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= Homarus gammarus =
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Homarus gammarus , known as the European lobster or common lobster , is a species of clawed lobster from the eastern Atlantic Ocean , Mediterranean Sea and parts of the Black Sea . It is closely related to the American lobster , H. americanus . It may grow to a length of 60 cm ( 24 in ) and a mass of 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ) , and bears a conspicuous pair of claws . In life , the lobsters are blue , only becoming " lobster red " on cooking . Mating occurs in the summer , producing eggs which are carried by the females for up to a year before hatching into planktonic larvae . Homarus gammarus is a highly esteemed food , and is widely caught using lobster pots , mostly around the British Isles .
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= = Description = =
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Homarus gammarus is a large crustacean , with a body length up to 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) and weighing up to 5 – 6 kilograms ( 11 – 13 lb ) , although the lobsters caught in lobster pots are usually 23 – 38 cm ( 9 – 15 in ) long and weigh 0 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 9 lb ) . Like other crustaceans , lobsters have a hard exoskeleton which they must shed in order to grow , in a process called ecdysis ( moulting ) . This may occur several times a year for young lobsters , but decreases to once every 1 – 2 years for larger animals .
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The first pair of pereiopods is armed with a large , asymmetrical pair of claws . The larger one is the " crusher " , and has rounded nodules used for crushing prey ; the other is the " cutter " , which has sharp inner edges , and is used for holding or tearing the prey . Usually , the left claw is the crusher , and the right is the cutter .
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The exoskeleton is generally blue above , with spots that coalesce , and yellow below . The red colour associated with lobsters only appears after cooking . This occurs because , in life , the red pigment astaxanthin is bound to a protein complex , but the complex is broken up by the heat of cooking , releasing the red pigment .
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The closest relative of H. gammarus is the American lobster , Homarus americanus . The two species are very similar , and can be crossed artificially , although hybrids are unlikely to occur in the wild since their ranges do not overlap . The two species can be distinguished by a number of characteristics :
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The rostrum of H. americanus bears one or more spines on the underside , which are lacking in H. gammarus .
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The spines on the claws of H. americanus are red or red @-@ tipped , while those of H. gammarus are white or white @-@ tipped .
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The underside of the claw of H. americanus is orange or red , while that of H. gammarus is creamy white or very pale red .
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= = Life cycle = =
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Female H. gammarus reach sexual maturity when they have grown to a carapace length of 80 – 85 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 in ) , whereas males mature at a slightly smaller size . Mating typically occurs in summer between a recently moulted female , whose shell is therefore soft , and a hard @-@ shelled male . The female carries the eggs for up to 12 months , depending on the temperature , attached to her pleopods . Females carrying eggs are said to be " berried " and can be found throughout the year .
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The eggs hatch at night , and the larvae swim to the water surface where they drift with the ocean currents , preying on zooplankton . This stage involves three moults and lasts for 15 – 35 days . After the third moult , the juvenile takes on a form closer to the adult , and adopts a benthic lifestyle . The juveniles are rarely seen in the wild , and are poorly known , although they are known to be capable of digging extensive burrows . It is estimated that only 1 larva in every 20 @,@ 000 survives to the benthic phase . When they reach a carapace length of 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) , the juveniles leave their burrows and start their adult lives .
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= = Distribution = =
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Homarus gammarus is found across the north @-@ eastern Atlantic Ocean from northern Norway to the Azores and Morocco , not including the Baltic Sea . It is also present in most of the Mediterranean Sea , only missing from the section east of Crete , and along only the north @-@ west coast of the Black Sea . The northernmost populations are found in the Norwegian fjords Tysfjorden and Nordfolda , inside the Arctic Circle .
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The species can be divided into four genetically distinct populations , one widespread population , and three which have diverged due to small effective population sizes , possibly due to adaptation to the local environment . The first of these is the population of lobsters from northern Norway , which have been referred to as the " midnight @-@ sun lobster " . The populations in the Mediterranean Sea are distinct from those in the Atlantic Ocean . The last distinct population is found in the Netherlands : samples from the Oosterschelde were distinct from those collected in the North Sea or English Channel .
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Attempts have been made to introduce H. gammarus to New Zealand , alongside other European species such as the edible crab , Cancer pagurus . Between 1904 and 1914 , one million lobster larvae were released from hatcheries in Dunedin , but the species did not become established there .
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= = Ecology = =
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Adult H. gammarus live on the continental shelf at depths of 0 – 150 metres ( 0 – 492 ft ) , although not normally deeper than 50 m ( 160 ft ) . They prefer hard substrates , such as rocks or hard mud , and live in holes or crevices , emerging at night to feed .
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The diet of H. gammarus mostly consists of other benthic invertebrates . These include crabs , molluscs , sea urchins , starfish and polychaete worms .
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The three clawed lobster species Homarus gammarus , H. americanus and Nephrops norvegicus are hosts to the three known species of the animal phylum Cycliophora ; the species on H. gammarus has not been described .
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Homarus gammarus is susceptible to the disease gaffkaemia , caused by the bacterium Aerococcus viridans . Although it is frequently found in American lobsters , the disease has only been seen in captive H. gammarus , where prior occupation of the tanks by H. americanus could not be ruled out .
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= = Human consumption = =
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Homarus gammarus is traditionally " highly esteemed " as a foodstuff and was mentioned in " The Crabfish " a seventeenth century English folk song . It may fetch very high prices and may be sold fresh , frozen , canned or powdered . Both the claws and the abdomen of H. gammarus contain " excellent " white meat , and most of the contents of the cephalothorax are edible . The exceptions are the gastric mill and the " sand vein " ( gut ) . The price of H. gammarus is up to three times higher than that of H. americanus , and the European species is considered to have a better flavour .
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Lobsters are mostly fished using lobster pots , although lines baited with octopus or cuttlefish sometimes succeed in tempting them out , to allow them to be caught in a net or by hand . In 2008 , 4 @,@ 386 t of H. gammarus were caught across Europe and North Africa , of which 3 @,@ 462 t ( 79 % ) was caught in the British Isles ( including the Channel Islands ) . The minimum landing size for H. gammarus is a carapace length of 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) .
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Aquaculture systems for H. gammarus are under development , and production rates are still very low .
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= = Taxonomic history = =
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Homarus gammarus was first given a binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae , published in 1758 . That name was Cancer gammarus , since Linnaeus ' concept of the genus Cancer at that time included all large crustaceans .
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H. gammarus is the type species of the genus Homarus Weber , 1795 , as determined by Direction 51 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature . Prior to that direction , confusion arose because the species had been referred to by several different names , including Astacus marinus Fabricius , 1775 and Homarus vulgaris H. Milne @-@ Edwards , 1837 , and also because Friedrich Weber 's description of the genus had been overlooked until rediscovered by Mary Rathbun , rendering any prior assignments of type species ( for Homarus H. Milne @-@ Edwards , 1837 ) invalid for Homarus Weber , 1795 .
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The type specimen of Homarus gammarus was a lectotype selected by Lipke Holthuis in 1974 . It came from 57 ° 53 ′ N 11 ° 32 ′ E , near Marstrand , Sweden ( 48 kilometres or 30 miles northwest of Gothenburg ) , but both it and the paralectotypes have since been lost .
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The common name for H. gammarus preferred by the Food and Agriculture Organization is " European lobster " , but the species is also widely known as the " common lobster " .
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= Frank Headlam =
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Air Vice Marshal Frank Headlam , CB , CBE ( 15 July 1914 – 23 December 1976 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born and educated in Tasmania , he joined the RAAF as an air cadet in January 1934 . He specialised in flying instruction and navigation before the outbreak of World War II . In April 1941 , he became commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron , which operated Lockheed Hudsons . The squadron was deployed to Dutch Timor in December , and saw action against Japanese forces in the South West Pacific . After returning to Australia in February 1942 , Headlam held staff appointments and training commands , finishing the war a group captain .
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Headlam served as Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in 1946 , and as Director of Training from 1947 to 1950 . In 1950 – 51 , during the Malayan Emergency , he was stationed at Singapore as commander of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing and , later , RAF Tengah . He twice served as acting Air Member for Personnel , in 1957 and 1959 – 60 , receiving appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1958 . Promoted air vice marshal , he successively held the positions of Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Operational Command in 1961 – 62 , AOC No. 224 Group RAF from 1962 to 1965 during the Indonesia – Malaysia Konfrontasi , Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1965 – 66 , and AOC Support Command in 1966 – 67 . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1965 . Following a posting to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff from 1968 to 1971 , he retired from the Air Force and died in Melbourne five years later .
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= = Early career = =
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The son of farmers Malcolm and Hilda Headlam , Frank Headlam was born on 15 July 1914 in Launceston , Tasmania . He was schooled at Clemes College , Hobart , and matriculated in 1932 . Against the wishes of his parents he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as an air cadet on 16 January 1934 . He underwent flying instruction with No. 1 Flying Training School ( FTS ) at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , and was commissioned as a pilot officer on 1 January 1935 .
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After completing a conversion course , Headlam was assigned to the Seaplane Squadron at Point Cook . No larger than a flight according to the official history of the pre @-@ war RAAF , Seaplane Squadron was part of No. 1 FTS and operated Supermarine Southampton flying boats and de Havilland Gipsy Moth floatplanes , among other types . During this posting Headlam was promoted to flying officer , on 1 July 1935 , and wrote a paper on national defence in which he suggested that with " strong air forces , naval forces ( including submarines ) , and fixed defences , Australia may be made practically invulnerable " . According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens , this paper " in effect , defined the ' anti @-@ lodgment ' concept which has been a persistent feature of RAAF strategic thinking " .
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Headlam completed a flying instructors course in July 1936 and joined the staff of No. 1 FTS . He was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 March 1937 . Commencing in July 1938 , he was one of six students to take part in the RAAF 's first Long Specialist Navigation Course , run by Flight Lieutenants Bill Garing and Alister Murdoch at Point Cook . The course involved several epic training flights that attracted considerable media attention , including a twelve @-@ day , 10 @,@ 800 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @,@ 700 mi ) round @-@ Australia trip by three Avro Ansons , one of which was piloted by Headlam , in November . The following month , Headlam led the three Ansons on a six @-@ day journey back and forth over Central Australia . He subsequently passed the navigation course with a special distinction . On 27 January 1939 he was posted to RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , as a flight commander . He served initially with No. 2 Squadron , before transferring to No. 1 Squadron on 29 August . Both units operated Ansons .
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= = World War II = =
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Following the outbreak of World War II , No. 1 Squadron was engaged in convoy escort and maritime reconnaissance duties off south @-@ eastern Australia . Headlam continued to serve with the squadron as a flight commander until 15 January 1940 , when he was assigned to Headquarters Laverton as the station navigation officer . On 27 March he was posted to the staff of RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . He was promoted to squadron leader on 1 June 1940 . Two weeks later he married Katherine Bridge at St Paul 's Anglican Church in Frankston ; the couple would have a son and a daughter .
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Headlam was given command of No. 2 Squadron at Laverton on 15 April 1941 , and raised to wing commander on 1 July . Equipped with Lockheed Hudsons , the squadron mainly conducted maritime patrols in southern waters until 5 December , when four of its aircraft were ordered to Darwin , Northern Territory , in response to fears of Japanese aggression in the Pacific . On 7 December , this detachment established itself at Penfui , near Koepang in Dutch Timor , while No. 2 Squadron 's eight remaining Hudsons were stationed at Darwin on standby . The following day , aware that Australia was now at war in the Pacific , one of the Penfui @-@ based Hudsons attacked the Japanese pearler Nanyo Maru , which was suspected of being a radio ship , and forced it aground . By 12 December , Headlam had transferred to Penfui as commanding officer of the base , as well as No. 2 Squadron .
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During January 1942 , No. 2 Squadron 's aircraft were dispersed at Penfui , Boeroe Island , and Darwin . The Penfui detachment attacked Japanese shipping taking part in the invasion of Celebes . Two Hudsons shot down or damaged three Japanese floatplanes that attacked them as they were bombing a transport ship on 11 January ; the next day both Hudsons were themselves shot down by Mitsubishi Zeros . Penfui was bombed by the Japanese for the first time on 26 January 1942 , and attacked regularly thereafter , damaging some aircraft . The intact Hudsons were withdrawn to Darwin but Headlam and his staff remained at Penfui to enable the base to be used by aircraft during reconnaissance missions from Australia . On 18 February , Headlam was ordered to evacuate all his personnel except a small party to demolish the airfield with assistance from Sparrow Force . He returned to Darwin the following day , just as the city experienced its first raid by the Japanese . Four of No. 2 Squadron 's Hudsons were destroyed in the attack ; the remainder were relocated to Daly Waters , where they continued to carry out reconnaissance and bombing missions against Japanese targets in Timor .
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Headlam remained in Darwin as Controller of Operations at Headquarters North @-@ Western Area Command until 12 May 1942 , when he was posted to Nhill , Victoria , as commanding officer of No. 2 Air Navigation School , operating Ansons . No. 97 ( Reserve ) Squadron was formed from the school 's personnel in June . On 20 July 1943 , Headlam took command of No. 2 Air Observer School ( AOS ) , also operating Ansons , at Mount Gambier , South Australia . He was promoted to group captain on 1 December 1943 , and was appointed the inaugural commanding officer of No. 3 AOS , operating Ansons and Fairey Battles out of Port Pirie , on 9 December . After handing over command of No. 3 AOS , he commenced studies at RAAF Staff School in Mount Martha , Victoria , on 2 October 1944 . He was appointed senior administrative staff officer at North @-@ Western Area Command on 12 January 1945 .
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= = Post @-@ war career = =
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Headlam became Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in January 1946 . Posted to Britain at the end of the year , he attended the Royal Air Force Staff College , Andover , and served with RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London . On his return to Australia , in November 1947 , he became Director of Training at RAAF Headquarters . In November 1950 , Headlam was appointed to take over command of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing from Group Captain Paddy Heffernan . Headquartered at RAF Changi , Singapore , No. 90 Wing controlled RAAF units operating during the Malayan Emergency : No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron , flying Avro Lincolns , and No. 38 ( Transport ) Squadron , flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . The Lincolns conducted area bombing missions over communist @-@ held territory , as well as strikes against pinpoint targets . The Dakotas were tasked with courier flights , VIP transport and medical evacuations across South East Asia , and in Malaya with airlifting troops and cargo , dropping supplies to friendly forces and despatching propaganda leaflets . Headlam was slightly injured on 20 December , when a No. 38 Squadron Dakota he was co @-@ piloting on a supply drop crash @-@ landed at Kampong Aur in Pahang , following engine failure . In August 1951 he was named commander of RAF Tengah , Singapore , in addition to his post as commanding officer of No. 90 Wing . Headlam handed over command of No. 90 Wing in December 1951 .
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Headlam was promoted to substantive air commodore on 1 January 1955 . In November he was posted to RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London , and the following year undertook studies at the Imperial Defence College . Returning to Australia , he served as acting Air Member for Personnel at the Department of Air , Canberra , from 19 March to 21 October 1957 , between the terms of Air Vice Marshals Fred Scherger and Allan Walters , and again from 24 August 1959 to 28 March 1960 , between the terms of Walters and Air Vice Marshal Bill Hely . In this role Headlam occupied a seat on the Air Board , the service 's controlling body that comprised its senior officers and was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . He was also one of two RAAF representatives to serve on a committee , chaired by businessman William John Allison , examining conditions of defence service ; the committee 's recommendations led to a doubling of flight pay , among other improvements . Headlam 's other positions at the Department of Air included Air Commodore Plans from October 1957 to January 1959 , and Director General Plans and Policy from January to August 1959 . The latter assignment put him in charge of the RAAF 's Directorate of Intelligence . Headlam was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1958 Queen 's Birthday Honours , gazetted on 3 June . In May 1960 he became acting Deputy Chief of the Air Staff .
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On 30 January 1961 , Headlam joined the staff of Operational Command ( OPCOM ) , the successor organisation to Home Command , responsible for the direction of RAAF operational units . He took over as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) OPCOM from Air Vice Marshal Val Hancock in April . Headlam was promoted to air vice marshal on 29 May . On 17 July 1962 , he was posted to RAAF Base Butterworth , Malaya , and took up the appointment of AOC No. 224 Group RAF in Singapore one week later . He was succeeded as AOC OPCOM by Air Vice Marshal Alister Murdoch . As AOC No. 224 Group , Headlam had overall responsibility for regional air defence and offensive air operations during the Brunei Rebellion in December 1962 , and the subsequent Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia that officially began the following month . Divorced from his first wife in 1956 , he married widowed social worker Vernon Spence at the Sydney registry office on 20 January 1964 . He handed over No. 224 Group to Air Vice Marshal Christopher Foxley @-@ Norris on 30 November .
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Returning to Australia , Headlam became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff ( DCAS ) on 26 January 1965 . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) " in recognition of distinguished service in the Borneo Territories " on 22 June . His tenure as DCAS coincided with the most significant rearmament program the Air Force had undertaken since World War II , and with manpower shortages stemming from this expansion and from Australia 's increasing involvement in the security of South East Asia . The first RAAF helicopters were committed to the Vietnam War towards the end of his term , and he travelled to Saigon with the Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Sir John Wilton , in March 1966 to plan the deployment . The year before , Wilton had recommended to Air Marshal Murdoch , the Chief of the Air Staff , that two Iroquois be sent to Vietnam for familiarisation purposes ; Murdoch had rebuffed Wilton , and the RAAF helicopter squadron was considered underprepared for its army co @-@ operation role when it finally did deploy . Headlam succeeded Air Vice Marshal Douglas Candy as AOC Support Command , Melbourne , on 8 August 1966 . Support Command had been formed in 1959 , by merging the RAAF 's former Training and Maintenance Commands . On 1 January 1968 , Headlam was posted to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff . He served as an Extra Gentleman Usher to the Queen from 17 November 1970 to 5 June 1971 .
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= = Retirement = =
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Returning to Australia in June 1971 , Headlam took resettlement leave before retiring from the Air Force on 3 August . He made his home in Melbourne , where he died aged 62 on 23 December 1976 , after a lengthy battle with cancer . Survived by his children and his second wife , he was given a private funeral and cremated at Springvale Crematorium .
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= M @-@ 82 ( Michigan highway ) =
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M @-@ 82 is a state trunkline in the Lower Peninsula in the US state of Michigan that travels between Fremont and Howard City . The section between Newaygo and Howard City travels through Fremont and along the southern edge of Manistee National Forest . The current version of M @-@ 82 is actually the second in the state ; the first usage appeared in the Upper Peninsula by 1919 . The Lower Peninsula routing has been in use since the 1920s . Various extensions and truncations have shifted the terminus as far west as New Era or Hesperia in the past . The current route was finalized in the late 1970s
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= = Route description = =
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M @-@ 82 begins at a junction with M @-@ 120 and B @-@ 96 west of Fremont . This junction is at a tripoint of county lines . M @-@ 120 forms the north – south Newaygo – Oceana and Newaygo – Muskegon county lines . B @-@ 96 , which forms the east – west Oceana – Muskegon county line runs due west of the intersection . M @-@ 82 exits the intersection to the east . The highway runs along 48th Street through rural farms into the community of Fremont . The road , now called Main Street , passes through the downtown area and M @-@ 82 turns south along Stewart Avenue out of town . The highway rounds a curve and transitions to 72nd Street running eastward through more farm land . As the trunkline approaches Newaygo , the terrain becomes more wooded near the Muskegon River . M @-@ 82 follows Fremont Street east to a junction with M @-@ 37 . The two highways merge and run concurrently over the river and into downtown on State Street . South of downtown , M @-@ 82 turns east again , independent of M @-@ 37 , and runs along 82nd Street on the southern edge of the Manistee National Forest . The east end of M @-@ 82 is at exit 118 on US 131 / M @-@ 46 west of Howard City .
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The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , as a part of its maintenance responsibilities , tracks the volume of traffic using its roadways . These levels are expressed in terms of a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a calculation of the traffic along a segment of road for any average day of the year . In 2009 , the department 's measurements indicated that a segment of M @-@ 82 west of Fremont had the peak volume for the highway at 16 @,@ 532 vehicles daily . The traffic nadir was 4 @,@ 018 vehicles east of Newaygo . In addition , MDOT has not had any section of the highway listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
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= = History = =
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= = = Previous designation = = =
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The first usage of M @-@ 82 was in the Upper Peninsula by July 1 , 1919 . The trunkline started at M @-@ 25 and ran north of Newberry to the vicinity of Eight Mile Corner . It was later replaced by M @-@ 48 in 1926 .
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= = = Current designation = = =
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The current M @-@ 82 dates back to 1926 . It ran from US 31 in Hart to the northern junction of US 131 and M @-@ 46 in Howard City . The highway was routed through Ferry , Hesperia and Fremont , replacing M @-@ 41 . In late 1936 , M @-@ 46 was extended along the section between Newaygo and Howard City , forming a M @-@ 46 / M @-@ 82 concurrency to fill a gap in the M @-@ 46 routing . This concurrent section became just M @-@ 46 in 1938 , shortening M @-@ 82 back to the northern M @-@ 37 junction in Newaygo . The highway was moved to a new alignment west of Ferry in late 1947 or early 1948 . Instead of heading northwesterly to Hart , it was continued west to end in Shelby .
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Two realignments in 1963 and 1964 rerouted the western end of the highway again . This time it was realigned to run from Hesperia to New Era , bypassing Ferry . A larger change around 1969 reconfigured the highway designations in Oceana County . M @-@ 20 replaced M @-@ 82 west of Hesperia , to end at New Era instead of Muskegon . The new M @-@ 120 designation replaced M @-@ 20 south of Hesperia . M @-@ 82 now ran from Hesperia to Newaygo only . The length of the highway was increased in 1973 when the eastern end was moved back to Howard City . M @-@ 46 was rerouted to follow the US 131 freeway south of Howard City to Cedar Springs , and replaced M @-@ 57 between Cedar Springs and Casnovia . This freed up the Newaygo to Howard City highway for a return to the M @-@ 82 designation . The last change came in 1978 when the concurrency with M @-@ 120 was eliminated in favor of M @-@ 120 . The M @-@ 82 designation was truncated at this time to the junction west of Fremont , resulting in the current highway routing .
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= = Major intersections = =
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