined the Association Internationale de Boxe Amateur – AIBA and took part in the Olympic games in 1952, where the high level of professionalism of Soviet sportsmen in this kind of sports was demonstrated along with the East Germany, Poland, Hungary and Cuba. The professional boxing is still forbidden by the F. Castro’s government in Cuba, therefore the Cuban boxers dominate in the international amateur boxing. Teofilio Stevenson, the Cuban heavyweight won the Olympic Gold in 1972, 1976 and 1980. Boxing in Africa started developing in the 50-s – 60-s, after the majority of countries of that continent became politically independent. Professional Boxing Managers and Promoters: Managers are , frequently, the most influential people in a professional boxers’ career. A manager is responsible for maintaining his boxers’ fitness and motivation levels, handling contracts, coaching, supervision and preparation for fights. In the fistfights times, the best fighters had patrons who defended their financial interests. However, when boxing became less popular among nobility, boxers were engaged by professionals, who took care of money issues and chose appropriate opponents for boxers as well. This very function became managers’ major task. A good manager thoughtfully leads his protege to fame and in reward for a job well-done, receives a portion of profits. The most successful managers often become as popular as the boxing champions themselves. Promoters are people responsible for fight planning and organization, invitation of boxers, and probably play the most important role benind the scene (or outside the ring!). George “Tex” Rickard, the first prominent promoter, was the man who turned boxing into a big business. In 1906, after he arranged the fight for the lightweight World Champion title between Joe Gans and Oscar “Battling” Nelson in a small miners’ settlement Nev. Goldfield, he understood that he could get considerable profits arranging professional boxing fights. Rickard, playing up the public feelings and professionally using the advertising for attracting spectators to the boxing tournaments, had considerably increased the earnings from ticket sales. He also was the first person to suggest the idea of broadcasting boxing matches that increased boxing audience and the number of fans. He invested over $1million into each of the five matches to promote Jack Dempsey, the World Champion, in 1919-1926. During the years of the “Great Depression”, when the sporting career of Jack Dempsey was over, the dividends from Rickard’s previous investments gradually decreased. Then, in 1935 promoter Mike Jacobs signed the contract with Joe Louis, starting the new era of big profits. The earnings gained throughout Louis sporting career exceeded $5,000,000. The English promoter Jack Solomons, who helped one of the ailing British boxers to get on his feet after the World War II, encouraged many leading American boxers to cross Atlantic, while they would rather have stayed at home. Many outstanding English promoters such as Harry Liven, Mikky Daff, Mike Berrett and Berry Irn followed Solomons’ way. Lately, promoters are often suspected in dubious deals and undertakings. Scandalously known American promoters Don King and Bob Arum were under close FBI investigation. King is probably one of the most controversial people in modern boxing. Although he worked hard to promote the sport of boxing and his boxers, Tyson and Chavez, his methods and style were rather questionable. The spotlight of the English promoter Franck Warren in 1990 gave rise to the anxiety about the integrity of the sport. TV and Professional Boxing The TV was playing a significant role in professional boxing promotion after the World War II. Because of relatively low funds needed to be invested into professional boxing matches broadcasting from the mid 1950s, boxing broadcasts became more regular than other sport events. The interest towards professional boxing broadcasting decreased after 1962. However, in 1976 when five American boxers won the Olympic gold and then entered the rank of professionals, the interest of the TV audience in boxing matches grew again. The introduction of the cable TV in the USA in the mid 1980s influenced the emergence of a large number of professional clubs where young boxers were coached and trained. TV broadcasts have significantly increased the professional boxing returns. The multimillion earnings gained from the fights for the Super Heavyweight World Champion title in the mid 1960s became a part of the deal. The boxing legend, Muhammad Ali earned over $ 69,000,000 during his 20 year-long career. On April 6, 1987 two famous welterweights Ray “Sugar” Leonard and Marvin Hagler shared the fees of $ 30,000,000. In addition to TV broadcases, professional boxing popularization in America and Europe was done through arrangements of boxing matches in casinos. The most prestigious casinos in Las-Vegas, Atlantic City and New Jersey profited from professional boxing tournaments, although those boxing shows were worldwide recognized as well. Professional Boxing Associations The world professional boxing doesn’t have the unified organization controlling both amateur and professional boxing. Two organizations were founded In 1920 in the USA: National Boxing Association – public organization; New York State Athletic Commission – governmental organization. The sharing of the control resulted in the situation when the competing organizations awarded similar titles to different boxers. In Europe, the International Boxing Union became the body governing professional boxing, which was reorganized in 1948 into the European Boxing Union. Several attempts were undertaken to establish a unified association controlling the professional boxing worldwide, but they all failed. The World Boxing Council (WBC) was established In 1963. The National Boxing Association (NBA) changed its name for the World Boxing Association (WBA) in early 1960s. In 1983 the International Boxing Federation (IBF) was formed and in 1988 the World Boxing Organization (WBO) started its activities. The International Boxing Organization (IBO) was established in 1991. It has adopted an independent computerized rating system as its own rating. The weight groups (classes) The growing boxing popularity inspired the boxers’ weight groups classification formulation during the 19th century and in the beginning of the 20th century. The fact that the boxer who weighed more had an advantage over the less weighed opponent served as a basis for that classification. The weight classification was developed both in the USA and the UK. Eight weight groups were singled out, which are recognized worldwide: flyweight – less than 112 pounds (50,8kg) bantamweight – 118 pounds (53,5kg) welterweight – 147 pounds (66,7 kg) middleweight – 160 pounds (72,6 kg) light-heavyweight – 175 pounds (79,4 kg) heavyweight – over 175 pounds (79, 4 kg). The above weight groups should be observed in all the world and national competitions. If the boxer’s weight exceeds the weight provided in the specified weight group, which he represents, he should be given the time to fit his weight in accordance to the accepted standards. If he fails the fight might be abolished. If after the Champion’s title awarding it becomes known that the boxer’s weight exceeded the one specified by the weight classification, the title of Champion would be taken away from that boxer. Two additional weight groups such as “junior-lightweight” – 130 pounds (59 kg) and “junior-welterweight” – 140 pounds (63, 5 kg) were registered in the USA in the 1920s (the term “junior” doesn’t have any relation to the age) in boxing. These weight classifications were adopted for boxers, who couldn’t fit the above eight weight groups. The great popularity of the professional boxing resulted in actual existence of 17 weight groups. The World Boxing Council (WBC) introduced the following weight classification for boxers: cruiserweight – 195 pounds (88,5 kg) super middleweight – 165 pounds (74,8 kg) super welterweight – 154 pounds (69,9 kg) super bantamweight – 122 ponds (55,3 kg) super flyweight – 116 pounds (52,6 kg) light flyweight – 110 pounds (49,9 kg) straw weight – 105 pounds (47,6 kg) Ring, Rules, Equipment As far as there is no unified controlling authority both in professional and amateur boxing, the unified rules of boxing fights arranging and running, equipment for the boxing rings and for boxers’ fit out are not defined. The USA and other countries have their own rules for boxing tournaments. The boxing tournaments are conducted in a square ring, the side of which may vary from 18 till 22 feet (from 5 m, 49 cm till 6 m, 71 cm). Three stretched ropes encircle the ring. The rules regulating amateur boxing tournaments are unified all over the world. The rules regulating amateur boxing tournaments are unified all over the world. The amateur boxing tournaments are usually divided into three rounds paused by two one-minute breaks. The duration of one round is three minutes. Boxers should protect the heads with specially fitted helmets. The referee usually controls how the rules of a tournament are observed. The scoring in the amateur tournaments is usually carried out by three to five referees standing close to the ring and deciding who is the winner. The amateur boxing tournament rules should be strictly followed. The amateur boxing rules differ significantly from those adopted in professional boxing. The professional boxing fights may last from four to twelve rounds. The duration of one round is limited by three minutes, although the two-minutes rounds are often arranged in England. The professional boxing tournaments used to last for fifteen rounds, however by the end of the1980s, WBC, WBA and IBF passed the common decision to limit the number of rounds by twelve. The boxers are usually equipped with padded gloves weighing from eight to ten ounces (226,8 – 283,3 g). The referee usually stands in the center of a ring and observes how the fighting rules are followed. Some rules allow presence of two-four referees outside the ring. But scoring is carried out only by three of them (ringside referees), which estimate the scores for each of the boxers and make a decision regarding a winner. The scoring is done for each round, and in order to determine the winner at least two or three referees should give a preference to one of the boxers. Such victory is usually called “by scoring win” (in the fights listing it is qualified and marked as “W” for winner and “L” for loser). The bout may be ended by a knockout when one of the fighters is knocked down and is not able to stand up and continue fighting within ten seconds, i.e. when the referee started counting and counted till ten (in fights listing such victory is listed as KO for winner and LKO for loser). The fight may be ended by the so-called technical knock out (it’s listed in the fights listing as TKO for winner and LTKO for loser). This occurs when the referee stops the bout because of the obvious advantage of one of the fighters; coaches and bottle-holders of the boxer make a decision to terminate a bout (in this case the white towel is hoisted); if one of the boxers is injured and this does not allow him to continue a bout, or, if the trauma may menace one of the boxers’ life and health (such decision can be made by a doctor being a member of a panel of referees). The tournament may be drawn as well, i.e. the referees didn’t give their preference to any of the boxers upon the completion of all the rounds determined for the bout. In this case the referee makes a “no contest” decision, that is the tournament didn’t take place. In the fights listing it’s marked as NC. This decision may be taken when two boxers are disqualified or withdrawn from the tournament. The win may be awarded to one of the boxers if the other is disqualified. The disqualification may be caused by the rules violation by one of the boxers (hitting by head, punching beneath the waist, etc), the sporting equipment or the weight group of one of the boxers does not fit the specified weight qualification. In the fights listing this may be marked as WDSQ for winner and LDSQ for loser). Boxing tactics The boxers’ tactics is the outmost decisive element in boxing. An efficient attack in boxing usually depends on the ability to make the strong and fine hand punches in the head and body of the opponent. The defense tactics comprises: Parrying and ability to stand one or several opponent’s punches Ability to avoid opponent’s punches while moving across the ring An active body work, that doesn’t allow the opponent to punch in a head or a body. The legs movements are very important for attack and defense. There are two main standing positions in boxing: right-sided “orthodox” and left-sided, “southpaw”. In the first case the left hand and the left leg are put ahead, in the second stand-up – the right leg and the right hand are positioned ahead. There are also so-called “switch-hitting” boxers who use both positions during the whole tournament. In any of the positions the attacking hand is stretched ahead the body, the other hand is under the chin and defends it. The chin is pulled down on the breast, the shoulders are stooping. Obliviously, each boxer has his own individual standing. There are four main punches used in boxing: Jab – a sudden punch. The short and quick punch effective both in orthodox and southpaw standings made by the leading hand. The punch may be effected by any of the hands; Hook – the short side punch of the hand, bended in elbow and wrist, twisted inside. Uppercut – the short swinging upward punch with the fist delivered in the opponent’s chin. Cross – the straight punch delivered across the opponent’s body on the shoulders’ level. The punch is usually accompanied by the main hand punch after the attacking hand punch. All other punches are modifications of these four above punches. The Style In the past, when boxers arranged their tournaments bare-knuckled, the fight was focused only on the power of delivered punch. Such style was followed until one of the opponents became unable to continue fighting. The hands of a boxer didn’t have a definite position, neither did the legs’ movements. When the boxing gloves were introduced together with the scoring system and the boxers had a chance to win by scores, boxing tactics, comprising both hands and legs movements became more important. James G. Corbett was the first modern heavyweight boxer who focused on the boxing tactics. The heavyweight Champ Jack Dempsey was very famous among the spectators because of his aggressive fight tactics and his attempts to end the fight by knockouts. Dempsey conducted the fight using the low standing position, pending as a pendulum and allowing his opponent to attack. The Champ Joe Louis improved the “stalking” style, which he used to persecute the opponent across the ring until he ultimately knocked him down. The super heavyweight Mike Tyson, in the late 1980s won the WBA, WBC and IBF World Champion titles using the same tactics in boxing. Prior to Muhammad Ali, it was believed that super heavyweights could not move fast across the ring. But Ali proved that he was the fastest heavyweight of his time. As if he would dance around his opponents with the hanging hands able to quickly take a standing for defense and attack. Although he did not have crashing punches, he won a lot of fights by knockouts conducting the powerful and quick punches combinations. The choice of the style is very individual for each boxer, however, swift moves and precise punches are the two key elements in the modern boxing tactics. 

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A History of Boxing - The Sweet Science of Bruising | The Art of Manliness Boxing: A Manly History of the Sweet Science of Bruising “Boxing is the sport to which all other sports aspire.” -George Foreman All sports have the potential of becoming about much more than athletics, transforming into symbols of a culture’s and country’s mood, insecurities, conflicts, and hopes. But perhaps no sport lends itself to this kind of transposition more than boxing. For the purity of boxing gives it the nature of a blank canvas; there is no playing field or special equipment; the rules are few and easy to understand. There is but two men, facing off with nowhere to go, with only their fists and their determination to decide their fate. Thus boxing easily becomes a metaphor for debates over our values: good vs. evil, immigrant vs. nativist, bravado vs. humility, intellect vs brute strength. The idea boxing has most often been over-layed with is manliness. Joyce Carol Oates (boxing may be a manly sport, but some of the best books on it have been written by women), argues that boxing’s appeal lies in the fact that it is “without a doubt . . . our most dramatically ‘masculine’ sport.'” Indeed, the sweet science of bruising has for its entirety history been inextricably tied up with a culture’s perception and conception of manhood. This connection to cultural ideals and masculinity has given boxing a volatile history. At times when society felt its manliness to be on the wane, boxing was wildly popular and seen as the iron needed to fortify a pansified culture. At other times, people have recoiled as boxing’s perceived brutality, seeing the sport as evidence of a barbarism at odds with a perception of themselves as too enlightened for such pursuits. All of which makes for a fascinating history and a subject every man should know something about. Boxing in Ancient Times The Terme Boxer, Greek sculpture from the first century B.C Boxing has likely been around since the dawn of time. Our caveman ancestors surely put up their dukes when fighting another dude for a hunk of meat or the heart of a cavelady. The first hard evidence of boxing can be found in third millennium Egypt and Mesopotamia.  The first record of a “prizefight” occurs during the funeral games for Patroklus as recorded in the Iliad. Boxing moved from ceremony to sport with its inclusion in the Olympics and the other Panhellenic festivals. Still, this was boxing in its most primitive form: no rounds, ring, weight classes, rest periods, or points systems. A boxer was declared the winner when his opponent could no longer continue and cried uncle. Boxing was also quite popular in Ancient Rome both as a sport and as part of the Gladiator contests. Gladiators would wrap their hands and forearms with leather straps, sometimes studded with metal shards (the cestus), and battle it out, often until death. Boxing in the Age of Enlightenment When the traditions of Ancient Greece and Rome fell into obscurity during the Middle Ages, boxing was eclipsed by popular Medieval pursuits. Commoners still got into the occasional scuffle, but the aristocratic class concentrated on activities like jousting, archery, and hunting.  It was not until the upper-classes began taking an interest in boxing in the early 18th century that boxing would really begin to flourish. During the Age of Enlightenment, Europeans took a keen interest in recovering the knowledge and traditions of antiquity. Such curiosity brought with it a revived interest in boxing, especially in England, the true birthplace of modern prize fighting. Wealthy patrons supported their chosen pugilists and put huge wagers down on their fights. With such great sums on the line, the need for rules to settle disputes soon became clear. In 1743, rules governing the sport were set down. The rules regulated the behavior of umpires and seconds and made it illegal to hit a fighter who was down. A fight was now ended when a second could not bring his fighter back to a chalk square in the middle of the ring within 30 seconds. John Broughton, the reigning champion from 1734 to 1758, did much to bring what was called “the noble science of self-defense” to prominence and greater respectability. It was he who first set down the above rules. He did so initially merely to regulate the matches at the school he had opened. Broughton invited high society gents to make the leap from sponsoring fighters to becoming pugilists themselves by enrolling at his academy. In order to attract “persons of quality and distinction,” gambling at the school was dispensed with and the fighters donned padded gloves or “mufflers,” as they were then known. The gloves were designed to prevent a gent from having to go courting with “black eyes, broken jaws, and bloody noses.” Broughton also traded on Enlightenment ideals when attempting to attract gentlemanly clients. His ads quoted from the Aeneid and called to Britons who “boast themselves inheritors of the Greek and Roman virtues” to “follow their example in conflicts of this magnanimous kind.” Broughton also pushed boxing as a cure for “foreign effeminacy.” The sport was to him a “truly British art” that would preserve British identity and manliness. Many of Broughton’s contemporaries agreed with such a sentiment. Pierre Jean-Grosely remarked that boxing was “a special form of combat” not “merely congenial to the character of the English” but “inherent in English blood.” The Regency Period: Boxing’s First Golden Age The 1780’s ushered in the first golden age of modern boxing. The aristocracy’s interest in the sport, which had waned since Broughton’s heyday, experienced a resurgence. And England’s war with France spurred a sense of nationalism and a desire for men to take up this “truly British art.” The popularity of a series of fights between Richard Humphries and Daniel Mendoza also created widespread interest in the sweet science. These matches were some of the first to trade on ethnic rivalry, as Mendoza was Jewish and often known simply as “The Jew.” Mendoza’s fighting style also changed the nature of the sport. Pugilists had formerly stood toe to toe and simply slugged each other back and forth. Fighters would block shots but there was very little weaving, bobbing, and fancy footwork. No floating like a butterfly; just stinging like a bee. Mendoza brought in the dancing and the defense, making him highly successful, although also the object of scorn. Some spectators found this agile style to be “ungentlemanly.” Still, even the critics could admit it was more fun to watch than a straightforward pummeling. Trading on this battle between ethnicities and fighting styles, the bouts between Mendoza and Humphrey were wildly popular and fueled by boxing’s first war of words; each fighter sent taunting letters and brags to the newspapers before fights. The British public’s enthusiasm for the sport led to the creation of numerous boxing schools and academies. Men were drawn to boxing’s promise to grant the athlete vigorous health and “courage to the timid.” They sought teaching in the art of self-defense in order to be able to hold their own when accosted by scalawags on the mean streets of London. Boxing was further sold as a way to defend one’s honor without resorting to the deadly tradition of dueling. The sport also dovetailed nicely with the Enlightenment’s burgeoning interest in equality. Boxers needed only fists and fortitude to compete, not special weaponry. Boxing was thus seen a great leveler in which all classes could compete on equal footing. The Queensberry Rules The dawn of the Victorian Age extinguished British ardor for the sweet science. In a time marked by the desire for all things moral and upright, pugilism’s violence, both in the ring and behind the scenes, rumors of thrown fights, and its association with gambling, doomed boxing to be labeled a “a low and demoralizing pursuit,” unfit for the interest of a respectable gentleman. But the British weren’t through in adding their legacy to the sport. In 1867, the Queensberry rules were published, barring any wrestling moves, and essentially setting up the structure of modern boxing. Perhaps the most important of these new rules required pugilists to don gloves. The wearing of gloves drastically changed the nature of the sport. The bare knuckled fisticuffer stood upright, leaned back slightly, and held his arms with forearms facing outward. The gloved boxer leans forward and protects his face with his gloves. While gloves made the sport less brutal in some ways, they made boxing more dangerous and deadly by allowing fighters to punch with far greater strength (the bare knuckled boxer had to mitigate the impact of his blows for fear of winding up with a broken hand). The bones of one’s head are harder than those in the hand; thus, gloves helped the hitter and hurt the hittee. This accelerated the development of the more defensive style of boxing that Mendoza had begun, with a greater emphasis placed on bobbing, slipping, blocking, ect. Nonetheless, gloves greatly increased the frequency of knockouts and the battering boxers took often led to long term head injuries and the so-called “punch-drunk” syndrome. The Queensberry rules may have made boxing more dangerous, but it also made it more entertaining, positioning the sport for commercialization and widespread appeal. Boxing Moves to America “The men who take part in these fights are as hard as nails, and it is not worth while to feel sentimental about their receiving punishment which as a matter of fact they do not mind. Of course,the men who look on ought to be able to stand up with the gloves, or without them, themselves; I have scant use for the type of sportsmanship which consists merely in looking on at the feats of someone else. “ –Theodore Roosevelt As boxing waned in Britain, the seeds for the sport’s next Golden Age were being planted on American soil. In the early decades of the 19th century, boxing was barely on the American cultural radar. That began to change in the 1830’s when British pugilists, starved for matches at home, traveled to the States seeking other opportunities to fight. Bare knuckled showdowns, often between Brits and Irish immigrants or between American “natives” and the Irish, slowly began to attract Yankee interest. In the latter half of the 19th century, boxing found advocates within the “muscular Christianity” movement which saw sports as a way to increase not only a man’s physical, but also his moral strength. Many churches ran their own gyms and supported fighters. Theodore Roosevelt, advocate of living the strenuous life and forever concerned about American men going soft and losing their manliness, was also a keen advocate of the sweet science. TR argued that “powerful, vigorous men of strong animal development must have some way in which their animal spirits can find vent.” As NY’s police commissioner he encouraged his officers to train in the ars pugandi, and he later sought its implemetation in the character-building program of the YMCA and in the training for men of the Armed Services. He himself boxed as a young man, throughout his years of college, and into his presidency, only stopping when a pugilist’s blow detached his left retina, leaving him blind in that eye (not one to let something like blindness dampen his fun, TR then took up jujitsu). Roosevelt especially recommended the sport to city dwellers who had limited space but wished to build up their strength and vigor. John L. Sullivan and the End of Bare Knuckle Boxing John L. Sullivan “In this world, strength of a certain kind-matched of course with intelligence and tirelessly developed skills-determines masculinity. Just as the boxer is his body, a man’s masculinity’s his use of his body. But it is also his triumph over another’s use of his body. The Opponent is always male, the Opponent is the rival for one’s own masculinity, most fully and combatively realized….Men fighting men to determine worth (i.e., masculinity) excludes women as completely as the female experience of childbirth excludes men.” -Joyce Carol Oates The man that would truly turn the corner of American boxing interest was John L. Sullivan. Born in 1858, Sullivan straddled the world of bare knuckle and gloved boxing, and helped to forever secure the popularity of the latter. Nicknamed the Boston Strongboy and His Fistic-holiness, John L. Sullivan would be bare knuckle boxing’s last champion and the first heavyweight champion by the new Queensberry rules. Sullivan’s boxing prowess and colorful personality made him the nation’s first sport’s celebrity. Critics thought he was a drunken lout, but others felt the champion was a masculine, rough and tumble breath of fresh air in the feminized and button-up Victorian age. Sportswriter Bert Sugar said, “Maybe after George Washington, he was our first icon: the biggest thing we had between the Civil War and the Spanish-American War in any field. He was a hero.” While often pictured as a bare knuckled boxer (that’s him in the AoM header), Sullivan fought the vast majority of his fights in gloves. His preference for gloves gave the sport new respectability and popularity. Boxing soon became legal in states where it had previously been outlawed. As the sport rose to prominence in the States, its popularity continued to decline in England. Brits waxed nostalgic about their Golden Age and saw boxing’s ascendancy in America as another symbol of the way in which that country was eclipsing them in power and growth. Like many Britons, Arthur Doyle linked his country’s loss of dominance in the sport with what he perceived to be a parallel drop in manliness. When Doyle chose to have boxing figure prominently in his novel Rodney Stone, he was asked by his publisher, “Why that subject of all subjects on earth?” Doyle answered, “Better our sports should be a little too rough than that we should run the risk of effeminacy.” Indeed, in the book Stone looks back at boxing’s golden age longingly: “The ale drinking, the rude good-fellowship, the heartiness, the laughter at discomforts, the craving to see the fight-all these may be set down as vulgar and trivial by those to whom they are distasteful; but to me, listening to the far off and uncertain echoes of our distant past, they seem to have been the very bones upon which much that is most solid and virile in this ancient race was molded.” The Rise of Professional Boxing Jack Johnson battles James J. Jeffries, 1910 “The psychologist Erik Erikson discovered that, while little girls playing with blocks generally liked to create pleasant interior spaces and attractive entrances, little boys are inclined to pile up the blocks as high as they can and then watch them fall down: “the contemplation of ruins,” Erikson observes, “is a masculine specialty.” No matter the mesmerizing grace and beauty of a great boxing match, it is the catastrophic finale for which everyone waits, and hopes: the blocks piled as high as they can possibly be piled, then brought spectacularly down.” -Joyce Carol Oates Up until 1920, prize-fighting was in a period of flux, legal in some places and not in others. The brutality of the sport did not concern the states, it was boxing’s connection with gambling and corruption which had government officials keeping it at bay. To skirt the rules, matches were often held on islands and barges or by hastily created boxing “clubs” in which one could pay to become a “member” and thus watch the fight. These “clubs” were often sponsored by saloons, and bars soon became epicenters of the sport. The saloon was already popular as Jack London observed, as a “place where men believed they could escape from the narrowness of women’s influence into the wide free world of men.” Boxing merely added to this existing appeal. Boxing matches of the early 20th century often traded on ethnic and racial animosities to promote fights. This dimension of boxing worked to catapult Jack Johnson to fame, when he became the first black man to become the heavyweight champion of the world in 1908. As soon as Johnson won the title, America began a frantic search for find a “great white hope” to dethrone him. Johnson picked off several potential “hopes” before facing undefeated heavyweight champion James J. Jeffries. Jeffries declared that he had come out of retirement “for the sole purpose of proving that a white man is better than a Negro.” The fight, advertised as “the ultimate test of racial superiority,” proved a dark day for white supremacists. Triumphant in the ring and provocative and flamboyant outside of it, Johnson was scorned by whites and beloved by African-Americans, who celebrated him as a hero of the race. He was one of the most famous and infamous celebrities of the time, and his high-profile career helped boxing gain an ever larger following. Boxing in the Golden Age of Sports Dempsey and Firpo by artist George Bellows, 1924 The 1920’s are often cited as the most sports-crazy decade in American history. Decades before, the frontier had closed and been eulogized by Frederick Jackson Turner, and Americans feared that the hearty, resilient pioneer character of the country was fading away. The playing field thus became the new “frontier”  to which Americans looked to find rugged individuals who reassured them that American grit was alive and well. Jack Dempsey fit this bill. Born in Colorado and raised poor, Dempsey was an old fashioned “self-made man” with a fighting style that was brutal, direct, and efficient. After spending many years dispatching opponent after opponent, Dempsey captured the heavyweight title by pulverizing Jess Willard, who had previously taken the belt from Johnson. But it was his bouts against Irish-American Gene Tunney which would become legendary. Dempsey first fought Tunney in 1926, before a crowd of 120,000 spectators. The fight was promoted as a battle between two different kinds of manliness: Tunney was the intellectual, clean-living, Marine of “self-improving and self-controlling masculinity,” while Dempsey was a rough and tumble symbol of “untameable virility and independence.” Tunney won the bout, and a rematch was set up a year later in Chicago. The fight simultaneously broke a record for the first $1 million gate and the first $2 million gate in entertainment history. The fight was not only watched by over 145,000 spectators at Soldier Field, but new radios allowed millions of Americans to tune in and listen as Tunney once again triumphed over Dempsey (although not without some controversy over the “ Long Count “). The Brown Bomber and Radio Joe Louis vs. Max Schmeling, 1938 “Some time ago one of the southern states adopted a new method of capital punishment. Poison gas supplanted the gallows. In its earliest stages, a microphone was placed inside the sealed death chamber so that scientific observers might hear the words of the dying prisoner….The first victim was a young Negro. As the pellet dropped into the container, and gas curled upward, through the microphone came these words: “Save me, Joe Louis, Save me, Joe Louis, Save me Joe Louis…” After Tunney retired in 1928, boxing enthusiasts felt that another of the sport’s golden periods had come to a close. The heavyweight champion title passed through many hands in the ensuing decade. A.J. Leibling, the masterful sportswriter and boxing enthusiast, called these years boxing’s “Dark Ages.” This brief dark “age” was ended in 1937 by boxing’s next big celebrity: Joe Louis. Louis snatched the title from Depression-era hero, James J. Braddock, the “Cinderella Man.” Louis then held the title for 12 years. The proliferation of radio was a huge boost to boxing and garnered the Brown Bomber fans the all over the country. People would gather around the radio in stores, homes, and churches to listen to his fights. As Miles Davis recalls, “We’d all be crowded around the radio, waiting to hear the announcer describe Joe knocking some mother****r out. And when he did, the whole goddamn black community of East St. Louis would go crazy.” The Brown Bomber’s bouts are arguably the best examples of the way in which boxing can transcend the confines of mere sport to take on greater cultural meanings. Louis fought Primo Carnera in 1937, shortly after he had been photographed giving a fascist salute. Then, in 1938, he took on Max Schmeling, who had previously defeated him. Schmeling was a German fighter, touted by Goebbels and Hitler as a prime example of Aryan supremacy. The fight thus took on nationalistic overtones. FDR invited Louis to the White House before the fight, and feeling his biceps, said, “Joe, we’re depending on those muscles for America.” Joe’s muscles knocked out “Hitler’s pet” (as dubbed by Richard Wright) in little over 2 minutes. For whites, the victory symbolized the supremacy of American democracy over authoritarian fascism. For blacks, Louis was, like Jack Johnson before him, a hero of the race. A decade before Jackie Robinson integrated baseball, Louis was breaking both noses and racial barriers. After the Schmeling victory, 500,000 African-Americans took to the streets of Harlem, dancing, celebrating, and shouting “Heil Louis!” Boxing in the Age of Television Unlike sports like baseball with its giant playing field, large cast of characters, and tiny ball, television was an ideal medium to broadcast boxing. The action was easy to follow and the two dueling opponents fit nicely into one’s screen. Thus, during the late 40’s and 1950’s, boxing dominated this nascent medium, flickering on television screens almost every night of the week. While television brought the sweet science to a much wider audience (fight nights attracted 31% of the primetime audience), purists lamented its perceived drag on the sport. For them, the beauty and power of pugilism could not be felt through a tiny screen. One had to be there ringside, smelling the sweat of the combatants, and feeling the electricity of the crowds. After all, quipped A.J. Liebling, watching at home prevented you from “telling the fighters what to do.” More than that, Liebling lamented the way in which televised boxing was hurting the vibrancy of the live variety. With free boxing being televised every night of the week, attendance at live fights dropped significantly. This “knocked out of business the hundreds of small-city and neighborhood boxing clubs where youngsters has a chance to learn their trade and journeymen to mature their skills.” Television’s’ frequent broadcasts required a constant stream of fresh boxers, dipping into a pool of pugilists who were not yet experienced enough to go toe to toe with a bruiser for 12 rounds. As a result, several boxers expired as the cameras rolled. When Boxers Were Kings Muhammad Ali stands over a fallen Sonny Liston, 1965 “Boxing is for men, and is about men, and is men. A celebration of the lost religion of masculinity all the more trenchant for its being lost.” -Carol Joyce Oates Sugar Ray Robinson, arguably the best pound for pound boxer in history, was the next fighter to captivate boxing fans until his last title win in 1955. Though Robinson was prolific, he never quite became a cultural institution the way Dempsey or Louis had. And after his career declined, boxing once again hit a stagnant period. These doldrums were broken by the “Poet and Pedagogue,” Cassisus Clay. Whether you loved him or loathed him, Clay was handsome, charismatic, and exciting to watch in the ring. His penchant for bravado, prophesy, and poetry charmed many a fan back into the boxing fold. Clay’s transformation into Muhammad Ali, his affiliation with the Nation of Islam, and his refusal to serve in Vietnam made him a hero of liberal blacks and whites alike. Conservative boxing fans meanwhile gravitated to Ali’s rival, Joe Frazier. The meeting of these bitter rivals in 1971 was dubbed the “Fight of the Century,” and it lived up to its billing, with Frazier knocking down Ali with a fierce hook in the final round. These two pugilists were brilliant fighters, but they weren’t alone in trading the title back and forth. George Foreman was a third character in the era’s holy trinity of boxing greatness. With such competition, no fighter could hold the title for long. Thus in 1973, in one of boxing’s greatest upsets, Foreman downed Frazier with an uppercut that knocked him off his feet during the Sunshine Showdown. Foreman would pick up two more knockouts on his way to his next title defense fight with Muhammad Ali, bringing his total KO’s to 37. And the odds for 1974’s Rumble in the Jungle were heavily in this prodigious puncher’s corner. The historic bout, staged in Zaire in 1974, would turn out to be another monumental upset. Ali exhausted Foreman by giving him the “rope of dope” treatment. Then, in the eighth round, he dropped Foreman to the canvas. The legendary bouts of the 70’s were not quite over yet. Frazier and Ali squared off in 1975 for their third meeting, the Thrilla in Manila. In 100 degree heat, these rivals duked it out. Ali had been mercilessly taunting Frazier for some time, and the acrimony between the men was manifest as they ground through 14 rounds. Frazier’s trainer would not allow his fighter to come out for the 15th round, and his corner threw up the sponge. While Ali’s career was not quite finished, the Thrilla in the Manila was certainly the high point of this legendary time of pugilism. Boxing would see a resurgence in the coming of fighters like Sugar Ray Leonard and Mike Tyson, but the bout marked the end of what many consider the greatest and final golden age of boxing. Boxing Today I wonder if the American audience in this current day and age wants to deal with something as raw as the sweet science. Like jazz music, what seems straightforward, easily understood, and mastered is, well, not. -Bob Margolis, amateur boxer and jazz musician Boxing is nowhere as popular as it once was during the time of Ali, or even Tyson. Its place in popular culture has been weakened by several factors. First, for most of boxing’s history, it did not have to compete against many other sports; even in the 1920’s the baseball and football seasons were shorter and there was no NASCAR or NBA. Today, boxing must attempt to carve out a niche alongside these other sports, not to mention compete against the burgeoning popularity of MMA and the UFC. And unlike many sports, boxers do not compete in long seasons, fighting only several times a year. The sweet science has been further weakened by boxing’s mutliple governing boards and “Alphabet titles.” These numerous divisions make it hard to call one fighter the absolute champ, and there hasn’t been a truly break-out star since Mike Tyson. What has perhaps weakened boxing the most, however, and it is a thing that has always been it’s achilles heel, is a flagging public appreciation for the complexity and poetry of the sport. While often simplistically painted as a straightforward and barbaric pursuit, nothing could be farther from the truth. It may contain  vestiges of our primitive impulses, but it has also been called a “science” for good reason. While many see today’s fighters as not the brightest bulbs, history shows that its allure has attracted men from all classes, from lower-class ruffians to aristocrats and artists (the list of authors who have been drawn to writing about boxing but  who also boxed themselves is legion: Hemingway, London, Eliot, and Doyle to name a few). Those who really take the time to understand boxing, know it to be a brutal art. It is a chess game, full of finesse and strategy. And so we plan on doing more articles in the future to further your understanding of the sweet science, in hopes of doing our part to usher in yet another golden age of pugilism. Sources:

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What Is Boxing Day and How Did It Get Its Name? Updated December 14, 2016. What is Boxing Day, or, why is it called Boxing Day? Arguments come thick and fast as to why, and I hope, like me, you find the answers below interesting. But firstly, I must say, it has nothing to do with the sport of boxing. The simplest answer would be that we are a little greedy here in the UK and Ireland in wanting a longer holiday.  It is not enough for us to have only Christmas Day celebrations, we have added on this other event called Boxing Day. But the answer is not that simple. Boxing Day is a national Bank Holiday, a day to spend with family and friends and to eat up all the leftovers of Christmas Day. The origins of the day, however, are steeped in history and tradition. Why? Arguments abound on the origins of the name Boxing Day.  All the answers below are valid,  so maybe it is one, or even all of them. A ‘Christmas Box’ in Britain is a name for a Christmas present. Boxing Day was traditionally a day off for servants and the day when they received a  ‘Christmas Box’ from the master. The servants would also go home on Boxing Day to give ‘Christmas Boxes’ to their families. continue reading below our video How to Mince Without a Knife A box to collect money for the poor traditionally and placed in Churches on Christmas day and opened the next day - Boxing Day. Great sailing ships when setting sail would have a sealed box containing money on board for good luck. Were the voyage a success, the box was given to a priest, opened at Christmas and the contents were given to the poor.  When is Boxing Day? Boxing Day is the 26th December and is a national holiday in the UK and Ireland. Activities Boxing Day is a time to spend with family or friends, usually those not seen on Christmas Day itself. In recent times, the day has become synonymous with many sports. Horse racing is particularly popular with meets all over the country. Many top football teams also play on Boxing Day. Boxing Day is also a time when the British show their eccentricity by taking part in all kinds of silly activities. These include bizarre traditions including swimming the icy cold English Channel, fun runs, and charity events. Fox Hunting on Boxing Day Until 2004, Boxing Day hunts were a traditional part of Boxing Day, but the ban on fox hunting has put an end to the hunt in its traditional sense. Hunters will still gather dressed resplendently in red hunting coats to the sound of the hunting horn. But, since it is now forbidden to chase the fox with dogs, the dogs now follow artificially laid trails. UPDATE: The change of government in the UK in 2015 has once again raised the debate of reinstating foxhunting - watch this space. The New Boxing Day Sport - Shopping Another ‘sport’ to emerge in recent years is shopping. Sadly what was once a day of relaxation and family time sees the start of the sales. Sales used to start in January post-New Year, but the desire to grab a bargain and for shops to off-load stock means many now start on Boxing Day. Boxing Day in Ireland In Ireland, Boxing Day is known as "St Stephen's Day" and is famous for its "Wren Boys". St Stephen was killed, purportedly stoned to death, for believing in Jesus. In Ireland, the Wren Boys would go out and stone Wrens to death with blackened faces, carry their catch around the town knocking on doors and asking for money. This barbaric act has now stopped, but the Wrens Boys will still dress up and parade around time, though, but collecting money for charity. Food and Drink on Boxing Day With guests often popping in for a snack and quick drink, the food and drink on Boxing Day are more relaxed than Christmas Day . Lunch will usually be a buffet or leftovers from Christmas lunch. Baked Ham is a popular Boxing Day meat and of course, Mince Pies  with Brandy Butter or a slice of Christmas Cake are almost obligatory.

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Rocky Balboa | Rocky Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Edit One of Rocky's many endorsements. In the three years since winning the world heavyweight title, Rocky has had a string of ten successful title defenses and has seen his fame, wealth and celebrity increase. Rocky did better in commercials like he did last time and he earned those endorsements when he won the title. Meanwhile, Rocky's trainer Mickey worriedly eyes a young and hungry fighter named James "Clubber" Lang . Lang rapidly climbs the ranks with six consecutive knockouts and is now the number one contender for Rocky's heavyweight championship. Rocky at the ceremony of his statue. While unveiling a statue of himself at the steps of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Rocky is publicly challenged by Lang. Lang accuses Rocky of selective matchmaking by intentionally accepting challenges from lesser opponents. Lang also questions Rocky's manhood to his wife Adrian enraging Rocky, who accepts his challenge. Rocky's trainer Mickey initially wants no part of the match and refuses to train Rocky. After Rocky demands to know why, Mickey tells him that Lang was correct and all of his title defenses were fought against handpicked opponents in order to keep him successful, as well as to avoid more devastating injuries, such as the ones he suffered in the fight against Apollo Creed in their two matches. Mickey also tells Rocky that if he fights Lang, he would "kill (him) to death inside of three rounds" because Lang is younger, stronger, and hungrier than Rocky. Knowing this, Rocky questions his whole title reign and Mickey agrees to train Rocky for the fight, which Rocky declares will be his last. Rocky during his open training. Both fighters go in different directions in regards to their training for the fight. Lang works out alone in a spartan setting with very little equipment. Rocky, on the other hand, rents out a hotel ballroom and opens his training camp to the public with dozens of distractions that frustrate Mickey, who fears they will lead to disaster in the fight. Rocky get's knocked out and loses his title. Lang and Rocky meet at Philadelphia's Spectrum. During a melee before the fight, Lang shoves Mickey, who suffers a heart attack. Rocky decides to call off the fight, but Mickey refuses and implores him to fight and win. As the fight begins, Rocky comes out aggressively and tries to knock out the challenger early. Lang, however, is unfazed by the early assault and quickly takes control of the fight. By the end of the first round Rocky is battered and bloody, and calls for Mickey. The condition of his trainer continues to distract him into the second round, where Lang knocks Rocky out to win the title. Rocky heads back to his dressing room, where Mickey has taken a turn for the worse. Rocky tells Mickey that the fight ended by knockout in the second round but does not say he lost. He tries to convince Mickey there is more to do, but Mickey simply says, "I love ya, kid," and dies in Rocky's arms. Rocky is devastated at losing his manager, mentor and father figure. Rocky goes into a deep depression fueled by Mickey's death, no longer sure if he was ever truly the champion. One night, he rides to his statue and in a fit of anger throws his motorcycle at it. He then stops at Mickey's now-shuttered gym where he is confronted by Apollo Creed, who tells him that Rocky has lost his edge and needs to get it back. To do this, Apollo offers to train Rocky for a rematch with Lang. Rocky agrees and he, with Adrian and Paulie, follows Apollo to Los Angeles. Apollo's plan is to take Rocky back to the basics, from putting him and his family up in an old, unkempt hotel in Creed's old neighborhood, as well as returning to his old gym, where he hooks Rocky up with Duke, Apollo's former trainer. Rocky and Apollo celebrating Rocky getting his Eye of the Tiger back. Despite Apollo's best efforts at getting Rocky back into fighting shape, Rocky is still distraught and disillusioned. However, Adrian finally decides to talk to Rocky who, in his frustration, admits to being afraid and feeling responsible for Mickey's death. Through heated compassionate criticism Adrian is finally able to talk him out of his funk and convince him to get back on track, and with Apollo and Duke's expertise, Rocky develops into a completely different fighter by trading his power game for a quick hitting counter-attacking style, which confuses everyone including Lang. Rocky punching Lang during the fight. The rematch is held at Madison Square Garden in New York City. At the start of the fight, Rocky sprints from his corner, fighting with a level of skill and spirit that no one expected. As a result, Rocky dominates the first round. After the bell, Lang is in a fit of rage and has to be restrained by his trainers. In the second round, Rocky starts as he did in the first. However, Lang gains the upper hand; from here he dominates Rocky, knocking him down twice. Getting up from the second KD, Rocky adopts a strategy that bewilders Apollo (and Lang) by intentionally taking a beating from Lang while taunting him for being unable to knock him out. The round ends with a verbal altercation between Lang and Rocky. Rocky knocks out Clubber Lang and regains his world title. In the third round, Lang (who is used to winning fights swiftly with knockouts in the early rounds) becomes increasingly angry and quickly exhausts his energy trying to finish Rocky off with repeated knockout blows, most of which miss the newly-agile Rocky. Rocky taunts the champion in order to psych him out, and the aggressive Lang is infuriated. He attacks even harder, walking into Rocky's trap. The tide turns, and Rocky overpowers the winded and outboxed Lang, knocking him out and re-gaining the heavyweight championship of the world. Rocky and Apollo both throw punches at the same time to start the third fight. Afterwards, Rocky fulfills Apollo's vague "big favor": a private rematch with him at Mick's old gym. The film concludes with the fighters throwing their first punch simultaneously, but this time, after the two massive bouts between them previously, this fight is purely for pride and they fight in the spirit of friendly competition rather than as fierce rivals. Rocky IV: East vs. West Edit In 1985, Ivan Drago, an immensely muscular 6-foot 5, 261-pound Soviet boxer, arrives in the United States with his wife Ludmilla, and a team of trainers from the USSR and Cuba. His manager, Nicolai Koloff, takes every opportunity to promote Drago's athleticism as a hallmark of Soviet superiority. Motivated by patriotism and an innate desire to prove himself, Apollo Creed challenges Drago to an exhibition bout. Rocky has reservations, but agrees to train Apollo despite his misgivings about the fight. He asks Apollo whether the fight is against the Russian, or "you against you". During a press conference regarding the match, hostility is created between Apollo and Drago's respective camps. The exhibition takes place at the MGM Grand Hotel in Las Vegas. Apollo enters the ring, wearing his old Uncle Sam outfit, in an over-the-top patriotic entrance with James Brown performing "Living in America" complete with showgirls. The bout starts tamely with Apollo landing several punches that have no effect on the Russian. It soon turns serious though, as Drago starts clobbering hard. Apollo is worn by the end of the first round. Rocky and Apollo's trainer Duke plead with him to give up, but Apollo refuses to do so, and tells Rocky to promise him not to stop the fight no matter what. The second round doesn't go any better, and despite Duke begging Rocky to throw in the towel, he reluctantly honors Apollo's wish. This turns out to have fatal consequences as Drago lands a final punch on Rocky holds a dying Apollo Creed. Apollo that knocks him to the ground, killing him. In the immediate aftermath, Drago displays no sense of remorse commenting to the assembled media: "If he dies... he dies." Rocky gave the eulogy at his funeral, he didn't lose a best friend. He lost his brother figure and he thanked him for making him the greater fighter he was. Incensed by Drago's cold indifference and feeling a deep sense of guilt, Rocky decides to avenge Apollo's death by agreeing to fight Drago in Russia on Christmas Day in a 15-round bout. As the match is unsanctioned, he is required to forfeit the title. He flies to the USSR without Adrian, setting up his training base in Krasnogourbinsk with only Duke and brother-in-law Paulie to accompany him. To prepare for the fight, Drago uses very high-tech equipment, steroid enhancement, and a team of trainers and doctors monitoring his every movement. Rocky, on the other hand, throws heavy logs, chops down trees, pulls an overloaded snow sleigh, jogs in heavy snow and treacherous icy conditions and climbs a mountain. Adrian shows up unexpectedly to give Rocky her support after initially refusing to travel to Russia because of her doubts on his fighting chances. Her arrival increases Rocky's focus and enhances his training. Drago and Rocky square off before their fight. Drago is introduced with an elaborate, patriotic ceremony that puts the Russian crowd squarely on Drago's side. Rocky turns up more muscular and confident than ever, but is booed by all in attendance. In contrast to his fight with Apollo, Drago immediately goes on the offensive and Rocky takes a fierce pounding. Rocky comes back toward the end of the second and silences the Russian crowd by landing a strong right hook that cuts Drago just below his left eye. While Drago is visibly shaken, Rocky is fired up and assaults Drago, which continues even after the bell rings. While Duke and Paulie cheer Rocky for his heroism, they remind him that Drago is not a machine, but a man. Ironically, Drago comments that Rocky "is not human, he is like a piece of iron" with his own corner reprimanding him for being "weak" in comparison to the "small American." Rocky punching Drago. The two boxers continue to hit each other over the next dozen rounds, with Rocky holding his ground despite Drago's powerful punches. His resilience rallies the previously hostile Soviet crowd to his side, which unsettles Drago to the point that he shoves Koloff off the ring for berating his performance. Rocky finally takes out Drago in the 15th and last round, winning by knockout to the shock of the Soviet Politburo members watching the fight. Rocky defeats Ivan Drago. A bloody and battered Rocky gives a victory speech, acknowledging the mutual disdain at first between himself and the crowd. He says it is like the wider disdain between Russians and Americans, but that he and the crowd have come to respect and admire each other during the course of the fight. Rocky adds that the crowd has seen "two guys killin' each other, but I guess that's better than 20 million". Rocky finally declares, "If I can change, and you can change, then everybody can change!" The Soviet General Secretary stands and passionately applauds Rocky, and his aides follow suit. Rocky ends his speech by wishing his son a Merry Christmas, and throws his arms into the air in victory as the crowd applauds on Christmas Day. Rocky answering questions at the press conference. Rocky V: Retirement and Return to South Philadelphia Edit At the press conference held at the airport upon returning home, a flamboyant promoter named George Washington Duke showed up and challenged Rocky to fight Duke's protege, Union Cane who had been declared the new heavyweight champion. Rocky, however, easily blew off the challenge and headed back home with his family. [1] That evening, Rocky overheard an argument between Adrian and Paulie. It turned out that during their stay in Russia, Paulie had inadvertently given power of attorney to the Balboas' shady accountant, who then disappeared with their fortune when the accountant duped Rocky and Paulie to sign a tax extension, but it wasn't a tax extension it was power of attorney. Rocky's accountant embezzled his fortune and had invested it in a real estate scheme that had crashed. He lost a lot of money on that investment and made Rocky broke. The family's lawyer also revealed that their mortgage was not entirely paid off, and that Rocky still owed six years of back taxes because of the accountant. The family's lawyer had a solution, if he accepted the fight against Union Cane he will be out of this debt no time. Adrian didn't want him to fight again, but Rocky refused and is considering called Duke to schedule a fight against Union Cane. That would get his fortune back. But Adrian stopped him and asked him to see a doctor first. Rocky refused, but decided to go through with it for Adrian. There was bad news from the doctor, as he confirmed that Rocky was suffering from Cavum septum pellucidum, a condition common to boxers who take too many hard hits to the head. This effectively ended his fighting career. The announcement of Rocky's official retirement made headlines. Rocky declared himself bankrupt leading to his mansion and almost all of his possessions being repossessed, leaving him and his family broke. The only asset remaining was Mighty Mick's Gym, which had been willed to Robert by Mickey thereby keeping it safe from the accountant. [1] Rocky moving back into his old home. Luckily, Paulie had kept his old home in South Philadelphia, and in 1986, the family packed up and moved back into the modest home. Rocky assured Adrian that the move would only be temporary. [1] Some time later, Rocky reopened Mickey's old gym, Mighty Mick's Gym, and was approached by a young fighter named Tommy Gunn . Tommy came from Oklahoma, and was eager to meet Rocky, with the intent of showing him how good of a fighter he was and hoped Rocky would become his manager after seeing him in action. At first, Rocky was unsure about the idea, not considering himself manager material, but he eventually began to see his younger self in Tommy, and feeling he could pass on some of Mickey's teachings to Tommy, he not only accepted to become his manager, but also offered him to stay with his family. Tommy could have helped Rocky get his fortune back if Rocky leads him to the heavy title. Starting then, Rocky began to relive the older days; he was Mick, and Tommy was Rocky, and since he had to retire, he felt that through Tommy, he would feel like he would win again, feel in his prime again. [1] This unfortunately had a bad side effect, as Rocky became so focused on his role as Tommy's manager, and Tommy himself, that he began to neglect his son, rapidly severing the bond between the two. That bond would be rekindled later. Rocky passing on his famous boxing shorts to Gunn. The more Tommy fought, the more he became famous, but all for the wrong reasons. If the media referred to Tommy, it was indirectly through Rocky (i.e. "Rocky's Gunn aims at the title!"), and Tommy became frustrated for being trapped in Rocky's shadow. George Washington Duke tempted him with promises of fame and riches, and Tommy aligned himself with him instead of Rocky. Tommy dumped Rocky as his manager for Duke. He was also given a chance at the title, something he wanted very eagerly. During the match between Union Cane and Tommy, Rocky watched the match through television rather excitedly, cheering him on and even punching his punching bag in symmetry with Tommy's punches. Tommy punching Union Cane. When Tommy won the match, Rocky literally screamed and jumped in joy, and when Tommy was about to thank the man whom he described as the one that got him there, and Rocky smiled as he knew he was talking about him, or so he thought. Hearing Tommy give all the credits to Duke and thank him for everything, followed by the crowd showing great displeasure towards Tommy, and praising Rocky instead, while on his end, Rocky lost all the excitement and his smile from the event, and after his son tried to recomfort him, Paulie asked him to go out with him to take his mind out of all of this. After being insulted by the media in comparison to Rocky, they told Tommy that match was a sparring session and Cane was a paper champion that he never won the belt from Rocky. He never fought a real champion and his frustration and rage fueled by Duke in his scheme to get Tommy to taunt Rocky into a ring, they both went to look for Rocky in town with the press and the camera crew, and after finding him, began taunting him into fighting him in a ring; Tommy, however, vented off his anger at Rocky, the very man who trained him to become the fighter that he is and the one who genuinely cared for him, who was prepared to ignore him until Paulie began criticizing Tommy. The new champion's response was to punch Paulie down, resulting in an angered Rocky to challenge him into trying to knock him down now. Duke tried to stop the imminent fight by saying that Tommy would only fight in the ring. Rocky followed by saying, "My ring's outside." This triggered a street fight between the two former friends. Surrounded by a crowd, which was entirely on Rocky's side, Rocky took the initiative by punching Tommy down, then expressed his disappointment in how they should've been friends, like brothers, two fingers of the same hand, and walked off. However, Tommy got back up and attacked Rocky from behind. A few of the crowd attempted to help Rocky out of this back attack, resulting in them being punched out by a wild Tommy. After taking a brief beating from Tommy, Rocky began having flashbacks of his horrifying fight with Ivan Drago, and lost his focus almost completely over what was happening until he began having flashbacks of Mickey instead, with the words, "Get up and fight, you son-of-a-bitch, 'cause Mickey loves ya!" echoing through his head. Completely rejuvenated, Rocky got back on his feet, and taunted Tommy into fighting "one more round" with him. Cheered on by the crowd, which now included his wife and son, Rocky eventually knocked his former pupil out. [1] Duke dumped Tommy Gunn and strip him from the title when he lost that street fight against Rocky. He then approached Duke, who threatened to sue him should he lay a finger on him, but Rocky knocked him down with an uppercut and nonchalantly asked him, "Sue me for what? Since he is broke" Rocky during the street fight with Tommy. Rocky completely moved on from the boxing world after the Tommy Gunn incident, and in 1995 , opened a small Italian restaurant in the neighborhood and he is really successful in the restaurant and doing better than he was back then. He named it Adrian's , after his beloved wife. The walls of the place were adorned with several family photos as well as magazine covers and pictures from throughout Rocky's fighting career. The patrons loved it when Rocky would visit their table and tell them stories about his past fights. [2] Rocky's world came crashing down in 2002 when Adrian succumbed to ovarian cancer . Every year afterward, on the anniversary of her death, Rocky would visit Adrian's grave and tour all of the places ( Rocky's old apartment , the site of the old skating rink and J&M Tropical Fish , the pet store where Adrian worked for years) that held some significance to them. [2] By early 2005 , Rocky was pushing 60 and living out his days mainly focusing on his restaurant, he is no longer broke and doing a lot of better than he is now. No longer the huge celebrity he once was, he was content with the modest life he'd been living for the past fifteen years, although he continued to be recognized on the streets and receive friendly greetings from fellow Philadelphians. He even managed to reconnect with a woman named Marie , who, as a young girl, Rocky had saved from going down the wrong path in life. [2] Rocky Balboa: The Final Round Edit Mason Dixon. In 2006, Rocky Balboa has been retired from boxing for twenty years and lives a quiet life as a widower. His wife Adrian Pennino Balboa had died from cancer four years earlier. He runs a small but very successful Italian restaurant named after her, where he regales his patrons with stories of his past. He is still a big shot celebrity and never forgot him wherever he goes. He also battles personal demons involving his grief over Adrian's death, the changing times, and his eroding relationship with his son Robert, a struggling corporate employee. Paul "Paulie" Pennino, Rocky's brother-in-law and best friend, continues to support him whenever he can and after Rocky closed Mickey's Gym after the Tommy Gunn incident. Mickey's Gym wasn't closed it was moved to a better location in Creed film. Paulie went back to his old job at Shamrock Meat. Late one night, Rocky reunites with a much older "Little" Marie, a once mischievous neighborhood girl that Rocky met when she was a child, now working as a bartender at the Lucky Seven (a bar Rocky once frequented in the mid-1970s), and a single parent of a teenaged son born out of wedlock: Stephenson, nicknamed "Steps". Rocky's friendship with the two quickly blossoms over the following weeks, and Steps takes to him as a father figure. Steps remind him of Rocky's son Robert. Meanwhile on the professional boxing circuit, Mason "The Line" Dixon reigns as the undisputed world heavyweight champion. ESPN broadcasts a computer simulation of a fight between Rocky (in his prime) and Mason — likened to a modern-day version of The Super Fight, a 1970 computer simulation of a 15-round fight between Rocky Marciano and Muhammad Ali in their prime (that Marciano "won" by a KO in the 13th round) — which ends in a controversial KO victory for Balboa, riling the champ. In contrast, the simulation inspires Rocky to take up boxing again — an intention that goes public when he successfully renews his license. Dixon's promoters pitch the idea of holding a charity exhibition bout at the Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino in Las Vegas to bolster Dixon's falling popularity. Rocky was reluctant at first, when they came to his restaurant and offered him the proposition. But talking to Marie, he decided to go for it and take that exhibition fight. Rocky became a bigger celebrity and was offered a lot of endorsement deals with that fight thanks to Paulie. With some hesitation, both men agree to the match, creating a media buzz that stabs at Rocky's has-been status and Dixon's credibility; Dixon having yet to face a challenging opponent. Robert later makes an effort to discourage Rocky from fighting, blaming his own personal failings on his father's celebrity shadow, but Rocky rebukes him with some advice: that to succeed in life, "it ain't about how hard you hit; it's about how hard you can get hit, and keep moving forward", and that blaming others won't help him. The next day, father and son meet over Adrian's grave and reconcile; Robert has quit his job to be at Rocky's side. Rocky sets straight to training with Apollo Creed's old trainer Duke who quickly surmises that the slow and arthritic Rocky can only compete by building his strength and punching power as much as possible. Rocky fighting Dixon The fight becomes an HBO pay-per-view event. Dixon easily dominates the first round only to injure his left hand against Rocky's hip in the second, after which Rocky makes a dramatic comeback: he manages to knock Dixon down once and then continues to surprise the audience with his prowess and chin against the much younger and faster fighter. Dixon sends Rocky to one knee in the final round, but the elder fighter pulls himself to his feet for one last assault. The two opponents then continue to punish each other severely throughout the remainder of the final round, ending with the two fighters both still standing. Rocky thanks an appreciative Dixon for the fight and leaves the ring to the adulation of the crowd as the result is announced: A win for Mason Dixon by split decision. The fans still cheered for Rocky and he became a bigger celebrity for going the distance against Dixon. He finally got a chance to say goodbye to boxing for good. He never had a chance to back then after fighting against Ivan Drago. In the closing shot, Rocky returns home and visits Adrian's grave again; thanking her for helping him. Creed: Training Apollo's Son, Adonis Johnson Creed Edit Although Rocky is a southpaw , he will often switch stances and fight right-handed. He's a hybrid-fighter, possessing the qualities of an inside-fighter, brawler and swarmer. With the exception of his rematch against Clubber Lang where he fights as an outside-fighter, he advances quickly upon his opponents, driving them into the ropes and setting upon them with a devastating body attack. Rocky is well known for wearing opponents down over the course of a bout. Balboa's iron jaw allows him to take brutal punishment throughout his fights. With a will of steel, he is known for overcoming seemingly insurmountable odds to triumph over his opponents. It is this trait that inspires fans worldwide, sending the message that nothing is out of reach if one believes in himself. Balboa, as stated by Jim Lampley during the fight against Mason Dixon, is renowned for his " cast iron jaw, ferocious body attack, and will of steel; all of which carried him to victories over the years against physically superior opponents". Rocky has an uncanny ability to sense weakness in his opponents, seizing every opportunity to capitalize on a momentum shift in his fights. No matter how exhausted and battered, Balboa pushes his offensive edge. In the first title fight with Apollo Creed, announcer Stu Nahan refers to Rocky as a "bull in a china shop" after witnessing the offensive onslaught. Rocky retired as a 2 time world heavyweight champion and with a pro record of 57 wins (51 KO), 23 losses and 1 draw. The fight scenes in the last movie, Rocky Balboa, are considered to be the most realistic in film history, with many boxing experts considering Stallone's in-ring performance to be his best ever. Notable quotes Edit "Ah come on, Adrian, it's true. I was nobody. But that don't matter either, you know? 'Cause I was thinkin', it really don't matter if I lose this fight. It really don't matter if this guy opens my head, either. 'Cause all I wanna do is go the distance. Nobody's ever gone the distance with Creed, and if I can go that distance, you see, and that bell rings and I'm still standin', I'm gonna know for the first time in my life, see, that I weren't just another bum from the neighborhood." Rocky "What did you say to the kid? It ain't about how hard you hit, it's about how hard you can get hit and keep moving forward. How much you can take and keep moving forward. Get up!" Rocky Balboa You ain't gonna believe this, but you used to fit right here, I'd hold you up to say to your mother, "this kid's gonna be the best kid in the world. This kid's gonna be somebody better than anybody I ever knew." And you grew up good and wonderful. It was great just watching you, every day was like a privilige. Then the time come for you to be your own man and take on the world, and you did. But somewhere along the line, you changed. You stopped being you. You let people stick a finger in your face and tell you you're no good. And when things got hard, you started looking for something to blame, like a big shadow. Let me tell you something you already know. The world ain't all sunshine and rainbows. It's a very mean and nasty place and I don't care how tough you are it will beat you to your knees and keep you there permanently if you let it. You, me, or nobody is gonna hit as hard as life. But it ain't about how hard ya hit. It's about how hard you can get hit and keep moving forward. How much you can take and keep moving forward. That's how winning is done! Now if you know what you're worth then go out and get what you're worth. But ya gotta be willing to take the hits, and not pointing fingers saying you ain't where you wanna be because of him, or her, or anybody! Cowards do that and that ain't you! You're better than that! Rocky Balboa Skills and Attributes Iron Jaw: Rocky is known for his iron jaw which he demonstrates in Rocky and Rocky II . Speed: Rocky gains dominating speed he demonstrates in Rocky III . Power: Rocky brutally attacks his opponents in the ring. Indomitable will: Rocky never gives up a fight unless knocked out or dazed to a point where he can't recover before the count. Customizations Rocky was mentioned in Mims ' song Like This . Although it is common knowledge that the screenplay for the first movie was the Ail/Wepner fight, Rocky the character is probably a combination of Rocky Marciano, Jake LaMotta, and Joe Fraizer. Rocky was on the muppet show. Rocky was originally meant to die in Rocky V were he would have lost the street fight and died as a result of Tommy Gunn's punches and the brain damage, dying in Adrian's arms. In real life the Rocky Statue is still in the Philadelphia Museum of Art next to the Rocky Steps. In the movie it was taken out in Rocky Balboa, since Rocky's retirement lasted for 16 years. Sylvester Stallone got the idea of Rocky Balboa from the Chuck Wepner and Muhammad Ali fight. Wepner went the distance against a great fighter like him and knocked him down in one round. Fights Ernesto Luigi (Winner by KO in Round 3 of 6) 1-0 Jimmy Payne (Winner by TKO in Round 4 of 6) 2-0 Elmer Cannes (Winner by KO in Round 1 of 6) 3-0 Otis Nando (Winner by KO in Round 2 of 6) 4-0 Channing Garner (Winner by KO in Round 6 of 6) 5-0 Shane Radcliffe (Winner by KO in Round 2 of 7) 6-0 Albert Jameson (Winner by KO in Round 5 of 6) 7-0 Tame Nepia (Loss by TKO in Round 4 of 6) 7-1 Colin Sharps (Winner by TKO in Round 8 of 8) 8-1 Tobey Cartis (Winner by TKO in Round 6 of 8) -9-1 Andrew Cundiff (Winner by DQ in Round 2 for "uncle bad touch) 10-1 Adam Calloway (Winner by KO in Round 1 of 8) 11-1 Oscar Santiago Lopez (Winner by KO in Round 3 of 8) 12-1 Jerry Hannigan (Winner by KO in Round 7 of 8) 13-1 Alfredo Banks (Loss by Split Decision in 8 Rounds) 13-2 Alfredo Banks (Loss by Unanimous Decision in 8 Rounds) 13-3 Alfredo Banks (Winner by TKO in Round 9 of 10) 14-3 Glen Sanders (Winner by KO in Round 1 of 8) 15-3 Tobio Tenma (Loss by KO in Round 3 of 8) Jack Reid (Winner by KO in Round 8 of 8) 16-3 Jack Reid (Loss by TKO in Round 1 of 8) 16-4 Spider Rico (Winner by KO in Round 7 of 8) 17-4 Randy Tate (Winner by TKO in Round 1 of 8) 18-4 Gus Hankinson (Winner by KO in Round 2 of 8) 19-4 Sean Cabana (Winner by TKO in Round 8 of 8) 20-4 Al Thornton (Winner by KO in Round 8 of 8) 21-4 Orlando Grogan (Loss by TKO in Round 1 of 8) 21-5 Javier Moniker (Loss by TKO in Round 7 of 8) 21-6 Austin Miller (Win by KO in Round 3 of 8) -22-6 Dave Cole (Loss by KO in Round 1 of 8) 22-7 Andrew Bolanos (Loss by TKO in Round 4 of 8) 22-8 Muhammad Abdi Conway (Winner by Unanimous Decision of 8 Rounds) 23-8 Lee Hazzard (Loss by Split Decision of 8 Rounds) 23-9 Bob Cray (Loss by TKO in Round 8 of 8) 23-10 Bob Cray (Win by Unanimous Decision of 8 Rounds) 24-10 Anthony Chapman (Loss by Unanimous Decision of 8 Rounds) 24-11 Gilberto Ashley (Loss by KO in Round 4 of 8) 24-12 Kirk Dusty (Winner by KO in Round 8 of 8) 25-12 Peter Hannuaer (Loss by KO in Round 2 of 8) 25-13 Milo Gennino (Winner by TKO in Round 7 of 8) 26-13 Art Molly (Winner by KO in Round 2 of 8) 27-13 Barry Shriger (Winner by TKO in Round 7 of 8) 28-13 Bo Christopher (Winner by KO in Round 4 of 8) 29-13 Jim Stinger (Winner by KO in Round 2 of 8) 30-13 Mike Wallace (Winner by KO in Round 3 of 8) 31-13 Ace Bean (Winner by TKO in Round 1 of 8) 32-13 Mikhail Stepanenko (Winner by Split Decision of 8 Rounds) 33-13 Joseph Shtore (Winner by KO in Round 1 of 8) 34-13 Bob Cray (Winner by TKO in Round 8 of 8) 35-13 Joseph Lazarski (Winner by KO in Round 7 of 8) 36-13 Emanuel Torez (Winner by KO in Round 5 of 8) 37-13 Wade Eastwood (Winner by Unanimous Decision of 8 Rounds) 38-13 Tully Bernard (Loss by KO in Round 7 of 8) 38-14 Doc Skinner (Loss by TKO in Round 1 of 8) 38-15 Lateef Atwood (Win by Split Decision of 8 Rounds) 39-15 Lincoln Stephens (Loss by KO in Round 8 of 8) 39-16 Jose Rizo (Loss by Split Decision of 8 Rounds) 39-17 Levi Hernandez (Loss by Unanimous Decision) Lorenzo Sebastian (Loss by Split Decision of 8 Rounds) 39-18 Andrew Santo (Winner by KO in Round 3 of 8) 40-18 Conrad Li Tang (Winner by KO in Round 3 of 8) 41-18 Jack Reid (Loss by Majority Decision of 8 Rounds) 41-19 Tully Bernard (Loss by KO in Round 8 of 8) 41-20 Tully Bernard (Winner by Split Decision of 8 Rounds) 42-20 Arturo Reyes (Winner by TKO in Round 12 of 15) 43-20 Jonny Rangel (Winner by DQ in Round 1, bite to the ear) 44-20 During the movies Spider Rico (Winner by KO in Round 2 of 8) 45-20 Apollo Creed (Loss by Split Decision of 15 Rounds) 45-21 Rocky II (1976) Apollo Creed (Winner by KO in Round 15 of 15) 46-21 Rocky III (1976-1981) Trevor Faus (Winner by KO in Round 1 of 12) 47-21 Joe Czak (Winner by KO in Round 2 of 15) 48-21 Big Yank Ball (Winner by KO in Round 6 of 10) 49-21 Vito Soto (Winner by KO in Round 10 of 15) 50-21 Bobby Jalali (Winner by KO in Round 3 of 15) 51-21 Dave Fossan (Winner by KO in Round 2 of 12) 52-21 Flip Folsom (Winner by KO in Round 2 of 15) 53-21 Joe Green (Winner by KO in Round 2 of 12) 54-21 Matt DeLarue (Winner by KO in Round 5 of 15) 55-21 Philip Hammerman (Winner by KO in Round 3 of 15) 56-21 " Thunderlips " (Draw by Unanimous Decision of 1 Round) 56-1-21 James "Clubber" Lang (Loss by KO in Round 2 of 15) 56-1-22 James "Clubber" Lang (Winner by KO in Round 3 of 15) 57-1-22 Apollo Creed (Informal match, Rocky later claims Apollo won the fight). Rocky IV (1985) Toby 'The Atomic' Elliott (Informal bar fight, loss by TKO Round 6 of 15). Ivan Drago (Winner by KO in Round 15 of 15) 58-1-22 Rocky V (1990) Tommy Gunn (Street fight, Rocky won). Rocky Balboa (2006)

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In the ring | Ali's most memorable fights FacebookEmail Twitter Google+ LinkedIn Pinterest In the ring | Ali's most memorable fights Muhammad Ali became the world heavyweight champion in 1964 and ruled boxing even after leaving the ring in 1981 as a weary three-time champion. During his time, boxing became theater and pop culture as never Post to Facebook In the ring | Ali's most memorable fights Muhammad Ali became the world heavyweight champion in 1964 and ruled boxing even after leaving the ring in 1981 as a weary three-time champion. During his time, boxing became theater and pop culture as never Check out this story on courier-journal.com: http://cjky.it/1sUNunO CancelSend A link has been sent to your friend's email address. Posted! A link has been posted to your Facebook feed. Join the Conversation In the ring | Ali's most memorable fights The Courier-Journal 1:21 a.m. EDT June 4, 2016 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Bill Clinton, Bryant Gumbel remember Muhammad Ali | 2:01 Former President Bill Clinton closed out the memorial service to Muhammad Ali noting that he never felt self-pity or was disempowered by his race, his battle with Parkinson's disease or the expectations of other people. (June 10) AP 1 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Wife: Ali wanted life to be teachable moment | 1:31 In her first public remarks since his death, Muhammad Ali's widow, Lonnie Ali, talked about how Ali wanted to be remembered after his passing. She was joined by other family and friends who remembered the boxing legend. (June 10) AP 2 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Billy Crystal channels Muhammad Ali at memorial service | 1:12 Billy Crystal called Muhammad Ali his big brother. They were friends for 42 years. The actor shared fond memories and even an impersonation of Ali at the late champ's memorial service. 3 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Bill Clinton: Muhammad Ali wrote his own life story | 1:56 At the memorial service for Muhammad Ali, former President Bill Clinton said the late champ never let his circumstances determine his fate. 4 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Muhammad Ali 'dared to love black people' | 1:11 Speaking at Muhammad Ali's memorial service, Rev. Kevin Cosby of Louisville's St. Stephen Baptist Church talked about Ali's impact on perceptions of African Americans. 5 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Rev. Cosby: Ali Affirmed the Beauty of Blackness | 2:23 Rev. Dr. Kevin Cosby says Muhammad Ali loved everyone, whether they lived in the penthouse or the projects and infused African-Americans with a \u0022sense of somebodiness.\u0022 Cosby was among several faith leaders who spoke at Ali's memorial serv AP 6 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Raw: As motorcade rolls, fans chant | 1:10 Thousands of fans of Muhammad Ali turned out to pay their respects to the boxing champion as a funeral procession carrying his casket moved through the streets of Louisville, Ky., Ali's hometown. (June 10) AP 7 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Rabbi cracks up Clinton, crowd at Muhammad Ali memorial | 0:46 Rabbi Michael Lerner, a Berkeley-based activist, got a standing ovation at Muhammad Ali's memorial service for his comments on the next president of the United States. 8 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Fans honor Muhammad Ali during funeral procession | 0:52 Thousands of Muhammad Ali fans lined the streets of Louisville, KY as his funeral procession moved through the legendary boxer's hometown. 9 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Muhammad Ali's pallbearers include Mike Tyson, Will Smith | 1:23 Pallbearers sent Muhammad Ali off for his final processional through his hometown of Louisville, KY. Thousands of people lined the streets to pay their respects, some throwing flowers and chanting his name. 10 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Ali mourned in traditional Muslim prayer service | 1:34 More than 14,000 people had tickets to Thursday's Jenazah prayer service for the late boxing legend Muhammad Ali. AP 11 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'5 things to know about Muhammad Ali | 1:30 Muhammad Ali is famous for his boxing career, but what else do you know about this heavyweight legend? 12 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Boxers imitate famous Muhammad Ali quotes | 0:46 Oscar de la Hoya, Bernard Hopkins and other boxers repeat quotes from Muhammad Ali. USA TODAY Sports 13 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Muhammad Ali: The greatest legacy | 1:37 Muhammad Ali passed away at 74. Martin Rogers takes a look at Ali's legacy. USA TODAY Sports 14 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Muhammad Ali: The Persona | 4:12 Muhammad Ali captured the world with big talk and a punch to back it up. USA TODAY celebrates 50 years of Ali on the world stage. 15 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Muhammad Ali: The Social Icon | 4:45 Muhammad Ali captured the world with big talk and a punch to back it up. USA TODAY celebrates 50 years of Ali on the world stage. 16 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Muhammad Ali: The Fighter | 4:09 Muhammad Ali captured the world with big talk and a punch to back it up. USA TODAY celebrates 50 years of Ali on the world stage. 17 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Muhammad Ali's most memorable moments in the ring | 1:10 By the end of Muhammad Ali's legendary boxing career, he had become the first three-time heavyweight champion. See his most iconic moments from inside the ring. 18 of 27 MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Muhammad Ali Fight Night | 1:57 Muhammad Ali Fight Night MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Greg Boeck's memories of Ali | 3:05 Greg Boeck recalls his favorite memory of covering Muhammad Ali. USA TODAY 20 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Muhammad Ali: 1942-2016 | 1:24 Muhammad Ali, widely hailed as the greatest heavyweight boxer in the sport's history, passed away at the age of 74. USA TODAY Sports 21 of 27 MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Stars pay tribute to Muhammad Ali | 1:48 Stars discuss Muhammad Ali’s legacy at Guys' Choice Awards. (June 5) AP 22 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Will Smith on his connection with Muhammad Ali | 5:39 Will Smith joined Sports Illustrated at the Sportsperson of the Year ceremony in New York to explain his special connection to Muhammad Ali. Time_Sports 23 of 27 x Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'George Foreman: Ali is the greatest man I've met in my life | 4:01 Former heavyweight champion George Foreman speaks at the Sports Illustrated Muhammad Ali Legacy Ceremony. Time_Sports 24 of 27 Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Why people love boxing legend Muhammad Ali | 1:52 Even years after Muhammad Ali's boxing career, his friends are still singing his praises. Here's why. VPC 25 of 27 x Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Video | Muhammad Ali: 'The Most Famous Person in the World' | 10:53 Members of the Louisville media and community leaders look at the life and career of the River City's hometown hero, Muhammad Ali. Courier-Journal 26 of 27 x Share MUHAMMAD ALI: 'GREATEST OF ALL TIME'Muhammad Ali captured the world with big talk & a punch to back it up | 4:21 Muhammad Ali captured the world with big talk and a punch to back it up. USA TODAY celebrates 50 years of Ali on the world stage. 27 of 27 Bill Clinton, Bryant Gumbel remember Muhammad Ali Wife: Ali wanted life to be teachable moment Billy Crystal channels Muhammad Ali at memorial service Bill Clinton: Muhammad Ali wrote his own life story Muhammad Ali 'dared to love black people' Rev. Cosby: Ali Affirmed the Beauty of Blackness Raw: As motorcade rolls, fans chant Rabbi cracks up Clinton, crowd at Muhammad Ali memorial Fans honor Muhammad Ali during funeral procession Muhammad Ali's pallbearers include Mike Tyson, Will Smith Ali mourned in traditional Muslim prayer service 5 things to know about Muhammad Ali Boxers imitate famous Muhammad Ali quotes Muhammad Ali: The greatest legacy Muhammad Ali: The Persona Muhammad Ali: The Social Icon Muhammad Ali: The Fighter Muhammad Ali's most memorable moments in the ring Muhammad Ali Fight Night Greg Boeck's memories of Ali Muhammad Ali: 1942-2016 Stars pay tribute to Muhammad Ali Will Smith on his connection with Muhammad Ali George Foreman: Ali is the greatest man I've met in my life Why people love boxing legend Muhammad Ali Video | Muhammad Ali: 'The Most Famous Person in the World' Muhammad Ali captured the world with big talk & a punch to back it up Here are some of the most meaningful — and memorable — fights in a matchless career. Buy Photo Cassius Clay defeats Sonny Liston for the heavyweight championship on Feb. 25, 1964. (Photo: C-J File Photo)Buy Photo Muhammad Ali became the world heavyweight champion in 1964 and ruled boxing even after leaving the ring in 1981 as a weary three-time champion. During his time, boxing became theater and pop culture as never before, with Ali as the playwright, publicist, leading man, stage manager and critic. Here are some of the most meaningful — and memorable — fights in a matchless career. Clay-Liston I Feb. 25, 1964 Miami Beach, Fla. At the age of 22, Cassius Clay got his shot at the heavyweight championship — against an ex-convict named Sonny Liston. Ali predicted "a total eclipse of the Sonny" and was so wired at the weigh-in that his blood pressure shot to twice its normal rate. Only half the tickets were sold for the Miami Beach Convention Center as few fans expected the brash young Louisvillian to challenge Liston, a 7-1 favorite. But early on, Ali sent a signal, landing punches while easily avoiding the champion's looping left hooks. He held off the shorter Liston by pinning a glove against the champ's forehead. Liston grew frustrated, "and when you get frustrated, that takes all the snap out of your shots," recalled Angelo Dundee, Ali's trainer. In the fourth and fifth rounds, Ali's eyes began to sting and he could barely see. "He had liniment in his glove," Ali said after the fight. "My eyes was burning. … My whole face was burning. … The man's trainers are dirty." Ali wanted to quit, but Dundee pushed him back into the ring. And once his eyes cleared, Ali delivered punches that puffed up Liston's face. Spent and saying he had a shoulder injury, the champion stayed on his stool as the bell rang for the seventh round. Eyes wide and mouth agape, Ali danced and leaped into the arms of corner man Drew "Bundini" Brown. "I'm the greatest thing that ever lived!" he shouted. "I don't have a mark on my face, and I upset Sonny Liston. I just turned 22 years old. I must be the greatest. … "I am the king of the world. I'm pretty. I'm a bad man! I shook up the world! I shook up the world! I shook up the world! You must listen to me!" Commentator Joe Louis declared: "I think this has got to go down as the biggest upset in the history of boxing. … If they have a return match, I think that it would sell out any stadium in the world." Ali-Liston II May 25, 1965 Lewiston, Maine The second Ali-Liston fight lasted less than two minutes — and turned on a punch that few people saw. Planned for Boston, the fight was moved to Lewiston, where Liston was installed as a 9-5 favorite. Midway through the first round, Ali landed a quick, downward right-hand punch to Liston's jaw, sending the former champion to the canvas, where he stretched out like a man taking a Sunday afternoon nap. Ali stood over him, yelling. He was saying "Git up, sucker!" according to boxing writer Bert Sugar. Referee Joe Walcott tried in vain to send Ali to a neutral corner. Television showed Liston was down for more than 17 seconds before rising to aim four useless lefts at Ali. The fight was stopped, and Ali had retained his title, thanks to a "phantom" punch that caused some to suggest that Liston had taken a dive. Boxing historian Bill Cayton was not among them. "It was a short punch but a great, sharply delivered punch, one of Ali's best," he said. Ali-Patterson I The contrast between Ali and Floyd Patterson could not have been greater. Patterson, a two-time champion, was the establishment's choice. He referred to the champion as Cassius Clay, and promised to "return the title to America." Frank Sinatra paid an encouraging visit to Patterson's hotel room before the fight. Ali called Patterson "The Rabbit" — judging him timid and cowardly. He showed up at Patterson's training center with lettuce and carrots — "rabbit food." During the fight, Patterson's backers watched their man endure 11 rounds of agony at Ali's hands. When the referee stopped the fight in the 12th, Patterson protested — not because he wanted to continue, but because, as he told writer David Remnick, he craved the anesthetic effect of a knockout. Ali-Williams Nov. 14, 1966 Houston After six years and 26 victories without a defeat, no one questioned Ali's speed, reflexes or resourcefulness. Experts did question his punching power. The fight against Cleveland Williams removed some of those doubts. Boxing historian Bill Cayton estimated that Ali landed 80 percent to 90 percent of his punches — three times the usual amount. After Ali knocked Williams down four times in the third round, the fight was stopped. "I remember him hitting Cleveland Williams with eight consecutive punches to the jaw, and this guy collapsing like a huge building. It was amazing," said Jose Torres, the boxing-champion-turned-author. Ali's friend Billy Crystal: "The accuracy and the stunning savagery is awesome. Anyone who says he isn't a big puncher should look at this fight." Ali-Frazier I March 8, 1971 New York Only four months after ending his 3½-year layoff, Ali faced undefeated champion Joe Frazier in Madison Square Garden. It was more than the meeting of two undefeated boxers fighting for the world championship and $2.5 million each. Jerry Perenchio, a Hollywood agent whose clients included Elizabeth Taylor and Marlon Brando, brokered the fight, persuading sportsman Jack Kent Cooke to put up $4.5 million. "I thought it … would transcend boxing because of the Vietnam War, religion and being black in America," Perenchio recalled years later. During Ali's exile, Frazier had defended him and had even given him money. But Ali cast Frazier as an ugly, ignorant "Uncle Tom" representing white America. "Joe, in his innocence, was representing white America," said Jim Brown, the former football player. "To Muhammad Ali, Joe Frazier had become the symbol of his oppression," said Ali biographer Thomas Hauser. The fight drew "the limo crowd," in the words of Jerry Izenberg, a New Jersey newspaper columnist. "It had the look of a coronation more than a fistfight," Philadelphia columnist Stan Hochman said. Burt Lancaster was a closed-circuit TV commentator; Frank Sinatra a photographer for Life magazine. Before the fight, Marvis Frazier saw his father praying in the dressing room. Years later, he recalled asking his father what he prayed. His father's answer: "Lord, help me to kill this man, because he's not righteous." Frazier rattled Ali in the 11th and probably could have finished him, but feared that Ali might be trying to trap him and failed to follow up. Ali rallied in the next two rounds, and Frazier was determined to finish him off. In the 15th, he knocked Ali to the canvas, expecting him to stay there. But Ali bounced up quickly from the only knockdown of the fight. Frazier retained his title with a unanimous decision. Ali had suffered his first defeat. Afterward, Perenchio recalled, he entered Ali's dressing room only to see a glamorous woman weeping at his feet. It was Diana Ross. "Diana, meet the man who paid me two and a half million dollars to get my ass whipped," Ali said, according to Perenchio. But Ali's stature grew in defeat. He accepted his first loss with dignity and without excuses. And Frazier spent a week in the hospital, with high blood pressure and fatigue. "The winner of that fight became the loser, and the loser became the winner," Bert Sugar would later say. Ali-Norton I March 31, 1973 San Diego Ken Norton was a handsome ex-Marine who once was Joe Frazier's sparring partner. But he was so lightly regarded that even the Marine-vs.-the-draft-dodger story line failed to incite much pre-fight interest. The Marine was, surprisingly, the master. Ali suffered a broken jaw — perhaps as early in the second round. Protecting his face, Ali lost a unanimous 12-round decision. Norton's camp thought the broken jaw came near the end of the fight. "I say it was in the last round," Norton told author Stephen Brunt. "Because when you have an inch-and-a-half break in the jaw and someone is popping you upside the jaw as much as I hit Ali, with that pain, the mind would take over and shut down, I think." Norton would face Ali twice more — and lose — but this victory left him a made man in boxing. "Ali was the best-known figure in the world at that time," he said. "You defeated him, and your name rang throughout the world." Ali-Frazier II Jan. 28, 1974 New York By now, both fighters had lost some luster — Ali was 32 years old and twice-beaten — by Frazier and Norton. And Frazier had lost his title to George Foreman, who knocked him down six times in a fight that lasted 4 minutes and 35 seconds. But the Ali-Frazier rivalry had not lost its sizzle: 20,748 fans would show up in Madison Square Garden, setting a gate-receipts record of $1.05million for a non-title fight. During the buildup, Ali belittled his opponent, as usual. On an ABC talk show with Howard Cosell, Ali called Frazier "ignorant." Frazier rose from his chair and advanced on Ali, who grabbed Frazier in a bear hug. Frazier slammed Ali to the floor. "This time it seems to be for real," Cosell said, with his voice rising. "Joe Frazier is really angry. Muhammad called him ignorant and he's really angry. … I think that Ali is probably clowning, but there is no question in my mind that Frazier is not clowning." The fight itself — with gloves, trunks and corner men — failed to match the quality and intensity of the first. It was fought largely in the clinches. Frazier's trainer, Eddie Futch, said he counted 133 "holds" by Ali while watching a video. Ali won a unanimous decision in 12 rounds, squaring the series at 1-1. Ali-Foreman Oct. 30, 1974 Kinshasa, Zaire Ali's seven-year quest to reclaim his heavyweight championship was completed under circumstances that defied belief. The opponent was George Foreman, whose 40-0 record included 37 knockouts. The fight began in the predawn to accommodate the American television audience. Ali, who was 32, reasoned that the 24-year-old Foreman had little stamina because he so rarely fought more than 10 minutes. Foreman routinely dispatched his opponents in three rounds or fewer. In the second round, Ali improvised his "rope-a-dope" strategy, hunkering against the ropes and covering his body as the champ flailed away, eventually exhausting himself. Nearly 30 years later, Foreman would tell a documentary film crew: "Beat him up the first round. Beat him up the second. Third. Fourth. But he's still there talking to me in the fifth: 'That's all you got?' "I said, 'What in the world have I ran into?' This guy was still confident and he was getting more confident. … Next thing you know, he hit me with a one-two combination." When Ali scored in the eighth round, Foreman pirouetted slowly, crashing like an imploding landmark. "The fight was over," he recalled. "I had lost my title. Never been so devastated in my life. … It took me a long time, maybe a year, before I could sleep again." Ali-Frazier III Oct. 1, 1975 Quezon City, Philippines The buildup for the "Thrilla in Manila" included elements of soap opera and slapstick. Ali squired his young girlfriend Veronica Porche around Manila, not correcting anyone — including President Ferdinand Marcos — who mistook her for "Mrs. Ali." This stirred Ali's wife, Belinda, to fly halfway around the world for a loud confrontation with the champion. But it was the confrontation in the ring that became perhaps the most famous fight in history. Both men went to the limit — and beyond. "What a murderous fight," Ali's trainer, Angelo Dundee, would recall. For 14 rounds, they fought to the point of exhaustion. Frazier's left eye was swollen shut, making him unable to see or block Ali's punishing rights. "His face looked like it exploded," according to Ferdie Pacheco, the fight doctor. "Frazier was a blind man groping. … Trainer Eddie Futch stopped it after that round, an act of compassion rare in boxing," recalled Bert Sugar, the boxing historian. "Futch, who had seen four fighters killed in the ring, decided it wasn't worth it, and said, 'Sit down, son. It's all over,'" said Mark Kram, a Sports Illustrated writer. Ali appeared equally spent. Sitting on his stool, he weakly raised his right arm in victory. "After that, neither (fighter) was the same again," Sugar said. Kram would later recall Ali's saying: "We went to Manila as champions, Joe and me, and we came back old men." Ali-Spinks Feb. 15, 1978 Las Vegas Ali was 36, his opponent 24. An Olympic gold medalist, Spinks was appearing in only his eighth professional fight. It looked like such a mismatch that Las Vegas bookmakers didn't even establish a betting line. It must have looked that way to Ali too. He trained absent-mindedly and showed up out of shape. In one of boxing's biggest upsets, Spinks won a split decision. "I thank God," Spinks said. "God's the main man." Ali vowed, "I'll be back. I'll be the first man to win the title three times." Ali fulfilled the promise seven months later before nearly 65,000 fans in the Louisiana Superdome, winning a 15-round decision over Spinks to capture the title for the third time. It was Ali's last victory — less a demonstration of the champion's regenerative powers than of Spinks' lack of discipline. "I didn't have my mind on the fight," Spinks said. Ali would fight twice more — losing to Larry Holmes and Trevor Berbick — in exercises that inspired mainly nostalgia. Posted! A link has been posted to your Facebook feed. World heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali is held back by referee Joe Walcott after Ali knocked out challenger Sonny Liston in 1 minute, 42 seconds of the first round of the scheduled 15 round championship bout in Lewiston, Maine, May 25, 1965.  Associated Press ALI vs FRAZIER fight poster.  CJ File Photo A young Muhammad Ali is seen with his trainer Angelo Dundee at City Parks Gym in New York Feb. 8, 1962.  AP Photo/Dan Grossi Fullscreen Muhammad Ali, left, 20-year-old undefeated heavyweight, ducks away from a long right thrown by George Logan in the third round of their scheduled 10-rounder at Los Angeles April 23, 1962. The referee stopped the fight in the fourth round, awarding Ali a knockout victory under California rules.  Associated Press Fullscreen Cassius Clay weighs in at 204 pounds for his 12-round heavyweight fight in Los Angeles, California, November 15, 1962, against Archie Moore, left, who came in at 197 pounds. Adjusting the scales is Clayton Frye, secretary of the California Athletic Commission.  Associated Press Fullscreen Down on one knee, "Ancient" Archie Moore reaches the end of his gallant ring career in Los Angeles, California, November 15, 1962, as young Cassius Clay stands over him, winner by a knockout in the fourth round of a scheduled 12-rounder. Moore went down three times before the referee, Tommy Hart, ended the fight.  Associated Press Fullscreen Muhammad Ali (Cassius Clay), right, lands on Don Warner's jaw in an early exchange of their fight in Miami Beach, Fla., February 28, 1962 with a straight right. It was the same punch which knocked Warner through the ropes in Round 4 and headed him for a technical knockout as the fight was stopped soon after he climbed back to the canvas.  Associated Press Fullscreen British heavyweight champion Henry Cooper, right, is pictured throwing a long right to the jaw of Cassius Clay during their bout in London, England, June 18, 1963. Cooper's left eye is bloody from a cut opened by Clay in the third round. The American boxer from Louisville was downed by Cooper in the fourth round, but was saved by the bell and returned to make good on his prophesy by stopping Cooper in the fifth.  Associated Press Cassius Clay defeats Sonny Liston for the heavyweight championship in 1964.  CJ File Photo A poster promotes Ali's 1964 fight with Sonny Liston.  Pam Spaulding The physical statistics of heavyweight boxers Sonny Liston and Cassius Clay are seen in 1964.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali (Formerly Cassius Clay) in action against Sonny Liston. Ali was the winner in Miami Beach, Florida on February 25, 1964.  Associated Press Fullscreen World heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali works out on the light punching bag at his training camp in Chicopee, Ma., on May 13, 1965. His title bout against Sonny Liston is on May 25 in Lewiston. Ali told news reporters he's getting "so sharp" that he is taking tomorrow off.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali Knocks Out Sonny Liston, Lewiston, Maine, May 25, 1965 by Neil Leifer.  CJ File Photo Champion Muhammad Ali lands a right smash to the jaw of challenger Floyd Patterson in the seventh round of their heavyweight title fight at Las Vegas, Nevada, November 22, 1965.  Associated Press Fullscreen Floyd Patterson appears groggy with his knees about to go under as champion Muhammad Ali whips another sweeping right to his face a moment before their heavyweight title fight was stopped at Las Vegas, Nevada, November 22, 1965. Referee Harry Krause stepped in to call it a 12th-round technical knockout.  Associated Press Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali smashes a right into the jaw of challenger Brian London of Britain, Aug. 6, 1966, in London. Ali knocked out his opponent in the third round for his fifth successful defense of the heavyweight championship title.  Associated Press Fullscreen World champion Muhammad Ali is shown throwing a long right to British challenger Henry Cooper's split eye in the sixth round of their world heavyweight championship fight at Highbury Stadium, London, England, May 21, 1966. Ali retained his title after referee George Smith stopped the fight in 1 minute 38 seconds of the sixth round when Cooper was badly cut about his left eye.  Associated Press Fullscreen World heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali is shown working on the bloodied left eye of challenger Henry Cooper in the sixth round, May 21, 1966, of their title fight in London, England. Ali retained his crown when the referee stopped the bout later in the round because of the cut over Cooper's eye.  Associated Press World Heavyweight Champion Cassius Clay backs from a right thrown by European Champion Karl Mildenberger in their title fight on Saturday, September 10, 1966 in Frankfurt/Main.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali reacts after the referee stopped the bout between Ali and European champ Karl Mildenberger, Sept 10, 1966, in Frankfurt, Germany. Ali won by technical knockout.  (Associated Press) Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali, left, and challenger Cleveland Williams glare at each other during their weigh-in for the title fight in Houston, Nov. 14, 1966.  Associated Press Cleveland Williams is spread-eagled on the canvas as referee Harry Kessler sends Muhammad Ali to a neutral corner during their heavyweight bout at the Astrodome in Houston, Nov. 14, 1966.  Associated Press From "GOAT: A Tribute to Muhammad Ali"; Muhammad Ali (standing) and Cleveland Williams (not) on Nov. 14, 1966, from 80 feet above the ring in the Houston Astrodome.  Photo by Neil Leifer Boxer Muhammad Ali, right, during the fight against Zora Folley in the Madison Square Garden, New York, USA, March 22, 1967. Ali knocked out Folley in the 7th round.  Associated Press Zora Folley, left, on the floor against champion Cassius Clay (Muhammad Ali) in first round of their heavyweight title fight in New York's Madison Square Garden March 22, 1967.  AP Photo Fullscreen Champion Cassius Clay (Muhammad Ali) raises his hands over his head after knocking challenger Zora Folley down in fourth round of their heavyweight title fight in New York's Madison Square Garden March 22, 1967. Referee John Lo Bianco moves toward Clay, who won on a seventh round knockout.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali gets his gloves laced outside a boxing ring in Houston, Texas in February 1967. Ali is training for a Feb. 6 championship title fight with Ernie Terrell.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali lands a hard right to the swollen left eye of Ernie Terrell in the fourth round of their heavyweight championship fight in Houston, Tex., Feb. 6, 1967. Ali continued to pound the damaged eye during the round.  Associated Press Fullscreen Muhammad Ali raises his arms in victory following the end of the 15-round heavyweight title fight with Ernie Terrell in Houston, Tex., Feb. 6, 1967. Referee Harry Kessler looks at the battered Terrell before getting out his pad to note his decision. Ali won by unanimous decision.  Associated Press Fullscreen Muhammad Ali raises his arms in victory over fallen opponent Oscar Bonavena after second knockdown over the Argentine in 15th round of heavyweight non-title bout Dec. 7, 1970 at New York's Madison Square Garden. Referee Mark Conn is behind Ali. At far right, in Ali's corner is Bundini Brown with arm raised in jubliation over Ali's win.  Associated Press Fullscreen Jerry Quarry slams a left to Muhammad Ali's mouth in the second round knocking Ali back in Atlanta, Ga. on October 26, 1970. The fight, scheduled to go 15 rounds, was stopped after the third round after Quarry' s eye was badly battered. Muhammad All, the former heavyweight champion of the world, won his title under the name of Cassius Clay . Ali won his first fight in 3 1/2 years.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali, right, delivers a hard blow that sends Jimmy Ellis' head reeling in the fourth round of their heavyweight bout in Houston, Tex., July 26, 1971.  Associated Press With clenched fist Muhammad Ali delivers his post fight verbal blast in the dressing room after being awarded a 12th round TKO over Jimmy Ellis in Houston, Texas, July 26, 1971.  Associated Press Joe Frazier hits Muhammed Ali with a left during the 15th round of their heavyweight title fight at New York's Madison Square Garden in this March 8, 1971 photo.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali lies on canvas after being knocked down by heavyweight champion Joe Frazier in this March 8, 1971 file photo.  Associated Press Joe Frazier is directed to the ropes by referee Arthur Marcante after knocking down Muhammad Ali during the 15th round of the title bout in Madison Square Garden in New York. Frazier won the bout over Ali by decision.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali lands a hard blow to the head of Buster Mathis during the fifth round of their 12-round fight in Houston, Tex., Nov. 17, 1971.  Associated Press Fullscreen Muhammad Ali stands in the corner as referee Mills Lane makes the count on Bob Foster after he was knocked down in the seventh round of their bout in Stateline, Nev., Nov. 22, 1972. The bell rang before the count was completed. Ali went on to knock out Foster in the eighth.  Associated Press Fullscreen Jerry Quarry winces as a left by Muhammad Ali catches him on the side of the head while Ali blocks Quarry's right during their heavyweight fight in Las Vegas, June 27, 1972. Ali was declared the winner when the referee stopped the fight in the seventh round.  Associated Press Britain's Joe Bugner takes a right-hand smash from Muhammad Ali in the 10th round of their heavyweight fight at Las Vegas, Feb. 14, 1973. Ali won by decision.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali crashes a right to the side of Ken Norton's head during a middle round of their 12-round re-match at the Forum in Inglewood, Calif., Sept 10, 1973.  (Associated Press) Ken Norton goes to the body of Muhammad Ali in the corner during their 12 round heavyweight bout at the Sports Arena in San Diego, California, March 31, 1973. Norton won on a split decision.  Associated Press This photo diagram comparing boxers Muhammad Ali and George Foreman ran with stories on their heavyweight championship fight in Zaire, October 1974.  Associated Press Fullscreen Challenger Muhammad Ali watches as defending world champion George Foreman goes down to the canvas in the eighth round of their WBA/WBC championship match in Kinshasa, Zaire, on October 30, 1974. Foreman is counted out by the referee and Ali regains the world heavyweight crown by KO in the bout dubbed 'Rumble in the Jungle.'  Associated Press Fullscreen Perspiration flies from the head of George Foreman as he takes a right from challenger Muhammad Ali in the seventh round in the match dubbed Rumble in the Jungle in Kinshasa, Zaire, Oct. 30, 1974. Foreman was knocked out in the eighth round. The referee, left, is Zack Clayton.  AP Photo/Ed Kolenovsky Muhammad Ali, arms raised in victory, walks to his corner as referee Zack Clayton counts out George Foreman after Ali knocked him down in the eighth round of their title bout in Kinshasa, Zaire, October 30, 1974.  Associated Press Fullscreen In this Oct. 30, 1974 file photo, referee Zack Clayton, right, steps in after challenger Muhammad Ali looks on after knocking down defending heavyweight champion George Foreman in the eighth round of their championship bout in Kinshasa, Zaire. Ali regained the world heavyweight crown by knockout in the eighth round of the fight dubbed "Rumble in the Jungle."  Associated Press Muhammad Ali contorts his face toward the audience during close-in fighting action with Joe Frazier in the ninth round of their fight at Madison Square Gardens on Jan. 28, 1974  Associated Press Muhammad Ali, left, and Joe Frazier in the 12-round, non-title fight that took place at Madison Square Garden in New York, January 28, 1974.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali throws a punch at Joe Frazier, right, in the 12th round during their bout at Madison Square Garden in New York, Jan. 28, 1974.  Associated Press Boxer Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier slugged it out in New York on Jan. 28, 1974.  AP Photo/ABC Boxer Muhammad Ali, front right, shown in a 12-round non-title fight against Joe Frazier, left, at Madison Square Garden, Jan. 28, 1974, New York. Referee Tony Perez in at back center.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali tries to get under the gloves July 1,1975 as Joe Bugner covers up in ninth round at Merdeka Stadium, in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.  Associated Press Former opponent Joe Frazier taunted Ali in print earlier this year. In 1975, Ali hit Frazier with a rubber gorilla during a promotion for their fight in Manila, shown here.  Associated Press Challenger Joe Frazier and champ Muhammad Ali are shoulder to shoulder in the fourth round of their title bout in Manila, Oct. 1, 1975.  Associated Press Fullscreen Heavyweight boxer Joe Frazier grimaces after Muhammad Ali landed a blow to Frazier's head during fight action of their heavyweight bout in Manila, the Philippines on Oct. 1, 1975. Ali won the fight after Frazier's manager stopped the fight in the fourteenth round.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali connects with the top of Joe Frazier's head in the 13th round of their bout for the heavyweight title at Araneta Coliseum in Quezon, the Philippines, Oct. 1, 1975.  AP Photo/Kenichi Mori Muhammad Ali is sprawled on the canvas in his corner of the ring after he collapsed off his chair before the start of the 15th round in bout against Joe Frazier at the Coliseum in Manila, Oct. 1, 1975.  Associated Press Fullscreen President Ferdinand Marcos, left, of the Philippines, presents the President's Trophy to heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali, second from right, after Ali defeated Joe Frazier in their "Thrilla in Manila" fight at the Coliseum in Manila, Oct. 1, 1975. Posing from left are, President Marcos; promoter Don King; Ali's brother, Rahman; Ali, and his father Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr., right.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali throws a right at Ron Lyle during fight action, May 16, 1975 at the Las Vegas Convention Center. Ali won by technical knockout.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali hits Ron Lyle with a hard right to the chin during fifth-round action of the title bout in Las Vegas, May 16, 1975. Ali won with a TKO in the 11th round.  Associated Press Fullscreen Defending heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali goes down in the ninth round of the title bout against challenger Chuck Wepner, from Bayonne, N.J., at the Richfield Coliseum, in Cleveland, Ohio, on March 24, 1975. Ali tripped over Wepner's foot, but the referee ruled it as a knockdown. Ali later knocked out Wepner in the 15th round to retain his title.  Associated Press Chuck Wepner falls to the canvas as heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali stands over him during the 15th round of their title bout at Cleveland Coliseum, Monday night, March 24, 1975. Ali retained his title with the knockout.  Associated Press Fullscreen Challenger Chuck Wepner lies on the canvas after he is knocked out by his opponent, defending heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali, in the 15th round of their title bout at the Richfield Coliseum, in Cleveland, Ohio, on March 24, 1975. The referee is Tony Perez.  Associated Press Fullscreen World heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali hits Chuck Wepner with a right during their title bout in the Cleveland Coliseum in Richfield, Ohio, Monday night, March 24, 1975. Ali knocked Wepner out with only 19 seconds remaining of the 15th round, prompting referee Tony Perez to stop the fight.  Associated Press Fullscreen Referee Tony Perez counts out challenger Chuck Wepner, from Bayonne, N.J., after he is knocked out by his opponent, defending heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali, in the 15th round of their title bout at the Richfield Coliseum, in Cleveland, Ohio, on March 24, 1975.  Associated Press Fullscreen American heavyweight boxer Muhammad Ali, right, talks to newsmen after the fight with Belgian heavyweight Jean-Pierre Coopman, left, who he knocked out in the fifth round, in San Juan, Puerto Rico, Feb. 21, 1976. Coopman's wife sits between the two fighters.  Associated Press Fullscreen Japanese pro wrestler Antonio Inoki kicks the back of Muhammad Ali's leg in an attempt to trip him down on the mat during their boxing-wrestling bout at the Budokan Hall in Tokyo, June 26, 1976. Inoki challenged the World Heavyweight boxing champion in a 15-round fight billed as "World Martial Arts Championship." But the fight ended in a draw before the 14,000 spectators who paid from 17 to 1,000 U.S. dollars for their seats. Ali was to receive 6.1 million dollars and Inoki up to 4 million. At right is American referee Gene Lebell.  Associated Press World heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali is shown trying to evade kicks by wrestler Antonio Inoki during their 15-round World Martial Arts match on July 26, 1976 in Tokyo.  Associated Press Fullscreen Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali knocks challenger Ken Norton back with a right hand punch in the 14th round of their title fight Tuesday night. Ali retained his title with a decision win in the 15-round fight in New York's Yankee Stadium on Sept. 28, 1976.  Associated Press Fullscreen Challenger Ken Norton, left, and heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali trade right punches to the face in the late rounds of their title fight in New York's Yankee Stadium Tuesday night., September 28, 1976. Ali retained his title on a decision in the 15-round bout.  Associated Press World heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali keeps challenger Jimmy Young up against the ropes during their championship fight at Landover, Md., Friday, April 30, 1976. Ali won in a unanimous decision in fifteen rounds.  Associated Press Image shows American boxer Muhammad Ali during the 14th round of the heavyweight title fight between him and American boxer Earnie Shavers at Madison Square Garden, Sep. 29, 1977.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali, right, and his opponent, American boxer Earnie Shavers, during the first round of their heavyweight title fight at Madison Square Garden, Sep. 29, 1977.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali is shown connecting a right cross to the head of challenger Leon Spinks during third round action, February 15, 1978, in Las Vegas, Nevada. Spinks upset Ali, winning a 15-round split decision.  (AP Photo/Lenny Ignelzi) World Boxing Assocation champion Leon Spinks ducks low as Muhammad Ali lands a left during their heavyweight title bout at the Superdome in New Orleans, La. Sept. 16, 1978.  Associated Press Challenger Muhammad Ali is pictured grimacing after champion Leon Spinks landed a left during their heavyweight title bout at the Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana, September 16, 1978. Ali regained the title with a 15-round unanimous decision.  Associated Press Fullscreen Heavyweight fighters Muhammad Ali, left, and Leon Spinks, are shown in third round action as they tangled Friday night, September 15, 1978 at New Orleans' Superdome during their championship bout. Ali regained his title for an unprecedented third time by defeating Spinks in a unanimous 15-round decision.  Associated Press Fullscreen Challenger Muhammad Ali, right, gives WBC heavyweight champion Larry Holmes a wide-eyed look during their WBC championship title fight, October 2, 1980, in Las Vegas, Nevada. Holmes won the bout and retained his title when Ali failed to answer the bell at the start of the 11th round.  Associated Press Fullscreen Aging challenger Muhammad Ali, left, is shown being pummeled against the ropes by WBC heavyweight champion Larry Holmes during their Las Vegas, Nevada fight of October 2, 1980. Holmes scored an uneventful 11th-round technical knockout over Ali to retain his WBC heavyweight title.  Associated Press World heavyweight champion Larry Holmes, left, pounds challenger Muhammad Ali in the corner during championship fight in Las Vegas, Nev., Thursday night, Oct. 2, 1980. Holmes won when Ali failed to answer the bell to start the 11th round.  Associated Press Fullscreen Buy Photo Homecoming for Louisville Lip: Former heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali (right) sizes up Walter Santamore for an opening punch during their four-round exhibition match on Oct. 30, 1980 at Commonwealth Convention Center. Proceeds went to the campaign fund of Jefferson County sheriff candidate Joe Martin.  Robert Steinau The Courier-Journal Trevor Berbick, left, and Muhammad Ali seem to have an equal reach as they slug it out during a Friday night boxing match in this Dec. 12, 1981 file photo in Nassau, Bahamas.  Associated Press Muhammad Ali, right, takes a punch from Trevor Berbick, of Canada, during the first round of their 10-round bout in Nassau, Bahamas, in this Dec. 11, 1981 file photo. Ali, who lost on a unanimous decision, fought his last fight.  Associated Press Like this topic? You may also like these photo galleries: Replay

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Various Articles - THE HISTORY OF BAREKNUCKLE BOXING THE HISTORY OF BAREKNUCKLE BOXING Click here to go the the History Of Bareknuckle Boxing facebook page. A SELECTION OF MY ARTICLES ON BAREKNUCKLE BOXING THE END OF AN ERA  The“Boston Strong Boy” more commonly known as John L. Sullivan fought Jake Kilrain for the last official Heavyweight Bareknuckle Championship of the world under the Prize Ring Rules on July 8th 1889. Two years before the bout took place Richard Kyle Fox the Owner of the popular Boxing magazine the Police Gazette questioned Sullivan’s right be called a world champion as he had not up to this point fought Kilrain and had previously refused to fight him, many considered kilrain the true champion. In response to this Sullivan’s wealthy friends clubbed together and presented John L with a magnificent Championship Belt. The belt cost around $10,000 dollars the   equivalent of $250,000 in today’s money and it was inlaid with 397 diamonds. It   was inscribed with the words “presented to the champion of champions” with the Englishman Charlie Mitchell in 1888 which was abandoned due to the terrible weather conditions after 39 rounds led to Sullivan placing an add in the New York Illustrated News. He challenged Kilrain and set a wager of $10,000 a head, both parties agreed and the date  that was arranged gave Sullivan 6 months to get prepared. Sullivan knew this next fight would be his hardest; he was well out of shape as he had enjoyed the pleasures of drink most nights since Mitchells fight and he was fortunate that he found a great ally and trainer in William Muldoon who agreed to help him prepare. Muldoon himself had been a champion wrestler at a time when Wrestlers were widely acknowledged as the real strong men of the era. He took Sullivan to his Farmhouse in Belfast, New York where their new friendship was tested to the maximum.It took a few days before Sullivan was even sober enough to start the gruelling training regime that Muldoon had in store. Money was not on Muldoon’s high list of priorities as he had even agreed to train Sullivan for nothing should he loose. Milk and oats were the only food Sullivan could keep down and it took weeks before he could eat the proper foods to rebuild his strength. Muldoon prepared the breakfast each day which was only eaten after Sullivan had exercised using dumb-bells, this was followed by daily 8 mile runs in the morning, gym work, bag work and skipping and also wrestling. All the hard work paid off and when the training was finished Sullivan had lost over 40lbs and was back to the fitness levels he had many years previous. The planned fight in New Orleans caught the public’s attention and it became the talk in every café, pavement and bar. Something special was about to happen and everyone knew it. The fight was to take place in Richburg in Marion County and a makeshift ring and seating for the press and moneymen was erected. Kilrain was the first fighter to approach the ring and did the obligatory “Throwing your hat into the ring”Sullivan wasted no time and entered the ring soon after. Kilrain saw straight away that Sullivan had trained very hard for the fight and its suggested he had doubts about his own chances in the fight even before the first bell. As the first round got under way Sullivan was thrown over Kilrains hip after less than a minute, he evaded Sullivan who was well known for a great right hand and smothered and wrestled him. Round after round followed in the blistering heat, Sullivan’s ear was torn open after a thunderous right-hand roundhouse punch landed and he continued to frustrate Sullivan no end. As the fight continued so did the temperature, it rose to well over 104, the heat drained both men and By round 44 after Sullivan vomited in the ring it seemed Kilrain was on top. A draw was offered by Kilrain and perhaps this was a sign that he was just as tired as Sullivan. The fight continued and the real battle began, not with each other but against oneself to continue when many would have gave in. In testament to both men’s endurance the fight reached the 75thround and after Kilrain was warned from the doctor that if he came out for the 76th he could die, the sponge from his cornermen was thrown in the air…….After 2hrs and 16 minutes Sullivan was declared the winner and the Undisputed Champion of the world.  The world was about to change in respect to Bareknuckle fighting and Sullivan goes down in History as the last of the Great Heavyweight champions of the World. After the kilrain fight Sullivan returned to his old ways of drinking and once again piled the weight on, he decided to fight again, and, it was against a younger, fitter fighter named James J. Corbett. Sullivan came into the fight a sad portly figure but still the odds on favourite. This time it was to be fought with gloves which then weighed 5oz’s. The title at stake was for the Heavyweight championship of the world under the Queensbury rules. Corbett from California out boxed Sullivan and knocked him out in 21 rounds. Despite this defeat against Corbett Sullivans legacy as one of the greatest sporting legends continues to this day, he retired in 1915 and became a reformed man, he travelled the land preaching the word of god and the dangers of drink and was the first sportman to earn over $1,000,000…..    JACK BROUGHTON John “Jack“Broughton aka “The father of Boxing” was born in the small village of Baunton on the outskirts of Cirencester in 1704. Jacks mother died when he was an infant and as a result of her death his father took to drinking heavily. To make matters worse for Jack he then re-married and his new wife was fond of Gin herself. At the age of 12 he left home with his sister Rosie who was 10 at the time and call it good luck or fighting spirit but he found work in Bristol as a waterman. This hard work was no doubt responsible for his great strength and endurance. Rose married at 18 and Jack began his career as a fighter by beating a hardened Pro at James Figs travelling booth in Bristol.Figg personally persuaded Jack to move to London and learn his trade at his academy. Jack took to being a student with ease and learnt quickly. It was noticeable from the onset that he was different from the normal fighters who just used brawn and brute strength. Jack possessed something great fighters always have, a great Boxing brain. Weighing in at 14 stone and a little under 6ft he realised that selective punching was the way forward, he mastered the art of blocking punches and parrying and then he would counter with precision shots. He also had great footwork and a long reach. When Figg retired George Taylor took over the mantle of Champion and in 1740 Broughton defeated him and became champion himself. A year later in 1741 Broughton clashed with George Stevenson and as a result of the fight Stevenson Died Shortly after. It affected Broughton and was even at his bedside when Stevenson died at home. He promised he would try and limit these types of injuries and produced a set of Rules and Regulations called “Broughtonsy Rules” these rules stayed in force for nearly 100 years until it was improved upon and renamed the “London Prize Ring” rules. Another fighter to come across Broughton was the Duke of Cumberland, it was a fight with the short- sword and when the Duke was defeated he helped finance Broughton to open his own Academy, this opened in 1743 as the new rules were introduced. As Broughton began teaching he realised that the gentry of the time were unwilling to participate in the training as they didn’t want to be bloodied while sparring. His response to this was to devise the first set of padded gloves called“Mufflers” these allowed gentlemen to learn the art of Boxing without suffering any external injuries. The fighters at his academy wore them to spar but they were never used in any competitive bouts. At the age of 46 Broughton fought a 29 year old fighter called Jack slack. For the first few minutes of the fight the older and much more experienced Broughton did what he wanted but then the unthinkable happened, he was caught of a “ Sucker Punch”between the eyes. These were the type of punches that Broughton had always been able to avoid and wether it was down to old his age, inactivity or complacency the punch blinded him and after 14 minutes the fight was over.The Duke was furious with the result as he had lost £10,000 on a wager, he had the academy closed down soon after and also tried to use his influence as a duke to get the magistrates to outlaw the sport. Broughton turned his once successful academy into a furniture market and even made a decent living, although he was still involved in Promoting Boxing even at the age of 53. Broughton died in 1789 at the age of 84 leaving a vast sum of £7,000 to his family, he is buried in Lambeth churchyard and has the honour of a tablet being laid in Westminster Abbey. It seems strange that it took nearly 200 years to have the words “Champion of England” inscribed on it. This was only done in 1988. It is believed by many that Jack slack was indeed James Figg’s Grandson. BROUGTONS RULES 1. That a square yard be chalked in the middle of the stage; and every fresh set- to after a fall, or being parted from the rails, each second is to bring his man to the side of the square, and place him opposite to the other, and till they are fairly set to at the lines, it shall not be lawful for one to strike the other. 2. That, in order to prevent any disputes, the time a man lies after a fall, if the second does not bring his man to the side of the square within 30 seconds, he shall be deemed a beaten man. 3. That in every main battle, no person whatever shall be upon the stage except the principals and their seconds; the same rule to be observed in by- battles, except that in the latter, Mr Broughton is allowed to be upon the stage to keep decorum, and to assist gentlemen in getting to their places, provided always he does not interfere with the battle; and whoever pretends to infringe these rules to be turned immediately out of the house. Everybody is to quit the stage as soon as the champions are stripped, before set to. 4. That no champion is deemed beaten unless he fails coming up to the line in the limited time; or, that his own second declares him beaten. No second is allowed to ask his man’s adversary any questions, or advise him to give out. 5. That in by – battles, the winning man to have two- thirds of the money given, that shall be publicly divided upon the stage not-withstanding an  private agreements to the contrary. 6. That to prevent disputes in every main battle, the principals shall, on the coming on the stage, choose from among the gentlemen present, two umpires, who shall absolutely decide all disputes that may arise about the battle; and if the two umpires cannot agree, the said umpires to choose a third, who is to determine it. 7. That no person is to hit his adversary when he is down, or seize him by the hair, the breeches, or any other part below the waist; a man on his knees to be reckoned down. COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012   JAMES FIGG Before the introduction of the modern day boxing glove many of the older Bareknuckle prize-fighters were responsible for big changes within the sport none more so than James Figg who is credited with the rebirth of Prizefighting. James figg was born in 1695 in Thame, Oxfordshire, England; he was the youngest of 7 children and was raised from a farming family. He quickly realised he had a natural talent for fighting  as he often went to local fairs challenging the in house fighters to prove to himself and others he was a man to be reckoned with. He soon realised that this talent could earn him money and also local fame.  Figg attended the School of Noble Defence run by Timothy Buck from 1714 and as a pupil he would have learnt to use various weapons including the backsword and quarterstaff. When he was awarded the Title of “Master of the Noble Science of Defence” his prowess as a fighter was quickly recognised as well as his opportunity to earn vast amounts of money through prize money and also gambling which went hand in hand with it. When the Earl of Peterborough saw this potential he offered to finance Figg to open an academy to teach the gentry the arts of self-defence. In 1719 he opened ‘Figs Amphitheatre’ in Tottenham Court Road and moved to Oxford Road less than 2 years later. He soon realised the potential to earn money as a prize fighter was greater than that of a teacher so he let his academy to another master and began promoting himself and took on all-comers. He was also helped by his great friend and artist William Hogarth who not only completed a portrait of Figg but also produced publicity leaflets for him. His proud boast was ‘Here I am Jemmy Figg from Thame. I will fight any man in England.  By 1720, he was openly acknowledged as the London champion, and fought for money roughly each month, great crowds would gather and this was aided by being advertised in the newspapers. There were three rounds in an organized prize-fight: the first with short-swords, the second with fists and the third with the staff. Figg often fought multiple opponents and his most famous fight was with Ned Sutton the Pipemaker” who he beat on three separate occasions. Depending on what information you read some say Figg remained unbeaten throughout his 270 fights and some say he was beaten once by Sutton, regardless which account is true he certainly had a great Career considering he was just over 6ft tall and weighing approx. 185 lbs. It is widely regarded that Figg was perhaps a better fencer than boxer and used his thrusting techniques learnt from his fencing training and adapted them into his fist fighting.  This verse wrote by diarist James Byrom was recorded after Figg's third encounter with Sutton and can be found here./www.thamehistory.net/people/JamesFiggPoem.htm Early in Figgs reign there was a challenge from a Venetian gondolier called Carini, Figg found Bob Whitaker to accept the challenge and the huge Venetian was forced to retire due to a body shot. Fortunately with Figg being friends and acquaintances with some very wealthy people as spectators including George the  1st and the Prince of Wales  in 1723 George the 1st sanctioned the construction of a “Ring” in London’s Hyde Park for the use of anyone who wanted to fight. There was one opponent Figg could not defend himself against however, and in early December, 1734 at the end of an astonishing career, this notice appeared in the papers:  Last Saturday there was a Trial of Skill between the unconquered Hero, Death, on the one side and till then the unconquered Hero Mr James Figg, the famous Prize-Fighter and Master of the Noble Science of Defence on the other: The Battle was most obstinately fought on both sides, but at last the former obtained an Entire Victory and the latter tho' he was obliged to submit to a Superior Foe yet fearless and with Disdain he retired and that Evening expired at his house in Oxford Road.  Figg was 50 when he died and left several children and grandchildren upon his death. The former Greyhound Inn (now named after him) is traditionally held to have been his headquarters in his early days. His portrait hung over the bar there long after his death and these verses were placed beneath: The Mighty Combatant the first in fameThe lasting Glory of his native Thame, Rash and unthinking Men at length be wise, Consult your safety and Resign the Prize, Nor tempt Superior Force, but Timely Fly The Vigour of his Arm, the quickness of his eye. For anyone visiting Thames why not visit the James Figg  pub in which you can see the blue plaque dedicated to him. 21 cornmarket, thames, Oxon, Qx9 2BL COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012   TOM SAYERS  Tom Sayers was an English Bareknuckle fighter who was born on the 25th May 1826. On paper I suppose he didn’t have the best fighting records compared to others but he is nevertheless down in history as a great. Tom was the youngest of 5 children, his father James was a shoemaker and his mother Maria stayed at home and struggled to feed the family as did most during the early 19th century.As most work was centred around London during these times Tom moved away from Brighton at the age of 13 and moved in with his sister and brother in law who was a builder at the time and got Tom fixed up with an apprenticeship as a bricklayer. He continued bricklaying for the next 7 years commuting between London and his parents’ house, and at the age of 20 settled down permanently in London. Although he had his fair share of cobble fights his first organised fight was at the age of 23, he fought Abe Couch and finished him easily in 13 minutes and was £5 richer. As Tom Weighed less than 11 stone throughout his career and was quite short at 5ft 8 1/2 he often had to fight heavier men as getting him matched up against fighters of his own weight proved difficult. This was perhaps the reason that in total he only had 16 fights losing 1 against Nat Langham and drawing 3. Although he did have few fights compared to some other notable pugilists of the time he did fight some good quality fighter including William Perry and Tom Paddock ,amongst others. The main reason his name was made famous was for his fight with John C Heenan the American bareknuckle fighter. Sayers fight with Heenan looked a total mismatch on paper; Sayers was giving away almost 43 lbs in weight and over 5.5 inches in height. The date for the fight was set for the 17th of April 1860 and it was to be fought in Farnborough, Hampshire. This was no ordinary fight it was billed as “The International Championship of the World” Heenan also known as the “Benicia Boy “was the first foreign challenger for the championship of England since Tom Molineaux 50 years earlier.The fight was a ferocious one with both men pounding each other, Heenan was the aggressor due to his height and weight advantage but Sayers used his skill to place accurate shots to Heenan face almost blinding him. In the 42nd round and after more than 2hrs 20 mins the crowd overran the ring and the fight was later stopped it was later called a draw. Both men had replica belts made for them in honour of the brave battle they gave. The British public had great pride in their fighter and as a result more than £3000 pound was raised on condition sayers didn’t fight again. He used his popularity to prepare himself for a life away from the ring and in 1861 he named his circus which he had just bought “Tom Sayers championship circus”. As many fighters before him Sayers business attributes were not on par with his fighting skills and his circus nosedived and was sold off only 1 year since he bought it.   Sayers sadly passed away on November the 8th 1865 aged only 40. He was buried in Highgate cemetery beneath a magnificent and fitting memorial. Heenan himself died on 28 October 1873 aged only 39. COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012     CONDITIONING HANDS FOR BKB  Today’s modern day gloved boxers don’t have the problems of damage to their hands and wrists as much as a Bareknuckle Boxer does. With BKB becoming more popular many fighters wishing to take the sport up are asking how to avoid and limit potential damage. Learning how to throw punches correctly and targeting the softer body parts of an opponent are the first things to learn so if you’ve never done BKB before it’s back to basics and learn the differences between punching without the protection of Gloves and read up on the anatomy of the human body as practised in most martial arts. Aim to throw Accurate and meaningful punches and therefore limit the chances of injury to yourself.  The chances are when competing in BKB your hands will still suffer even if you use the right techniques and hit the right spots, so then preparing your hands prior to fighting can help. KNUCKLE PRESS UPS As with any form of conditioning start of gradually and build the intensity up over a period of time. The idea is to cause callouses on the knuckles which will harden the skin itself, this can be done by performing the press ups on various surfaces ranging from old carpet and working up to concrete and even sandpaper underneath. Secondly this exercise will put stress on the actual bones themselves which can make them denser due to the body’s natural repair system and less prone to damage. SAND BUCKETS Try punching into buckets of sand with your knuckles extended, again this is to cause hardening of the skin and after a while as your hands become more accustomed to it you can start adding gravel to the sand increasing the coarseness as times goes by. PUNCH BAGS Start of gradually bare fist and use this method to not only harden the skin but to make sure you deliver punches correctly using your 1st and 2ndknuckles. Lots of combat sports have various methods of hardening the skin and bones in the hands, this can range from punching trees and rocks and using boards wrapped in rope to punch which is similar to Makiwara boards used in Muay tai .Also get accustomed to forming a solid fist as this will stop damage as there will be less movement in the fingers when hitting the target. There are also lots of fighters who swear by soaking their hands in various concoctions but the most common seems to be Brine solution, some even use petrol, whicj i wouldn,t condone unless you want to catch dermititis. Below I’ve put a few links for you to read up on. Super hard knuckles http://stickgrappler.tripod.com/box/dempseycfbook.html A HELPING HAND Fighting without the protection of Boxing gloves occurs in every pub carpark each weekend throughout the country usually fuelled with alcohol and it goes without saying that one of the main injuries sustained by those involved is damage to their hands. When competing in Bareknuckle Boxing what can and what was done to prevent cuts and lacerations on your only weapon available? Your hands! There are many articles and books written on the subject of toughening and strengthening the actual internal workings of the hands and wrists of fighter’s and also on which shots landed has the least potential for injury. One subject which often creates ridicule no more so than within gloved boxing community is the suggestion of the use of ointments, potions and treatments applied to the hands prior to competing. For the future generation of Bareknuckle fighters could the answer lie with what some of the great fighters used in the past and is there any truth that it can be of benefit. OR Is it all Mumbo Jumbo? As any building worker will tell you and I can vouch for this myself that after constant hard graft on the buildings or any manual work your hands do toughen naturally. Blisters and tender callouses are only temporary and after a while your hands become like leather. Runners have the same problem with their feet as any beginner runner will tell you so obviously there are ways to toughen the skin that work.  Is there anything to speed up this effect up? URINE Urine, be it human or animal derived has for many years been used to toughen not only Boxer’s hands but other athletes including Baseball players:  In a recent interview with ESPN's Gary Miller, Chicago Cubs outfielder Moises Alou revealed that during baseball season he urinates on his hands to toughen them up. Alou, one of the few major leaguers who doesn't wear gloves while batting, is backed up by Yankees catcher Jorge Posada, who says, "You don't want to shake my hand during spring training." Even Cubs hurler Kerry Wood mentioned on a local radio show that he's tried the technique to remedy blisters on his pitching hand (though he wryly added that there's also a well-known clubhouse cure for headaches: "crapping in your hat"). Does urine really toughen the skin?  Many Doctors and Urine Therapy based Professionals suggest that soaking your hands in urine actually has the opposite affect and has been found to soften the hands. Urea is the main component of urine and considering most hand creams contain urea perhaps the doctor are correct. Accordingto Dr. A.H. Free, in his 1977 book Urinalysis in Clinical Laboratory   Practice, urine contains the following. zinc, vitamins B12, B6, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, inositol, folic acid, biotin, ascorbic acid, potassium, iron, calcium, iodine, manganese, magnesium, nitrogen, lysine, arginine, allantoin, bicarbonate, creatinine, cystine, dopamine, epinephrine, glucose, glutamic acid, glycine, lysine, methionine, orinthine, phenylalanine, phosphorus, tryptophan, tyrosine and water. So considering all the active ingredients listed without proper research who can dispute what the fighters have used and who am I to question the great advocate of old school boxing Jack Dempsey who did indeed soak his own hands in urine. If it is used then you would need to soak your hands for a minimum of 5 minutes for absorption into the skin. BRINE The following was wrote by the great fighter Bob Fitzsimmons “Some trainers use a sort of pickling solution with which they pickle the hands, face and neck, in order that a blow will not cut the skin so readily. If my man had a very ten-der skin I might use something to toughen and harden his face, but as a rule I don’t think that pickling the face and neck does any good. To the hands, however, too much attention cannot be paid, and I have found nothing better than corned beef brine. This does not smell very nice, it is true, and should be ap-plied three times a day after eating. I would never allow my man to apply it before eating, as it might affect his stomach, which would be bad. But, although the brine does not smell anywhere near as good as Florida water, it does the business, and that is all that is required. After the brine is applied and well rubbed in, the following liniment should also be rubbed in. It can be obtained at any first class drug store, and the ingredients are as follows; Laudanum, three ounces ; spirits of hartshorn, four ounces ; alcohol. One quart; iodine, two ounces ; eucalyptic,three ounces. These mixed up together with ten cents worth of horseradish and five cents worth of alum, make a liniment which cannot be equalled for strengthening and hardening the bone, and when applied and well rubbed in it has a tendency to make a man feel fresh and strong.brine   is basically a mixture of vinegar and water and can come in a variety of   strengths. JackDempsey also states….Put camphor ice on your skinned knuckles before you go to bed. In a few weeks your knuckles will become calloused, and you'll have no more trouble with them This is an extract from Billy Edwards' "Art of Boxing and Manual of Training" fro 1888 "If at first they should get a little raw or rubbed, a few applications of weak tannic acid solution, or rosin, or good strong pickle out of the salt-pork barrel, will soon make the hands and knuckles tough. It seems evident that a lot of the Bareknuckle fighters of the past did indeed use a variety of techniques to harden the skin. The Australian army advised their recruits at parachute school to rub in alcohol to harden the skin as well. A more recent Bareknuckle fighter of the name Paddy Monaghan was also advised to use a brine solution and this advice was given to him from no other than Jack Dempsey. I spoke with Paddy’s son Tyrone who told me this.  “My Da would do the same to me when I was fighting to toughen the skin on my face, it was vinegar in a cup the pour in the salt, Id lie on the floor and with a cotton wool bud he'd put the vinegar and salt or salt and vinegar whichever way ... on the skin around my eyes, cheek bones, the bone on the nose. He'd leave it there to harden and cake, normally about an hour and a half for that to happen. When it was bone dry and the vinegar was soaked into the skin then I'd get up go to the bathroom and rub the salt off but don’t wash it off until the next morning....for BKB my Da used to do the same with his face and with his   knuckles.”   Rubbing alcohol into the hands was another way in which some of the past fighters hardened their hands. Jem Mace for instance used a mixture of Gunpowder and whiskey onto his hands and face. (Perhaps this is where he got his explosive punching from). In all seriousness instead of wasting decent Whiskey it’s much cheaper to use surgical spirit and is used by rock climbers and runners. Old bare-knuckle boxers rubbed sheep urine and alum crystals into their hands after punching practice. A better substitute is mentholated spirits. After punching only a fairly rough surface, such as a heavy canvas punching bag, the knuckles will be reddened. Then rub in the spirits and let it dry. It takes about a month of three or four times a week, and your hands get quite tough. The likes of petrol and diesel have also been used in the past. I suppose at the end of the day fighters will choose whether or not to use the methods described above but what I would say is if it worked for some of the past greats then WHY NOT!       PETER CORORAN Many of the bareknuckle fights of the past went on for many rounds, but this was not always the case. One fight in particular lasted less than a minute and with the first connecting punch the fight was over.   Peter Corcoran the Irish born Heavyweight defeated the then high rated Bill Darts to become the first irish born british Champion, after fleeing ireland as a result of an alleged murder he moved around the country, he was backed byanother Irishman named Colonel Dennis kelly and after winning some smaller bouts his biggest fight to date was arranged with Bill darts at Epsom downs racetrack on the 18th may 1771. After this one minute win he defended his title for five years against mostly mediocre oppositions apart from perhaps Sam Best in 1774. Corcorans last fight was in 1776 against Harry Sellers and although Sellars was the huge underdog he gained the win in 32 rounds and its known that debts that corcoran had amassesed while running various inns/pubs vanished soon after so like many of the bareknuckle fights that took place matchfixing may have taken place. Within a year of this fight Corcoran not only lost his business as an inn keeper but died in dire poverty and had to have a paupers funeral. He was aged only 41. DANIEL MENDOZA  Daniel Mendoza was born in Whitechapel, England on July 5th 1764.  Jewish fighters were once the dominant force in Professional Boxing,  they were ranked the No1 Nationality in front of the Italians and Irish in America during the late 1920’s.In an age long forgotten when Gloved Boxing had only 8 weight divisions and 8 World champions there were 26 Jewish Champions froM 1910-1940. Even though many Jews followed academic careers in later years there has always been a great selection of Jewish Championship Boxers, including promoters and Managers. However long before these great times Daniel Mendoza made his mark in the sport of Bareknuckle fighting and was perhaps one of the first scientific Boxers. Growing up in the east end of London where” Jew baiting” was a way for bullies to get their kicks against the normally gentile race Dan fought back with his fists. His parents are believed to have come from Spanish Nobility and were Artisans; he had a Jewish education and more often than not got into fights defending his religion and upbringing. Like young travelling men today boxing was an outlet for some Jewish youngsters and as such many followed in Dan’s shoes.  It wasn’t long before his name was known in his area for his fighting abilities alas at this stage of his career he fought with more brawns than brain; however when he was spotted in an early fight by Richard Humphries his raw talent shone through and his life was about to change. Humphries himself was a pugilist known as the“Gentleman Boxer” and he offered his services as a trainer and also as a second to work his corner for him. Dan had his first paid fight against a burly coalheaver and proved his heart for the sport by defeating the much heavier man in 40 minutes and winning 5 Guineas in doing so.  Mendoza is perhaps responsible for changing the public’s attitude to the Jewish community as he was the first fighter to receive a Royal Patronage which was from from the Prince of Wales. This gave him great pride and he started calling himself” Mendoza the Jew”, without fear of ridicule or retribution.  As Dan was only 5ft 7 and weighed around 160 lbs he often fought men much heavier and taller than himself and this made him rely on skills which hadn’t really been seen before. He was perhaps the first Bareknuckle fighter to use great defensive skills which allowed him to fight much heavier men. He used blocks, ducking and  sidestepping then hitting with a straight left to even the odds and to avoidgetting caught and he also became the first Middleweight fighter to win the Heavyweight title. Dans second fight was against Sam Martin aka “The Bath Butcher” for 25 Guineas and he was the victor in 20 minutes. This fight was fought at the Barnet Racecourse and on his return to London such was his notoriety that he claimed the Championship of England. It’s reported that his fans lit candles and sung songs in his honour on his return home. The bouts that Mendoza is more noted for is his trilogy of fights with his onetime trainer and corner man Richard Humphrey’s (BELOW)   Their first bout was fought on January 9th1788 and after 15 minutes Mendoza lost for the first time in his career and the rematch was set for May 6th 1789. Mendoza obviously used his great boxing brain which he possessed to defeat Humphrey’s in their second bout in which 3000 people turned up to watch including many Jews who wanted to see Mendoza seek revenge. Their last contest was held on September 29th1790, the fight took place in Doncaster in a barn and this fight was the first ever event where spectators had to pay through a gate for admission. This obviously earned the fighters more money and the gate money is a term still used today in gloved boxing. Mendoza once again beat Humphrey’s by using superior footwork and skill. Mendoza’s biggest fight came in 1794 when he fought Bill Warr, at Bexley Common and with a win he became the Heavyweight World Champion. It was however short lived as he lost his next fight against John “Gentleman” Jackson in 1795 who was over 40 lbs. heavier and taller by 4 inches. The fight was over in 9 rounds as Mendoza was grabbed by the hair and punched repetitively untilhe was beaten almost to the state of unconsciousness.   The only thing banned was the hitting of a downed opponent or any wrestling below the waist. Everything else – hair-pulling, grappling above the waist, wrestling or tripping your opponent to the ground, and, of course, striking with the bare fists – was allowed.He retired from fighting after losing his title and spent his time and money writing his memoirs and also tried his hand touring giving Boxing lessons. He also worked as a recruitment sergeant for the army and wrote books on the noble art  The text below is quoted from Mendoza’s book The Modern Art of Boxing 1789. The position of the body, which should be an inclining posture, or diagonal line, so as to place the pit of the stomach out of your adversary's reach. The upper part of your arm must stop or parry the round blow at the head; the fore-arm, the blows at the face of stomach; and the elbows, those at the ribs: both knees must be bent, the left leg advanced, and the arms directly before your throat or chin. Sadly he came out of retirement well past his best and lost to Tom Owen in 12 rounds. As with a lot of historical accounts there are often contradictions, some say his fight with Owen was his last and others say he lost to Harry Lee. Various sources quote that he died at the age of 70, 72 or 73 but whichever is true he died without a penny leaving his faithful wife in Debt. It’s also alleged he served 4 years in prison for debts he has amassed. He was buried in the Nuovo Sephardi cemetery, located in the grounds of Queen Marys College, mile end.    Regardless on his failings in later life he was responsible for lots of other Jewish fighters to follow him in his footsteps in the ring, into management and also promoters for years to come and for his scientific approach to fighting to be used as a blueprint by the next generation of fighters. The first boxing historian Pierce Egan said that he was “a complete artist” COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012 . JEM MACE In the small village of Beeston, Norfolk on the 8th of April 1831 a child was born at around twelve Noon who would in later years become The Heavyweight Champion of the world. Jems life story is a complex and controversial one, it’s said he fathered 14 children by 5 women, married 3 times (Committing bigamy twice) and more than once failed to turn up to fights and got fined for doing so. He also advertised the wearing of Boxing gloves when he retired and travelled the globe and was responsible for finding fighters such as Bob Fitzsimmons and he also worked and became friends with Larry Foley. Although referred to as Gypsy Jem Mace he denied any Romany ancestry in his autobiography. Jem was born in a small Labourers cottage on the Wyndham Estate to his father William and Mother Ann. He developed quickly, he walked from the age of 6 months and began fighting and wrestling with his cousin Pooley Mace and little did they know that in those early days of fighting it would end up taking jem across the globe in his pursuit of his pugilistic exploits. His life would have been so different had he followed in his grandfathers and father’s trade as a blacksmith. At the age of 12 Jem damaged his hand, some say intentionally rather than continuing his job as a smithy but wether this is was an accident or not things were about to change. Jem had already seen his first Bareknuckle fight at the age of 10 when he visited a local barn used by organisers to entertain the public on Saturday nights. He became intoxicated with the smell and the sounds of a Bareknuckle fight and with the prospect of having the choice of the prettiest women in town should he win he vowed that one day he would be up there fighting himself. He started fighting the local boys in his town from around the age of 14, he didn’t win many but he learnt to get up and keep trying, he eventually beat them all in rematches as his fighting skills and determination improved. He visited the local fairs where he played the violin to earn extra cash as well as fighting, taking on all comers. It was at one of these fairs that Nat Langham spotted jem after beat up 3 men who had smashed his violin, Langham took him on as an apprentice fighter on £2 a week in his travelling fair. Langham himself was regarded as one of the best middleweight fighters of his day and also the only man ever to beat Tom Sayers. Jem learnt how to slip punches using his great footwork and he also possessed a great jab and enough power to knock someone out cold. In 1855 Jem won his first reported Pro fight against John Slack for the sum of £5, the fight was over in 9 rounds lasting a total of 19 minutes. Weighing in at around 10 and 11 stone and only 5ft 9 ½ he often had to give away weight and height to find opponents worthy of his skill. After a win against a young aristocrat Jem was introduced to a man who would be responsible for the biggest change the art of BKB had ever seen and unfortunately its demise. His name was John Douglas who would become the new lord Drumlaig and the ninth Marquess of Queensbury. Moving to London was a eye opener for Jem and with it his opponent were alot tougher than he’d been used to. He defeated a fighter with a reputation called Bill Thorpe in 17 rounds in a brutal fight which left Thorpe beaten up so bad that he’d never fight again. It wasn’t all plain sailing for Jem though as his character was called into question more than once. He failed to turn upto fights, conceded some and his seriousness for the fight game was questioned more than once.. On the 13th of June 1861 he regained his reputation as a great fighter by beating Sam Hurst and with it the title of Champion of England, it took Jem 40 minutes to win in 8 rounds. He then defended the title the following year against Tom King but lost against king in his next fight. His next fights comprised of a win and a draw against Joe Goss, after his win against Goss an estimated 10,000 people met him at Lime Street station and carried him through the streets on their shoulders. He also drew a fight against Joe Coburn. And in1865, the organisers of the Liverpool Olympics, invited Mace to become the boxing instructor at the Liverpool Gymnasium. In 1867 Mace was arrested on the night before his scheduled title defence against Ned O'Baldwin. He was bound over in court not to fight again and because of this he decided to go to the U.S.A to continue his fighting. Jem arrived in the US in 1869 and was greeted by John Heenan who realised the potential to earn money by getting Mace to fight Exhibition bouts, this was fine for Jem to make extra cash but he wanted big fights and the man he had his sights on was the American Champion Tom Allen. Even though Allen was also English he held the American Heavyweight title. The prize money was $2,500 and after a hard fought battle Jem won in 10 rounds lasting 44 minutes. Jem was a much more accomplished wrestler and after he threw Allen to the ground and landed on him heavily, he was taken to his corner with the crowd on their feet thinking allen had broken his neck but his injury was not as serious as it appeared but it was enough for Allen’s cornerman to toss up the sponge to end the fight. The fight was also for the Heavyweight championship of the World. This is the summary of the fight as printed in the  New York Times. St. Louis, New Orleans. “There were people in both hemispheres who thought that Tom Allen was really a great fighter until that memorable May 10, 1870, when he met Jem Mace, at St. Louis, to fight for $2,500 a-side and the Championship of the World. Allen was ten years younger but in forty-four minutes Mace, the veteran, hit his antagonist to pieces and justified his claim to be the world champion. Mace had turned forty.” I doubt whether any man ever had such a thrashing as Tom had that day; but he took his gruel like a hero and proved that, so far as gameness went, he was as good a man as his friends had made him out to be, though his scientific attainments were not much more than third-rate. By 1871 Jem was the owner of a pub and restaurant but controversy followed his fights, one planned fight with Joe Coburn was overbefore it had begun as police stopped the fight going ahead so a new date was set for June 2nd in Kansas City. The fight will be remembered forall the wrong reasons as Coburn failed to turn up and Mace was awarded to prize money regardless. It didn’t seem to faze Jem as that very night he and Allen put on a Exhibition bout in the Walnut Street Theatre. It was third time lucky for the planned fight as on November the 30th they did meet up and Jem retained his titles after a draw was declared in the 12th roundand after fighting for 3hrs 38 minutes.Jems globetrotting tour continued with a visit to Sydney, Australia in 1877, he met up with Larry Foley who as well as being a renowned prizefighter himself also ran a Boxing academy known locally as the Iron Pot. Jem eventually opened his own academy in Melbourne and also took over a hotel in Flemington with An American prizefighter called Jack Thompson. Mace helped to set up a fight between Foley and Abe Hicken and after a convincing win for Foley it turned out to be the last Official Bareknuckle fight in Australia as all future Boxing fights would be fought under the Queensbury Rules. Jem then Visited New-Zealand in 1880 and it was he who is credited with finding the future world champion Bob Fitzsimmons. Regularorganised Tournaments took place as well as Exhibitions. He returned in 1882 and had over 60 exhibition fights and also it was at this time that that Fitzsimmons beat a man 6 stone heavier called Herbert Slade. Meanwhile in 1882 in the USA a certain John L. Sullivan beat Paddy Ryan, Jem used his influence to get a fight between Slade even though he was well beaten by Fitzsimmons. Slade was put into Exhibitions in America and England to get him into shape but despite all this training Sullivan thrashed him in 3 rounds before police stopped the fight round at Madison Square Gardens, New York. Sullivan toured the US on a large scale tour and wore gloves in all these bouts, this is after jem had advised Sullivan on the benefits of using gloves as he didn’t have to be careful of his hands so much under the Queensbury rules. Jem returned to England where he continued giving exhibitions, a fighter called Charlie Mitchel got fed up with Jems continued criticism of the English fighters at the time and eventually agreed to fight Jem for the English  Heavyweight title. It was to be fought over 6x2 minute rounds wearing 6oz gloves, Jem was approaching 60 at the time and after 4 rounds he was beaten by the younger man. Before the police interviened.  After even more exhibitions as well as talks on the benefits of wearing gloves in the USA he worked for a Liverpool Boxing club in 1897 aged 66 and even managed to travel to South Africa yet again in exhibitions. At the age of 73 he refereed a boxing tournament at the Theatre Royal. Its even reported that at the age of 78 jem was giving boxing exhibitions. Jem had earned an estimated £250,000  in his career, also most was squandered on women and his celebrity lifestyle. He was regarded by many as the father of modern scientific boxing. For having led such a thrilling and exciting lifestyle Jem ended up busking to earn money in the streets of Jarrow, Tyne and wear and in 1910 he sadly passed away. Below is what the death certificate said; November 30th: Died at 6 Princes Street, Jarrow (Co. Durham). James Mace, male. 79 years....of no occupation. Cause of death: senile decay, certified by W. M. Jennings MRCS. Present at death and informant: Norah Le Neve, cousin*, Pitt Heap, Jarrow. Death registered second December 1910. Jem was buried in an umarked grave with no headstone except for the markings 594 In 2002 Jems remains were transferred to the MacMillin plot at Anfield Cemetery, the ex-Liverpool Boxers association raised the money for the new headstone and the belt which Jem won against Sam Hurst in 1861 was sold, it spent time at Madison Square Gardens ring museum in New York before ending up at the Sussex Ex-Boxers Association archive. COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012 A lifesize statue of Mace v Allen in Louisiana which was erected in 1987. BAREKNUCKLE FIGHTING WITHIN THE TRAVELLING COMMUNITY...IS IT CALLED FAIR   PLAY FOR A REASON? Type the words “Bareknuckle Boxing “into any search engine on your laptop or home computer and 99% of the video clips available will be of Travellers fighting. At one time having an opportunity to witness these fights was for a select few but with the introduction of YouTube it has allowed anyone to view the fights in the comfort of their home. Even though money regularly changes hands in these fair play fights most are arranged to settle a dispute between feuding clans, and in doing so can actually stop further trouble happening. I’ve watched most that are available online and I can’t see how anyone can call them Brutal and Barbaric. The vast majority of the fights end up in a draw and it’s even encouraged so that both parties involved can walk away without losing face. I know the fights take place outside of the traditional Boxing ring and to an outsider the fact that they don’t wear glove seems to put them into the same category as people fighting in the street. You have to remember no weapons are used, the fights are kept clean by nominated people who act as referees, it’s all stand up, no low blows etc, and after the fight handshakes are exchanged, wellmost of the time anyway.  So how come Bareknuckle Boxing has such a bad name?  Is it the fact that the fights don’t take place in a ring? Well some of the best Bareknuckle fighters throughout History never fought in a ring.  Is it that large amounts of money are often involved in these fights that put people of?  Apart from the fact no taxes are paid why should it, Mayweather can earn up to $50,000,000, how many people reading this have earned money and not declared it, so it can’t be this.  Is it the bad image of the No Rules underground type fights that takes place?  These types of fights won’t ever be seen on YouTube and they make the fair play type fighting look tame in comparison. Large amounts of money are involved, horrific injuries can occur and most of the spectators and organisers are perhaps not the most law abiding members of society. I don’t believe this type of fighting should even be called BKB. Is it simply that the fighters don’t wear gloves? Well I think there’s enough documentation to prove that BKB is one of the safest forms of combat along as it’s organised correctly with a full set of rules and regulations and all safety measures in force for the fighters protection. All of the above reasons may contribute to the fact that the authorities and indeed the public have such a strong negative opinion about BKB, but the real reason is far much simpler. BLATANT DISCRIMINATION AGAINST TRAVELLERS After many meetings with the police it’s obvious that they try and stop sanctioned bouts going ahead because of their negative attitude towards Travellers even though in reality the majority of fighters wanting to take part are from the settled community. COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012   "HAPPY AS LARRY" The Expression “Happy as Larry” is believed to have originated from the Australian Bareknuckle Boxer Larry Foley. Laurence “Larry” Foley was born on the 12thDecember 1849 near Bathurst, New South Wales. His fighting abilities place him as one of the most successful pugilist and trainer Australia has ever seen. During his long and illustrious career he weighed between 140 -154lbs and was around 5ft 9. Foley went to work as a servant to father D. O’Connell at the age of fourteen and although it was his intention initially to enter into the life as a priest he decided against it and when he reached 18 he moved to Sydney to be a builders labourer. Street gangs were rife in the area and one way to survive was to join up and that is exactly what Foley did. Gangs roamed the street fighting between local suburbs and within a short time Foley became involved in a gang called the “Green” or catholic gang and soon became the leader. He became a feared street fighter which was aided by the fact he was   trained by the former Bareknuckle Boxer John “Black” Perry. On 18 March 1871 Foley fought Sandy Ross, Ross was the  leader of the 'Orange' or Protestant group so as well as an opposing gang member Ross was at the other end of the spectrum as far as religion was concerned, the fight lasted seventy-one rounds before police intervened. Foley gained huge recognition in the area for this fight and around this time to supplement his income he earned money being a building contractor. George Hill, a member of the “Fancy” and sporting patron recognised Foleys talent and arranged various exhibitions and Prizefights, he remained unbeaten through all of these and even managed to have an exhibition fight with the ex-world champion Jem Mace, who himself was touring Australia. Abe Hicken who was recognised as the Australian Champion challenged Foley and after failed attempts to hold it in Melbourne it eventually took place on the 20 March 1879 in New South Wales. Spectators totalling over 700 made their way from Melbourne by a special train and after 16 rounds Foley was declared the winner and crowned the Australian champion. After an unbeaten career of around 23 fights Foley decided to open up an academy and also to become a publican like many great fighters had done in the past and to teach other up and coming fighters. He can be thanked for finding and training great fighters like Bob Fitzsimmons, Peter Jackson and Young Griffo. Fitzsimmons went on to become a 3 weight division champion and Young Griffo the featherweight Champion. Foleys successful academy was based in “The Whitehorse Hotel” and at the rear of the academy “The Iron Pot” was situated where Foley would arrange and promote fights himself. Foley decided to come out of retirement in 1883 at the age of 39 when he was challenged by William Miller, the wrestler and Boxer, Foley gave away over 2 stone in weight and 3 inches in height. The fight would be with gloves and it was declared a draw after 40 rounds as spectators rushed to the ring after it looked like their idol Foley was staring defeat in the face, the police were called and even though it was an official draw Miller was awarded the £500 stake money the following day when Foley gentlemanly conceded defeat.  Ironically the very streets that Foley became involved during his gang days he demolished them when he became official demolition contractor for New South Wales until 1903 when he retired. He left an estate worth over £11,000 when he died of heart disease on the 12thJuly 1917. BELOW IS FOLEYS AUSTRALIAN CHAMPIONSHIP BELT. Ben Caunt The bells of the Great Clock of Westminster rang across London for the first time on 31st May 1859, and Parliament had a special sitting to decide on a suitable name for the great hour bell. During the course of the debate, and amid the many suggestions that were made, Chief Lord of the Woods and Forests, Sir Benjamin Hall, a large and ponderous man known   affectionately in the House as "Big Ben", rose and gave an impressively long speech on the subject. When, at the end of this oratorical marathon, Sir Benjamin sank back into his seat, a wag in the chamber shouted out: "Why not call him Big Ben and have done with it?" The house erupted in laughter; Big Ben had been named. This, at least, is the most commonly accepted story. However, according to the booklet written for the old Ministry of Works by Alan Phillips:  "Like other nice stories, this has no documentary support; Hansard failed to record the interjection. The Times had been alluding to 'Big Ben of Westminster' since 1856. Probably, the derivation must be sought more remotely. The current champion of the prize ring was Benjamin Caunt, who had fought terrific battles with Bendigo, and who in 1857 lasted sixty rounds of a drawn contest in his final appearance at the age of 42. As Caunt at one period scaled 17 stone (238 lbs, or 108 kilogrammes), his nickname   was Big Ben, and that was readily bestowed by the populace on any object the heaviest of its class. So the anonymous MP may have snatched at what was already a catchphrase." Regardless which story is true Ben Caunt goes down in the history books as a great Bareknuckle fighter “Big Ben” as a nickname was very apt considering the barrel chested pugilist weighed around 18 stone and was nearly 6ft 3. Born in 1814 near Newstead railway station, his occupation as a blacksmith prepared him well for a life as a fighter and aged only 20 he fought a member of his own family Richard Butler, at Wighay Field Hucknall in which he won. Within a year the relatively inexperienced Caunt faced the English champion Bendigo Thompson and was unlucky to be disqualified for a foul blow in the 22nd round when he hit Thompson as he was on one knee, this tactic was employed by Thompson throughout the fight as a way of a gaining time to rest. A return match took 2 years to get organised and in a hard battle Caunt secured the victory after 76 rounds when he he himself was disqualified for going down without being hit even though Thompson claimed he had tripped. Not much is known about many of caunts fights so the only evidence are the fights which were high profile but its safe to say that he would have fought many more than is accounted for. Once Caunt claimed the title of Champion he lost and regained it against Nick ward. As he was the champion again he went to the States in which he competed in exhibitions as the sport was popular in the US and as a champion he could earn large sums of money. Newmarket racecourse was the next venue for Caunts fight as he defended his title again the hard man John “Brassey” Leecham; it was a successful defence in perhaps one of his hardest fights. In 1845 after already defeating Bendigo for the second time they met yet again and after 96 rounds caunt was disqualified for going down without being hit. With the rules in force at the time many of the fights were untidy and with disappointing results in which fighters used as many dirty tactics to win. Like many fighters before him and many after Caunt became a publican and promoter as he retired from the sport in 1857. He did however make one more appearance as he fought the current champion Nat Langham. Caunt was well past his best but still managed to gain a draw.  "The Coach and Horses" pub at St. Martin's Lane had made Caunt plenty of money but tragedy was to strike when 2 of his children, his son and daughter were to die in a fire which totally destroyed the pub. On September 10, 1861 he sadly passed away from pneumonia and was buried close to where his children were laid to rest Parish Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall. On his death a mask was made of his face and he looks relatively unmarked considering some tough battles he had in his years of one of Nottingham’s finest fighters. BELOW IS THE ACTUAL DEATH MASK OF BEN CAUNT COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012 ONE OF THE MANY POETS WHO FAVOURED BKB A PICTURE OF LORD BYRON( left) Throughout the history of Bareknuckle Boxing it has been well documented in a somewhat misleading way that the followers of this ancient and noble sport were characters of ill repute. Even going back to the days of the Cestus and the introduction of the metal spikes and studs to inflict as much damage and injury to the fighters as possible often leading to death were as a result of what the public demanded, BLOOD AND GUTS When these gloves of death were abolished the sport quickly followed it into obscurity and remained dormant for well over a thousand years. When the sport resurfaced among its supporters were the Aristocracy who financed the first organised amphitheatres and the accounts of many of the big fights are within easy reach of anyone with a simple computer. Its suggested that the reason BKB became less fashionable towards the late 1800’s was the violence and rowdy crowds that followed these fights and the more you read the more the sport is Blackened by dodgy betting, fixed fights, deaths and general chaos and disorganisation. Bear baiting and cockfighting events were still able to be advertised in the newspapers at this time but not the Noble Art. Many painters and artists followed the fight scene and they produced some great works of art including paintings, sketches and pottery which showed or celebrated the sport. Infact stamps have been issued showing the past fighters and museums throughout the world and collectors seek out any items to do with Bareknuckle Boxing. It seems odd to many that Poets would follow such a hard and sometimes brutal pastime, they certainly didn’t write their verse in a slamming and critical way but they honoured the great will and courage of the fighters taking part. The sports writer and sometimes forgotten poet Pierce Egan followed and wrote accounts of what took place up until the middle of the 19th century. A few of the poets who not only supported but wrote classic lines included Lord Byron, himself a decent boxer and all round sportsman, he was even instructed in fisticuffs by John “ Gentleman” Jackson which Byron described as his master. In 1811 a short piece by Byron goes as follows. “Who shoot not flying rarely touch a gun: Will he who swims not to the river run? And men unpractised in exchanging   knocks Must go to Jackson ere they dare to box” Among other poets who put pen to paper and had real passion for it included Thomas Moore, John Keats, John Clare and John Reynolds. A great piece was written by Egan “A boxing we will Go” which attempted give the sport credibility and indeed pride in Britain at a time when many wanted the sport outlawed, and at the time of writingBritain was at war with France. “Come move the song and stir the glass, For why should we be sad? Let’s drink to some free-hearted lass, And Crib, the boxing lad. And a boxing we will go, will go, will go, And a boxing we will go. Italians stab their friends In darkest shades of night; But Britons they are bold and kind, And box their friends by light. The sons of France their pistols use, Pop, pop, and they have done; But Britons with their hands will bruise, And scorn away to run. Throw pistols, poniards, swords And all such deadly tools; Let boxing be the Briton’s pride, The science of their schools! This was just one verse of the poem and it’s well worth reading it in full and lots of others available on the internet. Regardless that eventually Gloved Boxing took over BKB I look forward to the day that modern poets will write about the current fights and also the fights in the future. COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012   FROM PRIZERING TO SADDLE When reading about Bareknuckle fighters of the past there are a many that stand out for various reasons, it could be that they had beat the best, their style was unique, or it could be that they were responsible for changes within the sport. Since the 1700’s the big names of the sport from the days of Figg are well documented and it’s easy to find out information about their lives at the push of a button, unfortunately there are many more that have been forgotten or never recognised as the years go by.  One fighter who stands out to me but very little is known about him is Johnny Broome who was born in Birmingham on March 14th 1818.    Johnny also known as “Young Duckro” weighed between 130-140 lbs and stood 5ft 6 ½ tall, he fought at lightweight and it’s reported that he remained unbeaten as a fighter yet I can only find two accounts of his fights.He apparently won the lightweight Championship of England by beating Jack Hannan in Oxfordshire, England on January 26, 1841. The bout lasted 47 roundsand 79 minutes. He defended his title against a fighter called “Bungaree” on April 27th , 1842 near Newmarket, England. Broome won in 42 rounds and 57 minutes. It’s obvious that he must have fought in other fights especially as it’s recorded that he became English BKB champion but his other notable achievement was competing in the Grand National at Aintree, Liverpool. He accepted an offer to compete in the 10thofficial running of the handicap steeplechase on Match 1st 1848, he was riding in a field of 29 which was the biggest field since the race had first took place and although he didn’t finish but he managed to to get round on the second lap before falling at the famous Beechers Brook. It’s not known how much money he had earned in his career as a Prize-fighter but evidence suggests that he had lost all his money on Gambling and bad business dealings and when his name was blackened by a scandal involving an alleged fixing in a game of cards he fell out of favour with the public and the fans who had supported him. Everything became too much for him and on May 31st 1855 aged only 37 he took his own life by slitting his throat and bleeding to death after walking into the kitchens at the Wrekin Tavern, Bow Street and was buried in the West Norwood Cemetery. One person who took the news of his death badly was his more famous younger brother Harry Broome nicknamed “The Unknown” a champion fighter himself, he retired from the prize- ring upon hearing about his brother’s death but when the fighter Tom Paddock claimed that he was indeed the champion he decided to prove otherwise and the fight was set for May 1856. In bells lifemagazine on the 2nd December 1855 an announcement was made fromHarry which read. "MR. EDITOR, It was my intention never to have entered the Ring again, but the persuasions of my old friends and backers have determined me to pull off my shirt once more. I now come forward for the satisfaction of the public, to determine who's the better man, Tom Paddock or myself. I will fight him for£200 a-side and the Champion's Belt.’’ He had won the welterweight title on October 11th1843 by beating Fred Mason in the 39th round lasting 1 hr 21 mins and although he was perhaps more competent as a wrestler than boxer he had beaten some worthy opponents including “The Tipton Slasher” William Perry, after Perry was disqualified in the 15th round for hitting Broome while he was kneeling. The fight with Paddock was scheduled twice before Broome eventually fought him at Manningtree, England. Members of the fancy had turned up in force including 2 members of Parliament and an Indian prince, and although Broome started off well he eventually lost the fight to the heavier man but showed great courage and heart by lasting 51 rounds in 1 hr and 3 minutes. Broome never fought again and died aged 47 in 1865.  COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012 I'd lke to thank Mick Hill author of  Famous Pugilists of the English Prize-Ring  1719-1870 for the following details of Johny Broomes full fight record..Thanks Mick. Undated, Tom Ellis, Birmingham , Won  6 Rounds  30 minutes   £10   1833, Bill Howell,Allerbury Common, Worcs, Won  9 rounds 75 minutes  £10 1834, Jack Hunt.  Draw  220 minutes 1835, Charles Spilbury,  Sutton coalfield, West midlands,  Won  30 rounds   63 minutes   £20 1838, Bob Gallett,Witton, Worcs,  Won  9 rounds   35 minutes   £20 1839, Charley Jones, Woore, Cheshire   Won 31 rounds   36 minutes   £100 1840, James Mcginty, Glasgow, Won 71 rounds  153 minutes   £60 1840, Joe Bostock, Early, Warwicks, Won  29 rounds  47 minutes  £100 1841, Jack Hannan, New Park farm, Oxon,  won 47 rounds    79 minutes   £1000 Now generally  recognised as the best Light-weight in the country 1842, John Gorrick, Newmarket, suffolk,  won 42 rounds  57 minutes  £600 He retired from the ring unbeaten as far as records show. Micks book can be purchased here...http://www.fast-print.net/bookshop/1268/famous-pugilists-of-the-english-prize-ring     TOM CRIBB Born on the 2nd July 1781 in Hanham, Gloucester Tom Cribb is one of the best known of the English bareknuckle fighters of the 18th century. At the age of 13 he moved to London, it may seem a young age today but back then it was considered the norm for children to seek their own fame and fortune. After a few jobs that didn’t suit him including an apprentice bellringer he started work as a coal heaver at Wapping Docks. Cribb would become known as “the Black Diamond”in his fighting career due to the obvious dirty nature of working with coal. As with many fighters the manual work he did helped in his preparation as a pugilist and the area he was raised in produced notable fighters such as John Jackson, Jem and Tom Belcher, Henry Pearce, John Gully and Tom Spring. This was perhaps due to the fact that the Bristol was at the ep-icentre of the early stages of Bareknuckle Boxing alongside London and Birmingham. At the age of 24 Cribb had his first fight in which he beat George Maddox on January 7th 1805 it was a fight which lasted 76 rounds going on for 2hrs 10 minutes, after he secured another victory on the 21st may the same year he decided to become a full time fighter with the help of Cpt Robert Barclay. Many fighters past and present learn more from a loss than sometimes a win and in Cribbs fight against George Nicholls this is exactly what happened, his inexperience showed when he was outboxed throughout and lost in 52 rounds. This loss was a great learning curve for Cribb and it proved to be his only ever defeat. Other notable victories for Cribb included Bill Richmond, Tom Belcher, and on the On 25th October, 1808 Cribb beat the British champion Bob Gregson in 23 rounds in a 30 ft roped ring,with this win Cribb was the new British champion. After a second win against Belcher at  The Epsom Downs on 1st Febuary 1809 Cribb announced his retirement from the ring and ventured into the dubious role as a Publican. Just like in a Rocky film, when Cribb retired a fighter came onto the scene from America called Tom Molyneaux, after a protégé of Cribbs “ The Bristol Unknown” was beaten by him Cribb wanted revenge especially after the American claimed he was a better fighter than Cribb. Their first meeting ended in the 34th round when Molyneaux couldn’t go on any further despite the fact that he made it a hard fight for crib early on. Some believe if the crowd hadn’t of disturbed the fight earlier on crib may have been beaten but it wasn’t to be and Cribb was  victorious. In 1811 a rematch was fought and crib prepared much harder than previous, he lost 35lbs in weight and trained for a solid 3 months to get him into peak condition. 25,000 spectators turned up to this eagerly awaited  encounter and the crowd included  a host of celebrities.A 25ft ring was used and by the end of the second round it looked like the fight could be over soon as Cribbs right eye was closed completely and just like micky did to Rocky, John Gully lanced the enormous swelling which made it possible for crib to continue. The pattern of the fight changed dramatically and in the 9th round Cribb landed a shot which broke Molyneaux,s jaw, he fought on with great bravery but within 2 rounds Cribb knocked him out flat and he had to be carried out of the ring by his cornermen. Cribb was mobbed  on his return home and mixed with the likes of Lord Byron and the Prince Regent. Another landmark for this fight was that a trophy was awarded which was the first to be given in recognition of being the British champion. At a presentation dinner for this great reward at the Castle Tavern, Holborn on 2nd December, 1811 Mr Robert Emery of the Theatre Royal said this. “"You are requested to accept this cup as a tribute of respect for the uniform valour and integrity you have shown in your several combats, but most particularly for the additional proofs of native skills and manly intrepidity displayed by you in your last memorable battle, when the cause rested not merely on individual fame, but for the pugilistic reputation of your native country, in contending with a formidable foreign antagonist". He retired to Woolwich and lived to the age of 66, he was buried in the Mary Magdelane Church Woolwich and on the 1st May 1854 a monument of a lion was placed on his grave. See below  COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012 BELOW IS A COLOURED ENGRAVING OF CRIBB V MOLINEAUX SAMUEL ELIAS  AKA    " THE TERRIBLE JEW " Samuel Elias known as Dutch Sam was born in the Whitechapel area of London to Dutch parents on April 4th 1775. As he weighed only 130-135 lbs and 5 ft 6 he often had to fight men much bigger and taller than himself yet he was a feared fighter nevertheless. He was regarded as one of the best scientific boxers of his time and considering his friend, trainer and occasional corner-man was Daniel Mendoza it’s obvious where Samuel himself a Jew learned his great skills from. Mendoza was responsible for encouraging hoards of Jewish fighters into the game and into management in later years. Samuel’s first fight was in 1801 and he soon became known as “The man with the iron hand” this was partially due to the fact that he was the first fighter to use the UNDERCUT or more commonly known as the UPPERCUT. This punch knocked men out much bigger than himself and he confused and baffled fighters as they didn’t know how to block or evade it. In a career totalling over100 fights which was considerable during these early years of Puglism he only ever lost 2 bouts. His most famous accolade was a trilogy of fights he had with Jem Belcher in which Samuel won 2 with 1 draw. One of Samuels’s strange routines was his fondness for Gin; even during his fighting career he drank 3 glasses 3 times a day every day. He retired in 1810 but foolishly decided to fight again in 1814 going against his doctor’s advice. Bill Nosworthy was the much younger and heavier man in their bout but Samuels went into the fight a shell of his past and looking terribly thin and gaunt, not surprisingly his final fight would end as a loss. Within 2 years aged only 41 he passed away, how much Gin was responsible isn’t clear but it certainly didn’t help. BELOW IS A HAND COLOURED ETCHING DONE BY THE ARTIST ISSAC CRUIKSHANKS AND IS HOUSED IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM, ITS A SATIRICAL PAINTING DEPICTING DUTCH SAMS LAST FIGHT , WHICH RESULTED IN A LOSS TO THE BIGGER AND YOUNGER BILL NOSWORTHY. This is the description of the etching to explain the satirical aspect... A prize-fight. 'Dutch Sam', a Jew (left), staggers back under a blow in the face from a younger and better-looking man, Bill Nosworthy. Each has a backer and a bottle-holder. The background consists of a crowd of spectators, Jews being  prominent, especially among those seated on the ground in front. At the back of the crowd is a coach; on the roof a sailor stands astride; he waves hat and bludgeon, shouting "go it Duff that your sort [cf. No. 8073, &c.]." A man on  the box says: "I say Jack D—me how the Baker Knock's him about I'm afraid he'll  make a Dead man of him." A man next him adds: "Yes he is marking weight on his  Loaf." Two Jews say to each other: "O dish will be my ruin Dush Sham is a Bad  shilling," and: "Yesh, Yesh." Another says: "I hopes sham vill knock his pork  chops about." Two on the extreme right say: "Ah 'tis a shocking shites" and "D—d  Bad Bargens to day". An Englishman says: "There he goes right and left." Two men  on horseback shout at each other: "done 6 to one" and "done." A slanting shower  is indicated; a man standing on the coach has an open umbrella. Dec 1814   BAREKNUCKLED AND BARE CHESTED WOMEN  Bareknuckle Boxing between moustached men has been discussed at length in many books, pubs and websites, much is known about the past greats of the sport and many fights took place for honour and money and it’s seen as one of the manliest of sports. However the fairer sex have also competed in Bareknuckle Boxing but it’s an activity that many feel inappropriate for a woman to compete in Women’s Gloved Boxing is considered worthy of its inclusion into the Olympic Games and the 2012 London Olympics  proved that women have an equal right to be in the squared circle, infact the crowds that supported them in London was equal to that of men, if not more.Gloved Boxing for women has a huge future but what about the women who competed in Bareknuckle Boxing of the past and in the future will women feature in bouts. As an advocate of Bareknuckle boxing and considering i feel that it’s a safer sport as gloved Boxing if it’s organised correctly then why not. One of the first printed acknowledgements of women competing was in 1722 , the London Journal tells of about 2 women who put on a great battle of honour and were greatly applauded by the crowd. It then has an advertisement which reads; “I, Elizabeth Wilkinson, of Clerkenwell, having had some words with Hannah Hyfield, and requiring satisfaction, do invite her to meet me upon the stage, and box me for three guineas; each woman holding half-a-crown in her hand, and the first woman that drops the money to lose the battle “ A reply was quick to follow which goes; “"I, Hannah Hyfield, of Newgate Market, hearing on the resoluteness of Elizabeth Wilkinson, will not fail, God willing, to give her more blows than words – desiring home blows, and from her, no favor: she may expect a good thumping!’’ The fight took place away from any crowds in a location not known; the only clue about the result came about leading upto another bout when a Billingsgate fish woman  called Martha Jones challenged Wilkinson, Wilkinson said that she had previously beaten the Newgate Market basket woman, she was referring to Hannah Hyfield. Wilkinson was already declaring herself the city Championess and she recorded another win against her challenger when she fought at the Boarded House in Marybon Fields. In 1728 Wilkinson now married to the booth owner John stokes was calling herself Elizabeth Stokes and this is perhaps when people will remember her name. Anne field challenged Mrs Stokes and an announcement was posted in the Daily Post which read ; "I, Elisabeth Stokes, of the city of London, have not fought... since I fought the famous boxing woman of Billingsgate 9 minutes, and gained a complete victory, which is six years ago; but as the famous Stoke Newington ass woman dares me to fight her for 10 pounds, I do assure her I will not fail meeting her for the said sum. And doubt not that the blows which I shall present her with will be more difficult for her to digest than any she ever gave her asses.’’ Once again Elizabeth stokes was declared the winner. As fencing and the use of weaponry was the main event and attraction many of the early bareknuckle fights were classed as the undercard, perhaps more so in Figg’s Day. It also appears that tag fighting used to occur between couples of mixed sexes. Bouts continued to take place and one in particular in 1803 made it into “Famous fights “. Amy Russell and Julie Pyne were the fighters and it took place at the front the Crown Inn, the landlord like many at time had links with Pugilism and when the fighters stripped to the waist which was common at the time the battle continued till both were covered in blood, with little rules being enforced very often it was more brutal than men’s fighting and the women often ended up naked and covered in blood. Certainly womens Bareknuckle Boxing continued but they never achieved the fame and glory of their male counterparts. I believe that women should be able to take part in any Martial art/Combat sport and I don’t consider Bareknuckle Boxing any different although I doubt they will ever fight half-naked but then one can always hope. COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012 GLOVED BOXING ON TRIAL The argument that arises more often than not when discussing Bareknuckle Boxing is WHICH IS SAFER, GLOVED BOXING OR BAREKNUCKLES? AND DID IT MATTER?   Evidence by the BMA and indeed many neurologists throughout the world show that Gloved Boxers are much more prone to brain damage than their prizefighter counterparts. The reason is simple and straightforward and you don’t have to have medical knowledge to understand the reasoning behind their findings. It’s all linked with Boxers taking repetitive headshots and with padding on the fighters hands the head was one of the main targets unlike fighters competing in Bareknuckle Boxing. While gloved fights had taken place in the late 1800’s the last recognised World Championship Bareknuckle fight was in 1892 when Sullivan fought Kilrain. Sullivan then decided that his days as a prizefighter was over and he would defend his title with gloves on which he did unsuccessfully against James J.Corbett.  Even though the Queensbury Rules were formulated in 1867 it wasn’t until 1891 that the National Sporting Club was formed, it was based in Covent Gardens, London and was set up to add credibility to the Noble sport of self-defence and for the well off to watch bouts with timed rounds and none of the crowd trouble which was once associated with Prizefighting. Although the NSC was given permission to stage boxing matches as long as they were scientific exhibitions it was obvious that the fights staged were far from exhibitions and were fought for money and with trained well skilled Boxers. In 1897 an American fighter called Jimmy Barry came over to England to fight for the world title against the Brit Walter Croot, with less than a minute to go at the end of the planned 20 round fight Croot was caught with a huge punch that felled him and he hit his head on the wooden board of the ring floor and as a consequence died a few days after suffering a broken   skull. It attracted adverse publicity on both sides of the water and to improve the safety padding was installed on the ring floor. However only four years in 1901 the club and the sport of Boxing itself was put on trial when another fighter died after an international fight, Billy Smith from Philadelphia fought Jack Roberts from London for a purse of£100. Nothing out of the ordinary had happened up until the end of the 7thround when both men tripped and Smith hit his head on the middle rope and then on the floor, he came out for the next round but it became obvious that all his energy was gone and something wasn’t right when he sank to his knees and was counted out. Smith was taken unconscious to Charing Cross hospital but sadly died 2 days later. An inquest into his death identified compression to the brain as the cause of death, be it by a fall or a punches taken and the NSC was praised in its duty of care by it having padded flooring instead of the old boards, the verdict reached was Accidental Death. The police however pursued charges of Manslaughter against the referee and timekeeper as well as the seconds including the legendary commentator Reg Gutteridge’s Grandfather ArthurGutteridge. The trial took place at Bow Street court and the prosecution statedthat the NSC was given permission to stage exhibitions only and the fight in which Smith died was far from it, he told the court that boxing was a Barbaric sport and the 10 second rule encouraged fighters to inflict as much damage to each other as possible. The defence stated that more deaths arise from football than boxing and nothing happened in the fight which was not within the rules.The jury couldn’t decide so a retrial was ordered. The Barrister defending the members of the NSC told the court that he was a fan of boxing and the sport encourages great heart and pride in Englishmen and after the Judge said that smith didn’t die as a result of a punch and he’d much rather people used their fists than knives and it took the jury only 2 minutes to find the defendants not guilty. The outcome obviously paved the way for boxing as a legitimate sport….even though the issue of safety is questioned constantly. BUT IT COULD HAVE ENDED SO DIFFERENT FOR GLOVED BOXING COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012 A SPRING IN HIS STEP Tom Spring was an apt name for a fighter who didn’t have the biggest punch or the best punch resistance, yet he had great skill and footwork, he was born Tom Winter on the 22nd February 1795 in the village of Fownhope, Herefordshire, England, As with any fighter who relies on great footwork and timing to help him cope with the big hitters of the day especially as he was fighting at Heavyweight he fought like a counterpuncher, he developed what he called the “Harlequin Step”  the Ali Shuffle of its day, he would get in close, avoiding the punches coming at him and then releasing his own barrage of fast punches. This technique saved him from much punishment throughout his career. Another name he was given by some was “The light tapper”. In his prime he weighed around 186lb and was just short of 6ft so in today’s weight divisions he would have been lucky to make it to cruiserweight. At the age of 17 while serving as a Butcher in Hereford he had his first fight against john Hollands a much taller man and even though Spring was inexperienced he won the fight in 45 minutes over 15 rounds. As with many Bareknuckle fighters past and present he often suffered hand problems and perhaps this is the reason for his lack of power, but in hindsight he became a much more scientific boxer because of it. Spring was in the right place at the right time when he met up with the fighter Tom Cribb who was the reigning English Champion, he was impressed with the way spring fought and persuaded him to go to London and it was the start of much to come. After 2 more bouts in which he beat Jack Henley and Jack Stringer in the 11thand 29th round respectively the time had come for him to face much stiffer challenges. In 1818 he was face the much more experience Ned Painter from Lancashire, weighing in at around 185 lbs an 5ft 9 he was more of a stand up fighter, an old fashioned style relying on more brawn than brain but as strong as an ox with a  great athletic physique. The way championships were fought for during these early times were quite disorganised and after spring beat painter he claimed the English championship and when he lost the return bout he again challenged painter and when he refused Spring once again claimed the title. From 1819 -1821 Spring was successful in his next 5 bouts against Jack carter in round 71, Ben Burn in round 11,Bob Burn in round 18,Joshua Hudson in round 5 and Tom Oliver in round 25. When the great Tom Cribb retired in 1822 like many champions before him he nominated a fighter to take over his mantle and Spring was the fighter who was now recognised as the British Champion. During this time Spring had toured the country giving exhibtions and even fought his mentor Cribb himself. It was a year later in 1823 that Spring fought again, his opponent was Bill Neat a butcher by trade and known as “The Bristol Bull”. Spring was to lose this fight after suffering a broken arm in round 6 but he bravely fought on until the 8th, the fight in total lasted 37 minutes. In 1824 his legacy as a great fighter would be written after his 2 epic battles with Jack Langan. Langan was known as“The Irish Champion” and although he was only 5ft 9 and weighed around 165lbs he was a rugged as they come, he was a deep sea diver and travelled to various countries to fight. In their first meeting more than 30,000 spectators turned up to see the fight in Worcester and it goes down in history as the first fight that had a special grandstand erected on the racecourse to cope with the vast crowds who wanted to   see it, people are reported to have climbed the masts of sailing ships in the nearby River Severn to watch. The ring was raised off the floor allowing the great crowd to see the fight and although Spring won the fight in 77 rounds lasting an amazing 2.5 hrs a great tragedy occurred when the erected grandstands collapsed.Whether it was a result of the waterlogged conditions on the racecourse or not,many spectators were seriously injured and although this occurred during the   actual fight the bout continued. A little less than 6 months later they would fight again, this time in Warwick and once more Spring was the winner, the fight went 76 rounds lasting just short of 1 hr 50 minutes. This was to be Springs last fight as he retired shortly after.Even though he never fought again in the ring he did keep involved in the sport and when he bought the Castle Inn, Holborn. Perhaps due   to the tragedy that occurred in which many were injured he set up a “Fair playclub” on 25 September 1828 at his pub, it was set up to ensure fair play and peace and order in and out of the ring. He also arranged fights and made sure he was   present when contracts were signed. In 1846 he was presented with a silver tankard in a testimonial for what he had done inside and outside the ring for the sport. He became very wealthy as a result of his fighting and being a publican but sadly passed away on the 20thaugust 1851 aged only 56. He was buried at the West Norwood Cemetery under his real name of Thomas Winter. COPYRIGHT M.BLACKETT 2012 He was all but forgotten soon after his death, until, in 1951, a Herefordshire police sergeant, A V Lucas formed the Tom Spring Memorial Committee to fund a memorial in West Norwood, London where Spring was buried. The committee also established a rustic memorial made from a cider press near Spring’s birthplace in Woolhope mill and a suitably inscribed bronze plaque ( SEE BELOW) TOM KING Known as “The Fighting Sailor” because of his time spent in the Royal Navy Tom King was an accomplished Bareknuckle Boxer and Gloved Boxer.  The East-End fighter was born on August 14th 1835 in Stepney, London. Poverty was rife at the time especially in the east end,Cholera was the main cause of death and institutions like Dr Barbados and The salvation army setting up help for the locals signified the hard times faced by the residents then and throughout the 19th Century. His birth also   coincided with an Act of Parliament which helped the needy escape poverty by   allowing them funding to Emigrate. In 1835 only 320 took up the offer  and yet the year after over 5241 left for pastures new, a large amount went to Canada. Perhaps for this reason Tom decided to join the Royal Navy and it was here that he learnt his trade as a fighter. It appears that he didn’t stay in the Navy very long and when he came out he started working in the docks as a foreman. Standing at 6ft 2 and weighing around 12.5 stone (175lbs) he was not only a skilled fighter but fast and nimble footed as well. As a foreman he would have had to be very firm and he gained respect off his fellow workers and proved his authority when he fought with several workers. It was around this time that Tom’s skills were noticed by Jem Ward the former English Heavyweight champion who took him under his wing and began training him in the skills of a fighter. I’ve seen on many sites that Tom fought a fighter called “Brighton Bill” but the only fighter with this name died many years earlier in 1838 his proper names was William Phelps and he died fighting Owen swift and because of his death the “ London Prize Ring rules “ were introduced. It could be another fighter with the same name but regardless Tom made his pro debut in 1859 against a fellow worker called Bill Clamp he impressed his trainer and those watching by winning by KO in the first round. His next 2 fights saw him win in the 49th round in just over an hour against Tom Truckle and a draw when police intervened against a fighter called Young Broome (I presumed it was Harry Broome the younger brother of Johnny Broome but I can’t find any evidence that it actually was). When the fight was called a draw they moved location and had a fight the same day, this time King   won in 22 minutes. Considering Tom King had very few fights his next opponent was against the great fighter Jem Mace the Blacksmiths son from Norfolk and this was for the Championship of England. They met twice in 1862. Their first bout took place on the 28thof January, Considering a title fight was at stake and King was the big underdog Mace was outboxed for a large proportion of the fight but during the days of Bareknuckle Boxing the fights can last as long as it takes and Mace got a second wind.  Experience then showed and although Mace was fighting practically blind due to the damage to his face he’d received he caught King with a punch in the throat which ended the fight in the 43rd round lasting 1hr 8 minutes. A rematch was made following King’s loss and on the 26th November the same year the pair once again met to decide the   championship Of England. This time Mace was the one who took control of the fight early on, he must have become complacent and King caught him off guardand knocked the champion on the floor, Mace bravely fought on for another 2   rounds but the fight ended in the 21st round when Maces corner tossed in the sponge and King was crowned the new Champion. Mace tried to get another shot to regain his title but King refused and accepted a challenge from John C. Heenan “ The Benicia Boy”in 1863 East Sussex .Heenan the American fighter who had only 3 recognised Bareknuckle bouts in his career was awarded what many thought to be unjustified a draw against Tom Sayers after the crowd entered the ring. With this dubious draw he was thought of as a favourite to beat King and although Heenan started off well his stamina faded and he was well beaten by the end of the 24th round. Like many Bareknuckle bouts of the time many were filled with controversy   and this proved to be no different, a long count after king was knocked down in the 18th was supposed to have took place but the Ref let the fightcontinue and King won in 35 minutes. Mace was obviously desperate to have the chance to meet up again in the ring and he even went to the length of trying coax him King to fight again by confronting him in the street like a few modern Boxers have done in later years, king remained unfazed and refused another rematch. He decided to retire and the title became vacant.  What makes King different to most who had fought before is that he didn’t turn to drink or succumb to a unhealthy lifestyle upon his retirement. He became a successful business man as a bookmaker and married into a very wealthy shipping magnets family. He died aged 53 in 1888 and was buried in cemetery in west Norwood. London. (See below) ALEXANDER MCKAY Bareknuckle Boxing has had its share of tragedies in and out of the ring and one such fighter who lost his life at the age of only 26 was the Scottish Campion Alexander McKay. Even though very little is known about McKay it is known he was born in 1804, no records are kept as to how he got into fighting but it is known that he had 5 fights in total. At the age of 23 his first recorded fight was against the Irishman Simon Byrne for £100 on the 3rdmay 1827. Byrne was also a novice fighter with a record of 1 win and a loss prior to his first fight with McKay but the Irishman won in 5 rounds. Although he lost his first fight McKay proved his worth by winning his next 3 fights against Peter Curran and Paul Spenser twice.It was his rematch with Byrne on the 2ndJune 1830 that made the headlines and by this time McKay was the Scottish champion and Byrne the Irish Champion. It was a huge fight for both men as the winner was guaranteed a fight with the English Heavyweight Champion Jem ward as well as £200 being offered to the winner which is a vast sum of money for the time. Bareknuckle Boxing was quite disorganised at this time but it did have many patrons who supported and backed the cause and one fighter in particular Tom Spring set up the “Fair play Club” this was as a direct result as many spectators were injured at one of his fights with Nat Langan when the first ever Grandstand was built to house some of the 30,000 who turned up to watch his fight collapsed  in 1824. Spring set up this club to try and also stop the corruption which took place in many fights and most contracts for bouts at this time were signed at his Tavern in Holborn, so contracts were signed and a venue set. Many fights used to take place near county borders which made it more difficult for the magistrates and police to stop the fights taking place and this bout was no different, originally it was to be fought in Buckinghamshire near Hanslope but this changed to Salcey Green in Northamptonshire. Both men were quite inexperienced but nevertheless it attracted a lot of attention and perhaps it could have been down to Byrne’s Management team who included the great Tom Cribb and Gentleman Jackson who also acted as sponsors for the fight. When Byrne and McKay finally met on the 2ndof June 1830 and began fighting it was obvious from the start that Byrne was the much better technical fighter and McKay was the brawler and relied on tiring out his opponent which worked against many fighters but Byrne was more clever than that and used his skill to outwit the big bombs coming at him. In the 47th round Byrne caught McKay with a punch to the throat that made him collapse to the floor unconscious, his cornermen carried him to the corner, he regained consciousness but complained of bad headaches. Within 30 hours of the fight he died in a local pub and after tests were performed it was noticed his brain had bled causing death. The news of McKay’s death caused massive rioting in Scotland and many people died, most of the rioting was directed against the Catholics due to Byrnes Irish roots and churches were even burned down. The rioting may have influenced the decision to arrest Byrne which they did as he tried to flee England and was put on trial for manslaughter and locked up in a jail in Buckinghamshire. It was inevitable that with the support than Byrne had in his career including members of the royal family and wealthy backers that he would receive the best defence. The town had attracted huge media interest and as well as the backing off Barristers and solicitors the defence found witnesses who stated that McKay fell the night before the fight and this may have caused the injury. It’s not surprising that a verdict of “Not Guilty” was the outcome and Byrne was acquitted considering his support he had and the influential connections. If Byrne had of been found guilty then it would have had huge repercussions including members of the royal family. McKay is buried in Hanslope Churchyard with these poignant words engraved.   and athletic was my frame Far from my native home I came And bravely Alas, but never to return. Stranger take warning Lest you should rue your case too late If you have ever Determine now to tight no more" Sadly Byrne himself died in a fight against James Burke but that’s another story      BAREKNUCKLE BOXING AT THE PIT Although this picturE (left) is depicting rat catching " The Pit" as it was referred to was often used for bareknuckle fighting. The owner of this rather dubious establishment was the co founder of the Dead Rabbits gang in new york known as Kit Burns although his real name was Christopher Keyburn (February 23, 1831 – December 19, 1870). Situated  at  no 273 Water Street, near the approach to the Brooklyn Bridge it was named the Sportsmans hall. The lower room in the building i...s shown in the picture and was made as an amphitheatre where spectators would sit on wooden benches and witness and wager on many Bareknuckle bouts although this type of fighting often resulted in horific injuries as no rules were adhered too.   To allow fights to continue as long as possible " Blood Sucking" used to take place, this was to haunch the flow of blood and the bouncer of the club named "Snatchem" George Leese had this job to perform where he would enter the pit and suck on the fighters wounds to enable them to continue fighting. Its ironic that " The pit" was hired out for evangelical meetings.One such meeting held at Sportsman's Hall in September 1868 was described by the New York World,  "The Water Street prayer meetings are still continued. Yesterday at noon a large crowd assembled in Kit Burns' liquor shop, very few of whom were roughs. The majority seemed to be business men and clerks, who stopped in to see what was going on, in a casual manner. In a few minutes after twelve the pit was filled up very comfortably, and Mr. Van Meter made his appearance and took up a position where he could address the crowd from the center of the pit, inside the barriers. The roughs and dry clerks piled themselves up as high as the roof, tier by tier, and a sickening odor came from the dogs and debris of rats' bones under the seats Kit stood outside, cursing and damning the eyes of the missionaries for not hurrying up.Kit said, "I'm damned if some of the people that come here oughtn't to be clubbed. A fellow 'ud think they had never seen a dogpit before. I must be damned good looking to have so many fine fellows looking at me".   The sportsman arms was closed down in 1870 after Kit burns was charged with animal cruelty by the founder of the ASPCA Henry Burgh. Burns and everyone involved were arrested and took to court where they were aquitted. After the trial Burns caught a cold and led to Pneumonia and he died on december the 19th 1870 and is buried in Calvary cemetery. Not much of the original building still stands to this day although apartments have been built in its place and is the 3rd oldest building in Manhattan. COPYRIGHT 2013 M.BLACKETT THE LIDBURY BOXING FAMILY Sometimes when you google searching for info interesting stories come up and names crop up who have done bareknuckle boxing and it leads onto other articles here is something i just found and it mentions a bareknuckle boxing family called the  Lidburys....some great pics as well Below is a great link for information on the Lidbury family, if anyone has other photos or info than whats here can you inbox the page and we can pass them on to the family..If it helps to jog any memories George Lidbury also boxed under a  promoter named Jack Soloman.. http://www.thesoulsafari.com/real-life/e16-the-lidbury-family#more MIKE DONOVAN I doubt few if any fighters have the distinction of having a former president write a foreward in a book written about them. There is however one such fighter who competed in Bareknuckle Boxing and gloved boxing and was fortunate enough in his career to have stepped into the ring with perhapos the 2 biggest icons of the sport in John L Sullivan and Jack "nonpariel" Dempsey. Mike Donavan earned the monicle Professor due to his scientific approach to the sport and apart from being a great fighter he was also a leading trainer of the time. Below is the text written by none other than Theodore Rooseevelt about Donavan.     "Some as good citizens as I know are or were prize-fighters. Take Mike Donovan of New York. He and his family represent a type of American  citizenship of which we have a right to be proud. Mike is a devoted temperance man and can be rehed upon for every movement in the interest of good citizenship. I was first intimately thrown with him when I was Police Commissioner. One evening he and I — both in dress suits — attended a temperance meeting of Catholic Societies. It culminated in a lively set-to between myself and a Tammany Sena- tor who was a very good fellow, but whose ideas of temperance differed radically from mine and as the event proved, from those of the majority of the meeting. Mike evidently regarded himself as my backer — ^he was sitting on the platform beside me  and I think felt as pleased and interested as if the set-to had been physical instead of merely verbal. "Afterwards I grew to know him well both while I was Governor and while I was President and many a time he came on and boxed with me." Below is a link for the full text "  Mike Donavan; the making of a man"   AN ELECTRIC ATMOSPHERE Modern day boxing halls are often described as having an electric atmosphere and yet this expression was well suited to a 19th century saloon in the US owned by English born Boxing promoter, referee and all-round entrepreneur Harry Hill. Harry was born in 1827 and left his native Liverpool, England aged 25 and immigrated to the US after meeting a wealthy Sugar magnate called George M. Woolsey at the Epsom Racecourse where Hill had frequented  and worked since boyhood. Gambling had always been a fascination to Harry but his biggest gamble came when he accepted his sugar daddy’s offer to look after his stables in New York. Taking risks was something which Harry seemed to take in his stride and within 2 years of moving to the states he left the stables in Astoria and moved to New York City to buy and sell horses. Lady luck shone upon him and by 1854 he had saved up enough money to buy a general dealer store which he then was granted permission to be able to sell alcohol, this opened an opportunity for him to further expand by opening a salon and concert stage. It was an old two storey wooden building where guests would pay a charge to enter, even though women could technically gain entry no woman with any worth ever did except the staff and women of ill repute. It catered for a variety of entertainment including singing, dancing, billiards and Prize fighting. A selling point was that the nightly entertainment could continue in electric light due to its installation by no other than Thomas Edison and he used this fact to gather publicity to the fights which were held there. Many notable fighters fought at Harry’s saloon including John Sullivan in his fight under the Queensbury gloves 2 round win over Steve Taylor and a list of some of the greats of the days of pugilism including Jem Mace, Mike Donavan, Herb Slade, Jack “Nonpareil Dempsey and also a host of wrestling bouts. Women’s boxing was also commonplace and helped Harry sell even more overpriced drink and none other than Nell Saunders and  Rose  Harland fougt. Other notable regular visitors to the saloon and friends of Harry’s was the great wrestler and friend and trainer to the “Boston Strongboy” William Muldoon and the National Police Gazette founder Richard K. Fox who reported on many of the fights which took place. The Gazette was about the biggest sports paper and after falling out with John L Sullivan one night at the saloon Fox went looking for a fighting capable of defeating him and of course this resulted in Sullivan’s bout with Jake Kilrain. Harry earned a vast fortune in the saloon and dance hall in the 32 years he owned it and was one of the main figures in regulating boxing bouts in the USA and evaded the authorities by announcing most of the fights as exhibitions and even though his emporium gained a lot of negative press due to the heavy drinking and prostitution he was eventually elected into the Bareknuckle Hall of Fame in 2010.   An image of Harry Hills saloon and dance hall which was situated on Houston Street, near Broadway. A ROYAL PATRON OF BAREKNUCKLE BOXING Through his love of Gambling rather than having any real interest in Bareknuckle boxing Prince William Augustus, son of King George 2nd helped the great Jack Broughton open an academy to teach the art of pugilism.  Born in 1721 to George the 2nd he attained the title of the Duke of Cumberland and many other titles when he reached his 5th birthday. Williams mother died when he was just 16 and it was always her wish for favourite son to join the navy and become “Admiral of the fleet” however it didn’t appeal to the young prince and he soon left and set his sights on joining the Military and by the age of 21 attained the title of Major General.  Jack Broughton had already become Bareknuckle Boxing Champion of England and in 1740 he defeated George Stevenson in that fateful fight in which Stevenson died shortly after, he also defeated Prince William in a fight with the short sword and noting the skills Broughton processed the Prince helped finance Broughton’s Academy and he even made Broughton a Royal Bodyguard.  Having already served in Syria the Prince stood side by side with his father the then King in the Battle of Dettigen against the French in 1743 and although he was wounded he returned home a hero and with it a promotion to Lieutenant General. As aroyal Bodyguard and a Yeomen of the Guards Broughton also travelled with the King and Prince and that very year Broughton’s Academy opened and the rules which were formulated were put into practice at the academy as well. With the prince’s influential friends Broughton ended up with many rich and powerful students to teach them the manly art. After pursuing a career in the military and quite an distinguished one at that the Prince would become known as “The butcher of Culloden” for his ruthless tactics in his quest for victory against the Scott’s in 1746. He led his men to the Scottish highlands killing all men, women and children he came across and showed no mercy at all. In 1750 the Prince appealed for Broughton to come out of retirement and fight Jack Slack a butcher, the Prince thought that it was a way to earn money on side-bets and Broughton reluctantly agreed. As a firm favourite the Prince was believed to have wagered over £10,000 on a Broughton victory and no one believed Slack would have any chance at all. Broughton took control of the fight until he was hit with a punch straight to the nose which made his eyes swell and left him practically blinded. A writer at the time Pierce Egan reports that the Prince shouted, “‘What are you about, Broughton? You can’t fight. You're beat”. Broughton bravely replied: ‘I can’t see my man, your Highness. I am blind, but not beat. Only let me be placed before my antagonist and he shall not gain the day yet’. Broughton had to retire from the fight and the prince lost his bet, Broughton’s academy was closed down, and although it is quoted in many articles that it was soon afterwards it’s believed it remained open for a few years afterwards before Broughton turned it into a successful furniture store. Regardless of his fall out with the Prince, Broughton still received his pension for being a Yeoman and was even buried in the West Cloister in Westminster Abbey next to his wife Elizabeth on his death in 1789 aged 86. It took till 1988 though that the words “Champion of England” was inscribed on his gravestone. His old friend the Prince eventually left the military with his career in tatters and left most of his public offices and retired from public life and became a huge card player and gambler although he did help set up the Jockey Club and a famous horse called “Eclipse” was born at his Stud farm.When his father died in 1760 his Nephew became George the 3rd and the once fit and healthy prince became massively overweight due to his less than careful lifestyle and died on the 31st of October 1765 aged 44 of a suspected heart attack and was also buried at Westminster Abbey.    The Hatchett Inn situated in Bristol, England dates back to 1606, and during the 1800's it was at the centre of pugilism. The area produced many notable Bareknuckefighters of the past including Jem Becher,Tom Cribb,John Gully, Henry Pearce ...and Benjamin Brain and all these great fightersfought at the Hatchett at one timeor another as well as other pubs in Bristol.To honor their achievements a plaque was unveiled and named "The Bristol Boys" this was performed by the former boxer Glenn Catley and in attendance at the opening ceremony were many relatives of the geat fghters of the Regncy period...... The youtube clip below is of the unveiling ceremony itself . http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u1uWWy6xXsg SULLIVAN V MITCHELL When Sullivan fought Charlie Mitchell he not only had to fight in drenched conditions and freezing temperatures but against a man he called " that bombastic sprinter". The fight was held at the Baron de Rothschild's estate at Chantilly and the fight was a fiasco. Mitchell ran the full fight avoiding anything that sullivan accepted to land and even the lightest tap he recieved he went down. In Mitch...ell's corner was his father in law ' Pony' Moore who had bet every penny he owned on Charlie.   At the first fall, he cried out : " there goes my boy!"  At the second fall, he screamed: " there goes my house!" And when Mitchell went down the third time he howled," There goes my estate and everything!"   The ref called it a draw when both men were exhausted and purple with cold, even though both were standing for the 39th round the fight was over. Sullivan felt frustrated that he couldnt land a telling punch on Mitchell and to make matters worse he had to endure passing the night in the next cell to Mitchell when they were both arrested by Police WHO had been waiting behind bushes on the estate they had fought on. CAPTAIN BARCLAY Just as John l . Sullivan had the help from Muldoon to shed his excess weight in his build up to kirain fight, Tom Cribb was also helped in his return bout with Molineaux in which he lost over 30 lbs.The man responsible was Captain Barclay. He allowed Cribb to train on his esate supervised by himself in Stonehaven which he had inherited at the age of 18 when his father died. Barclay had amazing stanima and held many records of walking endurance including walking 1000 miles at the rate of 1 mile per hour for 1000 consecutive hours to win a wager of 1000 guineas. He served in the Welsh fusiliers before getting involved as a Fancy of the sport headed at the time by the Prince of Wales. The traning routine he put Cribb through certainly paid off as when he met Molineaux for the second time he won convincenly in 11 rounds and Barclay  in return made over £10,000 in side bets which is worth well over half a million pounds in todays money. CHARLIE MITCHELL This Bareknuckle fighter died 95 years ago today in 1918, he hailed from Birmingham, England and as well as being a formiddable middleweight fighter in which he is regarded as one of the best he also moved up in weight and fought at heavyweight. Weighing in between 130-175lbs and being only 5ft 9 he didnt let his smaller frame from taking on anybody.   He is noted for offering his opponents out in street fights prior to any arranged bout and he loved to see his name in the tabloids and this was one of the main reasons why he was able to get big scale fights as he was a loud mouth challenger to many.  He went on to fight the biggest baddass of them all John L.Sullivan twice, in his first encounter he knocked John L down in the very first round before police stopped the fight and the pair met up again in france 5 years later in 1888 years and the  fight was declared a draw after over 2 hrs and 39 rounds of a hard and bloodfilled bout in the pouring rain and it was even suggested as being as being for the world title. Prior to their second encounter he also fought Jim Corbett but was knocked out in the 3rd round in an alleged world championship fight.His fighting career spanned over 20 years which included many exhibition matches  like most of the fighters of the time and he even fought in a few wrestling bouts. He competed against some of the big names in the sport including, jake kilrain, jem mace,frank slavin and  jack burke among others.. THE MAN WHO LIVED AND DIED FOR BOXING Just as Gypsy Jem Mace, the former Bareknuckle boxer and one of the men who supported the wearing of gloves in later life had denied any Gypsy heritage to further his career as a fighter, so to avoid any discrimination, another boxer also denied his true roots for similar reasons. Andy Bowen the lightweight boxer was born on May the 3rd 1867 in New Orleans, and although he was considered white by the authorities, his true bloodline is believed to have been that of Irish and Spanish. New Orleans had only come under American rule since Napoleon sold the Louisiana territories, which included New Orleans in 1803 to the Americans, and even though new Orleans was very multi-cultural, it would have been very difficult for anyone who wanted a career as a boxer to be anything other than white and Bowen was accepted by the well to do and New Orleans Athletic club because of this. Bowen had worked as a blacksmith and various fruit picking jobs and was a decent all round sportsman, including baseball. He started boxing officially aged 20 and he remained unbeaten going into his 13th bout in 1890, although he lost by knockout to Jim Carol, in the 21st round he continued his career. By 1893 he had only lost one more fight, but this year would put Bowen on the map and in the record books in his fight he had with Jack Burke. On the 6th of April 1893 Bowen and Burke met at the Olympic Club, New Orleans, and even though gloves were worn, each round lasted 3 minutes and was fought under the early Queensbury Rules, there was no set number of rounds and the fight would continue as long as it took for a winner to be declared, it was a fight of endurance, where the strong would prevail and the weak would fold. It’s reported that up-to 9000 people had come to watch the fight, most of them supporting Bowen, their home town fighter and although the crowd yelled and called out for their man, it soon became quieter the longer the fight went on. It was common for fights of endurance, as this such fight was, to go on for a long time but no one had expected just how long they would be fighting for. As the fight went past the 30th round some people left, some fell asleep and to sum it up, one  local paper, the New Orleans Daily Picayune announced, "ARE STILL FIGHTING." Even though the fight was lengthy it wasn’t a fight frenzy, it was not filled with lots of blood and gore, and as such when many of the crowd shouted for a draw, the local police, who did indeed call a halt to many endurance fights, if they thought it was too brutal, decided to let it go   ahead. Eventually after 110 rounds, lasting 7 hours and 19 minutes, both fighters refused to continue and although technically it was a no-contest, the referee, Professor John Duffy, and those organising the bout, decided the purse should be split between the pair of them, 50-50. Burke had broken both his hands landing punches on Bowens head. It goes down as the longest boxing bout in history, with gloves. It even eclipsed the bareknuckle bout of 6hrs 15 minutes, between James Kelly and Jack Smith, in 1856, Australia. This however was not the last headline that Andy Bowen would make, and in December 1894 in his bout with Kid Lavigne, from Saginaw, Michigan, he made the front page news for all the wrong reasons. The venue for this bout was the Auditorium Club, Louisiana, and again it was fought with gloves.The contest was fairly one sided in the favour of Lavigne and the supporters of Bowen felt something wasn’t quite right with his stamina when he was swinging his arms around as if to ease the tiredness, in the 18th round, Lavigne landed a huge punch which caught Bowen and he fell, hitting the floor hard, his head hitting the wooden boarded ring. Bowen was knocked unconscious and never recovered, in the dressing room he  was apparently  waving his hands about as if to block punches. Lavigne and his seconds and timekeeper, consisting of Pugilist Jim Hall, Sam Fitzpatrick, Martin Murphy, and George Consadine, and also Referee John Duffy, were at once placed under arrest, with lavigne, charged with Murder, then bailed, and eventually, they were absolved of any wrong doing. LIVING THE DREAM....JOHN MORRISSEY At a time when America offered dreams and aspirations to the poor and impoverished, many left the shores of Ireland and sailed to the promised land of opportunity. One notable Bareknuckle fighter who happened to find and live this dream, not without controversy though, was John Morrissey. Originally from the small town Templemore, County Tipperary, Ireland, John was born in 1831 and with his parents desperate to escape the poverty and famine which was widespread throughout Ireland they emigrated to the U.S and settled in Troy, New York, when John was just 3 years old. Life in Troy was not much different than the conditions in Ireland and before John reached the age of 13 he already had to go out and find work, regardless what it was, to bring money into the household and helped to feed his 7 sisters. Trouble seemed to follow the youngster and the Irish blood in him got him into trouble with the local police through fighting and petty crime and after numerous labouring jobs the once small youngster developed into a powerful 6ft Teenager .His taste and reputation for violence spread and it wasn’t long before he was working as a collection agent for various crime lords in troy and thieving from cargo ships in the docklands area in which he became a renowned local brawler, what he lacked in finesse and grace in the fighting art he excelled in grit and determination. It seemed that his parents dream of a better life had turned sour when John was convicted of burglary and assault with intent to kill, and was fortunate to only be sentenced to 2 months in Albany prison, and upon his release he moved to the centre of the action, at the time, New York City.  He decided upon New York City to visit a fighter called Charlie Duane who had rejected an offer to fight John, when he lived in Troy, as a barman. As soon as John got to New York he barged into the club where he thought Duane was and announced that he would “fight anyone in the house” similar to the great John L. Sullivan’s famous saying. John was attacked by many of the locals and beaten up, one of his attackers is believed to have been William Poole, better known as “Bill the Butcher”, the owner of the club Isaiah Rynder, who was a gang leader and politician admired John’s tenacity and bravado and was reputed to have nursed his wounds and cared for him until he made a full recovery. The club was a resting place and meeting point for many of the city’s best brawlers and criminal underworld including the Bareknuckle champion of America Tom Hyer and it’s ironic that the building was directly opposite city hall. It was not long after while in New York that John earned his nickname which he would be known as, throughout his fighting career. “OLD SMOKE”. He had already become a renowned street-fighter and a man to be feared and when he fought a local gang member by the name of Tom McCann his reputation as the most feared man in New York was cemented. McCann was convinced that John had taken a liking to his Mistress Kate Ridgely, who he visited on several occasions, and so the 2 men fought for the affections of  her. In the ensuing fight with McCann, John was knocked to the ground and fell against a lit stove, his back and clothing was burnt as he lay in the hot embers but rose like a Phoenix from the ashes and with smoke coming from his back he gave McCann a proper beating. Word spread quickly throughout the underworld and John’s name of “Old Smoke” stuck with him until his death. Around this time many Americans got “Gold fever” and being a man of chance, John sailed for California with the intention of prospecting and striking it rich, but instead of backbreaking work looking for gold he set up various gambling dens and took the gold from the other prospectors in a game of cards called Faro, originally a French game of chance and the most popular card game in the 19th century. The Gold rush was responsible for the growth of many settlements as 1000,s flocked as they were bitten by the “Fever”, San Francisco for example had a population of 200 in 1846 and just six years Later it had grew to over 30,000 and by 1870 150,00. While In California John had his first official Prize-fight against an the newly crowned Californian champion George Thompson, the fight went ahead on August 31st 1852 and although many reports suggest that John won by KO its alleged that Thompson was giving John a Boxing lesson, so John’s supporters threatened Thompson’s corner-men and he deliberately fouled John to purposely loose the fight, a small price to pay for his own life and that of his friends. John moved back to New York with plenty of  coin in his pocket and he wanted to fight the best around, and that man was the former American Champion Yankee Sullivan. At first Sullivan snubbed John’s call out for a fight but he eventually decided to teach the kid a lesson, so it was arranged for October the 12th 1853. The experienced Sullivan who had only lost to Tom Hyer, a friend of William Poole’s was the underdog against John who had no boxing ring craft but had lots of heart and courage and age on his side, Sullivan was nearly 40 at this time. The venue was in Boston Corners, which was on the edge of 3 states making it difficult for lawmen to put a halt to the fight, it also meant that many of John’s supporters from Troy would be present. The fight itself would have been a disappointment for anyone going who wanted to see a classic fight, Sullivan was in complete control and when it looked like John was going to be stopped in the 37th round Sullivan momentarily dropped his guard, John rushed him, pinned him against the ropes and proceeded to choke him, one of Sullivan’s supporters entered the ring and knocked John down, although this rule of choking wasn’t deemed an illegal move then, someone interfering in the fight was. While John was still on the ground, Sullivan hit him, which was another foul move. All chaos then ensued and the ref struggled to gain control after the ring was invaded with men fighting. The ref awarded to win to John when Sullivan, who was too caught up in other disputes, failed to come to scratch in the allotted time. John was now the Champion of America and he used this prestigious title to further his business endeavours, in and out of the ring. As an Irish immigrant and now a national celebrity he became interested in the local politics in New York, with his notoriety as a man not to be intimidated he was employed to protect the ballot boxes during the local Tammany elections. This is where he ran into his rival and opponent to the Irish, William Poole, also known as Bill the Butcher. John had employed the roughest men he could find to let the votes be cast as fair as possible and the show of force stopped interference by Poole. A fight between Poole and John was only as matter of time and although John was beaten up it is uncertain as whether it was at the hands of Poole in a fair fight or John was jumped on by Poole’s henchmen. The New York Times printed a story to say that John had indeed lost to Poole on July 28th 1854 but regardless of this result   for his success in protecting the ballot boxes, John was given permission to open gambling houses in New York. William Poole was shot by one of John’s gang members, Lew Baker in the heart the year after and survived for nearly 2 weeks before succumbing to the bullet, with Tom Hyer and a room full of Native Americans sitting at his bedside Poole said with his dying breath “Good bye boys: I die a true American!” The funeral procession was huge with thousands in attendance and John had even arranged for people to throw rocks from the rooftops at the mourners. All of those believed to been involved in Poole’s murder were took to court, including John, but all were eventually acquitted after 3 trials. After a brief retirement from the ring John fought John C  Heenan , who was also from Troy and coincidently his family had also emigrated from the same town as John, in Ireland, both their fathers are believed to have been friends. The fight took place on the 20th of October 1858 in Ontario, Canada, in-front of around 2000 spectators. Although Heenan had a reputation as a strong and fearsome fighter this was his first recognised fight and entered the ring with a reputed injury. Writers described John as “a magnificent animal” and “one of the most splendid specimens of human development we have witnessed.” And the training which John put in against the 200 lb, 6ft 3 Heenan, paid dividends. It was a bitterly fought contest in which Heenan started off well, hitting John with sickening  shots, Johns conditioning and natural stamina paid off and one writer stated “Heenan would have knocked out any man in the United States — except Morrissey.” but as the rounds went on he grew tired and weak. The following is taken from the New York Herald and gives an account  of the 11th and final round. “Heenan came up staggering, and looked pitiful, the fight being entirely out of him from Morrissey's severe hitting in the latter part of the fight. He was hardly able to stand up, and when Morrissey went up to him his guard went down, and Morrissey hit him a very severe blow on the jugular, which knocked him out of time, and he fell on his face, Morrissey step- ping away from him. And thus ended the fight for the championship of America Morrissey, at the end of the fight, jumped over the ropes and walked to the house, while Heenan did not re-cover his consciousness for half an hour after the fight was over.Morrissey says this is his last fight, and it is to be hoped he will keep his word” John walked away with $5,000 in side bets and he retired from prize-fighting after refusing a rematch which in turn let Heenan claim the crown. It was printed in the National Police Gazette that john refused the rematch due to injuries he received from the terrific sledgehammer blows in their first fight and told Heenan to go to the UK and fight Tom Sayers for the Championship of the world. With his retirement from the ring in 1859 John turned his attention to his two other interests, Politics and Gambling and by 1861 he had opened a gaming house in Saratoga with the funds he had earned as a fighter and the money from his other gambling joints. Within 2 years he had set up a trotting track where he had race meeting with thoroughbred horses, it was such a success that he decided to expand, and after getting some backing and purchasing over 100 acres of land he built the Saratoga Race Course which opened to the public in 1864. Not being a man to sit back and be content with what he had, he built one of the most prestigious gambling houses in Saratoga’s Congress Park in 1870 where the rich and famous gathered in one part of the club house and the normal gambling men and women on the ground floor. The Saratoga racecourse is still open to this day and its considered the oldest sporting venue in the US. It was also used in the film “Diamonds are forever” one of the classic James Bond films. Considering the time and investment he had put into his gaming houses he still found time to run for congress with the backing of his friends at Tammany hall, furthermore after standing down as a member of congress after getting some of his old crooked friends sentenced to prison he reached his heights in the political world by winning election to state senate twice in 1875 and again in 1877. The man who had came from such humble beginnings found fame and fortune, and everything he touched seemed to turn to gold, he had lived the American dream but after contracting pneumonia he sadly passed away on May 1st 1878, aged 47. All of the state senate attended his funeral where it’s estimated that between 15 and 20,000 people paid their respects on the streets. He was buried in St Peter’s Cemetery in Troy, New York. CHICKEN BY NAME, BUT NOT BY NATURE The events in the Bareknuckle sporting calendar for the year 1777 include a Prize-fight between Harry Sellers and Joe Hood for £50 at one of the leading racecourse at the time, Ascot Heath Races, for the championship of England, in which Sellers won the title, but for many that year will be best remembered for the birth of Henry Pearce on May the 7th. Born at a time when the bigger and more organised Prize-fighting contests were held in more rural locations, away from possible constabulary  interference, the English Racecourse became somewhat of a safe haven for  events, it more or less guaranteed spectators, and the very men who were  involved in the races, became backers and organisers for the sport of Pugilism.  He was just one of the many men born in Bristol that emerged as a fighter which includes Jem Belcher, John gully and Tom Cribb, and its locality for arranged fights was only bettered by the capital itself, London. Henry Pearce is better known as “The Game Chicken”, and the origin of this comes from the fact that he used to sign any papers or documents with the word Hen, also the fancy and fans in general likened his brave fighting style to that of a game cockerel. It may have also been that at only 5ft 9 and weighing in around 170lbs he often fought much heavier men and in consequence he had to have a hard hitting and aggressive style to his fighting. It  has to be remembered that during his days as a fighter, gambling went part and parcel with prize-fighting, at the various racecourses which staged the events and other lesser venues, cock fighting and other forms of animal fighting was one of the attractions in these brutal and often barbaric times. Very little is known about his childhood apart from that his father used to travel around the local pubs in Bristol arranging fights between young Hen and other boys in the area and we can only assume that it was to obviously wager money on, whether this contributed to his future style one can only hazard to guess. He soon became big news in Bristol and gained a reputation, and eventually another fighter by the name of Jem Belcher recognised his fighting abilities and arranged for him to move to London in 1803, Henry was then aged 26. London was the mecca of the fighting world at the time and it wasn’t long before Belcher had arranged Henry’s first recognised  Prize-fight against fellow fighter Jack Fearby, in which Henry won in 10 rounds, lasting 30 minutes. His win was much to the liking of his supporters and the general talk was that a great fighter had been unearthed and due to the fact that Belcher had retired that very year due to an eye injury, he believed Henry should be recognised as champion. As a relative newcomer to the sport, many other fighters questioned Belchers opinion at Henry claiming the title, and one such fighter by the name of Joe Berks wanted a crack at the upstart. It was arranged to be fought in a ring and in the space of 20 minutes Henry defeated him and had the rightful claim as the English Champion. His Championship recognition was furthermore accepted when Henry defeated Berks again in 1804 and although at the time he would never have believed it, the year ahead,1805 was to be his last year as a fighter. After successfully defending his English title against Elias spray and Tom Carte, both of which he defeated in 35 minutes, he arranged an exhibition fight in Debtors Prison against John Gully, a fellow Bristol fighter and I believe this is the first time a fight had been allowed in prison grounds. At the age of 21 due to debts accrued in a failed butchery business, Gully was imprisoned, very few people in debtors prison ever received help from the outside, but after a terrific exhibition with Henry a benefactor named fletcher Reid paid of all his debts and in the same year as his release the two fighters would be fighting for real, outside of the prison grounds. The fight was due to take place in July 1805 and it was originally due to have not only Henry v Gully but also two other fights, but after it was found out that Bailiffs were on their way it became chaos and eventually on that day only one fight took place, Tom Cribb was one of the fighters taking part and he went on to lose his first ever fight that day against George Nicholls, both from Bristol, just like Henry. Gully and Henry’s fight was rescheduled and eventually took place on October, in the small village of Hailsahm in Sussex. Due to Gully being quite successful and holding his own in his exhibition with Henry, there was much anticipation for what was to come. Both fighters were set for a hard battle and this was also Gully’s first ever organised prize-fight. There was no reason to believe that there would be any interference and was not likely to be stopped by the authorities due to the likes of many affluent and noble spectators being present, including the Duke of Clarence. The fight itself was a hard fought one, although for most of the 64 rounds, lasting over 70 minutes, Henry was in control, but he did have to endure fighting with a badly damaged eye for the last 40 odd rounds. Gully was eventually worn down and in the end he couldn’t continue. Henry had successfully defended his title yet again, but Gully had shown great courage and his time to be champion himself would come. Henry’s next fight was against Jem belcher, Jem had come out of retirement and it’s believed he resented the popularity of his old friend. Belcher hadn’t fought for 2 years and also had to fight with sight in only one eye, due to an injury he received when a racquetball hit him in the eye and surgeons had no choice but to remove it.  Although with his inactivity and having only one eye it didn’t bother Belcher one bit, he was after all related to great fighters from the past including Jack Slack and James Figg, fighting was in his blood, and he knew nothing else. In December 1805 the two once friends met and the hard hitting aggressive Henry overpowered Belcher in 18 rounds, when the one eyed former champion couldn’t fight on. Pierce Egan, one of the first sports writers gave an account of the fight, and this extract is his description of how the fight ended.  “Belcher stood up; but it was only to display his exhausted state, as his left-arm was entirely useless, and he could not move it from his side; and Jem now, for the first time in his life, declared he could fight no longer! The Chicken, elated with the sound of victory, and particularly from the hitherto invincible Belcher, to shew his activity, leaped in and out of the ring, and by throwing a summerset. Then he went over to shake hands with the prostrate Belcher. But he said nothing about the eye.” Henry had to retire from fighting as reigning champion after the encounter with Belcher due to his declining health and died aged just 32 in his hometown of Bristol. His constant drinking and party life after his retirement spiralled out of control and he became a shadow of his former self. Despite this, two incidents which made the news showed that the once brave fighter never lost that courage, he so often showed, outside of the ring. The first report was of him saving a trapped woman from a house fire and also an encounter he had with 3 men who were attacking a woman, in which he intervened and beat the three men up, gave Belcher great reports and  admiration. The final fight of his life came in the form of Tuberculosis and this was one battle he didn’t win and passed away on the 30th of April 1809.    Born in picturesque beach side suburb of Muizenberg in Cape Town, South Africa on the 25th of May 1957 Coenie lived not too far from the idealic sandy beaches of his hometown. It was an area with a reputation for a great community of white sharks and water-sports were an attraction for many of the locals and tourists in which it is now regarded as the birthplace of surfing in South Africa. Perhaps looking back, leaving this safe environment contributed to a harder lifestyle for Coenie, and paved the way for his talent in boxing. After moving with his parents and 7 sisters to a rough council neighbourhood he soon got involved in a fight, this taste for fighting would end up being his career and lifelong passion. Street gangs were rife in his new surroundings and it wasn’t long before the Naïve 12 year old who wasn’t streetwise encountered one of the local gang members called Mickson McCloghan within a few days of moving there. Coenie had never been in a street fight before and his only taste of fighting had been on the Judo Mat, so when McCloghan, who had learnt to Box started pushing Coenie about a fight ensued. Although being capable at Judo and  instinctively throwing Mccloghan to the ground he let him back up and he felt the brunt of a couple of stiff jabs which made his nose bleed, Coenie’s mother had seen what had happened and intervened in the fight and gave him a bigger hiding when they got home. His first taste of fighting that day may have been the litmus paper that encouraged him to join a local boxing club after being suggested by a local lad Dassy Lockert, who had knocked on Coenie’s door asking him if he was interested to learn to box at the Wynberg Sport club. Unbeknown to his mother as he would never have allowed it, Coenie went boxing training twice a week on a Tuesday and Thursday and after adapting to it well he had his first amateur bout just over 3 months later aged 13. After telling his mother he was going to Scouts, Coenie went to Wynberg Town Hall where he was to make his debut as an Amateur, he faced an opponent named Colin Blaine and over a five year period the two were to face other 7 times. Their first encounter resulted in a clash of heads in the first round and although the bout wasn’t stopped and Coenie went on to win, it did leave him with a swelling the size of an apple. On arriving home after his first win his step-father guessed he had been boxing by the state of his face and when he found out Coenie had not only won but had brought home a trophy he woke his mum who wasn’t happy that her son had been fighting and throughout Coenie’s career she only attended one of his fights. His continued rivalry with Colin Blaine over the 5 years ended with 6 wins to Coenie and one loss, it was this loss and the first that Coenie had tasted that served him well for his future career. Even though he narrowly lost on points in his second and return bout Coenie’s trainer told him that he must know how to lose to appreciate winning, and never to be a bad looser, and  Coenie told me, "I have lived like this knowing that I did my best, even if i lost, I gave my best”. In a long and impressive amateur career Coenie  had 87 bouts suffering only 6 defeats, he won many titles in this time which included the Western Province Title as a Junior and Senior and also the South African Coastal Title at Junior level and Senior. Coenie also boxed in the army in which he did his obligatory National Service and won many fights while serving as well as representing the then OFS Province, (Orange Free State, prior to 1994). After completing his National service Coenie reached the decision to turn Professional as he felt he had achieved all he could as an amateur, he moved to the heart of the Pro game in Durban, which is over 1600km from his first boxing gym as an Amateur in Cape Town. The move from Amateur to Pro changed for Coenie in regards to the training and preparation for contests,as an Amateur, twice a week training at night was sufficient but that all changed. Coenie was now training 5 days a week, which included a morning 5-10km run and gym work and sparring on an evening, he also had to be more careful regarding his eating habits to make weight on fight night and then intense training 6 weeks before each bout, with a wind down 1 week before, mostly concentrating on speed-work and keeping a check on his weight. The skill of the trainer is to make sure you reach your peak on fight night, not to over exercise and Coenie had quite a few trainers in his Pro career which included some good and bad. His first trainer was a Scotsman called Johnny Hogg who had been a Booth fighter, others included an Indian trainer called Chin Governer and also another UK trainer named Barry Skilton. He was also trained by a man who although had never fought himself he knew how to train and teach and he was called Lucky Campanes. Coenie’s first pro fight  resulted in a loss over 4 rounds to Louis Fourie, yet many felt that Coenie had won the fight, including the newspapers against the unbeaten pro with a record of 12-0, and this gave him the drive to continue as well as taking on board what he had learnt from his old Amateur coach about losing with dignity and learning from any loss. His pro career lasted from 1976 to 1985 and finished with a record of 40 fights with 25 wins, 2 draws and 13 losses. Although Coenie lost a challenge for the South African welterweight title over 12 rounds on points in 1980 his greatest win was just 2 years later culminating in him winning the vacant South African Light-Middleweight Title by knockout in the 8th round against the experienced Morris Mohloai. Coenie decided to retire in 1986 after he felt his heart wasn’t in it anymore, many fighters go way beyond when they should be fighting and it seems that the time was right, yeah he missed the training as he had been in and out of gyms since the age 12, the pats on the back after a win and the fame that went with being a pro he missed but he didn’t want to become a human punch-bag  " I knew that my time had come” he told me. This could have been the end of what would have been a successful career for Coenie as both an amateur and a pro, yet more fighting was to come, after all it was what he knew and had trained in for many years so after a layoff he returned to the ring after training in Kickboxing and at the age of 40, in 1997, he won the South African K1 championships.  It was around this time that his first trainer, the Scotsman, Johnny Hogg suggested to Coenie to make some extra cash on the side. Johnny was a gambling man through and through and whether it was to line his own pockets or Coenies the suggestion of fighting Bare-knuckles was talked about. It meant earning over 10 times the current rate for a 4 round gloved contest and the winnings would be split 70/30 so it was a big temptation. There were no weight limits in these underground contests and a round ended when there was a knockdown, reminiscent of days gone by. Obviously the fights took place away from anywhere open so Coenie’s first proper Bareknuckle bout was staged at the Trust bank underground parking area in Cape Town. All the cars were parked on the bottom floor and the fights were contested on the top floor with just a few selected crowd and of course the bookmakers. Johnny took Coenie to one of the bookmakers who asked if he could fight and when he  replied “yes” he got the ring man match him up with an opponent, whom he never met or knew nothing about.  Johnny told Coenie he had put a bet on him to win and the next moment he was called to the middle of the crowd, there were no ropes, just chairs to form a basic ring and when he saw his opponent who looked like a bodybuilder, around 200kg and around 6ft 8 who had a face like he’d been hit by a baton he wondered what he was doing there with all these dubious looking characters. Coenie was dressed in boxing clothing and Boots while this giant of a man had normal trainers and short trousers on, when they shook hands prior to fighting, Coenies hands looked like a Childs compared to his opponent and then the order was given TO FIGHT, in which below is Coenies description of what happened next. “Johnny told me to move and box, well I went out to meet this fighter in the middle of the so called ring and he rushed at me,  i moved and hit him with speed and hurt my left hand against his head. He threw punchers but was to slow to hit me and then i smelled that he had been drinking alcohol and i hit him with a right cross on his mouth and smash my fist into his teeth but split his lip and his tooth came through the lip and he just rushed at me. I counter punched him till he went down and they called time, he went to his corner and me to my corner,  I had some water and my fists were both hurting with my left hand swollen and my right hand bleeding from the tooth. well we started to fight again but I could see that my opponent was not fit and was swinging wild and slow and was breathing hard so i hit him a few rights to the body and the next thing he went down and threw up and that was the end of the fight”. Coenie had 3 more bareknuckle bouts that year winning them all by KO but he always suffered hand problems which is the most common injury for anyone fighting without the protection of gloves, especially when hitting the head and he still has teeth marks on his hands from the fights he had. Although it was a ruling that all fighters shook hands before and after, in reality it wasn’t always followed, other rules were that there was no wrestling allowed and after a knockdown a fighter went to hi corner, where they could have a drink before resuming the fight. Some of the fighters were fuelled with alcohol beforehand and they shouldn’t have been fighting really and often the winner had to search to find the bookie to receive his wages. Coenie went on to tell me   “My few fights in bare knuckle boxing was a bit of a joke as most of the chaps that I fought against were just from the street who could maybe have given me a hiding in a street fight but not in a ring. They could not hold or kick you and although there were a few of these fighters that put some boxers down and out they had to do that in the first round because they were not fit as most of these fighters never train for these fights and the boxing guys did have training. Boxing in a ring with a ref and Bare knuckle fight not the same, it was like a school fight ,as soon as the fighter got hurt the crowd would shout “coward” and then he just tried to survive and he knew that he could walk around and say he drew with so and so but the truth he was a chicken shit. I had such a fight that lasted 60 min and all the fighters did was to grab and hold untill the crowd called it  time out and a draw and that was also my last fight in bare knuckle Boxing. Johnny asked me many times to fight but I  just could not fight with another fighter who would call you names but then run or hold most of the time and try and poke your eyes out But the crowd did enjoy this type of fighting and there were a few times the crowd would get involved with the fight but that is another story The control and rules did not always work out and sometimes the fight did get out of hand. Coenie believes that a trained boxer should be able to adapt to bareknuckle boxing quite easily and that you must be dedicated and have a heart and never be afraid to put all in. Boxing has control and good rules whereas bareknuckle boxing in South Africa in against the law and all that type of fighting is done underground. He belongs to the East Rand Vet Boxing Association (ERVBA) on the East Rand and still trains, runs and hits the punch bag and does weights. Even though he hasn’t ever thought how he would have competed against fighters from a different time period he told me he would have liked to have seen how he would have done against fighters in his own time such as Robert Duran ,Sugar Ray Leonard and Gert Steyn and although he enjoyed his days as a boxer and would do it all over again, given the chance he would have moved to Gauteng and Willie Toweel’s Gym and  “I would have stayed away from women and booze not good for a fighter and family” he told me.   HERBERT SLADE Everyone loves an underdog, and this fighter could well be classed as the original Rocky, he was plucked from relative obscurity and given the chance to fight for the World Title. Born in 1851 in New Zealand, Herbert Slade known as “The Maori” is an interesting character in the fight game to say the least. Although he was around 6ft 2 and weighed around 200lbs he never had any true credentials to warrant a fight for the Heavyweight championship of the world, yet he would face the “baddest” man on the planet, who could lick any son of a bitch, in the shape of John L. Sullivan, on the 6th of August 1883. Slade, the son of an Irish father and native New-Zealander Mother, became somewhat of a celebrity, not just in his native lad but even in the USA, and the former Butcher and farm worker was advertised nationally as the man to de-throne the Champ. Many boxers became eligible to fight for titles at the time by proving themselves against lesser opponents, to work their way up the pecking order, but because of the huge animosity between Richard Fox, of the Police Gazette, and Sullivan, he was put straight into the fight on the recommendation of one of the most respected fighters of his day, Jem Mace. Fox was so desperate to find an opponent  to fight Sullivan, that when Mace suggested he may have found a worthy challenger, the fight was made and perhaps the biggest publicity campaign ever seen in the USA was set in motion. Mace had met Slade when he toured New-Zealand and although Slade never had any boxing experience except for an amateur competition he entered, which he lost, he was a decent wrestler and renowned athletic all-rounder. With Slade being a big strong man, Mace guessed he could teach him the finer points in boxing and the pair engaged in many exhibition contests. When the pair arrived in the USA the papers were covered in headline stories of “The Giant” Slade. The efficient Fox knew how to create hype and when it was known that Fox him-self had wagered $5,000 of his own money on a Slade win, the public believed this could be a great fight in the making. Everywhere that Mace and Slade went the crowds and media followed, they were desperate to see this Brown skinned “Wildman” from a far distant land. Considering the racism tension at the time, Fox’s promotional skills were exemplary and even the New York Times got in the act describing Slade as “a veritable mountain of flesh.”    It’s believed that even prisoners on death row were allowed a stay of execution until the outcome ofthe fight had been decided. It also has to be remembered that Slade was the first Non-white fighter ever to compete for a World Title and this alone created as much hype as anything else. On the day of the fight which took place in New York, at Madison Square Gardens, which had only been open for a few years, the place was packed to the rafters, as many as 10,000 was believed to have entered, with thousands more waiting outside in torrid conditions due to the weather. The fight itself was an anti-climax considering the enormous anticipation, Slade who was 32 at the time was severely outclassed and after being put down in the first and second round the end came in the third. He was game enough but was too slow and clumsy, this was his first competitive boxing fight so he was well out of his depth, but his gameness impressed Sullivan enough that he arranged him to travel the states engaging in exhibitions on his tour, in which he fought Sullivan on numerous occasions. As well as the many exhibitions bouts he competed in he did have some other real fights in-between, although he never won any of them he did achieve a draw with the great Charlie Mitchell 2 months after his unsuccessful attempt at being World champion. His last fight was a loss against Charles Lange on the 11th of august 1891, aged 40 and had a total fight record of 0-1-6. He sadly passed away aged 69 in Utah, where he settled after his fighting days was over. Slade was inducted into the Māori Sports Hall of Fame in 2011 amidst many criticisms due to his lack of ability compared to the other athletes honoured, yet many believe due to him fighting for the title with being mixed race he deserves the recognition and the award.    THOMAS OWEN "THE FIGHTING OILMAN" Owen was born on the 21st of December 1768 in Portsmouth Common, a barren wasteland on the South Coast, it changed its name to Portsea, which it is known by today in later years. Press gangs were in operation during this time and the Admiralty often gave orders for many men to be collected from the surrounding areas while Tom was growing up, alas very little is known about  his childhood. When he was 7 he would have surely witnessed Captain Cook arriving back in Portsmouth on-board HMS Endeavour after his circumnavigation trip but what is known is that he served his trade as not only a noted pugilist but also a Publican and Oilman, and this is where he got the mantle “The Fighting Oilman”. His first named opponent although its date remains a mystery was Bill Savage, in which Tom beat him in an hour. Although no records of him receiving any formal training in the fistic arts exist upto this point, we can only assume he acquired his fighting skills by the many fights which would have taken place outside all the Inns and taverns and docklands of neighbouring Portsmouth, whereas the bigger organised fights at the time were all in Bristol and London He was regarded as a strong and skilful fighter often described as a scientific, meaning he didn’t just brawl but used distance and varying punches, while regarding his own defence. During all his bouts the 5ft 8 fighter never weighed more than 170LBS. At the age of 28 he did indeed travel to the epicentre of the fighting world, London, but initially it was to continue his trade as an oilman. The job entailed carrying kegs of oil around the streets for delivery and on one occasion he was nearly run over by a horse and cart, and when the driver got out he hit Owen, this was to be a big mistake as Owen gave him a good beating. It was by chance that the fight was witnessed by a man in the know and he introduced Owen to “Gemtleman” John Jackson who had just retired from the prize-ring himself after beating Mendoza and had just opened a school to teach the gentry the noble art. Owen was now in the position of being able to be matched and receive money for his fighting and subsequent instruction in the art of fighting. His next fight with William Hooper aka “The Tinman”, who hailed from Bristol was for the Championship of England as Hooper had beaten William Wood , a Coachman, who he himself claimed the title after the death of Benjamin Brain. On November the 14th 1796 Owen and Hooper fought in Harrow, London for the championship and the fitness fanatic Owen won in just over an hour, lasting 50 rounds, even though many other fighters of the day rebuked his status as champion, including a fighter he would meet in later years, Daniel Mendoza. Owen and Hooper were to fight again a little over months later and Owen won again, although it is not known how long the fight lasted. He was soon to lose his claim on the title when he fought Jack Bartholomew the same year when he was defeated in 30 minutes, lasting 26 rounds. 1799 was Owens next fight at the racecourse in Enfield and he took on a fighter called Housa the Jew, and like many Jews of the time he fought to escape the poverty they often lived in. It’s unclear if Owen lost to the better man or the layoff he had had affected him, but Housa won in convincing style in 42 minutes after Owen failed to come to scratch and resulted in the second defeat for Owen in a row. He regained his winning ways 3 months later in Deptford, London when he fought Jack Davis who weighed in at  around 14 stone, and he won in an hour. The following year in 1800 Owen returned near to his hometown and fought a renowned and feared fighter by the name of “Fighting Tar” a sailor weighing around 16 stone, in Portsmouth, this was a win for Owen in 50 minutes and he then decided to retire from the sport, he was aged 32. In 1805 Owen was charged with causing a riot and conspiracy on Putney common when he seconded a fight between Joe Berks and Hen Pearce, he was sentenced to 3 months in prison in Horsemonger- Lane.  Despite being retired for 20 years from fighting he decided to toe the line once more, his opponent would be no other than a man who had disputed his right to be called champion all those years ago, Daniel Mendoza, who himself had not fought in 14 years. Banstead Downs in Surrey was the venue for this bout between the two men in their 50’s, Owen was 52 and Mendoza was even older at 56. Owen won in 12 rounds lasting 15 minutes but they shouldn’t have been fighting that day and the purse money was way less than he had received over 20 years previous, as I can’t imagine any backer putting up lots of cash for this particular bout. After his final victory against the aged Mendoza he became a publican like many fighters before and after him. He passed away in 1843 aged 74 and although he was a well-respected fighter he is also credited with his alleged design of one of the most used pieces of exercise equipment today, the dumb-bell. A verse below appears in Pierce Egan’s Boxiana “For knowledge of life, and rigs of the town Tom Owen’s the lad that always is down! He’s awake in the fancy, alive in the ring- And merriest of chaunts he’s ready to sing; As a good second, Tom’s entitled to fame, He’ll win if he can, and stands up for the game!     WILLIAM ABEDNEGO THOMPSON Four years prior to Napoleon being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo a man was born who is regarded as one of the strongest and most fearsome bareknuckle fighters there was. He was described by bells life magazine which suited him perfectly. “As quick as a cat and as deadly as a rattlesnake” Born in Nottingham on the 11th of October 1811 Bendigo as he was to be known as was the youngest of 21 children, he was raised at a time of great social unrest, and conditions for many were dire. The luddites were a group of Artisans that demonstrated against the introduction of mechanical loom that put them out of work, this led to many having to go to the workhouses to just survive. Factories were burnt and destroyed in retribution and the factory owners had to resort to getting protection of the Army and many of the luddites and its supporters were executed or transported at a mass trial in 1812 at York. Perhaps because of the poverty that existed in Nottingham and other industrial areas a man name William Booth ended up founding the Salvation Army. Bendigo was only fifteen when he and his mother had to go into the workhouse after his father died and fortunately it wasn’t for long, he made a promise to his mother that things would change and that she would never have to return to the squalid conditions. As well as having a reputation as a fighter Thompson was a natural athlete, he was a keen runner, gymnast, cricketer and he was able to throw half a brick across the river Trent with his left arm. As a fighter he  fought as a southpaw, leading with his left and when he started fighting for money at around 18 years old he baffled and confused his opponents. As he was only 5ft 9 and less than 165 lbs he relied on his speed and agility as well as a fearsome punch to outwit a lot of men who he fought being much heavier and taller. His style of fighting earned him the nickname “OL BENDY” due to his bobbing and weaving when fighting, his nickname also made him known as Bendigo. His had his first fight at the age of 18 and after around a dozen fights he was up against a local fighter and champion of Bingham, it lasted 59 rounds and Bendigo won in front of thousands of his fans who recognised his abilities as a fighter and performer. He was also one of the first fighters to use mind games during his fights and the crowds loved it, he would taunt and tease his opponents just like Ali used to do and he often performed summersaults while fighting akin to Prince Naseem. During this time Bendigo’s fights were often fought in barns and woods in Nottingham  ( See above) photo) and well away from the police and built up areas and in spite of problems with lack of transport as many as 10,000 used to turn up and watch him fight. At the age of 24 Bendigo was an unbeaten fighter, the rich supporters and backers of many of the fights that took place called the Fancy loved his antics as he drew huge crowds although there was often trouble at the fights as his band of followers known as “The Nottingham Lambs” used to try and influence the outcome at many of Bendigo’s fights. July 21st 1835 in Nottingham is remembered for Bendigos first fight with Ben Caunt who hailed from Hucknall, Giving away more than 40 lbs and 6 inches in height many believed Caunt would be just too strong and powerful for the much shorter man. At the start of the fight Caunts strength told as he manhandled Bendigo and used a cross buttock throw to fell his opponent and in turn fell across his stomach. Bendigo continued to taunt and ridicule Caunt up to  a point that he rushed over to Bendigo and hit him while he was seated in the corner. Caunt was disqualified in the 22nd round. Many felt that Bendigo himself should have been disqualified as he used the 30 second rule to his advantage as did many fighters and dislike between the pair grew over the years until they met again 3 years later. Prior to their much awaited rematch Bendigo fought some hard and long battles in which he won each one. First came John Leachman, Charlie Langham of Newcastle and William Looney of Liverpool. On the 3rd of April 1838 the rematch was set and with the bitterness that had built up over the years the tension between them grew and with it the prize money, this had gone up from £25 in 1835 to £300 just 3 years later. Underhand tactics dictated the fight and Bendigo trained long and hard while Caunt entered the fight unprepared. What happened during the fight would make any of Mike Tyson’s fights look tame in comparison especially when Caunt had Bendigo trapped against the rope with his hands around his neck. The ropes were cut by Bendigo’s fans when he turned blue and the fight was stopped as the crowds fought one another. The fight went ahead after things settled down and the fight continued upto the 75th round when Bendigo went down without a punch landing and the ref stopped the fight. Considering what had happened it was a brave decision and when the call was made the crowd went wild and attacked Caunt, luckily he managed to escape on a stolen horse and this perhaps saved his life from the mob. Bendigos next fight was a much easier one when he outclassed James Burke in 30 minutes, after head butting Bendigo as he was not being able to handle the speed and power of the punches coming at him the ref disqualified Burke. The fight took place at No Mans Heath in Leicestershire in front of 15,000 spectators. On his return to Nottingham he was mobbed and being the show off and crowd pleaser he was he attempted a summersault and broke his knee cap and in doing so he couldn’t fight for nearly 2 years. Once he returned to the ring he continued his winning ways until once again a fight was set against his arch enemy Ben Caunt. The third and final instalment of their fights took place on the 9th of September 1845 and just like their other 2 bouts it was filled with fouls and dirty tactics,  it wasn’t until the 96th round lasting 2hrs and 10 minutes that Bendigo won when Caunt went down without a punch being thrown. It could have been a great point to retire but he took up the challenge from Tom Paddock on June the 5th 1850. Bendigo was 39 now and was fighting a fitter and younger man, Once again controversy came into effect when Paddock kicked Bendigo after getting frustrated over his going down tactics, the ref called a foul and luckily in just over an hour Bendigo won his final fight. Upon retirement from the prize-ring he briefly trained fighters but soon fell foul to the demon drink after not being a one to mix so well with the more gentlemanly characters at Oxford University where he taught. His fondness of the drink had got him into lots of scrapes and scurmishes which led to him being imprisoned many times, yet ironically his life would be turned around while serving one such sentence. His interest in god developed in prison and after his release he eventually toured the county giving his powerful sermons, even though being illiterate meant he was never able to read the bible. His change in lifestyle also included him giving up the drink to which he had been so dependant on. After a fall down the stairs of his small cottage in Beeston, to which he had escaped from the madness which has surrounded him he punctured a lung and he sadly passed away aged 69 on the 23rd of August 1880. He was buried in St Mary's Cemetery, off St Ann's Well Road, Nottingham on his monument of a lion reads. "In life always brave, Fighting like a Lion; In Death like a Lamb, Tranquil in Zion". Create a free website

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- Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:11:01 PM Today's weather promises to be good for the runners, and not too bad for the spectators. Temperatures will be in the 40s at the start in Hopkinton, rising into the 50s by the time most runners get to the finish line in Boston, according to meteorologist David Epstein . Winds will be light, and give runners a bit of a head wind as they approach Boston. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 12:12:21 PM What is the optimal temperature for running a marathon? For elite runners, it’s 41 to 50 degrees, according to an exhaustive study by the Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine in Natick several years ago. Today is expected to be in the low 50s - not optimal, but still nice. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:14:43 PM The Boston Marathon is first and foremost an athletic event. But it has also become an important way for local charities to raise money. Last year, the Boston Marathon Non-Profit Program raised a record $7.9 million for 146 charities, according to the BAA. In the 28 years of the program, more than $170 million has been raised. Each year, thousands of official entries are given to runners who solicit pledges for charitable causes, but do not have to meet the otherwise stringent qualification standards. This year, the Dana-Farber Marathon Challenge program alone includes more than 700 runners from around the country, among them cancer survivors, and the families and friends of cancer patients. They will be wearing a special blue and lime green singlet featuring the skyline of Boston. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:16:00 PM Here is this morning's schedule of race start times: 8:50 a.m.: Mobility impaired participants 9:17 a.m.: Wheelchair division 9:22 a.m.: Handcycle participants 9:32 a.m.: Elite women runners (whose bib numbers have their names on them) 10 a.m.: Elite men runners (whose bib numbers have their names on them) and Wave One of the main race (bib numbers 101-8,999, with a red background) 10:25 a.m.: Wave Two of the main race (bib numbers 9,000-17,999, with a white background) 11 a.m.: Wave Three of the main race (bib numbers 18,000-26,999, with a blue background) 11:25 a.m.: Wave Four of the main race (bib numbers 27,000-36,450, with a yellow background) Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:19:42 PM It's a little hard to believe that no one has ever shot a full-length movie about the Boston Marathon, but that's about to change. This year, filmmaker Jon Dunham, who has already chronicled the Chicago and Rome marathons in "Spirit of the Marathon" and "Spirit of the Marathon II", is bringing his cameras to Boston. The documentary, to be called simply "Boston", will highlight many of the historic moments of the Boston Marathon from its founding through today, including last year's terror bombings. It is "an in-depth, behind-the-scenes look at the major organizational efforts to prepare for the race, dramatic moments from past Boston Marathons as told by former champions and competitors, and contemporary stories of runners and spectators who have unique relationships with the race," according to the BAA. The film is expected to be released in 2015. Dunham is an accomplished runner himself, having finished more than two dozen marathons. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 12:25:34 PM There will be a moment of silence at the starting line in Hopkinton at 8:45 a.m. in remembrance of the four people killed in the bombings last year: 8-year-old Martin W. Richard of Dorchester, Krystle M. Campbell of Arlington, Boston University grad student Lingzi Lu of China, and MIT police officer Sean A. Collier. The moment will also honor the injured, first responders, two firefighters who died battling a Back Bay blaze last month: Lt. Edward J. Walsh Jr. and Michael R. Kennedy, and fallen officers Gregory T. Maloney of the Plymouth police department and Dennis O. Simmonds of the Boston Police Department. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:28:34 PM Just before the main race steps off in Hopkinton, four HH-60M Air Ambulance Helicopters from the Massachusetts Army National Guard will conduct a flyover of the course, beginning at the starting line at 9:51 and finishing 15 minutes later in Boston. Guard members were part of the emergency response after the bombing last year. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 12:31:08 PM Opening the 2014 Boston Marathon with the singing of the U.S. National Anthem will be Sgt. Daniel M. Clark, "The Singing Trooper." Clark has been opening the Boston Marathon since 1990, and also ran the Boston Marathon, after singing, in 2002 and 2009. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 12:34:58 PM If you yell "Go, Jennifer" to any of the 16,081 women officially running today, you might hit the mark: There are 396 of them, the most common women’s name on the course. They’re joined by 238 Sarahs, 235 Lisas, and 203 Elizabeths. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 12:35:02 PM By the way, the most common men’s names list reads like the Bible: David, John, James, Mark, Daniel, Matthew, and Paul are all in the Top 10. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:35:47 PM This year's list of marathon entries reads like a cross between the London and Dublin phone directories. There are 207 Smiths, 146 Johnsons, 110 Browns, 110 Millers, 106 Joneses, and more than 60 Davises, Taylors, Whites, Martins, Campbells, Sullivans, Murphys, and Andersons. The most popular non-English, non-Irish name is Kim, with 51, followed by Gonzalez, with 35. The field includes three runners named Michael Kennedy, and three named Michael J. Sullivan. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:37:01 PM One of the last entries added to the field is well known to Boston sports fans. Doug Flutie tweeted Saturday that he "woke up today and decided to run the Boston Marathon." The former Boston College and New England Patriots star, and Heisman Trophy winner, will run in support of the Doug Flutie Jr. Foundation for Autism.  The course passes through his hometown of Natick for four miles late in the first half of the race. Flutie, now 51, lives in Melbourne Beach, Fla., and will be wearing bib 25,500. Sooo...woke up today & decided to run the @bostonmarathon just picked up my number & heading to the sox game #yup pic.twitter.com/TsSi4weMHb — DOUG FLUTIE (@DougFlutie) April 19, 2014 Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:39:01 PM This year's field of slightly more than 35,600 entries is the second biggest ever, surpassed only by the 100th running in 1996, which had 38,708. It was supersized to make good on the BAA's promise that runners who were unable to finish last year because of the terror attacks could run again this year, whether they qualified or not. In all, a special invitation was extended to 5,633 official entrants who reached the halfway mark in Wellesley but were unable to cross the finish line before the race was stopped. Some 4,500 of them choose to return. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:39:13 PM The BAA also issued special invitations to the non-runners who were most affected by the tragedy, including victims and their families, and first responders. The Watertown Police Department, for example, is sending a team of 12 officers, including Chief Edward Deveau. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:39:21 PM A further 450 slots were offered as prizes in an essay contest. The winners were the writers who could best explain why running Boston was important to them. Race officials say the increase in field size is a one-year thing. Beginning next year the marathon will return to the approximately 27,000-runner level it had been at since 2008. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:41:32 PM It will take more than two hours for the entire field of 36,000 plus to cross the starting line. The last official runners are expected to begin the 26.2 mile race in Hopkinton only minutes before the women's winner crosses the finish line in Boston. It would be physically impossible for all the runners to start at the same time, given the narrowness of the streets in Hopkinton, but runners are not penalized for being at the back of the pack. The BAA uses an electronic timing chip that official runners must wear on the back of their bibs to calculate "net" time for each runner -- the difference between when the chip records them crossing the start line, and when it records them crossing the finish line. Digital clocks displaying elapsed time from the 10 a.m. official start are located at every mile and five-kilometer marker, and times for each runner are recorded at each checkpoint along the way, to make sure no one jumps in the race near the finish line, as Rosie Ruiz famously did in 1980. Official timing stops six and a half hours after the last runner crosses the starting line, or about 6:10 this evening. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:43:27 PM Hydration is key when you're running 26.2 miles, and the BAA has set up stations roughly once every mile along the course where runners can partake of the "official fluids" of the Boston Marathon -- Poland Spring water and Gatorade Endurance Formula (lemon/lime flavor). Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:47:38 PM The Boston Marathon starts on Main Street in Hopkinton, two thirds of the way between Boston and Worcester, and follows Route 135 for more than 13 miles through Ashland, Framingham, and Natick to where it joins Route 16 in Wellesley. It continues along Route 16 through Newton Lower Falls, turning right at the red-brick fire station onto Commonwealth Avenue. From there runners follow Commonwealth Avenue through the Newton hills, bearing right at the Chestnut Hill Reservoir onto Chestnut Hill Avenue to Cleveland Circle. The route then turns left onto Beacon Street in Brookline, and enters Boston with about two miles remaining. Runners continue through Kenmore Square, near Fenway Park, and under Massachusetts Avenue. They turn right onto Hereford Street, then left onto Boylston Street for the sprint to the finish alongside the Boston Public Library, near Copley Square. The official distance is 26 miles, 385 yards, or 42.195 kilometers. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:50:06 PM The first of today's many starts has just taken place in Hopkinton. The group of mobility-impaired runners is off and on their way to Boston after the official starter, Gov. Deval Patrick, waved his hand. There are about 20 mobility impaired entrants, many of whom are running with guides. Their appearance will be the first indication for spectators lining the course that today's events have begun. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:52:05 PM This year's field includes runners from all 50 US states and all the Canadian provinces and territories except Nunavut. As expected, Massachusetts leads with 8,088 entries, or 23 percent of the field. California is next, with 2,625 entries, followed by New York (1,775), Texas (1,142), Pennsylvania (1,132), and Illinois (1,027). The mad-for-running Canadian province of Ontario has 1,175 entries. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:53:19 PM Boston has 1,914 runners in today's field, more than any other city. That's to be expected. It is, after all, Boston's marathon. Second place New York City has 772, followed by Chicago at 346. Cambridge, Mass., is fourth at 323, and Toronto fifth at 266. London sent 97 runners, most of any city outside of North America, followed by Tokyo, Seoul, and Dublin. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:54:43 PM Although 83 percent of runners are from the US, 95 countries are represented in the field. The US has 29,482 entries. Canada is solidly second, with 2,485 runners, followed by the United Kingdom with 508. But Mexico, Japan, Italy, Germany, Ireland, Australia, France, Brazil, and Spain all have more than 100 entries. Among the 21 countries with a lone participant are Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Liechtenstein, and the Cape Verde islands. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 12:57:45 PM The Boston Globe covered the very first Boston Marathon, held on April 19, 1897. This was its run-on lead the next day: “The ‘Marathon’ race from Ashland to this city, held under the auspices of the Boston athletic association, yesterday afternoon, in conjunction with open handicap games on Irvington oval, in emulation of the Olympic games held in Athens last spring, proved a great success and is an assurance of an annual fixture of the same kind.” Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 12:58:13 PM Unfortunately, a New Yorker won that first Marathon: John J. McDermott of the Pastime Athletic Club. He ran the then-25-mile course in 2:55:10, and won despite stopping and walking several times because of cramps. It helped that the field was only 15 men. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 12:58:24 PM The starting line at that first Boston Marathon in 1897 consisted of a line across a dirt road in Ashland scraped by a race organizer using his foot. And there was no starter’s gun; he simply yelled, “Go!” Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 12:59:26 PM Here are the Boston Marathon course records. Only one, the women's wheelchair record, is currently held by an American. The men's record by Kenyan Geoffrey Mutai is the fastest marathon ever run. Men's Open: Geoffrey Mutai (Kenya), 2:03:02, 2011 Women's Open: Margaret Okayo (Kenya), 2:20:43, 2002 Men's Masters (40 and over): John Campbell (New Zealand), 2:11:04, 1990 Women's Masters (40 and over): Firaya Sultanova-Zhdanova (Russia), 2:27:58, 2002 Men's Wheelchair: Joshua Cassidy (Canada), 1:18:25, 2012 Women's Wheelchair: Wakako Tsuchida (United States), 1:34:06, 2011 Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:01:13 PM Boston was the first major marathon to include a wheelchair division. That was in 1975. Bob Hall of Massachusetts was the first officially recognized wheelchair participant. This year's wheelchair racers are assembling at the start. They will get the starting gun in 17 minutes, at 9:17 a.m. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 1:01:15 PM Weather at the starting line in Hopkinton is a cool 52.9 degrees Fahrenheit with virtually no wind. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 1:02:33 PM The starting line, the course, and especially the finish line today will be swarming with reporters. In a normal year, the marathon attracts more media coverage than any one-day sporting event in the US other than the Super Bowl, issuing 1,500 credentials to 250 outlets. Given the tragic events of last year, interest in today’s race is intense: 1,800 credentials have been issued to 300 media organizations. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:03:05 PM The number of wheelchair entries has been rising in recent years after more than a decade of declining participation blamed on the sport's expense and a lack of sponsors. This year the men's and women's field totals a robust 62 entries, the largest number since 1997. More than 80 athletes participated in wheelchair division races in the mid-1990s, but by 2008 the number had fallen to a mere 16, before increasing to 29 in 2009 and 2010, 32 in 2011 and 2012, and 52 last year. This year there are 49 men and 13 women entered. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 1:03:14 PM For the first time, the average age of female runners has hit 40. Men are an average of 45 years old. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:05:25 PM The oldest competitors in today's race are 81, and there are seven of them: Katherine Beiers of Santa Cruz, Calif. Claude Buisson of Vaujours, France Anthony Cellucci Jr. of Needham Jimmy F. Green of Marblehead George C Leslie Jr. of Chelmsford Thomas H Marrin of Fremont, Calif. Harold Wilson of Tyler, Texas Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:06:12 PM There are 32 competitors -- 20 men and 12 women -- who are 18 years old, the youngest age the BAA allows to participate these days. More than half of them are from Massachusetts. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:07:04 PM In last year's men's wheelchair race, Hiroyuki Yamamoto of Japan, a Boston rookie, grabbed the lead early, between the 3- and 4-mile marks, in Ashland, and slowly pulled away for the rest of the race. His time of 1:25:32 was a minute and 40 seconds ahead of the second-place finisher, nine-time Boston winner Ernst Van Dyk of South Africa. Both men are in today's field. Today's two wheelchair winners will pocket $15,000 of sponsor John Hancock's money. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:09:13 PM This is the second year of the Boston-London Wheelchair Challenge, which offers $35,000 in prize money to athletes who compete in both the London and Boston wheelchair marathons. The two races are eight days apart. Switzerland's Marcel Hug has a leg up on this year's men's prize, having won the men's race in London on April 13. Tatyana McFadden of Maryland, the defending champion in Boston, won the women's race. The prize purse is awarded to the top three men and woman according to a point system based on their finish place in both races. The winner of each race will get 20 points, second place 15, and third place 10, on down to 3 points for finishing 10th. When the points from both races are totaled, the top man and woman will get $10,000, the runner-up $5,000, and third place $2.500. Hug will win the challenge if he takes first or second place today. The women's race is more wide open since the second-place finisher in London, Manuela Schar of Switzerland, is also competing today. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:10:21 PM The 62 wheelchair racers -- 49 men and 13 women -- are on the starting line. The men's wheelchair field is loaded again this year. It includes every champion since 2001, and 13 of the top 15 finishers from 2013. Hiroyuki Yamamoto of Japan set a record as the oldest Boston Marathon winner when he cruised to victory last year at age 46. His 1:25:32 was the fourth fastest wheelchair marathon in the world last year. He'll try to repeat today on a rolling course that plays to his strengths. Ernst Van Dyk, who has won more Boston Marathons than anyone ever, but was second last year, should challenge Yamamoto again. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:11:50 PM Another top men's wheelchair contender is Marcel Hug of Switzerland, who has been practically unbeatable in the marathon since finishing fourth at Boston last year. At 28, he is a young man in a sport where the winners are often in their 30s or 40s. Just eight days ago he won an exciting four-way sprint to the finish in the London Marathon, beating six-time London champion David Weir, Ernst Van Dyk, and Kota Hokinoue of Japan. All four would have been in today's field, but Weir dropped out with a chest infection. In 2013, Hug won both the IPC World Championship marathon and the New York Marathon. He and Hokinoue (who finished third at Boston last year) shared the year's top marathon time, 1:20:52. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:13:21 PM Lest we forget, the men's wheelchair field also includes Josh Cassidy, 29, of Port Elgin, Ontario, who won Boston in 2012. His time that year, 1:18:25, is not only a course record, it's the fastest wheelchair marathon of all time. Cassidy, using a new a new chair, went out fast in last week's London Marathon, but hurt his back and eased up to save himself for Boston. He's been training and recovering at home in Canada since. He recently tweeted that he is still sore, but "should be good to go" today. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:17:05 PM They're off! The gun has sounded for the 62 wheelchair racers, who have begun their 26.2 mile journey to Boston's Copley Square. The athletes are held at a slow, controlled speed for the first quarter mile of the race, which is a sharp downhill. The controlled start was instituted in 1988, a year after nine wheelchair entrants crashed on the steep, wet pavement just after the start. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 1:17:40 PM Women's wheelchair defending champ Tatyana McFadden, nicknamed "The Beast" because of her extraordinary strength, is celebrating her 25th birthday today. A second consecutive victory would be icing on the cake, so to speak. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:18:28 PM The wheelchair athletes are clear of the slowish controlled start, and are rolling down Route 135 towards Ashland. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 1:18:46 PM Marathon officials announced the official entrant count: 35,755 total competitors - 19,648 men and 16,107 women. Teresa Hanafin 4/21/2014 1:19:05 PM Wakako Tuschida of Japan set the world record for women's wheelchair racers in Boston in 2011, crossing the finish line at 1:34:06. She returns this year after missing last year because of illness. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:21:41 PM Next up at the starting line are the 22 handcycle racers, who are part of the BAA's mobility impaired program. Twenty of these participants are men; 2 are woman. Most of them will take well under two hours to travel the 26.2 miles to Copley Square. Eric Bauer, Boston.com 4/21/2014 1:22:07 PM The handcycle field is off. Next up, at 9:32, are the elite women runners, who have had their own start since 2004. The separate start better showcases the women's race, giving them a clear course and allowing the spectators to see them better. The elite men's start is 28 minutes later at 10 a.m.

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New York City Marathon : NYC Parks Subscribe to the Parks History email newsletter to receive notification of new thematic pages as they are published. The History of the New York City Marathon One of New York City's most famous events is the New York City Marathon, which runs each year in early November. Since its modest beginning in Central Park when 127 runners participated in front of a meager cheering section, the race has grown to include over 39,000 participants who traverse the five boroughs in front of, organizers say, two million spectators and a worldwide television audience of 315 million. The modern marathon dates to the first (modern) Olympics in Athens in 1896. The course length is derived from the apocryphal story of the army messenger Pheidippides, who, as the story goes, in 490 B.C. raced 26.2 miles back to Athens from Marathon to give word of the Greek military win over Persia. In fact, the 26–mile, 385–yard distance was not agreed upon until 1921—the first races were about 40 kilometers (25 miles), which is roughly the distance between Athens and Marathon. Although the New York City Marathon is now the largest such race, it is not the oldest. The Boston Marathon, which began in 1897 after Athens, is the oldest continuous marathon in the world. The New York City Marathon also has several precursors in the area. The first marathon in the metropolitan New York area occurred in Yonkers across the city line in Westchester County in November 1907. The eventual 1908 Olympic gold medalist John J. "Johnny" Hayes won the 25–mile race. The Irish–born Johnny Hayes was an employee of Bloomingdale's, and trained for his Olympic run on the roof of the store at night on a cinder–path track installed by the company. In the 1908 Olympics, Hayes set a World Record by beating the Italian Dorando Pietri (known simply as "Dorando") after Dorando collapsed upon entering the Olympic Stadium; Hayes was the last gold medalist in the marathon until 1972, when Frank Shorter won the event at Munich, Germany. Marathons Hit City Streets The exciting 1908 Olympic race set off a flurry of marathon mania around the United States, and there were many marathon races in 1908 and 1909 around New York. In 1908, the New York Evening Journal sponsored what appears to have been the first marathon run on New York City streets. The race was run on December 26, 1908, and began in Rye in Westchester County, following the Boston Post Road to Pelham Bay Park, crossing over the Hutchinson River and continuing down Fordham Road to Jerome Avenue, over the Harlem River via the Macomb's Dam Bridge and down Seventh Avenue (now Adam Clayton Powell Boulevard) to 110th Street, finally winding around Central Park via Central Park West down to 59th Street at Columbus Circle. Marathons in 1908 and 1909 were also run in the second incarnation of Madison Square Garden off of Madison Square Park at 26th Street. The events were considered rematches of the Olympic races and included Dorando and the Onondaga Native American Olympic runner Tom Longboat. In April 1909 Dorando, Hayes, Longboat, and Evening Journal Marathon winner Matthew Maloney competed at the Polo Grounds in Manhattan in a "Marathon Derby." The crowd at the Polo Grounds was estimated at 25,000 and did not include large numbers of people assembled in Times Square to hear news about the race; bookmakers even took bets right in the Polo Grounds; the runner Henri St. Yves, a French waiter, won that battle. Events like "modified marathons" expanded the pool of runners in subsequent years. A large pool of athletes participated in a 12–mile modified marathon from Fordham in the Bronx to City Hall in May 1911. In May 1912, 1,300 runners competed in a repeat of the event, which was sponsored by the Evening Mail. Other modified marathons included a 15–mile race in Coney Island, Brooklyn in February 1922 and a 16–mile race from Worth Street to 225th Street and Broadway in Manhattan (before Marble Hill was separated by the reconstruction of the Harlem River Ship Canal) in October 1922. And in 1926, Mayor James J. Walker greeted runners at City Hall at the end of the modified marathon. In 1928, a modified marathon sponsored by Il Progresso, the Italian–language daily newspaper, ran from Elm Street in Manhattan to Luna Park in Coney Island, Brooklyn; the event was marred by injuries when participants collided with automobiles in traffic (street closures were less common than now). The Port Chester Marathon, which began in Manhattan and ended in Westchester County, was a major stop on the running circuit from 1925 to 1941. Held in October, the course ran from Columbus Circle over to 59th Street and Fifth Avenue, north on Fifth Avenue to 138th Street where participants crossed the Harlem River over the Madison Avenue Bridge, continued up the Grand Concourse to Fordham Road, and continued east on the Pelham Parkway to the Boston Post Road into Westchester County. In 1925, Albert Michelsen set a world record that held for ten years running from New York to Port Chester in just under two and–a–half hours. Subsequent races began at Morningside Avenue and 124th Street and ran through Woodlawn in The Bronx. In 1933, one of the runners was hit by an automobile (but still finished). Yet another marathon known as the Long Beach Marathon ran from the New York Athletic Club on Central Park South, over the Queensboro Bridge, through Queens to Jamaica, where runners followed Merrick Boulevard out to Long Beach in Nassau County. In 1927 the Hopi Native American runner Quanowahu won the race, beating out Albert Michelsen and a Long Island Rail Road train that crossed in front of Michelsen at Long Beach that cost Michelsen to be delayed 14 seconds (though Michelsen, it was noted in reports, cut corners during the race instead of running down the center of the roadway). Another marathon was held on September 12, 1948 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the consolidation of New York City. Organized by the Queens Committee for the Commemoration of the Golden Anniversary of the City of New York, in connection with the Jefferson Democratic Club, the course ran from Idlewild Airport in Queens (now John F. Kennedy International Airport) to the World's Fair grounds at Flushing Meadows. 1948 Boston Marathon winner Gerard Cote competed in the race. The New York City Marathon Is Born The precursor of the New York City Marathon that we know today was the Cherry Tree Marathon, which ran through Bronx streets in February from 1959 to 1970 on Washington's Birthday (thus the name). The Cherry Tree Marathon was organized by the Road Runners Club–New York Association, now known as New York Road Runners (NYRR), which was established in June 1958. The original 40–member group has blossomed into 45,000 members and expanded to include other running–related activities and programs. The group's first meeting was held at Macombs Dam Park in the Bronx where it elected 1952 Olympian Ted Corbitt as its first president. The Cherry Tree Marathons started and finished in Macombs Dam Park near Yankee Stadium, running north up Sedgwick Avenue along the Harlem River and looping back again three times. The February race days were sometimes problematic; in 1963, runners faced near–blizzard conditions. During the 1960s, the Road Runners Club also ran a 35–mile "supermarathon" in Alley Pond Park in Queens. There were about 250 members in 1970 when NYRR produced the inaugural New York City Marathon in Central Park. The first New York City Marathon was staged entirely in Central Park and had 127 participants, only one of them female. The course was four loops around the park, and the first ten finishers received wristwatches. (Today, the male and female winners receive $130,000.) Race organizer Fred Lebow (1932–1994) used his own money to purchase the prizes. The winner of the first race, Gary Muhrcke, a New York City fireman, finished with a time of 2:31:38, well off the then–world record of 2:08:34 (although world records later fell in the New York Marathon; in 1981, running great Alberto Salazar set a new world record of 2:08:13). The New York City Marathon grew steadily in subsequent years, though not without its mishaps. In 1971, marathon organizers added a finish–line banner but printed the lettering on the wrong side, and in 1972, six women raced under protest against the Amateur Athletic Union rule that had women start ten minutes after the men. Still, the race's popularity increased, and in 1973 new sponsors Olympic Airways contributed an all–expenses paid trip to Athens for the race winner. Today, the ING New York City Marathon has dozens of sponsors and partners (ING has been the title sponsor of the New York City Marathon since 2003). The Route In honor of the Bicentennial, in 1976 the Marathon was re–routed to travel through the streets of all five boroughs, highlighting New York's diverse population, and in 1977 the route expanded into more neighborhoods. Race organizers intended it to be a model for other marathon courses, and the route in fact highlights some of the city's most important landmarks, including many parks. From Fort Wadsworth in Staten Island to Central Park, the race route makes for an excellent tour of the city. In Brooklyn, runners pass by or through Leif Ericson Park in Bay Ridge, J.J. Byrne Park in Park Slope, Fowler Square in Fort Greene and McCarren Park in Greenpoint. In Queens, runners make a turn at Old Hickory Park just off the Pulaski Bridge in Long Island City and hang a right at Gordon Triangle before getting on the Queensboro Bridge. The race swings by Graham Square in the Bronx before heading back into Manhattan where runners skirt around Marcus Garvey Park and eventually into Central Park, where it all began in 1970. Notable Runners For 2008, the elite competition included 21 Olympians and six Olympic medalists. Notable runners in the past include Alberto Salazar, who besides breaking the world record in 1981 ran the fastest debut marathon in history in 1980 and won the race. Bill Rogers won the marathon four consecutive times from 1976 to 1979. Norwegian Grete Waitz was a nine–time Marathon champ and was honored in 2008 on the 30th anniversary of her first New York City Marathon win with her image on the finisher medal. Waitz set a world record at the New York City Marathon on October 28, 1978 with a time of 2:32:30, just off the pace of the first (male) marathon winner just eight years earlier. (NYRR's annual half–marathon is known as "Grete's Great Gallop.") In 1992, Waitz ran with NYRR President Fred Lebow when Lebow was suffering from brain cancer; he finished the race in just over five and–a–half hours. Each year a statue of Lebow created by Jesus Ygnacio Dominguez depicting Lebow checking his watch in his trademark running suit and hat is placed near the Marathon's finish line near the West Drive at 67th Street in Central Park to greet runners. Many celebrities and prominent figures have run the marathon, including Family Ties' Meredith Baxter (1982), rock star David Lee Roth (1987), author Haruki Murakami (1991), actor William (Billy) Baldwin (1992), former Pittsburgh Steeler Lynn Swann (1993), Austrian politician J?rg Haider (1999), Sean "P. Diddy" Combs (2003), 2008 Republican Presidential candidate Mike Huckabee (2006), Lance Armstrong (2006), and Katie Holmes (2007). In 2008, Olympians Brandi Chastain (soccer) and Kerri Strug (gymnastics) ran, as well as model, actress, and Howard Stern spouse Beth Ostrosky (who ran to benefit the North Shore Animal League on Long Island), and Scarlett Johansson husband/actor Ryan Reynolds (who supported Team Fox, the fund–raising arm of the Michael J. Fox Foundation to find a cure for Parkinson's disease). Growing Popularity and Staff In 1981, ABC Sports began televising the race, the year Salazar set the world record, and in 1982 the marathon became the highest–rated sports show of the day for the network. A waiting list was instituted in 1982 as well, and today over 105,000 entrants compete in a lottery system for roughly 39,000 slots (a portion of the entrants guarantee their participation by running in support of affiliated charity). Racers come from all 50 states and more than 100 countries, and it is a custom of sorts for some runners, though not the lead runners, to dress in elaborate costumes. The statistics for the New York City Marathon are impressive in themselves. NYRR has over 100 staff working year–round on the marathon. More than 6,000 volunteers participate on race day. 2,500 media credentials are issued. And the Barilla Marathon Eve Dinner feeds 15,000 marathoners and their guests 6,840 pounds of pasta, 1,800 pounds of salad, 15,000 apples, and 18,000 cans of light beer (!). At the starting line, NYRR sets up 1,450 portable toilets, hands out 30,000 PowerBars and 90,000 bottles of water, and serves 40,000 cups of coffee. During the race, volunteers will hand out 62,370 gallons of water and 32,040 gallons of Gatorade in 2,250,000 paper cups while 80 photographers snap 450,000 photos of racers. And the 41 medical aid stations along the way are outfitted with over five tons of ice, 13,475 adhesive bandages, and 390 tubs of Vaseline. Whether you're a participant or spectator, the New York City Marathon is a major event, and Parks is pleased to be a part of it. Related Links

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Popcorn, a charmed fanfic | FanFiction Ben: "Next question for one hundred dollars. Who owns Cash Cab?" Me: "Um…Not me?" Ben: "Correct! Who owns Charmed?" Me: "OhhOhh. ME!" Chris: "What? No. Not you. God not you." Me: "Oh well…it was worth a try." Ben: "Strike three and you know what that means. Good bye!" Chris: "Great. Look what you did. Now we have to walk to Italy." Me: "Oops." Okay an entirely pointless fic that wouldn't leave me alone until I wrote it. I was watching Cash Cab and it just kinda forced its way in. It also helped with a mild case of Writers block for The Other Side. For anyone who is reading that I'm just having trouble with what I want to happen in the next chapter but it's comin together. Any and all mistakes are mine. Anyhoo…it may be pointless but you can still Review! Cause you're great when you do. (And if you're weird like me you realized that rhymed…kinda or not) So Enjoy and don't forget Review :) Chris sprinted down the alley after the fleeing black figures. Wyatt thundered behind him yelling obscenities at the power stealing demons they were chasing. They rounded the corner losing sight of the demons. "Where'd they go? Where'd they freakin' go?" Wyatt demanded looking this way and that. "I don't know," Chris answered pulling out the scrying crystal. "Give me the map." Wyatt grumbled, rummaging around the bag to find the map. "Freaking demons steal our orbing then take off on a stupid goose chase. Good thing they can't use it…" He handed Chris the map watching impatiently as Chris scryed with a dagger. "Where'd they go this time…let me guess, Italy right?" "No," Chris said annoyed. "They're still in New York. Thank god or we'd be screwed." He pointed to their position on the map. "Alright, let's go," Wyatt said clapping his brother on the shoulder. "What? Wy they're here," Chris repeated tapping the map. "And we're," he struggled with the paper unfolding it more and pointing to another spot, "here." "So?" "They're in Manhattan. We are in Brooklyn. That's a long way to walk," said Chris. "Well what do you want me to do about it? I can't shrink New York. Someone would notice." Chris rolled his eyes. "A cab, Wy, can we get a cab?" "Oh," Wyatt said blinking, "Right, yeah we can get a cab. I've got money." Chris rolled his eyes again as his brother bounced to the edge of the street waving his arms to get a taxi. Fifteen minutes later Wyatt managed to acquire a yellow car to take them where they needed to go. Wyatt pulled him into the car and rattled off the destination. The driver grunted something and Wyatt furrowed his brow in confusion. "Uh…what? I didn't catch that." " Wh' 'o ay," the man grunted his thick accent muddling the words. Chris chuckled raising his eyebrows in amusement at his brother's harried expression. Despite their time sensitive mission he was inclined to let Wy hang for a bit. "I'm sorry. I don't," Wyatt floundered, "I don't understand you." "Whe'e 'o ga." Wyatt looked flustered, for all his twice blessed powerfulness he couldn't understand a man with an accent. Chris full out laughed now. "He wants you to repeat the destination, Wy," he gasped out taking pity on the blonde. "Oh," Wyatt said, "We uh—" Lights suddenly flashed around the cab with a loud ringing noise. Chris jumped, nearly orbing, if he'd had his power, through the car. As it was he settled for an extremely unhappy expression as the cab driver straightened up and announced in an overly loud voice: "Welcome to the Cash Cab! It's a TV game show that takes place right here in my taxi cab." Chris watched as Wyatt's expression turned from shocked to ecstatic in moments. "Oh my god, oh my god! Chris do you know what this is?" he asked awed. Chris crossed his arms and scowled. "No, but I have a feeling one of you is going to tell me," he stated looking from his brother to the show host. "Hullo, my name's Ben Bailey and I'll be your game show host. What are your names?" the host asked/shouted twisting around in his seat to look at his passengers. Wyatt leaned forward eagerly. "Name's Wyatt and this is my brother, Chris." "Nice to meet you Wyatt, that's a funny name, and Chris," the host said. "As I said this is the cash cab. I'll be asking you general knowledge questions all the way to your destination. Answer correctly and you win cash, answer wrong and you get a strike. Three strikes and I have to kick you out. You get a mobile or street shout-out for help. What do you say…do you want to play?" "Yes!" Wyatt shouted. The host started the car forward stopping at Chris's quiet objection, "Wait." Wyatt turned to him surprised, "What—" "You said we get three strikes and you have to kick us out?" Chris asked. "That's right," the host shouted/answered. "Three strikes and I have to let you go." Chris nodded. "Right," he said reaching for the door handle. "What are you doing?" Wyatt sputtered appalled. Chris raised his eyebrows and pointed at the driver. "Savin' him from driving a block." Wyatt rolled his eyes. "Oh puulease. Give us some credit. We'd make it father than a block." Chris snorted. "Fine…Save him from drivin' two. And don't forget about the demonstration." He yanked on the handle, opening the door and stepping out. "Nooooo," Wyatt yelled dragging his brother bodily back into the car and slamming the door shut. "Come on Chris the demonstration can wait…this is like a once in a lifetime opportunity." Chris stared at him slack jawed. "It's a game show," he said enunciating the words. "A stupid game show." "It's not stupid. It's based on trivia. How could it be stupid?" Wyatt countered. "Ooh," the host said in his best game show voice, "there seems to be some inter-sibling conflict." Chris sent the host his best 'really?' expression. "Dude, commentary not needed." "Come on Chris, please? It doesn't matter what cab we take to get to the demonstration, it will take the same amount of time, we just have more fun this way, " Wyatt begged giving Chris his best puppy dog look. Chris frowned at him. "You know that doesn't work. It just makes me want to kick you." "Fine," Wyatt said petulantly. He was silent for a moment then he brightened. "I'll do your chores for a week," he said. "Ooh and out come the bribes," the host announced. Chris scoffed at him, before turning back to his brother. "My chores for a month and you clean the room…thoroughly." Wyatt grinned. "I'll do the chores for two weeks, tidy up the room, and watch the cousins for a month." "Chores for three weeks, clean the room, and watch the cousins for three weeks." "Chores for two and half weeks, watch the cousins for two, and tidy the room and the bathroom." "Done," Chris said. "So," shouted the host. Was he always going to shout? "Does this mean you're playing?" "Yep!" Wyatt said happily, grinning like a fool. The driver shot Chris a critical look. "Never seen anyone need to be bribed to play," he commented. "So, what's this demonstration of?" Chris just rolled his eyes not inclined to answer. "Uh…martial arts," Wyatt said. The cabbie nodded pulling away from the curb. "Alright, questions start out at twenty-five dollars. First question. What percentage of the average human brain is water?" Wyatt eyes widened and he turned to Chris. "What makes you think I know?" Chris demanded. "Well you're the science geek." "Well you're the game show geek." "Five seconds," the driver said/shouted. Wyatt poked Chris in the arm. "Guess something," he hissed. Chris rolled his eyes. "Seventy percent." "Ooh, no," said Ben. Chris shot Wyatt a told you so look. "The corrected answer is eighty percent. Strike one. Two more and I'll have to kick you out," the host said. "Alright next question. Also a simple card game, what is the term for a kernel of popcorn that remains un-popped?" Chris raised his eyebrows and shrugged. Wyatt began mouthing words silently. "Oh I know this, I know this. Go Fish? No. War? No. Uh. Kings Corner no…OOH…Old Maid!" he shouted triumphantly. "Ow…I need my eardrums, Wy." "Yes! You have won twenty five dollars! Next question. In the Hans Christian Andersen story, what tiny item did the Princess feel through a stack of mattresses?" "A pea," Wyatt answered. "I don't want to know how you knew that," Chris remarked. "Yes again! And you're up to fifty bucks! In Bill Waterson's popular comic strip, what is the name of Calvin's stuffed tiger?" Wyatt wrinkled his face as Chris answered bluntly, "Hobbes." The host smiled hugely. "Correct! That's seventy five dollars. Let's get you more. These next questions are worth fifty dollars each and they're a little bit harder." "Great," Chris muttered. "Alright. What chairman of Microsoft allegedly receives about four million e-mails a day?" Chris shrugged. "Mr. Apple?" he said suggested sarcastically. "No, Chris. I don't even think that's a real person," Wyatt answered deep in thought. Chris rolled his eyes at him. "Five seconds," the host said. "Uh…Bill Gates," Wyatt guessed. "Correct you are. Next question. A wiccan practitioner without a coven is known as what?" Chris arched his eyebrows and answered: "A solitary witch." "Oooh…yes! That's a hundred seventy five dollars. In Greek mythology, who was the queen of the underworld and wife of Hades? "Persephone," the boy said in unison. "Correct!" yelled the host. "Guess it's a good thing we just watched that Percy Jackson movie huh?" Wyatt whispered. "I'm still plotting your murder for that." "Next question. What is the meaning of the Latin word veto?" Chris actually smiled. "I forbid," he said. "Yeeeess! Now you have two hundred seventy five dollars. These next questions are worth a hundred dollars each and they're a little bit harder. Opposite of waning, when the moon is growing in size it is said to be what?" "Waxing," Wyatt said. Any witch worth their salt knew that. "Correct. In 1912, the crew of the Carpathia helped assist the survivors of what nautical disaster?" Wyatt looked lost. "Oh come on Wy. It's Titanic," Chris huffed. "YEEEESSS! You're up to four hundred seventy five dollars…and we have a red light challenge!" The host twisted around in his seat. "A red light challenge is a multiple answer question. If you get all the answers you get five hundred dollars, if you don't get the answers you don't lose anything or get a strike. You have thirty seconds from the time I finish asking the question. Are you ready?" "Yes!" Wyatt hollered. Chris winced. Seriously what was with shouting? "Alright! Individuals who have the ability to use magic have many titles. Name five of the most generic terms used to label these individuals." Chris shot Wyatt an 'are you kidding me?' look. "Witch," said Wyatt immediately. "Warlock, um, sorcerer," Wyatt said, "um…" "Shaman," Chris said. "You got 'em! The only one you didn't say was magician," the host said. "We have more questions and still a ways to get to your destination. Next question. Reportedly, Bill Clinton used what poet's "Leaves of Grass" to woo both Hillary and Monica?" "Ahhh...," Wyatt said, "Poetry not my strong point. Chris?" Chris frowned, "Snowball in Hell if I know." "Well just name a poet." "Robert Frost." "Ohhh no….the answer is Walt Whitman. Strike two. Remember you can use a shout out if you're stumped," the host said. "Oh right," Wyatt said. "Next question. What famous book begins with 'Chug, chug, chug. Puff, puff, puff'?" Chris raised his eyebrows smirking at his brother. "Shout out?" he suggested. Wyatt blushed and shook his head. "Uh, no. It's The Little Engine that Could," he said coughing slightly. "It is indeed, that's one thousand seventy five dollars now!" Chris regarded Wyatt mockingly, "Oooh guess your reading level did come in handy." Wyatt glared at him. "Preston reads it every time she's at the manor and it just stuck, ok." "Whatever you say Wy. Whatever you say." The cabbie cleared his throat. "Next question. How was the dish we know as chicken a la king first listed when it was added to the menu at New York's Delmonico's restaurant in the 1880's?" Chris smiled answering easily. He was the son of a chef after all. "As chicken a la Keene. It was named in honor of Foxhall Keene, a regular at Delmonico's." "He wants an answer not a lecture, Chris," Wyatt quipped. "Lecture or not, he's right. You two are racking up your dough. And here's your next question, what movie's cast from the 1900's included 124 midgets?" " The 1939 version of The Wizard of Oz starring Judy Garland. The midgets played Munchkins," Wyatt responded quickly. "What, I like movies," he added at Chris's chuckle. "Excellent. What was used to power the engines of the starship Enterprise in the Star Trek television series?" "Antimatter," replied Chris. "Correct!" "Geek," Wyatt muttered. "Which of TV's Golden Girls was the oldest—Beatrice Arthur, Estelle Getty, Rue McClanahan, or Betty White?" Chris arched his eyebrows looking at Wyatt. "Well?" Wyatt shrugged, "I have no idea. Guess?" "Nooo genius," Chris said condescendingly, "shout-out." "Okay! And they're using a shout-out. Mobile or street?" Ben asked/shouted. "We could call Pheebs," Chris suggested. "Ha, no. She's a horror movie expert, not sitcoms. So street," Wyatt said. The driver pulled over and rolled down the window. Wyatt leaned out gesturing at the nearest person. Chris leaned over and smacked his hand. "No not him. Go away you. Ooh get her, the old lady," Chris said. "Excuse me, ma'am. Hello? Yo Grandma! Come here, please." The old lady looked scandalized but walked over anyway. Wyatt shoved Chris back in the car. "Sorry 'bout him," Wyatt said. "He's a bit insensitive. We need your help, cause were on Cash Cab." The woman's expression smoothed and she smiled. "Ooh I love that show." "Yeah it is great, isn't it. With all the—" "Wyatt! The question." "Oh right, Um which of the TV's Golden Girls was the oldest?" Wyatt asked. "Oh my, I love that show. The oldest was Betty White. Love her character. You know my name is the same as…" "Thanks Granny. Betty White," Chris repeated to the host. "Correct! A successful shout-out," the host said pulling away from the curb. "Thank you," Wyatt shouted out the window as the driver sped away with screeching tires. "Next question, and we're nearing your destination. How many different animal shapes are there in the "Animal Crackers" cookie zoo?" "Oooh…Eighteen!" Wyatt squealed. Yes…squealed. "And you would know that how?" Chris asked. "I'm observant." "No. You're not." "Eighteen is correct! In what theory did Eisenhower suggest that if one country falls to communism, the country next to it would follow suit?" " The Domino Theory," Chris said. "Absolutely. Last question," the host said, "how many flowers are in the design stamped on each side of an Oreo cookie?" Wyatt's jaw dropped. "That's right! And we're here," the driver said parking. "And you knew that how?" Wyatt asked echoing Chris's earlier statement. Chris's smirk grew. "I'm observant." Wyatt frowned. "Okay," Chris relented, "unfortunate side effect of Saturday detention and an Oreo addicted best friend." Ben cleared his throat. "Alright. You two have won quite a bit of cash. One thousand seven hundred seventy five dollars. Now you can take it and leave or risk it all, double or nothing, for a Video Bonus question. What do you say?" "We'll leave," Chris said hand already on the door. "What? No Chris, come on," Wyatt whined again. "Wyatt, remember the demonstration." "It'll take all of two minutes," Wyatt pleaded. Chris sighed, "Fine." "Okay! Watch the screen," Ben said. Chris huffed looking to the screen. It darkened some movie clip beginning to play. Chris had focused his attention on it when he noticed two people running down the street they were on. "Ahh," he said, "Time to go." "What?" Wyatt asked stupidly. "We can't go. The movie's not over." "Wyatt," Chris snapped whacking his brother on the head, "It's them. The demo—ahh…the demonstrators. The demonstrators. We have to go." He clambered over his brother. "Ow! Damnit Chris. Watch your feet," Wyatt yelped. Chris escaped the taxi taking off full speed down the sidewalk. "Uh," Wyatt said. "Nevermind. Changed our minds about the video thing. I'll just take that and go," he said snatching the money out of Benny's hand and flying after his brother. "Chris wait up!" Ben blinked after them before turning to one of his camera people. "Alright. And that is why they call it New York." Chris ran after the demons feet thudding on the concrete. He could hear Wyatt's footsteps thundering behind him. "Oi you stupid demons! Stop running already!" he shouted oblivious to the odd stares they were attracting from street people. The demons sped faster turning into a park. They dodged about the trees like squirrels, sprinting through the grassy area. Chris growled in frustration forcing himself to run faster. He caught up finally taking off from a rock to tackle one of the demons. He landed with an ompfhh hearing Wyatt execute a flying tackle of his own. Chris twisted the demon's arm around its back and wacked it a good one on the back of the head. A couple times for good measure. He huffed sitting back and met the eyes of two teenage girls who were just staring at him. "Oh," he said pushing back his sweaty hair, "Um this isn't what it looks like. Purse thief…uh belongs to my grandmother, can't have her losing her dentures…not pretty..um." "Yeah," Wyatt chimed in. "Not good guys these two. Nope. Not at all." The girls backed away terrified and took off screaming bloody murder across the ground. "Uh oh," Wyatt said. Chris nodded. "Yeah, uh time to go." He slid the power stealing athame from the now unconscious demon's belt stabbing it into him without hesitation. Immediately he felt his own powers returning. He tossed the blade to Wyatt as the demon burned to dust. Wyatt vanquished his demonic thief just as the girls reached a group of people and began gesturing wildly in their direction. "Hmm. We should go yes?" said Wyatt. "Nahh. What gave you that idea," Chris replied ducking behind a tree to orb out. When the police finally made it over ten minutes late, all they found was dirt. A long time later… Phoebe stared in shock at the TV as she watched her two nephews climb into the Cash Cab. "Piper!" she yelled. "Get in here now!" "What is it Phoebe? I was in the middle of…Holy Crap. What are my boys doing on TV?" she demanded homicidally. "It's Cash Cab! Phoebe exclaimed excitedly. "You didn't tell me they were on Cash Cab." Piper glowered at her. "Maybe because I DIDN'T KNOW!" "Sheesh no need to scream at me." Piper sighed. "No I guess not." She sat down. "I'll kill them later. Phoebe?" "Yes Piper?" "Go make some popcorn."

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Volcanoes of Tanzania - John Seach Volcanoes of Tanzania - John Seach Tanzania has varied geography. wildlife, and active volcanoes, and diverse cultures. Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano in Tanzania is the only volcano in the world to erupt black lava. Kilimanjaro is Africa's highest mountain and the highest volcano outside the South American Andes.  Volcanoes of Tanzania

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Mount Kilimanjaro, the Highest Volcano in Tanzania, Africa | World Tourism Place Stunning Views Mount Kilimanjaro, the Highest Volcano in Tanzania, Africa Mount Kilimanjaro is one of the highest volcanoes in the world and is the highest mountain in Africa, precisely in the country of Tanzania. Mountains with an altitude of 5.895 meters is the main attraction at the Kilimanjaro National Park is famous for its beauty as a snowy peak and cloud-covered changing. Snowy peak of Kilimanjaro mountain is often called Kibo, and that’s the most popular and the main attraction of mountain climbers from various countries who are curious to see the crater from a closer distance. Not many mountain climbers can enjoy this Kibo from near even to the crater rim. For mountain climbers who managed to climb to Kibo closer, then they will feel a wonderful experience. Additionally the climbers who managed to climb to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro, then they will receive a certificate and is recognized as a mountain climber. Leave a Reply

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Kilimanjaro: Facts about Africa's Highest Peak Kilimanjaro: Facts About Africa's Highest Peak By Kim Ann Zimmermann, Live Science Contributor | September 24, 2012 05:14pm ET MORE Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa at 19,341 feet (5,895 meters), but it isn't a mountain in a traditional sense. It is a giant stratovolcano that began forming about a million years ago and is composed of many layers of hardened volcanic ash, lava, pumice and tephra — fragmental material that is the fallout from a volcanic eruption. One of the Seven Summits (the highest peaks on the seven continents), Kilimanjaro is in Tanzania in east Africa. Credit: Graeme Shannon shutterstock A number of theories exist about the meaning and origin of the name. One theory is that the name is a mix of the Swahili word Kilima, meaning "mountain," and the KiChagga word Njaro, loosely translated as "whiteness." Another is that Kilimanjaro is the European pronunciation of a KiChagga phrase meaning "we failed to climb it." One of the Seven Summits (the highest peaks on the seven continents), Kilimanjaro is in Tanzania in east Africa. Kilimanjaro lies within the 292-square-mile (756 square kilometers) Kilimanjaro National Park. Kilimanjaro rises from its base approximately 16,732 feet (5,100 meters) from the plains near the Tanzanian municipality of Moshi, making it the tallest free-standing mountain in the world. There are three volcanic cones that make up Kilimanjaro: Kibo is the summit; Mawenzi at 16,893 feet (5,149 meters); and Shira at 13,000 feet (3,962 meters). Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibo's crater rim. Uhuru, Swahili for "Freedom," was named in 1961 when Tanganyika gained its independence . Tanganyika later joined with the islands of Zanzibar to form Tanzania. While the other two volcanic formations are extinct — meaning that they are highly unlikely to erupt again — Kibo (the highest peak) is merely dormant, so there is the possibility that it could erupt. Estimates have the last major eruption dated to 360,000 years ago, but volcanic activity was recorded just 200 years ago. While Kibo is dormant, gas is emitted into the crater, causing several collapses and landslides, with the most extensive ones creating the area known as the Western Breach. While the name Kilimanjaro has its origins in the KiChagga word for "white," it is becoming increasingly less so. While it still covered with ice caps and glaciers at higher levels, global warming is quickly changing the climate and scientists expect the famed snows of Kilimanjaro to disappear sometime between 2022 and 2033. Climbing Kilimanjaro About 30,000 people climb Kilimanjaro each year and about three-quarters of those reach the summit. It is a relatively safe climb, and most climbers who fail to summit experience altitude-related issues or harsh weather near the peak. Temperatures at the peak can be 0 degrees F (minus 18 C), and if the winds are blowing, the wind chills reach dangerous levels. The climb can be done any time of year but the rainy winter season make the summer and early fall a popular time to climb. Kilimanjaro has five climbing routes to the summit: Marangu Route; Machame Route; Rongai Route; Lemosho Route; and Mweka Route. The popular Machame and Lemosho routes are scenic, while the busy Marangu is the easiest until the difficult final ascent to the rim of the crater. In 1861, the German officer Baron Carl Claus von der Decken and British geologist Richard Thornton  made a first attempt to climb Kibo, but had to turn back at 8,200 feet (2,500 meters). Von der Decken tried a second time the following year, and with Otto Kersten got as far as 14,000 feet (4,280 meters). In 1887, during his first attempt to climb Kilimanjaro, German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the base of Kibo, but was not properly equipped to handle the deep snow and ice and retreated. On Oct. 5, 1889,  Meyer, Marangu scout Yoanas Kinyala Lauwo and Austrian Ludwig Purtscheller were the first team to reach the summit. They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater, which was filled with ice at the time. Honey badgers and bushbabies Kilimanjaro encompasses a wide variety of ecosystems, including tropical jungle, savannah, and desert to montane forests, subalpine plants, and the alpine zone above timberline. Kilimanjaro has a large variety of forest types that harbor 1,200 vascular plant species. Montane Ocotea forests occur on the wet southern slope. Cassipourea and Juniperus forests grow on the dry northern slope. Subalpine Erica forests at 13,451 feet (4,100 meters) represent the highest elevation cloud forests in Africa. Another feature of the forests of Kilimanjaro is the lack of a bamboo zone, which occurs on all other tall mountains in East Africa with a similarly high rainfall. Because there is no bamboo zone there is a limited supply of food for animals. However, there are a number of species that thrive in the area . Blue monkeys, which are not actually blue but grey or black with a white throat, gather in the forest zone on the Rongai Route. Olive baboons, civets, leopards, mongooses and bush pigs, which have a distinctive white stripe running along its back from head to tail, are abundant. There are honey badgers and aardvarks, but visitors rarely get to see these nocturnal creatures. Noisy bushbabies, which are also nocturnal creatures, can be more easily heard more than seen. There are also small-spotted genets with distinctive black-and-white tails, and the loud tree hydraxes that are similar to chipmunks. — Kim Ann Zimmermann

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Mount Kilimanjaro - Tanzania Africa - YouTube Mount Kilimanjaro - Tanzania Africa Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Sep 19, 2011 Welcome to Mount Kilimanjaro a dormant volcano which is the highest mountain in Africa. The view of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Africa from the camp site in Marangu Hotel at the base of Kili. Category

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Kilimanjaro | mountain, Tanzania | Britannica.com Kilimanjaro Junko Tabei Kilimanjaro, volcanic massif in northeastern Tanzania , near the Kenya border. Its central cone, Kibo, rises to 19,340 feet (5,895 metres) and is the highest point in Africa. Kilimanjaro lies about 100 miles (160 km) east of the East African Rift System and about 140 miles (225 km) south of Nairobi , Kenya. The massif extends approximately east-west for 50 miles (80 km) and consists of three principal extinct volcanoes: Kibo (centre), Mawensi (east), and Shira (west). Kibo , the youngest and highest, retains the form of a typical volcanic cone and crater and is linked by a 7-mile (11-km) saddle at about 15,000 feet (4,500 metres) with Mawensi (16,893 feet [5,149 metres]), which is the older core of a former summit. Shira ridge (13,000 feet [3,962 metres]) is a remnant of an earlier crater. Below the saddle, Kilimanjaro slopes in a typical volcanic curve to the plains below, which lie at an elevation of about 3,300 feet (1,000 metres). The breathtaking snow-clad dome of Kibo contains a caldera (crater) on its southern side that is 1.2 miles (2 km) across and some 980 feet (300 metres) deep, with an inner cone that displays residual volcanic activity. Mawensi’s cone is highly eroded, jagged, and precipitous and is cleft east and west by gorges. Only Kibo retains a permanent ice cap. Mawensi has semipermanent ice patches and substantial seasonal snow. Sunrise on Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. © Anna Omelchenko/Fotolia A caldera on Kibo, Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. © Yann Arthus-Bertrand/Corbis The mountain and its surrounding forests were designated a game reserve in the early part of the 20th century. In 1973 Mount Kilimanjaro National Park was established to protect the mountain above the tree line as well as the six forest corridors that extend downslope through the montane forest belt. The park was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987. Similar Topics Mount Nyiragongo Kilimanjaro has a succession of vegetation zones consisting of (from base to summit) the semiarid scrub of the surrounding plateau; the massif’s cultivated , well-watered southern slopes; dense cloud forest; open moorland; alpine desert; and moss and lichen communities . Two notable species that grow in the moorlands are the giant lobelia (Lobelia deckenii) and the giant groundsel (Senecio johnstonii cottonii). The forests of the southern slopes and surrounding areas are home to elephants, buffalo, and eland (oxlike antelopes). Smaller mammals inhabiting the forests include black and white colobus monkeys, blue monkeys, and bushbuck and duikers (small African antelopes). The forests also host a rich variety of birdlife, including the rare Abbot’s starling. Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Digital Vision/Thinkstock The Kilimanjaro formations became known to Europeans when they were reached in 1848 by the German missionaries Johannes Rebmann and Johann Ludwig Krapf , although the news that there were snow-capped mountains so close to the Equator was not believed until more than a decade later. The Kibo summit was first reached in 1889 by the German geographer Hans Meyer and the Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller. The Kilimanjaro region is one of Tanzania’s leading producers of mild coffee, barley, wheat, and sugar; other crops include sisal, corn (maize), beans, bananas, wattle bark (Acacia), cotton, pyrethrum, and potatoes. The region is populated by the Chaga (Chagga) , Pare, Kahe, and Mbugu peoples. The town of Moshi, at the southern foot of Kilimanjaro, is the chief trading centre and base for ascent. As Kibo’s peak can be reached without the aid of mountaineering equipment, thousands of hikers attempt the ascent each year. Acacia trees on the plain below Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. © paul hampton/Fotolia

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Kilimanjaro; a holiday guide to Kilimanjaro, Tanzania   Show me more > A Towering Life Force Kilimanjaro represents a powerful life force for the local Chagga people and all those who have made their lives around this mountain, providing rich volcanic soils for agriculture and an endless source of pure spring waters. Where is Mount Kilimanjaro The cloud-swathed peaks of Africa’s highest mountain inspire climbers of all ages and abilities. This magnificent, still partially ice-capped peak crowns fantastically lush volcanic slopes, with plenty of wildlife interest along the lower forest trails. Climbs can be arranged up a variety of different routes, and with various options for accommodation. It is worth having the time to enjoy the climb and acclimatise. We tend to run trips up the two main, more commonly used routes; Marangu (known as the Coca-Cola route) takes 4 nights (or 5 nights including an extra night of acclimatization), and the quieter Machame Route  takes 5 nights (or 6 nights including an extra night of acclimatization). Nearby Mount Meru, Africa’s fifth highest peak, is a 3 or 4 day round trip. One of the most amazing aspects of the mountain in the present day is the accessibility of its peak to climbers with no mountain climbing equipment or real previous experience of scaling such heights. Mt Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain that regular tourists can climb, although it remains a considerable feat of human endurance! The breathable oxygen at the top is less than half the amount than is common at sea level, and climbers cover at least eighty kilometres on nothing but their own two feet over the five days it takes to reach the top and return. The ever increasing number of climbers has made it necessary for the National Park to insist that all climbs are pre-booked, and passes are no longer issued at the last minute at the park gate.   Show me less Overall Fitness Required Although it is possible to simply trek a route to the pinnacle of Kibo without relying on professional climbing equipment, it remains a hard and serious endeavour that requires a level of physical fitness, stamina and a realistic awareness of the potentially damaging effects of high altitudes.  Many tour operators request that clients consult a doctor before attempting to scale the mountain, and have a physical check-up for overall fitness. Phases of the Climb First Stage, Tropical Forest With most of the old lowland forest now cultivated and settled, the first experience of the mountain environment begins with the dense vegetation of tropical montane forest between 1850m and around 2800m. Cloud condensation mainly gathers around the forest, so this area is usually damp or drenched with rainfall, creating an intriguing mass of plant life and running rivers between endemic tree species. The area of heath just beyond the tree line also enjoys a relatively misty and damp environment as cloud clings around the density of trees. This is covered with heather and shrubs such as Erica Arborea and Stoebe Kilimandsharica, and a number of dramatic looking Proteas.   Show me more > Overall Fitness Required Although it is possible to simply trek a route to the pinnacle of Kibo without relying on professional climbing equipment, it remains a hard and serious endeavour that requires a level of physical fitness, stamina and a realistic awareness of the potentially damaging effects of high altitudes.  Many tour operators request that clients consult a doctor before attempting to scale the mountain, and have a physical check-up for overall fitness. Phases of the Climb First Stage, Tropical Forest With most of the old lowland forest now cultivated and settled, the first experience of the mountain environment begins with the dense vegetation of tropical montane forest between 1850m and around 2800m. Cloud condensation mainly gathers around the forest, so this area is usually damp or drenched with rainfall, creating an intriguing mass of plant life and running rivers between endemic tree species. The area of heath just beyond the tree line also enjoys a relatively misty and damp environment as cloud clings around the density of trees. This is covered with heather and shrubs such as Erica Arborea and Stoebe Kilimandsharica, and a number of dramatic looking Proteas. Open Moorland From around 3,200m a wide expanse of moorland extends beyond the heath and the cloud line, so that here the skies are generally clear, making the sunshine intense during the days and the nights cool and clear. The climbing incline remains gentle, but thinning oxygen provides less fuel to energise the muscles and can dramatically slow the pace of walking. Hardy endemic species of Giant Groundsels (Senecio) and Lobelia (Deckenii) towering up to 4m high thrive in this moorland zone and give the landscape a strangely primeval atmosphere. Alpine Desert, Sparse Vegetation Even higher, beyond 4,000m, oxygen levels are depleted further as the landscape develops into a more bizarre alpine desert, with sandy loose earth.  Weather conditions are so intense and temperature fluctuations so dramatic that barely any plant species survive other than everlasting flowers, mosses and lichens. Only the odd lichen survives beyond 5000m, after Kibo Huts and beyond the Saddle, where the landscape is predominantly rock and ice fields. Here, climbers experience the final steep push to the summit. Saddle to Summit The easterly routes, Marangu, Mweka, Loitokitok and Rongai all converge west of the saddle near Gillmans Point, between the peaks of Mawenzi and Kibo. Kibos crater is roughly circular with an inner cone extending to 5,800m, (100m lower than the summit at Uhuru Peak). At the centre an inner crater with walls between 12 and 20 m high contains another concentric minor cone, the centre of which falls away into the 360m span of the ash pit. This is the 120 metre deep central core of the volcano, and casts sulphurous boiling smoke from its depths despite the frozen, snowy outskirts.   Show me less Tanzania safari extensions Having gone all the way to climb Kilimanjaro, most climbers choose to extend their trip with a Tanzanian safari or even some beach time in Zanzibar or on the mainland coast.

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Active volcanoes in Africa and the Red Sea: facts & information Schematic map of Africa's most active volcanoes Volcanoes in Africa Adapted from: Simpkin and Siebert, 1994, Volcanoes of the World: Africa is the only region other than the Mediterranean with an historically dated B.C. eruption (at Mount Cameroon, observed by a passing Carthaginian navigator in the 5th century B.C.). By the 15th centuray A.D., however, when Portuguese exploration of Africa had begun and Vasco de Gama sailed to India via the Cape of Good Hope, only 2 more eruptions had been recorded, both from Ethiopia. In the next 3 and two-thirds centuries, another 20 some eruptions were recorded, but the main historical record of the continent began with the opening of the Suez Canal at the end of 1869, and the heyday of African exploration that followed. Most African volcanoes result from hotspots, the rifting in East Africa, or a combination of the two. The East African rift, one of the world's most dramatic extensional structures, has produced the continent's highest and lowest volcanoes, ranging from the massive Kilimanjaro to vents in Ethiopia's Danakil Depression that lie below sea level. Two neighboring volcanoes in Zaire's (today's Democratic Republic of the Congo) Virunga National Park, Nyamuragira and Nyiragongo, are responsible for nearly two-fifths of Africa's historical eruptions.   Western Africa (9 volcanoes): Biu Plateau | Cameroon | Manengouba | Ngaoundere Plateau | Oku Volcanic Field | San Carlos | San Joaquin | Sao Tome | Tombel Graben The East African Rift Valley Map of East Africa showing some of the historically active volcanoes (red triangles) and the Afar Triangle (shaded, center) -- a so-called triple junction (or triple point), where three plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift Zone. From: Kious and Tilling, 1996, This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics: USGS Online version 1.08 In East Africa, spreading processes have already torn Saudi Arabia away from the rest of the African continent, forming the Red Sea. The actively splitting African Plate and the Arabian Plate meet in what geologists call a triple junction, where the Red Sea meets the Gulf of Aden. A new spreading centre may be developing under Africa along the East African Rift Zone. When the continental crust stretches beyond its limits, tension cracks begin to appear on the Earth's surface. Magma rises and squeezes through the widening cracks, sometimes to erupt and form volcanoes. The rising magma, whether or not it erupts, puts more pressure on the crust to produce additional fractures and, ultimately, the rift zone. East Africa may be the site of the Earth's next major ocean. Plate interactions in the region provide scientists an opportunity to study first hand how the Atlantic may have begun to form about 200 million years ago. Geologists believe that, if spreading continues, the three plates that meet at the edge of the present-day African continent will separate completely; allowing the Indian Ocean to flood the area and making the easternmost corner of Africa (the Horn of Africa) a large island. More on VolcanoDiscovery:

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Facts About Kilimanjaro — Highest Mountain in Africa Elevation: 19,340 feet (5,895 meters) Prominence: 19,308 feet (5,885 meters); Most prominent mountain in Africa. Location: Tanzania , East Africa Coordinates: -3.075844 S / 37.353312 E  or 03°04′33″ S / 37°21′12″ E First Ascent: Hans Meyer (Germany), Yoanas Kinyala Lauwo (Tanzania), and Ludwig Purtscheller (Austria) on October 5, 1889. KILIMANJARO FAST FACTS:   Meaning of Mountain's Name The meaning and origin of the name Kilimanjaro is unknown. It is thought to be a combination of the Swahili word Kilima, meaning “mountain,” and the KiChagga word Njaro, loosely translated as “whiteness,” giving the name White Mountain. The name Kibo in KiChagga means “spotted” and refers to rocks seen on snowfields. The name Uhuru translates as “freedom,” a name given to commemorate Tanzanian independence from Great Britain in 1961. Africa's Highest Summit Kilimanjaro , the highest mountain in Africa and fourth highest of the Seven Summits , is considered the tallest freestanding mountain in the world, rising 15,100 feet (4,600 meters) from base to summit. continue reading below our video How to Throw a Perfect Spiral in Football Kilimanjaro is also the most prominent mountain in Africa. Three Volcanic Cones Kilimanjaro is composed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo 19,340 feet (5,895 meters); Mawenzi 16,896 feet (5,149 meters); and Shira 13,000 feet (3,962 meters). Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibo’s crater rim. Dormant Stratovolcano Kilimanjaro is a giant stratovolcano that began forming a million years ago when lava spilled from the Rift Valley zone. The mountain was built by successive lava flows. Two of its three peaks—Mawenzi and Shira—are extinct while Kibo, the highest peak is dormant and could erupt again. The last major eruption was 360,000 years ago, while the most recent activity was only 200 years ago. Kilimanjaro is Losing Glaciers Kilimanjaro has 2.2 square kilometers of glacial ice and is losing it quickly due to global warming . The glaciers have shrunk 82% since 1912 and declined 33% since 1989. It may be ice free within 20 years, dramatically affecting local drinking water, crop irrigation, and hydroelectric power. Kilimanjaro National Park Kilimanjaro lies within the 756-square-kilometer Kilimanjaro National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and is one of the few places on earth that encompasses every ecological life zone including tropical jungle, savannah, and desert to montane forests, subalpine plants, and the alpine zone above timberline. First Ascent in 1889 Kilimanjaro was first climbed on October 5, 1889 by German geologist Hans Meyer, Marangu scout Yoanas Kinyala Lauwo, and Austrian Ludwig Purtscheller. After reaching the summit, Meyer later wrote that they gave “three ringing cheers, and in virtue of my right as its first discoverer christened this hitherto unknown—the loftiest spot in Africa and the German Empire—Kaiser Wilhelm’s Peak.” Climbing Kili is a Non-Technical but Challenging Trek Climbing Kilimanjaro requires no technical climbing or mountaineering experience. It is just a long trek from base to summit. Some parts of the mountain require basic scrambling skills (i.e. the Barranco Wall) but in general, anyone with decent fitness can climb Kilimanjaro. High Elevation can Cause Acute Mountain Sickness The challenge is the mountain’s high elevation. As high mountains go, the routes on Mount Kilimanjaro have rapid ascent profiles. Acclimatization opportunities are relatively poor and therefore the incidence of acute mountain sickness (AMS) is rather high. Some studies show that up to 75% of trekkers on summit night suffer from mild and moderate forms of AMS. Deaths on Kilimanjaro are often due to improper acclimatization and the onset of severe altitude sickness rather than falls. Climb Only with a Guide Kilimanjaro is not a peak you can climb on your own. It is mandatory to climb with a licensed guide and have porters carry your equipment. This sustains the local economy and allows local people to reap the rewards of tourism. Read more about how to climb Kilimanjaro from local guide and expert Lema Peter . Fast Ascent Times The fastest ascent of Kilimanjaro is held by Spanish mountain runner Kilian Jornet , who reached the summit in 5 hours, 23 minutes and 50 seconds in 2010; beating the previous ascent record held by Kazakh mountain runner Andrew Puchinin by one minute! After a short break at the summit, Jornet then ran back down the mountain in a blistering speed of 1:41 to clock a total ascent and descent record of 7 hours and 14 minutes. This smashed the previous record held by Tanzanian guide and mountain runner Simon Mtuy who set the previous record on December 26, 2004 with a time of 8 hours 27 minutes. Youngest Climber up Kilimanjaro The youngest person to climb Kilimanjaro is Keats Boyd, an American who trekked up Uhuru Peak at age 7. What's impressive is that he managed to dodge the 10-year-old minimum age limit! Oldest Climbers Up Kili The oldest person to summit Kilimanjaro is 85-year-old Swiss-Canadian Martin Kafer who reached the top of Uhuru Peak in 2012, beating Richard Byerley who hiked to the summit in 2011 at age 84. Kafer’s incredible feat is also amazing because his wife Esther became the oldest women to climb Kilimanjaro at age 84. The couple are now duel record holders as the oldest man and oldest women to have successfully climbed Mount Kilimanjaro. Incredible Handicapped Climber Ascents The allure of Kilimanjaro has led other incredible ascents. In 2011, paraplegic Chris Waddell used a hand-cycle to trek to the summit. Paralysed from the waist down, Waddell took six and half days and 528,000 revolutions of his custom-built wheels to reach the Roof of Africa. This amazing achievement was followed in 2012 by quadruple amputee Kyle Maynard, who took 10 days to crawl on the stumps of his arms and legs to the top. Mount Meru is Nearby Mount Meru , a 14,980-foot volcanic cone, lies 45 miles west of Kilimanjaro. It is an active volcano; has a snowcap; lies in Arusha National Park; and is often climbed as a training peak for Kilimanjaro. 6 Routes to Kili’s Summit Six official routes climb to Kilimanjaro’s summit. The Lemosho Route and Shira Route start on the western side of the mountain. The Machame Route and Umbwe Route begin to the southwest and join hikers on the Lemosho and Shira Routes on day 2. The Marangu Route, also called the “Coca-Cola route,” starts southeast of the mountain and is the only route with hut accommodations for the entire duration of the trek. It also has an unfounded reputation for being the easiest route but in fact has one of the lowest summit success rates since its route profile is rapid and its final summit slopes are steep. Rongai, the last route, begins from the remote northeast side of Kilimanjaro and is flatter, drier, and less busy than the southern and western routes. There are variations on these routes. For example, the Northern Circuit is a popular alternative for trekkers on the Lemosho Route, and the Western Breach provides a challenging climb from a crater camp for trekkers approaching from the west or southwest. 3 Summit Assault Routes There are 3 main summit routes: The Southern passage via Barafu camp and Stellar Point (used by trekkers on the Lemosho, Shira, Machame and Umbwe Routes). The Eastern passage via Gilman’s Point (used by the Marangu, Rongai and Northern Circuit trekkers). The technical Western Breach, which is mostly used by experienced trekkers who approach from the western and southern routes. The Mweka Route is used for descent only. KILIMANJARO GUIDEBOOKS Kilimanjaro & Mount Kenya by Cameron Burns by Cameron M. Burns Explore Mount Kilimanjaro by Jacquetta Megarry Thanks to Mark Whitman with Climb Kilimanjaro Guide for giving some of the facts in this article.

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Mount Kilimanjaro Facts & Information - Beautiful World Travel Guide Tanzania Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Kilimanjaro is a large, dormant volcano situated near the Kenyan border in Northern Tanzania, within the Kilimanjaro National Park. Both the largest free-standing mountain in the world and the highest mountain in Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro is especially unique in that its snow-capped peak imposes itself in the midst of the flat, extensive plains of the Tanzanian Savannah. Fetching directions...... Print directions The areas rich biodiversity paired with Mount Kilimanjaro’s impressive physical features make it well deserving of its designation as a UNESCO World Heritage site. Climbing Kilimanjaro is no small feat. Most people choose to go with a tour company such as Kandoo Adventures. Professional tour guides can make sure your trip is safe, enjoyable and most importantly, unforgettable.

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Tanzania - Country Information Tanzania Itineraries Tanzania Tanzania (officially in Swahili: Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania = United Republic of Tanzania) is a republic in East Africa and consists of the former Tanganyika and the islands of Zanzibar (Unguja actually) and Pemba. The Mafia Archipelago is formed by the 50-km-long island of Mafia, a dozen smaller islands and numerous coral rocks. Tanzania is bordered in the north to Kenya (769 km) and Uganda (396 km), in the south to Mozambique (756 km), Malawi (475 km) and Zambia (338 km) and in the west to the Democratic Republic of Congo (459 km), Rwanda (217 km) and Burundi (451 km). Tanzania is bordered to the east in its entirety to the Indian Ocean and the other limits exist for a large proportion of water in the western Lake Tanganyika, in northwest Lake Victoria and Lake Malawi in the southwest, while the border with Mozambique formed by the Rovuma River. The total area is 945,087 km2 of Tanzania and Tanzania is about 22.5 times as large as the Netherlands or as large as France, Germany and Belgium together. It is also the largest country in East Africa. The mainland of Tanzania has an amazing variety of landscapes. very significant is the Great Rift Valley, which originates in Turkey and via the Red Sea to Ethiopia and splits into an eastern and western part. The western arm of the Rift Valley goes via Uganda to Tanzania, the eastern arm comes through Kenya into Tanzania. The total length of the Great Rift Valley is more than 9,700 kilometres. As a result of the emergence of the Great Rift Valley also several large lakes came to existence, including Lake Natron, Lake Manyara and Lake Tanganyika, where at 1,430 meters depth the lowest point of Africa can be found. Tanzania has many large and small rivers, but none of them are navigable. A number of rivers float into salt water, the Pangani, Ruvu, Rufiji and Rovuma mouths in the Indian Ocean, the Kagera in the Mediterranean Sea and the Malagarasi in the Atlantic Ocean. Because of the many rivers and lakes, Tanzania has more surface water than any country on the continent of Africa. The presents of volcanic activity, Africa's highest mountain, the volcano Kilimanjaro (5,895 meters) rose up at what now is the border with Kenya. Tanzania still has a working (stratospheric) volcano in the north by Lake Natron, the Ol Doinyo Lengai or "Mountain of God '. The mountain is 2,890 meters high with eruptions in 1917, 1926, 1940 and 1966-67 and the crater filled with lava since 1983. Mount Meru is the fourth highest mountain in Africa. Tanzania also has a fairly narrow coastal strip and a flat to slightly hilly central plateau with an average altitude of 1,200 meters. The dominant landscape in Tanzania is the savannah (in the Serengeti), a landscape with mostly pasture and the odd tree here and there. Furthermore, it has beautiful steppe landscape and tropical forests. The Ambori Caves are the largest cave system in East Africa with ten caves that provide access to a network of limestone tunnels with an estimated 200 km length. The largest caves are thirteen meters high. Capital of Tanzania, Dodoma Located in the heartland of Tanzania, Dodoma is the nation's official political capital and the seat of government in the country. Comparably much smaller and less developed than the country's commercial centre, Dar es Salaam, Dodoma remains a centre for national politics. Situated on the eastern edge of the southern highlands, the city of Dodoma is surrounded by a rich agricultural area and pleasant scenery. Dodoma has many places and items of interest to recommend it to the passing visitor. It is the centre of Tanzania's growing wine industry and the Tanganyika Vineyards Company is active in promoting its products. Historically, Dodoma was a stopover on the overland caravan route that travelled from the Swahili Coast inland toward Lake Tanganyika. Early in the 20th century, the city became a major point on the Central Line railway, which carried agricultural crops for export to the harbour in Dar es Salaam. In recent times, the towns' economic base has declined in favour of the coastal city, but in the early days of Tanzanian independence, there was a popular political motion to move the entire government to the town in the southern highlands. These days, the government legislature meet in Dodoma, and divide their time between the inland city and Dar es Salaam on the coast. People of Tanzania The Tanzanian population consists of 98% from Africans and consists of approximately 120 tribes, mostly Bantu speaking, which in the past came from West and North Africa. The oldest group of residents speak Khoisan (a so-called "click language"), a language which is also similar to the Hottentots from southern Africa. The Cushitic speaking tribes came from Ethiopia and Somalia to Tanzania. The largest tribes are those of the Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Haya, Nyakyusa and Chagga and with each more than 1 million members. In addition to the African population also Nilotic (Luo, Maasai), Arabs, Asians (mainly Indians and Pakistanis live in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar) and Europeans have their home in Tanzania. The original population of Zanzibar consists of Hadimu, Tumbatu and Pemba. There are no contradictions between the various dominant strains. This is most likely because none of the tribes have a majority of more than 10% of the total population. Language Kiswahili is mainly spoken in East Africa by about 50 million people (in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Congo and Rwanda). In Tanzania and Kenya it is one of the official national languages. For most people who speak Kiswahili it is not their native language. The Swahili language, called by the Tanzanian Kiswahili (the preposition 'ki' indicates, language) is used among others in primary education. English is also widely used, including in the secondary and higher education, in parliament and at official occasions. The Swahili language is a mix of original Bantu languages, strongly influenced by Arabic, Portuguese and Hindi. The Swahili was formerly a lingua franca or common business language. The Swahili word comes from the Arabic "Sawa hili ', that means 'the coast". Religions Ca. 25% of the population is still into indigenous nature religions, which are often mixed with other religions. A number of tribes are not (almost not) influenced by other religions, particularly the Maasai. Their god is called Engai and the main holy place is on the still active volcano Ol Doinyo Lengai, "the Mountain of God". The percentage of Muslims in Tanzania is about 35% and on the island of Zanzibar even 95% of the population is Muslim. The first mosque was built in 1107 and currently the island has about fifty mosques. On the mainland, most Muslims live in coastal areas. Hindus are more to be found in Dar es Salaam among the Asian population. The number of Christians, mainly can be found within the central part of the country, is estimated at 46%, of which 33% Roman Catholic and 13% Anglican, Presbyterian, Lutheran and Orthodox. I would like more information Name:

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Kilimanjaro | Volcano World | Oregon State University OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY stratovolcano reaching an elevation of 19,335.6 ft. (5,895 m). Other names for this volcano are: Kilima Dscharo, Oldoinyo Oibor (white mountain in Masai), and Kilima Njaro meaning shining mountain in Swahili. This volcano's highest and youngest cone is named Kibo. Shira to the west and Mawenzi in the east are older cones that make up Kilimanjaro. Kibo has not been active in modern times, but steam and sulfur are still emitted. At the top of Kibo's summit is a 1 1/2 mile (2 1/4 Km) wide .   Kilimanjaro is the largest of an E-W belt of about 20 volcanoes near the southern end of the East African Rift Valley. Also prominent in this belt are Ngorongoro caldera - a superb wildlife refuge, Ol Donyo Lengi - a carbonitite volcano, and Meru. Kilimanjaro is a triple volcano with the youngest and central peak of Kibo being 7.5-8.7 miles (12-14 km) from Shira to the west and Mawenza to the east. As all of Kilimanjaro's climbers know the gentle lower slopes steepen to 30 degrees about 13,000 ft.(4 km) elevation.   Shira is topped by a broad plateau, perhaps a filled caldera, and erosion has cut deeply into a remnant rim. In contrast, Mawenzi's summit is a steep rocky peak surrounded by cliffs 1,600 ft.(0.5 km) to 4,900 ft.(1.5 km) high. Erosion has removed the original crater, and a great horseshoe shaped ridge opens to the northeast. Mile-deep gullies with 30-45 degree gradients make many places practically inaccessible. Massive series of radial and concentric dyke swarm make up more than 30-40 percent of the summit area of Mawenzi. Kibo's glacier-clad summit, the highest spot in Africa, is a 1.2 x 1.7 mile (1.9 x 2.7 km) caldera, with an inner crater nearly a mile (1.3 km) wide, and inside that a deep, 1,148 ft. (350 m) wide central pit. Original volcanic forms are preserved at the summit and on many of the flanks, except on the south side where glaciers have cut deeply into the cone. Nearly 250 satellitic cones occur on Kilimanjaro, most following SE and NW trends. Estimates suggest that of a total volume of about 1,150 cu. miles, Mawenzi and Shira each contribute roughly 120 cu. mi. of andesites and basalts, Kibo has the same volume of similar but unexposed rocks, plus an additional 107 cu. miles. Interestingly, more than half of Kilimanjaro's volume is represented by older, basal basalts (672 cu. mi.), so once again- as in Cascade stratovolcanoes - a basaltic shield is the most important, but least conspicuous element of a chemically complex volcano. Kilimanjaro- Africa's largest volcano and among the largest on the Earth is indeed a beautiful and fascinating volcano of the world.   Sources of information: Richard, J.J., Neumann van Padang M., 1957, Africa and the Red Sea. Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World, Rome: IAVCEI 4, p.75-78. Dr. Charles A. Wood, Volcano World The Geology of Kilimanjaro 1972; by C. Downie & P. Wilkinson Contact Info VW is a higher education, k-12, and public outreach project of the Oregon Space Grant Consortium administered through the Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University.

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Mount Kilimanjaro travel guide - Wikitravel 12 Get out Mount Kilimanjaro is a currently inactive strato-volcano in northern Tanzania , near the border with Kenya . At 5,895 metres (19,340 feet) above sea level, Kilimanjaro is Africa's highest peak and the world's highest free-standing mountain. As such - and aided by its relatively easy ascent - Kilimanjaro has become a major destination for mountaineers and trekkers from around the world. Understand[ edit ] Mount Kilimanjaro Although positioned close to the Equator (330 km south), Mount Kilimanjaro is famous as Africa's snow-capped mountain looming over the plains of the savannah. In recent years, however, the snows have been fast disappearing. Kilimanjaro National Park [1] protects the area above 2,700 metres (8,850 ft), on the mountain and includes the moorland and highland zones, Shira Plateau, Kibo and Mawenzi peaks. The Park also has six corridors or rights of way through the Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve. The Forest Reserve, which is also a Game Reserve, was established in 1921; the Park was established in 1973 and officially opened in 1977. History[ edit ] It is commonly perceived that Queen Victoria of England gave her grandson, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, Mount Kilimanjaro as a birthday present. However, this is not the case. In fact, Karl Peters, a German traveller in Africa and one of the founders of today's Tanzania , snuck into Tanganyika and persuaded various Chagga chieftains to sign treaties in which they agreed to cede their territories to his Society for German Colonization. Landscape[ edit ] The landscape on Kilimanjaro is very beautiful. The mountain can be divided into 5 climatic zones, each with its own fauna and flora. The lower reaches of the mountain are dominated by evergreen forests. At approx. 3,000m the landscape starts to change into a shrub land setting. At around 4,000m the landscape becomes very arid and rocky, similar to a lunar landscape. The fourth zone consists of a very fine glacial scree / silt dessert setting. The top of Kilimanjaro is partially snow-capped with large glaciers interspersed between the volcanic craters. The glaciers have been receding over the past 40 years, though. Flora and fauna[ edit ] The mountain is rich in flora and fauna. You get to see the various climatic conditions starting from the bushland on the bottom of the mountain to the arctic ice region on top of the mountain. You have the tropical rain forests, the evergreen forests, the moorlands and the alpine desert regions in between. It is something like walking from the equator to the arctic pole in a matter of days. You get to see some unique plants and flowers on the mountain which is specific to Mt Kilimanjaro. Though there is not much of wildlife on the mountain, you can see some wild buffaloes, elephants and leopards while traversing through the Lemosho Route. You are accompanied by armed rangers in the initial day of the trek while going via the Lemosho route. Climate[ edit ] Due to Mount Kilimanjaro's proximity to the equator, this region does not experience the extremes of winter and summer weather, but rather dry and wet seasons. January and February are the warmest months, April and May are the wettest months, June and July are the coolest months, and August and September are the driest months. January, February, and September are considered to be the best months to climb Kilimanjaro in terms of weather. The journey from the gate to the peak is like traveling from the equator to Antarctica in a matter of days. This is because the routes to the Uruhu peak cross different ecological zones. Throughout the climb, temperatures vary considerably with the altitude and time of day. Mount Kilimanjaro has five major ecological zones, each approximately 3,280 feet (1,000 m) in altitude. Each zone is subject to a corresponding decrease in rainfall, temperature and life as the altitude increases. At the beginning of the climb, at the base of the mountain, the average temperature is around 70°F to 80°F (27°C to 32°C). From there, the temperatures will decrease as you move through Mount Kilimanjaro's ecological zones. At the summit, Uruhu Peak, the night time temperatures can range between 0°F to -15F (-18°C to -26°C). Due to Mount Kilimanjaro's great height, the mountain creates its own weather. It is extremely variable and impossible to predict. Therefore, regardless of when you climb, you should always be prepared for wet days and cold nights. Get in[ edit ] The closest International Airport is Kilimanjaro ( IATA : JRO) [2] , and if coming from Europe, KLM (Delta Air Lines) [3] has a daily non-stop flight from Amsterdam to JRO. Air Viva offers connections between Kilimanjaro and several domestic airports, such as Arusha ($75). Year 2012 several International Airlines launched direct flight to Kilimanjaro International Airport, these are Turkish Airlines and Qatar Airways. These are in addition to other International Airlines like Ethiopian Airways, Condor Air and Kenya Airways. If you are coming from Nairobi , Kenya , you can fly with Kenya Airways [4] , which works with Precision Air [5] , and that would cost you about $400/person for a roundtrip ticket. Alternatively, you can schedule shuttle buses, which are at 8am and 2 pm daily, for about $35/person, one way, and its a 5-6hrs bus ride. Shuttle buses can be booked in advance by visiting BusAfrica.net . If coming from Dar es Salaam , you can fly into JRO for $320/person roundtrip; or take a 7-8hrs bus ride for $20/person one way to Arusha or Moshi . Cost[ edit ] The costs outlined below are only indicative and exclude flights to and from Kilimanjaro International Airport. They also exclude all inclusive trips which typically include flights, hotels before and after your climb, park fees, guide team and optional extras. Before getting to Kilimanjaro The cost of equipment, visas, vaccinations and medications are often forgotten by prospective climbers. In general you will spend anywhere between $500-$1,500 on equipment as most climbers need to buy an extreme weather sleeping bag, a duffle bag, suitable clothing and other climbing accessories. You will also need to get a Yellow Fever vaccination as this is a mandatory requirement to enter Tanzania. You might want to get booster injections for Hepatitis A and other related diseases. Seek medical advice from your travel clinic but budget at least $100-$200. Tanzania is a malaria zone; however mosquitoes do not occur at altitude (over 1,800 meters). You will be spending most of your trip above this altitude but will be exposed before and after the climb. If you decide to take malaria tablets budget at least $50 Finally you will be required to get a Tanzanian visa. In 2013 the cost was $50 and for US citizens it is $100. You can get the visa before departing or on arrival in Tanzania. Organised Tour (incl. Park Fees) To climb Kilimanjaro you have to use a licenced guide. If you are not well-versed in the logistics of Kilimanjaro climbs then the only realistic way to trek Kilimanjaro is through a tour operator. A no-frills 5 day, 4 night trek up the Marangu will set you back by around $1,100. However, if you are not accustomed to altitude it is highly recommended you take a 6 or 7 day trip which start at over $1,400, depending on the route. Remember fees for all inclusive packages vary due to factors of route choice and length of climb, but also depend on the quality of the tour operator and service delivery. Do your research and ask as many questions as possible before you decide on a tour operator. Better operators who treat their staff more ethically and employ professional guides who are trained to look after your well-being tend to be more expensive. For a more luxurious climb, you will be set back by as much as $2500-$3,000 for your climb. Luxuries include hot showers, portable toilets, larger more comfortable sleeping tents and mattresses and private transport, etc. Budget camping safaris usually cost $260 per day and luxury lodge safaris cost $470 per day depending on where you want to stay. The price include all meals and game drives usually in a 4x4 safari vehicle with an open roof. Tipping for Guides and Porters Tipping for guides and porters is standard. A single climber will have on average one guide, three porters and a cook. As a group size increases the climbing support team increase at a similar ratio. The ratio is set by the Kilimanjaro National Park (KINIPA) and tour operators are meant to comply with this standard [6] . In general, you should budget $20-$25 a day for guides, $15-$20 a day for assistant guides, £15 a day for your cook and $10 a day for each porter. Depending on the size of the group your total tip budget should be $250-$300. It is recommended that you calculate how much you will be tipping your support team before arriving on the mountain and prepare individual envelopes for each climbing support member which you distribute at the end of the climb. [7] . The gear used by the porters is mostly substandard and is often not at all fit for the trek. If you can spare some of your gear it would be greatly received by your porters or guides. See[ edit ][ add listing ] Apart from usual known adventure Kilimanjaro climbing, there are a lot more to see in Mount Kilimanjaro. On western side of Kilimanjaro on lemosho route travelers can do 2 days or day trip for wildlife tours and game drives. In mount Kilimanjaro there are natural waterfalls to see like Materuni waterfalls and Kinukamori waterfalls. Near or at these Kilimanjaro waterfalls, there are birds, monkeys and lots of wild animals. At slopes of mount Kilimanjaro there are volcanic lakes like lake Chala and culture tour to explore Chagga tribe at slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro Kilimanjaro (Climb outfitter), ☎ +255784559111, [8] . Specialist Tour Operator deals with travel packages on Kilimanjaro sight seeing tours, adventure mountain climbing, machame route Kilimanjaro trekking, waterfalls tours, bird watching, lemosho route climbing, lemosho route wildlife viewing and Kilimanjaro trekking expeditions in Tanzania.   edit Kilimanjaro Experience, ☎ +27218526911, [9] . Kilimanjaro Experience is a reputable operator on Kilimanjaro. Safety and professionalism are its main concerns.   edit There are seven routes officially sanctioned for climbing Kilimanjaro and two routes used for descent. These are: Machame Northern Circuit Mweka (descent only) Below are itineraries for these routes. Marangu Route Commonly called the Coca-Cola Route, because it is considered the easiest route and vendors sell Coca-Cola at some of the huts. Marangu is by far the most popular route to the summit of Kilimanjaro. Typical duration is either 5 or 6 days depending upon whether you elect to spend an extra day for acclimatization to the altitude. This is the only route that offers huts versus tents. In spite of these, do be aware that 1) a faster ascent means less time for acclimatization and a lower chance of reaching the summit and 2) it is actually colder to stay in huts compared to staying in tents. Day 1: Marangu Gate (1980 m) - Mandara hut (2700 m). Hiking time: 5 hours Day 2: Mandara hut (2700) - Horombo hut (3720 m). Hiking time: 6 hours Day 3: Horombo hut (3720 m) - Acclimatisation day (if necessary) Day 4: Horombo hut (3720 m) - Kibo hut (4700 m). Hiking time: 6 hours Day 5: Kibo hut (4700m) - Uhuru Peak (5895 m) - Horombo hut (3720 m). Hiking time: 8 hours to Uhuru - 6 hours to descend to Horombo Day 6: Horombo hut (3720 m) - Marangu Gate (1980 m). Hiking time: 6 hours Machame Route Some call this the most beautiful route up Kilimanjaro. Where accommodation on the Marangu route is in huts, the Machame route offers strictly tents only. This makes Machame (also referred to as the "Whiskey route") better suited to the slightly more adventurous hiker, however rewarding him/her with a scenic splendor such as not seen on the Marangu route. Day 1: Machame Gate (1490 m) - Machame camp (2980 m). Hiking time: 4-6 hours Day 2: Machame camp (2980 m) - Shira camp (3840 m). Hiking time: 6 hours Day 3: Shira (3840 m) - Lava Tower (4630 m) - Barranco camp (3950 m). Hiking time: 7 hours Day 4: Barranco camp (3950 m) - Barafu camp (4550 m). Hiking time: 7 hours (frequently broken into 2 days) to allow for acclimatization) Day 5: Barafu camp (4550 m)- Uhuru Peak (5895 m) - Mweka (3100 m). Hiking time: 8 hours to reach Uhuru Peak: 7/8 hours to descend to Mweka (frequently broken into 2 days with an overnight stay at Mweka camp) Lemosho Route Little used and more remote than other routes. The route is one of the few where groups may be accompanied on the first day by an armed ranger, as the forests around the Lemosho Glades are rich in buffalo, elephant and other big game animals. Day 1: Londorossi Gate (2100 m) - Mti Mkubwa camp (2750 m). Hiking time: 3 hours Day 2: Mti Mkubwa camp (2750 m) - Shira 2 camp (3840 m). Hiking time: 6/7 hours Day 3: Shira (3840m) - Lava Tower (4630m) - Barranco camp (3950m). Hiking time: 7 hours Day 4: Barranco camp (3950 m) - Barafu camp (4550 m). Hiking time: 7 hours Day 5: Barafu camp (4550 m) - Uhuru Peak (5895 m) - Mweka (3100 m). Hiking time: 8 hours to reach Uhuru Peak 7/8 hours to descend to Mweka Day 6: Mweka camp (3100 m) - Mweka Gate (1980 m). Hiking time: 3 hours ' A variation on the Lemosho Route inserts two extra days in the itinerary for acclimatization and also to avoid having to climb up to the summit in the dark. Day 4: Barranco (3950 m) to Karranga Valley (4000 m). Hiking Time 4 hours. This segment takes you up the infamous 'Barranco Wall.' Day 5: Karranga Valley (4000 m) to Barafu camp (4550 m). Hiking Time 3 hours Day 6: Barafu camp (4550 m) - Uhuru Peak (5895 m) - Crater Camp (5640m). Hiking Time about 8 hours Day 7: Crater Camp (5640 m) - Mweka (3100 m). Hiking time: 7/8 hours to descend. Rongai Route The Rongai route provides ascent up Kilimanjaro from the northeastern side of the mountain, along the border between Tanzania and Kenya. Day 1: Rongai Gate (1950 m) - 1st Caves camp (2600 m). Hiking time: 5 hours Day 2: 1st Cave (2600 m) - Kikelewa Cave (3600 m). Hiking time: 6/7 hours Day 3: Kikelewa Cave (3600) - Mawenzi Tarn camp (4330 m). Hiking time: 3/4 hours Day 4: Mawenzi Tarn camp (4330m) - Kibo hut (4700 m). Hiking time: 4/5 hours Day 5: Kibo hut (4700 m) - Uhuru Peak (5895 m) - Horombo hut (3720 m). Hiking time: 8 hours to reach Uhuru - 6 hours to descend to Horombo Day 6: Horombo hut (3720 m) - Marangu Gate (1980 m) . Hiking time: 6 hours Umbwe Route The Umbwe Route is steeper and shorter than the Machame Route. Once at the Barranco Hut you continue on with the other Machame hikers. The descent is down the Mweka trail. Since it is a very short and direct route, it is not recommended for people with little altitude experience. Day 1: Drive to Kilimanjaro National Park Umbwe Gate, Hike to Umbwe Cave Camp (2850m). Hiking time: 5/6 hours Day 2: Umbwe Cave Camp (2850m) to Barranco Camp (4000m). Hiking time: 4/5 hours Day 3: Barranco Camp (4000m) to Karanga Camp (4050m). Hiking time: 3/4 hours Day 4: Karanga Camp (4050m) to Barafu Camp (4700m). Hiking time: 3/4 hours Day 5: Barafu Camp (4700 m) - Uhuru Peak (5895 m) - Mweka Camp (3090 m). Hiking time: 5/7 hours to reach Uhuru - 5/6 hours to descend. Day 6: Mweka Camp (3090m) to Mweka Gate (1680m). Hiking time: 3/4 hours Northern Circuit Route The Northern Circuit Route is is a new unique route and the longest trail on Mount Kilimanjaro. It goes through the untouched northern slope and begins in the West of Mount Kilimanjaro at the Londorossi Gate with excellent views from all sides of the mountain. The trail is less popular and thus good for people looking for a quieter route. Day 1: Drive to Londorossi Park Gate (2,385m or 7825 ft)and climbing to Mti Mkubwa Camp (2,700 meters or 8858 ft)feet). Hiking time: 5/6 hours. Distance 8 Km or 5 miles. Climbing from Mt. Mkubwa Camp to Shira Camp 1 (3,500 m or 11483 feet). Hiking time: 3/4 hours. Day 3: Climbing from Shira Camp 1 to Shira Camp 2 (3,840 meters or 12,600 feet). Hiking time: 5/6 hours. Day 4: Climbing from Shira Camp 2 to Lava Tower (4,600 meters) and then north to Moir Camp (4,200 meters). Hiking time: 5/7 hours. Day 5: Climbing from Moir Camp (4,200 meters) to Buffalo Camp (4,020 meters). Hiking time: 5/7 hours. Day 6: Buffalo Camp (4,020 meters) to Rongai Third Cave (3,800 meters). Hiking time: 6 hours. Day 7: Climbing 3rd Cave (3,800 meters) to School Hut (4,800 meters). Hiking time: 5 hours. Day 8: School Hut (4,800 meters) to Uhuru Peak (5,895 meters) and then onto Millennium Camp (3,950 meters). Hiking time: 7 hours. Day 9: Millennium Camp (3,950 meters) to Mweka Gate (1,640 meters). Hiking time: 5 hours Kilimanjaro Climbing and Safari Center (Up the mountain and around the world), Daytona Beach Florida (Moshi, TZ), ☎ 386.788.4441 (o)| 386.547.7091 (c) ( info@kilimanjaroclimbingcenter.com ), [10] . The Kilimanjaro Climbing and Safari Center began in Tanzania and has grown to include adventures covering the globe. The brain child of two American brothers, one an ardent conservationist and executive with a leading environmental firm and the other an adventurer who has called many of the company's destinations home. With such passion for and knowledge of the places they visit you will feel the care that they put into every trip.   edit Globeinter Safaris Ltd (Kilimanjaro Machame), Goliondoi Road (Arusha), ☎ +255767288514, [11] . 8 am - 6pm. This is Kilimanjaro’s longer, more scenic, “Whiskey Route.” The typical duration for this trip is 6 days. However, you can also add an extra acclimatization day and make it a 7-day trek. $1,566/person; $1,516/person for groups of 6 or more; Extra days on the mountain: $200/person/day; Low Season: $50/person discount from April 1 - June 15, and November. ($1516,7 - day Trek)  edit Meru Wellness Retreat, Mangusha Street (Arusha), ☎ +254(0) 701 403 108 ( service@meruwellnessretreat.com ), [12] . Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru treks. Safaris at all popular national parks and cultural excursions. Volunteerism. Wellness retreat with bootcamps, yoga classes, etc. Vegetarian considerations. Eco-retreat and fair pay employer. $2000 to $2600.   edit Arusha Hostel Lodge and Adventures, Ngulelo (Arusha), ☎ +255(0) 784 876 731 ( info@arushahostellodgeandadventures.com ), [13] . 24. AHLA Organizes Mt Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru and Mt Oldonyo Lengai climbing Expeditions . Safaris at all national parks ,Zanzibar Beach Holidays, Cycling Adventures and cultural tourism. $1400 to $1600. (-3.365201,36.726952)  edit Kilimanjaro Tanzanite Safaris Ltd (5895m), Moshi (Kilimanjaro Airport - JRO), ☎ +255755316283, [14] . 24. Mount Kilimanjaro climbing trip, while you are climbing Mount Kilimanjaro, you have many other opportunities for sight seeing. You can see natural waterfalls like Kinukamori Waterfalls in Marangu or Materuni off Moshi town. Other natural attractions to see are volcanic Lake Chala, cultural and local farm activities. Other things to do in Kilimanjaro are camel safaris, wildlife viewing and horse riding safaris. When planning your Kilimanjaro climbing adventure in Tanzania, consider also an acclimatization day to get used to weather and discover other tourist destinations. 1400. (3°4′33″S,37°21′12″E)  edit E-Trip Africa, Head office in USA, Branch office in Arusha, ☎ +1(302)722-6226 or +255 (0)753 896962, [15] . E-Trip Africa is a US Owned company running treks in East Africa. The trekking team has some of the most extensive safety training on the mountain. In addition to Kilimanjaro, the company runs treks to Mt. Kenya, Mt. Meru, and the Rwenzori Mountains. Pricing depends on the route and the size of your group.   edit Climbing Kilimanjaro Outfitter, [16] . Mountain climbing specialist and Tanzania wildlife safari guides in Tanzania.Guided tours on kilimanjaro trekking and Tanzania safaris are organized professionally.   edit Kilimanjaro Tours LTD, [17] . Kilimanjaro Tours, a family run business based in the UK and Tanzania, specialize in Kilimanjaro climbs and Kilimanjaro treks on Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru along with pre or post-trek safaris to the world renowned National Parks of Tanzania or the unspoilt beaches of Zanzibar.   edit Kilimanjaro trekking trips are undertaken on all climbing mount Kilimanjaro routes such as machame route, rongai route, umbwe route, marangu route and lemosho route. Camping safaris is of three types - luxury camping/lodge safaris, budget lodge safaris and budget camping safaris. Budget camping safari is cheaper while lodge safaris are priced higher. A 3-day sample itinerary can be as follows. It usually includes the Lake Manyara National Park, Ngorongoro Crater (featuring one of the highest concentrations of game in Africa) & Tarangire National Parks for a short but intense Tanzanian Northern Circuit safari experience. Safaris can usually be tailored by the operators to suit your needs and requirements. Day 1: Arusha/Moshi – Lake Manyara. Non game-viewing travel time: 2/3 hours. Distance: 130 km Day 2: Lake Manyara National Park – Ngorongoro Crater. Non game-viewing travel time: 2/3 hours. Distance: 120 km Day 3: Tarangire National Park – Moshi/Arusha. Non game-viewing travel time: 3 hours. Distance: 210 km Eat[ edit ][ add listing ] The various food requirements are met by the porters and cooks who come along with you on the mountain. However, the quality of the food depends on the reputation of the tour operator you are climbing with. The quality of the food tends to go down towards the end of the trek due to reduction in rations carried by the porters and also due to the food becoming stale by the end of the trek. It is recommended to carry along some high energy food like chocolates and nuts for surviving and successful completion of the trek. It would be worthwhile to carry along some ready made noodle packets and like items for cooking them at the end of the trek. Drink[ edit ][ add listing ] Staying hydrated on the mountain is very important. A key reason why people suffer from Acute Mountain Sickness is because they become dehydrated. You should aim to drink at least 3L of water a day. Your guides will provide you with water on Day 1 of the hike and from then on porters collect water from streams on the mountain. It is important that you purify this water using water purification tablets. Also recommended is adding high energy powders to improve the taste and give you an added boost. Also, a lot of oral rehydration salts (ORS) are recommended for preventing dehydration while trekking on the mountain. Lodging[ edit ] Lodging on the mountain is limited to designated campsites. Cave sleeping is now prohibited. A number of huts are available, but generally not advisable. Pre-climb lodging is generally found in Moshi or Arusha . Tanzania Mountain Retreat Lodge and Camp offers guest houses and campsites and based in Arusha near the gates of Arusha National Park. Costs varies from EUR5 to EUR55 including breakfast. Eco-retreat and on of the only two fair pay for workers organization [18] Hostel Foot Prince for budget trekkers, is a western style hostel based in Moshi town. Run by the organisation Foot2afrika [19] Also, Arusha Backpackers based in Arusha and Kilimanjaro Backpackers based in Moshi are a good option for stays for budget trekkers with costs varying from 10$ to 24$. Arusha Hostel Lodge and Adventures offers accommodation for budget travelers and Mt Kilimanjaro climbers based in Arusha. There is also a campsite for Campers and a communal kitchen. Costs varies from $10 to $40 including breakfast . [20] Camping[ edit ] It is permitted to camp on Mt Kilimanjaro for as many days as you want by paying the designated fees to the Kilimanjaro national Park authorities and camp in any of the nearest camps like the Machame Hut or the Mweka Hut. Contact[ edit ] GSM mobile phone coverage is available on the summit of the mountain. Various networks like Vodacom, Zaintel and Tigo operate in the region and can be accessed from various high points on the mountain. However, with no electric supply on the mountain, it is advised to carry portable mobile travel chargers along for accessing the mobile services atop the mountain. Stay safe[ edit ] Several immunizations are recommended for yellow fever, tetanus, typhoid, polio, Havrix (Hepatitis A Vaccine), and an anti-malaria prophylactic. Air at the summit of Kilimanjaro contains only about half the amount of oxygen that it does at sea level. Altitude sickness is caused by the failure of the body to adapt quickly enough to this reduced level of oxygen as one gains altitude. It is likely that you will experience some form of altitude sickness at some point while climbing Kilimanjaro. During a trek on Kilimanjaro it is likely that more than 75% of trekkers will experience at least some form of mild altitude sickness caused by a failure of the body to adapt quickly enough to the reduced level of oxygen in the air at an increased altitude. This type of altitude sickness is known as altoxia, a term which is used almost exclusively on Kilimanjaro, since this is the only commonly trekked mountain where these extreme altitudes are encountered so quickly. LIFESAVING TIPS: This can be a life or health saving resource site: http://www.africatravelresource.com/ . This organization provides essential free tips and referrals re: high altitude hiking, as well as some tours that are often funded mostly by lodges. This site offers a free preparation and gear list: http://www.ultimatekilimanjaro.com/preparation.htm . Most high altitude medical experts recommend against using the ALTOX Personal Oxygen System. Please consult your physician prior to considering this product that is sold at an additional expense by some agents. Preparing for kilimanjaro trekking adventures need update current information about nature of Kilimanjaro formation, weather at Kilimanjaro,volcanic rocks, kilimanjaro elevation on particular route of choice, Kilimanjaro climbing routes details, safety and security, forest and wildlife, acclimatization and even price cost to climb kilimanjaro. These information can be found online for free and through inquire online contacts. More go here Mount Kilimanjaro blog:- About Mount Kilimanjaro and Tanzanite There are seven main factors that affect the incidence and severity of Kilimanjaro altitude sickness: Rate of ascent

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Where is Kilimanjaro? Where is Kilimanjaro? Mount Kilimanjaro is located in Tanzania, a country in East Africa. The mountain is one of the seven summits (the highest peaks on each of the seven continents), and rises 5,895 meters or 19,340 feet above sea level. It is the tallest freestanding mountain (not part of a mountain range) in the world. The nickname for Mount Kilimanjaro is the Roof of Africa. Where in the world is Africa? Where in Africa is Tanzania? Where in Tanzania is Kilimanjaro ? Tanzania is located on the east coast of Africa. Zanzibar, an island off the mainland in the Indian Ocean, and the Zanzibar Archipelago, are also part of Tanzania. Tanzania is bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, by Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo to the west, and by Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique to the south. Kilimanjaro National Park is located in the northeastern area of Tanzania, near the Kenyan / Tanzanian border. Tanzania has mild weather. Mount Kilimanjaro is approximately 200 miles south of the Equator. Mount Kilimanjaro is a dormant volcano comprised of three cones - Kibo, Mawenzi and Shira. The summit is on the Kibo cone, and is named Uhuru, which means freedom in Swahili. The mountain is 750,000 years old. The last major eruption was 350,000 years ago. Despite its massive size and height, climbing Kilimanjaro is a very acheivable feat by even novice hikers. Mount Kilimanjaro is a major tourist attraction bringing thousands of participants from all over the world. It has become the mountain of choice for charity climbs, first time hikers, and celebrity adventures. Kilimanjaro is known as a "walk-up" mountain. No technical skills are required and no mountaineering equipment (ice axes, crampons, rope and harnesses) is needed. However, it should not be underestimated as altitude sickness is a real danger when traveling to extreme elevation. More than 50% of all climbers fail to reach the summit. It is fundamental to hire a guide or guide service when climbing Kilimanjaro. It is illegal to do so without one. There are hundreds of operators that serve Kilimanjaro, however more than 90% are poorly run local companies who do not have the appropriate standards in place to safely lead tourists on the mountain. Be selective when choosing your operator as the decision is crucial. The best operators, such as Ultimate Kilimanjaro, have many years of experience, thousands of clients, the best guides, established safety protocols, quality name brand camping equipment, nutritious meals, and are Kilimanjaro Porters Assistance Project (KPAP) members. To visit Mount Kilimanjaro, the most convenient way is to fly into Kilimanjaro International Airport, and then travel to Arusha or Moshi, Kilimanjaro's gateway towns, by vehicle. Both cities are approximately 40 minutes away from the airport and taxi services are readily available. So where is Kilimanjaro? Now you know.

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Africa's magnificent mountains: 7 amazing climbs - CNN.com African mountains offer all kinds of climbers a wide range of trekking experiences Magnificent scenery, rare wildlife and cultural exchanges are major draws Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Africa's tallest mountain, is the most popular destination We pick seven picks of the best hikes in the continent Yes, safaris are great and the beaches are diverse and dramatic. But an Africa getaway doesn't just have to be about 4X4 game drives or lazy strolls on cotton-soft sands by crystal blue waters. If you're looking to soak up the continent's breathtaking scenery, and have an eye for adventure, then there's only one place to be: at the top. From the snow-capped peak of Kilimanjaro , through the forest-clothed slopes of Mount Kenya, to the Alpine meadows of the High Atlas Mountains, Africa's magnificent rooftops offer glorious views and a wide range of trekking experiences that appeal to all kinds of climbers, from hardcore mountaineers to weekend warriors and families. "It's the terrain and the ability to combine a wildlife experience with the climb," says Sunit Sanghrajka, president of U.S.-based travel group Alluring Africa , explaining what draws outsiders to the continent's mountainous areas. "Also, Africa being kind of distant and lesser known, there is an allure to it," he adds. Sanghrajka says the continent's growing political and economic stability, coupled with improvements in communications and airlift, have all helped attract more and more tourists in recent years. "The overall interest in Africa has grown exponentially, especially from the U.S. market," he says. Here, Inside Africa picks seven of the best treks and hikes from across the continent. Kilimanjaro MUST WATCH Climbing Mount Kilimanjaro 08:25 Make it to the summit of Tanzania's 5,895-meter Kilimanjaro, and you'll be standing at Africa's highest point. The majestic mountain is Africa's most-visited trekking destination, attracting tens of thousands of tourists and adventurers every year. "You don't have to be a technical climber to climb Mount Kilimanjaro; you just need to be pretty physically fit," explains Sanghrajka. "We've had more people requesting Kilimanjaro in the last three or four years because it's something they feel is attainable -- it can be combined with a family vacation and that's why I think it's so popular." There are six routes to choose from, each with varying degrees of difficulty, scenery and success. No special equipment is required. On the way to the "Roof of Africa," you will travel through five different climactic zones, reaching arctic cold temperatures around the glaciers that cap Kibo, Kilimanjaro's summit. You'd better hurry, though, as climate change experts say that the ice and snow in the mountain's upper slopes are melting and could disappear within decades. Watch this: Climbing Kilimanjaro Atlas Mountains The High Atlas is an impressive mountainous range in central Morocco that hosts North Africa's highest peak, Mount Toubkal, at 4,165 meters. There's a variety of routes to follow during your ascent but inexperienced climbers should note that the trek through the mountain's challenging terrains is quite demanding. Passing though the rugged landscape you'll get the chance to explore spectacular gorges and rolling valleys as well as encounter the local Berber people who've inhabited these tough terrains for centuries. The best time to climb the High Atlas is during the summer months. Mount Kenya Click to expand A long-extinct volcano, Mount Kenya is Africa's second-highest peak, at 5,199 meters. Lying just south of the equator, the mountain's glacial valleys, successive vegetation zones and diverse wildlife will guarantee you spectacular scenery and a fantastic trekking experience. The ascent, however, to the mountain's steep ice-capped peaks is quite challenging. "Mount Kenya is the most technical, probably, in that East African area," says Sanghrajka. At the mountain's crest, temperatures rarely rise above freezing point. There are several routes on the way to the mountain's summit, the majority of which take between three and seven days to complete. Mount Meru Mount Meru may forever be destined to exist in the shadow of its imposing neighbor, Kilimanjaro, but Tanzania's second-highest mountain (4,565 meters) has its own devotees. "It's lesser known, but Mount Meru is for the true enthusiast who wants to experience what very few people actually do," says Sanghrajka. A beautiful volcanic cinder cone, Mount Meru will treat you to stunning views and diverse wildlife. Its slopes are coated with dense rainforest up to about 2,900 meters, which then give way to rocky areas. Mount Meru is often used by mountaineers for acclimatization before trekking Kilimanjaro, or by those wanting a trek with the local Massai. Simien Mountains Click to expand With its stupendous rock-hewn churches and medieval castles, northern Ethiopia's rich cultural heritage has long attracted tourists from around the world. But visitors to the area are also increasingly being drawn to the spectacular Simien Mountains, a natural marvel where several jagged peaks of solidified lava are separated by deep valleys to form an overwhelming landscape. The mountains are also home to some of the world's rarest animals, including the walia ibex, which is not found anywhere else in the world. Since 1978, the region's national park has been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site. The highest point is Ras Dejen, at 4,533 meters. Read this: Rock churches 'built by angels' Mount Elgon Mount Elgon is a magnificent extinct volcano dominating the skyline along the Uganda-Kenya border. Its enormous crater is surrounded by several jagged peaks, including Wagagai, which is the highest point at 4,321 meters. Here you can explore ancient caves and zip past spectacular cliffs, over which Mount Elgon's streams cascade as dramatic waterfalls. Elgon's slopes are covered in ancient dense forests and bamboo belts which then give way to a spectacular moon-like moorland zone blanketed by tree heaths, massive groundsels and lobelias. There are several routes to the mountain's peaks, and the full trekking circuit takes up to five days. A descent into the vast caldera, at 40 kilometers long and 8 kilometers wide, is also a must. The Drakensberg The Drakensberg is a vast mountainous range in South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, rising to 3,475 meters and stretching for some 1,125 kilometers. The giant mountains are ideal for both casual day hikes through indigenous forests and more serious expeditions along tough terrains and rocky terraces. They also host several game reserves and parks, attracting thousands of tourists every year. "A lot of people like to go and hike there because it's absolutely stunning," says Sanghrajka. "The scenery is fantastic."

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Kilimanjaro History   Mount Kilimanjaro, is nicknamed the roof of Africa and is proud to be the highest mountain in Africa.  The mountain is located in northeastern Tanzania, near the border of Kenya.  Kilimanjaro was first climbed in 1889 by German geographer Hans Meyer and Austrian mountain climber Ludwig Purtscheller, long before W. H. Tilman and C. Houston made the first ascent from the south of Everest in 1950.  Ever since it has been a coveted climb by tourists and professional climbers around the world.  Mount Kilimanjaro is actually a dormant volcano. Its two peaks stand about 11 km (about 7 mi) apart and are connected by a broad ridge. The highest peak, Kibo, rises to 5895 m (19,340 ft) above sea level, and the summit of Mawensi is 5149 m (16,892 ft) above sea level. Although Kilimanjaro is only 3 degrees south of the equator, an ice cap covers the crater of Kibo year-round.  This mountain and it's ice cap was the inspiration for Ernest Hemingway's famous novel:  "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" (1938).     Beautiful and majestic...Kilimanjaro looms and proud and beckons you to watch the sun rise over Africa from its' peak.

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Ten Interesting Facts about Mt. Kilimanjaro | Blog Posts | WWF Ten Interesting Facts about Mt. Kilimanjaro Date: 19 February 2010 Rising majestically above the African plains , the 20,000-foot Mt. Kilimanjaro has beckoned to climbers since the first recorded summit in 1889. Here are 10 interesting facts to help inspire your own future summit:   10. Mount Kilimanjaro is the tallest mountain on the African continent and the highest free-standing mountain in the world. 9. Kilimanjaro has three volcanic cones, Mawenzi, Shira and Kibo. Mawenzi and Shira are extinct but Kibo, the highest peak, is dormant and could erupt again. The most recent activity was about 200 years ago; the last major eruption was 360,000 years ago. 8. Nearly every climber who has summitted Uhuru Peak, the highest summit on Kibo’s crater rim, has recorded his or her thoughts about the accomplishment in a book stored in a wooden box at the top. 7. The oldest person ever to summit Mt. Kilimanjaro was 87-year-old Frenchman Valtee Daniel. 6. Almost every kind of ecological system is found on the mountain: cultivated land, rain forest, heath, moorland, alpine desert and an arctic summit. 5. The fasted verified ascent of Mt. Kilimanjaro occurred in 2001 when Italian Bruno Brunod summitted Uhuru Peak in 5 hours 38 minutes 40 seconds. The fastest roundtrip was accomplished in 2004, when local guide Simon Mtuy went up and down the mountain in 8:27. 4. The mountain’s snow caps are diminishing, having lost more than 80 percent of their mass since 1912. In fact, they may be completely ice free within the next 20 years, according to scientists. 3. Shamsa Mwangunga, National Resources and Tourism minister of Tanzania, announced in 2008 that 4.8 million indigenous trees will be planted around the base of the mountain, helping prevent soil erosion and protect water sources. 2. South African Bernard Goosen twice scaled Mt. Kilimanjaro in a wheelchair. His first summit, in 2003, took nine days; his second, four years later, took only six. Born with cerebral palsy, Goosen used a modified wheelchair, mostly without assistance, to climb the mountain. 1. Approximately 25,000 people attempt to summit Mt. Kilimanjaro annually. Approximately two-thirds are successful. Altitude-related problems is the most common reason climbers turn back.

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The flag of Libya is a plain rectangle of which color? View the step-by-step solution to: The flag of Libya is a plain rectangle of which color? This question was answered on Jun 08, 2016. View the Answer The flag of Libya is a plain rectangle of which color? NoahReeves posted a question · Jun 08, 2016 at 2:23am Top Answer leonardkabib answered the question · Jun 08, 2016 at 2:23am Other Answers Green Explanation The flag of Libya was originally introduced in 1951, following... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(29991391) ]} The plain GREEN rectangle... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(29991475) ]} Need a World History tutor? profcelia 2 World History experts found online! Average reply time is less than an hour Get Homework Help Why Join Course Hero? Course Hero has all the homework and study help you need to succeed! We’ve got course-specific notes, study guides, and practice tests along with expert tutors and customizable flashcards—available anywhere, anytime. - - Study Documents Find the best study resources around, tagged to your specific courses. Share your own to gain free Course Hero access or to earn money with our Marketplace. - Question & Answers Get one-on-one homework help from our expert tutors—available online 24/7. Ask your own questions or browse existing Q&A threads. Satisfaction guaranteed! - Flashcards Browse existing sets or create your own using our digital flashcard system. A simple yet effective studying tool to help you earn the grade that you want!

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| Egypt , Italy , Libya The red band on the flag refers to the blood of those killed during the Libyan fight for independence from Italy [AFP] Anti-government protesters in cities across Libya have been hoisting national flags as a sign of their revolt against Muammar Gaddafi, the man who has led the country for 41 years. Abroad, where diplomats in several embassies have also renounced Gaddafi's leadership, the flag is also being used as a sign to show where loyalties lie. The flag being raised, however, is not the current national flag, but one from over 40 years ago, when Libya was still ruled by a constitutional monarchy under the el-Senussi family . It depicts three bands of green, black and red, with a white crescent and star in the centre, and was the banner under which the Kingdom of Libya won its independence from Italy on December 24, 1951. The flag was used until 1969, when it was replaced by the pan-Arab red-white-and-black tricolour. The red band on the 1951 flag symbolises the blood of those killed during the struggle for independence from Italy, and the green band symbolises prosperity. The central black band appears to be a reference from the el-Senussi flag, under which King Idris I gathered Libyans together during the fight for independence. The crescent and star are traditional symbols of Islam, the religion of most Libyans. A variation of the flag that has been used by anti-government protesters has vertical bands, and no star and crescent. 'Stolen by Gaddafi' Libya's current flag is a monochromatic green rectangle, and is the only national flag currently in use that does not feature some form of icon, symbol or design. It is strongly associated with Gaddafi's rule, and has been in use since 1977, when the country was declared the "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya". Speaking to Al Jazeera, Youcef Bouandel, an Algerian professor of international affairs at Qatar University, explained the significance of the protesters' choice of flag. "This flag is the flag of Libya when it achieved its independence from the Italians ... and I think that people are saying that Libya is going to achieve its independence that was stolen by Gaddafi," he said. Bouandel said the choice of flag did not indicate a particular predilection towards returning to a monarchical structure - as the original flag was used by the country when it was ruled by the el-Senussi family - rather it was a reaction against Gaddafi, and an expression of a desire for independence. Protesters shows areas they claim are controlled by anti-government forces under the 1951-69 flag "[It is] to tell him that there was a Libya before Gaddafi came to power," said Bouandel.  "He seemed to imply in his speech that he was Libya, that he made Libya ... [but they wish to say] there was a Libya that fought for its independence and that was the flag of Libya before you took power in what you called a revolution." Analysts say that while there is the possibility of the Libyan monarchy coming back to some form of power if Gaddafi were overthrown, it remains unclear at this point how strong a possibility that is. Awad Elfeituri, from the Libyan Information Centre, a Doha-based organisation that has been using contacts in the country to get information regarding the revolt out to the wider world, spoke to Al Jazeera about the significance of the flag. He said that it was unlikely that protesters had chosen the flag with its ties to the monarchy in mind, as most protesters are younger than 30 years old - Gaddafi seized power in a coup d'etat 41 years ago. Elfeituri said the choice of the older flag as a symbol of the revolution came from a sense of "nostalgia", of a longing for the "good old days", where, in particular, law and order were maintained. He said the protesters "do not want anything to do with Gaddafi", and the green flag is closely associated with the Libyan leader. Those sentiments to be borne out by protesters against Gaddafi's rule. "It represents a free Libya [because] that's how it was before he [Gaddafi] came along. We just want someone that will listen to us," said Amina, a 22-year-old student in London at a protest in that city. Muftah Abdelsamad, a 57-year-old Libyan living in exile in Britain for 35 years, told Al Jazeera: "This flag means everything. It's our independence flag from the occupation of the Italian forces, and ... I'm proud to wear it around." While some protesters expressed admiration of the monarchy with which the flag is associated, others asserted that the meaning for them was primarily one of independence and revolution. Amjad Tahaa, a 19-year-old from Birmingham in the United Kingdom said the flag "represents the Libyan revolution and what the people want, regardless of the previous meaning". Divisions and unity In a speech televised on national television on February 21, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, Muammar Gaddafi's son, warned: "Libya is not like Egypt [referring to the revolution in that country], it is tribes and clans. It is not a society with parties. Everyone knows their duties and this may cause civil wars." The deep tribal divisions do continue to predict loyalties in Libya, and during recent unrest several tribes have turned against Gaddafi [notably the Warfala tribe, the country's largest]. The 1951-69 flag, however, is a symbol of tribal unity, as all of the country's clans agreed to be ruled under the el-Senussi family [and an elected parliament], said Bouandel. Follow more of Al Jazeera's special coverage here  The flag then, appears to symbolise both independence and unity. Interestingly, the plain green flag that Gaddafi made the national pennant in 1977 is also supposed to symbolise unity, Bouandel and Elfeituri said. The colour green, which is closely associated with Gaddafi's government in Libya, is in the Arab world considered a colour of peace, equality and the colour of heaven, Bouandel added. Gaddafi has also displayed a particular devotion to the colour. His manifesto, which he quotes often, is called the Green Book and features a green cover, and during recent violence he urged his supporters to wear green armbands as a sign of where their loyalties lay. During his address to the nation on February 22, he urged his supporters to don their green armbands and "cleanse" Libya of anti-government protesters. ElFeituri says the colour is somewhat of an obsession with Gaddafi. In the city of Benghazi, which in recent days has become a stronghold for protesters, he had earlier reportedly "forced people to paint their walls and doors green". The colour appears to have a deeper importance to Gaddafi than simply being a means of identification. Bouandel narrated an anecdote to Al Jazeera, describing a function at the University of Benghazi some years ago when Gaddafi wanted to take notes of what speakers were saying. Students present at the university offered Gaddafi a pen that wrote in red ink. He was offended by the offer, Bouandel said, asking "Since when do I use that?" Gaddafi then demanded that a green pen be provided for him to write with. Additional reporting contributed by Al Jazeera's Jacqueline Head in London You can follow Asad Hashim on Twitter at @AsadHashim Source: Al Jazeera

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What's the deal with the new Libyan flag? - CSMonitor.com What's the deal with the new Libyan flag? A Libyan flag, used by the Kingdom of Libya before Muammar Qaddafi's regime, flies at the Libyan Embassy in Tokyo Tuesday. The embassy replaced the all green flag Monday with the Kingdom of Libya flag used by the Libyan rebels. Hiro Komae/AP View Caption of Until recently, the flag of Libya held a special place in the hearts of vexillophiles as The World's Most Boring Flag. That's because it was nothing but a green rectangle, with no markings of any kind. But starting in February, a new flag – red, black, and green with a white star and crescent in the center – has been hoisted at Libyan embassies around the world, from Switzerland to Bangladesh . It is the same flag being flown by the jubilant rebels themselves as they descend on Tripoli . So what's the deal with this new flag? Is there a Libyan Betsy Ross among the rebels? Where did it come from? Recommended: Could you pass a US citizenship test? The new flag is actually a retro flag. It's the flag of the Kingdom of Libya, which existed from 1951 to 1969, until a group of military officers led by Col. Muammar Qaddafi overthrew the government. The rebel National Transitional Council is calling for the establishment of a republic , but many of the rebels have been seen displaying photos of the country's first and only king, Idris of Libya, who died in exile in 1983. Photos of the Day Photos of the day 02/08 Before independence, Libya was governed by the Allies, the Italians, and from the 15th century to 1911, the Ottoman Empire . The Kingdom of Libya's flag is based on the flag of the Emirate of Cyrenaica, a region in eastern Libya that in 1949 unilaterally declared independence from the Allies under King Idris, who then went on to unite it with the country's other two historical regions, Tripolitania and Fezzan. Cyrenaica's flag was black with a white star and crescent. When Libya gained independence from the Allied forces in 1951, King Idris added a red stripe at the top to represent the blood of Libyans who died under Italian fascist rule, and a green stripe at the bottom to symbolize independence. Upon taking power in 1969, Qaddafi renamed the country the "Libyan Arab Republic" and replaced the country's flag with a red, white, and black horizontal tricolor. In 1977, he changed the name of the country again, this time calling it the "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya." ("Jamahiriya" is a word coined by Qaddafi and often left untranslated. It roughly means "state of the masses" or "peopledom.") For the flag of this newly renamed state, Qaddafi opted to go monochrome. Green is the traditional color of Islam, traditionally the favorite color of the Prophet Mohammed , and a powerful symbol of life for people living in the desert. The color also complements the Green Book , Qaddafi's 1975 collection of musings and aphorisms on everything from economics to the biological differences between women and men, which all Libyan schoolchildren were required to study for at least two hours a week. Qaddafi's green flag is not unprecedented: It was also the banner of the Fatimid Caliphate, which ruled over North Africa , including what is now Libya, from 909 to 1171. Like that flag, it seems that Qaddafi's green flag will soon become little more than a historical curiosity. Next up

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Fascinating History and Meaning of the National Flag of Libya Follow Us Fascinating History and Meaning of the National Flag of Libya The flag of Libya has a very interesting history and meaning. It has stood as a symbol of hope and victory for the people of Libya through various shifts in power. Advertisement Did You Know? Under Muammar Gaddafi's rule, the national flag of Libya was the only monochromatic flag in the world. It consisted of a rectangle of green, with no insignia, stripes, or symbols of any kind. Libya is a North African country on the Mediterranean coast. It has been a part of several kingdoms and imperial regimes, as well as had its share of dictators. Its flag reflects this chaotic history of the nation better than anything else. 1951-present ★ The current national flag of Libya was first used in 1951, as the flag of the Kingdom of Libya, which was formed in culmination of the Allied occupation of Libya after the Second World War. According to the Libyan Constitution at the time, Chapter 1, Article 7: The national flag shall have the following dimensions: Its length shall be twice its breadth, it shall be divided into three parallel colored stripes, the uppermost being red, the center black and the lowest green, the black stripe shall be equal in area to the two other stripes combined and shall bear in its center a white crescent, between the two extremities of which there shall be a five-pointed white star. Current flag of Libya ★ This design was based on the flag of the Emirate of Cyrenaica. This administration came to power in British-controlled Libya in 1949. This flag was used with some minor modifications by the ruler of Cyrenaica, King Idris, after he became the ruler of Libya, as his Royal Standard. Flag of the Emirate of Cyrenaica ★ When the Emirate was replaced by the Kingdom of Libya, this design was not acceptable to other factions of the now-unified Libyan people. So, the design was modified to give the flag a new meaning in light of the newfound independence. The red stripe was added to signify the bloodshed that occurred under the Italian Fascist rule, and the green stripe was added to represent the prosperity and freedom of Libya. The crescent, retained from Idris' flag, as well as the green strip honor the major religion in Libya―Islam. ★ This original design was superseded several times during the reign of Muammar Gaddafi from 1969 to 2011. Immediately following the revolution that brought Gaddafi to power, the flag was changed to one showing the pan-Arab colors. These colors also form the basis for the flag of several other Arab states such as Egypt, Iraq, and the UAE, even to this day. This flag lasted from 1969 to 1972. Flag of Libya from 1969-1972 ★ This flag was replaced by the flag of the Federation of Arab Republics, which also included Egypt and Syria. This kept the color scheme the same, but added a hawk holding a scroll in the center stripe. The scroll held the Arabic name of the Federation. This Federation lasted from 1972 to 1977, and consequently the flag also went out of fashion in 1977. Flag of the Federation of Arab Republics (1972-1977) ★ In 1977, the most well-known and as yet longest-lasting flag of Libya, then known as Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, was established. The plain green rectangle signified the country's allegiance to Gaddafi's philosophy, encapsulated in his Green Book. As stated before, this was the only flag in the world to consist of a single color. Flag of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ★ This flag was replaced by the original, 1951-1969 flag of the Kingdom of Libya after the 2011 Libyan Civil War and eventual ouster of Muammar Gaddafi. The flag became a symbol of the revolution, as several versions with minor modifications as well as the unaltered version were used by protestors. Before 1951 ★ Though a flag of a unified Libya only came into existence in 1951, the region of Libya had several flags before it. The flag of the Emirate of Cyrenaica has been mentioned before. The region of Fezzan-Ghadames had a similar design. This region was later merged with Tripolitania and Cyrenaica to form the Kingdom of Libya. Flag of Fezzan-Ghadames ★ The Tripolitanian Republic, an attempt to control the former Ottoman colony (vilayet) of Tripolitania, had a flag with a palm tree and a white star on a light blue background. This venture was short-lived, and was never powerful enough to be the sole ruler of Libya. Flag of Tripolitania During the Allied occupation, the respective regions of Libya occupied by Britain and France had the same flags as their occupiers. Before that, Libya was part of the Italian Empire, and used its flag. Tanmay Tikekar

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Libya Flag | Libyan Flag Egypt Flag Design The flag of Libya is a tricolor, with three horizontal bands of red, back and green colors respectively, forming the base. Of these, the black band is the largest in width. On the center is an emblem comprised of a white crescent and a five-pointed star. The flag bears a ratio of 1:2, being twice as long as it is broad. Symbolism The design forming the central portion-the crescent and star on a black background-has its roots in the design of the banner used during the Senussi Dynasty, which was founded in Mecca in 1837. The red color represents the blood of the Libyan people who lost their lives in the fascist rule of Italy, and the green color stands for peace. History When Libya gained independence in 1951, the Kingdom of Libya was established. That was then the current flag of Libya was first adopted. After the coup of 1969, the Libyan Arab Republic was established, when the flag was changed under the directions of Muammar al-Gaddafi. He was overthrown in the 2011 civil war, which featured the rebels using, and later re-establishing, the same flag. Fact about Libya flag

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Top 10 Unusual or Unique Flags - Listverse Top 10 Unusual or Unique Flags Jamie Frater September 26, 2010 Flags have been used since before we began recording history, to symbolize movements, peoples and even individuals. Every country in the world has a flag – some weird, some beautiful and some incredibly boring (Libya’s flag for instance – plain green and nothing else). This list looks at ten flags, or types of flags, that are unique in one or another aspect from other flags. 10 Dannebrog Flags originated in China and India and spread around the world. Because they are so ancient it is not possible to pinpoint the very first, so we are doing the next best thing by including the Dannebrog – the world’s oldest state flag still in use. Dating back to the 13th century – allegedly June 15, 1219, the Dannebrog is the state flag of Denmark and is the inspiration behind the design of many other scandinavian country’s flags. Prior to its adoption the flag most commonly in use in the region was the Viking raven banner which was triangular in shape and carried the image of a Raven. Austria also lays claim to having the oldest flag though their flag most likely appeared around 1230. 9 Semaphores Language doesn’t just come in the form of speech and movement. Semaphore Flags are a system for conveying information at a distance by means of visual signals with hand-held flags, rods, disks, paddles, or occasionally bare or gloved hands. Information is encoded by the position of the flags; it is read when the flag is in a fixed position. Semaphores were adopted and widely used (with hand-held flags replacing the mechanical arms of shutter semaphores) in the maritime world in the early 1800s. Semaphore signals were used, for example, at the Battle of Trafalgar. This was the period in which the modern naval semaphore system was invented. This system uses hand-held flags. It is still used during underway replenishment at sea and is acceptable for emergency communication in daylight or, using lighted wands instead of flags, at night. 8 Nepal The flag of Nepal is the only national flag in the world that is not rectangular. The flag is a simplified combination of two single pennants. Its crimson red is the color of the rhododendron, the country’s national flower. Red is also the sign of victory in war. The blue border is the color of peace. Until 1962, the flag’s emblems, the sun and the crescent moon, had human faces. They were removed to modernize the flag. The faces remained on the sun and the moon on the Royal Standard until the abolition of the monarchy in 2008. The flag was adopted, with the formation of a new constitutional government, on December 16, 1962. The individual pennants had been used for the preceding two centuries and the double pennant since the 19th century. 7 White Flag The white flag is an internationally recognized protective sign of truce or ceasefire, and request for negotiation. It is also used to symbolize surrender, since it is often the weaker military party which requests negotiation. A white flag signifies to all that an approaching negotiator is unarmed, with an intent to surrender or a desire to communicate. Persons carrying or waving a white flag are not to be fired upon, nor are they allowed to open fire. The use of the flag to surrender is included in the Geneva Conventions. 6 Black Flag The black flag, and the color black in general, have been associated with anarchy since the 1880s. Many anarchist collectives contain the word “black” in their names. There have been a number of anarchist periodicals titled Black Flag. The uniform blackness of this flag is representative of the negation of all oppressive structures, in deliberate contrast to the colorful flags typical of most nation-states. Additionally, as a white flag is the universal symbol for surrender to superior force, the black flag is a symbol of defiance, an opposition to surrender. 5 Transgender Flag We are all familiar with the rainbow flag of the gay pride movement, but less well known is the transgender flag. It was created in 2000, and first flown at a pride Parade in Phoenix, Arizona, that year. The flag designer most aptly sums up its meaning, so I will let her speak: “The light blue is the traditional color for baby boys, pink is for girls, and the white in the middle is for those who are transitioning, those who feel they have a neutral gender or no gender, and those who are intersexed. The pattern is such that no matter which way you fly it, it will always be correct. This symbolizes us trying to find correctness in our own lives.” 4 Jolly Roger The Jolly Roger is the name given to any of various flags flown to identify a ship’s crew as pirates. The flag most usually identified as the Jolly Roger today is the skull and crossbones, a flag consisting of a human skull above two long bones, set in an x-mark arrangement on a black field. This design was used by several pirates, including Captains Edward England and John Taylor. Some Jolly Roger flags also include an hourglass, another common symbol representing mortality and death in 17th and 18th Century Europe. Despite its prominence in popular culture, plain black flags were often employed by most pirates in the 17th-18th century. 3 West African Flag This unusual flag is commonly (and wrongly) attributed to the Benin Empire. It is one of four currently held at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich near London. There is some uncertainty about the exact origin of the flag, and whether it came from Benin itself or was used by the forces of its Itsekiri allies. The name ‘Kennedy’ on the paper label attached to the flag seems to indicate it was brought back by Admiral F.W. Kennedy from the 1897 expedition against Benin, and so is of Benin origin. The flag, however, is extremely similar to three other West African flags the Museum holds, which originated not in Benin itself but with the neighboring Itsekiri people. 2 Martian Flag The flag of Mars is a tricolor used to represent the planet of Mars. While not official in any legal sense, it has been approved by, and is used by, the Mars Society and The Planetary Society. The flag is designed to portray the “future history” of Mars. The red bar, which lies closest to the mast, symbolizes Mars as it is today. The green and blue symbolize stages in the possible terraforming of Mars, should humanity ever have the will and the ability to undertake such a task, the ethics of terraforming remaining a matter of debate. 1 Nazi Flag The Nazi flag is probably the most controversial flag in man’s history. It is even banned in a number of countries today. The flag was designed by Hitler himself, who thought it was necessary to use the same colors as Imperial Germany, because, in his opinion, they were “revered colors expressive of our homage to the glorious past and which once brought so much honor to the German nation.” The most important requirement was that “the new flag… should prove effective as a large poster” because “in hundreds of thousands of cases a really striking emblem may be the first cause of awakening interest in a movement.” Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. Text is derived from Wikipedia.

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Libya This page is part of © FOTW Flags Of The World website Libya A spurious flag for Fezzan Neighbouring Countries: Flag dates: by country The Flag of Libya At the Fourth Contact Group Meeting on Libya (a one-day meeting), held on July 15, 2011 in Istanbul, Turkey "more than 30 Western and Arab countries, agreed to recognise the rebels" as the "legitimate governing authority". The date could be: - first use in the uprising (could be 17 Feb 2011 as Wikipedia says...) - date of any act of the National Transitional Council (or any predecessor of such body) that declared this as the flag of the movement (in whatever form, order, declaration, guideline...) if there was such at any time (as far as I am aware, there was none, the use of the flag was so far not regulated) - date of first official hoisting of the flag, if there was such ceremony made in the capital or something similar - date of first official hoisting at the UN (which is not relevant for first hoisting/adoption, but still of general vexillological interest) - date of any new legislation adopting the flag, probably still to come - probably we shall have to wait for the new Constitution to make the new flag official and then there may be a separate law as well. - there might also be a legislative act regarding the flags on ships Željko Heimer, 27 October 2011 Construction sheet 1:2, image by Abdul-Jawad Elhusuni, 13 December 2011 [Click on image for full size version.] I constructed the flag according to some of the pictures I found and made a construction sheet and placed my version of the flag on Wikipedia. Abdul-Jawad Elhusuni, 13 December 2011 The protocol manual for the London 2012 Olympics ( Flags and Anthems Manual London 2012 ) provides recommendations for national flag designs. Each NOC was sent an image of the flag, including the PMS shades, for their approval by LOCOG. Once this was obtained, LOCOG produced a 60 x 90 cm version of the flag for further approval. So, while these specs may not be the official, government, version of each flag, they are certainly what the NOC believed the flag to be. For Libya: PMS 485 red, 348 green and black. The vertical flag is simply the horizontal version turned 90 degrees clockwise. Ian Sumner, 11 October 2012 The NTC has a new emblem as coat of arms, seen here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:National_Transitional_Council_logo.svg . For additional information please visit: NTC (official website) Esteban Rivera, 18 July 2011 Re-introduction of the flag in 2011 As a result of the 2011 Libyan uprising, there are currently two entities claiming to be the official government of Libya. The English Wikipedia refers to the "Transitional National Council". The council refers to the state as the Libyan Republic. The 1951-1969 Libyan flag has been used by most flag-bearing protesters as an opposition symbol. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libya Ivan Sache, 12 March 2011 A common thread seems to be that most of these flags are homemade. Many variants are in use. We can probably attribute any irregularities to that. Here's an interesting phenomenon though: Multiple people carrying printouts of some digital image of the old flag. Note the equal-width stripes: I wonder where that image comes from. Presumably there's a source online somewhere but it doesn't look like anything from Wikipedia or FOTW. Brendan, 21 February 2011 The red-black-green flag is also being raised at at least some Libyan embassies in foreign capitals: BBC television news reported that "tonight in London another extraordinary scene, a protester scales the front of the Libyan embassy to pull down the Gadaffi flag and replace it with the emblem of the previous monarchy. The fact he's unchallenged by Libya's diplomats inside suggests they too sense profound change in the air." Dave Fowler, 21 February 2011 Colin Dobson, 22 February 2011 The 2011 Libyan uprising began as a series of protests and confrontations occurring in the North African state of Libya against Muammar  Gaddafi's 42-year old rule. The protests began on 15 February 2011 and has since become a widespread uprising that continues to the present. Inspiration for the unrest is attributed to the uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt , connecting it with the wider 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests. On 22 February, The Economist described the events as an "uprising that is trying to reclaim Libya from the world's longest-ruling autocrat." Gaddafi has referred the opposition variously as "rats", "cockroaches", "al-Qaeda" and "drugged kids". He has asserted that he will chase and hang them." Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Libyan_uprising The opposition forces (Anti-Gaddafi forces) are: National Transitional Council (political body). They use the Kingdom of Libya flag (Arabic: المملكة الليبية‎) originally called the United Libyan Kingdom came into existence upon independence on 24 December 1951 and lasted until a coup d'état led by Muammar al-Gaddafi on 1 September 1969 overthrew King Idris of Libya and established the Libyan Arab Republic. The National Transitional Council was established in the city of Benghazi on February 27, 2011.

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Libya Flag - colors meaning history of Libya Flag Colors Libya Flag - Colors meaning the colors represent the three major regions of the country: red stands for Fezzan, black symbolizes Cyrenaica, and green denotes Tripolitania; the crescent and star represent Islam, the main religion of the country Libya Flag - Facts three horizontal bands of red (top), black (double width), and green with a white crescent and star centered on the black stripe; the National Transitional Council reintroduced this flag design of the former Kingdom of Libya (1951-1969) on 27 February 2011; it replaced the former all-green banner promulgated by the QADHAFI regime in 1977; the colors represent the three major regions of the country: red stands for Fezzan, black symbolizes Cyrenaica, and green denotes Tripolitania; the crescent and star represent Islam, the main religion of the country Libya Flag - Pictures | Images

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15 of the World's Strangest Flags (swaziland flag, funny flags) - ODDEE 15 of the World's Strangest Flags 10/12/2009 1 Fryslan (Netherlands) Someone from Fryslan in the Netherlands must love Frogger. Or Chinese fortune cookies. Either way, they made this flag odd and ugly enough to be our first on the list. ( Source ) 2 Guam Guam's flag is just horrible, it looks as if they've just bought a T-shirt from the nearest souvenir shop and put it on a flag pole. Even if this was the case, we have a hard time believing that they couldn't find a better T-shirt. ( Source ) 3 Benin This was the flag of the Benin Empire, that was situated in modern Nigeria. A pre-colonial African state, it lasted from 1440 to 1897. ( Source ) 4 Swaziland Swaziland's flag. The colors go well together and the design is interesting; unfortunately, this is not a kitchen towel. While we're sure the shield and spears are traditional and part of Swaziland's culture, having weapons in your flag just sends the wrong message, not to mention the poor school children in Swaziland. Trying to make an accurate drawing of this flag for independence day must be a nightmare. ( Source ) 5 Isle of Man The flag of the Isle of Man shows a triskelion, the Three Legs of Man emblem, in the centre of a red flag. The three legs are joined at the thigh and bent at the knee. In order to have the toes pointing clockwise on both sides of the flag, a two-sided emblem is used. ( Source ) 6 Antwerp (Belgium) One of the worst flags in the world comes from the state of Antwerp in Belgium. It's a chess set on acid. The flag is made of 24 square pieces, in 4 rows and 6 columns. The pieces in the upper right and lower left corners of the flag are white, the neighbouring pieces are blue, yellow, red and white, respectively. ( Source ) 7 Mozambique The hoe and the book in Mozambique's flag convey the best characteristics a nation wants in its people. But, an AK-47?! ( Source ) 8 Kyrgyzstan... Is that a tennis ball on this flag? 9 Bhutan's flag wins the award for the most bad-ass ever. 10 Northern Marianas Islands' flag appears to have been created from clip art. ( Source ) 11 U.S. Virgin Islands Another unspeakably horrible flag from a U.S. territory, the U.S. Virgin Islands. They actually have to use it. ( Source ) 12 Central African Republic The Central African Republic's flag has managed to make an incredibly busy flag with just five straight lines, and one lonely star. While this flag looks horrible enough as it is, if it is seen waving in the wind, it actually induces seizures. ( Source ) 13 Lombardy (Italy) Lombardy in Italy must have invented the game of Jacks, mustn't it? Not much else can explain this flag, that is simple to point of boredom, but still includes a slightly nauseous shade of green. ( Source ) 14 Nepal Nepal is the only country in the world that doesn't have a rectangular flag; Nepalese flag is shaped like two overlapping triangles. ( Source ) 15 Libya Libya's flag, adopted on an uninspired night of 1977, consists of a simple green field with no other characteristics. It is the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design, insignia, or other details. ( Source ) From the Web

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Libya Flag - World Flags 101 - Libyan Flags Country: Socialist Libyan Arab Peoples Jamahiriya (Libya) Proportions: 1:2 The flag of Libya consists of a solid green background. Libyan Flag Meaning: Green is the national color of Libya as well as a symbol of devotion to Islam. Green also represents Libyan President Muammar al Qaddafi's 'Green Revolution' - an intention to turn Libya into a wealthy agricultural nation. Advertiser Links [ what's this? ] Libyan Flag History: The Libyan flag was adopted on November 19, 1977, after leaving the Federation of Arabs Republic, which consisted of Libya, Egypt and Syria. The previous flag of Libya consisted of red, white and black horizontal stripes. Libya gained independence from Italy on December 24, 1951. Interesting Libyan Flag Facts: The Libyan flag is the only national flag in the world that is simply one color with nothing else on it. The term to explain the one-color flag is 'monochromatic'. World FlagsAlphabetical list of all world flags. L

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Flags with descriptions Home - Country listing - Field listing Flags with descriptions European Union a blue field with 12 five-pointed gold stars arranged in a circle in the center; blue represents the sky of the Western world, the stars are the peoples of Europe in a circle, a symbol of unity; the number of stars is fixed Taiwan red field with a dark blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white sun with 12 triangular rays; the blue and white design of the canton (symbolizing the sun of progress) dates to 1895; it was later adopted as the flag of the Kuomintang Party; blue signifies liberty, justice, and democracy; red stands for fraternity, sacrifice, and nationalism, white represents equality, frankness, and the people's livelihood; the 12 rays of the sun are those of the months and the twelve traditional Chinese hours (each ray equals two hours) A Afghanistan three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), red, and green, with the national emblem in white centered on the red band and slightly overlapping the other two bands; the center of the emblem features a mosque with pulpit and flags on either side, below the mosque are numerals for the solar year 1298 (1919 in the Gregorian calendar, the year of Afghan independence from the UK); this central image is circled by a border consisting of sheaves of wheat on the left and right, in the upper-center is an Arabic inscription of the Shahada (Muslim creed) below which are rays of the rising sun over the Takbir (Arabic expression meaning "God is great"), and at bottom center is a scroll bearing the name Afghanistan; black signifies the past, red is for the blood shed for independence, and green can represent either hope for the future, agricultural prosperity, or Islam note: Afghanistan had more changes to its national flag in the 20th century than any other country; the colors black, red, and green appeared on most of them Albania red with a black two-headed eagle in the center; the design is claimed to be that of 15th-century hero George Kastrioti SKANDERBEG, who led a successful uprising against the Turks that resulted in a short-lived independence for some Albanian regions (1443-78); an unsubstantiated explanation for the eagle symbol is the tradition that Albanians see themselves as descendants of the eagle; they refer to themselves as "Shqipetare," which translates as "sons of the eagle" Algeria two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and white; a red, five-pointed star within a red crescent centered over the two-color boundary; the colors represent Islam (green), purity and peace (white), and liberty (red); the crescent and star are also Islamic symbols, but the crescent is more closed than those of other Muslim countries because the Algerians believe the long crescent horns bring happiness American Samoa blue, with a white triangle edged in red that is based on the fly side and extends to the hoist side; a brown and white American bald eagle flying toward the hoist side is carrying two traditional Samoan symbols of authority, a war club known as a "Fa'alaufa'i" (upper; left talon), and a coconut fiber fly whisk known as a "Fue" (lower; right talon); the combination of symbols broadly mimics that seen on the US Great Seal and reflects the relationship between the United States and American Samoa Andorra three vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red, with the national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; the latter band is slightly wider than the other two so that the ratio of band widths is 8:9:8; the coat of arms features a quartered shield with the emblems of (starting in the upper left and proceeding clockwise): Urgell, Foix, Bearn, and Catalonia; the motto reads VIRTUS UNITA FORTIOR (Strength United is Stronger); the flag combines the blue and red French colors with the red and yellow of Spain to show Franco-Spanish protection note: similar to the flags of Chad and Romania, which do not have a national coat of arms in the center, and the flag of Moldova, which does bear a national emblem Angola two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle); red represents liberty, black the African continent, the symbols characterize workers and peasants Anguilla blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Anguillan coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts three orange dolphins in an interlocking circular design on a white background with a turquoise-blue field below; the white in the background represents peace; the blue base symbolizes the surrounding sea, as well as faith, youth, and hope; the three dolphins stand for endurance, unity, and strength Antigua and Barbuda red, with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white, with a yellow rising sun in the black band; the sun symbolizes the dawn of a new era, black represents the African heritage of most of the population, blue is for hope, and red is for the dynamism of the people; the "V" stands for victory; the successive yellow, blue, and white coloring is also meant to evoke the country's tourist attractions of sun, sea, and sand Argentina three equal horizontal bands of light blue (top), white, and light blue; centered in the white band is a radiant yellow sun with a human face known as the Sun of May; the colors represent the clear skies and snow of the Andes; the sun symbol commemorates the appearance of the sun through cloudy skies on 25 May 1810 during the first mass demonstration in favor of independence; the sun features are those of Inti, the Inca god of the sun Aruba blue, with two narrow, horizontal, yellow stripes across the lower portion and a red, four-pointed star outlined in white in the upper hoist-side corner; the star represents Aruba and its red soil and white beaches, its four points the four major languages (Papiamento, Dutch, Spanish, English) as well as the four points of a compass, to indicate that its inhabitants come from all over the world; the blue symbolizes Caribbean waters and skies; the stripes represent the island's two main "industries": the flow of tourists to the sun-drenched beaches and the flow of minerals from the earth Australia blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large seven-pointed star in the lower hoist-side quadrant known as the Commonwealth or Federation Star, representing the federation of the colonies of Australia in 1901; the star depicts one point for each of the six original states and one representing all of Australia's internal and external territories; on the fly half is a representation of the Southern Cross constellation in white with one small, five-pointed star and four larger, seven-pointed stars Austria three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and red; the flag design is certainly one of the oldest - if not the oldest - national banners in the world; according to tradition, in 1191, following a fierce battle in the Third Crusade, Duke Leopold V of Austria's white tunic became completely blood-spattered; upon removal of his wide belt or sash, a white band was revealed; the red-white-red color combination was subsequently adopted as his banner Azerbaijan three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), red, and green; a crescent and eight-pointed star in white are centered in the red band; the blue band recalls Azerbaijan's Turkic heritage, red stands for modernization and progress, and green refers to Islam; the crescent moon is an Islamic symbol, while the eight-pointed star represents the eight Turkic peoples of the world B Bahamas, The three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine, with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side; the band colors represent the golden beaches of the islands surrounded by the aquamarine sea; black represents the vigor and force of a united people, while the pointing triangle indicates the enterprise and determination of the Bahamian people to develop the rich resources of land and sea Bahrain red, the traditional color for flags of Persian Gulf states, with a white serrated band (five white points) on the hoist side; the five points represent the five pillars of Islam note: until 2002 the flag had eight white points, but this was reduced to five to avoid confusion with the Qatari flag Barbados three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the band colors represent the blue of the sea and sky and the gold of the beaches; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident) Belarus red horizontal band (top) and green horizontal band one-half the width of the red band; a white vertical stripe on the hoist side bears Belarusian national ornamentation in red; the red band color recalls past struggles from oppression, the green band represents hope and the many forests of the country Belgium three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), yellow, and red; the vertical design was based on the flag of France; the colors are those of the arms of the duchy of Brabant (yellow lion with red claws and tongue on a black field) Belize blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland of 50 mahogany leaves; the colors are those of the two main political parties: blue for the PUP and red for the UDP; various elements of the coat of arms - the figures, the tools, the mahogany tree, and the garland of leaves - recall the logging industry that led to British settlement of Belize note: Belize's flag is the only national flag that depicts human beings; two British overseas territories, Montserrat and the British Virgin Islands, also depict humans two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red (bottom) with a vertical green band on the hoist side; green symbolizes hope and revival, yellow wealth, and red courage note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Bermuda red, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (a white shield with a red lion standing on a green grassy field holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag; it was the shipwreck of the vessel, filled with English colonists originally bound for Virginia, that led to settling of Bermuda note: the flag is unusual in that it is only British overseas territory that uses a red ensign, all others use blue Bhutan divided diagonally from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side; the dragon, called the Druk (Thunder Dragon), is the emblem of the nation; its white color stands for purity and the jewels in its claws symbolize wealth; the background colors represent spiritual and secular powers within Bhutan: the orange is associated with Buddhism, while the yellow denotes the ruling dynasty Bolivia three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; red stands for bravery and the blood of national heroes, yellow for the nation's mineral resources, and green for the fertility of the land note: similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; in 2009, a presidential decree made it mandatory for a so-called wiphala - a square, multi-colored flag representing the country's indigenous peoples - to be used alongside the traditional flag Bosnia and Herzegovina a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle; the triangle approximates the shape of the country and its three points stand for the constituent peoples - Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs; the stars represent Europe and are meant to be continuous (thus the half stars at top and bottom); the colors (white, blue, and yellow) are often associated with neutrality and peace, and traditionally are linked with Bosnia Brazil green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress); the current flag was inspired by the banner of the former Empire of Brazil (1822-1889); on the imperial flag, the green represented the House of Braganza of Pedro I, the first Emperor of Brazil, while the yellow stood for the Habsburg Family of his wife; on the modern flag the green represents the forests of the country and the yellow rhombus its mineral wealth; the blue circle and stars, which replaced the coat of arms of the original flag, depict the sky over Rio de Janeiro on the morning of 15 November 1889 - the day the Republic of Brazil was declared; the number of stars has changed with the creation of new states and has risen from an original 21 to the current 27 (one for each state and the Federal District) British Indian Ocean Territory white with six blue wavy horizontal stripes; the flag of the UK is in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the striped section bears a palm tree and yellow crown (the symbols of the territory) centered on the outer half of the flag; the wavy stripes represent the Indian Ocean; although not officially described, the six blue stripes may stand for the six main atolls of the archipelago British Virgin Islands blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful); the islands were named by COLUMBUS in 1493 in honor of Saint Ursula and her 11 virgin followers (some sources say 11,000) who reputedly were martyred by the Huns in the 4th or 5th century; the figure on the banner holding a lamp represents the saint, the other lamps symbolize her followers Brunei yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; yellow is the color of royalty and symbolizes the sultanate; the white and black bands denote Brunei's chief ministers; the emblem includes five main components: a swallow-tailed flag, the royal umbrella representing the monarchy, the wings of four feathers symbolizing justice, tranquility, prosperity, and peace, the two upraised hands signifying the government's pledge to preserve and promote the welfare of the people, and the crescent moon denoting Islam, the state religion; the state motto "Always render service with God's guidance" appears in yellow Arabic script on the crescent; a ribbon below the crescent reads "Brunei, the Abode of Peace" three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the pan-Slavic white-blue-red colors were modified by substituting a green band (representing freedom) for the blue note: the national emblem, formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe, has been removed two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; red recalls the country's struggle for independence, green is for hope and abundance, and yellow represents the country's mineral wealth note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Burma design consists of three equal horizontal stripes of yellow (top), green, and red; centered on the green band is a large white five-pointed star that partially overlaps onto the adjacent colored stripes; the design revives the triband colors used by Burma from 1943-45, during the Japanese occupation Burundi divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and fly side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below); green symbolizes hope and optimism, white purity and peace, and red the blood shed in the struggle for independence; the three stars in the disk represent the three major ethnic groups: Hutu, Twa, Tutsi, as well as the three elements in the national motto: unity, work, progress C Cabo Verde five unequal horizontal bands; the top-most band of blue - equal to one half the width of the flag - is followed by three bands of white, red, and white, each equal to 1/12 of the width, and a bottom stripe of blue equal to one quarter of the flag width; a circle of 10, yellow, five-pointed stars is centered on the red stripe and positioned 3/8 of the length of the flag from the hoist side; blue stands for the sea and the sky, the circle of stars represents the 10 major islands united into a nation, the stripes symbolize the road to formation of the country through peace (white) and effort (red) three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (double width), and blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat outlined in black in the center of the red band; red and blue are traditional Cambodian colors note: only national flag to incorporate an actual building in its design Cameroon three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow, with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; the vertical tricolor recalls the flag of France; red symbolizes unity, yellow the sun, happiness, and the savannahs in the north, and green hope and the forests in the south; the star is referred to as the "star of unity" note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Canada two vertical bands of red (hoist and fly side, half width) with white square between them; an 11-pointed red maple leaf is centered in the white square; the maple leaf has long been a Canadian symbol; the official colors of Canada are red and white Cayman Islands a blue field, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Caymanian coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms includes a crest with a pineapple, representing the connection with Jamaica, and a turtle, representing Cayman's seafaring tradition, above a shield bearing a golden lion, symbolizing Great Britain, below which are three green stars (representing the three islands) surmounting white and blue wavy lines representing the sea and a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto HE HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE SEAS Central African Republic four equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, green, and yellow with a vertical red band in center; a yellow five-pointed star to the hoist side of the blue band; banner combines the Pan-African and French flag colors; red symbolizes the blood spilled in the struggle for independence, blue represents the sky and freedom, white peace and dignity, green hope and faith, and yellow tolerance; the star represents aspiration towards a vibrant future Chad three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; the flag combines the blue and red French (former colonial) colors with the red and yellow of the Pan-African colors; blue symbolizes the sky, hope, and the south of the country, which is relatively well-watered; yellow represents the sun, as well as the desert in the north of the country; red stands for progress, unity, and sacrifice note: similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flags of Andorra and Moldova, both of which have a national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France Chile two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red represents the blood spilled to achieve independence note: design was influenced by the US flag China red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner; the color red represents revolution, while the stars symbolize the four social classes - the working class, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie, and the national bourgeoisie (capitalists) - united under the Communist Party of China Christmas Island territorial flag; divided diagonally from upper hoist to lower fly; the upper triangle is green with a yellow image of the Golden Bosun Bird superimposed; the lower triangle is blue with the Southern Cross constellation, representing Australia, superimposed; a centered yellow disk displays a green map of the island note: the flag of Australia is used for official purposes Colombia three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double-width), blue, and red; the flag retains the three main colors of the banner of Gran Colombia, the short-lived South American republic that broke up in 1830; various interpretations of the colors exist and include: yellow for the gold in Colombia's land, blue for the seas on its shores, and red for the blood spilled in attaining freedom; alternatively, the colors have been described as representing more elemental concepts such as sovereignty and justice (yellow), loyalty and vigilance (blue), and valor and generosity (red); or simply the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity note: similar to the flag of Ecuador, which is longer and bears the Ecuadorian coat of arms superimposed in the center Comoros four equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), white, red, and blue, with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist; centered within the triangle is a white crescent with the convex side facing the hoist and four white, five-pointed stars placed vertically in a line between the points of the crescent; the horizontal bands and the four stars represent the four main islands of the archipelago - Mwali, N'gazidja, Ndzuwani, and Mahore (Mayotte - department of France, but claimed by Comoros) note: the crescent, stars, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam Congo, Democratic Republic of the sky blue field divided diagonally from the lower hoist corner to upper fly corner by a red stripe bordered by two narrow yellow stripes; a yellow, five-pointed star appears in the upper hoist corner; blue represents peace and hope, red the blood of the country's martyrs, and yellow the country's wealth and prosperity; the star symbolizes unity and the brilliant future for the country Congo, Republic of the divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a yellow band; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is red; green symbolizes agriculture and forests, yellow the friendship and nobility of the people, red is unexplained but has been associated with the struggle for independence note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Costa Rica five horizontal bands of blue (top), white, red (double width), white, and blue, with the coat of arms in a white elliptical disk toward the hoist side of the red band; Costa Rica retained the earlier blue-white-blue flag of Central America until 1848 when, in response to revolutionary activity in Europe, it was decided to incorporate the French colors into the national flag and a central red stripe was added; today the blue color is said to stand for the sky, opportunity, and perseverance, white denotes peace, happiness, and wisdom, while red represents the blood shed for freedom, as well as the generosity and vibrancy of the people note: somewhat resembles the flag of North Korea; similar to the flag of Thailand but with the blue and red colors reversed Cote d'Ivoire three equal vertical bands of orange (hoist side), white, and green; orange symbolizes the land (savannah) of the north and fertility, white stands for peace and unity, green represents the forests of the south and the hope for a bright future note: similar to the flag of Ireland, which is longer and has the colors reversed - green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is green (hoist side), white, and red; design was based on the flag of France Croatia three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue - the Pan-Slav colors - superimposed by the Croatian coat of arms; the coat of arms consists of one main shield (a checkerboard of 13 red and 12 silver (white) fields) surmounted by five smaller shields that form a crown over the main shield; the five small shields represent five historic regions, they are (from left to right): Croatia, Dubrovnik, Dalmatia, Istria, and Slavonia note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia Cuba five equal horizontal bands of blue (top, center, and bottom) alternating with white; a red equilateral triangle based on the hoist side bears a white, five-pointed star in the center; the blue bands refer to the three old divisions of the island: central, occidental, and oriental; the white bands describe the purity of the independence ideal; the triangle symbolizes liberty, equality, and fraternity, while the red color stands for the blood shed in the independence struggle; the white star, called La Estrella Solitaria (the Lone Star) lights the way to freedom and was taken from the flag of Texas note: design similar to the Puerto Rican flag, with the colors of the bands and triangle reversed Curacao on a blue field a horizontal yellow band somewhat below the center divides the flag into proportions of 5:1:2; two five-pointed white stars - the smaller above and to the left of the larger - appear in the canton; the blue of the upper and lower sections symbolizes the sky and sea respectively; yellow represents the sun; the stars symbolize Curacao and its uninhabited smaller sister island of Klein Curacao; the five star points signify the five continents from which Curacao's people derive Cyprus white with a copper-colored silhouette of the island (the name Cyprus is derived from the Greek word for copper) above two green crossed olive branches in the center of the flag; the branches symbolize the hope for peace and reconciliation between the Greek and Turkish communities note: the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" flag retains the white field of the Cyprus national flag but displays narrow horizontal red stripes positioned a small distance from the top and bottom edges between which are centered a red crescent and a red five-pointed star; the banner is modeled after the Turkish national flag but with the colors reversed two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side note: is identical to the flag of the former Czechoslovakia D Denmark red with a white cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side; the banner is referred to as the Dannebrog (Danish flag) and is one of the oldest national flags in the world; traditions as to the origin of the flag design vary, but the best known is a legend that the banner fell from the sky during an early-13th century battle; caught up by the Danish king before it ever touched the earth, this heavenly talisman inspired the royal army to victory; in actuality, the flag may derive from a crusade banner or ensign note: the shifted design element was subsequently adopted by the other Nordic countries of Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden Djibouti two equal horizontal bands of light blue (top) and light green with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bearing a red five-pointed star in the center; blue stands for sea and sky and the Issa Somali people; green symbolizes earth and the Afar people; white represents peace; the red star recalls the struggle for independence and stands for unity Dominica green, with a centered cross of three equal bands - the vertical part is yellow (hoist side), black, and white and the horizontal part is yellow (top), black, and white; superimposed in the center of the cross is a red disk bearing a Sisserou parrot, unique to Dominica, encircled by 10 green, five-pointed stars edged in yellow; the 10 stars represent the 10 administrative divisions (parishes); green symbolizes the island's lush vegetation; the triple-colored cross represents the Christian Trinity; the yellow color denotes sunshine, the main agricultural products (citrus and bananas), and the native Carib Indians; black is for the rich soil and the African heritage of most citizens; white signifies rivers, waterfalls, and the purity of aspirations; the red disc stands for social justice Dominican Republic a centered white cross that extends to the edges divides the flag into four rectangles - the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, and the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue; a small coat of arms featuring a shield supported by a laurel branch (left) and a palm branch (right) is at the center of the cross; above the shield a blue ribbon displays the motto, DIOS, PATRIA, LIBERTAD (God, Fatherland, Liberty), and below the shield, REPUBLICA DOMINICANA appears on a red ribbon; in the shield a bible is opened to a verse that reads "Y la verdad nos hara libre" (And the truth shall set you free); blue stands for liberty, white for salvation, and red for the blood of heroes E Ecuador three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double width), blue, and red with the coat of arms superimposed at the center of the flag; the flag retains the three main colors of the banner of Gran Columbia, the South American republic that broke up in 1830; the yellow color represents sunshine, grain, and mineral wealth, blue the sky, sea, and rivers, and red the blood of patriots spilled in the struggle for freedom and justice note: similar to the flag of Colombia, which is shorter and does not bear a coat of arms Egypt three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the national emblem (a gold Eagle of Saladin facing the hoist side with a shield superimposed on its chest above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white) note: similar to the flag of Syria, which has two green stars in the white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and Yemen, which has a plain white band El Salvador three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL; the banner is based on the former blue-white-blue flag of the Federal Republic of Central America; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, while the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water, as well as peace and prosperity note: similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which has a different coat of arms centered in the white band - it features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band Equatorial Guinea three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red, with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side and the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms has six yellow six-pointed stars (representing the mainland and five offshore islands) above a gray shield bearing a silk-cotton tree and below which is a scroll with the motto UNIDAD, PAZ, JUSTICIA (Unity, Peace, Justice); green symbolizes the jungle and natural resources, blue represents the sea that connects the mainland to the islands, white stands for peace, and red recalls the fight for independence Eritrea red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) dividing the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue; a gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle; green stands for the country's agriculture economy, red signifies the blood shed in the fight for freedom, and blue symbolizes the bounty of the sea; the wreath-olive branch symbol is similar to that on the first flag of Eritrea from 1952; the shape of the red triangle broadly mimics the shape of the country Estonia three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), black, and white; various interpretations are linked to the flag colors; blue represents faith, loyalty, and devotion, while also reminiscent of the sky, sea, and lakes of the country; black symbolizes the soil of the country and the dark past and suffering endured by the Estonian people; white refers to the striving towards enlightenment and virtue, and is the color of birch bark and snow, as well as summer nights illuminated by the midnight sun Ethiopia three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and red, with a yellow pentagram and single yellow rays emanating from the angles between the points on a light blue disk centered on the three bands; green represents hope and the fertility of the land, yellow symbolizes justice and harmony, while red stands for sacrifice and heroism in the defense of the land; the blue of the disk symbolizes peace and the pentagram represents the unity and equality of the nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia note: Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa, and the three main colors of her flag (adopted ca. 1895) were so often adopted by other African countries upon independence that they became known as the Pan-African colors; the emblem in the center of the current flag was added in 1996 F Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Falkland Island coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms contains a white ram (sheep raising was once the major economic activity) above the sailing ship Desire (whose crew discovered the islands) with a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto DESIRE THE RIGHT Faroe Islands white with a red cross outlined in blue extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted toward the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); referred to as Merkid, meaning "the banner" or "the mark," the flag resembles those of neighboring Iceland and Norway, and uses the same three colors - but in a different sequence; white represents the clear Faroese sky as well as the foam of the waves; red and blue are traditional Faroese colors Fiji light blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Fijian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the blue symbolizes the Pacific ocean and the Union Jack reflects the links with Great Britain; the shield - taken from Fiji's coat of arms - depicts a yellow lion above a white field quartered by the cross of Saint George; the four quarters depict stalks of sugarcane, a palm tree, bananas, and a white dove Finland white with a blue cross extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the blue represents the thousands of lakes scattered across the country, while the white is for the snow that covers the land in winter France three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), white, and red; known as the "Le drapeau tricolore" (French Tricolor), the origin of the flag dates to 1790 and the French Revolution when the "ancient French color" of white was combined with the blue and red colors of the Parisian militia; the official flag for all French dependent areas note: the design and/or colors are similar to a number of other flags, including those of Belgium, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, and Netherlands French Polynesia two red horizontal bands encase a wide white band in a 1:2:1 ratio; centered on the white band is a disk with a blue and white wave pattern depicting the sea on the lower half and a gold and white ray pattern depicting the sun on the upper half; a Polynesian canoe rides on the wave pattern; the canoe has a crew of five represented by five stars that symbolize the five island groups; red and white are traditional Polynesian colors note: similar to the red-white-red flag of Tahiti, the largest of the islands in French Polynesia, which has no emblem in the white band; the flag of France is used for official occasions the flag of France is used G Georgia white rectangle with a central red cross extending to all four sides of the flag; each of the four quadrants displays a small red bolnur-katskhuri cross; sometimes referred to as the Five-Cross Flag; although adopted as the official Georgian flag in 2004, the five-cross design appears to date back to the 14th century Germany three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and gold; these colors have played an important role in German history and can be traced back to the medieval banner of the Holy Roman Emperor - a black eagle with red claws and beak on a gold field Ghana three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green, with a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; red symbolizes the blood shed for independence, yellow represents the country's mineral wealth, while green stands for its forests and natural wealth; the black star is said to be the lodestar of African freedom note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Bolivia, which has a coat of arms centered in the yellow band Gibraltar two horizontal bands of white (top, double width) and red with a three-towered red castle in the center of the white band; hanging from the castle gate is a gold key centered in the red band; the design is that of Gibraltar's coat of arms granted on 10 July 1502 by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain; the castle symbolizes Gibraltar as a fortress, while the key represents Gibraltar's strategic importance - the key to the Mediterranean Greece nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white; a blue square bearing a white cross appears in the upper hoist-side corner; the cross symbolizes Greek Orthodoxy, the established religion of the country; there is no agreed upon meaning for the nine stripes or for the colors; the exact shade of blue has never been set by law and has varied from a light to a dark blue over time Greenland two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a large disk slightly to the hoist side of center - the top half of the disk is red, the bottom half is white; the design represents the sun reflecting off a field of ice; the colors are the same as those of the Danish flag and symbolize Greenland's links to the Kingdom of Denmark Grenada a rectangle divided diagonally into yellow triangles (top and bottom) and green triangles (hoist side and outer side), with a red border around the flag; there are seven yellow, five-pointed stars with three centered in the top red border, three centered in the bottom red border, and one on a red disk superimposed at the center of the flag; there is also a symbolic nutmeg pod on the hoist-side triangle (Grenada is the world's second-largest producer of nutmeg, after Indonesia); the seven stars stand for the seven administrative divisions, with the central star denoting the capital, St. George; yellow represents the sun and the warmth of the people, green stands for vegetation and agriculture, and red symbolizes harmony, unity, and courage Guam territorial flag is dark blue with a narrow red border on all four sides; centered is a red-bordered, pointed, vertical ellipse containing a beach scene, a proa or outrigger canoe with sail, and a palm tree with the word GUAM superimposed in bold red letters; the proa is sailing in Agana Bay with the promontory of Punta Dos Amantes, near the capital, in the background; blue represents the sea and red the blood shed in the struggle against oppression note: the US flag is the national flag Guatemala three equal vertical bands of light blue (hoist side), white, and light blue, with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms includes a green and red quetzal (the national bird) representing liberty and a scroll bearing the inscription LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1821 (the original date of independence from Spain) all superimposed on a pair of crossed rifles signifying Guatemala's willingness to defend itself and a pair of crossed swords representing honor and framed by a laurel wreath symbolizing victory; the blue bands represent the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea; the white band denotes peace and purity Guernsey white with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) extending to the edges of the flag and a yellow equal-armed cross of William the Conqueror superimposed on the Saint George cross; the red cross represents the old ties with England and the fact that Guernsey is a British Crown dependency; the gold cross is a replica of the one used by Duke William of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings Guinea three equal vertical bands of red (hoist side), yellow, and green; red represents the people's sacrifice for liberation and work; yellow stands for the sun, for the riches of the earth, and for justice; green symbolizes the country's vegetation and unity note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the reverse of those on the flags of neighboring Mali and Senegal Guinea-Bissau two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and green with a vertical red band on the hoist side; there is a black five-pointed star centered in the red band; yellow symbolizes the sun; green denotes hope; red represents blood shed during the struggle for independence; the black star stands for African unity note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the flag design was heavily influenced by the Ghanaian flag Guyana green, with a red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a long, yellow arrowhead; there is a narrow, black border between the red and yellow, and a narrow, white border between the yellow and the green; green represents forest and foliage; yellow stands for mineral resources and a bright future; white symbolizes Guyana's rivers; red signifies zeal and the sacrifice of the people; black indicates perseverance H Haiti two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a centered white rectangle bearing the coat of arms, which contains a palm tree flanked by flags and two cannons above a scroll bearing the motto L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE (Union Makes Strength); the colors are taken from the French Tricolor and represent the union of blacks and mulattoes Holy See (Vatican City) two vertical bands of yellow (hoist side) and white with the arms of the Holy See, consisting of the crossed keys of Saint Peter surmounted by the three-tiered papal tiara, centered in the white band; the yellow color represents the pope's spiritual power, the white his worldly power Honduras three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue, with five blue, five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band; the stars represent the members of the former Federal Republic of Central America - Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea; the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water and the peace and prosperity of its people note: similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom, centered in the white band Hong Kong red with a stylized, white, five-petal Bauhinia flower in the center; each petal contains a small, red, five-pointed star in its middle; the red color is the same as that on the Chinese flag and represents the motherland; the fragrant Bauhinia - developed in Hong Kong the late 19th century - has come to symbolize the region; the five stars echo those on the flag of China Hungary three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and green; the flag dates to the national movement of the 18th and 19th centuries, and fuses the medieval colors of the Hungarian coat of arms with the revolutionary tricolor form of the French flag; folklore attributes virtues to the colors: red for strength, white for faithfulness, and green for hope; alternatively, the red is seen as being for the blood spilled in defense of the land, white for freedom, and green for the pasturelands that make up so much of the country I Iceland blue with a red cross outlined in white extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors represent three of the elements that make up the island: red is for the island's volcanic fires, white recalls the snow and ice fields of the island, and blue is for the surrounding ocean India three equal horizontal bands of saffron (subdued orange) (top), white, and green, with a blue chakra (24-spoked wheel) centered in the white band; saffron represents courage, sacrifice, and the spirit of renunciation; white signifies purity and truth; green stands for faith and fertility; the blue chakra symbolizes the wheel of life in movement and death in stagnation note: similar to the flag of Niger, which has a small orange disk centered in the white band Indonesia two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; the colors derive from the banner of the Majapahit Empire of the 13th-15th centuries; red symbolizes courage, white represents purity note: similar to the flag of Monaco, which is shorter; also similar to the flag of Poland, which is white (top) and red Iran three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red; the national emblem (a stylized representation of the word Allah in the shape of a tulip, a symbol of martyrdom) in red is centered in the white band; ALLAH AKBAR (God is Great) in white Arabic script is repeated 11 times along the bottom edge of the green band and 11 times along the top edge of the red band; green is the color of Islam and also represents growth, white symbolizes honesty and peace, red stands for bravery and martyrdom Iraq three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the Takbir (Arabic expression meaning "God is great") in green Arabic script is centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white); the Council of Representatives approved this flag in 2008 as a compromise temporary replacement for the Ba'athist Saddam-era flag note: similar to the flag of Syria, which has two stars but no script, Yemen, which has a plain white band, and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band Ireland three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and orange; officially the flag colors have no meaning, but a common interpretation is that the green represents the Irish nationalist (Gaelic) tradition of Ireland; orange represents the Orange tradition (minority supporters of William of Orange); white symbolizes peace (or a lasting truce) between the green and the orange note: similar to the flag of Cote d'Ivoire, which is shorter and has the colors reversed - orange (hoist side), white, and green; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is shorter and has colors of green (hoist side), white, and red Isle of Man red with the Three Legs of Man emblem (triskelion), in the center; the three legs are joined at the thigh and bent at the knee; in order to have the toes pointing clockwise on both sides of the flag, a two-sided emblem is used; the flag is based on the coat-of-arms of the last recognized Norse King of Mann, Magnus III (r. 1252-65); the triskelion has its roots in an early Celtic sun symbol Israel white with a blue hexagram (six-pointed linear star) known as the Magen David (Star of David or Shield of David) centered between two equal horizontal blue bands near the top and bottom edges of the flag; the basic design resembles a traditional Jewish prayer shawl (tallit), which is white with blue stripes; the hexagram as a Jewish symbol dates back to medieval times Italy three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; design inspired by the French flag brought to Italy by Napoleon in 1797; colors are those of Milan (red and white) combined with the green uniform color of the Milanese civic guard note: similar to the flag of Mexico, which is longer, uses darker shades of red and green, and has its coat of arms centered on the white band; Ireland, which is longer and is green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of the Cote d'Ivoire, which has the colors reversed - orange (hoist side), white, and green J Jamaica diagonal yellow cross divides the flag into four triangles - green (top and bottom) and black (hoist side and outer side); green represents hope, vegetation, and agriculture, black reflects hardships overcome and to be faced, and yellow recalls golden sunshine and the island's natural resources Jersey white with a diagonal red cross extending to the corners of the flag; in the upper quadrant, surmounted by a yellow crown, a red shield with three lions in yellow; according to tradition, the ships of Jersey - in an attempt to differentiate themselves from English ships flying the horizontal cross of St. George - rotated the cross to the "X" (saltire) configuration; because this arrangement still resembled the Irish cross of St. Patrick, the yellow Plantagenet crown and Jersey coat of arms were added Jordan three equal horizontal bands of black (top), representing the Abbassid Caliphate, white, representing the Ummayyad Caliphate, and green, representing the Fatimid Caliphate; a red isosceles triangle on the hoist side, representing the Great Arab Revolt of 1916, and bearing a small white seven-pointed star symbolizing the seven verses of the opening Sura (Al-Fatiha) of the Holy Koran; the seven points on the star represent faith in One God, humanity, national spirit, humility, social justice, virtue, and aspirations; design is based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I K Kazakhstan a gold sun with 32 rays above a soaring golden steppe eagle, both centered on a sky blue background; the hoist side displays a national ornamental pattern "koshkar-muiz" (the horns of the ram) in gold; the blue color is of religious significance to the Turkic peoples of the country, and so symbolizes cultural and ethnic unity; it also represents the endless sky as well as water; the sun, a source of life and energy, exemplifies wealth and plenitude; the sun's rays are shaped like grain, which is the basis of abundance and prosperity; the eagle has appeared on the flags of Kazakh tribes for centuries and represents freedom, power, and the flight to the future Kenya three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and green; the red band is edged in white; a large Maasai warrior's shield covering crossed spears is superimposed at the center; black symbolizes the majority population, red the blood shed in the struggle for freedom, green stands for natural wealth, and white for peace; the shield and crossed spears symbolize the defense of freedom Kiribati the upper half is red with a yellow frigatebird flying over a yellow rising sun, and the lower half is blue with three horizontal wavy white stripes to represent the Pacific ocean; the white stripes represent the three island groups - the Gilbert, Line, and Phoenix Islands; the 17 rays of the sun represent the 16 Gilbert Islands and Banaba (formerly Ocean Island); the frigatebird symbolizes authority and freedom Korea, North three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (triple width), and blue; the red band is edged in white; on the hoist side of the red band is a white disk with a red five-pointed star; the broad red band symbolizes revolutionary traditions; the narrow white bands stands for purity, strength, and dignity; the blue bands signify sovereignty, peace, and friendship; the red star represents socialism Korea, South white with a red (top) and blue yin-yang symbol in the center; there is a different black trigram from the ancient I Ching (Book of Changes) in each corner of the white field; the South Korean national flag is called Taegukki; white is a traditional Korean color and represents peace and purity; the blue section represents the negative cosmic forces of the yin, while the red symbolizes the opposite positive forces of the yang; each trigram (kwae) denotes one of the four universal elements, which together express the principle of movement and harmony Kosovo centered on a dark blue field is the geographical shape of Kosovo in a gold color surmounted by six white, five-pointed stars arrayed in a slight arc; each star represents one of the major ethnic groups of Kosovo: Albanians, Serbs, Turks, Gorani, Roma, and Bosniaks Kuwait three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red with a black trapezoid based on the hoist side; colors and design are based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I; green represents fertile fields, white stands for purity, red denotes blood on Kuwaiti swords, black signifies the defeat of the enemy Kyrgyzstan red field with a yellow sun in the center having 40 rays representing the 40 Kyrgyz tribes; on the obverse side the rays run counterclockwise, on the reverse, clockwise; in the center of the sun is a red ring crossed by two sets of three lines, a stylized representation of a "tunduk" - the crown of a traditional Kyrgyz yurt; red symbolizes bravery and valor, the sun evinces peace and wealth L Laos three horizontal bands of red (top), blue (double width), and red with a large white disk centered in the blue band; the red bands recall the blood shed for liberation; the blue band represents the Mekong River and prosperity; the white disk symbolizes the full moon against the Mekong River, but also signifies the unity of the people under the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, as well as the country's bright future Lebanon three horizontal bands consisting of red (top), white (middle, double width), and red (bottom) with a green cedar tree centered in the white band; the red bands symbolize blood shed for liberation, the white band denotes peace, the snow of the mountains, and purity; the green cedar tree is the symbol of Lebanon and represents eternity, steadiness, happiness, and prosperity Lesotho three horizontal stripes of blue (top), white, and green in the proportions of 3:4:3; the colors represent rain, peace, and prosperity respectively; centered in the white stripe is a black Basotho hat representing the indigenous people; the flag was unfurled in October 2006 to celebrate 40 years of independence Liberia 11 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; a white five-pointed star appears on a blue square in the upper hoist-side corner; the stripes symbolize the signatories of the Liberian Declaration of Independence; the blue square represents the African mainland, and the star represents the freedom granted to the ex-slaves; according to the constitution, the blue color signifies liberty, justice, and fidelity, the white color purity, cleanliness, and guilelessness, and the red color steadfastness, valor, and fervor note: the design is based on the US flag Libya three horizontal bands of red (top), black (double width), and green with a white crescent and star centered on the black stripe; the National Transitional Council reintroduced this flag design of the former Kingdom of Libya (1951-1969) on 27 February 2011; it replaced the former all-green banner promulgated by the QADHAFI regime in 1977; the colors represent the three major regions of the country: red stands for Fezzan, black symbolizes Cyrenaica, and green denotes Tripolitania; the crescent and star represent Islam, the main religion of the country Liechtenstein two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a gold crown on the hoist side of the blue band; the colors may derive from the blue and red livery design used in the principality's household in the 18th century; the prince's crown was introduced in 1937 to distinguish the flag from that of Haiti Lithuania three equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), green, and red; yellow symbolizes golden fields, as well as the sun, light, and goodness; green represents the forests of the countryside, in addition to nature, freedom, and hope; red stands for courage and the blood spilled in defense of the homeland Luxembourg three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and light blue; similar to the flag of the Netherlands, which uses a darker blue and is shorter; the coloring is derived from the Grand Duke's coat of arms (a red lion on a white and blue striped field) M Macau green with a lotus flower above a stylized bridge and water in white, beneath an arc of five gold, five-pointed stars: one large in the center of the arc and two smaller on either side; the lotus is the floral emblem of Macau, the three petals represent the peninsula and two islands that make up Macau; the five stars echo those on the flag of China Malawi three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and green with a radiant, rising, red sun centered on the black band; black represents the native peoples, red the blood shed in their struggle for freedom, and green the color of nature; the rising sun represents the hope of freedom for the continent of Africa Malaysia 14 equal horizontal stripes of red (top) alternating with white (bottom); there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a yellow crescent and a yellow 14-pointed star; the flag is often referred to as Jalur Gemilang (Stripes of Glory); the 14 stripes stand for the equal status in the federation of the 13 member states and the federal government; the 14 points on the star represent the unity between these entities; the crescent is a traditional symbol of Islam; blue symbolizes the unity of the Malay people and yellow is the royal color of Malay rulers note: the design is based on the flag of the US Maldives red with a large green rectangle in the center bearing a vertical white crescent moon; the closed side of the crescent is on the hoist side of the flag; red recalls those who have sacrificed their lives in defense of their country, the green rectangle represents peace and prosperity, and the white crescent signifies Islam Mali three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), yellow, and red note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the same as those of neighboring Senegal (which has an additional green central star) and the reverse of those on the flag of neighboring Guinea Malta two equal vertical bands of white (hoist side) and red; in the upper hoist-side corner is a representation of the George Cross, edged in red; according to legend, the colors are taken from the red and white checkered banner of Count Roger of Sicily who removed a bi-colored corner and granted it to Malta in 1091; an uncontested explanation is that the colors are those of the Knights of Saint John who ruled Malta from 1530 to 1798; in 1942, King George VI of the United Kingdom awarded the George Cross to the islanders for their exceptional bravery and gallantry in World War II; since independence in 1964, the George Cross bordered in red has appeared directly on the white field Marshall Islands blue with two stripes radiating from the lower hoist-side corner - orange (top) and white; a white star with four large rays and 20 small rays appears on the hoist side above the two stripes; blue represents the Pacific Ocean, the orange stripe signifies the Ralik Chain or sunset and courage, while the white stripe signifies the Ratak Chain or sunrise and peace; the star symbolizes the cross of Christianity, each of the 24 rays designates one of the electoral districts in the country and the four larger rays highlight the principal cultural centers of Majuro, Jaluit, Wotje, and Ebeye; the rising diagonal band can also be interpreted as representing the equator, with the star showing the archipelago's position just to the north Mauritius four equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, yellow, and green; red represents self-determination and independence, blue the Indian Ocean surrounding the island, yellow has been interpreted as the new light of independence, golden sunshine, or the bright future, and green can symbolize either agriculture or the lush vegetation of the island Mexico three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; Mexico's coat of arms (an eagle with a snake in its beak perched on a cactus) is centered in the white band; green signifies hope, joy, and love; white represents peace and honesty; red stands for hardiness, bravery, strength, and valor; the coat of arms is derived from a legend that the wandering Aztec people were to settle at a location where they would see an eagle on a cactus eating a snake; the city they founded, Tenochtitlan, is now Mexico City note: similar to the flag of Italy, which is shorter, uses lighter shades of red and green, and does not have anything in its white band Moldova three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; emblem in center of flag is of a Roman eagle of gold outlined in black with a red beak and talons carrying a yellow cross in its beak and a green olive branch in its right talons and a yellow scepter in its left talons; on its breast is a shield divided horizontally red over blue with a stylized aurochs head, star, rose, and crescent all in black-outlined yellow; based on the color scheme of the flag of Romania - with which Moldova shares a history and culture - but Moldova's blue band is lighter; the reverse of the flag does not display any coat of arms note: one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Paraguay and Saudi Arabia Monaco two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; the colors are those of the ruling House of Grimaldi and have been in use since 1339, making the flag one of the world's oldest national banners note: similar to the flag of Indonesia which is longer and the flag of Poland which is white (top) and red Mongolia three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), blue, and red; centered on the hoist-side red band in yellow is the national emblem ("soyombo" - a columnar arrangement of abstract and geometric representation for fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol); blue represents the sky, red symbolizes progress and prosperity Montenegro a red field bordered by a narrow golden-yellow stripe with the Montenegrin coat of arms centered; the arms consist of a double-headed golden eagle - symbolizing the unity of church and state - surmounted by a crown; the eagle holds a golden scepter in its right claw and a blue orb in its left; the breast shield over the eagle shows a golden lion passant on a green field in front of a blue sky; the lion is symbol of episcopal authority and harkens back to the three and a half centuries that Montenegro was ruled as a theocracy Montserrat blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Montserratian coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the arms feature a woman in green dress, Erin, the female personification of Ireland, standing beside a yellow harp and embracing a large dark cross with her right arm; Erin and the harp are symbols of Ireland reflecting the territory's Irish ancestry; blue represents awareness, trustworthiness, determination, and righteousness Morocco red with a green pentacle (five-pointed, linear star) known as Sulayman's (Solomon's) seal in the center of the flag; red and green are traditional colors in Arab flags, although the use of red is more commonly associated with the Arab states of the Persian gulf; the pentacle represents the five pillars of Islam and signifies the association between God and the nation; design dates to 1912 Mozambique three equal horizontal bands of green (top), black, and yellow with a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the black band is edged in white; centered in the triangle is a yellow five-pointed star bearing a crossed rifle and hoe in black superimposed on an open white book; green represents the riches of the land, white peace, black the African continent, yellow the country's minerals, and red the struggle for independence; the rifle symbolizes defense and vigilance, the hoe refers to the country's agriculture, the open book stresses the importance of education, and the star represents Marxism and internationalism N Namibia a wide red stripe edged by narrow white stripes divides the flag diagonally from lower hoist corner to upper fly corner; the upper hoist-side triangle is blue and charged with a yellow, 12-rayed sunburst; the lower fly-side triangle is green; red signifies the heroism of the people and their determination to build a future of equal opportunity for all; white stands for peace, unity, tranquility, and harmony; blue represents the Namibian sky and the Atlantic Ocean, the country's precious water resources and rain; the yellow sun denotes power and existence; green symbolizes vegetation and agricultural resources Nauru blue with a narrow, horizontal, yellow stripe across the center and a large white 12-pointed star below the stripe on the hoist side; blue stands for the Pacific Ocean, the star indicates the country's location in relation to the Equator (the yellow stripe) and the 12 points symbolize the 12 original tribes of Nauru Nepal red with a blue border around the unique shape of two overlapping right triangles; the smaller, upper triangle bears a white stylized moon and the larger, lower triangle displays a white 12-pointed sun; the color red represents the rhododendron (Nepal's national flower) and is a sign of victory and bravery, the blue border signifies peace and harmony; the two right triangles are a combination of two single pennons (pennants) that originally symbolized the Himalaya Mountains while their charges represented the families of the king (upper) and the prime minister, but today they are understood to denote Hinduism and Buddhism, the country's two main religions; the moon represents the serenity of the Nepalese people and the shade and cool weather in the Himalayas, while the sun depicts the heat and higher temperatures of the lower parts of Nepal; the moon and the sun are also said to express the hope that the nation will endure as long as these heavenly bodies note: Nepal is the only country in the world whose flag is not rectangular or square Netherlands three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue; similar to the flag of Luxembourg, which uses a lighter blue and is longer; the colors were those of WILLIAM I, Prince of Orange, who led the Dutch Revolt against Spanish sovereignty in the latter half of the 16th century; originally the upper band was orange, but because it tended to fade to red over time, the red shade was eventually made the permanent color; the banner is perhaps the oldest tricolor in continuous use Nicaragua three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on the top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; the banner is based on the former blue-white-blue flag of the Federal Republic of Central America; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, while the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water note: similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band Niger three equal horizontal bands of orange (top), white, and green with a small orange disk centered in the white band; the orange band denotes the drier northern regions of the Sahara; white stands for purity and innocence; green symbolizes hope and the fertile and productive southern and western areas, as well as the Niger River; the orange disc represents the sun and the sacrifices made by the people note: similar to the flag of India, which has a blue spoked wheel centered in the white band Niue yellow with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the flag of the UK bears five yellow five-pointed stars - a large star on a blue disk in the center and a smaller star on each arm of the bold red cross; the larger star stands for Niue, the smaller stars recall the Southern Cross constellation on the New Zealand flag and symbolize links with that country; yellow represents the bright sunshine of Niue and the warmth and friendship between Niue and New Zealand Norfolk Island three vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green with a large green Norfolk Island pine tree centered in the slightly wider white band; green stands for the rich vegetation on the island, and the pine tree - endemic to the island - is a symbol of Norfolk Island note: somewhat reminiscent of the flag of Canada with its use of only two colors and depiction of a prominent local floral symbol in the central white band Northern Mariana Islands blue, with a white, five-pointed star superimposed on a gray latte stone (the traditional foundation stone used in building) in the center, surrounded by a wreath; blue symbolizes the Pacific Ocean, the star represents the Commonwealth; the latte stone and the floral head wreath display elements of the native Chamorro culture Norway red with a blue cross outlined in white that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors recall Norway's past political unions with Denmark (red and white) and Sweden (blue) O Oman three horizontal bands of white, red, and green of equal width with a broad, vertical, red band on the hoist side; the national emblem (a khanjar dagger in its sheath superimposed on two crossed swords in scabbards) in white is centered near the top of the vertical band; white represents peace and prosperity, red recalls battles against foreign invaders, and green symbolizes the Jebel Akhdar (Green Mountains) and fertility P Palau light blue with a large yellow disk shifted slightly to the hoist side; the blue color represents the ocean, the disk represents the moon; Palauans consider the full moon to be the optimum time for human activity; it is also considered a symbol of peace, love, and tranquility Panama divided into four, equal rectangles; the top quadrants are white (hoist side) with a blue five-pointed star in the center and plain red; the bottom quadrants are plain blue (hoist side) and white with a red five-pointed star in the center; the blue and red colors are those of the main political parties (Conservatives and Liberals respectively) and the white denotes peace between them; the blue star stands for the civic virtues of purity and honesty, the red star signifies authority and law Papua New Guinea divided diagonally from upper hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is red with a soaring yellow bird of paradise centered; the lower triangle is black with five, white, five-pointed stars of the Southern Cross constellation centered; red, black, and yellow are traditional colors of Papua New Guinea; the bird of paradise - endemic to the island of New Guinea - is an emblem of regional tribal culture and represents the emergence of Papua New Guinea as a nation; the Southern Cross, visible in the night sky, symbolizes Papua New Guinea's connection with Australia and several other countries in the South Pacific Paraguay three equal, horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue with an emblem centered in the white band; unusual flag in that the emblem is different on each side; the obverse (hoist side at the left) bears the national coat of arms (a yellow five-pointed star within a green wreath capped by the words REPUBLICA DEL PARAGUAY, all within two circles); the reverse (hoist side at the right) bears a circular seal of the treasury (a yellow lion below a red Cap of Liberty and the words PAZ Y JUSTICIA (Peace and Justice)); red symbolizes bravery and patriotism, white represents integrity and peace, and blue denotes liberty and generosity note: the three color bands resemble those on the flag of the Netherlands; one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Moldova and Saudi Arabia Peru three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), white, and red with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a shield bearing a vicuna (representing fauna), a cinchona tree (the source of quinine, signifying flora), and a yellow cornucopia spilling out coins (denoting mineral wealth); red recalls blood shed for independence, white symbolizes peace Philippines two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red; a white equilateral triangle is based on the hoist side; the center of the triangle displays a yellow sun with eight primary rays; each corner of the triangle contains a small, yellow, five-pointed star; blue stands for peace and justice, red symbolizes courage, the white equal-sided triangle represents equality; the rays recall the first eight provinces that sought independence from Spain, while the stars represent the three major geographical divisions of the country: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao; the design of the flag dates to 1897 note: in wartime the flag is flown upside down with the red band at the top Pitcairn Islands blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Pitcairn Islander coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the green, yellow, and blue of the shield represents the island rising from the ocean; the green field features a yellow anchor surmounted by a bible (both the anchor and the bible were items found on the HMS Bounty); sitting on the crest is a Pitcairn Island wheelbarrow from which springs a slip of miro (a local plant) two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; colors derive from the Polish emblem - a white eagle on a red field note: similar to the flags of Indonesia and Monaco which are red (top) and white Portugal two vertical bands of green (hoist side, two-fifths) and red (three-fifths) with the national coat of arms (armillary sphere and Portuguese shield) centered on the dividing line; explanations for the color meanings are ambiguous, but a popular interpretation has green symbolizing hope and red the blood of those defending the nation Puerto Rico five equal horizontal bands of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bears a large, white, five-pointed star in the center; the white star symbolizes Puerto Rico; the three sides of the triangle signify the executive, legislative and judicial parts of the government; blue stands for the sky and the coastal waters; red symbolizes the blood shed by warriors, while white represents liberty, victory, and peace note: design initially influenced by the US flag, but similar to the Cuban flag, with the colors of the bands and triangle reversed Q Qatar maroon with a broad white serrated band (nine white points) on the hoist side; maroon represents the blood shed in Qatari wars, white stands for peace; the nine-pointed serrated edge signifies Qatar as the ninth member of the "reconciled emirates" in the wake of the Qatari-British treaty of 1916 note: the other eight emirates are the seven that compose the UAE and Bahrain; according to some sources, the dominant color was formerly red, but this darkened to maroon upon exposure to the sun and the new shade was eventually adopted R Romania three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; modeled after the flag of France, the colors are those of the principalities of Walachia (red and yellow) and Moldavia (red and blue), which united in 1862 to form Romania; the national coat of arms that used to be centered in the yellow band has been removed note: now similar to the flag of Chad, whose blue band is darker; also resembles the flags of Andorra and Moldova Russia three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red note: the colors may have been based on those of the Dutch flag; despite many popular interpretations, there is no official meaning assigned to the colors of the Russian flag; this flag inspired other Slav countries to adopt horizontal tricolors of the same colors but in different arrangements, and so red, blue, and white became the Pan-Slav colors Rwanda three horizontal bands of sky blue (top, double width), yellow, and green, with a golden sun with 24 rays near the fly end of the blue band; blue represents happiness and peace, yellow economic development and mineral wealth, green hope of prosperity and natural resources; the sun symbolizes unity, as well as enlightenment and transparency from ignorance S Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Saint Helenian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the upper third of the shield depicts a white plover (wire bird) on a yellow field; the remainder of the shield depicts a rocky coastline on the left, offshore is a three-masted sailing ship with sails furled but flying an English flag Saint Kitts and Nevis divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a broad black band bearing two white, five-pointed stars; the black band is edged in yellow; the upper triangle is green, the lower triangle is red; green signifies the island's fertility, red symbolizes the struggles of the people from slavery, yellow denotes year-round sunshine, and black represents the African heritage of the people; the white stars stand for the islands of Saint Kitts and Nevis, but can also express hope and liberty, or independence and optimism Saint Lucia blue, with a gold isosceles triangle below a black arrowhead; the upper edges of the arrowhead have a white border; the blue color represents the sky and sea, gold stands for sunshine and prosperity, and white and black the racial composition of the island (with the latter being dominant); the two major triangles invoke the twin Pitons (Gros Piton and Petit Piton), cone-shaped volcanic plugs that are a symbol of the island Saint Pierre and Miquelon a yellow three-masted sailing ship facing the hoist side rides on a blue background with scattered, white, wavy lines under the ship; a continuous black-over-white wavy line divides the ship from the white wavy lines; on the hoist side, a vertical band is divided into three parts: the top part (called ikkurina) is red with a green diagonal cross extending to the corners overlaid by a white cross dividing the rectangle into four sections; the middle part has a white background with an ermine pattern; the third part has a red background with two stylized yellow lions outlined in black, one above the other; these three heraldic arms represent settlement by colonists from the Basque Country (top), Brittany, and Normandy; the blue on the main portion of the flag symbolizes the Atlantic Ocean and the stylized ship represents the Grande Hermine in which Jacques Cartier "discovered" the islands in 1536 note: the flag of France used for official occasions Saint Vincent and the Grenadines three vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold (double width), and green; the gold band bears three green diamonds arranged in a V pattern, which stands for Vincent; the diamonds recall the islands as the "Gems of the Antilles"; blue conveys the colors of a tropical sky and crystal waters, yellow signifies the golden Grenadine sands, and green represents lush vegetation San Marino two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and light blue with the national coat of arms superimposed in the center; the main colors derive from the shield of the coat of arms, which features three white towers on three peaks on a blue field; the towers represent three castles built on San Marino's highest feature, Mount Titano: Guaita, Cesta, and Montale; the coat of arms is flanked by a wreath, below a crown and above a scroll bearing the word LIBERTAS (Liberty); the white and blue colors are also said to stand for peace and liberty respectively Sao Tome and Principe three horizontal bands of green (top), yellow (double width), and green with two black five-pointed stars placed side by side in the center of the yellow band and a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; green stands for the country's rich vegetation, red recalls the struggle for independence, and yellow represents cocoa, one of the country's main agricultural products; the two stars symbolize the two main islands note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Saudi Arabia green, a traditional color in Islamic flags, with the Shahada or Muslim creed in large white Arabic script (translated as "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God") above a white horizontal saber (the tip points to the hoist side); design dates to the early twentieth century and is closely associated with the Al Saud family which established the kingdom in 1932; the flag is manufactured with differing obverse and reverse sides so that the Shahada reads - and the sword points - correctly from right to left on both sides note: one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Moldova and Paraguay Senegal three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), yellow, and red with a small green five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; green represents Islam, progress, and hope; yellow signifies natural wealth and progress; red symbolizes sacrifice and determination; the star denotes unity and hope note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the same as those of neighboring Mali and the reverse of those on the flag of neighboring Guinea Serbia three equal horizontal stripes of red (top), blue, and white - the Pan-Slav colors representing freedom and revolutionary ideals; charged with the coat of arms of Serbia shifted slightly to the hoist side; the principal field of the coat of arms represents the Serbian state and displays a white two-headed eagle on a red shield; a smaller red shield on the eagle represents the Serbian nation, and is divided into four quarters by a white cross; interpretations vary as to the meaning and origin of the white, curved symbols resembling firesteels or Cyrillic "C's" in each quarter; a royal crown surmounts the coat of arms note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia Seychelles five oblique bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, red, white, and green (bottom) radiating from the bottom of the hoist side; the oblique bands are meant to symbolize a dynamic new country moving into the future; blue represents sky and sea, yellow the sun giving light and life, red the peoples' determination to work for the future in unity and love, white social justice and harmony, green the land and natural environment Singapore two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; near the hoist side of the red band, there is a vertical, white crescent (closed portion is toward the hoist side) partially enclosing five white five-pointed stars arranged in a circle; red denotes brotherhood and equality; white signifies purity and virtue; the waxing crescent moon symbolizes a young nation on the ascendancy; the five stars represent the nation's ideals of democracy, peace, progress, justice, and equality Sint Maarten two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and blue with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the center of the triangle displays the Sint Maarten coat of arms; the arms consist of an orange-bordered blue shield prominently displaying the white court house in Philipsburg, as well as a bouquet of yellow sage (the national flower) in the upper left, and the silhouette of a Dutch-French friendship monument in the upper right; the shield is surmounted by a yellow rising sun in front of which is a Brown Pelican in flight; a yellow scroll below the shield bears the motto: SEMPER PROGREDIENS (Always Progressing); the three main colors are identical to those on the Dutch flag note: the flag somewhat resembles that of the Philippines, but with the main red and blue bands reversed; the banner more closely evokes the wartime Philippine flag Slovakia three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red derive from the Pan-Slav colors; the Slovakian coat of arms (consisting of a red shield bordered in white and bearing a white double-barred cross of St. Cyril and St. Methodius surmounting three blue hills) is centered over the bands but offset slightly to the hoist side note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia Slovenia three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red, derive from the medieval coat of arms of the Duchy of Carniola; the Slovenian seal (a shield with the image of Triglav, Slovenia's highest peak, in white against a blue background at the center; beneath it are two wavy blue lines depicting seas and rivers, and above it are three six-pointed stars arranged in an inverted triangle, which are taken from the coat of arms of the Counts of Celje, the great Slovene dynastic house of the late 14th and early 15th centuries) appears in the upper hoist side of the flag centered on the white and blue bands Solomon Islands divided diagonally by a thin yellow stripe from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle (hoist side) is blue with five white five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern; the lower triangle is green; blue represents the ocean; green the land; and yellow sunshine; the five stars stand for the five main island groups of the Solomon Islands Somalia light blue with a large white five-pointed star in the center; the blue field was originally influenced by the flag of the UN, but today is said to denote the sky and the neighboring Indian Ocean; the five points of the star represent the five regions in the horn of Africa that are inhabited by Somali people: the former British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland (which together make up Somalia), Djibouti, Ogaden (Ethiopia), and the North East Province (Kenya) South Africa two equal width horizontal bands of red (top) and blue separated by a central green band that splits into a horizontal Y, the arms of which end at the corners of the hoist side; the Y embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by narrow yellow bands; the red and blue bands are separated from the green band and its arms by narrow white stripes; the flag colors do not have any official symbolism, but the Y stands for the "convergence of diverse elements within South African society, taking the road ahead in unity"; black, yellow, and green are found on the flag of the African National Congress, while red, white, and blue are the colors in the flags of the Netherlands and the UK, whose settlers ruled South Africa during the colonial era note: the South African flag is one of only two national flags to display six colors as part of its primary design, the other is South Sudan's South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms features a shield with a golden lion rampant, holding a torch; the shield is supported by a fur seal on the left and a Macaroni penguin on the right; a reindeer appears above the crest, and below the shield on a scroll is the motto LEO TERRAM PROPRIAM PROTEGAT (Let the Lion Protect its Own Land)); the lion with the torch represents the UK and discovery; the background of the shield, blue and white estoiles, are found in the coat of arms of James Cook, discoverer of the islands; all the outer supporting animals represented are native to the islands South Sudan three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and green; the red band is edged in white; a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side contains a gold, five-pointed star; black represents the people of South Sudan, red the blood shed in the struggle for freedom, green the verdant land, and blue the waters of the Nile; the gold star represents the unity of the states making up South Sudan note: resembles the flag of Kenya; one of only two national flags to display six colors as part of its primary design, the other is South Africa's Spain three horizontal bands of red (top), yellow (double width), and red with the national coat of arms on the hoist side of the yellow band; the coat of arms is quartered to display the emblems of the traditional kingdoms of Spain (clockwise from upper left, Castile, Leon, Navarre, and Aragon) while Granada is represented by the stylized pomegranate at the bottom of the shield; the arms are framed by two columns representing the Pillars of Hercules, which are the two promontories (Gibraltar and Ceuta) on either side of the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar; the red scroll across the two columns bears the imperial motto of "Plus Ultra" (further beyond) referring to Spanish lands beyond Europe; the triband arrangement with the center stripe twice the width of the outer dates to the 18th century note: the red and yellow colors are related to those of the oldest Spanish kingdoms: Aragon, Castile, Leon, and Navarre Sri Lanka yellow with two panels; the smaller hoist-side panel has two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and orange; the other larger panel depicts a yellow lion holding a sword on a dark red rectangular field that also displays a yellow bo leaf in each corner; the yellow field appears as a border around the entire flag and extends between the two panels; the lion represents Sinhalese ethnicity, the strength of the nation, and bravery; the sword demonstrates the sovereignty of the nation; the four bo leaves - symbolizing Buddhism and its influence on the country - stand for the four virtues of kindness, friendliness, happiness, and equanimity; orange signifies Sri Lankan Tamils, green the Sri Lankan Moors; dark red represents the European Burghers, but also refers to the rich colonial background of the country; yellow denotes other ethnic groups; also referred to as the Lion Flag Sudan three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; colors and design based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I, but the meanings of the colors are expressed as follows: red signifies the struggle for freedom, white is the color of peace, light, and love, black represents Sudan itself (in Arabic 'Sudan' means black), green is the color of Islam, agriculture, and prosperity Suriname five horizontal bands of green (top, double width), white, red (quadruple width), white, and green (double width); a large, yellow, five-pointed star is centered in the red band; red stands for progress and love; green symbolizes hope and fertility; white signifies peace, justice, and freedom; the star represents the unity of all ethnic groups; from its yellow light the nation draws strength to bear sacrifices patiently while working toward a golden future Swaziland three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (triple width), and blue; the red band is edged in yellow; centered in the red band is a large black and white shield covering two spears and a staff decorated with feather tassels, all placed horizontally; blue stands for peace and stability, red represents past struggles, and yellow the mineral resources of the country; the shield, spears, and staff symbolize protection from the country's enemies, while the black and white of the shield are meant to portray black and white people living in peaceful coexistence Sweden blue with a golden yellow cross extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors reflect those of the Swedish coat of arms - three gold crowns on a blue field Switzerland red square with a bold, equilateral white cross in the center that does not extend to the edges of the flag; various medieval legends purport to describe the origin of the flag; a white cross used as identification for troops of the Swiss Confederation is first attested at the Battle of Laupen (1339) Tajikistan three horizontal stripes of red (top), a wider stripe of white, and green; a gold crown surmounted by seven gold, five-pointed stars is located in the center of the white stripe; red represents the sun, victory, and the unity of the nation, white stands for purity, cotton, and mountain snows, while green is the color of Islam and the bounty of nature; the crown symbolizes the Tajik people; the seven stars signify the Tajik magic number "seven" - a symbol of perfection and the embodiment of happiness Tanzania divided diagonally by a yellow-edged black band from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is blue; the banner combines colors found on the flags of Tanganyika and Zanzibar; green represents the natural vegetation of the country, gold its rich mineral deposits, black the native Swahili people, and blue the country's many lakes and rivers, as well as the Indian Ocean five horizontal bands of red (top), white, blue (double width), white, and red; the red color symbolizes the nation and the blood of life; white represents religion and the purity of Buddhism; blue stands for the monarchy note: similar to the flag of Costa Rica but with the blue and red colors reversed Timor-Leste red, with a black isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a slightly longer yellow arrowhead that extends to the center of the flag; a white star - pointing to the upper hoist-side corner of the flag - is in the center of the black triangle; yellow denotes the colonialism in Timor-Leste's past; black represents the obscurantism that needs to be overcome; red stands for the national liberation struggle; the white star symbolizes peace and serves as a guiding light Togo five equal horizontal bands of green (top and bottom) alternating with yellow; a white five-pointed star on a red square is in the upper hoist-side corner; the five horizontal stripes stand for the five different regions of the country; the red square is meant to express the loyalty and patriotism of the people; green symbolizes hope, fertility, and agriculture; yellow represents mineral wealth and faith that hard work and strength will bring prosperity; the star symbolizes life, purity, peace, dignity, and Togo's independence note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Tokelau a yellow stylized Tokelauan canoe on a dark blue field sails toward the manu - the Southern Cross constellation of four, white, five-pointed stars at the hoist side; the Southern Cross represents the role of Christianity in Tokelauan culture and, in conjunction with the canoe, symbolizes the country navigating into the future; the color yellow indicates happiness and peace, and the blue field represents the ocean on which the community relies Trinidad and Tobago red with a white-edged black diagonal band from the upper hoist side to the lower fly side; the colors represent the elements of earth, water, and fire; black stands for the wealth of the land and the dedication of the people; white symbolizes the sea surrounding the islands, the purity of the country's aspirations, and equality; red symbolizes the warmth and energy of the sun, the vitality of the land, and the courage and friendliness of its people Tunisia red with a white disk in the center bearing a red crescent nearly encircling a red five-pointed star; resembles the Ottoman flag (red banner with white crescent and star) and recalls Tunisia's history as part of the Ottoman Empire; red represents the blood shed by martyrs in the struggle against oppression, white stands for peace; the crescent and star are traditional symbols of Islam note: the flag is based on that of Turkey, itself a successor state to the Ottoman Empire Turkey red with a vertical white crescent moon (the closed portion is toward the hoist side) and white five-pointed star centered just outside the crescent opening; the flag colors and designs closely resemble those on the banner of the Ottoman Empire, which preceded modern-day Turkey; the crescent moon and star serve as insignia for the Turks, as well as being traditional symbols of Islam; according to legend, the flag represents the reflection of the moon and a star in a pool of blood of Turkish warriors Turkmenistan green field with a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five tribal guls (designs used in producing carpets) stacked above two crossed olive branches; five white stars and a white crescent moon appear in the upper corner of the field just to the fly side of the red stripe; the green color and crescent moon represent Islam; the five stars symbolize the regions or welayats of Turkmenistan; the guls reflect the national identity of Turkmenistan where carpet-making has long been a part of traditional nomadic life note: the flag of Turkmenistan is the most intricate of all national flags Turks and Caicos Islands blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the colonial shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the shield is yellow and displays a conch shell, a spiny lobster, and Turks Head cactus - three common elements of the islands' biota United Arab Emirates three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and black with a wider vertical red band on the hoist side; the flag incorporates all four Pan-Arab colors, which in this case represent fertility (green), neutrality (white), petroleum resources (black), and unity (red); red was the traditional color incorporated into all flags of the emirates before their unification United Kingdom blue field with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) edged in white superimposed on the diagonal red cross of Saint Patrick (patron saint of Ireland), which is superimposed on the diagonal white cross of Saint Andrew (patron saint of Scotland); properly known as the Union Flag, but commonly called the Union Jack; the design and colors (especially the Blue Ensign) have been the basis for a number of other flags including other Commonwealth countries and their constituent states or provinces, and British overseas territories United States 13 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars; the 50 stars represent the 50 states, the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies; the blue stands for loyalty, devotion, truth, justice, and friendship; red symbolizes courage, zeal, and fervency, while white denotes purity and rectitude of conduct; commonly referred to by its nickname of Old Glory note: the design and colors have been the basis for a number of other flags, including Chile, Liberia, Malaysia, and Puerto Rico Uruguay nine equal horizontal stripes of white (top and bottom) alternating with blue; a white square in the upper hoist-side corner with a yellow sun bearing a human face known as the Sun of May with 16 rays that alternate between triangular and wavy; the stripes represent the nine original departments of Uruguay; the sun symbol evokes the legend of the sun breaking through the clouds on 25 May 1810 as independence was first declared from Spain (Uruguay subsequently won its independence from Brazil) note: the banner was inspired by the national colors of Argentina and by the design of the US flag Vanuatu two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a black isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) all separated by a black-edged yellow stripe in the shape of a horizontal Y (the two points of the Y face the hoist side and enclose the triangle); centered in the triangle is a boar's tusk encircling two crossed namele fern fronds, all in yellow; red represents the blood of boars and men, green the richness of the islands, and black the ni-Vanuatu people; the yellow Y-shape - which reflects the pattern of the islands in the Pacific Ocean - symbolizes the light of the Gospel spreading through the islands; the boar's tusk is a symbol of prosperity frequently worn as a pendant on the islands; the fern fronds represent peace Venezuela three equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), blue, and red with the coat of arms on the hoist side of the yellow band and an arc of eight white five-pointed stars centered in the blue band; the flag retains the three equal horizontal bands and three main colors of the banner of Gran Colombia, the South American republic that broke up in 1830; yellow is interpreted as standing for the riches of the land, blue for the courage of its people, and red for the blood shed in attaining independence; the seven stars on the original flag represented the seven provinces in Venezuela that united in the war of independence; in 2006, then President Hugo CHAVEZ ordered an eighth star added to the star arc - a decision that sparked much controversy - to conform with the flag proclaimed by Simon Bolivar in 1827 and to represent the province of Guayana Zambia green field with a panel of three vertical bands of red (hoist side), black, and orange below a soaring orange eagle, on the outer edge of the flag; green stands for the country's natural resources and vegetation, red symbolizes the struggle for freedom, black the people of Zambia, and orange the country's mineral wealth; the eagle represents the people's ability to rise above the nation's problems Zimbabwe seven equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green with a white isosceles triangle edged in black with its base on the hoist side; a yellow Zimbabwe bird representing the long history of the country is superimposed on a red five-pointed star in the center of the triangle, which symbolizes peace; green represents agriculture, yellow mineral wealth, red the blood shed to achieve independence, and black stands for the native people

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Flags of the World :: National Flags of Africa ___ National Flags of Africa The National Flags of the African States. The national flag is a symbol or emblem of a country, and therefor it represents a country. Each country in the world has its own combination of colors, shapes and symbols, but conventionally almost all national flags are rectangular. On this page there are the flags of all sovereign nations of Africa, with two exceptions: 1. Réunion, the island is is one of the overseas departments of France. 2. Western Sahara is a disputed territory in North Africa, administered by Morocco. The African Union is a political union of 54 African states. The highest decision-making organ is the Assembly of the African Union, made up of all the heads of state or government of member states of the AU. The only African state not in the AU is Morocco. Click on the flag to see a larger image and a flag description, click on the country name to see a country's profile.

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What does the USA flag colors stand for and USA flag color meaning.  Home > What does the USA flag colors stand for. USA flag color meaning The US flag is one of the most well known icons in modern society. We see it on television and in our newspapers, and it is a symbol of love and hope for some, and a symbol of controversy for others. In this section we provide some background information about the American flag and its meaning. We consider what does the USA flag colors stand for and look at the usa flag color meaning. You may have wondered what the colors in flag represent and what does the American flag stand for. Here we analyse not only what do the colors of the American flag stand for, but look at the meaning of colors in American flag. This tells us what does the American flag symbolize. For example, why is the American flag red white and blue and how many stars does the American flag have. We also provide a printable US flag. The American flag color stands for different things for different people. Here we first of all determine what does the American flag look like, and then consider its meaning. What does the American flag look like There are 50 stars representing the 50 states and there are 13 stripes representing the 13 original states. How many stars does the American flag have The American flag has thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small white five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars. What does the American flag stand for The 50 stars represent the 50 states, the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies. The US flag is also known as Old Glory. Betsy Ross made the first flag, and for reference, in the Pantone system the colors are: Blue PMS 281 and Red PMS 193. What do the colors of the American flag stand for While the flag's colors did not have a specific meaning at the time, the colors were significant for the Great Seal of 1782. White: Signifies purity and innocence Red: Signifies valor and bravery Blue: Signifies Vigilance, perseverance, and justice Printable USA flag We have provided a printable USA flag which you can use in a range of projects at home or in the office. Printable USA flag with eagle Summary of information provided: What does the USA flag colors stand for. A description of the usa flag color meaning and what the colors in flag represent. What does the American flag stand for. What do the colors of the American flag stand for. American flag color stands for. Meaning of colors in American flag. What does the American flag symbolize. Why is the American flag red white and blue. How many stars does the American flag have. What does the American flag look like. Printable USA flag. © printabledirect.com

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World's Ten Most Colorful Flags World's Ten Most Colorful Flags World's 10 Most Colorful Flags Here are ten of the most colorful flags from around the world. While it is fairly common for flags to have just three colors, like the red, white, and blue of the United States or the black, red, and gold of Germany, some flags are much more colorful than that. What makes a flag colorful tends to be a subjective decision, however. There are many flags that use eight or more colors in them, but because the majority of the colors appear in small sections of a coat of arms, it just doesn't seem that colorful. Likewise, other flags may only have three or four colors, but a complex primary design or prominent display of the colors makes the flags appear to be extremely colorful. Here are ten of the world's most colorful flags. For our purposes here, we have considered design as well as the number of colors in selecting the most colorful flags.       As the only nation to use six colors in their flag's primary design, South Africa gets first place on our list of the world's most colorful flags. The flag's design is made up of a green horizontal Y, positioned so that the Y touches both the upper and lower left corners of the flag. The triangular shape along the leftmost end of the flag is black with a yellow border. On the right side of the flag, the area above the Y is red, and the area below is blue, both with a white border. The colors and the Y design are meant to represent the convergence of two separate paths: those of the South Africans, and those of the Europeans who colonized the country. Turkmenistan Although with four colors in its design, Turkmenistan's flag is far from having the most colors. It does have the honor of being the most intricate of all the national flags in the world. The flag is primarily green, but with a wide vertical stripe near the left end of the flag. This stripe is primarily red, with five tribal patterns that are used in designing the traditional rugs the country is known for. Orange, white, red, and green can be found in the tribal designs, with a white crescent moon encompassing five white five-pointed stars on the field of green to the right of the stripe, near the top of the flag. Obviously, the five tribal designs represent the country's traditional heritage, while the five stars stand for the five regions of the nation. Saint-Pierre and Miquelon The flag of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon is a very interesting flag. Designed in 1982, this flag is actually a local flag, with the flag of France used as the islands' official flag. The design depicts a yellow ship on a light blue background with waves drawn in black and white, with three flags forming a narrow border along the leftmost side of the flag: a white, green, and red design in the top third, a black and white design in the middle third, and two yellow lions on a red background in the bottom third. The ship represents the colonization of the islands beginning in 1535, while the three individual designs stand for the origins of the islands' colonists: Basque Country (top), Brittany (middle), and Normandy (bottom). Central Africa The Central African Republic uses five colors in their flag: blue, white, green, yellow, and red. The colors are boldly blocked out in four horizontal stripes of the first four colors, bisected by a single vertical stripe in red. All of the stripes are the same width. In the upper left hand corner, on the leftmost end of the blue stripe, is a single yellow five-point star. Like many nations' flags, the colors represent various pieces of the country's history: The colors are those of the Pan-African and French flags combined, with the red stripe present to represent the bloodshed in the battle for independence. The star is there as a reminder of the hopes for a great future. Dominica The country of Dominica uses six different colors, but not all of those colors are used in the flag's primary design. The flag features a centered cross of yellow, black, and white stripes, with a green background. In the center of the cross is a red medallion, representing social justice, with a light blue, green, red, and yellow local parrot on it. Surrounding the parrot are ten green stars, representing the country's ten parishes. The cross stands for the Christian trinity, with each of the three colors representing a different part of the country's economy and heritage. Zimbabwe Like Central Africa, Zimbabwe's flag uses five different colors, but the complex design makes it seem very busy and colorful. The flag has seven horizontal stripes with colors alternating in the following order: green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green. Superimposed over the stripes on the left end of the flag is a white triangle that points to the right, with a red star covered by a yellow bird inside the triangle. The bird remembers the country's history, and the central black stripe honors the native people, surrounded by red stripes to represent the fight for independence. Seychelles The flag of Seychelles is very interesting, as it features five colors radiating out from the lower left corner. The rays are, in order from the leftmost ray:  blue for the sky and the sea, yellow for the sun, red for the people's will to work for unity and love, white for social justice, and green for the land. Comoros The Comoros flag is another that features five different colors, if you count white as a color. The leftmost half of the flag is taken up with a green triangle, with the point facing toward the right side of the flag. Inside the triangle are a white crescent moon, representing Islam, and four white stars, representing the four main islands. Behind the triangle and covering the rest of the flag are four equal horizontal stripes of yellow, white, red, and blue. Namibia Like Comoros and many other flags, the main colors of the flag of Namibia are red, blue, green, yellow, and white. This flag is dissected by a diagonal red stripe, from the lower left corner to the upper right corner, which is bordered with narrow white stripes. The upper left half of the flag is blue, for the sea and the sky, and the lower right is green, for agriculture. A sunburst with 12 small triangular rays is in the upper left corner, on the blue field, representing the country's power. Grenada The flag of Grenada is the only one on this list that has only three colors in its design, which is why it comes last. However, the busy design and bright colors of the Grenada flag makes it seem very colorful. The flag has a wide red border, with three yellow stars along the top and three yellow stars along the bottom of the flag. In the middle is a green and yellow rectangle divided into triangles with two intersecting lines: two yellow triangles on top and bottom, and two green triangles on the sides. In the middle, where all the triangle points meet, is a red circle with a yellow five-point star inside of it. To the left, in the green triangle, is a yellow and red nutmeg pod, representing the country's biggest export. The yellow in the flag represents the sun, the green represents agriculture, and the red border stands for the courage of the people, with a star for the capital and one for each of the administrative divisions of the country. There are many other colorful flags throughout the world -- you can find them all in this list of the flags of the world. Which are your favorites?

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Niamey City - Fortune of Africa Niger Niamey City Location Niamey is the capital and largest city of the West African country Niger. Niamey lies on the Niger River, primarily situated on the east bank. It is an administrative, cultural and economic centre. The city is located in a pearl millet growing region, while manufacturing industries include bricks, ceramic goods, cement and weaving. History of the City Niamey was founded in the e18th century, but was of little importance to most of the country until the French developed a colonial post in the 1890s. This rapidly grew into an important centre. In 1926 it became the capital of Niger and the population gradually increased, from about 3,000 in 1930 to around 30,000 in 1960. The period from 1970 to 1988 was one in which the economy of Niger boomed, driven by revenue from the uranium mines at Arlit. Population

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Niger map — Niger — Our Africa Zinder Much of Niger is taken up by desert or semi-desert, with ancient cities such as Agadez and Zinder acting as trading centres for the caravan trains which crossed this dry region. Today, tourists join expeditions to see some of Niger’s spectacular scenery, such as the landscapes of the Ténéré Desert and Aïr Mountains. Cameroon map Explore Cameroon Explore some of the towns and cities of Cameroon, as well as its most popular national parks. Mali map Learn more about some of the most important places and features of Mali. Zinder Founded in the 18th century, Zinder became famous for its city wall, which was built to protect the inhabitants from slave traders. When the French took over the region – see History & Politics – it became the capital of the French colony until eclipsed by Niamey. The city contains fine examples of Hausa clay buildings and visitor attractions include the Great Mosque and the 19th century Sultan’s palace, where the Sultan of Zinder still lives. Nigeria map Explore Nigeria Explore the map of Nigeria to find out more about some of the country's geographical features, parks and cities. Aïr Mountains The Aïr Mountains (also known as the Aïr Massif) lie within the Sahara desert. Because of their greater altitude (they rise to over 1,800 metres), temperatures in this region are cooler. The mountains harbour dry river valleys (known as wadis) which channel water to pools or oases, creating areas where some farming activities can take place. Rock art from Neolithic times shows the area has long been inhabited by man. Development ‘People are the real wealth of a nation.’ This is the belief of the United Nations, whose Millenium Development Goals provide a framework for improving the lives of millions. It helps when nations are peaceful, stable and growing economically. But where even the poorest countries focus on health, education and creating fairer societies, more Africans have the chance of a better life. Children Around one in six children born in sub-Saharan Africa don't live to see their fifth birthday and life can be tough for those who do. What are the common challenges facing African children and how do their lives compare with those of children in the UK? Ingal West of Agadez, Ingal is most famous as the meeting place for many nomadic peoples, such as the Tuareg and Fulani, many of whom come together for the annual Cure Salée festival in September. This is the time when Tuareg camel-breeders and Wodaabe cattle-herders bring their animals at the end of the rains for a celebration – see Festivals. At other times of the year, it is the place to stay with Tuareg and Fulani people. The area also boasts some of Niger’s Neolithic rock engravings. Ténéré Desert In the Ténéré Desert, temperatures frequently rise over 50°C. The landscape is characterised by large plains and sand dunes, dotted with areas of volcanic rock. Neolithic engravings can be found among the desert’s isolated outcrops and visitors can reach these by four-wheel-drive vehicles. But for longer trips into the desert, camels are often used as the best means of travel. Camel caravans operate across the region, carrying salt or taking adventure tourists on expeditions into this dramatically beautiful but harsh environment. Maradi Maradi is the third largest city in Niger and became important as a trading centre with northern regions of Nigeria. Originally, the city was founded on a flood plain, but was moved higher up onto the plateau during the period of French colonial rule in the twentieth century. Maradi is particularly known for its skilled craftsmen and the groundnuts/peanuts grown in the region. Niamey The capital Niamey is the largest city in Niger and acts as the administrative and economic centre of the country. Visitor attractions here include the Great Mosque and the National Museum, as well as some of West Africa’s best markets. Niamey lies on the Niger River, which helps to imbue the capital with a relaxed feel. Agriculture & Famine A quarter of the population of sub-Saharan Africa is undernourished and famines can impact whole regions. Land is available to grow more food locally, but investment is needed in  technologies such as irrigation for land to be used effectively. Farmers must also adapt to climate change if they are to feed the continent's rising population. Women A woman’s status varies by country and region across Africa. In many parts, women struggle against inequality in laws, education, pay and domestic responsibilities. Women’s health is also at risk from traditional practices such as early marriage. But with better education, girls can make more informed choices, leading to the greater development of African nations. Health Africa has a high number of communicable diseases, which place a huge burden on healthcare systems. The vast majority of malaria cases and HIV/AIDS-related deaths occur in Africa; these two diseases currently represent the greatest threats. With low investment in healthcare and a severe shortage of medical staff, many countries struggle to meet the health needs of their people. Algeria map Explore Algeria Find out more about some of the key towns and cities of Algeria, as well as areas of natural and geographic interest to the south. Foods Africa has some of the most distinctive cuisines and flavours in the world. Food varies widely, but there are commonalities across regions. Depending on what's grown locally, dishes are also influenced by the traders, immigrants and rulers who settled across the continent. Arab, Asian and European elements blend in with traditional African cooking. Burkina Faso map Find out about some of the best places to visit in Burkina Faso. Geography & Wildlife With its varied geography and diverse habits, the African continent is home to a wide range of flora and fauna. Though famous for its 'big game' animals, Africa has huge numbers of fish, mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and insect species, as well as many tree, plant and flower species. Poverty Across the rest of the world, absolute poverty has halved over recent decades, but in Africa it has barely fallen. About two-fifths of the population of sub-Saharan Africa survive week by week on what someone in the UK earns from just one hour's work on the minimum wage. The W National Park Set in an area around the River Niger, the park straddles across three countries – Niger, Benin and Burkina Faso. It gets its name from the bends of the river, which look like an upturned ‘W'. Run by the governments of the three nations, the park is best known for its populations of large African animals such as buffalo, hippo, lions, antelope and elephants. See also the Burkina Faso Map. Agadez Lying along key caravan routes, the ancient Tuareg city of Agadez has been a trading centre since the eleventh century. The city’s mud-brick architecture is typical of the region and the Grande Mosquée, built in 1515, is considered to be one of the finest examples. The markets of Agadez are known for their wide range of goods, from animals and Tuareg clothing, to the region’s famous leatherwork and silver “Agadez crosses”. Once famous as a centre for salt, today Agadez is known for the mining of uranium. Games & Sport Africa is home to arguably the oldest-recorded games and sports. While some are only known through archaeology, modern-day games and sports such as Mancala/Mankala and Nubian wrestling are very much alive today. Of course, new sports have come along to claim the attention of Africans. You may have heard of one - it's called football. Chad map Explore Chad Explore the map of Chad to find out more about some of the country's geographical features and cities. History The first humans are thought to have lived in Africa and powerful African empires formed from the medieval age onwards. However, today's African nations were shaped by the European powers who colonised this vast continent. Having gained their independence, many African countries are still coming to terms with the legacy left by their colonisers. Climate Africa is a massive continent, with a range of climates. Some regions are hot and dry, like the Sahara, Kalahari and Namib deserts. Other parts are wet or covered in tropical rainforest. Conditions also vary by altitude, from the dry salt pans of the Danakil Depression (one of the lowest points on earth) to the snowcaps (at certain times) of the highest mountains. Weather-wise, Africa has it all!

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1000+ images about Black in Niger on Pinterest | World history, Capital city and Cloths Oumou is a seamstress' apprentice. Niamey, Niger.13th September 2014. Photo by Nana Kofi Acquah #Africa #apprenticeship #trainee See More

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Google Map of Niamey, Niger - Nations Online Project Image: Roland Satellite view is showing Niamey, largest city and since 1960 the national capital of independent Niger , a landlocked country in West Africa. The city is located along both sides of the Niger River in south west of the country, about 90 km east of the border to Burkina Faso . At the beginning of the 20th century, in times of the 'Scramble for Africa', the French established a colonial military post in the in the Sahel zone close to five Foulani villages. Presumably the invasion itself was the reason that the post grew rapidly into an important center for power, trade and job opportunities. In 1903 Niamey became the administrative seat of the Territoire Militaire du Niger and in 1926 the town became the capital of the French Colony of Niger. Today Niamey has a population of estimated of 1 to 1.5 million inhabitants. The city is divided into five Arrondissements, the two parts of the city on the left and the right bank of the river are connected by two bridges, the Pont Kennedy built in 1970, and since 2011 the Pont de l’amitié Chine-Niger (China-Niger Friendship Bridge). Spoken language is French. The map shows a city map of Niamey with expressways, main roads and streets, zoom out to find the location of Diori Hamani International Airport ( IATA code : NIM) southeast of the city. To find a location use the form below.   To find a location type: street or place, city, optional: state, country. Local Time Niger: Time zone: West Africa Time (WAT) :: UTC / GMT +1 hours φ Latitude, λ Longitude (of Map center; move the map to see coordinates): , Google Earth: Searchable Map and Satellite view of Niamey, Niger. City Coordinates: 13°31′17″N 02°06′19″E   Bookmark/share this page

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Niger Facts on Largest Cities, Populations, Symbols - Worldatlas.com Ethnicity: Haoussa 55.4%, Djerma Sonrai 21%, Tuareg 9.3%, Peuhl 8.5%, Kanouri Manga 4.7%, other 1.2% GDP total: $13.34 billion (2012 est.) GDP per capita: $800 (2012 est.) Language: French (official), Hausa, Djerma Largest Cities: (by population) Niamey, Zinder, Maradi, Alaghsas, Tahoua Name: From a native term Ni Gir meaning flowing water, the country is named after the Niger River. National Day: December 18

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Niamey travel guide - Wikitravel Satin ribbon that is about 1.5cm wide is 25F/yard. Used socks are around 3 pairs for 1000F. New socks are around 400-450F each. Men’s thrift-shop pants: 1,500F Men’s pre-made shirts: 1,500F-2000F Sunglasses are 500F for the all plastic models and 600F for the kind with a little metal accenting the plastic. Cheap earrings from China: 100F or 150F. One of West Africa's best, most diverse, and calmest big markets. The market spans a wide spectrum of objects for sale, from retail goods and packaged foods to wholesale boxes of imported goods to hot, fresh meals. Narrow, shaded, aisles in a grid pattern contain a mix of fabric, tailors, household goods, sports apparel, automotive parts, flip-flops, headscarves, baby clothes, and any manner of other goods. Goods and foods from around the country are offered for sale, and stalls offering imported items from West Africa and abroad are interspersed throughout.There's also a section devoted to handicrafts and traditional clothes, although other markets are as equally good or better to pick these. First constructed in 1950 and rebuilt in 1987 after a fire (costing over 5 billion francs!), the Grand Market attracts an estimated 20,000 tourists a year. Unfortunately, an electrical fire burnt over 1500 of the stalls in May 2009. Petite Marché[ edit ] The main fruit and vegetable market in the center of town, can be unpleasant due to hassle, harassment, pestering, crowds, and severely jacked-up prices for visitors. The "Supermarche Haddad" is set up like a Western supermarket and owned by Lebanese men and contains mostly imported European (which means expensive) packaged foods, meats sliced-to-order, alcohol, and health/beauty products. You can get many of the same fruits, vegetables, and some meats and durable goods from other calmer, more pleasant neighborhood markets - the selection of speciality items and beauty products here, however, is good (cereals, cheese, cookies, etc.). Other Good Markets[ edit ] One of the cleanest and newest is the cobblestone-paved Marché Albarka – good place for new visitors for a “market warm-up,” and there’s an air-conditioned SahelCom internet cafe outside (500F per hour, 250F per half-hour). Another great one is Marché Bonkaney – friendly with a little bit of everything for sale. The Yantala market is pretty big and also rather chill. Nouveau Marché and Wadata Marché are other options. Wadatta has the added benefit of being right next to the Wadata Artisanal Village as an alternative to the Musée as it is free to get in. Of course, at night, try the Marché de Nuit (aka Night Market) in Yantala. To get to each of these, just tell a taxi the name of the market itself. Fabric-buying[ edit ] Niamey's main market As in other parts of West Africa, Niamey has a good selection of bright colorful pagne fabrics. Each pagne is 2 meters and it is generally sold in 3-pagne sets (in other words, 6 meters.) Sometimes they will sell you either 1 pagne or two pagnes, but other times they will only sell in 3-pagne increments. There is a wide selection of pagnes (30 or more shops/stands) just 1/2 block down the street from the Porte Principal of the Grande Marché. 90 percent of them in that section cost 5,000F for 3 pagnes. If you only want one pagne and they are willing to cut, it should cost 2,000F for just the one. If it is ENITEX brand (made in Niger), it is a bit cheaper - 3 pagnes cost only 4,000F, or one for 1,500F. There are a few brands that are more than 5,000 (7,000F, 12,500F and up) especially from shops within the Grande Marché. Other stores and markets[ edit ] Wadatta Artisanal Market: For slightly different goods and no entry fee, try this great location for your craft purchases. Katako Marché: An interesting cross between a Super Target, Home Depot, and an industrial complex. Watch your pockets, but wander for cheap food, metal goods, wood, hardwares, magic ingredients (gri-gri), etc. It’s also neat to watch the aluminum pots being poured. Budget[ edit ] Le Gawlo senegalese restaurant, (Situated on the other side of the road of ''the nouvelle cité EAMAC'' in the Plateau quarter. Next to a Tuareg juweler which is worth the visit as well.), ☎ 94010342. The restaurant opens during the day. Serves excellent senegalese dishes (not the fatty, oil-saturated dishes that you often find) for 1500F, They also offer a range of natural juices like bissap, jus de baobab and ginger for 250F a glass.   edit . Baobab Senegalese Restaurant, (Take a taxi to “Rond Point Maourey” and from there take the street that heads towards the Grand Marché. In less than a half-block you will see its old Maggi sign on the right. Alternately, take a taxi to “Grande Marché – Côté Maourey” and start walking towards Rond Point Maourey – you will see it on the left.). Opens at 12:30, but the food arrives at 1pm. At night food is served from 7pm.. Favorites include sauce d’arachide (peanut sauce) for 800F including beef (more for chicken or fish), yassa (onion-based Senegalese specialty with veggies and meat) for 800F including beef (more for chicken or fish) and spaghetti-poisson (spaghetti and fish) for 2000F. They also have good bisap (sweetened hibiscus leave drink) for 200F/small bottle. By some accounts, the best Senegalese food in Niamey. Good place to go if you are in the neighborhood of either Grande Marché or Petite Marché.   edit Fast Food de L’Année. Delicious hamburgers for 800F or teazburgers (cheeseburgers) for 1400F. Probably the best burgers (stuffed with fries) in town. They also have egg burgers for the vegetarians, fries, omelets, tuna burgers, and lots of other stuff including soft drinks. There are two locations: 1) Take a taxi to “Centre Cultural Oumarou Ganda”, north of the Grande Mosquée. From there, walk north towards the yellow Sonitrav sign and look for their shop on corner of the next crossroads; 2) Take a taxi to Rond Point Grand Hotel and they are on the west side of the round point on the road that heads down to the Kennedy Bridge.   edit Ghanaian Restaurant, (Take a taxi to “Balafon – Pharmacie Independence” (just north of the Grand Marché). The restaurant is directly across the street from Pharmacie Independence.). Open for lunch (around 12:30) or dinner, but usually closed Sundays.. Try the fufu – delicious at 500F/bowl, generous meat portions are extra. Or, if you are feeling adventurous, try the bonkou – fermented corn dumplings with sauce. They also have soft drinks, PureWater, etc. Owners prefer to speak English. If you want a spoon you have to ask for it. Good place to go if you are in the neighborhood of Grande Marché.   edit Grande Marché Hide-away. From Grande Marché’s Porte Principal (main entrance), head away from the marché. On your left, tucked in amongst other shops and hidden behind a bunch of street vendors, you’ll see a yellow-painted building with the Flag beer sign. Once you go in they have an enclosed shaded courtyard with wooden booths and tables. They have beer and cokes, and plenty of street food sellers are right outside for various food options.   edit Le Bar Snob. Delicious and cheap food. Run by a woman of Asian descent. Call ahead the day before and order the Chinese soup (20.73.24.83). Ask a taxi for “Pharmacie Inikwara” and then walk north for half a block. Look for the big cement swan planters out front.   edit Maquis Africa Queen. Amazing food cooked by a sweet Cameroonian lady, plus cheap drinks, tucked away off the street. Ask what she has available for the day as the menu is flexible and the things that she has prepared for the day might not even be on the menu. Try the Soupe de Viande ou Poisson, an incredible meat soup with a Thai lemongrass flavor. Other delicious plates are the Eba with sauce feuille (manioc fufu with a chapata topping that tastes like sautéed spinach), Eba with Ndole sauce (salty but good), and Riz Cantonais. (Again, some of the above are not on the menu – ask for them or ask what she has available that day.) There is also delicious steak with sautéed veggies, plus other basics like fries, petit pois, mixed salad, and aloco (plantains, when in season). Take a taxi to Rond Point Maourey. If you are facing the hotel, walk ½ block along the street that runs left of the hotel. Prices are very reasonable, 600F to 1500F for most plates, and conjunctures are 450F..   edit Restaurant Atlantique aka Ziggy’s. Take a taxi to “Hotel Sahel”. Stop the taxi before he turns into the hotel. Walk 20 feet further down the road (east) and turn into the Piscine Olympique. Walk through the empty sandy lot, greet the friendly guardian on his pedal bike, walk behind the often-empty Olympic pool (but if it’s open you can go for a swim for 1000F), and into the restaurant. Food and drinks are ordered separately and come on separate bills. Cokes are 300F, conjunctures (small Bière Niger) are 600F. Food options are brochettes (steak – say “filet”, merguez – beef sausage, tongue, liver, and kidney) for 250F, French fries, peas, green beans, and when in season, fried plantains – each of these plates is 1000F. They also have a tasty salad (at your own risk), ½ chicken, or full chicken. Great place to take newly-arrived visitors for sunset because of the unbeatable view.   edit Restaurant Liberté. Take a taxi to Rond Point Liberté. Start walking in the direction of the Stade, and it is there on the right. It is run by a nice Sudanese guy who speaks English. The prices he gives you in English are in Nigerian naira – so you need to multiply the price by 5 to arrive at the price in CFA. For instance, if he says 200F, it is really 1,000F. Anyway, they have delicious steak, fries, salad, rice and sauce, etc. Nice place to go after a shopping trip to Grande Marché.   edit Couscous in Niamey Mid Range[ edit ] Amandine. Lattes, goat cheese soup, pain de chocolat, pain des epinards, salads, sandwiches, Lebanese specialties, and many other good things. Bright, clean, and modern, it is a very popular favorite amongst anyone who enters its doors. Taxi to “Score” (by Petite Marché), and it’s right across the street.   edit Bellissimo’s. A swanky rooftop escape overlooking Rond Point Maorey. Go up there for drinks, dinner, dancing late, pedicures, watching the world go by. Have a beer and watch the rond point for accidents and near misses.   edit Ile de Gorée Senegalese Restaurant, Chateau 1 (I-M). Food is served from 12:30pm till it runs out and again in the evenings from around 7pm. In Chateau 1 one can also have quality Senegalese food. Slightly higher prices than the other Senagalese places but still good. From the main Chateau 1 intersection, take the eastern road and it is just down a little way on the left.   edit Le Damsi Continental, ☎ +227 20 734491. Breakfast, lunch and dinner. It has an extensive and varied menu, though they are usually missing many items. Potential items include everything from burgers and pseudo-milkshakes to decent Chinese and even Japanese food. Try the pizza. Sonara I Building (same building as AIR FRANCE) on Rue du Souvenir.   edit Le Djinkounme, ☎ +227 20 722181. lunch from 12:30– 2:30 PM, dinner 6:30–11:00 PM. Closed Mon. Great atmosphere, with dining outside or in a small hut. Food from all over western Africa. The menu has good descriptions, and the waitress helps you with your order to make sure you’ll like your meal. Excellent brochettes. Right off Chateau Un on the same road as the BraNiger outlet, heading north.   edit Dragon D’Or, ☎ +227 20 734123. lunch 12-2 PM, dinner 7 PM to midnight. Chinese. Dine al fresco or indoors. A/C. Run by a Chinese family. The food is excellent. Can’t go wrong with this choice. Off the rondpoint Grand Hotel -- look for the Christmas lights. Friday nights has Karaoke.   edit Idrissa Nems. Cheap and good Chinese food. Tell the taxi Pharmacy Chateau Un. They will also deliver but you have to pay for the service and it is often a wait, so order early.   edit Maquis 2000, ☎ +227 20 735556. West African. Lunch and dinner. Very popular African restaurant for both Americans and Nigeriens alike. Owned by a Cote d’Ivorian, reasonably priced, nice ambiance. One plate and a few side dishes is enough for two. A little tough to find and very slow service but it’s worth the effort. Not far from the Eglise Baptiste.   edit Splurge[ edit ] La Casbah, ☎ +227 20 752602. Opens at 7:30 PM. North African Cuisine. Coming from Tillaberi, turn onto Maurice Delens toward Mali Bero and then take the very first left. You’ll see the sign immediately. This delightful and attractively decorated restaurant serves delicious couscous dishes and traditional Algerian tadjines. Try the Salad Casbah as an appetizer with its variety of tomato, eggplant and green peppers. For the carnivore, try the Couscous Royale, which has a good portion of chicken, mutton and sausage brochettes. They also have a fine selection of cocktails including daiquiris. Service is first rate.   edit Chez Chin’s, ☎ +227 20 722528. Lunch 10:30 PM to 2 PM, dinner 5:30 PM – 11 PM. Chinese. Good food and extremely popular. Has fresh noodles and hot pot (order one day in advance). Good date place because of its romantic atmosphere. Great for family meals because the service is fast and the kids can roam in the garden, look at the menagerie of animals or play on the swings and monkey bars. Located on Tillaberi Road, not far from Pharmacie Yantala. Taxi to OMS and it's across the street.   edit La Diamangou, ☎ +227 20 735143. Serves lunch and dinner. Call ahead for times - it changes. French and African cuisine. On the Corniche Gamkalley. Dine on a boat. Sunday lunch by reservation only. Very slow service, but good food. Good for a change in atmosphere. It’s also possible to rent the boat and have your meal while cruising the Niger. 30,000F per person, minimum of 10 people.   edit L’Exotique, ☎ +227 20 734050. Opens at 6 PM. French and African Cuisine. Service is a little slow but the ambiance makes the meal worth the wait. Located directly across from the Commisserate Central, 2 blocks past Dragon d’Or. Good seafood dishes and good pizza. Serves free bread with pimenty salsa. Local music groups Friday and Saturday nights starting at 9pm.   edit Le Pilier, ☎ +227 20 724985. Lunch 12:30 PM – 2 PM, dinner from 6:30 – 11:30 PM. Italian. Another expat favorite--for their desserts and their meals. Homemade pastas, ricotta and mozzarella cheeses. They even have cappuccino and tiramisu. Everything on the menu is good. Located on Rue de la Tapoa.   edit La Pizzeria, ☎ +227 20 741240. lunch 11:30 - 1:30 PM, dinner 6:30 - 10:30 PM. Closed Mon. Pizza and Pasta. Take out or eat-in. A wide selection of pizza toppings, and the service is quick. Good, thin crusted pizza in a comfortable setting. Also great calzones. Great for kids as they can watch the cook make the pizza. Near Rue de Combat, by Croissant d’Or on Rue du Commerce. Tell the taxi "Siege BIA", and it is just down the street on the right.   edit Le Shanghai, ☎ +227 96 903437. Chinese. Lunch and dinner. Dine indoors or outdoors. A/C and private party rooms available. This restaurant is run by the same owners of Le Dragon D’Or. The food is very good. Located on Mali Bero, one block south from the intersection with Maurice Delens.   edit Tabakady, ☎ +227 20 735818. Opens for dinner at 7:30 PM. French cuisine. Reservations required. A very pleasant restaurant, decorated with photos of the Sahara Desert and the Tuareg. If you ask in advance, the owner will show a slide presentation. The food is excellent. Off of the Place de la Republique, on Avenue de President Karl Carsten.   edit Le Watta. Upscale Ivorian restaurant. Tell a taxi “Station Terminus” and then walk north ½ block. Not far from the Grand Hotel and Hotel Terminus. Serves “Western” and a variety of West African dishes. Friendly staff.   edit Zanzibar. Very small portions but a wide selection of good food, and a friendly owner from Australia.   edit Other food tips[ edit ] Pots and pans in a Niamey market Zenabou’s Dumbou Stand (I): The best street food in Niamey! It’s well worth the trip. Take a taxi to “Sonara Deux”, which is a tall 9-story building covered in tan crosses. If the taximan does not know it, say “Maternité Issaka Gazoby”, which is across the street. Alternately, you can walk from Petite Marché, past Rip-off Row, past La Cloche Restaurant, and keep going – Sonora Deux is the second tall building on your right. Wrap around the building to the front (walking towards the bridge). She has a yellow & red Maggi hangar on the right. Sit down on the wooden benches and when it’s your turn she’ll point to you and ask what you want. Expect around a 15-minute wait to be served as she is quite popular. Get the dumbou with everything. Dumbou is a popular specialty of Niger, consisting of corn couscous, steamed moringa greens, black-eyed peas, a tomato-squash sauce, and spices. Women might get for 150F (waranza in Djerma) and men for 200F (way-tachi in Djerma). Meat is extra but an incredible addition to the dumbou. Try the pounded/pileéd guinea fowl mixed with sesame and hot pepper, for 100F (To say “meat for 100F” in Djerma, say “Ham, waranka”.) Careful, the pounded guinea fowl meat contains bones. Open Mon-Fri 12:30-4:30 or later. The guy with the cooler next to her has a gingery lemu-hari drink for 50F (small) or 100F (large), PureWater, and yogurts. Nice place to go if you are in the neighborhood of Petite Marché or the Musée. Nigerian Hot Pockets stuffed with curried mashed potatoes, and other goodies Take a taxi to Rond Point Liberté. Head north for 1/3 block and she is on the left, with the hot pockets displayed in a glass case, next to a tiny blue-painted shop. She is Nigerian and speaks English. Prices are cheap. This is a good place for a snack if you are at the Grand Marché. From the Grand Marché, go to Côté Maourey and walk down the road that goes towards the Stade. In a couple blocks you will see Pharmacie Liberté and the round point. She also has delicious fried dough cakes wrapped around hard-boiled eggs. almost across the street from the travel agency SatGuru, but further east. The Meat Sandwich Guy The meat sandwich guy is on the left Mali-Bero road, just west of the Stade road. Taxi to “Pharmacie Mali-Bero” then with the pharmacy on your left, walk a half-block and look for his red Nescafe booth just past the technical school. He is open to coincide with the breaks at the school. He is ready to serve around 10h and 16h. Most Peace Corps volunteers use him for a quick stop in passing for his delicious meat sandwiches stuffed with fries. However, he is more than just meat sandwiches. Vegetarians should try his omelet sandwich. However, very highly recommended is his version of nacho fries. This is a mountain of fries topped with seasoned ground beef or a fried egg, sauce, mayo etc. all for about 750F. Sit down, order the fries, and get a coffee to boot. Well worth taking your time there rather than just doing take-out. Fried cheese (Wagashi) (I): In season, this is a delicacy coming to us from Benin and Togo. It sells in the Petit Marché as red discus-shaped rounds that you can then cook up yourself. We do not recommend eating it raw. Alternatively, there are two women who sell it fried and ready to eat. One is just behind Score near the Senegalese Restaurant with the blue walls. Ask around as she is not always there. The other is near the gas station “Station Katako” on the road leading into town from the Stade, in the trees on the North side of the street that form the Tillaberi and Gotheye bush taxi station. She sells all sorts of chichena (fried bean cakes) and patats (fried sweet potatoes) etc. so the cheese can sometimes be hidden in the pile. Look for it in the center of her wares in a small plastic bowl. Buy some (25F apiece) and then eat it with rice from the rice lady a little to the west. A great street food lady with fufu and wagashi under a big tent (I): Wagashi (friend cheese) is also sometimes available at a very popular food tent that runs from 9am to 1pm across from the Grand Mosquée, on the street heading south. It is basically at the crossroads on the south-eastern corner of the grand mosquée compound. There is usually a swarm of taxicabs parked there while drivers grab breakfast/brunch. Good pounded yam (fufu) and lemu-hari drink too. Good hand-made grilled sausage (I): Take a taxi to Cinema Soni and get out at Avenue Arewah. Start walking north on Avenue Arewah. Pass one intersection and then look for him half-way along the blank wall of the school on the right. He is sometimes hidden in among the Ghanaian semi-trailers that use the wall as a waiting point. “Pepperoni-style” hand-made grilled sausage (I): Take a taxi to Rond Point Eglise. Walk south towards Marina Market. He is at a Maggi grill on the left just a block or two down. 250F/sausage with condiments. He is there in the afternoons and evenings. He may not look like he has sausage if he is not grilling, but he keeps the cooked meat covered and warm so step up and ask! Grilled Meat (I): Down the road from the bar La Toulousain/Ebenezers is a meat griller with a Maggi stand. There are always cars parked next to it waiting for well-seasoned meat. Rumor has it that President Tandja likes to get his meat from here. However, there is grilled mutton on almost any street corner in Niamey and it is always delicious. Specify that you prefer meat to fat. 500F gets you a small serving for 1-2 people. Fried plantains In season, find them on either side of the intersection just North of the Grand Marché, formed by Avenue Arewah and Boulevard de l’Independence. One of these women makes them as little fried balls of banana bread, which are excellent with sugar or her spicy salsa. She is from Ghana and speaks English. Delicious Kilishi (beef jerky): Kilishi is a specialty of Niger. There are three varieties: plain, hot pepper, and spicy peanut sauce. Never buy it from Katako Marché as it is dried right over the aluminum smelters (worth seeing sometime). Try instead one of the smaller operations around town, such as the drying racks just east of Round Point Liberté or at the Yantala night market. If you buy it on the street, ask the seller where it was made as you really do not want the stuff that has been dried in Katako. Dégué Dégué are little millet balls, and when they are in yoghurt they are reminiscent of a whole-grain tapioca pudding. Excellent dégué is available next to “Nigelec siege” in Plateau, within easy walking distance from the Centre Culturel Americain. Martine’s stand is slightly hidden, next to a lady selling dumbou but if you ask someone will point you in the right direction. It is usually sold in increments of 150, 200, 250 and so on in sachets or sit in and enjoy the dégué with a plastic bowl and ladle. Dégué is also available from sellers in the Grand Marché if you are in there and need a snack while shopping. Or ask around where you are and see if someone is not selling out of their concession nearby where you are staying. Best bisap and apollo in town (I): Bisap is a sweetended hibiscus-leaf drink with mint. * Apollo is a frozen slushy made from the baobab fruit, with a deep rich flavor. Take a taxi to Lamordé Ganda from the Grand Marché or Petit Marché for 200F. Pass the big mosque and then get out at a white-walled square boutique with a blue-green door a ways along on the left. If it is closed, ask for Rashida in the courtyard to the right. Masaki’s Some nights there is live music at Masaki’s,. Taxi to Mairie Commune 1 and walk east. Look for their fliers or drop in and ask what is planned. It is run by a French guy and his Nigerien wife. Also serves as a hotel with nice rooms. Drink[ edit ][ add listing ] They love Nescafe Keep in mind that drinking alcohol is generally forbidden in Muslim culture, so take extra care to keep drunken inappropriate behavior behind closed doors and out of the public eye. Most of the Western-style restaurants above also serve drinks, 'Restaurant Atlantique in particular have an amazing river view, especially great around sunset. (See the "Eat" section) Sorghum beer bars[ edit ] There are three Burkinabé millet or sorghum beer bars (called dolo or tchouk),all in Yantala Ancien, behind the French Embassy. The easiest place to start is to have a cab drop you off on the paved road that runs along the east wall of the French Embassy. Start walking along the dirt road that runs along the North (back) wall of the Embassy. You will pass a Christian Pentacostal church. Take the right after the church, then another immediate right, then the next left. She runs the operation out of her courtyard, is really nice if you are kind to her and her kids, and she will help keep the drunks at bay. Late afternoon is a great time to go. It is also a great cultural experience as almost everyone there is from Burkina. Take some ice if you want cool dolo. She has dolo Wednesday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday, and sometimes Monday. Two different women make it on the other days of the week as well as the weekend. For the other two, it is best to go to the first lady, pretend like you did not know she was not serving that day, and tip a kid 50 francs to take you to the next location. Or, from Rond Point Yantala, walk towards the French Embassy a few blocks and then veer off on a diagonal road to your right. Take the next right, then a quick left into her compound at the end of a long and narrow path between her houses. The only problem is there are two diagonal roads… try the first one and then ask someone if you get confused. Other bars[ edit ] Niamey Nightlife L’Epervier (The Night Market Bar), Marché de Nuit–Yantala. It's best to arrive just before sunset in this bar. Go in and get a drink plus street food (both outside and inside) at the cozy locals-only bar, when it gets dark. Then, go out on the street and shop for modern clothing in the glow of black lights amid the throngs of young men and women.   edit La Legone, Nouveau Marché (Two or three blocks west of the Nouveau Marché on one of the diagonals coming out of the marché). a bar for the locals. It has a great feel and is tucked away in the Nouveau Marché neighborhood. The beer is cold and they have great fare for lunch and dinner if you are interested in local food. Well worth the trip to a local bar in a non-expat part of town.   edit La Cloche, Avenue Luebké, ☎ +226 20 732462. Pool-playing and casual atmosphere though it's definitely for wealthy locals and expats. Lebanese and western fare and great cocktails. If you don't mind the large number of prostitutes, the bar has some friendly people. They have a takeout counter with some of the best hamburgers in Niamey, using real hamburger buns(as opposed to the very dense ones used around town) for around 1500 CFA.   edit Grand Hotel Terrace, BP 471, Gaweye, ☎ +227 20 732641, [3] . The Grand Hotel has also houses a popular bar with an Amazing river view, which is especially good around sunset. Jazz and happy hour brochettes on Thursday and Sunday nights.   edit Learn[ edit ] The Universite Abdou Moumouni de Niamey [4] was created 1971 and is the only public university in Niger. As of 2008, it welcomed more than eight thousands students. The university has five faculties. Libraries[ edit ] The CCFN (see above) contains a large library in French. There is an impressive collection of French-language books about Niger found in a separated part of this library (and with slightly different hours) called the "Centre des Resources Documentaires". The Centre Culturel Americain (Rue de la Tapoa) has a modest selection of English-language books (mostly about the USA), a couple dozen magazines, and (most of the time) a small selection of newspapers (often a week or two old). There is another library which mostly contains novels used by students taking English courses at the center; however, if you are carrying books with you that you no longer want, you could ask the librarian if you could swap for one of the books in the library. This center also hosts a weekly film (usually in English w/French subtitles), although it's not as large a venue or spectacular a crowd as at the CCFN or CCOG. There are two large libraries for serious research (not for casual browsing), both of which only allow librarians to enter the room where books are kept to retrieve what you are looking for: Institute des Recherches des Sciences Humaines (Humanities Research Institute, 227 20 735141) and the neighboring Centre d'Etudes Linguistique et Historiques par Tradition Orale (Center for Linguistic Studies and Historical Oral Tradition, 227 20 735414). Both have nearly 20,000 titles, but, again, are not very formidable to casual browsing. Niamey by night Budget & Mid range[ edit ] Chez Tatayi, ☎ +227 20 741281 ( auberge@tatayi.com ), [5] . A small homey place near the Grand Hotel. They even have dorms for budget travelers. 5000F or less per night. The owner Natalie is French/Canadian and is very nice. The rooms vary in price depending if you want A/C or a private room, but all are very affordable.   edit Homeland Hotel, Avenue du Général de Gaulle,, ☎ +227 20 732606. Good sized rooms in good condition as this hotel opened in 2004, though no river views and no swimming pool.   edit Hotel Les Roniers, Rue Tondibia (7 km west of town), ☎ +227 20 723138 (fax: +227 20722133). Traditional cottages with thatched roofs, though a great deal more upscale than the locals residences set in a pretty garden, with a good restaurant and a hip pool with loads of atmosphere during the evening. 24.000F (single) and 26.500F (double).   edit Hotel Masaki, Boulevard Mali Béro (On Mali-bero just off the ''Stade'' road), ☎ +227 96 965324. Nice rooms, good music some nights, and great bar food. Run by a French guy and his Nigerien wife. Attached gallery also has some interesting art on occasion   edit Hotel Maourey, Centre Ville 144, ☎ +227 20 732850. Centrally located at Rond Point Maourey, this hotel has aircon, running water a nice terrace a worn down look and prostitutes lingering in the lobby, Still one of the better mid-range options. 35-40,000F per night.   edit Hotel Oasis, Boulevard Mali Bero (Several blocks west of the ''Stade'' road), ☎ +227 20 752775, [6] . Over 30.000F per night.   edit Hotel Sahel, Rue du Sahel, ☎ +227 20 732431, [7] . Air conditioned rooms with showers, and several bungalows right on the river, with great views. Some rooms have been renovated recently. It's not the safest of neighbourhoods though.   edit Hotel Tenere, Boulevard de la Liberte (A few blocks from Grande Marché.), ☎ +227 20 732020., [8] . 4 star hotel with Swimming pool and a central location. 44-60.000F.   edit Hotel Terminus, Rue du Sahel, ☎ +227 20 732692. Each room have own entrance from patio. Good restaurant. Swimming pool.   edit Mission Catholique, Ave du Gountou Yena, ☎ +227 20 733203. A cheap and clean place to stay 2 blocks from Rond Point Maourey. Around 10000F for a two-bed room. Officially it's only available to NGO's and other volunteers, but they have been known to take in polite guests. Of you intend to arrive over the weekend, make sure to get a reservation. The reception is closed from saturday noon to monday morning.   edit Villa Chinois, (On the road of the ''Stade'' (stadium) almost to Mali-bero.). Cheap government lodging that is open to guests as long as the government is not using it for a training. It is not clean up to hotel standard and there are no mosquito nets provided, though you will certainly want one during rainy season. Pending preference, the village can be quite the attraction at night (or rather the opposite) as the place is known for it's prostitution. 10000 F CFA a night (for a room that sleeps one or two).   edit Splurge[ edit ] If you stay near the river, you can get a view like this before bedtime Hotel Gaweye, Place Kennedy 1, ☎ +227 20 723400, [9] . Four-star hotel - great view, older but decent conveniences (hot water, semi-functional central air-con). Don't walk near the ravine that runs near there to the center of town - renown for banditry. Great swimming pool and high speed internet. 70-150.000F.   edit Grand Hotel du Niger, BP 471, ☎ +227 20 732641 ( contact@grandhotelniger.com , fax: +227 20732643), [10] . Four-star hotel. Some rooms renovated, magnificent view over Niger river and the city of Niamey. Air-con. Great jazz and brochettes on Thursday and Sunday nights. 49-87.000F.   edit Contact[ edit ] Internet (Slow) modem and satellite connection. Rate - about 500 FCFA (1€) / hour. Wi-Fi is emerging in the city and can already be purchased on a 'pay as you go' basis with scratch-off cards in the better hotels and in the city center. Post/CourrierThe main post office is located on Rue de la Poste halfway between the Place de la Concorde/Assemble National and Place Monteil. DHL Express is located on Boulevard de la Liberte. Respect[ edit ] Proper attire: Dress is much more conservative than other West African countries. Look around to see how the majority of local people dress, and you can see it is offensive if you are not dressed conservatively. Shorts, above-the knee skirts, and tank tops should basically never be worn in the capital, in Hausa regions, or up north. This will also help cut down on harassment. Note, as well, that people in Niamey dress up as nicely as they can afford to, so it's not recommended to dress like you are "slumming." Giving gifts: Think carefully before giving out “cadeaux” (gifts) or money to kids or even adults that you do not know personally, especially those that ask for one (genuine beggars excepted). Be aware that after you give out cadeaux, future travelers after you for the next 10-20 years will be targets for unceasing and increasingly obnoxious demands for cadeaux, and Westeners will be seen only as a source of gifts. The annoyance you cause future visitors is probably not worth the trinket. Instead, give it to a reputable local charity or school to be distributed, or a family that has done something nice for you. General: Niamey is a safe city but be aware of several things: Carry as little as possible. For guys, watch your wallet in your back pocket. For girls, be aware that they can cut the strap of your bag and run. The most dangerous places are anywhere the road crosses the ravine that runs through town, including next to the Stade (between the Stade and Katako), and between the Musée and Hotel Gaweye. Robberies are more common there because the bad guys can disappear into the ravine. The water in the city is usually ok to drink, but sometimes not. To be safe, you can buy filtered, sealed PureWater (pronounced Pure-Watta) for 25 CFA per small bag. (Outside of the city it may be either 25 or 50 CFA). Ask at any stall that has a fridge. Con artists: A frequent scam, anywhere in town but especially near Petit Marché, involves someone coming up to you and acting like he knows you well. He says his car or motorcycle got in an accident and he needs 10,000F to fix it, or variations on this theme. If you don’t know the person beyond a shadow of a doubt, don’t believe him or her. Embassies[ edit ] Canada, Mali Bero Boulevard, ☎ +227 20 753686. M-Th 8AM-12:30PM, 1PM-4:30PM, F 7:30AM-1PM.   edit Egypt, (Rond point - Grand Hotel - Terminus), (fax: +277 20 722594), [11] . 9:00 AM - 15:00 PM.   edit Denmark (Bureau de Cooperation Danoise), Rue YN39, BP, ☎ +227 20 723948.   edit France, Route de Tondibia, ☎ +227 20 722431, [12] .   edit Greece, B.P. 10350, ☎ +227 96 962171 ( alassanekonek@yahoo.fr , fax: +227 20 736510).   edit United States, Rue des Ambassades, ☎ +227 20 722661/62/63/64, [13] . M-Th 8AM-5:30PM, F 8AM-1PM.   edit Visa Extensions[ edit ] Visa extensions are granted at the Direction de la Surveillance du territoire on Rue Heinrich Luebke. Bring two photographs and the appropriate fee. Expect one day service, although a small gift could probably get you same day service. Get out[ edit ] One of the last wild giraffes in West Africa peeks under a tree Giraffes West Africa's last surviving giraffe herd is just 45 minutes outside of Niamey (near Koure ) and guided tours are available. Baleyara , roughly 2 hours east, is home to a large and vibrant crafts market on Sundays. A must-do daytrip. On other days, however, the rural town is barren and there are no hotels. Boubon, 25km northwest on the route towards Tillaberi & Gao, is a city known for its pottery. Soil it taken from the banks of the river and formed into many different household potteries, set out to dry, and baked in large open pits. Wednesday is market day here, and the easiest day to find public transport from Niamey. Other days, it might be necessary to take a bush taxi to nearby Relais and then take a pirougue to Boubon. W National Park is a massive park named after the 'W' shape of the Niger River in it and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Simmilar to the large game parks of eastern Africa except that the landscape is less open and more shrub-filled and forest-like and there is less of a presence of large herbivores than E.Africa. Three hours south of Niamey, it could easily be organized as a day-long trip, but to fully enjoy the park, an overnight stay is recommended. The conservation project ECOPAS is working to improve the park's infrastructure, protect its inhabitants, and attract tourists. ECOPAS's Niamey headquarters can be consulted for tourism info (tel. 72 53 48); they also sell printed books/guides for/about the park. Agadez While a considerable distance away (1000km), there are frequent bus connections to this city which once was the most popular tourist destination in Niger. The city itself is safe to visit, but due to the ongoing Tuareg rebellion, travel outside the city is not allowed. A permit may be necessary, so consult local authorities before taking a bus. A military escort is necessary for part of the journey to protect against bandits, don't worry, though, as travelling this route is safe (with escort). This is a guide article. It has a variety of good, quality information including hotels, restaurants, attractions, arrival and departure info. Plunge forward and help us make it a star !

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Countries of the World - 3 | Britannica.com Countries of the World This general category includes a selection of more specific topics. Browse Subcategories: (240) Displaying 101 - 195 of 195 results Lithuania country of northeastern Europe, the southernmost and largest of the three Baltic states. Lithuania was a powerful empire that dominated much of eastern Europe in the 14th–16th centuries before becoming part of the Polish-Lithuanian confederation for... Luxembourg country in northwestern Europe. One of the world’s smallest countries, it is bordered by Belgium on the west and north, France on the south, and Germany on the northeast and east. Luxembourg has come under the control of many states and ruling houses... Macedonia country of the south-central Balkans. It is bordered to the north by Kosovo and Serbia, to the east by Bulgaria, to the south by Greece, and to the west by Albania. The capital is Skopje. The Republic of Macedonia is located in the northern part of the... Madagascar island country lying off the southeastern coast of Africa. Madagascar is the fourth largest island in the world, after Greenland, New Guinea, and Borneo. Although located some 250 miles (400 km) from the African continent, Madagascar’s population is... Malawi landlocked country in southeastern Africa. A country endowed with spectacular highlands and extensive lakes, it occupies a narrow, curving strip of land along the East African Rift Valley. Lake Nyasa, known in Malawi as Lake Malawi, accounts for more... Malaysia country of Southeast Asia, lying just north of the Equator, that is composed of two noncontiguous regions: Peninsular Malaysia (Semenanjung Malaysia), also called West Malaysia (Malaysia Barat), which is on the Malay Peninsula, and East Malaysia (Malaysia... Maldives independent island country in the north-central Indian Ocean. It consists of a chain of about 1,200 small coral islands and sandbanks (some 200 of which are inhabited), grouped in clusters, or atolls. The islands extend more than 510 miles (820 km) from... Mali landlocked country of western Africa, mostly in the Saharan and Sahelian regions. Mali is largely flat and arid. The Niger River flows through its interior, functioning as the main trading and transport artery in the country. Sections of the river flood... Malta island country located in the central Mediterranean Sea. A small but strategically important group of islands, the archipelago has through its long and turbulent history played a vital role in the struggles of a succession of powers for domination of... Marshall Islands country of the central Pacific Ocean. It consists of some of the easternmost islands of Micronesia. The Marshalls are composed of more than 1,200 island s and islets in two parallel chains of coral atoll s—the Ratak, or Sunrise, to the east, and the... Mauritania country on the Atlantic coast of Africa. Mauritania forms a geographic and cultural bridge between the North African Maghrib (a region that also includes Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) and the westernmost portion of Sub-Saharan Africa. Culturally it... Mauritius island country in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa. Physiographically, it is part of the Mascarene Islands. The capital is Port Louis. Land Mauritius lies about 500 miles (800 km) east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. Its outlying... Mexico country of southern North America and the third largest country in Latin America, after Brazil and Argentina. Although there is little truth to the long-held stereotype of Mexico as a slow-paced land of subsistence farmers, Mexican society is characterized... Micronesia country in the western Pacific Ocean. It is composed of more than 600 islands and islets in the Caroline Islands archipelago and is divided roughly along cultural and linguistic lines into the states of—from west to east— Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae.... Moldova country lying in the northeastern corner of the Balkan region of Europe. Its capital city is Chișinău, located in the south-cental part of the country. Formerly known as Bessarabia, this region was an integral part of the Romanian principality of Moldavia... Monaco sovereign principality located along the Mediterranean Sea in the midst of the resort area of the Côte d’Azur (French Riviera). The city of Nice lies 9 miles (15 km) to the west, the Italian border 5 miles (8 km) to the east. Monaco’s tiny territory... Mongolia country located in north-central Asia. It is roughly oval in shape, measuring 1,486 miles (2,392 km) from west to east and, at its maximum, 782 miles (1,259 km) from north to south. Mongolia’s land area is roughly equivalent to that of the the countries... Montenegro country located in the west-central Balkans at the southern end of the Dinaric Alps. It is bounded by the Adriatic Sea and Croatia (southwest), Bosnia and Herzegovina (northwest), Serbia (northeast), Kosovo (east), and Albania (southeast). Montenegro’s... Morocco mountainous country of western North Africa that lies directly across the Strait of Gibraltar from Spain. The traditional domain of indigenous peoples now collectively known as Berbers (self-name Imazighen; singular, Amazigh), Morocco has been subject... Mozambique a scenic country in southeastern Africa. Mozambique is rich in natural resources, is biologically and culturally diverse, and has a tropical climate. Its extensive coastline, fronting the Mozambique Channel, which separates mainland Africa from the island... Myanmar country, located in the western portion of mainland Southeast Asia. In 1989 the country’s official English name, which it had held since 1885, was changed from the Union of Burma to the Union of Myanmar; in the Burmese language the country has been known... Namibia country located on the southwestern coast of Africa. It is bordered by Angola to the north, Zambia to the northeast, Botswana to the east, South Africa to the southeast and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. It ranges from arid in the north to... Nauru island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of a raised coral island located in southeastern Micronesia, 25 miles (40 km) south of the Equator. The island is about 800 miles (1,300 km) northeast of the Solomon Islands; its closest neighbour... Nepal country of Asia, lying along the southern slopes of the Himalayan mountain ranges. It is a landlocked country located between India to the east, south, and west and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north. Its territory extends roughly 500... Netherlands country located in northwestern Europe, also known as Holland. “Netherlands” means low-lying country; the name Holland (from Houtland, or “Wooded Land”) was originally given to one of the medieval cores of what later became the modern state and is still... New Zealand island country in the South Pacific Ocean, the southwesternmost part of Polynesia. New Zealand is a remote land—one of the last sizable territories suitable for habitation to be populated and settled—and lies more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast... Nicaragua country of Central America. It is the largest of the Central American republics. Nicaragua can be characterized by its agricultural economy, its history of autocratic government, and its imbalance of regional development—almost all settlement and economic... Niger landlocked western African country. It is bounded on the northwest by Algeria, on the northeast by Libya, on the east by Chad, on the south by Nigeria and Benin, and on the west by Burkina Faso and Mali. The capital is Niamey. The country takes its name... Nigeria country located on the western coast of Africa. Nigeria has a diverse geography, with climates ranging from arid to humid equatorial. However, Nigeria’s most diverse feature is its people. Hundreds of languages are spoken in the country, including Yoruba,... Norway country of northern Europe that occupies the western half of the Scandinavian peninsula. Nearly half of the inhabitants of the country live in the far south, in the region around Oslo, the capital. About two-thirds of Norway is mountainous, and off its... Oman country occupying the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula at the confluence of the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. Much of the country’s interior falls within the sandy, treeless, and largely waterless region known as the Rubʿ al-Khali, still the... Pakistan populous and multiethnic country of South Asia. Having a predominately Indo-Iranian speaking population, Pakistan has historically and culturally been associated with its neighbours Iran, Afghanistan, and India. Since Pakistan and India achieved independence... Palau country in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of some 340 coral and volcanic islands perched on the Kyushu-Palau Ridge. The Palau (also spelled Belau or Pelew) archipelago lies in the southwest corner of Micronesia, with Guam 830 miles (1,330 km)... Panama country of Central America located on the Isthmus of Panama, the narrow bridge of land that connects North and South America. Embracing the isthmus and more than 1,600 islands off its Atlantic and Pacific coasts, the tropical nation is renowned as the... Papua New Guinea island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It encompasses the eastern half of New Guinea, the world’s second largest island (the western half is made up of the Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua); the Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain,... Paraguay landlocked country in south-central South America. Paraguay’s recent history has been characterized by turbulence and authoritarian rule. It was involved in two of the three major wars on the continent—the War of the Triple Alliance (1864/65–70), against... Peru country in western South America. Except for the Lake Titicaca basin in the southeast, its borders lie in sparsely populated zones. The boundaries with Colombia to the northeast and Brazil to the east traverse lower ranges or tropical forests, whereas... Philippines island country of Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. It is an archipelago consisting of some 7,100 islands and islets lying about 500 miles (800 km) off the coast of Vietnam. Manila is the capital, but nearby Quezon City is the country’s most-populous... Poland country of central Europe. Poland is located at a geographic crossroads that links the forested lands of northwestern Europe to the sea lanes of the Atlantic Ocean and the fertile plains of the Eurasian frontier. Now bounded by seven nations, Poland... Portugal country lying along the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. Once continental Europe’s greatest power, Portugal shares commonalities—geographic and cultural—with the countries of both northern Europe and the Mediterranean.... Qatar independent emirate on the west coast of the Persian Gulf. Occupying a small desert peninsula that extends northward from the larger Arabian Peninsula, it has been continuously but sparsely inhabited since prehistoric times. Following the rise of Islam,... Romania country of southeastern Europe. The national capital is Bucharest. Romania was occupied by Soviet troops in 1944 and became a satellite of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) in 1948. The country was under communist rule from 1948 until... Russia country that stretches over a vast expanse of eastern Europe and northern Asia. Once the preeminent republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.; commonly known as the Soviet Union), Russia became an independent country after the dissolution... Rwanda landlocked republic lying south of the Equator in east-central Africa. Known for its breathtaking scenery, Rwanda is often referred to as le pays des mille collines (French: “land of a thousand hills”). The capital is Kigali, located in the centre of... Saint Kitts and Nevis state composed of two islands of the Lesser Antilles in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Their combined area is 104 square miles (269 square km). The capital is Basseterre on the island of Saint Kitts. Land Saint Kitts is 23 miles (37 km) long and 5 miles... Saint Lucia island state in the Caribbean Sea. It is the second largest of the Windward group in the Lesser Antilles and is located about 24 miles (39 kilometres) south of Martinique and some 21 miles northeast of Saint Vincent. Saint Lucia is 27 miles long and... Saint Vincent and the Grenadines island country lying within the Lesser Antilles, in the eastern Caribbean Sea. It consists of the island of Saint Vincent and the northern Grenadine Islands, which stretch southward toward Grenada. The island of Saint Vincent lies about 20 miles (32... Samoa country in the central South Pacific Ocean, among the westernmost of the island countries of Polynesia. According to legend, Samoa is known as the “Cradle of Polynesia” because Savai‘i island is said to be Hawaiki, the Polynesian homeland. Samoan culture... San Marino small republic situated on the slopes of Mount Titano, on the Adriatic side of central Italy between the Emilia-Romagna and Marche regions and surrounded on all sides by the Republic of Italy. It is the smallest independent state in Europe after Vatican... Sao Tome and Principe country of central Africa, located on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea. It consists of two main islands—São Tomé and Príncipe—and several rocky islets including Rôlas, south of São Tomé island, and Caroço, Pedras, and Tinhosas, south of Príncipe. Land... Saudi Arabia arid, sparsely populated kingdom of the Middle East. Extending across most of the northern and central Arabian Peninsula, Saudi Arabia is a young country that is heir to a rich history. In its western highlands, along the Red Sea, lies the Hejaz, which... Senegal country of sub-Saharan West Africa. Located at the westernmost point of the continent and served by multiple air and maritime travel routes, Senegal is known as the “Gateway to Africa.” The country lies at an ecological boundary where semiarid grassland,... Serbia country in the west-central Balkans. For most of the 20th century, it was a part of Yugoslavia. The capital of Serbia is Belgrade (Beograd), a cosmopolitan city at the confluence of the Danube and Sava rivers; Stari Grad, Belgrade’s old town, is dominated... Seychelles island republic in the western Indian Ocean, comprising about 115 islands. The islands are home to lush tropical vegetation, beautiful beaches, and a wide variety of marine life. Situated between latitudes 4° and 11° S and longitudes 46° and 56° E, the... Sierra Leone country of western Africa. The country owes its name to the 15th-century Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, the first European to sight and map Freetown harbour. The original Portuguese name, Serra Lyoa (“Lion Mountains”), referred to the range of... Singapore city-state located at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, about 85 miles (137 kilometres) north of the Equator. It consists of the diamond-shaped Singapore Island and some 60 small islets; the main island occupies all but about 18 square miles of... Slovakia landlocked country of central Europe. It is roughly coextensive with the historic region of Slovakia, the easternmost of the two territories that from 1918 to 1992 constituted Czechoslovakia. The short history of independent Slovakia is one of a desire... Slovenia country in central Europe that was part of Yugoslavia for most of the 20th century. Slovenia is a small but topographically diverse country made up of portions of four major European geographic landscapes—the European Alps, the karstic Dinaric Alps,... Solomon Islands country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of a double chain of volcanic islands and coral atolls in Melanesia. The country comprises most of the Solomons chain, with the exception of Buka and Bougainville, two islands at the northwestern... Somalia easternmost country of Africa, on the Horn of Africa. It extends from just south of the Equator northward to the Gulf of Aden and occupies an important geopolitical position between sub-Saharan Africa and the countries of Arabia and southwestern Asia.... South Africa the southernmost country on the African continent, renowned for its varied topography, great natural beauty, and cultural diversity, all of which have made the country a favoured destination for travelers since the legal ending of apartheid (Afrikaans:... Spain country located in extreme southwestern Europe. It occupies about 85 percent of the Iberian Peninsula, which it shares with its smaller neighbour Portugal. Spain is a storied country of stone castles, snowcapped mountains, vast monuments, and sophisticated... Sri Lanka island country lying in the Indian Ocean and separated from peninsular India by the Palk Strait. It is located between latitudes 5°55′ and 9°51′ N and longitudes 79°41′ and 81°53′ E and has a maximum length of 268 miles (432 km) and a maximum width of... Sudan country located in northeastern Africa. The name Sudan derives from the Arabic expression bilād al-sūdān (“land of the blacks”), by which medieval Arab geographers referred to the settled African countries that began at the southern edge of the Sahara.... Sudan, South country located in northeastern Africa. Its rich biodiversity includes lush savannas, swamplands, and rainforests that are home to many species of wildlife. Prior to 2011, South Sudan was part of Sudan, its neighbour to the north. South Sudan’s population,... Suriname country located on the northern coast of South America. Suriname is one of the smallest countries in South America, yet its population is one of the most ethnically diverse in the region. Its economy is dependent on its extensive supply of natural resources,... Swaziland landlocked country in the eastern flank of South Africa, where it adjoins Mozambique. It extends about 110 miles (175 kilometres) from north to south and about 80 miles from west to east at its largest dimensions. The name Swazi is the Anglicized name... Sweden country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in northern Europe. The name Sweden was derived from the Svear, or Suiones, a people mentioned as early as 98 ce by the Roman author Tacitus. The country’s ancient name was Svithiod. Stockholm has been the... Switzerland federated country of central Europe. Switzerland’s administrative capital is Bern, while Lausanne serves as its judicial centre. Switzerland’s small size—its total area is about half that of Scotland —and its modest population give little indication... Syria country located on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea in southwestern Asia. Its area includes territory in the Golan Heights that has been occupied by Israel since 1967. The present area does not coincide with ancient Syria, which was the strip... Taiwan island, located about 100 miles (161 km) off the southeast coast of the China mainland. It is approximately 245 miles (394 km) long (north-south) and 90 miles across at its widest point. The largest city, Taipei, is the seat of the government of the... Tajikistan country lying in the heart of Central Asia. It is bordered by Kyrgyzstan on the north, China on the east, Afghanistan on the south, and Uzbekistan on the west and northwest. Tajikistan includes the Gorno-Badakhshan (“Mountain Badakhshan”) autonomous... Tanzania East African country situated just south of the Equator. Tanzania was formed as a sovereign state in 1964 through the union of the theretofore separate states of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Mainland Tanganyika covers more than 99 percent of the combined... Thailand country located in the centre of mainland Southeast Asia. Located wholly within the tropics, Thailand encompasses diverse ecosystems, including the hilly forested areas of the northern frontier, the fertile rice fields of the central plains, the broad... Togo country of western Africa. Lomé, the capital, is situated in the southwest of the country and is the largest city and port. Until 1884 what is now Togo was an intermediate zone between the states of Asante and Dahomey, and its various ethnic groups lived... Tonga country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of some 170 islands divided into three main island groups: Tongatapu in the south, Haʿapai in the centre, and Vavaʿu in the north. Isolated islands include Niuafoʿou, Niuatoputapu, and Tafahi (together... Trinidad and Tobago island country of the southeastern West Indies. It consists of two main islands—Trinidad and Tobago—and several smaller islands. Forming the two southernmost links in the Caribbean chain, Trinidad and Tobago lie close to the continent of South America,... Tunisia country of North Africa. Tunisia’s accessible Mediterranean Sea coastline and strategic location have attracted conquerors and visitors throughout the ages, and its ready access to the Sahara has brought its people into contact with the inhabitants of... Turkey country that occupies a unique geographic position, lying partly in Asia and partly in Europe. Throughout its history it has acted as both a barrier and a bridge between the two continents. Turkey is situated at the crossroads of the Balkans, Caucasus,... Turkmenistan country of Central Asia. It is the second largest state in Central Asia, after Kazakhstan, and the southernmost of the region’s five republics. The country is bordered by Kazakhstan on the northwest, Uzbekistan on the north and east, Afghanistan on the... Tuvalu country in the west-central Pacific Ocean. It is composed of nine small coral islands scattered in a chain lying approximately northwest to southeast over a distance of some 420 miles (676 km). The de facto capital is the village of Vaiaku, where most... Uganda country in east-central Africa. About the size of Great Britain, Uganda is populated by dozens of ethnic groups. The English language and Christianity help unite these diverse peoples, who come together in the cosmopolitan capital of Kampala, a verdant... Ukraine country located in eastern Europe, the second largest on the continent after Russia. The capital is Kiev (Kyiv), located on the Dnieper River in north-central Ukraine. A fully independent Ukraine emerged only late in the 20th century, after long periods... United Arab Emirates federation of seven emirates along the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. The largest of these emirates, Abū Ẓaby (Abu Dhabi), which comprises more than three-fourths of the federation’s total land area, is the centre of its oil industry and borders... United Kingdom island country located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe. The United Kingdom comprises the whole of the island of Great Britain—which contains England, Wales, and Scotland —as well as the northern portion of the island of Ireland. The name... United States country in North America, a federal republic of 50 states. Besides the 48 conterminous states that occupy the middle latitudes of the continent, the United States includes the state of Alaska, at the northwestern extreme of North America, and the island... Uruguay country located on the southeastern coast of South America. The second smallest nation on the continent, Uruguay has long been overshadowed politically and economically by the adjacent republics of Brazil and Argentina, with both of which it shares many... Uzbekistan country in Central Asia. It lies mainly between two major rivers, the Syr Darya (ancient Jaxartes River) on the northeast and the Amu Darya (ancient Oxus River) on the southwest, though they only partly form its boundaries. Uzbekistan is bordered by... Vanuatu country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, consisting of a chain of 13 principal and many smaller islands located about 500 miles (800 km) west of Fiji and 1,100 miles (1,770 km) east of Australia. The islands extend north-south for some 400 miles (650... Vatican City ecclesiastical state, seat of the Roman Catholic Church, and an enclave in Rome, situated on the west bank of the Tiber River. Vatican City is the world’s smallest fully independent nation-state. Its medieval and Renaissance walls form its boundaries... Venezuela country located at the northern end of South America. It occupies a roughly triangular area that is larger than the combined areas of France and Germany. Venezuela is bounded by the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north, Guyana to the east,... Vietnam country occupying the eastern portion of mainland Southeast Asia. Tribal Viets inhabiting the Red River delta entered written history when China’s southward expansion reached them in the 3rd century bce. From that time onward, a dominant theme of Vietnam’s... Yemen country situated at the southwestern corner of the Arabian Peninsula. It is mostly mountainous and generally arid, though there are broad patches with sufficient precipitation to make agriculture successful. The people speak various dialects of Arabic... Zambia landlocked country in Africa. It is situated on a high plateau in south-central Africa and takes its name from the Zambezi River, which drains all but a small northern part of the country. Large parts of the country are thinly populated. Much of population... Zimbabwe landlocked country of southern Africa. It shares a 125-mile (200-kilometre) border on the south with the Republic of South Africa and is bounded on the southwest and west by Botswana, on the north by Zambia, and on the northeast and east by Mozambique....

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H. Rept. 112-42 - GEORGE H. W. BUSH AND GEORGE W. BUSH UNITED STATES COURTHOUSE AND GEORGE MAHON FEDERAL BUILDING | Congress.gov | Library of Congress PDF (PDF provides a complete and accurate display of this text.) Tip? 112th Congress Report HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 1st Session 112-42 ====================================================================== GEORGE H. W. BUSH AND GEORGE W. BUSH UNITED STATES COURTHOUSE AND GEORGE MAHON FEDERAL BUILDING _______ March 29, 2011.--Referred to the House Calendar and ordered to be printed _______ Mr. Mica, from the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, submitted the following R E P O R T [To accompany H.R. 362] [Including cost estimate of the Congressional Budget Office] The Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, to whom was referred the bill (H.R. 362) to redesignate the Federal building and United States Courthouse located at 200 East Wall Street in Midland, Texas, as the ``George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush United States Courthouse and George Mahon Federal Building'', having considered the same, report favorably thereon without amendment and recommend that the bill do pass. CONTENTS Page Purpose of Legislation........................................... 1 Background and Need for Legislation.............................. 2 Summary of Legislation........................................... 3 Legislative History and Consideration............................ 3 Hearings......................................................... 3 Committee Votes.................................................. 3 Committee Oversight Findings..................................... 3 New Budget Authority and Tax Expenditures........................ 3 Performance Goals and Objectives................................. 4 Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate........................ 4 Advisory of Earmarks............................................. 4 Federal Mandate Statement........................................ 4 Preemption Clarification......................................... 5 Advisory Committee Statement..................................... 5 Applicability of Legislative Branch.............................. 5 Changes in Existing Law made by the Bill, as Reported............ 5 PURPOSE OF LEGISLATION H.R. 362 would re-designate the Federal building and United States Courthouse located at 200 East Wall Street in Midland, Texas, as the ``George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush United States Courthouse and George Mahon Federal Building.'' BACKGROUND AND NEED FOR LEGISLATION The Federal building and United States Courthouse in Midland, Texas, is currently named the George Mahon Federal Building. H.R. 362 would add the names of the former presidents, George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush, to the Federal building and United States courthouse at 200 East Wall Street in Midland, Texas. The bill commemorates the many years of public service by the 41st and 43rd Presidents of the United States--George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush. George H.W. Bush President George H.W. Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts. Upon turning 18, he enlisted in the armed forces and was the youngest pilot in the Navy when he received his wings. He served in the Navy during World War II from 1942 to 1945. While serving in the Navy, he flew 58 combat missions. For his bravery, he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. After returning from World War II, George H.W. Bush completed college at Yale University and then relocated with his family to west Texas where he began his career in the private sector. Later, he served two terms in the U.S. House of Representatives for the 7th congressional district of Texas from 1966 to 1970. Following his two terms in Congress, he served as Ambassador to the United Nations (1971-73), Chairman of the Republican National Committee (1973-74), Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in China (1974-76), and Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (1976-81). In 1981, Bush was elected as Vice President to President Ronald Reagan and served in that capacity for two terms. In 1988, Bush was elected the 41st President of the United States and served as President until 1993. In 2011, President George H.W. Bush was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama, the award being the highest civilian honor for ``an especially meritorious contribution to the security or national interests of the United States, world peace, cultural or other significant public or private endeavors.''\1\ --------------------------------------------------------------------------- \1\Statement of The White House issued November 17, 2010. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- George W. Bush In 2000, the son of George H.W. Bush, George W. Bush, followed in his father's footsteps when he was elected as the 43rd President of the United States, after serving six years as the Governor of Texas. And, in 2004, he was elected to a second term. George W. Bush was born in New Haven, Connecticut. In 1948, his family moved to Midland, Texas. He received a bachelor's degree in history from Yale University and a Master of Business Administration from Harvard Business School. George W. Bush also served as a pilot in the Texas Air National Guard. After receiving his degree from Harvard, he returned to Midland and began a career in the private sector. Later, he purchased the Texas Rangers baseball franchise, with a group of partners. In 1994, he was elected the 46th Governor of Texas and became the first Governor in Texas history to be elected to consecutive 4- year terms when he was re-elected in 1998. SUMMARY OF LEGISLATION Section 1. Redesignation This section provides that the Federal building and United States Courthouse located at 200 East Wall Street in Midland, Texas, be re-designated as the ``George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush United States Courthouse and George Mahon Federal Building.'' Section 2. Reference This section provides that any references in law, map, regulation, document, paper, or other record of the United States that refers to the building identified in Section 1 be deemed to refer to the ``George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush United States Courthouse and George Mahon Federal Building.'' LEGISLATIVE HISTORY AND CONSIDERATION On January 20, 2011, Representative K. Michael Conaway introduced H.R. 362, a bill to re-designate the Federal building and United States Courthouse located at 200 East Wall Street in Midland, Texas, as the ``George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush United States Courthouse and George Mahon Federal Building.'' On February 16, 2011, the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure met in open session, and ordered the bill reported favorably to the House by voice vote with a quorum present. HEARINGS No hearings were held on H.R. 362. COMMITTEE VOTES Clause 3(b) of rule XIII of the House of Representatives requires each committee report to include the total number of votes cast for and against on each record vote on a motion to report and on any amendment offered to the measure or matter, and the names of those members voting for and against. There were no record votes taken in connection with consideration of H.R. 362, or ordering the bill reported. A motion to order H.R. 362 reported favorably to the House was agreed to by voice vote with a quorum present. COMMITTEE OVERSIGHT FINDINGS With respect to the requirements of clause 3(c)(1) of rule XIII of the Rules of the House of Representatives, the Committee's oversight findings and recommendations are reflected in this report. NEW BUDGET AUTHORITY AND TAX EXPENDITURES Clause 3(c)(2) of rule XIII of the Rules of the House of Representatives does not apply where a cost estimate and comparison prepared by the Director of the Congressional Budget Office under section 402 of the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 has been timely submitted prior to the filing of the report and is included in the report. Such a cost estimate is included in this report. PERFORMANCE GOALS AND OBJECTIVES With respect to the requirement of clause 3(c)(4) of rule XIII of the Rules of the House of Representatives, the performance goal and objective of this legislation is to re- designate the Federal building and United States Courthouse located at 200 East Wall Street in Midland, Texas, as the ``George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush United States Courthouse and George Mahon Federal Building.'' CONGRESSIONAL BUDGET OFFICE COST ESTIMATE With respect to the requirement of clause 3(c)(3) of rule XIII of the Rules of the House of Representatives and section 402 of the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, the Committee has received the enclosed cost estimate for H.R. 362 from the Director of the Congressional Budget Office: U.S. Congress, Congressional Budget Office, Washington, DC, February 17, 2011. Hon. John L. Mica, Chairman, Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, House of Representatives, Washington, DC. Dear Mr. Chairman: The Congressional Budget Office has reviewed H.R. 362, a bill to redesignate the Federal building and United States Courthouse located at 200 East Wall Street in Midland, Texas, as the ``George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush United States Courthouse and George Mahon Federal Building,'' as ordered reported by the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure on February 16, 2011. CBO estimates that enacting this legislation would have no significant impact on the federal budget and would not affect direct spending or revenues; therefore, pay-as-you-go procedures do not apply. The bill contains no intergovernmental or private-sector mandates as defined in the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act and would impose no costs on state, local, or tribal governments. If you wish further details on this estimate, we will be pleased to provide them. The CBO staff contact is Matthew Pickford. Sincerely, Douglas W. Elmendorf. ADVISORY OF EARMARKS Pursuant to clause 9 of rule XXI of the Rules of the House of Representatives, the Committee is required to include a list of congressional earmarks, limited tax benefits, or limited tariff benefits as defined in clause 9(e), 9(f), and 9(g) of rule XXI of the Rules of the House of Representatives. No provision in the bill includes an earmark, limited tax benefit, or limited tariff benefit under clause 9(e), 9(f), or 9(g) of rule XXI. FEDERAL MANDATE STATEMENT The Committee adopts as its own the estimate of Federal mandates prepared by the Director of the Congressional Budget Office pursuant to section 423 of the ``Unfunded Mandates Reform Act'' (P.L. 104-4). PREEMPTION CLARIFICATION Section 423 of the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 requires the report of any Committee on a bill or joint resolution to include a statement on the extent to which the bill or joint resolution is intended to preempt state, local, or tribal law. The Committee states that H.R. 362 does not preempt any state, local, or tribal law. ADVISORY COMMITTEE STATEMENT No advisory committees within the meaning of section 5(b) of the Federal Advisory Committee Act are created by this legislation. APPLICABILITY OF LEGISLATIVE BRANCH The Committee finds that the legislation does not relate to the terms and conditions of employment or access to public services or accommodations within the meaning of section 102(b)(3) of the Congressional Accountability Act (P.L. 104-1). CHANGES IN EXISTING LAW MADE BY THE BILL, AS REPORTED H.R. 362 makes no changes in existing law.

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KAL007, KAL 007, KE007 KAL_007 AIR DISASTER 1983 Unanswered questions KAL 007 -- Korean Air Disaster 1983 Intro On the night of August 31/September 1 1983, a Korean Airlines 747 took off from Anchorage Alaska... what happened next? 20 hours later, George Shultz, (Secretary of State), said that the Russians shot it down! But...did they? UNANSWERED QUESTIONS Wreckage The 747 is a big piece of machinery. Unless it was at the center of a nuclear explosion, there should be truck-loads of wreckage. But nine days later, a Japanese Minister of Something was puzzled that no wreckage had been recovered. The so-called "crash site" is in international waters. No permission is required to search there. But no one will ever look, will they? What does that tell you? It tells me that No plane crashed there! See attached page for more detail about just what can be learned from dedicated investigation of aircraft wreckage. NO BODIES = NO CRASH No bodies? Not there anyway. No one has even attempted to explain the absence of bodies. OK, so a few bits and pieces were picked up, including one headless body, but it could not be matched with any passenger!! What does that tell you? No bodies = no crash The idea that "cuttlefish got them", as suggested by one silly person, is preposterous. Cuttlefish , are small, even the bigger ones could never consume 269 skulls, vertebrae, femurs etc in half a day as suggested. Preposterous. RADAR The US military knew the exact location of KAL007 at all times. With radar at Cape Newenham, St Pauls, Shemya, Wakkanai, Abashire, Misawa; with AWAC planes; with USS Observation Island. They knew. Lest anyone say, "They only look for hostile planes..." I reply, "Oh yeah?, so all the Russians had to do was to buy a 747 and fly it on a civilian air route to Alaska? GET REAL EVERY radar contact has to be identified, monitored, tracked and logged. In both directions, just in case a B-52 went loopy and decided to burn Petropavlovsk. That is what the radar network is for, that is what the US public would expect, and they got it. THE US military knew the exact location of KAL007 at all times NAVY The following USN ships were in the Sea of Japan in September 1983: Badger(frigate) , Eliot (destroyer), Sterett (cruiser) , Callaghan (destroyer), Wichita (supply), Munro (cutter), Narragansett(tug), Conserver (tug). Come on guys, you know what happened. The official Navy line is that no wreckage at all was recovered, only one old cooking pot! Maybe something did crash there, but not a 747 and the Navy was there to recover every last tiny piece of whatever it was. Come on you guys, tell us what happened, what did you find. kalinfo@yahoo.com George Bush (Snr) 41st President and before that, Vice President to Ronald Reagan. Former director of the CIA (1976-81), father of Republican candidate George W Bush. What has poppa said about the Korean Air Disaster of 1983? Zip. I wish someone would ask him. There is a George H. W. Bush on one e-mail directory at treypeny@erols.com, but I got no reply. Dubbya is Pres 43. Try asking him to ask poppa? George Bush (Snr) knows what really happened WILLIAM CLARK ...was National Security Advisor at the time, see "Shootdown" by RW Johnson for a full study of this spooky character William Clark knows what really happened Those Tapes "The pilots voices were unemotional, as if they were reporting to their ground controllers on the progress of the most routine training exercise." (Time magazine Sept 29 1983 Page 10) Maybe it was just that? A recording of a training exercise, nothing to do with KAL007? A full transcript is in the ICAO reports, but there is never a mention of anything like a hostile intruder. It is ALL routine exercise jargon. The Russians have shot it down! So they should be able to produce pieces of wreckage, and explain the body question. They haven't, they won't, they can't. Therefore, they didn't? I have this mental picture of the Soviet Supremo demanding of his Chief of Staff; The Americans say we shot down their plane, so what do you say to that? COS;(thinks... Oh dear, what can I say, that we didn't have a clue what was going on? much easier to say Yes we did, and then babble on about protecting sacred Soviet airspace. I don't think they did Shemya A small island at the end of the Aleutian Island chain. Before wide-bodied jets came, it was used as a refueling stop for flights between Alaska and Japan. There are two airstrips and a big radio interception operation. The giant radar Cobra Dane was built there in 1981. There are photoes of Cobra Dane taken in June 1983. In 1983, Base Air Group 5073 was commanded by Col Frey. Check out Shemya page for lots of interesting information, and a map. Shemya is the key to all the 007 questions Conjecture 007 and 015 are in collusion with Casey's CIA. 007 is off course even as it leaves Anchorage. It meets with an RC-135 and they fly one above the other so that their radar images merge. Then 007 heads for Shemya with the verifiable story of radar and radio malfunction. The RC-135 goes to Alaska. Also present is a prototype stealth plane on a real-time test of its capabilities. Sure, it had been tested at Groom Lake   all the previous year, but now Casey says; Lets send a real message to the Ruskies, let's tell them plain, we can go wherever we like, whenever we like. And you can't do a darned thing about it. It is the stealth plane that overflies Kamchatka and easily evades Soviet attempts to follow it. (A 747 would have been caught dead easy at Mach 0.8) But 007 crashes at Shemya. For reasons only known to the spooks at Langley who know full well that the Soviets are totally confused, the 'Shot down by the Russians' story is prepared. Then they wait a bit, (20 hours) to see how the Soviets muddle along. Nothing happens, so then Shultz, Kirkpatrick and Reagan do their stuff. A US plane from a base in Japan flies over Sahkalin and goes into a steep dive to simulate a crash. There has to be some reason why none of the parties will release their radar tapes. A Marine Corps special detachment goes to Shemya to put some pieces of plane and bodies in a C-130 for dumping into the Sea of Japan. Problems Even I find it hard to believe that such an enormous cover-up could be attempted. I find the Shultz-Reagan conjecture even harder to believe. Can't you just hear Mr Reagan saying Oh so sincerely "We just don't have that information right now". Minor things No mention has ever been made of observing Soviet fighters on any of the many radars in the neighborhood. Why not? The British government didn't say a single word about the event for several days.(17!) Did they wait until it was clear the Soviets didn't know what was being done to them and that the world media were not capable of exposing the cover-up? Britain has a 30-year secrecy rule. So in 2013 there might be some revealing answers? Or will their sanitation department clean up first? The (false) waypoint reports. How come all the radio messages after halfway were clear, precise, on-time? Maybe they came from 015? That would answer that puzzle. (Help! can a voice print detect a mimic?) AFTERTHOUGHTS You really ought to read "Incident at Sakhalin" by Michel Brun. So, should I change my story? Maybe,... but not yet. Brun gives a detailed, believable explanation for the confusing radio and radar data, and his analysis of soviet salvage operation is powerful. But he still doesn't say a lot about HL7442, and his JMSA sources are not much help on the extensive US salvage activity in the region. If HL7442 did crash near Niigata then it should still be there - unless the Project Jennifer team moved in with vacuum cleaners. And there would have been floating debris and bodies. Are there fishing boats at Sado and Niigata? Would they have seen debris? Has anybody asked them? So, my initial equation stands, ie, NB=NC The F117 stealth technology would fit Bruns ideas, but they are not mentioned, Nor is Shemya. It should be. Admiral Prouty's view could be explored more. He might have a reason for suggesting that HL7442 was deliberately destroyed over the Kuril Trench.(page 247) My view is that although Casey (CIA) and Clark (NSA) were extremists and paranoid, accusing them of blowing up a jumbo full of civilians is going too far. An accidental crash is more reasonable, so my conjecture stands too. Bruns account of the air battle can be fitted in...maybe. But why the Soviet insistence on a one-intruder, one-shootdown, and the subsequent humiliation they endured? Brun's explanation is flimsy, (and mine is worse?). Your thoughts are welcome on this and any other issue. Don't write to me, tell the world! Put news, thoughts, facts, on a Newsgroup, ie, alt.disasters.aviation. Use Google, click on groups, use a webmail account.... tell the world. Aviation Archaeology [ Join Now | Ring Hub | Random | << Prev | Next >> ] Other Good Links Mirror of John Keppel's page.  A reasoned and sensible commentary about the book "Incident at Sakhalin" by Michel Brun. A good read. and Another look at "Incident at Sakhalin" FEEDBACK Your wasting your time. There is a code in the Navy, a code of duty, of silence. A code of fear. No one will say anything. You wouldn't believe half the things that happen in the Navy. No one splits I've never read so much tosh in all my life. The Russians have admitted shooting it down. END OF STORY. I'm just glad someone is reading the page! The questions are valid, but the answers, including yours, arent. I hope some good comes of this page. I will wait and hope. Some interesting stuff has come in. But you guys... you persons should really be telling the world, not just me. It's easy, just do what I have done, do it on a Geocities page reocities.com You might be right?, yeah, but that first "feedback" might be right too? Remember the Ticonderoga affair? In '65 they dropped an A4 over the side into deep water. Complete with a nuclear weapon. Nobody said boo for twenty years. So maybe you'll have to wait a bit yet? Read all about it at nuclearfiles.org/nwa/ but you won't learn much, (Dec 5 1965) Perhaps there are somethings that it is best not to know That is the scariest comment I have EVER heard! The end. Put your own page up. more to come?...

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Cuba profile - Timeline - BBC News Cuba profile - Timeline A chronology of key events 1492 - The navigator Christopher Columbus claims Cuba for Spain. Guerrillas on the go Image copyright Getty Images Revolutionaries led by Fidel Castro staged a successful revolt against dictator Fulgencio Batista 1511 - Spanish conquest begins under the leadership of Diego de Velazquez, who establishes Baracoa and other settlements. 1526 - Importing of slaves from Africa begins. 1762 - Havana captured by a British force led by Admiral George Pocock and Lord Albemarle. 1763 - Havana returned to Spain by the Treaty of Paris. Wars of independence 1868-78 - Ten Years War of independence ends in a truce with Spain promising reforms and greater autonomy - promises that were mostly never met. 1886 - Slavery abolished. 1895-98 - Jose Marti leads a second war of independence; US declares war on Spain. 1898 - US defeats Spain, which gives up all claims to Cuba and cedes it to the US. US tutelage 1902 - Cuba becomes independent with Tomas Estrada Palma as its president; however, the Platt Amendment keeps the island under US protection and gives the US the right to intervene in Cuban affairs. 1906-09 - Estrada resigns and the US occupies Cuba following a rebellion led by Jose Miguel Gomez. Fulgencio Batista 1909 - Jose Miguel Gomez becomes president following elections supervised by the US, but is soon tarred by corruption. 1912 - US forces return to Cuba to help put down black protests against discrimination. 1924 - Gerado Machado institutes vigorous measures, forwarding mining, agriculture and public works, but subsequently establishing a brutal dictatorship. 1925 - Socialist Party founded, forming the basis of the Communist Party. 1933 - Machado overthrown in a coup led by Sergeant Fulgencio Batista. 1934 - The US abandons its right to intervene in Cuba's internal affairs, revises Cuba's sugar quota and changes tariffs to favour Cuba. 1944 - Batista retires and is succeeded by the civilian Ramon Gray San Martin. 1952 - Batista seizes power again and presides over an oppressive and corrupt regime. 1953 - Fidel Castro leads an unsuccessful revolt against the Batista regime. 1956 - Castro lands in eastern Cuba from Mexico and takes to the Sierra Maestra mountains where, aided by Ernesto "Che" Guevara, he wages a guerrilla war. Cuban missile crisis Image copyright Getty Images US accusations - backed up by aerial pictures - that Russia was installing missiles on Cuba brought the superpowers to the brink of war 1958 - The US withdraws military aid to Batista. Triumph of the revolution 1959 - Castro leads a 9,000-strong guerrilla army into Havana, forcing Batista to flee. Castro becomes prime minister, his brother, Raul, becomes his deputy and Guevara becomes third in command. 1960 - All US businesses in Cuba are nationalised without compensation. 1961 - Washington breaks off all diplomatic relations with Havana. The US sponsors an abortive invasion by Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs; Castro proclaims Cuba a communist state and begins to ally it with the USSR. 1962 - Cuban missile crisis ignites when, fearing a US invasion, Castro agrees to allow the USSR to deploy nuclear missiles on the island. The crisis was subsequently resolved when the USSR agreed to remove the missiles in return for the withdrawal of US nuclear missiles from Turkey. Organisation of American States (OAS) suspends Cuba over its "incompatible" adherence to Marxism-Leninism. 1965 - Cuba's sole political party renamed the Cuban Communist Party. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption A group of exiled counter-revolutionaries are held under arrest after their failed, US-backed invasion at the Bay of Pigs in 1961 1972 - Cuba becomes a full member of the Soviet-based Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. Interventions in Africa 1976 - Cuban Communist Party approves a new socialist constitution; Castro elected president. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption A military parade in Havana in 1976 marks the anniversary of the revoluton 1976-81 - Cuba sends troops first to help Angola's left-wing MPLA withstand a joint onslaught by South Africa, Unita and the FNLA and, later, to help the Ethiopian regime defeat the Eritreans and Somalis. 1980 - Around 125,000 Cubans, many of them released convicts, flee to the US. 1982 - Cuba, together with other Latin American states, gives Argentina moral support in its dispute with Britain over the Falkland islands. 1988 - Cuba agrees to withdraw its troops from Angola following an agreement with South Africa. Surviving without the USSR 1991 - Soviet military advisers leave Cuba following the collapse of the USSR. 1993 - The US tightens its embargo on Cuba, which introduces some market reforms in order to stem the deterioration of its economy. These include the legalisation of the US dollar, the transformation of many state farms into semi-autonomous cooperatives, and the legalisation of limited individual private enterprise. 1994 - Cuba signs an agreement with the US according to which the US agrees to admit 20,000 Cubans a year in return for Cuba halting the exodus of refugees. Fidel Castro 1996 - US trade embargo made permanent in response to Cuba's shooting down of two US aircraft operated by Miami-based Cuban exiles. 1998 - Pope John Paul II visits Cuba. 1998 - The US eases restrictions on the sending of money to relatives by Cuban Americans. 1999 November - Cuban child Elian Gonzalez is picked up off the Florida coast after the boat in which his mother, stepfather and others had tried to escape to the US capsized. A huge campaign by Miami-based Cuban exiles begins with the aim of preventing Elian from rejoining his father in Cuba and of making him stay with relatives in Miami. 2000 June - Elian allowed to rejoin his father in Cuba after prolonged court battles. 2000 October - US House of Representatives approves the sale of food and medicines to Cuba. Poster boy for revolution Image copyright Getty Images Argentina-born Che Guevara was a close aide to Fidel Castro and became an icon of revolutionary spirit 2000 December - Russian President Vladimir Putin visits Cuba and signs accords aimed at boosting bilateral ties. 2001 October - Cuba angrily criticises Russia's decision to shut down the Lourdes radio-electronic centre on the island, saying President Putin took the decision as "a special gift" to US President George W Bush ahead of a meeting between the two. 2001 November - US exports food to Cuba for the first time in more than 40 years after a request from the Cuban government to help it cope with the aftermath of Hurricane Michelle. Spotlight on Guantanamo 2002 January - Prisoners taken during US-led action in Afghanistan are flown into Guantanamo Bay for interrogation as al-Qaeda suspects. 2002 January - Russia's last military base in Cuba, at Lourdes, closes down. 2002 April - Diplomatic crisis after UN Human Rights Commission again criticises Cuba's rights record. The resolution is sponsored by Uruguay and supported by many of Cuba's former allies including Mexico. Uruguay breaks off ties with Cuba after Castro says it is a US lackey. 2002 May - US Under Secretary of State John Bolton accuses Cuba of trying to develop biological weapons, adding the country to Washington's list of "axis of evil" countries. Musical legend BBC Music: Compay Segundo 2002 May - Former US president Jimmy Carter makes a goodwill visit which includes a tour of scientific centres, in response to US allegations about biological weapons. Carter is the first former or serving US president to visit Cuba since the 1959 revolution. 2002 June - National Assembly amends the constitution to make socialist system of government permanent and untouchable. Castro called for the vote following criticisms from US President George W Bush. Dissidents jailed 2003 March-April - ''Black Spring'' crackdown on dissidents draws international condemnation. 75 people are jailed for terms of up to 28 years; three men who hijacked a ferry to try reach the US are executed. 2003 June - EU halts high-level official visits to Cuba in protest at the country's recent human rights record. 2004 April - UN Human Rights Commission censures Cuba over its rights record. Cuban foreign minister describes resolution - which passed by single vote - as "ridiculous". 2004 May - US sanctions restrict US-Cuba family visits and cash remittances from expatriates. 2004 October - President Castro announces ban on transactions in US dollars, and imposes 10% tax on dollar-peso conversions. Dissident writer Cuba frees dissident 2005 January - Havana says it is resuming diplomatic contacts with the EU, frozen in 2003 following a crackdown on dissidents. 2005 May - Around 200 dissidents hold a public meeting, said by organisers to be the first such gathering since the 1959 revolution. 2005 July - Hurricane Dennis causes widespread destruction and leaves 16 people dead. 2006 February - Propaganda war in Havana as President Castro unveils a monument which blocks the view of illuminated messages - some of them about human rights - displayed on the US mission building. Castro hospitalised 2006 July - President Fidel Castro undergoes gastric surgery and temporarily hands over control of the government to his brother, Raul. 2006 December - Fidel Castro's failure to appear at a parade to mark the 50th anniversary of his return to Cuba from exile prompts renewed speculation about his future. 2007 April - A lawyer and a journalist are given lengthy jail terms after secret trials, which rights activists see as a sign of a crackdown on opposition activity. 2007 May - Castro fails to appear at Havana's annual May Day parade. Days later he says he has had several operations. Anger as the US drops charges against veteran anti-Castro militant Luis Posada Carriles, who is a former CIA operative and Cuba's "Public Enemy No. 1" accused of downing a Cuban airliner. 2007 July - First time since 1959 that Revolution Day is celebrated without Castro present. 2007 December - Castro says in a letter read on Cuban TV that he does not intend to cling to power indefinitely. Fidel steps down 2008 February - Raul Castro takes over as president, days after Fidel announces his retirement. 2008 May - Bans on private ownership of mobile phones and computers lifted. Anger as US frees militant Image copyright Getty Images 2008 June - Plans are announced to abandon salary equality. The move is seen as a radical departure from the orthodox Marxist economic principles observed since the 1959 revolution. EU lifts diplomatic sanctions imposed on Cuba in 2003 over crackdown on dissidents. 2008 July - In an effort to boost Cuba's lagging food production and reduce dependence on food imports, the government relaxes restrictions on the amount of land available to private farmers. 2008 September - Hurricanes Gustav and Ike inflict worst storm damage in Cuba's recorded history, with 200,000 left homeless and their crops destroyed. 2008 October - State oil company says estimated 20bn barrels in offshore fields, being double previous estimates. European Union restores ties. Ties with Russia revitalised 2008 November - Russian President Dmitry Medvedev visits. Two countries concude new trade and economic accords in sign of strengthening relations. Raul Castro pays reciprocal visit to Russia in January 2009. Chinese President Hu Jintao visits to sign trade and investment accords, including agreements to continue buying Cuban nickel and sugar. 2008 December - Russian warships visit Havana for first time since end of Cold War. Government says 2008 most difficult year for economy since collapse of Soviet Union. Growth nearly halved to 4.3%. Capital: Havana Founded in 1519 Became capital in 1607 2009 March - Two leading figures from Fidel era, Cabinet Secretary Carlos Lage and Foreign Minister Felipe Perez Roque, resign after admitting "errors". First government reshuffle since resignation of Fidel Castro. US Congress votes to lift Bush Administration restrictions on Cuban-Americans visiting Havana and sending back money. 2009 April - US President Barack Obama says he wants a new beginning with Cuba. Crisis measures 2009 May - Government unveils austerity programme to try to cut energy use and offset impact of global financial crisis. 2009 June - Organisation of American States (OAS) votes to lift ban on Cuban membership imposed in 1962. Cuba welcomes decision, but says it has no plans to rejoin. 2009 July - Cuba signs agreement with Russia allowing oil exploration in Cuban waters of Gulf of Mexico. 2010 February - Political prisoner Orlando Zapata Tamayo dies after 85 days on hunger strike. 2010 May - Wives and mothers of political prisoners are allowed to hold demonstration after archbishop of Havana, Jaime Ortega, intervenes on their behalf. 2010 July - President Castro agrees to free 52 dissidents under a deal brokered by the Church and Spain. Several go into exile. 2010 September - Radical plans for massive government job cuts to revive the economy. Analysts see proposals as biggest private sector shift since the 1959 revolution. 2011 January - US President Barack Obama relaxes restrictions on travel to Cuba. Havana says the measures don't go far enough. 2011 March - Last two political prisoners detained during 2003 crackdown are released. Reforms gather pace 2011 April - Communist Party Congress says it will look into possibility of allowing Cuban citizens to travel abroad as tourists. 2011 August - National Assembly approves economic reforms aimed at encouraging private enterprise and reducing state bureaucracy. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption Pope Benedict - pictured with Raul Castro - criticized both the US and Cuba during his visit 2011 November - Cuba passes law allowing individuals to buy and sell private property for first time in 50 years. 2011 December - The authorities release 2,500 prisoners, including some convicted of political crimes, as part of an amnesty ahead of a papal visit. 2012 March - Pope Benedict visits, criticising the US trade embargo on Cuba and calling for greater rights on the island. 2012 April - Cuba marks Good Friday with a public holiday for the first time since recognition of religious holidays stopped in 1959. 2012 June - Cuba re-imposes customs duty on all food imports in effort to curb selling of food aid sent by Cubans abroad on the commercial market. Import duties had been liberalised in 2008 after series of hurricanes caused severe shortages. 2012 October - Spanish politican Angel Carromero is jailed for manslaughter over the death of high-profile Catholic dissident Oswaldo Paya. Mr Carromero was driving the car when, according to the authorities, it crashed into a tree. Mr Paya's family say the car was rammed off the road after he had received death threats. The government abolishes the requirement for citizens to buy expensive exit permits when seeking to travel abroad. Highly-qualified professionals such as doctors. engineers and scientists will still require permission to travel, in order to prevent a brain drain. 2012 November - President Raul Castro says the eastern province of Santiago was hard hit by Hurricane Sandy, with 11 people dead and more than 188,000 homes damaged. A United Nations report says Sandy destroyed almost 100,000 hectares of crops. Raul's second term 2013 February - The National Assembly re-elects Raul Castro as president. He says he will stand down at the end of his second term in 2018, by which time he will be 86. 2013 July - Five prominent veteran politicians, including Fidel Castro ally and former parliament leader Ricardo Alarcon, are removed from the Communist Party's Central Committee in what President Raul Castro calls a routine change of personnel. 2014 January - First phase of a deepwater sea port is inaugurated by Brazil and Cuba at Mariel, a rare large foreign investment project on the island. 2014 March - Cuba agrees to a European Union invitation to begin talks to restore relations and boost economic ties, on condition of progress on human rights. The EU suspended ties in 1996. 2014 July - Russian President Vladimir Putin visits during a tour of Latin America, says Moscow will cancel billions of dollars of Cuban debt from Soviet times. Chinese President Xi Jinping visits, signs bilateral accords. 2014 September/October - Cuba sends hundreds of frontline medical staff to West African countries hit by the Ebola epidemic. Rapprochement with USA 2014 December - In a surprise development, US President Barack Obama and Cuba's President Raul Castro announce moves to normalise diplomatic relations between the two countries, severed for more than 50 years. 2015 January - Washington eases some travel and trade restrictions on Cuba. Two days of historic talks between the US and Cuba take place in Havana, with both sides agreeing to meet again. The discussions focus on restoring diplomatic relations but no date is set for the reopening of embassies in both countries. President Raul Castro calls on President Obama to use his executive powers to bypass Congress and lift the US economic embargo on Cuba. 2015 February - Cuban and US diplomats say they have made progress in talks in Washington to restore full relations. 2015 May - Cuba establishes banking ties with US, which drops country from list of states that sponsor terrorism. 2015 July - Cuba and US reopen embassies and exchange charges d'affaires. 2015 December - Cuban and US officials hold preliminary talks on mutual compensation. 2016 January - US eases a number of trade restrictions with Cuba. 2016 March - Cuba and the European Union agree to normalise relations. US President Barack Obama visits Cuba in the first US presidential visit there in 88 years. 2016 May - Cuba takes steps to legalise small and medium-sized businesses as part of economic reforms. Fidel Castro's death 2016 November - Fidel Castro, former president and leader of the Cuban revolution, dies at the age of 90. Cuba declares nine days of national mourning. 2017 January - Washington ends a long-standing policy which grants Cuban immigrants the right to remain in the US without a visa.

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Cold War Terms Cold War Terms   .pdf (. . . ) The 1980 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXII Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event celebrated in Moscow in the Soviet Union. . . The United States and a number of other countries boycotted the games because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, though some athletes from some of the boycotting countries participated in the games, under the Olympic Flag. This prompted the Soviet-led boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, California. The boycott was a follow up to the American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. The boycott involved 14 Eastern Bloc countries and allies, led by the Soviet Union who initiated the boycott on May 8, 1984, and joined by others, including East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Cuba. Romania, considered a Soviet ally, notably did not withdraw, instead turning up in Los Angeles for the Games held on July 28 through August 12. The Friendship Games, an alternative event, was established instead. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt (19–21 August 1991), also known as the August Putsch or August Coup, was an attempt by a group of members of the Soviet Union's government to take control of the country from Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev. The coup leaders were hard-line members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) who were opposed to Gorbachev's reform program and the new union treaty that he had negotiated which decentralized much of the central government's power to the republics. They were opposed, mainly in Moscow, by a short but effective campaign of civil resistance. Although the coup collapsed in only two days and Gorbachev returned to government, the event destabilized the USSR and is widely considered to have led to both the demise of the CPSU and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The 26th of July Movement was the revolutionary organization planned and led by Fidel Castro that in 1959 overthrew the Fulgencio Batista government in Cuba. The Movement fought the Batista regime on both rural and urban fronts. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Action Program is a political plan, devised by Alexander Dubček and his associates in the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ), that was published on April 5, 1968. The program suggested that the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (ČSSR) find its own path towards mature socialism rather than follow the Soviet Union. AP called for the acknowledgment of individual liberties, the introduction of political and economic reforms, and a change in the structure of the nation. In many ways, the document was the basis for Prague Spring and prompted the ensuing Warsaw Pact invasion of the ČSSR in August, 1968. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Soviet war in Afghanistan was a nine-year conflict involving the Soviet Union, supporting the Marxist-Leninist government of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan against the Afghan Mujahideen and foreign "Arab–Afghan" volunteers. The mujahideen got unofficial military and/or financial support from a variety of countries including the United States, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, Pakistan, Israel, Taiwan, Indonesia and China. The Afghan government was also supported by India. The Afghan war became a proxy war in the broader context of the late Cold War. The initial Soviet deployment of the 40th Army in Afghanistan began on December 24, 1979 under Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev. The final troop withdrawal started on May 15, 1988, and ended on February 15, 1989 under the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Due to the interminable nature of the war, the conflict in Afghanistan has sometimes been referred to as the "Soviet Union's Vietnam War". (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System or ATS, regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population. For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude. The treaty, entering into force in 1961 and currently has 48 signatory nations, sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity on that continent. The treaty was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War. The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat headquarters have been located in Buenos Aires, Argentina, since September 2004. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty or ABMT) was a treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against missile-delivered nuclear weapons. Signed in 1972, it was in force for the next 30 years until the US unilaterally withdrew from it in June 2002. . . As relations between the US and USSR warmed in the later years of the 1960s, the US first proposed an ABM treaty in 1967. This proposal was rejected. Following the proposal of the Sentinel and Safeguard decisions on American ABM systems, the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began in November 1969 (SALT I). By 1972 an agreement had been reached to limit strategic defensive systems. . . The treaty was signed in Moscow on May 26, 1972 by the President of the United States, Richard Nixon and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev; and ratified by the US Senate on August 3, 1972. . . It was seen by many in the West as a key piece in nuclear arms control, being an implicit recognition of the need to protect the nuclear balance by ensuring neither side could hope to reduce the effects of retaliation to acceptable levels. In the East, however, it was seen as a way to avoid having to maintain an anti-missile technology race at the same time as maintaining a missile race. . . For many years the ABM Treaty was, in the West, considered one of the landmarks in arms limitations. It was perceived as requiring two enemies to agree not to deploy a potentially useful weapon, deliberately to maintain the balance of power and as such, was also taken as confirmation of the Soviet adherence to the MAD doctrine. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Apollo program was the spaceflight effort that landed the first humans on Earth's Moon. Conceived during the Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower and carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States (NASA), Apollo began in earnest after President John F. Kennedy proposed the national "goal of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" by the end of the decade in a May 25, 1961 address to Congress. Kennedy's goal was accomplished with the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Lunar Module (LM) on the Moon on July 20, 1969 and walked on its surface while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the command spacecraft, and all three landed safely on Earth on July 24. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, 12 men walked on the Moon. These are the only times humans have landed on another celestial body. . . Apollo set major milestones in human spaceflight. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit; Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marked the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. Apollo also sparked interest in many fields of engineering and left many physical facilities and machines developed for the program as landmarks. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The term arms race, in its original usage, describes a competition between two or more parties for the best armed forces. Each party competes to produce larger numbers of weapons, greater armies, or superior military technology in a technological escalation. . . A nuclear arms race developed during the Cold War, a period of high tensions between the Soviet Union and the America. On both sides, perceived advantages of the adversary (such as the "missile gap") led to large spending on armaments and the stockpiling of vast nuclear arsenals. Proxy wars were fought all over the world (e.g. in the Middle East, Korea, Vietnam) in which the superpowers' conventional weapons were pitted against each other. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, tensions decreased and the nuclear arsenal of both countries were reduced. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The ash heap of history (or often garbage heap of history or dustbin of history) is a figurative place to where objects such as persons, events, artifacts, ideologies, etc. are relegated when they are forgotten or marginalized in history. The expression—or something like it—was coined by Leon Trotsky in response to the Mensheviks walking out of the Second Congress of Soviets, on October 25, 1917 (Julian calendar), thereby enabling the Bolsheviks to establish their dominance. Trotsky declared: "Go out where you belong—into the ash heap of history." A more dramatic version of this event puts Trotsky as saying: “'You are pitiful, isolated individuals! You are bankrupts. Your role is played out. Go where you belong from now on—into the dustbin of history!'" . . . Later, it was most notably used by Ronald Reagan in a speech to the British House of Commons on June 8, 1982. This speech is a lasting hallmark of the Reagan presidency, but not as memorable as the "Evil empire" speech of March 8, 1983, with which it is often confused. Reagan's speechwriter chose the expression deliberately because of its prior context. His exact phrase was: "... freedom and democracy will leave Marxism and Leninism on the ash heap of history."  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) A ballistic missile is a missile that follows a sub-orbital ballistic flightpath with the objective of delivering one or more warheads to a predetermined target. The missile is only guided during the relatively brief initial powered phase of flight and its course is subsequently governed by the laws of orbital mechanics and ballistics. To date, ballistic missiles have been propelled during powered flight by chemical rocket engines of various types. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Baltic Way or Baltic Chain was a peaceful political demonstration that occurred on August 23, 1989. Approximately two million people joined their hands to form a human chain spanning over 600 kilometers (370 mi) across the three Baltic states – Estonian SSR, Latvian SSR, and Lithuanian SSR, republics of the Soviet Union. It marked the 50th anniversary of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. The pact and its secret protocols divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence and led to the occupation of the Baltic states in 1940. The event was organized by Baltic pro-independence movements: Rahvarinne of Estonia, Popular Front of Latvia, and Sąjūdis of Lithuania. The protest was designed to draw global attention by demonstrating a popular desire for independence for each of the entities. It also illustrated solidarity among the three nations. It has been described as an effective publicity campaign, and an emotionally captivating and visually stunning scene. The event presented an opportunity for the Baltic activists to publicize the illegal Soviet occupation and position the question of Baltic independence not as a political matter, but as a moral issue. Soviet authorities in Moscow responded to the event with intense rhetoric, but failed to take any constructive actions that could bridge the widening gap between the Baltic states and the Soviet Union. Within six months from the protest, Lithuania became the first of the Republics of the Soviet Union to declare independence. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Barricades were events that took place between 13 and 27 January 1991 in Latvia. Latvia, which had declared independence from the Soviet Union a year earlier, anticipated that Soviet Union might attempt to violently regain control over the country. After attacks of pro-Soviet OMON of Riga in early January the government called on people to build barricades for protection of possible targets (mainly in the capital city of Riga and nearby Ulbroka, as well as Kuldīga and Liepāja). At least 7 people were killed in further attacks, and a total of 15,611 people have registered themselves as participants of the Barricades. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Bay of Pigs Invasion was an unsuccessful action by a CIA-trained force of Cuban exiles to invade southern Cuba, with support and encouragement from the US government, in an attempt to overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro. The invasion was launched in April 1961, less than three months after John F. Kennedy assumed the presidency in the United States. The Cuban armed forces, trained and equipped by Eastern Bloc nations, defeated the invading combatants within three days. The main invasion landing took place at a beach named Playa Girón, located at the mouth of the bay. The invasion is named after the Bay of Pigs, although that is only a modern translation of the Spanish Bahía de Cochinos. In Latin America, the conflict is often known as La Batalla de Girón, or just Playa Girón. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War and the first resulting in casualties. During the multinational occupation of post-World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway and road access to the sectors of Berlin under Allied control. Their aim was to force the western powers to allow the Soviet zone to start supplying Berlin with food and fuel, thereby giving the Soviets practical control over the entire city. In response, the Western Allies organized the Berlin Airlift to carry supplies to the people in West Berlin. The United Kingdom's Royal Air Force and the recently independent United States Air Force flew over 200,000 flights in one year, providing up to 4700 tons of daily necessities such as fuel and food to the Berliners. Alongside British and US personnel the airlift involved aircrews from the Royal Australian Air Force, Royal Canadian Air Force, Royal New Zealand Air Force and South African Air Force. By the spring of 1949, the effort was clearly succeeding and, by April, the airlift was delivering more cargo than had previously been transported into the city by rail. The success of the Berlin Airlift brought humiliation to the Soviets who had refused to believe it could make a difference. The blockade was lifted in May 1949 and resulted in the creation of two separate German states. The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) split up Berlin. In remembrance of the airlift, three airports in the former western zones of the city served as the primary gateways to Germany for another fifty years. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Berlin Crisis of 1961 (4 June – 9 November 1961) was the last major politico-military European incident of the Cold War about the occupational status of the German capital city, Berlin, and of post–World War II Germany. The U.S.S.R. provoked the Berlin Crisis with an ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of Western armed forces from West Berlin — culminating with the city's de facto partition with the East German erection of the Berlin Wall. The 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union — the last to be attended by the Communist Party of China — was held in Moscow during the crisis.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Berlin Wall was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Soviet-dominated Eastern Bloc officially claimed that the wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. However, in practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that marked Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period. The Berlin Wall was officially referred to as the "Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart" (German: Antifaschistischer Schutzwall) by GDR authorities, implying that neighboring West Germany had not been fully de-Nazified. The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the "Wall of Shame"—a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt—while condemning the Wall's restriction on freedom of movement. Along with the separate and much longer Inner German border (IGB) that demarcated the border between East and West Germany, both borders came to symbolize the "Iron Curtain" that separated Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War. Before the Wall's erection, 3.5 million East Germans circumvented Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions and defected from the GDR, many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin, from where they could then travel to West Germany and other Western European countries. Between 1961 and 1989, the wall prevented almost all such emigration. During this period, around 5,000 people attempted to escape over the wall, with estimates of the resulting death toll varying between 100 and 200. In 1989, a radical series of political changes occurred in the Eastern Bloc, associated with the liberalization of the Eastern Bloc's authoritarian systems and the erosion of political power in the pro-Soviet governments in nearby Poland and Hungary. After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany and West Berlin. Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, a euphoric public and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the wall; the governments later used industrial equipment to remove most of the rest. The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for German reunification, which was formally concluded on 3 October 1990.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Human capital flight, more commonly referred to as "brain drain", is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals. In terms of countries, the reasons may be social environment (in source countries: lack of opportunities, political instability, economic depression, health risks; in host countries: rich opportunities, political stability and freedom, developed economy, better living conditions). In terms of individual reasons, there are family influence (overseas relatives), and personal preference: preference for exploring, ambition for an improved career, etc. Although the term originally referred to technology workers leaving a nation, the meaning has broadened into: "the departure of educated or professional people from one country, economic sector, or field for another, usually for better pay or living conditions". Brain drain is usually regarded as an economic cost, since emigrants usually take with them the fraction of value of their training sponsored by the government or other organizations. It is a parallel of capital flight, which refers to the same movement of financial capital. Brain drain is often associated with deskilling of emigrants in their country of destination, while their country of emigration experiences the draining of skilled individuals. . . Brain drain is common amongst developing nations, such as the former colonies of Africa, the island nations of the Caribbean, and particularly in centralized economies such as former East Germany and the Soviet Union, where marketable skills were not financially rewarded.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet Union foreign policy, first and most clearly outlined by S. Kovalev in a September 26, 1968 Pravda article, entitled “Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries.” Leonid Brezhnev reiterated it in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party on November 13, 1968, which stated: "When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries." This doctrine was announced to retroactively justify the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 that ended the Prague Spring, along with earlier Soviet military interventions, such as the invasion of Hungary in 1956. These interventions were meant to put an end to democratic liberalization efforts and uprisings that had the potential to compromise Soviet hegemony inside the Eastern bloc, which was considered by the Soviets to be an essential defensive and strategic buffer in case hostilities with NATO were to break out. In practice, the policy meant that limited independence of communist parties was allowed. However, no country would be allowed to leave the Warsaw Pact, disturb a nation's communist party's monopoly on power, or in any way compromise the cohesiveness of the Eastern bloc. Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved, for itself, the right to define "socialism" and "capitalism". Following the announcement of the Brezhnev Doctrine, numerous treaties were signed between the Soviet Union and its satellite states to reassert these points and to further ensure inter-state cooperation. The principles of the doctrine were so broad that the Soviets even used it to justify their military intervention in the non-Warsaw Pact nation of Afghanistan in 1979. The Brezhnev Doctrine stayed in effect until it was finally ended with the Soviet non-invasion of Poland during the 1980-1981 crisis and later refusal of Mikhail Gorbachev to use military force when Poland held free elections in 1989 and Solidarity defeated the Communist Party. It was superseded by the facetiously named Sinatra Doctrine in 1989.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Carnation Revolution, also referred to as the 25 de Abril (the 25th of April), was a military coup started on 25 April 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, coupled with an unanticipated and extensive campaign of civil resistance. The name "Carnation Revolution" comes from the fact no shots were fired and when the population started descending the streets to celebrate the end of the war in the colonies carnations flowers were put on the guns ends and on the uniforms. These events effectively changed the Portuguese regime from an authoritarian dictatorship (the Estado Novo) into a democracy, and produced enormous social, economic, territorial, demographic and political changes in the country, after two years of a transitional period known as PREC (Processo Revolucionário Em Curso, or On-Going Revolutionary Process), characterized by social turmoil and power disputes between left- and right-wing political forces. . . Although the regime's political police, PIDE, killed four people before surrendering, the revolution was unusual in that the revolutionaries did not use direct violence to achieve their goals. Holding red carnations (cravos in Portuguese), many people joined revolutionary soldiers on the streets of Lisbon, in apparent joy and audible euphoria. Red is a symbolic color for socialism and communism, which were the main ideological tendencies of many anti-New State insurgents. It was the end of the Estado Novo, the longest authoritarian regime in Western Europe, and the final dissolution of the Portuguese Empire. In the aftermath of the revolution a new constitution was drafted, censorship was formally prohibited, free speech declared, political prisoners were released and the Portuguese overseas territories in Sub-Saharan Africa were immediately given their independence as communist states. East Timor was also offered independence, being invaded by neighboring Indonesia afterwards. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Central Committee was the common designation of a standing administrative body of communist parties, analogous to a board of directors, whether ruling or non-ruling in the twentieth century and of the surviving, mostly Stalinist, states in the early twenty first. In such party organizations the committee would typically be made up of delegates elected at a party congress. In those states where it constituted the state power, the Central Committee made decisions for the party between congresses, and usually was responsible for electing the Politburo. In non-ruling Communist parties, the Central Committee is usually understood by the party membership to be the ultimate decision-making authority between Congresses once the process of democratic centralism has led to an agreed-upon position. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a central intelligence agency of the United States government, reporting to the Director of National Intelligence, responsible for providing national security intelligence assessment to senior United States policymakers. The CIA also engages in covert activities at the request of the President of the United States. It is the successor of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) formed during World War II to coordinate espionage activities against the Axis Powers for the branches of the United States Armed Forces. The National Security Act of 1947 established the CIA, affording it "no police or law enforcement functions, either at home or abroad". One year later, this mandate was expanded to include "sabotage, anti-sabotage, demolition and evacuation measures...subversion [and] assistance to underground resistance movements, guerrillas and refugee liberation movements, and support of indigenous anti-communist elements in threatened countries of the free world". . . These locations are called "lily pads" by the Air Force. The primary function of the CIA is to collect information about foreign governments, corporations, and individuals, and to advise public policymakers. The agency conducts covert operations and paramilitary actions, and exerts foreign political influence through its Special Activities Division. . . The CIA's headquarters is in Langley in McLean, unincorporated Fairfax County, Virginia, a few miles west of Washington, D.C. along the Potomac River. Sometimes, the CIA is referred to euphemistically in government and military parlance as Other Government Agencies (OGA), particularly when its operations in a particular area are an open secret. Other terms include The Company, Langley and The Agency.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The 1973 Chilean coup d'état was a watershed event of the Cold War and the history of Chile. On Tuesday 11 September 1973, the democratically elected President Salvador Allende was overthrown in a coup d’état organized by the Chilean military and endorsed by the United States. A military junta led by General Augusto Pinochet took control of the government, composed of the heads of the Air Force, Navy, Carabineros (police force) and the Army . Pinochet later assumed power and ended Allende's democratically elected Popular Unity government. During the air raids and ground attacks that preceded the coup, Allende gave his last speech, in which he vowed to stay in the presidential palace. Direct witness accounts of his death agree that he committed suicide in the palace. After the coup, Pinochet established a military dictatorship that ruled Chile until 1990; it was marked by severe human rights violations. A weak insurgent movement against the Pinochet government was maintained inside Chile by elements sympathetic to the former Allende government.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Chinese Civil War (1927-1949/1950) was a civil war fought between the Kuomintang (KMT or Chinese Nationalist Party), the governing party of the Republic of China, and the Communist Party of China (CPC), for the control of China which eventually led to China's division into two Chinas, Republic of China (currently known as Taiwan) and People's Republic of China (Mainland China). The war began in April 1927, amidst the Northern Expedition. The war represented an ideological split between the Nationalist KMT, and the Communist CPC. In mainland China today, the last three years of the war (1947–1949) are more commonly known as the War of Liberation. In Taiwan, the war was also known as the Counter-insurgency War against Communists before 1991. The civil war continued intermittently until the Second Sino-Japanese War interrupted it, resulting in the two parties forming a Second United Front. Japan's campaign was defeated in 1945, marking the end of World War II, and China's full-scale civil war resumed in 1946. After a further four years, 1950 saw a cessation of major military hostilities—with the newly founded People's Republic of China controlling mainland China (including Hainan Island), and the Republic of China's jurisdiction being restricted to Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and several outlying islands. To this day, since no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed, there is controversy as to whether the Civil War has legally ended. Today, the entities on the two sides of the Taiwan strait have close economic ties. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World – primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies – and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States and its allies. Although the chief military forces never engaged in a major battle with each other, they expressed the conflict through military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to states deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, conventional and nuclear arms races, appeals to neutral nations, rivalry at sports events, and technological competitions such as the Space Race. After the success of their temporary wartime alliance against Nazi Germany, the USSR and the US saw each other as profound enemies of their basic ways of life. The Soviet Union created the Eastern Bloc with the eastern European countries it occupied, annexing some and maintaining others as satellite states, some of which were later consolidated as the Warsaw Pact (1955–1991). The US financed the recovery of western Europe and forged NATO, a military alliance using containment of communism as a main strategy (Truman Doctrine). The US funded the Marshall Plan to effectuate a more rapid post-War recovery of Europe, while the Soviet Union would not let most Eastern Bloc members participate. Elsewhere, in Latin America and Southeast Asia, the USSR assisted and helped foster communist revolutions, opposed by several Western countries and their regional allies; some they attempted to roll back, with mixed results. Among the countries that the USSR supported in pro-communist revolt was Cuba, led by Fidel Castro. The proximity of communist Cuba to the United States proved to be a center-point of the Cold War; the USSR placed multiple nuclear missiles in Cuba, sparking heated tension with the Americans and leading to the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, where full-scale nuclear war threatened. Some countries aligned with NATO and the Warsaw Pact, and others formed the Non-Aligned Movement. The Cold War featured periods of relative calm and of international high tension – the Berlin Blockade (1948–1949), the Korean War (1950–1953), the Berlin Crisis of 1961, the Vietnam War (1959–1975), the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), the Soviet war in Afghanistan (1979–1989), and the Able Archer 83 NATO exercises in November 1983. Both sides sought détente to relieve political tensions and deter direct military attack, which would probably guarantee their mutual assured destruction with nuclear weapons. In the 1980s, under the Reagan Doctrine, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the nation was already suffering economic stagnation. In the late 1980s, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the liberalizing reforms of perestroika ("reconstruction", "reorganization", 1987) and glasnost ("openness", ca. 1985). The Cold War ended after the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, leaving the United States as the dominant military power. The Cold War and its events have had a significant impact on the world today, and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially films and novels about spies.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Founded in 1947, Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) is the common name for what was officially referred to as the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties. It was the first official forum of the international communist movement since the dissolution of the Comintern, and confirmed the new realities after World War II – including the creation of an Eastern Bloc. Cominform was a Soviet-dominated organization of Communist parties founded in September 1947 at a conference of Communist party leaders in Szklarska Poręba, Poland. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin called the conference in response to divergences among eastern European governments on whether or not to attend the Paris Conference on Marshall Aid in July 1947. The initial seat of Cominform was located in Belgrade (then the capital of the Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia). After the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the group in June 1948, the seat was moved to Bucharest, Romania. The expulsion of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia from Cominform for Titoism initiated the Informbiro period in that country's history. The intended purpose of Cominform was to coordinate actions between Communist parties under Soviet direction. It had its own newspaper (titled For Lasting Peace, for People's Democracy!), and it encouraged unity of Communist parties. Cominform was dissolved in 1956 after Soviet rapprochement with Yugoslavia and the process of De-Stalinization.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Communism is a sociopolitical movement that aims for a classless and stateless society structured upon common ownership of the means of production, free access to articles of consumption, and the end of wage labour and private property in the means of production and real estate. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was the only legal, ruling political party in the Soviet Union and one of the largest communist organizations in the world. It lost its dominance in the wake of the failed August 1991 coup d'état attempt led by authoritarian hardliners. It emerged from the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin. The party led the 1917 October Revolution that overthrew the Russian Provisional Government and established the world's first socialist state. Given the central role under the Constitution of the Soviet Union, the party controlled all tiers of government in the Soviet Union and tolerated no opposition. Its organization was subdivided into communist parties of the constituent Soviet republics as well as the mass youth organization, Komsomol. The party was also the driving force of the Third International (Comintern). The party ceased to exist after the coup d'état attempt in 1991 and was succeeded by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation in Russia and the communist parties of the now-independent former Soviet republics.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) A communist revolution is a proletarian revolution inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace capitalism with communism, typically with socialism as an intermediate stage. The idea that a proletarian revolution is needed is a cornerstone of Marxism; Marxists believe that the workers of the world must unite and free themselves from capitalist oppression to create a world run by and for the working class. Thus, in the Marxist view, proletarian revolutions need to happen in countries all over the world; see world revolution. Leninism argues that a communist revolution must be led by a vanguard of 'professional revolutionaries'—that is, men and women who are fully dedicated to the communist cause and who can then form the nucleus of the revolutionary movement. Some Marxists disagree with the idea of a vanguard as put forth by Lenin, especially left communists but also including some who continue to consider themselves Marxist-Leninists despite such a disagreement. These critics insist that the entire working class - or at least a large part of it - must be deeply involved and equally committed to the socialist or communist cause in order for a proletarian revolution to be successful. To this end, they seek to build massive communist parties with very large memberships.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Containment was a United States policy using military, economic, and diplomatic strategies to stall the spread of communism, enhance America’s security and influence abroad, and prevent a "domino effect". A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, and Vietnam. It represented a middle-ground position between détente and rollback. The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan. As a description of U.S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, a report that was later dominated as a magazine article. It is a translation of the French cordon sanitaire, used to describe Western policy toward the Soviet Union in the 1920s. The word containment is associated most strongly with the policies of U.S. President Harry Truman (1945–53), including the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense pact. Although President Dwight Eisenhower (1953–61) toyed with the rival doctrine of rollback, he refused to intervene in the Hungarian Uprising of 1956. President Lyndon Johnson (1963–69) was firmly committed to containment, forcing him to fight a war he did not want in Vietnam. President Richard Nixon (1969–74), working with his top advisor Henry Kissinger, rejected containment in favor of friendly relations with the Soviet Union and China; this détente, or relaxation of tensions, involved expanded trade and cultural contacts. President Jimmy Carter (1976–81) emphasized human rights rather than anti-communism, but dropped détente and returned to containment when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979. President Ronald Reagan (1981–89), denouncing the Soviet state as an "evil empire", escalated the Cold War and promoted rollback in Nicaragua and Afghanistan. Central programs begun under containment, including NATO and nuclear deterrence, remained in effect even after the end of the Cold War in 1989 and the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Cuban Missile Crisis (known as the October Crisis in Cuba or Caribbean Crisis) was a confrontation among the Soviet Union, Cuba and the United States in October 1962, during the Cold War. In August 1962, after some unsuccessful operations by the US to overthrow the Cuban regime (Bay of Pigs, Operation Mongoose), the Cuban and Soviet governments secretly began to build bases in Cuba for a number of medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic nuclear missiles (MRBMs and IRBMs) with the ability to strike most of the continental United States. This action followed the 1958 deployment of Thor IRBMs in the UK (Project Emily) and Jupiter IRBMs to Italy and Turkey in 1961 – more than 100 US-built missiles having the capability to strike Moscow with nuclear warheads. On October 14, 1962, a United States Air Force U-2 plane on a photo reconnaissance mission captured photographic proof of Soviet missile bases under construction in Cuba. The ensuing crisis ranks with the Berlin Blockade, the Suez Crisis and the Yom Kippur War as one of the major confrontations of the Cold War and is generally regarded as the moment in which the Cold War came closest to turning into a nuclear conflict. It also marks the first documented instance of the threat of mutual assured destruction (MAD) being discussed as a determining factor in a major international arms agreement. The United States considered attacking Cuba via air and sea, and settled on a military "quarantine" of Cuba. The US announced that it would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba and demanded that the Soviets dismantle the missile bases already under construction or completed in Cuba and remove all offensive weapons. The Kennedy administration held only a slim hope that the Kremlin would agree to their demands, and expected a military confrontation. On the Soviet side, Premier Nikita Khrushchev wrote in a letter to Kennedy that his quarantine of "navigation in international waters and air space" constituted "an act of aggression propelling humankind into the abyss of a world nuclear-missile war". The Soviets publicly balked at the US demands, but in secret back-channel communications initiated a proposal to resolve the crisis. The confrontation ended on October 28, 1962, when President John F. Kennedy and United Nations Secretary-General U Thant reached a public and secret agreement with Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement never to invade Cuba. Secretly, the US agreed that it would dismantle all US-built Thor and Jupiter IRBMs deployed in Europe and Turkey. Only two weeks after the agreement, the Soviets had removed the missile systems and their support equipment, loading them onto eight Soviet ships from November 5–9. A month later, on December 5 and 6, the Soviet Il-28 bombers were loaded onto three Soviet ships and shipped back to Russia. The quarantine was formally ended at 6:45 pm EDT on November 20, 1962. Eleven months after the agreement, all American weapons were deactivated (by September 1963). An additional outcome of the negotiations was the creation of the Hotline Agreement and the Moscow–Washington hotline, a direct communications link between Moscow and Washington, D.C. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Cuban Project (also known as Operation Mongoose or the Special Group Augmented) was a program of Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) covert operations developed during the early years of the administration of President of the United States John F. Kennedy. On November 30, 1961 aggressive covert operations against the communist government of Fidel Castro in Cuba were authorized by President Kennedy. The operation was led by Air Force General Edward Lansdale and went into effect after the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. Operation Mongoose was a secret program of propaganda, psychological warfare, and sabotage against Cuba to remove the communists from power; which was a prime focus of the Kennedy administration, according to Harvard historian Jorge Domínguez. A document from the US Department of State confirms that the project aimed to "help Cuba overthrow the Communist regime", including its leader Fidel Castro, and it aimed "for a revolt which can take place in Cuba by October 1962". US policy makers also wanted to see "a new government with which the United States can live in peace".  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Cuban Revolution was a successful armed revolt by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement, which overthrew the US-backed Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista on 1 January 1959, after over five years of struggle. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) De-Stalinization refers to the process of eliminating the cult of personality, Stalinist political system and the Gulag labour-camp system created by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Stalin was succeeded by a collective leadership after his death in March 1953. . . De-Stalinization spelled an end to the role of large-scale forced labor in the economy. . . Khrushchev then emerged as the most powerful Soviet politician. At a speech On the Personality Cult and its Consequences to the closed session of the Twentieth Party Congress of the CPSU, February 25, 1956, Khrushchev shocked his listeners by denouncing Stalin's dictatorial rule and cult of personality. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Détente (French for 'relaxation') is the easing of strained relations, especially in a political situation. The term is often used in reference to the general easing of relations between the Soviet Union and the United States in the 1970s, a thawing at a period roughly in the middle of the Cold War. . . The period was characterized by the signing of treaties such as the SALT I, SALT II, and the Helsinki Agreement. There is some debate amongst historians as to how successful the détente period was in achieving peace. It did, however, mark the first time in the Cold War period that the US and the USSR worked together to lessen international tensions, caused primarily by Mutual Assured Destruction. The first Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) treaty, agreed for both countries to halt the production of nuclear weapons and missiles. It was the first step towards solving one of the most vital issues that was disabling any kind of relationship between the USSR and the US. The two superpowers also agreed to install a direct hotline between Washington DC and Moscow, the so called red telephone, enabling both countries to quickly interact with each other in a time of urgency. The SALT II pact of the late 70s continued the work of the SALT I talks, ensuring further reduction in arms by the Soviets and by the US. The Helsinki Accords, in which the Soviets promised to grant free elections in Europe, has been seen as a major concession to ensure peace by the Soviets. Détente ended after the Soviet's invasion of Afghanistan, which led to America's boycott of the 1980 Olympics in Moscow. Ronald Reagan's election as president in 1980, based on an anti-détente campaign, marked the close of Détente and a return to Cold War hostilities.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Deterrence theory gained increased prominence as a military strategy during the Cold War with regard to the use of nuclear weapons, and features prominently in current United States foreign policy regarding the development of nuclear technology in North Korea and Iran. . . It can therefore be summarized that the use of the power to hurt as bargaining power is the foundation of deterrence theory, and is most successful when it is held in reserve.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The dissolution of the Soviet Union was the disintegration of the federal political structures and central government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), resulting in the independence of all fifteen republics of the Soviet Union between March 11, 1990 and December 25, 1991. The direct cause of the dissolution was the failed attempt by Mikhail Gorbachev, the leader of the USSR from March 11, 1985, to revitalize the Soviet economy through a process of limited political liberalization (glasnost/perestroika) within the confines of a totalitarian communist one-party state. The broader result of the dissolution was the fall of Communism as a global ideology between 1989 and 1991 and the end of the Cold War. Multi-ethnic communist federal states proved particularly vulnerable to disintegration during this time – the Soviet Union was but one example of three such states that collapsed in Europe as a result of the fall of communism, the others being the Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia, which broke up in a series of wars in 1991–1992, and Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, which had its peaceful velvet divorce in 1993.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The domino theory was a theory during the 1950s to 1980s, promoted at times by the government of the United States, that speculated that if one state in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect. The domino theory was used by successive United States administrations during the Cold War to clarify the need for American intervention around the world. Referring to communism in Indochina, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower put the theory into words during an April 7, 1954 news conference: "Finally, you have broader considerations that might follow what you would call the "falling domino" principle. You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over very quickly. So you could have a beginning of a disintegration that would have the most profound influences." (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Eastern Bloc refers to the former communist states of Eastern and Central Europe, especially the Soviet Union and its satellites in the Warsaw Pact. . . The terms Communist Bloc and Soviet Bloc are also used to denote the regimes aligned with the former Soviet Union, although these terms may be used to imply the inclusion of regimes in the Soviet sphere of influence outside Central and Eastern Europe. Authoritarian communist governments were initially installed in a bloc politics process that included extensive political and media controls, along with the Soviet approach to restricting emigration. Events such as the Tito-Stalin split and Berlin Blockade prompted stricter control from Moscow. While the Bloc persisted through revolts including the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and the aftermath of the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, its command economies experienced inefficiency and stagnation preceding the Bloc's dissolution.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Eastern Bloc emigration and defection was a point of controversy during the Cold War. After World War II, emigration restrictions were imposed by countries in the Eastern Bloc, which consisted of the Soviet Union and its satellite states in Eastern and Central Europe. Legal emigration was in most cases only possible in order to reunite families or to allow members of minority ethnic groups to return to their homelands. Eastern Bloc governments argued that strict limits to emigration were necessary to prevent a brain drain. The United States and Western European governments argued that they represented a violation of human rights. Despite the restrictions, defections to the West occurred. After East Germany tightened its zonal occupation border with West Germany, the city sector border between East Berlin and West Berlin became a loophole through which defection could occur. This was closed with the erection of the Berlin Wall in 1961. Thereafter, emigration from the Eastern Bloc was effectively limited to illegal defections, ethnic emigration under bilateral agreements, and a small number of other cases.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The economy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was based on a system of state ownership of the means of production, collective farming, industrial manufacturing and centralized administrative planning. The economy was characterized by state control of investment, public ownership of industrial assets, and during the last 20 years of its existence, pervasive corruption and socioeconomic stagnation. After Mikhail Gorbachev came to power, continuing economic liberalization moved the economy towards a market-oriented socialist economy. All of these factors contributed to the final dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The stagnation which would consume the last years of the Soviet Union was caused by poor governance under Leonid Brezhnev and inefficiencies within the planned economy. When the stagnation began is a matter of debate, but is normally placed either in the 1960s or early 1970s. From 1928 to 1991 the entire course of the economy was guided by a series of Five-Year Plans. Within 40 years, the nation evolved from a mainly agrarian society and became one of the world's three top manufacturers of a large number of capital goods, heavy industrial products and weaponry. However, the USSR lagged far behind in the output of light industrial production and consumer durables, mostly because of the inability of Gosplan, the economic planning committee, to predict the demand for such products. The complex demands of the modern economy and inflexible administration overwhelmed and constrained the central planners. Corruption and data fiddling became common practice among the bureaucracy by reporting fulfilled targets and quotas, thus entrenching the crisis. Nonetheless, from the Stalin-era to the early Brezhnev-era, the Soviet economy grew as fast as the Japanese economy and faster than that of the United States. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Following the Cold War, Russia cut military spending dramatically, but the adjustment was wrenching, as the military-industrial sector had previously employed one of every five Soviet adults and its dismantling left hundreds of millions throughout the former Soviet Union unemployed. After Russia embarked on capitalist economic reforms in the 1990s, it suffered a financial crisis and a recession more severe than the US and Germany had experienced during the Great Depression. Russian living standards have worsened overall in the post–Cold War years, although the economy has resumed growth since 1999. The legacy of the Cold War continues to influence world affairs. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the post–Cold War world is widely considered as unipolar, with the United States the sole remaining superpower. The Cold War defined the political role of the United States in the post–World War II world: by 1989 the US held military alliances with 50 countries, and had 1.5 million troops posted abroad in 117 countries. The Cold War also institutionalized a global commitment to huge, permanent peacetime military-industrial complexes and large-scale military funding of science. Military expenditures by the US during the Cold War years were estimated to have been $8 trillion, while nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the Korean War and Vietnam War. Although the loss of life among Soviet soldiers is difficult to estimate, as a share of their gross national product the financial cost for the Soviet Union was far higher than that of the US. In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers' proxy wars around the globe, most notably in Southeast Asia. Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; the incidence of interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced persons crises has declined sharply in the post–Cold War years. The legacy of Cold War conflict, however, is not always easily erased, as many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute. The breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by Communist governments has produced new civil and ethnic conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia. In Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth and a large increase in the number of liberal democracies, while in other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied by state failure.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Era of Stagnation, also known as Brezhnev stagnation or the Stagnation Period, refers to a period of economic stagnation under the rules of Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko in the history of the Soviet Union which started in the mid-1970s. . . The beginning of this stagnation was marked with the Sinyavsky–Daniel trial and suppression of the Prague Spring; these are the most known events which indicated that neither discussion nor serious reforms (even within the traditional Soviet paradigm) would be allowed during that period. During that period, any serious critics of communism, communist leaders, Soviet literature, or even typical Soviet events were qualified as anti-Soviet propaganda. . . Stagnation was characterized by suppression of both growth in the economy and any social life of the country, as well as repression of dissidents.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The phrase evil empire was applied especially to the Soviet Union and its "empire" by U.S. President Ronald Reagan, who took an aggressive, hard-line stance that favored matching and exceeding the Soviet Union's strategic and global military capabilities, in calling for a rollback strategy that would, in his words, write the final pages of the history of the Soviet Union. The characterization demeaned the Soviet Union and angered Soviet leaders; it represented the rhetorical side of the escalation of the Cold War. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Force de Frappe (French for strike force) is the designation of what used to be a triad of air-, sea- and land-based nuclear weapons intended for dissuasion, i.e. deterrence. The French Nuclear Force, part of the Armed Forces of France, is the third largest nuclear-weapons force in the world, following the nuclear triads of the Russian Federation and the United States. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was the title given to the leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. With some exceptions, the office was synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union. Throughout its history the office had four other names; Technical Secretary (1917–1918), Chairman of the Secretariat (1918–1919), Responsible Secretary (1919–1922) and First Secretary (1953–1964). Joseph Stalin elevated the office to overall command of the Communist Party and by definition the whole Soviet Union. In its first two incarnations the office performed mostly secretarial work. The post of Responsible Secretary was then established in 1919 to perform administrative work. In 1922 the office of General Secretary followed as a purely administrative and disciplinary position, whose role was to do no more than determine party membership composition. Stalin, its first incumbent, used the principles of democratic centralism to transform his office into that of party leader, and later leader of the Soviet Union. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) German reunification was the process in 1990 in which the German Democratic Republic (GDR/East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG/West Germany), and when Berlin reunited into a single city, as provided by its then Grundgesetz constitution Article 23. The start of this process is commonly referred by Germans as die Wende (The Turning Point). The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German unity, celebrated on 3 October (German Unity Day). The East German regime started to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungary's border fence opened a hole in the Iron Curtain. It caused an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany and Austria via Hungary. The Peaceful Revolution, a series of protests by East Germans, led to the GDR's first free elections on 18 March 1990, and to the negotiations between the GDR and FRG that culminated in a Unification Treaty, whilst negotiations between the GDR and FRG and the four occupying powers produced the so-called "Two Plus Four Treaty" (Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany) granting full sovereignty to a unified German state, whose two halves had previously still been bound by a number of limitations stemming from their post-WWII status as occupied regions. The united Germany remained a member of the European Community (later the European Union) and of NATO.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Glasnost (Openness) was the policy of maximal publicity, openness, and transparency in the activities of all government institutions in the Soviet Union, together with freedom of information, introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the second half of the 1980s. The word "glasnost" is used in Russian at least since the end of the 18th century. The word was frequently used by Gorbachev to specify the policies he believed might help reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party and the Soviet government, and moderate the abuse of administrative power in the Central Committee. Russian human rights activist and dissident Lyudmila Alexeyeva explained glasnost as a word that "had been in the Russian language for centuries. It was in the dictionaries and law books as long as there had been dictionaries and law books. It was an ordinary, hardworking, nondescript word that was used to refer to a process, any process of justice of governance, being conducted in the open." Glasnost can also refer to the specific period in the history of the USSR during the 1980s when there was less censorship and greater freedom of information.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) In politics, hardline refers to the doctrine, policy, and posturing of a government or political body as being absolutist and sometimes authoritarian. The hardline position is usually extremist and uncompromising. The term "hardliner" can be synonymous with the term "hawk" and is often used as a derogation. It can be used to refer to individuals within a political, special interest, or activist movement of almost any ideology.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Helsinki Final Act, Helsinki Accords or Helsinki Declaration was the final act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe held in Helsinki, Finland, during July and August 1,1975. Thirty-five states, including the USA, Canada, and all European states except Albania and Andorra, signed the declaration in an attempt to improve relations between the Communist bloc and the West. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a spontaneous nationwide revolt against the government of the People's Republic of Hungary and its Soviet-imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956. The revolt began as a student demonstration which attracted thousands as it marched through central Budapest to the Parliament building. A student delegation entering the radio building in an attempt to broadcast its demands was detained. When the delegation's release was demanded by the demonstrators outside, they were fired upon by the State Security Police (ÁVH) from within the building. The news spread quickly and disorder and violence erupted throughout the capital. The revolt spread quickly across Hungary, and the government fell. Thousands organized into militias, battling the State Security Police (ÁVH) and Soviet troops. Pro-Soviet communists and ÁVH members were often executed or imprisoned, as former prisoners were released and armed. Impromptu councils wrested municipal control from the ruling Hungarian Working People's Party and demanded political changes. The new government formally disbanded the ÁVH, declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free elections. By the end of October, fighting had almost stopped and a sense of normality began to return. After announcing a willingness to negotiate a withdrawal of Soviet forces, the Politburo changed its mind and moved to crush the revolution. On 4 November, a large Soviet force invaded Budapest and other regions of the country. Hungarian resistance continued until 10 November. Over 2,500 Hungarians and 700 Soviet troops were killed in the conflict, and 200,000 Hungarians fled as refugees. Mass arrests and denunciations continued for months thereafter. By January 1957, the new Soviet-installed government had suppressed all public opposition. These Soviet actions alienated many Western Marxists, yet strengthened Soviet control over Central Europe. Public discussion about this revolution was suppressed in Hungary for over 30 years, but since the thaw of the 1980s it has been a subject of intense study and debate. At the inauguration of the Third Hungarian Republic in 1989, October 23 was declared a national holiday.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) An intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) is a ballistic missile with a long range (greater than 5,500 km or 3,500 miles) typically designed for nuclear weapons delivery (delivering one or more nuclear warheads). Due to their great range and firepower, in an all-out nuclear war, land-based and submarine-based ballistic missiles would carry most of the destructive force, with nuclear-armed bombers having the remainder. ICBMs are differentiated by having greater range and speed than other ballistic missiles: intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs), medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs), short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs)—these shorter range ballistic missiles are known collectively as theater ballistic missiles. There is no single, standardized definition of what ranges would be categorized as intercontinental, intermediate, medium, or short. With the advent of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs) in 1970, deployed in Minuteman ICBMs and Poseidon SLBMs, a single missile had the capability of carrying several warheads, each of which could strike a different target. While the warheads of theater ballistic missiles are often conventional, ICBMs have been nearly inseparable from their connection with nuclear warheads. 'Nuclear ICBM' was seen as a redundant term. Strategic planning avoided the concept of a conventionally tipped ICBM, mainly because any ICBM launch threatens many countries and they are expected to react under the worst-case assumption that it is a nuclear attack. This threat of ICBMs to deliver such a lethal blow so rapidly to targets across the globe means that there has never been any end-to-end test of a nuclear-armed ICBM. The speed and range of an ICBM means that it is the only means by which military action can be taken promptly anywhere in the world, though the United States Prompt Global Strike effort is designed to allow for similar flexibility with conventional weapons.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) is a 1987 agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union. Signed in Washington, D.C. by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev on December 8, 1987, it was ratified by the United States Senate on May 27, 1988 and came into force on June 1 of that year. . . The treaty eliminated nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with intermediate ranges, defined as between 500-5,500 km (300-3,400 miles).  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Iranian Revolution refers to events involving the overthrow of Iran's monarchy (Pahlavi dynasty) under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and its replacement with an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution. Demonstrations against the Shah commenced in October 1977, developing into a campaign of civil resistance that was partly secular and partly religious, and intensified in January 1978. Between August and December 1978 strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country. The Shah left Iran for exile in mid-January 1979, and in the resulting power vacuum two weeks later Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to a greeting by several million Iranians. The royal regime collapsed shortly after on February 11 when guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran voted by national referendum to become an Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979, and to approve a new theocratic constitution whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country, in December 1979. The revolution was unusual for the surprise it created throughout the world: it lacked many of the customary causes of revolution (defeat at war, a financial crisis, peasant rebellion, or disgruntled military); produced profound change at great speed; was massively popular; overthrew a puppet regime of the United States, which was heavily protected by a lavishly financed army and security services; and replaced a modernizing monarchy with a theocracy based on Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists. Its outcome – an Islamic Republic "under the guidance of an extraordinary religious scholar from Qom" – was, as one scholar put it, "clearly an occurrence that had to be explained". (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The concept of the Iron Curtain symbolized the ideological fighting and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1989. On either side of the Iron Curtain, states developed their own international economic and military alliances: 1) The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the military Warsaw Pact on the east side, with the Soviet Union as most important member of each, and, 2) The European Community and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization on the west and south. Physically, the Iron Curtain took the shape of border defenses between the countries of Western and Eastern Europe, most notably the Berlin Wall, which served as a longtime symbol of the Curtain as a whole. The events that demolished the Iron Curtain started in Poland, and continued in Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Romania. Romania was the only Eastern bloc country to violently overthrow its communist regime. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Israeli–Palestinian conflict is the ongoing conflict between Israelis and Palestinians. The conflict is wide-ranging, and the term is also used in reference to the earlier phases of the same conflict, between Jewish and Zionist yishuv and the Arab population living in Palestine under Ottoman or British rule. It forms part of the wider Arab–Israeli conflict. The remaining key issues are: mutual recognition, borders, security, water rights, control of Jerusalem, Israeli settlements, Palestinian freedom of movement and legalities concerning refugees. The violence resulting from the conflict has prompted international actions, as well as other security and human rights concerns, both within and between both sides, and internationally. In addition, the violence has curbed expansion of tourism in the region, which is full of historic and religious sites that are of interest to many people around the world. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The KGB is the commonly used initials for the Russian Committee for State Security. It was the national security agency of the Soviet Union from 1954 until 1991, and its premier internal security, intelligence, and secret police organization during that time. The contemporary State Security Agency of the Republic of Belarus uses the Russian name KGB. Most of the KGB archives remain classified, yet two on-line documentary sources are available.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was a Korean Air Lines civilian airliner that was shot down by Soviet interceptors on 1 September 1983, over the Sea of Japan, near Moneron Island just west of Sakhalin island. All 269 passengers and crew aboard were killed, including Lawrence McDonald, a sitting member of the United States Congress. The aircraft was en route from New York City to Seoul via Anchorage when it strayed into prohibited Soviet airspace around the time of a planned missile test. The Soviet Union initially denied knowledge of the incident, but later admitted shooting the aircraft down, claiming that it was on a spy mission. The Politburo said it was a deliberate provocation by the United States, to test the Soviet Union's military preparedness, or even to provoke a war. The United States accused the Soviet Union of obstructing search and rescue operations. The Soviet military suppressed evidence sought by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) investigation, notably the flight data recorders, which were eventually released eight years later after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The incident was one of the tensest moments of the Cold War, and resulted in an escalation of anti-Soviet sentiment, particularly in the United States. The opposing points of view on the incident were never fully resolved; consequently, several groups continue to dispute official reports and offer alternative theories of the event. The subsequent release of KAL 007 flight transcripts and flight recorders by the Russian Federation has addressed some details. As a result of the incident, the United States altered tracking procedures for aircraft departing Alaska, while the interface of the autopilot used on airliners was redesigned to make it more ergonomic. President Ronald Reagan ordered the U.S. military to make the developing Global Positioning System (GPS) available for civilian use so that navigational errors like that of KAL 007 could be averted in the future.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Korean War (25 June 1950 – armistice signed 27 July 1953) was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China (PRC), with military material aid from the Soviet Union. The war was a result of the physical division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The Korean peninsula was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II. Following the surrender of Japan in 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th Parallel, with United States troops occupying the southern part and Soviet troops occupying the northern part. The failure to hold free elections throughout the Korean Peninsula in 1948 deepened the division between the two sides, and the North established a Communist government. The 38th Parallel increasingly became a political border between the two Koreas. Although reunification negotiations continued in the months preceding the war, tension intensified. Cross-border skirmishes and raids at the 38th Parallel persisted. The situation escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950. It was the first significant armed conflict of the Cold War. The United Nations, particularly the United States, came to the aid of South Korea in repelling the invasion, but within two months the defenders were pushed back to the Pusan perimeter, a small area in the south of the country, before the North Koreans were stopped. A rapid UN counter-offensive then drove the North Koreans past the 38th Parallel and almost to the Yalu River, and the People's Republic of China (PRC) entered the war on the side of the North. The Chinese launched a counter-offensive that pushed the United Nations forces back across the 38th Parallel. The Soviet Union materially aided the North Korean and Chinese armies. In 1953, the war ceased with an armistice that restored the border between the Koreas near the 38th Parallel and created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), a 2.5-mile (4.0 km) wide buffer zone between the two Koreas. Minor outbreaks of fighting continue to the present day. With both North and South Korea sponsored by external powers, the Korean War was a proxy war. From a military science perspective, it combined strategies and tactics of World War I and World War II: it began with a mobile campaign of swift infantry attacks followed by air bombing raids, but became a static trench war by July 1951.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Lebanese Civil War was a multifaceted civil war in Lebanon. The war lasted from 1975 to 1990 and resulted in an estimated 150,000 to 230,000 civilian fatalities. Another one million people (a quarter of the population) were wounded, and today approximately 350,000 people remain displaced. There was also a mass exodus of almost one million people from Lebanon. The Post-war occupation of the country by Syria was particularly politically disadvantageous to the Christian population as most of their leadership was driven into exile, or had been assassinated or jailed. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Liberal democracy, also known as constitutional democracy, is a common form of representative democracy. According to the principles of liberal democracy, elections should be free and fair, and the political process should be competitive. Political pluralism is usually defined as the presence of multiple and distinct political parties. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Mutual Assured Destruction is a doctrine of military strategy and national security policy in which a full-scale use of high-yield weapons of mass destruction by two opposing sides would effectively result in the complete, utter and irrevocable annihilation of both the attacker and the defender, becoming thus a war that has no victory nor any armistice but only effective reciprocal destruction. It is based on the theory of deterrence according to which the deployment, and implicit menace of use, of strong weapons is essential to threaten the enemy in order to prevent the use by said-enemy of the same weapons against oneself. The strategy is effectively a form of Nash equilibrium in which neither side, once armed, has any incentive to disarm thereafter. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Malta Summit consisted of a meeting between U.S. President George H. W. Bush and U.S.S.R. leader Mikhail Gorbachev, taking place between December 2-3 1989, just a few weeks after the fall of the Berlin Wall. It was their second meeting following a meeting that included then President Ronald Reagan, in New York in December 1988. During the summit, Bush and Gorbachev would declare an end to the Cold War, although whether it was truly such is a matter of debate. News reports of the time referred to the Malta Summit as the most important since 1945, when British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed on a post-war plan for Europe at Yalta. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was the large-scale American program to aid Europe where the United States gave monetary support to help rebuild European economies after the end of World War II in order to combat the spread of Soviet communism. The plan was in operation for four years beginning in April 1948. The goals of the United States were to rebuild a war-devastated region, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, and make Europe prosperous again. The initiative was named after Secretary of State George Marshall. The plan had bipartisan support in Washington, where the Republicans controlled Congress and the Democrats controlled the White House. The Plan was largely the creation of State Department officials, especially William L. Clayton and George F. Kennan. Marshall spoke of urgent need to help the European recovery in his address at Harvard University in June 1947. The reconstruction plan, developed at a meeting of the participating European states, was established on June 5, 1947. It offered the same aid to the Soviet Union and its allies, but they did not accept it. During the four years that the plan was operational, US $13 billion in economic and technical assistance was given to help the recovery of the European countries that had joined in the Organization for European Economic Co-operation. This $13 billion was in the context of a U.S. GDP of $258 billion in 1948, and was on top of $12 billion in American aid to Europe between the end of the war and the start of the Plan that is counted separately from the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan was replaced by the Mutual Security Plan at the end of 1951. The ERP addressed each of the obstacles to postwar recovery. The plan looked to the future, and did not focus on the destruction caused by the war. Much more important were efforts to modernize European industrial and business practices using high-efficiency American models, reduce artificial trade barriers, and instill a sense of hope and self-reliance. By 1952 as the funding ended, the economy of every participant state had surpassed pre-war levels; for all Marshall Plan recipients, output in 1951 was at least 35% higher than in 1938. Over the next two decades, Western Europe enjoyed unprecedented growth and prosperity, but economists are not sure what proportion was due directly to the ERP, what proportion indirectly, and how much would have happened without it. The Marshall Plan was one of the first elements of European integration, as it erased trade barriers and set up institutions to coordinate the economy on a continental level—that is, it stimulated the total political reconstruction of western Europe. Belgian economic historian Herman Van der Wee concludes the Marshall Plan was a "great success": "It gave a new impetus to reconstruction in Western Europe and made a decisive contribution to the renewal of the transport system, the modernization of industrial and agricultural equipment, the resumption of normal production, the raising of productivity, and the facilitating of intra-European trade." (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Martial law in Poland refers to the period of time from December 13, 1981 to July 22, 1983, when the authoritarian government of the People's Republic of Poland drastically restricted normal life by introducing martial law in an attempt to crush political opposition to it. Thousands of opposition activists were interned without charge and as many as 100 people were killed. Although martial law was lifted in 1983, many of the political prisoners were not released until the general amnesty in 1986. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Marxism–Leninism is a communist ideology that is officially based upon the theories of Marxism and Vladimir Lenin, that promotes the development and creation of international communist society through the leadership of a vanguard party over a revolutionary socialist state that represents the will and rule of the proletariat. It supports the creation of a totalitarian single party state. It rejects political pluralism external to communism, claiming that the proletariat need a single, able political party to represent them and exercise political leadership. The Marxist-Leninist state forbids opposition to itself and its ideology. Through the policy of democratic centralism, the communist party is the supreme political institution of the Marxist-Leninist state. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Military–industrial complex (MIC), or Military–industrial-congressional complex (MICC) is a concept commonly used to refer to policy and monetary relationships between legislators, national armed forces, and the industrial sector that supports them. These relationships include political contributions, political approval for defense spending, lobbying to support bureaucracies, and beneficial legislation and oversight of the industry. It is a type of iron triangle. The term is most often played in reference to the military of the United States, where it gained popularity after its use in the farewell address of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, though the term is applicable to any country with a similarly developed infrastructure.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Molotov Plan was the system created by the Soviet Union in 1947 in order to provide aid to rebuild the countries in Eastern Europe that were politically and economically aligned to the Soviet Union. It can be seen to be the USSR's version of the Marshall Plan, which for political reasons the Eastern European countries would not be able to join without leaving the Soviet sphere of influence. Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov rejected the Marshall Plan (1947), proposing the Molotov Plan — the Soviet-sponsored economic grouping which was eventually expanded to become the COMECON. The plan was a system of bilateral trade agreements which also established COMECON to create an economic alliance of socialist countries. This aid allowed countries in Europe to stop relying on American aid, and therefore allowed Molotov Plan states to reorganize their trade to the USSR instead.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO, also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The NATO headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, and the organization constitutes a system of collective defense whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association. However, the Korean War galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, famously stated the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down". Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defense against a prospective Soviet invasion—doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Nicaraguan Revolution (Spanish: Revolución Nicaragüense or Revolución Popular Sandinista, also RPS) encompasses the rising opposition to the Somoza dictatorship in the 1960s and 1970s, the campaign led by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional, FSLN) which led to the violent ousting of that dictatorship in 1979, and the subsequent efforts of the FSLN, which governed from 1979 until 1990, to reform the society and economy of the country along somewhat socialist lines. The revolution played a substantial role in foreign policy for Nicaragua, Central America and the Americas. The revolutionary conflict also marked one of the proxy wars in the Cold War.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The New Look was the name given to the national security policy of the United States during the administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. It reflected Eisenhower's concern for balancing the Cold War military commitments of the United States with the nation's financial resources and emphasized reliance on strategic nuclear weapons to deter potential threats, both conventional and nuclear, from the Eastern Bloc of nations headed by the Soviet Union. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) U.S. President Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to the People's Republic of China was an important step in formally normalizing relations between the United States and the People's Republic of China. It marked the first time a U.S. president had visited the PRC, who at that time considered the U.S. one of its staunchest foes. The visit has become a metaphor for an unexpected or uncharacteristic action by a politician. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The nomenklatura were a category of people within the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries who held various key administrative positions in all spheres of those countries' activity: government, industry, agriculture, education, etc., whose positions were granted only with approval by the communist party of each country or region. Virtually all were members of the Communist Party. Some authors who opposed the Soviet regime, such as Milovan Đilas, critically defined them as a new class. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) North American Aerospace Defense Command is a joint organization of Canada and the United States that provides aerospace warning, air sovereignty, and defense for the two countries. Headquarters NORAD is located at Peterson AFB, Colorado Springs, Colorado. NORAD command and control is exercised through the Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center, located a short distance away. . . The growing perception of the threat of long-range Soviet strategic bombers armed with nuclear weapons brought the U.S. and Canada into closer cooperation for air defense. While attacks from the Pacific or Atlantic would have been detected by Airborne Early Warning aircraft, Navy ships, or offshore radar platforms, the Arctic was under-protected. In the early 1950s the U.S. and Canada agreed to construct a series of radar stations across North America to detect a Soviet attack over the Arctic. . . The systems gave around three hours' warning of a bomber attack before they could reach any major population center. The command and control of the massive system then became a significant challenge. Discussions and studies of joint systems had been ongoing since the early 1950s and culminated on August 1, 1957, with the announcement by the U.S. and Canada to establish an integrated command, the North American Air Defense Command. On September 12, operations commenced in Colorado. A formal NORAD agreement between the two governments was signed on May 12, 1958.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first fission ("atomic") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10,000,000 tons of TNT. A modern thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg) can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons (1.1 million metric tons) of TNT. Thus, even a small nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast, fire and radiation. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of mass destruction, and their use and control has been a major focus of international relations policy since their debut.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The 1980s oil glut was a serious surplus of crude oil caused by falling demand following the 1970s Energy Crisis. The world price of oil, which had peaked in 1980 at over US$35 per barrel, fell in 1986 from $27 to below $10 . . . After 1980, reduced demand and overproduction produced a glut on the world market, causing a six-year-long decline in oil prices culminating with a 46 percent price drop in 1986.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Operation Condor was a campaign of political repression involving assassination and intelligence operations officially implemented in 1975 by the right-wing dictatorships of the Southern Cone of South America. The program aimed to eradicate alleged socialist and communist influence and ideas and to control active or potential opposition movements against the participating governments. Due to its clandestine nature, the precise number of deaths directly attributable to Operation Condor is highly disputed. It is estimated that a minimum of 60,000 deaths can be attributed to Condor, possibly more. Condor's key members were the governments in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil. The United States participated in a supervisory capacity, with Ecuador and Peru joining later in more peripheral roles. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Neue Ostpolitik (German for "new eastern policy"), or Ostpolitik for short, refers to the normalization of relations between the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, or West Germany) and Eastern Europe, particularly the German Democratic Republic (GDR, or East Germany) beginning in 1969. Influenced by Egon Bahr, who proposed "change through rapprochement" in a 1963 speech, the policies were implemented beginning with Willy Brandt, fourth Chancellor of the FRG from 1969 to 1974. Ostpolitik was an effort to break with the policies of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), which was the elected government of West Germany from 1949 until 1969. The Christian Democrats under Konrad Adenauer and his successors tried to combat the Communist regime of East Germany, while Brandt's Social Democrats tried to achieve a certain degree of cooperation with East Germany. The term Ostpolitik has since been applied to Pope Paul VI's efforts to engage Eastern European countries during the same period. The term Nordpolitik was also coined to describe similar rapprochement policies between North and South Korea beginning in the 1980s.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Perestroika (literally: Restructuring) was a political movement within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during 1980s, widely associated with the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Its literal meaning is "restructuring", referring to the restructuring of the Soviet political and economic system. Perestroika is often argued to be a cause of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe, and the end of the Cold War. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Unipolarity in international politics is a distribution of power in which there is one state with most of the cultural, economic, and military influence. This is different from hegemony since a hegemon may not have total control of the sea ports or "commons". . . Bipolarity is a distribution of power in which two states have the majority of economic, military, and cultural influence internationally or regionally. Often, spheres of influence would develop. For example, in the Cold War, most Western and democratic states would fall under the influence of the USA, while most Communist states would fall under the influence of the USSR. After this, the two powers will normally maneuver for the support of the unclaimed areas. . . Multipolarity is a distribution of power in which more than two nation-states have nearly equal amounts of military, cultural, and economic influence.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Prague Spring was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II. It began on 5 January 1968, when reformist Slovak Alexander Dubček came to power, and continued until 21 August when the Soviet Union and members of the Warsaw Pact invaded the country to halt the reforms. The Prague Spring reforms were an attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens in an act of partial decentralization of the economy and democratization. The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the media, speech and travel. After national discussion of dividing the country into a federation of three republics, Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia and Slovakia, Dubček oversaw the decision to split into two, the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic. This was the only change that survived the end of the Prague Spring. The reforms, especially the decentralization of administrative authority, were not received well by the Soviets, who, after failed negotiations, sent thousands of Warsaw Pact troops and tanks to occupy the country. A large wave of emigration swept the nation. While there were many non-violent protests in the country, including the protest-suicide of a student, there was no military resistance. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until 1990. After the invasion, Czechoslovakia entered a period of normalization: subsequent leaders attempted to restore the political and economic values that had prevailed before Dubček gained control of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ). Gustáv Husák, who replaced Dubček and also became president, reversed almost all of Dubček's reforms. The Prague Spring inspired music and literature such as the work of Václav Havel, Karel Husa, Karel Kryl, and Milan Kundera's novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) A proxy war or proxy warfare is a war that results when opposing powers use third parties as substitutes for fighting each other directly. While powers have sometimes used governments as proxies, violent non-state actors, mercenaries, or other third parties are more often employed. It is hoped that these groups can strike an opponent without leading to full-scale war. Proxy wars have also been fought alongside full-scale conflicts. It is almost impossible to have a pure proxy war, as the groups fighting for a certain nation usually have their own interests, which can diverge from those of their patron. Typically proxy wars function best during cold wars, as they become a necessity in conducting armed conflict between at least two belligerents while continuing cold warfare.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Reagan Doctrine was a strategy orchestrated and implemented by the United States under the Reagan Administration to oppose the global influence of the Soviet Union during the final years of the Cold War. While the doctrine lasted less than a decade, it was the centerpiece of United States foreign policy from the early 1980s until the end of the Cold War in 1991. Under the Reagan Doctrine, the U.S. provided overt and covert aid to anti-communist guerrillas and resistance movements in an effort to "roll back" Soviet-backed communist governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The doctrine was designed to serve the dual purposes of diminishing Soviet influence in these regions, while also potentially opening the door for capitalism (and sometimes liberal democracy) in nations that were largely being governed by Soviet-supported socialist governments.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Republics of the Soviet Union or the Union Republics of the Soviet Union were ethnically-based administrative units that were subordinated directly to the Government of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union was historically a highly centralized state; the decentralization and democratization reforms during the era of Perestroika and Glasnost conducted by Mikhail Gorbachev led to the Dissolution of the USSR. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Revolutions of 1989 (also known as the Fall of Communism, the Collapse of Communism, the Revolutions of Eastern Europe and the Autumn of Nations) were the revolutions which overthrew the communist regimes in European countries. The events began in Poland in 1989, and continued in Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Romania. One feature common to most of these developments was the extensive use of campaigns of civil resistance demonstrating popular opposition to the continuation of one-party rule and contributing to the pressure for change. Romania was the only Eastern Bloc country to overthrow its Communist regime violently. The Tienanmen Square protests of 1989 failed to stimulate major political changes in China. However, powerful images of courageous defiance during that protest helped to spark a precipitation of events in other parts of the globe. Among the famous anti-Communist revolutions was the fall of the Berlin Wall, which served as the symbolic gateway to German reunification in 1990. The Soviet Union was dissolved by the end of 1991, resulting in Russia and 14 nations declaring their independence from the Soviet Union: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Communism was abandoned in Albania and Yugoslavia between 1990 and 1992, the latter splitting into five successor states by 1992: Slovenia, Croatia, Republic of Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (comprising Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo). The impact was felt in dozens of Socialist countries. Communism was abandoned in countries such as Cambodia, Ethiopia, and Mongolia and South Yemen. The collapse of Communism led commentators to declare the end of the Cold War. The adoption of varying forms of market economy generally resulted at first in decreasing living standards in post-Communist States, together with side effects including the rise of business oligarchs in countries such as Russia, and disproportional social and economic development. Political reforms were varied; in many countries Communist institutions were able to keep themselves in power, such as the People's Republic of China, while for other states various emerging political parties succeeded. Many Communist and Socialist organizations in the West turned their guiding principles over to social democracy. The European political landscape was drastically changed, with numerous Eastern Bloc countries joining NATO and stronger European economic and social integration entailed.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila. The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok, Thailand. The organization's headquarters were also located in Bangkok. Primarily created to block further communist gains in Southeast Asia, SEATO is generally considered a failure because internal conflict and dispute hindered general use of the SEATO military; however, SEATO-funded cultural and educational programs left long-standing effects in Southeast Asia. SEATO was dissolved on 30 June 1977 after multiple members lost interest and withdrew.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The term show trial is a pejorative description of a type of highly public trial in which there is a strong connotation that the judicial authorities have already determined the guilt of the defendant. The actual trial has as its only goal to present the accusation and the verdict to the public as an impressive example and as a warning. Show trials tend to be retributive rather than correctional justice. The term was first recorded in the 1930s. Such trials can exhibit scant regard for the principles of jurisprudence and even for the letter of the law. Defendants have little real opportunity to justify themselves: they have often signed statements under duress and/or suffered torture prior to appearing in the court-room.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Reykjavik Summit was a summit meeting between U.S. president Ronald Reagan and Secretary-General of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev, held in the famous house of Höfði in Reykjavik, the capital city of Iceland, on October 11–12, 1986. The talks collapsed at the last minute, but the progress that had been achieved eventually resulted in the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) In political science, rollback is the strategy of forcing change in the major policies of a state, usually by replacing its ruling regime. It contrasts with containment, which means preventing the expansion of that state; and with détente, which means a working relationship with that state. Most of the discussions of rollback in the scholarly literature deal with United States foreign policy toward Communist countries during the Cold War. The rollback strategy was tried, and failed, in Korea in 1950, and in Cuba in 1961. The political leadership of the United States discussed the use of rollback during the uprising of 1953 in East Germany and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, but decided against it to avoid the risk of Soviet intervention and a major war. When Republican Senator Barry Goldwater demanded Why Not Victory? (1962), he was defeated in a landslide in 1964 because of the risk of nuclear war with the Soviets. The rollback strategy succeeded in Grenada in 1983. Ronald Reagan promoted a rollback strategy against what he called the "evil empire" (the Soviet Union) in the 1980s. NATO has deployed a rollback strategy in Afghanistan since 2001 to end the power of the Taliban. Rollback of governments hostile to the U.S. took place in the American Civil War (1861–65), World War I (against Germany 1918), World War II (against Italy 1943, Germany 1945 and Japan 1945), 1953 Iranian coup d'état, (against Mohammad Mosaddegh), Panama (against Noriega, 1989), and Iraq (against Saddam Hussein 2003). Today rollback is sometimes called "regime change".  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty refers to two rounds of bilateral talks and corresponding international treaties involving the United States and the Soviet Union—the Cold War superpowers—on the issue of armament control. There were two rounds of talks and agreements: SALT I and SALT II. Negotiations commenced in Helsinki, Finland, in 1969. SALT I led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two powers. Although SALT II resulted in an agreement in 1979, the United States chose not to ratify the treaty in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which took place later that year. The US eventually withdrew from SALT II in 1986. The treaties then led to START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty), which consisted of START I (a 1991 agreement between the United States, the Soviet Union) and START II (a 1993 agreement between the United States and Russia). These placed specific caps on each side's number of nuclear weapons.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) A satellite state (sometimes referred to as a client state) is a political term that refers to a country that is formally independent, but under heavy political and economic influence or control by another country. The term was coined by analogy to stellar objects orbiting a larger object, such as smaller moons revolving around larger planets, and is used mainly to refer to Central and Eastern European countries of the Warsaw Pact during the Cold War or to Mongolia between 1924 and 1990, for example. As used for Central and Eastern European countries it implies that the countries in question were "satellites" under the hegemony of the Soviet Union. In some contexts it also refers to other countries in the Soviet sphere of influence during the Cold War—such as North Korea (especially in the years surrounding the Korean War) and Cuba (particularly after it joined the Comecon). In Western usage, the term has seldom been applied to states other than those in the Soviet orbit. In Soviet usage, the term was applied to the states in the orbit of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. In times of war or political tension, satellite states sometimes serve as a buffer between an enemy country and the nation exerting control over the satellite. "Satellite state" is one of several contentious terms used to describe the (alleged) subordination of one state to another. Other such terms include puppet state and neo-colony. In general, the term "satellite state" implies deep ideological allegiance to the hegemonic power, whereas puppet state implies political and military dependence, and neo-colony implies (often abject) economic dependence. Depending on which aspect of dependence is being emphasized, a state may fall into more than one category.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was proposed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983 to use ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD). The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO) was set up in 1984 within the United States Department of Defense to oversee the Strategic Defense Initiative. The ambitious initiative was "widely criticized as being unrealistic, even unscientific" as well as for threatening to destabilize MAD and re-ignite "an offensive arms race". It was soon derided as Star Wars, after the popular 1977 film by George Lucas. In 1987, the American Physical Society concluded that a global shield such as "Star Wars" was not only impossible with existing technology, but that ten more years of research was needed to learn whether it might ever be feasible. Under the administration of President Bill Clinton in 1993, its name was changed to the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) and its emphasis was shifted from national missile defense to theater missile defense; and its scope from global to more regional coverage. It was never truly developed or deployed, though certain aspects of SDI research and technologies paved the way for some anti-ballistic missile systems of today. BMDO was renamed to the Missile Defense Agency in 2002. This article covers defense efforts under the SDIO. Under the SDIO's Innovative Sciences and Technology Office, headed by physicist and engineer James A. Ionson, PhD, the investment was predominantly made in basic research at national laboratories, universities, and in industry, and these programs have continued to be key sources of funding for top research scientists in the fields of high-energy physics, supercomputing/computation, advanced materials, and many other critical science and engineering disciplines: funding which indirectly supports other research work by top scientists, and which would be largely unavailable outside of the defense budget environment.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The term "Second World" is a phrase used to describe the communist states within the Soviet Union's sphere of influence or those countries that had centrally-planned economies. Along with "First World" and "Third World", the term was used to divide the nations of Earth into three broad categories. In other words, the concept of "Second World" was a construct of the Cold War and the term has largely fallen out of use since the revolutions of 1989, though it is still occasionally used to describe countries that are in between poverty and prosperity, many of which are communist and former communist countries today. Subsequently, the actual meaning of the terms "First World" and "Third World" changed from being based on political ideology to an economic definition. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The National Security Act of 1947 was signed by United States President Harry S. Truman on July 26, 1947, and realigned and reorganized the U.S. Armed Forces, foreign policy, and Intelligence Community apparatus in the aftermath of World War II. . . The Act merged the Department of War and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment, headed by the Secretary of Defense. It was also responsible for the creation of a Department of the Air Force separate from the existing Army Air Forces. . . Aside from the military reorganization, the act established the National Security Council, a central place of coordination for national security policy in the executive branch, and the Central Intelligence Agency, the U.S.'s first peacetime intelligence agency. The function of the council was to advise the president on domestic, foreign, and military policies so that they may cooperate more tightly and efficiently. Departments in the government were encouraged to voice their opinions to the council in order to make a more sound decision. The Joint Chiefs of Staff was officially established . . . The act and its changes, along with the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, were major components of the Truman administration's Cold War strategy.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states considering themselves not aligned formally with or against any major power bloc. As of 2011, the movement had 118 members and 20 observer countries. . . The organization was founded in Belgrade in 1961, and was largely the brainchild of Yugoslavia's President, Josip Broz Tito, India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, Egypt's second President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, Ghana's first president Kwame Nkrumah, and Indonesia's first President, Sukarno. All five leaders were prominent advocates of a middle course for states in the Developing World between the Western and Eastern blocs in the Cold War. The phrase itself was first used to represent the doctrine by Indian diplomat and statesman V.K. Krishna Menon in 1953, at the United Nations. The purpose of the organization as stated in the Havana Declaration of 1979 is to ensure "the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries" in their "struggle against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, and all forms of foreign aggression, occupation, domination, interference or hegemony as well as against great power and bloc politics." They represent nearly two-thirds of the United Nations's members and 55% of the world population, particularly countries considered to be developing or part of the Third World.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) "Sinatra Doctrine" was the name that the Soviet government of Mikhail Gorbachev used jokingly to describe its policy of allowing neighboring Warsaw Pact nations to determine their own internal affairs. The name alluded to the Frank Sinatra song "My Way"—the Soviet Union was allowing these nations to go their own way. This was a major break with the earlier Brezhnev Doctrine, under which the internal affairs of satellite states were tightly controlled by Moscow. This had been used to justify the invasions of Czechoslovakia in 1968 as well as of the non-Warsaw Pact nation of Afghanistan in 1979. By the late 1980s, structural flaws within the Soviet system, growing economic problems, the rise of anti-communist sentiment and the effects of the Afghan war made it increasingly impractical for the Soviet Union to impose its will on its neighbors.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Sinyavsky-Daniel trial was a trial against Russian writers Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel, which took place in the Supreme Court of the RSFSR in Moscow between September 1965 and February 1966. This show trial is widely considered to mark the end of the period of Khruschev's liberalism and was a major starting impulse for the modern Soviet dissident movement. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Six-Day War, also known as the June War, 1967 Arab-Israeli War, or Third Arab-Israeli War, was fought between June 5 and June 10, 1967, by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt (known at the time as the United Arab Republic), Jordan, and Syria. After a period of high tension between Israel and its neighbors, the war began on June 5 with Israel launching surprise air strikes against Arab forces. The outcome was a swift and decisive Israeli victory. Israel took effective control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Opinions are divided on whether Israel's attack was an act of aggression or a preemptive strike of a defensive nature. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) Solidarity is a Polish trade union federation that emerged on August 31, 1980 at the Gdańsk Shipyard under the leadership of Lech Wałęsa. It was the first non-communist party-controlled trade union in a Warsaw Pact country. Solidarity reached 9.5 million members before its September 1981 congress that constituted 1/3 of the total working age population of Poland. In the 1980s, Solidarity was a broad anti-bureaucratic social movement, using the methods of civil resistance to advance the causes of workers' rights and social change. The government attempted to destroy the union during the period of martial law in the early 1980s and several years of political repression, but in the end it was forced to negotiate with the union. The Round Table Talks between the government and the Solidarity-led opposition led to semi-free elections in 1989. By the end of August a Solidarity-led coalition government was formed and in December 1990 Wałęsa was elected President of Poland. Since then it has become a more traditional, liberal trade union. 30 years after emerging its membership dropped to over 400,000.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (abbreviated USSR, СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991. An informal name used among its residents was the Union (Soyuz). The Soviet Union had a single-party political system dominated by the Communist Party until 1990. Although the USSR was nominally a union of Soviet republics (15 in all after 1956) with the capital in Moscow, it was actually a highly centralized state with a planned economy. The Russian Revolution of 1917 brought about the downfall of the Russian Empire. Its successor, the Russian Provisional Government, was short-lived. After the Bolsheviks won the ensuing Russian Civil War, the Soviet Union was founded in December 1922 with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and Bylorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Following the death of the first Soviet leader, Vladimir Lenin, in 1924, Joseph Stalin eventually won a power struggle and led the country through a large-scale industrialization with a command economy and political repression. In World War II, in June 1941, Germany and its allies invaded the Soviet Union, a country with which it had signed a non-aggression pact. After four years of brutal warfare, the Soviet Union emerged victorious as one of the world's two superpowers, the other being the United States. The Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellite states engaged in the Cold War, a prolonged global ideological and political struggle against the United States and its Western Bloc allies, which it ultimately lost in the face of economic troubles and both domestic and foreign political unrest. In the late 1980s, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev tried to reform the state with his policies of perestroika and glasnost, but the Soviet Union collapsed and was formally dissolved in December 1991 after the abortive August coup attempt. The Russian Federation assumed its rights and obligations. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Space Race was a mid-to-late twentieth century competition between the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US) for supremacy in space exploration. Between 1957 and 1975, Cold War rivalry between the two nations focused on attaining firsts in space exploration, which were seen as necessary for national security and symbolic of technological and ideological superiority. The Space Race involved pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, sub-orbital and orbital human spaceflight around the Earth, and piloted voyages to the Moon. It effectively began with the Soviet launch of the Sputnik 1 artificial satellite on 4 October 1957, and concluded with the co-operative Apollo-Soyuz Test Project human spaceflight mission in July 1975. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project came to symbolize détente, a partial easing of strained relations between the USSR and the US. The Space Race had its origins in the missile-based arms race that occurred just after the end of the World War II, when both the Soviet Union and the United States captured advanced German rocket technology and personnel. The Space Race sparked unprecedented increases in spending on education and pure research, which accelerated scientific advancements and led to beneficial spin-off technologies. An unforeseen effect was that the Space Race contributed to the birth of the environmental movement; the first color pictures of Earth taken from deep space were used as icons by the movement to show the planet as a fragile "blue marble" surrounded by the blackness of space. Some famous probes and missions include Sputnik 1, Explorer 1, Vostok 1, Mariner 2, Ranger 7, Luna 9, Apollo 8, and Apollo 11.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Sputnik program is the commonly known name of a group of various robotic spacecraft missions launched by the Soviet Union. The first of these, Sputnik 1, launched the first human-made object to orbit the Earth. That launch took place on October 4, 1957 as part of the International Geophysical Year and demonstrated the viability of using artificial satellites to explore the upper atmosphere. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The State Protection Authority (Hungarian: Államvédelmi Hatóság or ÁVH) was the secret police force of Hungary from 1945 until 1956. It was conceived of as an external appendage of the Soviet Union's secret police forces, but attained an indigenous reputation for brutality during a series of purges beginning in 1948, intensifying in 1949 and ending in 1953. In 1953 Joseph Stalin died, and Imre Nagy (a moderate reformer) was appointed Prime Minister of Hungary. Under Nagy's first government from 1953 to 1955, the ÁVH was gradually reined in. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) START (for Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was a bilateral treaty between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) on the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. The treaty was signed on 31 July 1991 and entered into force on 5 December 1994. The treaty barred its signatories from deploying more than 6,000 nuclear warheads atop a total of 1,600 ICBMs, submarine-launched ballistic missiles, and bombers. START negotiated the largest and most complex arms control treaty in history, and its final implementation in late 2001 resulted in the removal of about 80 percent of all strategic nuclear weapons then in existence. Proposed by United States President Ronald Reagan, it was renamed START I after negotiations began on the second START treaty. The START I treaty expired 5 December 2009. On 8 April 2010, the replacement New START treaty was signed in Prague by U.S. President Obama and Russian President Medvedev. Following ratification by the U.S. Senate and the Federal Assembly of Russia, it went into force on 26 January 2011.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression was an offensive war fought by France, the United Kingdom, and Israel against Egypt beginning on October 29, 1956. Less than a day after Israel invaded Egypt, Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to Egypt and Israel, and then began to bomb Cairo. In a short time, and despite Israeli and British denials, considerable evidence showed that the two attacks were planned in collusion, with France as the instigator, Britain as a belated partner, and Israel as the willing trigger. Anglo-French forces withdrew before the end of the year, but Israeli forces remained until March 1957, prolonging the crisis. In April, the canal was fully reopened to shipping, but other repercussions continued. The attack followed the President of Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser's decision of 26 July 1956 to nationalize the Suez Canal, after the withdrawal of an offer by Britain and the United States to fund the building of the Aswan Dam, which was in response to Egypt's new ties with the Soviet Union and recognizing the People's Republic of China during the height of tensions between China and Taiwan. The aims of the attack were primarily to regain Western control of the canal and precipitate the fall of Nasser from power, whose policies were viewed as potentially threatening the strategic interests of the three nations. The three allies, especially Israel, were mainly successful in attaining their immediate military objectives, but pressure from the United States and the USSR at the United Nations and elsewhere forced them to withdraw. As a result of the outside pressure Britain and France failed in their political and strategic aims of controlling the canal and removing Nasser from power. Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. As a result of the conflict, the UNEF would police the Egyptian–Israeli border to prevent both sides from recommencing hostilities.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Tienanmen Square protests of 1989, also known as the June Fourth Incident in Chinese (in part to avoid confusion with two prior Tienanmen Square protests), were a series of demonstrations in and near Tienanmen Square in Beijing in the People's Republic of China (PRC) beginning on 15 April 1989. The protests are also known as the Tienanmen Massacre, but journalistic use of the term has waned in recent years. This is because, according to James Miles, the BBC reporter who originally covered the protests, the violence did not actually happen in Tienanmen, but outside the square in the city of Beijing. The term also gives a misleading impression that demonstrations only happened in Beijing, when in fact they occurred in many large cities throughout Mainland China. The protests were sparked by mass mourning over the death of former CPC General Secretary Hu Yaobang, a Party official who had been purged for his support of political liberalization. By the eve of Hu's funeral, 100,000 people gathered at Tienanmen Square. Beijing students began the demonstrations to encourage continued economic reform and liberalization, and evolved into a mass movement for political reform. From Tienanmen Square they later expanded to the surrounding streets. Non-violent protests also occurred in cities throughout China, including Shanghai and Wuhan. Looting and rioting occurred in various locations throughout China, including Xi'an and Changsha. The movement used mainly non-violent methods and can be considered a case of civil resistance. Led mainly by students and intellectuals, the protests occurred in the year that was to see the collapse of a number of communist governments in eastern Europe. The movement lasted seven weeks after Hu's death on 15 April. Premier Li Peng, a hardline conservative, declared martial law on 20 May, but no military action took place until 4 June, when the tanks and troops of the People's Liberation Army moved into the streets of Beijing, using live fire while proceeding to Tienanmen Square to clear the area of protestors. The exact number of civilian deaths is not known, and the majority of estimates range from several hundred to thousands. There was widespread international condemnation of the government's use of force against the protesters. There was little bloodshed in Tienanmen Square itself however, the killings mostly took place three miles west of the Square. Following 4 June, the government conducted widespread arrests of protesters and their supporters, cracked down on other protests around China, banned the foreign press from the country and strictly controlled coverage of the events in the domestic press. The Communist Party initiated a large-scale campaign to purge officials deemed sympathetic to the protests. Several senior officials, most notably Party General Secretary Zhao Ziyang, were placed under house arrest. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Truman Doctrine was a policy set forth by U.S. President Harry S Truman on March 12, 1947 stating that the U.S. would support Greece and Turkey with economic and military aid to prevent their falling into the Soviet sphere. Truman stated the Doctrine would be "the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." Truman reasoned, because these "totalitarian regimes" coerced "free peoples," they represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States. Truman made the plea amid the crisis of the Greek Civil War (1946–1949). He argued that if Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid that they urgently needed, they would inevitably fall to communism with grave consequences throughout the region. For years Britain had supported Greece, but was now near bankruptcy and was forced to radically reduce its involvement. In February 1947, Great Britain formally requested the United States take over its role in supporting the Greek government. The policy won the support of Republicans who controlled Congress and involved sending $400 million in American money, but no military forces, to the region. The effect was to end the Communist threat, and in 1952 both countries joined NATO, a military alliance that guaranteed their protection. The Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world. It shifted American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union from détente (friendship) to, as George F. Kennan phrased it, a policy of containment of Soviet expansion. Historians often use its announcement to mark the starting date of the Cold War.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The 1960 U-2 incident occurred during the Cold War on May 1, 1960, during the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower and during the leadership of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, when a United States U-2 spy plane was shot down over the airspace of the Soviet Union. The United States government at first denied the plane's purpose and mission, but then was forced to admit its role as a covert surveillance aircraft when the Soviet government produced its intact remains and surviving pilot, Francis Gary Powers, as well as photos of military bases in Russia taken by Gary Powers. Coming roughly two weeks before the scheduled opening of an East–West summit in Paris, the incident was a great embarrassment to the United States and prompted a marked deterioration in its relations with the Soviet Union. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of South Vietnam, supported by the United States and other anti-communist nations. The Viet Cong, a lightly armed South Vietnamese communist-controlled common front, largely fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The Vietnam People's Army (North Vietnamese Army) engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units into battle. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery and airstrikes. The U.S. government viewed involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam as part of their wider strategy of containment. The North Vietnamese government viewed the war as a colonial war, fought initially against France, backed by the U.S., and later against South Vietnam, which it regarded as a U.S. puppet state. U.S. military advisers arrived beginning in 1950. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with U.S. troop levels tripling in 1961 and tripling again in 1962. U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Operations spanned borders, with Laos and Cambodia heavily bombed. Involvement peaked in 1968 at the time of the Tet Offensive. After this, U.S. ground forces were withdrawn as part of a policy called Vietnamization. Despite the Paris Peace Accords, signed by all parties in January 1973, fighting continued. U.S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973 as a result of the Case–Church Amendment passed by the U.S. Congress. The capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese army in April 1975 marked the end of the Vietnam War. North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities (See: Vietnam War casualties). Estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from less than one million to more than three million. Some 200,000–300,000 Cambodians, 20,000–200,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The War of Attrition was a limited war fought between Israel and Egypt from 1967 to 1970. Following the 1967 Six Day War, there were no serious diplomatic efforts to resolve the issues at the heart of the Arab-Israeli conflict. In September 1967 Arab states formulated the "Three Nos" policy, barring peace, recognition or negotiations with Israel. Egyptian President Gamel Abdel Nasser believed only military initiative would compel Israel or the international community to force a full Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai, and hostilities soon resumed along the Suez Canal. These initially took the form of limited artillery duels and small scale incursions into the Sinai, but by 1969 the Egyptian Army was prepared for larger scaled operations. On March 8, 1969, Nasser proclaimed the official launch of the War of Attrition, characterized by large scale shelling along the Canal, extensive aerial warfare and commando raids. Hostilities continued until August 1970 and ended with a ceasefire, the frontiers remaining the same as when the war began, with no real commitment to serious peace negotiations. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance (1955–1991), or more commonly referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty subscribed to by eight communist states in Eastern Europe. It was established at the Soviet Union's initiative and realized on 14 May 1955, in Warsaw. In the Communist Bloc, the treaty was the military analogue of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the communist (East) European economic community. The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet Bloc’s military response to West Germany’s May 1955 integration to the NATO Pact, per the Paris Pacts of 1954. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) On the night of 20–21 August 1968, the Soviet Union and her main allies in the Warsaw Pact – Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary and Poland) – invaded the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic in order to halt Alexander Dubček's Prague Spring political liberalization reforms. In the operation, codenamed Danube, varying estimates of between 175,000 and 500,000 troops attacked Czechoslovakia; approximately 500 Czechs and Slovaks were wounded and 108 killed in the invasion. The invasion successfully stopped the liberalization reforms and strengthened the authority of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The foreign policy of the Soviet Union during this era was known as the Brezhnev Doctrine. (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.) The Yom Kippur War, Ramadan War or October War, also known as the 1973 Arab-Israeli War and the Fourth Arab-Israeli War, was fought from October 6 to 25, 1973, between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria. The war began when the coalition launched a joint surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur, the holiest day in Judaism, which coincided with the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. Egyptian and Syrian forces crossed ceasefire lines to enter the Israeli-held Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights respectively, which had been captured and occupied since the 1967 Six-Day War. The conflict led to a near-confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, both of whom initiated massive resupply efforts to their allies during the war. The war began with a massive and successful Egyptian crossing of the Suez Canal during the first three days, after which they dug in, settling into a stalemate. The Syrians coordinated their attack on the Golan Heights to coincide with the Egyptian offensive and initially made threatening gains against the greatly outnumbered Israelis. Within a week, Israel recovered and launched a four-day counter-offensive, driving deep into Syria. To relieve this pressure, the Egyptians went back on the offensive, but were decisively defeated; the Israelis then counterattacked at the seam between two Egyptian armies, crossed the Suez Canal, and advanced southward and westward in over a week of heavy fighting. An October 22 United Nations-brokered ceasefire quickly unraveled, with each side blaming the other for the breach. By 24 October, the Israelis had improved their positions considerably and completed their encirclement of Egypt's Third Army. This development led to tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. As a result, a second ceasefire was imposed cooperatively on October 25 to end the war. At the conclusion of hostilities, Israeli forces were 40 kilometers (25 mi) from Damascus and 101 kilometers (63 mi) from Cairo. The war had far-reaching implications. The Arab World, which had been humiliated by the lopsided rout of the Egyptian-Syrian-Jordanian alliance in the Six-Day War, felt psychologically vindicated by early successes in the conflict. In Israel, despite impressive operational and tactical achievements on the battlefield, the war effectively ended its sense of invincibility and complacency. The war also challenged many American assumptions; the United States initiated new efforts at mediation and peacemaking. These changes paved the way for the subsequent peace process. The Camp David Accords that followed led to the return of the Sinai to Egypt and normalized relations—the first peaceful recognition of Israel by an Arab country. Egypt continued its drift away from the Soviet Union and left the Soviet sphere of influence entirely.  (wikipedia.org.  Accessed on September 1, 2011.)

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Vic Damone — On the Street Where You Live — Listen, watch, download and discover music for free at Last.fm easy listening "On the Street Where You Live" is a song with music by Frederick Loewe and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner from the 1956 Broadway musical My Fair Lady. It is sung in the musical by the character Freddy Eynsford-Hill, who was portrayed by John Michael King in the original production. In the 1964 film version, it was sung by Bill Shirley, dubbing for actor Jeremy Brett. Vic Damone recorded the most popular version of this song in 1956 for Columbia… read more Don't want to see ads? Subscribe now Similar Tracks

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ON THE STREET WHERE YOU LIVE - YouTube ON THE STREET WHERE YOU LIVE Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Jul 24, 2008 A beautiful song from the motion picture "My Fair Lady"..... Category

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MY FAIR LADY - ON THE STREET WHERE YOU LIVE LYRICS On the Street Where You Live Lyrics My Fair Lady - On the Street Where You Live Lyrics Freddie: When she mentioned how her aunt Bit off the spoon, she completely done me in And my heart went on a journey to the moon When she told about her father and the gin And I never saw a more enchanting farce Than the moment when she shouted, "Move your bloomin'" (interrupted) I have often walked down this street before But the pavement always stayed beneath my feet before All at once am I several stories high Knowing I'm on the street where you live Are there lilac trees in the heart of town? Can you hear a lark in any other part of town? Does enchantment pour out of every door? No it's just on the street where you live And oh the towering feeling Just to know somehow you are near The overpowering feeling That any second you may suddenly appear People stop and stare, they don't bother me For there's nowhere else on earth that I would rather be Let the time go by, I won't care If I can be here on the street where you live People stop and stare, they don't bother me For there's nowhere else on earth that I would rather be Let the time go by, I won't care If I can be here on the street where you live... Lyrics powered by www.musixmatch.com

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On The Street Where You Live ~ Vic Damone - YouTube On The Street Where You Live ~ Vic Damone Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Feb 14, 2014 "On the Street Where You Live" is a song with music by Frederick Loewe and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner from the 1956 Broadway musical My Fair Lady. It is sung in the musical by the character Freddy Eynsford-Hill, who was portrayed by John Michael King in the original production. In the 1964 film version, it was sung by Bill Shirley, dubbing for actor Jeremy Brett. The most popular single of the song was recorded by Vic Damone in 1956 for Columbia Records. It reached #4 on the Billboard magazine charts and #6 on Cash Box magazine's chart. It was a #1 hit in the UK in 1958. In 1955, Damone had only one song on the charts, "Por Favor," which did not make it above #73. However, he did have major roles in two movie musicals, Hit the Deck and Kismet. In early 1956, he moved from Mercury to Columbia Records and had some success on that label with hits like "On the Street Where You Live" (from My Fair Lady, his final pop top ten) and "An Affair to Remember" (from the movie of the same name). His six original, long-playing albums on Columbia between 1957 and 1961 were That Towering Feeling, Angela Mia, Closer Than a Kiss, This Game of Love, On the Swingin' Side and Young and Lively. Oh, the towering feeling Just to know somehow you are near I have often walked on this street before But the pavement always stayed beneath my feet before All at once am I several stories high Knowing I'm on the street where you live Are there lilac trees in the heart of town Can you hear a lark in any other part of town Does enchantment pour out of every door No, it's just on the street where you live For oh, the towering feeling Just to know somehow you are near The overpowering feeling That any second you may suddenly appear People stop and stare, they don't bother me For there's nowhere else on earth That I would rather be Let the time go by, I won't care if I Can be here on the street where you live Sound recording administered by SME (thanks for allowing this to remain) "The AUDIO content does not belong to me. I do not profit from these Videos and/or Slideshows. I do not own copyrights of the images, which are from free websites. This is strictly for Educational use and Commentary purposes." "No copyright is claimed in [the music] and to the extent that material may appear to be infringed, I assert that such alleged infringement is permissible under fair use principles in U.S. copyright laws. If you believe material has been used in an unauthorized manner, please contact the poster." Copyright Disclaimer--"Copyright Disclaimer Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for "fair use" for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing. Non-profit, educational or personal use tips the balance in favor of fair use." Category

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Andy Williams - On The Street Where You Live lyrics | LyricsMode.com On The Street Where You Live lyrics $album_name To explain lyrics, select line or word and click "Explain". Create lyrics explanation Select some words and click "Explain" button. Then type your knowledge, add image or YouTube video till "Good-o-meter" shows "Cool" or "Awesome!". Publish your explanation with "Explain" button. Get karma points! OK, got it! New! Read & write lyrics explanations Highlight lyrics and explain them to earn Karma points. Andy Williams – On The Street Where You Live lyrics Words and Music by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe From the Broadway musical "My Fair Lady" Previously charted in 1956 by Vic Damone (#4), Eddie Fisher (#18), and Lawrence Welk (#96) I have often walked down this street before But the pavement always stayed beneath my feet before All at once am I several stories high Knowing I'm on the street where you live Are there lilac trees in the heart of town? Can you hear a lark in any other part of town? Does enchantment pour out of every door? No, it's just on the street where you live And oh, the towering feeling just to know somehow you are near The overpowering feeling that any second you may suddenly appear People stop and stare, they don't bother me For there's nowhere else on earth that I would rather be Let the time go by, I won't care if I Can be here on the street where you live Transcribed by Ronald E. Hontz Ronhontz

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Where The Streets Have No Name by U2 Songfacts Where The Streets Have No Name by U2 Songfacts Songfacts In 1985, Bono visited Ethiopia after performing at Live Aid. Many people assumed this song was about that trip, since the streets there really don't have names, just numbers. The song is actually about Ireland. In Ireland (and Northern Ireland), the many cities are divided: rich/poor, Catholic/Protestant, etc. By knowing which street a person lives on you can tell their religion, wealth and beliefs - it's where the streets have no name. Brian Eno produced this and played the organ intro. The Edge did a D-chord delay arpeggio on his 4-track recorder at home to create the rest of the track. >> Suggestion credit: Flanagan - Canada, for above 2 Steve Lillywhite, who produced U2's first three albums, was brought in to do the final mix. This is the first track on The Joshua Tree, which became the fastest-selling album in both the US and UK. This song was extremely difficult to produce. The arrangement was written on a blackboard because it was so complex. Producer Brian Eno estimated that the recording of this song absorbed over 40% of the time spent on The Joshua Tree. Eno became so frustrated trying to mix the track that he almost destroyed the tape and started over. According to the co-producer Daniel Lanois, the assistants never followed Eno's frustrated instructions to wipe the tape. Daniel Lanois recalled to Mojo magazine January 2008 about the song's tricky birth: "It was a bit of a tongue-twister for the rhythm section, with strange bar lengths that got everybody in a bad mood. I can remember pointing at a blackboard, walking everybody through the changes like a science teacher. There's a part of Eno that likes instant gratification. He'd rather throw something difficult away and start something new." The video shows U2 putting on an impromptu concert on the roof of of the Republic Liquor Store on the corner of 7th and Main Street in Los Angeles. This was an innovative way to shoot a video, leading to some surprised looks as some onlookers were delighted, while others were upset because they were stopping traffic. The concert/video shoot took place March 27, 1987. U2 played the song four times, and also played " People Get Ready ," " In God's Country ," " Sunday Bloody Sunday " and " Pride (In The Name Of Love) ." It won the Grammy for Best Performance Music Video in 1989. The concept was similar to the Beatles famous Apple Records rooftop concert on January 30, 1969, which they used in their movie Let It Be. When asked about the similarity between U2's rooftop video and The Beatles rooftop concert, Bono said, "We've ripped off The Beatles many times before." This song has a very long instrumental intro. Bono's vocals come in at 1:46. Bono (from Propaganda 5, 1987): "Where the Streets Have No Name is more like the U2 of old than any of the other songs on the LP, because it's a sketch - I was just trying to sketch a location, maybe a spiritual location, maybe a romantic location. I was trying to sketch a feeling. I often feel very claustrophobic in a city, a feeling of wanting to break out of that city and a feeling of wanting to go somewhere where the values of the city and the values of our society don't hold you down. An interesting story that someone told me once is that in Belfast, by what street someone lives on you can tell not only their religion but tell how much money they're making - literally by which side of the road they live on, because the further up the hill the more expensive the houses become. That said something to me, and so I started writing about a place where the streets have no name." >> Suggestion credit: Bertrand - Paris, France The single also included "Sweetest Thing," which became a hit when it was re-released in 1998. Pet Shop Boys did a mashup of this song with the Frankie Valli hit " Can't Take My Eyes Off You ," which they called "Where the Streets Have No Name (I Can't Take My Eyes off You)." Released as a single in the US, it charted at #72 in 1991. In the UK, it was issued as a double A-side single with "How Can You Expect to Be Taken Seriously?," which reached #4. U2 performed this at halftime of the 2002 Super Bowl between the Patriots and Rams. As they played, names of victims in the September 11 attacks were scrolled on a giant screen. At the end of the performance Bono opened his jacket to reveal an American flag in the lining.

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Broadway Musical Home - My Fair Lady Broadway Musical Home Who starred in the original cast? Where can I buy the music? What’s the buzz on Broadway? Find out at Broadway Musical Home My Fair Lady Buy Tickets About the Musical This Lerner and Loewe 1957 Tony Award-winner for Best Musical is based on George Bernard Shaw’s 1913 play “Pygmalion” and is the basis for the 1964 Academy Award-winning film starring Audrey Hepburn and Rex Harrison. Story: Eliza Doolittle, a rough Cockney girl, meets Colonel Pickering and Henry Higgins in Covent Garden where she’s selling flowers. When Higgins remarks that he could help Eliza speak properly and raise her status in the community, Pickering challenges him to do so and Eliza takes him up on the offer. Though difficult and frustrating for both Eliza and Higgins at first, the lessons soon begin to work wonders, and produce results that neither predict.

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Bruce Springsteen | New Music And Songs | Bruce Springsteen About Bruce Springsteen In the decades following his emergence on the national scene in 1975, Bruce Springsteen proved to be that rarity among popular musicians, an artist who maintained his status as a frontline recording and performing star, consistently selling millions of albums and selling out arenas and stadiums around the world year after year, as well as retaining widespread critical approbation with ecstatic reviews greeting those discs and shows. Although there were a few speed bumps along the way in Springsteen's career, the wonder of his nearly unbroken string of critical and commercial success is that he achieved it while periodically challenging his listeners by going off in unexpected directions, following his muse even when that meant altering the sound of his music or the composition of his backup band, or making his lyrical message overtly political. Of course, it may have been these very sidesteps that kept his image and his music fresh, especially since he always had the fallback of returning to what his fans thought he did best, barnstorming the country with a marathon rock & roll show using his longtime bandmates. Bruce Springsteen was born September 23, 1949 in Freehold, New Jersey, the son of Douglas Springsteen, a bus driver, and Adele (Zirilli) Springsteen, a secretary. He became interested in music after seeing Elvis Presley perform on The Ed Sullivan Show in 1956 and got a guitar, but he didn't start playing seriously until 1963. In 1965, he joined his first band, the Beatles-influenced Castiles. They got as far as playing in New York City, but broke up in 1967 around the time Springsteen graduated from high school and began frequenting clubs in Asbury Park, New Jersey. From there, he briefly joined Earth, a hard rock band in the style of Cream. Also in the hard rock vein was his next group, Child (soon renamed Steel Mill), which featured keyboard player Danny Federici and drummer Vini Lopez. (Later on, guitarist Steve Van Zandt joined on bass.) Steel Mill played in California in 1969, drawing a rave review in San Francisco and even a contract offer from a record label. But they broke up in 1971, and Springsteen formed a big band, the short-lived Dr. Zoom & the Cosmic Boom, quickly superseded by the Bruce Springsteen Band. Along with Federici, Lopez, and Van Zandt (who switched back to guitar), this group also included pianist David Sancious and bassist Garry Tallent, plus a horn section that didn't last long before being replaced by a single saxophonist, Clarence Clemons. Due to a lack of work, however, Springsteen broke up the band and began playing solo shows in New York City. It was as a solo performer that he acquired a manager, Mike Appel, who arranged an audition for legendary Columbia Records talent scout John Hammond. Hammond signed Springsteen to Columbia in 1972. In preparing his debut LP, Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J., Springsteen immediately re-hired most of his backup band, Federici, Lopez, Sancious, Tallent, and Clemons. (Van Zandt, on tour with the Dovells, was mostly unavailable.) The album went unnoticed upon its initial release in January 1973 (although Manfred Mann's Earth Band would turn its lead-off track, "Blinded by the Light," into a number one hit four years later, and the LP itself has since gone double platinum). The Wild, the Innocent & the E Street Shuffle (September 1973) also failed to sell despite some rave reviews. (It too has gone double platinum.) The following year, Springsteen revised his backup group -- now dubbed the E Street Band -- as Lopez and Sancious left, and Max Weinberg (drums) and Roy Bittan (piano) joined, and in 1975, Van Zandt returned to the group. With this unit he toured extensively while working on the LP that represented his last chance with Columbia. By the time Born to Run (August 1975) was released, the critics and a significant cult audience were with him, and the title song became a Top 40 hit while the album reached the Top Ten, going on to sell six million copies. Despite this breakthrough, Springsteen's momentum was broken by a legal dispute, as he split from Appel and brought in Jon Landau (a rock critic who had famously called him the "rock & roll future" in a 1974 concert review) as his new manager. The legal issues took until 1977 to resolve, during which time Springsteen was unable to record. (One beneficiary of this problem was Patti Smith, to whom Springsteen gave the composition "Because the Night," which, with some lyrical revisions by her, became her only Top 40 hit in the spring of 1978.) He finally returned in June 1978 with Darkness on the Edge of Town. By then, he had to rebuild his career. Record labels had recruited their own versions of the Springsteen "heartland rock" sound, in such similar artists as Bob Seger & the Silver Bullet Band (who actually preceded Springsteen but achieved national recognition in his wake), Johnny Cougar (aka John Mellencamp), Tom Petty & the Heartbreakers, Meat Loaf, Eddie Money, and even fellow Jersey Shore residents Southside Johnny & the Asbury Jukes, to name only some of the more successful ones. At the same time, the punk/new wave trend had become the new focus of critical devotion, making Springsteen seem unfashionable. Notwithstanding these challenges, Darkness earned its share of good reviews and achieved Top Ten status, selling three million copies as the single "Prove It All Night" hit the Top 40. (In early 1979, the Pointer Sisters took Springsteen's composition "Fire" into the Top Ten.) Springsteen fully consolidated his status with his next album, the two-LP set The River (October 1980), which hit number one, sold five million copies, and spawned the Top Ten hit "Hungry Heart" and the Top 40 hit "Fade Away." (In 1981-1982, Gary U.S. Bonds reached the Top 40 with two Springsteen compositions, "This Little Girl" and "Out of Work.") But having finally topped the charts, Springsteen experimented on his next album, preferring the demo recordings of the songs he had made for Nebraska (September 1982) to full-band studio versions, especially given the dark subject matter of his lyrics. The stark LP nevertheless hit the Top Ten and sold a million copies without benefit of a hit single or a promotional tour. (Van Zandt amicably left the E Street Band for a solo career at this point and was replaced by Nils Lofgren.) But then came Born in the U.S.A. (June 1984) and a two-year international tour. The album hit number one, threw off seven Top Ten hits ("Dancing in the Dark," which earned Springsteen his first Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance, "Cover Me," "Born in the U.S.A.," "I'm on Fire," "Glory Days," "I'm Goin' Down," and "My Hometown"), and sold 15 million copies, putting Springsteen in the pop heavens with Michael Jackson and Prince. For his next album, he finally exploited his reputation as a live performer by releasing the five-LP/three-CD box set Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band Live/1975-85 (November 1986), which topped the charts, was certified platinum 13 times, and spawned a Top Ten hit in a cover of Edwin Starr's "War." (In March 1987, "the Barbusters" -- actually Joan Jett & the Blackhearts, took Springsteen's composition "Light of Day," written for the movie of the same name, into the Top 40.) Characteristically, Springsteen returned to studio work with a more introverted effort, Tunnel of Love (October 1987), which presaged his 1989 divorce from his first wife, actress Julianne Phillips. (He married a second time to singer/songwriter/guitarist Patti Scialfa, who had joined the E Street Band as a backup vocalist in 1984.) The album was another number one hit, selling three million copies and producing two Top Ten singles, "Brilliant Disguise" and the title song, as well as the Top 40 hit "One Step Up." The album earned him a second male rock vocal Grammy. (In the spring of 1988, Natalie Cole covered the Springsteen B-side "Pink Cadillac" for a Top Ten hit.) Springsteen retreated from public view in the late '80s, breaking up the E Street Band in November 1989. He returned to action in March 1992 with a new backup band, simultaneously releasing two albums, Human Touch and Lucky Town, which entered the charts at numbers two and three, respectively, each going platinum. A double-sided single combining "Human Touch" and "Better Days" was a Top 40 hit. Of course, this was a relative fall-off from the commercial heights of the mid-'80s, but Springsteen was undeterred. He next contributed the moody ballad "Streets of Philadelphia" to the soundtrack of Philadelphia, film director Jonathan Demme's 1993 depiction of a lawyer fighting an unjust termination for AIDS. The recording became a Top Ten hit, and the song went on to win Springsteen four Grammys (Song of the Year, Best Rock Song, best song written for a motion picture or television, and another for male rock vocal) and the Academy Award for best song. In early 1995, Springsteen reconvened the E Street Band to record a few new tracks for his Greatest Hits (February 1995). The album topped the charts and sold four million copies, with one of the new songs, "Secret Garden," eventually reaching the Top 40. Despite this success, Springsteen resisted the temptation to reunite with the E Street Band on an ongoing basis at this point, instead recording another low-key, downcast, near-acoustic effort in the style of Nebraska, The Ghost of Tom Joad (November 1995), and embarking on a solo tour to promote it. The LP won a Grammy for best contemporary folk album, but it missed the Top Ten and only went gold. A much more prolific songwriter and recording artist than what was reflected in his legitimately released discography, Springsteen went into his vault of unreleased material and assembled the four-CD box set Tracks (November 1998), which went platinum. Whether inspired by the playing he heard on those recordings, bowing to constant fan pressure, or simply recognizing the musicians with whom he had made his most successful music, Springsteen finally reunited the E Street Band in 1999, beginning with a performance at his induction into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame. All the members from the 1974-1989 edition of the group returned. (Characteristically, Springsteen sidestepped the question of whether to use Van Zandt or Lofgren in the guitar position by rehiring both of them.) They embarked on a world tour that lasted until mid-2000, its final dates resulting in the album Live in New York City, which hit the Top Ten and sold a million copies. Springsteen's writing process in coming up with a new rock album to be recorded with members of the E Street Band was given greater impetus in the wake of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the resulting disc, The Rising (July 2002), contained songs that reflected on the tragedy. The album hit number one and sold two million copies, winning the Grammy for rock album, as the title song won for rock song and male rock vocal. Following another lengthy tour with the E Street Band, Springsteen again returned to the style and mood of Nebraska on another solo recording, Devils & Dust (April 2005), taking to the road alone to promote it. The album hit number one and went gold, winning a Grammy for Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance. One year later, Springsteen unveiled another new musical approach when he presented We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions (April 2006), an album on which he played new arrangements of folk songs associated with Pete Seeger, played by a specially assembled Sessions Band. The album reached the Top Ten and went gold as Springsteen toured with the group. It also won the Grammy for Best Traditional Folk Album. The tour led to a concert recording, Live in Dublin (June 2007), which reached the Top 40. Once again, Springsteen recorded a new rock album, Magic (October 2007), as a precursor to re-forming the E Street Band and going out on another long tour. The album hit number one and went platinum, with the song "Radio Nowhere" earning Grammys for rock song and solo rock vocal. (Another track from the album, "Girls in Their Summer Clothes," won the rock song Grammy the following year.) Sadly, longtime E Street Band keyboardist Danny Federici succumbed to a three-year battle with melanoma on April 17, 2008, his death causing the first irrevocable change in the group's personnel (saxophonist Clarence Clemons would die on June 18, 2011 due to complications from a stroke). Federici was replaced by Charles Giordano, who had played with Springsteen previously in the Sessions Band. Springsteen finished the tour in 2008 and held several additional shows in support of Senator Barack Obama, whose presidential campaign had kicked into hyperdrive earlier that year. While playing an Obama rally in early November, Springsteen debuted material from his forthcoming album, Working on a Dream, whose tracks had been recorded with the E Street Band during breaks in the group's previous tour. The resulting album, which was the last to feature contributions from Federici (as well as his son, Jason), arrived on January 27, 2009, one week after Obama's historic inauguration. It immediately hit number one, Springsteen's ninth album to top the charts over a period of three decades, and it went on to go gold and win him another Grammy for solo rock vocal. In February, Springsteen and the E Street Band provided the half-time entertainment at Super Bowl XLIII. The group's tour, which featured full-length performances of some of Springsteen's classic albums at selected shows, ran through November 22, 2009. In December, the 60-year-old was ranked fourth among the top touring acts of the first decade of the 21st century, behind only the Rolling Stones, U2, and Madonna. The same month he was a recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors. Springsteen's 2010 was devoted to a revival of Darkness on the Edge of Town, with the 1978 masterpiece receiving an expanded box set called The Promise: The Making of Darkness on the Edge of Town; the set contained a feature-length documentary and a double-disc set of outtakes that was also available separately. As Springsteen began work on a studio album produced by Ron Aniello, who'd previously worked with Patti Scialfa, Clarence Clemons died. Clemons' last recorded solo appeared on "Land of Hope and Dreams," one of many politically charged songs on the resulting album, Wrecking Ball. Supported by a major media blitz that included a showcase week of Bruce covers on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and the Boss delivering a keynote address at South by Southwest, Wrecking Ball appeared the first week of March 2012. Before the end of that month, he embarked on a mammoth world tour to promote the album, on which he eventually took in 26 countries over the course of 18 months. Late in 2013, it was announced that the E Street Band would receive a belated induction into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame in early 2014. Prior to the induction ceremony came High Hopes, Springsteen's 18th studio album. Inspired in part by Rage Against the Machine guitarist Tom Morello, who had temporarily replaced Van Zandt for the last six months of the Wrecking Ball tour and also played on the album, High Hopes was a collection of covers, reinterpretations of old songs, and leftovers; it appeared in mid-January 2014 and easily reached number one on the album charts. He toured with the E Street Band through the late spring, and also issued the EP American Beauty, which consisted of four unreleased songs from the High Hopes sessions. In late 2015, Springsteen released another audio/video box set offering an in-depth look at one of his classic albums. The Ties That Bind: The River Collection offered a remastered version of Springsteen's 1980 album, along with an expansive disc of outtakes, an early single-LP version of the album Springsteen pulled prior to release, an original documentary on the making of The River, and a complete concert filmed in Tempe, Arizona in 1980. In the fall of 2016, Springsteen released a memoir entitled Born to Run, which was accompanied by a career-spanning collection called Chapter & Verse that he compiled himself. ~ William Ruhlmann, Rovi

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The July Bomb Plot - History Learning Site The July Bomb Plot Citation: C N Trueman "The July Bomb Plot" historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 18 May 2015. 16 Aug 2016. The July Bomb Plot of 1944 was an attempt by senior German Army officers to kill Hitler and end World War Two . The July Bomb Plot was not the first attempt to kill Hitler, but it was the one that came the closest to success.   By the summer of 1944 , some senior figures in Germany’s military believed that Hitler’s leadership was dooming Germany to defeat – many believed that defeat was simply a matter of time, especially after the Russian success at Stalingrad . They believed that the Allies would be open to negotiation with regards to a conditional surrender once Hitler had been killed. From this belief the Bomb Plot developed. Hitler had frequently warned those in his inner circle that they all faced the problem of assassination attempts. Reinhard Heydrich had been assassinated in Prague and in 1942 , there had been a failed attempt on Goebbels life. However, Hitler took great steps to prevent such attempts. No-one knew in advance his movements, whether it was by car, train or plane. Increasingly after 1940 , he locked himself away in either the Chancellery in Berlin or his mountain home in Berchtesgaden. From 1944 on, his principal ‘home’ was the Wolf’s Lair at Rastenburg in East Prussia. Simply getting near to Hitler would have been very difficult and security around him when he did venture into the public arena was very tight. Hitler also did not allow anyone near him to carry a weapon. Therefore any attempt on his life would have had to be meticulously planned. The principal figures in the July Plot were: Ludwig Beck Colonel; Chief of Staff Army Reserve Aged 37 Of the above, only von Moltke was against the use of violence. However, the key figure was Count Claus von Stauffenberg as he had actual contact with Hitler on a regular basis and he could get into the Wolf’s Lair with few problems. Stauffenberg was a career army officer. He had served in the Polish campaign , and the attacks on Western Europe in 1940 . From here, he served in North Africa where, in July 1943 , he was severely wounded from the gunfire of a low-flying plane. He lost his right hand and forearm and all but three of the fingers on his left hand. He had also lost his right eye. However, as Chief-of-Staff Army Reserve, he had to meet with Hitler on a regular basis. His presence there on July 20th, 1944 , would not have aroused any suspicions. In 1943, the civilian element involved in conspiracies against Hitler were under attack. Many were arrested and imprisoned. Therefore, those conspirators in the army decided that a more direct approach was needed – Hitler should be killed, and those civilians concerned with the new order after Hitler’s death could do their work once he had been killed. There had been attempts by military personnel before July 1944. Baron Henning von Tresckow, a staff officer, had sent two brandy bottles to a friend at Rastenburg – Major-General Helmuth Stieff. In fact, the bottles disguised a bomb. Stieff was a staff officer of the Army High Command at Rastenburg. He would have had the ability to put the bombs anywhere. The bomb failed to go off and Tresckow had to spend time retrieving them. Colonel von Gersdorff, a young officer in Tresckow’s circle offered himself as a suicide bomber when Hitler was to open a museum in Berlin. This failed as Hitler could not make up his mind whether to open the new museum or not. In November 1943, Axel von dem Bussche, a young army officer, offered to blow himself up while modeling a new military great coat in front of Hitler. This only failed because Hitler, once again, cancelled the meeting. Therefore, there was a history of army officers conspiring against Hitler – Stauffenberg was certainly not the first. After a long stay in hospital, Stauffenberg was appointed Chief-of-Staff to Friedrich Olbricht who was Head of the Supply Section of the Reserve Army. The headquarters for this unit was the War Office in Berlin – not at Rastenburg. Other conspirators worked at the War Office – Tresckow in particular. Both Stauffenberg and Tresckow had already met in 1941 and it would seem that Stauffenberg’s appointment was not a coincidence. The conspiracy against Hitler was given the code-name ‘Valkyrie’. Not long after Stauffenberg arrived at the War Office, Tresckow had to return to his unit at the Eastern Front. This left Stauffenberg and Olbricht to do all of the work in Berlin. By now, Olbricht had decided on former general Beck to be the man who would succeed Hitler as Head of State. In June 1944, the conspiracy took a major step forward when Stauffenberg was promoted to full colonel and made the Chief-of-Staff to General Fromm. It was now necessary for Stauffenberg to attend meetings that were headed by Hitler. He first met Hitler on June 7th, 1944, just one day after D-Day . Now the German Army was faced with the probability of destruction on two fronts – something that the conspirators could not allow. Hence, speed became the essence. Tresckow sent Stauffenberg a message from the Eastern Front: “The assassination must be attempted, at any cost. Even should that fail, the attempt to seize power in the capital must be undertaken. We must prove to the world and to the future generations that the men of the German resistance movement dared to take the decisive step and to hazard their lives upon it. Compared with this, nothing else matters.” However, in early July a series of arrests took place in Germany. Stauffenberg did not know who would be next or how much the Gestapo knew. It certainly was not unusual for the Gestapo to leave known conspirators alone and free from arrest – until they were needed. The Gestapo was far more interested in who the conspirators met with – something they would never find out if they were locked up in a cell. July brought more problems. Sympathetic senior officers were moved posts (Field Marshall Kluge went from the Eastern Front to the Western Front – thus isolating Tresckow). Field Marshall Rommell , who had been critical of the way Hitler ran the war, was severely injured when his car was attacked by a fighter plane. With a scenario of this going wrong and getting worse, Stauffenberg decided to quickly push on. He was the perfect person to carry in a bomb – no-one would suspect the severely disabled war hero. Stauffenberg received orders that the next staff conference was to be at 13.00 on July 20th. The start was changed to 12.30 – though the time change meant little to Stauffenberg. Having broken a capsule full of acid which would eat through a wire detonator thus activating a firing pin, Stauffenberg went into a map room with Field Marshall Keital and placed the bomb, hidden in his briefcase, against a leg of the table that supported the war maps that Hitler was using. After this was done, Stauffenberg made his excuse (he had to take a telephone report from Berlin) and left the map room. He went to his staff car and as he got level to it, an explosion occurred in the map room. The time was 12.42. The SS guards believed that an air raid was taking place. Regardless of this, Stauffenberg bluffed his way out of the very heavily guarded Wolf’s Lair and by 13.15 was on his plane for the journey to Berlin. Just before the bomb was due to explode, an officer attending the briefing had moved the briefcase to the other side of the table support chosen by Stauffenberg as the ideal place to put the bomb. Therefore, the blast was directed away from Hitler who survived with his clothes singed, a cut to his hand and damaged ear drums. In fact, at 16.00, less than four hours after the explosion, Hitler gave Mussolini a tour of the damage done to the map room. “I have escaped death miraculously.”  Hitler“Heaven has held its protective hand over you.”  Mussolini“I will crush and destroy the criminals who have dared to oppose themselves to Providence and me.” Hitler The planned coup d’état in Berlin that was to follow the assassination was a disaster. It had clearly not been well thought out. The only leading Nazi in Berlin at the time was Joseph Goebbels. A major in the Guards Battalion, Otto Remer, was sent to arrest Goebbels by the conspirators directing the doomed uprising in the capital. Remer, in fact, was a dedicated Nazi and Goebbels put him in direct contact with Hitler to prove that the Führer was still alive. Promoted on the spot by Hitler to a colonel, Remer was charged by Hitler with rounding up the conspirators. At 18.45 a radio broadcast stated that there had been an attempt on Hitler’s life but that it had failed and Hitler was alive. The radio broadcast then stated that Hitler would address the German people sometime in the evening. The conspirators, including Stauffenberg, based in the War Office were rounded up. They went through the farce of a court martial and were then shot by a firing squad. Tresckow walked into No-Man’s-Land on the Eastern Front and was shot by Russian machine gun fire. However, this was only the start of Hitler’s revenge. Anybody who was implicated in the plot faced arrest, torture and execution. Many had to stand trial before Roland Freisler, the Nazi judge who showed no mercy to anyone.

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BBC ON THIS DAY | 20 | 1944: Hitler survives assassination attempt About This Site | Text Only 1944: Hitler survives assassination attempt Adolf Hitler has escaped death after a bomb exploded at 1242 local time at his headquarters in Rastenberg, East Prussia. The German News Agency broke the news from Hitler's headquarters, known as the "wolf's lair", his command post for the Eastern Front. A senior officer, Colonel Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg, has been blamed for planting the bomb at a meeting at which Hitler and other senior members of the General Staff were present. Hitler has sustained minor burns and concussion but, according to the news agency, managed to keep his appointment with Italian leader Benito Mussolini. The attempt which has failed must be a warning to every German to redouble his war effort German News Agency Hermann Goering, Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe and Hitler's designated successor, went to see Hitler when he heard about the attack. The German News Agency said the German people were deeply grateful that no serious harm had come to their leader and that fate had allowed him to "accomplish his great task". "The attempt which has failed must be a warning to every German to redouble his war effort," said the newsreader. And the deputy head of the press, Helmut Suendermann, stated: "The German people must consider the failure of the attempt on Hitler's life as a sign that Hitler will complete his tasks under the protection of a divine power." This is the third attempt on Hitler's life and underlines the tension in Germany now faced with a two-front war as the allies take northern France and the Red Army close in on the Reich. This week has seen the heaviest American bombing of Germany since they entered the war. The 8th Air Force from Britain and the 15th Air Force from Italy sent about 5,500 heavy bombers and some 4,000 fighter planes to attack oil and aircraft stores in Germany and Austria. The Soviet Army has made major advances on the front line between Brest-Litovsk and Lvov - a strategic city that is the key to capturing southern Poland.

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Valkyrie Wehrmact July bomb plot Valkyrie: The Wehrmacht July Bomb Plot (July 1944) Figure 1.--Hitler narrowly escaped death as a result of Staufenberg's bomb. He was baddly shaken, but alive. Here staff officer's celebrate his survival. He lost his hearing in one ear. Notice how he is holding his right hand because it was trembling uncontrollably. His survival meant that the War would continue another 10 months. Most of the damage to Germany occurred during this 10 month period. We arenot sure about all of the people pictured here. The man behind Hitler is probably his secretary Martin Boreman. The injured man is Field Marshall Keitel. In the background between Hitler and Keitel it looks like Speer. Source: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek. The best known assination attempt was the Wehrmacht Valkyrie conspiracy ending in the July Bomp Plot (1944). Hitler had correctly judged that after his appointment as Chancellor, that the Reichwehr was the only force in Germany that could prevent him from seizing absolute power. The Whermacht was also in 1944 the only force capable of taking control of Germany from the NAZIs. Wehrmacht officers had perpetrated terrible attrocities. Some were apauled with what the SS abd other security forces were doing. Others were bothered about the Wehrmacht's conduct. Only the impending defeat of Germany, however, brought about an attempted (July 1944). An idealistic young Catholic aristocrat, Colonel Claus von Staufenberg, placed a bomb in the Wolf's Lair. After Hitler was dead, the Hpme Army would seize control of Berlin and then Germany. The idea was to then negotiate a separate peace with the Western Allies. That by 1944 was unrealistic. Someone moved the bomb and Hitler was protected by the thick oak leg of the map table. The failure to kill Hitler and the extensive NAZi penetration of the Wehrmacht led to the coup's failure. The bulk of the Wehrmacht remained loyal to Hitler and the NAZIs. In the end, the Wehrmacht's sense of honor condemned the German people who they were resonsible for protecting To a cruel fate. The real loser was the German people. The great bulk of German civilian casualties took place after the failed coup. Nearly a million Germans would die in 1945. More were wounded or raped. And many who sonehow survived had their homes and work places destroyed. To form the Honor Court trying the conspirators, Hitler appointed Field Marshal Gerd Von Rundstedt--a Prussian aristocrat who despised Hitler personally. Importance Hitler correctly judged that after his appointment as Chancellor, that the Reichwehr was the only force in Germany that could prevent him from seizing absolute power. The Whermacht was also in 1944 the only force capable of taking control of Germany from the NAZIs. Some authors suggest that the fact that the plot to assasinate Hitler came from within the Wehrmacht shows the extent to which the barbarities of the NAZIs offended the Christian sensibilities of the Prussian officer corps. It certainly offended some like Col. Stauffenberg. One author writes, "The radicalization of the resiatance was most marked among army officersvwho witnessed such attrocities as the massacre of Jewish communities, and the slaughter of Slav 'sun-humans--both civilians and Soviet prisoners--and who gradually became aware of similar Nazi crimes within Germanybitself, including the euthanasia of the mentally and physically handicapped. Such flagrant trampling on the Christain ethics that had tradutionally underpinned Christian ethics that had tradutiinally underpinned German society profiundly shicked tge Prussian officer corps." [Jones] Just how many is another question. It must remembered that the Wehrmacht itself was deeply implicated in the cries committed in the occupied countries. And at any rate, from an early point, it was only the Wehrmacht that as Hitler correctly assessed, had the capability of seizing power from the NAZIs. Attitudes within the Wehrmacht Goebbels after the Soviet Winter Offensive before Moscow (December 1941) began writing about defeatists within the Wehrmacht. Interestingly he discussed this issue with Abwehr Commander Admiral Canaris. Goebbels did not complain about abti-NAZI setiment or objections to German attrocities, but criticism about the War and Germany's ability to win it. Wehrmacht officers had perpetrated terrible attrocities. Some were apauled with what the SS and other security forces were doing, especially the Einstatzgruppen in the Soviet Union. The Holocaust was primrily conducted by the SS, but the Wehrmacht played an essential supporting role and was involved in actual killing as well. Others were bothered about Hitler's mismanagement of the War effort and interference in the tactical decesiuons. Only the impending defeat of Germany, however, brought about an actual attempt (July 1944). This suggests that the major complaint was not the attrocities, but Hitler's conduct of the War and his continual interference in tactical decesions. This is important because the Wehrmacht was the only institution within Germany that had the force to remove Hitler. It there was toi be a coup, it could only come cfrom the Wehrmacht. Previous Attempts Valkyrie was not the first attempt on Hitler's life. There were in fact several and they came very close to killing him. Every year the NAZI Party faithful met at the Munich B�rgerbr�ukeller to hear Hitler speak on the anniversary of the failed Beer Hall Putsch. The Munich B�rgerbr�ukeller was demolished by carpeter Georg Elser's bomb (November 8, 1939). He was a humbel carpenter disturbed by the way the NAZIs treated working people and what as he saw as Hitler's march toward war. Eight people were killed and 60 injured. Hitler who left early, however, eascaped injury. A Wehrmacht plot also almost killed him. Hitler visited Army Group Center's headquaters at Smolensk (March 13, 1943). A bomb on his plane failed to detonate. [Jones] The aristocratic von Boeselager brothers serving under von Kluge, appauled by attrocities they witnessed, were involved in attemps to kill Hitler (1943 and 44). Timing The timing of the July plot has been questioned. Actually there had been earlier attempts that had not succeeded, but were unknow to the NAZis because the actual explosives had not been detonated. It is certianly the case that it was too late to save the vast number of Jews consumed in the Holocaust or Slavs killed in the Soviet Union. It was too lare the save the NAZI regime. The Allies had landed in Normandy and were in the process od of destroying the German forces in France. The Red Army was in the process if destroying the Wehrmachts largest remaining formation--Army Group Central. What had not yet taken place, however, was the destruction og German cities. The Allied bombers had damaged a number of cities, but it was not unttil Eisenhiwer released the 8th Air Firce and Bomber Command (September 1944) that the devestation of German cities went forward. And they would proceed to relentlessly pound the cities of the Reich. The ploters had various goals in mind. Some still thought that a Soviet occipation could be avoided. Many hoped to avoid the whole-scale destruction of Germany which was yet to occur. Claus von Staufenberg (1907-44) Claus von Stauffenberg was born in Jettingen (1907). He had twin older brothers (Berthold and Alexander). He was very intelligent, but only an average student. He decided on a military career and at age 19 became a cadet. The Germany Army, the Reichswehr was extremely limited because of the Versailles Peace Treaty. He went on to attended the War Academy in Berlin. He was appointed to the General Staff (1938). Germany invaded Poland, launnching World war II (September 1939). Stauffenberg was assigned to the staff of the the staff of 6th Panzer Division. Germany Generals and Hitler gave considerable effort to tanks (panzers), emphasizing speed and mobility. Poland was the world's introduction to what they could do. The turning point of the War, was Hitler's decesion to invade the Soviet Union--Operation Barbarossa (June 1941). During Barbarossa Stauffenberg was horrified by the atrocities committed by Germans, especially the Schutzstaffeinel (SS). He met other officers that shared his revulsion of SS attrocities. Especially important were Henning von Tresckow and Fabin Schlabrendorff). He was promoted to the rank of major. He was severly wounded when his staff car ran into a mine field and was strafed by aircraft. Stauffenberg's injuries were extensive. He lost his left eye, two fingers on the left hand and his right forearm. Even before he was injured Staufenberg was meeting with other officers that shared his revulsion of the SS and the attrocities German forces were committing. Especially important were Henning von Tresckow and Fabin Schlabrendorff). Stauffenberg decided s early as 1942 to kill Adolf Hitler and overthrow the Nazi government and began conspiring with like-minded officers. The result was the July Bomb Plot. The Plan An idealistic young Catholic aristocrat, Colonel Claus von Staufenberg was assigned the key role. The key conspirators were Admiral Wilhelm Canaris (head of the Abwehr), Carl Goerdeler, Julius Leber, Ulrich Hassell, Hans Oster (Admiral Canaris' deputy), Henning von Tresckow, Fabin Schlabrendorff, Peter von Wartenburg, Ludwig Beck, and Erwin von Witzleben. As a result of the need for secrecy, many individuals were not directly involved in the plot, but were willing to accept Hitler's removal as demonstrated by the fact that they did not report clearly treasonous conversations. Stauffenberg was promoted to Colonel and appointed Chief of Staff to Home Army Commander General Friedrich Fromm (June 1944). This was the posuition that gave him direct access to Hitler's briefing sessions. The overall plot was much more involved including a range of Wehrmacht officers including General Erwin Rommel . The attemp became known as the July Bomb Plot. The plan was to assasinate the key NAZI leaders (Adolf Hitler, Hermann Goering and Heinrich Himmler ), then use loyal troops to seize control of Berlin and the major government buildings. This would include the important communication facilities in Berlin: telephone and signal centers and radio broadcasting stations. The key target of course was the F�hrer himself. Several attempts were made on Hitler's life. At least six attempts had to be aborted. Stauffenberg decided he could kill Hitler during a military conference at the F�hrer Wolf's Lair (field headquarters) in northern Poland (July 20, 1944). Stauffenberg was there as a representative of the Home Army. The idea was to kill G�ring and Himmler with the same bomb. After Hitler was dead, the Home Army would seize control of Berlin and then Germany. G�ring and Himmler were not at the conference. Despite orders to abort the bombing, Staufenberg decided to go ahead. Stauffenberg had never previously met Hitler. He carried the bomb in a briefcase and placed it on the floor next to where Hitler was standing. He then left to make a pre-arranged telephone call. The bomb exploded and Staufenberg thought he had suceeded. Hitler had, however, moved the brirf case to the other side of a oak beam supporting the briefing table. Four men were killed. Hitler was badly shaken and his right arm injured, but he was not killed. After Hitler's assasintion, Ludwig Beck, Erwin von Witzleben and Erich Fromm were to take command of the Wehrmacht. This effort was abandoned when it became clear that Hitler had survived. Failure The idea was to kill Hitler and for Wehrmacht units to take contol of the sate aparatus. They would then negotiate a separate peace with the Western Allies. That by 1944 was unrealistic. And the failure to kill Hitler doomed the plot. The efforrt behan to unravel when the briefing was moved from a solidly built bunker to a wooden hut. Thios waas because of construction work and sweltering summer temperatures. Stauffenberg only had time to arm one of the two bombs in his briefcase. He placed it under the map table next to Hitler. After he left, however, another officer wanting a better view of the map moved it. The briefcase thus ended up behind a heavy table leg which when it exoloded, shielded Hitler from the blast. And the wooden hut failed to contain the explosion as anunker would have done. In the end, the failure to kill Hitler and the extensive NAZi penetration of the Wehrmact led to the coup's failure. The bulk of the Wehrmacht remained loyal to Hitler and the NAZIs. Fromm attempting to protect himself, ordered the immediate execution of Stauffenberg along with three other conspirators (Friedrich Olbricht and Werner von Haeften). They were executed by firing squad in the courtyard of the War Ministry. Stauffenberg is reported to have shouted "Long live free Germany" as he was shot. Reprisals Himmler�s Gestapo encouraged by an enraged Hitler proceeded to round up most, but all of the principal conspirators. They also arrested large numbers of individals who had only the most remote connections to the plot. They also discovered details about earlier failed plots, especially conspiracies in 1938, 1939 and 1943. The Gestapo found incriminating letters and diaries and viciously interogated those arrested. This led to more and more arrests. Himmler�s new Sippenhaft (blood guilt) laws led in addition to the arrest of relatives of the principal plotters--this included wives, children and the elderly. We are not sure that famo;y members were tortured unless they ws evidence of complicity. Here we need more information. Eventually about 5,000 people were arrested and approximately 200 executed. They were not all connected with the July 20 Bomb Plot. The Gestapo used the opportunity to move against several individuals eho they had suspected of disloyalty. Relatively few of the plotters attempted to escape or to deny guilt after the Gestapo arrested them. Trials We note questions about what the Germans planned for Allied leaders if they had won the war. We have a very good idea what any NAZI trial would have been like. All we have to do is look at Stalin�s Show Trials or the NAZI trial of the July Bomb Plot conspirators. The NAZI trials were totally different than the Vichy Riom trials. Those who managed to survive the brutal Gestapo interrogations were given perfunctory trials before Volksgerichtshof (People�s Court) and its dedicated NAZI judge, Roland Freisler. The first trials were held within a few weeks (August 7-8). One historian writes, "Just one day later, having beeb roundly abused, intimidated, humiliated and accused by Freisler of high treason and betraying Germany, all seven of these well-known and (in four cases) very senior officers were found guilty. Their executions were carried out with calculated savagery at Berlin-Pl�tzensee later that same day .... During the days and months that followed, a further 89 alleged conspirators followed those first seven army officers into the same execution shed, the majority of them serving or retired army officers." [Stone] Hitler appointed Field Marshal Gerd Von Rundstedt, a Prussian aristocrat who despised Hitler personally, to oversee the purging of the Wehrmacht. He oversaw the Honor Court trying the conspirators. If any one dared speak out he knew that his family would suffer. When they appeared in court without attorneys and the ability to present evidence. The accused were were unshaven and hollow shells. They were denied belts so they had to hold up their trousers while being harangued by Freisler. Hitler ordered that those found guilty be "hung like cattle". Executions There were several executions that took place in the immediate aftermath of the Bomb Plot. The NAZI judge presiding over the trials, Freisler, was killed in an American air raid on Berlin (February 3, 1945). This ended the formal trials, but not the execultions. The Gestapo as a result of the investigation has come to suspect Admiral Canaris, head of the Abwehr. They had trouble finding solid evidence. Finally they found his diary. Canaris and other plotters were transported from various prisons and camps and executed at the Flossenb�rg Concentration Camp (April 9, 1945). The execution of those with a Rote Kapelle (key role) was a grisely affair. They were stripped naked and slowly stranggled by rope attached to slaughterhouse meathooks. For the actual July 20 plotters piano wire was used. Both the trials and executions were filmed. The first show trials wwre shown in German newreals. The execution films were for Hitler's personal viewing. Goebbels used the films to create a short 30-minute film. The film was reportedly shown to cadets at the Lichterfelde Military Academy. The cadets reportedly were apauled and walked out. [Dulles, p. 83.] Survivors Philipp von Boeselager provided the plastic explosives used in the bomb. As Staffenberg was executed, he managed to escape detection. You know that the Gestapo must have tried to find out wherethe expolsives came from. Somehow he survived the war. He proved to be the last surviving plotter. He died May 1, 2008 aged 90. Hitler's Assessment Many NAZIs had no religious belief, but somehow had vague connections connections with mysticism. This varied from indivdual to individual. Hitler seems to have taken his survival as a 'divine moment in history'. In the aftermath of the failed plot, he commissioned a special military decoration. It was called the Wound Badge of 20 July 1944. He awarded it to those who were in the conference room with him when the bomb exploded. Real Losers The plotters had varing motives. Some seemed to invisioned "saving Germany". Some hoped that peaced could be made with the Wesern Allies and the war in the East continued against the Soviet Union. Saving Germany was no longer possible by 1944. [Jones] The War was inrevocanly lost. And by July offensives in Allied offensives in Poland and France would smash the major Wehrmact formations. The NAZI positions in the occupied Easr nd France unraveled much more rapidly than Hitler and his intimates as well as leading Wehrmacht generals believed possible. Spme of the generals dismissed by Hitler bought land in East Prussia. The real losers in the failed polt proved to be the German people. The great bulk of German civilian casualties took place after the failed coup. Assessment Claus and Berthold von Staufenberg are today considered martyrs to Hitler's genocidal fanaticism. Although they initially supported Hitler, the support was for hitler's nationalism, not genocide. Their religion was probably a factor in turning them against the dictator. One question that has to be asked about the Wehrmacht officers who conspired against Hitler was what their motives were. Staufenberg and his brother Berthold seem to have been truly apauled by the attrocities they witnessed. Many Wehrmacht officers were more concerned with the fact that Hitler's war was lost and that continuing it was ruining not only Germany, but their beloved Wehrmacht. Stauffenberg and his brother and no doubt some others did act out of Christain ethics. One author provided a more charitable assessment to the genuine heros who "may have failed to kill Hitler, but in the mere fact of making the attempt these brave man snatched the soul of their tortured country from the pit--and saved it." [Jones] Public Reaction The Valkyrie plotters were not seen as heros even in post-War Germany. It took some time for Germans to reassess their initial critical opinion. The situation was complicated by the reluctance of Many Germans to discuss their war time experiences frankly, if at all. Participation in Valkyrie was hidden by many families. Thus for many German children who were very young during the War or born after the War, the issue of Hitlerand the NAZIs were discussed at school, but commonly not at home. One German journalist remembes not asking a lot of questions about her father--Hans Georg Klamroth. She was told that he was n admirer of Hitler and a volunter in the SS. On an assignment in Israel, she was shocked to see a photograph of her father among the Valkyrie plotters. He was one of the plotters executed. She then began digging into family letters and diaries. [Bruhns] Source

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July Plot - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com Google July Plot: Background Since the late 1930s, there had been repeated attempts by various groups in the German resistance to assassinate Adolf Hitler and overthrow the Nazis. As time went on, Hitler became increasingly suspicious and more heavily guarded, and often changed his schedule at the last minute. Did You Know? In the 2008 movie “Valkyrie,” about the July plot actor Tom Cruise portrayed Claus von Stauffenberg. The men behind the July Plot were a group of high-level German military leaders who recognized that Hitler was leading Germany in a suicidal war on two fronts. They decided to assassinate him then stage a coup d’état, with the belief that a new government in Berlin would save Germany from complete destruction at the hands of the Allies. The July Plot leaders included Colonel General Ludwig Beck (1880-1944), former chief of the army general staff, Colonel General Friedrich Olbricht (1888-1944) and Major General Henning von Tresckow (1901-44). Lieutenant Colonel Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg (1907-44), chief of staff of the reserve army, also played a central role in the conspiracy. July Plot: July 20, 1944 During a July 20 meeting in a Wolf’s Lair conference room with Hitler and more than 20 German officers and staff, Stauffenburg planted an explosives-packed briefcase under a table that the Nazi leader was using. Stauffenberg then said he had to make a phone call and left the room. Another officer subsequently happened to move the briefcase out of place, farther away from Hitler. The bomb detonated at 12:42 p.m. One person died instantly as a result of the powerful explosion and three others were mortally wounded; however, Hitler suffered only minor injuries. He was even well enough to keep an appointment with Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) that same afternoon, and gave the Italian dictator a tour of site where the blast occurred. After the bomb went off, Stauffenberg, believing Hitler was dead, flew to Berlin to initiate Operation Valkyrie, a plan to use Germany’s reserve army to stage an uprising against the Nazi regime. However, with no official confirmation of Hitler’s demise, the plan stalled. When the news came through that Hitler was alive, General Friedrich Fromm (1888-1945), commander of the reserve army and someone who condoned the July Plot, turned on the conspirators in order to have his association with them covered up. Stauffenberg and Olbricht were arrested and executed on July 21. Hundreds of people thought to be involved in the conspiracy also soon were arrested, and around 200 eventually were executed. Beck was arrested and chose to commit suicide rather than stand trial. Tresckow committed suicide after he learned the July Plot had failed. Erwin Rommel (1891-1944), a highly respected field marshal also linked to the plot, was given the choice of facing trial or committing suicide in order to spare his family. He opted to take his own life. (Because Rommel was a renowned figure, the Nazis covered up the true cause of his death and gave him a state funeral.) Fromm also was executed by firing squad in 1945. July Plot: Aftermath In the aftermath of the July Plot, Hitler and his top officials took an even firmer grip on Germany and its war machine. The Nazi leader became certain that fate had spared him. “Having escaped death in so extraordinary a way,” Hitler stated, “I am now more than ever convinced that the great cause which I serve will survive its present perils and that everything can be brought to a good end.” On April 30, 1945, shortly before Germany surrendered to the Allies, Hilter committed suicide. The Wolf’s Lair compound, where the Nazi leader spent more than 800 days between 1941 and 1944, was blown up by the Soviet army in January 1945. Tags

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Stauffenberg Bomb (July) Plot Stauffenberg Bomb (July) Plot ▼ Primary Sources ▼ The July Plot In June, 1941, Claus von Stauffenberg took part in Operation Barbarossa . He was appalled by the atrocities committed by the Schutz Staffeinel (SS) in the Soviet Union. According to his friend, Major Joachim Kuhn, Stauffenberg told him in August 1942 that "They are shooting Jews in masses. These crimes must not be allowed to continue." Joachim Fest , the author of Plotting Hitler's Death (1997) has pointed out: "As a result of the massacres in the East, relations between Hitler and the officer corps, which had always been cool, despite a momentary reconciliation at the time of the great triumphs in France, began to deteriorate rapidly... It was at this time Stauffenberg resolved to do everything in his power to remove Hitler and overthrow the regime." On his return to Berlin he met up with Henning von Tresckow , Fabin Schlabrendorff and other opponents of Adolf Hitler . Stauffenberg was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel and sent to Africa to join the 10th Panzer Division as its Operations Officer in the General Staff. On 7th April 1943, Stauffenberg was wounded in the face, in both hands, and in the knee by fire from a low-flying Allied plane. According to Louis L. Snyder : "He feared that he might lose his eyesight completely, but he kept one eye and lost his right hand, half the left hand, and part of his leg." Stauffenberg spent three months in a hospital in Munich, where his life was saved by the expert supervision of Dr. Ferdinand Sauerbruch . After Claus von Stauffenberg recovered he joined the staff of General Friedrich Olbricht , Chief of the General Army Office in the Army High Command. Olbricht had already developed Operation Valkyrie , a General Staff plan which was ostensibly to be used to put down internal unrest, but was really going to be used against Hitler. Alan Bullock , the author of Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (1962) has pointed out: "With the help of men on whom he could rely at the Führer's headquarters, in Berlin and in the German Army in the west, Stauffenberg hoped to push the reluctant Army leaders into action once Hitler had been killed. To make sure that this essential preliminary should not be lacking, Stauffenberg allotted the task of assassination to himself despite the handicap of his injuries. Stauffenberg's energy had put new life into the conspiracy, but the leading role he was playing also roused jealousies." Stauffenberg was highly critical of the conservatives led by Carl Goerdeler and was much closer to the socialist wing of the conspiracy around Julius Leber . Goerdeler later recalled: "Stauffenberg revealed himself as a cranky, obstinate fellow who wanted to play politics. I had many a row with him, but greatly esteemed him. He wanted to steer a dubious political course with the left-wing Socialists and the Communists, and gave me a bad time with his overwhelming egotism." In early 1944 a group of anti-Nazis that included Friedrich Olbricht , Henning von Tresckow , Friedrich Olbricht , Werner von Haeften , Wilhelm Canaris , Claus von Stauffenberg , Fabian Schlabrendorff , Carl Goerdeler , Julius Leber , Ulrich Hassell , Hans Oster , Peter von Wartenburg , Hans Dohnanyi , Erwin Rommel , Hans Oster , Franz Halder , Hans Gisevius , Fabian Schlabrendorff , Ludwig Beck and Erwin von Witzleben met to discuss what action they should take. Initially the group was divided over the issue of Hitler. Gisevius and a small group of predominantly younger conspirators felt that he should be killed immediately. Canaris, Witzleben, Beck, Rommel and most of the other conspirators believed that Hitler should be arrested and put on trial. By using the legal system to expose the crimes of the regime, they hoped to avoid making a martyr of Hitler. Oster and Dohnanyi argued that after Hitler was arrested he should be brought before a panel of physicians chaired by Dohnanyi's father-in-law, the psychiatrist Karl Bonhoeffer , and declared mentally ill. General Rudolf Schmundt , Hitler's chief adjutant, met Claus von Stauffenberg and arranged for him to become chief of staff to General Erich Fromm . According to Albert Speer , "Schmundt explained to me, Stauffenberg was considered one of the most dynamic and competent officers in the German army. Hitler himself would occasionally urge me to work closely and confidentially with Stauffenberg. In spite of his war injuries (he had lost an eye, his right hand, and two fingers of his left hand), Stauffenberg had preserved a youthful charm; he was curiously poetic and at the same time precise, thus showing the marks of the two major and seemingly incompatible educational influences upon him: the circle around the poet Stefan George and the General Staff. He and I would have hit it off even without Schmundt's recommendation." Stauffenberg was now in a position where he would have regular meetings with Adolf Hitler. Fellow conspirator, Henning von Tresckow sent a message to Stauffenberg: "The assassination must be attempted, at any cost. Even should that fail, the attempt to seize power in the capital must be undertaken. We must prove to the world and to future generations that the men of the German Resistance movement dared to take the decisive step and to hazard their lives upon it. Compared with this, nothing else matters." On 20th July, 1944, Claus von Stauffenberg attended a conference with Hitler on 20th July, 1944. It was decided to drop plans to kill Hermann Goering and Heinrich Himmler at the same time as Hitler. Alan Bullock later explained: "He (Stauffenberg) brought his papers with him in a brief-case in which he had concealed the bomb fitted with a device for exploding it ten minutes after the mechanism had been started. The conference was already proceeding with a report on the East Front when Keitel took Stauffenberg in and presented him to Hitler. Twenty-four men were grouped round a large, heavy oak table on which were spread out a number of maps. Neither Himmler nor Goring was present. The Fuhrer himself was standing towards the middle of one of the long sides of the table, constantly leaning over the table to look at the maps, with Keitel and Jodl on his left. Stauffenberg took up a place near Hitler on his right, next to a Colonel Brandt. He placed his brief-case under the table, having started the fuse before he came in, and then left the room unobtrusively on the excuse of a telephone call to Berlin. He had been gone only a minute or two when, at 12.42 p.m., a loud explosion shattered the room, blowing out the walls and the roof, and setting fire to the debris which crashed down on those inside." Joachim Fest , the author of Plotting Hitler's Death (1997) has pointed out: "Suddenly, as witnesses later recounted, a deafening crack shattered the midday quiet, and a bluish-yellow flame rocketed skyward... A dark plume of smoke rose and hung in the air over the wreckage of the briefing barracks. Shards of glass, wood, and fiberboard swirled about, and scorched pieces of paper and insulation rained down... When the bomb exploded, twenty-four people were in the conference room. All were hurled to the ground, some with their hair in flames." The bomb killed four men in the hut: General Rudolf Schmundt , General Günther Korten, Colonel Heinz Brandt and stenographer Heinz Berger. Hitler's right arm was badly injured but he survived what became known as the July Plot. The plan was for Ludwig Beck , Erwin von Witzleben and Erich Fromm to take control of the German Army . This idea was abandoned when it became known that Adolf Hitler had survived the assassination attempt. In an attempt to protect himself, Fromm organized the execution of Stauffenberg along with three other conspirators, Friedrich Olbricht and Werner von Haeften , in the courtyard of the War Ministry. It was later reported the Stauffenberg died shouting "Long live free Germany". That night Hitler talked to the nation on radio: "I speak to you today in order that you should hear my voice and should know that I am unhurt and well, and secondly that you should know of a crime unparalleled in German history. a very small clique of ambitious, irresponsible, and at the same time senseless and stupid officers had formed a plot to eliminate me and the High Command of the Armed Forces." Hitler told Joachim von Ribbentrop : "I will crush and destroy the criminals who have dared to oppose themselves to Providence and to me. These traitors to their own people deserve ignominious death, and this is what they shall have. This time the full price will be paid by all those who are involved, and by their families, and by all those who have helped them. This nest of vipers who have tried to sabotage the grandeur of my Germany will be exterminated once and for all." According to Traudl Junge Hitler selected Hermann Fegelein to investigate the conspiracy: "Fegelein had been detailed to investigate the assassination attempt and track down the guilty men. He was personally indignant to think of anyone wanting to blow up such a splendid fellow as himself. I think he thought that was more criminal than any plan to get rid of Hitler, and he flung himself into the investigation with the zeal of his desire for revenge. Finally it became obvious even to Hitler that the resistance movement had spread more widely in the army than he had supposed. Distinguished names of men holding high rank were mentioned. He raged and shouted and said a great deal about traitors and scoundrels." It is claimed that Fegelein often showed around the photographs of the hanged men who had been executed as a result of this failed assassination attempt." As a result of the July Plot, the new chief of staff, Heinz Guderian demanded the resignation of any officer who did not fully support the ideals of the Nazi Party . Over the next few months Guderian sat with Gerd von Rundstedt and Wilhelm Keitel on the Army Court of Honour that expelled hundreds of officers suspected of being opposed to the policies of Adolf Hitler . This removed them from court martial jurisdiction and turned them over to Roland Freisler and his People Court. Over the next few months most of the group including Wilhelm Canaris , Carl Goerdeler , Julius Leber , Ulrich Hassell , Hans Oster , Peter von Wartenburg , Henning von Tresckow , Ludwig Beck , Erwin von Witzleben and Erich Fromm were either executed or committed suicide. It is etimated that around 4,980 Germans were executed after the July Plot . Hitler decided that the leaders should have a slow death. They were hung with piano wire from meat-hooks. Their executions were filmed and later shown to senior members of both the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) and the armed forces. An eyewitness later reported: "Imagine a room with a low ceiling and whitewashed walls. Below the ceiling a rail was fixed. From it hung six big hooks, like those butchers use to hang their meat. In one corner stood a movie camera. Reflectors cast a dazzling, blinding light. At the wall there was a small table with a bottle of cognac and glasses for the witnesses of the execution. The hangman wore a permanent leer, and made jokes unceasingly. The camera worked uninterruptedly, for Hitler wanted to see and hear how his enemies died." One of the conspirators, before he died in agony on a meat hook, blurted out the name of General Erwin Rommel to his tormentors. Rommel was so popular that Hitler was unwilling to have him executed for treason. Hitler sent two officers to Rommel's home at Herrlingen on 14th October, 1944, to give him the choice of suicide or trial. He told his wife, "I shall die in fifteen minutes". Rommel then took poison. The public was told that Rommel had died of a heart attack and he was buried with full military honours. Ilse Koehn heard about the attempt on the life of Adolf Hitler by Claus von Stauffenberg on the radio: "The Führer himself goes on the radio, assuring the German people that he is alive and well, that he has not sustained more than a few cuts and bruises. Providence has intervened in his behalf, he says. The revolt, hatched by German generals, has been completely suppressed. All the conspirators have been killed or have committed suicide." The attempt on Hitler's life did give hope to those who were hoping to see the overthrow of the regime. Anne Frank wrote in her diary: "I'm finally getting optimistic. Now, at last, things are going well! They really are! Great News! An assassination attempt has been made on Hitler's life, and for once not by Jewish Communists or British capitalists, but by a German general who's not only a count, but young as well. The Fuhrer owes his life to Divine Providence he escaped, unfortunately, with only a few minor burns and scratches. A number of officers and Generals who were nearby were killed or wounded. The head of the conspiracy has been shot. This is the best proof we've had so far that many officers and generals are fed up with the war and would like to see Hitler sink into a bottomless pit, so they can establish a military dictatorship, make peace with the Allies, rearm themselves and, after a few decades, start a new war. Perhaps Providence is deliberately biding its time getting rid of Hitler, since it's much easier, and cheaper, for the Allies to let the impeccable Germans kill each other off. It's less work for the Russians and British, and it allows them to start rebuilding their own cities that much sooner. But we haven't reached that point yet, and I'd hate to anticipate the glorious event."

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July Plot July Plot July Plot An Assassination Attempt on Hitler Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg, German army officer, c1930s-c1940s. He was one of the leading members of the failed plot of 20 July 1944 to kill Adolf Hitler.  (Photo by IBL Bildbyra/Heritage Images/Getty Images) Share By Jennifer L. Goss On July 20, 1944, Adolf Hitler, the leader of Nazi Germany, was the target of an attempted assassination.  The attempt took place at his Prussian command post and getaway, the Wolf’s Lair, and was led by several high-ranking German officials who were convinced that Hitler’s regime was destroying Germany.  The codeword “Valkyrie” was to signal the beginning of the coup that followed the assassination. The July Plot (also known as the Twentieth of July) ultimately failed, however, when the bomb that had been planted exploded but did not kill Hitler. The leaders of the assassination attempt and thousands of others were then rounded up and executed. Discontent Develops Within Nazi Germany Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party, had been appointed the chancellor of Germany in 1933 but then quickly consolidated power to become the Führer, the absolute leader. As dictator, Hitler made it illegal to publicly voice discontent; those caught speaking or acting against the Nazi regime faced imprisonment or even death. continue reading below our video 10 Facts About the Titanic That You Don't Know Yet there were individuals from many factions within the government and in the general populace that found ways to privately share their unhappiness. Feeling that Germany was doomed with Hitler at the helm and unable to vote him out of office since he had assumed dictatorial powers, many realized that the only way to get rid of Hitler was to kill him. Early Assassination Attempts While most of these dissenters just talked, others formed groups and planned. The plans that were implemented often failed, either because they were poorly organized or because Hitler had an uncanny knack for escaping injury. The closest anyone got to killing Hitler before the July Plot was on November 8, 1938 at the Bürgerbrau Cellar in Munich. A carpenter, Johann Elser, planted a timed bomb in the walls of the Bürgerbrau and set it to explode at 9:30 p.m. The bomb went off as scheduled, killing eight people, but Hitler escaped injury as he had left unexpectedly 15 minutes early. After Nazi Germany started World War II in 1939, more Germans became discontented and thus more organized resistance began to build.  By 1942, a group was formed by Colonel Henning von Tresckow , an Army staff member who was centrally involved in the rapidly failing Operation Barbarossa.  Tresckow soon recruited his ordnance officer, Fabian von Schlabrendorff, and the two attempted to kill Hitler on March 13, 1943 by planting a bomb on Hitler’s plane. The plan failed when the fuse didn’t work. Tresckow organized several additional assassination attempts but those too failed. Tresckow would soon recruit Count Claus von Stauffenberg to join in the July Plot. Count Claus von Stauffenberg Count Claus Philip Schenk von Stauffenberg was an aristocrat, a poet, and an officer in the German Army. However, by the time World War II started, Stauffenberg was thoroughly disillusioned with Hitler.  Stauffenberg had already begun talking about assassinating Hitler and starting a revolution, but no concrete plans had been made. That all changed on April 7, 1943, when 35-year-old Stauffenberg, who was riding in a staff car in Tunisia, was severely wounded when a low-flying enemy airplane opened fire. He lost his right hand plus two fingers on his left hand. He also lost an eye. This near-death experience convinced Stauffenberg that not only must Hitler be killed but that he was the one to do it. The July Plot Is Formed With Stauffenberg solidly on board, the divergent groups of dissenters began to band together to work on a single, cohesive plan. Included in this new group were Henning von Tresckow, Fabian von Schlabrendorff , Friedrich Olbricht , Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, Wilhelm Canaris, and Ludwig Beck , among others. The plan was simple, perhaps too simple – they would assassinate Hitler using a timed bomb and then take over the government. Initial Attempts to Initiate the Plot After several fruitless attempts, the plan began to develop momentum in the spring of 1944.  Individuals were secretly recruited to join the growing resistance movement despite concern that the Gestapo was growing increasingly aware that the plan existed.  An exact date for implementation was difficult to pinpoint, regardless of this growing pressure, because Hitler was becoming less available to the general public as the tide of the war was turning against Germany.  Hitler was spending a larger amount of time in the Wolf’s Lair, which was heavily fortified and guarded; thus making it even harder for the group to take action. In July 1944, a major player joined the resistance group - General Erwin Rommel, famous for leading the campaign in North Africa.  Rommel had grown frustrated with what he felt to be Hitler’s poor decision-making regarding the war effort and believed that the only way Germany could be saved was by eliminating Hitler.  Rommel’s accession to “the cause” put the wheels in motion for what would become the official assassination attempt. Between early July and July 20, several false starts occurred.  Stauffenberg had, by this point, obtained a position at the Reserve Army Headquarters in Berlin.  He had access to Hitler on several occasions but was unable to successfully execute the assassination.  Co-conspirator General Helmuth Stieff also was incapable of carrying out his orders when he encountered Hitler in Salzburg.  The following week, during a meeting at the Wolf‘s Lair where Stauffenberg was present, the plot was initiated but then aborted when Hitler left the room after Stauffenberg had planted the briefcase bomb.  Fortunately for the movement, he was able to remove the bomb before it exploded. July 20, 1944         On July 20, 1944 Stauffenberg returned to the Wolf’s Lair once again to attend an important meeting with the Führer.  This time, the meeting had been moved from Hitler’s bunker (a wonderfully enclosed room to explode a bomb) to the Lagebaracke, a temporary wooden building that was surrounded by concrete but still had three windows (not the best place to explode a bomb). Despite the change of location, Stauffenberg decided to go ahead with the assassination attempt. He carried a suitcase containing a hexite time bomb. After a meeting with Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, Stauffenberg armed the bomb by breaking a small, glass capsule that contained acid. Stauffenberg then had just ten minutes before the bomb would explode. Carrying the briefcase with the three fingers he had left, Stauffenberg walked from Keitel’s office to the meeting, arriving a few minutes late at 12:35 p.m.  Stauffenberg took his place with the 24 other officers and stenographers that stood around the large, oak table that sat sturdily upon two oak slabs. He then carefully placed the suitcase near a table slab, but on the inside so that it would explode toward Hitler. Stauffenberg then quickly made an excuse to leave, saying he had been waiting for an important phone call. After Stauffenberg left, Colonel Heinz Brandt moved the briefcase to the other side of the table slab. (Perhaps the suitcase had been in his way?)  This new position allowed the slab to shield Hitler from the bomb. At 12:42 p.m., the bomb exploded.  Although the bomb did cause mayhem and bloodshed, killing four and severely injuring three others, it failed in its mission to kill Hitler. Ultimately, Hitler only suffered a punctured ear drum from the deafening noise of the explosion, some slight burns on his legs, and a laceration on his right hand.     The Coup Upon hearing the explosion and assuming his attempt had been successful, Stauffenberg fled the Wolf’s Lair.  He didn’t realize that the assassination had failed until he reached Berlin later that afternoon.  Despite the news of the failed attempt, Olbricht attempted to implement the full scheme of overthrowing the existing government.  Chaos ensued when it was officially determined that Hitler remained alive. The coup rapidly deteriorated. Around 10 p.m., Stauffenberg, Olbricht, Werner von Haeften (who drove the getaway car from the Wolf’s Lair), and Merz von Quirnheim were captured and then shot. Punishment of Conspirators Hitler was furious after his near-miss with death and ordered Heinrich Himmler and the Gestapo to focus nearly all of their resources on the discovery and arrest of anyone remotely involved in the plot.  Many of the arrests and subsequent searches turned up evidence that widened the pool of suspects.  The Gestapo ultimately arrested 7,000 individuals and nearly 2,000 of them were killed. Both Rommel and Tresckow committed suicide.  Only a select few individuals of the resistance group survived the failed coup.  Hitler, himself, moved forward with renewed vigor for a time believing that his destiny had prevented his death at the hands of these men. Professionals Were Needed The conspirators have been hailed as heroes, but historian Robert Payne has a harsher opinion: The conspirators died heroically, but they were not heroes. They bungled the most necessary assassination of their time when it was within their power to do the job well, and they bungled their short-lived revolution and incriminated thousands of people through their carelessness and lack of understanding of the elementary principles of conspiracy. They were amateurs when professionals were needed.*