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Mars rover

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A Mars rover is a motor vehicle designed to travel on the surface of Mars. Rovers have several advantages over stationary landers: they examine more territory, they can be directed to interesting features, they can place themselves in sunny positions to weather winter months, and they can advance the knowledge of how to perform very remote robotic vehicle control. They serve a different purpose than orbital spacecraft like Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. A more recent development is the Mars helicopter. , there have been six successful robotically operated Mars rovers; the first five, managed by the American NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, were (by date of Mars landing): Sojourner (1997–1997), Opportunity (2004–2018), Spirit (2004–2010), Curiosity (2012–), and Perseverance (2021–). The sixth, managed by the China National Space Administration, is Zhurong (2021–). On January 24, 2016, NASA reported that then current studies on Mars by Opportunity and Curiosity would be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on Mars is now a primary NASA objective. The Soviet probes, Mars 2 and Mars 3, were physically tethered probes; Sojourner was dependent on the Mars Pathfinder base station for communication with Earth; Opportunity, Spirit and Curiosity were on their own. As of , Curiosity is still active, while Spirit, Opportunity, and Sojourner completed their missions before losing contact. On February 18, 2021, Perseverance, the newest American Mars rover, successfully landed. On May 14, 2021, China's Zhurong became the first non-American rover to successfully operate on Mars. Missions Multiple rovers have been dispatched to Mars: Active Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission by NASA, was launched November 26, 2011 and landed at the Aeolis Palus plain near Aeolis Mons (informally "Mount Sharp") in Gale Crater on August 6, 2012. The Curiosity rover is still operational as of 2022. Perseverance, NASA rover based on the successful Curiosity design. Launched with the Mars 2020 mission on July 30, 2020, it landed on February 18, 2021. It carried the Mars Helicopter Ingenuity attached to its belly. Zhurong launched with the Tianwen-1 CNSA Mars mission on July 23, 2020, landed on May 14, 2021 in the southern region of Utopia Planitia, and deployed on May 22, 2021, while dropping a remote selfie camera on 1 June, 2021. Not active Mars 3, PrOP-M rover, landed successfully on December 2, 1971. rover tethered to the Mars 3 lander. Lost when the Mars 3 lander stopped communicating about 14.5 seconds after landing. The loss of communication may have been due to the extremely powerful Martian dust storm taking place at the time or an issue with the Mars 3 orbiter's ability to relay communications. Sojourner rover, Mars Pathfinder, landed successfully on July 4, 1997. Communications were lost on September 27, 1997. Sojourner had traveled a distance of just over . Spirit (MER-A), Mars Exploration Rover (MER), launched on June 10, 2003, and landed on January 4, 2004. Nearly 6 years after the original mission limit, Spirit had covered a total distance of but its wheels became trapped in sand. The last communication received from the rover was on March 22, 2010, and NASA ceased attempts to re-establish communication on May 25, 2011. Opportunity (MER-B), Mars Exploration Rover, launched on July 7, 2003 and landed on January 25, 2004. Opportunity surpassed the previous records for longevity at 5,352 sols (5498 Earth days from landing to mission end; 15 Earth years or 8 Martian years) and covered . The rover sent its last status on 10 June 2018 when a global 2018 Mars dust storm blocked the sunlight needed to recharge its batteries. After hundreds of attempts to reactivate the rover, NASA declared the mission complete on February 13, 2019. Failed Mars 2, PrOP-M rover, 1971, Mars 2 landing failed taking Prop-M with it. The Mars 2 and 3 spacecraft from the Soviet Union had identical 4.5 kg Prop-M rovers. They were to move on skis while connected to the landers with cables. Planned The European-Russian ExoMars rover Rosalind Franklin is planned to launch in 2022. Proposed The JAXA Melos rover was supposed to be launched in 2022. JAXA has not given an update since 2015. NASA Mars Geyser Hopper Undeveloped Marsokhod was proposed to be a part of Russian Mars 96 mission. Astrobiology Field Laboratory, proposed in the 2000-2010 period as a follow on to MSL. Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher (MAX-C), cancelled 2011 Mars Surveyor 2001 rover Mars Tumbleweed Rover, a spherical wind-propelled rover. In 2018, a kind of cushion-air rover was proposed, which in contrast with traditional hovercraft does not use blowers to pressurize the gas in the chamber but rather uses stored pressurized CO2 obtained from a freezing process which does not require mechanical compression. Examples of instruments Examples of instruments onboard landed rovers include: Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (MPF + MER + MSL) CheMin (MSL) Chemistry and Camera complex (MSL) Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (MSL) Hazcam (MER + MSL + M20) MarsDial (MER + MSL + M20) Materials Adherence Experiment (MPF) MIMOS II (MER) Mini-TES (MER) Mars Hand Lens Imager (MSL) Navcam (MER + MSL + M20+TW1) Pancam (MER) Rock Abrasion Tool (MER) Radiation assessment detector (MSL) Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (MSL) Sample Analysis at Mars (MSL) EDL cameras on Rover (MSL + M20+TW1) Cachecam (M20) Mastcam-Z (M20) MEDA (M20) Microphones (M20+TW1) MOXIE (M20) PIXL (M20) RIMFAX (M20) SHERLOC (M20) SuperCam (M20) Remote Camera (TW1) Mars landing locations NASA Mars rover goals Circa the 2010s, NASA had established certain goals for the rover program. NASA distinguishes between "mission" objectives and "science" objectives. Mission objectives are related to progress in space technology and development processes. Science objectives are met by the instruments during their mission in space. The science instruments are chosen and designed based on the science objectives and goals. The primary goal of the Spirit and Opportunity rovers was to investigate "the history of water on Mars". The four science goals of NASA's long-term Mars Exploration Program are: Determine whether life ever arose on Mars Characterize the climate of Mars Characterize the geology of Mars Prepare for human exploration of Mars Gallery See also Astrobiology Comparison of embedded computer systems on board the Mars rovers Crewed Mars rover InSight lander List of artificial objects on Mars List of missions to Mars List of rovers on extraterrestrial bodies Mars Exploration Rover Mars-Grunt Mars Pathfinder Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 2001 Mars Odyssey Moon rover Lunar Roving Vehicle Radiation hardening Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission References External links NASA official Mars Rover website Mars Pathfinder Gallery (NASA) All Rovers on Mars +rovers Landers (spacecraft)

C major

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C major (or the key of C) is a major scale based on C, consisting of the pitches C, D, E, F, G, A, and B. C major is one of the most common keys used in music. Its key signature has no flats and no sharps. Its relative minor is A minor and its parallel minor is C minor. The C major scale is: On the piano, the C major scale can be played by playing only the white keys starting on C. Compositions Twenty of Joseph Haydn's 104 symphonies are in C major, making it his second most-used key, second only to D major. Of the 134 symphonies mistakenly attributed to Haydn that H. C. Robbins Landon lists in his catalog, 33 are in C major, more than any other key. Before the invention of the valves, Haydn did not write trumpet and timpani parts in his symphonies, except those in C major. Landon writes that it wasn't "until 1774 that Haydn uses trumpets and timpani in a key other than C major... and then only sparingly." Most of Haydn's symphonies in C major are labelled "festive" and are of a primarily celebratory mood. Wilfrid Mellers believed that Mozart's Symphony No 41, written in 'white' C major, "represented the triumph of light". (See also List of symphonies in C major.) Many masses and settings of Te Deum in the Classical era were in C major. Mozart and Haydn wrote most of their masses in C major. Gounod (in a review of Sibelius' Third Symphony) said that "only God composes in C major". Six of his own masses are written in C. Of Franz Schubert's two symphonies in the key, the first is nicknamed the "Little C major" and the second the "Great C major". Scott Joplin's "The Entertainer" is written in the key of C major. Many musicians have pointed out that every musical key conjures up specific feelings. This idea is further explored in a radio program called The Signature Series. American popular songwriter Bob Dylan claimed the key of C major to "be the key of strength, but also the key of regret." Sibelius's Symphony No. 7 is in C major and that key was of great importance in his previous symphonies. Notable examples Johann Sebastian Bach Toccata, Adagio and Fugue in C major, BWV 564 Cello Suite No. 3, BWV 1009 Joseph Haydn Cello Concerto No. 1 (1761–65) Symphony No. 7, Le Midi (1761) Symphony No. 60, Il distratto (1774) Symphony No. 82, The Bear (1786) String Quartet No. 32, The Bird (1781) String Quartet No. 62, Emperor (1797–98) Mass No. 10, Missa in tempore belli (1796) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 12 Variations in C major on the French song "Ah, vous dirai-je, Maman", KV 265 Concerto for flute and harp, KV 299/297c Piano Concerto No. 8, KV 246 ("Lutzow") Piano Concerto No. 13, KV 415 Piano Concerto No. 21, KV 467 Piano Concerto No. 25, KV 503 Piano Sonata No. 1, KV 279 Piano Sonata No. 7, KV 309 Piano Sonata No. 10, KV 330 Piano Sonata No. 16, KV 545 String Quartet No. 19, KV 465 ("Dissonance") Symphony No. 16, KV 128 Symphony No. 22, KV 162 Symphony No. 28, KV 200 Symphony No. 34, KV 338 Symphony No. 36, KV 425 ("Linz") Symphony No. 41, KV 551 ("Jupiter") Ludwig van Beethoven Piano Sonata No. 3, Op. 2, No. 3 Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 15 Symphony No. 1, Op. 21 Rondo Op. 51, No. 1 Piano Sonata No. 21, Op. 53 ("Waldstein") Triple Concerto for violin, cello, and piano in C major, Op. 56 (1803) Mass in C major, Op. 86 Franz Schubert Wanderer Fantasy, Op. 15 D. 760 Symphony No. 6 (Little) Symphony No. 9, D. 944 ("Great") String Quintet in C major, D. 956 Felix Mendelssohn Wedding March from A Midsummer Night's Dream Frédéric Chopin Introduction and Polonaise brillante for cello and piano, Op. 3 Etude Op. 10 No. 1 "Waterfall" Etude Op. 10 No. 7 "Toccata" Mazurka Op. 67 No. 3 Robert Schumann Toccata, Op. 7 Fantasie in C, Op. 17 Arabeske, Op. 18 Symphony No. 2, Op. 61 Georges Bizet Symphony in C Jean Sibelius Symphony No. 3, Op. 52 (1907) Symphony No. 7, Op. 105 (1924) Maurice Ravel Boléro Igor Stravinsky Symphony in C (1940) Sergei Prokofiev Piano Concerto No. 3, Op. 26 (1921) Symphony No. 4 (original version), Op. 47 (1930) Symphony No. 4 (revised version), Op. 112 (1947) Dmitri Shostakovich Symphony No. 7, Op. 60 ("Leningrad") Terry Riley In C See also Key (music) Major and minor Chord (music) Chord names and symbols (popular music) References Further reading David Wyn Jones, "The Beginning of the Symphony", in A Guide to the Symphony edited by Robert Layton. Oxford University Press. H. C. Robbins Landon, Haydn: The Symphonies BBC Music Guides External links Musical keys Major scales

German occupation of Czechoslovakia

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The military occupation of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany began with the German annexation of the Sudetenland in 1938, continued with the creation of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, and by the end of 1944 extended to all parts of Czechoslovakia. Following the Anschluss of Austria to Nazi Germany in March 1938 obtained with the Munich Agreement in September 1938, Adolf Hitler annexed the ethnic Germans living in Czech regions. The loss of Sudetenland was detrimental to the defense of Czechoslovakia as the extensive Czechoslovak border fortifications were also located in the same area. The incorporation of the Sudetenland into Germany that began on 1 October 1938 left the rest of Czechoslovakia weak. Moreover, a small northeastern part of the borderland region known as Zaolzie was occupied and annexed to Poland ostensibly to "protect" the local ethnic Polish community and as a result of previous territorial claims (Czech-Polish disputes in the years of 1918–20). Furthermore, by the First Vienna Award, Hungary received the southern territories of Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia, which was largely inhabited by Hungarians. As the Slovak State was proclaimed on 14 March, the next day Hungary occupied and annexed the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia. After fearing an Hungarian invasion, the Czech Prime Minister asked the German Wehrmacht to protect the remainder of the Czech lands. On 16 March 1939, Hitler agreed to form the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia from Prague Castle after negotiations with Emil Hácha, who remained as technical head of state with the title of State President. However, he was rendered all but powerless; real power was vested in the Reichsprotektor, who served as Hitler's personal representative. In March 1944, during Operation Margarethe Hungary was occupied by Germany, while beginning at the end of August 1944 with the Slovak National Uprising, Slovakia shared the same fate. The occupation ended with the surrender of Germany following World War II. During the German occupation between 294,000 to 320,000 citizens (including Jews, making up most of the casualties) were murdered. Reprisals were especially harsh in the aftermath of the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich (e.g. the infamous and widely published Lidice massacre). Large number of people were drafted for slave labour in Germany. Demands for Sudeten autonomy Sudeten German pro-Nazi leader Konrad Henlein offered the Sudeten German Party (SdP) as the agent for Hitler's campaign. Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin on 28 March 1938, where he was instructed to raise demands unacceptable to the Czechoslovak government led by president Edvard Beneš. On 24 April, the SdP issued the Karlsbader Programm, demanding autonomy for the Sudetenland and the freedom to profess National Socialist ideology. If Henlein's demands were granted, the Sudetenland would then be able to align itself with Nazi Germany. Munich Agreement As the tepid reaction to the German Anschluss with Austria had shown, the governments of France, the United Kingdom and Czechoslovakia were set on avoiding war at any cost. The French government did not wish to face Germany alone and took its lead from the British government, led by Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. He contended that Sudeten German grievances were justified and believed that Hitler's intentions were limited. That made Britain and France advise Czechoslovakia to concede to the German demands. Beneš resisted, and on 20 May 1938, a partial mobilisation was under way in response to the possible German invasion. It is suggested that the mobilisation could have been launched on basis of Soviet misinformation about Germany being on verge of invasion, which aimed to trigger war in Western Europe. On 30 May, Hitler signed a secret directive for war against Czechoslovakia to begin no later than 1 October. In the meantime, the British government demanded for Beneš to request a mediator. Not wishing to sever his government's ties with Western Europe, Beneš reluctantly accepted. The British appointed Lord Runciman and instructed him to persuade Beneš to agree to a plan acceptable to the Sudeten Germans. On 2 September, Beneš submitted the Fourth Plan, which granted nearly all of the demands of the Karlsbader Programm. Intent on obstructing conciliation, however, the SdP held demonstrations that provoked the police in Ostrava on 7 September. The Sudeten Germans broke off negotiations on 13 September, and violence and disruption ensued. As Czechoslovak troops attempted to restore order, Henlein flew to Germany, and on 15 September, he issued a proclamation demanding the takeover of the Sudetenland by Germany. The same day, Hitler met with Chamberlain and demanded the swift takeover of the Sudetenland by the Third Reich under threat of war. Czechoslovakia, Hitler claimed, was slaughtering the Sudeten Germans. Chamberlain referred the demand to the British and French governments, both of which accepted. The Czechoslovak government resisted by arguing that Hitler's proposal would ruin the nation's economy and ultimately lead to German control of all of Czechoslovakia. The United Kingdom and France issued an ultimatum and made a French commitment to Czechoslovakia contingent upon its acceptance. On 21 September, Czechoslovakia capitulated. The next day, however, Hitler added new demands that insisted for the claims of Poland and Hungary to be satisfied as well. Romania was also invited to share in the division of Carpathian Ruthenia but refused because it was an ally of Czechoslovakia (see Little Entente). The Czechoslovak capitulation precipitated an outburst of national indignation. In demonstrations and rallies, Czechs and Slovaks called for a strong military government to defend the integrity of the state. A new cabinet, under General Jan Syrový, was installed, and on 23 September 1938, a decree of general mobilization was issued. The Czechoslovak Army was modern, had an excellent system of frontier fortifications and was prepared to fight. The Soviet Union announced its willingness to come to Czechoslovakia's assistance. Beneš, however, refused to go to war without the support of the Western powers. Hitler gave a speech in Berlin on 26 September 1938 and declared that the Sudetenland was "the last territorial demand I have to make in Europe". He also stated that he had told Chamberlain, "I have assured him further that, and this I repeat here before you, once this issue has been resolved, there will no longer be any further territorial problems for Germany in Europe!" On 28 September, Chamberlain appealed to Hitler for a conference. Hitler met the next day at Munich with the chiefs of governments of France, Italy and Britain. The Czechoslovak government was neither invited nor consulted. On 29 September, the Munich Agreement was signed by Germany, Italy, France and Britain. The Czechoslovak government capitulated on 30 September, despite the army's opposition, and agreed to abide by the agreement, which stipulated that Czechoslovakia must cede Sudetenland to Germany. The German occupation of the Sudetenland would be completed by 10 October. An international commission representing Germany, Britain, France, Italy and Czechoslovakia would supervise a plebiscite to determine the final frontier. Britain and France promised to join in an international guarantee of the new frontiers against unprovoked aggression. Germany and Italy, however, would not join in the guarantee until the Polish and Hungarian minority problems were settled. On 5 October 1938, Beneš resigned as president since he realised that the fall of Czechoslovakia was a fait accompli. After the outbreak of World War II, he would form a Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London. First Vienna Award In early November 1938, under the First Vienna Award, which was a result of the Munich agreement, Czechoslovakia — it had failed to reach a compromise with Hungary and Poland— had to cede after the arbitration of Germany and Italy southern Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia to Hungary, while Poland invaded Zaolzie territory shortly after. As a result, Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia lost about 38% of their combined area to Germany, with some 3.2 million German and 750,000 Czech inhabitants. Hungary, in turn, received in southern Slovakia and southern Carpathian Ruthenia; according to a 1941 census, about 86.5% of the population in this territory was Hungarian. Meanwhile, Poland annexed the town of Český Těšín with the surrounding area (some ), some 250,000 inhabitants, Poles making up about 36% of population, and two minor border areas in northern Slovakia, more precisely in the regions Spiš and Orava. (, 4,280 inhabitants, only 0.3% Poles). Soon after Munich, 115,000 Czechs and 30,000 Germans fled to the remaining rump of Czechoslovakia. According to the Institute for Refugee Assistance, the actual count of refugees on 1 March 1939 stood at almost 150,000. On 4 December 1938, there were elections in Reichsgau Sudetenland, in which 97.32% of the adult population voted for the National Socialist Party. About 500,000 Sudeten Germans joined the National Socialist Party, which was 17.34% of the German population in Sudetenland (the average National Socialist Party participation in Nazi Germany was 7.85%). This means the Sudetenland was the most pro-Nazi region in the Third Reich. Because of their knowledge of the Czech language, many Sudeten Germans were employed in the administration of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and in Nazi organizations such as the Gestapo. The most notable was Karl Hermann Frank, the SS and police general and Secretary of State in the Protectorate. Second Republic (October 1938 to March 1939) The greatly weakened Czechoslovak Republic was forced to grant major concessions to the non-Czechs. The executive committee of the Slovak People's Party met at Žilina on 5 October 1938, and with the acquiescence of all Slovak parties except the Social Democrats formed an autonomous Slovak government under Jozef Tiso. Similarly, the two major factions in Subcarpathian Ruthenia, the Russophiles and Ukrainophiles, agreed on the establishment of an autonomous government, which was constituted on 8 October. Reflecting the spread of modern Ukrainian national consciousness, the pro-Ukrainian faction, led by Avhustyn Voloshyn, gained control of the local government and Subcarpathian Ruthenia was renamed Carpatho-Ukraine. In 1939, during the occupation, the Nazis banned Russian ballet. A last-ditch attempt to save Czechoslovakia from total ruin was made by the British and French governments, who on 27 January 1939, concluded an agreement of financial assistance with the Czechoslovak government. In this agreement, the British and French governments undertook to lend the Czechoslovak government £8 million and make a gift of £4 million. Part of the funds were allocated to help resettle Czechs and Slovaks who had fled from territories lost to Germany, Hungary, and Poland in the Munich Agreement or the Vienna Arbitration Award. In November 1938, Emil Hácha, who succeeded Beneš, was elected president of the federated Second Republic, renamed Czecho-Slovakia and consisting of three parts: Bohemia and Moravia, Slovakia, and Carpatho-Ukraine. Lacking its natural frontier and having lost its costly system of border fortification, the new state was militarily indefensible. In January 1939, negotiations between Germany and Poland broke down. Hitler—intent on war against Poland—needed to eliminate Czechoslovakia first. Hitler totally ignored the agreements of the Munich Agreement and scheduled a German invasion of Bohemia and Moravia for the morning of 15 March. In the interim, he negotiated with the Slovak People's Party and with Hungary to prepare the dismemberment of the republic before the invasion. On 13 March, he invited Tiso to Berlin and on 14 March, the Slovak Diet convened and unanimously declared Slovak independence. Carpatho-Ukraine also declared independence but Hungarian troops occupied and annexed it on 15 March and a small part of eastern Slovakia as well on 23 March. March 14 After the secession of Slovakia and Ruthenia, British Ambassador to Czechoslovakia Basil Newton advised President Hácha to meet with Hitler. When Hácha first arrived in Berlin on March 14, he first met with the German Foreign Minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop prior to meeting with Hitler. Von Ribbentrop testified at the Nuremberg trials that during this meeting Hácha had told him that "he wanted to place the fate of the Czech State in the Führer's hands." Hácha later met with Hitler, where Hitler gave the Czech President two options: cooperate with Germany, in which case the "entry of German troops would take place in a tolerable manner" and "permit Czechoslovakia a generous life of her own, autonomy and a degree of national freedom..." or face a scenario in which "resistance would be broken by force of arms, using all means." Minutes of the conversation noted that for Hácha this was the most difficult decision of his life but believed that in only a few years this decision would be comprehensible and in 50 years would probably be regarded as a blessing. After the negotiations had finished, Hitler told his secretaries, “It is the greatest triumph of my life! I shall enter history as the greatest German of them all.” According to Joachim Fest, Hácha suffered a heart attack induced by Hermann Göring's threat to bomb the capital and by four o'clock he contacted Prague, effectively "signing Czechoslovakia away" to Germany. Göring acknowledged making the threat to the British ambassador to Germany, Neville Henderson, but said that the threat came as a warning because the Czech government, after already agreeing to German occupation, could not guarantee that the Czech army would not fire on the advancing Germans. Göring, however, does not mention that Hácha had a heart attack because of his threat. French Ambassador Robert Coulondre reported that according to an unnamed, considered a reliable source by Coulondre, by half past four, Hácha was "in a state of total collapse, and kept going only by means of injections." However, Hitler's interpreter Paul Schmidt, who was present during the meeting, in his memoirs denied such turbulent scenes ever taking place with the Czechoslovak President. March 15 On the morning of 15 March, German troops entered the remaining Czech parts of Czechoslovakia (Rest-Tschechei in German), meeting practically no resistance (the only instance of organized resistance took place in Místek where an infantry company commanded by Karel Pavlík fought invading German troops). The Hungarian invasion of Carpatho-Ukraine encountered resistance but the Hungarian army quickly crushed it. On 16 March, Hitler went to Czech lands and from Prague Castle proclaimed the German protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Besides violating his promises at Munich, the annexation of the rest of Czechoslovakia was, unlike Hitler's previous actions, not described in Mein Kampf. After having repeatedly stated that he was interested only in pan-Germanism, the unification of ethnic Germans into one Reich, Germany had now conquered seven million Czechs. Hitler's proclamation creating the protectorate claimed that "Bohemia and Moravia have for thousands of years belonged to the Lebensraum of the German people". British public opinion changed drastically after the invasion. Chamberlain realised that the Munich Agreement had meant nothing to Hitler. Chamberlain told the British public on 17 March during a speech in Birmingham that Hitler was attempting “to dominate the world by force”. Subsequently, interwar Czechoslovakia has been idealized by its proponents as the only bastion of democracy surrounded by authoritarian and fascist regimes. It has also been condemned by its detractors as an artificial and unworkable creation of intellectuals supported by the great powers. Interwar Czechoslovakia comprised lands and peoples that were far from being integrated into a modern nation-state. Moreover, the dominant Czechs, who had suffered political discrimination under the Habsburgs, were not able to cope with the demands of other nationalities; however, some of the minority demands served as mere pretexts to justify intervention by Germany. Czechoslovakia was able to maintain a viable economy and a democratic political system under the adverse circumstances of the interwar period. Second World War Division of Czechoslovakia Shortly before World War II, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist. Its territory was divided into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, the newly declared Slovak State and the short-lived Republic of Carpathian Ukraine. While much of former Czechoslovakia came under the control of the Third Reich, Hungarian forces (aided by Poland) swiftly overran the Carpathian Ukraine. Poland and Hungary annexed some areas (e.g., Zaolzie, Southern Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia) in the autumn of 1938. The Zaolzie region became part of the Third Reich after the German invasion of Poland in September 1939. The German economy—burdened by heavy militarisation—urgently needed foreign currency. Setting up an artificially high exchange rate between the Czechoslovak koruna and the Reichsmark brought consumer goods to Germans (and soon created shortages in the Czech lands). Czechoslovakia had fielded a modern army of 35 divisions and was a major manufacturer of machine guns, tanks, and artillery, most of them assembled in the Škoda factory in Plzeň. Many Czech factories continued to produce Czech designs until converted to German designs. Czechoslovakia also had other major manufacturing companies. Entire steel and chemical factories were moved from Czechoslovakia and reassembled in Linz (which incidentally remains a heavily industrialized area of Austria). In a speech delivered in the Reichstag, Hitler stressed the military importance of occupation, noting that by occupying Czechoslovakia, Germany gained 2,175 field cannons, 469 tanks, 500 anti-aircraft artillery pieces, 43,000 machine guns, 1,090,000 military rifles, 114,000 pistols, about a billion rounds of ammunition and three million anti-aircraft shells. This amount of weaponry would be sufficient to arm about half of the then Wehrmacht. Czechoslovak weaponry later played a major part in the German conquests of Poland (1939) and France (1940)—countries that had pressured Czechoslovakia's surrender to Germany in 1938. Czechoslovak resistance Beneš—the leader of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile—and František Moravec—head of Czechoslovak military intelligence—organized and coordinated a resistance network. Hácha, Prime Minister Alois Eliáš, and the Czechoslovak resistance acknowledged Beneš's leadership. Active collaboration between London and the Czechoslovak home front was maintained throughout the war years. The most important event of the resistance was Operation Anthropoid, the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, SS leader Heinrich Himmler's deputy and the then Protector of Bohemia and Moravia. Infuriated, Hitler ordered the arrest and execution of 10,000 randomly selected Czechs. Over 10,000 were arrested, and at least 1,300 were executed. According to one estimate, 5,000 were killed in reprisals. The assassination resulted in one of the most well-known reprisals of the war. The Nazis completely destroyed the villages of Lidice and Ležáky; all men over 16 years from the village were murdered, and the rest of the population was sent to Nazi concentration camps where many women and nearly all the children were killed. The Czechoslovak resistance comprised four main groups: The army command coordinated with a multitude of spontaneous groupings to form the Defense of the Nation (Obrana národa, ON) with branches in Britain and France. Czechoslovak units and formations with Czechs (c. 65–70%), and Slovaks (c. 30%) served with the Polish Army (Czechoslovak Legion), the French Army, the Royal Air Force, the British Army (the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade), and the Red Army (I Corps). Two thousand eighty-eight Czechs and 401 Slovaks fought in 11th Infantry Battalion-East alongside the British during the war in areas such as North Africa and Palestine. Among others, Czech fighter pilot, Sergeant Josef František was one of the most successful fighter pilots in the Battle of Britain. Beneš's collaborators, led by , created the Political Center (Politické ústředí, PÚ). The PÚ was nearly destroyed by arrests in November 1939, after which younger politicians took control. Social democrats and leftist intellectuals, in association with such groups as trade unions and educational institutions, constituted the Committee of the Petition that We Remain Faithful (Petiční výbor Věrni zůstaneme, PVVZ). The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) was the fourth major resistance group. The KSČ had been one of over 20 political parties in the democratic First Republic, but it had never gained sufficient votes to unsettle the democratic government. After the Munich Agreement, the leadership of the KSČ moved to Moscow and the party went underground. Until 1943, however, KSČ resistance was weak. The 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, had left the KSČ in disarray. But ever faithful to the Soviet line, the KSČ began a more active struggle against the Germans after Operation Barbarossa, Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941. The democratic groups—ON, PÚ, and PVVZ—united in early 1940 and formed the Central Committee of the Home Resistance (Ústřední výbor odboje domácího, ÚVOD). Involved primarily in intelligence gathering, the ÚVOD cooperated with a Soviet intelligence organization in Prague. Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the democratic groups attempted to create a united front that would include the KSČ. Heydrich's appointment in the fall thwarted these efforts. By mid-1942, the Germans had succeeded in exterminating the most experienced elements of the Czechoslovak resistance forces. Czechoslovak forces regrouped in 1942–1943. The Council of the Three (R3)—in which the communist underground was also represented—emerged as the focal point of the resistance. The R3 prepared to assist the liberating armies of the U.S. and the Soviet Union. In cooperation with Red Army partisan units, the R3 developed a guerrilla structure. Guerrilla activity intensified with a rising number of parachuted units in 1944, leading to the establishment of partisan groups such as 1st Czechoslovak Partisan Brigade of Jan Žižka, Jan Kozina Brigade or Master Jan Hus Brigade, and especially after the formation of a provisional Czechoslovak government in Košice on 4 April 1945. "National committees" took over the administration of towns as the Germans were expelled. More than 4,850 such committees were formed between 1944 and the end of the war under the supervision of the Red Army. On 5 May, a national uprising began spontaneously in Prague, and the newly formed Czech National Council (cs) almost immediately assumed leadership of the revolt. Over 1,600 barricades were erected throughout the city, and some 30,000 Czech men and women battled for three days against 40,000 German troops backed by tanks, aircraft and artillery. On 8 May, the German Wehrmacht capitulated; Soviet troops arrived on 9 May. German policy There are sources that highlighted the more favorable treatment of the Czechs during the German occupation in comparison to the treatment of the Poles and the Ukrainians. This is attributed to the view within the Nazi hierarchy that a large swath of the populace was "capable of Aryanization," hence, the Czechs were not subjected to a similar degree of random and organized acts of brutality that their Polish counterparts experienced. Such capacity for Aryanization was supported by the position that part of the Czech population had German ancestry. On the other hand, the Czechs/Slavs were not considered by the Germans as a racial equal due to its classification as a mixture of races with Jewish and Asiatic influences. This was illustrated in a series of discussion, which denigrated it as less valuable and, specifically, the Czechs as "dangerous and must be handled differently from Aryan peoples." Aside from the inconsistency of animosity towards Slavs, there is also the claim that the forceful but restrained policy in Czechoslovakia was partly driven by the need to keep the population nourished and complacent so that it can carry out the vital work of arms production in the factories. By 1939, the country was already serving as a major hub of military production for Germany, manufacturing aircraft, tanks, artillery, and other armaments. Slovak National Uprising The Slovak National Uprising ("1944 Uprising") was an armed struggle between German Wehrmacht forces and rebel Slovak troops August–October 1944. It was centered at Banská Bystrica. The rebel Slovak Army, formed to fight the Germans, had an estimated 18,000 soldiers in August, a total which first increased to 47,000 after mobilisation on 9 September 1944, and later to 60,000, plus 20,000 partisans. However, in late August, German troops were able to disarm the Eastern Slovak Army, which was the best equipped, and thus significantly decreased the power of the Slovak Army. Many members of this force were sent to concentration camps in the Third Reich; others escaped and joined partisan units. The Slovaks were aided in the Uprising by soldiers and partisans from the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, USA, France, the Czech Republic, and Poland. In total, 32 nations were involved in the Uprising. Czechoslovak government-in-exile Edvard Beneš had resigned as president of the first Czechoslovak Republic on 5 October 1938 after the Nazi coup. In London, he and other Czechoslovak exiles organized a Czechoslovak government-in-exile and negotiated to obtain international recognition for the government and a renunciation of the Munich Agreement and its consequences. After World War II broke out, a Czechoslovak national committee was constituted in France, and under Beneš's presidency sought international recognition as the exiled government of Czechoslovakia. This attempt led to some minor successes, such as the French-Czechoslovak treaty of 2 October 1939, which allowed for the reconstitution of the Czechoslovak army on French territory, yet full recognition was not reached. The Czechoslovak army in France was established on 24 January 1940, and units of its 1st Infantry Division took part in the last stages of the Battle of France, as did some Czechoslovak fighter pilots in various French fighter squadrons. Beneš hoped for a restoration of the Czechoslovak state in its pre-Munich form after the anticipated Allied victory, a false hope. The government in exile—with Beneš as president of republic—was set up in June 1940 in exile in London, with the President living at Aston Abbotts. On 18 July 1940, it was recognised by the British government. Belatedly, the Soviet Union (in the summer of 1941) and the U.S. (in the winter) recognised the exiled government. In 1942, Allied repudiation of the Munich Agreement established the political and legal continuity of the First Republic and de jure recognition of Beneš's de facto presidency. The success of Operation Anthropoid—which resulted in the British-backed assassination of one of Hitler's top henchmen, Reichsprotektor of Bohemia and Moravia Reinhard Heydrich, by Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš on 27 May—influenced the Allies in this repudiation. The Munich Agreement had been precipitated by the subversive activities of the Sudeten Germans. During the latter years of the war, Beneš worked toward resolving the German minority problem and received consent from the Allies for a solution based on a postwar transfer of the Sudeten German population. The First Republic had been committed to a Western policy in foreign affairs. The Munich Agreement was the outcome. Beneš determined to strengthen Czechoslovak security against future German aggression through alliances with Poland and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union, however, objected to a tripartite Czechoslovak-Polish-Soviet commitment. In December 1943, Beneš's government concluded a treaty just with the Soviets. Beneš's interest in maintaining friendly relations with the Soviet Union was motivated also by his desire to avoid Soviet encouragement of a post-war communist coup in Czechoslovakia. Beneš worked to bring Czechoslovak communist exiles in Britain into cooperation with his government, offering far-reaching concessions, including the nationalization of heavy industry and the creation of local people's committees at the war's end. In March 1945, he gave key cabinet positions to Czechoslovak communist exiles in Moscow. Especially after the German reprisals for the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, most of the Czech resistance groups demanded, with eerie irony and based on Nazi terror during the occupation, ethnic cleansing or the "final solution of the German question" () which would have to be "solved" by deportation of the ethnic Germans from their homeland. These reprisals included massacres in villages Lidice and Ležáky, although these villages were not connected with Czech resistance. These demands were adopted by the government-in-exile, which sought the support of the Allies for this proposal, beginning in 1943. During the occupation of Czechoslovakia, the Government-in-Exile promulgated a series of laws that are now referred to as the "Beneš decrees". One part of these decrees dealt with the status of ethnic Germans and Hungarians in postwar Czechoslovakia, and laid the ground for the deportation of some 3,000,000 Germans and Hungarians from the land that had been their home for centuries (see expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia, and Hungarians in Slovakia). The Beneš decrees declared that German property was to be confiscated without compensation. However, the final agreement authorizing the forced population transfer of the Germans was not reached until 2 August 1945 at the end of the Potsdam Conference. End of the war On 8 May 1944, Beneš signed an agreement with Soviet leaders stipulating that "Czechoslovak territory liberated by Soviet armies" would be placed under Czechoslovak civilian control. On 21 September, Czechoslovak troops formed in the Soviet-liberated village, Kalinov, which was the first liberated settlement of Slovakia, located near the Dukla Pass in northeastern part of the country. Slovakia and the Czech lands were occupied mostly by Soviet troops (the Red Army), supported by Czech and Slovak resistance, from the east to the west; only southwestern Bohemia was liberated by other Allied troops from the west. Except for the brutalities of the German occupation in Bohemia and Moravia (after the August 1944 Slovak National Uprising also in Slovakia), They suffered relatively little from the war. Even at the end of the war, German troops massacred Czech civilians; the Massacre in Trhová Kamenice and the Massacre at Javoříčko are examples of this. A provisional Czechoslovak government was established by the Soviets in the eastern Slovak city of Košice on 4 April 1945. "National committees" (supervised by the Red Army) took over the administration of towns as the Germans were expelled. Bratislava was taken by the Soviets on 4 April. Prague was taken on 9 May by Soviet troops during the Prague Offensive. When the Soviets arrived, Prague was already in a general state of confusion due to the Prague Uprising. Soviet and other Allied troops were withdrawn from Czechoslovakia in the same year. On 5 May 1945, in the last moments of the war in Europe, the Prague uprising (Czech: Pražské povstání) began. It was an attempt by the Czech resistance to liberate the city of Prague from German occupation during World War II. The uprising went on until 8 May 1945, ending in a ceasefire the day before the arrival of the Red Army and one day after Victory in Europe Day. It is estimated that about 345,000 World War II casualties were from Czechoslovakia, 277,000 of them Jews. As many as 144,000 Soviet troops died during the liberation of Czechoslovakia. Annexation of Subcarpathian Ruthenia by the Soviet Union In October 1944, Subcarpathian Ruthenia was taken by the Soviets. A Czechoslovak delegation under František Němec was dispatched to the area. The delegation was to mobilize the liberated local population to form a Czechoslovak army and to prepare for elections in cooperation with recently established national committees. Loyalty to a Czechoslovak state was tenuous in Carpathian Ruthenia. Beneš's proclamation of April 1944 excluded former collaborationist Hungarians, Germans and the Rusynophile Ruthenian followers of Andrej Bródy and the Fencik Party (who had collaborated with the Hungarians) from political participation. This amounted to approximately ⅓ of the population. Another ⅓ was communist, leaving ⅓ of the population presumably sympathetic to the Czechoslovak Republic. Upon arrival in Subcarpathian Ruthenia, the Czechoslovak delegation set up headquarters in Khust, and on 30 October issued a mobilization proclamation. Soviet military forces prevented both the printing and the posting of the Czechoslovak proclamation and proceeded instead to organize the local population. Protests from Beneš's government were ignored. Soviet activities led much of the local population to believe that Soviet annexation was imminent. The Czechoslovak delegation was also prevented from establishing a cooperative relationship with the local national committees promoted by the Soviets. On 19 November, the communists—meeting in Mukachevo—issued a resolution requesting separation of Subcarpathian Ruthenia from Czechoslovakia and incorporation into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. On 26 November, the Congress of National Committees unanimously accepted the resolution of the communists. The congress elected the National Council and instructed that a delegation be sent to Moscow to discuss union. The Czechoslovak delegation was asked to leave Subcarpathian Ruthenia. Negotiations between the Czechoslovak government and Moscow ensued. Both Czech and Slovak communists encouraged Beneš to cede Subcarpathian Ruthenia. The Soviet Union agreed to postpone annexation until the postwar period to avoid compromising Beneš's policy based on the pre-Munich frontiers. The treaty ceding Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union was signed in June 1945. Czechs and Slovaks living in Subcarpathian Ruthenia and Ruthenians (Rusyns) living in Czechoslovakia were given the choice of Czechoslovak or Soviet citizenship. Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia In May 1945, Czechoslovak troops took possession of the borderland. A Czechoslovak administrative commission composed exclusively of Czechs was established. Sudeten Germans were subjected to restrictive measures and conscripted for compulsory labor. On 15 June, however, Beneš called Czechoslovak authorities to order. In July, Czechoslovak representatives addressed the Potsdam Conference (the U.S., Britain and the Soviet Union) and presented plans for a "humane and orderly transfer" of the Sudeten German population. There were substantial exceptions from expulsions that applied to about 244,000 ethnic Germans who were allowed to remain in Czechoslovakia. The following groups of ethnic Germans were not deported: anti-fascists persons crucial for industries those married to ethnic Czechs It is estimated that between 700,000 and 800,000 Germans were affected by "wild" expulsions between May and August 1945. The expulsions were encouraged by Czechoslovak politicians and were generally carried out by the order of local authorities, mostly by groups of armed volunteers. However, in some cases it was initiated or pursued by assistance of the regular army. The expulsion according to the Potsdam Conference proceeded from 25 January 1946 until October of that year. An estimated 1.6 million ethnic Germans were deported to the American zone of what would become West Germany. An estimated 800,000 were deported to the Soviet zone (in what would become East Germany). Several thousand died violently during the expulsion and many more died from hunger and illness as a consequence. These casualties include violent deaths and suicides, deaths in internment camps and natural causes. The joint Czech-German commission of historians stated in 1996 the following numbers: The deaths caused by violence and abnormal living conditions amount to approximately 10,000 persons killed. Another 5,000–6,000 people died of unspecified reasons related to expulsion making the total number of victims of the expulsion 15,000–16,000 (this excludes suicides, which make another approximately 3,400 cases). Approximately 225,000 Germans remained in Czechoslovakia, of whom 50,000 emigrated or were expelled soon after. See also Fall Grün, the German invasion plan for Czechoslovakia rendered obsolete by the Munich Agreement Lety concentration camp Hodonin concentration camp International Students' Day Czechoslovak border fortifications – built 1935–1938 against Germany Battle of Czajánek's barracks Karel Pavlík Western betrayal References Further reading External links Hitler’s directive for "Operation Green" .01 . Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia Annexation 1938 in Czechoslovakia 1939 in Czechoslovakia 1940 in Czechoslovakia 1941 in Czechoslovakia 1942 in Czechoslovakia 1943 in Czechoslovakia 1944 in Czechoslovakia 1945 in Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia Battles and operations of World War II involving Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia Conflicts in 1939 Czechoslovakia Jews and Judaism in Czechoslovakia Munich Agreement Partition (politics) Czechoslovakia Sudetenland 1930s in Czechoslovakia 1940s in Czechoslovakia 20th century in the Czech lands 20th century in Slovakia

Battle of Franklin (1864)

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The Second Battle of Franklin was fought on November 30, 1864, in Franklin, Tennessee, as part of the Franklin–Nashville Campaign of the American Civil War. It was one of the worst disasters of the war for the Confederate States Army. Confederate Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood's Army of Tennessee conducted numerous frontal assaults against fortified positions occupied by the Union forces under Maj. Gen. John Schofield and was unable to prevent Schofield from executing a planned, orderly withdrawal to Nashville. The Confederate assault of six infantry divisions containing eighteen brigades with 100 regiments numbering almost 20,000 men, sometimes called the "Pickett's Charge of the West", resulted in devastating losses to the men and the leadership of the Army of Tennessee—fourteen Confederate generals (six killed, seven wounded, and one captured) and 55 regimental commanders were casualties. After its defeat against Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas in the subsequent Battle of Nashville, the Army of Tennessee retreated with barely half the men with which it had begun the short offensive, and was effectively destroyed as a fighting force for the remainder of the war. The 1864 Battle of Franklin was the second military action in the vicinity; a battle in 1863 was a minor action associated with a reconnaissance in force by Confederate cavalry leader Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn on April 10. Background Military situation Following his defeat in the Atlanta Campaign, Hood had hoped to lure Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman into battle by disrupting his railroad supply line from Chattanooga to Atlanta. After a brief period in which he pursued Hood, Sherman decided instead to cut his main army off from these lines and "live off the land" in his famed March to the Sea from Atlanta to Savannah. By doing so, he would avoid having to defend hundreds of miles of supply lines against constant raids, through which he predicted he would lose "a thousand men monthly and gain no result" against Hood's army. Sherman's march left the aggressive Hood unoccupied, and his Army of Tennessee had several options in attacking Sherman or falling upon his rear lines. The task of defending Tennessee and the rearguard against Hood fell to Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas, commander of the Army of the Cumberland. The principal forces available in Middle Tennessee were IV Corps of the Army of the Cumberland, commanded by Maj. Gen. David S. Stanley, and XXIII Corps of the Army of the Ohio, commanded by Maj. Gen. John Schofield, with a total strength of about 30,000. Another 30,000 troops under Thomas's command were in or moving toward Nashville. Rather than trying to chase Sherman in Georgia, Hood decided that he would attempt a major offensive northward, even though his invading force of 39,000 would be outnumbered by the 60,000 Union troops in Tennessee. He would move north into Tennessee and try to defeat portions of Thomas's army in detail before they could concentrate, seize the important manufacturing and supply center of Nashville, and continue north into Kentucky, possibly as far as the Ohio River. Hood even expected to pick up 20,000 recruits from Tennessee and Kentucky in his path of victory and then join up with Robert E. Lee's army in Virginia, a plan that historian James M. McPherson describes as "scripted in never-never land." Hood had recovered from but was affected by a couple of serious physical battle wounds to a leg and arm, which caused him pain and limited his mobility. Hood spent the first three weeks of November quietly supplying the Army of Tennessee in northern Alabama in preparation for his offensive. Road to Franklin, November 21–29 The Army of Tennessee marched north from Florence, Alabama, on November 21, and indeed managed to surprise the Union forces, the two halves of which were apart at Pulaski, Tennessee and at Nashville. With a series of fast marches that covered in three days, Hood tried to maneuver between the two armies to destroy each in detail. But Union general Schofield, commanding Stanley's IV Corps as well as his own XXIII Corps, reacted correctly with a rapid retreat from Pulaski to Columbia, which held an important bridge over the Duck River on the turnpike north. Despite suffering losses from Maj. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest's cavalry along the way, the Federals were able to reach Columbia and erect fortifications just hours before the Confederates arrived on November 24. From November 24 to 29, Schofield managed to block Hood at this crossing, and the "Battle of Columbia" was a series of mostly bloodless skirmishes and artillery bombardments while both sides re-gathered their armies. On November 28, Thomas directed Schofield to begin preparations for a withdrawal north to Franklin. He was incorrectly expecting that Maj. Gen. A. J. Smith's XVI Corps arrival from Missouri was imminent and he wanted the combined force to defend against Hood on the line of the Harpeth River at Franklin instead of the Duck River at Columbia. Meanwhile, early on the morning of November 29, Hood sent Benjamin F. Cheatham's and Alexander P. Stewart's corps north on a flanking march. They crossed the Duck River at Davis's Ford east of Columbia, while two divisions of Stephen D. Lee's corps and most of the army's artillery remained on the southern bank to deceive Schofield into thinking a general assault was planned against Columbia. Now that Hood had outflanked him by noon on November 29, Schofield's army was in critical danger. His command was split at that time between his supply wagons and artillery and part of the IV Corps, which he had sent to Spring Hill nearly ten miles north of Columbia, and the rest of the IV and XXIII corps marching from Columbia to join them. In the Battle of Spring Hill that afternoon and night, Hood had a golden opportunity to intercept and destroy the Union troops and their supply wagons, as his forces had already reached the turnpike separating the Union forces by nightfall. However, because of a series of command failures along with Hood's premature confidence that he had trapped Schofield, the Confederates failed to stop or even inflict much damage to the Union forces during the night. Both the Union infantry and supply train managed to pass Spring Hill unscathed by dawn on November 30, and soon occupied the town of Franklin to the north. That morning, Hood was surprised and furious to discover Schofield's unexpected escape. After an angry conference with his subordinate commanders in which he blamed everyone but himself for the mistakes, Hood ordered his army to resume its pursuit north to Franklin. Union defensive plans Schofield's advance guard arrived in Franklin at about 4:30 a.m. on November 30, after a forced march north from Spring Hill. Brig. Gen. Jacob Cox, commander of the 3rd Division, temporarily assumed command of the XXIII Corps and immediately began preparing strong defensive positions around the deteriorated entrenchments originally constructed for a previous engagement in 1863. Schofield decided to defend at Franklin with his back to the river because he had no pontoon bridges available that would enable his men to cross the river. The bridges had been left behind in his retreat from Columbia because they lacked wagons to transport them, and pontoons requested from Thomas in Nashville had not arrived. Schofield needed time to repair the permanent bridges spanning the river—a burned wagon bridge and an intact railroad bridge. He ordered his engineers to rebuild the wagon bridge and to lay planking over the undamaged railroad bridge to enable it to carry wagons and troops. His supply train parked in the side streets to keep the main pike open, while wagons continued to cross the river, first via a ford next to the burned-out pike bridge, and later in the afternoon by the two makeshift bridges. By the beginning of the assault, nearly all the supply wagons were across the Harpeth and on the road to Nashville. By noon, the Union works were ready. The line formed an approximate semicircle around the town from northwest to southeast. The other half of the circle was the Harpeth River. Counterclockwise from the northwest were the divisions of Kimball (IV Corps), Ruger (XXIII Corps), and Reilly (XXIII Corps). There was a gap in the line where the Columbia Pike (present day U.S. Route 31) entered the outskirts of the town, left open to allow passage of the wagons. About behind this gap, a 150-yard "retrenchment" line was constructed of dirt and rails, which was intended to be a barrier to traffic, not a full-fledged defensive earthwork. (The gap was also defended by the guns of Battery A, 1st Kentucky Artillery. The men of the 44th Missouri also extended the retrenchment line to the west along their front with hastily dug trenches.) The actual earthworks in the southern portion of the line were formidable. Attacking infantry would be confronted by a ditch about four feet wide and two to three feet deep, then a wall of earth and wooden fence rails four feet above normal ground level, and finally a trench three to four feet deep in which the defenders stood, aiming their weapons through narrow "head gaps" formed by logs. In the southeast portion of the line, Osage-orange shrubs formed an almost impenetrable abatis. Just behind the center of the line stood the Carter House, appropriated as Cox's headquarters. Just east of the pike was the Carter cotton gin building, around which a minor salient occurred in the Union earthworks. Schofield established his headquarters in the Alpheus Truett House, a half mile north of the Harpeth on the Nashville Pike, although he would spend most of his time during the battle in Fort Granger, built in 1863 as an artillery position northeast of the town. Two Union brigades were positioned about a half mile forward of the main line. George D. Wagner's division had been the last to arrive from Spring Hill, and after briefly stopping at Winstead Hill before Hood arrived, he ordered his brigades under Colonels Emerson Opdycke, John Q. Lane, and Joseph Conrad (who had replaced Luther Bradley, wounded at Spring Hill) to stop halfway to the Union line and dig in as best they could on the flat ground. Stanley had earlier ordered Wagner to hold Winstead Hill until dark unless he was pressed, and it is possible that Wagner somehow translated these orders into the notion that he was supposed to hold a line south of the main position. Opdycke considered Wagner's order to be ridiculous and refused to obey it; he marched his brigade through the Union line and into a reserve position behind the gap through which the Columbia Pike passed. (A few days after his ill-considered position was overrun in the Confederate advance, Wagner was relieved of command at his own request.) Wood's division of IV Corps and all of Wilson's cavalry were posted north of the Harpeth to watch for any flanking attempt. Schofield planned to withdraw his infantry across the river by 6:00 p.m. if Hood had not arrived by then. As Hood approached, Schofield initially assumed the Confederates were demonstrating as they had at Columbia, planning to cross the Harpeth and turn the Union position. He did not suspect that Hood would be rash enough to attack the strong defensive line. Hood's arrival and plan Hood's army began to arrive on Winstead Hill, two miles (3 km) south of Franklin, around 1:00 p.m. Hood ordered a frontal assault in the dwindling afternoon light—sunset would be at 4:34 p.m. that day—against the Union force, a decision that caused dismay among his top generals. Forrest argued unsuccessfully that if he were given a division of infantry to accompany his cavalry, he could flank Schofield out of his position "within an hour." Frank Cheatham told Hood, "I do not like the looks of this fight; the enemy has an excellent position and is well fortified." But Hood countered that he would rather fight a Federal force that had had only a few hours to build defenses, instead of Nashville where "they have been strengthening themselves for three years." Patrick Cleburne observed the enemy fortifications as being formidable, but he told the commanding general that he would either take the enemy's works or fall in the attempt. He later remarked to Brig. Gen. Daniel C. Govan, "Well, Govan, if we are to die, let us die like men." Some popular histories assert that Hood acted rashly in a fit of rage, resentful that the Federal army had slipped past his troops the night before at Spring Hill and that he wanted to discipline his army by ordering them to assault against strong odds. Recent scholarship discounts this as unlikely, as it was not only militarily foolish, but Hood was observed to be determined, not angry, by the time he arrived in Franklin. Regardless of Hood's personal motivations, his specific objective was to try to crush Schofield before he and his troops could escape to Nashville. He was concerned that if he attempted to turn Schofield by crossing the Harpeth and getting between him and Nashville, the maneuver would be time-consuming and the open terrain of the area would reveal his movements prematurely, causing Schofield to simply withdraw again. The Confederates began moving forward at 4:00 p.m., with Cheatham's corps on the left of the assault and Stewart's on the right. Bate's division, on the left, was delayed in reaching its starting point as it marched around Winstead Hill, a movement that delayed the start of the entire army. Hood divided Forrest's cavalry—Chalmer's division on the far left, beyond Bate, and Buford and Jackson with Forrest, covering Stewart and facing the fords on the Harpeth. Lee's corps, and almost all of the army's artillery, had not yet arrived from Columbia. Hood's attacking force, about 19–20,000 men, was arguably understrength for the mission he assigned—traversing two miles (3 km) of open ground with only two batteries of artillery support and then assaulting prepared fortifications. Opposing forces Union Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield, commander of the Army of the Ohio, led a force of about 27,000 consisting of: IV Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. David S. Stanley, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. Nathan Kimball, George D. Wagner, and Thomas J. Wood. XXIII Corps, normally commanded by Schofield, but temporarily commanded at Franklin by Brig. Gen. Jacob D. Cox, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. Thomas H. Ruger and James W. Reilly. Cavalry Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. James H. Wilson, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Edward M. McCook, Edward Hatch, Richard W. Johnson, and Joseph F. Knipe. Confederate Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood's Army of Tennessee, at 39,000 men, constituted the second-largest remaining army of the Confederacy, ranking in strength only after Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. The army consisted of the corps of: Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Cheatham, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Patrick R. Cleburne, John C. Brown, and William B. Bate. Lt. Gen. Stephen D. Lee, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Edward "Allegheny" Johnson, Carter L. Stevenson, and Henry D. Clayton. (Only Johnson's division played an active role at Franklin.) Lt. Gen. Alexander P. Stewart, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gen. William W. Loring, Samuel G. French, and Edward C. Walthall. Cavalry forces under Maj. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. James R. Chalmers, Abraham Buford, and William H. Jackson. At Franklin, about 27,000 Confederates were engaged, primarily from the corps of Cheatham, Stewart, and Forrest, and Johnson's division of Lee's corps. Battle Initial contact Hood's attack initially enveloped the 3,000 men in two brigades under Lane and Conrad, which attempted to stand their ground behind inadequate fieldworks and without anchored flanks, but quickly collapsed under the pressure. As Wagner exhorted his men to stand fast, they let loose a single strong volley of rifle fire, and a two-gun section of Battery G, 1st Ohio Light Artillery, fired canister, but then many of the veteran soldiers of the two brigades stampeded back on the Columbia Pike to the main breastworks, while some untried replacements were reluctant to move under fire and were captured. Nearly 700 of Wagner's men were taken prisoner. The fleeing troops were closely pursued by the Confederates, and a cry was repeated along the line, "Go into the works with them." The pursued and pursuers were so intermingled that defenders in the breastworks had to hold their fire to avoid hitting their comrades. Breakthrough and repulse in the Federal center The Union's momentary inability to defend the opening in the works caused a weak spot in its line at the Columbia Pike from the Carter House to the cotton gin. The Confederate divisions of Cleburne, Brown, and French converged on this front and a number of their troops broke through the now not-so-solid Federal defenses on either side. The 100th Ohio Infantry, of Reilly's brigade, was driven back from its position to the east of the pike and Col. Silas A. Strickland's brigade (Ruger's division) was forced to withdraw back to the Carter House. The left wing of the 72nd Illinois Infantry was swept away and rallied on the 183rd Ohio Infantry, in reserve at the retrenchment, which prompted the remainder of the 72nd to withdraw back to that line. In a matter of minutes, the Confederates had penetrated 50 yards deep into the center of the Federal line. As the Confederates poured men into the breach, Emerson Opdycke's brigade was in reserve, positioned in columns of regiments facing north in a meadow about 200 yards north of the Carter House. Opdycke quickly repositioned his men into line of battle, straddling the road, and they were confronted by masses of fleeing Union soldiers, pursued by Confederates. Opdycke ordered his brigade forward to the works. At the same time, his corps commander, David Stanley, arrived on the scene. He later wrote, "I saw Opdycke near the center of his line urging his men forward. I gave the Colonel no orders as I saw him engaged in doing the very thing to save us, to get possession of our line again." As he rode forward, Stanley had his horse shot out from under him and a bullet passed through the back of his neck, putting him temporarily out of action. Opdycke's counterattack was joined by reserve elements of Reilly's division (the 12th Kentucky Infantry and 16th Kentucky Infantry) and survivors of Strickland's and Wagner's divisions. Together they sealed the breach. Hand-to-hand fighting around the Carter House and the pike was furious and desperate, employing such weapons as bayonets, rifle butts, entrenching tools, axes, and picks. Firing continued around the Carter house and gardens for hours. Many in Brown's division were driven back to the Federal earthworks, where many were pinned down for the remainder of the evening, unable to either advance or flee. Each side fired through embrasures or over the top of the parapets at close range in an attempt to dislodge the other. Brown's division suffered significant losses, including Brown, who was wounded, and all four of his brigade commanders were casualties. Brown's brigade under Brig. Gen. George W. Gordon had angled to the right during the advance, joining Cleburne's division to the east of the pike. Their attack near the cotton gin was driven back from the breastworks and was then subjected to devastating cross fire from Reilly's brigade to their front and the brigade of Col. John S. Casement, on Reilly's right. Cleburne was killed in the attack and 14 of his brigade and regimental commanders were casualties. That some Union troops were armed with Spencer and Henry repeating rifles added to the otherwise considerable advantages of the defenders. Near the Carter House, 350 men of the 12th Kentucky and 65th Illinois fired 16-shot, lever-action Henry rifles, the predecessors to the Winchester repeating rifle. These rifles, capable of at least 10 shots per minute, gave these men several times more firepower than typical infantrymen with the more common muzzle-loading rifle-muskets. Repulse on the Federal left While fighting raged at the center of the Union line, the Confederates of Stewart's corps also advanced against the Union left. Because the Harpeth River flowed in that area from southeast to northwest, the brigade found itself moving through a space getting progressively narrower, squeezing brigades together into a compressed front, delaying their movements and reducing their unit cohesion. Walthall's division was pressured so much from the right that it temporarily fell in front of Cleburne's advance. They were all subjected to fierce artillery fire not only from the main Union line, but also from the batteries across the river at Fort Granger. They also had significant difficulty pushing through the strong osage-orange abatis. Loring's division launched two attacks against the Union brigade of Col. Israel N. Stiles and both were repulsed with heavy losses. Artillery firing canister rounds directly down the railroad cut prevented any attempt to flank the Union position. Brig. Gen. John Adams attempted to rally his brigade by galloping his horse directly onto the earthworks. As he attempted to seize the flag of the 65th Illinois, he and his horse were both shot and killed. The brigade of Brig. Gen. Winfield S. Featherston began falling back under heavy fire when its division commander, Maj. Gen. William W. Loring, confronted them, shouting, "Great God. Do I command cowards?" He attempted to inspire his men by sitting on his horse in full view of the Federal lines for over a minute and amazingly emerged unharmed, but the brigade made no further progress. Walthall's division, intermixed partially with Loring's division because of the confusion that resulted from the narrow space, struck Casement's and Reilly's brigades in multiple waves of brigade assaults—probably as many as six distinct attacks. All of these assaults were turned back with heavy losses. The brigade of Brig. Gen. William A. Quarles was able to push through the abatis and reached the Federal earthworks, where it was pinned down by murderous crossfire. Quarles was wounded in the left arm and at the end of the battle the highest-ranking officer standing in his brigade was a captain. Failures on the Confederate left and center Maj. Gen. William B. Bate's division had a long distance to march to reach its assigned objective on the Union right and when he gave the final order to attack it was almost dark. First contact with the enemy came around the Everbright Mansion, the home of Rebecca Bostick, and the Confederates pushed aside Union sharpshooters and swept past the house. However, Bate's left flank was not being protected as he expected by Chalmers's cavalry division, and they received enfilade fire. To protect the flank, Bate ordered the Florida Brigade, temporarily commanded by Col. Robert Bullock, to move from its reserve position to his left flank. This not only delayed the advance, but provided only a single line to attack the Union fortifications, leaving no reserve. Chalmers's troopers had actually engaged the Federal right by this time (the brigades of Col. Isaac M. Kirby and Brig. Gen. Walter C. Whitaker of Kimball's division), fighting dismounted, but Bate was unaware of it because the two forces were separated by rolling ground and orchards. Neither Bate nor Chalmers made any progress and they withdrew. Hood, who remained at his headquarters on Winstead Hill, was still convinced that he could pierce the Federal line. At about 7 p.m., he deployed the only division of Stephen D. Lee's corps that had arrived, commanded by Maj. Gen. Edward "Allegheny" Johnson, to assist Cheatham's effort. They moved north on the west side of the Columbia Turnpike and passed around Privet Knob, Cheatham's headquarters, but were unfamiliar with the terrain in the dark and Cheatham told Lee he had no staff officer left who could guide them. Both Bate and Cheatham warned Lee not to fire indiscriminately against the Federal works because Confederates were pinned down there on the outside. Johnson's men lost their unit alignments in the dark and had significant difficulties attacking the works just to the west of the Carter House. They were repulsed after a single assault with heavy losses. Cavalry actions In addition to Chalmers's actions in the west, across the river to the east Confederate cavalry commander Forrest attempted to turn the Union left. His two divisions on Stewart's right (Brig. Gens. Abraham Buford II and William H. Jackson) engaged some Federal cavalry pickets and pushed them back. They crossed the Harpeth at Hughes Ford, about upstream from Franklin. When Union cavalry commander Brig. Gen. James H. Wilson learned at 3 p.m. that Forrest was crossing the river, he ordered his division under Brig. Gen. Edward Hatch to move south from his position on the Brentwood Turnpike and attack Forrest from the front. He ordered Brig. Gen. John T. Croxton's brigade to move against Forrest's flank and held Col. Thomas J. Harrison's brigade in reserve. The dismounted cavalrymen of Hatch's division charged the Confederate cavalrymen, also dismounted, and drove them back across the river. Some of Croxton's men were armed with seven-shot Spencer carbines, which had a devastating effect on the Confederate line. Wilson was proud of his men's accomplishment because this was the first time that Forrest had been defeated by a smaller force in a standup fight during the war. Aftermath Following the failure of Johnson's assault, Hood decided to end offensive actions for the evening and began to plan for a resumed series of attacks in the morning. Schofield ordered his infantry to cross the river, starting at 11 p.m., despite objections from Cox that withdrawal was no longer necessary and that Hood was weakened and should be counter-attacked. Schofield had received orders from Thomas to evacuate earlier that day—before Hood's attack began—and he was happy to take advantage of them despite the changed circumstances. Although there was a period in which the Union army was vulnerable, outside its works and straddling the river, Hood did not attempt to take advantage of it during the night. The Union army began entering the breastworks at Nashville at noon on December 1, with Hood's damaged army in pursuit. The damaged Confederate force was left in control of Franklin, but its enemy had escaped again. Although he had briefly come close to breaking through in the vicinity of the Columbia Turnpike, Hood was unable to destroy Schofield or prevent his withdrawal to link up with Thomas in Nashville. And his unsuccessful result came with a frightful cost. The Confederates suffered 6,252 casualties, including 1,750 killed and 3,800 wounded. An estimated 2,000 others suffered less serious wounds and returned to duty before the Battle of Nashville. But more importantly, the military leadership in the West was decimated, including the loss of perhaps the best division commander of either side, Patrick Cleburne, who was killed in action. Fourteen Confederate generals (six killed, seven wounded, and one captured) and 55 regimental commanders were casualties. Five generals killed in action at Franklin were Cleburne, John Adams, Hiram B. Granbury, States Rights Gist, and Otho F. Strahl. A sixth general, John C. Carter, was mortally wounded and died later on December 10. The wounded generals were John C. Brown, Francis M. Cockrell, Zachariah C. Deas, Arthur M. Manigault, Thomas M. Scott, and Jacob H. Sharp. One general, Brig. Gen. George W. Gordon, was captured. Also among the dead was Tod Carter, the middle child of the Carter family. Having enlisted in the Confederate army three years earlier, Carter had returned to his hometown for the first time since then, only to be wounded in battle just a few hundred yards away from his own house. He was found by his family after the battle, and died early in the next day. Union losses were reported as only 189 killed, 1,033 wounded, and 1,104 missing. It is possible that the number of casualties was under-reported by Schofield because of the confusion during his army's hasty nighttime evacuation of Franklin. The Union wounded were left behind in Franklin. Many of the prisoners, including all captured wounded and medical personnel, were recovered on December 18 when Union forces re-entered Franklin in pursuit of Hood. The Army of Tennessee was badly damaged at Franklin. Nevertheless, rather than retreat and risk the army dissolving through desertions, Hood advanced his 26,500 man force against the Union army now combined under Thomas, firmly entrenched at Nashville which numbered more than 60,000. Hood and his department commander Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard requested reinforcements, but none were available. Strongly outnumbered and exposed to the elements, Hood was attacked by Thomas on December 15–16 at the Battle of Nashville, defeated decisively and pursued aggressively, retreating to Mississippi with just under 20,000 men. The Army of Tennessee never fought again as an effective force and Hood's career was ruined. Perhaps surprisingly, some Confederate soldiers claimed that Franklin was a victory. James Lanning of the 25th Alabama Infantry wrote in his diary, “victory is ours but very dearly bought.” Confederate artilleryman William Ritter believed, “the charge was a brilliant one and was successful, as part of the enemy’s line was captured.” Joseph Boyce of the 1st Missouri Infantry acknowledged that many men considered Franklin a victory for the Confederate army since it held the battlefield at the end of the fighting. However Boyce, who was wounded at Franklin, also noted “two such victories will wipe out any army.” Hood's continued pursuit of Schofield after suffering defeat at Franklin and his refusal to withdraw before the battle of Nashville caused Schofield to remark "I doubt if any soldiers in the world ever needed more cumulative evidence to convince them that they were beaten." In his Pulitzer Prize-winning book Battle Cry of Freedom, James M. McPherson wrote, "Having proved even to Hood's satisfaction that they could assault breastworks, the Army of Tennessee had shattered itself beyond the possibility of ever doing so again. David J. Eicher wrote that Hood "had in effect mortally wounded his army at Franklin." Battlefield today The Carter House, which stands today and is open to visitors, was located at the center of the Union position. The site covers about . The house and outbuildings still show hundreds of bullet holes. The Carnton Plantation, home to the McGavock family during the battle, also still stands and is likewise open to the public. Confederate soldiers of Stewart's Corps swept past Carnton toward the left wing of the Union army and the house and outbuildings were converted into the largest field hospital present after the battle. Adjacent to Carnton is the McGavock Confederate Cemetery, where 1,481 Southern soldiers killed in the battle are buried. Adjacent to the surrounding Carnton is another of battlefield, formerly the Franklin Country Club golf course, which is currently being converted to a city park. Much of the rest of the Franklin battlefield has been lost to commercial development. The spot where Gen. Cleburne fell, for instance, was covered until late 2005 by a Pizza Hut restaurant. City officials and historic-preservation groups have recently placed a new emphasis on saving what remains of the land over which the battle raged. In 2006, of land bordering the southwestern end of the Carter House property was acquired with help of the American Battlefield Trust and local organizations. This land was part of that made up the Carter Family Garden, which during the battle saw tremendous fighting and was part of a brief Confederate breakthrough. After the purchase, a house, out-buildings, and a swimming pool were removed. During excavation of the original Federal entrenchments some human bones were found. Starting in 2005, the area around the intersection of Columbia Ave. and Cleburne St. has seen a serious renewed effort to reclaim that area to be the heart of a future battlefield park. The location of the former Pizza Hut is now the home to Cleburne Park. The property where the Carter Cotton Gin was located during the battle was purchased in 2005. In 2008 the property behind this location and where the Federal line crossed Columbia Ave. was purchased and in May 2010 the property east of the Gin location and where part of the Gin may have stood was also purchased. All these locations have houses on them that will be either sold and moved or torn down. Preservation organizations plan to reconstruct both the Carter Cotton Gin and some of the Federal entrenchments. On November 24, 2010, the State of Tennessee awarded a $960,000 enhancement grant from the Tennessee Department of Transportation to help purchase the property where the Domino's Pizza and mini-mart is located. A local preservation organization is also hoping to purchase 16 acres of land in two parcels: five acres located southwest of what is now a small park called the Collin's Farm located at the southeast corner of the Lewisburg Pike and the Nashville and Decatur Railroad that was preserved a few years ago; and 11 acres located near the corner of Lewisburg Pike and Carnton Lane. The American Battlefield Trust and its federal, state and local partners have acquired and preserved a total of of the battlefield in more than 10 different transactions since 1996. See also Armies in the American Civil War Franklin-Nashville Campaign List of costliest American Civil War land battles Sherman's March Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1864 Notes References Connelly, Thomas L. Autumn of Glory: The Army of Tennessee 1862–1865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971. . Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. . Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website. Hood, Stephen M. John Bell Hood: The Rise, Fall, and Resurrection of a Confederate General. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2013. . Hood, Stephen M. The Lost Papers of Confederate General John Bell Hood. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2015. . Horn, Stanley F. The Army of Tennessee: A Military History. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1941. . Jacobson, Eric A., and Richard A. Rupp. For Cause & for Country: A Study of the Affair at Spring Hill and the Battle of Franklin. Franklin, TN: O'More Publishing, 2007. . Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. . McPherson, James M., ed. Battle Chronicles of the Civil War: 1864. Connecticut: Grey Castle Press, 1989. . First published in 1989 by McMillan. McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. . Nevin, David, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. Sherman's March: Atlanta to the Sea. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1986. . Sword, Wiley. The Confederacy's Last Hurrah: Spring Hill, Franklin, and Nashville. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993. . First published with the title Embrace an Angry Wind in 1992 by HarperCollins. Thrasher, Christopher David. Suffering in the Army of Tennessee: A Social History of the Confederate Army of the Heartland from the Battles for Atlanta to the Retreat from Nashville. 2021. Welcher, Frank J. The Union Army, 1861–1865 Organization and Operations. Vol. 2, The Western Theater. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. . White, William Lee. "Let Us Die Like Men: The Battle of Franklin, November 30, 1864". Savas Beatie 2019. National Park Service battle summary CWSAC report update Memoirs and primary sources Hood, John Bell. Advance and Retreat: Personal Experiences in the United States and Confederate States Armies. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996. . First published 1880 for the Hood Orphan Memorial Fund by G.T. Beauregard. U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901. Further reading Cox, Jacob D. The Battle of Franklin, Tennessee, November 30, 1864: A Monograph. Dayton, OH: Morningside Bookshop, 1983. . First published 1897 by Charles Scribner's Sons. Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 3, Red River to Appomattox. New York: Random House, 1974. . McDonough, James L., and Thomas L. Connelly. Five Tragic Hours: The Battle of Franklin. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983. . White, William Lee. Let Us Die like Men: The Battle of Franklin, November 30, 1864. Emerging Civil War Series. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2019. . "Letter, Alonzo Wolverton to his sister Roseltha Wolverton Goble, December 4, 1864," Examples of Wolverton Family Letters from Darroch Donation, Archives of Ontario. Accessed 8 September 2018 http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/fenians/darroch_acquisition.aspx External links Battle of Franklin: Battle Maps, histories, photos, and preservation news (Civil War Trust) Animated map of the Battle of Franklin (Civil War Trust) A blog-database for descendants of the Battle of Franklin Google Map of the Battle of Franklin Battle of Franklin.net Animated history of the Franklin-Nashville Campaign Save the Franklin Battlefield, Inc. Carter House Museum Carnton Plantation McGavock Confederate Cemetery West Point Atlas map, Battles of Spring Hill and Franklin Historic map of Franklin, Tennessee Civil War Preservation Association John Bell Hood Society's defense of Hood's 1864 Tennessee campaign On this date in Civil War history – Battle of Franklin – November 30, 1864 1864 in Tennessee Franklin II Franklin II Franklin 1864 Nathan Bedford Forrest John Bell Hood Franklin, Tennessee Franklin II Franklin II Franklin II Williamson County, Tennessee November 1864 events

Wegmans

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Wegmans Food Markets, Inc. is a privately held American supermarket chain; it is headquartered in Gates, New York and was founded in 1916 in Rochester. As of May 2021, Wegmans has 106 stores in the mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions. The company has stores in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, Massachusetts, Virginia and North Carolina, with planned expansions into Delaware and the District of Columbia. Wegmans has appeared on Fortunes annual "100 Best Companies to Work For" list since the list first appeared in 1998. In 2020, the company was ranked at number three on that list, based on an employee survey of satisfaction. History Wegmans is a privately owned company, founded in 1916 by brothers John and Walter Wegman as the Rochester Fruit and Vegetable Company. Wegmans is headquartered in the Rochester suburb of Gates. Danny Wegman is the chairman. His daughter, Colleen Wegman, is president and CEO; his other daughter, Nicole Wegman, is senior vice-president. Danny's father, Robert Wegman, who died in 2006, was previously chairman. Robert was the son of co-founder Walter Wegman. During his life, Robert Wegman was a pioneer in the retail food business, as well as a generous donor to educational institutions and other charities. Expansion In 1965, the chain expanded beyond the Rochester area, with a store in Hornell in the Southern Tier of New York State, then 1968 in Syracuse, and again in 1977 with its first Buffalo store. The first store outside New York opened in 1993 in Pennsylvania and the expansion continued into New Jersey in 1999, Virginia in 2004, Maryland in 2005, Massachusetts in 2011, and North Carolina in 2019. As a part of the company's continued expansion efforts, Wegmans opened its fifth Maryland location in Columbia on June 17, 2012. Its sixth Maryland location opened in Crofton on October 28, 2012, followed by a Germantown location on September 15, 2013. Wegmans opened a store at the Montgomery Mall in North Wales, Pennsylvania, on November 3, 2013, the first store to be part of a shopping mall since the closing of the Midtown Plaza store in Rochester. Wegmans, having long planned to expand into New England, opened their first store in that region in Northborough, Massachusetts, on October 16, 2011. 2014 saw Wegmans opening two more Massachusetts stores, in Newton, Chestnut Hill on April 27, and in Burlington on October 26. Its fourth Massachusetts store opened in Westwood on October 11, 2015. The eighth Maryland store opened in Owings Mills, Maryland in September 2016. In late 2016, Wegmans opened Virginia stores in Short Pump (August), Midlothian, and Charlottesville (November). The Hanover Township, New Jersey location opened in July 2017. The Montvale, New Jersey location opened in September 2017. The Medford, Massachusetts, location opened on November 5, 2017. The Natick, Massachusetts, location opened on April 29, 2018. The Chantilly, Virginia, location opened on June 3, 2018. The Lancaster, Pennsylvania, location opened on September 23, 2018. The Virginia Beach, Virginia location opened on April 28, 2019. The chain's first store in North Carolina, located in Raleigh, opened on September 29, 2019. It was also the chain's 100th store. The chain's first location in New York City, at Admiral's Row in Brooklyn's Navy Yard, opened on October 27, 2019. The West Cary, North Carolina location opened on July 29, 2020. The Harrison, New York location, in Westchester County, opened on August 5, 2020. The Tysons, Virginia location opened on November 4, 2020. The Chapel Hill, North Carolina location opened on February 24, 2021. The Wake Forest, North Carolina location opened on May 19, 2021. Eight other locations are currently in the works, including Holly Springs, North Carolina; a second Alexandria, Virginia location in Carlyle; Washington, DC, in the Fannie Mae section; Rockville, Maryland; Reston, Virginia; Wilmington, Delaware, the chain's first location in that state; Yardley, Pennsylvania; and Manhattan on Astor Place. Wegmans originally planned to build new stores in Annapolis, Maryland, Middletown, New Jersey, Arcola, Virginia, and Cary, North Carolina but were scrapped. In March 2020, Wegmans announced partnership of its new Brooklyn store with Instacart to extend its reach to include all Manhattan ZIP codes. In July 2021, Wegmans announced it will launch the company's first Manhattan store in 2023. The store will be at 770 Broadway, the site of the recently shuttered Astor Place Kmart. Operations Wegmans is ranked 29th on the Supermarket News list of the Top 75 North American Food Retailers based on sales volume. In 2009 Stores Magazine showed it to be the 74th-largest retailer in the United States with estimated revenues of $4.67 billion. As of 2006, it was the 66th largest privately held company, as determined by Forbes. On Forbes's 2005 list, Wegmans ranked 54th. Most of Wegmans' newer stores are of the superstore or megamarket type, with a large area, a variety of foods aimed at an upscale clientele, and, in many stores, Market Café in-store dining areas. From 2002–2009, Wegmans owned and operated Tastings, a full-service restaurant at its Pittsford, New York store. Tastings was replaced with The Food Bar, a "seafood shack"-styled restaurant in the same space; and later with The Burger Bar, serving hamburgers. Along with the Burger Bar, Wegmans offers many other food options. This Includes a Sub Shop, Sushi Bar, Pizza Shop, and a Salad Bar – all of which offer quick, prepackaged items for one's convenience. Next Door by Wegmans, a stand-alone restaurant operated by Wegmans, opened across the street from the Pittsford store in 2009. In January 2007, Wegmans announced two business ventures: (1) opening a liquor store in Pittsford (adding to its two existing wine centers, in Virginia and New Jersey); and (2) the creation of a $28 million Culinary Innovation Center in Chili, New York, a corporate research and development facility, including a new central kitchen, replacing some of the operations at its meat center. The liquor store opened in April 2008 as Century Pittsford Wines. The store is . This business model has been replicated at three other New York Wegmans locations, in Buffalo, DeWitt and Johnson City. Ownership of each liquor store is held by a different member of the Wegman family due to New York State regulations prohibiting individuals or corporations from owning multiple liquor stores. After Wegmans updated their logo to a script font, in November 2010, Walgreens filed a trademark infringement lawsuit against Wegmans, claiming the "W" in the Wegman's logo was too similar to Walgreens. The lawsuit was settled in April 2011, with Wegmans agreeing to discontinue use of its "W" logo by June 2012, although the supermarket retains the right to use the "Wegmans" name in script. According to Jo Natale, Wegmans director of media relations, "The cost of making relatively minor changes to a limited number of products was much less than the cost of litigating this case to the end." Wegmans offers a pick-up service called "Personal Shopping" at select locations. In June 2017, Wegmans partnered with Instacart to provide home delivery service. On January 30, 2016, Wegmans celebrated its 100th anniversary. In February 2020, Wegmans announced its Brooklyn store would offer grocery delivery to Manhattan residents, an expansion on their Instacart partnership. Delivery fees start at $3.99, and Manhattan customers are given a two to five hour delivery window. In April 2020, in response to the COVID-19 outbreak, Wegmans began limiting the number of people in their stores, provided their employees with masks and installed plexiglass shields at all checkout areas. Accolades and fanbase Wegmans has received much media attention for customer fan base, organic food, hot food bar, the depth of its food selection and employee happiness. Food Network recognized it with its award for Best Grocery Store in 2007. Consumer Reports subscribers voted Wegmans the top grocery store in 2017; it has held the top spot since 2006. It was also profiled as part of the "Here Are The Jobs" segment on MSNBC's PoliticsNation on July 6, 2012. In 2016, Market Force surveyed over 10,000 grocery store shoppers nationwide, and Wegmans was rated "America's favorite grocery store". Wegmans has a loyal fan base of customers who have received recognition for their devotion, who have lined up overnight in the thousands for a new store opening, regularly write "love letters" to the store to ask for one to open in a region not presently served, and in Northborough, Massachusetts, many high school students staged a musical about the store. The store's fans have their own Twitter hashtag "#Wegmania" and a Tumblr. Chase-Pitkin Home and Garden Centers Wegmans was the parent company of Chase-Pitkin, a regional home improvement retailer. On October 4, 2005, Wegmans announced that it would close all Chase-Pitkin stores by early 2006 and focus on its supermarket operations. The decision to exit the home improvement business was reportedly due to the increasing dominance of national chains such as Lowe's and The Home Depot. Chase-Pitkin stores closed individually at various points throughout March 2006. Discontinuation of tobacco products In January 2008, Wegmans announced that it would no longer sell tobacco products because of their negative effects on human health and the environment and would offer smoking cessation programs to all employees. The decision drew praise from the American Lung Association of New York State, which presented Wegmans with the "Lung Champion Award". Wegmans brand Wegmans began branding some products in 1979, offering basic commodities at a lower price than national brands. The Wegmans brand has gradually expanded. In 1992, it began a line of healthy products, Food You Feel Good About. Wegmans brand products marked with the Food You Feel Good About banner indicate that the product does not contain artificial colors, flavors, or preservatives. The next sub-brand to be launched was Italian Classics, in 1995; it introduced pastas, canned tomatoes, and olive oils imported from Italy. In 2002, Wegmans launched a line of organic products. Organic Wegmans brand products are labeled with a green leaf. In popular culture The Wegmans brand was used extensively in the American sitcom The Office. The program is set in the city of Scranton, Pennsylvania, which has a Wegmans store, although the series was filmed in suburban Los Angeles. Wegman's Bake and Rise Four Cheese Frozen Pizza has been reviewed on Barstool Sports' One Bite Pizza Reviews by Dave Portnoy. The score for the frozen pizza was an 8.1. Per Portnoy, this score is on the frozen pizza scale and does not translate to an 8.1 on the normal pizza place scale score. However, as of April 9, 2020, this is the highest score Portnoy has given to a frozen pizza. References Further reading Wegmans footprint in Pennsylvania ~ External links Companies based in Rochester, New York Privately held companies based in New York (state) American companies established in 1916 Retail companies established in 1916 Supermarkets of the United States 1916 establishments in New York (state) Family-owned companies of the United States

The Love Boat

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The Love Boat is an American romantic comedy/drama television series that aired on ABC from 1977 to 1986; in addition, four three-hour specials aired in 1986, 1987, and 1990. The series was set on the luxury passenger cruise ship MS Pacific Princess, and revolved around the ship's captain Merrill Stubing (played by Gavin MacLeod) and a handful of her crew, with passengers played by guest actors for each episode, having romantic and humorous adventures. The ship's regular ports of call were Puerto Vallarta, Acapulco and Mazatlán. The series was part of ABC's popular Saturday-night lineup of the time, which also included Fantasy Island until 1984. The original 1976 made-for-TV movie on which the show was based (also titled The Love Boat) was itself based on the nonfiction book The Love Boats by Jeraldine Saunders, a real-life cruise director for a passenger cruise-ship line. Saunders was also partly inspired by the German cruise ship MV Aurora. The TV movie was followed by two more (titled The Love Boat II and The New Love Boat), all of which aired before the series began in September 1977. The executive producer for the series was Aaron Spelling, who produced several television series for Four Star Television and ABC from the 1960s into the 1990s. In 1987, the episode with segment titles "Hidden Treasure", "Picture from the Past", and "Ace's Salary" (Season 9, Episode 3) was ranked No. 82 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time list. Another made-for-TV movie, titled The Love Boat: A Valentine Voyage, starring four of the original cast members, aired in February 1990. Cast Gavin MacLeod as Your Captain, Merrill Stubing Bernie Kopell as Your Ship's Doctor, Adam "Doc" Bricker; Kopell played a different character, Dr. O'Neill, in the second pilot film, Love Boat II. Fred Grandy as Your Yeoman Purser, Burl "Gopher" Smith (seasons 1–6), chief purser (seasons 7–9) Ted Lange as Your Bartender, Isaac Washington (seasons 1–9, four specials), yeoman purser (made-for-TV movie) Lauren Tewes as Your Cruise Director, Julie McCoy (seasons 1–7, four specials, plus a guest appearance in season 9) Jill Whelan as Vicki Stubing, the captain's daughter (guest appearance in season 2, seasons 3–9, four specials, made-for-TV movie) Ted McGinley as Your Ship's Photographer, Ashley "Ace" Covington Evans (seasons 7–9), yeoman purser (four specials) Patricia Klous as Judy McCoy, Julie's sister and successor as cruise director (seasons 8–9) MacLeod, Kopell and Lange are the only cast members to appear in every episode of the TV series as well as the last three made-for-TV movies. Grandy appeared in every episode throughout the run of the series but did not appear in the last of the TV movies, as he was campaigning for the first of his four consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives. MacLeod was not the captain of the Pacific Princess in the first two TV movies and did not appear in them, although when his character was introduced, it was mentioned that he was the new captain. Among the series' attractions was the casting of well-known actors in guest-starring roles, with many famous film stars of prior decades making rare television appearances. The Love Boat was not the first comedy series to use the guest-star cast anthology format—Love, American Style had used the formula seven years earlier—but it had such success with the formula that future series in similar style (such as Supertrain and Masquerade) drew comparisons to The Love Boat. The series was followed on Saturday nights on ABC by Fantasy Island, which was also produced by Aaron Spelling and had a similar format. In all, 32 past and future Academy Award winners guested on The Love Boat, including the Best Actress from the first Oscar ceremony in 1929, Janet Gaynor. In the final season, a troupe of dancers who performed choreographed performances was introduced. The Love Boat Mermaids were made up of Tori Brenno (Maria), Debra Johnson (Patti), Deborah Bartlett (Susie), Macarena (Sheila), Beth Myatt (Mary Beth), Andrea Moen (Starlight), Teri Hatcher (Amy) and Nanci Lynn Hammond (Jane). Episodes Production The one-hour sitcom was set aboard Pacific Princess, at the time a real-life Princess Cruises cruise ship. The Pacific Princesss twin sister vessel Island Princess was also used for the show, especially if the show's schedule conflicted with Pacific Princess's cruises or her dry dock. Other ships used were: (for a Mediterranean Sea cruise), MS Pearl of Scandinavia (for a Chinese cruise), Royal Viking Sky (for European cruises, now ) and Royal Princess (now SS Artemis) and Sun Princess (for Caribbean Sea cruises). In 1981, P&O Cruises' line Sea Princess (now MS Veronica) was also used for the special two-hour episode "Julie's Wedding", set in and around Australia. Only the latter four ships still exist today. The series was filmed primarily on sets in southern California: 20th Century Fox Studios for seasons one through five, and the Warner Hollywood Studios for the remainder of the series. The "star of the show", the cruise ship itself, after being renamed MS Pacific and being sold then owned by another cruise line in Spain, the now-world famous Pacific Princess was scrapped in Aliağa, Turkey in 2013 after no further buyer could be found. Her sister ship, which was later renamed MV Discovery was scrapped in Alang, India in 2015 after she too failed to get a new owner. Both vessels' scrappings were controversial, but the previous owners justified it by saying that they were getting too old to continue operating. Episodes set and filmed in other European and East Asian locations became more frequent instead of the usual west coasts along the Pacific shores of the Americas as the show continued. They traditionally aired as season premieres or during the sweeps months of February, May and November. Writing format Every episode contained several storylines, each written by a different set of writers working on one group of guest stars. Thus episodes have multiple titles referencing its simultaneous storylines, e.g. the first episode of season one is "Captain & the Lady / Centerfold / One If by Land". There were typically three storylines. One storyline usually focused on a member of the crew, a second storyline would often focus on a crew member interacting with a passenger, and the third storyline was more focused on a single passenger (or a group of passengers). The three storylines usually followed a similar thematic pattern: One storyline (typically the "crew" one) was straight-ahead comedy. The second would typically follow more of a romantic comedy format (with only occasional dramatic elements). The third storyline would usually be the most dramatic of the three, often offering few (if any) laughs and a far more serious tone. Laugh track The series was also distinctive as being one of the few hour-long series ever made for American television that used a laugh track. Eight Is Enough, on the same network and produced at the same time, is another example. Theme song and title sequence The Love Boat theme song was sung by Jack Jones (except for the last season, where a cover version by Dionne Warwick was used). The lyrics were written by Paul Williams with music by Charles Fox. The song has since been recorded and released commercially, by Charo in 1978 and Amanda Lear in 2001. The opening sequence for the series underwent three changes over the years. From seasons one to eight, the opening sequence began with a long shot of the ship before the camera slowly zoomed in onto its bridge area. This was followed by posing shots of the crew members (updated several times due to cast additions and changes throughout all seasons) at different points on the ship set. The long shot footage of the ship was used for the credits of the celebrity guest stars. For only the first season, the guest stars were credited by having their names appear on the screen while the series' logo, a radar/compass style circle with four hearts, wrapped around them. Beginning with season two (and originally experimented with in the fifteenth episode of the first season), the compass was graphically put in place and at its center, the guest stars were shown posing for the camera on different parts of the set (or a city spot used in on-location episodes) while their names appeared at the bottom of the screen. For the final season, the compass was replaced by a crescent wave and the long shots of the ship were replaced by a montage of the various locations traveled to on the series. At the center of the wave graphic, the guest stars were shown posing for the camera wearing their formal outfits against different colored backgrounds. Following the guest stars, cast regulars were revealed with a weighing anchor graphic wipe. Reception For its first seven years, The Love Boat was very successful in the ratings. During that time, it ranked among the top 20, and even the top 10. For the 1980–81 season it posted its highest rating at No. 5. By the beginning of the 1984–85 season, the ratings were beginning to drop, and at the end of the following year, The Love Boat was canceled after nine years on ABC, although four three-hour specials aired during the 1986–87 season. In 1980–81, The Love Boat aired in reruns on ABC daytime, and beat The Price Is Right in the ratings for a few months. Syndication The Love Boat entered the syndication market in the United States in September 1983, with Worldvision Enterprises handling distribution. As an alternative for stations with tight scheduling commitments, Worldvision offered edited 30-minute episodes in addition to the original hour-long programs beginning in the fall of 1986 after the series completed its original run on ABC. Sequels, spin-offs and crossovers The 1979 two-hour season premiere of Charlie's Angels—another Aaron Spelling series—that introduced Shelley Hack as new angel Tiffany Welles was titled "Love Boat Angels" and its characters attempted to recover stolen museum artifacts while aboard the Pacific Princess on a cruise to the Virgin Islands (all of the Love Boat regulars had cameo appearances). A TV reunion movie, The Love Boat: A Valentine Voyage, aired on CBS in 1990. A Saturday Night Live sketch featuring guest star Patrick Stewart merged The Love Boat with Star Trek: The Next Generation. Stewart played the captain while caricatures of Deanna Troi and Geordi LaForge played the cruise director and bartender. A second TV series, Love Boat: The Next Wave, aired on UPN from 1998 to 1999, with Robert Urich as Captain Jim Kennedy, a retired United States Navy officer, Phil Morris as chief purser Will Sanders, and Heidi Mark as cruise director Nicole Jordan (several members of the original show's cast guest-starred on a reunion-themed episode in which it was revealed that Julie and Doc had been in love all along). A two-part 1997 Martin episode, "Goin' Overboard", had the main characters going on a cruise and encountering Isaac, Julie, Doc, and Vicki. On rare occasions, there were crossovers between stories. In one episode, actors Robert Reed and Florence Henderson, formerly of The Brady Bunch, guest-starred in separate segments. In one scene, the two bump into each other in the buffet line, exchange a questioning look, do a double-take and shrug and continue on their separate ways. Home media CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released seasons 1–4 of The Love Boat on DVD in Region 1. Each season has been released in two-volume sets. Awards and honors In 2014, Fred Grandy, Bernie Kopell, Ted Lange, Gavin McLeod, Cynthia Lauren Tewes, and Jill Whelan became godparents (the passenger ship industry's equivalent of naval ship sponsors) of the Princess Cruises ship . On May 23, 2017, the original cast (MacLeod, Kopell, Grandy, Lange, Tewes and Whelan) reunited on Today, where it was announced they would be receiving a joint star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their contributions to television, sponsored by Princess Cruises. See also References External links 1970s American anthology television series 1970s American comedy-drama television series 1970s American sitcoms 1970s romantic comedy television series 1970s romantic drama television series 1977 American television series debuts 1980s American anthology television series 1980s American comedy-drama television series 1980s American romantic comedy television series 1980s American sitcoms 1980s romantic drama television series 1987 American television series endings American Broadcasting Company original programming American romantic drama television series English-language television shows Fictional ships Princess Cruises Television series by CBS Studios Television series by Spelling Television Television shows based on books Television shows set in Florida Television series set on cruise ships

Cardiac muscle

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Cardiac muscle (also called heart muscle or myocardium) is one of three types of vertebrate muscle tissue, with the other two being skeletal muscle and smooth muscle. It is involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the wall of the heart. The cardiac muscle (myocardium) forms a thick middle layer between the outer layer of the heart wall (the pericardium) and the inner layer (the endocardium), with blood supplied via the coronary circulation. It is composed of individual cardiac muscle cells joined by intercalated discs, and encased by collagen fibers and other substances that form the extracellular matrix. Cardiac muscle contracts in a similar manner to skeletal muscle, although with some important differences. Electrical stimulation in the form of a cardiac action potential triggers the release of calcium from the cell's internal calcium store, the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The rise in calcium causes the cell's myofilaments to slide past each other in a process called excitation-contraction coupling. Diseases of the heart muscle known as cardiomyopathies are of major importance. These include ischemic conditions caused by a restricted blood supply to the muscle such as angina, and myocardial infarction. Structure Gross anatomy Cardiac muscle tissue or myocardium forms the bulk of the heart. The heart wall is a three-layered structure with a thick layer of myocardium sandwiched between the inner endocardium and the outer epicardium (also known as the visceral pericardium). The inner endocardium lines the cardiac chambers, covers the cardiac valves, and joins with the endothelium that lines the blood vessels that connect to the heart. On the outer aspect of the myocardium is the epicardium which forms part of the pericardial sac that surrounds, protects, and lubricates the heart. Within the myocardium, there are several sheets of cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes. The sheets of muscle that wrap around the left ventricle closest to the endocardium are oriented perpendicularly to those closest to the epicardium. When these sheets contract in a coordinated manner they allow the ventricle to squeeze in several directions simultaneously – longitudinally (becoming shorter from apex to base), radially (becoming narrower from side to side), and with a twisting motion (similar to wringing out a damp cloth) to squeeze the maximum possible amount of blood out of the heart with each heartbeat. Contracting heart muscle uses a lot of energy, and therefore requires a constant flow of blood to provide oxygen and nutrients. Blood is brought to the myocardium by the coronary arteries. These originate from the aortic root and lie on the outer or epicardial surface of the heart. Blood is then drained away by the coronary veins into the right atrium. Microanatomy Cardiac muscle cells also called cardiomyocytes are the contractile cells of the cardiac muscle. The cells are surrounded by an extracellular matrix produced by supporting fibroblast cells. Specialised modified cardiomyocytes known as pacemaker cells, set the rhythm of the heart contractions. The pacemaker cells are only weakly contractile without sarcomeres, and are connected to neighboring contractile cells via gap junctions. They are located in the sinoatrial node positioned on the wall of the right atrium, near the entrance of the superior vena cava. Cardiac pacemaker cells carry the impulses that are responsible for the beating of the heart. They are distributed throughout the heart and are responsible for several functions. First, they are responsible for being able to spontaneously generate and send out electrical impulses. They also must be able to receive and respond to electrical impulses from the brain. Lastly, they must be able to transfer electrical impulses from cell to cell. Cardiac muscle also contains specialized cells known as Purkinje fibers for the rapid conduction of electrical signals; coronary arteries to bring nutrients to the muscle cells, and veins and a capillary network to take away waste products. Cardiac muscle cells are the contracting cells that allow the heart to pump. Each cardiomyocyte needs to contract in coordination with its neighboring cells - known as a functional syncytium - working to efficiently pump blood from the heart, and if this coordination breaks down then – despite individual cells contracting – the heart may not pump at all, such as may occur during abnormal heart rhythms such as ventricular fibrillation. Viewed through a microscope, cardiac muscle cells are roughly rectangular, measuring 100–150μm by 30–40μm. Individual cardiac muscle cells are joined at their ends by intercalated discs to form long fibers. Each cell contains myofibrils, specialized protein contractile fibers of actin and myosin that slide past each other. These are organized into sarcomeres, the fundamental contractile units of muscle cells. The regular organization of myofibrils into sarcomeres gives cardiac muscle cells a striped or striated appearance when looked at through a microscope, similar to skeletal muscle. These striations are caused by lighter I bands composed mainly of actin, and darker A bands composed mainly of myosin. Cardiomyocytes contain T-tubules, pouches of cell membrane that run from the cell surface to the cell's interior which help to improve the efficiency of contraction. The majority of these cells contain only one nucleus (although they may have as many as four), unlike skeletal muscle cells which contain many nuclei. Cardiac muscle cells contain many mitochondria which provide the energy needed for the cell in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), making them highly resistant to fatigue. T-tubules T-tubules are microscopic tubes that run from the cell surface to deep within the cell. They are continuous with the cell membrane, are composed of the same phospholipid bilayer, and are open at the cell surface to the extracellular fluid that surrounds the cell. T-tubules in cardiac muscle are bigger and wider than those in skeletal muscle, but fewer in number. In the centre of the cell they join, running into and along the cell as a transverse-axial network. Inside the cell they lie close to the cell's internal calcium store, the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Here, a single tubule pairs with part of the sarcoplasmic reticulum called a terminal cisterna in a combination known as a diad. The functions of T-tubules include rapidly transmitting electrical impulses known as action potentials from the cell surface to the cell's core, and helping to regulate the concentration of calcium within the cell in a process known as excitation-contraction coupling. Intercalated discs The cardiac syncytium is a network of cardiomyocytes connected by intercalated discs that enable the rapid transmission of electrical impulses through the network, enabling the syncytium to act in a coordinated contraction of the myocardium. There is an atrial syncytium and a ventricular syncytium that are connected by cardiac connection fibres. Electrical resistance through intercalated discs is very low, thus allowing free diffusion of ions. The ease of ion movement along cardiac muscle fibers axes is such that action potentials are able to travel from one cardiac muscle cell to the next, facing only slight resistance. Each syncytium obeys the all or none law. Intercalated discs are complex adhering structures that connect the single cardiomyocytes to an electrochemical syncytium (in contrast to the skeletal muscle, which becomes a multicellular syncytium during embryonic development). The discs are responsible mainly for force transmission during muscle contraction. Intercalated discs consist of three different types of cell-cell junctions: the actin filament anchoring fascia adherens junctions, the intermediate filament anchoring desmosomes, and gap junctions. They allow action potentials to spread between cardiac cells by permitting the passage of ions between cells, producing depolarization of the heart muscle. The three types of junction act together as a single area composita. Under light microscopy, intercalated discs appear as thin, typically dark-staining lines dividing adjacent cardiac muscle cells. The intercalated discs run perpendicular to the direction of muscle fibers. Under electron microscopy, an intercalated disc's path appears more complex. At low magnification, this may appear as a convoluted electron dense structure overlying the location of the obscured Z-line. At high magnification, the intercalated disc's path appears even more convoluted, with both longitudinal and transverse areas appearing in longitudinal section. Fibroblasts Cardiac fibroblasts are vital supporting cells within cardiac muscle. They are unable to provide forceful contractions like cardiomyocytes, but instead are largely responsible for creating and maintaining the extracellular matrix which surrounds the cardiomyocytes. Fibroblasts play a crucial role in responding to injury, such as a myocardial infarction. Following injury, fibroblasts can become activated and turn into myofibroblasts – cells which exhibit behaviour somewhere between a fibroblast (generating extracellular matrix) and a smooth muscle cell (ability to contract). In this capacity, fibroblasts can repair an injury by creating collagen while gently contracting to pull the edges of the injured area together. Fibroblasts are smaller but more numerous than cardiomyocytes, and several fibroblasts can be attached to a cardiomyocyte at once. When attached to a cardiomyocyte they can influence the electrical currents passing across the muscle cell's surface membrane, and in the context are referred to as being electrically coupled. Other potential roles for fibroblasts include electrical insulation of the cardiac conduction system, and the ability to transform into other cell types including cardiomyocytes and adipocytes. Extracellular matrix The extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounds the cardiomyocyte and fibroblasts. The ECM is composed of proteins including collagen and elastin along with polysaccharides (sugar chains) known as glycosaminoglycans. Together, these substances give support and strength to the muscle cells, create elasticity in cardiac muscle, and keep the muscle cells hydrated by binding water molecules. The matrix in immediate contact with the muscle cells is referred to as the basement membrane, mainly composed of type IV collagen and laminin. Cardiomyocytes are linked to the basement membrane via specialised glycoproteins called integrins. Development Humans are born with a set number of heart muscle cells, or cardiomyocytes, which increase in size as the heart grows larger during childhood development. Evidence suggests that cardiomyocytes are slowly turned over during aging, but less than 50% of the cardiomyocytes present at birth are replaced during a normal life span. The growth of individual cardiomyocytes not only occurs during normal heart development, it also occurs in response to extensive exercise (athletic heart syndrome), heart disease, or heart muscle injury such as after a myocardial infarction. A healthy adult cardiomyocyte has a cylindrical shape that is approximately 100μm long and 10-25μm in diameter. Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy occurs through sarcomerogenesis, the creation of new sarcomere units in the cell. During heart volume overload, cardiomyocytes grow through eccentric hypertrophy. The cardiomyocytes extend lengthwise but have the same diameter, resulting in ventricular dilation. During heart pressure overload, cardiomyocytes grow through concentric hypertrophy. The cardiomyocytes grow larger in diameter but have the same length, resulting in heart wall thickening. Physiology The physiology of cardiac muscle shares many similarities with that of skeletal muscle. The primary function of both muscle types is to contract, and in both cases, a contraction begins with a characteristic flow of ions across the cell membrane known as an action potential. The cardiac action potential subsequently triggers muscle contraction by increasing the concentration of calcium within the cytosol. Cardiac cycle The cardiac cycle is the performance of the human heart from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next. It consists of two periods: one during which the heart muscle relaxes and refills with blood, called diastole, following a period of robust contraction and pumping of blood, dubbed systole. After emptying, the heart immediately relaxes and expands to receive another influx of blood returning from the lungs and other systems of the body, before again contracting to pump blood to the lungs and those systems. A normally performing heart must be fully expanded before it can efficiently pump again. The rest phase is considered polarized. The resting potential during this phase of the beat separates the ions such as sodium, potassium, and calcium. Myocardial cells possess the property of automaticity or spontaneous depolarization. This is the direct result of a membrane which allows sodium ions to slowly enter the cell until the threshold is reached for depolarization. Calcium ions follow and extend the depolarization even further. Once calcium stops moving inward, potassium ions move out slowly to produce repolarization. The very slow repolarization of the CMC membrane is responsible for the long refractory period. However, the mechanism by which calcium concentrations within the cytosol rise differ between skeletal and cardiac muscle. In cardiac muscle, the action potential comprises an inward flow of both sodium and calcium ions. The flow of sodium ions is rapid but very short-lived, while the flow of calcium is sustained and gives the plateau phase characteristic of cardiac muscle action potentials. The comparatively small flow of calcium through the L-type calcium channels triggers a much larger release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in a phenomenon known as calcium-induced calcium release. In contrast, in skeletal muscle, minimal calcium flows into the cell during action potential and instead the sarcoplasmic reticulum in these cells is directly coupled to the surface membrane. This difference can be illustrated by the observation that cardiac muscle fibers require calcium to be present in the solution surrounding the cell to contract, while skeletal muscle fibers will contract without extracellular calcium. During contraction of a cardiac muscle cell, the long protein myofilaments oriented along the length of the cell slide over each other in what is known as the sliding filament theory. There are two kinds of myofilaments, thick filaments composed of the protein myosin, and thin filaments composed of the proteins actin, troponin and tropomyosin. As the thick and thin filaments slide past each other the cell becomes shorter and fatter. In a mechanism known as crossbridge cycling, calcium ions bind to the protein troponin, which along with tropomyosin then uncover key binding sites on actin. Myosin, in the thick filament, can then bind to actin, pulling the thick filaments along the thin filaments. When the concentration of calcium within the cell falls, troponin and tropomyosin once again cover the binding sites on actin, causing the cell to relax. Regeneration It was commonly believed that cardiac muscle cells could not be regenerated. However, this was contradicted by a report published in 2009. Olaf Bergmann and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm tested samples of heart muscle from people born before 1955 who had very little cardiac muscle around their heart, many showing with disabilities from this abnormality. By using DNA samples from many hearts, the researchers estimated that a 4-year-old renews about 20% of heart muscle cells per year, and about 69 percent of the heart muscle cells of a 50-year-old were generated after he or she was born. One way that cardiomyocyte regeneration occurs is through the division of pre-existing cardiomyocytes during the normal aging process. In the 2000s, the discovery of adult endogenous cardiac stem cells was reported, and studies were published that claimed that various stem cell lineages, including bone marrow stem cells were able to differentiate into cardiomyocytes, and could be used to treat heart failure. However, other teams were unable to replicate these findings, and many of the original studies were later retracted for scientific fraud. Differences between atria and ventricles Cardiac muscle forms both the atria and the ventricles of the heart. Although this muscle tissue is very similar between cardiac chambers, some differences exist. The myocardium found in the ventricles is thick to allow forceful contractions, while the myocardium in the atria is much thinner. The individual myocytes that make up the myocardium also differ between cardiac chambers. Ventricular cardiomyocytes are longer and wider, with a denser T-tubule network. Although the fundamental mechanisms of calcium handling are similar between ventricular and atrial cardiomyocytes, the calcium transient is smaller and decays more rapidly in atrial myocytes, with a corresponding increase in calcium buffering capacity. The complement of ion channels differs between chambers, leading to longer action potential durations and effective refractory periods in the ventricles. Certain ion currents such as IK(UR) are highly specific to atrial cardiomyocytes, making them a potential target for treatments for atrial fibrillation. Clinical significance Diseases affecting cardiac muscle, known as cardiomyopathies, are the leading cause of death in developed countries. The most common condition is coronary artery disease, in which the blood supply to the heart is reduced. The coronary arteries become narrowed by the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. If these narrowings become severe enough to partially restrict blood flow, the syndrome of angina pectoris may occur. This typically causes chest pain during exertion that is relieved by rest. If a coronary artery suddenly becomes very narrowed or completely blocked, interrupting or severely reducing blood flow through the vessel, a myocardial infarction or heart attack occurs. If the blockage is not relieved promptly by medication, percutaneous coronary intervention, or surgery, then a heart muscle region may become permanently scarred and damaged. A specific cardiomyopathy, can cause heart muscle to become abnormally thick (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy), abnormally large (dilated cardiomyopathy), or abnormally stiff (restrictive cardiomyopathy). Some of these conditions are caused by genetic mutations and can be inherited. Heart muscle can also become damaged despite a normal blood supply. The heart muscle may become inflamed in a condition called myocarditis, most commonly caused by a viral infection but sometimes caused by the body's own immune system. Heart muscle can also be damaged by drugs such as alcohol, long standing high blood pressure or hypertension, or persistent abnormal heart racing. Many of these conditions, if severe enough, can damage the heart so much that the pumping function of the heart is reduced. If the heart is no longer able to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs, this is described as heart failure. Significant damage to cardiac muscle cells is referred to as myocytolysis which is considered a type of cellular necrosis defined as either coagulative or colliquative. See also Frank–Starling law of the heart Regional function of the heart Nebulette References External links Cardiac muscle histology Cardiac anatomy Muscular system Cardiac electrophysiology Muscle tissue Articles containing video clips Histology

Algiers Motel incident

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The Algiers Motel incident also called the Algiers Motel Murders occurred in Detroit, Michigan, United States, throughout the night of July 25–26, 1967 during the racially charged 12th Street Riot. At the Algiers Motel, approximately one mile east of where the riot began, three civilians were killed and nine others abused by a riot task force composed of the Detroit Police Department, the Michigan State Police, and the Michigan Army National Guard. Among the casualties were three black teenage boys killed, and two white women and seven black men wounded as a result. The task force was searching the area after reports were received that a gunman or group of gunmen, possibly snipers, had been seen at or near the motel. One death has never been explained as the body was allegedly found by responding officers. Two deaths have been attributed to "justifiable homicide" or "self-defense". Charges of felonious assault, conspiracy, murder, and conspiracy to commit civil rights abuse were filed against three officers. Charges of assault and conspiracy were also filed on a private security guard. All were found not guilty. Background Riot The 12th Street Riot began in the early morning hours of Sunday, July 23, 1967. The Detroit Police Department at the time was 93% white, of whom 45% working in black neighborhoods were considered to be "extremely anti-Negro" and an additional 34% were "prejudiced". The riot began after police raided a black-owned business that hosted a "blind pig" (illegal bar), during a party to celebrate the safe return of two black Vietnam War veterans. Police had expected a small number of patrons; however, there were 85 or more patrons inside. As the dozens of partygoers were being loaded into police vans, a mob of people formed around the scene. One of the sons of the blind pig's owner jumped on the roof of a car and threw a bottle at the police, and the mob followed suit. In the ensuing violence, numerous businesses were looted or burnt down as the riot spread to other districts of Detroit. At first, police officers were ordered to hold back from responding to the rioting, to prevent an escalation in violence. A curfew was imposed and many people in Detroit stayed home or took shelter. Detroit Fire Department (DFD) personnel were held back from the fires by looters throwing objects at them or by snipers. Michigan Army National Guardsmen were activated by the Michigan government and were patrolling the streets and guarding several large businesses. Michigan State Troopers and United States Army paratroopers were also deployed to patrol the streets. Algiers Motel The Algiers Motel at 8301 Woodward Avenue near the Virginia Park district was a black-owned business, owned by Sam Gant and McUrant Pye. It was one of three motels in Detroit owned by Gant and Pye, the others being the Alamo, at Alfred and Woodward, and the Rio Grande, on West Grand near Grand River. Prior to Gant and Pye's purchase in 1965, the motel's white owner had barred black people from staying at the motel. The Algiers was considered by the police to be a center of illegal drugs and prostitution and was raided regularly by the vice squad. It was located close to the then-headquarters of General Motors (GM) and executives of the firm were regular customers. To the rear of the motel, a three-story detached home, known as the Manor House or Annex, was also rented to clients. Its street address was 50 Virginia Park Street, and it was accessible from Virginia Park and through a driveway from Woodward. The motel itself was laid out in the shape of a "U", with its office, pool and cabana rooms to the left and a two-story wing of rooms to the right around its parking lot. The Manor House could be seen from Woodward Avenue. Motel guests After the riot started, the Dramatics singing group left a concert on Saturday, July 22 and they all checked in at the Algiers. Three of the members—Ron Banks, Larry Demps and Michael Calhoun—left before the 25th, leaving Roderick Davis, Larry Reed and the band's valet Fred Temple at the motel. On the evening of July 25, the Motel Annex was occupied by several people who had taken refuge from the rioting: Carl Cooper, 17, black male, killed by gunshot Lee Forsythe, 20, black male, a survivor Michael Clark, 21, black male, a survivor Juli Ann Hysell, 18, white female, a survivor Karen Malloy, 18, white female, a survivor Auburey Pollard, 19, black male, killed by gunshot Robert Lee Greene, 26, black male, Vietnam War veteran, a survivor Larry Reed, 19, black male, singer and member of The Dramatics, a survivor Fred Temple, 18, black male, valet to The Dramatics, killed by gunshot Roderick Davis, 21, black male, member of The Dramatics, a survivor Charles Moore, early 40s, black male, a survivor James Sortor, 18, black male, a survivor Incident Shooting of the motel On July 25, 1967, police and National Guardsmen were protecting the Great Lakes Mutual Life Insurance building one block north. Security guard Melvin Dismukes was guarding a store across the street from the Algiers. After midnight, shots were heard and Guardsman Ted Thomas reported gunfire in the vicinity of the Algiers Motel. A large contingent of Detroit police officers, State Troopers, and Guardsmen were ordered to investigate. They observed people in the windows of the Algiers' annex building, and consequently shot out those windows and stormed the building through its three entrances. According to testimony, three of the black youths—Cooper, Clark, and Forsythe—and the two white women, Hysell and Malloy, were listening to music in a third-floor room of the annex. Cooper pulled out a starter pistol and shot blanks in the air, drawing return fire from the various authorities outside. Alarmed and frightened, the occupants fled to other rooms as law enforcement personnel rushed into the annex. Death of Carl Cooper Carl Cooper was the first youth shot to death in the incident. Cooper had been in a third-floor room but his dead body was found in a first-floor room, A-2. He was killed by law enforcement personnel when they first entered the building: according to later testimony, he may have been mistaken for an armed rioter. Alternatively, several law enforcement witnesses later testified that Cooper was already dead when they entered the building. The shooting was never fully explained and no one was ever arrested for Cooper's death. His injuries were consistent with buckshot wounds from the type of shotguns the Detroit Police Department used. In their testimony about the entering of the annex, Guardsmen, State Troopers and Detroit police officers each testified they were not the first to enter, stating that Cooper was already dead when they arrived, leaving responsibility for the death unexplained. In the federal conspiracy trial, the defense would attempt to show that Cooper was killed by occupants of the motel before the police arrived but this was denied by those occupants. They testified that at least one policeman shot into the rooms first and checked for persons later. Abuse of motel guests The occupants of the motel annex were rounded up in the first-floor hallway and lined up against the wall. The various officers present hit each of the persons in turn, threatening to kill them unless they told the officers who had the gun and was sniping from the motel. The two 18-year-old women, Juli Hysell and Karen Malloy, were forcibly stripped naked and each harangued as "nigger lovers". Several of the men were shown a knife on the floor and told to pick it up, so they could be killed in "self-defense". In turn, each of the black youths in line was taken into rooms and intimidated with threats or gunshots and told to stay still and quiet or be killed. The policeman who had escorted the occupant then returned to the hallway, making some comment about the death of the individual. First, per conflicting reports, an officer took one of the youths into a room and fired a shot into the wall, to make the prisoners believe he was dead in a simulated execution. He then asked Guardsman Ted Thomas if he wanted to kill one. Thomas then took an occupant into a room and shot into the ceiling. Auburey Pollard was then taken to room A-3 by Officer Ronald August. August would later admit to Pollard's killing, stating it was in self-defense. A spent cartridge found next to Pollard was a .300 Savage, a type used for sporting rifles and not issued to police officers. Pollard had extensive injuries to his head. Witnesses described how he had been beaten on the head with a rifle, with force enough to break the rifle. The remaining occupants then admitted that Cooper had a starter pistol and had used it earlier. The sound of gunshots was then heard outside the motel and the police officers left. Two remaining officers escorted the remaining prisoners out of the motel annex and told them to run home or they would be killed too. The death of the third youth, Fred Temple, occurred at that time or later. Several of the prisoners who were allowed to leave recalled Temple still being alive when they left the motel. Temple's body was later found in room A-3. He had been shot by Officer Robert Paille, who later testified it was in self-defense during a struggle over his gun. Aftermath Discovery of corpses The officers did not report the deaths to the Detroit Police Homicide Bureau as required. The next day, on July 26, 1967, Charles Hendrix, whose security firm provided security for the Algiers, found the bodies in the annex and reported the deaths to the Wayne County Morgue, which then called the Detroit Police Homicide Bureau. Detectives Edward Hay, Lyle Thayer, a photographer and several patrolmen arrived around 3 a.m. The scene was examined and the bodies removed. A knife was found next to the body in A-2, but no gun was found and the cartridges and shell casings were left. The investigator's activities, including the flashes from the camera and the presence of police on the roof of the building, were noticed by Guardsmen stationed nearby and they shouted a challenge to identify themselves. The detectives left the scene to return at a later time, feeling it was not safe to stay on scene that night. Press reports The deaths were reported to the press as having happened in an exchange of gunfire with snipers. However, the Detroit Free Press interviewed the witnesses of the events, who all claimed to have been unarmed and that the dead men were not snipers. The deaths were reported to Congressman John Conyers and the NAACP and motel witnesses appeared in a press conference held by Conyers on the conduct of the military and police. The US Department of Justice began an investigation under assistant District Attorney Robert Murphy, who interviewed witnesses. The witnesses' accounts were delivered to Detroit prosecutors on July 29. The Free Press investigated the story and retained a pathologist, Dr. Robert Sillery, to examine the bodies. His conclusions were that all three had been killed inside the home and all had been shot twice, shot from slightly behind and at close range, and in defensive postures. Five days after the incident, The Detroit News reported the story of one of the survivors, Robert Lee Greene, stating that one of the National Guard warrant officers murdered the men. Charge of Melvin Dismukes Security guard Melvin Dismukes, who was black, was the first to be charged. He was arraigned for the felonious assault of James Sortor and Michael Clark in the first-floor hallway of the annex. He was freed on $1,500 bail. Dismukes's trial took place in May 1968. He was found not guilty of the charge of felonious assault. The all-white jury returned the verdict in 13 minutes. Investigations Officer David Senak, Officer Ronald August, and Officer Robert Paille, confessed to taking part in the killings of Pollard and Temple and were charged with murder. Each spent one night in jail and were released on $5,000 bail. August had given a statement to detectives that the three were dead when he arrived, but asked for that statement back and submitted a second statement asserting he had shot Pollard in self-defense. At the pretrial examination, Guard Warrant Officer Ted Thomas identified August as the shooter of Pollard and 23-year-old Vice Patrolman David Senak as the officer who did the questioning and beating. Senak had allegedly taken part in the killing of two men earlier in the riot before arriving at the Algiers Motel. Paille's initial confession was ruled inadmissible and August claimed self-defense. Senak appeared as a witness and testified that he had not seen August or Paille fire their weapons. One of the motel survivors, Michael Clark, gave conflicting evidence that August and Paille had taken him into a room and threatened him when Hersey falsely wrote Senak and Thomas had actually done so. Judge DeMascio ruled that August could be indicted for the murder of Pollard, but charges against Paille for the murder of Temple were dropped. Protest tribunal The Citywide Citizens' Action Committee, organized by Dan Aldridge, was formed by a coalition of Detroit black leaders. They held a tribunal of their own, convicting August, Paille, Dismukes and Thomas for their roles in the murders and sentencing them to death. The jury included novelist John Killens and activist Rosa Parks. Without revealing himself, Dismukes attended the tribunal. Arrest of Robert Paille and David Senak On August 23, Ronald August, Robert Paille and David Senak were arrested for conspiracy under Michigan law. The conspiracy trial began on September 27 in Recorder's Court. The trial was three days in length. Judge Frank Schemanske dismissed the conspiracy charges in December. Schemanske concluded that while there was "unfortunate violence" at the motel, it was "scarcely surprising" but also "overzealous". He also stated that "[the witnesses] in their calculated prevarication to the point of perjury was so blatant as to defeat its object." The decision was appealed to the Michigan Supreme Court but that was later dismissed. Trial of Robert Paille The dismissal of the murder charge against Paille by Judge DeMascio during the pre-trial was appealed by Prosecutor William L. Cahalan. Recorder's Court Judge Geraldine Ford ordered the case back to Judge DeMascio for further testimony. Paille's attorney Norman Lippitt then appealed to the Michigan Court of Appeals, which chose not to hear the case. Lippitt then appealed to the Michigan Supreme Court. In 1970, the Supreme Court ruled that the Wayne County Court of Appeals should determine whether the case could be reopened. In 1971, the Wayne County Court ordered the Recorder's Court to take additional testimony. The final appeal would be heard in February 1972. Judge George Ryan of Detroit Recorder's Court would dismiss the murder charge in August 1972, stating that Paille's confession was inadmissible because he had not been advised of his Constitutional rights as per the 1966 Miranda Warning law. He cited the testimony of Detroit detective Charles Schlacter, who stated that he "viewed both August and Paille" as suspects when he took the statements. Schlacter stated that if he had informed them of their rights, they would not have confessed. In Ryan's judgment, the law meant that persons must be advised of their right to remain silent in what was an "atmosphere of coercion." Trial of Ronald August The first-degree murder trial of Ronald August was held in May and June 1969 in Mason, Michigan. It had been moved from Detroit to escape publicity, partly because of a 1968 book on the incident. In opening statements, defense attorney Norman Lippett described Pollard as "an antisocial personality" and "potential killer" and the killing by August as "justifiable homicide" while prosecutor Avery Weiswasser described the killing as "murder with malice aforethought and with full premeditation." August admitted killing Pollard, describing it as "justifiable homicide" because Pollard had attempted to grab his shotgun. According to Detroit Free Press reporter Walker Lundy, there were as many descriptions of the shooting as there were witnesses. Two State's witnesses, Greene and Hysell, who had been at the motel, failed to appear to testify. Guardsman Thomas took one of the youths into a room and fired a shot into the ceiling. Senak then gave August a shotgun and told August to "shoot one". Thomas stated that he heard no sounds of struggle or words between August and Pollard before he saw "a flash of clothing, heard a shotgun blast and saw Pollard's body fall". Thomas then told an officer either "this was police business" or "this was bad business" and "he was leaving". According to Thomas, August said no words throughout the incident. Karen Malloy, one of the two women in the motel, testified that she saw Cooper shoot a starter's pistol at another black youth in a room on the third floor of the motel. The police then shot out the window of the room and the occupants fled. She ran to the room of Robert Greene and hid there until a police officer with a rifle arrived. The officer fired into the closet and a bathroom. Then, he asked if there was anyone in either place. They were all herded into the first floor hallway, where she said several of the black youths were beaten and taken individually into motel rooms. She testified she was not beaten but she had been forcibly stripped naked. She testified that she could not identify August as one of the officers and that she had not seen any of the killings. State Troopers Philip Martin, John Fonger and Archie Davies testified at the trial. All testified to the lineup and beatings going on and officers taking individuals from the line into motel rooms and shooting their guns in a "game" to frighten the prisoners. Davies and Fonger testified that they heard shots and then a man in blue shirt and riot helmet leave room A-3, ejecting empty shells from a revolver, stating "that one tried for my gun" and "the room is secure". Martin testified that he saw no resistance, no sniper weapons and no arrests made while at the motel. After Fonger reported the events to his supervisor, the supervisor stated that it was "in the hands of the Detroit Police and he didn't like what was going on" and the Troopers left. On June 3, August testified in his own defense. He stated that he saw the bodies of Cooper and Temple when he entered the building, and saw a lineup against the wall. He testified that, when asked by Senak, he took Pollard into room A-3 and closed the door. There, Pollard asked if he was going to shoot him. August said he would not and he had never shot anyone. He asked Pollard if he knew anything about a sniper and Pollard said he did not. August testified that Pollard then pushed August's shotgun away and then grabbed the gun. August stated then he tried to fire the gun, but the safety was on. Pollard then came at him and he fired, killing Pollard. He testified: "I thought he was going to take the gun away from me. He scared me." August testified that he did not file a report immediately after the shooting, as required, on the advice of either Paille or Senak. When August arrived at the station the next day, he found out that no one else had filed a report. Paille was the only one with a radio and was supposed to have called for an ambulance and squad car. He testified that he, Senak and Paille filed a joint report. Two days later, they were summoned to the station to file individual statements. August admitted lying in his statement to his supervisor, then asking for the statement back to change it, to admit he had taken part in the shootings and had done so in self-defense. The trial concluded on June 9 with summations by prosecutor Avery Weisswasser and defense attorney Norman Lippitt. Judge William Beer instructed the all-white jury to either convict August of first-degree murder or acquit him. They could not return a verdict of the lesser charges of second-degree murder or manslaughter, as both the defense and the prosecution had requested. According to the Free Press, legal sources described Beer's instructions to the jury as a direction to find an acquittal on the other possible options. Beer's instructions to the jury were criticized by black leaders as "having all but guaranteed an acquittal" for August. After deliberating for 2 ½ hours, the jury found August not guilty. Federal conspiracy trial The earlier Schemanske decision incensed Kenneth McIntyre, the assistant U.S District Attorney and he pushed to reopen a federal investigation of the killings. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) investigated the case. J. Edgar Hoover personally reviewed the policemen's statements, and described them as "for the most part untrue and were undoubtedly furnished in an attempt to cover their activities and the true series of events." On May 3, 1968, a federal grand jury indicted Melvin Dismukes, Ronald August, Robert Paille and David Senak on a charge of conspiring to deny civil rights to the motel occupants. An indictment was not pursued against Thomas because the government wanted his testimony against the others. The federal conspiracy trial was delayed, both by the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy, but also the publication of a book by John Hersey, The Algiers Motel Incident. U.S. Judge Stephen Roth was assigned the case. The defense asked for a change of venue. Roth closed the hearings to the press and waited a full year until September 1969 before ruling on the change of venue, ordering the trial to be moved to his hometown of Flint, Michigan. In January and February 1970, the federal conspiracy trial was held in Flint, Michigan. It, like the August murder trial, had been moved from Detroit partially because of the publication of The Algiers Motel Incident. It meant it was nearly impossible to get any black persons on the jury. Defense lawyer Lippitt represented the policemen and admitted later that he felt the book publishing had helped his case as he felt that no black person in Detroit would be impartial. "I wouldn't want a black man on the jury. I was hoping for all the prejudice I could get." The other woman held prisoner at the motel, Juli Hysell, testified at the trial. She testified about the starter pistol incident and the lineup in the hallway, but could not identify any of the defendants as being present at the motel. James Sortor, another of the black youths held at the motel, did identify the defendants August, Paille and Dismukes as being present at the motel, but he testified that he had not heard any shooting inside the motel. He stated that he "was beaten so many times he lost count." Roderick Davis testified that he had heard the shots and the sounds of people running on the stairs. Both Hysell and Sortor testified that Cooper was still alive when the police arrived. Senak's lawyer stated that Temple was shot while being handcuffed after Temple grabbed Senak's service revolver. State Trooper Hubert Rosema testified that he heard scuffling noises and gunshots coming from the room. Senak was overheard to yell "He's got my gun" multiple times. He testified that afterwards, he went into the room and saw Temple still breathing, lying against the bed. No aid was called for Temple as far as he knew. Several witnesses were called to support the charge of a cover-up by August, Paille and Senak to save face. Police Lieutenant Robert Boroni testified about the contents of the July 29 first report the three policemen filed stating that they entered the motel, saw the lineup, saw that the prisoners were already wounded and left. August's July 31 statement stated that he did not fire his gun inside the motel, and he saw no Guardsmen on the premises. Detroit homicide detective Robert Everett testified that August filed a separate statement two hours later that he had shot Pollard in self-defense and that Paille admitted shooting Temple. Police Lieutenant Gerald Hallmark provided a statement that later that day August and Paille asked to revise their statements. According to Hallmark, August said "the media have the events all wrong and that he did what he had to do." After deliberating for nine hours, an all-white jury found the four not guilty of conspiracy. In a review of the trial, the Detroit Free Press felt that prosecutors Avery Weiswasser and McIntyre were "outpointed by Lippitt." John Hersey book In 1968, the author John Hersey wrote a book about the incident. Hersey interviewed survivors, members of the victims' families and some of the law enforcement personnel who participated in the raid and also consulted forensic reports, in identifying the law enforcement personnel involved in the killings. The proceeds from royalties from the book (over 550,000 copies were printed) were turned over to a college scholarship fund for African American students by Knopf. Hersey stated in the book that he "will not take any money from any source for the publication of this story". Legacy Lives of police officers None of the three Detroit policemen worked again for the Detroit Police. Paille took other jobs including crane operator, construction worker, carpenter and insurance agent. Senak opened a construction business. Dismukes became a security guard for the Detroit Pistons. He received death threats from the Black Panthers. August resigned from the Detroit Police in July 1977. He became a building tradesman. August, Paille and Senak all moved out of Detroit. Lippitt later became an Oakland County Circuit Judge and today practices law in Birmingham, Michigan. The Detroit Police has since become an integrated police force and its commission is elected. Algiers Motel In 1968, Cahalan filed suit to close down the Algiers Motel but was unsuccessful. It re-opened as "The Desert Inn". The motel and manor house were demolished in 1979. This was done as part of the "New Center" urban renewal project sponsored in part by General Motors. The Motel was located at 8301 Woodward Avenue, between Woodward and Virginia Park in the geographic center of Detroit. The site where the motel and the manor house stood is now an open greenspace known as Virginia Park. Lawsuits Both the Pollard family and the Temple family filed lawsuits against the Detroit Police officers. Settlements were reached in each case. In 1976, the City of Detroit paid each family $62,500 ($ today) to settle. Life of Larry Reed Larry Reed left The Dramatics after the incident, and today sings in church choirs. In popular culture In 2013, Mercilee Jenkins' play Spirit of Detroit was performed at the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History. The play is centered on the stories of Anthony, a black man, and Lucy, a white woman who were friends in childhood and reunited during the 1967 riot, at the Algiers Motel hiding out from the violence. In 2017, Annapurna Pictures released Detroit, a feature film dramatization of the 12th Street Riot and the Algiers Motel incident, directed by Kathryn Bigelow. Hysell acted as a special advisor on the film and was present every day on the set. The movie soundtrack includes a singing performance by Algee Smith of Larry Reed's song "Grow". References Notes External links 1967 in Detroit 1967 crimes in the United States 1967 in Michigan 1968 books African-American history in Detroit Algiers Motel Incident, The Riots and civil disorder in Detroit July 1967 events in the United States Police brutality in the United States Motels in the United States History of racism in Michigan

List of World Heavyweight Champions (WWE)

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The World Heavyweight Championship was a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship in WWE. It was established by WWE in 2002 after WWE bought out World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW), and split its roster into two brands, Raw and SmackDown!, in a brand extension. WWE's original world title, the WWE Championship, with which the WCW World Heavyweight Championship had been unified in 2001, was designated to the SmackDown! brand; as a result the World Heavyweight Championship was established for the Raw brand. The World Heavyweight Championship is not a continuation of the WCW World Heavyweight Championship, but rather its indirect successor. For a list of champions who have held those titles, see the list of WCW World Heavyweight Champions and list of NWA World Heavyweight Champions respectively. At the TLC pay-per-view on December 15, 2013, when WWE Champion Randy Orton defeated World Heavyweight Champion John Cena, the World Heavyweight Championship was unified with the WWE Championship, resulting in the retiring of the former, and the renaming of the latter to the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. The championship was contested in professional wrestling matches, in which participants execute scripted finishes. The first champion was Triple H, who was awarded the title on September 2, 2002, by Eric Bischoff, then-General Manager of Raw, and he also holds the record for longest combined reign at 616 days. Overall, there have been 25 different official champions, with Edge having the most reigns at seven. The longest single reign was held by Batista, lasting 282 days. The final holder was Randy Orton, who was also the youngest champion at the age of 24 when he first won the championship. The Undertaker was the oldest champion when he won the title for the third time at the age of 44 years. Title history Combined reigns See also List of former championships in WWE World championships in WWE References General Specific External links Official WWE World Heavyweight Championship history World Heavyweight Championship history at Wrestling-Titles.com WWE championships lists WWE champions

This Is Your Life

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This Is Your Life is an American reality documentary series broadcast on NBC radio from 1948 to 1952, and on NBC television from 1952 to 1961. It was originally hosted by its creator and producer Ralph Edwards. In the program, the host surprised guests and then took them through a retrospective of their lives in front of an audience, including appearances by colleagues, friends, and family. Edwards revived the show in 1971–1972, and Joseph Campanella hosted a version in 1983. Edwards returned for various specials in the late 1980s. Concept The idea for This Is Your Life arose while Edwards was working on Truth or Consequences. He had been asked by the U.S. Army to "do something" for paraplegic soldiers at Birmingham General Army Hospital, a California Army rehabilitation hospital in Van Nuys, Los Angeles (a site later converted into a high school). Edwards chose a "particularly despondent young soldier and hit on the idea of presenting his life on the air, in order to integrate the wreckage of the present with his happier past and the promise of a hopeful future." Edwards received such positive public feedback from the "capsule narrative" of the soldier he gave on Truth or Consequences that he developed This Is Your Life as a new radio show. In the show, Edwards surprised each guest by narrating a biography of the subject. The show "alternated in presenting the life stories of entertainment personalities and 'ordinary' people who had contributed in some way to their communities." The host, consulting his "red book", narrated while presenting the subject with family members, friends, and others who had affected his or her life. By the 1950s, the show was aired live before a theater audience. The guests were surprised by Ralph Edwards and confronted by the microphone and cameras. Planning for the broadcast meant that some found out in advance that they were to be featured. For example, Eddie Cantor had a heart condition, so the show's producers made sure that he was not surprised. Notable guests One of the show's subjects was Rev. Kiyoshi Tanimoto, a survivor of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. During the episode Edwards introduced Tanimoto to Robert A. Lewis, the co-pilot of the Enola Gay, the plane that dropped the bomb on Hiroshima. Hanna Bloch Kohner, a Holocaust survivor, was a subject on May 27, 1953. In February 1953, Lillian Roth, a "topflight torch singer of the Prohibition era" was the subject of the show, "cheerfully admit[ting] that she had been a hopeless drunk for 16 years before being rescued by Alcoholics Anonymous." Edwards described Roth's condition as "impending blindness, an inflamed sinus and a form of alcoholic insanity" and brought on a psychiatrist who had treated her, a brother-in-law "who had paid her bills" and several "glamorous foul-weather friends" such as Lita Grey Chaplin and Ruby Keeler. Roth's story became the basis of her 1954 autobiography and 1955 film adaption, I'll Cry Tomorrow, with Edwards appearing as himself. Kate Newcomb, a doctor who practiced in a "70-mile circle" around Woodruff, Wisconsin, was the subject of a 1954 episode, bringing attention to her "million pennies" drive to raise funds for a small community hospital; viewers of the episode donated over $112,000 in pennies. The New York Times reported on September 1, 1955 that the Sixth United States Army requested a kinescope of the April 27 episode which honored World War II and Korean War General Mark Clark. The request stated, "We believe that showing of such a program would contribute materially toward the objectives of troop information, since it would create appreciation of the career of an outstanding military leader and further better understanding of certain highlights in the recent history of the Army." According to The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network TV Shows, 1946–Present, one celebrity that was definitely forbidden was Edwards himself, who supposedly threatened to fire every member of his staff if they ever tried to turn the tables on him and publicly present Edwards' own life. In a 1973 episode, Vincent Price was the surprised guest. The show had been planned with his wife Mary while Price was in the UK filming the movie Theatre of Blood. By the time he returned to his US home, he had split with his wife and begun a relationship with his co-star from the movie, Coral Browne. Price's daughter later revealed that his estranged wife had told him about the show in an attempt to manage any potential fall-out and unbeknownst to the producers, he agreed to act surprised when the show was recorded. Reception This Is Your Life was nominated three times for as "Best Audience Participation, Quiz or Panel Program" at the Emmy Awards, losing in 1953 at the 5th Emmy Awards to What's My Line? and sharing the category's award with What's My Line? at the Emmys in 1954 and 1955. It also fared well in the ratings during the 1950s, finishing at #11 in 1953–1954, #12 in 1954–1955, #26 in 1955–1956, #19 in 1957–1958 and #29 in 1958–1959. By October 1960, Time magazine was calling This Is Your Life "the most sickeningly sentimental show on the air"; it cited a May 1960 episode on "Queens housewife and mother" Elizabeth Hahn as evidence that the show had "run through every faded actress still able to cry on cue" and had instead "turned to ordinary people as subjects for its weekly, treacly 'true-to-life' biographies." The episode on Hahn was also cited as an example of the limited research that the show was doing on its guests. The show had presented Hahn as "devoted to her husband and so dedicated to her children that she had worked as a chambermaid, waitress and cook to further their education and keep them off the streets", ignoring details such as that Hahn, on the advice of her rabbi, had brought her daughter into a magistrate's court as a delinquent, and that before the episode was broadcast, Hahn's husband had sued her for divorce. Virginia Graham, in her autobiography, noted that the show had been characterized as a maudlin invasion of privacy. Reruns and revivals In the late 1980s, Edwards made many episodes that featured celebrities available for re-broadcasting: American Movie Classics aired them for several years, accompanying them with "screenings of movies from studio-era Hollywood." Edwards revived the series twice in syndication, the first in 1971 with Edwards again as host, and in 1983 with Joseph Campanella. Both failed to capture the magic of the original series, mostly due to the series being filmed or taped and, in the case of the 1971–72 version, some stations that aired it gave away the surprise elements in ads and promos for the show. During the late 1980s, Edwards hosted a few single prime time network airings of This Is Your Life, most memorably an episode featuring Betty White and Dick Van Dyke. Pat Sajak hosted an episode in November 1993 on NBC where Roy Scheider and Kathie Lee Gifford were the honorees, and Edwards made a cameo at the beginning, then appeared again when Kathie's work as a singer on the 70s version of Name that Tune, which Edwards produced, was mentioned. Actress Angie Dickinson was supposed to have been one of the two celebrities honoured in the special, and was lured under the pretext of being interviewed for a special about director Brian de Palma, but when host Sajak surprised her with the typical "this is your life!" greeting to kick off the show she refused to participate and walked out. She later said that she had previously been approached about being a guest on the show and had declined, and that the main reason she refused to participate was that she didn't look good crying. In November 2005, ABC announced that it was developing a new version of the show, to be hosted by Regis Philbin. Coincidentally, creator, Ralph Edwards, died not long after the announcement was made. In August 2006, Philbin decided not to renew his contract with the show (he was committed to hosting America's Got Talent on NBC). ABC announced it was considering moving forward with another host in 2006, but this never came to fruition. In October 2008, Survivor producer Mark Burnett signed a deal with Ralph Edwards Productions to produce an updated version. This also did not come to fruition. International versions International adaptations of the show: Australia – This Is Your Life (1975–1980, 1995–2005, 2008, 2011) Chile – (1965) Denmark – (1983–1985, 1987, 1991, 1997–2000, 2011–2014) France – ("This is your life!") (1993–1994, 2013–2015) Israel – ("What a life") (1972–2012) Netherlands - (1960–1961, 1985–1987, season 1992/1993) New Zealand – This Is Your Life (1984–2000, 2007–2008, 2010–2011) Norway – (1985–1986, 1995) Peru – Ésta es su vida (1961) Sweden – ("Here is your life") (1980–1991,1995, 2009–2010), Ett sånt liv (1995) Spain – (1962–1968, 1993) United Kingdom – This Is Your Life (1955–1964, 1969–2003, 2007) In the Taiwanese variety show Super Sunday, the second half of each episode has a This Is Your Life-style segment where a celebrity or a local discussed their past followed by a cinematic re-enactment (usually exaggerated or serious) then a remote segment to search for the individual. However, the final result for each segment may or may not be successful. Parodies The show was parodied in 1954 by Your Show of Shows, as "This Is Your Story". Carl Reiner played the host, who surprises an uncooperative audience member played by Sid Caesar. In 1955, Warner Bros. animator Friz Freleng did a sendup called "This Is a Life?", hosted by Elmer Fudd and featured Bugs Bunny as the guest of honor. The cartoon also featured Daffy Duck, Granny and Yosemite Sam. Bob & Ray issued a 45 rpm record with a routine called "This Is Your Bed (You Made It, Now Lie in It)" on Coral (catalog number 9-61338) in 1955. A 1960 episode of Walt Disney Presents, "This Is Your Life, Donald Duck", was a parody tribute to Donald Duck, hosted by Jiminy Cricket. There was a recurring segment on the children's program Sesame Street, "Here is Your Life", which followed the show's format but featured inanimate objects — a loaf of bread, an oak tree, a tooth, a house, a shoe, and a carton of eggs — as its guests. Like most of the game show parodies on Sesame Street, the show was hosted by the Muppet character Guy Smiley; seven sketches were produced between 1972 and 1990. During Season 26 (1994-1995), two others were hosted by Sonny Friendly and the sketch was retitled as "The New Here is Your Life", featuring a storybook and a glass of milk as honorees. Another variant, "This Is Your Story" (1982), was a one-shot featuring Guy honoring Muppet Character Forgetful Jones. In 1976, the game show The Price Is Right parodied the show in one of its Showcase skits, called "This Is Your Strife," featuring bloopers involving model Janice Pennington. The cast had previously rehearsed a fake skit with Pennington, then sprung the "... Strife" skit on her as a surprise. As a part of a 1987 Howdy Doody 40th-anniversary retrospective special, Monty Hall and Buffalo Bob Smith imagined, as a way to celebrate Howdy Doody's birthday, a spoof of "This Is Your Life" called "Your Happiest Days". The WWE spoofed This Is Your Life three times with Mick Foley as the host. The purpose of these segments was to bring out individuals of the guest's past that embarrassed them. The most notable of these segments occurred on September 27, 1999, with The Rock, which many consider being the turning point in the Monday Night Wars. The first of these spoofs is still the highest-rated segment in WWE Monday Night RAW'''s history. In the early 1990s, McGruff the Crime Dog was honored by Ralph Edwards in a PSA from the Ad Council with National Crime Prevention Council. In Season 4 of The Good Place, a parody takes place in the show's afterlife setting, called "This Was Your Life." References External links This Is Your Life, official website Encyclopedia of Television: This is Your Life from the Museum of Broadcast Communications This Is Your Life (U.S.) radio and TV episode list at ClassicTVInfo.com 1940s American radio programs 1950s American radio programs 1952 American television series debuts 1961 American television series endings 1970s American television series 1980s American television series 2000s American television series American Broadcasting Company original programming Black-and-white American television shows CBS Radio programs Emmy Award-winning programs English-language television shows American live television series NBC original programming NBC radio programs Television series by Ralph Edwards Productions

Ice core

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An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet or a high mountain glacier. Since the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow, lower layers are older than upper, and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years. Cores are drilled with hand augers (for shallow holes) or powered drills; they can reach depths of over two miles (3.2 km), and contain ice up to 800,000 years old. The physical properties of the ice and of material trapped in it can be used to reconstruct the climate over the age range of the core. The proportions of different oxygen and hydrogen isotopes provide information about ancient temperatures, and the air trapped in tiny bubbles can be analysed to determine the level of atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide. Since heat flow in a large ice sheet is very slow, the borehole temperature is another indicator of temperature in the past. These data can be combined to find the climate model that best fits all the available data. Impurities in ice cores may depend on location. Coastal areas are more likely to include material of marine origin, such as sea salt ions. Greenland ice cores contain layers of wind-blown dust that correlate with cold, dry periods in the past, when cold deserts were scoured by wind. Radioactive elements, either of natural origin or created by nuclear testing, can be used to date the layers of ice. Some volcanic events that were sufficiently powerful to send material around the globe have left a signature in many different cores that can be used to synchronise their time scales. Ice cores have been studied since the early 20th century, and several cores were drilled as a result of the International Geophysical Year (1957–1958). Depths of over 400 m were reached, a record which was extended in the 1960s to 2164 m at Byrd Station in Antarctica. Soviet ice drilling projects in Antarctica include decades of work at Vostok Station, with the deepest core reaching 3769 m. Numerous other deep cores in the Antarctic have been completed over the years, including the West Antarctic Ice Sheet project, and cores managed by the British Antarctic Survey and the International Trans-Antarctic Scientific Expedition. In Greenland, a sequence of collaborative projects began in the 1970s with the Greenland Ice Sheet Project; there have been multiple follow-up projects, with the most recent, the East Greenland Ice-Core Project, originally expected to complete a deep core in east Greenland in 2020 but since postponed. Structure of ice sheets and cores An ice core is a vertical column through a glacier, sampling the layers that formed through an annual cycle of snowfall and melt. As snow accumulates, each layer presses on lower layers, making them denser until they turn into firn. Firn is not dense enough to prevent air from escaping; but at a density of about 830 kg/m3 it turns to ice, and the air within is sealed into bubbles that capture the composition of the atmosphere at the time the ice formed. The depth at which this occurs varies with location, but in Greenland and the Antarctic it ranges from 64 m to 115 m. Because the rate of snowfall varies from site to site, the age of the firn when it turns to ice varies a great deal. At Summit Camp in Greenland, the depth is 77 m and the ice is 230 years old; at Dome C in Antarctica the depth is 95 m and the age 2500 years. As further layers build up, the pressure increases, and at about 1500 m the crystal structure of the ice changes from hexagonal to cubic, allowing air molecules to move into the cubic crystals and form a clathrate. The bubbles disappear and the ice becomes more transparent. Two or three feet of snow may turn into less than a foot of ice. The weight above makes deeper layers of ice thin and flow outwards. Ice is lost at the edges of the glacier to icebergs, or to summer melting, and the overall shape of the glacier does not change much with time. The outward flow can distort the layers, so it is desirable to drill deep ice cores at places where there is very little flow. These can be located using maps of the flow lines. Impurities in the ice provide information on the environment from when they were deposited. These include soot, ash, and other types of particle from forest fires and volcanoes; isotopes such as beryllium-10 created by cosmic rays; micrometeorites; and pollen. The lowest layer of a glacier, called basal ice, is frequently formed of subglacial meltwater that has refrozen. It can be up to about 20 m thick, and though it has scientific value (for example, it may contain subglacial microbial populations), it often does not retain stratigraphic information. Cores are often drilled in areas such as Antarctica and central Greenland where the temperature is almost never warm enough to cause melting, but the summer sun can still alter the snow. In polar areas, the sun is visible day and night during the local summer and invisible all winter. It can make some snow sublimate, leaving the top inch or so less dense. When the sun approaches its lowest point in the sky, the temperature drops and hoar frost forms on the top layer. Buried under the snow of following years, the coarse-grained hoar frost compresses into lighter layers than the winter snow. As a result, alternating bands of lighter and darker ice can be seen in an ice core. Coring Ice cores are collected by cutting around a cylinder of ice in a way that enables it to be brought to the surface. Early cores were often collected with hand augers and they are still used for short holes. A design for ice core augers was patented in 1932 and they have changed little since. An auger is essentially a cylinder with helical metal ribs (known as flights) wrapped around the outside, at the lower end of which are cutting blades. Hand augers can be rotated by a T handle or a brace handle, and some can be attached to handheld electric drills to power the rotation. With the aid of a tripod for lowering and raising the auger, cores up to 50 m deep can be retrieved, but the practical limit is about 30 m for engine-powered augers, and less for hand augers. Below this depth, electromechanical or thermal drills are used. The cutting apparatus of a drill is on the bottom end of a drill barrel, the tube that surrounds the core as the drill cuts downward. The cuttings (chips of ice cut away by the drill) must be drawn up the hole and disposed of or they will reduce the cutting efficiency of the drill. They can be removed by compacting them into the walls of the hole or into the core, by air circulation (dry drilling), or by the use of a drilling fluid (wet drilling). Dry drilling is limited to about 400 m depth, since below that point a hole would close up as the ice deforms from the weight of the ice above. Drilling fluids are chosen to balance the pressure so that the hole remains stable. The fluid must have a low kinematic viscosity to reduce tripping time (the time taken to pull the drilling equipment out of the hole and return it to the bottom of the hole). Since retrieval of each segment of core requires tripping, a slower speed of travel through the drilling fluid could add significant time to a project—a year or more for a deep hole. The fluid must contaminate the ice as little as possible; it must have low toxicity, for safety and to minimize the effect on the environment; it must be available at a reasonable cost; and it must be relatively easy to transport. Historically, there have been three main types of ice drilling fluids: two-component fluids based on kerosene-like products mixed with fluorocarbons to increase density; alcohol compounds, including aqueous ethylene glycol and ethanol solutions; and esters, including n-butyl acetate. Newer fluids have been proposed, including new ester-based fluids, low-molecular weight dimethyl siloxane oils, fatty-acid esters, and kerosene-based fluids mixed with foam-expansion agents. Rotary drilling is the main method of drilling for minerals and it has also been used for ice drilling. It uses a string of drill pipe rotated from the top, and drilling fluid is pumped down through the pipe and back up around it. The cuttings are removed from the fluid at the top of the hole and the fluid is then pumped back down. This approach requires long trip times, since the entire drill string must be hoisted out of the hole, and each length of pipe must be separately disconnected, and then reconnected when the drill string is reinserted. Along with the logistical difficulties associated with bringing heavy equipment to ice sheets, this makes traditional rotary drills unattractive. In contrast, wireline drills allow the removal of the core barrel from the drill assembly while it is still at the bottom of the borehole. The core barrel is hoisted to the surface, and the core removed; the barrel is lowered again and reconnected to the drill assembly. Another alternative is flexible drill-stem rigs, in which the drill string is flexible enough to be coiled when at the surface. This eliminates the need to disconnect and reconnect the pipes during a trip. The need for a string of drillpipe that extends from the surface to the bottom of the borehole can be eliminated by suspending the entire downhole assembly on an armoured cable that conveys power to the downhole motor. These cable-suspended drills can be used for both shallow and deep holes; they require an anti-torque device, such as leaf-springs that press against the borehole, to prevent the drill assembly rotating around the drillhead as it cuts the core. The drilling fluid is usually circulated down around the outside of the drill and back up between the core and core barrel; the cuttings are stored in the downhole assembly, in a chamber above the core. When the core is retrieved, the cuttings chamber is emptied for the next run. Some drills have been designed to retrieve a second annular core outside the central core, and in these drills the space between the two cores can be used for circulation. Cable-suspended drills have proved to be the most reliable design for deep ice drilling. Thermal drills, which cut ice by electrically heating the drill head, can also be used, but they have some disadvantages. Some have been designed for working in cold ice; they have high power consumption and the heat they produce can degrade the quality of the retrieved ice core. Early thermal drills, designed for use without drilling fluid, were limited in depth as a result; later versions were modified to work in fluid-filled holes but this slowed down trip times, and these drills retained the problems of the earlier models. In addition, thermal drills are typically bulky and can be impractical to use in areas where there are logistical difficulties. More recent modifications include the use of antifreeze, which eliminates the need for heating the drill assembly and hence reduces the power needs of the drill. Hot-water drills use jets of hot water at the drill head to melt the water around the core. The drawbacks are that it is difficult to accurately control the dimensions of the borehole, the core cannot easily be kept sterile, and the heat may cause thermal shock to the core. When drilling in temperate ice, thermal drills have an advantage over electromechanical (EM) drills: ice melted by pressure can refreeze on EM drill bits, reducing cutting efficiency, and can clog other parts of the mechanism. EM drills are also more likely to fracture ice cores where the ice is under high stress. When drilling deep holes, which require drilling fluid, the hole must be cased (fitted with a cylindrical lining), since otherwise the drilling fluid will be absorbed by the snow and firn. The casing has to reach down to the impermeable ice layers. To install casing a shallow auger can be used to create a pilot hole, which is then reamed (expanded) until it is wide enough to accept the casing; a large diameter auger can also be used, avoiding the need for reaming. An alternative to casing is to use water in the borehole to saturate the porous snow and firn; the water eventually turns to ice. Ice cores from different depths are not all equally in demand by scientific investigators, which can lead to a shortage of ice cores at certain depths. To address this, work has been done on technology to drill replicate cores: additional cores, retrieved by drilling into the sidewall of the borehole, at depths of particular interest. Replicate cores were successfully retrieved at WAIS divide in the 2012–2013 drilling season, at four different depths. Large coring projects The logistics of any coring project are complex because the locations are usually difficult to reach, and may be at high altitude. The largest projects require years of planning and years to execute, and are usually run as international consortiums. The EastGRIP project, for example, which as of 2017 is drilling in eastern Greenland, is run by the Centre for Ice and Climate (Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen) in Denmark, and includes representatives from 12 countries on its steering committee. Over the course of a drilling season, scores of people work at the camp, and logistics support includes airlift capabilities provided by the US Air National Guard, using Hercules transport planes owned by the National Science Foundation. In 2015 the EastGRIP team moved the camp facilities from NEEM, a previous Greenland ice core drilling site, to the EastGRIP site. Drilling is expected to continue until at least 2020. Core processing With some variation between projects, the following steps must occur between drilling and final storage of the ice core. The drill removes an annulus of ice around the core but does not cut under it. A spring-loaded lever arm called a core dog can break off the core and hold it in place while it is brought to the surface. The core is then extracted from the drill barrel, usually by laying it out flat so that the core can slide out onto a prepared surface. The core must be cleaned of drilling fluid as it is slid out; for the WAIS Divide coring project, a vacuuming system was set up to facilitate this. The surface that receives the core should be aligned as accurately as possible with the drill barrel to minimise mechanical stress on the core, which can easily break. The ambient temperature is kept well below freezing to avoid thermal shock. A log is kept with information about the core, including its length and the depth it was retrieved from, and the core may be marked to show its orientation. It is usually cut into shorter sections, the standard length in the US being one metre. The cores are then stored on site, usually in a space below snow level to simplify temperature maintenance, though additional refrigeration can be used. If more drilling fluid must be removed, air may be blown over the cores. Any samples needed for preliminary analysis are taken. The core is then bagged, often in polythene, and stored for shipment. Additional packing, including padding material, is added. When the cores are flown from the drilling site, the aircraft's flight deck is unheated to help maintain a low temperature; when they are transported by ship they must be kept in a refrigeration unit. There are several locations around the world that store ice cores, such as the National Ice Core Laboratory in the US. These locations make samples available for testing. A substantial fraction of each core is archived for future analyses. Brittle ice Over a depth range known as the brittle ice zone, bubbles of air are trapped in the ice under great pressure. When the core is brought to the surface, the bubbles can exert a stress that exceeds the tensile strength of the ice, resulting in cracks and spall. At greater depths, the air disappears into clathrates and the ice becomes stable again. At the WAIS Divide site, the brittle ice zone was from 520 m to 1340 m depth. The brittle ice zone typically returns poorer quality samples than for the rest of the core. Some steps can be taken to alleviate the problem. Liners can be placed inside the drill barrel to enclose the core before it is brought to the surface, but this makes it difficult to clean off the drilling fluid. In mineral drilling, special machinery can bring core samples to the surface at bottom-hole pressure, but this is too expensive for the inaccessible locations of most drilling sites. Keeping the processing facilities at very low temperatures limits thermal shocks. Cores are most brittle at the surface, so another approach is to break them into 1 m lengths in the hole. Extruding the core from the drill barrel into a net helps keep it together if it shatters. Brittle cores are also often allowed to rest in storage at the drill site for some time, up to a full year between drilling seasons, to let the ice gradually relax. Ice core data Dating Many different kinds of analysis are performed on ice cores, including visual layer counting, tests for electrical conductivity and physical properties, and assays for inclusion of gases, particles, radionuclides, and various molecular species. For the results of these tests to be useful in the reconstruction of palaeoenvironments, there has to be a way to determine the relationship between depth and age of the ice. The simplest approach is to count layers of ice that correspond to the original annual layers of snow, but this is not always possible. An alternative is to model the ice accumulation and flow to predict how long it takes a given snowfall to reach a particular depth. Another method is to correlate radionuclides or trace atmospheric gases with other timescales such as periodicities in the earth's orbital parameters. A difficulty in ice core dating is that gases can diffuse through firn, so the ice at a given depth may be substantially older than the gases trapped in it. As a result, there are two chronologies for a given ice core: one for the ice, and one for the trapped gases. To determine the relationship between the two, models have been developed for the depth at which gases are trapped for a given location, but their predictions have not always proved reliable. At locations with very low snowfall, such as Vostok, the uncertainty in the difference between ages of ice and gas can be over 1,000 years. The density and size of the bubbles trapped in ice provide an indication of crystal size at the time they formed. The size of a crystal is related to its growth rate, which in turn depends on the temperature, so the properties of the bubbles can be combined with information on accumulation rates and firn density to calculate the temperature when the firn formed. Radiocarbon dating can be used on the carbon in trapped . In the polar ice sheets there is about 15–20 µg of carbon in the form of in each kilogram of ice, and there may also be carbonate particles from wind-blown dust (loess). The can be isolated by subliming the ice in a vacuum, keeping the temperature low enough to avoid the loess giving up any carbon. The results have to be corrected for the presence of produced directly in the ice by cosmic rays, and the amount of correction depends strongly on the location of the ice core. Corrections for produced by nuclear testing have much less impact on the results. Carbon in particulates can also be dated by separating and testing the water-insoluble organic components of dust. The very small quantities typically found require at least 300 g of ice to be used, limiting the ability of the technique to precisely assign an age to core depths. Timescales for ice cores from the same hemisphere can usually be synchronised using layers that include material from volcanic events. It is more difficult to connect the timescales in different hemispheres. The Laschamp event, a geomagnetic reversal about 40,000 years ago, can be identified in cores; away from that point, measurements of gases such as (methane) can be used to connect the chronology of a Greenland core (for example) with an Antarctic core. In cases where volcanic tephra is interspersed with ice, it can be dated using argon/argon dating and hence provide fixed points for dating the ice. Uranium decay has also been used to date ice cores. Another approach is to use Bayesian probability techniques to find the optimal combination of multiple independent records. This approach was developed in 2010 and has since been turned into a software tool, DatIce. The boundary between the Pleistocene and the Holocene, about 11,700 years ago, is now formally defined with reference to data on Greenland ice cores. Formal definitions of stratigraphic boundaries allow scientists in different locations to correlate their findings. These often involve fossil records, which are not present in ice cores, but cores have extremely precise palaeoclimatic information that can be correlated with other climate proxies. The dating of ice sheets has proved to be a key element in providing dates for palaeoclimatic records. According to Richard Alley, "In many ways, ice cores are the ‘rosetta stones’ that allow development of a global network of accurately dated paleoclimatic records using the best ages determined anywhere on the planet". Visual analysis Cores show visible layers, which correspond to annual snowfall at the core site. If a pair of pits is dug in fresh snow with a thin wall between them and one of the pits is roofed over, an observer in the roofed pit will see the layers revealed by sunlight shining through. A six-foot pit may show anything from less than a year of snow to several years of snow, depending on the location. Poles left in the snow from year to year show the amount of accumulated snow each year, and this can be used to verify that the visible layer in a snow pit corresponds to a single year's snowfall. In central Greenland a typical year might produce two or three feet of winter snow, plus a few inches of summer snow. When this turns to ice, the two layers will make up no more than a foot of ice. The layers corresponding to the summer snow will contain bigger bubbles than the winter layers, so the alternating layers remain visible, which makes it possible to count down a core and determine the age of each layer. As the depth increases to the point where the ice structure changes to a clathrate, the bubbles are no longer visible, and the layers can no longer be seen. Dust layers may now become visible. Ice from Greenland cores contains dust carried by wind; the dust appears most strongly in late winter, and appears as cloudy grey layers. These layers are stronger and easier to see at times in the past when the earth's climate was cold, dry, and windy. Any method of counting layers eventually runs into difficulties as the flow of the ice causes the layers to become thinner and harder to see with increasing depth. The problem is more acute at locations where accumulation is high; low accumulation sites, such as central Antarctica, must be dated by other methods. For example, at Vostok, layer counting is only possible down to an age of 55,000 years. When there is summer melting, the melted snow refreezes lower in the snow and firn, and the resulting layer of ice has very few bubbles so is easy to recognise in a visual examination of a core. Identification of these layers, both visually and by measuring density of the core against depth, allows the calculation of a melt-feature percentage (MF): an MF of 100% would mean that every year's deposit of snow showed evidence of melting. MF calculations are averaged over multiple sites or long time periods in order to smooth the data. Plots of MF data over time reveal variations in the climate, and have shown that since the late 20th century melting rates have been increasing. In addition to manual inspection and logging of features identified in a visual inspection, cores can be optically scanned so that a digital visual record is available. This requires the core to be cut lengthwise, so that a flat surface is created. Isotopic analysis The isotopic composition of the oxygen in a core can be used to model the temperature history of the ice sheet. Oxygen has three stable isotopes, , and . The ratio between and indicates the temperature when the snow fell. Because is lighter than , water containing is slightly more likely to turn into vapour, and water containing is slightly more likely to condense from vapour into rain or snow crystals. At lower temperatures, the difference is more pronounced. The standard method of recording the / ratio is to subtract the ratio in a standard known as standard mean ocean water (SMOW): where the ‰ sign indicates parts per thousand. A sample with the same / ratio as SMOW has a of 0‰; a sample that is depleted in has a negative . Combining the measurements of an ice core sample with the borehole temperature at the depth it came from provides additional information, in some cases leading to significant corrections to the temperatures deduced from the data. Not all boreholes can be used in these analyses. If the site has experienced significant melting in the past, the borehole will no longer preserve an accurate temperature record. Hydrogen ratios can also be used to calculate a temperature history. Deuterium (, or D) is heavier than hydrogen () and makes water more likely to condense and less likely to evaporate. A ratio can be defined in the same way as . There is a linear relationship between and : where d is the deuterium excess. It was once thought that this meant it was unnecessary to measure both ratios in a given core, but in 1979 Merlivat and Jouzel showed that the deuterium excess reflects the temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed of the ocean where the moisture originated. Since then it has been customary to measure both. Water isotope records, analyzed in cores from Camp Century and Dye 3 in Greenland, were instrumental in the discovery of Dansgaard-Oeschger events—rapid warming at the onset of an interglacial, followed by slower cooling. Other isotopic ratios have been studied, for example, the ratio between and can provide information about past changes in the carbon cycle. Combining this information with records of carbon dioxide levels, also obtained from ice cores, provides information about the mechanisms behind changes in over time. Palaeoatmospheric sampling It was understood in the 1960s that analyzing the air trapped in ice cores would provide useful information on the paleoatmosphere, but it was not until the late 1970s that a reliable extraction method was developed. Early results included a demonstration that the concentration was 30% less at the last glacial maximum than just before the start of the industrial age. Further research has demonstrated a reliable correlation between levels and the temperature calculated from ice isotope data. Because (methane) is produced in lakes and wetlands, the amount in the atmosphere is correlated with the strength of monsoons, which are in turn correlated with the strength of low-latitude summer insolation. Since insolation depends on orbital cycles, for which a timescale is available from other sources, can be used to determine the relationship between core depth and age. (nitrous oxide) levels are also correlated with glacial cycles, though at low temperatures the graph differs somewhat from the and graphs. Similarly, the ratio between (nitrogen) and (oxygen) can be used to date ice cores: as air is gradually trapped by the snow turning to firn and then ice, is lost more easily than , and the relative amount of correlates with the strength of local summer insolation. This means that the trapped air retains, in the ratio of to , a record of the summer insolation, and hence combining this data with orbital cycle data establishes an ice core dating scheme. Diffusion within the firn layer causes other changes that can be measured. Gravity causes heavier molecules to be enriched at the bottom of a gas column, with the amount of enrichment depending on the difference in mass between the molecules. Colder temperatures cause heavier molecules to be more enriched at the bottom of a column. These fractionation processes in trapped air, determined by the measurement of the / ratio and of neon, krypton and xenon, have been used to infer the thickness of the firn layer, and determine other palaeoclimatic information such as past mean ocean temperatures. Some gases such as helium can rapidly diffuse through ice, so it may be necessary to test for these "fugitive gases" within minutes of the core being retrieved to obtain accurate data. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which contribute to the greenhouse effect and also cause ozone loss in the stratosphere, can be detected in ice cores after about 1950; almost all CFCs in the atmosphere were created by human activity. Greenland cores, during times of climatic transition, may show excess CO2 in air bubbles when analysed, due to CO2 production by acidic and alkaline impurities. Glaciochemistry Summer snow in Greenland contains some sea salt, blown from the surrounding waters; there is less of it in winter, when much of the sea surface is covered by pack ice. Similarly, hydrogen peroxide appears only in summer snow because its production in the atmosphere requires sunlight. These seasonal changes can be detected because they lead to changes in the electrical conductivity of the ice. Placing two electrodes with a high voltage between them on the surface of the ice core gives a measurement of the conductivity at that point. Dragging them down the length of the core, and recording the conductivity at each point, gives a graph that shows an annual periodicity. Such graphs also identify chemical changes caused by non-seasonal events such as forest fires and major volcanic eruptions. When a known volcanic event, such as the eruption of Laki in Iceland in 1783, can be identified in the ice core record, it provides a cross-check on the age determined by layer counting. Material from Laki can be identified in Greenland ice cores, but did not spread as far as Antarctica; the 1815 eruption of Tambora in Indonesia injected material into the stratosphere, and can be identified in both Greenland and Antarctic ice cores. If the date of the eruption is not known, but it can be identified in multiple cores, then dating the ice can in turn give a date for the eruption, which can then be used as a reference layer. This was done, for example, in an analysis of the climate for the period from 535 to 550 AD, which was thought to be influenced by an otherwise unknown tropical eruption in about 533 AD; but which turned out to be caused by two eruptions, one in 535 or early 536 AD, and a second one in 539 or 540 AD. There are also more ancient reference points, such as the eruption of Toba about 72,000 years ago. Many other elements and molecules have been detected in ice cores. In 1969, it was discovered that lead levels in Greenland ice had increased by a factor of over 200 since pre-industrial times, and increases in other elements produced by industrial processes, such as copper, cadmium, and zinc, have also been recorded. The presence of nitric and sulfuric acid ( and ) in precipitation can be shown to correlate with increasing fuel combustion over time. Methanesulfonate (MSA) () is produced in the atmosphere by marine organisms, so ice core records of MSA provide information on the history of the oceanic environment. Both hydrogen peroxide () and formaldehyde () have been studied, along with organic molecules such as carbon black that are linked to vegetation emissions and forest fires. Some species, such as calcium and ammonium, show strong seasonal variation. In some cases there are contributions from more than one source to a given species: for example, Ca++ comes from dust as well as from marine sources; the marine input is much greater than the dust input and so although the two sources peak at different times of the year, the overall signal shows a peak in the winter, when the marine input is at a maximum. Seasonal signals can be erased at sites where the accumulation is low, by surface winds; in these cases it is not possible to date individual layers of ice between two reference layers. Some of the deposited chemical species may interact with the ice, so what is detected in an ice core is not necessarily what was originally deposited. Examples include HCHO and . Another complication is that in areas with low accumulation rates, deposition from fog can increase the concentration in the snow, sometimes to the point where the atmospheric concentration could be overestimated by a factor of two. Radionuclides Galactic cosmic rays produce in the atmosphere at a rate that depends on the solar magnetic field. The strength of the field is related to the intensity of solar radiation, so the level of in the atmosphere is a proxy for climate. Accelerator mass spectrometry can detect the low levels of in ice cores, about 10,000 atoms in a gram of ice, and these can be used to provide long-term records of solar activity. Tritium (), created by nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s and 1960s, has been identified in ice cores, and both 36Cl and have been found in ice cores in Antarctica and Greenland. Chlorine-36, which has a half-life of 301,000 years, has been used to date cores, as have krypton (, with a half-life of 11 years), lead (, 22 years), and silicon (, 172 years). Other inclusions Meteorites and micrometeorites that land on polar ice are sometimes concentrated by local environmental processes. For example, there are places in Antarctica where winds evaporate surface ice, concentrating the solids that are left behind, including meteorites. Meltwater ponds can also contain meteorites. At the South Pole Station, ice in a well is melted to provide a water supply, leaving micrometeorites behind. These have been collected by a robotic "vacuum cleaner" and examined, leading to improved estimates of their flux and mass distribution. The well is not an ice core, but the age of the ice that was melted is known, so the age of the recovered particles can be determined. The well becomes about 10 m deeper each year, so micrometeorites collected in a given year are about 100 years older than those from the previous year. Pollen, an important component of sediment cores, can also be found in ice cores. It provides information on changes in vegetation. Physical properties In addition to the impurities in a core and the isotopic composition of the water, the physical properties of the ice are examined. Features such as crystal size and axis orientation can reveal the history of ice flow patterns in the ice sheet. The crystal size can also be used to determine dates, though only in shallow cores. History Early years In 1841 and 1842, Louis Agassiz drilled holes in the Unteraargletscher in the Alps; these were drilled with iron rods and did not produce cores. The deepest hole achieved was 60 m. On Erich von Drygalski's Antarctic expedition in 1902 and 1903, 30 m holes were drilled in an iceberg south of the Kerguelen Islands and temperature readings were taken. The first scientist to create a snow sampling tool was James E. Church, described by Pavel Talalay as "the father of modern snow surveying". In the winter of 1908–1909, Church constructed steel tubes with slots and cutting heads to retrieve cores of snow up to 3 m long. Similar devices are in use today, modified to allow sampling to a depth of about 9 m. They are simply pushed into the snow and rotated by hand. The first systematic study of snow and firn layers was by Ernst Sorge, who was part of the Alfred Wegener Expedition to central Greenland in 1930–1931. Sorge dug a 15 m pit to examine the snow layers, and his results were later formalized into Sorge's Law of Densification by Henri Bader, who went on to do additional coring work in northwest Greenland in 1933. In the early 1950s, a SIPRE expedition took pit samples over much of the Greenland ice sheet, obtaining early oxygen isotope ratio data. Three other expeditions in the 1950s began ice coring work: a joint Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition (NBSAE), in Queen Maud Land in Antarctica; the Juneau Ice Field Research Project (JIRP), in Alaska; and Expéditions Polaires Françaises, in central Greenland. Core quality was poor, but some scientific work was done on the retrieved ice. The International Geophysical Year (1957–1958) saw increased glaciology research around the world, with one of the high priority research targets being deep cores in polar regions. SIPRE conducted pilot drilling trials in 1956 (to 305 m) and 1957 (to 411 m) at Site 2 in Greenland; the second core, with the benefit of the previous year's drilling experience, was retrieved in much better condition, with fewer gaps. In Antarctica, a 307 m core was drilled at Byrd Station in 1957–1958, and a 264 m core at Little America V, on the Ross Ice Shelf, the following year. The success of the IGY core drilling led to increased interest in improving ice coring capabilities, and was followed by a CRREL project at Camp Century, where in the early 1960s three holes were drilled, the deepest reaching the base of the ice sheet at 1387 m in July 1966. The drill used at Camp Century then went to Byrd Station, where a 2164 m hole was drilled to bedrock before the drill was frozen into the borehole by sub-ice meltwater and had to be abandoned. French, Australian and Canadian projects from the 1960s and 1970s include a 905 m core at Dome C in Antarctica, drilled by CNRS; cores at Law Dome drilled by ANARE, starting in 1969 with a 382 m core; and Devon Ice Cap cores recovered by a Canadian team in the 1970s. Antarctica deep cores Soviet ice drilling projects began in the 1950s, in Franz Josef Land, the Urals, Novaya Zemlya, and at Mirny and Vostok in the Antarctic; not all these early holes retrieved cores. Over the following decades work continued at multiple locations in Asia. Drilling in the Antarctic focused mostly on Mirny and Vostok, with a series of deep holes at Vostok begun in 1970. The first deep hole at Vostok reached 506.9 m in April 1970; by 1973 a depth of 952 m had been reached. A subsequent hole, Vostok 2, drilled from 1971 to 1976, reached 450 m, and Vostok 3 reached 2202 m in 1985 after six drilling seasons. Vostok 3 was the first core to retrieve ice from the previous glacial period, 150,000 years ago. Drilling was interrupted by a fire at the camp in 1982, but further drilling began in 1984, eventually reaching 2546 m in 1989. A fifth Vostok core was begun in 1990, reached 3661 m in 2007, and was later extended to 3769 m. The estimated age of the ice is 420,000 years at 3310 m depth; below that point it is difficult to interpret the data reliably because of mixing of the ice. EPICA, a European ice coring collaboration, was formed in the 1990s, and two holes were drilled in East Antarctica: one at Dome C, which reached 2871 m in only two seasons of drilling, but which took another four years to reach bedrock at 3260 m; and one at Kohnen Station, which reached bedrock at 2760 m in 2006. The Dome C core had very low accumulation rates, which mean that the climate record extended a long way; by the end of the project the usable data extended to 800,000 years ago. Other deep Antarctic cores included a Japanese project at Dome F, which reached 2503 m in 1996, with an estimated age of 330,000 years for the bottom of the core; and a subsequent hole at the same site which reached 3035 m in 2006, estimated to reach ice 720,000 years old. US teams drilled at McMurdo Station in the 1990s, and at Taylor Dome (554 m in 1994) and Siple Dome (1004 m in 1999), with both cores reaching ice from the last glacial period. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) project, completed in 2011, reached 3405 m; the site has high snow accumulation so the ice only extends back 62,000 years, but as a consequence, the core provides high resolution data for the period it covers. A 948 m core was drilled at Berkner Island by a project managed by the British Antarctic Survey from 2002 to 2005, extending into the last glacial period; and an Italian-managed ITASE project completed a 1620 m core at Talos Dome in 2007. In 2016, cores were retrieved from the Allan Hills in Antarctica in an area where old ice lay near the surface. The cores were dated by potassium-argon dating; traditional ice core dating is not possible as not all layers were present. The oldest core was found to include ice from 2.7 million years ago—by far the oldest ice yet dated from a core. Greenland deep cores In 1970, scientific discussions began which resulted in the Greenland Ice Sheet Project (GISP), a multinational investigation into the Greenland ice sheet that lasted until 1981. Years of field work were required to determine the ideal location for a deep core; the field work included several intermediate-depth cores, at Dye 3 (372 m in 1971), Milcent (398 m in 1973) and Crete (405 m in 1974), among others. A location in north-central Greenland was selected as ideal, but financial constraints forced the group to drill at Dye 3 instead, beginning in 1979. The hole reached bedrock at 2037 m, in 1981. Two holes, 30 km apart, were eventually drilled at the north-central location in the early 1990s by two groups: GRIP, a European consortium, and GISP-2, a group of US universities. GRIP reached bedrock at 3029 m in 1992, and GISP-2 reached bedrock at 3053 m the following year. Both cores were limited to about 100,000 years of climatic information, and since this was thought to be connected to the topography of the rock underlying the ice sheet at the drill sites, a new site was selected 200 km north of GRIP, and a new project, NorthGRIP, was launched as an international consortium led by Denmark. Drilling began in 1996; the first hole had to be abandoned at 1400 m in 1997, and a new hole was begun in 1999, reaching 3085 m in 2003. The hole did not reach bedrock, but terminated at a subglacial river. The core provided climatic data back to 123,000 years ago, which covered part of the last interglacial period. The subsequent North Greenland Eemian (NEEM) project retrieved a 2537 m core in 2010 from a site further north, extending the climatic record to 128,500 years ago; NEEM was followed by EastGRIP, which began in 2015 in east Greenland and was planned to be completed in 2020. In March 2020, the 2020 EGRIP field campaign was cancelled due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The future of the project remains uncertain. Non-polar cores Ice cores have been drilled at locations away from the poles, notably in the Himalayas and the Andes. Some of these cores reach back to the last glacial period, but they are more important as records of El Niño events and of monsoon seasons in south Asia. Cores have also been drilled on Mount Kilimanjaro, in the Alps, and in Indonesia, New Zealand, Iceland, Scandinavia, Canada, and the US. Future plans IPICS (International Partnerships in Ice Core Sciences) has produced a series of white papers outlining future challenges and scientific goals for the ice core science community. These include plans to: Retrieve ice cores that reach back over 1.2 million years, in order to obtain multiple iterations of ice core record for the 40,000-year long climate cycles known to have operated at that time. Current cores reach back over 800,000 years, and show 100,000-year cycles. Improve ice core chronologies, including connecting chronologies of multiple cores. Identify additional proxies from ice cores, for example for sea ice, marine biological productivity, or forest fires. Drill additional cores to provide high-resolution data for the last 2,000 years, to use as input for detailed climate modelling. Identify an improved drilling fluid Improve the ability to handle brittle ice, both while drilling and in transport and storage Find a way to handle cores which have pressurised water at bedrock Come up with a standardised lightweight drill capable of drilling both wet and dry holes, and able to reach depths of up to 1000 m. Improve core handling to maximise the information that can be obtained from each core. See also List of ice cores Ice drilling References Sources External links US National Ice Core Laboratory video showing storage and processing of cores Ice Core Gateway Byrd Polar Research Center – Ice Core Paleoclimatology Research Group A misleading graph has been circling the internet since at least 2010 A 2.7 million year old core Beyond EPICA-Oldest Ice mission Third Pole ice Incremental dating Core Glaciology

Z-line

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Z-line can refer to: the borders that separate and link sarcomeres within a skeletal muscle a ban on a user's IP address for the purposes of blocking their access to Internet Relay Chat. See Z-line. the gastroesophageal junction that joins the oesophagus to the stomach. , a New York City Subway service.

National Honor Society

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The National Honor Society (NHS) is a nationwide organization for high school students in the United States and outlying territories, which consists of many chapters in high schools. Selection is based on four criteria: scholarship (academic achievement), leadership, service, and character. The National Honor Society requires some sort of service to the community, school, or other organizations. The time spent working on these projects contributes towards the monthly service hour requirement. The National Honor Society was founded in 1921 by the National Association of Secondary School Principals. The Alpha chapter of NHS was founded at Fifth Avenue High School by Principal Edward S. Rynearson in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. National Honor Society groups are commonly active in community service activities both in the community and at the school. Many chapters maintain a requirement for participation in such service activities. In addition, NHS chapters typically elect officers, who, under the supervision of the chapter adviser, coordinate and manage the chapter as a student organization. Membership Over one million students are estimated to participate in the National Honor Society. NHS and NJHS chapters are found in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, many U.S. territories, and Canada. They can also be found in areas of Asia; Pakistan has three schools, each maintaining an active chapter. Furthermore, they can be found in international and American schools throughout the globe. Motto The NHS motto is noblesse oblige (French: "nobility obligates"). The Dictionnaire de l'Académie française defines it thus: Whoever claims to be noble must conduct himself nobly. (Figuratively) One must act in a fashion that conforms to one's position, and with the reputation that one has earned. Scholarship Since 1946, the National Honor Society has given out more than US$15 million in scholarship awards. In the 2018-19 school year, 600 awards were to be distributed, including 1 National Winner ($25,000), 24 national finalists ($5,625 each), and 575 national semifinalists ($3,200 each). Parent and sister organizations National Association of Secondary School Principals National Junior Honor Society National Elementary Honor Society National Student Council See also Arista – National Honor Society German National Honor Society French National Honor Society Spanish National Honor Society Mu Alpha Theta International Thespian Society National Art Honor Society National Beta Club National Junior Honor Society National Technical Honor Society Quill and Scroll Tri-M References External links National Honor Society National Junior Honor Society National Elementary Honor Society National Association of Secondary School Principals 1921 establishments in Pennsylvania Student organizations established in 1921 Youth organizations based in Virginia School terminology Honor societies

Pokémon Yellow

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Pokémon Yellow Version: Special Pikachu Edition, more commonly known as Pokémon Yellow Version or Pokémon Yellow, is a 1998 role-playing video game developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy. It is an enhanced version of Pokémon Red and Blue and is part of the first generation of the Pokémon video game series. It was first released in Japan on September 12, 1998, in Australia and North America in 1999 and in Europe in 2000. Along with the release of Pokémon Yellow, a special edition yellow Pokémon-themed Game Boy Color was also released. Pokémon Yellow is loosely based on the anime. Remakes of Pokémon Yellow, titled Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee!, were released for the Nintendo Switch in 2018, the 20th anniversary of Yellows release in Japan. Gameplay Pokémon Yellow is an enhanced version of the Game Boy games Pokémon Red and Blue. Like its predecessors, it is a third-person, overhead perspective and consists of three basic screens: an overworld, in which the player navigates the main character; a battle screen; and a menu interface, in which the player configures their party of Pokémon, items, or gameplay settings. The player uses their Pokémon to battle other Pokémon. When the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by a trainer, the screen switches to a turn-based battle screen that displays the engaged Pokémon. During battle, the player may select one of up to four moves for their Pokémon to use, use an item, switch their active Pokémon, or attempt to flee. Pokémon have health points (HP); when a Pokémon's HP is reduced to zero, it faints and can no longer battle until it is revived. Once an enemy Pokémon faints, the player's Pokémon involved in the battle receive a certain number of experience points (EXP). After accumulating enough EXP, a Pokémon will level up. A Pokémon's level dictates its physical properties, such as the battle statistics acquired, and the moves learned. Catching Pokémon is another essential element of the gameplay. During battle with a wild Pokémon, the player may throw a Poké Ball at it. If the Pokémon is successfully caught, it will come under the ownership of the player. Factors in the success rate of capture include the HP of the target Pokémon and the type of Poké Ball used: the lower the target's HP and the stronger the Poké Ball, the higher the success rate of capture. The ultimate goal of the games is to complete the entries in the Pokédex, a comprehensive Pokémon encyclopedia, by capturing, evolving, and trading to obtain all 151 creatures. Pokémon Yellow allows players to trade Pokémon between two cartridges via a Game Link Cable, including the previous games Pokémon Red and Blue. This method of trading must be done to fully complete the Pokédex, since each of the games has version-exclusive Pokémon. The Link Cable also makes it possible to battle another player's Pokémon team. Pokémon Yellow features several enhancements and changes. Including the below-mentioned inclusion of Pikachu as the only available Pokémon to start with, Pikachu is given both a voice and a personality unique from other Pokémon. It follows the player on the overworld, and can be examined by speaking to it by pressing A when the overworld character is facing Pikachu. While it initially has an indifferent opinion of the player, it can grow to love or hate them based on the player's actions; leveling up will keep Pikachu happy, while fainting frequently will make it unhappy. This enhanced feature would be used again in Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver, the remakes of Pokémon Gold and Silver, and Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee!, the remakes of Pokémon Yellow. There is an area in Pokémon Yellow that features a "Surfing Pikachu" mini-game. In order to play it, players must have a Pikachu who can learn "Surf", a Water-based attack. At the time, players could only accomplish this by winning a contest to get a "Surfing Pikachu". However, if players use their Pikachu from Yellow in Pokémon Stadium and beat a certain mode under the proper circumstances, they are rewarded with the move Surf, which can be used both in battle, out of battle, and in the above-mentioned mini-game. Pokémon Yellow has slightly improved graphics from its predecessors and can print Pokédex entries onto stickers using the Game Boy Printer. Plot Like Pokémon Red and Blue, Yellow takes place in the Kanto region, which features habitats for 151 Pokémon species. The objectives remain the same as well, though some differences exist along the way. For example, in the beginning, the player is not given an option of choosing one of three starter Pokémon. Instead, a wild Pikachu that Professor Oak catches becomes the player's starter Pokémon, while the rival character takes an Eevee. The plot is loosely based on the Indigo League saga of the anime, and features characters that were not featured in the game or have been enhanced to resemble their designs used in the anime, including Jessie, James, Meowth, Nurse Joy and Officer Jenny. Similar to the anime, Pikachu refuses to evolve. Players are also given the opportunity to obtain the original three starters. As players quest on, they gradually progress catching Pokémon for the Pokédex which they use to defeat the eight Gym Leaders and eventually the Elite Four, all the while battling Team Rocket, a gang devoted to using Pokémon in order to make themselves more powerful. By the time of the encounter with the Elite Four the player has had the opportunity to capture 149 types of Pokémon; in the post-game, after the Elite Four has been defeated, the player may enter Cerulean Cave, where Mewtwo, the final Pokémon in regular gameplay, can be found, battled and captured. The last Pokémon in the Pokédex, Mew, cannot be captured during ordinary gameplay, though exploiting bugs in the game makes this possible. Development Pokémon Yellow was developed by Game Freak and first began development after the completion of the Japanese-only version of Pokémon Blue, which itself followed the Japanese-only versions of Pokémon Red and Green. Pokémon Pink On April 11, 2020, references to an unknown 'Pink' build for Pokémon Yellow were discovered in its source code after a source code leak, leading many fans to believe that a companion version was meant to be released alongside Yellow. However, it is unknown whether or not there were any plans for a 'Pink' version or what Pokémon would have been its mascot, although it is speculated to be either Jigglypuff or Clefairy. Release Pokémon Yellows release was made to coincide with the release of Pokémon: The First Movie. Future Nintendo president Satoru Iwata later commented that people likely felt Yellow to be unnecessary due to the upcoming release of Pokémon Gold and Silver, which were scheduled to be released in the same year. It was released in Japan on September 12, 1998, in Australia on September 3, 1999, in North America on October 19, 1999, and in Europe on June 16, 2000. It was published by Nintendo. A Pikachu-themed Game Boy Color bundle was released in North America on October 25, 1999. To promote the release of Pokémon Yellow, Volkswagen and Nintendo collaborated to create a yellow Volkswagen New Beetle with some its features inspired by Pikachu. Nintendo World Report listed Pokémon Yellow as one of the notable handheld releases in 1999. Pokémon Yellow was the last video game released for the original Game Boy in all territories besides Japan. Re-releases During the Nintendo Direct presentation on November 12, 2015, it was announced that Pokémon Yellow, alongside Red and Blue, would be released for the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console service on February 27, 2016 to mark the 20th anniversary of the Pokémon franchise. In addition to retaining their original graphics and music, all three games feature local wireless functionality to enable trading and battling with other players due to the 3DS' usage of wireless communication. The game was bundled with a special yellow version of the Nintendo 2DS in Japan & Australia. While the international versions of the game was a Game Boy Color title, the Japanese version was only released in its black and white Game Boy format since it was originally released in Japan about a month before the Game Boy Color in that region. The Game Boy Printer features do not work on the 3DS Virtual Console version of Pokémon Yellow. The Virtual Console version is compatible with Pokémon Bank, allowing players to transfer their captured creatures to Pokémon Sun and Moon. Reception Critical reception Pokémon Yellow has been well received by critics, holding an aggregate score of 85% from GameRankings based on 16 reviews, making it the fifth highest-rated Game Boy game of all time. Nintendo Power gave it an 8 out of 10, while Game Informer gave it a 6.5 out of 10. Electric Playground gave it a 7.5 out of 10. The Sarasota Herald-Tribune recommended Yellow as a good game for children. RPGFan called it "so revoltingly addictive that any player of it has no choice but to 'catch 'em all'". They also called Yellow "insulting" in how limited the additions from Red and Blue were. IGNs Craig Harris praised the game's mechanics, commenting that Yellow was the best game of the three to start with. He gave it a perfect score. GameSpots Cameron Davis called it a "stopgap" to appease players until the release of Gold and Silver, commenting that "the new challenges are enough to fill the hole - but only just". GameDailys Chris Buffa listed it as one of the best Pokémon games, commenting that while it was a rehash, there was enough that was new to warrant playing. Allgames Brad Cook commented that for those who didn't play Red and Blue, Yellow was good; but otherwise, he advised that they wait until Gold and Silver. The Daily Telegraphs Steve Boxer commented that while it had good gameplay mechanics, it was held back by the lack of features. He described Nintendo's actions as avaricious, commenting that Yellow "marks the point where Pokémon ceases to become a game and becomes a marketing exercise/obsession-satisfier". Pokémon Yellow received two nominations for "Game of the Year" and "Console Game of the Year" during the 3rd Annual AIAS Interactive Achievement Awards (now known as the D.I.C.E. Awards). Sales In Japan, the game sold 1,549,000 units in 1998, making it the third best-selling video game of 1998 in Japan. Before its release in North America, Nintendo anticipated that it would make them $75 million in the 1999 holiday season. The Pokémon Yellow Game Boy Color bundle was predicted to be the second most popular toy of the holiday season. Nintendo executive George Harrison predicted that Yellows sales would exceed 3 million in sales, and would also surpass Donkey Kong 64 in the process, another title anticipated to sell well by Nintendo. In North America the game received roughly 150,000 pre-orders. The bundle debuted at #2 in video game sales and claimed the #1 spot a week later. The standard cartridge sold over 600,000 units in its first week and one million copies within ten days, becoming the fastest-selling handheld game of all time when it was released. Pokémon: The First Movie, a film released around the same time as Yellow, was expected to give it a sales boost. A Nintendo spokesman attributed the high demand for the Game Boy Color during the Christmas season of 1999 to Yellow. For the month of December, Donkey Kong 64 led Pokémon Yellow and Gran Turismo 2 on the monthly chart. Gwenn Friss of the Cape Cod Times called it one of the hottest items of the 1999 Christmas season, comparing it to popular Christmas toys from previous years such as Furby and Tickle me Elmo. Thomas Content of USA Today reiterated the comparison, commenting that it was "poised to stomp" them. He added that it, along with Red and Blue, were responsible for the boost of Game Boy sales from 3.5 million in 1998 to 8 million in 1999. The Idaho Statesman called it the "hottest new title for the Game Boy Color". Yellow was the third best-selling video game in North America in 1999, with the other four top spots occupied by other Pokémon titles. The demand for Yellow resulted in Target to issue an apology for not being able to meet the "unprecedented demand". A survey conducted by CNET also found that none of the stores it contacted had Yellow in stock. A spokesperson for FuncoLand attributed a drop in sales to shortages of both the Game Boy Color and Pokémon Yellow. For its European launch, units were shipped across the continent during June 2000, including 500,000 in the United Kingdom. Yellow became the fastest-selling Pokémon title in the United Kingdom, where it received a Double Platinum award from ELSPA for more than 600,000 sales and grossed more than or . In Germany, Yellow received a Double Platinum award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) for sales above 400,000 copies by early 2001. Legacy Remakes and are enhanced remakes of Pokémon Yellow Version, released in November 2018 for the Nintendo Switch. They were aimed at newcomers to the Pokémon series, and incorporate mechanics from Pokémon Go. The games take place in the Kanto region and include only the original 151 Pokémon from the first generation of Pokémon. The ability for Pokémon to accompany the protagonist in the overworld returns, a feature last seen in Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver on the Nintendo DS. However, whereas only one Pokémon could be chosen to follow the protagonist previously, they will additionally be accompanied by the starter Pikachu or Eevee in Let's Go, Pikachu! or Let's Go, Eevee!, respectively. They have combined global sales of over 13 million copies. Notes References External links 1998 video games Game Boy games Game Boy Color games Game Freak games Japanese role-playing video games Multiplayer and single-player video games Yellow Role-playing video games Video game remakes Video games about mice and rats Video games developed in Japan Video games set in Japan Video games with alternative versions Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS Video games scored by Junichi Masuda

List of Mexican states by population

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The following table is a list of the 31 federal states of Mexico plus Mexico City, ranked in order of their total population based on data from the last three National Population Census in 2020, 2010 and 2000. See also Mexico States of Mexico Geography of Mexico List of Mexican states by area List of Mexican states by population growth rate Ranked list of Mexican states List of Mexican states by HDI References Population Mexico, population

Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex

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Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex is a Japanese anime television series produced by Production I.G and based on Masamune Shirow's manga Ghost in the Shell. It was written and directed by Kenji Kamiyama, with original character design by Hajime Shimomura and a soundtrack by Yoko Kanno. The first season aired from October 2002 to October 2003 and was positively received by critics. A second season, titled Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG, aired from January 2004 to January 2005. A new ONA anime series installment titled Ghost in the Shell: SAC_2045 was formally announced in December 2018 and the first season was released on Netflix on 23 April 2020. The second season will release at a later date. Both seasons will consist of 12 episodes each, with Kenji Kamiyama directing one season, and Shinji Aramaki directing the other season. The series centers on the members of an elite law enforcement unit known as Public Security Section 9 as they investigate cybercrime and terrorism cases; the cases in the first season often are connected to their pursuit of an elite "Super Class A" hacker and corporate terrorist known only as "The Laughing Man", whose actions end up creating the series' titular "Stand Alone Complex". A series of associated short comic animations, titled Tachikomatic Days, aired after each episode. These shorts star the Tachikoma "think-tanks" from the main series, and they typically relate directly to the story of the preceding Stand Alone Complex episode. The first season was adapted into a feature-length OVA titled The Laughing Man, which was released in 2005. The series also received video game spin-offs for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, and mobile phones. 2nd GIG was also later adapted into a feature-length OVA entitled Individual Eleven, which was released in 2006. Solid State Society, a TV-film sequel to the Stand Alone Complex series, was also released in that year. Plot Premise The series takes place in the year 2030, where many people have become cyborgs with prosthetic bodies. Primarily set in the fictional Japanese city of , the series follows the members of Public Security Section 9, a special-operations task-force made up of former military officers and police detectives. While the group investigates various crimes, both seasons feature ongoing investigations into two incidents that embroil the group in corruption within other branches of the Japanese government. Season 1 The first season of Stand Alone Complex focuses on the Laughing Man incident, wherein a hacktivist ultimately reveals to the Major that he had discovered that several micromachine manufacturing corporations, in association with the Japanese government, suppressed information on an inexpensive cure to a debilitating cyberization disease in order to profit from the more expensive micromachine treatment. Following this, he abducted one of the owners of the company and attempted to force him to reveal the truth on live television, resulting in the hacker live-hacking everyone's vision and cameras at the event to cover his face with the stylized laughing face logo that became synonymous with his image. His popularity spawned several genuine imitators, resulting in the series' titular Stand Alone Complex. After an investigation by the authorities causes him to resurface in the present, Section 9 discovers these companies and several Japanese politicians later used the Laughing Man's image to garner public support and profit, and they begin a campaign, spearheaded by Togusa and the Major, to disseminate the truth. This ultimately leads to the Cabinet labeling them as domestic terrorists and forcibly disbanding them, resulting in the capture of several members and the apparent death of Motoko Kusanagi. However, it is all a ruse to deceive the government, and the very alive and well members of Section 9 regroup to bring the micromachine corporations and corrupt politicians to justice, resulting in the dissolution of the current Japanese government. Season 2 The second season, 2nd GIG, set two years after the events of the first season, explores the political and social ramifications of the two world wars that took place prior to the events of the series. At the time of the Third and the Fourth World Wars, about three million Asians became refugees and were invited into Japan as a source of cheap labor. These "invited refugees", based on the reclaimed island of Dejima, soon became unemployed in the post-war period, and their social unrest borders on outright war. Section 9's involvement in the refugee issue begins after they successfully stop a hostage crisis caused by a domestic terrorist group known as the Individual Eleven, after which newly elected Prime Minister Yoko Kayabuki officially reinstates the organization. The group seems to be modeling themselves after the May 15 Incident, where a group of naval officers assassinated the Prime Minister and then gained the support of the public, and hope to stir up the refugees' spirits by fighting for them against the Japanese government. The group also comes into contact with Kazundo Gōda, head of the Cabinet Intelligence Service, who gets assistance from the group in defusing several instances between the refugees as well as assisting him in transporting plutonium through Dejima, result in several failures and refugee deaths, further straining relations. Section 9 ultimately discovers that Gōda has been manipulating both events behind the scenes, leaking the social virus that creates the Individual Eleven ideology and creating a new Stand Alone Complex, as well as the intentional failures with the refugees. However, he cannot account for the charismatic Hideo Kuze who genuinely believes in the best for the refugees and helps rally for their independence from Japan. Throughout the investigation, Kusanagi discovers she may know Kuze from her childhood. Ultimately, Gōda is found guilty of his part in the refugee incidents and killed before he can defect to the American Empire, but not before his ministrations also result in the death of Kuze. Film In the film Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society, set two years following the resolution of the Individual Eleven incident, the Major has left Section 9, and Togusa is now field commander, leading an investigation into several deaths of refugees from the Siak Republic, which results in the discovery of a government computer system coordinating the kidnappings of 20 thousand abused children who have had their cyberbrains replaced and placing them under the care of several senior citizens made comatose by another government program that takes care of all of their bodily needs. Their investigation, which brings the Major out of hiding, reveals an entity known as the Puppeteer behind the kidnappings. The Puppeteer is a rhizome formed by the collective will of the senior citizens, and the Siak Republic's intent to use the kidnapped children in their plans leads to their downfall. However, the investigation further reveals that a member of the House of Representatives is also using the children for his nationalistic purposes. Section 9 and the Major infiltrate a welfare center where the MP brainwashes the children, resulting in the Puppeteer revealing that the senior citizens wished to give the children free will in their future, with the politician interfering in that new plan. Production Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex was animated by Production I.G, and produced by Bandai Visual, Bandai Entertainment, Dentsu, Nippon Television Network, Tokuma Shoten, Victor Entertainment, Anchor Bay Entertainment, and Manga Entertainment. The series was directed and written by Kenji Kamiyama, with additional screenwriters including Junichi Fujisaku, Yoshiki Sakurai, Shōtarō Suga, Dai Satō, Nobutoshi Terado, Yutaka Ōmatsu, and Yūichirō Matsuka. Masamune Shirow, author of the original Ghost in the Shell manga, provided plot for several episodes, sketches of characters and mechanical designs (including the Tachikoma), and gave his approval to the scripts before production. The series was produced with an 800 million yen investment. Kenji Kamiyama decided to make the anime television series as a "relative" to the manga and film, serving as a separate parallel world from both. For the second season, Mamoru Oshii contributed with his ideas to the concept of the entire series and initial planning stages. In an interview, Oshii described his role in 2nd GIG as supervising the entire series and writing the plots for each episode. Dai Sato stated that they were initially going to concentrate on how Japan was going to participate in war after 9/11 as intended to portray a fictional future. But by the time they were working on the episodes, the Iraq War had already started and Japan's Self-Defense Force was sent to Iraq. During this time Japan also had an election. Sato continued to state that he created the "Individual Eleven" episodes to express irresponsibility of the Japanese people when they voted for the politicians that planned to send Japanese troops to Iraq and Afghanistan. Music The soundtrack for the series was composed by Yoko Kanno and produced by Victor Entertainment. The first season's opening theme is "Inner Universe" performed by Origa (written by Origa and Shanti Snyder). The lyrics are in Russian, English, and Latin. The first season's ending theme is "Lithium Flower" performed by Scott Matthew (written by Tim Jensen). When the series was later re-broadcast on terrestrial television in Japan, "Inner Universe" was replaced with "GET9", performed by jillmax (written by Tim Jensen), while "Lithium Flower" was replaced with "I Do", written and performed by Ilaria Graziano. The opening theme for S.A.C. 2nd GIG is "Rise" performed by Origa (written by Tim Jensen), while the ending theme is "Living Inside the Shell" performed by Steve Conte (written by Shanti Snyder). 2nd GIG also used alternate opening and closing themes when it was re-broadcast on terrestrial television, with "Rise" was replaced by "CHRisTmas in the SiLenT ForeSt" performed by Ilaria Graziano (written by Shanti Snyder), and "Living Inside the Shell" was replaced by "Snyper", performed by Ilaria Graziano (written by Tim Jensen). Broadcast The anime television network Animax first licensed and broadcast the series in 2002 across most of Asia, as well as in Latin America. It was subsequently licensed by both Anchor Bay Entertainment and Manga Entertainment in North America, and Madman Entertainment in Australia. It was broadcast in the United States on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim programming block, in Canada by YTV and in the United Kingdom by AnimeCentral. A series of associated short comic animations, titled , aired immediately after each episode of the series. These shorts star the Tachikoma "think-tanks" from the main series, and typically relate directly to the story of the preceding Stand Alone Complex episode. The second season of Stand Alone Complex, titled Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG, aired on Animax from 1 January 2004 to 8 January 2005. The production of a second season was immediately decided after the first season's TV airing. The second season was initially hinted when Bandai has extended the episode list to 52 episodes at Otakon of 2003. On Halloween of 2003, Production I.G officially announced a second season for Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex. It premiered on 1 January 2004 in Japan on SKY PerfecTV!'s Perfect Choice (Animax), on a pay-per-view basis. The series was later aired on the terrestrial Nippon TV from 6 April 2005. Animax also later aired the series across its other networks worldwide, including its English language networks in Southeast Asia and South Asia, as well as its other networks in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Latin America, and several other regions. 2nd GIG was also later aired in the United States on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim block. Bandai Visual owns the DVD distribution rights in Japan, while Anchor Bay Entertainment and Manga Entertainment owns the distribution rights in North America and Europe. The show began airing daily on AnimeCentral beginning 4 November 2007 in both English (two nightly screenings) and original Japanese (one late-night screening). On 18 March 2015 it was announced that Stand Alone Complex would receive a full weekly rebroadcasting in Japan on BS11, starting on 1 April 2015 onward. On 25 April 2017, Starz announced that they would be offering episodes of the series for their Video on Demand service starting 1 May 2017. Related media OVA A feature-length OVA titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - The Laughing Man was released in Japan on 23 September 2005, and in North America on 2 October 2007. The OVA retells the first season of the anime television series with minor alterations to the storyline to accommodate an abbreviated take on the Laughing Man affair. Some additional animation and voice work was also added. Although the Japanese-language version retained the voice cast from the anime series, the English version has a new cast of voice actors. The dialogue recording for the English version was produced by Ocean Productions. A Blu-ray version was released on 22 December 2010. Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG – Individual Eleven is a feature-length OVA which retells the events of S.A.C. 2nd GIG, altered to focus on both the Individual Eleven investigation and the relationship between Hideo Kuze and Motoko Kusanagi. Newly animated scenes and a remixed soundtrack are also included. A TV-film sequel titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society was released in 2006. Video games Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex has received two console game spinoffs. The first is Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex for the PlayStation 2, and was developed by Cavia. It was released on 4 March 2004 in Japan and 8 November 2004 in North America. The second—a sequel to the first—is a PSP title, developed by G-Artist, and is also titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex. It was released in Japan on 15 September 2005 and in North America on 25 October 2005. Several mobile phone games have been released exclusively to Japan. The first is titled and was developed by GREE and released on 14 February 2011. The second shares the name of the anime and PlayStation 2 video game, was developed by Mobage and released on 16 November 2011. The game focuses on an unnamed new detective who works for Section 9. The third is a social game also developed by Mobage, titled , and released on 29 March 2012. On 13 December 2012, Nexon stated it had obtained the rights of Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex for the purpose of the creation of a massively multiplayer online game. The game was formally announced on 17 September 2015, under the title of Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - First Assault Online. The game was a squad-based first-person shooter for Microsoft Windows, developed by Neople and featuring voice performances by the original anime cast. First Assault Online entered early access on Steam on 14 December 2015, but was discontinued in all territories by the end of 2017, due to low player uptake, poor reception, lack of differentation from other games in the genre, and the developers' own dissatisfaction with the quality of the game. Novels A three-volume novel series based on the anime television series and collecting self-contained stories was written by staff writer Junichi Fujisaku and illustrated by Kazuto Nakazawa. The novels were published by Tokuma Shoten and distributed by Dark Horse Comics in the United States. The first volume, titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - The Lost Memory, was released on 21 January 2004 in Japan and on 24 May 2006 in the US. The second volume, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - Revenge of the Cold Machines, was released on 8 July 2004 in Japan and on 26 September 2006 in the US. The third volume, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - White Maze was released on 4 February 2005 in Japan and on 2 January 2007 in the US. Short Stories Two short prose stories were released in the Ghost in the Shell: Five New Short Stories prose anthology released in 2017. The first was called Shadow.Net written by Toh Enjoe which references the Puppeteer's actions from the Solid State Society film but could also conceivably be referring to the events in the manga. The second story (which appears as the third story in the collection) was called Soft and White by Kafka Asagiri which revolves around the Laughing Man's actions in the time period between Standalone Complex and 2nd GIG. Manga Two manga series based on Stand Alone Complex have been published by Kodansha. The first series, , is based on the associated Tachikomatic Days shorts. The manga was drawn by Mayasuki Yamamoto and was launched on 9 December 2009 in Monthly Young Magazine. Eight tankōbon volumes were released. The second manga series, sharing its name with the television series, was illustrated by Yu Kinutani and launched on 14 December 2009 in Weekly Young Magazine, and later transferred to Monthly Young Magazine on 14 April 2010. The manga is an adaptation of the first season of the anime series. Five tankōbon volumes were released. The first volume subtitled "Episode 1: Section9" was released on 6 April 2010 in Japan and on 24 May 2011 in North America. The second volume subtitiled "Episode 2: Testation" was released on 5 November 2010 in Japan and on 29 November 2011 in North America. The third volume subtitled "Episode 3: Idolater" was released on 5 August 2011 in Japan. The fourth volume subtitled "Episode 4: ¥€$" was released on 6 March 2012 in Japan. The fifth volume subtitled "Episode 5: Not Equal" was released on 6 March 2013 in Japan. Other An official guidebook and DVD to the first 19 episodes of the TV series titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex Official Log 1 was released by Bandai and Manga Entertainment on 25 October 2005. The guidebook and DVD contains several interviews from several staff members, reports on several animation techniques and other reports on several concepts of the series. A second guidebook/DVD titled Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex Official Log 2 was released on 24 January 2006 featuring background, commentary and examination of the remaining 7 episodes. Another guidebook titled was published by Tokuma Shoten and released on 31 March 2007. Another guidebook titled Tachikoma's All Memory. Numerous figurines have been released for Stand Alone Complex versions of the characters with Motoko and Tachikoma being a central focus. Various figures have been produced from CM Corporation, and Kaitendo. Tachikoma figures have been produced by various companies, including one by the Good Smile Company in cooperation with Nendoron. A 1/24-scale plastic model kit of the Tachikoma was produced by Wave in December 2005. Other merchandise includes clothing, key chains, notebooks, patches, bags, posters and body pillows. Reception Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised the series' high quality of animation and the musical score by Yoko Kanno. In particular, reviewers reacted positively to the world of high-technology that Stand Alone Complex presents, described as "believably futuristic". Lawrence Person from Locus Online wrote that "the world of [Stand Alone Complex] is recognizably our own, or rather, one recognizably extrapolated from modern Japan. While parts of the technology seem unlikely in the time-frame allotted, none seems impossible." In addition, several reviews mentioned what they perceived to be overarching themes explored in the series as a result of the setting; specifically, the meaning of humanity in a world where the lines between man and machine were becoming increasingly blurred, as well as various societal issues that might emerge as a result of advances in technology. Reviewers agreed that the main "Laughing Man" storyline was satisfying, characterizing it variously as "interesting", "complex", and "engaging". Reaction to the series' "Stand Alone" episodes, however, was mixed: some reviewers considered these episodes to be boring and, in some cases, the worst episodes of the series, while others contended that they allowed further development of the characters and the futuristic setting. Certain commentators specifically focused on the series' success or failure in achieving the high standards set by the critically acclaimed 1995 film Ghost in the Shell. Opinion in this regard was divided: although these reviewers took an overall favorable view, some reviews criticized the quality of animation, while others felt that the series' story lacked the depth of the original film. This "lack of depth", however, was attributed to the fact that Stand Alone Complex is an action-oriented series with a limited episode length in which to explore deeper themes. Bolstering the generally positive reviews of the series, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex won an Excellence Prize (Animation Division) at the 2002 Japan Media Arts Festival, a Notable Entry Award at the 2003 Tokyo International Anime Fair, and was featured in June 2004 by Newtype USA, with a "double scoop" cover story. The Japan Media Arts Festival provided a brief summary of Stand Alone Complex, calling it a "completely original television series...entertaining and easy to understand". Chris Beveridge of Mania gave 2nd GIG an overall score of A praising its coloring stating, "Colors are gorgeous and solid, especially all the various areas of large soft colors that look to be amazingly solid and with no visible break-up even during pausing." Mark Thomas of Mania also gave it an overall score of A, stating: "It has plenty of good action and thought provoking plot points." Andy Patricio of IGN rated the first DVD volume 9/10 praised the animation, stating: "Artwork is richer; this is easily the best-looking anime Production I.G. has ever produced. CG is richer and more widely used. Animation is more complex and fluid, although it's still a little jerky, which is common in TV shows." Joe Luscik of Animefringe ranked the series 4.5 out of 5 praising the animation stating it "is just awesome". Adam Arseneau of DVD Verdict praised the direction of the 2nd season compared to the first stating, "The tongue-in-cheek humor that made the show clever and endearing is still present, but the atmosphere feels more violent, more urban and dystopic, as if no longer afraid to address the social problems of the future." Notes References Further reading External links Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex official website Production I.G's Stand Alone Complex website Official Adult Swim website 2002 anime television series debuts 2004 Japanese novels 2004 Japanese television seasons 2004 anime television series debuts 2005 anime OVAs 2006 anime OVAs 2009 manga 2020 anime ONAs Action anime and manga Animated television series reboots Animax original programming Anime series based on manga Bandai Entertainment anime titles Bandai Visual Brain transplantation in fiction Cyberpunk anime and manga Espionage in anime and manga Fiction about memory erasure and alteration Madman Entertainment anime Nippon TV original programming Postcyberpunk Production I.G Refugees and displaced people in fiction Seinen manga Stand Alone Complex Television shows adapted into comics Television shows adapted into films Television shows adapted into novels Television shows adapted into video games Television series set in the 2030s Terrorism in fiction Thriller anime and manga Toonami

United States Coast Guard Academy

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The United States Coast Guard Academy (USCGA) is a service academy of the United States Coast Guard in New London, Connecticut. Founded in 1876, it is the smallest of the five U.S. service academies and provides education to future Coast Guard officers in one of nine major fields of study. Unlike the other service academies, the Coast Guard Academy does not require a congressional nomination for admission. Students are officers-in-training and are referred to as cadets, and upon graduation receive a Bachelor of Science degree and are commissioned as Coast Guard ensigns with a five-year active-duty service obligation, with additional years if the graduate attends flight school or subsequent government-funded graduate school. Out of approximately 250 cadets entering the academy each summer, around 200 graduate. Cadets can choose from among nine majors, with a curriculum that is graded according to their performance in a holistic program of academics, physical fitness, character, and leadership. Cadets are required to adhere to the academy's "Honor Concept," "Who lives here reveres honor, honors duty," which is emblazoned in the halls of the academy's entrance. The academy's motto is Scientiæ cedit mare, which is Latin for "the sea yields to knowledge". It's academic programs are accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education. History The roots of the academy lie in the School of Instruction of the Revenue Cutter Service, the school of the Revenue Cutter Service. The School of Instruction was established near New Bedford, Massachusetts in 1876 and used USRC Dobbin for its exercises. Captain John Henriques served as superintendent from founding until 1883. The one civilian instructor was Professor Edwin Emery, who taught mathematics, astronomy, English composition, French, physics, theoretical steam engineering, history, international law, and revenue law, among other subjects. The school was a two-year apprenticeship, in essence, supplemented by minimal classroom work. The student body averaged five to ten cadets per class. With changes to new training vessels, the school moved to Curtis Bay, Maryland in 1900 and to Fort Trumbull in 1910, a Revolutionary War–era Army installation in New London, Connecticut. In 1914, the school became the Revenue Cutter Academy, and it became the Coast Guard Academy in 1915 with the merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the Life Saving Service. Land was purchased in New London on 31 July 1930 for the construction of the Coast Guard Academy. The 40-acre site was made up of two parcels from the Allyn and Payne estates and was purchased for $100,000. The $100,000 was not raised through a bond issue, as originally planned, but with a bank loan based on uncollected back taxes. The contract was awarded to Murch Brothers Construction Company of St. Louis and ground was broken in January 1931 by Jean Hamlet, daughter of Rear Admiral Harry G. Hamlet, Academy Superintendent from 1928 to 1932. On 15 May 1931, Treasury Secretary Andrew W. Mellon visited New London to lay the cornerstone of Hamilton Hall. Construction proceeded relatively on schedule and cadets moved in to the new buildings on 20 September 1932. In 1946, the academy received the barque Horst Wessel as a war reparation from Germany, a 295-foot tall ship which was renamed . It remains the main training vessel for cadets at the academy as well as for officer candidates at the Coast Guard's Officer Candidate School, which is located on the grounds of the academy. The academy was racially integrated in 1962 at the request of President Kennedy. The academy began admitting women in 1976 at the request of Congress. Mission Superintendent of the academy Vice Admiral Harry G. Hamlet composed the academy's mission statement in 1929. All entering cadets must memorize the statement during their first few days of Swab Summer, the indoctrination period for new cadets. The mission of the United States Coast Guard Academy is to graduate young men and women with sound bodies, stout hearts and alert minds, with a liking for the sea and its lore, and with that high sense of Honor, Loyalty and Obedience which goes with trained initiative and leadership; well-grounded in seamanship, the sciences and the amenities, and strong in the resolve to be worthy of the traditions of commissioned officers in the United States Coast Guard, in the service of their country and humanity. Admission Unlike the other service academies, admission to the USCGA does not require a congressional nomination. This is due to the fervent objections of Captain John A. Henriques, the first Superintendent of the Revenue Cutter School of Instruction (later the Revenue Cutter Academy). His objection stemmed from years of poor political appointments in the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service's bureaucracy. Each year more than 2,000 students apply and appointments are offered until the number accepting appointments to the incoming class numbers reaches approximately 400; the average entering class size is 300 cadets. Those who have received appointments as cadets report to the USCGA in late June or early July for "Swab Summer", a basic military training program designed to prepare them for the rigors of their Fourth Class year. After four years of study and training, approximately 200 of those cadets will graduate. About 35 percent of cadets are women. Academics All graduating cadets earn commissions as ensigns in the United States Coast Guard, as well as Bachelor of Science degrees. For that reason the academy maintains a core curriculum of science and professional development courses in addition to major-specific courses. Each cadet takes two semesters of classes during the school year and then spends the majority of the summer in military training to produce officers of character with the requisite professional skills. Among these are courses in leadership, ethics, organizational behavior, and nautical science. The majority of cadets report to their first units after graduating, which are either afloat units, shore units, or basic flight training as student naval aviators, with the training conducted under the auspices of the U.S. Navy. Those that are assigned afloat serve as either deck watch officers or student engineers. Professional maritime studies courses help prepare cadets in piloting, voyage planning, deck seamanship, and all aspects of shiphandling, as well as Coast Guard leadership and administrative duties. Majors Academics at the USCGA stress the sciences and engineering, but different courses of study are available. In addition, several of the majors offer tracks of specialization (for example, Marine and Environmental Science majors can choose to focus on biology, chemistry, or geophysics). Cadets sometimes opt to take elective courses with Connecticut College (adjacent the academy's campus) as part of an open exchange agreement. Military training Each summer, cadets participate in training programs according to their class. The summers are organized as follows: Swab Summer: The new class of freshmen report in to the Academy, and are sworn into the military. They undergo a seven-week basic training program that culminates on a week-long voyage underway on the barque USCGC Eagle. Third-class (3/c) Summer: Five weeks aboard the USCGC Eagle training under sail, five weeks aboard an operational Coast Guard cutter or small boat station in the role of junior enlisted (i.e., standing watches as helmsman, lookout, quartermaster of the watch, or engineering watch). Second-class (2/c) Summer: Damage control training, weapon qualifications, navigation rules certification, aviation internship, sail training program, and three weeks as members of the cadre, who train the incoming Swabs. First-class (1/c) Summer: Ten weeks aboard an operational cutter in the role of a junior officer (i.e., standing bridge watches conning the ship as Officer of the Deck), or an optional internship for exceptional cadets who split their summer with five weeks at an internship and five weeks aboard a cutter. Each week during the school year cadets participate in Regimental Review, a formal military drill. In addition, cadets perform a variety of military duties at the academy. Like all cadets and midshipmen at the United States service academies, Coast Guard cadets are on active duty in the military and wear uniforms at all times. Cadets receive a monthly stipend to pay for books, uniforms, and other necessities. Cadets receive monthly pay of $1,017.00, as of 2015. From this amount, pay is automatically deducted for the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, services, and other miscellaneous expenses. Organization of the Corps of Cadets The Corps is organized as one regiment divided into eight companies, each of which is composed of about 120 cadets of all classes. Although the Corps of Cadets is supervised directly by the Commandant of Cadets (a Coast Guard officer with the rank of captain), the academy operates on the concept of "the Corps leading the Corps." The Corps of Cadets is largely a self-directed organization that follows a standard military chain of command: 1st class cadets lead the Corps 2nd class cadets are cadre in Swab Summer training and are primarily responsible for leading and developing 4th class cadets. They serve as mentors 3rd class cadets are role models to 4th class cadets 4th class cadets are responsible for learning and applying Coast Guard core values such as leadership, teamwork, attention to detail, accountability, etc. The highest-ranking cadet in each company is the Company Commander, a first-class cadet ("firstie"), equivalent to a senior. Although each company has some leeway in their standards and practices, every company commander reports to the Regimental Staff which plans and oversees all aspects of cadet life. At the top of the cadet chain of command is the Regimental Commander, the highest ranking cadet. Command positions, both in companies and on Regimental Staff, are highly competitive, and a cadet's overall class rank is often a deciding factor in who is awarded the position. The eight companies are named for the first eight letters of the NATO phonetic alphabet. Each has a special focus in administering day-to-day affairs: Alpha company manages health and wellness. Bravo Company runs training. Charlie company administers the honor system, Delta Company coordinates drill and ceremonies. Echo Company manages transportation and logistics. Foxtrot operate the cadet conduct system, organizes the watch rotations, and updates the cadet regulations. Golf Company is in charge of supplies for cleaning and repairing damaged rooms within Chase Hall. Hotel company is in charge of morale events. To accomplish these missions, each company is divided, along shipboard lines, into three departments, each of which is divided into divisions with specific responsibilities. Divisions are the most basic unit at the Coast Guard Academy, and each has a very specific purpose. Each division is led by a firstie and contains several members of each other class. This organizational structure is designed to give every cadet a position of leadership and to emulate the structure of a Coast Guard cutter, in which the division officer and department head positions are filled by junior officers. Third-class cadets directly mentor the fourth-class in their division, just as junior petty officers would be responsible for the most junior enlisted personnel (non-rates). Second-class cadets act as non-commissioned officers, and ensure that the regulations and accountability are upheld. Firsties (like junior officers) are in supervisory roles, and are responsible for carrying out the mission of their divisions and ensuring the well-being of those under their command. Exchange cadets from the other federal service academies are also a part of the Corps, and take part in many activities alongside their USCGA counterparts. Extracurricular activities Athletics The USCGA Athletic Department offers 24 intercollegiate sports for cadets. The academy's athletics teams generally compete in Division III of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. Cadets devote two hours per academic day to athletic activities, either on varsity teams, club teams, or other sports pursuits. The academy nickname is the Bears, after the USRC Bear, which made a dramatic rescue in Alaska in 1897, shortly after the opening of the academy. Music Principal non-athletic activities are musical centered on Leamy Hall. Regimental Band, Windjammers Drum & Bugle Corps, various pep bands, and the NiteCaps Jazz Band are instrumental programs. Chapel Choirs, Glee Club, the Fairwinds all-female a cappella group, and The Idlers all-male sea shanty group are vocal programs. Model UN The academy's Model UN team was started in 2004, and has since been successfully competing around North America, and at the World Model UN Conference. Traditions Links in the Chain For years it has been a United States Coast Guard Academy tradition for fourth-class cadets (freshman) to hide the chain links that sit outside the cadet library, also known as Waesche Hall. The chain links are historic: they were used during the Revolutionary War to prevent ships from transiting up the Hudson River and attacking West Point. When Benedict Arnold betrayed the United States, the chain links were one of the secrets that he revealed to the British. The family that originally forged the chain donated the links to the United States Coast Guard Academy. Since the donation, the fourth-classmen (freshmen) are challenged each year at the annual homecoming football game to outwit the second-classmen (juniors) and keep the chain hidden until half-time. If the fourth-classmen are successful in hiding the links until the end of the second quarter, they are granted a week of modified carry-on (this allows the fourth-classmen to have some of the privileges of the upperclassmen). Indoc As part of their indoctrination into military culture, and to condition them for the frenetic flow of information during a shipboard watch, 4/c cadets are forced to sharpen their attention to detail and to develop an ability to accurately recall seemingly trivial facts from short- and medium-term memory. The incoming class of cadets every year is required to memorize various quotes, Coast Guard facts, and bits of information that change during the year. They are responsible for knowing reams of information like the menu for the next three meals in the Wardroom (dining hall), the mission of the Academy, the entire chain of command, each athletic team's next scheduled opponent, the lengths of different types of Coast Guard Cutters, the meanings of all the different nautical flags, and the finer points of various military ceremonies. Indoc during the Swab Summer training program also includes humorous questions that cement the identity of a class, such as "How's the cow?" A swab from the Class of 2022 would be required to reply, "Sir/Ma'am, she walks, she talks, she's full of chalk; the lacteal fluid extracted from the female of the bovine species is highly prolific to the 22nd degree, sir/ma'am!". Notable alumni Alumni of the Coast Guard Academy are known collectively as the "Long Blue Line". U.S. Coast Guard Museum The U.S. Coast Guard Museum is located in Waesche Hall on the grounds of the United States Coast Guard Academy. The museum's artifacts reflect the history of the U.S. Coast Guard and include ship models, carved figureheads, cannons, uniforms, medals, weapons, memorabilia and paintings. Visitors must bring a government-issued photo identification to enter the campus, and foreign visitors must make an appointment with the Curator before visiting the museum. See also United States Military Academy United States Naval Academy United States Air Force Academy United States Merchant Marine Academy USCGC Eagle (WIX-327), a training ship originally built in Nazi Germany as the Horst Wessel References Notes Further reading Lovell, John P. (1979) Neither Athens nor Sparta?: The American Service Academies in Transition External links Official website Academy Universities and colleges in Connecticut Military academies of the United States Maritime colleges in the United States Coast guard academies Long Island Sound Tourist attractions in New London, Connecticut Buildings and structures in New London, Connecticut Educational institutions established in 1876 Educational institutions established in 1915 Universities and colleges in New London County, Connecticut 1876 establishments in Massachusetts 1910 establishments in Connecticut Water transportation in Connecticut United States military service academies

Toyota Supra

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is a sports car and grand tourer manufactured by the Toyota Motor Corporation beginning in 1978. The name "supra" is derived from the Latin prefix, meaning "above", "to surpass" or "go beyond". The initial four generations of the Supra were produced from 1978 to 2002. The fifth generation has been produced since March 2019 and went on sale in May 2019. The styling of the original Supra was derived from the Toyota Celica, but it was both longer and wider. Starting in mid-1986, the A70 Supra became a separate model from the Celica. In turn, Toyota also stopped using the prefix Celica and named the car Supra. Owing to the similarity and past of the Celica's name, it is frequently mistaken for the Supra, and vice versa. The first, second and third generations of the Supra were assembled at the Tahara plant in Tahara, Aichi, while the fourth generation was assembled at the Motomachi plant in Toyota City. The fifth generation of the Supra is assembled alongside the G29 BMW Z4 in Graz, Austria by Magna Steyr. The Supra also traces much of its roots back to the 2000GT owing to an inline-6 layout. The first three generations were offered with a direct descendant to the Crown's and 2000GT's M engine. Interior aspects were also similar, as was the chassis code "A". Along with this name, Toyota also included its own logo for the Supra. It was derived from the original Celica logo, being blue instead of orange. This logo was used until January 1986, when the A70 Supra was introduced. The new logo was similar in size, with orange writing on a red background, but without the dragon design. That logo, in turn, was on Supras until 1991 when Toyota switched to its current oval company logo. (The dragon logo was a Celica logo regardless of what colour it was. It appeared on the first two generations of the Supra because they were officially Toyota Celicas. The dragon logo was used for the Celica line until it too was discontinued.) In 1998, Toyota ceased sales of the fourth generation of the Supra in the United States. Production of the fourth generation of the Supra ended in 2002. In January 2019, the fifth generation of the Supra, which was co-developed with the G29 Z4, was introduced. First generation (A40/A50; 1978) The first generation of the Supra was based largely upon the Toyota Celica liftback, but was longer by . The doors and rear section were shared with the Celica but the front panels were elongated to accommodate the Inline-6 instead of the Celica's 4-cylinder engine. Toyota's original plan for the Supra at this time was to make it a competitor to the very popular Datsun (now Nissan) Z-car. 1978 In April 1978, Toyota began production of the Supra in Japan, as the Celica XX, and sold it alongside the Celica at Japanese dealership sales channels called Toyota Corolla Store. The Supra was offered with a 2.0 L 12-valve SOHC inline-six engine (M-EU, chassis code MA45) or the 2.6-liter 12-valve SOHC inline-six engine (4M-E, chassis code MA46). The Japanese model was equipped with the smaller 2.0 L engine so that buyers would not incur an additional tax under vehicle size and engine displacement regulations. Both engines were equipped with electronic fuel injection. The installation of the larger engine did obligate Japanese buyers to pay a higher annual road tax, making owning the car more expensive than the smaller Celica. The Supra was first exported outside Japan in January 1979. The federalized model was originally equipped with a 2.6-liter 12-valve SOHC inline-6 engine. Transmission options for the model were either a 5-speed manual (W50) or an optional 4-speed automatic transmission (A40D). Both transmissions featured an overdrive gear. The top gear in the 5-speed was its overdrive gear whereas the automatic transmission featured an overdrive gear that would engage at speeds over . The drivetrain for the Supra retained the T series solid rear axle configuration of the Celica in the Japanese MA45 version and a larger F series (and optional Limited Slip Differential) in the MA46 and MA47. The car also came standard with 4-wheel disc brakes and featured a four-link rear suspension with coil springs, lateral track bar, and stabilizer bar. The front suspension consisted of MacPherson struts and a stabilizer bar. The interior of the Supra had optional power windows and power locks as part of the convenience package. The convenience package also included cruise control and special door trim with door pull straps with an optional sunroof. As for standard features, in the centre console there was an extendable map light and a flip-top armrest, which provided storage. Some other features were the tilt steering wheel, deep zippered pockets on the backs of the front seats, and a tonneau cover under the liftback. The dashboard also contained a state of the art AM/FM/MPX 4-speaker stereo radio, analog clock, and tachometer as part of the instrument panel. 1979 The mid-1979 changes for the 1980 model year US model were mostly cosmetic. The interior received a redesigned center console and a digital quartz clock. On the exterior were redesigned side view mirrors and 14x5 inch aluminum wheels were standard (the previous year had steel wheels with plastic wheel covers as standard and the aluminum wheels were optional). In addition, body molded mudflaps became available. On cars finished in copper metallic and white, the mudflaps were painted the body colour while the mudflaps were left black on all other colours. On the rear of the mudflaps, the word "Celica" was painted in white lettering. The official Supra site also notes that there was an addition of optional leather-trimmed seating and automatic climate-control. 1980 In August 1980 (for the 1981 model year), the Supra received an upgrade in displacement with the 2.8-liter 5M-E engine. It was still a 12-valve SOHC engine, but had a power output of and of torque. The car's automatic transmission was changed to the revised Toyota A43D and it gained a revised final drive gearing. Because of the change in engine and transmission a new chassis code of MA47 was given to the 1981 model. Performance figures for this model include a 0–60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration time of 10.24 seconds and a 1/4-mile time of 17.5 seconds at a speed of . Also in 1980 (for the 1981 model year), a new Sports Performance Package became an option, which included sport suspension, raised white letter tyres, and front and rear spoilers. This also marked the last year that an 8-track tape player was offered in any Supra. Powertrain Celica XX The Celica XX (pronounced "double X") is the Japanese market name of the first generation of the Celica Supra. It was offered in Japan during the years 1978–1981, and was redesigned in 1981. Toyota obtained engineering assistance from Lotus Cars, and supplied some components for use in the Lotus Excel. The Supra was sold as the Celica XX only in Japan at Japanese dealership sales channels called Toyota Corolla Store. In worldwide markets, it was sold as the Celica Supra. In 1981, the Celica XX introduced the world's first navigation computer. Second generation (A60; 1981) In mid 1981, Toyota completely redesigned the Celica Supra as well as the entire Celica lineup for the 1982 model year. In Japan, they were known as the Celica XX, but the Celica Supra name was used for the world market. Still based on the Celica platform, there were several key differences, most notably the design of the front end and fully retractable pop-up headlights. Other differences were the inline-six rather than four-cylinder engine, as well as an increase in length and wheelbase to accommodate the larger engine. Cars installed with the 5M engine were slightly wider, while other models remained compliant with Japanese dimension regulations. In 1981, Japanese buyers were offered an alternative to the Celica XX liftback bodystyle, called the Soarer coupé, which was offered at a different Japanese Toyota dealership network called the Toyota Store, as the Celica XX was sold at the Toyota Corolla Store. The four-door performance saloon called the Celica Camry was realigned with the Japanese market Chaser, while in North America the Cressida took on that role. L-type and P-type In the North American market, the Celica Supra was available in two distinct models. There was the "Performance Type" (P-type) and the "Luxury Type" (L-type). While being mechanically identical, they were differentiated by the available options; tire size, wheel size, and body trim. The P-type had fiberglass fender flares over the wheel wells, while the L-type did not. The P-type was also standard with the more sporty eight-way adjustable seats. The P-type did not get the option of a leather interior until 1983. Initially, the Luxury type meant Automatic transmission, and Performance Type stood for Manual. All editions of the P-type had the same 14x7-inch aluminum alloy wheels and throughout the years the L-type had 14x5.5-inch wheels until 1985 when they were changed to a P-type styled 15x6. The L-type also had the option of a digital instrument cluster with a trip computer; some Canadian models (both L-types and P-types) had this option as well as a few rare instances of American models. The L-type cluster was easily distinguished from the P-type cluster, by the 'ECT' function written on the dial plate. The digital cluster featured a digital tachometer, digital speedometer, and electronic fuel level and coolant level gauges. The trip computer could calculate and display various things such as fuel economy in miles-per-gallon, estimated time of arrival (ETA), and distance remaining to destination. Supras with trip computers also came with cruise control. Excluding the 1982 model, all P-types were available with headlight washers as an option, but the L-types were never given such an option. Although gear ratios changed throughout the years, all P-types came standard with a limited slip differential. 1982 For 1982, in the North American market, the Celica Supra's engine was the 2.8-liter 12-valve (two valves per cylinder) DOHC 5M-GE. Power output was SAE net and of torque. The engine used an 8.8:1 compression ratio to achieve the power and featured a vacuum advanced distributor. When the car debuted, it had a , a acceleration time of 9.8 seconds and a time of 17.2-seconds at . The standard transmission for this year was the W58 5-speed manual with the A43DL 4-speed automatic transmission being an option for L-types. Both transmissions featured an overdrive gear and the automatic featured a locking torque converter. The top gear in the 5-speed was its overdrive whereas the automatic transmission featured an overdrive gear that would engage at speeds over . The 1982 model's rear differential featured a 3.72:1 ratio. The Celica Supra's four-wheel independent suspension was specially tuned and designed by Lotus and featured variable assisted power rack-and-pinion steering and MacPherson struts up front. At the rear, it had semi-trailing arm suspension with coil springs and a stabilizer bar. Braking on the Celica Supra was handled by four-wheel disc brakes. On the interior, this generation had standard power windows, power door locks, and power mirrors as well as a tilt steering wheel. The power door lock was located in the center console next to the power mirror control. The analog dash of this model only showed a top speed of in North America. The optional automatic climate control was renovated and was now seen as a standard feature on the A60. Cruise control and a retractable map light was standard in this generation. Some options included the addition of a sunroof, two-tone paint schemes, and a five-speaker AM/FM/MPX tuner with a cassette player (Fujitsu Ten Limited). The optional cassette stereo had a 105-watt power amplifier and a seven-band graphic equalizer. The standard stereo was a five-channel AM/FM/MPX tuner. Leather interior was an option on the L-type model, but the P-type models limited to standard striped cloth interior. The AM/FM antenna was integrated into the front windshield rather than a typical external mast antenna. There was a key lock on the gas tank door (in lieu of a remote release) and the hatch and rear bumper were black regardless of exterior colour on the rest of the car. The P-type was available with an optional rear window visor above the hatch glass. The tail lights had a reverse light in the centre and the door handles opened the doors by pulling sideways. The front nose badge and B-pillar only read "Supra" for the first several months of production, but were changed to read "Celica Supra" midway through the model year. The L-type had front and rear mudflaps but P-type of this year did not. 1983 There were not many changes for the 1983 model year, but there was an increase in power output to and of torque from the same 5M-GE engine. The only real change in the engine area was the switch from a vacuum advanced to an electronic advanced distributor, yet that did not increase the power output. Toyota switched to a 4.10:1 rear gear ratio for the P-type and a 3.73:1 for the L-type. As for the optional automatic transmission, they replaced the A43DL 4-speed with a newly designed A43DE 4-speed. It had an electronic controller that would adjust its shift pattern for a balance between performance and economy. It was the first in the industry to provide an electronically controlled transmission (ECT). This allowed the driver to choose either the "power" driving mode or "normal" driving mode at the touch of the button. The power mode provided the quickest acceleration and the normal mode provided the best all-around performance. The interior virtually had no changes, but changes to the exterior included a switch to a power mast antenna, mudflaps on all models, and the addition of headlight washers on the P-type. All B-pillar and nose badges for cars sold in North America read "Celica Supra" and only the P-type was available in two-tone colour schemes. 1984 Changes for the 1984 model year were significant. Power output was increased on the 5-speed models to and of torque. The increase was achieved by a mixture of a redesigned intake manifold with "D"-shaped intake runners and an increase in compression ratio to: 9.2:1. Another notable change in the 5-speed models was the switch to a 4.30:1 gear ratio in the rear differential. All automatic models retained the previous years power statistics, but the rear gear ratio was changed to 4.10:1. The most notable exterior changes included the switch to wraparound front turn signals, the option of either a rear wing spoiler mounted high up on the rear hatch, or rear window and quarter window louvers. Also, the tail-lights were redesigned and the hatch received a billboard "Supra" sticker instead of the smaller sticker, which was previously positioned on the right. The rear hatch and bumper was changed and received the same colour as the rest of the car (instead of the black of previous years). The door handles were also switched, opening by pulling up instead of sideways. Two-tone paint schemes also became available on both the P-type and L-type models. Some interior controls such as the steering wheel, cruise control, and door lock switch were redesigned. Toyota included a speedometer in North American models instead of the traditional 85 mph (140 km/h) speedometer and the automatic climate control display was also changed. The previous year's cassette and equalizer stereo option was now made a standard feature. 1985–1986 The Supra was redesigned again in 1985. Power output was marginally increased to and torque was up to . All models of this year had the same amount of power (both automatic models and 5-speed models). The engine received a redesigned throttle position sensor (TPS) as well as a new EGR system and knock sensor. With the slight increase in power the Supra was able to propel itself from 0–60 mph (97 km/h) in 8.4 seconds and netted a 16.1 second quarter-mile at . Other changes would be a redesigned, more integrated sunshade and spoiler on the rear hatch. The rear spoiler was changed from a one-piece to a two-piece. The option of a leather interior remained exclusive now for the P-Type. Toyota added a standard factory theft deterrent system and the outside mirrors were equipped with a defogger that activated with the rear defroster. All Supras this year received automatic-off lights that also encompassed an automatic illuminated entry and fade-out system. While 1985 was to be the last year of production of the second generation model, delays in production of the third generation model led to a surplus of second generation models. During the first half of 1986 the 1985 P-type was still offered for sale, with only minor cosmetic changes as well as the addition of a now mandatory rear-mounted third brake light on the hatch. These were all labelled officially as 1986 models. The P-type were the only model available for the 1986 model year. Production for the A60 Supra ended in December 1985 in order to make way for the upcoming A70 Supra. Markets The second generation of the Supra came in a variety of options around the world as well as only being offered during select years. Japan From August 1982 to 1983, the Celica XX, as it was named in Japan, had fender mirrors and came in four models depending on the engine: 2800GT Twin Cam: DOHC 5M-GEU and of torque. 2000GT Twin Cam 24: DOHC 1G-GEU and of torque. 2000 Turbo: DOHC turbocharged M-TEU and of torque. 2000: SOHC 1G-EU and of torque. From August 1983 to 1986, the Celica XX had door-mounted mirrors and the same four engines options but with performances improvements. The 5M-GEU engine compression ratio was increased to achieve and of torque and the M-TEU engine upgraded with an air-to-liquid intercooler to and of torque. Most of Europe Sold from August 1982 to 1986. 82–83: DOHC 5M-GE and of torque. Analog instrument cluster, no fender flares. 84–86: DOHC 5M-GE and of torque. Digital dash, P-Type fender flares. Great Britain Sold from 1982 to 1986. 82–83: DOHC 5M-GE and of torque. Analog dash, no fender flares. 84–86: DOHC 5M-GE and of torque. Digital dash, P-Type fender flares. Australia, Sweden, and Switzerland Sold from 1984 to 1986 - these had a version of the earlier single-cam engine as it was not worth the expense of making the twin cam engine meet the particular emissions regulations shared by these three countries. This particular engine was also used in the Cressida and the Crown in the Swiss market. SOHC 5M-E and of torque. The Supra in Australia was sold from 1983 to 1986 had a digital instrument cluster, fender flares, 14x7-inch wheels, 84 style lights, single piece spoiler, LSD and optional sunroof. This was the only variant and no L Type model was offered. In Australia, the Supra (manufactured between 1982 and 1990), was assessed in the Used Car Safety Ratings in 2006 as providing "worse than average" protection for its occupants in the event of a crash. New Zealand Sold from 1984 to 1985 DOHC 5M-GE and of torque. Digital dash, P-Type fender flares. Powertrain Third generation (A70; 1986) In February 1986, the bonds between the Celica and the Supra were cut; they were now two completely different models. The Celica changed to a front-wheel drive layout, using the Toyota "T" platform associated with the Corona, while the Supra kept its rear-wheel-drive layout. The engine was updated to a more powerful inline-six engine rated at . Although initially only available with naturally aspirated engines, a turbocharged version was added in the 1987 model year. The Supra was now mechanically related to the Soarer. All Japanese market models with the various versions of the 2.0 L engine were slightly narrower overall so as to be in compliance with Japanese Government dimension regulations so that Japanese buyers weren't liable for yearly taxes for driving a larger car. The new engine used in the A70 Supra, the Toyota 7M-GE, was the flagship engine of Toyota's arsenal. Both versions of the engine contained 4 valves per cylinder and dual overhead cams. The turbocharged 7M-GTE engine was Toyota's first distributor-less engine offered in the US which used coil packs sitting on the cam covers and a cam position sensor driven by the exhaust camshaft. It was equipped with a CT26 turbocharger and was rated at at 5,600 rpm while the naturally aspirated 7M-GE engine was rated at at 6,000 rpm. Further refinement on the turbo model increased power to at 5,600 rpm and of torque at 3,200 rpm in 1989. This was mostly due to a redesign of the wastegate. All models used the same tyre size of 225/50R16 on 16x7 inch wheels. Spare tyres were full-sized but on steel wheels. The naturally aspirated model came standard with the W58 manual transmission. The turbocharged models included the R154 manual transmission. Both were available with the optional 4-speed A340E automatic transmission. The third-generation of the Supra represented an arsenal of new technology. In 1986, options available for the Supra included a 3-channel ABS and TEMS which gave the driver two settings which affected the damper rates; a third was automatically activated at wide open throttle, hard braking and high speed maneuvering. ACIS (Acoustic Control Induction System), a method of controlling air compression pulses inside the intake piping to increase power, was also a part of the 7M-GE's technological arsenal. All models were fitted with double wishbone suspension front and rear. A targa top was offered in all model years along with a metal power sliding sunroof (added in 1991). Production numbers of the GA70/MA70/JZA70 Supra was estimated at 241,471 units. Timeline 1986 1/2 The third generation of the Supra was introduced in February 1986 as a stand-alone model, officially being separate from the Celica. Whereas the Celica became a front-wheel-drive sport coupé, the Supra retained its image as a rear-wheel-drive sports/GT car. The new Supra would continue to move upscale and become a showcase for Toyota's technology. The Supra was powered by a 3.0-litre DOHC inline six-cylinder engine rated at . Notable features included an electronically controlled independent suspension (called the Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension – TEMS), and some came with a removable Sport-Roof panel (Targa top). 1987 The A70 Supra Turbo was introduced in 1987. The inter-cooled, turbocharged version of the 3.0-litre inline 6-cylinder engine boosted power to and of torque. The engine, designated as 7M-GTE, was one of the first distributor-less mass production engines in the United States. This was accomplished with 3 coils being shared using the wasted spark system. The Turbo model also included an engine oil cooler and an integrated rear spoiler. The sports package, which was standard on the Turbo and optional on the base model, included a limited slip differential (LSD), TEMS, and headlamp washers. A new 4-channel Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) was optional on both models. In 1987, a new beige/tan colour combination was implemented, and only 1,000 cars were produced with this scheme. Toyota installed its variable induction technology into the DOHC twin-turbocharged 1G-GTE engine called T-VIS and also included it into the 7M-GTE engine as well. 1988 Changes for the 1988 model year were nominal with the exception of the discontinuation of two-toned brown exterior paint. The spoiler mounted brake light changed from a square to a trapezoid shape. Seat pattern was changed from squares to lines, and "foil" on climate control and switch gear changed from light to dark gray. Japanese buyers could select from six different trim packages starting with the top level 3.0 GT Turbo Limited with the 7M-GTEU engine, followed by the 3.0 GT Turbo, GT Twin Turbo with the 1G-GTEU DOHC 2.0 L engine, the GT with the 2.0 L DOHC 1G-GEU engine, the G with the 1G-EU engine and the S with the 1G-EU engine as the base model. All Japanese models came with either a 5-speed manual transmission or the 4-speed automatic transmission with ECT-s except the G and the S on which the ECT-s wasn't available. In Japan, the 3.0 GT Turbo Limited, the 3.0 GT Turbo and the GT Twin Turbo were installed standard with a digital instrument panel, the 3.0 L models came with an AM/FM Cassette stereo with an integrated CD player and cruise control. Climate control was also standard on all turbocharged models, and leather interior was only available on the GT Turbo Limited. 1989 Changes for the 1989 model year include modifications to the wastegate actuator, feed location and engine management increased power output by on the turbo model. The engine mount and brace were also revised in late 1989. The changes made to the cross member and mounts made to accommodate the (1JZ engine) for Japanese models. The protective body molding was also changed by taking away the steel reinforcement. This made the molding lighter and prevented the rusting problem found on the previous year models. The "white package" was introduced as well, featuring white body molding and white "saw blade" wheels. Interior choices were limited to blue and burgundy only. Other than pure cosmetics changes, there was nothing different from other models. All models received rear 3-point seat belts to replace the previous years' two-point lap belts. New tail lights, front bumper with integrated lower grille (as opposed to the previous years' detachable grille), side mirrors, turn signals, upper grilles, foglights, steering wheel, door panels, climate control, window switches and bezels, and stereo. Addition of coat hooks on B-pillar and removal of rear seat pockets round out interior changes. Turbo models received three piece spoiler with an integrated LED brake light. 1989 also marked the end of headlight washers in the US and SuperMonitor; an advanced system offered by Toyota able to calculate miles able to be traveled on current tank, ability to check vehicle codes from inside the cabin, among other features. 1990 For the 1990 model year, changes included larger protective laminate in front of rear wheels, lower redline (owing to the heavier crank with cylinders 2 & 5 counterbalanced), redesigned steering wheel with cruise control relocated to a stalk on the right side. In addition to an airbag and airbag indicator light on dashboard, the left side of the switch panel was also redesigned, which replaced one of the coin slots with the dimmer. The lower dashboard panel became a two piece design, which was also much heavier than the previous one piece panel owing to a change in material. Finally, the memory lever on the steering column was removed. In short, a plethora of the changes for the 1989 and 1990 were from the interior. 1991 For the 1991 model year, the wheel design was changed to 5-spoke wheels. Both models had 16x7 aluminum alloy wheels that were fitted with 225/50/16 tyres and full-sized spares on steel wheels. Body molding changed in colour to better match the exterior. The front "Supra" emblem was also changed to the current corporate oval Toyota symbol was used from this model year onwards. The speedometer was also revised, and included more lines that were removed in 1989, but still did not have as many (one line per mph) as 1986.5 to 1988 models. New interior colours, namely shadow gray and deep red, were introduced, which marked the end of medium gray, tan and burgundy. Blue interior became only available on white packages, and those with blue paint. Burgundy was replaced with white package-only deep red. Every other body colour received a shadow gray interior, with leather interiors retaining medium gray seats and interior inserts. Front speakers were changed from 3.5 inch to 6.5 inches and the speaker cover was also enlarged to accommodate them. Beginning in 1991, Toyota began to offer a factory spoiler-style panel sunroof. These sunroofs are now highly sought after and rare since they were introduced in the ending production years of the A70 Supra. 1992 For the 1992 model year, the leather shadow gray interiors received black seats and inserts. Non-turbo models lost the option of a targa top, and a new optional subwoofer was available. Subwoofer-equipped Supras did without the rear bins and wooden "floorboard". Instead, rear carpet was molded to the spare tire, and there was a cut-out for the woofer housing. JZA70 and GA70 The Japanese models of the Supra were given the chassis codes JZA70 and GA70 respectively. The JZA70 has a 2.5-litre parallel twin-turbocharged 1JZ-GTE engine, and the GA70 has a 2.0-litre twin-turbocharged 1G-GTE and a naturally aspirated 1G-GEU engines respectively. JZA70-R In addition to the introduction of the JZA70 in 1990, Toyota introduced a special version of the JZA70 with the 1JZ-GTE engine known as the 2.5 Twin Turbo R model (JZA70-R). It boasted additional upgrades, including lighter sway bars, a larger intercooler, Torsen differential, Interbred TEIN/Bilstein sports suspension, Shadow/Dark grey interior trim, MOMO steering wheel and gear knob and Recaro seats and door trim. The wheels were painted charcoal grey, and the front bumper lip featured channeled air ducts for the front brakes. The Twin Turbo R introduced a new and exclusive colour option in 1992 for JZA70-R models known as Jade Mica Green. The JZA70-R model is the lightest and fastest model of third generation of the Supra. Turbo A The Turbo-A was Toyota's evolution model for the Group A Japanese Touring Car Championship (JTCC) all over the world that required a minimum homologation run of 500 units. The Turbo-A was manufactured for 2 months during the period of September and October 1988 and was available strictly in Japan. Thus the term 88 Spec A. Some notable differences between the standard MA70 Supra 3.0 GT and the Turbo-A model are both cosmetic and mechanical. The standard CT-26 turbo had a slightly larger inducer and can be identified by a stamped "E" on the raised casting on the compressor housing. The Turbo-A had a wide throttle body and accompanied a larger diameter "blank" crossover pipe, instead of the standard 7M-GTE throttle body and original "3000" cast pipe. The Turbo-A also benefited from a larger volume steel air cleaner instead of the factory plastic unit, as well as thicker roll bars and ventilated brake discs all-round. The fuel management used a MAP system, instead of the standard Karmen Vortex AFM. The front nose features an additional "Turbo A duct" to add airflow to the top area of the intercooler. Also unique was the side decal and rear badging ("3.0GT Turbo A") and a black paint job (paint code 202). All cars came standard with grey leather interior featuring a MOMO-sourced steering wheel and shift knob. It is powered by a Toyota 7M-GTEU engine. It is important to note that the 7M-GTEU was standard in all Japanese MA70 models and is not unique to the Turbo-A. The "U" designation meant the engine came equipped with a catalytic converter as per Japan emission laws. The Group-A MA70 Supra had varying degrees of success in various fields such as Rally and 24HR, but is most known for its participation in the Japanese Touring Car Championship (JTCC). In the JTCC, the Supra did not win as many races as intended, which is primarily judged on the fact it was underdeveloped and its placement in a higher tier division under regulations because of the 3.0-litre engine displacement, imposing the Toyota with the performance inhibition of running with a higher curb weight and less power compared to the rest of its class. Both the TOM'S and SARD teams fared well in results in the (JTCC) with the TOM'S team winning on its debut in 1987, before abruptly ending their (JTCC) career with the MA70 Group-A in 1989. Upon its initial Australian Touring Car Championship (ATCC) debut in 1989, the Group-A Supra failed to finish its first race. With DNF's becoming a regular upset owing to the lack of power and heavy weight of the Supra, it began to strike doubt in the car's capability of success in the (ATCC) which suffered increasingly due to constant rules and regulation changes issuing a red-faced outcome against its main rivals like the Ford Sierra Cosworth RS500, Nissan Skyline HR31 GTS-R and the BMW M3 (E30) which were lighter, more powerful, and had smaller displacement engines. Hopes would further diminish for Toyota in the top division by the introduction of the domineering Nissan Skyline GT-R (R32) in the (JTCC) in 1989 and the Australian Touring Car Championship (ATCC) in 1990. Toyota in 1991 would switch to racing the Corolla Levin instead in the lower tier divisions, while many privateer teams soldiered on with the Supra until the Group A racing's final demise in 1993. Only eleven MA70 Group-A cars were built by TRD Japan for homologation racing. A few out of many special developed parts that were fitted to the various Group-A race cars happen to include a cast magnesium nine litre oil pan with matching high flow oil pump, 288 camshafts with 10.88mm lift, Hollinger close proportion 5-speed gear-set in the R154 case, Harrop 4 piston brake calipers with 15.5 ″ (393 mm) rotors, and TRD-sourced torque-vectoring mechanical limited-slip differential with 50:50 left:right lockup on full throttle. TRD was also responsible for the thick rear-anti squat tram-rods which were integral to the multi-link rear suspension setup to control rear squat under hard acceleration and launching. Powertrain Fourth generation (A80; 1993) The A80 program began in February 1989 under various teams for design, product planning, and engineering led by Isao Tsuzuki. By the middle of 1990, a final A80 design concept from Toyota Technical Centre Aichi was approved and frozen for production in late 1990. The first test mules were hand-built in A70 bodies during late 1990, followed by the first A80 prototypes being hand-assembled in 1991. Again using subframe, suspension, and drivetrain assemblies from the Z30 Soarer (Lexus SC300/400), pre-production of the test models started in December 1992 with 20 units made, and official mass production began in April 1993. The fourth generation of the Supra again shared its platform with the upscale Soarer coupé, sold in the U.S. as the Lexus SC. Although the two cars looked similar dimension-wise, the new Supra was more than 13 inches (340 mm) shorter than its luxurious cousin. This redesign saw Toyota placing great emphasis on a more serious high-performance car. The A80 featured two new engines: a naturally aspirated Toyota 2JZ-GE having a power output of at 5,800 rpm and at 4,800 rpm of torque and a twin turbocharged Toyota 2JZ-GTE having a power output of and of torque for the Japanese model. For the export model (American/European markets) Toyota upgraded the Supra turbo's engine (by installing smaller, steel wheeled turbochargers and bigger fuel injectors, etc.). This increased the power output to at 5,600 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm ( and for European markets) Upon its launch in 1993, it was the first Toyota-badged vehicle to include a passenger airbag as standard (US-market only). The turbocharged variant could accelerate in as low as 4.6 seconds and cover in 13.1 seconds at . Car and Driver magazine includes a rollout in their 4.6 seconds test (typically about 0.3 second) that they subtract from the acceleration figures. The turbo version has a tested top speed of , but the cars are restricted to just in Japan and in worldwide markets. European versions of the car also had an air intake or scoop on the hood. It has a for the naturally aspirated models and 0.32 for the turbo models but unknown with the rear spoiler. The twin turbochargers operated in sequential mode instead of parallel. Initially, all of the exhaust gases are routed to the first turbine for reduced lag. This resulted in boost and enhanced torque as early as 1,800 rpm, where it already produced of torque. At 3,500 rpm, some of the exhaust gases are routed to the second turbine for a "pre-boost" mode, although none of the compressor output is used by the engine at this point. At 4,000 rpm, the second turbo's output is used to augment the first turbo's output. Compared to the parallel mode, sequential mode turbo chargers provide quicker low RPM response and increased high RPM boost. This high RPM boost was also aided with technology originally present in the 7M-GE in the form of the Acoustic Control Induction System (ACIS) which is a way of managing the air compression pulses within the intake piping as to increase power. For this generation, the Supra received a new six-speed Getrag/Toyota V160 gearbox on the turbo models while the naturally aspirated models were equipped with a five-speed manual W58 transmission, revised from the previous model. Each model was offered with a four-speed automatic with manual shifting mode. All vehicles were equipped with five-spoke aluminum alloy wheels, the naturally aspirated models had 16-inch wheels and the turbo models had 17-inch wheels. The difference in wheel size was to accommodate the larger brakes equipped as standard on the turbo model, but in Japan were optional extras. Both models had a space saver spare tyre on a steel rim to save both space and weight. Toyota took measures to reduce the weight of this new model. Aluminium was used for the hood, targa top (when fitted), front crossmember, oil and transmission pans, and forged upper suspension A-arms. Other measures included hollow carpet fibers, magnesium-alloy steering wheel, plastic gas tank and lid, dished out head bolts, gas injected rear spoiler, and a single pipe exhaust. Despite having more features such as dual airbags, traction control, larger brakes, wheels, tires, and an additional turbocharger, the car was at least lighter than its predecessor. The base model with a manual transmission had a curb weight of . The targa top added of weight while the automatic transmission added . The fourth generation model had a 51:49 (front:rear) weight distribution. The turbo model weighed with a manual transmission while the automatic added another to the overall weight. Weight distribution was 53% front and 47% rear. The Supra was heavier than the Mazda RX-7 and all aluminium bodied Acura/Honda NSX, but was lighter than the Mitsubishi 3000GT VR-4. In 1994, Toyota Racing Development displayed a replica of the 1994 JGTC BLITZ Racing Team Supra GT500 race car, known as the TRD3000GT. The differences with the standard Supra was mainly with the body kits, aiming for better aerodynamics. The new body kit made the car 60 mm wider at the front and 50 mm wider at the rear. This allowed wider wheels to be fitted, which in turn improved the car's lateral grip. The engine and suspension also got small modifications. Only 35 examples of these were ever produced, each of which came with its own specially numbered VIN plate that officially re-classified the car as a TRD3000GT rather than a Toyota Supra. For the 1996 model year in the US, the turbo model was only available with the automatic transmission owing to OBD-II certification requirements. The targa roof was also made standard on all turbo models. For 1997, manual transmission returned for the optional engine along with a redesign of the tail lights, headlights, front fascia, polished wheels, and other minor changes such as the radio and steering wheel designs. All 1997 models included badges indicating "Limited Edition 15th Anniversary". All turbo models came standard with the rear spoiler. For 1998, updates were a 3-spoke steering wheel, a redesigned radio, and VVT-i on the naturally aspirated engine. In Japan, the turbo engines were installed with VVT-i. The SZ-R model was also updated with the introduction of a six-speed Getrag V161 transmission, the same used for the twin-turbo RZ models. The standard A80 Supra chassis has also proven an effective platform for roadracing, with several top 20 and top 10 One Lap of America finishes in the SSGT1 class. In 1994, the A80 managed remarkable skidpad ratings of 0.95 lateral g's (200 ft) and 0.98 lateral g's (300 ft) The Supra also featured a four-sensor four-channel track tuned ABS system with yaw control whereby each caliper is sensored and the brakes are controlled individually according to the speed, angle, and pitch of the approaching corner. This unique Formula One-inspired braking system allowed the Supra Turbo to record a -0 braking distance of , the best braking performance of any production car tested in 1997 by Car and Driver magazine. This record was finally broken in 2004 by a Porsche Carrera GT, which did it in . By the late 1990s, sales of all sport coupés were declining in North America. Furthermore, a stronger yen pushed prices up in markets outside Japan. The Supra was withdrawn from the Canadian market in 1996 and the US in 1998. The Turbo was not available in 1998 in California Air Resources Board (CARB) states. Production continued in Japan until August 2002, ceasing owing to restrictive emission standards. At the March 2002 Geneva Motor Show, a Japanese coach builder company called Ohno Car Craft displayed their 1960s style grand tourer based on the Supra, known as the Naomi III. Two variants were available, the naturally aspirated 3000GT-SZ with the same as the naturally aspirated JDM Supra SZ and a tuned turbocharged 3000GT-RZ with . Powertrain Fifth generation (J29/DB; 2019) Development Motor Trend had reported that a possible Supra successor could be based on the FT-HS (Future Toyota Hybrid Sport), which debuted at the 2007 North American International Auto Show. The publication also reported that the fifth generation of the Supra could be powered by a 3.5-litre V6 hybrid system rated at over . Toyota quoted that it was not rushing for the Supra successor but instead was waiting to see how the sales of the GT86/FR-S went. In 2010, Toyota applied for a trademark for the Supra name. The trademark had to be used within three years for it to be valid. In December 2011, Autoguide reported a possible Supra replacement would be positioned above the GT86. Tetsuya Tada, the chief engineer of the Toyota 86/Scion FR-S told reporters in Germany in 2012 "the president (Akio Toyoda) has asked me to make a successor to the Supra as soon as possible." In late 2013, AutoBlog reported a concept for a proposed successor to the Supra would be making its debut the January 2014 North American International Auto Show. On 13 January, Toyota unveiled its new FT-1 concept car. Little technical detail was disclosed about this new concept car; other than that it has a front engine and rear wheel drive layout. Toyota also stated that their new concept car draws inspiration from Toyota's past sports cars like the 2000GT, Supra, MR-2 and 2007 FT-HS concept car. Toyota did not state whether the FT-1 would use the Supra name, or if it was even bound for production. On 10 February 2014, Toyota submitted an application to the United States Patent and Trademark Office to renew the Supra trademark. In June 2016, a trademark application for the Supra nameplate was filed with the European Union Intellectual Property Office. According to Autocar, the new Supra was set to debut in 2018. The publication reported that the car would likely feature rear wheel drive; four-cylinder engines were expected to be available, and it had been confirmed that the car would offer a turbocharged inline-6 engine. It was believed that these engines would be supplied by BMW. Kleine Zeitung reported that the new jointly developed Supra will be produced at a Magna Steyr facility near Graz, Austria, alongside the BMW Z4 (G29). Although the sports car's name was yet to be officially confirmed, Toyota global chief engineer Tetsuya Tada said that it will likely carry the nameplate Supra, due to its name recognition and historical significance. On 5 July 2018, Toyota Gazoo Racing announced the Supra would race in the 2019 NASCAR Xfinity Series. The new Supra made its NASCAR debut in February 2019. On 12 July 2018, a camouflaged pre-production version of the Supra was unveiled at the Goodwood Festival of Speed. Launch The fifth generation of the Supra was unveiled at the January 2019 North American International Auto Show. The car is a collaboration between Toyota and BMW and is based on the Z4. The first production model was auctioned at a price of at a Barrett-Jackson auction to Craig Jackson (chairman and CEO of the Barrett-Jackson auction house) in January 2019, with 100% of the money going to the American Heart Association and the Bob Woodruff Foundation. The auction car has a matte grey exterior colour, as well as a red interior, metallic black 5-bolt wheels and red wing mirrors – a unique colour combination that is not found on any other production model. Another distinguishing feature of the car was it has a signature from Toyota CEO Akio Toyoda on the dashboard and VIN 20201. The Supra went on sale in Japan on 17 May 2019. In the United States, sales began on 22 July 2019. In Australia, sales began on 2 September 2019. Specifications The Supra is powered by two BMW-sourced engine options: a turbocharged 2.0-litre inline-four or a turbocharged 3.0-litre inline-six engine. The North American market did not receive the 2.0-litre engine option until mid-2020, for the 2021 model year. The 2.0-litre engine has variable power outputs of from 4,500 to 6,500 rpm or 5,000 to 6,500 rpm and of torque from 1,450 to 4,200 rpm or 1,550 to 4,400 rpm, while the 3.0-litre engine has a power output of from 5,000 to 6,500 rpm or 5,800 to 6,500 rpm and from 1,600 to 4,500 rpm or 1,800 to 5,000 rpm, with power sent to the rear wheels through a ZF 8HP 8-speed automatic transmission. A manual transmission option is currently not offered. The 2.0 L model can accelerate from in 5.2 to 6.5 seconds, while the 3.0 L model can accelerate from in 3.9–4.1 seconds, 0.7–0.5 seconds quicker than the turbocharged variant of the A80 Supra and has an electronically limited top speed of . The test conducted by Car and Driver in May 2019 recorded the acceleration of the 3.0 L model from in 3.8 seconds with a 30 cm (1-foot) rollout, which is 0.3 seconds faster than the factory claimed. The time is also recorded in 12.3 seconds at . Despite being a BMW-sourced engine, the B58 is an engine that was developed during this collaboration in response to the N55 not meeting Toyota's standards for reliability, and, the final product's engine is a jointly-developed version that was thoroughly reworked by Toyota. Such as adding clips on valves to prevent valve float, enhancing its cylinder heads, moved its timing chain, and was entirely stress-tested by Toyota to a closed-deck design, adding a mechanical water pump, and breaking down full motors with many parts sent back to their headquarters in Japan to ensure it meets Toyota's execution and standards. Markets Japan The Supra is offered in three trim levels, which are the SZ, SZ-R and RZ. The SZ model is powered by the 2.0-litre engine and is equipped with 17-inch single tone wheels, manual seats, black fabric upholstery, dark silver trim and a 4-speaker sound system. The SZ-R model is powered by the variation of the 2.0-litre engine and is equipped with 18-inch two tone wheels, eight-way powered seats, Alcantara/black leather upholstery, carbon fiber trim, 8.8-inch touchscreen multimedia system with 12-speaker JBL stereo sound system and a head-up display. The RZ model is powered by the 3.0-litre engine and is equipped with 19-inch two tone wheels. It also has the same interior equipments as the SZ-R model, with the difference being the use of Alcantara/red leather upholstery (black leather is available as an option) and sports pedals. A "Sport" mode and dual-zone climate control system is standard on all three variants, as is the Toyota Supra Connect infotainment system. All variants are also equipped with Toyota Supra Safety suite, which includes autonomous emergency braking, lane departure alert, blind spot monitor, adaptive cruise control and rear-cross traffic alert. GR Parts is also available, including the Toyota Gazoo Racing Recorder, which allows drivers to log their driving data to an SD card. This can be supplemented by an optional dashcam, which synchronises the video with the recorded information. Australia The Supra is sold in Australia with two variants, including the GT and GTS. Indonesia The Indonesian market Supra was introduced at the 27th Gaikindo Indonesia International Auto Show in July 2019 and went on sale in October 2019. Malaysia The Malaysian market Supra was launched on 20 September 2019. Mexico The Supra was introduced to the Mexican market on 22 August 2019 for the 2020 model year, offered only with the 6-cylinder 3.0-litre engine in only one version, GR. Seven exterior colours, white, silver, blue, black metallic, and iron were offered, with the yellow and matte grey colours having a slightly higher cost. Only 80 units were sold upon its launch. In 2020, for the 2021 model year, the red and black exterior colours were added. A special edition was also added, based on the North American A91 special edition, with an electric blue exterior colour, matte black 19-inch aluminium wheels and an interior with leather and Alcantara in black with blue stitching. Philippines The Philippine market Supra was launched on 9 July 2019. South Africa The Supra is offered in standard and base Track variants. Taiwan The Taiwanese market Supra is offered in 2.0T, 2.0T Premium and 3.0T Premium trim levels. Thailand The Thai market Supra was introduced at the Bangkok International Motor Show in March 2019 and went on sale in November 2019. United States The GR Supra is offered in the US in two variants, excluding the Launch Edition variant, which are the 3.0 and 3.0 Premium. The 3.0 variant has a 6.5-inch center touchscreen multimedia system with Bluetooth and standard Alcantara trimmed seats, while the 3.0 Premium has a larger touchscreen multimedia system (8.8-inches), standard navigation, wireless Apple CarPlay, 12-speaker JBL stereo sound system, wireless phone charging, colour head-up display and heated leather seats. All variants have collision warning, automatic high beams, automatic emergency braking with pedestrian detection, lane departure warning and a feature that recognizes road signs as standard. The first 1,500 cars sold are the special Launch Edition variants which are based on the 3.0 Premium variant and offered in three colours: Absolute Zero White, Nocturnal Black and Renaissance Red 2.0. Cars that have the white or black exterior colour have the same red interior as the auction car, which is only offered in the Launch Edition, while the red cars have a black interior. All Launch Edition cars have a red coloured wing mirrors and a replica of Akio Toyoda's signature on a carbon fiber plaque fixed to the dashboard, mirroring the auction car. In 2020, for the 2021 model year, two new models, the A91 Edition and the 2.0, were launched. For the 3.0, 3.0 Premium, and A91 Edition, the output of the 3.0-litre engine increased to and of torque. The compression ratio was lowered from 11:1 to 10.2:1 to allow for more boost. The exhaust headers were changed from two to six ports. The suspension was also revised and now has new bump stops to reduce snap oversteer. The 2.0 model featured the same 2.0-litre engine used in the SZ and SZ-R models sold in Japan, and is rated at and of torque. The 8.8-inch infotainment screen was made available on all models replacing the 6.5-inch screen. A front strut tower bracing was added to the 6-cylinder models. The 8-speed automatic transmission was retained. The 6-cylinder had "Supra" printed on the front 6-piston calipers with the same font as its rear label. The 6-cylinder has larger exhaust tips with a brushed finish while the 4-cylinder makes do with smaller exhaust tips that are polished. The steering rack was carried over mechanically but was retuned electronically. The 4-cylinder was lighter, had 18-inch wheels with a different spoke design from the 19-inch forged wheels, no adaptive dampers, single piston brakes at the front and rear, and has no power seats. Both engines use 6.5-litres of oil. The nitro yellow exterior colour was added to the range at an additional cost. The A91 edition only comes in two colours, Nocturnal Black and Refraction Blue. The latter colour was exclusive to the A91 edition. Recalls On 12 September 2019, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration announced a safety recall issued by BMW on the Supra for the seat belt guide loop mounts, which were welded improperly. Only seven units are affected by this recall notice. Of the seven, only one was in the hands of an owner. On 27 September 2019, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration also announced safety recalls towards several BMW models for their faulty backup cameras. Owners were able to glitch the cameras into not working when backing up. A software patch fixed the issue. The Supra was listed in the recall, as well as direct BMW and Rolls Royce models such as the X3, X5, 3 Series, 7 Series, 8 Series, Phantom, Cullinan and more. Model codes While Toyota used "A90" and "A91" as codes for promotional and marketing materials for the fifth generation Supra, a reference to the A40–A80 model and chassis codes used for previous generation Supras, the fifth generation Supra uses BMW naming conventions. The fifth generation Supra actually uses a J29 series code with DB model codes. Models Racing/Concepts GR Supra Racing Concept The GR Supra Racing Concept is a concept racing car that previews the racing version of the fifth generation Supra. It debuted at the March 2018 Geneva Motor Show. The design was inspired from the 2014 FT-1 concept. It features a lowered suspension with Toyota OEM parts, BBS center-lock racing wheels, Brembo racing calipers, a full roll cage and fire extinguisher system, a stripped out interior, Michelin track tires and a center exit racing exhaust. It also features carbon fiber for the hood, splitter, diffuser, mirror caps, side skirts, wing and bumpers. It is unknown what engine powered the concept. GR Supra GT4 The GR Supra GT4 Concept is a concept racing car that is built for participating the European GT4 racing series. It was first shown at the March 2019 Geneva Motor Show. Upgrades include reduced weight, upgraded brakes and suspension and the addition of a rear wing and roll cage. Toyota later unveiled a production model in October 2019, with an engine rated at . It has a seven-speed automatic, as opposed to the eight-speed unit on standard road going models, and has an Akrapovič exhaust system which enables the increase in power. Inside, an FIA-standard racing seat is present featuring a six-point harness, along with a carbon fiber instrument cluster. Motorsport ABS, a data logger and a fire extinguisher are standard, while an illuminated car number is optional. The GT4 is equipped with six-piston front and four-piston rear brake calipers. Pirelli P Zero racing tires and OZ wheels are fitted, supported by KW dampers. The roll cage and rear wing are also carried over from the concept. Sales are expected to begin Europe in March 2020, followed by North America in August 2020 and Japan/Southeast Asia in October 2020. GR Supra GT300 Motorsport The Supra has been used in many levels of motorsport, with some prominent examples being in Group A (international) and JGTC (Japan). Awards The A60, with its all-new design, quickly became a success in the US where it was awarded the Import Car of the Year by Motor Trend. It also made Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list for 1983 and 1984. In 1994, the A80 Supra won Popular Mechanics "Design & Engineering awards". Production timeline 1979 – Celica Supra A40 introduced with SOHC 4M-E I6 engine. 1981 – A40 engine displacement increased to with the introduction of the SOHC 5M-E I6 engine. 1982 – A60 Celica Supra introduced with a DOHC 5M-GE I6 engine. 1986–1986.5 – A70 Supra introduced on its own platform with DOHC 7M-GE I6 engine. 1987 – Option of turbocharger available for the DOHC 7M-GTE engine having a power output of . 1989 – Redesign implemented. Turbo model's power output increased to & . 1993 A80 Supra introduced with Turbo (2JZ-GTE) or naturally aspirated (2JZ-GE) DOHC engine. 1996 – Turbo model only available with automatic transmission owing to OBD2 certification requirements. Targa roof standard on all turbo models. 1997 – Manual transmission available on all turbo models. Restyled front bumper and grey (instead of black) taillight surrounds. Restyled headlights, now black on the inside with chrome rings (all chrome previously) and a clearer lens. All 1997 models labeled as 15th Anniversary model. New grey dash panels to replace the previous black. Japanese production stopped in September. 1998 – Slight restyling of interior. 3-spoke steering wheel introduced. Slightly updated seat design (headrest is no longer separate) VVT-i on non-turbo models which increased power. Turbo variants discontinued in the US that require California emissions. 1999 – Export of Supra ended in the US, production continued in Japan. 2002 – Production of A80 Supra ended in Japan. 2019 – The fifth generation Supra was introduced at the January 2019 North American International Auto Show. Sales References External links Supra Cars introduced in 1978 1980s cars 1990s cars 2000s cars 2010s cars 2020s cars Sports cars Hatchbacks Coupés Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Cars powered by longitudinal 4-cylinder engines

Peter Peter Pumpkin Eater

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"Peter Peter Pumpkin Eater" is an English language nursery rhyme. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 13497. Lyrics Common modern versions include: Peter, Peter pumpkin eater, Had a wife but couldn't keep her; He put her in a pumpkin shell And there he kept her very well. Peter, Peter pumpkin eater, Had another and didn't love her; Peter learned to read and spell, And then he loved her very well. Origins The first surviving version of the rhyme was published in Infant Institutes, part the first: or a Nurserical Essay on the Poetry, Lyric and Allegorical, of the Earliest Ages, &c., in London around 1797. It also appears in Mother Goose's Quarto: or Melodies Complete, printed in Boston, Massachusetts around 1825. A verse collected from Aberdeen, Scotland and published in 1868 had the words: Peter, my neeper, Had a wife, And he couldna' keep her, He pat her i' the wa', And lat a' the mice eat her. This verse is also considered to be an older version of the rhyme Eeper Weeper. Notes American nursery rhymes English nursery rhymes English folk songs American folk songs English children's songs Traditional children's songs Songs about fictional male characters Songs about food Songs about plants

Jesus Lizard

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Jesus Lizard may refer to: Jesus Lizard, a common name for the basilisk lizard genus, known for being able to run across water The Jesus Lizard, an American rock band formed in 1987 "The Jesus Lizard", a song on the Showbread album Age of Reptiles

Eagle (Middle-earth)

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In J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional universe of Middle-earth, the eagles were immense flying birds that were sapient and could speak. Often emphatically referred to as the Great Eagles, they appear, usually and intentionally serving as agents of eucatastrophe or deus ex machina, in his legendarium, from The Silmarillion and the accounts of Númenor to The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. These creatures are usually thought to have been similar to actual eagles, but much larger. In The Silmarillion, Thorondor is said to have been the greatest of them and of all birds, with a wingspan of . Elsewhere, the eagles have varied in nature and size both within Tolkien's writings and in later visualisations and films. Appearances The difference between "common" eagles and Great Eagles is prominently described in The Hobbit: Eagles are not kindly birds. Some are cowardly and cruel. But the ancient race of the northern mountains were the greatest of all birds; they were proud and strong and noble-hearted. First Age Throughout The Silmarillion, the Eagles are particularly associated with Manwë, the ruler of the sky and Lord of the Valar. It is stated that "spirits in the shape of hawks and eagles" brought news from Middle-earth to his halls upon Taniquetil, the highest mountain in Valinor, although later in the book the same is said of birds in general, and in the Valaquenta of "all swift birds, strong of wing". Upon their first appearance in the main narrative, it is stated that the Eagles had been "sent forth" to Middle-earth by Manwë, to live in the mountains north of the land of Beleriand, to "watch upon" Morgoth, and to help the exiled Noldorin Elves "in extreme cases". The Eagles were ruled by Thorondor, who dwelt (apparently with the majority of his folk) in the Encircling Mountains to the west of Dorthonion. When the Hidden City of Gondolin was built by Turgon, the eagles of Thorondor became his allies, bringing him news and keeping spies off the borders. Therefore the Orcs of Morgoth were unable to approach either the nearby mountains, or the important ford of Brithiach to the south; the eagles' watch had been redoubled after the coming of Tuor, enabling Gondolin to remain undiscovered the longest of all Elven realms. When the city fell at last, the eagles of Thorondor protected the fugitives, from the orcs that ambushed them at Cirith Thoronath north of Gondolin. The Eagles fought alongside the army of the Valar, Elves, and Men during the War of Wrath at the end of the First Age, when Morgoth was overthrown. In The Silmarillion it is recounted that after the appearance of winged dragons, "all the great birds of heaven" gathered under the leadership of Thorondor to Eärendil, and destroyed the majority of the dragons in an aerial battle. Second Age Tolkien mentioned the eagles in his accounts of the island of Númenor during the Second Age. He stated that three eagles guarded the summit of Meneltarma, appearing whenever one approached the hallow and staying in the sky during the Three Prayers. The Númenóreans called them "the Witnesses of Manwë" and believed that these eagles had been "sent by him from Aman to keep watch upon the Holy Mountain and upon all the land". There was another eyrie upon the tower of the King's House in the capital Armenelos, always inhabited by a pair of eagles, until the days of Tar-Ancalimon and the coming of Shadow to Númenor. Many eagles, whether "great" or common, lived upon the hills around Sorontil in the north of the island. When the Númenóreans had finally forsaken their former beliefs and began to speak openly against the Ban of the Valar, it was in the way of eagle-shaped storm clouds, called the "Eagles of the Lords of the West", that Manwë tried to reason or threaten them. Third Age By the end of the Third Age, a colony of Eagles lived in the northern parts of the Misty Mountains, as described in The Hobbit, upon the eastward slopes not far from the High Pass leading from Rivendell, and thus in the direct vicinity of the Goblin-town beneath the Mountains. It is stated that these Eagles often afflicted the goblins and "stopped whatever wickedness they were doing"; however, their relationship with the local Woodmen was only cool, as the eagles often hunted their sheep. During the events of the book, eagles of this colony rescued Thorin's company from a band of goblins and Wargs, ultimately carrying the dwarves to the Carrock. Later, having espied the mustering of goblins all over the Mountains, a great flock of Eagles participated in the Battle of the Five Armies. In The Lord of the Rings it is stated that the Eagles of the Misty Mountains helped the Elves of Rivendell and the Wizard Radagast in gathering news about the Orcs. In addition, a prominent (though behind-the-scene) role is played by Gwaihir, and the Eagles appear in great numbers towards the end of the book. In a parallel to The Hobbit, they arrived at the Battle of the Morannon, helping the Host of the West against the Nazgûl. Several of them rescued Frodo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee from Mount Doom after the One Ring had been destroyed. Named Eagles Thorondor The Lord of Eagles in the First Age, said in The Silmarillion to be the "mightiest of all birds that have ever been", with a wingspan of thirty fathoms (54.9 meters, or 180 feet) and a beak of gold. His name translates from Sindarin, an Elven language devised by Tolkien, as 'King of Eagles'; its cognate form in Quenya, another Elven language, is Sorontar. Thorondor first enters the narrative when he helped the Elven-prince Fingon rescue his kinsman Maedhros from imprisonment upon Thangorodrim. After the Dagor Bragollach, he saved Fingolfin's body from defilement by his slayer Morgoth, giving the Dark Lord a scar on his face and carrying the Elven-king's corpse to the Encircling Mountains north of Gondolin, where it was buried by Turgon. Shortly afterwards, Thorondor espied Húrin and Huor at the feet of the Mountains, and sent two of his servants to fetch them and bear them to Gondolin, fulfilling thus the intentions of the Vala Ulmo. Thorondor and two other eagles rescued Lúthien and the wounded Beren from the doors of Angband during their Quest of the Silmaril, taking them to Doriath. Lord of the Eagles While in The Silmarillion the title "Lord of the Eagles" applies to Thorondor, in The Hobbit it evidently has another significance. No eagles are identified by name in this book, and titles "the Lord of the Eagles" or "the Great Eagle" distinguish their leader from others. It is stated that once he had been healed from an arrow-wound by Gandalf, and that it was in the memory of this service that his eagles helped the dwarves. After his participation in the Battle of Five Armies, he was given the title King of All Birds and wore a golden crown. Gwaihir An eagle from the Misty Mountains who helped Gandalf before and during the War of the Ring; his name means Windlord in Sindarin, and he is said to have been a descendant of Thorondor and the greatest and the swiftest of the Eagles of the North by the end of the Third Age. When the Eagles heard about Gollum's escape from Mirkwood, they sent Gwaihir to bear the news to Isengard, as they had been told by Radagast; the eagle espied Gandalf imprisoned upon the top of the tower and carried him to Edoras. Next time, Gwaihir was sent to seek for Gandalf by Galadriel; he found the wizard, who had recently defeated the Balrog, upon the summit of Celebdil and took him to Lothlórien. Upon Gandalf's orders, Gwaihir watched the river Anduin and brought him news about the Company of the Ring. The eagle participated in the Battle of the Morannon, and when Mount Doom erupted, he carried Gandalf to it, in order to save Frodo and Sam. Eagles named "Gwaihir" and "Landroval" (or, in even earlier texts, "Gwaewar" and "Lhandroval") also appear in J. R. R. Tolkien's manuscripts of The Silmarillion, where they are stated to have been the two vassals of Thorondor who helped to bear Beren and Lúthien from Angband, several thousand years before the War of the Ring. The passage was removed from the published Silmarillion by Christopher Tolkien to escape the seeming discrepancy with The Lord of the Rings, although later he admitted that he was unable to interpret his father's intentions and regretted the suppression. Landroval An eagle who helped to carry Frodo and Sam from Mount Doom, said in The Lord of the Rings to have been the brother of Gwaihir and descendant of Thorondor. His name means 'wide-wing' in Sindarin, and it was also used for an eagle of the First Age. Meneldor Meneldor was the third companion of Gwaihir and Landroval in Frodo and Sam's rescue. His name means "Sky-king" in Sindarin, and he is given the sobriquet "young and swift". Concept and creation Early writings The Great Eagles ruled by "Thorondor" [sic] already appeared in the first tale about Middle-earth that Tolkien wrote in late 1910s, The Fall of Gondolin, published in The Book of Lost Tales. The role of Thorondor was expanded in stages, with the successive introduction of the relevant plot elements; and after the conception of Númenor entered in 1930s, the notion that the eagles were the messengers of Manwë was further elaborated. Soon after, Tolkien introduced the eagles into The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, repeating in the latter some plot elements and names present in older writings. In several early texts Tolkien wrote that, before moving to Crissaegrim after the death of Fingolfin, the eagles of Thorondor nested upon the peaks of Thangorodrim above Morgoth's fortress of Angband; Christopher Tolkien assumes that this idea was later abandoned. Another rejected proposal was that after Beren's death Lúthien would not pass of grief, but would be carried to Valinor by Thorondor who would have been "summoned" by Melian the Maia In Tolkien's early writings, the eagles were distinguished from other birds: Eä, the World, was bounded by the Walls of Night, and the space above the Earth up to the Walls was divided into three regions; common birds could keep aloft only within the lower layer, while the Eagles of Manwë could fly "beyond the lights of heaven to the edge of darkness". The conception of the limited world and of the layers of the firmament was rejected during the writing of The Lord of the Rings. The eagle-shaped clouds that appeared in Númenor were one of Tolkien's recurring associations with the downfall of the island, just like the images of a sloping mountain and of an overwhelming wave; they were also introduced by him into two abandoned time-travel stories, The Lost Road and The Notion Club Papers. In a sketch for the former, Tolkien projected that it would be "Sorontur" (Thorondor) himself that appeared in Númenor to the protagonist of the story. Tolkien's painting of an eagle on a crag appears in some editions of The Hobbit. According to Christopher Tolkien, the author based this picture on a painting by the Scottish ornithological artist Archibald Thorburn of an immature golden eagle, which Christopher found for him in The Birds of the British Isles by Thomas Coward. Sentient beings The question of the Great Eagles' nature was faced by Tolkien with apparent hesitation. In early writings there was no need to define it precisely, since he imagined that, beside the Valar, "many lesser spirits... both great and small" had entered the Eä upon its creation; and such sapient creatures as the Eagles or Huan the Hound, in Tolkien's own words, "have been rather lightly adopted from less 'serious' mythologies". The phrase "spirits in the shape of hawks and eagles" in The Silmarillion derives from that stage of writing. After the completion of The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien moved toward a more carefully defined "system" of creatures, with few if any exceptions: Incarnates or the "Children of Ilúvatar": Elves, Men, Dwarves, and Orcs,—those who possessed fëar or souls, with the defining characteristic of being able to speak; Self-incarnates or the Valar and Maiar—"angelic" spirits that "arrayed" themselves in bodily forms of the Incarnates or of animals, able to communicate both by thought and speech; Animals, unable to speak. For some time Tolkien considered the Eagles as bird-shaped Maiar; however, later he realised that the statement about Gwaihir and Landroval's descent from Thorondor had already appeared in print in The Lord of the Rings, while the notion of the "Children" of the Valar and Maiar had been rejected by him long before. In the last of his notes on this topic, dated by his son to late 1950s, Tolkien decided that the Great Eagles were common animals that had been "taught language by the Valar, and raised to a higher level—but they still had no fëar." A different conception may be present in a yet later essay on the origin of the Ents which, according to Christopher Tolkien, is likely to derive from 1963 and was included into the published Silmarillion. Contemporary J. R. R. Tolkien's notes define the Ents as "either souls sent to inhabit trees, or else that slowly took to the likeness of trees"; the essay agrees in this, adding that the Ents appeared shortly after the Awakening of the Elves, when "the thought of Yavanna ... [summoned] spirits from afar". The same origin for the Great Eagles may be implied by the speech of Manwë within the essay: "... before the Children awake there shall go forth with wings like the wind the Eagles of the Lords of the West. ... In the mountains the Eagles shall house, and hear the voices of those who call upon [the Valar]." Norse mythology Eagles were associated with the Norse god Odin; for example, he escapes from Jotunheim back to Asgard as an eagle. The Tolkien scholar Marjorie Burns notes the similarity with Gandalf, who repeatedly escapes by riding on an eagle. Deus ex machina The screenwriter Brad Johnson, writing on Script, noted that Tolkien uses the Eagles three times as a deus ex machina, a sudden and unexpected mechanism to bring about a eucatastrophe: rescuing Bilbo and company in The Hobbit; lifting Gandalf from imprisonment by Saruman in the tower of Orthanc; and finally, saving Frodo and Sam from Mount Doom when they have destroyed the One Ring. Johnson states that this last instance is, undesirably, a complete surprise to the audience, and their sudden appearance "takes the audience out of the scene emotionally". Tolkien was aware of this problem, recognising the risky nature of the mechanism; in one of his letters, he wrote: "The Eagles are a dangerous 'machine'. I have used them sparingly, and that is the absolute limit of their credibility or usefulness. The alighting of a Great Eagle of the Misty Mountains in the Shire is absurd; it also makes the later capture of G[andalf] by Saruman incredible, and spoils the account of his escape". Adaptations and influences Different adaptations of Tolkien's books treated both the nature of the Eagles and their role in the plots with varying level of faithfulness to originals. The first scenario for an animated motion-picture of The Lord of the Rings proposed to Tolkien in 1957 was turned down because of several cardinal deviations, among which Humphrey Carpenter recorded that "virtually all walking was dispensed with in the story and the Company of the Ring were transported everywhere on the backs of eagles". In The Lord of the Rings film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, a notable deviation from the book is that Gandalf summons Gwaihir to Orthanc with the aid of a passing moth, rather than the Wizard Radagast, who was not included in the film. The same moth also appears to him before the Eagles arrive at the Battle of the Morannon, and a similar sequence of events (though with a different moth) is played out in Jackson's first installment of The Hobbit. According to fantasy artist Larry Dixon, the digitally animated eagles in the trilogy were based on a stuffed golden eagle he had offered to Weta Workshop for use in the project. A genus of Diapriidae wasps in Australia was named Gwaihiria in 1982. In The Lord of the Rings: War in the North, an eagle named Beleram acts as a supporting character, aiding the players in battle by attacking random, often powerful enemies such as trolls, giants or Uruk-hai, and carrying the heroes across areas of Middle-Earth. In the final battle against Agandaur, the game's antagonist and final boss, the player can decide whether to attack Agandaur with Beleram. If Beleram is summoned, he inflicts tremendous damage to Agandaur, but Agandaur will kill him. Preventing Beleram from attacking Agandaur allows him to live to the game's conclusion. References Primary This list identifies each item's location in Tolkien's writings. Secondary Middle-earth races Middle-earth animals Fictional birds of prey Talking animals in fiction

Barq's

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Barq's is an American brand of root beer created by Edward Barq and bottled since the beginning of the 20th century. It is owned by the Coca-Cola Company. It was known as "Barq's Famous Olde Tyme Root Beer" until 2012. Some of its formulations contain caffeine. History The Barq's Brothers Bottling Company was founded in 1890 in the French Quarter of New Orleans, by Edward Charles Edmond Barq and his older brother, Gaston. The brothers bottled carbonated water and various soft drinks of their own creation. Early on, their most popular creation was an orange-flavored soda called Orangine. Edward Barq moved to Biloxi, Mississippi in 1897 with his new wife. The following year he opened the Biloxi Artesian Bottling Works. By some accounts he debuted what was later to be known as "Barq's root beer" the following year, but others maintain it was not produced until 1900. Barq met a young boy on the Mississippi coast, Jesse Robinson, and employed him. Robinson was mentored by Barq and later moved to New Orleans. In 1934 Barq and Robinson signed a contractual agreement on Barq's product rights allowing Robinson to make his own concentrate, uncommon in beverage bottling licenses. The two men remained close their entire lives, working on flavors and production challenges. A distinctive difference between the Biloxi-based root beer and the Louisiana's was that the Louisiana bottle was printed in red (versus Biloxi's blue). This was to distinguish ownership of bottles as blue labeled ones were returned to Mississippi and vice versa. There were also regional taste differences between the various Barq's bottlers. While there may have been minor formula differences, water was most responsible. For many decades, Barq's was not marketed as a "root beer". This was in part a desire to avoid legal conflict with the Hires Root Beer company, which was attempting to claim a trademark on the term "root beer". It was also due to some differences from other root beers at the time. The formulation was sarsaparilla-based, contained less sugar, had a higher carbonation, and less of a foamy head than other brands. The traditional slogan was the simple affirmation "Drink Barq's. It's good," which first appeared on the classic diamond-necked bottle, patented in 1935 by Ed Barq. In 1976, the Biloxi Barq's Company was purchased from the third generation of Barq family members by John Oudt and John Koerner. An aggressive television campaign was developed based on the "Barq's Got Sparks" theme. Their plans to market the brand nationally were complicated by the existence of the Louisiana-based Barq's companies which were owned and operated by Robinson's heirs. There were extended legal conflicts over the rights and ownership of the trademarks for Barq's, Barq's Sr. and Barq's Root Beer. The legal battle went all the way to the United States Court of Appeals, 5th Circuit, which ruled in favor of the Robinson heirs. The last family-held Louisiana Barq's was sold by Robinson's heirs to Coca-Cola in 2000. In 1990, Barq's partnered with the Pick N Save grocery store in Dekalb, Illinois to create the World's Largest Root Beer Float. It was mixed in an above ground swimming pool in the parking lot and consisted of 1,500 gallons of Barq's root beer and 1,000 gallons of vanilla ice cream. Since 1995, Barq's has marketed with the slogan "Barq's has bite!" Television ads would typically feature a Barq's salesman (played by Nick Swardson) going door-to-door to tell people, "Barq's has bite" at which point the subjects would take a sip and have an energetic reaction. Regular Barq's has 22.5 mg of caffeine per 12 ounce serving (similar to green tea), while Diet Barq's has no caffeine. Barq's also contains sodium benzoate as a flavor protectant, which under the right conditions, is a precursor to the known carcinogen benzene. It was still used as of 2008. The Barq's that is dispensed from Coca-Cola Freestyle machines is caffeine-free. This is because the system uses the same concentrated, microdosed ingredient for both Barq's and Diet Barq's; the only difference between the two is the sweetener that is added. It is also common for Barq's that is sold in the state of Utah to be caffeine-free because many members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints avoid caffeinated beverages. Barq's products Barq's Root Beer Diet Barq's Root Beer - contains no caffeine. Available in Root Beer and Vanilla Cream. Barq's Red Crème Soda (Barq's Yellow Creme Soda was also produced until the early 1990s). Diet Barq's Red Crème Soda Barq's French Vanilla Crème Soda Barq's Spiced Cherry (Canada) Discontinued: Diet Crème Soda Barq's French Vanilla Discontinued: Barq's Floatz, which is designed to taste like a root beer float. J & J Snack Foods Corporation once licensed the brand name for Barq's Floatz ice cream squeeze tubes. References External links Barqs.com – Official website gourmetrootbeer.com/history.html – The History of Root Beer Root beer Coca-Cola brands Products introduced in 1898 Food and drink companies established in 1890 History of New Orleans 1890 establishments in Louisiana Caffeinated soft drinks

Air Force (shoe)

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The Air Force is a range of athletic shoes made by Nike that began with the Air Force 1 and went on to include the Air Force 2, Air Force 3, Air Force STS, Air Force 5, Air Force XXV and Air Force 09. The Air Force 1 was created by designer Bruce Kilgore and was the first basketball shoe to use the Nike Air technology. The shoe is offered in low, mid and high-top styles. Description The shoes are sold in 5 different styles, low, mid, superlow, high and super high. The mid comes with a connected strap. The high-top Air Force 1s come with a velcro strap; the mid-top strap is secured to the shoe while the high-top's strap is movable and removable on some versions. Although the shoe comes in different colors and color schemes, the most common Air Force 1s sold are solid white (also referred to as "white on white"), the second most common being solid black ("black on black"). Another identifying characteristic of an Air Force 1 shoe is a small medallion secured to the bottom of the laces but with holes on either side so it can be removed by sliding it off the shoe lace. The medallion is engraved with the inscription "AF-1", with the year "'82" inscribed beside it, and has historically been made out of a silver-colored metal (perhaps pewter). Its original design was more circular, but after a redesign the Air Force 1's 25th anniversary in 2007 the medallion is now rectangular. (The redesign also involved encasing the inscription in white plastic; that was discarded in favor of the original medallion material.) History The Air Force 1 (or AF1 or AF-1) was never originally called the Air Force. Bruce Kilgore designed the shoe. The name is a reference to Air Force One, the plane that carries the President of the United States. Nike Air Force 1s were originally considered the favored shoe of inner-city youth, especially in Harlem, New York; hence the nickname "Uptowns". The Air Force 1 was produced in 1982 and discontinued in 1984. It was re-released in 1986 with the modern italic Nike logo with a Swoosh on the bottom on the back of the shoe. Little has changed to the Air Force One since its creation in 1982, although the original stitching on the side panels is no longer present in modern versions of the shoe. Since then, over 1,700 color variations have been produced, bringing in an estimated 800 million USD/year in revenue. The selling of the Air Force Ones online by certain retailers used to be prohibited by Nike who had restricted supply of the sneaker. Nike now allows retailers to offer the shoe for sale online. Performance use As a performance shoe, the AF1 is still used for street play as well as for professional play. NBA players Jerry Stackhouse (who now wears Adidas) and Rasheed Wallace have worn AF1s on court. The shoe is also used for fashion. In music St. Louis Rapper Nelly and his group, St. Lunatics, collaborated on a 2002 single titled "Air Force Ones" about the shoes. The shoe is also a focus of the 2007 single "Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been)", a collaboration between Kanye West, Nas, Rakim and KRS-One, that was produced by DJ Premier. "Black Air Force 2's" are mentioned in the second line of the lyrics of the 2008 single "Dope Boys", released from The Game's third studio album, LAX. Aftermarket sales The Air Force One has become a favorite of sneaker collectors, often referred to as sneakerheads. Certain rare styles can command several times their retail value. Controversy Nike has vigorously defended the Air Force 1 in U.S. courts. In one case, it sued an alleged infringer of its trademark in the Air Force 1, who responded by filing a counterclaim to invalidate the Air Force 1 trademark. Several months later, apparently fearful that the defendant's counterclaim could succeed, Nike dismissed all its claims with prejudice and gave the defendant a "Covenant Not To Sue". The issue that went up on appeal was whether Nike's tactics had thereby rendered the entire dispute moot (meaning there was no longer an active case or controversy), so that the U.S. federal courts had been deprived of jurisdiction to hear the defendant's counterclaim. On January 9, 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Nike's favor. Later versions The Air Force 2 shoe introduced in 1987 is a newer variation of the original. The shoe is a typical flat-soled, casual-wear sneaker that can be made in many different variations of colors. Also, Air Force 2s were re-released internationally in the early 2000s. They can be made in either the low-cut or high-top style. The shoe can be custom made in any color, but typically it has either a white or black based background with almost any color used to fill in the Nike Swoosh and back heel. The Air Force 3 introduced in 1988 was the most popular version of Air Force series. It was worn by many basketball players at the time. The Air Force III was more rugged looking and more durable than the previous two versions. The original colorway was white/medium grey/black, however several other colors were introduced shortly after. An actual "Air FORCE" logo was introduced on this model as well, with an image of half of a basketball on the tongue. This logo would be used on the rest of the Air Force series. The Air Force III was re-issued in 2006 in a very limited edition of colorways of the high top, and several colorways for the low top version. The Air Force STS (also known as Air Force 4 or Air Force IV) was introduced in 1989. It may be a reference to the Space Transportation System, the official name for the Space Shuttle. It was regularly worn by David Robinson in his rookie year. The Air Force STS features Nike's elephant print and is also slightly higher than the first three versions of the Air Force series. The Air Force 5 was introduced in 1990. The Air Force V was the first model to make the airbag visible on the side heels of the shoe. The most popular colorway was white/medium grey/black/orange. Just like the previous version it was slightly higher than the first three versions. This was also the last original Air Force model to be made. Retro versions In 2007, for the 25th anniversary of the original Air Force 1, Nike created the Air Force XXV, which took inspiration from the original Air Force 1 invented in 1982. This version featured a mismatched set of medallions to commemorate its twenty fifth anniversary; one being from the original Air Force 1s with the other from the Air Force 25s. Since its introduction, many different Air Force 1 have been signed or inspired by celebrities and athletes. Also in 2007, to further commemorate the 25th anniversary of the Air Force One, two high-end makes of the shoe were introduced. They were hand-crafted in Italy, one from crocodile leather and the other from anaconda leather, and both were adorned with gold-tipped laces. They were sold in extremely limited quantities and had a list price of $2000, making them some of the most expensive sneakers ever to enter the marketplace. In 2009, Nike created Air Force 09, an update of the original shoe. The shoe comes in a solid black or white. In 2010, Nike commissioned DJ Clark Kent to design a Nike Air Force 1 Low pack of special limited edition Air Force 1 shoes. In 2017, Nike partnered with Don C, Kareem “Biggs” Burke, Errolson Hugh, Travis Scott and Virgil Abloh for the 35th anniversary of the shoe. In film and television From 2008-2014, Jax Teller (played by Charlie Hunnam) wears his trademark white-on-white retro low-top Air Force 1s throughout Sons of Anarchy, until they are discarded in the final episode of the series. In 2016, Quicksilver (played by actor Evan Peters) uses a custom silver-colored Air Force 1 in the movie X-Men: Apocalypse. References External links Products introduced in 1982 Nike brands Sneaker culture 1980s fashion 1990s fashion 2000s fashion 2010s fashion 2020s fashion

1948 in India

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Events in the year 1948 in India. Incumbents King of India – George VI Governor-General of the Union of India – The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma Governor-General of the Union of India – C. Rajagopalachari (from 21 June) Prime Minister of India – Jawaharlal Nehru Events 30 January – Assassination of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi: The spiritual leader of India Mahatma Gandhi is assassinated by Nathuram Godse. 15 February – Junagadh and Manavadar (princely state) Rescinds accession to Pakistan, accedes to India. 8 March princely state of Jath accedes to India 24 February – Referendum approves accession to India. 25 February – Accession to India in effect. 15 April 1948 – Mandi District was formed by the amalgamation of the erstwhile princely states of Mandi and Suket on the formation of Himachal Pradesh. 1 May – First Kashmir War, India confronts the aggressors and fights the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 and is engaged with the Dominion of Pakistan for the first time 6 September – The Nizam of Hyderabad Deccan having failed to retain independence decides to accede to the Dominion of Pakistan, Pakistan instead takes the case to the UN, pending resolutions regarding the issue. 12 September – State of Hyderabad joins the Dominion of India. Births 7 January – Shobhaa De, columnist and novelist. 24 February – J. Jayalalithaa, actress, politician, Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. (died 2016) 25 February – Danny Denzongpa, actor. 10 April – Jaya Bachchan, actress. 3 May – S. Ramesan Nair, lyricist and poet (died 2021). 14 June – Gokaraju Ganga Raju, politician and member of parliament from Narasapuram. 10 September – Bhakti Barve, actress (died 2001). 2 October – Persis Khambatta, actress and model (died 1998). 16 October – Hema Malini, actress and dancer-choreographer. 14 November – Sindhutai Sapkal, social worker and social activist (died 2022). 11 December – Raghuvaran, actor (died 2008). Full date unknown Anant Nag, actor and politician. Dharanidhar Sahu, writer. Deaths 30 January – Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, political and spiritual leader in India and the Indian independence movement, assassinated (born 1869). 1 February – Jatindramohan Bagchi, poet (born 1878). 9 August – Yellapragada Subbarow, medical scientist (born 1895). See also Bollywood films of 1948 India Years of the 20th century in India

Australian Cattle Dog

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The Australian Cattle Dog (ACD), or simply Cattle Dog, is a breed of herding dog originally developed in Australia for droving cattle over long distances across rough terrain. This breed is a medium-sized, short-coated dog that occurs in two main colour forms. It has either brown or black hair distributed fairly evenly through a white coat, which gives the appearance of a "red" or "blue" dog. As with dogs from other working breeds, the Australian Cattle Dog is energetic and intelligent with an independent streak. It responds well to structured training, particularly if it is interesting and challenging. It was originally bred to herd by biting, and is known to nip running children. It forms a strong attachment to its owners, and can be protective of them and their possessions. It is easy to groom and maintain, requiring little more than brushing during the shedding period. The most common health problems are deafness and progressive blindness (both hereditary conditions) and accidental injury; otherwise, it is a robust breed with a lifespan of 12 to 14 years. In the 19th century, New South Wales cattle farmer Thomas Hall crossed the dogs used by drovers in his parents' home county, Northumberland, with dingoes he had tamed. The resulting dogs were known as Halls Heelers. After Hall's death in 1870, the dogs became available beyond the Hall family and their associates. They were subsequently developed into two modern breeds: the Australian Cattle Dog and the Australian Stumpy Tail Cattle Dog. Robert Kaleski, who wrote the first standard for the breed, was influential in its development. Australian Cattle Dog has been nicknamed a "Red Heeler" or "Blue Heeler" on the basis of its colouring and practice of moving reluctant cattle by nipping at their heels. Dogs from a line bred in Queensland, Australia, which were successful at shows and at stud in the 1940s, were called "Queensland Heelers" to differentiate them from lines bred in New South Wales; this nickname is now occasionally applied to any Australian Cattle Dog. Characteristics Appearance The Australian Cattle Dog is a sturdy, muscular, compact dog that gives the impression of agility and strength. It has a broad skull that flattens to a definite stop between the eyes, with muscular cheeks and a medium-length, deep, powerful muzzle. The ears are pricked, small to medium in size and set wide apart, with a covering of hair on the inside. The eyes are oval and dark, with an alert, keen expression. The neck and shoulders are strong and muscular; the forelegs are straight and parallel; and the feet round and arched, with small, sturdy toes and nails. The Australian Cattle Dog breed standard states that it should have well-conditioned muscles, even when bred for companion or show purposes, and that its appearance should be symmetrical and balanced, with no individual part of the dog exaggerated. It should not look either delicate or cumbersome, as either characteristic limits the agility and endurance that is necessary for a working dog. Size The female Australian Cattle Dog measures approximately at the withers, and the male measures about at the withers. The dog should be longer than tall, that is, the length of the body from breast bone to buttocks is greater than the height at the withers, in a ratio of 10 to 9. An Australian Cattle Dog in good condition weighs around . Coat and colour There are two accepted coat colours, red and blue. Chocolate and cream are considered to be faults. Blue dogs can be blue, blue mottled, or blue speckled with tan on the legs and chest and white markings and a black patch or "mask" on one or both sides of the head. Red dogs are evenly speckled with solid red markings and similarly to the blue dogs can have a brown (red) patch "mask" on one or both sides of the head and sometimes on the body. Both red dogs and blue dogs are born white (except for any solid-coloured body or face markings) and the red or black hairs show from around 4-weeks of age as they grow and mature. The distinctive adult colouration is the result of black or red hairs closely interspersed through a predominantly white coat. This is not merle colouration (a speckled effect that has associated health issues), but rather the result of the ticking gene. A number of breeds show ticking, which is the presence of colour through white areas, though the overall effect depends on other genes that will modify the size, shape and density of the ticking. In addition to the primary colouration, an Australian Cattle Dog displays some patches of solid or near-solid colour. In both red and blue dogs, the most common are masks over one or both eyes, a white tip to the tail, a solid spot at the base of the tail, and sometimes solid spots on the body, though these are not desirable in dogs bred for conformation shows. Blue dogs can have tan midway up the legs and extending up the front to breast and throat, with tan on jaws, and tan eyebrows. Both colour forms can have a white "star" on the forehead called the "Bentley Mark", after a famous dog owned by Tom Bentley. Common miscolours in the Australian Cattle Dog are black hairs in a red-coated dog, including the extreme of a black saddle on a red dog, and extensive tan on the face and body on a blue dog, called "creeping tan". The Australian Cattle Dog has a double coat—the short, straight outer guard hairs are protective in nature, keeping the elements from the dog's skin while the undercoat is short, fine and dense. The mask consists of a black patch over one or both eyes (for the blue coat colour) or a red patch over one or both eyes (for the red coat colour). Depending on whether one or both eyes have a patch, these are called, respectively, "single" (or "half") mask and "double" (or "full") mask. Dogs without a mask are called plain-faced. Any of these are acceptable according to the breed standard. In conformation shows, even markings are preferred over uneven markings. Tail The breed standards of the Australian, American and Canadian kennel clubs specify that the Australian Cattle Dog should have a natural, long, un-docked tail. There will often be a solid colour spot at the base of the tail and a white tip. The tail should be set moderately low, following the slope of the back. It should hang in a slight curve at rest, though an excited dog may carry its tail higher. The tail should feature a moderate level of brush. In the United States, tails are sometimes docked on working stock. The tail is not docked in Australia, and serves a useful purpose in increasing agility and the ability to turn quickly. The Australian Cattle Dog is a breed distinct from the Australian Stumpy Tail Cattle Dog, a square-bodied dog born with a naturally "bobbed" tail. The Stumpy Tail resembles the Australian Cattle Dog, but has a taller, leaner conformation. It occasionally has a natural long thin tail, but most are born without tails. Temperament Like many working dogs, the Australian Cattle Dog has high energy levels, an active mind, and a level of independence. The breed ranks 10th in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, rated as one of the most intelligent dogs ranked by obedience command trainability. The Cattle Dog needs plenty of exercise, companionship and a job to do, so a non-working dog might participate in dog sports, learning tricks, or other activities that engage its body and mind. When on home ground, the Australian Cattle Dog is an affectionate and playful pet. However, it is reserved with people it does not know and naturally cautious in new situations. Its attitude to strangers makes it an excellent guard dog when trained for this task, and it can be socialised to become accustomed to a variety of people from an early age as a family pet. It is good with older, considerate children, but will herd people by nipping at their heels, particularly younger children who run and squeal. By the time puppies are weaned, they should have learned that the company of people is pleasurable, and that responding to cues from a person is rewarding. The bond that this breed can create with its owner is strong and will leave the dog feeling protective towards the owner, typically resulting in the dog's never being too far from the owner's side. The Australian Cattle Dog can be the friendliest of companions although it is quick to respond to the emotions of its owners, and may defend them without waiting for a command. The ACD was originally bred to move reluctant cattle by biting, and it will bite if treated harshly. The Australian Cattle Dog's protective nature and tendency to nip at heels can be dangerous as the dog grows into an adult if unwanted behaviours are left unchecked. While an Australian Cattle Dog generally works silently, it will bark in alarm or to attract attention. It has a distinctive intense, high-pitched bark. Barking can be a sign of boredom or frustration, although research has shown that pet dogs increase their vocalisation when raised in a noisy environment. It responds well to familiar dogs, but when multiple dogs are present, establishing a pecking order can trigger aggression. It is not a breed that lives in a pack with other dogs. A review of incidents in Melbourne in 2001 where a dog bit, rushed at or chased a person or animal in a public space, found that there were sixty breeds involved and the German Shepherd and German Shepherd crosses, and Australian Cattle Dog and Cattle Dog crosses accounted for 9% of incidents. Surveys of U.S. breed club members showed that both dog-directed aggression and stranger-directed aggression were higher in the ACD than the average of breeds studied, with dog-directed aggression being the more prevalent of the two aggression types. As pets Grooming Known as a "wash and wear" dog, the Australian Cattle Dog requires little grooming, and an occasional brushing is all that is required to keep the coat clean and odour-free. Even for the show ring it needs no more than wiping down with a moist cloth. It is not a year-round shedder but blows its coat once a year (twice in the case of intact females) and frequent brushing and a warm bath during this period will contain the shedding hair. As with all dogs, regular attention to nails, ears and teeth will help avoid health problems. Training In Katherine Buetow's guide to the Australian Cattle Dog, Ian Dunbar makes the point that while people think of dog training as teaching a dog to sit, speak and roll over, the dog already knows how to do these things. Training, he says, involves teaching the dog that it is a good idea to do these things when a particular word is said or signal is given. He goes on to explain his belief that training is about opening communication channels, so that the dog knows what the handler wants it to do, and knows that it will be worth its while to do it. Consequences for the dog can be rewards for doing what is required, as recommended by Dunbar, or corrections where an unwanted behaviour is performed. Like other working breeds, the Australian Cattle Dog is intelligent and responsive; both of these traits can be an advantage in training where a structured, varied program is used, but can lead to unwanted outcomes if training is not consistent, or is repetitive and boring for the dog. Stock dog trainer Scott Lithgow recommends making training a game so the Cattle Dog learns that obedience leads to enjoyment. Many of a Cattle Dog's natural behaviours are undesirable in a pet: barking, chewing, chasing, digging, defending territory, and nipping heels. Training, therefore, involves helping the dog adopt a lifestyle that is probably very different from that of its droving ancestors. The Australian Cattle Dog is biddable, and responds well to training. Activities The Australian Cattle Dog demands a high level of physical activity. Like many other herding dog breeds, the Cattle Dog has an active and fertile mind and if it is not given jobs to do it will find its own activities. It will appreciate a walk around the neighbourhood, but it needs structured activities that engage and challenge it, and regular interaction with its owner. While individual dogs have their own personalities and abilities, as a breed the Australian Cattle Dog is suited to any activity that calls for athleticism, intelligence, and endurance. Kennel club-sponsored herding trials with a range of events suit the driving abilities of the Cattle Dog and other upright breeds, while sheepdog trials are more suited to the "eye" breeds such as the Border Collie and Australian Kelpie. Herding instincts and trainability are measured at non-competitive herding tests, and basic commands are sometimes taught through herding games, where rules such as "stay", "get it" and "that'll do" are applied to fetching a ball or chasing a yard broom. The Australian Cattle Dog was developed for its ability to encourage reluctant cattle to travel long distances and may be the best breed in the world for this work. However, some working dog trainers have expressed concern that dogs bred for the show ring are increasingly too short in the legs and too stocky in the body to undertake the work for which they were originally bred. Among the most popular activities for an Australian Cattle Dog is dog agility. It is ideally suited for navigating obstacle courses, since as a herding dog it is reactive to the handler's body language and willing to work accurately at a distance from the handler. Agility has been used by Cattle Dog owners to instil confidence in their dogs, and enhance their performance in training and competition. The Australian Cattle Dog thrives on change and new experiences, and many handlers find training the breed challenging for this reason. An Australian Cattle Dog can excel in obedience competition. It will enjoy the challenges, such as retrieving a scented article, but the breed's problem-solving ability may lead it to find solutions to problems that are not necessarily rewarded by the obedience judges. Rally obedience offers more interaction with the owner and less repetition than traditional obedience trials. Australian Cattle Dogs have been successful in a range of dog sports including weight pulling, flyball and schutzhund. The breed is particularly suited to activities that a dog can share with its owner such as canicross, disc dog, and skijoring or bikejoring. It is an effective hiking companion because of its natural endurance, its general lack of interest in hunting, and preference for staying by its owner's side. Most Australian Cattle Dogs love the water and are excellent swimmers. It is not a hyperactive breed, and once one has had its exercise, it is happy to lie at its owner's feet, or to rest in its bed or crate while keeping an ear and eye open for signs of pending activity. The Australian Cattle Dog is an adaptable dog that can accept city or indoor living conditions, if its considerable exercise and companionship needs are met. The Australian Cattle Dog can be put to work in a number of ways. Cattle Dogs are service dogs for people with a disability or are therapy dogs, some work for customs agencies in drug detection, some as police dogs, others haze pest animals, such as geese, for city or state agencies, and some work as scat-detection dogs, tracking endangered wildlife species. Health and lifespan Lifespan In a small sample of 11 deceased dogs, Australian Cattle Dogs had a median longevity of 11.7 years (maximum 15.9 yrs). A larger survey of 100 deceased dogs yielded a mean longevity of 13.41 years with a standard deviation of 2.36 years. The median longevities of breeds of similar size are between 11 and 13 years. There is an anecdotal report of a Cattle Dog named Bluey, born in 1910 and living for 29.5 years, but the record is unverified. Even if true, Bluey's record age would have to be regarded more as an uncharacteristic exception than as an indicator of common exceptional longevity for the entire breed. It remains, however, that Australian Cattle Dogs generally age well and appear to live on average almost a year longer than most dogs of other breeds in the same weight class. Many members of the breed are still well and active at 12 or 14 years of age, and some maintain their sight, hearing and even their teeth until their final days. Common health problems The Australian Cattle Dog carries recessive piebald alleles that produce white in the coat and skin and are linked to congenital hereditary deafness, though it is possible that there is a multi-gene cause for deafness in a dog with the piebald pigment genes. Around 2.4% of Cattle Dogs in one study were found to be deaf in both ears and 14.5% were deaf in at least one ear. The Australian Cattle Dog is one of the dog breeds affected by progressive retinal atrophy. It has the most common form, progressive rod-cone degeneration (PRCD), a condition that causes the rods and cones in the retina of the eye to deteriorate later in life, resulting in blindness. PRCD is an autosomal recessive trait and a dog can be a carrier of the affected gene without developing the condition. Hip dysplasia is not common in the breed, although it occurs sufficiently often for many breeders to have their breeding stock tested. The Cattle Dog has a number of inherited conditions, but most of these are not common. Hereditary polioencephalomyelopathy of the Australian Cattle Dog is a very rare condition caused by an inherited biochemical defect. Dogs identified with the condition were completely paralysed within their first year. Based on a sample of 69 still-living dogs, the most common health issues noted by owners were musculoskeletal (spondylosis, elbow dysplasia, and arthritis) and reproductive (pyometra, infertility, and false pregnancy), and blindness. A study of dogs diagnosed at Veterinary Colleges in the United States and Canada over a thirty-year period described fractures, lameness and cruciate ligament tears as the most common conditions in the Australian Cattle Dogs treated. History In Australia George Hall and his family arrived in the New South Wales Colony in 1802. By 1825, the Halls had established two cattle stations in the Upper Hunter Valley, and had begun a northward expansion into the Liverpool Plains, New England and Queensland. Getting his cattle to the Sydney markets presented a problem in that thousands of head of cattle had to be moved for thousands of kilometres along unfenced stock routes through sometimes rugged bush and mountain ranges. A note, in his own writing, records Thomas Hall's anger at losing 200 head in scrub. A droving dog was needed, but the colonial working dogs are understood to have been of the Old English Sheepdog type, commonly referred to as Smithfields. Descendants of these dogs still exist, but are useful only over short distances and for yard work with domesticated cattle. Thomas Hall addressed the problem by importing several of the dogs used by drovers in Northumberland, his parents' home county. At that time dogs were generally described by their job, regardless of whether they constituted a breed as it is currently understood. In the manner of the time, the Hall family historian, A. J. Howard, gave these blue mottled dogs a name: Northumberland Blue Merle Drovers Dog. Thomas Hall crossed his Drovers Dogs with dingoes he had tamed, and by 1840 was satisfied with his resulting progeny. During the next thirty years, the Halls Heelers, as they became known, were used only by the Halls. Given that they were dependent on the dogs, which gave them an advantage over other cattle breeders, it is understandable that the dogs were not distributed beyond the Hall's properties. It was not until after Thomas Hall's death in 1870, when the properties went to auction with the stock on them, that Halls Heelers became freely available. By the 1890s, the dogs had attracted the attention of the Cattle Dog Club of Sydney, a group of men with a recreational interest in the new practice of showing dogs competitively. None were stockmen working cattle on a daily basis, and initially they were interested in a range of working dogs, including the Smithfield. They reportedly adopted the term "Australian Cattle Dog" to refer to the dogs being bred from bloodlines originating from Thomas Hall's "heelers", and prominent members of the group concentrated on breeding these lines. Of these breeders, the Bagust family was the most influential. Robert Kaleski, of Moorebank, a young associate of Harry Bagust, wrote "in 1893 when I got rid of my cross-bred cattle dogs and took up the blues, breeders of the latter had started breeding ... to fix the type. I drew up a standard for them on those lines". This first breed standard for the Cattle Dog breed was published, with photographs, by the New South Wales Department of Agriculture in 1903. Kaleski's standard was adopted by breed clubs in Queensland and New South Wales and re-issued as their own, with local changes. His writings from the 1910s give an important insight into the early history of the breed. However, dog breeder and author Noreen Clark has noted that his opinions are sometimes just that, and he introduces some contradictory assertions in his later writings, as well as some assumptions that are illogical in the light of modern science. Some of these have persisted; for example he saw the red colour form as having more dingo in it than the blue form, and there is a persistent belief that reds are more vicious than blues. The most enduring of Kaleski's myths relate to Dalmatian and Kelpie infusions into the early Cattle Dog breed. These infusions are not referred to in Kaleski's writings until the 1920s and it seems likely that Kaleski sought to explain the Cattle Dog's mottled colouration and tan on legs by similarity to the Dalmatian and Kelpie, respectively. The genetics of coat colour, and the current understanding of hereditary characteristics, make the infusion of Dalmatian to increase the cattle dog's tolerance of horses an extremely unlikely event. There were relatively few motor vehicles in Australia at the beginning of the 20th century, so most dogs of any breed would have been accustomed to horses. The Kelpie breed was developed after the Cattle Dog type was described, so its infusion is unlikely. It is possible that there was some infusion of Bull Terrier but there is no verifiable record of this, and the Cattle Dog has not had the Bull Terrier's instinct to bite and hold, which would have been an undesirable trait. Early in the 1900s there was considerable in-fighting amongst members of the Cattle Dog Club, and a series of arguments about the origin of the breed appeared in newspapers and journals of the time. While many of these arguments were misleading, some irrational, and the majority not supported by historical facts, they continue to be circulated, resulting in a number of theories on the origins of the breed. In recent years, information technology enabling the manipulation of large databases combined with advances in the understanding of canine genetics has allowed a clearer understanding of the development of the breed. Through the 1890s, Cattle Dogs of Halls Heeler derivations were seen in the kennels of exhibiting Queensland dog breeders such as William Byrne of Booval, and these were a different population from those shown in New South Wales. Little Logic was bred in Rockdale, New South Wales, however Sydney exhibitors saw Little Logic for the first time after the dog had been added to the Hillview kennels of Arch Bevis in Brisbane. The show records of Little Logic and his offspring created a demand in New South Wales for Queensland dogs. By the end of the 1950s, there were few Australian Cattle Dogs whelped that were not descendants of Little Logic and his best known son, Logic Return. The success and popularity of these dogs led to the growth of the nickname "Queensland Heeler". The prominence of Little Logic and Logic Return in the pedigrees of modern Australian Cattle Dogs was perpetuated by Wooleston Kennels. For some twenty years, Wooleston supplied foundation and supplementary breeding stock to breeders in Australia, North America and Continental Europe. As a result, Wooleston Blue Jack is ancestral to most, if not all, Australian Cattle Dogs whelped since 1990 in any country. In the United States In the 1940s Alan McNiven, a Sydney veterinarian, introduced Dingo, Kelpie, German Shepherd, and Kangaroo Hound into his breeding program; however, the Royal Agricultural Society Kennel Club (RASKC) would not register the cross breeds as Australian Cattle Dogs, even though McNiven argued they were true to conformation, colour and temperament. McNiven responded by giving his pups registration papers from dead dogs, and was consequently expelled from the RASKC and all of his dogs removed from the registry. Meanwhile, Greg Lougher, a Napa, California cattle rancher who met Alan McNiven while stationed in Australia during World War II, had imported several adults and several litters from McNiven. After his de-registration McNiven continued to export his "improved" dogs to the United States. Many U.S. soldiers who were stationed in Queensland or NSW during the War discovered the Australian Cattle Dog and took one home when they returned. In the late 1950s a veterinarian in Santa Rosa, California, Jack Woolsey, was introduced to Lougher's dogs. With his partners, he bought several dogs and started breeding them. The breeders advertised the dogs in Western Horsemen stating they were guaranteed to work and calling them Queensland Heelers. Woolsey imported several purebred Australian Cattle Dogs to add to his breeding program, including Oaklea Blue Ace, Glen Iris Boomerang and several Glen Iris bitches. The National Stock Dog Registry of Butler, Indiana, registered the breed, assigning American numbers without reference to Australian registrations. Australian Cattle Dogs had been classified in the "miscellaneous" category at the American Kennel Club (AKC) since the 1930s; to get the breed full recognition, the AKC required that a National Breed Parent Club be organised for promotion and protection of the breed. In 1967 Esther Ekman met Chris Smith-Risk at an AKC show, and the two fell into conversation about their Australian Cattle Dogs and the process of establishing a parent club for the breed. By 1969 the fledgling club had 12 members and formally applied to the AKC for instructions. One of the requirements was that the club had to start keeping its own registry for the breed and that all dogs on the registry would have to be an extension of the Australian registry, tracing back to registered dogs in Australia. The AKC Parent Club members began researching their dogs, including exchanging correspondence with McNiven, and discovered that few of them had dogs that could be traced back to dogs registered in Australia. The AKC took over the club registry in 1979 and the breed was fully recognised in September 1980. The Australian Cattle Dog Club of America is still active in the promotion of the breed and the maintenance of breed standards. The National Stock Dog Registry continued to recognise Cattle Dogs without prerequisite links to Australian registered dogs, on the condition that any dog of unknown parentage that was presented for registry would be registered as an "American Cattle Dog", and all others would still be registered as "Australian Cattle Dogs". In Canada The breed gained official recognition from the Canadian Kennel Club in January 1980 after five years of collecting pedigrees, gathering support, and lobbying officials by two breeders and enthusiasts. The small number of Australian Cattle Dogs in Canada at the time were primarily working dogs on farms and ranches scattered across large distances. However, the fledgling breed club held conformation shows, obedience and agility competitions, and entered their dogs in sports including flyball and lure coursing. At the end of 1980, Landmaster Carina was named the first Australian Cattle Dog in Canada to gain both her conformation and obedience titles. In the United Kingdom The first registered Australian Cattle Dogs to arrive in the United Kingdom were two blue puppies, Lenthal Flinton and Lenthal Darlot, followed in 1980 by Landmaster Darling Red in whelp. Landmaster Darling Red was imported by John and Mary Holmes, and proved to be an outstanding brood bitch. Over the next few years additional Cattle Dogs arrived in the UK from the Netherlands, Kenya, Germany and Australia, although prior to relaxation of rules regarding artificial insemination, the UK gene pool was limited. In 1985 an Australian Cattle Dog Society was formed and officially recognised by the Kennel Club; before this they had to compete in the category "Any Variety Not Separately Classified". Australian Cattle Dogs were competing successfully in obedience and working trials in the UK during the 1980s. See also Texas Heeler References Bibliography External links FCI breeds Herding dogs Dog breeds originating in Australia

Costco

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Costco Wholesale Corporation (doing business as Costco Wholesale and also known simply as Costco) is an American multinational corporation which operates a chain of membership-only big-box retail stores (warehouse club). , Costco was the fifth largest retailer in the world, and the world's largest retailer of choice and prime beef, organic foods, rotisserie chicken, and wine . In 2021, Costco was ranked #10 on the Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. Costco's worldwide headquarters are in Issaquah, Washington, an eastern suburb of Seattle, although its Kirkland Signature house label bears the name of its former location in Kirkland. The company opened its first warehouse (the chain's term for its retail outlets) in Seattle Through mergers, however, Costco's corporate history dates back to 1976, when its former competitor Price Club was founded in San Diego, California. , Costco has 804 warehouses worldwide: 558 in the United States (including the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico), 103 in Canada, 39 in Mexico, 29 in the United Kingdom, 27 in Japan, 16 in South Korea, 14 in Taiwan, 13 in Australia, 4 in Spain, 2 in France, 1 in Iceland and 1 in mainland China. Costco regularly opens new locations. The company plans to open warehouses in 2022 for the first time in New Zealand, and Sweden. History Price Club Costco's earliest predecessor, Price Club, opened its first store on July 12, 1976, on Morena Boulevard in San Diego, California. It was founded three months earlier by Sol Price and his son, Robert, following a dispute with the new owners of FedMart, Price's previous membership-only discount store. Price Club was among the first retail warehouse clubs, beginning with its Morena Boulevard store inside a series of old airplane hangars once owned by Howard Hughes. The store, now known as Costco Warehouse #401, is still in operation today. Price Club's sales model was catered towards small business owners, selling items in bulk for a discounted price at no-frills outlets that were accessible with an annual membership fee. The company launched an initial public offering in 1980 and expanded to 24 locations in the Southwest and 1.1 million members by early 1986. Price Club expanded into Canada in 1986, opening a store in Montreal, and followed with a Mexico City store in 1992 as part of a joint venture with hypermarket chain Controladora Comercial Mexicana. The company also announced plans to open stores in Spain and Portugal through their Canadian subsidiary. Costco opens James (Jim) Sinegal and Jeffrey H. Brotman opened the first Costco warehouse in Seattle on September 15, 1983. Sinegal had started in wholesale distribution by working for Sol Price at FedMart; Brotman, an attorney from an old Seattle retailing family, had also been involved in retail distribution from an early age. He began his retail involvement as a grocery bagger. A second store opened in Portland in October, and a third in Spokane in The company went public in 1985. The company was initially headquartered at its first warehouse in Seattle, but moved its headquarters to Kirkland in 1987. The "PriceCostco" merger In 1993, Costco and Price Club agreed to merge operations themselves after Price declined an offer from Walmart to merge Price Club with their warehouse store chain, Sam's Club. Costco's business model and size were similar to those of Price Club, which made the merger more natural for both companies. The combined company took the name PriceCostco, and memberships became universal, meaning that a Price Club member could use their membership to shop at Costco and vice versa. PriceCostco boasted 206 locations generating $16billion in annual sales. PriceCostco was initially led by executives from both companies, but in 1994, the Price brothers left the company to form PriceSmart, a warehouse club chain in Central America and the Caribbean unrelated to the current Costco. In 1996, Costco moved its headquarters from Kirkland to its current location in Issaquah. In 1997, Costco changed its name to Costco Wholesale Corporation, and all remaining Price Club locations were rebranded Other company milestones In 2005, Costco replaced its first Seattle warehouse with a new warehouse on an adjacent lot. The company was able to arrange to keep the same address for the new building. On April 26, 2012, CNBC premiered its documentary, The Costco Craze: Inside the Warehouse Giant. In 2014, Costco was the third largest retailer in the United States. That year Costco announced plans to open an online store in China using Alibaba Group. Costco announced the opening of 29 new locations in 2016, the most in one year since 2007. Span Construction, led by King Husein, has constructed almost all of Costco's buildings since 1989. On August 27, 2019, Costco opened its first Chinese location, in Shanghai. The popular attention which greeted the store's opening led to its opening day being cut short over safety concerns. Costco today In the United States, Costco's main competitors operating membership warehouses are Sam's Club and BJ's Wholesale Club. Costco employs 254,000 full and part-time employees worldwide. In 2016, Costco had 86.7million members. This increased to 90.3million members in 2017. and 94.3million in 2018. In 2019, Costco had 98.5million members. In 2020, Costco had 105.5million members. Costco was the first company to grow from zero to $3billion in sales in under six years. For the fiscal year ending on August 31, 2012, the company's sales totaled $97.062billion, with $1.709billion net profit. , Costco is ranked on the Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. The ACSI (The American Customer Satisfaction Index) named Costco number one in the specialty retail store industry with a score of 84 in 2014. From December 2013, Costco's board of directors was chaired by co-founder Jeffrey H. Brotman and included James Sinegal, co-founder and director, and two officers of the company: president/CEO W. Craig Jelinek and CFO Richard A. Galanti. On August 1, 2017, Jeffrey Brotman died. , James Sinegal and W. Craig Jelinek remained on the board. Jim Sinegal stepped down in 2018. Locations , Costco had 804 warehouses worldwide: 558 in the United States 103 in Canada 39 in Mexico 29 in the United Kingdom 27 in Japan 16 in South Korea 14 in Taiwan 13 in Australia 4 in Spain 2 in France 2 in mainland China 1 in Iceland 1 in New Zealand (opening in 2022) 1 in Sweden (opening in 2022) New Costco locations are opened regularly. In 2022, the company plans to open warehouses for the first time in New Zealand and Sweden. International locations Warehouses outside the U.S. are similar to the company's domestic locations, featuring generally identical layout, signage, and even parking lot markings. Food court menus are tailored to international tastes, with meat pies on offer in Australia; poutine in Canada and France; seafood-topped pizza in Asian locations; pastor taco-topped pizzas in Mexico; clam chowder in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan; plokkfiskur in Iceland; and jacket potatoes in the UK. Additionally, Costco has led a strategic initiative to enhance the merchandise mix available at international warehouses by tailoring products to local tastes, offering a selection of both American and local products. In Canada, it is a participant in the voluntary Scanner Price Accuracy Code managed by the Retail Council of Canada. Largest locations In 2005, the world's largest Costco by square feet was located in Hillsboro, Oregon. In 2015, Costco completed an expansion in Salt Lake City, making it the new largest Costco at . In 2019, Costco opened its biggest store in Canada, in St. John's; the store is . In 2011, Costco's highest volume store was in Seoul, South Korea. In 2018, Taiwan's Taichung ranked at the top in the number of members and was second in the world in sales volume, behind South Korea's Yangjae store in Seoul. Of the 13 Costco operations in Taiwan, three – Taichung, Neihu, and Chungho – ranked in the top 10 in the world in sales volume. Costco Business Centers Costco Business Centers are warehouses similar to regular Costco warehouses, and are open to all Costco members, regardless of membership type. Their merchandise caters predominantly to enterprises, with a focus on small businesses. Business Centers do not carry most consumer items like clothing, jewelry, media, and tires, while carrying larger quantities and more options for the business products they do carry. More than 70% of the items that can be acquired from a Costco Business Center cannot be found in a typical Costco store. Some locations do have a food court, a gas station, or both. Unlike regular warehouses, most Costco Business Centers have a Print & Copy Center which provides printing professional services. They have large parking spaces for trucks and are capable of delivering goods to businesses in bulk quantities, with a delivery charge of $25 for orders that are below $250. Costco Business Center operating hours are shorter than regular warehouses (usually opening at 7:00 am on Mondays to Saturdays and closed on Sundays), while discounts and coupons for Business Centers are issued separately from regular warehouses. Locations , there are 20 Costco Business Centers in the United States, located in Orlando, Florida; Dallas, Texas; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Phoenix, Arizona; California (Commerce, Hawthorne, Hayward, North Hollywood, Sacramento, San Diego, South San Francisco, Ontario and Westminster); Denver, Colorado; Morrow, Georgia; Bedford Park, Illinois; Hackensack, New Jersey; Las Vegas, Nevada; and Washington (Lynnwood, and Fife). A Business Center in San Marcos, California is scheduled to open in March 2022. The first Costco Business Center outside the U.S. opened in Canada in Scarborough, Toronto in spring 2017. In September 2020, the second Canadian Costco Business Centre opened in Saint-Hubert, Quebec, near Montreal. A third Canadian Business Centre is set to open in the Montreal neighbourhood of Anjou in June 2022. Finances For the fiscal year 2019, Costco reported earnings of US$3.659billion, with an annual revenue of US$152.703billion, an increase of 7.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Costco's shares traded at over $205 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$95.7billion in October 2018. Business model Costco is a membership only warehouse which generates a majority of its revenue from retail sales and a small percentage from membership fees. Customers must buy memberships to access the warehouse and make purchases. This is executed through the direct sourcing and efficient inventory management techniques. Costco divides its business into three segments: United States Operations, Canadian Operations, and Other International Operations. These 3 business segments are reported by revenue and operating income. Of the three, the United States Operations was the largest, followed by Canadian Operations. Sales model The company's rule is that no regular item may be marked up more than 14% over cost, and no Kirkland Signature item may be marked up more than 15% over cost. The company runs very lean, with overhead costs at about 10% of revenue and profit margins at 2%. Costco's annual membership fees (US$60/year for Gold Star, US$120/year for Executive ) account for 80% of Costco's gross margin and 70% of its operating income. If Costco feels the wholesale price of any individual product is too high, they will refuse to stock the product. For example, in November 2009, Costco announced that it would stop selling Coca-Cola products, because the soft-drink maker refused to lower its wholesale prices. Costco resumed selling Coca-Cola products the following month. Although the brand engages in visible efforts to reduce costs, the stores themselves are expensive. In 2013, Costco spent approximately $80million on each of the new stores it opened. The cost is partly driven by the cost of real estate, as each new store means that they need enough space to support a building of approximately in size, a large parking lot, and often a gas station. Lighting costs are reduced on sunny days, as most Costco locations have several skylights. During the day, electronic light meters measure how much light is coming in the skylights and turn off an appropriate percentage of the interior lights. During an average sunny day, it is normal for the center section of the warehouse not to have interior lights in use. The company has no public relations department and buys no outside advertising. A typical Costco warehouse carries only 3,700 distinct products, while a typical Walmart Supercenter carries approximately 140,000 products. Like many other retailers vertically integrating their food supply chains, Costco has brought in-house poultry production for their rotisserie chickens, which are a major driver of customer traffic and sales. This is to allow keeping their pricing intact while maintaining a consistent quality control of its chickens as a result of annual growth of per-capita chicken consumption in the United States. Costco is known for its "exit greeters", who briefly compare receipts against shopping cart contents as customers exit. They are trained to quickly count cart contents and serve as a form of customer service to verify that customers were charged correctly, have redeemed any voucher-based items (e.g., tickets), and have not missed items placed in their cart's lower racks. Costco has used exit greeters since its first store in 1983. Online shopping Costco primarily focuses on getting members to come in to a warehouse for purchases, instead of ordering products online. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Costco's online sales increased dramatically, with more online sales growth in 2020 than the previous 5 years combined. The company opened its online shopping site at Costco.com on April 17, 2001. Costco.com is for United States members; costco.ca is for Canadian members, and other countries, such as Mexico, South Korea, Taiwan and the UK, each have their own online Costco shopping website. Instacart offers Costco delivery in a select number of states including Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, North Carolina, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, and the District of Columbia. No membership is needed to order from Costco on Instacart, but Instacart charges delivery fees and the prices may not necessarily be the same as in a Costco warehouse. Similarly, in March 2017, Costco initiated a partnership with Shipt, an online grocery delivery service. Unlike Instacart, Shipt charges its own membership fee, $99 a year or $14 a month, in exchange for free delivery on orders over $35. , Shipt offers Costco delivery in select Florida markets. In October 2017, Costco launched same-day and two-day grocery delivery options for members. Products Costco has a frequently changing inventory and is known for carrying products for a time, then discontinuing them or using them as seasonal products. Over the years, Costco has gradually expanded its range of products and services. Initially, it preferred to sell only boxed products that could be dispensed by simply tearing the stretch wrap off a pallet. It now sells many other products that are more difficult to handle, such as art, books, caskets, clothing, computer software, fine wine, furniture, home appliances, home electronics, hot tubs, jewelry, perishable items (such as dairy, fresh baked goods, flowers, fresh produce, meat, seafood), solar panels, tires, and vacuum cleaners. Many warehouses also have gas stations, pharmacies, hearing aid centers, optometrists, eye and sunglass centers, photo processors, and tire garages. The produce items that require refrigeration are kept in a walk-in refrigerator, and several locations even have a walk-in refrigerator for dairy items. Some locations have liquor stores, often kept separate from the main warehouse in order to comply with liquor license restrictions. In some states (such as Texas), the liquor store must be owned and operated by a separate company with separate employees. In 2006, Costco lost a lawsuit against the state of Washington in which it was seeking to purchase wine directly from the producer, bypassing the state retail monopoly. In Australia, Costco has to comply with regulations set by each state they choose to trade in; their first store in the Australian state of Victoria benefits from some of the most liberal alcohol licensing laws in that country, with retailers permitted to sell alcohol on shelves within the store, in a manner similar to most European countries. In the Canadian province of Quebec, beer and wine are sold within the stores from pallets. Kirkland Signature "Kirkland Signature" is Costco's private label brand, used for a variety of products sold at Costco's warehouses and website. Costco introduced Kirkland Signature in 1992, deriving the name from the location of Costco's then corporate headquarters, Kirkland, Washington (their headquarters later moved, roughly , to Issaquah, Washington). It accounts for almost a third of all Costco sales and is growing faster than Costco sales. Many Kirkland Signature products are produced by the same manufacturers as their respective name brands. For example, Kirkland branded bottled water is produced by private label bottler Niagara Bottling, and some of Kirkland's branded coffee is roasted by Starbucks. The idea for the private label was to provide the appearance of brand name quality products at discounted prices. To counteract the consumer confidence problem common in store-name branding, Kirkland Signature occasionally employs co-branding. According to Costco, while consumers may be wary of same-store branding, they are less likely to be wary of brands that they are familiar with and trust. Publications Costco Connection Costco Connection is a magazine sent free to the Costco executive members; it can also be accessed online by anyone, free of charge. Until the end of 2018, the magazine was known as The Costco Connection. But with the January/February 2019 issue, "the", the definite article was dropped from the name and now the magazine is known as just Costco Connection. The magazine was established in 1987 as a newsprint publication and converted to a magazine in 1997. It features articles which regularly tie into the corporation along with business, celebrity features, cooking, entertaining, health, home improvement, and social articles, as well as coupons and ads. MediaPost reports: "While about 90% of the magazine's advertising is co-op, increasingly national advertisers such as Procter & Gamble are buying space, notes Roeglin -- presumably because of the pub's gargantuan reach and the data it has on its subscribers (whose average household income is $156,000 a year). 'We see about 56% of our subscribers a month buy something at one of our stores based on something they've read in the magazine,' says Roeglin." The magazine is one of the largest-circulation print monthlies in the United States and presently is the third in circulation figures in the United States after AARP The Magazine and AARP Bulletin. Other publications Costco also publishes the Costco Household Almanac, an annual edition started in 2007. The 200+ pages almanac carries a lot of helpful tips to Costco readers and carries ads from suppliers. Costco also publishes a cookbook series. Services Concierge service Costco offers a free "concierge" service to members who purchase electronics, to help answer questions regarding setup and use and avoid potential returns due to not understanding how to use the products. Costco Auto Program In 2020, Costco Auto Program Approved Dealerships sold nearly 700,000 vehicles to Costco members. Costco Auto Program regularly teams up with various automobile manufacturers to offer special deals to customers, e.g., Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Audi, Volvo, Mercedes Benz, Honda, Subaru and many more during the past five years. MSN reports, Costco members saved an average of $1,100 to $1,200 off the average transaction price for their vehicle in their local market. KSAT.com says it's simple to use Costco Auto Program. All you have to do is go to the Costco Auto Program webpage and you can browse the available vehicles, calculate monthly payments, and read reviews. You can also call the company’s customer-service line to have an employee walk you through the process over the phone. There are a variety of vehicle segments, including sedans, sports cars, SUVs, trucks, and crossovers. Once you provide your contact info and Costco membership number, you can go to participating dealership and you can buy or lease the vehicle with the Costco discount. In addition, members are also able to get a 15% discount on parts, service, and accessories at participating service centers. Costco Auto and Home Insurance Costco has an agreement with CONNECT, powered by American Family Insurance, for auto insurance, home insurance and umbrella insurance. Costco business services On March 9, 2005, NOVA Information Systems (NOVA) partnered with Costco to market and support payment processing services to Costco Canada's Business Executive Members. Costco acts as an investment broker and travel agent. Costco photo services Costco Photo Center is a multi-functional photography printing service offering photo items through its website, costcophotocenter.com. The website provides free unlimited digital file storage with a current membership. Prior to February 14, 2021, in-store photo centers offered many services such as same day photo printing (on select sizes/material) and online order pickup. In-store service/pickup is no longer offered, as all in-store photo centers closed permanently on February 14, 2021. In December 2005, Costco signed an agreement with PhotoChannel Networks Inc., whereby Costco could deploy the PNI Digital Media Platform to offer online photo printing for Costco members through the website. Prior to May or June 2010, Costco had an agreement with Mypublisher.com for custom book and calendar publishing. Photo-books and calendars are now processed through multiple external vendors. Canvases are processed and printed by Your Photo on Canvas (ypoc.com), a Costco exclusive vendor. On July 17, 2015, Costco disabled their online photo site. In common with other retailers, there is currently no confirmation about whether hackers had stolen Costco customers' photographs or data. , Costco was estimating the website might return in mid-August, after a four-week outage. On January 13, 2021, Costco announced that it would permanently be closing the Photo Centers in all its locations by February 14, 2021. Many of the services are still available for home/business shipping, though in-store ink refills and passport photography were discontinued. Costco Optical Costco Optical ranks as the fifth-largest optical company in the US, . Optometrists working at Costco locations will see patients without Costco memberships, although a membership is required to fill a prescription at the optical department. Costco Travel Costco Travel is a wholly owned subsidiary of Costco Wholesale and offers leisure travel to Costco members of the United States and Canada. The program was established in 2000 as a service to Costco members. Costco Travel's offices are located in Issaquah, Washington, adjacent to Costco's corporate headquarters. Costco Travel employs over 700 travel professionals, all of them Costco employees. The program offers vacation packages to the Caribbean, Europe, Florida, Hawaii, Las Vegas, Mexico, and the South Pacific. Other products include car rentals, cruises, guided vacations, and theme park packages. Select products feature additional benefits for Costco Executive Members. The program is marketed directly to Costco members through various Costco avenues, including the Travel Guide to Savings (found in all U.S. Costco warehouses) and in the Travel section of Costco.com. Food service In 1985, Costco started to sell freshly prepared food through a hot dog cart at its original Seattle warehouse. Most Costco locations now have a food court. They can be indoors or outdoors, but the menu is essentially the same: hot dog with drink (one of the most popular items), pizza, frozen yogurt/ice cream, Pepsico beverages, baked items, and sandwiches. Sometimes, items are added to the menu seasonally. Costco offers a quarter-pound 100% beef hot dog and drink (with refills) for , the same price since 1985. Some US locations also offer Polish sausage or bratwurst in addition to hot dogs, at the same $1.50 price. In Australia, the hot dog is made of pork and is sold with a large soda for AUD$1.99. In Canada, the price for a hot dog and soda with refills is C$1.50. In Mexico, the hot dog is made of 100% beef and includes a drink (with refills) for MXN$35. In the UK, the hot dog is also made from beef and customers also get a drink (with refills) for £1.50. Costco sold more than 137million quarter-pound (113 g) hot dogs in its food courts in 2017. In Taiwan and Japan, the hot dog is made of pork as well. As of January 2021, cheese or pepperoni pizza (along with pre-ordering of full pizzas to take home), chicken bakes, ice cream (vanilla), ice cream sundae (vanilla, with very berry or chocolate sauce toppings), fruit smoothies, latte freeze (without chocolate), mocha freeze (with chocolate), and twisted churros (in select stores) are offered at all United States locations. Some food court items are only available in certain countries. For example, the bulgogi bake and mango boba tea are only available in Australia, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan; poutine is available in Canada and France. There are, however, temporary menu items available exclusively in several countries, like the pastor taco-topped pizzas in Mexico. The nutrition data for the Costco Food Court items is posted online and in store. Past menu items include veggie and combo pizza, frozen yogurt (chocolate, vanilla, or swirl), beef bake, turkey provolone sandwiches, chicken Caesar salads, beef brisket sandwiches, organic beef-based cheeseburgers, beef chili with beans, and in some locations, gelato. Due to slow sales, in 2009, the pretzel was replaced by the churro. In April 2013, Pepsi replaced all Coca-Cola fountain drinks at U.S. locations because Coke had raised its prices; this helped keep the hot dog combo with soda at its original price. In select Costco food courts, Costco was selling cheeseburgers for a limited time to experiment sales. The cheeseburger was not successful, and never spread to more than a few locations. In early 2020 (due to COVID-19), many locations suspended all food court operations within the warehouse, opening them up weeks later to a limited take-out only menu and replacing fountain sodas with canned beverages. Many locations have had their seating area removed. As of January 2021, all United States locations are open for partial service (with a changed menu). Payment card-only self-checkout systems have also been added to the food courts, allowing employees to focus solely on serving, and removing the exchange of paper and coin money. Seating was also restored in many locations. Costco credit card On April 1, 2016, in US, Citigroup became the exclusive issuer of Costco's branded credit cards. Prior to that, Costco credit cards had been issued by American Express since 2001, and Costco accepted only American Express cards for credit transactions. After the switch of its co-branded cards to Citi, Costco ceased accepting AmEx and began accepting Visa. AmEx cited the reason for the split that Costco was asking for lower transaction fees than AmEx was willing to grant. In Canada, Costco ended its AmEx relationship in 2014, and starting in 2015, it partnered with Capital One Mastercard for branded credit cards. In 2020, Capital One announced it would be ending the partnership in late 2021. It was announced that beginning in March 2022, Costco will begin a partnership with CIBC Mastercard. Costco branded credit cards from both issuers also serve as alternate Costco membership cards, with a customized reverse side containing membership info. Costco Audiobook App In March 2021, Costco started selling audiobooks and launched a corresponding iOS and Android app to listen to purchases. The app is free, however the books are exclusive to Costco members. The retailer sells audiobooks in bundles grouped by genre or author, with prices ranging from $5 to $50. Audiobooks are currently only available at U.S. locations. Labor relations Employee rights While some former Price Club locations in California and the northeastern United States are staffed by Teamsters, the majority of Costco locations are not unionized, although there seemed to be a move in 2012 to unionize some locations in Canada. The Teamsters claim that over 15,000 Costco employees are union members. The non-union locations have revisions to their Costco Employee Agreement every three years concurrent with union contract ratifications in locations with collective bargaining agreements. The Employee Agreement sets forth such things as benefits, wages, disciplinary procedures, paid holidays, bonuses, and seniority. The Employee Agreement is subject to change by Costco at any time and offers no absolute protection to the workers. , non-supervisory hourly wages ranged from $16.00 to $27.75 in the U.S., $16.00 to $28.70 in Canada, and £9.75 to £13.90 in the United Kingdom. In the U.S. , eighty-fivepercent of Costco's workers had health insurance, compared with less than fifty percent at Walmart and Target. Health benefits include coverage through Aetna, remote primary care through Teladoc, second opinions and clinical navigation by Grand Rounds, and wellness coaching by Omada. In February 2021, Costco announced that it would be raising the starting rate for its hourly store workers in the United States to $16 an hour. Costco has been actively raising their minimum wage starting with $14 during 2018, and into $15 during 2019. They further add that 20% of their hourly employees will be subject to the minimum wage change. Contractors Product-demonstration (e.g., food samples) employees work for an independent company. In the western U.S., the company is called Warehouse Demo Services, Kirkland, Washington. Costco also uses Club Demonstration Services (CDS), based in San Diego, California. Demonstration employees receive a pay and benefit package that is less than that of Costco employees. , demonstrations/samples are provided by CDS in Canada. Public health Following the COVID-19 outbreak, the first Costco store in Perth, Australia, unexpectedly opened on March 19, 2020, without an opening ceremony and earlier than its planned time of 8:00AM due to high demand, especially for toilet paper products, to ease panic buying in mainstream supermarkets in Australia, although toilet paper was limited to only one per transaction. Carts and other objects were cleaned regularly to minimize the risk of contracting the virus. As of March 6, 2020, Costco contractor CDS has temporarily stopped providing free food samples in several Costco stores globally amid public health concerns regarding COVID-19. On December 23, 2020, a Costco store in Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico, was forced to temporarily close after the store ignored restrictions on store capacity. Discontinued concepts Costco Home The first Costco Home warehouse opened in 1983, and was rebuilt / expanded in 2002, in Seattle. The warehouse's concept was to combine the value, setting and members-only elements of Costco's warehouse clubs with the product array one would find at an upscale home store, such as Fortunoff or Crate & Barrel. The Costco Home warehouses sold furniture, housewares, kitchen products and accessories from higher-end brands such as Lexington, Ralph Lauren and Waterford in a warehouse-club setting. Costco claimed that, similar to its main warehouses, it accepted lower margins in return for greater volume with minimal overhead. Over time, the concept was adjusted to include home electronics, some major appliances, office furniture, and a large selection of outdoor furniture and window treatments. Costco also partners with Glentel subsidiary WIRELESS etc. to sell mobile phones and plans in Canada and Wireless Advocates in the US. On April 2, 2009, the company announced that it would be abandoning its Costco Home concept, closing the two existing stores in Kirkland, Washington and Tempe, Arizona on July 3, 2009, and abandoning plans for a third store on the West Coast. The company cited cutbacks in consumer spending on home products and its interest in focusing on its core business as the main reasons. Controversies In 2010, Mercy for Animals conducted an undercover investigation at Buckeye Veal Farm, a veal supplier to Costco. Immediately following the investigative release, Costco adopted a policy against purchasing veal from producers that use the crate-and-chain production method. The case prompted Ohio lawmakers to vote in favor of a veal crate phase-out in the state. In 2012, Mercy for Animals conducted another undercover investigation of a pork supplier to major retailers such as Costco, Walmart, Safeway, Kroger, and Kmart. Before the public release of the investigation, Costco announced they would begin requiring their pork suppliers to phase out gestation crates. In 2014, The Guardian reported that Costco is a client of Charoen Pokphand Foods. Over six months, The Guardian traced down a supply chain from slave ships in Asian waters to leading producers and retailers. Costco has published a statement saying it has had a supplier code of conduct since 1999 which does not allow this practice, and that independent auditors check for violations regularly. In 2015, The Humane Society of the United States conducted an undercover investigation at an egg supplier to Costco. An undercover worker at Hillandale Farms, a major egg supplier to Costco, filmed conditions in which egg-laying hens lived in tiny, wire cages. Following the investigations, several celebrities including Brad Pitt and Ryan Gosling publicly wrote to Costco to address this issue. Following efforts by animal protection nonprofits including The Humane League, Costco released an updated commitment to source exclusively cage-free eggs in its operations. In 2016, a follow up to Costco's shift to cage-free eggs by animal rights group Direct Action Everywhere (DxE) reported cannibalism and high mortality at a cage-free Costco egg supplier. Costco denied the allegations, but the video sparked a discussion about animal welfare problems continuing to exist at cage-free egg farms. Writing in The Huffington Post, DxE co-founder Wayne Hsiung argued that the new investigation, rather than suggesting that Costco should keep birds in cages, indicated that hens should have the right not to be raised for food or kept on farms at all. In August 2017, a federal judge ordered a "deceptive" Costco to pay Tiffany & Co. $19.4million for misleading consumers into thinking they could buy legitimate Tiffany merchandise at warehouse club prices. Costco was criticised in 2019 by the Natural Resources Defense Council and Sumofus for using virgin Canadian boreal forest to make its toilet paper. NRDC says that over the last twenty years, 28 million acres of Canadian boreal forest have been cut down to make toilet paper. In September 2020, CBS News reported that Costco has stopped selling Palmetto Cheese after the owner of the pimento cheese brand called Black Lives Matter a "terror organization." Costco posted a note to the item in their Myrtle Beach location indicating that the item will not be reordered, and over 120 Costco's throughout the US will no longer be carrying the item. In October 2020, Costco dropped Chaokoh coconut milk over the allegations of forced monkey labor. PETA accused the manufacturer, Theppadungporn Coconut Co., of using forced monkey labor, finding cruelty to monkeys at their farms and facilities. Ken Kimble, Costco's Vice President of Corporate Food and Sundries, stated Costco has launched an investigation regarding the issue and have ceased purchasing from the supplier/owner of the brand Chaokoh condemning the use of monkey labor. Kimble also stated that Costco will continue to monitor the implementation of the harvest policies and once satisfied will resume purchasing. In December 2020, Costco announced plans to disuse caged eggs throughout its operations worldwide. It became the first US retailer to issue a global policy on the confinement of animals in its supply chain. Josh Dahmen, Costco financial planning and investor relations director also said that "We are in the process of making that transition to cage-free eggs. We will continue to increase the percentage over time, with a goal of eventually getting to 100%." See also Bulk foods References External links Official UK website Kirkland Signature Why every Costco product is called 'Kirkland Signature'? - CNN 1983 establishments in Washington (state) Companies based in King County, Washington Companies listed on the Nasdaq Discount stores of Canada Discount stores of the United States Online retailers of the United States Organizations based in Issaquah, Washington American companies established in 1983 Retail companies established in 1983 Supermarkets of the United States Supermarkets of Canada Supermarkets of Mexico Supermarkets of the United Kingdom Supermarkets of Japan Supermarkets of South Korea Supermarkets of Taiwan Supermarkets of Australia Supermarkets of Spain Supermarkets of Iceland Supermarkets of France Supermarkets of China

Las Vegas Strip

eng_Latn

The Las Vegas Strip is a stretch of Las Vegas Boulevard South in Clark County, Nevada, that is known for its concentration of resort hotels and casinos. The Strip, as it is known, is about long, and is immediately south of the Las Vegas city limits in the unincorporated towns of Paradise and Winchester, but is often referred to simply as "Las Vegas". Many of the largest hotel, casino, and resort properties in the world are on the Strip, known for its contemporary architecture, lights, and wide variety of attractions. Its hotels, casinos, restaurants, residential high-rises, entertainment offerings, and skyline have established the Strip as one of the most popular and iconic tourist destinations in the world and is one of the driving forces for Las Vegas' economy. Most of the Strip has been designated as an All-American Road, and the North and South Las Vegas Strip routes are classified as Nevada Scenic Byways and National Scenic Byways. Boundaries Historically, casinos that were not in Downtown Las Vegas along Fremont Street sat outside the city limits on Las Vegas Boulevard. In 1959, the Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign was built exactly outside the city limits. The sign is currently located in the median just south of Russell Road, across from the location of the now-demolished Klondike Hotel and Casino and about south of the southernmost entrance to Mandalay Bay, which is the Strip's southernmost casino. In the strictest sense, "the Strip" refers only to the stretch of Las Vegas Boulevard that is roughly between Sahara Avenue and Russell Road, a distance of . Clark County uses the phrase Resort Corridor to describe the area including Las Vegas Boulevard between 215 Beltway and Sahara Avenue and surrounding areas. The Sahara is widely considered the Strip's northern terminus, though travel guides typically extend it to the Strat to the north. Mandalay Bay, just north of Russell Road, is the southernmost resort considered to be on the Strip (the Klondike was the southernmost until 2006, when it was closed, although it was not included in the Strip on some definitions and travel guides). The Strip includes the "Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas" sign. History Early years (1930s–1990s) The first casino to be built on Highway 91 was the Pair-o-Dice Club in 1931, but the first casino-resort on what is currently the Strip was the El Rancho Vegas, which opened with 63 rooms on April 3, 1941 (and was destroyed by a fire in 1960). Its success spawned a second hotel on what would become the Strip, the Hotel Last Frontier in 1942. Organized crime figures such as New York's Bugsy Siegel took interest in the growing gaming center, and funded other resorts such as the Flamingo, which opened in 1946, and the Desert Inn, which opened in 1950. The funding for many projects was provided through the American National Insurance Company, which was based in the then-notorious gambling empire of Galveston, Texas. Las Vegas Boulevard South was previously called Arrowhead Highway, or Los Angeles Highway. The Strip was named by Los Angeles police officer and businessman Guy McAfee, after his hometown's Sunset Strip. In 1950, mayor Ernie Cragin of the City of Las Vegas sought to annex the Strip, which was unincorporated territory, in order to expand the city's tax base to fund his ambitious building agenda and pay down the city's rising debt. Instead, Gus Greenbaum of the Flamingo led a group of casino executives to lobby the Clark County commissioners for town status. Two unincorporated towns were eventually created, Paradise and Winchester. More than two decades later, the Supreme Court of Nevada struck down a 1975 Nevada state law that would have folded the Strip and the rest of the urban areas of Clark County into the City of Las Vegas. Caesars Palace was established in 1966. In 1968, Kirk Kerkorian purchased the Flamingo and hired Sahara Hotels Vice President Alex Shoofey as president. Alex Shoofey brought along 33 of Sahara's top executives. The Flamingo was used to train future employees of the International Hotel, which was under construction. Opening in 1969, the International Hotel, with 1,512 rooms, began the era of mega-resorts. The International is known as Westgate Las Vegas today. The first MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, also a Kerkorian property, opened in 1973 with 2,084 rooms. At the time, this was one of the largest hotels in the world by number of rooms. The Rossiya Hotel built in 1967 in Moscow, for instance, had 3,200 rooms; however, most of the rooms in the Rossiya Hotel were single rooms of 118 sq. ft (roughly 1/4 size of a standard room at the MGM Grand Resort). On November 21, 1980, the MGM Grand suffered the worst resort fire in the history of Las Vegas as a result of electrical problems, killing 87 people. It reopened eight months later. In 1986, Kerkorian sold the MGM Grand to Bally Manufacturing, and it was renamed Bally's. The opening of The Mirage in 1989 set a new level to the Las Vegas experience, as smaller hotels and casinos made way for the larger mega-resorts. Some of the key features of The Mirage included tropical landscapes with waterfalls, an erupting volcano, restaurants with world-class chefs, and a show with illusionists Siegfried & Roy. In the 1990s, more than 12 new hotels opened, including themed hotels like the Luxor, Excalibur, and Mandalay Bay. At $1.7B, the most expensive hotel in the world at the time, The Bellagio, was built in the 1990s. These huge facilities offer entertainment and dining options, as well as gambling and lodging. This change affected the smaller, well-known and now historic hotels and casinos, like the Dunes, the Sands, and the Stardust. In 1993, the launch of the Mystére show at the new Treasure Island hotel by Cirque du Soleil marked a key point in transforming Las Vegas Strip entertainment. In an effort to attract families, resorts offered more attractions geared toward youth, but had limited success. The Wet 'n Wild water park opened in 1985 and was located on the south side of the Sahara hotel. It closed at the end of the 2004 season and was later demolished. The current MGM Grand opened in 1993 with MGM Grand Adventures Theme Park, but the park closed in 2000 due to lack of interest. Similarly, in 2003 Treasure Island closed its own video arcade and abandoned the previous pirate theme, adopting the new ti name. In addition to the large hotels, casinos and resorts, the Strip is home to many attractions, such as M&M's World, Adventuredome and the Fashion Show Mall. Starting in the mid-1990s, the Strip became a popular New Year's Eve celebration destination. 2000–present With the opening of Bellagio, Venetian, Palazzo, Wynn and Encore resorts, the strip trended towards the luxurious high end segment through most of the 2000s, while some older resorts added major expansions and renovations, including some de-theming of the earlier themed hotels. High end dining, specialty retail, spas and nightclubs increasingly became options for visitors in addition to gambling at most Strip resorts. There was also a trend towards expensive residential condo units on the strip. In 2004, MGM Mirage announced plans for CityCenter, a , $7 billion multi-use project on the site of the Boardwalk hotel and adjoining land. It consists of hotel, casino, condo, retail, art, business and other uses on the site. CityCenter is currently the largest such complex in the world. Construction began in April 2006, with most elements of the project opened in late 2009. Also in 2006, the Las Vegas Strip lost its longtime status as the world's highest-grossing gambling center, falling to second place behind Macau. In 2012, the High Roller Ferris wheel and a retail district called The LINQ Promenade broke ground in an attempt to diversify attractions beyond that of casino resorts. Renovations and rebrandings such as The Cromwell Las Vegas and the SLS Las Vegas continued to transform the Strip in 2014. The Las Vegas Festival Grounds opened in 2015. In 2016, T-Mobile Arena, The Park, and the Park Theater opened. On October 1, 2017, a mass shooting occurred on the Strip at the Route 91 Harvest country music festival, adjacent to the Mandalay Bay hotel. 60 people were killed and 867 were injured. This incident became the deadliest mass shooting in modern United States history. In 2018, the Monte Carlo Resort and Casino was renamed the Park MGM and in 2019, the SLS changed its name back to Sahara Las Vegas. In 2021, the Pinball Hall of Fame moved near the "Fabulous Las Vegas" sign at the south end of the Strip. Also in 2021, Resorts World Las Vegas, the first new hotel-casino built in a decade, opened on the site of the former Stardust Resort and Casino (later the site of the unfinished Echelon Place). Future developments The MSG Sphere at The Venetian, including a monorail stop, is being built behind The Palazzo and The Venetian. It was scheduled to open in 2021, but has been rescheduled to sometime in 2023. The Fontainebleau Las Vegas (formerly the JW Marriott Las Vegas Blvd/The Drew Las Vegas) is expected to open in the fourth quarter of 2023. Dream Las Vegas, a casino and 20-story boutique hotel next to Harry Reid International Airport (formerly McCarran Field) is scheduled to begin construction in 2022 for an opening in 2024. Astral Hotels planned to start building Astral, a 34-story, 620-room hotel and casino on the southern Las Vegas Strip, but the project is delayed. The All Net Resort & Arena was scheduled to break ground in October 2021. It will include a 23,000 seat retractable roof arena, two hotels and a theatre. Transportation Buses RTC Transit (previously Citizens Area Transit, or CAT) provides bus service on the Strip with double decker buses known as The Deuce. The Deuce runs between Mandalay Bay at the southern end of the Strip (and to the Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign and South Strip Transfer Terminal after midnight) to the Bonneville Transit Center (BTC) and the Fremont Street Experience in Downtown Las Vegas, with stops near every casino. RTC also operates an express bus called the Strip and Downtown Express (SDX). This route connects the Strip to the Las Vegas Convention Center and Downtown Las Vegas to the north, with stops at selected hotels and shopping attractions (Las Vegas Premium Outlets North & South). Trams Several free trams operate between properties on the west side of the Strip: Monorail While not on the Strip itself, the Las Vegas Monorail runs a 3.9 mile route on the east side of the Strip corridor from Tropicana Avenue to Sahara Avenue, with stops every 4 to 8 minutes at several on-Strip properties including the MGM Grand and the Sahara at each end of the route. The stations include: SAHARA Las Vegas Station Westgate Station Las Vegas Convention Center Station Harrah's/The LINQ Station Flamingo/Caesars Palace Station Bally's/Paris Station MGM Grand Station The monorail began operations in 1995 and originally used two trains from Walt Disney World. In 2021, the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority (LVCVA) announced plans for purchasing the bankrupt Las Vegas Monorail. Pedestrian traffic On a daily basis, there are tens of thousands of pedestrians walking along the Strip at any one time. As of 2019, the daily number of pedestrians on the Strip is approximately 50,000. Concerning pedestrian safety and to help alleviate traffic congestion at popular intersections, several pedestrian footbridges were erected in 1990s and the first was the Tropicana – Las Vegas Boulevard footbridge. Some feature designs that match the theme of the nearby resorts. Additional footbridges have been built on Las Vegas Boulevard. The footbridges include: Veer Towers:. Connects Veer Towers, Waldorf Astoria, and Crystals Shopping Center Park MGM and T-Mobile Arena Park: Connects MGM and Showcase Mall Planet Hollywood: Connects Planet Hollywood, CityCenter, Crystals Shopping Center, and The Cosmopolitan. Spring Mountain Road and Las Vegas Blvd. Corner: Connects Treasure Island, The Wynn, Fashion Show Mall, and The Venetian Flamingo Road and Las Vegas Blvd. Corner: Connects Bally's, Flamingo, Bellagio, and Caesars Palace Las Vegas Blvd and Tropicana Ave Corner. Connects the MGM Grand, New York-New York, Excalibur, and Tropicana There has been negative feedback from pedestrians about the elevated crosswalks due to need to walk as much as a quarter-mile to reach an intersection to cross the street and to then walk back some distance on the other side of the street to get to their desired destinations. After a driver drove into pedestrians on the sidewalk in front of Paris Las Vegas and Planet Hollywood in December 2015, 800 bollards began to be installed on Las Vegas Blvd. starting in 2017. The construction of the bollards resulted in the removal of 49 of the 82 stars of the Las Vegas Walk of Stars. In 2019, the bollards on Las Vegas Blvd. were shortened due to feedback from drivers that the bollards were obstructing street views. 283 of the 4,500 bollards will be shortened from 54 inches to 36 inches. The shortened bollards line 20 different driveways. Studies conducted by Clark County in 2012 and 2015 identified issues with congestion. The studies resulted in $5 million of improvements, including LED lights, ADA ramps, containment fencing, widening sidewalks, and removing permanent obstructions, such as signs, signposts, trash cans, and fire hydrants. The studies also identified non-permanent obstructions causing congestion, such as street performers, vendors, handbillers, signholders, and illegal street gambling. Modifications to non-obstruction zones and increased enforcement were implemented in order to reduce congestion. Taxis Taxis are available at resorts, shopping centers, attractions, and for scheduled pickups. The Nevada Taxicab Authority provides information about taxi fares and fare zones. In 2021, there has been an increase in taxi passengers due to declines in rideshare drivers and rideshare surge pricing. Rideshares Rideshare services, including Uber and Lyft, are available on the Strip. In 2021, there have been reports of a lack of rideshare drivers and longer wait times due to job changes, concerns about the pandemic, and the pause in surge pricing due to the state of emergency declared by the State of Nevada. Attractions on the Strip Gambling In 2019, about eight in ten (81%) visitors said they gambled while in Las Vegas, the highest proportion in the past five years. The average time spent gambling, 2.7 hours, represents an increase over the past three years. Also, the average trip gambling budget, $591.06, was increased from 2018. About nine in ten (89%) visitors who gambled gambled on the Strip Corridor. UNLV reported that in 2019, Big Las Vegas Strip Casinos (defined as Strip casinos with more than $72M in annual gaming revenues) had more than $6B in annual gaming revenues, corresponding to about 26% of total annual revenues. From the time period spanning 1985 to 2019, there have been some changes in the mix of table games in casinos on the Strip: Blackjack: The number of tables decreased from 77% in 1985 to 50% in 2019. Revenue decreased from 50% in 1985 to 11% in 2019. Craps: Revenue decreased from 28% in 1985 to 11% in 2019. Roulette: Both the number of tables and revenue increased by 50%. Baccarat: About 2% of tables and 13% revenue in 1985 to 13% of tables and 37% of revenue in 2019. Additional games: Games such as pai gow poker, three-card poker, and mini-baccarat have increased in popularity, number of tables, and revenue. Casino operators have been expanding sports betting facilities and products, as well as renovating and upgrading equipment and facilities. Although sports betting has a relatively low margin, the high-end sportsbooks can generate significant amounts of revenue in other areas, such as food and drink. As a result, sportsbooks have been expanding and upgrading food and drink offerings. High-end sportsbooks include features such as single-seat stadium-style seating, large high-definition screens, a dedicated broadcast booth, and the ability to watch up to 15 sporting events at once. The sports network ESPN is broadcasting sports betting shows from a dedicated studio at The Linq. Some sportsbooks are now offering self-service betting kiosks. Entertainment The Las Vegas Strip is well known for its lounges, showrooms, theaters and nightclubs; most of the attractions and shows on the Strip are located on the hotel casino properties. Some of the more popular free attractions visible from the Strip include the water fountains at Bellagio, the volcano at The Mirage, and the Fall of Atlantis and Festival Fountain at Caesars Palace. There are several Cirque du Soleil shows, such as Kà at the MGM Grand, O at Bellagio, Mystère at Treasure Island, and Michael Jackson: One at Mandalay Bay. Many notable artists have performed in Las Vegas, including Elvis Presley, Frank Sinatra, Wayne Newton, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis Jr. and Liberace, and in more recent years Celine Dion, Britney Spears, Barry Manilow, Cher, Elton John, Bette Midler, Diana Ross, Donny and Marie Osmond, Garth Brooks, Jennifer Lopez, Reba McEntire, Mariah Carey, Shania Twain, Criss Angel, Olivia Newton-John, Queen + Adam Lambert, Lady Gaga, and Gwen Stefani have had residencies in the various resorts on the Strip. The only movie theatre directly on the Strip was the 10-screen Regal Showcase Theatre in the Showcase Mall. The theater opened in 1997 and was operated by Regal Entertainment Group, until its closure in 2018. During 2019, 51% of visitors attended shows, which was down from 2015, 2017, and 2018. Among visitors who saw shows, relatively more went to Broadway/production shows than in past years, while relatively fewer saw lounge acts, comedy shows, or celebrity DJs. Venues The Strip is home to many entertainment venues. Most of the resorts have a showroom, nightclub and/or live music venue on the property and a few have large multipurpose arenas. Major venues include: All Net Resort and Arena The Colosseum at Caesars Palace Las Vegas Festival Grounds Michelob Ultra Arena MGM Grand Garden Arena MSG Sphere Las Vegas T-Mobile Arena Zappos Theater Allegiant Stadium Shopping Bonanza Gift Shop is billed as the "World's Largest Gift Shop", with over of shopping space. The Shoppes at the Palazzo featuring luxury stores. Fashion Show Mall is adjacent to Treasure Island and opposite Wynn Las Vegas. Grand Canal Shoppes is a luxury mall connected to The Venetian with canals, gondolas and singing gondoliers. The LINQ Promenade is an open-air retail, dining, and entertainment district located between The Linq and Flamingo resorts that began a soft open in January 2014. It leads from a Strip-side entrance to the High Roller. Miracle Mile Shops is part of the Planet Hollywood hotel. The Forum Shops at Caesars is a luxury mall connected to Caesars Palace, with more than 160 shops and 11 restaurants. Crystals at CityCenter is a luxury high-fashion mall at CityCenter. Harmon Corner is a three-story retail center located next to Planet Hollywood with shops and restaurants. Showcase Mall is next to MGM Grand, and displays a 100-foot Coca-Cola bottle. The Park, a short east–west street between the Park MGM and New York-New York resorts is a park-like boulevard lined with retail shops and restaurants, leading to T-Mobile Arena. The Shoppes at Mandalay Place has shops and restaurants located on a sky bridge in between Mandalay Bay and Luxor. Live sports Professional sports are found at venues on or near the Strip, including: National Football League: Las Vegas Raiders at Allegiant Stadium National Hockey League: Vegas Golden Knights: at T-Mobile Arena Boxing: MGM Grand Garden Arena Women's National Basketball Association: Las Vegas Aces at the Michelob Ultra Arena Golf The Aladdin had a nine-hole golf course in the 1960s. As land values on the Strip have increased over the years, the resort-affiliated golf courses been removed to make way for building projects. The Tropicana Country Club closed in 1990 and the Dunes golf course in the mid-90s. Steve Wynn, founder of previously owned Mirage Resorts, purchased the Desert Inn and golf course for his new company Wynn Resorts and redeveloped the course as the Wynn Golf Club. This course closed in 2017, but the development planned for the course was cancelled and the course will be renovated and re-opened in late 2019. In 2000, Bali Hai Golf Club opened just south of Mandalay Bay and the Strip. In 2016, a TopGolf opened near the Strip. Amusement parks and rides The Strip is home to the Adventuredome indoor amusement park at Circus Circus. The Adventuredome is glass-enclosed with a carousel, mini-golf, two roller coasters, bowling, spinning rides, arcade, virtual reality rides, carnival midway, and clown shows. The Stratosphere tower has several rides: Big Shot X-Scream SkyJump Las Vegas Other rides on the Strip include: The Roller Coaster (also known as Big Apple Coaster) High Roller Fly Linq Sustainability Although the Strip has elaborate displays, fountains, and large buffet restaurants, many of the hotel resort properties are renowned for their sustainability efforts, including: Water conservation: Approaches include reclaiming water and placing it back into Lake Mead, using minimal outdoor landscaping, upgrading toilets, using low-flow showerheads, and setting goals for water conservation. Recycling: In 2017, the recycling rate in Clark County was about 20%, while the recycling rate for major hotels on the Strip was about 40%. Food handing: Leftover food is composted or sent to agricultural farms. Untouched, undisturbed food is donated to local food banks. Energy efficiency: Hotels have updated appliances in rooms, installed LED lighting, and installed wireless lighting control systems. Renewable energy is generated and used on the Strip. MGM initiated solar power when it built a solar array on top of the Mandalay Bay in 2014 and expanded it in 2016. The solar array at the Mandalay Bay, a 28-acre system capable of powering 1,300 homes, is one of the largest commercial rooftop solar arrays in the United States. The solar array includes more than 26,000 solar panels capable of providing a total of 8.3 megawatts DC (6.5 megawatts AC), sufficient for powering 25% of the Mandalay Bay campus. Energy-efficient buildings are also being implemented and the Strip has one of the highest concentrations of LEED-certified buildings in the world. Some examples of LEED-certified buildings are the Octavius Tower at Caesars Palace and the Linq Promenade, both of which are certified LEED Silver. Locations of major landmarks Current landmarks Former hotel/casino locations Demolished or closed Strip casinos and hotels Aladdin: Opened in 1962 as the Tallyho, became the King's Crown Tallyho in 1963, the Aladdin in 1966, and was demolished in 1998. A new Aladdin resort opened on the property in 2000, and was renamed Planet Hollywood in 2007. Big Red's Casino: Opened in 1981 and closed in 1982. Property developed for CBS Sports World Casino in 1997. Changed name to Sports World Casino after CBS threatened to sue. Closed in 2001, now a shopping center. Barbary Coast Hotel and Casino: Closed in 2007, now The Cromwell. Boardwalk Hotel and Casino: Closed on January 6, 2006, demolished May 9, 2006 to make way for CityCenter. Castaways Hotel and Casino: Opened in 1957 as the San Souci Hotel and became the Castaways in 1963 and was demolished in 1987. Now The Mirage. Desert Inn: Closed on August 28, 2000, demolished in 2004, now Wynn Las Vegas and Encore Las Vegas; Desert Inn golf course was retained and improved. Dunes Hotel and Casino: Closed on January 26, 1993, demolished in 1993, now Bellagio. The Dunes golf course is now occupied by parts of Park MGM, New York-New York, CityCenter, Cosmopolitan, and T-Mobile Arena. El Rancho (formerly Thunderbird/Silverbird): Closed in 1992 and demolished in 2000. Now the unfinished Fontainebleau Las Vegas. El Rancho Vegas: Burned down in 1960. The Hilton Grand Vacations Club timeshare now exists on the south edge of the site where the resort once stood; the remainder is now the Las Vegas Festival Grounds. Hacienda: Closed and demolished in 1996, now Mandalay Bay. Until 2015, a separate Hacienda operated outside Boulder City, formerly the Gold Strike Inn. Holy Cow Casino and Brewery: First micro brewery in Las Vegas. Closed in 2002, now a Walgreens store. Jackpot Casino: Closed in 1977, now part of Bonanza Gift Shop Klondike Hotel and Casino: Closed in 2006, demolished in 2008. Little Caesars Casino: Opened in 1970 and closed in 1994. Paris Las Vegas now occupies the area. Money Tree Casino: Closed in 1979, now Bonanza Gift Shop. Marina Hotel and Casino: Closed, adapted into MGM Grand, now the West Wing of the MGM Grand. New Frontier: Closed July 16, 2007, demolished November 13, 2007. Currently being redeveloped as Wynn West. Nob Hill Casino: Opened in 1979 and closed in 1990. Now Casino Royale Riviera Hotel and Casino: Opened in 1955; Closed in May 2015 to make way for the Las Vegas Global Business District. Royal Nevada: Opened in 1955; became part of the Stardust in 1959. Sands Hotel and Casino: Closed on June 30, 1996, demolished in 1996, now The Venetian. Silver City Casino: Closed in 1999, now the Silver City Plaza Shopping Center. Silver Slipper Casino: Opened in 1950 and closed and demolished in 1988. It became the parking lot for the New Frontier until its closure and demolition in 2007. Stardust Resort and Casino: Closed on November 1, 2006, demolished on March 13, 2007, now Resorts World. Vegas World: Opened in 1979 and closed in 1995. Now The Strat Westward Ho Hotel and Casino: Closed in 2005, demolished in 2006. Gallery See also Las Vegas Las Vegas Boulevard Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign References Further reading External links Official Website of Las Vegas Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority All-American Roads Landmarks in Nevada Nevada Scenic Byways Paradise, Nevada Streets in the Las Vegas Valley U.S. Route 91 Shopping districts and streets in the United States Entertainment districts in the United States Red-light districts in Nevada

The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea

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The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea is a 2000 animated direct-to-video musical fantasy adventure film produced by Walt Disney Television Animation, and the second installment in The Little Mermaid trilogy. Directed by Jim Kammerud and Brian Smith, the story of the film takes place 12 years after the original, and focuses on Ariel and Eric's daughter Melody, a human princess who longs to swim in the ocean despite her parents' law that the sea is forbidden to her. Many voice actors from the original film returned for the sequel, including Jodi Benson as Ariel, Kenneth Mars as King Triton, Samuel E. Wright as Sebastian, and Buddy Hackett as Scuttle in his final film role before his death in June 2003. Pat Carroll, who voiced Ursula in the first film, returned as Ursula's sister Morgana, the sequel's new villain. Tara Charendoff joined the cast as Melody and Rob Paulsen replaced Christopher Daniel Barnes as Prince Eric. The film received largely negative reviews with criticism directed at the plot, which many considered to be a generic rehash of the original film, though the animation, voice acting and the character of Melody were praised. In 2008, Disney released a third film, The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning, which is a prequel to the first film. Plot Ariel and Eric celebrate the birth of their newborn daughter Melody on a ship at sea. Ariel’s father King Triton presents Melody with a magic locket. The party is interrupted by Ursula's sister Morgana, who threatens to have Melody fed to her pet tiger shark, Undertow, unless Triton surrenders his trident to her. Morgana then announces her plan to use the trident to avenge Ursula and take over the ocean. Ariel and Eric work together to foil Morgana's plan, and Triton shrinks Undertow to the size of a piranha. Morgana escapes, eluding the attempts of King Triton's forces to capture her and declaring that she will someday exact her revenge on both Ariel and Triton and avenge Ursula's death. Fearing Morgana and remembering Ursula, Ariel decides that, until Morgana is captured, they will have to withhold all knowledge of the sea world and her heritage from Melody in order to protect her. Triton tosses the locket into the ocean, and a massive wall is built to separate the royal castle from the sea. Triton assigns Sebastian to watch over Melody. Twelve years later, Melody remains unaware of her mother's mermaid heritage and is forbidden from ever going into the sea. However, she has been sneaking out of the castle regularly to swim, and one day finds the locket. Seeing her name on the locket, Melody questions her mother about it, but Ariel confronts Melody and forbids her to go into the sea. Frustrated with her mother's refusal to answer her questions, Melody steals a small boat and sails away from home. Melody is discovered by Undertow, who leads her straight to Morgana. In desperation, Sebastian tells Ariel and Eric that Melody went out to the sea. Meanwhile, Melody meets Morgana, who reveals that Melody's background is marine, and uses the remains of Ursula's magic to transform Melody into a mermaid. Triton prepares search parties, and is convinced by Ariel and Eric to use his trident to transform Ariel back into a mermaid in order to help in the search for Melody. Ariel searches the sea for Melody, regretting not sharing her heritage with her, while Melody explores her newfound abilities as a mermaid, and has a strong feeling that she was meant to be part of the sea. Melody visits Morgana to thank her, only for Morgana to tell Melody that the spell was only temporary, and that she can only make the spell permanent if Melody retrieves the trident from Triton, which Morgana claims he stole from her. Melody decides to get the trident, and during her search befriends Tip and Dash, a penguin and walrus duo who join her. Melody succeeds in stealing the trident, and returns to Morgana, but before Melody can hand the trident over to Morgana, Ariel arrives and pleads for Melody not to give Morgana the trident. Melody refuses to listen to Ariel, having been angered by Ariel’s decision to lie to her, and gives Morgana the trident. With the trident in her power, Morgana reveals her true intentions, and traps Melody in a cave by sealing the entrance with a thick layer of ice, while also informing her that her time as a mermaid is about to expire. Soon afterward, Morgana's spell on Melody wears off, causing her to revert into a human and nearly drown. Tip and Dash manage to free her and drag her to the shore. Morgana uses the trident's magic to lord over the ocean, rising to the surface to gloat. Scuttle, Triton, Sebastian, and Eric arrive, and a battle ensues against Morgana and her minions. Melody manages to grab the trident and throws it back to Triton, who encases Morgana in a block of ice, which sinks underwater. Melody reunites with her family, and Triton offers his granddaughter the choice of becoming a mermaid permanently. Instead, Melody uses the trident to destroy the wall separating her home from the sea, reuniting the humans and the merpeople. Cast Jodi Benson as Ariel Tara Charendoff as Melody Samuel E. Wright as Sebastian Pat Carroll as Morgana Rob Paulsen as Prince Eric Kenneth Mars as King Triton Cam Clarke as Flounder Buddy Hackett as Scuttle Clancy Brown as Undertow Max Casella as Tip Stephen Furst as Dash René Auberjonois as Chef Louis Edie McClurg as Carlotta Kay E. Kuter as Grimsby Frank Welker as Max Release Home media The film was released directly-to-video on September 19, 2000. It was released on May 7, 2001 in the UK. On November 6, 2006, the film was released in a bundle together with the original film in the Region 2 release. The original DVD release was later discontinued and a special edition DVD with a deleted song, "Gonna Get My Wish", and a new game was released on December 16, 2008. A package called The Little Mermaid Trilogy, which includes all three Little Mermaid films, was released on the same day. This film, along with The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning, was released in a 2-Movie collection on DVD and Blu-ray on November 19, 2013. Reception Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 17% of 6 critics gave the film a positive review, and the average rating is 3.8/10. In 2011, Total Film ranked it as 27th among the 50 worst children's films ever made. The film was the tenth most successful video of 2000 with retail revenues of $121 million. Soundtrack The film's official soundtrack was released on September 19, 2000, and again on October 31, 2000 in a special edition double pack with the original film's soundtrack. Additionally, two limited edition two-tracked CD samples were released as a promotion for the soundtrack. Note: *These tracks were originally recorded for the album Sebastian: Party Gras!. The film's ending credits play a new recording of Part of Your World, performed by country singer Chely Wright. Another version of the song, performed by Ann Marie Boskovich, was used in some international releases of the film. References External links 2000 animated films 2000 direct-to-video films 2000s adventure films 2000s American animated films American children's animated adventure films American children's animated fantasy films American children's animated musical films American coming-of-age films American sequel films Australian films Australian animated films Australian musical films Canadian direct-to-video films Canadian musical films Canadian animated feature films English-language films Animated coming-of-age films Direct-to-video sequel films The Little Mermaid (franchise) Disney direct-to-video animated films DisneyToon Studios animated films Films about witchcraft Films about children Films about princesses Films about shapeshifting Disney Television Animation films Films directed by Jim Kammerud 2000 directorial debut films Films based on The Little Mermaid 2000s children's animated films Films set in castles Films set in palaces Canadian films American films 2000 films Mother and daughter films

Mobilization

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Mobilization is the act of assembling and readying military troops and supplies for war. The word mobilization was first used in a military context in the 1850s to describe the preparation of the Prussian Army. Mobilization theories and tactics have continuously changed since then. The opposite of mobilization is demobilization. Mobilization became an issue with the introduction of conscription, and the introduction of the railways in the 19th century. Mobilization institutionalized the mass levy of conscripts that was first introduced during the French Revolution. A number of technological and societal changes promoted the move towards a more organized way of deployment. These included the telegraph to provide rapid communication, the railways to provide rapid movement and concentration of troops, and conscription to provide a trained reserve of soldiers in case of war. History Roman Republic The Roman Republic was able to mobilize at various times between 6% (81–83 BCE) to as much as 10% (210s BCE) of the total Roman population, in emergencies and for short periods of time. This included poorly-trained militia. Modern era The Confederate States of America is estimated to have mobilized about 11% of its free population in the American Civil War (1861–1865). The Kingdom of Prussia mobilized about 6–7% of its total population in the years 1760 and 1813. The Swedish Empire mobilized 7.7% in 1709. Armies in the seventeenth century possessed an average of 20,000 men. A military force of this size requires around 20 tons of food per day, shelter, as well as all the necessary munitions, transportation (typically horses or mules), tools, and representative garments. Without efficient transportation, mobilizing these average-sized forces was extremely costly, time-consuming, and potentially life-threatening. Soldiers could traverse the terrain to get to war fronts, but they had to carry their supplies. Many armies decided to forage for food; however, foraging restricted movement because it is based on the presumption that the army moves over land possessing significant agricultural production. However, due to new policies (like conscription), greater populations, and greater national wealth, the nineteenth-century army was composed of an average of 100,000 men. For example, in 1812 Bonaparte led an army of 600,000 to Moscow while feeding off plentiful agricultural products introduced by the turn of the century, such as potatoes. Despite the advantages of mass armies, mobilizing forces of this magnitude took much more time than it had in the past. The Second Italian War of Independence illustrated all of the problems in modern army mobilization. Prussia began to realize the future of mobilizing mass armies when Napoleon III transported 130,000 soldiers to Italy by military railways in 1859. French caravans that carried the supplies for the French and Piedmontese armies were incredibly slow, and the arms inside these caravans were sloppily organized. These armies were in luck, however, in that their Austrian adversaries experienced similar problems with sluggish supply caravans (one of which apparently covered less than three miles per day). Not only did Prussia take note of the problems in transporting supplies to armies, but it also took note of the lack of communication between troops, officers, and generals. Austria's army was primarily composed of Slavs, but it contained many other ethnicities as well. Austrian military instruction during peacetime utilized nine different languages, accustoming Austrian soldiers to taking orders only in their native language. Conversely, in an effort to augment the efficacy of the new “precision rifle” developed by the monarchy, officers were forced to only speak German when giving orders to their men. Even one Austrian officer commented at Solferino that his troops could not even comprehend the command, “Halt.” This demonstrates the communicative problems that arose quickly with the advent of the mass army. Mobilization in World War I Intricate plans for mobilization contributed greatly to the beginning of World War I, since in 1914, under the laws and customs of warfare then observed (not to mention the desire to avoid compromising national security), general mobilization of one nation's military forces was invariably considered an act of war by that country's likely enemies. In 1914, the United Kingdom was the only European Great Power without conscription. The other Great Powers (Austria-Hungary, Italy, France, Germany and Russia) all relied on compulsory military service to supply each of their armies with the millions of men they believed they would need to win a major war. France enacted the “Three Year Law” (1913) to extend the service of conscripted soldiers to match the size of the German army, as the French population of 40 million was smaller than the German population of 65 million people. The Anglo-German naval arms race began, sparked by the German enactment of the Second Naval Law. Each of the Great Powers could only afford to keep a fraction of these men in uniform in peacetime, the rest were reservists with limited opportunities to train. Maneuvering formations of millions of men with limited military training required intricate plans with no room for error, confusion, or discretion after mobilization began. These plans were prepared under the assumption of worst-case scenarios. For example, German military leaders did not plan to mobilize for war with Russia whilst assuming that France would not come to her ally's aid, or vice versa. The Schlieffen Plan therefore dictated not only mobilization against both powers, but also the order of attack—France would be attacked first regardless of the diplomatic circumstances. To bypass the fortified Franco-German frontier, the German forces were to be ordered to march through Belgium. Whether or not Russia had committed the first provocation, the German plan agreed to by Emperor William II called for the attack on Russia to take place only after France was defeated. Similarly, the Russian Stavka's war planning assumed that war against either Austria-Hungary or Germany would mean war against the other power. Although the plan allowed flexibility as to whether the main effort would be made against Germany or Austria-Hungary, in either case units would be mobilized on the frontiers of both Powers. On July 28, 1914, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (William's cousin) ordered partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary only. While war with Austria-Hungary seemed inevitable, Nicholas engaged in a personal dialogue with the German Emperor in an attempt to avoid war with Germany. However, Nicholas was advised that attempts to improvise a partial mobilization would lead to chaos and probable defeat if, as pessimists on the Russian side expected, no amount of diplomacy could convince the Germans to refrain from attacking Russia whilst she was engaged with Germany's ally. On July 29, 1914, the Tsar ordered full mobilization, then changed his mind after receiving a telegram from Kaiser Wilhelm. Partial mobilization was ordered instead. The next day, the Tsar's foreign minister, Sergey Sazonov once more persuaded Nicholas of the need for general mobilization, and the order was issued that day, July 30. In response, Germany declared war on Russia. Germany mobilized under von Moltke the Younger's revised version of the Schlieffen Plan, which assumed a two-front war with Russia and France. Like Russia, Germany decided to follow its two-front plans despite the one-front war. Germany declared war on France on August 3, 1914, one day after issuing an ultimatum to Belgium demanding the right of German troops to pass through as part of the planned pincer action of the military. Finally, Britain declared war on Germany for violating Belgian neutrality. Thus the entangling alliances of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente directed the intricate plans for mobilization. This brought all of the Great Powers of Europe into the Great War without actually utilizing the provisions of either alliance. The mobilization was like a holiday for many of the inexperienced soldiers; for example, some Germans wore flowers in the muzzles of their rifles as they marched. Trains brought soldiers to the front lines of battle. The Germans timetabled the movements of 11,000 trains as they brought troops across the Rhine River. The French mobilized around 7,000 trains for movement. Horses were also mobilized for war. The British had 165,000 horses prepared for cavalry, the Austrians 600,000, the Germans 715,000, and the Russians over a million. Britain's Dominions including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa were compelled to go to war when Britain did. However, it was largely left up to the individual Dominions to recruit and equip forces for the war effort. Canadian, Australian and New Zealand mobilizations all involved the creation of new field forces for overseas service rather than using the existing regimental structures as a framework. In the case of Canada, the Militia Minister, Sir Sam Hughes, created the Canadian Expeditionary Force from whole cloth by sending telegrams to 226 separate reserve unit commanders asking for volunteers to muster at Valcartier in Quebec. The field force served separately from the Militia (Canada's peacetime army); in 1920 the Otter Commission was compelled to sort out which units would perpetuate the units that served in the trenches—the CEF or the prewar Militia. A unique solution of perpetuations was instituted, and mobilization during the Second World War did not repeat Sir Sam Hughes' model, which has been described by historians as being more closely akin to ancient Scottish clans assembling for battle than a modern, industrialized nation preparing for war. "Colonials" served under British command though, perhaps owing to the limited autonomy granted to the Dominions regarding their respective mobilizations, the Dominions eventually compelled the British government to overrule the objections of some British commanders and let the Dominion forces serve together instead of being distributed amongst various British divisions. The "colonials" would go on to be acknowledged by both the British and German high commands as being elite British units. In May 1918, when command of the Australian Corps passed from William Birdwood to John Monash, it became the first British Empire formation commanded totally free of British officers. On May 23, 1915, Italy entered World War I on the Allied side. Despite being the weakest of the big four Allied powers, the Italians soon managed to populate its army from 560 to 693 infantry battalions in 1916; the army had grown in size from 1 million to 1.5 million soldiers. On August 17, 1916, Romania entered the war on the Allied side, mobilizing an army of 23 divisions. Romania was quickly defeated however by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria. Bulgaria went so far as to ultimately mobilize 1.2 million men, more than a quarter of its population of 4.3 million people, a greater share of its population than any other country during the war. The production of supplies gradually increased throughout the war. In Russia, the expansion of industry allowed a 2,000 percent increase in the production of artillery shells - by November 1915, over 1,512,000 artillery shells were being produced per month. In France, a massive mobilization by the female population to work in factories allowed the rate of shell production to reach 100,000 shells a day by 1915. Both sides also began drawing on larger numbers of soldiers. The British Secretary of State for War, Lord Kitchener, appealed for hundreds of thousands of soldiers, which was met with an enthusiastic response. 30 new British divisions were created. The response by volunteers allowed the British to put off the introduction of conscription until 1916. New Zealand followed suit, with Canada also eventually introducing conscription with the Military Service Act in 1917. On April 6, 1917, the United States entered the war on the Allied side. At the entrance, the U.S. only could mobilize its army of 107,641 soldiers, ranked only seventeenth in size worldwide at the time. The United States Navy quickly mobilized, adding 5 dreadnoughts to the Allied navy. However, conscription quickly ensued. By March 1918, 318,000 U.S. soldiers had been mobilized to France. Eventually, by October 1918, a force of 2 million U.S. soldiers joined in the war effort. Mobilization in World War II Poland partly mobilized its troops on August 24, 1939, and fully mobilized on August 30, 1939, following the increased confrontations with Germany since March 1939. On September 1, 1939 Germany invaded Poland, which prompted both France and Britain to declare war on Germany. However, they were slow to mobilize, and by the time Poland had been overrun by the Axis powers, only minor operations had been carried out by the French at the Saar River. Canada actually carried out a partial mobilization on August 25, 1939, in anticipation of the growing diplomatic crisis. On September 1, 1939, the Canadian Active Service Force (a corps-sized force of two divisions) was mobilized even though war was not declared by Canada until September 10, 1939. Only one division went overseas in December 1939, and the government hoped to follow a "limited liability" war policy. When France was invaded in May 1940, the Canadian government realized that would not be possible and mobilized three additional divisions, beginning their overseas employment in August 1940 with the dispatch of the 2nd Canadian Division (some units of which were deployed to Iceland and Newfoundland for garrison duty before moving to the UK). Canada also enacted the National Resources Mobilization Act in 1940, which among other things compelled men to serve in the military, though conscripts mobilized under the NRMA did not serve overseas until 1944. Conscripts did, however, serve in the Aleutian Islands Campaign in 1943 though the anticipated Japanese defense never materialized due to the evacuation of the enemy garrison before the landings. Service in the Aleutians was not considered "overseas" as technically the islands were part of North America. The United Kingdom mobilized 22% of its total population for direct military service, more than any other nation of WWII era. Economic mobilization Economic mobilization is the preparation of resources for usage in a national emergency by carrying out changes in the organization of the national economy. It is reorganizing the functioning of the national economy to use resources most effectively in support of the total war effort. Typically, the available resources and productive capabilities of each nation determined the degree and intensity of economic mobilization. Thus, effectively mobilizing economic resources to support the war effort is a complex process, requiring superior coordination and productive capability on a national scale. Importantly, some scholars have argued that such large scale mobilization of society and its resources for the purposes of warfare have the effect of aiding in state building. Herbst argues that the demands of reacting to an external aggressor provides a strong enough impetus to force structural changes and also forge a common national identity. See also Civil conscription Combat readiness Impressment Levée en masse War economy Notes References State, society, and mobilization in Europe during the First World War, edited by John Horne, Cambridge-New York : Cambridge University Press, 1997. Further reading United States Department of the Army (1955): History of Military Mobilization in the United States Army, 1775-1945 (online) External links Online version of The army and economic mobilization (1959), by R. Elberton Smith Swiss government PDF on mobilization (German) mobilization procedure of the Austrian Federal Army (in German) Economic mobilization since World War II Mobilisation Military logistics Military operations Military history

Junko Tabei

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was a Japanese mountaineer, author, and teacher. She was the first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest and the first woman to ascend the Seven Summits, climbing the highest peak on every continent. Tabei wrote seven books, organized environmental projects to clean up rubbish left behind by climbers on Everest, and led annual climbs up Mount Fuji for youth affected by the Great East Japan Earthquake. An astronomer had named asteroid 6897 Tabei after her and in 2019, a mountain range on Pluto was named Tabei Montes in her honour. Early life Junko Ishibashi was born on 22 September 1939 in Miharu, Fukushima, the fifth daughter of seven children. Her father was a printer. She was considered a frail child, but nevertheless she began mountain climbing at the age of ten, going on a class climbing trip to Mount Nasu. She enjoyed the non-competitive nature of the sport and the striking natural landscapes that came into view upon reaching the top of the mountain. Although she was interested in doing more climbing, her family did not have enough money for such an expensive hobby, and Ishibashi made only a few climbs during her high school years. From 1958 to 1962, Ishibashi studied English and American literature at Showa Women's University. She initially planned on a career as a teacher. After graduation, she returned to her earlier passion for climbing by joining a number of men's climbing clubs. While some men welcomed her as a fellow climber, others questioned her motives for pursuing a typically male-dominated sport. Soon, Ishibashi had climbed all the major mountains in Japan, including Mount Fuji. When she was 27, Ishibashi married Masanobu Tabei, a mountaineer she had met during a climbing excursion on Mount Tanigawa. The couple eventually had two children: a daughter, Noriko, and a son, Shinya. Career Early climbing expeditions In 1969, Junko Tabei established the Joshi-Tohan Club (Women's Mountaineering Club) for women only. The club's slogan was "Let's go on an overseas expedition by ourselves", and the group was the first of its kind in Japan. Tabei later stated that she founded the club as a result of how she was treated by male mountaineers of the time; some men, for example, refused to climb with her, while others thought she was only interested in climbing as a way to find a husband. Tabei helped fund her climbing activities by working as an editor for the Journal of the Physical Society of Japan. The Joshi-Tohan Club embarked on their first expedition in 1970, climbing the Nepalese mountain Annapurna III. They successfully reached the summit using a new route on the south side, achieving the first female and first Japanese ascent of the mountain. Tabei and one other member, Hiroko Hirakawa, were chosen to complete the final climb to the top, accompanied by two sherpa guides. The climbers had brought a camera, but the temperature was so cold that the camera's film cracked. From her experience in the Annapurna III ascent, Tabei realized that she and the other Japanese women had sometimes struggled to reconcile traditional Japanese values of quiet strength with the more immediate practical needs of mountaineering. Many Joshi-Tohan Club members were initially reluctant to admit they did not know something or needed assistance, preferring to keep a stoic silence, but mountain climbing forced the women to acknowledge their personal limits and accept help from each other. 1975 Everest expedition After Tabei and Hirakawa successfully summited Annapurna III on 19 May 1970, the Joshi-Tohan Club decided to tackle Mount Everest. The club created a team known as the Japanese Women's Everest Expedition (JWEE), led by Eiko Hisano, which would attempt to summit Mount Everest. JWEE contained 15 members, most of them working women who came from a range of professions. Two of the women, including Tabei, were mothers. They applied for a climbing permit for Everest in 1971, but had to wait four years to receive a place in the formal climbing schedule. Tabei helped to find sponsors for the expedition, although she was frequently told that the women "should be raising children instead". She was able to obtain last-minute funding from the Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper and Nippon Television, but each group member still needed to pay 1.5 million yen (US$5,000). Tabei taught piano lessons to help raise the necessary funds. To save money, Tabei made much of her own equipment from scratch, creating waterproof gloves out of the cover of her car and sewing trousers from old curtains. After a long training period, the team made the expedition in May 1975. The group attracted much media attention with their plans, and the 15 women were initially accompanied by journalists and a television camera crew as they began their climb. They used the same route to ascend the mountain that Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay had taken in 1953, and six sherpa guides assisted the team for the full span of the expedition. On 4 May, the team was camping at when an avalanche struck their camp. Tabei and four of her fellow climbers were buried under the snow. Tabei lost consciousness until sherpa guides dug her out. Luckily, there were no casualties. Bruised and injured by the incident, Tabei could barely walk and was forced to spend two days recovering. As soon as she was able, however, she resumed the expedition and continued leading her team up the mountain. Although the team had originally planned to send two women up to the peak of Everest (accompanied by a sherpa), a bout of altitude sickness meant that the team's sherpas could not carry the number of oxygen bottles required to accommodate two climbers. Only one woman could continue. After much discussion, Hisano nominated Tabei to complete the climb. Nearing the peak, Tabei was furious to discover that she would have to cross a thin, hazardous ridge of ice that had gone completely unmentioned in accounts made by previous expeditions. She crawled along it sideways, later describing it as the most tense experience she had ever had. Twelve days after the avalanche, on 16 May 1975, with her sherpa guide Ang Tsering, Tabei became the first woman to reach the summit of Everest. Tabei was showered with attention as a result of her achievement. In Kathmandu, a parade was held in her honour. On her return to Japan, she was received at the Tokyo airport by thousands of cheering supporters. She received messages from the King of Nepal and the Japanese government, a television miniseries was made about the Everest expedition, and Tabei made personal appearances across Japan. However, Tabei remained uncomfortable with this level of fame. She later told media that she preferred to be remembered as the 36th person to summit Everest: "I did not intend to be the first woman on Everest." Later activities After her Everest expedition, Tabei continued her mountaineering pursuits, eventually climbing the highest mountain on each continent: Kilimanjaro (1980), Mt. Aconcagua (1987), Denali (1988), Mt. Elbrus (1989), Mount Vinson (1991), and Puncak Jaya (1992). Upon her successful climb of Puncak Jaya, she became the first woman to complete the Seven Summits challenge. By 2005, Tabei had taken part in 44 all-female mountaineering expeditions around the world. She had a personal goal of climbing the highest mountain in every country in the world, and by the end of her lifetime she had completed at least 70 of these mountains. She never accepted corporate sponsorship after Mount Everest, preferring to remain financially independent. She saved money to fund her expeditions by making paid public appearances, guiding mountain-climbing tours, and tutoring local children in music and English. Tabei's friends and supporters sometimes donated food and equipment. In addition to her climbing, Tabei worked on ecological concerns; in 2000, she completed postgraduate studies at Kyushu University focusing on the environmental degradation of Everest caused by the waste left behind by climbing groups. Tabei was also the director of the Himalayan Adventure Trust of Japan, an organization working at a global level to preserve mountain environments. One of the trust's projects was to build an incinerator to burn climbers' rubbish. She also led and participated in "clean-up" climbs in Japan and the Himalayas alongside her husband and children. In May 2003, a celebration was held in Kathmandu to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the first successful summit of Mount Everest, and crowds of Nepalese people gathered to cheer a procession of past Everest climbers. Tabei and Sir Edmund Hillary were given a special place in the festivities for their respective achievements. Between 1996 and 2008, Tabei wrote and published seven books. Following the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011, Tabei began organizing annual guided excursions up Mount Fuji for schoolchildren affected by the disaster. Death and legacy Tabei was diagnosed with stomach cancer in 2012, but continued with many of her mountaineering activities. In July 2016, despite her advancing illness, she led an expedition of youth up Mount Fuji. She died in a hospital in Kawagoe on 20 October 2016. Before Tabei's death, an astronomer had named asteroid 6897 Tabei after her. On 22 September 2019, Google commemorated the 80th anniversary of her birth with a Doodle. The accompanying write-up gave her motivation slogan, "Do not give up. Keep on your quest." On 19 November 2019, a mountain range on Pluto was named Tabei Montes in honour of Tabei's mountaineering accomplishments. The theme for naming mountains on Pluto is "Historic pioneers who crossed new horizons in the exploration of the Earth, sea and sky". See also List of 20th-century summiters of Mount Everest List of climbers and mountaineers List of female explorers and travelers List of Mount Everest records List of women's firsts Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions References Further reading Tabei, Junko (2017). Honouring High Places: The Mountain Life of Junko Tabei. Rocky Mountain Books Ltd. . External links 2013: Portrait Painting of Junko Tabei First Woman to Climb Mt. Everest Returns on NBC News Official website for Junko Tabei (in Japanese) Seven Summits profile 1939 births 2016 deaths People from Fukushima Prefecture Female climbers Japanese mountain climbers Japanese summiters of Mount Everest Summiters of the Seven Summits Female polar explorers Kyushu University alumni Deaths from cancer in Japan Showa Women's University alumni

List of cities in North Dakota

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North Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern United States. All incorporated communities in North Dakota are considered cities, regardless of population; there are no towns, villages, or hamlets in the state. Cities See also North Dakota North Dakota statistical areas Founding dates of North Dakota incorporated cities List of census-designated places in North Dakota References North Dakota, List of cities in Cities

Punch buggy

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Punch buggy (also called punch bug, punch car, punch dub, piggy punch, slug bug, beetle bug or bugga bug bug) is a car game generally played by children in which participants punch each other on the arm upon first sight of the Volkswagen Beetle while calling out "Punch buggy!" or "Slug bug!" in reference to the Beetle's nickname, the Bug. The color of the Beetle is also sometimes stated along with the comment, "No punch backs!" “No punch backs” is used when playing with multiple players so that the person punched cannot take revenge on the person that punched them. This is only valid until the next player claims, “No punch backs.” Once a player makes a claim of, “No punch backs” all previous claims of, “No punch backs” are dissolved. Once a car has been spotted and called out it cannot be used by another player until it leaves line of sight or for five minutes, whichever is greater. History Most references about the game originate from unofficial sources and personal accounts from players. It apparently has existed since the Volkswagen's peak popularity in the 1960s. As part of the "Logan made Punch Dub" marketing campaign, Volkswagen made a game out of seeing VWs and punching friends. This campaign, launched in 2009, claims that the game was started "over 50 years ago", though this is a humorous historical fiction created by the ad agency Deutsch Inc. Variants Some variations consider the 1998-2010 Beetle and 2011-2019 Beetle invalid for game purposes, but as older models become rarer, variations may choose to include the new Beetles. Others allow "classic" Beetles to count for two punches. In Brazil, a popular version of the game is played when a blue Volkswagen Beetle is seen. The first individual to notice it has to scream 'Fusca Azul', which stands for 'Blue Beetle', while others close their arms around their breasts and say 'Fechei' (I closed it), and the person who forgets or refuses to say 'Fechei' may have their arm punched as a punishment. A Mexican variant exists, but with yellow Beetles rather than blue ones. It is stated that those rare yellow-colored Beetles could bring good luck. One author suggests similar games with station wagons, convertibles, trucks and buses. See also References American cultural conventions Car games Children's games Volkswagen Beetle

Cliffs of Moher

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The Cliffs of Moher (; ) are sea cliffs located at the southwestern edge of the Burren region in County Clare, Ireland. They run for about . At their southern end, they rise above the Atlantic Ocean at Hag's Head, and, to the north, they reach their maximum height of just north of O'Brien's Tower, a round stone tower near the midpoint of the cliffs, built in 1835 by Sir Cornelius O'Brien, then continue at lower heights. The closest settlements are the villages of Liscannor to the south, and Doolin to the north. From the cliffs, and from atop the tower, visitors can see the Aran Islands in Galway Bay, the Maumturks and Twelve Pins mountain ranges to the north in County Galway, and Loop Head to the south. The cliffs rank among the most visited tourist sites in Ireland, with around 1.5 million visits per year. Name The cliffs take their name from an old promontory fort called Mothar or Moher, which once stood on Hag's Head, the southernmost point of the cliffed coast, now the site of Moher Tower. The writer Thomas Johnson Westropp referred to it in 1905 as Moher Uí Ruis or Moher Uí Ruidhin. The fort still stood in 1780 and is mentioned in an account from John Lloyd's A Short Tour Of Clare (1780). It was demolished in 1808 to provide material for a lookout/telegraph tower that was intended to provide warning in case of a French invasion during the Napoleonic wars. Tourism The cliffs are one of the most popular tourist destinations in Ireland and topped a list of attractions in 2006 by receiving almost one million visitors at the official visitor centre. With additional visitors to other locales included there are around 1.5 million a year. Since 2011, they have formed a part of the Burren and Cliffs of Moher Geopark, one of a family of geotourism destinations throughout Europe that are members of the European Geoparks Network and also recognized by UNESCO. The cliffs are also a "signature point" on the official Wild Atlantic Way tourist trail. While the cliffs can be accessed at multiple points, and there is an Cliff Walk, the majority of visitors come to the official visitor centre. Visitor centre In the 1990s the local authority, Clare County Council, initiated development plans to enable visitors to experience the cliffs without significant intrusive man-made amenities. In keeping with this approach, a modern visitor centre, the Cliffs of Moher Visitor Experience, was built into a hillside approaching the cliffs. The centre was planned to be environmentally sensitive in its use of renewable energy systems including geothermal heating and cooling, solar panels, and grey water recycling. The €32 million facility was planned and built over a 17-year period and officially opened in February 2007. Exhibits include interactive media displays covering the geology, history, flora and fauna of the cliffs. A large multimedia screen displays a bird's-eye view from the cliffs, as well as video from the underwater caves below the cliffs. There are also two cafés and several shops. Accessibility is a priority, and wheelchairs are available to borrow. As of 2021, the centre charges €10 per adult, €9 for students and seniors, with children under 12 admitted free. This covers parking, access to the visitor centre and Atlantic Edge exhibition, and a contribution towards conservation and safety at the cliffs. Visitor numbers The visitor experience recorded 1,427,000 visits in 2016, up 14% on 2015, and up 52% in off-peak December, for example. In 2017 the Cliffs of Moher was the second most popular 'fee charging' tourist attraction in the country with 1,527,000 visitors. This increased again by 3.8% in 2018 to 1,580,010 visitors. The nature and speed of increase in visitor numbers has led to some capacity problems at peak times and in peak season. To counter this, visitors are increasingly encouraged to come at other times, with discounts given to coach operators who book for off-peak slots, and late opening of the centre introduced for July and much of August. Later-arriving visitors have also been facilitated by the fitting of automatically opening exit gates from the official car parking facilities. Recognition The Cliffs of Moher Visitor Experience won an award in the Interpret Britain & Ireland Awards 2007 awarded by the Association of Heritage Interpretation (AHI). Although the award was specifically for the Atlantic Edge exhibition, the AHI assessed the entire visitor centre and site. The citation stated that the entire visitor centre was "one of the best facilities that the judges had ever seen." Viewing The official Cliffs of Moher Coastal Walk runs for 18 km, from Hag's Head to Doolin, passing the Visitor Centre and O'Brien's Tower, with good viewing throughout, subject to rain or sea fog. There are two paths near the visitor centre, the official one being set back a little for safety, while an unofficial path runs closer to the edge. In July 2016 the so-called Cliff Walk, outside the official Cliffs of Moher amenities, was temporarily closed because of the risk of rock falls. People were warned to stay on the official path further off the cliff edge instead of the unofficial seaside trail. Separate ferry trips also allow tourists to view the cliffs from sea level, and at certain times fixed-wing aircraft from Connemara Airport also provide a viewing opportunity. Geology and wildlife The cliffs consist mainly of beds of Namurian shale and sandstone, and the oldest rocks are at the bottom of the cliffs. During the time of their formation between 313 and 326 million years ago, a river dumped sand, silt and clay into an ancient marine basin. Over millions of years, the sediments collecting at the mouth of this ancient delta were compacted and lithified into the sedimentary strata preserved in the now-exposed cliffs. The area is considered a geologic laboratory that preserves a record of deltaic deposition in deep water. Individual strata vary in thickness from just a few centimetres to several metres, each representing a specific depositional event in the history of the delta. In aggregate, up to 200 metres of sedimentary rocks are exposed in the Cliffs of Moher. Trace fossils are abundant, comprising two main types: (1) scolicia or worming trails, which are interpreted as feeding trails left by as-yet-unidentified invertebrates, and (2) burrow marks, which are circular features preserved as casts of burrows once occupied by as-yet-unidentified marine creatures. Ripple marks are preserved in some stones. Today the cliffs are subject to erosion by wave action, which undermines the base of support causing the cliff to collapse under its own weight. This process creates a variety of coastal landforms characteristic of erosional coasts such as sea caves, sea stacks, and sea stumps. Branaunmore, a 67-metre high sea stack at the foot of the Cliffs of Moher below O'Brien's Tower, was once part of the cliffs, but coastal erosion gradually removed the layers of rock that joined it with the mainland. A large sea arch can also be seen at Hag's Head below the Napoleonic signal tower and many smaller sea arches can be seen from sea level. It is possible to see 300-million-year-old river channels cutting through, forming unconformities at the base of the cliffs. At peak season, there are an estimated 30,000 pairs of birds living on the cliffs, representing more than 20 species. These include Atlantic puffins, which live in large colonies at isolated parts of the cliffs and on the small Goat Island, and razorbills. The site is an Important Bird Area. A wide range of sea life can also be seen, from grey seals through porpoises, dolphins, minke whales and basking sharks, as well as, occasionally, sunfish. On land, feral goats, foxes, badgers and the Irish hare are found, along with various breeds of farm cattle. Popular culture The Cliffs of Moher have appeared in numerous media. In cinema, the cliffs have appeared in several films, including The Princess Bride (1987) (as the filming location for "The Cliffs of Insanity"), Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (2009), and Leap Year (2010). The cliffs are mentioned in the Martin Scorsese film Bringing Out the Dead (1999) and are noted in the 2008 documentary Waveriders as the location of a large surfing wave known as "Aileens". In music, the cliffs have been the scene for music videos, including Maroon 5's "Runaway", Westlife's "My Love", and Rich Mullins' "The Color Green". Most of singer Dusty Springfield's ashes were scattered at the cliffs by her brother, Tom. There is also an Irish fiddle tune called The Cliffs Of Moher. Transport Bus Éireann route 350 links the Cliffs of Moher to several locations: Ennis, Ennistymon, Doolin, Lisdoonvarna, Kinvara and Galway. This service includes a number of journeys each way daily. There is also a privately operated shuttle bus that serves the site from Doolin. Gallery See also Wild Atlantic Way, an official tourism route, on which the cliffs form a "signature point" Slieve League, another Irish mountain with sea-cliffs Croaghaun, another Irish mountain with sea-cliffs Surfing in Ireland, Aileens is a world-renowned Big Wave References External links Birdwatching sites in Ireland Geography of County Clare Tourist attractions in County Clare Important Bird Areas of the Republic of Ireland Moher Protected areas of County Clare Articles containing video clips

105th United States Congress

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The 105th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, DC from January 3, 1997, to January 3, 1999, during the fifth and sixth years of Bill Clinton's presidency. Apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twenty-first Census of the United States in 1990. Both chambers retained a Republican majority. President Clinton was impeached by the US House of Representatives of the 105th Congress. Major events January 20, 1997: President Bill Clinton began his second term May 18, 1998: United States v. Microsoft decision August 7, 1998: 1998 United States embassy bombings December 19, 1998: Impeachment of Bill Clinton Major legislation August 5, 1997: Balanced Budget Act of 1997 August 5, 1997: Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 November 19, 1997; The Adoption and Safe Families Act November 21, 1997 Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997 June 9, 1998: Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century July 22, 1998: Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998 ("Taxpayer Bill of Rights III") August 7, 1998: Workforce Investment Act of 1998 October 21, 1998: Children's Online Privacy Protection Act October 27, 1998: Copyright Term Extension Act ("Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act") October 28, 1998: Digital Millennium Copyright Act (including WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act and Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act) October 31, 1998: Iraq Liberation Act November 3, 1998: Securities Litigation Uniform Standards Act of 1998 Major resolutions July 1997: Byrd–Hagel Resolution (Senate) December 19, 1998: Impeachment of Bill Clinton, Party summary Senate There was no change in the parties during this Congress. House of Representatives Leadership Senate President: Al Gore (D) President pro tempore: Strom Thurmond (R) Majority (Republican) leadership Majority Leader: Trent Lott Majority Whip: Don Nickles Republican Conference Chairman: Connie Mack III Republican Conference Vice-Chairman: Paul Coverdell Policy Committee Chairman: Larry Craig Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Mitch McConnell Minority (Democratic) leadership Minority Leader: Tom Daschle Minority Whip: Wendell Ford Democratic Conference Chairman: Tom Daschle Democratic Conference Secretary: Barbara Mikulski Policy Committee Co-Chairs: Tom Daschle and Harry Reid Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Bob Kerrey Chief Deputy Whip: John Breaux House of Representatives Speaker: Newt Gingrich (R) Majority (Republican) leadership Majority Leader: Dick Armey Majority Whip: Tom DeLay Chief Deputy Whip: Dennis Hastert Republican Conference Chairman: John Boehner Republican Conference Vice-Chairman: Susan Molinari, until July 17, 1997 Jennifer Dunn, after July 17, 1997 Republican Conference Secretary: Jennifer Dunn, until July 17, 1997 Tillie Fowler, after July 17, 1997 Policy Committee Chairman: Christopher Cox Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: John Linder Minority (Democratic) leadership Minority Leader: Dick Gephardt Minority Whip: David Bonior Chief Deputy Minority Whips: Rosa DeLauro, Chet Edwards, John Lewis, & Bob Menendez Democratic Caucus Chairman: Vic Fazio Democratic Caucus Vice-Chairman: Barbara B. Kennelly Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Martin Frost Caucuses Armenian Caucus Biomedical Research Caucus Congressional Air Force Caucus Congressional Arts Caucus Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus Congressional Automotive Caucus Congressional Bike Caucus Congressional Black Caucus Congressional Caucus on India and Indian Americans Congressional Caucus on Korea Congressional Fire Services Caucus Congressional Friends of Ireland Caucus Congressional Hispanic Caucus Congressional Mississippi River Caucus Congressional Motorsports Caucus Congressional Progressive Caucus Congressional Pediatric & Adult Hydrocephalus Caucus Congressional Portuguese-American Caucus Congressional Travel & Tourism Caucus Congressional Western Caucus Congresswomen's Caucus Hong Kong Caucus House Democratic Caucus House Recycling Caucus Hudson River Caucus Law Enforcement Caucus New Democrat Coalition Northern Border Caucus Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Caucus Senate Democratic Caucus Members Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate In this Congress, Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1998; Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 2000; and Class 2 meant their term began in this Congress, facing re-election in 2002. Alabama 2. Jeff Sessions (R) 3. Richard Shelby (R) Alaska 2. Ted Stevens (R) 3. Frank Murkowski (R) Arizona 1. Jon Kyl (R) 3. John McCain (R) Arkansas 2. Tim Hutchinson (R) 3. Dale Bumpers (D) California 1. Dianne Feinstein (D) 3. Barbara Boxer (D) Colorado 2. Wayne Allard (R) 3. Ben Nighthorse Campbell (R) Connecticut 1. Joe Lieberman (D) 3. Chris Dodd (D) Delaware 1. William Roth (R) 2. Joe Biden (D) Florida 1. Connie Mack III (R) 3. Bob Graham (D) Georgia 2. Max Cleland (D) 3. Paul Coverdell (R) Hawaii 1. Daniel Akaka (D) 3. Daniel Inouye (D) Idaho 2. Larry Craig (R) 3. Dirk Kempthorne (R) Illinois 2. Dick Durbin (D) 3. Carol Moseley Braun (D) Indiana 1. Dick Lugar (R) 3. Dan Coats (R) Iowa 2. Tom Harkin (D) 3. Chuck Grassley (R) Kansas 2. Pat Roberts (R) 3. Sam Brownback (R) Kentucky 2. Mitch McConnell (R) 3. Wendell Ford (D) Louisiana 2. Mary Landrieu (D) 3. John Breaux (D) Maine 1. Olympia Snowe (R) 2. Susan Collins (R) Maryland 1. Paul Sarbanes (D) 3. Barbara Mikulski (D) Massachusetts 1. Ted Kennedy (D) 2. John Kerry (D) Michigan 1. Spencer Abraham (R) 2. Carl Levin (D) Minnesota 1. Rod Grams (R) 2. Paul Wellstone (DFL) Mississippi 1. Trent Lott (R) 2. Thad Cochran (R) Missouri 1. John Ashcroft (R) 3. Kit Bond (R) Montana 1. Conrad Burns (R) 2. Max Baucus (D) Nebraska 1. Bob Kerrey (D) 2. Chuck Hagel (R) Nevada 1. Richard Bryan (D) 3. Harry Reid (D) New Hampshire 2. Bob Smith (R) 3. Judd Gregg (R) New Jersey 1. Frank Lautenberg (D) 2. Robert Torricelli (D) New Mexico 1. Jeff Bingaman (D) 2. Pete Domenici (R) New York 1. Daniel Patrick Moynihan (D) 3. Al D'Amato (R) North Carolina 2. Jesse Helms (R) 3. Lauch Faircloth (R) North Dakota 1. Kent Conrad (D-NPL) 3. Byron Dorgan (D-NPL) Ohio 1. Mike DeWine (R) 3. John Glenn (D) Oklahoma 2. James Inhofe (R) 3. Don Nickles (R) Oregon 2. Gordon H. Smith (R) 3. Ron Wyden (D) Pennsylvania 1. Rick Santorum (R) 3. Arlen Specter (R) Rhode Island 1. John Chafee (R) 2. Jack Reed (D) South Carolina 2. Strom Thurmond (R) 3. Fritz Hollings (D) South Dakota 2. Tim Johnson (D) 3. Tom Daschle (D) Tennessee 1. Bill Frist (R) 2. Fred Thompson (R) Texas 1. Kay Bailey Hutchison (R) 2. Phil Gramm (R) Utah 1. Orrin Hatch (R) 3. Bob Bennett (R) Vermont 1. Jim Jeffords (R) 3. Patrick Leahy (D) Virginia 1. Chuck Robb (D) 2. John Warner (R) Washington 1. Slade Gorton (R) 3. Patty Murray (D) West Virginia 1. Robert Byrd (D) 2. Jay Rockefeller (D) Wisconsin 1. Herb Kohl (D) 3. Russ Feingold (D) Wyoming 1. Craig L. Thomas (R) 2. Mike Enzi (R) House of Representatives Members of the House of Representatives are listed by districts. Alabama . Sonny Callahan (R) . Terry Everett (R) . Bob Riley (R) . Robert Aderholt (R) . Robert E. Cramer (D) . Spencer Bachus (R) . Earl Hilliard (D) Alaska . Don Young (R) Arizona . Matt Salmon (R) . Ed Pastor (D) . Bob Stump (R) . John Shadegg (R) . Jim Kolbe (R) . J. D. Hayworth (R) Arkansas . Robert Marion Berry (D) . Vic Snyder (D) . Asa Hutchinson (R) . Jay Dickey (R) California . Frank Riggs (R) . Wally Herger (R) . Vic Fazio (D) . John Doolittle (R) . Robert Matsui (D) . Lynn Woolsey (D) . George Miller (D) . Nancy Pelosi (D) . Ron Dellums (D), until February 6, 1998 Barbara Lee (D), from April 21, 1998 . Ellen Tauscher (D) . Richard Pombo (R) . Tom Lantos (D) . Pete Stark (D) . Anna Eshoo (D) . Tom Campbell (R) . Zoe Lofgren (D) . Sam Farr (D) . Gary Condit (D) . George Radanovich (R) . Cal Dooley (D) . Bill Thomas (R) . Walter Capps (D), until October 28, 1997 Lois Capps (D), from March 17, 1998 . Elton Gallegly (R) . Brad Sherman (D) . Buck McKeon (R) . Howard Berman (D) . James E. Rogan (R) . David Dreier (R) . Henry Waxman (D) . Xavier Becerra (D) . Matthew G. Martínez (D) . Julian Dixon (D) . Lucille Roybal-Allard (D) . Esteban Edward Torres (D) . Maxine Waters (D) . Jane Harman (D) . Juanita Millender-McDonald (D) . Steve Horn (R) . Ed Royce (R) . Jerry Lewis (R) . Jay Kim (R) . George Brown Jr. (D) . Ken Calvert (R) . Sonny Bono (R), until January 5, 1998 Mary Bono (R), from April 7, 1998 . Dana Rohrabacher (R) . Loretta Sanchez (D) . Christopher Cox (R) . Ron Packard (R) . Brian Bilbray (R) . Bob Filner (D) . Duke Cunningham (R) . Duncan L. Hunter (R) Colorado . Diana DeGette (D) . David Skaggs (D) . Scott McInnis (R) . Bob Schaffer (R) . Joel Hefley (R) . Dan Schaefer (R) Connecticut . Barbara B. Kennelly (D) . Sam Gejdenson (D) . Rosa DeLauro (D) . Chris Shays (R) . James H. Maloney (D) . Nancy Johnson (R) Delaware . Mike Castle (R) Florida . Joe Scarborough (R) . Allen Boyd (D) . Corrine Brown (D) . Tillie Fowler (R) . Karen Thurman (D) . Cliff Stearns (R) . John Mica (R) . Bill McCollum (R) . Michael Bilirakis (R) . Bill Young (R) . Jim Davis (D) . Charles T. Canady (R) . Dan Miller (R) . Porter Goss (R) . Dave Weldon (R) . Mark Foley (R) . Carrie Meek (D) . Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R) . Robert Wexler (D) . Peter Deutsch (D) . Lincoln Diaz-Balart (R) . Clay Shaw (R) . Alcee Hastings (D) Georgia . Jack Kingston (R) . Sanford Bishop (D) . Mac Collins (R) . Cynthia McKinney (D) . John Lewis (D) . Newt Gingrich (R) . Bob Barr (R) . Saxby Chambliss (R) . Nathan Deal (R) . Charlie Norwood (R) . John Linder (R) Hawaii . Neil Abercrombie (D) . Patsy Mink (D) Idaho . Helen Chenoweth (R) . Mike Crapo (R) Illinois . Bobby Rush (D) . Jesse Jackson Jr. (D) . Bill Lipinski (D) . Luis Gutierrez (D) . Rod Blagojevich (D) . Henry Hyde (R) . Danny K. Davis (D) . Philip Crane (R) . Sidney Yates (D) . John Porter (R) . Jerry Weller (R) . Jerry Costello (D) . Harris Fawell (R) . Dennis Hastert (R) . Thomas W. Ewing (R) . Don Manzullo (R) . Lane Evans (D) . Ray LaHood (R) . Glenn Poshard (D) . John Shimkus (R) Indiana . Pete Visclosky (D) . David M. McIntosh (R) . Tim Roemer (D) . Mark Souder (R) . Steve Buyer (R) . Dan Burton (R) . Edward A. Pease (R) . John Hostettler (R) . Lee H. Hamilton (D) . Julia Carson (D) Iowa . Jim Leach (R) . Jim Nussle (R) . Leonard Boswell (D) . Greg Ganske (R) . Tom Latham (R) Kansas . Jerry Moran (R) . Jim Ryun (R) . Vince Snowbarger (R) . Todd Tiahrt (R) Kentucky . Ed Whitfield (R) . Ron Lewis (R) . Anne Northup (R) . Jim Bunning (R) . Hal Rogers (R) . Scotty Baesler (D) Louisiana . Bob Livingston (R) . William J. Jefferson (D) . Billy Tauzin (R) . Jim McCrery (R) . John Cooksey (R) . Richard H. Baker (R) . Chris John (D) Maine . Tom Allen (D) . John Baldacci (D) Maryland . Wayne Gilchrest (R) . Bob Ehrlich (R) . Ben Cardin (D) . Albert Wynn (D) . Steny Hoyer (D) . Roscoe Bartlett (R) . Elijah Cummings (D) . Connie Morella (R) Massachusetts . John Olver (D) . Richard Neal (D) . Jim McGovern (D) . Barney Frank (D) . Marty Meehan (D) . John F. Tierney (D) . Ed Markey (D) . Joseph P. Kennedy II (D) . Joe Moakley (D) . Bill Delahunt (D) Michigan . Bart Stupak (D) . Pete Hoekstra (R) . Vern Ehlers (R) . Dave Camp (R) . James A. Barcia (D) . Fred Upton (R) . Nick Smith (R) . Debbie Stabenow (D) . Dale Kildee (D) . David Bonior (D) . Joe Knollenberg (R) . Sander Levin (D) . Lynn N. Rivers (D) . Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick (D) . John Conyers (D) . John Dingell (D) Minnesota . Gil Gutknecht (R) . David Minge (DFL) . Jim Ramstad (R) . Bruce Vento (DFL) . Martin Olav Sabo (DFL) . Bill Luther (DFL) . Collin Peterson (DFL) . Jim Oberstar (DFL) Mississippi . Roger Wicker (R) . Bennie Thompson (D) . Chip Pickering (R) . Michael Parker (R) . Gene Taylor (D) Missouri . Bill Clay (D) . Jim Talent (R) . Dick Gephardt (D) . Ike Skelton (D) . Karen McCarthy (D) . Pat Danner (D) . Roy Blunt (R) . Jo Ann Emerson (I), changed to (R) on January 8, 1997 . Kenny Hulshof (R) Montana . Rick Hill (R) Nebraska . Doug Bereuter (R) . Jon Lynn Christensen (R) . Bill Barrett (R) Nevada . John Ensign (R) . Jim Gibbons (R) New Hampshire . John E. Sununu (R) . Charles Bass (R) New Jersey . Rob Andrews (D) . Frank LoBiondo (R) . Jim Saxton (R) . Chris Smith (R) . Marge Roukema (R) . Frank Pallone (D) . Bob Franks (R) . Bill Pascrell (D) . Steve Rothman (D) . Donald M. Payne (D) . Rodney Frelinghuysen (R) . Michael James Pappas (R) . Bob Menendez (D) New Mexico . Steven Schiff (R), until March 25, 1998 Heather Wilson (R), from June 25, 1998 . Joe Skeen (R) . Bill Richardson (D), until February 13, 1997 William T. Redmond (R), from May 13, 1997 New York . Michael Forbes (R) . Rick Lazio (R) . Peter T. King (R) . Carolyn McCarthy (D) . Gary Ackerman (D) . Floyd Flake (D), until November 17, 1997 Gregory Meeks (D), from February 3, 1998 . Thomas J. Manton (D) . Jerry Nadler (D) . Chuck Schumer (D) . Edolphus Towns (D) . Major Owens (D) . Nydia Velázquez (D) . Susan Molinari (R), until August 2, 1997 Vito Fossella (R), from November 4, 1997 . Carolyn Maloney (D) . Charles Rangel (D) . José E. Serrano (D) . Eliot Engel (D) . Nita Lowey (D) . Sue W. Kelly (R) . Benjamin Gilman (R) . Michael R. McNulty (D) . Gerald Solomon (R) . Sherwood Boehlert (R) . John M. McHugh (R) . James T. Walsh (R) . Maurice Hinchey (D) . Bill Paxon (R) . Louise Slaughter (D) . John J. LaFalce (D) . Jack Quinn (R) . Amo Houghton (R) North Carolina . Eva Clayton (D) . Bob Etheridge (D) . Walter B. Jones Jr. (R) . David Price (D) . Richard Burr (R) . Howard Coble (R) . Mike McIntyre (D) . Bill Hefner (D) . Sue Myrick (R) . Cass Ballenger (R) . Charles H. Taylor (R) . Mel Watt (D) North Dakota . Earl Pomeroy (D-NPL) Ohio . Steve Chabot (R) . Rob Portman (R) . Tony P. Hall (D) . Mike Oxley (R) . Paul Gillmor (R) . Ted Strickland (D) . Dave Hobson (R) . John Boehner (R) . Marcy Kaptur (D) . Dennis Kucinich (D) . Louis Stokes (D) . John Kasich (R) . Sherrod Brown (D) . Thomas C. Sawyer (D) . Deborah Pryce (R) . Ralph Regula (R) . James Traficant (D) . Bob Ney (R) . Steve LaTourette (R) Oklahoma . Steve Largent (R) . Tom Coburn (R) . Wes Watkins (R) . J. C. Watts (R) . Ernest Istook (R) . Frank Lucas (R) Oregon . Elizabeth Furse (D) . Robert Freeman Smith (R) . Earl Blumenauer (D) . Peter DeFazio (D) . Darlene Hooley (D) Pennsylvania . Thomas M. Foglietta (D), until November 11, 1997 Bob Brady (D), from May 19, 1998 . Chaka Fattah (D) . Robert A. Borski Jr. (D) . Ron Klink (D) . John E. Peterson (R) . Tim Holden (D) . Curt Weldon (R) . James C. Greenwood (R) . Bud Shuster (R) . Joseph M. McDade (R) . Paul Kanjorski (D) . John Murtha (D) . Jon D. Fox (R) . William J. Coyne (D) . Paul McHale (D) . Joe Pitts (R) . George Gekas (R) . Mike Doyle (D) . William F. Goodling (R) . Frank Mascara (D) . Phil English (R) Rhode Island . Patrick J. Kennedy (D) . Robert Weygand (D) South Carolina . Mark Sanford (R) . Floyd Spence (R) . Lindsey Graham (R) . Bob Inglis (R) . John Spratt (D) . Jim Clyburn (D) South Dakota . John Thune (R) Tennessee . Bill Jenkins (R) . Jimmy Duncan (R) . Zach Wamp (R) . Van Hilleary (R) . Bob Clement (D) . Bart Gordon (D) . Ed Bryant (R) . John S. Tanner (D) . Harold Ford Jr. (D) Texas . Max Sandlin (D) . Jim Turner (D) . Sam Johnson (R) . Ralph Hall (D) . Pete Sessions (R) . Joe Barton (R) . Bill Archer (R) . Kevin Brady (R) . Nick Lampson (D) . Lloyd Doggett (D) . Chet Edwards (D) . Kay Granger (R) . Mac Thornberry (R) . Ron Paul (R) . Rubén Hinojosa (D) . Silvestre Reyes (D) . Charles Stenholm (D) . Sheila Jackson-Lee (D) . Larry Combest (R) . Henry B. González (D) . Lamar Smith (R) . Tom DeLay (R) . Henry Bonilla (R) . Martin Frost (D) . Ken Bentsen Jr. (D) . Dick Armey (R) . Solomon P. Ortiz (D) . Frank Tejeda (D), until January 30, 1997 Ciro Rodriguez (D), from April 12, 1997 . Gene Green (D) . Eddie Bernice Johnson (D) Utah . James V. Hansen (R) . Merrill Cook (R) . Chris Cannon (R) Vermont . Bernie Sanders (I) Virginia . Herbert H. Bateman (R) . Owen B. Pickett (D) . Bobby Scott (D) . Norman Sisisky (D) . Virgil Goode (D) . Bob Goodlatte (R) . Thomas J. Bliley Jr. (R) . Jim Moran (D) . Rick Boucher (D) . Frank Wolf (R) . Tom Davis (R) Washington . Rick White (R) . Jack Metcalf (R) . Linda Smith (R) . Doc Hastings (R) . George Nethercutt (R) . Norm Dicks (D) . Jim McDermott (D) . Jennifer Dunn (R) . Adam Smith (D) West Virginia . Alan Mollohan (D) . Bob Wise (D) . Nick Rahall (D) Wisconsin . Mark Neumann (R) . Scott L. Klug (R) . Ron Kind (D) . Jerry Kleczka (D) . Tom Barrett (D) . Tom Petri (R) . Dave Obey (D) . Jay W. Johnson (D) . Jim Sensenbrenner (R) Wyoming . Barbara Cubin (R) Non-voting delegations . Eni Faleomavaega (D) . Eleanor Holmes Norton (D) . Robert A. Underwood (D) . Donna Christian-Christensen (D) . Carlos Romero Barceló (Resident Commissioner) (D/PNP) Changes in membership Senate There were no changes in Senate membership during this Congress. House of Representatives Four members of the House of Representatives died, and four resigned. |- | | nowrap | Frank Tejeda (D) | style="font-size:80%" | Died January 30, 1997 | nowrap | Ciro Rodriguez (D) | April 12, 1997 |- | | nowrap | Bill Richardson (D) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned February 13, 1997, to become Ambassador to the United Nations | nowrap | William T. Redmond (R) | May 20, 1997 |- | | nowrap | Susan Molinari (R) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned August 2, 1997, to become a television journalist for CBS | nowrap | Vito Fossella (R) | November 5, 1997 |- | | nowrap | Walter Capps (D) | style="font-size:80%" | Died October 28, 1997 | nowrap | Lois Capps (D) | March 17, 1998 |- | | nowrap | Thomas M. Foglietta (D) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned November 11, 1997, to become Ambassador to Italy | nowrap | Bob Brady (D) | May 21, 1998 |- | | nowrap | Floyd Flake (D) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned November 17, 1997, to return full-time to his duties as pastor of Allen A.M.E. Church | nowrap | Gregory Meeks (D) | February 5, 1998 |- | | nowrap | Sonny Bono (R) | style="font-size:80%" | Died January 5, 1998 | nowrap | Mary Bono (R) | April 21, 1998 |- | | nowrap | Ron Dellums (D) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned February 6, 1998 | nowrap | Barbara Lee (D) | April 21, 1998 |- | | nowrap | Steven Schiff (R) | style="font-size:80%" | Died March 25, 1998 | nowrap | Heather Wilson (R) | June 25, 1998 |} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders, for members (House and Senate) of the committees and their assignments, go into the Official Congressional Directory at the bottom of the article and click on the link (1 link), in the directory after the pages of terms of service, you will see the committees of the Senate, House (Standing with Subcommittees, Select and Special) and Joint and after the committee pages, you will see the House/Senate committee assignments in the directory, on the committees section of the House and Senate in the Official Congressional Directory, the committee's members on the first row on the left side shows the chairman of the committee and on the right side shows the ranking member of the committee. Senate Aging (Special) (Chuck Grassley, Chair; John Breaux, Ranking Member) Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry (Richard Lugar, Chair; Tom Harkin, Ranking Member) Forestry, Conservation and Rural Revitalization (Rick Santorum, Chair; Kent Conrad, Ranking Member) Marketing Inspection and Product Promotion (Paul Coverdell, Chair; Max Baucus, Ranking Member) Production and Price Competitiveness (Thad Cochran, Chair; J. Robert Kerrey, Ranking Member) Research, Nutrition and General Legislation (Mitch McConnell, Chair; Patrick Leahy, Ranking Member) Appropriations (Ted Stevens, Chair; Robert C. Byrd, Ranking Member) Agriculture, Rural Development and Related Agencies (Thad Cochran, Chair; Dale Bumpers, Ranking Member) Commerce, Justice, State and Judiciary (Judd Gregg, Chair; Ernest F. Hollings, Ranking Member) Defense (Ted Stevens, Chair; Daniel Inouye, Ranking Member) District of Columbia (Lauch Faircloth, Chair; Barbara Boxer, Ranking Member) Energy and Water Development (Pete Domenici, Chair; Harry Reid, Ranking Member) Foreign Operations (Mitch McConnell, Chair; Patrick Leahy, Ranking Member) Interior (Slade Gorton, Chair; Robert Byrd, Ranking Member) Labor, Health, Human Services and Education (Arlen Specter, Chair; Tom Harkin, Ranking Member) Legislative Branch (Robert F. Bennett, Chair; Byron Dorgan, Ranking Member) Military Construction (Conrad Burns, Chair; Patty Murray, Ranking Member) Transportation (Richard Shelby, Chair; Frank Lautenberg, Ranking Member) Treasury and General Government (Richard Shelby, Chair; Frank Lautenberg, Ranking Member) VA, HUD and Independent Agencies (Kit Bond, Chair; Barbara A. Mikulski, Ranking Member) Armed Services (Strom Thurmond, Chair; Carl Levin, Ranking Member) Acquisition and Technology (Rick Santorum, Chair; Joe Lieberman, Ranking Member) Airland Forces (Dan Coats, Chair; John Glenn, Ranking Member) Personnel (Dirk Kempthorne, Chair; Max Cleland, Ranking Member) Readiness (Jim Inhofe, Chair; Chuck Robb, Ranking Member) Seapower (John Warner, Chair; Edward Kennedy, Ranking Member) Strategic Forces (Bob Smith, Chair; Jeff Bingaman, Ranking Member) Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs (Al D'Amato, Chair; Paul Sarbanes, Ranking Member) Financial Institutions and Regulatory Relief (Lauch Faircloth, Chair; Richard Bryan, Ranking Member) Financial Services and Technology (Robert F. Bennett, Chair; Barbara Boxer, Ranking Member) Housing Opportunity and Community Development (Connie Mack III, Chair; John F. Kerry, Ranking Member) International Finance (Rod Grams, Chair; Carol Moseley-Braun, Ranking Member) Securities (Phil Gramm, Chair; Chris Dodd, Ranking Member) Budget (Pete Domenici, Chair; Frank Lautenberg, Ranking Member) Commerce, Science and Transportation (John McCain, Chair; Ernest F. Hollings, Ranking Member) Aviation (Slade Gorton, Chair; Wendell Ford, Ranking Member) Communications (Conrad Burns, Chair; Ernest F. Hollings, Ranking Member) Consumer Affairs, Foreign Commerce and Tourism (John Ashcroft, Chair; John Breaux, Ranking Member) Manufacturing and Competitiveness (Spencer Abraham, Chair; Richard Bryan, Ranking Member) Oceans and Fisheries (Olympia Snowe, Chair; John Kerry, Ranking Member) Science, Technology and Space (Bill Frist, Chair; John D. Rockefeller IV, Ranking Member) Surface Transportation and Merchant Marine (Kay Bailey Hutchison, Chair; Daniel K. Inouye, Ranking Member) Energy and Natural Resources (Frank H. Murkowski, Chair; Dale Bumpers, Ranking Member) Energy Research, Development, Production and Regulation (Don Nickles, Chair; Pete Domenici, Vice Chair) Forests and Public Land Management (Larry E. Craig, Chair; Conrad Burns, Vice Chair) National Parks, Historic Preservation and Recreation (Craig L. Thomas, Chair; Ben Nighthorse Campbell, Vice Chair) Water and Power (Jon Kyl, Chair; Bob Smith, Vice Chair) Environment and Public Works (John H. Chafee, Chair; Max Baucus, Ranking Member) Clean Air, Wetlands, Private Property and Nuclear Safety (Jim Inhofe, Chair; Bob Graham, Ranking Member) Drinking Water, Fisheries and Wildlife (Dirk Kempthorne, Chair; Harry Reid, Ranking Member) Superfund, Waste Control and Risk Assessment (Bob Smith, Chair; Frank Lautenberg, Ranking Member) Transportation and Infrastructure (John Warner, Chair; Max Baucus, Ranking Member) Ethics (Select) (Bob Smith, Chair; Harry Reid, Vice Chair) Finance (Bill Roth, Chair; Daniel Moynihan, Ranking Member) Health Care (Phil Gramm, Chair; John D. Rockefeller IV, Ranking Member) International Trade (Chuck Grassley, Chair; Daniel Moynihan, Ranking Member) Long-Term Growth, Debt and Deficit Reduction (Connie Mack III, Chair; Bob Graham, Ranking Member) Social Security and Family Policy (John Chafee, Chair; John Breaux, Ranking Member) Taxation and IRS Oversight (Don Nickles, Chair; Max Baucus, Ranking Member) Foreign Relations (Jesse Helms, Chair; Joe Biden, Ranking Member) African Affairs (John Ashcroft, Chair; Russ Feingold, Ranking Member) East Asian and Pacific Affairs (Craig Thomas, Chair; John Kerry, Ranking Member) European Affairs (Bob Smith, Chair; Joe Biden, Ranking Member) International Economic Policy, Export and Trade Promotion (Chuck Hagel, Chair; Paul Sarbanes, Ranking Member) International Operations (Rod Grams, Chair; Dianne Feinstein, Ranking Member) Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs (Sam Brownback, Chair; Chuck Robb, Ranking Member) Western Hemisphere, Peace Corps, Narcotics and Terrorism (Paul Coverdell, Chair; Chris Dodd, Ranking Member) Governmental Affairs (Fred Thompson, Chair; John Glenn, Ranking Member) International Security, Proliferation and Federal Services (Thad Cochran, Chair; Sander Levin, Ranking Member) Oversight of Government Management, Restructing and the District of Columbia (Sam Brownback, Chair; Joe Lieberman, Ranking Member) Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations (Susan Collins, Chair; John Glenn, Ranking Member) Indian Affairs (Select) (Ben Nighthorse Campbell, Chair; Daniel K. Inouye, Vice Chair) Judiciary (Orrin Hatch, Chair; Patrick Leahy, Ranking Member) Administrative Oversight and the Courts (Chuck Grassley, Chair; Richard Durbin, Ranking Member) Antitrust, Business Rights and Competition (Chuck Grassley, Chair; Richard Durbin, Ranking Member) Constitution, Federalism and Property Rights (Mike DeWine, Chair; Herb Kohl, Ranking Member) Immigration (Spencer Abraham, Chair; Edward Kennedy, Ranking Member) Technology, Terrorism and Government Information (Jon Kyl, Chair; Dianne Feinstein, Ranking Member) Youth Violence (Jeff Sessions, Chair; Joe Biden, Ranking Member) Intelligence (Select) (Richard C. Shelby, Chair; J. Robert Kerrey, Ranking Member) Labor and Human Resources (Jim Jeffords, Chair; Edward Kennedy, Ranking Member) Aging (Judd Gregg, Chair; Barbara Mikulski, Ranking Member) Children and Families (Dan Coats, Chair; Chris Dodd, Ranking Member) Employment and Training (Mike DeWine, Chair; Paul Wellstone, Ranking Member) Public Health and Safety (Bill Frist, Chair; Edward Kennedy, Ranking Member) Rules and Administration (John Warner, Chair; Wendell H. Ford, Ranking Member) Small Business (Kit Bond, Chair; John Kerry, Ranking Member) Veterans' Affairs (Arlen Specter, Chair; John D. Rockefeller IV, Ranking Member) Year 2000 Technology Problem (Select) House of Representatives Agriculture (Robert F. Smith, Chair; Larry Combest, Ranking Member) Departments Operations, Nutrition and Foreign Agriculture (Bob Goodlatte, Chair; Thomas Ewing, Ranking Member) Forestry, Resource Conservation and Research (Larry Combest, Chair; Bill Barrett, Ranking Member) General Farm Commodities (Bill Barrett, Chair; Larry Combest, Ranking Member) Livestock, Dairy and Poultry (Richard Pombo, Chair; John Boehner, Ranking Member) Risk Management and Specialty Crops (Thomas Ewing, Chair; Larry Combest, Ranking Member) Appropriations (Bob Livingston, Chair; Dave Obey, Ranking Member) Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration and Related Agencies (Joe Skeen, Chair; Marcy Kaptur, Ranking Member) Commerce, Justice, State and Judiciary (Hal Rogers, Chair; Alan Mollohan, Ranking Member) District of Columbia (Charlie H. Taylor, Chair; Jim Moran, Ranking Member) Energy and Water Development (Joseph McDade, Chair; Vic Fazio, Ranking Member) Foreign Operations, Export Financing and Related Programs (Sonny Callahan, Chair; Nancy Pelosi, Ranking Member) Interior (Ralph Regula, Chair; Sidney Yates, Ranking Member) Labor, Health, Human Services and Education (John E. Porter, Chair; Dave Obey, Ranking Member) Legislative (James T. Walsh, Chair; Jose Serrano, Ranking Member) Military Construction (Ron Packard, Chair; Bill Hefner, Ranking Member) National Security (Don Young, Chair; John P. Murtha, Ranking Member) Transportation (Frank R. Wolf, Chair; Martin Olav Sabo, Ranking Member) Treasury, Postal Service and General Government (Jim Kolbe, Chair; Steny Hoyer, Ranking Member) VA, HUD and Independent Agencies (John Lewis, Chair; Louis Stokes, Ranking Member) Banking and Financial Services (Jim Leach, Chair; Henry B. Gonzalez, Ranking Member) Capital Markets, Securities and Government Sponsored Enterprises (Richard H. Baker, Chair; Frank D. Lucas, Vice Chair) Domestic and International Monetary Policy (Michael Castle, Chair; Jon Fox, Vice Chair) Financial Institutions and Consumer Credit (Marge Roukema, Chair; Bill McCollum, Vice Chair) General Oversight and Investigations (Spencer Bachus, Chair; Bob Riley, Vice Chair) Housing and Community Opportunity (Rick Lazio, Chair; Bob Ney, Vice Chair) Budget (John Kasich, Chair; John Spratt, Ranking Member) Commerce (Thomas J. Bliley, Chair; Paul E. Gillmor, Ranking Member) Energy and Power (Bob Schaffer, Chair; Mike Crapo, Ranking Member) Finance and Hazardous Materials (Mike Oxley, Chair; Billy Tauzin, Ranking Member) Health and Environment (Michael Bilirakis, Chair; Dennis Hastert, Ranking Member) Oversight and Investigations (Joe Barton, Chair; Christopher Cox, Ranking Member) Telecommunications, Trade and Consumer Protection (Billy Tauzin, Chair; Mike Oxley, Ranking Member) Education and the Workforce (Bill Goodling, Chair; Tom Petri, Vice Chair) Early Childhood, Youth and Families (Frank Riggs, Chair; Michael Castle, Vice Chair) Employer-Employee Relations (Harris W. Fawell, Chair; Joe Knollenberg, Vice Chair) Oversight and Investigations (Peter Hoekstra, Chair; Charlie Norwood, Vice Chair) Postsecondary Education, Training and Life-Long Learning (Buck McKeon, Chair; Bob Graham, Vice Chair) Workforce Protections (Cass Ballenger, Chair; Harris Fawell, Vice Chair) Government Reform and Oversight (Dan Burton, Chair; Henry Waxman, Vice Chair) Civil Service (John Mica, Chair; Mike Pappas, Ranking Member) District of Columbia (Thomas M. Davis III, Chair; Connie Morella, Ranking Member) Government Management, Information and Technology (Stephen Horn, Chair; Jeff Sessions, Ranking Member) Human Resources (Chris Shays, Chair; Vince Snowbarger, Ranking Member) National Economic Growth, Natural Resources and Regulatory Affairs (David M. McIntosh, Chair; John E. Sununu, Ranking Member) National Security, International Affairs and Criminal Justice (Dennis Hastert, Chair; Mark Souder, Ranking Member) Postal Service (John McHugh, Chair; Mark Sanford, Ranking Member) House Oversight (Bill Thomas, Chair; Sam Gejdenson, Ranking Member) International Relations (Benjamin Gilman, Chair; Lee H. Hamilton, Ranking Member) Africa (Edward Royce, Chair; Bob Menendez, Ranking Member) Asia and the Pacific (Doug Bereuter, Chair; Howard Berman, Ranking Member) International Operations and Human Rights (Chris Smith, Chair; Tom Lantos, Ranking Member) Western Hemisphere (Elton Gallegly, Chair; Gary Ackerman, Ranking Member) International Economic Policy and Trade (Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Chair; Sam Gejdenson, Ranking Member) Judiciary (Henry J. Hyde, Chair; John Conyers, Ranking Member) Commercial and Administrative Law (George Gekas, Chair; Jerrold Nadler, Ranking Member) The Constitution (Charles T. Canady, Chair; Bobby Scott, Ranking Member) Courts and Intellectual Property (Howard Coble, Chair; Barney Frank, Ranking Member) Crime (Bill McCollum, Chair; Chuck Schumer, Ranking Member) Immigration and Claims (Lamar S. Smith, Chair; Mel Watt, Ranking Member) National Security (Floyd Spence, Chair; Ron Dellums, Ranking Member) Military Installations and Facilities (Joel Hefley, Chair; Solomon P. Ortiz, Ranking Member) Military Personnel (Steve Buyer, Chair; Gene Taylor, Ranking Member) Military Procurement (Duncan Hunter, Chair; Ike Skelton, Ranking Member) Military Readiness (Herbert Bateman, Chair; Norman Sisisky, Ranking Member) Military Research and Development (Curt Weldon, Chair; Owen B. Pickett, Ranking Member) Special Oversight Panel on Morale, Welfare and Recreation (John McHugh, Chair; Marty Meehan, Ranking Member) Special Oversight Panel on the Merchant Marine (Herbert Bateman, Chair; Neil Abercrombie, Ranking Member) Resources (Don Young, Chair; George Miller, Ranking Member) Energy and Mineral Resources (Barbara Cubin, Chair; Carlos Romero-Barcelo, Ranking Member) Fisheries Conservation, Wildlife and Oceans (Jim Saxton, Chair; Neil Abercrombie, Ranking Member) National Parks and Public Lands (James V. Hansen, Chair; Eni Faleomavaega, Ranking Member) Forests and Forest Health (Helen Chenoweth, Chair; Maurice Hinchey, Ranking Member) Water and Power (John T. Doolittle, Chair; Peter DeFazio, Ranking Member) Rules (Gerald B.H. Solomon, Chair; Joe Moakley, Ranking Member) Legislative and Budget Process (Porter Goss, Chair; Martin Frost, Ranking Member) Rules and Organization of the House (David Dreier, Chair; Tony P. Hall, Ranking Member) Science (Jim Sensenbrenner, Chair; George E. Brown Jr., Ranking Member) Basic Research (Steven Schiff, Chair; James A. Barcia, Ranking Member) Energy and Environment (Ken Calvert, Chair; Tim Roemer, Ranking Member) Space and Aeronautics (Dana Rohrabacher, Chair; Bud Cramer, Ranking Member) Technology (Constance Morella, Chair; Bart Gordon, Ranking Member) Small Business (Jim Talent, Chair; John J. LaFalce, Ranking Member) Empowerment (Mark Souder, Chair; Nydia Velazquez, Ranking Member) Government Programs and Oversight (Roscoe G. Bartlett, Chair; Glenn Poshard, Ranking Member) Regulatory Reform and Paperwork Reduction (Sue W. Kelly, Chair; Norman Sisisky, Ranking Member) Tax, Finance and Exports (Donald A. Manzullo, Chair; Linda Smith, Ranking Member) Standards of Official Conduct (James V. Hansen, Chair; Howard Berman, Ranking Member) Transportation and Infrastructure (Bud Shuster, Chair; James L. Oberstar, Ranking Member) Aviation (John J. Duncan Jr., Chair; Bill Lipinski, Ranking Member) Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation (Wayne T. Gilchrest, Chair; Bob Clement, Ranking Member) Public Buildings and Economic Development (Bud Shuster, Chair; James L. Oberstar, Ranking Member) Railroads (Susan Molinari, Chair; Bob Wise, Ranking Member) Surface Transportation (Tom Petri, Chair; Nick Rahall, Ranking Member) Water Resources and Environment (Sherwood Boehlert, Chair; Robert Borski, Ranking Member) Veterans' Affairs (Bob Stump, Chair; Lane Evans, Ranking Member) Benefits (Jack Quinn, Chair; Bob Filner, Ranking Member) Health (Cliff Stearns, Chair; Luis Guiterrez, Ranking Member) Oversight and Investigations (Terry Everett, Chair; Jim Clyburn, Ranking Member) Ways and Means (Bill Archer, Chair; Charles Rangel, Ranking Member) Health (Bill Thomas, Chair; Pete Stark, Ranking Member) Human Resources (E. Clay Shaw Jr., Chair; Sander M. Levin, Ranking Member) Oversight (Nancy Johnson, Chair; William J. Coyne, Ranking Member) Social Security (Jim Bunning, Chair; Barbara B. Kennelly, Ranking Member) Trade (Phil Crane, Chair; Bob Matsui, Ranking Member) Whole Joint committees Economic (Rep. Jim Saxton, Chair; Sen. Connie Mack III, Vice Chair) Taxation (Rep. Bill Archer, Chair; Sen. William V. Roth Jr., Vice Chair) The Library (Rep. Bill Thomas, Chair; Sen. Ted Stevens, Vice Chair) Printing (Sen. John W. Warner, Chair; Rep. Bill Thomas, Vice Chair) Employees Legislative branch agency directors Architect of the Capitol: William L. Ensign (acting), until February 1997 Alan M. Hantman, starting February 1997 Attending Physician of the United States Congress: John F. Eisold Comptroller General of the United States: vacant, until 1998 David M. Walker, from 1998 Director of the Congressional Budget Office: June E. O'Neill Librarian of Congress: James H. Billington Public Printer of the United States: Michael F. DiMario Senate Chaplain: Lloyd John Ogilvie (Presbyterian) Curator: Diane K. Skvarla Historian: Richard A. Baker Parliamentarian: Bob Dove Secretary: Gary Lee Sisco Librarian: Greg Harness Secretary for the Majority: Elizabeth B. Greene Secretary for the Minority: Martin P. Paone Sergeant at Arms: Gregory S. Casey, until November 9, 1998 James W. Ziglar, from November 9, 1998 House of Representatives Chaplain: James David Ford (Lutheran) Chief Administrative Officer: Jeff Trandahl (acting), until July 31, 1997 James M. Eagen III, from July 31, 1997 Clerk: Robin H. Carle, until December 21, 1998 Jeff Trandahl, from January 1, 1999 Parliamentarian: Charles W. Johnson Reading Clerks: Meg Goetz (until 1998), Mary Kevin Niland (D) Bob Berry along with Paul Hays (R) Sergeant at Arms: Wilson Livingood Inspector General: John W. Lainhart IV See also 1996 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1996 United States presidential election 1996 United States Senate elections 1996 United States House of Representatives elections 1998 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1998 United States Senate elections 1998 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links Biographical Directory of the United States Congress House History from the U.S. House of Representatives Statistics & Lists from the U.S. Senate Legislative information from THOMAS at the Library of Congress

Lists of English words by country or language of origin

eng_Latn

The following are lists of words in the English language that are known as "loanwords" or "borrowings," which are derived from other languages. For purely native (Anglo-Saxon-derived) words, see List of English words of Anglo-Saxon origin. English words of African origin List of English words of Afrikaans origin List of South African English regionalisms List of South African slang words List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas List of English words of Arabic origin List of Arabic star names List of English words of Australian Aboriginal origin List of English words of Brittonic origin Lists of English words of Celtic origin List of English words of Chinese origin List of English words of Czech origin List of English words of Dravidian origin (Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu) List of English words of Dutch origin List of English words of Afrikaans origin List of South African slang words List of place names of Dutch origin Australian places with Dutch names List of English words of Etruscan origin List of English words of Finnish origin List of English words of French origin Glossary of ballet, mostly French words List of French expressions in English List of English words with dual French and Anglo-Saxon variations List of pseudo-French words adapted to English List of English Latinates of Germanic origin List of English words of Gaulish origin List of German expressions in English List of pseudo-German words adapted to English English words of Greek origin (a discussion rather than a list) List of Greek morphemes used in English List of English words of Hawaiian origin List of English words of Hebrew origin List of English words of Hindi or Urdu origin List of English words of Hungarian origin List of English words of Indian origin List of English words of Indonesian origin, including from Javanese, Malay (Sumatran) Sundanese, Papuan (West Papua), Balinese, Dayak and other local languages in Indonesia List of English words of Irish origin List of Irish words used in the English language List of English words of Italian origin List of Italian musical terms used in English List of English words of Japanese origin List of English words of Korean origin List of Latin words with English derivatives List of English words of Malay origin List of English words of Māori origin List of English words of Niger-Congo origin List of English words of Old Norse origin List of English words of Persian origin List of English words of Philippine origin List of English words of Polish origin List of English words of Polynesian origin List of English words of Portuguese origin List of English words of Romani origin List of English words of Romanian origin List of English words of Russian origin List of English words of Sami origin List of English words of Sanskrit origin List of English words of Scandinavian origin (incl. Danish, Norwegian) List of English words of Scots origin List of English words of Scottish Gaelic origin List of English words of Semitic origin List of English words of Serbo-Croatian origin List of English words of Spanish origin List of English words of Swedish origin List of English words of Turkic origin List of English words of Ukrainian origin List of English words of Welsh origin List of English words of Yiddish origin List of English words of Zulu origin See also Anglicisation English terms with diacritical marks Inkhorn term Linguistic purism in English List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English List of Greek and Latin roots in English List of proposed etymologies of OK List of Latin legal terms References External links Ancient Egyptian Loan-Words in English List of etymologies of English words

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

eng_Latn

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a military confrontation between India and Pakistan that occurred during the Bangladesh Liberation War in East Pakistan from 3 December 1971 to the fall of Dacca (Dhaka) on 16 December 1971. The war began with Operation Chengiz Khan's preemptive aerial strikes on 11 Indian air stations, which led to the commencement of hostilities with Pakistan and Indian entry into the war for independence in East Pakistan on the side of Bengali nationalist forces, expanding the existing conflict with Indian and Pakistani forces engaging on both eastern and western fronts. 13 days after the war started, India achieved a clear upper hand, the Eastern Command of the Pakistan military signed the instrument of surrender on 16 December 1971 in Dhaka, marking the formation of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh. Officially, East Pakistan had earlier called for its secession from Pakistan on 26 March 1971. Approximately 93,000 Pakistani servicemen were taken prisoner by the Indian Army, which included 79,676 to 81,000 uniformed personnel of the Pakistan Armed Forces, including some Bengali soldiers who had remained loyal to Pakistan. The remaining 10,324 to 12,500 prisoners were civilians, either family members of the military personnel or collaborators (Razakars). It is estimated that members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro Pakistani Islamist militias killed between 300,000 and 3,000,000 civilians in Bangladesh. As a result of the conflict, a further eight to ten million people fled the country to seek refuge in India. During the 1971 Bangladesh war for independence, members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro Pakistani Islamist militias called the Razakars raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women and girls in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape. Background The Indo-Pakistani conflict was sparked by the Bangladesh Liberation War, a conflict between the traditionally dominant West Pakistanis and the majority East Pakistanis. The political tensions between East Bengal and West Pakistan had its origin in the creation of Pakistan as a result of the partition of India by the United Kingdom in 1947; the popular language movement in 1950; mass riots in East Bengal in 1964; and the mass protests in 1969. These led to the resignation of President Ayub Khan, who invited army chief General Yahya Khan to take over the central government. The geographical distance between the eastern and western wings of Pakistan was vast; East Pakistan lay over away, which greatly hampered any attempt to integrate the Bengali and the Pakistani cultures. To overcome the Bengali domination and prevent formation of the central government in Islamabad, the controversial One Unit programme established the two wings of East and West Pakistan. West Pakistanis' opposition to these efforts made it difficult to effectively govern both wings. In 1969, President Yahya Khan announced the first general elections and disestablished the status of West Pakistan as a single province in 1970, in order to restore it to its original heterogeneous status comprising four provinces, as defined at the time of establishment of Pakistan in 1947. In addition, there were religious and racial tensions between Bengalis and the multi-ethnic West Pakistanis, as Bengalis looked different from the dominant West Pakistanis. The general elections, held in 1970, resulted in East Pakistan's Awami League gaining 167 out of 169 seats for the East Pakistan Legislative Assembly, and a near-absolute majority in the 313-seat National Assembly, while the vote in West Pakistan was mostly won by the socialist Pakistan Peoples Party. The Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman stressed his political position by presenting his Six Points and endorsing the Bengalis' right to govern. The League's election success caused many West Pakistanis to fear that it would allow the Bengalis to draft the constitution based on the six-points and liberalism. To resolve the crisis, the Admiral Ahsan Mission was formed to provide recommendations. Its findings were met with favourable reviews from the political leaders of West Pakistan, with the exception of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party. However, the military top brass vetoed the mission's proposal. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto endorsed the veto, and subsequently refused to yield the premiership of Pakistan to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The Awami League called for general strikes in the country. President Yahya Khan postponed the inauguration of the National Assembly, causing a shattering disillusionment to the Awami League and their supporters throughout East Pakistan. In reaction, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for general strikes that eventually shutdown the government, and dissidents in the East began targeting the ethnic Bihari community, which had supported West Pakistan. In early March 1971, approximately 300 Biharis were slaughtered in riots by Bengali mobs in Chittagong alone. The Government of Pakistan used the "Bihari massacre" to justify its deployment of the military in East Pakistan on 25 March, when it initiated its military crackdown. President Yahya Khan called on the military – which was overwhelmingly led by West Pakistanis – to suppress dissent in the East, after accepting the resignation of Lieutenant-General Yaqub Ali Khan, the chief of staff of the East-Pakistani military. Mass arrests of dissidents began and, after several days of strikes and non-cooperation, the Pakistani military, led by Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan, cracked down on Dhaka on the night of 25 March 1971. The government outlawed the Awami League, which forced many of its members and sympathisers into refuge in Eastern India. Mujib was arrested on the night of 25/26 March 1971 at about 1:30 am (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March 1971) and taken to West Pakistan. Operation Searchlight, followed by Operation Barisal, attempted to kill the intellectual elite of the east. On 26 March 1971, Major Ziaur Rahman of Pakistan Army declared the independence of Bangladesh on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. In April, the exiled Awami League leaders formed a government-in-exile in Baidyanathtala of Meherpur. The East Pakistan Rifles and Bengali officers in Pakistan's army, navy, and marines, defected to the rebellion after taking refuge in different parts of India. The Bangladesh Force, namely the Mukti Bahini, consisting of Niyomito Bahini (Regular Force) and Oniyomito Bahini (Guerilla Force), was formed under the retired colonel Mohammad Ataul Gani Osmani. India's involvement in Bangladesh Liberation War After the resignations of Admiral S.M. Ahsan and Lieutenant-General Yaqub Ali Khan, the media correspondents began airing reports of the Pakistani military's widespread genocide against their Bengali citizens, particularly aimed at the minority Bengali Hindu population, which led to approximately 10 million people seeking refuge in the neighbouring states of Eastern India. The Indian government opened the East Pakistan–India border to allow the Bengali refugees to find safe shelter; the governments of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura established refugee camps along the border. The resulting flood of impoverished East Pakistani refugees strained India's already overburdened economy. The Indian government repeatedly appealed to the international community for assistance, but failed to elicit any response, despite the External Affairs minister Swaran Singh meeting foreign ministers of other countries. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on 27 March 1971 expressed full support of her government for the independence struggle of the people of East Pakistan, and concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, it was economical to go to war against Pakistan. On 28 April 1971, the Gandhi cabinet had ordered the Chief of the Army Staff General Sam Manekshaw to "Go into East Pakistan". Defected East Pakistan military officers and the elements of Indian Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) immediately started using the Indian refugee camps for recruitment and training of Mukti Bahini guerrillas that were to be trained against Pakistan. Indian authorities also attempted to carry on psychological warfare and keep up the morale of comrades in East Pakistan. The Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra (Free Bangladesh Radio Centre), which had broadcast Major Rahman's independence declaration, was relocated from Kalurghat in East Pakistan to India after the transmission building was shelled by Pakistani Sabre jets on 30 March 1971. It resumed broadcasts on 3 April from Tripura, aided by the Indian Border Security Force. The clandestine station was finally shifted to Kolkata, where it was joined by a large number of Bangladeshi radio programmers, newscasters, poets, singers and journalists. Its jurisdiction was transferred to the provisional Bangladesh government-in-exile, and made its first broadcast on 25 May, the birth anniversary of poet Kazi Nazrul Islam (who would later be named Bangladesh's national poet). Among the Indian contributors to the radio station's nationalistic programmes was Salil Chowdhury. Akashvani Kolkata also actively took part in this effort. The news media's mood in Pakistan had also turned increasingly jingoistic and militaristic against East Pakistan and India when the Pakistani news media reported the complexity of the situation in the East, though the reactions from Pakistan's news media pundits were mixed. By the end of September 1971, a propaganda campaign, possibly orchestrated by elements within the Government of Pakistan, resulted in stickers endorsing "Crush India" becoming a standard feature on the rear windows of vehicles in Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Lahore; this soon spread to the rest of West Pakistan. By October, other stickers proclaimed Hang the Traitor in an apparent reference to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. By the first week of December, the conservative print media outlets in the country had published jihad related materials to boost the recruitment in the military. India's official engagement with Pakistan Objective By the end of April 1971, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had asked the Indian Army chief General Sam Manekshaw if he was ready to go to war with Pakistan. According to Manekshaw's own personal account, he refused, citing the onset of monsoon season in East Pakistan and also the fact that the army tanks were being refitted. He offered his resignation, which Gandhi declined. He then said he could guarantee victory if she would allow him to prepare for the conflict on his terms, and set a date for it; Gandhi accepted his conditions. In reality, Gandhi was well aware of the difficulties of a hasty military action, but she needed to get the military's views to satisfy her hawkish colleagues and the public opinion, which were critical of India's restraint. By November 1971, an Indian-Pakistani war seemed inevitable. The Soviet Union reportedly warned Pakistan against the war, which they termed as "suicidal course for Pakistan's unity." Despite this warning, in November 1971, thousands of people led by conservative Pakistani politicians marched in Lahore and across Pakistan, calling for Pakistan to "crush India". India responded by starting a massive buildup of the Indian Army on the western borders; the army waited until December, when the drier ground in the East made for easier operations and the Himalayan passes were closed by snow, preventing any Chinese intervention. On 23 November, President Yahya Khan declared a national state of emergency and told the country to prepare for war. On the evening of 3 December, at about 17:40, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched surprise pre-emptive strikes on eleven airfields in north-western India, including Agra, which was from the border. At the time of the attack, the Taj Mahal had been camouflaged with a forest of twigs and leaves and draped with burlap, because its marble glowed like a white beacon in the moonlight. These pre-emptive strikes, known as Operation Chengiz Khan, were inspired by the success of Israeli Operation Focus in the Arab–Israeli Six-Day War. Unlike the Israeli attack on Arab airbases in 1967, which involved a large number of Israeli planes, Pakistan flew no more than 50 planes to India. In an address to the nation on radio that same evening, Prime Minister Gandhi held that the air strikes were a declaration of war against India and the Indian Air Force (IAF) responded with initial air strikes the same night. These expanded to massive retaliatory air strikes the next morning. This air action marked the official start of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971; Gandhi ordered the immediate mobilisation of troops and launched a full-scale invasion of Pakistan. This involved Indian forces in massive coordinated air, sea and land assaults on Pakistan from all fronts. The main Indian objective on the Eastern front was to capture Dacca, and on the Western front was to prevent Pakistan from entering Indian soil. Naval hostilities Unlike the 1965 war, the Navy NHQ staffers and commanders of the Pakistan Navy knew very well that the Navy was ill-prepared for the naval conflict with India. The Pakistan Navy was in no condition of fighting an offensive war in deep sea against the Indian Navy, and neither was it in a condition to mount serious defence against Indian Navy's seaborne encroachment. In the western theatre of the war, the Indian Navy's Western Naval Command under Vice admiral S.N. Kohli, successfully launched a surprise attack on Karachi port on the night of 4/5 December 1971 under the codename Trident. The naval attack involving the Soviet-built Osa missile boats sank the Pakistan Navy's destroyer and minesweeper while was also badly damaged. Pakistani naval sources reported that about 720 Pakistani sailors were killed or wounded, and Pakistan lost reserve fuel and many commercial ships, thus crippling the Pakistan Navy's further involvement in the conflict. In retaliation, the Pakistan Navy submarines, , Mangro, and Shushuk, began their operations to seek out the major Indian warships. On 9 December 1971, Hangor sank , inflicting 194 Indian casualties, and this attack was the first submarine kill since World War II. The sinking of INS Khukri was followed by another Indian attack on Karachi port on the night of 8/9 December 1971 under the codename Python. A squadron of Indian Navy's Osa missile boats approached the Karachi port and launched a series of Soviet-acquired Styx missiles, that resulted in further destruction of reserve fuel tanks and the sinking of three Pakistani merchant ships, as well as foreign ships docked in Karachi. The Pakistan Air Force did not attack the Indian Navy ships, and confusion remained the next day when the civilian pilots of Pakistan International, acting as reconnaissance war pilots, misidentified and the air force attacked its own warship, inflicting major damages and killing several officers on board. In the eastern theatre of the war, the Indian Eastern Naval Command, under Vice Admiral Nilakanta Krishnan, completely isolated East Pakistan by a naval blockade in the Bay of Bengal, trapping the Eastern Pakistan Navy and eight foreign merchant ships in their ports. From 4 December onwards, the aircraft carrier was deployed, and its Sea Hawk fighter-bombers attacked many coastal towns in East Pakistan, including Chittagong and Cox's Bazar. Pakistan countered the threat by sending the submarine , which sank off Visakhapatnam's coast, due to an internal explosion, though whether this was triggered by Indian depth charges, diving to avoid them or some other reason has never been established. Due to high number of defections, the Navy relied on deploying the Pakistan Marines, led by Rear Admiral Leslie Mungavin, where they had to conduct riverine operations against the Indian Army, but they too suffered major losses, mainly due to their lack of understanding of expeditionary warfare and the wet terrain of East Pakistan. The damage inflicted on the Pakistan Navy stood at 7 gunboats, 1 minesweeper, 1 submarine, 2 destroyers, 3 patrol crafts belonging to the coast guard, 18 cargo, supply and communication vessels; and large-scale damage inflicted on the naval base and docks in the coastal town of Karachi. Three merchant navy ships – Anwar Baksh, Pasni and Madhumathi – and ten smaller vessels were captured. Around 1900 personnel were lost, while 1413 servicemen were captured by Indian forces in Dacca. According to one Pakistani scholar, Tariq Ali, Pakistan lost half its navy in the war. Air operations After the attempted pre-emptive attack, the PAF adopted a defensive stance in response to the Indian retaliation. As the war progressed, the IAF continued to battle the PAF over conflict zones, but the number of sorties flown by the PAF decreased day–by–day. The IAF flew 4,000 sorties while the PAF offered little in retaliation, partly because of the paucity of non-Bengali technical personnel. This lack of retaliation has also been attributed to the deliberate decision of the PAF's AHQ to cut its losses, as it had already incurred huge losses in the conflict in the liberation war in the East. The PAF avoided making contacts with the Indian Navy after the latter raided the port of Karachi twice, but the PAF did retaliate by bombing Okha harbour, destroying the fuel tanks used by the boats that had attacked. In the east, No. 14 Squadron ("Tail Choppers") was destroyed and its CO, Squadron Leader PQ Mehdi, was taken POW, putting Pakistan's air command in Dhaka out of commission. India thereby achieved total air superiority on the eastern front. At the end of the war, PAF pilots made successful escapes from East Pakistan to neighbouring Burma; many PAF personnel had already left the East for Burma on their own before Dacca was overrun by the Indian military in December 1971. Indian attacks on Pakistan As the Indian Army tightened its grip in East Pakistan, the Indian Air Force continued with its attacks against Pakistan as the campaign developed into a series of daylight anti-airfield, anti-radar, and close-support attacks by fighter jets, with night attacks against airfields and strategic targets by Canberras and An-12s, while Pakistan responded with similar night attacks with its B-57s and C-130s. The PAF deployed its F-6s mainly on defensive combat air patrol missions over their own bases, leaving the PAF unable to conduct effective offensive operations. The IAF's raids damaged one USAF and one UN aircraft in Dacca, while a RCAF DHC-4 Caribou was destroyed in Islamabad, along with the USAF's Beech U-8 owned by the US military's liaison chief Brigadier-General Chuck Yeager. Sporadic raids by the IAF continued against PAF forward air bases in Pakistan until the end of the war, and interdiction and close-support operations were maintained. One of the most successful air raids by India into West Pakistan happened on 8 December 1971, when Indian Hunter aircraft from the Pathankot-based 20 Squadron, attacked the Pakistani base in Murid and destroyed 5 F-86 aircraft on the ground. This was confirmed by Pakistan's military historian, Air Commodore M Kaiser Tufail, in his book In The Ring and on Its Feet: Pakistan Air Force in the 1971 Indo-Pak War. The PAF played a more limited role in the operations. They were reinforced by Mirages from an unidentified Middle Eastern ally (whose identity remains unknown). According to author Martin Bowman, "Libyan F-5s were reportedly deployed to Sargodha AFB, perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F-5s from Saudi Arabia." The IAF was able to conduct a wide range of missions – troop support; air combat; deep penetration strikes; para-dropping behind enemy lines; feints to draw enemy fighters away from the actual target; bombing and reconnaissance. The PAF, which was solely focused on air combat, was blown out of the subcontinent's skies within the first week of the war. Those PAF aircraft that survived took refuge at Iranian air bases or in concrete bunkers, refusing to offer a fight. India flew 1,978 sorties in the East and about 4,000 in Pakistan, while the PAF flew about 30 and 2,840 at the respective fronts. More than 80 percent of IAF sorties were close-support and interdiction and about 45 IAF aircraft were lost. Pakistan lost 60 to 75 aircraft, not including any F-6s, Mirage IIIs, or the six Jordanian F-104s which failed to return to their donors. The imbalance in air losses was explained by the IAF's considerably higher sortie rate and its emphasis on ground-attack missions. Ground operations Before the start of the war, the Indian Army was well organised on both fronts and enjoyed significant numerical superiority over the Pakistan Army. The Indian Army's extraordinary war performance at both fronts restored the prestige, confidence, and dignity that it had lost during the Sino-Indian War in 1962. When the conflict started, the war immediately took a decisive turn in favour of India and their Bengali rebel allies militarily and diplomatically. On both fronts, Pakistan launched several ground offensives, but the Indian Army held its ground and initiated well-coordinated ground operations on both fronts. Major ground attacks were concentrated on the western border by the Pakistan Army, fighting together with the Pakistan Marines in the southern border, but the Indian Army was successful in penetrating into Pakistani soil. It eventually made some quick and initial gains, including the capture of around of Pakistani territory; this land gained by India in Azad Kashmir, Punjab and Sindh sectors was later ceded in the Simla Agreement of 1972, as a gesture of goodwill Casualties inflicted to Pakistan Army's I Corps, II Corps, and Pakistan Marines' Punjab detachment were very high, and many soldiers and marines perished due to lack of operational planning and lack of coordination within the marine-army formations against Indian Army's Southern and Western Commands. By the time the war came to end, the army soldiers and marines were highly demoralised– both emotionally and psychologically– on the western front and had no will to put up a defensive fight against the approaching Indian Army soldiers. The War Enquiry Commission later exposed the fact that for the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Marines, the arms and training of marines, soldiers and officers were needed at every level, and every level of command. On 23 November 1971, the Indian Army conventionally penetrated to the eastern fronts and crossed East Pakistan's borders to join their Bengali nationalist allies. Contrary to the 1965 war, which had emphasised set-piece battles and slow advances, this time the strategy adopted was a swift, three-pronged assault of nine infantry divisions with attached armoured units and close air support that rapidly converged on Dacca, the capital of East Pakistan. Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the Indian Army's Eastern Command, led the full Indian thrust into East Pakistan. As the Indian Eastern Command attacked the Pakistan Eastern Command, the Indian Air Force rapidly destroyed the small air contingent in East Pakistan and put the Dacca airfield out of commission. In the meantime, the Indian Navy effectively blockaded East Pakistan. The Indian campaign's "blitzkrieg" techniques exploited weaknesses in the Pakistani positions and bypassed opposition; this resulted in a swift victory. Faced with insurmountable losses, the Pakistani military capitulated in less than a fortnight and psychological panic spread in the Eastern Command's military leadership. Subsequently, the Indian Army encircled Dacca and issued an ultimatum to surrender in "30-minutes" time window on 16 December 1971. Upon hearing the ultimatum, the East-Pakistan government collapsed when the Lt-Gen. A.A.K. Niazi (Cdr. of Eastern Command) and his deputy, V-Adm. M.S. Khan, surrendered without offering any resistance. On 16 December 1971, Pakistan ultimately called for unilateral ceasefire and surrendered its entire four-tier military to the Indian Army– hence ending the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971. On the ground, Pakistan suffered the most, with 8,000 killed and 25,000 wounded, while India only had 3,000 dead and 12,000 wounded. The loss of armoured vehicles was similarly imbalanced and this finally represented a major defeat for Pakistan. Surrender of Pakistan Eastern Command in East Pakistan Officially, the Instrument of Surrender of Pakistan Eastern Command stationed in East Pakistan, was signed between the Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, the GOC-in-C of Indian Eastern Command and Lieutenant-General A.A.K. Niazi, the Commander of the Pakistan Eastern Command, at the Ramna Race Course in Dacca at 16:31Hrs IST on 16 December 1971. There was a problem over who would represent the Bangladesh government, as the three Bangladeshi battalion commanders - Lt Cols Shafiullah, Khaled Musharraf and Ziaur Rahman - were located too far away to be airlifted on time. The responsibility fell on the only armed forces officer available, Gp Capt AK Khondkar, chief of the newly formed BAF. As the surrender was accepted silently by Lieutenant-General Aurora, the surrounding crowds on the race course started shouting anti-Pakistan slogans, and there were reports of abuses aimed at the surrendering commanders of Pakistani military. Indian officers and an Indian diplomat, MEA joint secretary for Pakistan AK Ray, had to form a human chain around Lt Gen Niazi to protect him from being lynched. Hostilities officially ended at 14:30 GMT on 17 December, after the surrender on 16 December, and India claimed large gains of territory in Pakistan (although pre-war boundaries were recognised after the war). The war confirmed the independence of Bangladesh. Following the surrender, the Indian Army took approximately 90,000 Pakistani servicemen and their Bengali supporters as POWs, making it the largest surrender since World War II. Initial counts recorded that approximately 79,676 war prisoners were uniformed personnel, and the overwhelming majority of the war prisoners were officers – most of them from the army and navy, while relatively small numbers were from the air force and marines; others in larger number were serving in the paramilitary. The remaining prisoners were civilians who were either family members of the military personnel or collaborators (razakars). The Hamoodur Rahman Commission and the POW Investigation Commission reports instituted by Pakistan lists the Pakistani POWs as given in the table below. Apart from soldiers, it was estimated that 15,000 Bengali civilians were also made prisoners of war. Foreign reaction and involvement United States and Soviet Union The Soviet Union sympathised with the East Pakistanis, and supported the Indian Army and Mukti Bahini's incursion against Pakistan during the war, in a broader view of recognising that the succession of East Pakistan as Independent Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals— the United States and China. The Soviet Union gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed, it would take counter-measures. This assurance was enshrined in the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation signed in August 1971. The Soviet Union accepted the Indian position that any resolution to the crisis in East Pakistan would have to be on terms acceptable to India and the Awami League, but the Indo-Soviet treaty did not mean a total commitment to the Indian stance, according to author Robert Jackson. The Soviet Union continued economic aid to Pakistan and made sympathetic gestures to Pakistan until mid-October 1971. By November 1971, the Soviet ambassador to Pakistan Alexei Rodionov directed a secretive message (Rodionov message) that ultimately warned Pakistan that "it will be embarking on a suicidal course if it escalates tensions in the subcontinent". The United States stood with Pakistan by supporting it morally, politically, economically and materially when U.S. President Richard Nixon and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger refused to use rhetoric in a hopeless attempt to intervene in a large civil war. The U.S. establishment had the impression that the Soviets were in an informal alliance with India, and the US therefore needed Pakistan to help to limit Soviet influence in South Asia. During the Cold War, Pakistan was a close formal ally of the United States and also had close relations with the People's Republic of China, with whom Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and where he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tactical ally, China. Nixon encouraged Jordan and Iran to send military supplies to Pakistan, while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan, but all supplies were very limited. The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the "genocidal" activities of the Pakistani military in East Pakistan, most notably the Blood telegram, and this prompted widespread criticism and condemnation – both by the United States Congress and in the international press. Then U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, George H.W. Bush, introduced a resolution in the UN Security Council calling for a cease-fire and the withdrawal of armed forces by India and Pakistan. However, it was vetoed by the Soviet Union, and the following days witnessed the use of great pressure on the Soviets from the Nixon-Kissinger duo to get India to withdraw, but to no avail. When Pakistan's defeat in the eastern sector seemed certain, Nixon deployed Task Force 74, led by the aircraft carrier , into the Bay of Bengal. Enterprise and its escort ships arrived on station on 11 December 1971. According to a Russian documentary, the United Kingdom also deployed a carrier battle group led by the aircraft carrier to the Bay, on her final deployment. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of cruisers and destroyers from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972. The Soviets also had a nuclear submarine to help ward off the threat posed by the USS Enterprise task force in the Indian Ocean. As the war progressed, it became apparent to the United States that India was going to invade and disintegrate Pakistan in a matter of weeks, therefore President Nixon spoke with the USSR General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev on a hotline on 10 December, where Nixon reportedly urged Brezhnev to restrain India as he quoted: "in the strongest possible terms to restrain India with which … you [Brezhnev] have great influence and for whose actions you must share responsibility." After the war, the United States accepted the new balance of power and recognised India as a dominant player in South Asia; the US immediately engaged in strengthening bilateral relations between the two countries in the successive years. The Soviet Union, while being sympathetic to Pakistan's loss, decided to engage with Pakistan after sending an invitation through Rodionov to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who paid a state visit to the Soviet Union in 1972 to strengthen bilateral relations that continued over the years. A 2019 study argues "that Nixon and Kissinger routinely demonstrated psychological biases that led them to overestimate the likelihood of West Pakistani victory" in the war, and that they overestimated "the importance of the crisis to broader U.S. policy. The evidence fails to support Nixon and Kissinger's own framing of the 1971 crisis as a contest between cool-headed realpolitik and idealistic humanitarianism, and instead shows that Kissinger and Nixon's policy decisions harmed their stated goals because of repeated decision-making errors." China During the course of the war, China harshly criticised India for its involvement in the East Pakistan crises, and accused India of having imperialistic designs in South Asia. Before the war started, Chinese leaders and officials had long been philosophically advising the Pakistan government to make peaceful political settlements with the East Pakistani leaders, as China feared that India was secretly supporting, infiltrating, and arming the Bengali rebels against the East Pakistani government. China was also critical of the Government of East Pakistan, led by its Governor Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan, which used ruthless measures to deal with the Bengali opposition, and did not endorse the Pakistani position on that issue. When the war started, China reproached India for its direct involvement and infiltration in East Pakistan. It disagreed with Pakistani President Yahya Khan's consideration of military options, and criticised East Pakistan Awami League politicians' ties with India. China reacted with great alarm when the prospects of Indian invasion of Pakistan and integration of Pakistan-administered Kashmir into their side of Kashmir, became imminent. US President Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage the Indian assault, but the Chinese did not respond to this encouragement since the Indian Army's Northern Command was well prepared to guard the Line of Actual Control, and was already engaging and making advances against the Pakistan Army's X Corps in the Line of Control. China did not welcome the break-up of Pakistan's unity by the East Pakistani politicians, and effectively vetoed the membership of Bangladesh when it applied to the United Nations in 1972. China objected to admitting Bangladesh on the grounds that two UN resolutions concerning Bangladesh, requiring the repatriation of Pakistani POWs and civilians, had not yet been implemented. Furthermore, China was also among the last countries to recognise the independence of Bangladesh, refusing to do so until 31 August 1975. To this date, its relations with Bangladesh are determined by the Pakistan factor. Iran During the course of the conflict, Iran also stood with Pakistan politically and diplomatically. It was concerned with the imminent break-up of Pakistan which, it feared, would have caused the state to fractionalise into small pieces, ultimately resulting in Iran's encirclement by rivals. After the war, however, Iran began cementing ties with India based on mutual security co-operation. At the beginning of the conflict, Iran had helped Pakistan by sheltering PAF's fighter jets and providing it with free fuel to take part in the conflict, in an attempt to keep Pakistan's regional integrity united. When Pakistan called for unilateral ceasefire and the surrender was announced, the Shah of Iran hastily responded by preparing the Iranian military to come up with contingency plans to forcefully invade Pakistan and annex its Balochistan province into its side of Balochistan, by any means necessary, before anybody else did it. Sri Lanka Sri Lanka saw the partition of Pakistan as an example for themselves and feared India might use its enhanced power against them in the future. Despite the left wing government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike following a neutral non-aligned foreign policy Sri Lanka decided to help Pakistan in the war. As Pakistani aircraft could not fly over Indian territory, they would have to take a longer route around India and so they stopped at Bandaranaike Airport in Sri Lanka where they were refuelled before flying to East Pakistan. Arab World As many Arab countries were allied with both the United States and Pakistan, it was easy for Kissinger to encourage them to participate. He sent letters to both, the King of Jordan and the King of Saudi Arabia. President Nixon gave permission for Jordan to send ten F-104s and promised to provide replacements. F-86s from Saudi Arabia helped camouflage the extent of PAF losses, and some Libyan F-5s were reportedly deployed to Sargodha AFB, perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F-5s from Saudi Arabia. Libyan leader Gaddafi also personally directed a strongly worded letter to Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi accusing her of aggression against Pakistan, which endeared him to all Pakistanis. In addition to these three countries, an unidentified Middle Eastern ally also supplied Pakistan with Mirage IIIs. However, other countries such as Syria and Tunisia were against interfering describing it as an internal matter of Pakistan. Aftermath India The war stripped Pakistan of more than half of its population, and with nearly one-third of its army in captivity, clearly established India's military and political dominance of the subcontinent. India successfully led a diplomatic campaign to isolate Pakistan. In addition, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's state visit to United Kingdom and France further helped break ice with the United States, and blocked any pro-Pakistan resolution in the United Nations. There was also a meeting between Prime Minister Gandhi and President Nixon in November 1971, where she rejected the US advice against intervening in the conflict. The victory also defined India's much broader role in foreign politics, as many countries in the world had come to realise – including the United States – that the balance of power had shifted to India as a major player in the region. In the wake of changing geopolitical realities, India sought to establish closer relations with regional countries such as Iran, which was a traditional ally of Pakistan. The United States itself accepted a new balance of power, and when India conducted a surprise nuclear test in 1974, the US notified India that it had no "interest in actions designed to achieve new balance of power." In spite of the magnitude of the victory, India was surprisingly restrained in its reaction. Mostly, Indian leaders seemed pleased by the relative ease with which they had accomplished their goals—the establishment of Bangladesh and the prospect of an early return to their homeland of the 10 million Bengali refugees who were the cause of the war. In announcing the Pakistani surrender, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared in the Indian Parliament: Colonel John Gill of National Defense University, US, remarks that, while India achieved a military victory, it was not able to reap the political fruits it might have hoped for in Bangladesh. After a brief 'honeymoon' phase between India and Bangladesh, their relationship began to sour. The perceived Indian overstay revived Bangladeshi anxieties of Hindu control. Many were concerned that Mujib was permitting Indian interference in the country's internal matters and many in the Bangladeshi army resented his attachment with India. Whilst India enjoys excellent relations with Bangladesh during the Awami League tenures, relations deteriorated when the Bangladesh Nationalist Party assumed power. A 2014 Pew Research Center opinion poll found that 27% of Bangladeshis were wary of India. However, 70% of Bangladeshis held a positive view of India: while 50% of Bangladeshis held a positive view of Pakistan. Pakistan For Pakistan, the war was a complete and humiliating defeat, a psychological setback that came from a defeat at the hands of rival India. Pakistan lost half its population and a significant portion of its economy, and suffered setbacks to its geopolitical role in South Asia. In the post-war era, Pakistan struggled to absorb the lessons learned from the military interventions in the democratic system and the impact of the Pakistani military's failure was grave and long-lasting. From the geopolitical point of view, the war ended in the breaking-up of the unity of Pakistan from being the largest Muslim country in the world to its politico-economic and military collapse that resulted from a direct foreign intervention by India in 1971. The Pakistani policy-making institutions further feared that the historicity of the two-nation theory had been disproved by the war, that Muslim nationalism had proved insufficient to keep Bengalis a part of Pakistan. The Pakistani people were not mentally prepared to accept the magnitude of this kind of defeat, as the state electronic media had been projecting imaginary victories; however, the privately owned electronic news media coverage in East Pakistan had reported the complexity of the situation. When the ceasefire that came from the surrender of East Pakistan was finally announced, the people could not come to terms with the magnitude of defeat; spontaneous demonstrations and massive protests erupted on the streets of major metropolitan cities in Pakistan. According to Pakistani historians, the trauma was extremely severe, and the cost of the war for Pakistan in monetary terms and in human resources was very high. Demoralized and finding itself unable to control the situation, the Yahya administration fell when President Yahya Khan turned over his presidency to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who was sworn in on 20 December 1971 as President with the control of the military. The loss of East Pakistan shattered the prestige of the Pakistani military. Pakistan lost half its navy, a quarter of its air force, and a third of its army. The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan". Hussain Haqqani, in his book Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military notes, In his book The 1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldier's Narrative, Pakistan Army's Major General Hakeem Arshad Qureshi, a veteran of this conflict, noted: After the war, the Pakistan Army's generals in the East held each other responsible for the atrocities committed, but most of the burden was laid on Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan, who earned notoriety from his actions as governor of the East; he was called the "Butcher of Bengal" because of the widespread atrocities committed within the areas of his responsibility. Unlike his contemporary Yaqub who was a pacifist and knew well of the limits of force, Tikka was a "soldier known for his eager use of force" to settle his differences. Confessing at the hearings of the War Enquiry Commission, Lieutenant-General A. A. K. Niazi reportedly commented on Tikka's actions and noted: "On the night between 25/26 March 1971, [General] Tikka struck. Peaceful night was turned into a time of wailing, crying and burning. [General] Tikka let loose everything at his disposal as if raiding an enemy, not dealing with his own misguided and misled people. The military action was a display of stark cruelty more merciless than the massacres at Bukhara and Baghdad by Chengiz Khan and Halaku Khan... [General] Tikka... resorted to the killing of civilians and a scorched earth policy. His orders to his troops were: "I want the land, not the people..."." Major-General Rao Farman reportedly had written in his table diary: "Green land of East Pakistan will be painted red. It was painted red by Bengali blood." Farman forcefully denied writing that comment, and laid all responsibility on Tikka, while testifying at the War Enquiry Commission in 1974. Major reforms were carried out by successive governments in Pakistan after the war in the light of many recommendations made in the Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report. To address the economic disparity, the National Finance Commission system was established to equally distribute the taxation revenue among the four provinces, the large-scale nationalisation of industries and nationwide census were carried out in 1972. The Constitution was promulgated in 1973 that reflected this equal balance and a compromise between Islamism and Humanism, and provided guaranteed equal human rights to all. The military was heavily reconstructed and heavily reorganised, with President Bhutto appointing chiefs of staff in each inter-service, contrary to C-in-Cs, and making instruction on human rights compulsory in the military syllabus in each branch of inter-services. Major investments were directed towards modernising the navy. The military's chain of command was centralized in Joint Staff Headquarters (JS HQ) led by an appointed Chairman Joint Chiefs Committee to coordinars military efforts to safeguard the nation's defence and unity. In addition, Pakistan sought to have a diversified foreign policy, as Pakistani geostrategists had been shocked that both China and the United States provided limited support to Pakistan during the course of the war, with the US displaying an inability to supply weapons that Pakistan needed the most. On 20 January 1972, Pakistan under Bhutto launched the clandestine development of nuclear weapons with a view to "never to allow[ing] another foreign invasion of Pakistan." This crash programme reached parity in 1977 when the first weapon design was successfully achieved. Bangladesh As a result of the war, East Pakistan became an independent country, Bangladesh, as the world's fourth most populous Muslim state on 16 December 1971. West Pakistan, now just Pakistan, secured the release of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman from the Headquarter Prison and allowed him to return to Dacca. On 19 January 1972, Mujib was inaugurated as the first President of Bangladesh, later becoming the Prime Minister of Bangladesh in 1974. On the brink of defeat in around 14 December 1971, the media reports indicated that the Pakistan Army soldiers, the local East Pakistan Police they controlled, razakars and the Shanti Committee carried out systematic killings of professionals such as physicians, teachers, and other intellectuals, as part of a pogrom against the Bengali Hindu minorities who constituted the majority of urban educated intellectuals. Young men, especially students, who were seen as possible rebels and recruiters were also targeted by the stationed military, but the extent of casualties in East Pakistan is not known, and the issue is itself controversial and contradictory among the authors who wrote books on the pogrom; the Pakistani government denied the charges of involvement in 2015. R.J. Rummel cites estimates ranging from one to three million people killed. Other estimates place the death toll lower, at 300,000. Bangladesh government figures state that Pakistani forces aided by collaborators killed three million people, raped 200,000 women and displaced millions of others. According to authors Kenton Worcester, Sally Bermanzohn and Mark Ungar, Bengalis themselves killed about 150,000 non-Bengalis living in the East. There had been reports of Bengali insurgents indiscriminately killing non-Bengalis throughout the East; however, neither side provided substantial proofs for their claims and both Bangladeshi and Pakistani figures contradict each other over this issue. Bihari representatives in June 1971 claimed a higher figure of 500,000 killed by Bengalis. In 2010, the Awami League's government decided to set up a tribunal to prosecute the people involved in alleged war crimes and those who collaborated with Pakistan. According to the government, the defendants would be charged with crimes against humanity, genocide, murder, rape and arson. According to John H. Gill, there was widespread polarisation between pro-Pakistan Bengalis and pro-liberation Bengalis during the war, and those internal battles are still playing out in the domestic politics of modern-day Bangladesh. To this day, the issue of committed atrocities and pogroms is an influential factor in the Bangladesh–Pakistan relations. Impact Pakistan: War Enquiry Commission and War prisoners In the aftermath of the war, the Pakistani Government constituted the War Enquiry Commission, to be headed by Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman, who was an ethnic Bengali, and composed of the senior justices of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. The War Enquiry Commission was mandated with carrying out thorough investigations into the intelligence, strategic, political and military failures that causes the defeat in the war. The War Commission also looked into Pakistan's political and military involvement in the history of East Pakistan that encompasses 1947–71. The First War Report was submitted in July 1972, but it was very critically opined and penned on political misconducts of politicians and the military interference in national politics. Written in moral and philosophical perspective, the First Report was lengthy and provided accounts that were unpalatable to be released to the public. Initially, there were 12 copies that were all destroyed, except for the one that was kept and marked as "Top Secret" to prevent the backlash effects on the demoralised military. In 1976, the Supplementary Report was submitted, which was the comprehensive report compiled together with the First Report; this report was also marked as classified. In 2000, the excerpts of the Supplementary Report were leaked to a political correspondent of Pakistan's Dawn, which the Dawn published together with India Today. The First Report is still marked as classified, while the Supplementary Report's excerpts were suppressed by the news correspondents. The War Report's supplementary section was published by the Pakistan Government, but it did not officially hand over the report to Bangladesh despite its requests. The War Report exposed many military failures, from the strategic to the tactical–intelligence levels, while it confirmed the looting, rapes and the unnecessary killings by the Pakistan military and their local agents. It laid the blame squarely on Pakistan Army generals, accusing them of debauchery, smuggling, war crimes and neglect of duty. The War Commission had recommended public trial of Pakistan Army generals on the charges that they had been responsible for the situation in the first place and that they had succumbed without a fight, but no actions were ever taken against those responsible, except the dismissal of chiefs of the Pakistan Army, Pakistan Air Force, Pakistan Navy, and decommissioning of the Pakistan Marines. The War Commission, however, rejected the charge that 200,000 Bengali girls were raped by the Pakistan Army, remarking, "It is clear that the figures mentioned by the Dacca authorities are altogether fantastic and fanciful," and cited the evidence of a British abortion team that had carried out the termination of "only a hundred or more pregnancies". The Commission also claimed that "approximately 26,000 persons (were) killed during the action by the Pakistan military" Bina D'Costa states that the War Commission was aware of the military's brutality in East Pakistan, but "chose to downplay the scale of the atrocities committed." The second commission was known as Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Prisoners of War Investigation, conducted solely by the Pakistani government, that was to determine the numbers of Pakistani military personnel who surrendered, including the number of civilian POWs. The official number of the surrendered military personnel was soon released by the Government of Pakistan after the war was over. India: Indo-Pakistani summits On 2 July 1972, the Indo-Pakistani summit was held in Simla, Himachal Pradesh, India where the Simla Agreement was reached and signed between President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The treaty provided insurance to Bangladesh that Pakistan recognised Bangladesh's sovereignty, in exchange for the return of the Pakistani POWs. Over the next five months, India released more than 90,000 war prisoners, with Lieutenant-General A.A.K. Niazi being the last war prisoner to be handed over to Pakistan. The treaty also gave back more than 13,000 km2 of land that the Indian Army had seized in Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas, including Turtuk, Dhothang, Tyakshi (earlier called Tiaqsi) and Chalunka of Chorbat Valley, which was more than 804 km2. The Indian hardliners, however, felt that the treaty had been too lenient to President Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile stability in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh by Pakistanis and that he would be accused of losing Kashmir in addition to the loss of East Pakistan. As a result, Prime Minister Gandhi was criticised by a section in India for believing Bhutto's "sweet talk and false vows", while the other section claimed the agreement to be successful, for not letting it to fall into "Versailles Syndrome” trap. In 1973, India and Pakistan reached another compromise when both countries signed a trilateral agreement with Bangladesh that actually brought the war prisoners, non-Bengali and Pakistan-loyal Bengali bureaucrats and civilian servants to Pakistan. The Delhi Agreement witnessed the largest mass population transfer since the Partition of India in 1947. Bangladesh: International Crimes Tribunal In 2009, the issue of establishing the International Crimes Tribunal began to take public support. The tribunal was formally established in 2010 to investigate and prosecute suspects for the genocide committed in 1971 by the Pakistan Army and their local collaborators, Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams during the Bangladesh Liberation War. Long-term consequences Steve Coll, in his book Ghost Wars, argues that the Pakistan military's experience with India, including Pervez Musharraf's experience in 1971, influenced the Pakistani government to support jihadist groups in Afghanistan even after the Soviets left, because the jihadists were a tool to use against India, including bogging down the Indian Army in Kashmir. Writing about the war in Foreign Affairs magazine, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto stated "There is no parallel in contemporary history to the cataclysm which engulfed Pakistan in 1971. A tragic civil war, which rent asunder the people of the two parts of Pakistan, was seized by India as an opportunity for armed intervention. The country was dismembered, its economy shattered and the nation's self-confidence totally undermined." This statement of Bhutto has given rise to the myth of betrayal prevalent in modern Pakistan. This view was contradicted by the post-War Hamoodur Rahman Commission, ordered by Bhutto himself, which in its 1974 report indicted generals of the Pakistan Army for creating conditions which led to the eventual loss of East Pakistan and for inept handling of military operations in the East. Military awards Battle honours After the war, 41 battle honours and 4 theatre honours were awarded to units of the Indian Army; notable among them are: East Pakistan 1971 (theatre honour) Sindh 1971 (theatre honour) Jammu and Kashmir 1971 (theatre honour) Punjab 1971 (theatre honour) Basantar River Bogra Chachro Chhamb Defence of Punch Dera Baba Nanak Gadra City Harar Kalan Hilli Longewala Parbat Ali Poongli Bridge Shehjra Shingo River Valley Sylhet Gallantry awards For bravery, a number of soldiers and officers on both sides were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries. Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award Param Vir Chakra, Bangladeshi award Bir Sreshtho and the Pakistani award Nishan-E-Haider: India Recipients of the Param Vir Chakra: Lance Naik Albert Ekka (Posthumously) Flying Officer Nirmal Jit Singh Sekhon (Posthumously) Major Hoshiar Singh Second Lieutenant Arun Khetarpal (Posthumously) Bangladesh Recipients of the Bir Sreshtho: Captain Mohiuddin Jahangir (Posthumously) Lance Naik Munshi Abdur Rouf (Posthumously) Sepoy Hamidur Rahman (Posthumously) Sepoy Mostafa Kamal (Posthumously) ERA Mohammad Ruhul Amin (Posthumously) Flight Lieutenant Matiur Rahman (Posthumously) Lance Naik Nur Mohammad Sheikh (Posthumously) Pakistan Recipients of the Nishan-E-Haider: Major Muhammad Akram (Posthumously) Pilot Officer Rashid Minhas (Posthumously) Major Shabbir Sharif (Posthumously) Sarwar Muhammad Hussain (Posthumously) Lance Naik Muhammad Mahfuz (Posthumously) Civilian awards On 25 July 2011, Bangladesh Swadhinata Sammanona, the Bangladesh Freedom Honour, was posthumously conferred on former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. R. M. Muzumdar - IOFS officer. Second Indian Director General of the Indian Ordnance Factories. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan by the Government of India, in 1973, in the Civil service category, for his contributions during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. O. P. Bahl, an IOFS officer. Former Additional Director General Ordnance Factories and Member of the Ordnance Factory Board. Received Padma Shri, in 1972 in the civil-service category for his efforts during the war. On 28 March 2012, President of Bangladesh Zillur Rahman and the Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina conferred Bangladesh Liberation War Honour and Friends of Liberation War Honour to 75 people, six organisations, Mitra Bahini and the people of India at a special ceremony at the Bangabandhu International Conference Centre, Dhaka. This included eight heads of states: former Nepalese President Ram Baran Yadav, the third King of Bhutan Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, former Soviet General Secretary Leonid IIyich Brezhnev, former Soviet head of state Nikolai Viktorovich Podgorny, former Soviet Prime Minister Alexei Nikolaevich Kosygin, former Yugoslav President Marshal Josip Broz Tito, former UK Prime Minister Sir Edward Richard George Heath and former Nepalese Prime Minister Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala. The organisations include the BBC, Akashbani (All India Radio), International Committee of the Red Cross, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Oxfam and Kolkata University Shahayak Samiti. The list of foreign friends of Bangladesh has since been extended to 568 people. It includes 257 Indians, 88 Americans, 41 Pakistanis, 39 Britons, 9 Russians, 18 Nepalese, 16 French and 18 Japanese. In media Films Hindustan Ki Kasam, a 1973 Bollywood war film directed by Chetan Anand about Operation Cactus Lilly. Aakraman, 1975 Bollywood film set during this war featuring a romantic love triangle. Border, a 1997 Bollywood war film directed by J.P.Dutta. This movie is an adaptation from real life events that happened at the Battle of Longewala fought in Rajasthan (Western Theatre). 16 December, 2002 film directed by Mani Shankar. 1971 – Prisoners of War, a 2007 Bollywood war film directed by Amrit Sagar. Set against the backdrop of a prisoner-of-war camp in Pakistan, it follows six Indian prisoners awaiting release after their capture in the 1971 India-Pakistan war. The Ghazi Attack, a 2017 war film directed by Sankalp Reddy. It is based on the sinking of PNS Ghazi during the war. 1971: Beyond Borders, a 2017 Indian war drama film written and directed by Major Ravi. Raazi, 2017 spy film set before the events of war. Romeo Akbar Walter, 2019 spy film. Bhuj: The Pride of India, 2021 action film set during the war. Short films Mukti: Birth of a Nation, a 2017 short film directed by Manu Chobe depicts the negotiations between Major General J. F. R. Jacob and Lieutenant General A. A. K. Niazi over the Pakistani Instrument of Surrender. Miniseries/Dramas PNS Ghazi, an Urdu (Pakistani) drama based on sinking of , ISPR See also Post–World War II air-to-air combat losses List of aerial victories during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 Separatist nationalism in Pakistan Muslim nationalism in South Asia Pakistaniat Conservatism in Pakistan Socialism in Pakistan Bangladesh Forces Timeline of the Bangladesh War Radcliffe Line India and state-sponsored terrorism United States–Pakistan relations before 1990 Soviet Union-Pakistan relations before 1990 Tridev Roy Operation Searchlight\Barisal Riverine Warfare Protest of 1969 in Pakistan Pakistan Air Force in East Pakistan Pakistan news media in Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh) Indian Army in East Pakistan Pakistan-Afghanistan relations 1971 Winter POWs/MIA Investigations, Pakistan Pakistan military deployments in other countries Pakistan and its Nuclear Deterrent Program General History of Bangladesh History of Myanmar List of conflicts in Asia References Further reading Hayes, Jarrod. "Securitization, social identity, and democratic security: Nixon, India, and the ties that bind." International Organization 66.1 (2012): 63-93. online Warner, Geoffrey. "Nixon, Kissinger and the breakup of Pakistan, 1971." International Affairs 81.5 (2005): 1097-1118. External links Video of General Niazi Surrendering A complete coverage of the war from the Indian perspective An Atlas of the 1971 India – Pakistan War: The Creation of Bangladesh by John H. Gill Actual conversation from the then US President Nixon and Henry Kissinger during the 1971 War – US Department of State's Official archive. Indian Army: Major Operations Pakistan: Partition and Military Succession USA Archives Pakistan intensifies air raid on India BBC A day by day account of the war as seen in a virtual newspaper. The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971. 16 December 1971: any lessons learned? By Ayaz Amir – Pakistan's Dawn India-Pakistan 1971 War as covered by TIME Indian Air Force Combat Kills in the 1971 war (unofficial), Centre for Indian Military History Op Cactus Lilly: 19 Infantry Division in 1971, a personal recall by Lt Col Balwant Singh Sahore All for a bottle of Scotch, a personal recall of Major (later Major General) C K Karumbaya, SM, the battle for Magura Indo-Pakistani wars Bangladesh Liberation War 1971 in Bangladesh 1971 in India 1971 in Pakistan Conflicts in 1971 East Pakistan Anti-Pakistan sentiment Wars involving Bangladesh Wars involving Pakistan Wars involving India History of Bangladesh Post-independence history of Pakistan Separatism in Pakistan History of the Indian Army Research and Analysis Wing Foreign intervention Dissolutions of countries December 1971 events in Asia Attacks in Bangladesh

Fort Benning

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Fort Benning is a United States Army post straddling the Alabama–Georgia border next to Columbus, Georgia. Fort Benning supports more than 120,000 active-duty military, family members, reserve component soldiers, retirees and civilian employees on a daily basis. It is a power projection platform, and possesses the capability to deploy combat-ready forces by air, rail, and highway. Fort Benning is the home of the United States Army Maneuver Center of Excellence, the United States Army Armor School, United States Army Infantry School, the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation (formerly known as the School of the Americas), elements of the 75th Ranger Regiment, the 1st Security Force Assistance Brigade, and other tenant units. It is named after Henry L. Benning, a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army during the Civil War. Fort Benning is one of ten U.S. Army installations named for former Confederate Generals. Since 1909, Fort Benning has served as the Home of the Infantry. Since 2005, Fort Benning has been transformed into the Maneuver Center of Excellence, as a result of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission's decision to consolidate a number of schools and installations to create various "centers of excellence". Included in this transformation was the move of the Armor School from Fort Knox to Fort Benning. History Camp Benning was established October 19, 1918, initially providing basic training for World War I units, post-war. Dwight D. Eisenhower served at Benning from December 24, 1918, until March 15, 1919, with about 250 of his Camp Colt, Pennsylvania tankers who transferred to Benning after the armistice. On December 26, 1918, a portion of the Camp Polk (near Raleigh, North Carolina) tank school was transferred to Camp Benning "to work in conjunction with the Infantry school". Camp Benning tank troops were moved to Camp Meade from February 19–21, 1919. In February 1920, Congress voted to declare Camp Benning a permanent military post and appropriated more than $1 million of additional building funds for the Infantry School of Arms, which later became the Infantry School. By the fall of 1920, more than 350 officers, 7,000 troops and 650 student officers lived at Camp Benning. The post was renamed to Fort Benning in 1922, after Henry L. Benning, a general in the army of the Confederate States of America. Benning fought against U.S. Army troops in the Civil War as commander of Confederate States Army forces. In 1924, Brig. Gen. Briant H. Wells became the fourth commandant of the Infantry School and established the Wells Plan for permanent construction on the installation, emphasizing the importance of the outdoor environment and recreation opportunities for military personnel. During Wells' tenure, the post developed recreational facilities such as Doughboy Stadium, Gowdy Field, the post theater and Russ swimming pool. Doughboy Stadium was erected as a memorial by soldiers to their fallen comrades of World War I. One of the Doughboys' original coaches was a young captain named Dwight D. Eisenhower. Lt. Col George C. Marshall was appointed assistant commandant of the post in 1927 and initiated major changes. Marshall, who later became the Army Chief of Staff during World War II, was appalled by the high casualties of World War I caused, he thought, by insufficient training. He was determined to prevent a lack of preparation from costing more lives in future conflicts. He and his subordinates revamped the education system at Fort Benning. The changes he fostered are still known as the Benning Revolution. Later in his life, Marshall went on to author the Marshall Plan for reviving postwar Europe and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953. In August, 1940, 2 officers and 46 enlisted volunteers of what was known as the Parachute Test Platoon, after intensive training, made their first airborne jump over Lawson Field at Fort Benning. Observers from several countries including Germany and the Soviet Union attended. These 48 were the seed that grew into the branches of America's Airborne Infantry. During World War II Fort Benning had 197,159 acres (797.87 km2) with billeting space for 3,970 officers and 94,873 enlisted persons. Among many other units, Fort Benning was the home of the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion, whose training began in December 1943. The unit's formation was an important milestone for black Americans, as was explored in the first narrative history of the installation, Home of the Infantry. The battalion, later expanded to become the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion, was trained at Fort Benning but did not deploy overseas and never saw combat during World War II. During this period, the specialized duties of the Triple Nickel were primarily in a firefighting role, with over one thousand parachute jumps as smoke jumpers. The 555th was deployed to the Pacific Northwest of the United States in response to the concern that forest fires were being set by the Japanese military using long-range incendiary balloons. The 82nd Armored Reconnaissance Battalion was activated July 15, 1940, and trained at the Fort. The 17th Armored Engineer Battalion became active and started training July 15, 1940. On March 28, 1941, the body of Private Felix "Poss" Hall was found hanged in a shallow ravine near what is now Logan Avenue. Born January 1, 1922, in Millbrook, Alabama, he enlisted in the Army in August, 1940. He was assigned to serve in the 24th Infantry Regiment at Fort Benning, an all-Black segregated unit formed after the Civil War. Two cousins and his best friend from Millbrook were also stationed at Fort Benning and bunked near him. Hall was known for being friendly and popular, and worked at the base sawmill. On February 12 he told his friends that he was headed to the post exchange for Black servicemen after his work shift. He was last seen alive around 4:00 p.m. in Block W, an all-white neighborhood between the mill and post exchange. He did not appear at bugle call the next morning, and was declared a deserter nearly a month after his disappearance. His body was found by soldiers on March 28, 1941, hanging against the edge of a ravine in a wooded area. His death was officially declared a homicide, although military officials speculated he had committed suicide. A Fort Benning physician examined his body on April 8 and ruled it a homicide. A 1/4 inch noose tied to a sapling was wrapped around his neck, his feet had been bound by baling wire and attached with a rope to other saplings, and his hands were tied behind him. The position of his feet indicated that he had attempted to pile dirt beneath his feet to help alleviate the pressure on his neck. His murder became widely reported in Black newspapers throughout the country, and the only known publicly available photograph of Felix was published in The Pittsburgh Courier. The FBI conducted a 17-month long investigation, but ultimately no one was charged for the murder of Hall. On August 3, 2021, the Army unveiled a marker in memory of Felix Hall at the site where he was last seen alive. A memorial event was also held during the unveiling of his marker. His name is inscribed at the National Memorial for Peace and Justice. On March 23, 1941, Private Albert King, a Black serviceman, was killed by Sergeant Robert Lummus, who was white, following an altercation on a bus. Lummus approached King on the base and threatened to arrest King. When King claimed that Lummus could not do so, Lummus shot King, killing him instantly. Lummus was found not guilty of murder. At the start of the Korean War an Airborne Ranger Training Center was established by John G. Van Houten under the direction of J. Lawton Collins. The 4th Infantry Division, first of four divisions committed by the United States to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, reorganized and completed its basic training at Fort Benning (Sand Hill and Harmony Church areas) from October 1950 to May 1951, when it deployed to Germany for five years. The Airborne School on Main Post has three 249-foot (76 m) drop towers called "Free Towers." They are used to train paratroopers. The towers were modeled after the parachute towers at the 1939 World's Fair in New York. Only three towers stand today; the fourth tower was toppled by a tornado on March 14, 1954. During the spring of 1962 General Herbert B. Powell, Commanding General, U.S. Continental Army Command, directed that all instruction at the Infantry School after July 1 reflect Reorganization Objective Army Division structures. Therefore, the Infantry School asked for permission to reorganize the 1st Infantry Brigade under a ROAD structure. Instead, the Army Staff decided to inactivate the Pentomic-structured brigade and replace it with a new ROAD unit, the 197th Infantry Brigade, which resolved a unit designation issue. With the designation 1st Infantry Brigade slated to return to the 1st Infantry Division when it converted to ROAD, the existing unit at Fort Benning required a new title. The staff selected an infantry brigade number that had been associated with an Organized Reserve division that was no longer in the force. For the new ROAD brigade at Fort Benning, Georgia, the adjutant general on August 1, 1962, restored elements of the 99th Reconnaissance Troop, which thirty years earlier had been organized by consolidating infantry brigade headquarters and headquarters companies of the 99th Infantry Division, as Headquarters and Headquarters Companies, 197th and 198th Infantry Brigades. Fort Benning was the site of the Scout dog school of the United States during the Vietnam War, where the dogs trained to detect ambushes in enemy terrain got their initial training, before being transferred to Vietnam for further advanced courses. Fort Benning also had an urban village, McKenna Military Operations in Urban Terrain, built by Army engineers for urban training of soldiers. It was used for live, virtual and constructive experimentation on soldier systems, weapons, and equipment. The site was approximately 200 meters square, and included 15 buildings resembling a European village. There was a church, small houses, domestic residences and office-style buildings. In 1984, following the signing of the Panama Canal Treaty, the School of the Americas relocated from Fort Gulick (Panama) to Fort Benning. After criticism concerning human rights violations committed by a number of graduates in Latin America, the school was renamed Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation. As a result of national protests following the May 25, 2020, murder of George Floyd, an African American man, by Minneapolis police, Congress began to evaluate Democratic proposals to strip the names of Confederate leaders from military bases, including Fort Benning. Commanding Generals Post information There are four main cantonment areas on Fort Benning: Main Post, Kelley Hill, Sand Hill, and Harmony Church. Main Post Main Post houses various garrison and smaller FORSCOM units of Fort Benning such as 14th Combat Support Hospital and 11th Engineer Battalion FORSCOM as well as a number of TRADOC-related tenants, e.g. the Officer Candidate School, the Non-Commissioned Officers Academy, and the Airborne School. McGinnis-Wickham Hall (formerly known as Infantry Hall) is the post headquarters and Maneuver Center of Excellence. Adjacent is the Ranger Memorial and the National Infantry Museum. The Army Infantry School conducts its graduations on Inouye Field, sprinkled with soil from the battlegrounds of Yorktown, Antietam, Soissons, Normandy, Corregidor, Korea, Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Kelley Hill The 197th Infantry Brigade was located on Kelley Hill in the 1970s and early 1980s Kelley Hill formerly housed the 3rd Brigade Combat Team of the 3rd Infantry Division (Mechanized), the parent unit of two combined armed battalions; 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment, 2nd Battalion, 69th Armor Regiment, as well as 3rd Squadron, 1st Cavalry Regiment, 1st Battalion, 10th Field Artillery Regiment, and two support battalions; the 203rd Brigade Support Battalion and the Special Troops Battalion, 3rd BCT. Included in the roster was the 179th Military Intelligence Detachment. Between December 11, 2015, and December 15, 2015, the 3rd BCT's six subordinate battalions performed inactivation ceremonies on Sledgehammer Field. On December 16, 2015, 1st Battalion, 28th Infantry Regiment Task Force (or Task Force 1-28) was activated in its place. Task Force 1-28 is a 1053-member unit "made up of selected soldiers from the six inactivated battalions that formed the 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 3rd Infantry Division". Sand Hill Sand Hill is the primary location of the 198th Infantry Brigade and 197th Infantry Brigade responsible for training Infantry One Station Unit Training (OSUT). Its units include the following: 1st Battalion, 19th Infantry Regiment 2d Battalion, 19th Infantry Regiment 2d Battalion, 29th Infantry Regiment 1st Battalion, 46th Infantry Regiment 2d Battalion, 47th Infantry Regiment 3d Battalion, 47th Infantry Regiment 3d Battalion, 54th Infantry Regiment 1st Battalion, 50th Infantry Regiment 2d Battalion, 54th Infantry Regiment 2d Battalion, 58th Infantry Regiment 30th AG Battalion (Reception) Harmony Church Harmony Church area houses the 194th Armored Brigade, 316th Cavalry Brigade Armor School and the first phase of Ranger School, 4th Ranger Training Battalion (ARTB). After the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission's decision to create the Maneuver Center of Excellence (MCoE), Harmony Church is now the new home of the Armor School. Command group Current Command Commanding General, U.S. Army MCoE: Major General Patrick J. Donahoe Command Sergeant Major, U.S. Army MCoE: Command Sergeant Major Derrick C. Garner Deputy to the Commanding General, U.S. Army MCoE: Mr. Donald M. Sando Commandant, U.S. Army Infantry School: Major General David M. Hodne Command Sergeant Major, U.S. Army Infantry School: Command Sergeant Major Christopher E. Gunn Commandant, U.S. Army Armor School: Brigadier General Kevin D. Admiral Command Sergeant Major, U.S. Army Armor School: Command Sergeant Major Tony T. Towns Deputy Commanding General, U.S. Army MCoE: Brigadier General Charles G. Kemper IV Chief of Staff, U.S. Army MCoE: Colonel Christopher Budihas Garrison Commander, U.S. Army MCoE: Colonel Matthew Scalia Garrison Command Sergeant Major, U.S. Army MCoE: Command Sergeant Major Brett W. Johnson Units and tenant units Armor School move Fort Benning was selected by the Base Realignment and Closing Commission to be the home of the new Maneuver Center of Excellence (MCoE). This realignment co-located the United States Army Armor Center and School, formerly located at Fort Knox, Kentucky, with the Infantry Center and School. This transformation was completed September 2011. See also 17th Armored Engineer Battalion References External links Fort Benning Directorate of Family and Morale, Welfare and Recreation Fort Benning at www.georgiaencyclopedia.org Fort Benning Bayonet, the military-authorized newspaper FORSCOM homepage official site Post Headquarters - JAG historical marker The Infantry Board historical marker Buildings and structures in Chattahoochee County, Georgia Columbus, Georgia Buildings and structures in Muscogee County, Georgia Buildings and structures in Russell County, Alabama United States Army posts Training installations of the United States Army Forts in Georgia (U.S. state) Columbus metropolitan area, Georgia Civilian Conservation Corps in Georgia (U.S. state) Civilian Conservation Corps in Alabama Populated places in Muscogee County, Georgia Georgia populated places on the Chattahoochee River Military installations established in 1909 1909 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) Military installations in Georgia (U.S. state)

Temporal lobe

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The temporal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals. The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain. The temporal lobe is involved in processing sensory input into derived meanings for the appropriate retention of visual memory, language comprehension, and emotion association. Temporal refers to the head's temples. Structure The temporal lobe consists of structures that are vital for declarative or long-term memory. Declarative (denotative) or explicit memory is conscious memory divided into semantic memory (facts) and episodic memory (events). Medial temporal lobe structures that are critical for long-term memory include the hippocampus, along with the surrounding hippocampal region consisting of the perirhinal, parahippocampal, and entorhinal neocortical regions. The hippocampus is critical for memory formation, and the surrounding medial temporal cortex is currently theorized to be critical for memory storage. The prefrontal and visual cortices are also involved in explicit memory. Research has shown that lesions in the hippocampus of monkeys results in limited impairment of function, whereas extensive lesions that include the hippocampus and the medial temporal cortex result in severe impairment. Function Visual memories The temporal lobe communicates with the hippocampus and plays a key role in the formation of explicit long-term memory modulated by the amygdala. Processing sensory input Auditory Adjacent areas in the superior, posterior, and lateral parts of the temporal lobes are involved in high-level auditory processing. The temporal lobe is involved in primary auditory perception, such as hearing, and holds the primary auditory cortex. The primary auditory cortex receives sensory information from the ears and secondary areas process the information into meaningful units such as speech and words. The superior temporal gyrus includes an area (within the lateral fissure) where auditory signals from the cochlea first reach the cerebral cortex and are processed by the primary auditory cortex in the left temporal lobe. Visual The areas associated with vision in the temporal lobe interpret the meaning of visual stimuli and establish object recognition. The ventral part of the temporal cortices appear to be involved in high-level visual processing of complex stimuli such as faces (fusiform gyrus) and scenes (parahippocampal gyrus). Anterior parts of this ventral stream for visual processing are involved in object perception and recognition. Language recognition The temporal lobe holds the primary auditory cortex, which is important for the processing of semantics in both language and vision in humans. Wernicke's area, which spans the region between temporal and parietal lobes, plays a key role (in tandem with Broca's area in the frontal lobe) in language comprehension, whether spoken language or signed language. FMRI imaging shows these portions of the brain are activated by signed or spoken languages. These areas of the brain are active in children's language acquisition whether accessed via hearing a spoken language, watching a signed language, or via hand-over-hand tactile versions of a signed language The functions of the left temporal lobe are not limited to low-level perception but extend to comprehension, naming, and verbal memory. New memories The medial temporal lobes (near the sagittal plane) are thought to be involved in encoding declarative long term memory. The medial temporal lobes include the hippocampi, which are essential for memory storage, therefore damage to this area can result in impairment in new memory formation leading to permanent or temporary anterograde amnesia. Clinical significance Unilateral temporal lesion Contralateral homonymous upper quadrantanopia (sector anopsia) Complex hallucinations (smell, sound, vision, memory) Dominant hemisphere Receptive aphasia Wernicke's aphasia Anomic aphasia Dyslexia Impaired verbal memory Word agnosia, word deafness Non-dominant hemisphere Impaired non-verbal memory Impaired musical skills Bitemporal lesions (additional features) Deafness Apathy (affective indifference) Impaired learning and memory Amnesia, Korsakoff syndrome, Klüver–Bucy syndrome Damage Individuals who suffer from medial temporal lobe damage have a difficult time recalling visual stimuli. This neurotransmission deficit is not due to lacking perception of visual stimuli, but rather to the inability to interpret what is perceived. The most common symptom of inferior temporal lobe damage is visual agnosia, which involves impairment in the identification of familiar objects. Another less common type of inferior temporal lobe damage is prosopagnosia which is an impairment in the recognition of faces and distinction of unique individual facial features. Damage specifically to the anterior portion of the left temporal lobe can cause savant syndrome. Disorders Pick's disease, also known as frontotemporal amnesia, is caused by atrophy of the frontotemporal lobe. Emotional symptoms include mood changes, which the patient may be unaware of, including poor attention span and aggressive behavior towards themselves or others. Language symptoms include loss of speech, inability to read or write, loss of vocabulary and overall degeneration of motor ability. Temporal lobe epilepsy is a chronic neurological condition characterized by recurrent seizures; symptoms include a variety of sensory (visual, auditory, olfactory, and gustation) hallucinations, as well as an inability to process semantic and episodic memories. Schizophrenia is a severe psychotic disorder characterized by severe disorientation. Its most explicit symptom is the perception of external voices in the form of auditory hallucinations. The cause of such hallucinations has been attributed to deficits in the left temporal lobe, specifically within the primary auditory cortex. Decreased gray matter, among other cellular deficits, contribute to spontaneous neural activity that affects the primary auditory cortex as if it were experiencing acoustic auditory input. The misrepresentation of speech in the auditory cortex results in the perception of external voices in the form of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenic patients. Structural and functional MRI techniques have accounted for this neural activity by testing affected and non-affected individuals with external auditory stimuli. References External links The medial temporal lobe memory system H. M.’s Medial Temporal Lobe Lesion: Findings from Magnetic Resonance Imaging Cerebrum

Mad About You

eng_Latn

Mad About You is an American television sitcom starring Paul Reiser and Helen Hunt as a married couple in New York City. It initially aired on NBC from September 23, 1992, to May 24, 1999, winning numerous awards including four Golden Globe Awards and twelve Primetime Emmy Awards. On March 6, 2019, a limited series revival was picked up by Spectrum Originals for 12 episodes. Plot The series focuses mainly on newlyweds Paul Buchman, a documentary filmmaker, and Jamie Stemple Buchman, a public relations specialist, as they deal with everything from humorous daily minutiae to major struggles. Near the end of the show's run, they have a baby daughter, whom they name Mabel. They live in Greenwich Village in Lower Manhattan. The 2019 limited series focuses on Paul and Jamie as empty nesters as Mabel starts college at NYU, 5 blocks away. Production Helen Hunt and Paul Reiser were paid $1 million per episode for the last season (with their contracts calling for them to be paid equally). However, ratings fell sharply that year as the series was shuffled away from its Tuesday slot to prop up a fledgling Monday night line-up of comedies on NBC. The show's theme song, "Final Frontier", was composed by Reiser and Don Was. It was originally performed by Andrew Gold, but a version performed by Anita Baker made its debut in Season 5, Episode 13, though it was not so credited until Season 5, Episode 18. Baker's rendering was used in 18 episodes of the last three seasons, and appears on the show's soundtrack album. Gold's version is also available on the collection Thank You for Being a Friend: The Best of Andrew Gold. Exterior views of buildings were filmed in Manhattan. Paul and Jamie's New York City Apartment was located at 5th Avenue and 12th Street. The Old Town Bar and Restaurant on 45 E. 18th Street was used for the fictional Riff's Restaurant in the series. Revival In April 2018, it was announced that Sony Pictures Television would revive the show with the two lead actors reprising their roles, though Reiser expressed doubt about it in July 2018. In September 2018, Reiser stated that the revival was still on the table, but that "the studio needs to figure out if they know how to do it." On March 6, 2019, the series was revived for an eighth season by Spectrum Originals, described as a 12-episode limited series, with Reiser and Hunt confirmed to reprise their roles. On September 5, 2019, it was announced that the first six episodes of the revival would premiere on November 20, 2019, and another six episodes would be released on December 18, 2019. The series is available in a traditional manner in Canada, with its episodes airing on the CTV Comedy Channel. Many of the main and recurring cast members reprised their roles for the revival. The most notable former main cast member not to reprise her role was Leila Kenzle, who played Jamie's best friend, Fran Devanow. Kenzle retired from acting in 2003 and became a psychotherapist. Fran's husband, Mark, does return in the revival, but the character is now remarried. Cast and characters Original run (1992–1999) Main Paul Reiser as Paul Buchman, a filmmaker. After attending the New York University Film School, he struggled for recognition before finally succeeding in filmmaking in New York City. He and his family reside near Union Square, on lower Fifth Avenue. Helen Hunt as Jamie Buchman (née Stemple, born February 19, 1963), the younger daughter of Gus and Theresa Stemple. Although in several episodes, Jamie's birthdate is portrayed as November 11 and also February 11. On moving to New York, she took a job at Farrer-Gantz Public Relations, eventually rising to the position of Regional Vice President. After leaving Farrer-Gantz to continue her education, Jamie started her own public relations firm, which was eventually consolidated into City Hall's press department, under Director of Communications Lance Brockwell. When Brockwell set his sights on the Mayor's mansion, he selected Jamie as his campaign manager. After seven boyfriends at Yale University, she met Paul Buchman at a New York newsstand shortly before Christmas in 1989 by stealing his copy of The New York Times with an implausible excuse. The two married in April 1992. Her difficult relationship with her mother-in-law is an ongoing source of jokes on the show. The character also appeared in one episode of Friends (The One With The Two Parts Part One). Maui as Murray, the Buchmans' dog. He was a puppy when Paul found him, and Paul met Jamie while walking him. He sometimes chases what the couple assume is an invisible mouse, and often ends up crashing into the bedroom wall. In a later episode, Jamie discovers that there is indeed a real mouse that Murray has been chasing. In the two-part series finale, The Final Frontier, adult Mabel says that Murray died when she was six, but she was not told until she was twelve. Twice voted the most popular dog by the readers of TV Guide, Murray is loyal and endearing while being very laid back and a bit thick-skulled. Maui was originally found in a Castaic, California, animal shelter by noted Hollywood animal trainer Boone Narr. Maui weighed 58 pounds and was primarily trained by Betty Linn. His first assignments came in TV commercials and as the backup for the top dog in the feature film Bingo. Anne Ramsay as Lisa Stemple, Jamie's older sister. Lisa has unfathomable psychological issues. Jamie is referred to as "Stella" in a book written by Lisa's therapist: "It was Stella's overprotectiveness that suffocated her ability to relate to others, and tethered her to a lifetime of insecurity and neurosis." After an envious rage, she blames Jamie for all of her problems in an interview with her shrink that becomes a chapter of a book called "Manics." With no place else to go, she does her laundry at Paul's and Jamie's apartment while scavenging through her sister's clothes and food. Every visit from her parents triggers her eating disorder. In between bouts of weirdness, she still cares deeply for Paul and Jamie and is often trusted to house sit for them, usually with unfortunate results. Leila Kenzle as Fran Devanow, Jamie's best friend. She is the regional vice president at Farrer-Gantz Public Relations who hired Jamie as her assistant. Near 1989, Fran quits Farrer-Gantz to spend time with her obnoxious five-year-old son, Ryan, and husband, Mark. Jamie is then promoted to Fran's position. Fran and Mark's relationship lasts 10 years, and their separation shocks Jamie and Paul. After divorcing Mark, Fran returns to her old position at Farrer-Gantz, since Jamie had quit. Eventually, Fran also quits and goes into business with Jamie. In time, Fran and Mark reconcile. The character also appeared in sitcom Friends (The One With The Two Parts Part One). John Pankow as Ira Buchman, Paul's cousin. He first appears in the episode "The Wedding Affair." Ira is from the Sheepshead Bay section of Brooklyn. He worked for Paul's father, Burt, at Buchman's Sporting Goods. Paul and Ira have a close friendship, but their hidden rivalry came out when Ira took ownership of Buchman's Sporting Goods upon Burt's retirement. Ira made Paul a silent partner in the store due to the mistaken belief that Paul resents his inheriting the store. Ira is a compulsive gambler and often takes Paul with him on Atlantic City junkets without Jamie's knowledge. When he remembers to, Ira attends Gamblers Anonymous meetings. Even so, he frequently appears as loving and supportive towards Paul and Jamie. Cynthia Harris as Sylvia Buchman, Paul's mother. Sylvia almost always gives Jamie a hard time, but occasionally does show kindness towards her daughter-in-law. Louis Zorich as Burt Buchman, Paul's father. Burt runs a sporting goods store – until he passes it on to Ira upon retirement. His signature line in the show occurs whenever he visits Paul and Jamie's apartment, exclaiming at the door, "It's me, Burt! Burt Buchman—your father!" Alyssa and Justin Baric (twins) as Mabel Buchman, Paul and Jamie's daughter. She was finally named when Jamie's overbearing mother proclaimed that "Mothers Always Bring Extra Love", an homage to The Dick Van Dyke Show where Rob and Laura explain Ritchie's middle name. Alyssa and Justin Baric played Mabel from the beginning of season six when Mabel was brought home from the hospital ("Coming Home"). They continued to play the role of Mabel for numerous episodes. Carter and Madison Gale play the role at a later time. In the season six episode "Letters to Mabel," an 18-year-old Mabel is played by Meredith Bishop. In the series finale, a teen Mabel is played by Cara DeLizia, and an adult Mabel is played by Janeane Garofalo. Richard Kind as Dr. Mark Devanow, Fran's melodramatic ex-husband, with whom she is on good terms. A former obstetrician, Mark left Fran and their young son because he felt smothered and wanted to see the world. After returning to New York, he converts to Buddhism and works for a grocery store, although ultimately he returns to his old profession. In due course, he wins Fran back. Recurring Jerry Adler as Mr. Wicker, the apartment building superintendent (10 episodes) Hank Azaria as Nat Ostertag, Jamie and Paul's dog walker (15 episodes) Robin Bartlett (29 episodes) and Talia Balsam (1 episode) as Debbie Buchman, Paul's sister. Patrick Bristow as Troy, Jamie's scheming office underling (5 episodes) Mel Brooks as Uncle Phil, Paul's uncle (4 episodes) Carol Burnett (10 episodes) and Penny Fuller (4 episodes) and Nancy Dussault (1 episode) as Theresa Stemple, Jamie's mother. Mo Gaffney as Dr. Sheila Kleinman, Jamie and Paul's therapist (13 episodes) Jeff Garlin as Marvin, Ira's employee and semi-pro wrestler (13 episodes) Judy Geeson as Maggie Conway, British neighbor across the hall (32 episodes) Tommy Hinkley as Jay Selby, Paul's college friend (13 episodes, season 1 only). The disappearance of Selby is never explained, a fact referred to in season 5, episode 21 ("Guardianhood") Lisa Kudrow as Ursula Buffay, absent-minded waitress at Riff's (24 episodes). The character also appeared in the sitcom, Friends (1994-2004), in which Phoebe, a co-lead character played by Kudrow, was written as Ursula's twin sister. Cyndi Lauper as Marianne Lugasso, Ira's on and off girlfriend/ex-wife (5 episodes) Lyle Lovett (2 episodes) Gates McFadden as Allison Rourke, Paul Buchman's boss (4 episodes) Larry Miller as Lou Bonaparte (5 episodes) Carroll O'Connor (4 episodes) and John Karlen (3 episodes) and Paul Dooley (1 episode) as Gus Stemple, Jamie's father George O. Petrie as Sid, Paul's film editor colleague (10 episodes) Suzie Plakson as Dr. Joan Golfinos, Debbie Buchman's life partner (and Jamie's Ob/Gyn for a while) (18 episodes) Alan Ruck as Lance Brockwell (4 episodes) Eric Stoltz as Alan Tofsky, Jamie's ex-boyfriend (6 episodes) Paxton Whitehead as Maggie's first and third husband Hal (9 episodes) Jim Piddock as Maggie's second husband Hal (7 episodes) Steven Wright as Warren Mermelman (5 episodes) Notable guest stars Andre Agassi (season 2, episode 15) Ed Asner (2 episodes) John Astin (season 2, episode 23) Kevin Bacon (season 5, episode 7) Lewis Black (season 6, episode 7) Christie Brinkley (season 2, episode 15) Garth Brooks (season 2, episode 23) Michael Buffer (season 7, episode 17) Steve Buscemi (season 1, episode 7) Sid Caesar (season 5, episode 15) James Cameron (season 6, episode 23) Dan Castellaneta (season 7, episode 10) William Christopher (season 7, episode 2) Tim Conway (season 7, episodes 21–22) Ellen DeGeneres (season 6, episode 23) Paul Dooley (season 1, episode 5) Nancy Dussault (season 1, episode 5) Patrick Ewing (season 3, episode 20) Jamie Farr (season 7, episode 16) Barbara Feldon (season 1, episode 20) Janeane Garofalo (season 7, episodes 21–22) Brad Garrett (season 4, episode 18) Marita Geraghty (season 3, episode 10) Steven Gilborn (Season 5 episode 13) Rudolph "Rudy" Giuliani (season 3, episode 10) Al Gore (season 6, episode 10) Kerri Green (season 1, episode 4) Seth Green (season 5, episode 21) Billy Joel (season 7, episode 15) Bruno Kirby (season 5, episode 9) Robert Klein (season 7, episode 9) Nathan Lane (season 6, episode 11) Phil Leeds (season 1, episode 6) Eugene Levy (season 6, episode 22) Jerry Lewis (season 1, episode 17) Mark McGwire (season 7, episode 13) Michael Moore (season 5, episode 23) Yoko Ono (season 4, episode 6) Regis Philbin (season 1, episode 18) Sydney Pollack (season 6, episode 13) Beata Poźniak (season 1, episode 12) Carl Reiner as Alan Brady (season 3, episode 16) Michael Richards as Cosmo Kramer (season 1, episode 8) Alex Rocco (season, 5, episode 7) Al Roker (season 3, episode 6) Jerry Seinfeld (season 7, episode 1) Brent Spiner (season 3, episode 15) Carol Ann Susi (season 1, episode 9) Wayne Tippit (season 1, episode 11) Patrick Warburton (season 1, episode 16) Bruce Willis (season 5, episode 24) Randy Savage (season 7, episode 17) Revival (2019) Main Paul Reiser as Paul Buchman Helen Hunt as Jamie Buchman (née Stemple) Anne Ramsay as Lisa Stemple, Jamie's older sister John Pankow as Ira Buchman, Paul's cousin Abby Quinn as Mabel Buchman, Paul and Jamie's daughter Richard Kind as Dr. Mark Devanow Kecia Lewis as Tonya, Mark's new wife Antoinette LaVecchia as Lucia Francavella, Ira's girlfriend then fiancée Returning Cynthia Harris as Sylvia Buchman, Paul's mother Jerry Adler as Mr. Wicker Carol Burnett as Theresa Stemple, Jamie's mother Mo Gaffney as Dr. Sheila Kleinman, psychiatrist Recurring Asif Ali as Rishi Sofia Hasmik as Ashta Makena Lei Gordon as Shannon Kimia Bellpoornia as Yasmeen Other Cloris Leachman as Mrs. Mandelbaum, one of Jamie's therapy patients Jason Alexander as himself Blake Cooper Griffin as Aaron Omer Adam as Craig Isaac Cheung as Waiter Joe Gillette as Vincent Maslin Christina Marie Karis as Mara Buckland Dylan Mattina as a New York City pedestrian Layla Mohammadi as Meg Martin Thomas Daniel Smith as Mark Buckland Episodes Crossovers Mad About You has had numerous connections to other NBC sitcoms set in New York City, as well as various other programs. Friends (owned by Warner Bros. Television): Lisa Kudrow played the recurring role of Ursula, a flaky waitress at Riff's Bar, a local restaurant that Paul and Jamie frequented. Kudrow went on to star in the NBC sitcom Friends, playing the also somewhat flaky character of Phoebe Buffay, and for a time both series shared the same Thursday night line-up. While not originally intended, the characters of Ursula and Phoebe were later found to be identical twin sisters. In a Friends episode ("The One With The Two Parts", 1st Season), as part of a night of NBC sitcom crossovers, Jamie and Fran walk into Central Perk and mistake Phoebe for Ursula. Hunt and Kenzle were not identified on screen as Jamie and Fran. In the season three episode "Pandora's Box", Jamie causes a citywide power blackout in New York City, and the effects of the blackout are seen in the Friends episode, "The One with the Blackout", and there was also a blackout in the episode "Birthday in the Big House" of the short-lived NBC sitcom Madman of the People. All three episodes originally aired during the evening of November 3, 1994, alongside a Seinfeld episode which did not incorporate the blackout premise. Seinfeld: In one episode ("The Apartment", 1st Season), Paul, pressured by Jamie, decides to sign over the lease of his old "bachelor pad" to the current tenant who is subleasing. When the tenant is revealed to be Cosmo Kramer (Michael Richards) of Seinfeld, Paul asks Kramer "What ever happened to that Jerry guy who used to live there?" Seinfeld, however, twice contradicted this connection, once even featuring a running joke about George's distaste for his fiancée Susan's fondness for watching Mad About You. In the Mad About You season seven episode "Season Opener", Paul, under the effects of Viagra, ran into Jerry Seinfeld in the street, who tells Paul to go away. At this point in Seinfelds chronology, Jerry Seinfeld was supposed to be in prison. The Dick Van Dyke Show: Carl Reiner reprised the role of Alan Brady from the 1960s sitcom. The episode made several references to the older show, such as Jamie at one point crying and whining "Oh, Paul!" – a take on Mary Tyler Moore's character Laura Petrie's frequent refrain "Oh, Rob!" – Ten episodes earlier, Paul almost trips over a box and says, "Get me, I'm Dick Van Dyke." Style & Substance: In the 2019 revival ("Real Estate for Beginners", 8th Season), Jean Smart appeared as Chelsea Stevens-Kobolakis, a controlling, abrasive, short-tempered character that she had previously portrayed in showrunner Peter Tolan's short-lived 1998 series. Paul and Jamie attend a weekend team-building workshop that Chelsea hosts, mistakenly thinking that it's the marriage counseling seminar which is being held in a nearby room. Nielsen ratings 1992–93: #54 (10.18 rating) 1993–94: #31 (12.69 rating) 1994–95: #11 (15.2 rating) 1995–96: #37 (10.8 rating) 1996–97: #24 (11.0 rating) 1997–98: #32 (13.4 million viewers) 1998–99: #85 (9.1 million viewers) Awards Mad About You won a Golden Globe Award, a Peabody Award, a Genesis Award, received five Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Comedy Series, and was chosen Best Quality Comedy by the Viewers for Quality Television. Helen Hunt won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress – Comedy Series four years in a row (1996–99). Media Soundtrack In 1997, Atlantic Records released a Mad About You soundtrack. The soundtrack from and inspired by the sitcom, is composed of fun and sentimental songs and clips from the show. The tracks are organized chronologically marking the milestones of the couple's relationship. The album is bookended by the two versions of Paul Reiser's song "Final Frontier"—the first track is the classic version used in the show's opening, and the last track is Anita Baker's jazzy, full-length rendition, with Reiser on keyboard. The 21 tracks are as follows: "Final Frontier (TV Theme)" – Andrew Gold/The Sonora's Tucson Band "Who I Am" – Faith Hill "No Pressure" – Paul Reiser & Helen Hunt "I've Been Lonely Too Long" – The Young Rascals "At Last" – Etta James "That's Marriage?" – Paul Reiser & Helen Hunt "Ice Cream" – Sarah McLachlan "I Love the Way You Love Me" – Eric Martin "Nobody Knows Me" – Lyle Lovett "Sneaky Feelings" – Elvis Costello "A Talk in the Park" – Paul Reiser & Helen Hunt "Love and Forgiveness" – Julia Fordham "A Magic Moment" – Paul Reiser & Helen Hunt "The Things We've Handed Down" – Marc Cohn "Lullaby for You" – BeBe Winans "She Crawls Away" – Hootie & the Blowfish "My First Child" – Nil Lara "Beautiful Boy (Darling Boy)" – John Lennon "Baby Girl" – The Tony Rich Project "Unconditional Love" – Paul Reiser & Helen Hunt "Mad About You – The Final Frontier" – Anita Baker Home media Sony Pictures Home Entertainment has released the first three seasons of Mad About You on DVD in Region 1 and 4. The first two seasons were also made available in Region 2. No subsequent seasons were released by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. In February 2010, Shout! Factory acquired the distribution rights to the remaining seasons of Mad About You on DVD. They subsequently released seasons 4 and 5 on DVD. On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library including Mad About You. They subsequently re-released the first and second seasons on DVD on August 5, 2014. Mill Creek released the complete series on a 14-DVD set on May 3, 2016. As of August 1, 2019, the entire series has been available to Spectrum subscribers as part of the run-up to the premiere of the revival series. On December 8, 2020, the revival season, alongside the original series, was added to Amazon Prime Video. Season releases Best-of releases Adaptations A Chilean adaptation under the title Loco por ti (translated as Crazy About You) aired on TVN during 2004. An Argentine adaptation under the title Loco por vos (translated as Crazy About You) stylized as Loco x vos aired on Telefe from September 5 until December 29, 2016. The second season was originally going to air in 2017 but was scrapped later on. A British adaptation under the title Loved by You aired for two seasons on ITV from 11 March 1997 until 27 August 1998. A Chinese adaptation aired on Dragon TV on January 4, 2016. References External links Mad About You at faqs.org site 1992 American television series debuts 1999 American television series endings 2019 American television series debuts 2019 American television series endings 1990s American romantic comedy television series 1990s American sitcoms 2010s American romantic comedy television series 2010s American sitcoms American television series revived after cancellation Best Musical or Comedy Series Golden Globe winners English-language television shows Friends (1994 TV series) Jewish comedy and humor Television series about Jews and Judaism NBC original programming Peabody Award-winning television programs Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series Television franchises Television series about marriage Television series by Sony Pictures Television Television shows set in Manhattan Spectrum Originals original programming

CSI: Miami

eng_Latn

CSI: Miami (Crime Scene Investigation: Miami) is an American police procedural drama television series that premiered on September 23, 2002, on CBS. Starring David Caruso as Lieutenant Horatio Caine, Emily Procter as Detective Calleigh Duquesne, and Adam Rodriguez as Detective Eric Delko. The series is the first direct spin-off of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, "transplanting the same template and trickery—gory crimes, procedural plot and dazzling graphics—into [a new city] while retaining the essence of the original idea". CSI: Miami was executive produced by Carol Mendelsohn, Anthony E. Zuiker, and Ann Donahue, with the latter acting as show-runner. The series ended on April 8, 2012, after 10 seasons and 232 episodes. Following the series finale, Nina Tassler credited CSI: Miami as a "key player in CBS's rise to the top", stating that the series "leaves an amazing television legacy—a signature look and style [and] global popularity". In 2006, BBC News published an article stating that CSI: Miami was the world's most popular television series, featuring in more countries' top ten rankings for 2005 than any other series. Premise CSI: Miami follows a group of detectives assigned to the Miami-Dade Police Department's Crime Scene Investigations, an elite unit operating out of the (fictional) "Miami Dade police headquarters, with its eerie blue light and flickering screens". The team is led by Lieutenant Horatio Caine (David Caruso), who, through his history as a bomb-disposal expert, has gained specialized knowledge in explosive forensics. Horatio believes that "evil is" and lives "between the perpetrators of this evil and the people who try and come between that evil and the citizen". In his pursuit of justice, he has proven that "he can handle himself on the street and he's not a person to be messed with". The New York Sun has described Caine as an amalgam of "the spirits of all the laconic American law men who preceded him", while the New York Post describes Caine's partner Detective Calleigh Duquesne (Emily Procter) as "a bilingual Southern beauty with a specialty in ballistics". Together, Caine and Duquesne head a team of forensic investigators that includes Lieutenant Megan Donner (Kim Delaney), conceived as "a strong woman [who could] duplicate the chemistry that Caruso displayed with Marg Helgenberger" during "Cross Jurisdictions", Detective Eric Delko (Adam Rodriguez), an underwater recovery expert, Walter Simmons (Omar Miller), a detective who forces the "CSIs to do more science and research instead of relying on databases", Los Angeles Police transfer Jesse Cardoza (Eddie Cibrian), former FBI agent Natalia Boa Vista (Eva LaRue), and Ryan Wolfe (Jonathan Togo), a master of genetics recruited following the death of Detective Timothy Speedle (Rory Cochrane). The team are assisted by Medical Examiner Alexx Woods (Khandi Alexander), who began her career as Medical Examiner in New York, and her replacement Tara Price (Megalyn Echikunwoke), Miami Dade Police Sergeant Frank Tripp (Rex Linn), and Horatio's sister-in-law, Detective Yelina Salas (Sofia Milos). During their investigations, the team cooperate with both allies and nemeses, including Internal Affairs Lieutenant Rick Stetler (David Lee Smith), States Attorney Rebecca Nevins (Christina Chang), Medical Examiner Tom Loman (Christian Clemenson), and newly minted detective Sam Owens (Taylor Cole). Production Concept and development On April 17, 2002, CBS Television Studios announced plans to launch a series originally titled CSI: Miami-Dade, a spin-off to the hit procedural CSI. On the location choice, co-creator Carol Mendelsohn stated that "[she, Anthony E. Zuiker, and Ann Donahue] felt Miami was the most happening place [...] Miami is so rich as a character. There is so much water. There are so many different cultures here all colliding. Its politics are so interesting. All that gives Miami an edge." CBS ordered 22 episodes of the series, with Anthony Zuiker stating that whilst he intended for the series to look "ridiculously gorgeous", he felt that the "show [was] not about women walking around in bikinis. It's about science." The series was launched as a second-season episode of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, and originally featured a cast led by Caruso, Procter, Rodriguez, Alexander, with Cochrane. Delaney joined the series following the pilot episode's broadcast. The series is executive produced by creators Carol Mendelsohn, Anthony E. Zuiker, and Ann Donahue, with Ann Donahue acting as show-runner. Jerry Bruckheimer also executive-produces the series. CSI: Crime Scene Investigation stars William Petersen and Marg Helgenberger expressed their displeasure at CBS' launch of Miami, with Petersen stating that "[they] should have waited five years for a CSI spinoff." Helgenberger supported Petersen's comments during an Emmy acceptance speech, noting that "as far as [she was] concerned, there's only one CSI." Petersen jestingly referred to the series NYPDCSI, as it initially featured both Caruso and Delaney, of NYPD Blue fame. Casting In 2002, CSI executive producer Anthony Zuiker began casting for the then-unnamed Miami based spin-off. First cast was Procter, as Calleigh Duquesne. Regarding her decision to leave The West Wing and join Miami, Procter stated that "It was like choosing between a boyfriend that wants to be with you casually or a man that says I love you." She described her character as "a weird girl [...] bright and very nerdy. She wears a lot of boot-cut corduroy pants and turquoise necklaces and looks like a hippie. I just like to pretend I'm Velma in Scooby-Doo." Rodriguez, Cochrane, and Alexander were cast alongside Procter, completing the supporting ensemble. For the lead, CBS suggested Caruso. Zuiker, who stated that he had "heard about the NYPD Blue thing", was initially hesitant. Elaborating, Zuiker stated that he "sort of jumped in and said, 'Naw, I don't know about this guy. The show's tough enough to get off the ground and I don't want to walk into any problems." CBS president Les Moonves had announced in January that a Miami spin-off was imminent, yet "It wasn't until we sort of, like, at the eleventh hour, really started to look at our options as to who was going to play Horatio, [Zuiker, Mendelsohn, and Donahue] revisited Caruso. And [they] said, 'Yeah, we'll have him come out for dinner, see what he's about.'" Caruso was later cast as Caine. He was the last pilot cast member to be contracted to series. Following the back-door pilot, Zuiker stated that he believed the series "needed a little more balance in terms of a leading woman". Executives offered Sela Ward the part of Megan Donner, a lieutenant and Horatio's former boss. Ward turned down the role, and producers later cast Delaney. Ann Donahue described Delaney's casting as "a no-brainer", stating that "when Kim became available, we knew in a heartbeat that we wanted her." Zuiker elaborated, noting that "Kim brings a level of maturity, a level of balance with David Caruso [...] We just felt we were missing something in the whole picture – we needed a strong female in the cast." The New York Times reported that original lead Procter would "now follow Ms. Delaney in the credits." In late 2002, despite receiving excellent feedback from producers, Delaney departed the cast after ten episodes. CBS issued a statement noting that Delaney's character had become less integral to the series as it progressed, "they had hoped to duplicate the sparks between William Petersen and Marg Helgenberger on the original CSI," noted EW, but Delaney and Caruso's chemistry was lackluster. Delaney's departure allowed for "younger Emily Procter's profile" to be raised to that of "leading female". Sofia Milos was cast in a recurring role to "fill the void" supposed to have been created by Delaney's departure. In season three, Milos was promoted to series regular. TV Guide reported that Milos would depart after one season as a main cast member. Also in the third season, Jonathan Togo was cast as Ryan Wolfe, a character created to replace an unnamed "member of the CSI team" expected to "die in the line of duty". This cast member was later announced as Rory Cochrane. On April 10, 2006, Ann Donahue announced that recurring cast members Rex Linn and Eva LaRue were also joining the main cast, after recurring since season one, and season four, respectively. The fourth main cast member to depart the series was Khandi Alexander, in the series' sixth season. Alexander was replaced by Megalyn Echikunwoke, who departed after a single season. Adam Rodriguez departed in season eight, though he returned in season nine. During Rodriguez's temporary departure, Eddie Cibrian appeared as a series regular, though in June 2010 he was let go from his contract. Omar Miller also joined the cast in season eight. Locations CSI: Miami was filmed primarily in California. Indoor scenes were shot at Raleigh Manhattan Studios in Manhattan Beach, California. Most outdoor scenes were filmed in Long Beach, as well as portions of Manhattan Beach and Redondo Beach. Beach areas of Marina Green Park and Rainbow Lagoon Park in downtown Long Beach were often used for other outdoor scenes, as the newly constructed high-rise condos there gave the appearance of being in Miami. The sculptured walkway paying tribute to the old Pike Roller Coaster can be seen in the background in the episodes "Wrecking Crew" and "Under The Influence". Footage from the Biscayne Courthouse, visible prominently in the episode "Recoil", among others, was filmed at the Water Garden Park in Santa Monica, at 34.028728, −118.471331. Other locations around Long Beach are used, such as the Naples district, whose canals and upscale homes featuring large boat docks and palm trees impart a Miami-like atmosphere. The building used for exterior shots of the Miami-Dade Police Department crime lab is actually the SkyOne Federal Credit Union headquarters located at 14600 Aviation Boulevard in Hawthorne, California. Many outdoor location shots were also filmed in Miami-Dade County, Florida, including Coconut Grove, Coral Gables, and Miami Beach. Music CSI: Miami'''s main theme is "Won't Get Fooled Again", written and performed by The Who, who also perform the theme songs of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber and CSI: Vegas. Prior to the opening credits, Horatio Caine delivers a "one-liner", or witticism, relating to the crime committed. Cancellation On February 1, 2012, CBS announced that the 10th season of CSI: Miami would have its episode order reduced to 19 episodes, in order to make room on the schedule for mid-season replacement NYC 22. On May 13, 2012, CSI: Miami was canceled. Procter later stated that "the cancellation was kind of shocking for everyone because they had given an indication that CSI: NY might go, so people would have been prepared and we just weren't prepared." Procter had previously commented on the longevity of the series, commenting that "I remember sitting around with David in the parking lot during season one, getting ready for the first episode to air. We said [...] 'we are going to spend the rest of our lives together. For better or worse.'" Eva LaRue later echoed Procter's sentiments, stating that she "was sad because we did not get a chance to say goodbye to the fans or to each other". CBS Entertainment President Nina Tassler issued a statement noting that "when the slightly different budgets and ratings concerns for the CSI spin-offs were factored in, there was no distinction — at least in terms of numbers. They were very close, looking at them forensically, they were very close. It was an indiscernible difference . . . it was just a matter of looking at the schedule and what looked better". "In the end, NY won that particular duel simply because it features New York City, which helped CBS create a Friday night NYC-fest". Cast and characters Main David Caruso as Horatio "H" Caine; the "iconic" director of the Miami Dade Crime Lab and a police lieutenant. Rising through the ranks as a bomb squad technician, Caine is an expert in explosive forensics and is incredibly protective of his team. He often goes to extraordinary lengths to save evidence or a potential victim. Throughout the course of the series, he becomes more jaded and less ethical, developing a far more serious, direct, and to-the-point attitude, though he maintains his ability to communicate well with children who have suffered traumatic ordeals. He is also a skilled marksman. Emily Procter as Calleigh Duquesne; a CSI Level 3 and Horatio's Assistant Supervisor. Duquesne is a veteran MDPD Detective and the longest serving member of the crime lab. She is a ballistics specialist. Her slight build, blonde hair, and Southern belle accent often lead others to underestimate her, but she is a brilliant and a dedicated scientist. She develops a romantic relationship with fellow CSI Eric Delko, and, in the show's final season, adopts two children. Adam Rodriguez as Eric Delko; a fingerprint and drug expert of Cuban and Russian descent. Detective Delko first encountered the CSI team whilst working as a tow-truck driver. Caine persuaded him to join the MDPD, and the two became good friends. Eric has three sisters. One of them, Marisol, married Caine and was killed at the end of season 4. Because of this he builds strong bonds where he works, developing a strong friendship with Tim Speedle, and a romantic interest in Calleigh. (seasons 1–8, 9–10; recurring: season 8) Khandi Alexander as Alexx Woods; a Medical Examiner for Miami Dade County. Alexx began her medical career in New York as a physician and became a medical examiner with the CSI team after moving to Miami for personal reasons. She is a very emotional person, and is more of a "mother" figure for the CSI team, showing great concern for them. She also often talks to the dead bodies. Alexx eventually leaves CSI in order to spend more time with the living. (seasons 1–6; guest star: seasons 7–8) Rory Cochrane as Tim Speedle, known affectionately as "Speed"; a trace evidence and impressions expert from Syracuse, New York. He worked for the St. Petersburg PD in 1997, and had a degree in biology from Columbia University. Speed joined the team at the recommendation of Jesse Cardoza, and became an invaluable asset. Speed often failed to comply to departmental standards, however, and was killed as a result of his unclean weapon misfiring. (seasons 1–3; guest star: season 6) Kim Delaney as Megan Donner; Horatio's first partner and a respected MDPD Police Lieutenant. She was the director of the MDPD Crime Lab prior to taking indefinite leave due to the death of her husband, who was killed in the line of duty. She believes in following the evidence, and as such is often seen as adversarial to Horatio's go-with-the-gut detective style. As a result of this, Megan resigns, finding the pressure of the job to now be more than she could handle. (season 1) Sofia Milos as Yelina Salas; a Colombian homicide detective frequently attached to CSI investigations, and the widow of Horatio's brother Raymond Caine. She later starts a relationship with IAB Sergeant Rick Stetler. Yelina leaves the team and moves to Rio with her family, although she later returns to Miami as a private investigator. (Recurring: seasons 1–2; main: season 3; guest star: seasons 5–7) Jonathan Togo as Ryan Wolfe; a Detective attached to Horatio's team. Ryan was working as a police officer at the time he was hired for the lab by Caine, who noted Ryan's immaculate care of his gun, likely due to Wolfe having OCD. Ryan was replacing fallen CSI Tim Speedle, who died in the line of duty as a direct result of his poor gun maintenance. The team, and Eric in particular, are hostile to Ryan at first, though they later warm to him. (seasons 3–10; recurring: season 3) Rex Linn as Frank Tripp; a Texas-born homicide detective who accompanies the team to the crime scenes. He is known for interrogating suspects in his typical sarcastic manner and has a good working relationship with all the CSIs. He is divorced with three kids, and has known Horatio since at least 1997. Over the course of the series, he is promoted to sergeant, taking on a more prominent role within the MDPD, and spending a short time in uniform. (Recurring: seasons 1–4; seasons 5–10) Eva LaRue as Natalia Boa Vista; an MDPD Detective and DNA specialist hired by Caine. Upon her arrival, she was only allowed to work on cold or unsolved cases due to the restrictions of her federal grant, although it is later revealed she is in fact an FBI Special Agent working undercover. She later applies to join the team permanently, much to the initial chagrin of Delko and Wolfe. She was a victim of domestic abuse during her marriage. (Recurring: season 4; seasons 5–10) Megalyn Echikunwoke as Tara Price; the day-shift medical examiner who replaced Alexx following her departure. She is initially well received by the team, until she is shown to steal a bottle of Oxycodone (an opioid analgesic medication) from a victim in the morgue. Ryan Wolfe confronts Tara about the stolen pills in her locker, and she is later arrested and dismissed from the team. Tara is replaced shortly thereafter by Dr. Tom Loman. (season 7; recurring: season 7) Eddie Cibrian as Jesse Cardoza; an MDPD Detective who worked with Horatio and Megan prior to the formation of the CSI team. He returns to Miami following a stint as a LAPD officer in order to track the man who murdered his wife. Cardoza builds strong friendships within the team but is killed in the line of duty during a halon attack on the lab. Walter is particularly hurt by his loss. (season 8; guest star: season 9) Omar Benson Miller as Walter Simmons; "a Louisiana native and art theft specialist who transfers over from the night-shift to join Horatio's team". Simmons' large build is often intimidating to suspects. However, he is shown to be one of the most caring and compassionate members of the team. He is extremely close to both Ryan and Jesse, and develops a friendship with LVPD CSI Raymond Langston. (seasons 8–10; recurring: season 8) Recurring Holt McCallany as John Hagen; a Homicide Detective who had emotional and psychological problems. He was the partner of Caine's presumed-dead brother. Hagen kills himself in front of Calleigh. (seasons 1–3) Boti Bliss as Maxine Valera; a DNA technician who works on Caine's team. She is incredibly capable but has an unfortunate habit of taking shortcuts whilst processing evidence. (seasons 2–8) Johnny Whitworth as Jake Berkeley; originally an MDPD Narcotics Detective, Jake transfers to Homicide following a stint in undercover. He and Calleigh were in a relationship in the academy, and later rekindle this. (seasons 5–8) Christian Clemenson as Tom Loman; Miami's newest Medical Examiner and the third replacement for Dr. Alexx Woods. Loman is socially awkward but invaluable to the team, developing strong bonds throughout his tenure. (seasons 8–10) Taylor Cole as Samantha Owens; an MDPD Detective who is assigned to Horatio's CSI team. Formerly a lab technician, Owens develops a flirtatious relationship with Wolfe (season 10) Episodes Crossover with CSI: NY On Monday November 7, 2005, and Wednesday November 9, 2005, CBS aired the first crossover within the CSI franchise, with a CSI: Miami episode titled "Felony Flight", and a CSI: NY episode titled "Manhattan Manhunt". The episodes see an escaped prisoner embark on a killing "spree that, quite naturally, brings together Lt. Horatio Caine and his team and Detective Mac Taylor (of CSI: NY) and his team, a spree that eventually mounts to 13 bodies in the two episodes." Anthony Zuiker described the event as "virtually a movie", while CSI: Miami show-runner Ann Donahue stated that, despite a crossover being planned earlier, she had "held off on this because [she] wanted to wait until 'New York' had distinguished itself" from its predecessors. Zuiker noted that as well as being a "tremendous treat for viewers", the crossover would provide "a chance to sample other CSI shows and casts and mysteries on other nights", particularly due to the "complete visual makeover" undertaken during CSI: NY second season, "in terms of the lighting style, the colors, and the new labs." He also described the crossover as " the event that the franchise needed at this point, not only for CSI: NY, but [for] the viewers. And it's, I feel, some of our best work if not the best." Crossover with CSI: Crime Scene Investigation In 2005, prior to the airing of "Felony Flight", Ann Donahue stated that "you never know" when a three-way crossover will be produced, with Zuiker stating that "the beauty of this franchise is it's very interchangeable in terms of how crossover combinations will work". In 2009, CBS commissioned a three-part crossover starring CSI: Crime Scene Investigation star Laurence Fishburne, an event that EW dubbed the "Great CSI Crossover Experiment That William Petersen Never Would Have Agreed To". The Miami segment of the crossover, titled "Bone Voyage", aired on November 9, 2009. Broadcast The series was originally broadcast on CBS in the United States, airing (from September 2002 to May 2010) Mondays at 10/9C, and (from October 2010 to April 2012) Sundays at 10/9C. CBS frequently repeats CSI: Miami on weekends during the Crimetime Saturday slot, while CBS also owns syndication rights to the series, with CBS Entertainment President Nina Tassler stating that she intends to air CSI: Miami "in syndication for years to come". Similarly, CSI: Miami has been syndicated on A&E Network since 2005, on late Sunday nights/Early Monday mornings at 11:00 PM. While on December 2, 2011, AMC acquired syndication rights of the series, and began airing the episodes on January 2, 2012. The show airs regularly at 5/4C on weekdays. In August 2012 WE tv started airing reruns of the show. Both A&E and Spike TV share the return rights to the crossover episodes (with CSI: NY), Felony Flight and Manhattan Manhunt. In Australia Nine Network aired new episodes of CSI: Miami, and repeats were shown on satellite channel TVH!TS (formerly TV1). Reception Reviews for CSI: Miami are generally positive, with the website Metacritic rating the series 63 out of 100 based on 30 reviews, which constitutes a "generally favorable" response. In 2002, Ann Hodges of The Houston Chronicle stated that "the clone could turn out to be better than the original", while Aaron Barnhart of The Kansas City Star commented that CSI: Miami "just feels like the show CSI should have been all along". Tim Goodman noted that "There probably isn't a bigger slam-dunk victor on the fall schedule than CSI: Miami," describing it as "on its own, a very fine show". Following the series finale, Nina Tassler credited CSI: Miami with being a "key player in CBS's rise to the top", stating that the series "leaves an amazing television legacy—a signature look and style [and] global popularity". CBS News described CSI: Miami as "one of TV's biggest hits". Brendan Bernhard of The New York Sun stated that, with repeat viewing,"Mr. Caruso's mannerisms become less annoying than soothing as they melt into all those hypnotic patterns of shadow and light, and your critical faculties melt along with them. It's like a real estate show with characters and a plot, and it can hook you. The pristine settings, the stunning aerial views of harbors and yachts, the gorgeous homes and burnished floors, and then . . . a flash of anger, a gush of blood. At which point, enter Miami-Dade Head Investigator, Lieutenant Horatio Caine, world's most popular cop. And not by chance, an American". Tim Goodman stated that "Caruso reminds everyone why he's good on the small screen, as the confident, dispassionate and slightly cynical Horatio." Nina Tassler later credited Caruso for leading a talented cast for "ten outstanding seasons". Similarly, Goodman described Delaney's portrayal of Megan Donner as "edgy enough to keep up with [Caruso]" and the Chicago Tribune credits Delaney with leading a "strong cast" and a "slickly produced series". SF Gate commented that she should be credited for "saving [a fledgling] new series". In 2006, BBC News published an article stating that CSI: Miami was the world's most popular television series. The article cites a study, conducted by Informa and published by Radio Times magazine, that collected television viewing data in 20 countries, revealing that CSI: Miami was featured in more top-10 viewing charts than any other series. Adam Thomas, the media research manager responsible for the study, explained: "The objective of our research was to find the most consistently successful programme worldwide in terms of attracting viewers. We were not therefore concerned with shows that performed extremely well in a relatively small number of markets. CSI: Miami was therefore named the most popular programme because it featured in more countries' top ten rankings for 2005 than any other". Nearly all episodes of the series had a cold open which ended with Caruso putting on sunglasses and making a quip or pun related to the newfound crime, before the show cut to the scream of "Yeah!" in "Won't Be Fooled Again" for the opening credits. This imagery became a common meme on the Internet, typically in response to a similar pun made on user forums. Accolades Awards Nominations Adaptations and spin-offs Sunil Nayar, an executive producer of CSI: Miami has stated that "navigating a show like CSI: Miami is not unlike commanding a ship in a fleet. Its obligation to the bigger CSI franchise is almost like the obligation one feels towards one's siblings". Like CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami has spawned a series of comic books, novels, and video games based on the show.CSI has also been released as a series of mobile games. In 2007, CBS teamed up with game developer Gameloft to bring CSI to mobile phones. The first of the series to be published was CSI: Miami. The game features actual cast members such as Caine, Woods and Duquesne who are trying to solve a murder in South Beach with the player's assistance. The game is also available for download on various iPod devices. CSI: NY In December 2003, Entertainment Weekly reported that "there are rumblings that co-creator Anthony Zuiker and company are planning a third franchise, to be set in New York City". In 2004, CBS commissioned the New York-set CSI series, starring Gary Sinise as a detective named Mac Taylor. Mac, a veteran officer "who lost his wife during the terror attacks on September 11", was expected to "make a guest appearance on CSI: Miami in May 2004. On March 23, 2004, Melina Kanakaredes was cast as Stella, "a crime scene unit detective". Kanakaredes was cast following her signing a talent deal with CBS in August 2003. The Futon Critic noted that Kanakaredes "was initially set up as the lead of the drama project I.C.E., about the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement, a wing of the Dept. of Homeland Security. With I.C.E.s development stalled, Kanakaredes was free to join NY. Vanessa Ferlito and Carmine Giovinazzo were also cast in lead roles. The pilot episode for CSI: NY, titled "MIA/NYC NonStop" aired on May 17, 2004, and also featured Hill Harper. On the aesthetic difference between CSI: Miami and CSI: NY, senior writer Andrew Lipsitz stated that "all cities are fantasies, made up of the dreams of individual inhabitants. New York is its own fantasy—it's the great fantasy of anyone who came here from another country. It may or may not be more real, it may or may not be baked in the sun, but it's an amalgam of everyone's dreams." Anthony Zuiker also stated that, while "Miami feature[s] self-contained episodes that favor solving crimes over exploring characters' lives... NY [will] be more character-driven". USA Today later observed that "structurally, the CSIs bear striking similarities. Each unit, which uses advanced forensic techniques to solve crimes, is headed by a veteran male, joined by a leading female", yet "climate offers variation. NY'' offers the prospect of frozen corpses." References External links 2000s American crime drama television series 2002 American television series debuts 2010s American crime drama television series 2012 American television series endings 2000s American mystery television series 2010s American mystery television series 2000s American police procedural television series 2010s American police procedural television series CBS original programming Channel 5 (British TV channel) original programming English-language television shows Fictional portrayals of the Miami-Dade Police Department Television series by Alliance Atlantis Television series by CBS Studios Television shows filmed in Florida Television shows set in Miami American television spin-offs Television series created by Anthony E. Zuiker Television series created by Carol Mendelsohn Television series created by Ann Donahue Television shows adapted into comics

Anniversary

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An anniversary is the date on which an event took place or an institution was founded in a previous year, and may also refer to the commemoration or celebration of that event. For example, the first event is the initial occurrence or, if planned, the inaugural of the event. One year later would be the first anniversary of that event. The word was first used for Catholic feasts to commemorate saints. Most countries celebrate national anniversaries, typically called national days. These could be the date of independence of the nation or the adoption of a new constitution or form of government. The important dates in a sitting monarch's reign may also be commemorated, an event often referred to as a "jubilee". Anniversary names Birthdays are the most common type of anniversary, on which someone's birthdate is commemorated each year. The actual celebration is sometimes moved for practical reasons, as in the case of an official birthday. Wedding anniversaries are also often celebrated, on the same day of the year as the wedding occurred. Death anniversaries. The Latin phrase dies natalis (literally "birth day") has become a common term, adopted in many languages, especially in intellectual and institutional circles, for the anniversary of the founding ("legal or statutory birth") of an institution, such as an alma mater (college or other school). In ancient Rome, the [dies] Aquilae natalis was the "birthday of the eagle", the anniversary of the official founding of a legion. Anniversaries of nations are usually marked by the number of years elapsed, expressed with Latin words or Roman numerals. Latin-derived numerical names Latin terms for anniversaries are mostly straightforward, particularly those relating to the first twenty years (1–20), or multiples of ten years (30, 40, 50, 60, 70 etc.), or multiples of centuries or millenniums (100, 200, 300, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, etc.) In these instances, the name of the anniversary is generally derived from the Latin word(s) for the respective number of years. However, when anniversaries relate to fractions of centuries (125, 150, 175, 250 years—i.e. 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, and 2.5 centuries), the situation is not as simple. Roman fractions were based on a duodecimal system. From to they were expressed as multiples of twelfths (uncia "twelfth"; the source of the English words inch and ounce) and from to they were expressed as multiple twelfths less than the next whole unit—i.e. a whole unit less , or respectively. There were also special terms for quarter (quadrans), half (semis), and three-quarters (dodrans). Dodrans is a Latin contraction of de-quadrans which means "a whole unit less a quarter" (de means "from"; quadrans means "quarter"). Thus for the example of 175 years, the term is a quarter century less than the next whole (bi)century or 175 = (−25 + 200). In Latin, it seems that this rule did not apply precisely for 1½. While secundus is Latin for "second", and bis for "twice", these terms are not used such as in sesqui-secundus. Instead sesqui (or ses) is used by itself. Anniversary symbols Many anniversaries have special names. Etiquette in Society, in Business, in Politics and at Home by Emily Post, published in 1922, contained suggestions for wedding anniversary gifts for 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, and 75 years. Wedding anniversary gift suggestions for other years were added in later editions and publications; they now comprise what is referred to as the "traditional" list. Generally speaking, the longer the period, the more precious or durable the material associated with it. For the general list of the wedding anniversary symbols, see Wedding anniversary. However, there are variations according to some national traditions. There exist numerous partially overlapping, partially contradictory lists of anniversary gifts (such as wedding stones), separate from the 'traditional' names. The concepts of a person's birthday stone and zodiac stone, by contrast, are fixed for life according to the day of the week, month, or astrological sign corresponding to the recipient's birthday. See also Marriage anniversary wishes in marathi List of historical anniversaries Quinquennial Neronia Wedding anniversary Death anniversary References External links

Robert Wagner

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Robert John Wagner Jr. (born February 10, 1930) is an American actor of stage, screen, and television. He is known for starring in the television shows It Takes a Thief (1968–1970), Switch (1975–1978), and Hart to Hart (1979–1984). He later had a recurring role as Teddy Leopold in the TV sitcom Two and a Half Men (2007–2008) and made twelve guest appearances (2010–2019) as Anthony DiNozzo Sr. in the police procedural NCIS. In films, Wagner is known for his role as Number 2 in the Austin Powers trilogy of films (1997, 1999, 2002), as well as for A Kiss Before Dying (1956), The Pink Panther (1963), Harper (1966), The Towering Inferno (1974), The Concorde ... Airport '79 (1979) and many more. Early life Wagner was born on February 10, 1930, in Detroit, Michigan. He is the son of Hazel Alvera (née Boe), a telephone operator, and Robert John Wagner Sr., a traveling salesman who worked for the Ford Motor Company. Robert Wagner's paternal grandparents were from Germany. Career 20th Century Fox and Columbia Wagner became interested in acting, and after an unsuccessful screen test directed by Fred Zinnemann for his film Teresa (1951), was represented by Albert R. Broccoli. He made his uncredited film debut in The Happy Years (1950); was signed by agent Henry Willson and put under contract with 20th Century-Fox. "I started off as an ingenue", recalled Wagner. "I was 19 years old. I was the boy next door. But you always felt you could work your way up, that you could have a better part in the next picture. [Head of Fox] Darryl Zanuck was always placing me in different positions." Wagner's first film for Fox was Halls of Montezuma (1951) a World War II film. Wagner had a supporting role, with Richard Widmark as the star. The studio then had him perform a similar function in another war movie, The Frogmen (1951), again with Widmark; the cast also included another young male under contract to the studio, Jeffrey Hunter, with whom Wagner would often work. Let's Make It Legal (1951) was a comedy where Wagner again supported an older star, in this case Claudette Colbert. Wagner first gained significant attention with a small but showy part as a shell-shocked soldier in With a Song in My Heart (1952). "You were part of 20th Century Fox", he said. "You felt proud of being part of the organization. When I wasn't working, I was on the road, going out and selling movies or dancing on the stage and meeting the public. They never let you rest." Fox started to give Wagner better roles. He was the romantic male lead in Stars and Stripes Forever (1952), a biopic about John Philip Sousa starring Clifton Webb. He supported James Cagney and Dan Dailey in John Ford's version of What Price Glory (1952) and supported Webb again in Titanic (1953). He was in a minor Western, The Silver Whip (1953) with Rory Calhoun. Leading man Fox gave Wagner his first starring role in Beneath the 12-Mile Reef (1953). Reviews were poor but the movie was only the third ever to be shot in CinemaScope and was a big hit. Also popular was a Western, Broken Lance (1954), where Wagner supported Spencer Tracy for director Edward Dmytryk, appearing as Tracy's son. Fox gave Wagner the lead in an expensive spectacular, Prince Valiant (1954). While popular, critical reception was poor and Wagner later joked his wig in the movie made him look like Jane Wyman. He was teamed with Jeffrey Hunter in a Western, White Feather (1955). Wagner was borrowed by Paramount for The Mountain (1956), directed by Dmytryk, where Wagner was cast as Spencer Tracy's brother, having played his son just two years earlier in the same director's Broken Lance. He received more critical acclaim for the lead in A Kiss Before Dying (1956), from the novel by Ira Levin; it was made for Crown Productions, a company of Darryl F. Zanuck's brother in law (the leads were all under contract to Fox) and released through United Artists. Back at Fox Wagner was in Between Heaven and Hell (1956), a war movie, and The True Story of Jesse James (1957), playing the leading role for director Nicholas Ray (Jeffrey Hunter was Frank). Both movies were box office disappointments and it seemed Wagner was unable to make the transition to top-level star. This appeared confirmed when he was the lead in Stopover Tokyo (1957). In 1959, Wagner disparaged the film: When I started at Fox in 1950 they were making sixty-five pictures a year. Now they're lucky if they make thirty. There was a chance to get some training in B pictures. Then TV struck. Everything went big and they started sticking me into Cinemascope spectacles. One day, smiling Joe Juvenile with no talent was doing a role intended for John Wayne. That was in a dog called Stopover Tokyo. I've really had to work to keep up. He supported Robert Mitchum in a Korean War movie, The Hunters (1958), and appeared with a number of Fox contractees in a World War II drama, In Love and War (1958); the latter was a hit. After a cameo in Mardi Gras (1958), Wagner supported Bing Crosby and Debbie Reynolds in Say One for Me (1959). Trying to kick-start his career, Wagner appeared with his then-wife Natalie Wood (they married in 1957) in All the Fine Young Cannibals (1960), made for MGM. The film was a flop. In January 1961, Wagner and Wood formed their own company, Rona Productions, named after the first two letters of both their first names. Rona signed a three-picture deal with Columbia pictures for Wagner's services, which was to start with Sail a Crooked Ship (1961) and The Interns. He also had a deal to make one more film at Fox, which was to be Solo, the story of a jazz drummer directed by Dick Powell, or The Comancheros with Gary Cooper. Wagner made Sail a Crooked Ship but his part in The Interns went to James MacArthur. Solo was never made, and The Comancheros was made instead with John Wayne and Stuart Whitman. Wagner did make The War Lover (1962) with Steve McQueen that was filmed in England. Europe Wagner's first marriage to Wood had broken up, and he relocated to Europe. He had a small role in The Longest Day (1962), produced by Daryl Zanuck for Fox. He had a larger part in The Condemned of Altona (1962), a commercial and critical disappointment despite being directed by Vittorio de Sica and co-starring Sophia Loren. Considerably more popular was The Pink Panther (1963), a massive hit, although Wagner's part was very much in support to those of David Niven, Capucine, Peter Sellers, and Claudia Cardinale. It was directed by Blake Edwards, who wanted Wagner for the lead in The Great Race (1965), but Jack L. Warner overruled him. Return to Hollywood and Universal His return to America found him playing in the theatre for the first time with the lead role in Mister Roberts for one week at a holiday resort just outside Chicago. The disciplines of the theatre were not his forte and Wagner was glad to be back in Hollywood to find a good supporting role in the modern-day private investigator hit, Harper (1966), starring Paul Newman. Wagner signed with Universal Pictures in 1966, starring opposite future wife Jill St. John in the films How I Spent My Summer Vacation, a made-for-TV movie released in the United Kingdom as Deadly Roulette, and Banning (1967). He returned to Italy to make a caper film with Raquel Welch for MGM, The Biggest Bundle of Them All (1968), but it was not a success. Television star In 1967, Lew Wasserman of Universal convinced Wagner to make his television series debut in It Takes a Thief (1968–1970) on ABC-TV. ""I was opposed to doing Thief", Wagner said later. "But Lew Wasserman said: 'I want you to be in TV Guide every week. This is your medium, you've got to try it, you'll be great.' Roland Kibbee wrote the part for me, and I would have missed all that if I hadn't listened to Lew." While the success of The Pink Panther and Harper began Wagner's comeback, the successful two-and-a-half seasons of his first TV series completed it. In this series, he acted with Fred Astaire, who played his father. Wagner was a longtime friend of Astaire, having gone to school with Astaire's eldest son, Peter. Wagner's performance would earn him an Emmy nomination for Best TV Actor. During the making of the series he made a film for Universal, the comedy Don't Just Stand There! (1968) with Mary Tyler Moore. It was not a success. More popular was Winning (1969), a racing car drama where Wagner supported Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward. He also guest-starred in The Name of the Game (1970). Wagner's friend and agent Albert Broccoli suggested that he audition to play James Bond, but he decided it was not right for him. Wagner appeared in the series pilot, City Beneath the Sea (1971), that was not picked up. The following year, he produced and cast himself opposite Bette Davis in the made-for-TV film Madame Sin, which was theatrically released overseas as a feature film. He was a regular in the BBC/Universal World War II prisoner-of-war drama Colditz (1972–1974) for much of its run. He reunited with McQueen, along with Paul Newman and Faye Dunaway, in the disaster film The Towering Inferno released in the same year. It was a massive hit, although Wagner's part was relatively small. Switch By the mid-1970s, Wagner's television career was at its peak with the CBS-TV television series Switch (1975–1978, opposite Eddie Albert, Sharon Gless, and Charlie Callas) after re-signing a contract with Universal in 1974. Albert had been a childhood hero of Wagner, after he watched the movie Brother Rat along with a few others. The friendship started in the early 1960s, where he also co-starred in a couple of Albert's movies. After the end of the series, the two remained friends until Albert's death on May 26, 2005. Wagner spoke at his funeral, and gave a testimonial about his longtime friendship with him. In partial payment for starring together in the Aaron Spelling and Leonard Goldberg production of the TV movie The Affair, Wagner and Natalie Wood were given a share in three TV series that the producers were developing for ABC. Only one reached the screen, the very successful TV series Charlie's Angels, for which Wagner and Wood had a 50% share, though Wagner was to spend many years in court arguing with Spelling and Goldberg over what was defined as profit. Wagner and Wood acted with Laurence Olivier in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1976), as part of Olivier's television series Laurence Olivier Presents for the UK's Granada Television. Wagner had a small role in some all-star Universal films, Midway (1976) and The Concorde ... Airport '79 (1979). Hart to Hart Wagner's third successful series was Hart to Hart, which co-starred Stefanie Powers and Lionel Stander and was broadcast on ABC-TV from 1979 to 1984. No one else was seriously considered for the role. George Hamilton had a high profile at the time and was suggested, but producer Aaron Spelling said that if he was cast "the audience will resent him as Hart for being that rich. But no one will begrudge RJ [Wagner] a nickel." During the series run, Wagner reprised his old Pink Panther role in Curse of the Pink Panther (1983). He also had a supporting role in I Am the Cheese (1983). He played an insurance investigator in the short-lived TV series Lime Street (1985). In 1985, he reflected, "Bad-guy roles work if they're really good parts, but they don't come along very often. I think that what I've been doing has worked for me. Sure I'd like to do a Clint Eastwood, grizzled, down-and-out guy, but there aren't many scripts like that... What has been projected for me is an international quality that can take me anywhere and get me into all kind of involvements; to do otherwise would mean a character role." Later career Wagner appeared in a TV movie with Audrey Hepburn, Love Among Thieves (1987) and in a miniseries with Jaclyn Smith, Windmills of the Gods (1988). He and St. John worked with Pierce Brosnan in the miniseries remake of Around the World in 80 Days (1989). For Tom Mankiewicz he played a supporting part in Delirious (1991). More widely seen was Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story (1993), where Wagner played a producer. Wagner played Love Letters on stage with Stefanie Powers. They also reprised their Hart characters in a series of TV movies. Wagner's film career received a boost after his role in the Austin Powers series of spy spoofs starring Mike Myers. Wagner played Dr. Evil's henchman Number 2 in all three films: Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery (1997), Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999) and Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002). He also had small roles in Wild Things (1998), Crazy in Alabama (1999), Play It to the Bone (2000), Becoming Dick (2001) and Sol Goode (2001). Wagner became the host of Fox Movie Channel's Hour of Stars, featuring original television episodes of The 20th Century-Fox Hour (1955), a series which Wagner had appeared on in his early days with the studio. In 2005, Wagner became the television spokesman for the Senior Lending Network, a reverse mortgage lender and in 2010 he began serving as a spokesman for the Guardian First Funding Group, also a reverse mortgage lender. As of June 2011, Guardian First Funding was acquired by Urban Financial Group, who continue to use Mr. Wagner as their spokesperson. In 2007, Wagner had a role in the BBC/AMC series Hustle. In season four's premiere, Wagner played a crooked Texan being taken for half a million dollars. As Wagner is considered "a suave icon of American caper television, including It Takes a Thief and Hart to Hart", Robert Glenister (Hustle'''s fixer, Ash Morgan) commented that "to have one of the icons of that period involved is a great bonus for all of us". Wagner also played the pivotal role of President James Garfield in the comedy/horror film Netherbeast Incorporated (2007). The role was written with Wagner in mind. He had a recurring role of a rich suitor to the main characters' mother on the sitcom Two and a Half Men. His final appearances on the show were in May 2008. Wagner has guest-starred in 13 episodes of NCIS as Anthony DiNozzo Sr., the father of Anthony DiNozzo Jr., played by Michael Weatherly. Weatherly had previously appeared as Wagner in the TV movie The Mystery of Natalie Wood. Wagner was set to star as Charlie in the 2011 remake of Charlie's Angels, but had to exit the project due to scheduling conflicts. Despite his apparent distaste working with Raquel Welch on The Biggest Bundle of Them All, they reunited 50 years later on the 2017 Canadian series Date My Dad. Personal life Marriages and relationships In his memoirs, Wagner claimed to have had affairs with Yvonne De Carlo, Joan Crawford, Elizabeth Taylor, Anita Ekberg, Shirley Anne Field, Lori Nelson, and Joan Collins. He also claimed a four-year romantic relationship with Barbara Stanwyck after they acted together in the movie Titanic (1953). According to Wagner, because of their age differences—he was 22, she was 45—they kept the affair secret to avoid damaging their careers. In 1956, when he was 26 years old, Wagner became involved with 18-year-old actress Natalie Wood. They were married on December 28, 1957, in Scottsdale, Arizona. They announced their separation on June 20, 1961, and divorced on April 27, 1962. While working on location in Europe, Wagner reconnected with an old friend, actress Marion Marshall. After a two-year courtship, Wagner, Marshall and her two sons from her marriage to Stanley Donen moved back to America. Wagner and Marshall married on July 21, 1963 at the Bronx Courthouse. They had a daughter, Katie (born 1964). They separated in June 1970 and divorced on October 14, 1971. Wagner was engaged to Tina Sinatra from June 1970 until January 1972. Immediately afterwards, Wagner rekindled his romance with Wood. They remarried on July 16 aboard the Ramblin' Rose, anchored off Paradise Cove in Malibu. They had a daughter, Courtney (born 1974). Following Wood's death in late 1981, Wagner became the legal guardian of her daughter by producer Richard Gregson, Natasha, then 11. He also gradually cut ties with his former sister-in-law, Lana Wood. Lana has claimed publicly that the reason behind the couple's first divorce was that Natalie caught Wagner in the arms of another man. On Valentine's Day 1982, Wagner began dating actress Jill St. John, whom he had known since the late 1950s. Wagner's memoir has an early photo of them together, taken in 1959 when they were contract players at Fox. After eight years together, they married on May 26, 1990. The marriage is the fourth for both Wagner and St. John and it has lasted longer than all of their six previous marriages combined. The couple co-starred in six films between 1967 and 2014 – most of them low-budget – and together in the first episode of Hart to Hart – and also appeared onstage in a 1996 production of Love Letters. Wagner became a first-time grandfather in 2006 when Katie Wagner, his daughter with Marshall, gave birth to her son Riley John Wagner-Lewis. In August 2007, Wagner and St. John sold the Brentwood ranchette they'd lived in since 1983 for a reported $14 million. The couple now resides in Aspen, Colorado, where they built a vacation home in 1995. They retain a condo in Los Angeles. Death of Natalie Wood On November 29, 1981, Wood died under mysterious circumstances near or on the yacht Splendour while it was moored near Catalina Island. Also on board were Wagner, Christopher Walken, who was co-starring with her in the motion picture Brainstorm, and Dennis Davern, the Splendours captain. It has never been explained why Walken's wife Georgianne was not present on the trip. According to Wagner, when he went to bed, Wood was not there. The autopsy report revealed that Wood had 39 fresh bruises on her body, including an abrasion on her left cheek. Later, in his memoir Pieces of My Heart'', Wagner acknowledged that he had an argument with Wood before she disappeared. The autopsy found that Wood's blood alcohol content was 0.14% and there were traces of two types of medication in her bloodstream: a motion-sickness pill and a painkiller, both of which increase the effects of alcohol. Two witnesses, who had been on another boat nearby, stated they had heard a woman scream for help during the night. Following his investigation, Los Angeles County coroner Thomas Noguchi ruled her death an accident by drowning and hypothermia. The case was reopened in November 2011 after Davern publicly stated that he had lied to police during the initial investigation and that Wood and Wagner had an argument that evening. He alleged that Wood had been flirting with Walken, that Wagner was jealous and enraged and that following Wood's disappearance, Wagner had prevented Davern from turning on the search lights and notifying authorities. According to Davern, Wagner was responsible for Wood's death and he believed that Wagner had intentionally kept the investigation into Wood's death "low-profile". In 2012, Los Angeles County Chief Coroner Lakshmanan Sathyavagiswaran amended Wood's death certificate and changed the cause of her death from accidental drowning to "drowning and other undetermined factors". The amended document included a statement that the circumstances of how Wood ended up in the water are "not clearly established". On January 14, 2013, the Los Angeles County coroner's office issued a 10-page addendum to Wood's autopsy report. It stated that she may have sustained some of the bruises on her body before she went into the water and drowned. On February 1, 2018, the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department named Wagner a "person of interest" in the investigation into Wood's death. Although he was in the same location as Wood when she died, Wagner has denied any involvement. Filmography Film Television Books References External links Robert Wagner on Yahoo! Movies Articles about Robert Wagner, a Malibu resident, can be found at The Malibu Times 1930 births Living people 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American male film actors American male television actors American male voice actors 20th Century Fox contract players American people of German descent American people of Norwegian descent Liberty Records artists Male actors from Detroit Male actors from Los Angeles 21st-century American memoirists American people of Scandinavian descent

Subtractive color

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Subtractive color or subtractive color mixing predicts the spectral power distribution of light after it passes through successive layers of partially absorbing media. This idealized model is the essential principle of how dyes and inks are used in color printing and photography where the perception of color is elicited after white light passes through microscopic "stacks" of partially absorbing media allowing some wavelengths of light to reach the eye and not others. Process The subtractive color mixing model predicts the resultant spectral power distribution of light filtered through overlaid partially absorbing materials on a reflecting or transparent surface. Each layer partially absorbs some wavelengths of light from the illumination spectrum while letting others pass through, resulting in a colored appearance. The resultant spectral power distribution is predicted by sequentially taking the product of the spectral power distributions of the incoming light and transmissivity at each filter. RYB RYB (red, yellow, blue) is the traditional set of primary colors used for mixing pigments. It is used in art and art education, particularly in painting. It predated modern scientific color theory. Red, yellow, and blue are the primary colors of the RYB color "wheel". The secondary colors, violet (or purple), orange, and green (VOG) make up another triad, conceptually formed by mixing equal amounts of red and blue, red and yellow, and blue and yellow, respectively. The RYB primary colors became the foundation of 18th-century theories of color vision as the fundamental sensory qualities blended in the perception of all physical colors and equally in the physical mixture of pigments or dyes. These theories were enhanced by 18th-century investigations of a variety of purely psychological color effects, in particular, the contrast between "complementary" or opposing hues produced by color afterimages and in the contrasting shadows in colored light. These ideas and many personal color observations were summarized in two founding documents in color theory: the Theory of Colors (1810) by the German poet and government minister Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and The Law of Simultaneous Color Contrast (1839) by the French industrial chemist Michel-Eugène Chevreul. In late 19th and early to mid-20th-century commercial printing, use of the traditional RYB terminology persisted even though the more versatile CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow) triad had been adopted, with the cyan sometimes referred to as "process blue" and the magenta as "process red". CMY and CMYK color models and printing processes In color printing, the usual primary colors are cyan, magenta and yellow (CMY). Cyan is the complement of red, meaning that the cyan serves as a filter that absorbs red. The amount of cyan applied to a white sheet of paper controls how much of the red in white light will be reflected back from the paper. Ideally, the cyan is completely transparent to green and blue light and has no effect on those parts of the spectrum. Magenta is the complement of green, and yellow the complement of blue. Combinations of different amounts of the three can produce a wide range of colors with good saturation. In inkjet color printing and typical mass production photomechanical printing processes, a black ink K (Key) component is included, resulting in the CMYK color model. The black ink serves to cover unwanted tints in dark areas of the printed image, which result from the imperfect transparency of commercially practical CMY inks; to improve image sharpness, which tends to be degraded by imperfect registration of the three color elements; and to reduce or eliminate consumption of the more expensive color inks where only black or gray is required. Purely photographic color processes almost never include a K component, because in all common processes the CMY dyes used are much more perfectly transparent, there are no registration errors to camouflage, and substituting a black dye for a saturated CMY combination, a trivial prospective cost-benefit at best, is technologically impractical in non-electronic analog photography. See also Additive color Color mixing Color motion picture film Color space Color theory Primary color References External links Stanford University CS 178 interactive Flash demo comparing additive and subtractive color mixing. Color space Color

Union (American Civil War)

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During the American Civil War, the Union, also known as the North, referred to the United States led by President Abraham Lincoln. It was opposed by the secessionist Confederate States of America (CSA), informally called "the Confederacy" or "the South". The Union is named after its declared goal of preserving the United States as a constitutional union. "Union" is used in the U.S. Constitution to refer to the founding formation of the people, and to the states in union. In the context of the Civil War, it has also often been used as a synonym for "the northern states loyal to the United States government;" in this meaning, the Union consisted of 20 free states and five border states. The Union Army was a new formation comprising mostly state units, together with units from the regular U.S. Army. The border states were essential as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy, and Lincoln realized he could not win the war without control of them, especially Maryland, which lay north of the national capital of Washington, D.C. The Northeast and upper Midwest provided the industrial resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies, as well as financing for the war. The Northeast and Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, and training camps. Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most Northern states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort and suppressed anti-war subversion, particularly that that arose in 1863–64. The Democratic Party strongly supported the war at the beginning in 1861, but by 1862, was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element known as Peace Democrats, led by the extremist "Copperheads". The Democrats made major electoral gains in 1862 in state elections, most notably in New York. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio. In 1864, the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket against Democratic candidate George B. McClellan. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare ravaged the countryside. Prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers' wives, widows, and orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered in order to escape the draft and to take advantage of generous cash bounties on offer from states and localities. Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially in parts of New York City, with its massive anti-draft riots of July 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. Etymology In the context of the American Civil War, the Union (The United States of America) is sometimes referred to as "the North", both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was "the South". The Union (United States of America) never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacy's secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America. In foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term "Union" occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. The subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of "We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union..." Union, for the United States of America, is then repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV, Section 3. Even before the war started, the phrase "preserve the Union" was commonplace, and a "union of states" had been used to refer to the entire United States of America. Using the term "Union" to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the pre-existing political entity. Confederates generally saw the Union as being opposed to slavery, occasionally referring to them as abolitionists, as in reference to the U.S. Navy as the "Abolition fleet" and the U.S. Army as the "Abolition forces". In 2015 historian Michael Landis called for an end to the use of the term Union, writing "The employment of 'Union' instead of 'United States,' implicitly supports the Confederate view of secession wherein the nation of the United States collapsed [...] In reality, however, the United States never ceased to exist [...] The dichotomy of 'Union v. Confederacy' lends credibility to the Confederate experiment and undermines the legitimacy of the United States as a political entity." In 2021, the Army University Press noted that it was replacing usages of the word "Union" with "Federal Government" or "U.S. Government". The Army University Press stated this was "more historically accurate" as "the term 'Union' always referred to all the states together." Size and strength Unlike the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area (the Northeast), and more advanced commercial, transportation and financial systems than the rural South. Additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of five to two at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources and population. Meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force. However, much of the Union strength had to be used to garrison conquered areas, and to protect railroads and other vital points. The Union's great advantages in population and industry would prove to be vital long-term factors in its victory over the Confederacy, but it took the Union a long while to fully mobilize these resources. Public opinion The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian, Allan Nevins, says: McClintock states: Historian Michael Smith, argues that, as the war ground on year after year, the spirit of American republicanism grew stronger and generated fears of corruption in high places. Voters became afraid of power being centralized in Washington, extravagant spending, and war profiteering. Democratic candidates emphasized these fears. The candidates added that rapid modernization was putting too much political power in the hands of Eastern financiers and industrialists. They warned that the abolition of slavery would bring a flood of freed blacks into the labor market of the North. Republicans responded with claims of defeatism. They indicted Copperheads for criminal conspiracies to free Confederate prisoners of war, and played on the spirit of nationalism and the growing hatred of the slave owners, as the guilty party in the war. President Lincoln Historians have overwhelmingly praised the "political genius" of Abraham Lincoln's performance as president. His first priority was military victory. This required that he master entirely new skills as a strategist and diplomat. He oversaw supplies, finances, manpower, the selection of generals, and the course of overall strategy. Working closely with state and local politicians, he rallied public opinion and (at Gettysburg) articulated a national mission that has defined America ever since. Lincoln's charm and willingness to cooperate with political and personal enemies made Washington work much more smoothly than Richmond, the Confederate capital, and his wit smoothed many rough edges. Lincoln's cabinet proved much stronger and more efficient than Davis's, as Lincoln channeled personal rivalries into a competition for excellence rather than mutual destruction. With William Seward at State, Salmon P. Chase at the Treasury, and (from 1862) Edwin Stanton at the War Department, Lincoln had a powerful cabinet of determined men. Except for monitoring major appointments and decisions, Lincoln gave them free rein to end the Confederate rebellion. Congress The Republican Congress passed many major laws that reshaped the nation's economy, financial system, tax system, land system, and higher education system. These included: the Morrill tariff, the Homestead Act, the Pacific Railroad Act, and the National Banking Act. Lincoln paid relatively little attention to this legislation as he focused on war issues but he worked smoothly with powerful Congressional leaders such as Thaddeus Stevens (on taxation and spending), Charles Sumner (on foreign affairs), Lyman Trumbull (on legal issues), Justin Smith Morrill (on land grants and tariffs) and William Pitt Fessenden (on finances). Military and reconstruction issues were another matter. Lincoln, as the leader of the moderate and conservative factions of the Republican Party, often crossed swords with the Radical Republicans, led by Stevens and Sumner. Author, Bruce Tap, shows that Congress challenged Lincoln's role as commander-in-chief through the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War. It was a joint committee of both houses that was dominated by the Radical Republicans, who took a hard line against the Confederacy. During the 37th and 38th Congresses, the committee investigated every aspect of Union military operations, with special attention to finding commanders culpable for military defeats. It assumed an inevitable Union victory. Failure was perceived to indicate evil motivations or personal failures. The committee distrusted graduates of the US Military Academy at West Point, since many of the academy's alumni were leaders of the enemy army. Members of the committee much preferred political generals with a satisfactory political record. Some of the committee suggested that West-Pointers who engaged in strategic maneuver were cowardly or even disloyal. It ended up endorsing incompetent but politically correct generals. Opposition The opposition came from Copperhead Democrats, who were strongest in the Midwest and wanted to allow Confederate secession. In the East, opposition to the war was strongest among Irish Catholics, but also included business interests connected to the South typified by August Belmont. The Democratic Party was deeply split. In 1861 most Democrats supported the war. However, the party increasingly split down the middle between the moderates who supported the war effort, and the peace element, including Copperheads, who did not. It scored major gains in the 1862 elections, and elected the moderate Horatio Seymour as governor of New York. They gained 28 seats in the House of Representatives but Republicans retained control of both the House and the Senate. The 1862 election for the Indiana legislature was especially hard-fought. Though the Democrats gained control of the legislature, they were unable to impede the war effort. Republican Governor Oliver P. Morton was able to maintain control of the state's contribution to the war effort despite the Democratic majority. Washington was especially helpful in 1864 in arranging furloughs to allow Hoosier soldiers to return home so they could vote in elections. Across the North in 1864, the great majority of soldiers voted Republican. Men who had been Democrats before the war often abstained or voted Republican. As the federal draft laws tightened, there was serious unrest among Copperhead strongholds, such as the Irish in the Pennsylvania coal mining districts. The government needed the coal more than the draftees, so it ignored the largely non-violent draft dodging there. The violent New York City draft riots of 1863 were suppressed by the U.S. Army firing grape shot down cobblestone city streets. The Democrats nominated George McClellan, a War Democrat for the 1864 presidential election but gave him an anti-war platform. In terms of Congress the opposition against the war was nearly powerless—as was the case in most states. In Indiana and Illinois pro-war governors circumvented anti-war legislatures elected in 1862. For 30 years after the war the Democrats carried the burden of having opposed the martyred Lincoln, who was viewed by many as the salvation of the Union and the destroyer of slavery. Copperheads The Copperheads were a large faction of northern Democrats who opposed the war, demanding an immediate peace settlement. They said they wanted to restore "the Union as it was" (that is, with the South and with slavery) but they realized that the Confederacy would never voluntarily rejoin the U.S. The most prominent Copperhead was Ohio's Clement L. Vallandigham, a Congressman and leader of the Democratic Party in Ohio. He was defeated in an intense election for governor in 1863. Republican prosecutors in the Midwest accused some Copperhead activists of treason in a series of trials in 1864. Copperheadism was a grassroots movement, strongest in the area just north of the Ohio River, as well as some urban ethnic wards. Some historians have argued that it represented a traditionalistic element alarmed at the rapid modernization of society sponsored by the Republican Party. It looked back to Jacksonian Democracy for inspiration—with ideals that promoted an agrarian rather than industrialized concept of society. Weber (2006) argues that the Copperheads damaged the Union war effort by fighting the draft, encouraging desertion and forming conspiracies. However, other historians say the Copperheads were a legitimate opposition force unfairly treated by the government, adding that the draft was in disrepute and that the Republicans greatly exaggerated the conspiracies for partisan reasons. Copperheadism was a major issue in the 1864 presidential election—its strength waxed when Union armies were doing poorly and waned when they won great victories. After the fall of Atlanta in September 1864, military success seemed assured and Copperheadism collapsed. Soldiers Recruiting volunteers Enthusiastic young men clamored to join the Union army in 1861. They came with family support for reasons of patriotism and excitement. Washington decided to keep the small regular army intact; it had only 16,000 men and was needed to guard the frontier. Its officers could, however, join the temporary new volunteer army that was formed, with expectations that their experience would lead to rapid promotions. The problem with volunteering, however, was its serious lack of planning, leadership, and organization at the highest levels. Washington called on the states for troops, and every northern governor set about raising and equipping regiments, and sent the bills to the War Department. The men could elect the junior officers, while the governor appointed the senior officers, and Lincoln appointed the generals. Typically, politicians used their local organizations to raise troops and were in line (if healthy enough) to become colonel. The problem was that the War Department, under the disorganized leadership of Simon Cameron, also authorized local and private groups to raise regiments. The result was widespread confusion and delay. Pennsylvania, for example, had acute problems. When Washington called for 10 more regiments, enough men volunteered to form 30. However, they were scattered among 70 different new units, none of them a complete regiment. Not until Washington approved gubernatorial control of all new units was the problem resolved. Allan Nevins is particularly scathing of this in his analysis: "A President more exact, systematic and vigilant than Lincoln, a Secretary more alert and clearheaded than Cameron, would have prevented these difficulties." By the end of 1861, 700,000 soldiers were drilling in Union camps. The first wave in spring was called up for only 90 days, then the soldiers went home or reenlisted. Later waves enlisted for three years. The new recruits spent their time drilling in company and regiment formations. The combat in the first year, though strategically important, involved relatively small forces and few casualties. Sickness was a much more serious cause of hospitalization or death. In the first few months, men wore low quality uniforms made of "shoddy" material, but by fall, sturdy wool uniforms—in blue—were standard. The nation's factories were converted to produce the rifles, cannons, wagons, tents, telegraph sets, and the myriad of other special items the army needed. While business had been slow or depressed in spring 1861, because of war fears and Southern boycotts, by fall business was hiring again, offering young men jobs that were an alternative way to help win the war. Nonpartisanship was the rule in the first year, but by summer 1862, many Democrats had stopped supporting the war effort, and volunteering fell off sharply in their strongholds. The calls for more and more soldiers continued, so states and localities responded by offering cash bonuses. By 1863, a draft law was in effect, but few men actually were drafted and served, since the law was designed to get them to volunteer or hire a substitute. Others hid away or left the country. With the Emancipation Proclamation taking effect in January 1863, localities could meet their draft quota by sponsoring regiments of ex-slaves organized in the South. Michigan was especially eager to send thousands of volunteers. A study of the cities of Grand Rapids and Niles shows an overwhelming surge of nationalism in 1861, whipping up enthusiasm for the war in all segments of society, and all political, religious, ethnic, and occupational groups. However, by 1862 the casualties were mounting, and the war was increasingly focused on freeing the slaves in addition to preserving the Union. Copperhead Democrats called the war a failure, and it became an increasingly partisan Republican effort. Michigan voters remained evenly split between the parties in the presidential election of 1864. Motivations of soldiers Perman (2010) says historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer, and die over four years: The paperwork war On the whole, the national, state, and local governments handled the avalanche of paperwork effectively. Skills developed in insurance and financial companies formed the basis of systematic forms, copies, summaries, and filing systems used to make sense of masses of human data. The leader in this effort, John Shaw Billings, later developed a system of mechanically storing, sorting, and counting numerical information using punch cards. Nevertheless, old-fashioned methodology had to be recognized and overcome. An illustrative case study came in New Hampshire, where the critical post of state adjutant general was held in 1861–64 by elderly politician Anthony C. Colby (1792–1873) and his son Daniel E. Colby (1816–1891). They were patriotic, but were overwhelmed with the complexity of their duties. The state lost track of men who enlisted after 1861; it had no personnel records or information on volunteers, substitutes, or draftees, and there was no inventory of weaponry and supplies. Nathaniel Head (1828–1883) took over in 1864, obtained an adequate budget and office staff, and reconstructed the missing paperwork. As result, widows, orphans, and disabled veterans received the postwar payments they had earned. Medical conditions More soldiers died of disease than from battle injuries, and even larger numbers were temporarily incapacitated by wounds, disease, and accidents. The Union responded by building army hospitals in every state. The hygiene of the camps was poor, especially at the beginning of the war when men who had seldom been far from home were brought together for training with thousands of strangers. First came epidemics of the childhood diseases of chicken pox, mumps, whooping cough, and especially, measles. Operations in the South meant a dangerous and new disease environment, bringing diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, and malaria. There were no antibiotics, so the surgeons prescribed coffee, whiskey, and quinine. Harsh weather, bad water, inadequate shelter in winter quarters, poor policing of camps, and dirty camp hospitals took their toll. This was a common scenario in wars from time immemorial, and conditions faced by the Confederate army were even worse. What was different in the Union was the emergence of skilled, well-funded medical organizers who took proactive action, especially in the much enlarged United States Army Medical Department, and the United States Sanitary Commission, a new private agency. Numerous other new agencies also targeted the medical and morale needs of soldiers, including the United States Christian Commission, as well as smaller private agencies, such as the Women's Central Association of Relief for Sick and Wounded in the Army (WCAR), founded in 1861 by Henry Whitney Bellows, a Unitarian minister, and the social reformer Dorothea Dix. Systematic funding appeals raised public consciousness as well as millions of dollars. Many thousands of volunteers worked in the hospitals and rest homes, most famously poet Walt Whitman. Frederick Law Olmsted, a famous landscape architect, was the highly efficient executive director of the Sanitary Commission. States could use their own tax money to support their troops, as Ohio did. Under the energetic leadership of Governor David Tod, a War Democrat who won office on a coalition "Union Party" ticket with Republicans, Ohio acted vigorously. Following the unexpected carnage at the battle of Shiloh in April 1862, Ohio sent three steamboats to the scene as floating hospitals equipped with doctors, nurses, and medical supplies. The state fleet expanded to 11 hospital ships, and the state set up 12 local offices in main transportation nodes, to help Ohio soldiers moving back and forth. The Christian Commission comprised 6,000 volunteers who aided chaplains in many ways. For example, its agents distributed Bibles, delivered sermons, helped with sending letters home, taught men to read and write, and set up camp libraries. The Army learned many lessons and modernized its procedures, and medical science—especially surgery—made many advances. In the long run, the wartime experiences of the numerous Union commissions modernized public welfare, and set the stage for large—scale community philanthropy in America based on fund raising campaigns and private donations. Additionally, women gained new public roles. For example, Mary Livermore (1820–1905), the manager of the Chicago branch of the US Sanitary Commission, used her newfound organizational skills to mobilize support for women's suffrage after the war. She argued that women needed more education and job opportunities to help them fulfill their role of serving others. The Sanitary Commission collected enormous amounts of statistical data, and opened up the problems of storing information for fast access and mechanically searching for data patterns. The pioneer was John Shaw Billings (1838–1913). A senior surgeon in the war, Billings built two of the world's most important libraries, Library of the Surgeon General's Office (now the National Library of Medicine) and the New York Public Library; he also figured out how to mechanically analyze data by turning it into numbers and punching onto the computer punch card, later developed by his student Herman Hollerith. Hollerith's company became International Business Machines (IBM) in 1911. Prisoners of war Both sides operated prison camps; they handled about 400,000 captives, but many other prisoners were quickly released and never sent to camps. The Record and Pension Office in 1901 counted 211,000 Northerners who were captured. In 1861–63 most were immediately paroled; after the parole exchange system broke down in 1863, about 195,000 went to Confederate prison camps. Some tried to escape but few succeeded. By contrast 464,000 Confederates were captured (many in the final days) and 215,000 imprisoned. Over 30,000 Union and nearly 26,000 Confederate prisoners died in captivity. Just over 12% of the captives in Northern prisons died, compared to 15.5% for Southern prisons. Draft riots Discontent with the 1863 draft law led to riots in several cities and in rural areas as well. By far the most important were the New York City draft riots of July 13 to July 16, 1863. Irish Catholic and other workers fought police, militia and regular army units until the Army used artillery to sweep the streets. Initially focused on the draft, the protests quickly expanded into violent attacks on blacks in New York City, with many killed on the streets. Small-scale riots broke out in ethnic German and Irish districts, and in areas along the Ohio River with many Copperheads. Holmes County, Ohio was an isolated parochial area dominated by Pennsylvania Dutch and some recent German immigrants. It was a Democratic stronghold and few men dared speak out in favor of conscription. Local politicians denounced Lincoln and Congress as despotic, seeing the draft law as a violation of their local autonomy. In June 1863, small-scale disturbances broke out; they ended when the Army sent in armed units. Economy The Union economy grew and prospered during the war while fielding a very large army and navy. The Republicans in Washington had a Whiggish vision of an industrial nation, with great cities, efficient factories, productive farms, all national banks, all knit together by a modern railroad system, to be mobilized by the United States Military Railroad. The South had resisted policies such as tariffs to promote industry and homestead laws to promote farming because slavery would not benefit. With the South gone and Northern Democrats weak, the Republicans enacted their legislation. At the same time they passed new taxes to pay for part of the war and issued large amounts of bonds to pay for most of the rest. Economic historians attribute the remainder of the cost of the war to inflation. Congress wrote an elaborate program of economic modernization that had the dual purpose of winning the war and permanently transforming the economy. For a list of the major industrialists see . Financing the war In 1860 the Treasury was a small operation that funded the small-scale operations of the government through land sales and customs based on a low tariff. Peacetime revenues were trivial in comparison with the cost of a full-scale war but the Treasury Department under Secretary Salmon P. Chase showed unusual ingenuity in financing the war without crippling the economy. Many new taxes were imposed and always with a patriotic theme comparing the financial sacrifice to the sacrifices of life and limb. The government paid for supplies in real money, which encouraged people to sell to the government regardless of their politics. By contrast the Confederacy gave paper promissory notes when it seized property, so that even loyal Confederates would hide their horses and mules rather than sell them for dubious paper. Overall the Northern financial system was highly successful in raising money and turning patriotism into profit, while the Confederate system impoverished its patriots. The United States needed $3.1 billion to pay for the immense armies and fleets raised to fight the Civil War—over $400 million just in 1862 alone. Apart from tariffs, the largest revenue by far came from new excise taxes—a sort of value added tax—that was imposed on every sort of manufactured item. Second came much higher tariffs, through several Morrill tariff laws. Third came the nation's first income tax; only the wealthy paid and it was repealed at war's end. Apart from taxes, the second major source of income was government bonds. For the first time bonds in small denominations were sold directly to the people, with publicity and patriotism as key factors, as designed by banker Jay Cooke. State banks lost their power to issue banknotes. Only national banks could do that and Chase made it easy to become a national bank; it involved buying and holding federal bonds and financiers rushed to open these banks. Chase numbered them, so that the first one in each city was the "First National Bank". Third, the government printed paper money called "greenbacks". They led to endless controversy because they caused inflation. The North's most important war measure was perhaps the creation of a system of national banks that provided a sound currency for the industrial expansion. Even more important, the hundreds of new banks that were allowed to open were required to purchase government bonds. Thereby the nation monetized the potential wealth represented by farms, urban buildings, factories, and businesses, and immediately turned that money over to the Treasury for war needs. Tariffs Secretary Chase, though a long-time free-trader, worked with Morrill to pass a second tariff bill in summer 1861, raising rates another 10 points in order to generate more revenues. These subsequent bills were primarily revenue driven to meet the war's needs, though they enjoyed the support of protectionists such as Carey, who again assisted Morrill in the bill's drafting. The Morrill Tariff of 1861 was designed to raise revenue. The tariff act of 1862 served not only to raise revenue but also to encourage the establishment of factories free from British competition by taxing British imports. Furthermore, it protected American factory workers from low paid European workers, and as a major bonus attracted tens of thousands of those Europeans to immigrate to America for high wage factory and craftsman jobs. Customs revenue from tariffs totaled $345 million from 1861 through 1865 or 43% of all federal tax revenue. Land grants The U.S. government owned vast amounts of good land (mostly from the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 and the Oregon Treaty with Britain in 1846). The challenge was to make the land useful to people and to provide the economic basis for the wealth that would pay off the war debt. Land grants went to railroad construction companies to open up the western plains and link up to California. Together with the free lands provided farmers by the Homestead Law the low-cost farm lands provided by the land grants sped up the expansion of commercial agriculture in the West. The 1862 Homestead Act opened up the public domain lands for free. Land grants to the railroads meant they could sell tracts for family farms (80 to 200 acres) at low prices with extended credit. In addition the government sponsored fresh information, scientific methods and the latest techniques through the newly established Department of Agriculture and the Morrill Land Grant College Act. Agriculture Agriculture was the largest single industry and it prospered during the war. Prices were high, pulled up by a strong demand from the army and from Britain (which depended on American wheat for a fourth of its food imports). The war acted as a catalyst that encouraged the rapid adoption of horse-drawn machinery and other implements. The rapid spread of recent inventions such as the reaper and mower made the work force efficient, even as hundreds of thousands of farmers were in the army. Many wives took their place and often consulted by mail on what to do; increasingly they relied on community and extended kin for advice and help. The Union used hundreds of thousands of animals. The Army had plenty of cash to purchase them from farmers and breeders but especially in the early months the quality was mixed. Horses were needed for cavalry and artillery. Mules pulled the wagons. The supply held up, despite an unprecedented epidemic of glanders, a fatal disease that baffled veterinarians. In the South, the Union army shot all the horses it did not need to keep them out of Confederate hands. Cotton trade The Treasury started buying cotton during the war, for shipment to Europe and northern mills. The sellers were Southern planters who needed the cash, regardless of their patriotism. The Northern buyers could make heavy profits, which annoyed soldiers like Ulysses Grant. He blamed Jewish traders and expelled them from his lines in 1862 but Lincoln quickly overruled this show of anti-semitism. Critics said the cotton trade helped the South, prolonged the war and fostered corruption. Lincoln decided to continue the trade for fear that Britain might intervene if its textile manufacturers were denied raw material. Another goal was to foster latent Unionism in Southern border states. Northern textile manufacturers needed cotton to remain in business and to make uniforms, while cotton exports to Europe provided an important source of gold to finance the war. Industrial and business leaders and military inventors Matthias W. Baldwin Benjamin Bates IV John Jacob Bausch Andrew Carnegie Gardner Colby Samuel Colt Jay Cooke George Henry Corliss William Wesley Cornell Erastus Corning John Crerar (industrialist) Charles I. du Pont James Buchanan Eads John Ericsson William P. Halliday Benjamin Tyler Henry Gouverneur Kemble Benjamin Knight Robert Knight (industrialist) Benedict Lapham David Leavitt (banker) John Lenthall (shipbuilder) Henry Lomb William Mason (locomotive builder) William Metcalf (manufacturer) Samuel Morse Asa Packer Robert Parker Parrott Daniel Pratt (industrialist) George Pullman Christian Sharps David Sinton Horace Smith (inventor) Christopher Miner Spencer George Luther Stearns Henry J. Steere Ezekiel A. Straw John Edgar Thomson Cornelius Vanderbilt Ezra Warner (inventor) Daniel B. Wesson Rollin White Amos Whitney Oliver Winchester John F. Winslow George Worthington (businessman) Society Religion The Protestant religion was quite strong in the North in the 1860s. The United States Christian Commission sent agents into the Army camps to provide psychological support as well as books, newspapers, food and clothing. Through prayer, sermons and welfare operations, the agents ministered to soldiers' spiritual as well as temporal needs as they sought to bring the men to a Christian way of life. Most churches made an effort to support their soldiers in the field and especially their families back home. Much of the political rhetoric of the era had a distinct religious tone. The Protestant clergy in America took a variety of positions. In general, the pietistic denominations such as the Methodists, Northern Baptists and Congregationalists strongly supported the war effort. Catholics, Episcopalians, Lutherans and conservative Presbyterians generally avoided any discussion of the war, so it would not bitterly divide their membership. The Quakers, while giving strong support to the abolitionist movement on a personal level, refused to take a denominational position. Some clergymen who supported the Confederacy were denounced as Copperheads, especially in the border regions. Methodists Many Northerners had only recently become religious (following the Second Great Awakening) and religion was a powerful force in their lives. No denomination was more active in supporting the Union than the Methodist Episcopal Church. Carwardine argues that for many Methodists, the victory of Lincoln in 1860 heralded the arrival of the kingdom of God in America. They were moved into action by a vision of freedom for slaves, freedom from the persecutions of godly abolitionists, release from the Slave Power's evil grip on the American government and the promise of a new direction for the Union. Methodists formed a major element of the popular support for the Radical Republicans with their hard line toward the white South. Dissident Methodists left the church. During Reconstruction the Methodists took the lead in helping form Methodist churches for Freedmen and moving into Southern cities even to the point of taking control, with Army help, of buildings that had belonged to the southern branch of the church. The Methodist family magazine Ladies' Repository promoted Christian family activism. Its articles provided moral uplift to women and children. It portrayed the War as a great moral crusade against a decadent Southern civilization corrupted by slavery. It recommended activities that family members could perform in order to aid the Union cause. Family Historian Stephen M. Frank reports that what it meant to be a father varied with status and age. He says most men demonstrated dual commitments as providers and nurturers and believed that husband and wife had mutual obligations toward their children. The war privileged masculinity, dramatizing and exaggerating, father-son bonds. Especially at five critical stages in the soldier's career (enlistment, blooding, mustering out, wounding and death) letters from absent fathers articulated a distinctive set of 19th-century ideals of manliness. Children There were numerous children's magazines, such as Merry's Museum, The Student and Schoolmate, Our Young Folks, The Little Pilgrim, Forrester's Playmate and The Little Corporal. They showed a Protestant religious tone and "promoted the principles of hard work, obedience, generosity, humility, and piety; trumpeted the benefits of family cohesion; and furnished mild adventure stories, innocent entertainment, and instruction". Their pages featured factual information and anecdotes about the war along with related quizzes, games, poems, songs, short oratorical pieces for "declamation", short stories and very short plays that children could stage. They promoted patriotism and the Union war aims, fostered kindly attitudes toward freed slaves, blackened the Confederates cause, encouraged readers to raise money for war-related humanitarian funds, and dealt with the death of family members. By 1866, the Milton Bradley Company was selling "The Myriopticon: A Historical Panorama of the Rebellion" that allowed children to stage a neighborhood show that would explain the war. It comprised colorful drawings that were turned on wheels and included pre-printed tickets, poster advertisements, and narration that could be read aloud at the show. Caring for war orphans was an important function for local organizations as well as state and local government. A typical state was Iowa, where the private "Iowa Soldiers Orphans Home Association" operated with funding from the legislature and public donations. It set up orphanages in Davenport, Glenwood and Cedar Falls. The state government funded pensions for the widows and children of soldiers. Orphan schools like the Pennsylvania Soldiers' Orphan School, also spoke of the broader public welfare experiment that began as part of the aftermath of the Civil War. These orphan schools were created to provide housing, care, and education for orphans of Civil War soldiers. They became a matter of state pride, with orphans were paraded around at rallies to display the power of a patriotic schooling. All the northern states had free public school systems before the war but not the border states. West Virginia set up its system in 1863. Over bitter opposition it established an almost-equal education for black children, most of whom were ex-slaves. Thousands of black refugees poured into St. Louis, where the Freedmen's Relief Society, the Ladies Union Aid Society, the Western Sanitary Commission, and the American Missionary Association (AMA) set up schools for their children. Unionists in Southern and Border states People loyal to the U.S. federal government and opposed to secession living in the border states (where slavery was legal) and states under Confederate control, were termed Unionists. Confederates sometimes styled them "Homemade Yankees". However, Southern Unionists were not necessarily northern sympathizers and many of them, although opposing secession, supported the Confederacy once it was formed. East Tennessee never supported the Confederacy fully, and Unionists there became powerful state leaders, including governors Andrew Johnson and William G. Brownlow. Likewise, large pockets of eastern Kentucky were Unionist and helped keep the state from seceding. Western Virginia, with few slaves and slave owners, along with a growing industrial base at the time, was so strongly Unionist that it broke away and formed the new state of West Virginia in 1863. Nearly 100,000 Unionists from the South served in the Union Army during the Civil War and Unionist regiments were raised from every Confederate state except for South Carolina. Among such units was the 1st Alabama Cavalry Regiment, which served as William Sherman's personal escort on his march to the sea. Southern Unionists were extensively used as anti-guerrilla paramilitary forces. During the Reconstruction era (1865–1877), many Southern Unionists became "Scalawags", a derogatory term for white Southern supporters of the Republican Party. Guerrilla warfare Besides organized military conflict, the border states were beset by guerrilla warfare. In states bitterly divided, neighbors frequently used the excuse of war to settle personal grudges and took up arms against neighbors. Missouri Missouri was the scene of over 1,000 engagements between Union and Confederate forces, and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands. Western Missouri was the scene of brutal guerrilla warfare during the Civil War. Roving insurgent bands such as Quantrill's Raiders and the men of Bloody Bill Anderson terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. Because of the widespread attacks and the protection offered by Confederate sympathizers, Federal leaders issued General Order No. 11 in 1863, and evacuated areas of Jackson, Cass, and Bates counties. They forced the residents out to reduce support for the guerrillas. Union cavalry could sweep through and track down Confederate guerrillas, who no longer had places to hide and people and infrastructure to support them. On short notice, the army forced almost 20,000 people, mostly women, children and the elderly, to leave their homes. Many never returned and the affected counties were economically devastated for years after the end of the war. Families passed along stories of their bitter experiences down through several generations—future U.S. President Harry Truman's grandparents were caught up in the raids, and he would tell of how they were kept in concentration camps. Some marauding units became organized criminal gangs after the war. In 1882, the bank robber and ex-Confederate guerrilla Jesse James was killed in Saint Joseph, Missouri. Vigilante groups appeared in remote areas where law enforcement was weak, to deal with the lawlessness left over from the guerrilla warfare phase. For example, the Bald Knobbers were the term for several law-and-order vigilante groups in the Ozarks. In some cases, they too turned to illegal gang activity. Kentucky In response to the growing problem of locally organized guerrilla campaigns throughout 1863 and 1864, in June 1864, Maj. Gen. Stephen G. Burbridge was given command over the state of Kentucky. This began an extended period of military control that would last through early 1865, beginning with martial law authorized by President Abraham Lincoln. To pacify Kentucky, Burbridge rigorously suppressed disloyalty and used economic pressure as coercion. His guerrilla policy, which included public execution of four guerrillas for the death of each unarmed Union citizen, caused the most controversy. After a falling out with Governor Thomas E. Bramlette, Burbridge was dismissed in February 1865. Confederates remembered him as the "Butcher of Kentucky". Union states Washington, D.C List of Wikipedia articles on Union states and major cities: California Connecticut Delaware* Illinois Indiana Indianapolis Iowa Kansas Kentucky†* Lexington Louisville Maine Maryland* Baltimore Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Missouri†* St. Louis Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York New York City Ohio Cincinnati Cleveland Oregon Pennsylvania Harrisburg Philadelphia Pittsburgh Rhode Island Vermont Virginia†* West Virginia* Wisconsin * Border states with slavery in 1861 †Had two state governments, one Unionist one Confederate, both claiming to be the legitimate government of their state. Kentucky's and Missouri's Confederate governments never had significant control. West Virginia separated from Virginia and became part of the Union during the war, on June 20, 1863. Nevada also joined the Union during the war, becoming a state on October 31, 1864. Union territories The Union-controlled territories in April 1861 were: Colorado Territory Dakota Territory Indian Territory (disputed with the Confederacy) Nebraska Territory Nevada Territory (became a state in 1864) New Mexico Territory Arizona Territory (split off in 1863) Utah Territory Washington Territory Idaho Territory (split off in 1863) Montana Territory (split off in 1864) The Indian Territory saw its own civil war, as the major tribes held slaves and endorsed the Confederacy. See also American Civil War prison camps Perpetual Union Central Confederacy Notes Bibliography Surveys Cashin, Joan E. ed. The War Was You and Me: Civilians in the American Civil War (2001), Fellman, Michael et al. This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath (2nd ed. 2007), 544 page university textbook Ford, Lacy K., ed. A Companion to the Civil War and Reconstruction. (2005). 518 pp. 23 essays by scholars excerpt and text search Gallman, J. Matthew. The North Fights the Civil War: The Home Front (1994), survey Gallman, J. Matthew. Northerners at War: Reflections on the Civil War Home Front (2010), essays on specialized issues Heidler, David and Jeanne Heidler, eds, Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2002) 2740pp McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (1988), 900 page survey; Pulitzer prize Nevins, Allan. War for the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize winner; vol 1–4 cover 1848–61; vol 5. The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865 Resch, John P. et al., Americans at War: Society, Culture and the Homefront vol 2: 1816–1900 (2005) Politics Bogue, Allan G. The Congressman's Civil War (1989) Carman, Harry J. and Reinhard H. Luthin. Lincoln and the Patronage (1943), details on each state Donald, David Herbert. Lincoln (1999) the best biography; excerpt and text search Engle, Stephen D. Gathering to Save a Nation: Lincoln and the Union's War Governors (u of North Carolina Press, 2016). 725 pp. Gallagher, Gary W. The Union War (2011), emphasizes that the North fought primarily for nationalism and preservation of the Union Goodwin, Doris Kearns. Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (2005) excerpts and text search, on Lincoln's cabinet Green, Michael S. Freedom, Union, and Power: Lincoln and His Party during the Civil War. (2004). 400 pp. Harris, William C. Lincoln and the Union Governors (Southern Illinois University Press, 2013) 162 pp. Hesseltine, William B. Lincoln and the War Governors (1948) Kleppner, Paul. The Third Electoral System, 1853–1892: Parties, Voters, and Political Culture (1979), statistical study of voting patterns. Lawson, Melinda. Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (University Press of Kansas, 2002). Luthin, Reinhard H. The first Lincoln campaign (1944) on election of 1860 Neely, Mark. The Divided Union: Party Conflict in the Civil War North (2002) Paludan, Philip S. The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln (1994), thorough treatment of Lincoln's administration Rawley, James A. The Politics of Union: Northern Politics during the Civil War (1974). Richardson, Heather Cox. The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War (1997) online edition Silbey, Joel. A Respectable Minority: The Democratic Party in the Civil War Era (1977). Smith, Adam I. P. No Party Now: Politics in the Civil War North (Oxford University Press, 2006) Smith, Michael Thomas. The Enemy Within: Fears of Corruption in the Civil War North (2011) online review Weber, Jennifer L. Copperheads: The Rise and Fall of Lincoln's Opponents in the North (2006) excerpt and text search Constitutional and legal Hyman Harold. "A More Perfect Union ": The Impact of the Civil War and Reconstruction on the Constitution (1973) Neely; Mark E., Jr. The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties (1991). Neely, Jr., Mark E. Lincoln and the Triumph of the Nation: Constitutional Conflict in the American Civil War (U of North Carolina Press; 2011); 408 covers the U.S. and the Confederate constitutions and their role in the conflict. Economic Brandes, Stuart. Warhogs: A History of War Profits in America (1997), pp. 67–88; a scholarly history of the munitions industry; concludes profits were not excessive Clark, Jr., John E. Railroads in the Civil War: The Impact of Management on Victory and Defeat (2004) Cotterill, R. S. "The Louisville and Nashville Railroad 1861–1865," American Historical Review (1924) 29#4 pp. 700–715 in JSTOR Fite, Emerson David. Social and industrial conditions in the North during the Civil War (1910) online edition, old but still quite useful Hammond, Bray. "The North's Empty Purse, 1861–1862," American Historical Review, October 1961, Vol. 67 Issue 1, pp. 1–18 in JSTOR Hill, Joseph A. "The Civil War Income Tax," Quarterly Journal of Economics Vol. 8, No.4 (July 1894), pp. 416–452 in JSTOR; appendix in JSTOR Merk, Frederick. Economic history of Wisconsin during the Civil War decade (1916) online edition Smith, Michael Thomas. The Enemy Within: Fears of Corruption in the Civil War North (2011) details on Treasury Department, government contracting, and the cotton trade Weber, Thomas. The northern railroads in the Civil War, 1861–1865 (1999) Wilson, Mark R. The Business of Civil War: Military Mobilization and the State, 1861–1865. (2006). 306 pp. excerpt and text search Intellectual and cultural Aaron, Daniel. The Unwritten War: American Writers and the Civil War (2nd ed. 1987) Brownlee, Peter John et al. eds. Home Front: Daily Life in the Civil War North (2013) online review Foote, Lorien and Kanisorn Wongsrichanalai. So Conceived and So Dedicated: Intellectual Life in the Civil War Era North (2015) Gallman, J. Matthew. Defining Duty in the Civil War: Personal Choice, Popular Culture, and the Union Home Front (2015) how civilians defined their roles. online review Fredrickson, George M. The inner Civil War: Northern intellectuals and the crisis of the Union (1993) Stevenson, Louise A. The Victorian Homefront: American Thought and Culture, 1860–1880 (1991). Wilson, Edmund. Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War (1962) Medical Adams, George Worthington. Doctors in Blue: The Medical History of the Union Army in the Civil War (1996), 253pp; excerpt and text search Clarke, Frances M. War Stories: Suffering and Sacrifice in the Civil War North (University of Chicago Press, 2012) Grant, S-M. "'Mortal in this season': Union Surgeons and the Narrative of Medical Modernisation in the American Civil War." Social History of Medicine (2014): hku010. Maxwell, William Quentin. Lincoln's Fifth Wheel: The Political History of the U.S. Sanitary Commission (1956) online edition Schroeder-Lein, Glenna R. The Encyclopedia of Civil War Medicine (2012) excerpt and text search. 456pp Race McPherson, James M. Marching Toward Freedom: The Negro's Civil War (1982); first edition was The Negro's Civil War: How American Negroes Felt and Acted During the War for the Union (1965), Quarles, Benjamin. The Negro in the Civil War (1953), standard history excerpt and text search Voegeli, V. Jacque. Free But Not Equal: The Midwest and the Negro during the Civil War (1967). Religion and ethnicity Brodrecht, Grant R. "Our Country: Northern Evangelicals and the Union during the Civil War and Reconstruction." Ph.D. diss., University of Notre Dame, 2008. Burton, William L. Melting Pot Soldiers: The Union Ethnic Regiments (1998) Kamphoefner, Walter D. "German-Americans and Civil War Politics: A Reconsideration of the Ethnocultural Thesis." Civil War History 37 (1991): 232–246. Kleppner, Paul. The Third Electoral System, 1853–1892: Parties, Voters, and Political Culture (1979). Miller, Randall M., Harry S. Stout and Charles Reagan Wilson, eds. Religion and the American Civil War (1998) online edition Miller, Robert J. Both Prayed to the Same God: Religion and Faith in the American Civil War. (2007). 260pp Moorhead, James. American Apocalypse: Yankee Protestants and the Civil War, 1860–1869 (1978). Noll, Mark A. The Civil War as a Theological Crisis. (2006). 199 pp. Stout, Harry S. Upon the Altar of the Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War. (2006). 544 pp. Social and demographic history Brownlee, Peter John, et al. Home Front: Daily Life in the Civil War North (University of Chicago Press, 2013) 193 pp. heavily illustrated. Morehouse, Maggi M. and Zoe Trodd, eds. Civil War America: A Social and Cultural History with Primary Sources (2013), 29 short essays by scholars excerpt Raus, Edmund J. Banners South: Northern Community at War (2011) about Cortland New York Vinovskis, Maris A., ed. Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays (1991), new social history; quantitative studies Vinovskis, Maris A., ed. "Have Social Historians Lost the Civil War? Some Preliminary Demographic Speculations," Journal of American History Vol. 76, No.1 (June 1989), pp. 34–58 in JSTOR Veit, Helen Zoe, ed. Food in the Civil War Era: The North (Michigan State University Press, 2014) Soldiers Geary James W. We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War (1991). Geary James W. "Civil War Conscription in the North: A Historiographical Review." Civil War History 32 (September 1986): 208–228. Hams, Emily J. "Sons and Soldiers: Deerfield, Massachusetts, and the Civil War," Civil War History 30 (June 1984): 157–71 Hess, Earl J. "The 12th Missouri Infantry: A Socio-Military Profile of a Union Regiment," Missouri Historical Review 76 (October 1981): 53–77. Cimbala, Paul A. and Randall M. Miller, eds. Union Soldiers and the Northern Home Front: Wartime Experiences, Postwar Adjustments. (2002) McPherson, James. For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (1998), based on letters and diaries Miller, William J. Training of an Army: Camp Curtin and the North's Civil War (1990) Mitchell; Reid. The Vacant Chair. The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (1993). Rorabaugh, William J. "Who Fought for the North in the Civil War? Concord, Massachusetts, Enlistments," Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 695–701 in JSTOR Roseboom, Eugene H. The Civil War Era, 1850–1873 (1944), Ohio Scott, Sean A. "'Earth Has No Sorrow That Heaven Cannot Cure': Northern Civilian Perspectives on Death and Eternity during the Civil War," Journal of Social History (2008) 41:843–866 Wiley, Bell I. The Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union (1952) State and local Tucker, Spencer, ed. American Civil War: A State-by-State Encyclopedia (2 vol 2015) 1019pp excerpt Aley, Ginette et al. eds. Union Heartland: The Midwestern Home Front during the Civil War (2013) Bak, Richard. A Distant Thunder: Michigan in the Civil War. (2004). 239 pp. Baker, Jean H. The Politics of Continuity: Maryland Political Parties from 1858 to 1870 (1973) Baum, Dale. The Civil War Party System: The Case of Massachusetts, 1848–1876 (1984) Bradley, Erwin S. The Triumph of Militant Republicanism: A Study of Pennsylvania and Presidential Politics, 1860–1872 (1964) Castel, Albert. A Frontier State at War: Kansas, 1861–1865 (1958) Cole, Arthur Charles. The Era of the Civil War 1848–1870 (1919) on Illinois Coulter, E. Merton. The Civil War and Readjustment in Kentucky (1926), Current, Richard N. The History of Wisconsin: The Civil War Era, 1848–1873 (1976). Dee, Christine, ed. Ohio's war: the Civil War in documents (2006), primary sources excerpt and text search Dilla, Harriette M. Politics of Michigan, 1865–1878 (Columbia University Press, 1912) online at Google books Gallman, Matthew J. Mastering Wartime: A Social History of Philadelphia During the Civil War. (1990) Hall, Susan G. Appalachian Ohio and the Civil War, 1862–1863 (2008) Holzer, Harold. State of the Union: New York and the Civil War (2002) Essays by scholars Hubbard, Mark. Illinois's War: The Civil War in Documents (2012) excerpt and text search Karamanski, Theodore J. Rally 'Round the Flag: Chicago and the Civil War (1993). Leech, Margaret. Reveille in Washington, 1860–1865 (1941), Pulitzer Prize McKay Ernest A. The Civil War and New York City (1990) Miller, Richard F. ed. States at War, Volume 1: A Reference Guide for Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont in the Civil War (2013) excerpt Miller, Richard F. ed. States at War, Volume 2: A Reference Guide for New York in the Civil War (2014) excerpt Nation, Richard F. and Stephen E. Towne. Indiana's War: The Civil War in Documents (2009), primary sources excerpt and text search Niven, John. Connecticut for the Union: The Role of the State in the Civil War (Yale University Press, 1965) O'Connor, Thomas H. Civil War Boston (1999) Parrish, William E. A History of Missouri, Volume III: 1860 to 1875 (1973) () Pierce, Bessie. A History of Chicago, Volume II: From Town to City 1848–1871 (1940) Ponce, Pearl T. Kansas's War: The Civil War in Documents (2011) excerpt and text search Raus, Edmund J. Banners South: Northern Community at War (2011) about Cortland New York Roseboom, Eugene. The Civil War Era, 1850–1873, History of Ohio, vol.4 (1944) online, Detailed scholarly history Siddali, Silvana R. Missouri's War: The Civil War in Documents (2009), primary sources excerpt and text search Stampp, Kenneth M. Indiana politics during the Civil War (1949) Taylor, Paul. "Old Slow Town": Detroit during the Civil War (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2013). x, 248 pp. Thornbrough, Emma Lou. Indiana in the Civil War Era, 1850–1880 (1965) Ware, Edith E. Political Opinion in Massachusetts during the Civil War and Reconstruction, (1916). full text online Women and family "Bonnet Brigades at Fifty: Reflections on Mary Elizabeth Massey and Gender in Civil War History," Civil War History (2015) 61#4 pp. 400–444. Anderson, J. L. "The Vacant Chair on the Farm: Soldier Husbands, Farm Wives, and the Iowa Home Front, 1861–1865," Annals of Iowa (2007) 66: 241–265 Attie, Jeanie. Patriotic Toil: Northern Women and the American Civil War (1998). 294 pp. Bahde, Thomas. "'I never wood git tired of wrighting to you.'" Journal of Illinois History (2009). 12:129-55 Cashin, Joan E. "American Women and the American Civil War" Journal of Military History (2017) 81#1 pp. 199–204. Giesberg, Judith. Army at Home: Women and the Civil War on the Northern Home Front (2009) excerpt and text search Giesberg, Judith Ann. "From Harvest Field to Battlefield: Rural Pennsylvania Women and the U.S. Civil War," Pennsylvania History (2005). 72: 159–191 Harper, Judith E. Women during the Civil War: An Encyclopedia. (2004). 472 pp. McDevitt, Theresa. Women and the American Civil War: an annotated bibliography (Praeger, 2003). Marten, James. Children for the Union: The War Spirit on the Northern Home Front. Ivan R. Dee, 2004. 209 pp. Massey, Mary. Bonnet Brigades: American Women and the Civil War (1966), excellent overview North and South; reissued as Women in the Civil War (1994) "Bonnet Brigades at Fifty: Reflections on Mary Elizabeth Massey and Gender in Civil War History," Civil War History (2015) 61#4 pp. 400–444. Giesberg, Judith. "Mary Elizabeth Massey and the Civil War Centennial." Civil War History 61.4 (2015): 400–406. online Rodgers, Thomas E. "Hoosier Women and the Civil War Home Front," Indiana Magazine of History 97#2 (2001), pp. 105–128 in JSTOR Silber, Nina. Daughters of the Union: Northern Women Fight the Civil War. (Harvard UP, 2005). 332 pp. Venet, Wendy Hamand. A Strong-Minded Woman: The Life of Mary Livermore. (U. of Massachusetts Press, 2005). 322 pp. Primary sources American Annual Cyclopaedia for 1861 (N.Y.: Appleton's, 1864), an extensive collection of reports on each state, Congress, military activities and many other topics; annual issues from 1861 to 1901 Appletons' annual cyclopedia and register of important events: Embracing political, military, and ecclesiastical affairs; public documents; biography, statistics, commerce, finance, literature, science, agriculture, and mechanical industry, Volume 3 1863 (1864), thorough coverage of the events of 1863 Angle, Paul M. and Earl Schenck Miers, eds. Tragic Years, 1860–1865: A Documentary History of the American Civil War—Vol. 1 1960 online edition Carter, Susan B., ed. The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006; online at many universities Commager, Henry Steele, ed. The Blue and the Gray. The Story of the Civil War as Told by Participants. (1950), excerpts from primary sources Dee, Christine, ed. Ohio's War: The Civil War in Documents. (2007). 244 pp. Freidel Frank, ed. Union Pamphlets of the Civil War, 1861–1865 (2 vol. 1967) Hesseltine, William B. ed.; The Tragic Conflict: The Civil War and Reconstruction (1962), excerpts from primary sources online edition Marten, James, ed. Civil War America: Voices from the Home Front. (2003). 346 pp. Risley, Ford, ed. The Civil War: Primary Documents on Events from 1860 to 1865. (2004). 320 pp. Siddali, Silvana R. Missouri's War: The Civil War in Documents (2009), 256pp excerpt and text search Sizer, Lyde Cullen and Jim Cullen, ed. The Civil War Era: An Anthology of Sources. (2005). 434 pp. Smith, Charles Winston and Charles Judah, eds. Life in the North during the Civil War: A Source History (1966) Voss-Hubbard, Mark, ed. Illinois's War: The Civil War in Documents (2013) online review diaries, journals. reminiscences "The Peoples Contest: A Civil War era digital archiving project", access to primary sources from Pennsylvania, especially newspapers and other resources External links Lincoln Administration links Civil War Soldiers Abraham Lincoln online, texts "Home Front: Daily Life in the Civil War North" visual exhibit at the "Financial Measures," by Nicolay and Hay (1889) "Lincoln Reelected," by Nicolay and Hay (1889) "First Plans for Emancipation," by Nicolay and Hay (1889) "Emancipation Announced," by Nicolay and Hay (1889) American Civil War industrialists Politics of the American Civil War Social history of the American Civil War Social history of the United States History of the Midwestern United States History of the Northeastern United States Unionism

Roy Orbison and Friends: A Black and White Night

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Roy Orbison and Friends: A Black and White Night is a 1988 Cinemax television special originally broadcast on January 3, 1988, starring triple Hall of Fame inductee (Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame and Songwriters Hall of Fame) rock/pop singer/songwriter Roy Orbison and backing band TCB Band with special guests including Bruce Springsteen, k.d. lang and others. The special was filmed entirely in black and white. After the broadcast the concert was released on VHS and Laserdisc. A live album was released in 1989. Background The special consisted of a performance of many of Orbison's hits at the then Ambassador Hotel's Coconut Grove nightclub in Los Angeles, filmed on September 30, 1987, approximately fourteen months before his death. Three songs, "Blue Bayou", "Claudette", and "Blue Angel", were filmed but not included in the original broadcast due to time constraints. Other celebrity admirers of Orbison were in the audience, including David Lynch, Billy Idol, Patrick Swayze, Billy Bob Thornton, Sandra Bernhard and Kris Kristofferson. The backing band was the TCB Band, which accompanied Elvis Presley from 1969 until his death in 1977: Glen Hardin on piano, James Burton on lead guitar, Jerry Scheff on bass, and Ronnie Tutt on drums. Male background vocalists, some of whom also joined in on guitar, electric organ and keyboards were Bruce Springsteen, Tom Waits, Elvis Costello, Jackson Browne, J.D. Souther and Steven Soles. The female background vocalists were k.d. lang, Jennifer Warnes and Bonnie Raitt. During the end credits, several of the band members are shown talking about how Orbison influenced them. The following morning at 7:42am, a violent 5.9 magnitude earthquake struck the Whittier section of Los Angeles. Several chandeliers in the ballroom had collapsed on the master film and videotapes that recorded the performance. When the wreckage was cleared, no damage had been done. Soon after the release on VHS and LaserDisc, a bootleg CD titled A Black and White Night, Roy Orbison in Concert with the Billion Dollar Band surfaced, and is a rare collectors item nowadays. This CD, which came before any official CD-release of the concert, has the same 15 songs in the same order as the original VHS/LaserDisc release and has catologue number RO.LA.87, referring to the artist, place and year of the recording. The audio from this special was released as an album by Virgin Records in 1989, titled A Black & White Night Live. After Orbison's death, his family provided the video to public television stations to air during their fund-raising campaigns. Releases The concert has been released in several home video formats, including VHS, Laserdisc, DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray. The soundtrack has been released on CD, SACD that features both Stereo and Multi Channel Mixes, 12" vinyl LP, and DVD-Audio. The Laserdisc release follows the tracklist of the broadcast and VHS, while the DVD release contains the two previously unreleased songs "Blue Bayou" and "Claudette". The HD DVD, released in 2007, and the Blu-ray, released in September 2008, include those two songs as well as the previously-unreleased song "Blue Angel" as a bonus track. The DVD features standard definition 480i video in a standard 4:3 aspect ratio and three lossy soundtracks: Dolby Digital 2.0 Stereo, Dolby Digital 5.1, and DTS 5.1 The Blu-ray features high definition 1080i video in a widescreen 16:9 aspect ratio and two lossless soundtracks: DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 and LPCM 2.0 Also features the lossy soundtrack Dolby Digital 5.1 and, by extension, the lossy DTS core of the DTS-HD MA The HD DVD features high definition 1080i video in a widescreen 16:9 aspect ratio and at least one lossless soundtrack: Dolby TrueHD 5.1 Surround February 24, 2017 saw the release of a re-edited 30th Anniversary Version of the Concert retitled "Roy Orbison Black & White Night 30," that contains footage that is not available on the out-of-print Blu-Ray and HD DVD releases that Image Entertainment distributed in 2007/2008. The sequencing has been corrected to represent the actual Live song order at the concert. There is also new bonus footage with alternative versions of various songs that also can be viewed as part of the main concert. The audio is English Dolby TrueHD 5.1 and English LPCM 2.0. Optional English SDH subtitles are not provided. Bonus Rehearsal and Interview Footage - presented here is the only known surviving footage of the Black & White Night rehearsal. The footage also contains clips from archival interviews that were conducted at the same time. In English, not subtitled. (38 min). Photo Gallery - original production stills. (4 min). Booklet - 20-page illustrated booklet. Packaging photos are included at the bottom of this review. (Please see screenshots). CD - the entire show presented on a bonus CD. Certifications Soundtrack According to the authorised biography of Roy Orbison, A Black & White Night Live, the live album, was compiled and released posthumously from the television special in October 1989, and included the song "Blue Bayou" which was cut from the original broadcast for time limitations. However it did not include the songs "Blue Angel" or "Claudette" which were also cut from the original broadcast for the same reason. The live album has been released several times in different formats. On February 24, 2017, a 30th anniversary edition, titled Black & White Night 30, was released. The edition has been expanded, re-edited, and remastered, and it is available both as a CD/DVD and a CD/Blu-ray set. Track listing All tracks composed by Roy Orbison and Joe Melson, except where indicated "Only the Lonely" "Dream Baby" (Cindy Walker) "Blue Bayou" (not on the original video release) "The Comedians" (Elvis Costello) "Ooby Dooby" (Dick Penner, Wade Moore) "Leah" (Roy Orbison) "Running Scared" "Uptown" "In Dreams" (Roy Orbison) "Crying" "Candy Man" (Fred Neil, Beverly "Ruby" Ross) "Go Go Go (Down the Line)" (Roy Orbison) "Mean Woman Blues" (Claude Demetrius) "(All I Can Do is) Dream You" (Billy Burnette, David Malloy) "Claudette" (not on original 1989 LP) (Roy Orbison) "It's Over" (Roy Orbison, Bill Dees) "Oh, Pretty Woman" (Roy Orbison, Bill Dees) "Blue Angel" (not on original 1989 LP) Black & White Night 30 track listing "Intro" "Only the Lonely" "Leah" "In Dreams" "Crying" "Uptown" "The Comedians" "Blue Angel" "It's Over" "Running Scared" "Dream Baby (How Long Must I Dream)" "Mean Woman Blues" "Candy Man" "Ooby Dooby" "Blue Bayou" "Go Go Go (Down the Line)" "(All I Can Do Is) Dream You" "Claudette" "Oh, Pretty Woman" (Alternative Version)* "Oh, Pretty Woman" The Secret Post Show (Alternative Versions) "(All I Can Do Is) Dream You* "Comedians* "Candy Man* "Claudette* "Uptown* Personnel Roy Orbison: lead vocals, guitar, harmonica T Bone Burnett: acoustic guitar; musical director TCB Band: Glen D. Hardin: piano James Burton: lead guitar Jerry Scheff: upright bass Ronnie Tutt: drums Guest performers: Bruce Springsteen: guitar, vocals Elvis Costello: acoustic guitar, electric organ, harmonica Tom Waits: electric organ, acoustic guitar Michael Utley: keyboard Alex Acuña: percussion Ezra Klinger & Pavel Farkas: violin Jimbo Ross & Peter Hatch: viola Guest Vocalists: J. D. Souther: backing vocals; acoustic guitar; vocal arrangements Steven Soles: backing vocals Jackson Browne: backing vocals Bonnie Raitt: backing vocals k.d. lang: backing vocals Jennifer Warnes: backing vocals Production person Lighting Designer: Lee Rose References External links 1980s American television specials Roy Orbison video albums Roy Orbison albums Albums produced by T Bone Burnett 1988 live albums 1988 in American television Music television specials 1988 television specials

Lateral mark

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A lateral buoy, lateral post or lateral mark, as defined by the International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities, is a sea mark used in maritime pilotage to indicate the edge of a channel. Each mark indicates the edge of the safe water channel in terms of port (left-hand) or starboard (right-hand). These directions are relative to the direction of buoyage; this is usually a nominally upstream direction. In a river, the direction of buoyage is towards the river's source; in a harbour, the direction of buoyage is into the harbour from the sea. Where there may be doubt, it will be labelled on the appropriate chart. Often the cardinal mark system is used instead, when confusion about the direction would be common. A vessel heading in the direction of buoyage (e.g. into a harbour) and wishing to keep in the main channel should: keep port marks to its port (left) side, and keep starboard marks to its starboard (right) side. IALA System Marks are distinguished by their shape and colour, being red or green. For historical reasons, two different schemes are in use worldwide, differing in their use of colour. Previously there had been 30 different buoyage systems, before IALA rationalised the system. In 1980 on a conference convened by IALA, they agreed to adopt the rules of a new combined system, which combined the previous two systems (A and B) into one system, with two regions (A and B). The IALA defines them as Region A and Region B: Region A comprises Europe, Africa, and most of Asia and Oceania, as well as Greenland. port marks are red and may have a red flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1. starboard marks are green and may have a green flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1. Region B comprises the Americas, Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, Taiwan, Hawaii, and Easter Island. port marks are green and may have a green flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1 starboard marks are red and may have a red flashing light of any rhythm except 2+1 Both regions port marks are square or have a flat top starboard marks are conical (or present a triangular shape) or have a pointed top. The shape is an important feature, as colours cannot be distinguished in some light conditions, or by persons with red-green colour blindness. Marks may also carry unique markings of letters and numbers; these may be used to identify the mark as one indicated on a nautical chart. Likewise, a mark's light may flash in a distinctive sequence for the same purpose. When a channel divides, as for instance a channel to a smaller harbour off a main river, then a preferred channel or bifurcation mark is used. The mark has the same shape and main colour as a port- or starboard- hand mark for the main channel. It bears in addition a horizontal band with the appropriate colour for the smaller channel. For example: region A, main channel straight on, creek leading to marina to port. The buoy where the channels divide would be a red cylindrical can or pillar with a cylindrical top mark. Around the middle would be a green band. In IALA region B the shape would be identical, but the main colour would be green with a red band. See the buoy by the island in the diagram above. In Region A only, the phrase "Is there any red port left?" (referring to the red colour of the fortified wine "port") may be used as a mnemonic, indicating that a red mark must be kept on the left when "returning" to (i.e., entering) a harbour or river. In Region B only, the phrase "red right returning" may be used as a mnemonic, indicating that a red mark must be kept on the right when returning to (i.e., entering) a harbour or river. See also Cardinal mark Isolated danger mark Safe water mark Special mark Emergency wreck buoy References External links A web site of Transport Canada, showing lateral buoys in Region B. Navigational buoys es:Sistema de boyado marítimo IALA it:Segnalamenti marittimi ottici

Chief of Staff of the United States Army

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The chief of staff of the Army (CSA) is a statutory position in the United States Army held by a general officer. As the highest-ranking officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Army, the chief is the principal military advisor and a deputy to the secretary of the Army. In a separate capacity, the CSA is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff () and, thereby, a military advisor to the National Security Council, the secretary of defense, and the president of the United States. The CSA is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the U.S. Army unless the chairman or the vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are Army officers. The chief of staff of the Army is an administrative position based in the Pentagon. While the CSA does not have operational command authority over Army forces proper (which is within the purview of the Combatant Commanders who report to the Secretary of Defense), the CSA does exercise supervision of army units and organizations as the designee of the Secretary of the Army. The 40th and current Chief of Staff of the Army is General James C. McConville. Appointment The chief of staff of the Army is nominated by for appointment by the president, for a four-year term of office, and must be confirmed by the Senate. The chief can be reappointed to serve one additional term, but only during times of war or national emergency declared by Congress. By statute, the chief is appointed as a four-star general. The chief has an official residence, Quarters 1 at Joint Base Myer–Henderson Hall, Virginia. Responsibilities The senior leadership of the Department of the Army consists of two civilians, the secretary of the Army (Head of the department and subordinate to the secretary of defense) and the under secretary of the Army, and two military officers, the chief of staff of the Army and the vice chief of staff of the Army. The chief reports directly to the secretary of the Army for army matters and assists in the Secretary's external affairs functions, including presenting and enforcing army policies, plans, and projections. The chief also directs the inspector general of the Army to perform inspections and investigations as required. In addition, the chief presides over the Army Staff and represents Army capabilities, requirements, policy, plans, and programs in Joint forums. Under delegation of authority made by the secretary of the Army, the chief designates army personnel and army resources to the commanders of the unified combatant commands. The chief performs all other functions enumerated in under the authority, direction, and control of the Secretary of the Army, or delegates those duties and responsibilities to other officers in his administration in his name. Like the other service counterparts, the chief has no operational command authority over army forces, dating back to the passage of the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958. The chief is served by a number of Deputy Chiefs of Staff of the Army, such as G-1, Personnel. The chief's base pay is $21,147.30 per month and also received a Personal Money Allowance (Monthly Amount) of $333.33, a basic allowance for subsistence of $253.38, and a basic allowance for housing from $50.70 to $1923.30. History Prior to 1903, the senior military officer in the army was the Commanding General of the United States Army, who reported to the Secretary of War. From 1864 to 1865, Major General Henry Halleck (who had previously been Commanding General) served as "Chief of Staff of the Army" under the Commanding General, Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant, thus serving in a different office and not as the senior officer in the army. The first chief of staff moved his headquarters to Fort Myer in 1908. List of chiefs of staff of the Army (1903–present) The rank listed is the rank when serving in the office. Timeline See also Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Army Army Staff Senior Warrant Officer Sergeant Major of the Army References Citations Sources Further reading Hewes, Jr., James E. From Root to McNamara: Army Organization and Administration, 1900–1963 (1975) . Semsch, Philip L. "Elihu Root and the General Staff." Military Affairs (1963): 16-27. Skowronek, Stephen. Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877–1920 (Cambridge University Press, 1982) pp 212-247. - full text White, Richard D. "Civilian management of the military: Elihu Root and the 1903 reorganization of the army general staff." Journal of Management History (1998) 4#1 (1998), pp. 43-59. External links Joint Chiefs of Staff United States Army organization United States 1903 establishments in the United States

Province of Georgia

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The Province of Georgia (also Georgia Colony) was one of the Southern colonies in British America. It was the last of the thirteen original American colonies established by Great Britain in what later became the United States. In the original grant, a narrow strip of the province extended to the Pacific Ocean. The colony's corporate charter was granted to General James Oglethorpe on April 21, 1732, by George II, for whom the colony was named. The charter was finalized by the King's privy council on June 9, 1732. Oglethorpe envisioned a colony which would serve as a haven for English subjects who had been imprisoned for debt and "the worthy poor". General Oglethorpe imposed very strict laws that many colonists disagreed with, such as the banning of alcoholic beverages. He disagreed with slavery and thought a system of smallholdings more appropriate than the large plantations common in the colonies just to the north. However, land grants were not as large as most colonists would have preferred. Another reason for the founding of the colony was as a buffer state and a "garrison province" which would defend the southern British colonies from Spanish Florida. Oglethorpe imagined a province populated by "sturdy farmers" who could guard the border; because of this, the colony's charter prohibited slavery. The ban on slavery was lifted by 1751 and the colony became a royal colony by 1752. Foundation Although many believe that the colony was formed for the imprisoned, the colony was actually formed as a place of no slavery. Oglethorpe did have the vision to make it a place for debtors, but it transformed into a royal colony. The following is an historical accounting of these first English settlers sent to Georgia: A committee was appointed to visit the jails and obtain the discharge of such poor prisoners as were worthy, carefully investigating character, circumstances and antecedents. Thirty-five families, numbering one hundred and twenty persons, were selected. On the 16th of November, 1732, the emigrants embarked at Gravesend on the ship Anne ... arriving January 13th [1733] in the harbor of Charleston, S. C. ... They set sail the day following ... into Port Royal, some eighty miles southward, to be conveyed in small vessels to the river Savannah. Oglethorpe continued up the river to scout a location suitable for settlement. On February 12, 1733, Oglethorpe led the settlers to their arrival at Yamacraw Bluff, in what is now the city of Savannah, and established a camp with the help of a local elderly Creek chief, Tomochichi. A Yamacraw Indian village had occupied the site, but Oglethorpe arranged for the Indians to move. The day is still celebrated as Georgia Day. The original charter specified the colony as being between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers, up to their headwaters (the headwaters of the Altamaha are on the Ocmulgee River), and then extending westward "to the south seas." The area within the charter had previously been part of the original grant of the Province of Carolina, which was closely linked to Georgia. Development of the colony The Privy Council approved the establishment charter on June 9, 1732, and for the next two decades the council of trustees governed the province, with the aid of annual subsidies from Parliament. However, after many difficulties and the departure of Oglethorpe, the trustees proved unable to manage the proprietary colony, and on June 23, 1752, they submitted a deed of reconveyance to the crown, one year before the expiration of the charter. On January 2, 1755, Georgia officially ceased to be a proprietary colony and became a crown colony. From 1732 until 1758, the minor civil divisions were districts and towns. In 1758, without Indian permission, the Province of Georgia was divided into eight parishes by the Act of the Assembly of Georgia on March 15. The Town and District of Savannah was named Christ Church Parish. The District of Abercorn and Goshen, plus the District of Ebenezer, was named the Parish of St. Matthew. The District of Halifax was named the Parish of St. George. The District of Augusta was named the Parish of St. Paul. The Town of Hardwick and the District of Ogeechee, including the island of Ossabaw, was named the Parish of St. Philip. From Sunbury in the District of Midway and Newport to the south branch of Newport, including the islands of St. Catherine and Bermuda, was named the Parish of St. John. The Town and District of Darien, to the Altamaha River, including the islands of Sapelo and Eastwood and the sea islands north of Egg Island, was named the Parish of St. Andrew. The Town and District of Frederica, including the islands of Great and Little St. Simons, along with the adjacent islands, was named the Parish of St. James. Following Britain's victory in the French and Indian War, King George III issued the Proclamation of 1763. One of its provisions was to extend Georgia's southern boundary from the Altamaha River to the St. Marys River. Two years later, on March 25, 1765, Governor James Wright approved an act of the General Assembly creating four new parishesSt. David, St. Patrick, St. Thomas, and St. Mary in the recently acquired land, and it further assigned Jekyll Island to St. James Parish. The Georgia colony had had a sluggish beginning. James Oglethorpe did not allow liquor, and colonists who came at the trustees' expense were not allowed to own more than of land for their farm in addition to a 60 foot by 90 foot plot in town. Those who paid their own way could bring ten indentured servants and would receive 500 acres of land. Additional land could neither be acquired nor sold. Discontent grew in the colony because of these restrictions, and Oglethorpe lifted them. With slavery, liquor, and land acquisition the colony developed much faster. Slavery had been permitted from 1749. There was some internal opposition to slavery, particularly from Scottish settlers, but by the time of the War of Independence, Georgia was much like the other Southern colonies. Revolutionary War period and beyond During the American Revolution Georgia's population was at first divided about exactly how to respond to revolutionary activities and heightened tensions in other provinces. When violence broke out in 1775, radical Patriots (also known as Whigs) stormed the royal magazine at Savannah and carried off its ammunition, took control of the provincial government, and drove many Loyalists out of the province. In 1776 a provincial congress had declared independence and created a constitution for the new state. Georgia also served as the staging ground for several important raids into British-controlled Florida. In 1777 the original eight counties of the state of Georgia were created. Prior to that Georgia had been divided into local government units called parishes. Settlement had been limited to the near vicinity of the Savannah River; the western area of the new state remained under the control of the Creek Indian Confederation. James Wright, the last Royal Governor of the Province of Georgia, dismissed the royal assembly in 1775. He was briefly a prisoner of the revolutionaries before escaping to a British warship in February 1776. During the American Revolutionary War Wright would become the only royal governor of the Thirteen Colonies to regain control of part of his colony after British forces captured Savannah on December 29, 1778. British and Loyalist forces restored large areas of Georgia to colonial rule, especially along the coast, while Patriots continued to maintain an independent governor, congress, and militia in other areas. In 1779 the British repelled an attack of militia, Continental Army, and French military and naval forces on Savannah. The 1781 siege of Augusta, by militia and Continental forces, restored it to Patriot control. When the war was lost for Britain, Wright and British forces evacuated Savannah on July 11, 1782. After that the Province of Georgia ceased to exist as a British colony. Georgia was a member of the Second Continental Congress, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, the tenth state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24, 1778, and the fourth state to be admitted to the Union under the U.S. Constitution, on January 2, 1788. On April 24, 1802, Georgia ceded to the U.S. Congress parts of its western lands, that it had claims for going back to when it was a province (colony). These lands were incorporated into the Mississippi Territory and later (with other adjoining lands) became the states of Alabama and Mississippi. See also Georgia Experiment Georgia cracker History of Georgia (U.S. state) List of colonial governors of Georgia Oglethorpe Plan Thirteen Colonies References Further reading Greene, Evarts Boutell. Provincial America, 1690-1740 (1905) ch 15 online pp 249-269 covers 1732 to 1763. McIlvenna, Noeleen (2015). The Short Life of Free Georgia. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. External links LOC: Establishing the Georgia Colony 1732–1750 Carl Vinson Institute of Government, University of Georgia: Georgia History Sir John Percival papers, also called: The Egmont Papers, 1732–1745. University of Georgia Hargrett Library. Diary of Viscount Percival afterwards first Earl of Egmont. University of Georgia Hargrett Library. Charter of Georgia from the Avalon Project Royal Charter for the Colony of Georgia, 09 June 1732 from the collection of the Georgia Archives. Original Grantees of the Colony of Georgia, 21 December 1733 from the collection of the Georgia Archives. 1758 Act Dividing Georgia into Parishes Colonial Will Books, 1754-1779 from the Georgia Archives Province of Georgia Thirteen Colonies Colonial United States (British) Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas 1732 establishments in the British Empire 1776 disestablishments in the British Empire

Kapu

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Kapu is the ancient Hawaiian code of conduct of laws and regulations. The kapu system was universal in lifestyle, gender roles, politics and religion. An offense that was kapu was often a capital offense, but also often denoted a threat to spiritual power, or theft of mana. Kapus were strictly enforced. Breaking one, even unintentionally, often meant immediate death, Koʻo kapu. The concept is related to taboo and the tapu or tabu found in other Polynesian cultures. The Hawaiian word kapu is usually translated to English as "forbidden", though it also carries the meanings of "keep out", "no trespassing", "sacred", "consecrated", or "holy". The opposite of kapu is noa, meaning "common" or "free". Kapuhili The Kapuhili were restrictions placed upon contact with chiefs (kings), but these also apply to all people of known spiritual power. Kapu Kū mamao means prohibited from a place of the chief, while Kapu noho was to assemble before the chief. It was kapu when entering a chief's personal area, to come in contact with his hair or fingernail clippings, to look directly at him, and to be in sight of him with a head higher than his. Wearing red and yellow feathers (a sign of royalty) was kapu, unless an individual was of the highest rank. Places that are kapu are often symbolized by Pahu Kapu, two crossed staffs, each with a white ball atop. ʻAi Kapu The ʻAi kapu was the kapu system governing contact between men and women. Many aliʻi obtained their power through this system, and then would give thanks to the god of politics Kū. ʻAi means "to eat" and Kapu means sacred. Therefore, it is translated to "sacred eating". In this particular practice, men and women could not eat meals together. Furthermore, certain foods such as pork (the body form of the god Lono), most types (67 of the 70 varieties) of bananas (body form of the god Kanaloa), and coconuts (body form of the god Kū) were considered kapu to women. This not only prohibited women from eating these, but also their contact in contexts such as the manufacture of coconut rope. Taro (body form of the god Kāne) was kapu for women to cook and prepare. Some large fish were also kapu for women to eat. Isabella Abbott, a leading ethnobotanist of Hawaii, theorizes that because of the limited "noa" (free) diet for Hawaiian women, seaweeds were relied upon more heavily for Hawaiians than other Pacific islands. The kapu system was used in Hawaii until 1819, when King Kamehameha II, acting with his mother Queen Keōpūolani, his father's other queen Kaʻahumanu, and Kahuna-nui Hewahewa, abolished it by the symbolic act of sharing a meal of forbidden foods with the women of his court. Abolishing the ʻai kapu assured political power to the line of Kamehameha rulers as monarchs because it limited the power of the rulers below them. Originally, it was from this political system that the rulers throughout the island would gain rank, power, and prestige. Modern usage The ambiguities in the Polynesian concept (from the English point of view) are reflected in the different senses of the word in different national Englishes: in modern usage in Hawaii, "kapu" is often substituted for the phrase "No Trespassing" on private property signage. Although kapu can be taken to mean "keep out", kapu has a larger meaning to most residents of Hawaii. By contrast, in New Zealand, the comparable word "tapu" is almost always applied in English as meaning "sacred". Terms Some terms using 'kapu': ʻaha kapu: the sennit cord put across the portal of a house to signify a ban on entering the house. ʻai kapu: the protocol regarding food. Hei kapu: The place where priests await messages from the gods. Huʻa kapu: the borders of an off-limits place. Kapuhili: inherited privileges of chiefs or privileges from the gods Kapu ʻili: the crime of wearing someone else’s clothing. Kapu kai: the ritual purification of bathing in the sea. Kapukapu: to be decorous. Kapukapu kai: the ritual of lifting a ban by sprinkling sea water. Kapu kū mamao: the law on commoners to be separate from the chiefs. Kapu loa: To be strictly forbidden. Kapu moe: protocol of prostration. Kapu noho: assemblage before the chief. Kapuō: the announcement that a procession is approaching. Kapo ʻōhi'a ko: the ritual performed before an ohia tree can be logged. Kapu puhi kanaka: the rules regarding the killing of people. Kapu wohi: protocol exempting from prostration. Koʻo kapu: a prohibition enforced by death. Pahu Kapu: two crossed staffs, each with a white ball atop. See also Hawaiian religion ʻAi Noa Treif, a similar concept in Judaism Haram, a similar concept in Islam Seven deadly sins References Ulukau Hawaiian Language Website "Kapu" Definitition Hawaiian mythology Hawaiian religion Religion-based diets Food law Cultural anthropology Hawaiian words and phrases de:Tapu

Focal point

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Focal point may refer to: Focus (optics) Focus (geometry) Conjugate points, also called focal points Focal point (game theory) Unicom Focal Point, a portfolio management software tool Focal point review, a human resources process for employee evaluation Focal Point (album), a 1976 studio album by McCoy Tyner "Focal Point: Mark of the Leaf", a Naruto episode See also Foca Point, Signy Island, South Orkney Islands Focal (disambiguation) Focus (disambiguation)

Truly Madly Deeply

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"Truly Madly Deeply" is a song by Australian pop duo Savage Garden, released as the third single from their self-titled debut album in March 1997 by Roadshow and Warner Music. It won the 1997 ARIA Music Award for Single of the Year and Highest Selling Single and was nominated for Song of the Year. Written by bandmates Darren Hayes and Daniel Jones, the song is a reworking of a song called "Magical Kisses" that the pair wrote together during the recording of their debut album. The song reached number one in Australia, Canada, and the United States. Two music videos were filmed for the track: one for its original Australian release and another for the international market shot in Paris. In November 2019, the song was added to the National Film and Sound Archive's selection of recordings. The songs added to the list provide a snapshot of Australian life and have "cultural, historical and aesthetic significance and relevance". Background and composition Having got their breakthrough with the single "I Want You", Darren Hayes and Daniel Jones were sent to Sydney for 8 months to record material for a debut album. For Hayes, it was his first time in life being away from his family and his native Brisbane. The longing for his family and his then-wife pushed him towards writing a song that would express those feelings. ¨Truly Madly Deeply¨ is written in the key of C major. The chorus of "Truly Madly Deeply" was discussed until the last moment. Jones had doubts over the chorus they had come up with, which he felt did not fit with the rest of the song or Savage Garden's other material. During his evening meal he came up with the new chorus of "I want to stand with you on a mountain, I want to bathe with you in the sea, I want to lay like this forever until the sky falls down on me." The next day, the duo brought up the new chorus for discussion with producer Charles Fisher in the studio, recording it as a trial. Fisher was delighted with the result, expressing his belief that Savage Garden now had a number 1 single. Critical reception Larry Flick from Billboard wrote that "this is the single that should help affirm that Savage Garden is more than a one-hit wonder." He described the song as a "percussive ballad" and complimented it for revealing "vocal skills and charisma not previously displayed". He noted further that "with its romantic lyrics and plush, guitar-etched instrumentation, this song "truly madly deeply" deserves as much airplay as top 40 programmers can heap upon it." Insider described it as "a truly sweet song, written out of homesickness, this love ballad has total staying power and is still played over 20 years later." Pan-European magazine Music & Media stated that "this Australian duo possess a fine knack for writing excellent mainstream pop with top flight radio appeal." They added that "this track, taken from their eponymous debut album, is no exception—as proven by its recent two-week stay at the top of Billboard's Hot 100 Singles chart." In 2018, Stacker placed the song at number 21 in their list of "Best pop songs of the last 25 years", noting it as "a quintessential '90s pop song". In 2019, they ranked it number nine in their list of "Best 90s pop songs". Versions There are two versions of the song. The first was made available on the Australian version of the group's album, whereas the second version appears on the release of the album in Europe and America. This version was composed in 1997, and features a drum machine track instead of the more acoustic-sounding music featured on the Australian version. The European version also features on the group's greatest hits compilation, "Truly Madly Completely" and "The Singles". Music video Two music videos were made for the song. The original Australian video, which presents Hayes with long hair, features the band in a white room with several other people. Hayes is on a red sofa singing the song while Daniel performs on the piano. It was directed by Tony McGrath. The video used for the European market, which presents Hayes with short hair, was filmed in Paris. It was directed by Adolfo Doring. The video depicts the story of two lovers, a young man and a lady, who have been separated by circumstances. The woman arrives in Paris, possibly at Gare du Nord station, in search of her lover, who is also waiting for her. He is wandering in various places within the Montmartre area, including the Soleil de la Butte restaurant. In between the scenes involving the two lovers, Hayes can be seen walking around Paris, in locations such as the Place de la Concorde and the Jardin des Tuileries. He is singing, thereby acting as a narrator to the story involving the two lovers. Towards the end of the video, Hayes enters a small concert hall where Daniel Jones is playing guitar. Shortly afterwards, the young lady manages to find her lover, right in the centre of Paris, at the feet of the Tour Saint-Jacques. They are both filled with emotion on seeing each other again. The video ends with Hayes and Jones coming out of the concert hall, and coming across the two lovers who are rejoicing in their reunion. Chart performance The song was a major and sustained success in the U.S. beginning in 1997. Entering the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart at No. 26 on 6 December 1997, it peaked at No. 1 for two weeks in January 1998 and lingered for a full year on the chart. It became the first song in the chart's history to spend its first 52 weeks inside the top 30. The song spent half a year in the top ten. It hit No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart and No. 2 on the Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks chart. It also went Top 10 on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart. On the Billboard Top 40 Mainstream chart the song hit number one for one week on 31 January before dropping to number two as Celine Dion assumed the top spot with the theme to the hit film Titanic, "My Heart Will Go On". Savage Garden's single held at No. 2 for ten weeks, before returning to the number one spot in the week of 18 April. The song eventually set a record for the most weeks of any single in history on the U.S. Hot Adult Contemporary chart. In 1998 the song logged eleven weeks at number one on this chart, but its full chart span lasted 123 weeks. That record would stand for just under two years, when another of the group's ballads spent its 124th week on the chart. The song was "I Knew I Loved You", from the album Affirmation. After leaving the main Adult Contemporary chart, the song entered the Hot Adult Contemporary Recurrents chart where it charted for another 202 weeks. The song was so popular that it re-entered Billboard's Hot Singles Sales chart in March 2002 and—four and a half years after its release—again became a U.S. Top 30 bestseller, remaining on that chart until late July 2002. The original version logged its final week on the Hot Adult Contemporary Recurrents chart on 17 June 2006. This combined with sales still makes it the #1 Billboard AC song of all time. In 2013, the song was listed at No. 35 on Billboards All Time Top 100. The song also reached No. 1 in their home country of Australia, and in Canada. It reached No. 2 in Norway, Sweden, Austria and Ireland, and went top ten in France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium and the UK. In 1998, the song was certified a Gold single in France, for sales of 200,000 copies. In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations, named "Truly Madly Deeply" as one of the Top 30 Australian songs of all time. Track listings Australia CD single "Truly Madly Deeply" "Promises" "Truly Madly Deeply" (night radio mix) Maxi-CD single "Truly Madly Deeply" "Promises" "Truly Madly Deeply" (night radio mix) "I Want You" (Bastone club mix) "I Want You" (I Need I Want mix) Europe CD1 "Truly Madly Deeply" – 4:37 "I'll Bet He Was Cool" – 4:58 CD2 "Truly Madly Deeply" – 4:38 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Australian version) – 4:38 "Truly Madly Deeply" (night radio mix) – 4:35 "This Side of Me" – 4:09 "Love Can Move You" – 4:47 United Kingdom CD1 "Truly Madly Deeply" (album version) – 4:38 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Australian version) – 4:38 "This Side of Me" – 4:09 "Love Can Move You" – 4:47 CD2 "Truly Madly Deeply" (album version) – 4:38 "Truly Madly Deeply" (night radio mix) – 4:35 "I Want You" (album version) – 3:52 "I'll Bet He Was Cool" – 3:58 Cassette "Truly Madly Deeply" (album version) – 4:38 "I Want You" (album version) – 3:52 United States CD, 7-inch, and cassette single "Truly Madly Deeply" – 4:37 "I'll Bet He Was Cool" – 4:58 Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Decade-end charts All-time charts Certifications and sales Release history Sandy and Junior version The song was covered in 1998 by Brazilian brother-sister singing duo Sandy & Junior. The Portuguese-language version, "No Fundo Do Coração" ("From the Bottom of the Heart"), was released as the third single from the teens' eighth album, Era Uma Vez (Ao Vivo). The album was certified Diamond in Brazil in 1999 by the Brazilian Association of Discs Producers (ABPD) for sales of over 1.8 million copies in Brazil alone. The album was their last for PolyGram Records before moving to Universal Music Group. Cascada version German Eurodance group Cascada covered "Truly Madly Deeply" on the album Everytime We Touch and released it as the second single in the UK and Germany. Although the album version of the song is a ballad, there is also a Eurodance version of the song more in keeping with their typical style, which is the main single version. Both versions are featured on the UK edition of the album. First released in the United States exclusively in the iTunes Store on 27 February 2006, the U.S. physical release was 13 March 2007. Track listing UK CD single part 1 "Truly Madly Deeply" (radio edit) – 2:57 "Everytime We Touch" – 3:19 UK CD single Part 2 "Truly Madly Deeply" (radio edit) – 2:57 "Truly Madly Deeply" (album version) – 4:14 "Truly Madly Deeply" (club mix) – 4:34 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Styles & Breeze remix) – 5:03 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Thomas Gold remix) – 8:32 "Truly Madly Deeply" (DJ Bomba & El Senor remix) – 6:49 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Frisco Remix) – 6:07 German 12-inch single "Truly Madly Deeply" (2–4 Grooves Remix) – 6:00 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Thomas Gold Remix) – 8:29 German CD single "Truly Madly Deeply" (radio edit) – 2:55 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Thomas Gold radio edit) – 3:36 "Truly Madly Deeply" (2–4 Grooves radio edit) – 3:27 "Truly Madly Deeply" (album version) – 4:12 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Candy radio edit) – 3:18 U.S. 12-inch single "Truly Madly Deeply" (radio edit) – 2:58 "Truly Madly Deeply" (album version) – 4:12 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Thomas Gold radio edit) – 3:38 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Tune Up! radio edit) – 2:58 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Thomas Gold remix) – 8:30 "Truly Madly Deeply" (UK club mix) – 4:34 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Tune Up! remix) – 4:35 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Styles & Breeze remix) – 4:58 "Truly Madly Deeply" (DJ Bomba & El Senor remix) – 6:48 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Frisco remix) – 6:00 Australian single 2007 "Truly Madly Deeply" (2–4 Grooves Radio Edit) – 3:30 "Truly Madly Deeply" (UK radio edit) – 2:54 "Truly Madly Deeply" (radio pop mix) – 4:14 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Ivan Filini Radio Edit) – 3:07 "Truly Madly Deeply" (album version) "Truly Madly Deeply" (Styles & Breeze Remix) – 5:03 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Tune Up! Remix) – 4:35 "Truly Madly Deeply" (DJ Bomba & El Senor Remix) – 6:49 "Truly Madly Deeply" (Thomas Gold Remix) – 8:30 Other remixes "Truly Madly Deeply" (Alex K Remix) – 6:15 "Truly Madly Deeply" (original dance remix, Asian edition) "Truly Madly Deeply" (original dance edit, Asian edition) Chart performance The Cascada single entered the UK Singles Chart at number 17 solely on downloads and peaked at number 4 the following week, after its physical release. In Ireland, it remained in the top 4 for four weeks. Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications Release and track listings References External links 1990s ballads 1997 songs 1997 singles 2006 singles APRA Award winners ARIA Award-winning songs Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles Cascada songs Columbia Records singles Number-one singles in Australia Pop ballads RPM Top Singles number-one singles Savage Garden songs Songs composed in C major Songs written by Daniel Jones (musician) Songs written by Darren Hayes Warner Music Group singles

Presidential library

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In the United States, the presidential library system is a nationwide network of 15 libraries administered by the Office of Presidential Libraries, which is part of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). These are repositories for preserving and making available the papers, records, collections and other historical materials of every president of the United States from Herbert Hoover (31st president, 1929–1933) to George W. Bush (43rd president, 2001–2009). In addition to the library services, museum exhibitions concerning the presidency are displayed. Although recognized as having historical significance, before the mid-20th century presidential papers and effects were generally understood to be the private property of the president. Franklin D. Roosevelt (32nd president, 1933–1945) proposed to leave his papers to the public in a building donated by him on his Hyde Park estate. Since then a series of laws established the public keeping of documents and the presidential library system. While not officially sanctioned and maintained by NARA, libraries have also been organized for several presidents who preceded Hoover and the official start of the Presidential Library Office. The library sites are sometimes referred to as presidential centers. The Barack Obama Presidential Center (44th president, 2009–2017) will operate under a new model, whereby the Barack Obama Presidential Library is fully digitized, preserved, and administered by NARA with archival materials lent to the privately operated Presidential Center for display. Overview For every president since Herbert Hoover, presidential libraries have been established in each president's home state in which documents, artifacts, gifts of state and museum exhibits are maintained that relate to the former president's life and career both political and professional. Each library also provides an active series of public programs. When a president leaves office, the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) establishes a presidential materials project to house and index the documents until a new presidential library is built and transferred to the federal government. The first presidential library is the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, dedicated on June 30, 1941. The George W. Bush Presidential Center became the thirteenth on May 1, 2013. Presidential libraries outside NARA The presidential library system is made up of thirteen presidential libraries operated by the NARA. Libraries and museums have been established for earlier presidents, but they are not part of the NARA presidential library system, and are operated by private foundations, historical societies, or state governments, including the James K. Polk, William McKinley, Rutherford Hayes, Calvin Coolidge, Abraham Lincoln and Woodrow Wilson libraries. For example, the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is owned and operated by the state of Illinois. The Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace was not originally part of the presidential library system. While the Nixon Presidential Materials Staff, which administers the Nixon presidential materials under the terms of the Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act, is part of NARA, a private foundation operated the Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace. In January 2004, Congress passed legislation that provided for the establishment of a federally operated Richard Nixon Presidential Library in Yorba Linda. In March 2005, the Archivist of the United States and John Taylor, the director of the Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace Foundation, exchanged letters on the requirements to allow the Nixon Library to become the twelfth federally funded presidential library operated by the NARA by 2007. On October 16, 2006, Dr. Timothy Naftali began his tenure as the first federal director of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace, and in the winter of 2006 NARA began to transfer the 30,000 presidential gifts from the Nixon Presidential Materials Staff in College Park, Maryland to the facility. On July 11, 2007, the Nixon Foundation deeded the Library and Birthplace to the government of the United States. On the same day, the newly renamed federal Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum officially opened. In May 2012, on the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Ulysses S. Grant Foundation, it selected Mississippi State University as the permanent location for Ulysses S. Grant's presidential library. Historian John Simon edited Grant's letters into a 32-volume scholarly edition published by Southern Illinois University Press. On April 30, 2013, both chambers of the North Dakota Legislative Assembly passed a bill appropriating $12 million to Dickinson State University to award a grant to the Theodore Roosevelt Center for construction of a building to be named the Theodore Roosevelt Presidential Library. To access these funds, the Theodore Roosevelt Center must first raise $3 million from non-state sources. Dickinson State University is also home to the Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library which has formed partnerships with the Library of Congress and Harvard University, among other institutions. They currently have over 25,000 items online. On April 12, 2016, Harding 2020, a collaboration between the Harding Home, Ohio History Connection, and Marion Technical College, detailed plans to spend $7.3 million to establish the Warren G. Harding Presidential Center. Plans include restoring the Harding Home, Warren G. Harding's historic home in Marion, Ohio, and its grounds to its 1920 appearance. A 15,000-square-foot presidential center and museum will also be built adjacent to the house. Harding's presidential papers will then be moved from its current location at the Ohio History Connection's headquarters in Columbus, Ohio to the new center. The culmination of the work, scheduled to be completed by the spring of 2020, is to coincide with the 100th anniversary of Harding's election to the presidency. In May 2017, it was announced that the Barack Obama Presidential Center, the planned location of the presidential library of Barack Obama, would not be part of the NARA system, making Obama the first president since Calvin Coolidge not to have a federally funded facility. Instead, in a "new model" the nonprofit Obama Foundation will partner with the NARA on digitization and making documents available. The Chicago Park District began related construction in August and suspended it in September 2018. It was announced that the city of Chicago would own the Center. History Historically, all presidential papers were considered the personal property of the president. Some took them at the end of their terms, others destroyed them, and many papers were scattered. Though many pre-Hoover collections now reside in the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress, others are split among other libraries, historical societies, and private collections. However, many materials have been lost or deliberately destroyed. Lucretia Rudolph Garfield, the wife of James A. Garfield (president from March 4, 1881, until his death on September 19, 1881) added a Memorial Library wing to their family home in Mentor, Ohio, four years after his assassination. The James A. Garfield National Historic Site is operated by the National Park Service and the Western Reserve Historical Society. National Archives In 1939, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt donated his personal and presidential papers to the federal government. At the same time, Roosevelt pledged part of his estate at Hyde Park, New York to the United States, and friends of the president formed a non-profit corporation to raise funds for the construction of the library and museum building. Roosevelt's decision stemmed from his belief that presidential papers were an important part of the national heritage and should be accessible to the public. He asked the National Archives to take custody of his papers and other historical materials and to administer his library. On June 30, 2013, new interactive and multimedia exhibits developed by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) opened to the public as part of the first renovation of this library since its opening. In 1950, Harry S. Truman decided that he, too, would build a library to house his presidential papers and helped to galvanize congressional action. Presidential Libraries Act of 1955 In 1955, Congress passed the Presidential Libraries Act of 1955, establishing a system of privately erected and federally maintained libraries. The Act encouraged other presidents to donate their historical materials to the government and ensured the preservation of presidential papers and their availability to the people of the United States. Under this and subsequent acts, nine more libraries have been established. In each case, private and non-federal public sources provided the funds to build the library. Once completed, the private organization turned over the libraries to the National Archives and Records Administration to operate and maintain. Until 1978, presidents, scholars, and legal professionals held the view dating back to George Washington that the records created by the president or his staff while in office remained the personal property of the president and were his to take with him when he left office. The first presidential libraries were built on this concept. NARA successfully persuaded presidents to donate their historical materials to the federal government for housing in a presidential library managed by NARA. Presidential Records Act of 1978 The Presidential Records Act of 1978 established that the presidential records that document the constitutional, statutory, and ceremonial duties of the president are the property of the United States Government. After the president leaves office, the Archivist of the United States assumes custody of the records. The Act allowed for the continuation of presidential libraries as the repository for presidential records. Presidential Libraries Act of 1986 The made additional changes to presidential libraries, requiring private endowments linked to the size of the facility. NARA uses these endowments to offset a portion of the maintenance costs for the library. Presidential Historical Records Preservation Act of 2008 The amended to authorize grants for Presidential Centers of Historical Excellence. Holdings The thirteen presidential libraries maintain over 400 million pages of textual materials; nearly ten million photographs; over 15 million feet (5,000 km) of motion picture film; nearly 100,000 hours of disc, audiotape, and videotape recordings; and approximately half a million museum objects. These varied holdings make each library a valuable source of information and a center for research on the Presidency. The most important textual materials in each library are those created by the president and his staff in the course of performing the official duties. Libraries also house numerous objects including family heirlooms, items collected by the president and his family, campaign memorabilia, awards, and the many gifts given to the president by American citizens and foreign dignitaries. These gifts range in type from homemade items to valuable works of art. Curators in presidential libraries and in other museums throughout the country draw upon these collections for historical exhibits. Other significant holdings include the personal papers and historical materials donated by individuals associated with the president. These individuals may include Cabinet officials, envoys to foreign governments, political party associates, and the president's family and personal friends. Several libraries have undertaken oral history programs that have produced tape-recorded memoirs. A third body of materials comprises the papers accumulated by the president prior to, and following, his Presidency. Such collections include documents relating to Theodore Roosevelt's tenure as Governor of New York and Dwight D. Eisenhower's long military career. With the exception of John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, and (upon his own death) Jimmy Carter, every American president since Hoover is or has chosen to be buried at their presidential library. Kennedy is buried at Arlington National Cemetery; Johnson is buried at his ranch in the hill country of Texas, west of Austin; Carter plans to be buried near his home in Plains, Georgia. Bill Clinton will be buried at the William Jefferson Clinton Presidential Center in Little Rock. George W. Bush will be buried at the George W. Bush Presidential Center in Dallas. The future burial sites of 44th president Barack Obama, 45th president Donald Trump, and 46th president Joe Biden are still unknown. Unlike all other presidents whose libraries are part of the NARA system, Ford's library and museum are geographically separate buildings, located in different parts of Michigan; Ford is buried at his museum in Grand Rapids, while the library is in Ann Arbor. List of presidential libraries This is a list of the presidential libraries. Locations of other presidents' papers Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson left their papers to Princeton University where they may be found at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library. The Theodore Roosevelt Association collected Theodore Roosevelt's papers and donated them to Harvard University in 1943, where they reside at its Widener and Houghton libraries. James Buchanan left his papers to the Historical Society of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, where they may still be found. The Papers of Andrew Jackson is a project sponsored by the University of Tennessee at Knoxville to collect Andrew Jackson's papers on microfilm. A microfilm edition of Martin Van Buren's papers was produced at Pennsylvania State University in 1987; a digital edition of the Papers of Martin Van Buren is being produced at Cumberland University. A similar project is underway on behalf of James Madison by the Universities of Virginia and Chicago. For many presidents, especially before the development of the NARA system, substantial collections may be found in multiple private and public collections. Until the Obama Administration's library is ready for service, its papers are being held in a facility in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, and are not available to the public as they are classified. See also United States presidential memorials First Ladies National Historic Site Jefferson Davis Presidential Library and Museum Gladstone's Library Churchill Archives Centre National Churchill Museum Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum Quayle Vice Presidential Learning Center Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library World's Smallest Presidential Library (David Rice Atchison) Notes References Portions of this article based on public domain text from the National Archives and Records Administration National Archives and Records Administration Special collections libraries Libraries

Gibberellin

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Gibberellins (GAs) are plant hormones that regulate various developmental processes, including stem elongation, germination, dormancy, flowering, flower development, and leaf and fruit senescence. GAs are one of the longest-known classes of plant hormone. It is thought that the selective breeding (albeit unconscious) of crop strains that were deficient in GA synthesis was one of the key drivers of the "green revolution" in the 1960s, a revolution that is credited to have saved over a billion lives worldwide. History The first inroads into the understanding of GAs were developments from the plant pathology field, with studies on the bakanae, or "foolish seedling" disease in rice. Foolish seedling disease causes a strong elongation of rice stems and leaves and eventually causes them to topple over. In 1926, Japanese scientist Eiichi Kurosawa identified that foolish seedling disease was caused by the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi. Later work at the University of Tokyo showed that a substance produced by this fungus triggered the symptoms of foolish seedling disease and they named this substance "gibberellin". The increased communication between Japan and the West following World War II enhanced the interest in gibberellin in the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US). Workers at Imperial Chemical Industries in the UK and the Department of Agriculture in the US both independently isolated gibberellic acid (with the Americans originally referring to the chemical as "gibberellin-X", before adopting the British name–the chemical is known as gibberellin A3 or GA3 in Japan) Knowledge of gibberellins spread around the world as the potential for its use on various commercially important plants became more obvious. For example, research that started at the University of California, Davis in the mid-1960s led to its commercial use on Thompson seedless table grapes throughout California by 1962. A known gibberellin biosynthesis inhibitor is paclobutrazol (PBZ), which in turn inhibits growth and induces early fruitset as well as seedset. A chronic food shortage was feared during the rapid climb in world population in the 1960s. This was averted with the development of a high-yielding variety of rice. This variety of semi-dwarf rice is called IR8, and it has a short height because of a mutation in the sd1 gene. Sd1 encodes GA20ox, so a mutant sd1 is expected to exhibit a short height that is consistent with GA deficiency. Chemistry All known gibberellins are diterpenoid acids that are synthesized by the terpenoid pathway in plastids and then modified in the endoplasmic reticulum and cytosol until they reach their biologically-active form. All gibberellins are derived via the ent-gibberellane skeleton, but are synthesised via ent-kaurene. The gibberellins are named GA1 through GAn in order of discovery. Gibberellic acid, which was the first gibberellin to be structurally characterized, is GA3. , there are 136 GAs identified from plants, fungi, and bacteria. Gibberellins are tetracyclic diterpene acids. There are two classes based on the presence of either 19 or 20 carbons. The 19-carbon gibberellins, such as gibberellic acid, have lost carbon 20 and, in place, possess a five-member lactone bridge that links carbons 4 and 10. The 19-carbon forms are, in general, the biologically active forms of gibberellins. Hydroxylation also has a great effect on the biological activity of the gibberellin. In general, the most biologically active compounds are dihydroxylated gibberellins, which possess hydroxyl groups on both carbon 3 and carbon 13. Gibberellic acid is a dihydroxylated gibberellin. Bioactive GAs The bioactive GAs are GA1, GA3, GA4, and GA7. There are three common structural traits between these GAs: hydroxyl group on C-3β, a carboxyl group on C-6, and a lactone between C-4 and C-10. The 3β-hydroxyl group can be exchanged for other functional groups at C-2 and/or C-3 positions. GA5 and GA6 are examples of bioactive GAs that do not have a hydroxyl group on C-3β. The presence of GA1 in various plant species suggests that it is a common bioactive GA. Biological function Gibberellins are involved in the natural process of breaking dormancy and other aspects of germination. Before the photosynthetic apparatus develops sufficiently in the early stages of germination, the stored energy reserves of starch nourish the seedling. Usually in germination, the breakdown of starch to glucose in the endosperm begins shortly after the seed is exposed to water. Gibberellins in the seed embryo are believed to signal starch hydrolysis through inducing the synthesis of the enzyme α-amylase in the aleurone cells. In the model for gibberellin-induced production of α-amylase, it is demonstrated that gibberellins (denoted by GA) produced in the scutellum diffuse to the aleurone cells, where they stimulate the secretion α-amylase. α-Amylase then hydrolyses starch, which is abundant in many seeds, into glucose that can be used in cellular respiration to produce energy for the seed embryo. Studies of this process have indicated gibberellins cause higher levels of transcription of the gene coding for the α-amylase enzyme, to stimulate the synthesis of α-amylase. Gibberellins are produced in greater mass when the plant is exposed to cold temperatures. They stimulate cell elongation, breaking and budding, seedless fruits, and seed germination. Gibberellins cause seed germination by breaking the seed's dormancy and acting as a chemical messenger. Its hormone binds to a receptor, and calcium activates the protein calmodulin, and the complex binds to DNA, producing an enzyme to stimulate growth in the embryo. Metabolism Biosynthesis GAs are usually synthesized from the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway in higher plants. In this pathway, bioactive GA is produced from trans-geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGDP). In the MEP pathway, three classes of enzymes are used to yield GA from GGDP: terpene syntheses (TPSs), cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s), and 2-oxoglutarate–dependent dioxygenases (2ODDs). There are eight steps in the MEP pathway: GGDP is converted to ent-copalyl diphosphate (ent-CPD) by ent-copalyl diphosphate synthase ent-CDP is converted to ent-kaurene by ent-kaurene synthase ent-kaurene is converted to ent-kaurenol by ent-kaurene oxidase (KO) ent-kaurenol is converted to ent-kaurenal by KO ent-kaurenal is converted to ent-kaurenoic acid by KO ent-kaurenoic acid is converted to ent-7a-hydroxykaurenoic acid by ent-kaurene acid oxidase (KAO) ent-7a-hydroxykaurenoic acid is converted to GA12-aldehyde by KAO GA12-aldehyde is converted to GA12 by KAO. GA12 is processed to the bioactive GA4 by oxidations on C-20 and C-3, which is accomplished by 2 soluble ODDs: GA 20-oxidase and GA 3-oxidase. One or two genes encode the enzymes responsible for the first steps of GA biosynthesis in Arabidopsis and rice. The null alleles of the genes encoding CPS, KS, and KO result in GA-deficient Arabidopsis dwarves. Multigene families encode the 2ODDs that catalyze the formation of GA12 to bioactive GA4. AtGA3ox1 and AtGA3ox2, two of the four genes that encode GA3ox in Arabidopsis, affect vegetative development. Environmental stimuli regulate AtGA3ox1 and AtGA3ox2 activity during seed germination. In Arabidopsis, GA20ox overexpression leads to an increase in GA concentration. Sites of biosynthesis Most bioactive GAs are located in actively growing organs on plants. Both GA20ox and GA3ox genes (genes coding for GA 20-oxidase and GA 3-oxidase) and the SLENDER1 gene (a GA signal transduction gene) are found in growing organs on rice, which suggests bioactive GA synthesis occurs at their site of action in growing organs in plants. During flower development, the tapetum of anthers is believed to be a primary site of GA biosynthesis. Differences between biosynthesis in fungi and lower plants Arabidopsis, a plant, and Gibberella fujikuroi, a fungus, possess different GA pathways and enzymes. P450s in fungi perform functions analogous to the functions of KAOs in plants. The function of CPS and KS in plants is performed by a single enzyme, CPS/KS, in fungi. In fungi, the GA biosynthesis genes are found on one chromosome, but in plants, they are found randomly on multiple chromosomes. Plants produce low amount of GA3, therefore the GA3 is produced for industrial purposes by microorganisms. Industrially the gibberellic acid can be produced by submerged fermentation, but this process presents low yield with high production costs and hence higher sale value, nevertheless other alternative process to reduce costs of the GA3 production is solid-state fermentation (SSF) that allows the use of agro-industrial residues. Catabolism Several mechanisms for inactivating GAs have been identified. 2β-hydroxylation deactivates GA, and is catalyzed by GA2-oxidases (GA2oxs). Some GA2oxs use C19-GAs as substrates, and other GA2oxs use C20-GAs. Cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase, encoded by elongated uppermost internode (eui), converts GAs into 16α,17-epoxides. Rice eui mutants amass bioactive GAs at high levels, which suggests cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase is a main enzyme responsible for deactivation GA in rice. The Gamt1 and gamt2 genes encode enzymes that methylate the C-6 carboxyl group of GAs. In a gamt1 and gamt2 mutant, concentrations of GA is developing seeds is increased. Homeostasis Feedback and feedforward regulation maintains the levels of bioactive GAs in plants. Levels of AtGA20ox1 and AtGA3ox1 expression are increased in a GA deficient environment, and decreased after the addition of bioactive GAs, Conversely, expression of AtGA2ox1 and AtGA2ox2, GA deactivation genes, is increased with addition of GA. Regulation Regulation by other hormones The auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) regulates concentration of GA1 in elongating internodes in peas. Removal of IAA by removal of the apical bud, the auxin source, reduces the concentration of GA1, and reintroduction of IAA reverses these effects to increase the concentration of GA1. This phenomenon has also been observed in tobacco plants. Auxin increases GA 3-oxidation and decreases GA 2-oxidation in barley. Auxin also regulates GA biosynthesis during fruit development in peas. These discoveries in different plant species suggest the auxin regulation of GA metabolism may be a universal mechanism. Ethylene decreases the concentration of bioactive GAs. Regulation by environmental factors Recent evidence suggests fluctuations in GA concentration influence light-regulated seed germination, photomorphogenesis during de-etiolation, and photoperiod regulation of stem elongation and flowering. Microarray analysis showed about one fourth cold-responsive genes are related to GA-regulated genes, which suggests GA influences response to cold temperatures. Plants reduce growth rate when exposed to stress. A relationship between GA levels and amount of stress experienced has been suggested in barley. Role in seed development Bioactive GAs and abscisic acid levels have an inverse relationship and regulate seed development and germination. Levels of FUS3, an Arabidopsis transcription factor, are upregulated by ABA and downregulated by GA, which suggests that there is a regulation loop that establishes the balance of GA and ABA. Signalling mechanism Receptor In the early 1990s, there were several lines of evidence that suggested the existence of a GA receptor in oat seeds that was located at the plasma membrane. However, despite intensive research, to date, no membrane-bound GA receptor has been isolated. This, along with the discovery of a soluble receptor, GA insensitive dwarf 1 (GID1) has led many to doubt that a membrane-bound receptor exists.GID1 was first identified in rice and in Arabidopsis there are three orthologs of GID1, AtGID1a, b, and c. GID1s have a high affinity for bioactive GAs. GA binds to a specific binding pocket on GID1; the C3-hydroxyl on GA makes contact with tyrosine-31 in the GID1 binding pocket. GA binding to GID1 causes changes in GID1 structure, causing a 'lid' on GID1 to cover the GA binding pocket. The movement of this lid results in the exposure of a surface which enables the binding of GID1 to DELLA proteins. DELLA proteins: Repression of a repressor DELLA proteins, such as SLR1 in rice or GAI and RGA in Arabidopsis are repressors of plant development. DELLAs inhibit seed germination, seed growth, flowering and GA reverses these effects. DELLA proteins are characterized by the presence of a DELLA motif (aspartate-glutamate-leucine-leucine-alanine or D-E-L-L-A in the single letter amino acid code). When GA binds to the GID1 receptor, it enhances the interaction between GID1 and DELLA proteins, forming a GA-GID1-DELLA complex. When in the GA-GID1-DELLA complex, it is thought that DELLA proteins undergo changes in structure that enable their binding to F-box proteins (SLY1 in Arabidopsis or GID2 in rice). F-box proteins catalyse the addition of ubiquitin to their targets. The addition of ubiquitin to DELLA proteins promotes their degradation via the 26S-proteosome. The degradation of DELLA proteins releases cells from their repressive effects. Targets of DELLA proteins Transcription factors The first targets of DELLA proteins identified were PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTORs (PIFs). PIFs are transcription factors that negatively regulate light signalling and are strong promoters of elongation growth. In the presence of GA, DELLAs are degraded and this then allows PIFs to promote elongation. It was later found that DELLAs repress a large number of other transcription factors, among which are positive regulators of auxin, brassinosteriod and ethylene signalling. DELLAs can repress transcription factors either by stopping their binding to DNA or by promoting their degradation. Prefoldins and microtubule assembly In addition to repressing transcription factors, DELLAs also bind to prefoldins (PFDs). PFDs are molecular chaperones, meaning they assist in the folding of other proteins. PFDs function in the cytosol but when DELLAs bind to PFDs, it restricts them to the nucleus. An important function of PFDs is to assist in the folding of β-tubulin. As such, in the absence of GA (when there is a high level of DELLA proteins), PDF function is reduced and there is a lower cellular pool of β-tubulin. When GA is present the DELLAs are degraded, PDFs can move to the cytosol and assist in the folding of β-tubulin. β-tubulin is a vital component of the cytoskeleton (in the form of microtubules). As such, GA allows for re-organisation of the cytoskeleton, and the elongation of cells. Microtubules are also required for the trafficking of membrane vesicles. Membrane vesicle trafficking is needed for the correct positioning of several hormone transporters. One of the most well characterized hormone transporters are PIN proteins, which are responsible for the movement of the hormone auxin between cells. In the absence of GA, DELLA proteins reduce the levels of microtubules and thereby inhibit membrane vesicle trafficking. This reduces the level of PIN proteins at the cell membrane, and the level of auxin in the cell. GA reverses this process and allows for PIN protein trafficking to the cell membrane to enhance the level of auxin in the cell. References External links Plant hormones Agronomy Diterpenes Aging-related substances in plants

Leonardo

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Leonardo is a masculine given name, the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese equivalent of the English, German, and Dutch name, Leonard. People Notable people with the name include: Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Italian Renaissance scientist, inventor, engineer, sculptor, and painter Artists Leonardo Schulz Cardoso, Brazilian singer Emival Eterno da Costa (born 1963), Brazilian singer known as Leonardo Leonardo DiCaprio (born 1974), American actor One half of the Brazilian country music duo Leandro e Leonardo Athletes Leonardo Araújo (born 1969), usually known as Leonardo, Brazilian World Cup-winning footballer, and current sporting director of Paris Saint Germain Leonardo Fioravanti (born 1997), Italian surfer Leonardo Lourenço Bastos (born 1975), Brazilian footballer Leonardo Bittencourt, German footballer Leonardo Bonucci (born 1987), Italian footballer Leonardo Candi (born 1997), Italian basketball player Leonardo Cardona (born 1971), Colombian road cyclist Leonardo Emilio Comici (1901–1940), Italian mountain climber Leonardo David (1960–1985), Italian alpine skier Leonardo André Pimenta Faria (born 1982), Brazilian footballer Leonardo de Jesus Geraldo (born 1985), Brazilian footballer Leonardo Renan Simões de Lacerda (born 1988), also known as Léo, Brazilian football defender Leonardo Meindl (born 1993), Brazilian basketball forward Leonardo José Aparecido Moura (born 1986), Brazilian footballer of Shakhtar Donetsk Leonardo Narváez (born 1980), Colombian track cyclist Leonardo Rodriguez Pereira (born 1986), Brazilian footballer of Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Leonardo Santiago (born 1983), Brazilian footballer Leonardo Ferreira da Silva (born 1980), Brazilian footballer of Chiangrai United Leonardo dos Santos Silva (born 1976), Brazilian footballer of FC Dordrecht (also known as Leonardo II) José Leonardo Ribeiro da Silva (born 1988), usually known as Leonardo, Brazilian footballer Leonardo Sottani, Italian water polo player Leonardo Nascimento Lopes de Souza (born 1997), Brazilian footballer Leonardo Zappavigna, Australian boxer Other Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370–1444), humanist, historian and chancellor of Florence Leonardo Farkas (born 1967), Chilean businessman Leonardo Fibonacci (c. 1170 – c. 1250), Italian mathematician Leonardo León (born 1952), Chilean historian Leonardo Moze (1892-1955), Italian painter and writer Leonardo Zechariah Elizala (born 1999), former Bulawayo junior Councilor Fictional characters Leonardo, the leader of the four Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Leonardo Acropolis, painter on the BBC sitcom Blackadder Leonardo Leonardo, on the short lived animated series, Clerks: The Animated Series Leonardo Vetra, in Dan Brown's novel Angels and Demons Leonardo Watch, in the manga series Blood Blockade Battlefront Entertainment Leonardo, a British television series based on the life of Leonardo da Vinci as a teenager Leonardo, an English speaking Italian historical drama series Business Leonardo S.p.A. an Italian multinational aerospace, defence and security company Journal Leonardo (journal) See also Lenny (disambiguation) Leonard (disambiguation) Leo (disambiguation) Leon (disambiguation) References Italian masculine given names Spanish masculine given names Portuguese masculine given names

Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas

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Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas is a 2004 action-adventure game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games. It is the fifth main entry in the Grand Theft Auto series, following 2002's Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, and the seventh installment overall. It was released in October 2004 for the PlayStation 2, in June 2005 for Microsoft Windows and Xbox, and in November 2010 for Mac OS X. The game is set within an open world environment that players can explore and interact with at their leisure. The story follows former gangster Carl "CJ" Johnson, who returns home following his mother's murder and is drawn back into his former gang and a life of crime while clashing with corrupt authorities and powerful criminals. Carl's journey takes him across the fictional U.S. state of San Andreas, which is heavily based on California and Nevada and encompasses three major cities: Los Santos (inspired by Los Angeles), San Fierro (San Francisco) and Las Venturas (Las Vegas). The game features references to many real-life elements of the world, such as its cities, regions, and landmarks, with its plot heavily based on several real-life events in Los Angeles in the early 1990s, including the rivalry between real-life street gangs, the crack epidemic of the 1980s and early 1990s, the LAPD Rampart scandal, and the 1992 Los Angeles riots. Unlike its predecessor, San Andreas introduced gameplay elements that were incorporated in later games, including RPG-style mechanics, customisation options with both clothing and vehicle appearances, a vast array of activities and mini-games, and the inclusion of gambling games. Considered by many reviewers to be one of the greatest video games ever made, San Andreas received critical acclaim upon release, with praise directed at its music, story and gameplay, and criticism for its graphics and some aspects of its controls. It was the best-selling video game of 2004, and with over 27.5 million copies sold worldwide , it is the best-selling PlayStation 2 game and one of best-selling video games of all time. Like its predecessors, San Andreas is cited as a landmark in video games for its far-reaching influence within the industry. The game's violence and sexual content was the source of much public concern and controversy. In particular, a player-made software patch, dubbed the "Hot Coffee mod", unlocked a previously hidden sexual scene. A remastered version of the game was released for Android and iOS in 2013, for Windows Phone, Fire OS and Xbox 360 in 2014, and for PlayStation 3 in 2015. In June 2018, the game was made available for the Xbox One via backward compatibility. An enhanced version with the subtitle The Definitive Edition was released in 2021, and a virtual reality version for Oculus Quest 2 is in development. The next main entry in the series, Grand Theft Auto IV, was released in April 2008. Gameplay Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas is an action-adventure game with role-playing and stealth elements. Structured similarly to the previous two games in the series, the core gameplay consists of elements of third-person shooter and driving games, affording the player a large, open-world environment in which to move around. On foot, the player's character is capable of walking, running, sprinting, swimming, climbing, and jumping as well as using weapons and various forms of hand-to-hand combat. The player can operate a variety of vehicles, including automobiles, buses, semis, boats, fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, trains, tanks, motorcycles, and bicycles. The player may also import vehicles in addition to stealing them. The open, non-linear environment allows the player to explore and choose how they wish to play the game. Although storyline missions are necessary to progress through the game and unlock certain cities and content, the player can complete them at their leisure. When not taking on a storyline mission, the player can freely roam the cities and rural areas of San Andreas, eat in restaurants, or cause havoc by attacking people and causing destruction. Creating havoc can attract unwanted and potentially fatal attention from the authorities. The more chaos caused, the stronger the response: police will handle "minor" infractions (attacking pedestrians, pointing guns at people, stealing vehicles, manslaughter, etc.), whereas SWAT teams, the FBI, and the military respond to higher wanted levels. The player can partake in a variety of optional side missions that can boost their character's attributes or provide other sources of income. The traditional side missions of past Grand Theft Auto games are included, such as dropping off taxi cab passengers, putting out fires, driving injured people to the hospital, and fighting crime as a vigilante. New additions include burglary missions, pimping missions, truck and train driving missions requiring the player to make deliveries on time, and driving/flying/boating/biking schools, which help the player learn skills and techniques to use in their corresponding vehicles. Not all locations are open to the player at the start of the game. Some locales, such as mod garages, restaurants, gyms, and shops, become available only after completing specific missions. Likewise, for the first portion of the game, only Los Santos and its immediate suburbs are available for exploration; unlocking the other cities and rural areas again requires the completion of specific missions. If the player travels to locked locations early in the game, they will attract the attention of SWAT teams, police, and police-controlled Hydras if in an aircraft. Unlike Grand Theft Auto III and Vice City, which needed loading screens when the player moved between different districts of the city, San Andreas has no load times when the player is in transit. The only loading screens in the game are for cut-scenes and interiors. Other differences between San Andreas and its predecessors include the switch from single-player to multiplayer Rampage missions (albeit not in the PC and mobile versions), and the replacement of the "hidden packages" with spray paint tags, hidden camera shots, horseshoes, and oysters to discover. The camera, fighting, and targeting controls were reworked to incorporate concepts from another Rockstar game, Manhunt, including various stealth elements, as well as improved target crosshairs and a target health indicator which changes from green to red to black as the target's health decreases. The PC version of the game implements mouse chording: the player has to hold the right mouse button to activate the crosshairs and then click or hold the left mouse button to shoot or use an item, such as a camera. For the first time in the series, players can swim and climb walls. The ability to swim and dive underwater has a great effect on the player as well since water is no longer an impassable barrier that kills the player outright (although it is possible to drown). For greater firepower, the player can also dual-wield firearms or perform a drive-by shooting with multiple gang members who can be recruited to follow the player. Due to the size of San Andreas, a waypoint reticule on the HUD map can be set, aiding the player in reaching a destination. Role-playing game features in character development Rockstar emphasised the personalisation of the main protagonist by adding role-playing video game elements. Clothing, accessories, haircuts, jewellery, and tattoos are available for purchase by the player, and have more of an effect on non-player characters' reactions than the clothing in Vice City. CJ's level of respect among his fellow recruits and street friends varies according to his appearance and actions, as do his relationships with his girlfriends. The player must ensure that CJ eats to stay healthy and exercises adequately. The balance of food and physical activity affects his appearance and physical attributes. San Andreas tracks acquired skills in areas such as driving, firearms handling, stamina, and lung capacity, which improve through use in the game. CJ may learn three different styles of hand-to-hand combat (boxing, kickboxing, and kung fu) at the gyms in each of the game's three cities if he is fit enough. CJ can either positively or negatively respond to most pedestrians' comments in the game. According to Rockstar, there are about 4,200 lines of spoken dialogue for CJ when the cutscenes are excluded. Vehicles In total, there are 212 different vehicles in the game compared to approximately 60 in Grand Theft Auto III. New additions include bicycles, a combine harvester, a street sweeper, a jetpack, and trailers, amongst others. Car physics and features are similar to the Midnight Club series of street racing games, allowing for much more mid-air vehicle control as well as nitrous upgrades and aesthetic modifications. There are several different classes of vehicles that serve different purposes. Off-road vehicles perform better in rough environments while racing cars perform better on tracks or the street. Jets are fast, but usually need a runway to land. Helicopters can land almost anywhere and are much easier to control in the air, but are slower. While previous Grand Theft Auto games had only a few aircraft that were difficult to access and fly, San Andreas has eleven different types of fixed-wing aircraft and nine helicopters and makes them more integral in the game's missions. There is also the ability to skydive from aircraft or from the tops of certain skyscrapers using a parachute. Several types of boats were also added to the game, while some were highly modified. Other additions and changes Other new features and changes from previous Grand Theft Auto games include: Gang wars: Battles with enemy gangs are prompted whenever the player ventures into enemy territory and kills at least three gang members. If the player then survives three waves of enemies, the territory will be won, and fellow gang members will begin wandering the streets of these areas. The more territory owned by the player, the more money that will be generated. Occasionally, the player's territory will come under attack from enemy gangs and defeating them will be necessary to retain these areas. Once all marked territories are claimed for the protagonist's gang from one of the two hostile gangs, the opposing gang can no longer attack. Once the player takes control of all territories from both rival gangs, none can come under attack. Car modification: Most automobiles in the game can be modified and upgraded at various garages. All car mods are strictly visual apart from the stereo system and nitrous oxide upgrade, which increases bass and gives the car a speed boost when activated, respectively; and hydraulics, which lowers the car's height by default and allows the player to control various aspects of the car's suspension. Other common modifications include paint jobs, rims, body kits, side skirts, bumpers, and spoilers. Burglary: Home invasion is included as a potential money-making activity. By stealing a burglary van, CJ can sneak into a residence at night and cart off valuables or shake down the occupants. Minigames: Numerous minigames are available for play in San Andreas, including basketball, pool, rhythm-based challenges (dancing and "bouncing" lowriders with hydraulics), poker, and video game machines that pay homage to classic arcade games. Also, there are the aforementioned casino games and methods of gambling, such as betting on virtual horse races. Money: The money system has been expanded upon, compared to previous games. Players can spend their cash on gambling, clothes, tattoos, meals, etc. Excessive gambling loss can force the player to sink into debt, which is shown in negative red numbers. When the player leaves a safehouse, CJ gets an unexpected call, and a mysterious person tells him about his debts. Four gang members suddenly appear and shoot Carl on sight if he does not erase the debt when the mysterious person calls him a second time. Multiplayer: Rampages have been modified to allow two players to complete them. The players are both shown simultaneously on the screen, meaning they must stay within proximity of each other. The multiplayer rampages provide such functionality. Synopsis Setting Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas takes place in 1992 within the fictional US state of San Andreas – based upon sections of California and Nevada as seen in the early 1990s – which consists of three main cities: Los Santos (based on Los Angeles), San Fierro (based on San Francisco), and Las Venturas (based on Las Vegas). Various regions of forest, desert, and small rural towns are scattered in between the major cities. Liberty City, the city featured in Grand Theft Auto III which is based on New York City, also makes several minor appearances in the game, most notably during a mission which sees the player travelling there to assassinate a mob boss. The city itself is not explorable and only appears in cutscenes, with the entire mission taking place inside a bistro. The game's setting forms part of the Grand Theft Auto series' "3D Universe" canon, though unlike previous entries set in this continuity, San Andreas incorporates fictionalised versions of real-life landmarks and environments from the cities and US states it is based upon. It was the largest setting in the series until it was beaten by Grand Theft Auto Vs own depiction of San Andreas. Characters Like the previous two Grand Theft Auto games, San Andreas features several well-known Hollywood actors, musicians, and other celebrities as voice actors, in both main and minor roles. Many of them are West coast rappers, some of which, at the time of the game's release, were famous only in underground music communities and later turned more successful. The player assumes the role of Carl "CJ" Johnson (voiced by Young Maylay), a veteran member of the Los Santos-based Grove Street Families street gang, who left for Liberty City five years prior in pursuit of a better life, but returns home following his mother's death. The gang is led by CJ's estranged older brother Sean/"Sweet" (Faizon Love), and includes his childhood friends Melvin "Big Smoke" Harris (Clifton Powell), Lance "Ryder" Wilson (MC Eiht), and aspiring rapper Jeffrey "OG Loc" Cross (Jas Anderson). Throughout the game, CJ befriends various characters that become important allies, including Cesar Vialpando (Clifton Collins Jr.), the leader of the Hispanic street gang Varrios Los Aztecas and the boyfriend of Carl's sister Kendl (Yo-Yo); hippie weed grower "The Truth" (Peter Fonda); tech genius and RC shop owner Zero (David Cross); blind Triad crime boss Wu Zi Mu/"Woozie" (James Yaegashi); government agent Mike Toreno (James Woods); crooked lawyer Ken Rosenberg (William Fichtner); criminally connected music producer Kent Paul (Danny Dyer); washed-up singer Maccer (Shaun Ryder); and renowned rapper Madd Dogg (Ice-T). At the same time, Carl comes into conflict with a number of enemies, including the Ballas and Vagos street gangs; the highly corrupt C.R.A.S.H. police unit, consisting of Officers Frank Tenpenny (Samuel L. Jackson), Eddie Pulaski (Chris Penn), and Jimmy Hernandez (Armando Riesco); the Loco Syndicate drug cartel, headed by Toreno, pimp Jizzy B. (Charlie Murphy) and San Fierro Rifa leader T-Bone Mendez (Kid Frost); and the Leone, Sindacco, and Forelli Mafia crime families. At various points in the storyline, CJ works with Cesar's criminal cousin Catalina (Cynthia Farrell), and mob boss Salvatore Leone (Frank Vincent), both previously featured in Grand Theft Auto III. Claude, the silent protagonist of Grand Theft Auto III, also makes a cameo appearance in the game, while Grand Theft Auto: Vice Citys protagonist Tommy Vercetti is mentioned. Plot In 1992, following his mother's murder in a drive-by shooting, CJ returns home to Los Santos to attend her funeral. Upon arrival, he is intercepted by C.R.A.S.H., who threaten to frame him for the recent murder of a police officer (actually killed by them for trying to expose their corruption) unless he co-operates with them. After leaving them, CJ reunites with Sweet, Kendl, Big Smoke, and Ryder at the funeral, and learns that the Grove Street Families have lost most of their influence and territories to their main rivals, the Ballas. CJ agrees to stay in Los Santos until the gang's problems are resolved, and works closely with his brother and friends to restore the Families' strength. During this time, he also befriends Cesar Vialpando after discovering he genuinely cares for Kendl, and helps to jumpstart OG Loc's rapper career. Shortly after the Families' resurgence, Sweet plans to ambush a large group of Ballas. Before he can join the attack, CJ is contacted by Cesar with information on the drive-by shooting, revealing that C.R.A.S.H. ordered it with the intent of killing Sweet, and have been working with the Ballas, Big Smoke, and Ryder to wipe out the Families and profit off the drug trade. Realizing his brother is headed into a trap, CJ attempts to save him, but both end up arrested by the police. While Sweet is incarcerated, CJ is released on bail by C.R.A.S.H. and driven out of Los Santos, where he is forced to assist with several jobs to prevent C.R.A.S.H.'s corruption from going public. With the Families disbanded and the Ballas flooding Los Santos with drugs, CJ focuses on earning money to financially support himself, Kendl, and Cesar. He commits several robberies alongside Catalina and engages in illegal street racing. After winning a garage in San Fierro from Claude, CJ travels there with his associates and transforms it into a profitable business. While in San Fierro, CJ works for the local Triads after befriending Woozie, and infiltrates the Loco Syndicate, the Ballas' main cocaine supplier, to destroy them from the inside. After earning their trust, he kills the organization's leaders, as well as Ryder, and destroys their drug laboratory. Later, CJ is surprised when Mike Toreno, who faked his death, contacts him for assistance, revealing himself to be a government agent. After carrying out several operations for Toreno in return for Sweet's release from prison, CJ travels to Las Venturas to help Woozie open a casino. Facing competition from the Mafia, CJ and the Triads organize a robbery of the rival mob-run casino. To gather intel on the place, CJ befriends Ken Rosenberg, the casino's manager, whom he eventually helps flee the city, and works for Salvatore Leone, who vows revenge after CJ robs his establishment. During this time, CJ continues to work for C.R.A.S.H., until Tenpenny betrays him and orders Pulaski to kill CJ and Hernandez, who secretly turned on his partners. After killing Hernandez, Pulaski is in turn murdered by CJ. After saving Madd Dogg (who was driven to depression when CJ inadvertently ruined his career while helping OG Loc) from a suicide attempt, he approaches CJ to ask him to become his manager and help him rebuild his career. CJ returns to Los Santos and does so with his associates' help. Toreno eventually honours his promise and allows CJ to be reunited with Sweet. Although delighted to have him back, Sweet berates CJ for forgetting about their gang again, and talks him into helping to rebuild the Families. Meanwhile, Tenpenny is arrested for corruption, but is acquitted in his trial, provoking violent riots across Los Santos. CJ helps Madd Dogg exact revenge on OG Loc, and assists with retaking the Families' and the Varrios Los Aztecas' territories from the Ballas and Vagos. After tracking down Big Smoke at his fortress, CJ confronts and kills him over his betrayal. Tenpenny then arrives to claim his share of Smoke's money and kill CJ, but the latter survives and pursues Tenpenny with Sweet's help. The brothers' pursuit eventually causes Tenpenny to crash his getaway vehicle outside CJ's family home, whereupon he dies from his injuries. With the riots eventually over and the Families restored, CJ and his allies celebrate their success in his home. In the midst of the celebrations, CJ leaves to check things out around the neighbourhood. Development The game had a development budget of $10 million. Marketing and release The Introduction short film As part of the Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas Special Edition re-release for the PlayStation 2 and the Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas Official Soundtrack, a DVD was provided containing a short 26-minute long film made through San Andreas in-game-engine. The film, titled The Introduction, incorporates locations from both the game and Grand Theft Auto III, and focuses on events that take place before the start of the main story, providing insight into various characters from San Andreas prior to CJ meeting or reuniting with them. Most key plot details from the game are explained in this film, such as the downfall of the Grove Street Families; Big Smoke and Ryder's betrayal of the gang and alliances with C.R.A.S.H., the Ballas, and the Loco Syndicate; CJ's life in Liberty City; C.R.A.S.H.'s murder of Officer Ralph Pendelbury; Kent Paul and Maccer's arrival in San Andreas for a concert tour; the circumstances surrounding the construction of the Mafia's casino in Las Venturas; and the fateful drive-by shooting that kills CJ's mother Beverly and determines him to return to Los Santos. Alongside the short film, the DVD also included a live-action documentary on the custom car culture (featured prominently in the game) called Sunday Drive. Soundtrack As with the previous two entries in the Grand Theft Auto series, San Andreas has music taken from the time in which the game is based. San Andreas is serviced by eleven radio stations; WCTR (talk radio), Master Sounds 98.3 (rare groove, playing many of the old funk and soul tracks sampled by 1980s and '90s hip-hop artists), K-Jah West (dub and reggae; modelled after K-Jah from Grand Theft Auto III), CSR (new jack swing, modern soul), Radio X (alternative rock, metal and grunge), Radio Los Santos (gangsta rap), SF-UR (house music), Bounce FM (funk), K-DST (classic rock), K-Rose (country) and Playback FM (classic hip hop). The music system in San Andreas is enhanced from previous games. In earlier games in the series, each radio station was mainly a single looped sound file, playing the same songs, announcements and advertisements in the same order each time. In San Andreas, each section is held separately, and "mixed" randomly, allowing songs to be played in different orders, announcements to songs to be different each time, and plot events to be mentioned on the stations. This system would be used in Grand Theft Auto IV. WCTR, rather than featuring licensed music and DJs, features spoken word performances by actors such as Andy Dick performing as talk show hosts and listener callers in a parody of talk radio programming. Lazlow again plays as himself on the show "Entertaining America" on WCTR in the same persona as in III and Vice City. He takes over after the former presenter, Billy Dexter, is shot on air by in-game film star Jack Howitzer. Lazlow interviews guests such as O.G. Loc, who is one of the four characters Carl encounters during the game that is on the radio, along with Big Smoke, Madd Dogg, and The Truth. The Xbox, iOS, and Windows versions of the game include an additional radio station that supports custom soundtracks by playing user imported MP3s, allowing players to listen to their music while playing the game. This feature is not available on the PlayStation 2 version of the game or when played on the Xbox 360. Reception Upon its release, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas was met with critical acclaim. It received an average review score of 95/100, according to review aggregator Metacritic, tying for the fifth-highest ranked game in PlayStation 2 history. IGN rated the game a 9.9/10 (the highest score it has ever awarded to a PlayStation 2 game), calling it "the defining piece of software" for the PlayStation 2. GameSpot rated the game 9.6/10, giving it an Editor's Choice award. Jeff Gerstmann said "San Andreas definitely lives up to the Grand Theft Auto name. In fact, it's arguably the best game in the series." San Andreas also received an A rating from the 1UP.com network and a 10/10 score from Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine. Common praises were made about the game's open-endedness, the size of the state of San Andreas, and the engaging storyline and voice acting. Most criticisms of the game stemmed from graphical mishaps, poor character models, and low-resolution textures, as well as various control issues, particularly with auto-aiming at enemies. Some critics commented that while much new content had been added to San Andreas, little of it had been refined or implemented well. Nevertheless, since its release, San Andreas has been regarded as one of the greatest games of all time, placing at number 27 in Edge Top 100 Games to Play Today. Edge declared that the game remains "the ultimate expression of freedom, before next-gen reined it all back in". In 2015, the game placed 8th on USgamer's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list. Sales and commercial success Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas sold units within six days of release in the United States. In the United Kingdom, it sold an estimated 677,000 copies and grossed about within two days, and sold over copies in nine days. It was the top-selling game of 2004, with copies sold in the United States, and over in the United Kingdom. By March 2005, the game had sold over 12 million units for the PlayStation 2 alone, making it the highest-selling game for PlayStation 2. The game received a "Diamond" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 1 million copies in the United Kingdom. As of 26 March 2008, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas had sold 21.5 million units, according to Take-Two Interactive. The Guinness World Records 2009 Gamer's Edition lists it as the most successful PlayStation 2 game, with 17.33 million copies sold for that console alone from the total of 21.5 million in all formats. In 2011, Kotaku reported that, according to Rockstar Games, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas had sold 27.5 million copies worldwide. Controversies San Andreas was criticised by some for its perceived racial stereotyping. Some saw the alleged stereotyping as ironic, while others defended the game, noting that the storyline could speak to people of different backgrounds. A study of how different groups of youths engaged with the game found that "they do not passively receive the games' images and content". Hot Coffee mod In mid-June 2005, a software patch for the game dubbed the "Hot Coffee (mod)" was released by Patrick Wildenborg (under the Internet alias "PatrickW"), a 38-year-old modder from the Netherlands. The name "Hot Coffee" refers to the way the unmodified game alludes to unseen sex scenes. In the original version of the game, the player takes his girlfriend to her front door, and she asks him if he would like to come in for "some coffee". He agrees, and the camera stays outside, swaying back and forth a bit, while moaning sounds are heard. After installing the patch, users can enter the main character's girlfriends' houses and engage in a crudely rendered, fully clothed sexual intercourse mini-game. The fallout from the controversy resulted in a public response from high-ranking politicians in the United States and elsewhere and resulted in the game's recall and re-release. On 20 July 2005, the ESRB, which establishes content ratings for games sold in North America, changed the rating of the game from Mature (M) to Adults Only (AO), making San Andreas the only mass-released AO console game in the United States. Rockstar subsequently announced that it would cease production of the version of the game that included the controversial content. Rockstar gave distributors the option of applying an Adults Only ESRB rating sticker to copies of the game or returning them to be replaced by versions without the Hot Coffee content. Many retailers pulled the game off their shelves in compliance with their store regulations that kept them from selling AO games. That same month in Australia, the Office of Film and Literature Classification revoked its initial rating of MA15+, meaning that the game could no longer be sold in the country. In August 2005, Rockstar North released an official "Cold Coffee" patch for the PC version of the game and re-released San Andreas with the "Hot Coffee" scenes removed (Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas Version 2.0), allowing the game to return to its "M" rating. The PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions have also been re-released with the "Hot Coffee" scenes removed in the Greatest Hits Edition, the Platinum Edition, and the "Grand Theft Auto Trilogy Pack". On 8 November 2007, Take-Two announced a proposed settlement to the class-action litigation that had been brought against them following the Hot Coffee controversy. If the court approved the proposed settlement, neither Take-Two nor Rockstar would admit liability or wrongdoing. Consumers would be able to swap their AO-rated copies of the game for M-rated versions and may also qualify for a $35 cash payment upon signing a sworn statement. A report in The New York Times on 25 June 2008 revealed that a total of 2,676 claims for the compensation package had been filed. Legacy Following the success of San Andreas, Rockstar followed it up with two handheld games by Rockstar Leeds - Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories, set in the late 1990s, and Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories in the mid 1980s. Both were developed for the PlayStation Portable handheld, and designed as prequels to Grand Theft Auto III and Vice City respectively, though eliminating some elements introduced in San Andreas, such as the need to eat and exercise, and swimming (although Vice City Stories re-introduced it, but in a limited capacity). The series would continue with 2008's Grand Theft Auto IV, and 2013's Grand Theft Auto V. San Andreas marked the technological pinnacle of the Grand Theft Auto III era, although the development team believed that the design of its setting, incorporating three cities based on their real-life counterparts, had been too ambitious and did not allow the real-life locations to be emulated properly. Although the continuity of the setting would be retained in the handheld-focused spin-offs, Rockstar began establishing a new continuity for the series with the advent of the seventh-generation consoles, focused more on realism and details, including a full emulation of real-life cities used in settings, though with a scaled-back list of celebrity voice actors that had been prominent in the previous continuity. The launch of Grand Theft Auto IV led to Rockstar redesigning the setting of Liberty City, with the third incarnation being more heavily based upon the real-life New York City - amongst the improvements made included more depth in the number of buildings used and the detail with each, and removing any dead spots or irrelevant spaces. When Ars Technica reviewed Grand Theft Auto IV, he noted that the "slight regression of the series from Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas" in terms of its setting was "surprising". The focus on realism and depth was continued with Grand Theft Auto V, though aimed at providing a more expansive setting than Grand Theft Auto IV, with the development team re-designing Los Santos, a city in San Andreas, to fully emulate the real-life city of Los Angeles, thus creating a setting with a higher quality, and at a grander scale with the incorporation of countryside and desert areas. Houser elaborated that "to do a proper version of L.A., [...] the game has to give you a sense of that sprawl — if not completely replicate it", and thus deemed that dividing both the budget and workforce to create multiple cities would have detracted from the goal of emulating the real-life setting. Garbut felt that, in the PlayStation 2 era, the team did not have the technical capabilities to capture Los Angeles properly, resulting in the San Andreas rendition of Los Santos feeling like a "backdrop or a game level with pedestrians randomly milling about", effectively deeming San Andreas as a jumping-off point for Grand Theft Auto V with the newer generation of consoles. As Garbut explained, with the move to the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 hardware, "our processes and the fidelity of the world [had] evolved so much from San Andreas" that using it as a model would have been redundant. Ports Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas was made available on the digital distribution platform Steam in January 2008, and received a notable amount of updates after its launch. On 7 November 2014, an update caused controversy after 17 tracks from the soundtrack were removed due to expired licences. Other drawbacks of the update included removal of widescreen support (which was later fixed via another minor update), and certain regions being incompatible with older saves. Both old and new owners were affected by the update, unlike with Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, where only new owners were affected due to a similar update. Additionally, the game received native support for XInput-enabled gamepads and the removal of digital rights management software. A port of San Andreas for select iOS devices was released on 12 December 2013. It was followed closely by ports to Android devices on 19 December 2013, Windows Phone devices on 27 January 2014, and Fire OS devices on 15 May 2014. The upgrades and enhancements from the original game include newly remastered graphics, consisting of dynamic and detailed shadows, greater draw distance, an enriched colour palette, plus enhanced character and car models. In 2008, the original Xbox version was released on Xbox 360 as an emulated port, and part of the Xbox Originals line-up. However, in late 2014 it was removed from the Xbox Live Marketplace and replaced with a port of the mobile version on 26 October 2014, the game's tenth anniversary. It featured HD 720p resolution, enhanced draw distance, a checkpoint system, a new menu interface, and achievements. While it introduced many new features, around ten songs were removed from the HD version that were present in the original due to licensing issues, and numerous new bugs were introduced. A physical release followed on 30 June 2015 in North America and 17 July 2015 elsewhere, under the "Platinum Hits" banner ("Classics" in PAL regions). San Andreas was first released on PlayStation 3 in December 2012 as an emulated PS2 Classic. This version was also removed in late 2014, leading to rumours of a PS3 HD release. However, this was not the case at the time, and the PS2 Classic later returned. In early November 2015, the game was re-rated by the ESRB for an upcoming PS3-native release. The HD version was released on 1 December 2015, replacing the PS2 Classic on the PlayStation Store, and on physical media, gaining instant "Greatest Hits" status in North America. There has also been a PlayStation 4 version released, though unlike the port for the PlayStation 3, it is the PlayStation 2 game running via emulation, although it still has trophies and some songs edited out due to licensing restrictions. An enhanced version of San Andreas, subtitled The Definitive Edition was released alongside Grand Theft Auto III and Vice City for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S in 2021; versions for Android and iOS devices will release in 2022. The Definitive Edition replaced existing versions of the game on digital retailers. A virtual reality version of the game is in development for Oculus Quest 2. Notes References External links 2004 video games Action-adventure games Android (operating system) games Interactive Achievement Award winners Interquel video games IOS games Multiplayer and single-player video games Obscenity controversies in video games Open-world video games Organized crime video games MacOS games Oculus Quest games PlayStation 2 games PlayStation Network games RenderWare games Rockstar Games games Take-Two Interactive games Video game prequels Video games developed in the United Kingdom Video games featuring black protagonists Video games set in 1992 Video games set in 1993 Video games set in the United States Video games with custom soundtrack support Windows games Windows Phone games Xbox 360 games Xbox games Xbox Originals games Cultural depictions of the Mafia Video games produced by Leslie Benzies Video games written by Dan Houser

Links Market

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The Links Market in Kirkcaldy, Fife is Europe's longest street fair and the oldest in Scotland. Established in 1304, the annual six-day event attracts between 200,000 and 300,000 visitors to the town. 2004 was the 700th anniversary of the event, with 225 attractions and an estimated attendance of more than half a million visitors. The Links Market is held along the town's seafront. A regular market on the site is recorded from 1304. References Tourist attractions in Fife Festivals in Scotland 1304 establishments in Scotland Fairs in Scotland

List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union

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A state of the United States is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are the primary subdivisions of the United States. They possess all powers not granted to the federal government, nor prohibited to them by the Constitution of the United States. In general, state governments have the power to regulate issues of local concern, such as: regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, public school policy, and non-federal road construction and maintenance. Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, and at least one Representative, while the size of a state's House delegation depends on its total population, as determined by the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States and Vice President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state. Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. The following table is a list of all 50 states and their respective dates of statehood. The first 13 became states in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence, and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation, its first constitution. (A separate table is included below showing AoC ratification dates.) These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution and joined the others in the new (and current) federal government. The date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress. List of U.S. states Articles of Confederation ratification dates The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution. See also Territorial evolution of the United States Enabling Act of 1802, authorizing residents of the eastern portion of the Northwest Territory to form the state of Ohio Missouri Compromise, 1820 federal statute enabling the admission of Missouri (a slave state) and Maine (a free state) into the Union Toledo War, 1835–36 boundary dispute between Ohio and the adjoining Michigan Territory, which delayed Michigan's admission to the Union Texas annexation, the 1845 incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States as a state in the Union Legal status of Texas Compromise of 1850, a package of congressional acts, one of which provided for the admission of California to the Union Bleeding Kansas, a series of violent conflicts in Kansas Territory involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions in the years preceding Kansas statehood, 1854–61 Enabling Act of 1889, authorizing residents of Dakota, Montana, and Washington territories to form state governments (Dakota to be divided into two states) and to gain admission to the Union Oklahoma Enabling Act, authorizing residents of the Oklahoma and Indian territories, and the New Mexico and Arizona territories, to form two state governments as steps to gaining admission to the Union Alaska Statehood Act, admitting Alaska as a state in the Union as of January 3, 1959 Legal status of Alaska Hawaii Admission Act, admitting Hawaii as a state in the Union as of August 21, 1959 Legal status of Hawaii List of states and territories of the United States Federalism in the United States Proposals for a 51st state Notes References External links Date Of Admission To The Union United States geography-related lists United States history-related lists United States history timelines

Albemarle Sound

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Albemarle Sound () is a large estuary on the coast of North Carolina in the United States located at the confluence of a group of rivers, including the Chowan and Roanoke. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the Currituck Banks, a barrier peninsula upon which the town of Kitty Hawk is located, at the eastern edge of the sound, and part of the greater Outer Banks region. Roanoke Island is situated at the southeastern corner of the sound, where it connects to Pamlico Sound. Much of the water in the Albemarle Sound is brackish or fresh, as opposed to the saltwater of the ocean, as a result of river water pouring into the sound. Some small portions of the Albemarle have been given their own "sound" names to distinguish these bodies of water from other parts of the large estuary. The Croatan Sound, for instance, lies between mainland Dare County and Roanoke Island. The eastern shore of the island to the Outer Banks is commonly referred to as the Roanoke Sound (which is also a historical name for the entire body of water now known as Albemarle Sound). The long stretch of water from near the Virginia state line south to around the Currituck County southern boundary is known as the Currituck Sound. The sound forms part of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. Its coast saw the first permanent settlements in what became North Carolina, the English Albemarle Settlements. Many inland Tidewater communities along the Albemarle today are part of the Inner Banks region of the state. History Before Europeans came to the Albemarle Sound, the Pamlico lived in the region. They traveled the sound in dugout canoes, and trapped fish. In 1586 the first European explorers sailed up the length of the Albemarle Sound. Half a century later, the first European settlers came south from Virginia, establishing agricultural and trading colonies along the shores of the Sound. The Albemarle Sound soon became a very important thoroughfare, with small trading ships called coasters carrying cargo to and from other colonies, and larger merchant ships bringing spices, silks, and sugars from the West Indies in exchange for products such as tobacco (a major export of the southern colonies), herring, and lumber. In 1663, Albemarle Sound was made part of the Province of Carolina by King Charles II of England and given to eight Lords Proprietors. One of these royal beneficiaries was George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, for whom the sound is named. Ferries were a common method of transportation through the swamps surrounding the Albemarle Sound throughout the history of the region. One ferry that linked the towns of Edenton and Mackeys, North Carolina, continued in service from 1734 to 1938, when a bridge was built across the Sound. Another longer bridge of more than in length was built in 1990. Fishing was a major industry in the Albemarle Sound. In late spring, plantation farmers would fish for shad, striped bass, and herring. Nets used by these fishermen were sometimes enormous, with some more than a mile (1600 m) long, and were frequently staffed 24 hours a day. Herring was cut and salted for export to Europe, while shad was packed in ice and shipped up the Chowan River to be sold in northern colonies. Regional striped bass tournaments attracted sports fishermen to the area, and it was considered by many to be the greatest striped bass fishery in the world. Water pollution and development in recent years have depleted the fisheries of the Albemarle Sound by seventy percent. See also Museum of the Albemarle CSS Albemarle USS Albemarle (AV-5) References External links Elizabeth City Area Convention & Visitors Bureau Estuaries of North Carolina Sounds of North Carolina Roanoke River Bodies of water of Dare County, North Carolina Bodies of water of Currituck County, North Carolina Bodies of water of Chowan County, North Carolina Bodies of water of Washington County, North Carolina Bodies of water of Camden County, North Carolina Bodies of water of Pasquotank County, North Carolina Bodies of water of Perquimans County, North Carolina Bodies of water of Tyrrell County, North Carolina Bodies of water of Hyde County, North Carolina

Cole Turner

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Cole Turner is a fictional character on the WB television series Charmed, portrayed by series regular Julian McMahon between seasons three and five. McMahon returned for a guest appearance in the show's seventh season, for its 150th episode. Charmed is a series which focuses on three good witches, the prophesied "Charmed Ones", sisters who battle the forces of evil. Cole is an adversary-turned-ally of the sisters introduced in the third season and a love interest of main character Phoebe Halliwell, portrayed by Alyssa Milano. Like the show's main characters, Cole also possessed a number of magical abilities; the most commonly used were the power to teleport and the power to throw projective energy balls which could stun or kill. Within the series' narrative, Cole is a Cambion, half-human and half-demon by birth and blood, and better known to the demonic world for over a hundred years as the legendary demonic assassin Belthazor. Cole is dispatched by the Source of all Evil to kill the Charmed Ones only to fall in love with then-youngest sister Phoebe Halliwell, renounce evil and become a close ally of the Charmed Ones. Though Cole eventually completely rids himself of his demonic nature, and marries Phoebe in the fourth season, he never gains the trust of new youngest sister Paige (Rose McGowan). As part of his storyline, the character later returns to evil after unwillingly becoming the new Source. As the Source, Cole is eventually vanquished by the Charmed Ones, only to come back from death itself in his attempts to win Phoebe back. By this point, he is one of the most powerful beings to ever exist. Driven insane, Cole is, through his own doing, once again killed by the sisters in the fifth season. When the character returns for a guest appearance in the seventh season, it is unclear what kind of being he is, but he states that he is caught somewhere between life and death, atoning for his sins. Character arc Season three (2000–01) Cole Turner makes his first appearance in the third-season (2000–01) premiere episode, "The Honeymoon's Over". Charmed Ones Phoebe (Alyssa Milano) and Prue (Shannen Doherty) run into Assistant District Attorney Cole Turner at the site where they killed a demon, and cover their tracks. Over the course of the episode, it becomes apparent to the audience that Cole is himself a very powerful demon, pursuing Phoebe romantically and deceiving the sisters as to his true nature in order to finally kill them. In "Power Outage", Cole's superiors, the demonic Triad, learn that he may have developed genuine romantic feelings for Phoebe; Cole responds by killing them, forcing him into hiding. Meanwhile, the sisters acquire a target in the red-and-black-skinned demon Belthazor (Michael Bailey Smith). In "Sleuthing with the Enemy", the Charmed Ones discovers Cole and Belthazor are one and the same, but when Cole convinces Phoebe that he, being half human, truly loves her, she fakes his death so that her sisters Piper (Holly Marie Combs) and Prue will not hunt for him. When Cole re-emerges, causing a rift between Phoebe and her sisters, he attempts to re-ingratiate himself with his demonic peers, the Brotherhood of the Thorn, as the sisters' double agent. When Prue and Piper are both killed following a successful mission by the Source's assassin Shax (Michael Bailey Smith) in the season finale "All Hell Breaks Loose", Cole begs the Source (again, Michael Bailey Smith) to turn back time and prevent the exposure of magic. The Source agrees on the condition that Phoebe remain in the Underworld under his command, though he secretly orders her to be killed. Shax attacks the Halliwell Manor once more after time is reversed, but this time Leo (Brian Krause), Piper's husband who is also the sisters' guardian angel (whitelighter) is not available to heal either Piper or Prue, who lie gravely wounded. Season four (2001–02) The season four premiere "Charmed Again" reveals Leo arrived in time to heal Piper, but Prue died of her injuries, reflecting Doherty's departure from the series. Leo assisted Phoebe to escape the Underworld, absconding on the Source's deal. With Prue dead, the sisters are no longer the Charmed Ones, and Cole does what he can to assist Phoebe and Piper from Shax's continued attacks. Piper and Phoebe regain their full abilities—becoming Charmed Ones once again—when they discover their younger half-sister, Paige Matthews (Rose McGowan), alongside whom they finally destroy Shax. In "Black as Cole", Cole proposes to Phoebe while they vanquish a low-level demon. Later they find that Sykes has been mimicking Belthazor and in a bid to vanquish him Cole takes on his demonic form but has Phoebe create a potion to kill his demonic half if he can not change back. Before he can change back, a woman looking to avenge his killing of her love picks up the potion and throws it at him, causing Belthazor to die. In "Lost and Bound", Paige gets Cole a job as a legal aid lawyer. However he can't control his emotions and soon quits but not before the landlord who he was arguing with agrees to put the heating back on. In "Charmed and Dangerous", the Source (Peter Woodward) breaks an age-old agreement and consumes the Hollow, an ancient force capable of devouring all magic, sealed away by good and evil because of its danger. The Seer (Debbi Morgan) tricks Cole into using the Hollow, which allows him to assist the Charmed Ones in vanquishing the physical version of the Source. It is revealed that the Seer tricked Cole into absorbing the old Source's power through his use of the Hollow, eventually causing him to become the new Source of Evil in "The Three Faces of Phoebe". An older version of Phoebe has turned bitter because of what he has done and warns her to save herself and states that they never got married, as she learned about his change and vanquished him, but she can't help but think what might have been. Once the older Phoebe sacrifices herself to save Cole, present-day Phoebe asks him if he is hiding anything; he says he is not. The Source takes over Cole completely in "Marry-Go-Round". The Seer warns him that marrying Phoebe would be the worst thing possible as they would have a son, the most powerful magical creature ever, who would be on the side of good, following the Charmed Ones' destiny. She tells him the only way the child will grow up evil is if Cole marries Phoebe in a dark ceremony. As the Source, he puts a spell on the Charmed Ones which makes Phoebe spotty and Piper and Paige over sleep. Paige and Phoebe argue as the latter suspects the former of trying to disrupt the wedding, having already made a mistake with the dress. When Paige tries to make an amends with Phoebe's spots it causes her to become invisible. Suspecting evil magic to be involved, the sisters try to reverse it without success but pass the invisibility on to Paige. Cole asks the Seer to send a Lazarus demon (who she summoned to lure Phoebe to a cemetery for the purposes of a dark ceremony) to attack at the wedding which causes Phoebe to call it off, thus reversing the magic on her, which had been switched to Paige. When the Charmed Ones question the demon, he accuses Cole of betraying him and tells them that he sent him to attack them. But before he can out Cole as the Source, Cole vanquishes him and pretends to be the Seer before teleporting and pretending to be unconscious after she attacked him. Cole marries Phoebe in a dark wedding at the end of the episode, without her suspecting drinking her blood when a throne pricks her with the ceremony held at night with a dark priest. Cole pretends to be the perfect husband by sending Leo and Piper on honeymoon to Hawaii and buying expensive gifts such as a new car in "The Fifth Halliwheel". Paige begins to suspect that Cole is a demon again especially when she catches Cole using powers on an innocent but is not sure of what she has seen. Cole as well as Leo calm Paige's fears before sending the power broker demon who had already gone after the innocent after her. The Seer also puts in a plan to make Phoebe pregnant using the full moon and a tonic. The Seer and Cole create a tonic which will ensure that the child is evil. From taking the tonic, the child will take over Phoebe's body and ensure that she remains by his side when she finds out that he is the Source. Phoebe eventually takes the tonic laced with chocolate to make the plan work. In "Bite Me", different factions have tried to become ruler of the Underworld so Cole tries to make them all work together to beat good. However, one of the leaders encourages a group of vampires to rise up and rebel, which they do so after Cole refuses to listen to them. He almost gets exposed by Paige when she orbs in his home but he quickly covers this up by saying he has a migraine, hence why the blinds were down. The vampires try to turn Paige into one to get the other sisters and then overthrow the Source and become the new leaders. To keep himself on top, Cole kills the Queen after Phoebe and Piper inadvertently tell him what to do. Phoebe later discovers that she is pregnant before informing him in "We're Off to See the Wizard." Cole tries to give up the Source to the Wizard after his human side becomes strong and Phoebe learns through a premonition that he is a demon again. But before the ritual is complete, the Seer, who has manipulated Phoebe, interrupts and vanquishes the Wizard. Cole is crowned the new Source with Phoebe as his Queen. Cole faces a coup in "Long Live the Queen" when Phoebe stops the killing of an innocent. Cole demands she make a choice. Phoebe later learns from the Seer and Cole that the tonic they were giving her was turning her evil. Phoebe eventually sides with her sisters and before Cole can destroy them she traps him in a crystal cage which allows the Charmed Ones to vanquish him. In the season finale "Witch Way Now?", Phoebe discovers Cole is able to linger in the Demonic Wasteland, where vanquished demons go, because of his human soul. Phoebe visits him there, insisting to him that he move on to his afterlife. After she leaves, he accidentally discovers he can acquire the powers of other demons vanquished there. He becomes powerful enough to kill the beast that consumes the essence of those vanquished there and, finally, to escape. Once back in the real world, he saves the sisters' lives from a witch hunter. Season five (2002–03) In the season-five premiere "A Witch's Tail", Cole returns with numerous new abilities, making him more powerful than ever. Though he still loves Phoebe, she wants to move on from him and is frustrated by his attempts to win her back. In "Siren Song," he saves the life of a young future whitelighter named Melissa in a failed attempt to impress Phoebe. When he tries to confront the demonic Siren the sisters are pursuing, the Siren puts him under her control. Under this influence, he tries to strangle Phoebe to death before the Siren is ultimately vanquished, and Phoebe nearly dies. As a result, Cole finally understands the threat he poses to Phoebe and promises to stop using his powers, but succumbs to temptation and kills again when confronted by a sleazy landlord. In "Sympathy for the Demon", Cole is taunted by the spirit of the demon Barbas (Billy Drago), who manipulates the Halliwells so that Piper and Phoebe will reject his pleas for aid and Paige will be convinced to give Cole a power-stripping potion, inadvertently granting Barbas his powers and a corporeal form. To stop the threat of Barbas or anyone else possessing Cole's powers, Paige strips Barbas of Cole's powers and Cole takes them back. The sisters, however, fear that these abilities will make him evil again. In "Sam, I Am", Cole misuses his abilities and incinerates two robbers/murderers, and is later visited by two mysterious beings who identify themselves as Avatars. Neither good or evil, the Avatars offer Cole the opportunity to join their ranks and enjoy their powers. Refusing that offer, Cole tries to provoke the sisters to kill him by sending an assassin after them, knowing that they will be able to recover thanks to their recent contact with Paige's father, whitelighter Sam Wilder (Scott Jaeck). He is distraught to learn he cannot be killed, and is pushed over the edge into insanity. Cole reverts to malevolent means of winning Phoebe back, striking at the Charmed Ones in various underhand ways over several episodes, allying himself with an Egyptian warlock trying to steal a new body for his lover's spirit and manipulating the sisters into giving up the mortgage on the house with the goal of taking over the nexus underneath. In Charmeds 100th episode "Centennial Charmed", Cole accepts the Avatars' offer and uses their powers to create an alternate reality where Piper and Phoebe never met Paige, who was instead killed by the Source before the Elders discovered her. In the new reality, Cole is once again Belthazor and no longer indestructible. He acts as the right-hand man of the Source and owns Halliwell Manor with Phoebe, but they are unhappy together. However, Paige is accidentally brought along from the real world when she orbs at the moment Cole changed reality, allowing her to escape the changes to reality, and teams up with Piper and Leo to destroy Cole. After convincing Phoebe to join their side, the Charmed Ones vanquish Cole for good, restoring the original reality. Season seven (2005) Cole makes a guest appearance in the 150th episode, "The Seven Year Witch", in season seven; Piper's disembodied spirit receives advice from Cole, who claims to be in limbo atoning for his sins. However, it is later revealed that Cole, watching over the sisters, orchestrated Piper's illness and sent Phoebe's short-lived boyfriend Drake (Billy Zane) to her, all so that Phoebe could learn to believe in love again. However he also did this to get Piper and Leo back together so that they could be a beacon for Phoebe not to give up on love and turn into the bitter old woman as seen in "The Three Faces of Phoebe". In 2010, Cole returned in the Charmed Season 9 comic book series. This time he has a minor role and only supporting in the spirit realm with Prue. Analysis As a lawyer and a demon, one writer notes that Cole is part of the same "corporate" metaphor as the Wolfram & Hart firm in the television series Angel. References Charmed (TV series) characters Fictional assassins Fictional avatars Fictional characters who can teleport Fictional half-demons Fictional lawyers Fictional shapeshifters Television characters introduced in 2000 Fictional attempted suicides Male characters in television da:Phoebes Kærester#Cole Turner ru:Список персонажей телесериала «Зачарованные»#Коул Тёрнер

Timeline of the telephone

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This timeline of the telephone covers landline, radio, and cellular telephony technologies and provides many important dates in the history of the telephone. 1667: Robert Hooke creates an acoustic string telephone that conveys sounds over a taut extended wire by mechanical vibrations. 1844: Innocenzo Manzetti first suggests the idea of an electric "speaking telegraph", or telephone. 1849: Antonio Meucci demonstrates a communicating device to individuals in Havana. It is disputed that this is an electromagnetic telephone, but it is said to involve direct transmission of electricity into the user's body. 1854: Charles Bourseul publishes a description of a make-and-break telephone transmitter and receiver in L'Illustration, (Paris) but does not construct a working instrument. 1854: Meucci demonstrates an electric voice-operated device in New York, but it is not clear what kind of device he demonstrated. 1860: Johann Philipp Reis of Germany demonstrates a make-and-break transmitter after the design of Bourseul and a knitting-needle receiver. Witnesses said they heard human voices being transmitted. 1861: Johann Philipp Reis transfers voice electrically over a distance of 340 feet with his Reis telephone. To prove that speech can be recognized successfully at the receiving end, he uses the phrase "The horse does not eat cucumber salad" as an example because this phrase is hard to understand acoustically in German. 1864: In an attempt to give his musical automaton a voice, Innocenzo Manzetti invents the 'speaking telegraph'. He shows no interest in patenting his device, but it is reported in newspapers. 1865: Meucci reads of Manzetti's invention and writes to the editors of two newspapers claiming priority and quoting his first experiment in 1849. He writes "I do not wish to deny Mr. Manzetti his invention, I only wish to observe that two thoughts could be found to contain the same discovery, and that by uniting the two ideas one can more easily reach the certainty about a thing this important." 1871: Meucci files a patent caveat (a statement of intention to file a patent application) for a Sound Telegraph, but it does not describe an electromagnetic telephone. 1872: Elisha Gray founds the Western Electric Manufacturing Company. 1872: Professor Vanderwyde demonstrates Reis's telephone in New York. July 1873: Thomas Edison notes varying resistance in carbon grains due to pressure, and builds a rheostat based on the principle but abandons it because of its sensitivity to vibration. May 1874: Gray invents an electromagnet device for transmitting musical tones. Some of his receivers use a metallic diaphragm. July 1874: Alexander Graham Bell conceives the theoretical concept for the telephone while vacationing at his parents' farm near Brantford, Canada. Alexander Melville Bell records notes of his son's conversation in his personal journal. 29 December 1874: Gray demonstrates his musical tones device and transmits "familiar melodies through telegraph wire" at the Presbyterian Church in Highland Park, Illinois. 4 May 1875: Bell conceives of using varying resistance in a wire conducting electric current to create a varying current amplitude. 2 June 1875: Bell transmits the sound of a plucked steel reed using electromagnet instruments. 1 July 1875: Bell uses a bi-directional "gallows" telephone that was able to transmit "indistinct but voice-like sounds" but not clear speech. Both the transmitter and the receiver were identical membrane electromagnet instruments. 1875: Thomas Edison experiments with acoustic telegraphy and, in November, builds an electro-dynamic receiver but does not exploit it. 1876 to 1878 11 February 1876: Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone, but he did not make one. 14 February 1876, about 9:30am: Gray or his lawyer brings Gray's patent caveat for the telephone to the Washington, D.C. Patent Office (a caveat was a notice of intention to file a patent application. It was like a patent application, but without a request for examination, for the purpose of notifying the patent office of a possible invention in process). 14 February 1876, about 11:30am: Bell's lawyer brings to the same patent office Bell's patent application for the telephone. Bell's lawyer requests that it be registered immediately in the cash receipts blotter. 14 February 1876, about 1:30pm: Approximately two hours later Elisha Gray's patent caveat is registered in the cash blotter. Although his caveat was not a full application, Gray could have converted it into a patent application and contested Bell's priority, but did not do so because of advice from his lawyer and his involvement with acoustic telegraphy. The result was that the patent was awarded to Bell. 7 March 1876: Bell's U.S. Patent, No. 174,465 for the telephone is granted. 10 March 1876: Bell first successfully transmits speech, saying "Mr. Watson, come here! I want to see you!" using a liquid transmitter as described in Gray's caveat, and Bell's own electromagnetic receiver. 16 May 1876: Thomas Edison files first patent application for acoustic telegraphy for which U.S. patent 182,996 was granted 10 October 1876. 25 June 1876: Bell exhibits his telephone at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, where it draws enthusiastic reactions from Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil and Lord Kelvin, attracting the attention of the press and resulting in the first announcements of the invention to the general public. Lord Kelvin describes the telephone as "the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph". 10 August 1876: Alexander Graham Bell makes the world's first long-distance telephone call, one-way, not reciprocal, over a distance of about 6 miles, between Brantford and Paris, Ontario, Canada. 1876: Hungarian Tivadar Puskás invents the telephone switchboard exchange (later working with Edison). 9 October 1876: Bell makes the first two-way long-distance telephone call between Cambridge and Boston, Massachusetts. October 1876: Edison tests his first carbon microphone. 1877: The first experimental Telephone Exchange in Boston. 20 January 1877: Edison "first [succeeds] in transmitting over wires many articulated sentences" using carbon granules as a pressure-sensitive varying resistance under the pressure of a diaphragm. 30 January 1877: Bell's U.S. Patent No. 186,787 is granted for an electromagnetic telephone using permanent magnets, iron diaphragms, and a call bell. 4 March 1877: Emile Berliner invents a microphone based on "loose contact" between two metal electrodes, an improvement on Reis' Telephone, and in April 1877 files a caveat of an invention in process. April 1877: A telephone line connects the workshop of Charles Williams, Jr., located in Boston, to his house in Somerville, Massachusetts at 109 Court Street in Boston, where Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson had previously experimented with their telephone. The telephones became No. 1 and 2 in the Bell Telephone Company. 27 April 1877: Edison files telephone patent applications. U.S. patents (Nos. 474,230, 474,231 and 474,232) were awarded to Edison in 1892 over the competing claims of Alexander Graham Bell, Emile Berliner, Elisha Gray, Amos Dolbear, J.W. McDonagh, G.B. Richmond, W.L.W. Voeker, J.H. Irwin and Francis Blake Jr. Edison's carbon granules transmitter and Bell's electromagnetic receiver are used, with improvements, by the Bell system for many decades thereafter. 4 June 1877: Emile Berliner files telephone patent application that includes a carbon microphone transmitter. 9 July 1877: The Bell Telephone Company, a common law joint-stock company, is organized by Alexander Graham Bell's future father-in-law Gardiner Greene Hubbard, a lawyer who becomes its first president. 6 October 1877: the Scientific American publishes the invention from Bell – at that time still without a ringer. 25 October 1877: the article in the Scientific American is discussed at the Telegraphenamt in Berlin November 1877: First permanent telephone connection in UK between two business in Manchester using imported Bell instruments. 12 November 1877: The first commercial telephone company enters telephone business in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin using the Siemens pipe as ringer and telephone devices build by Siemens. 1 December 1877: Western Union enters the telephone business using Edison's superior carbon microphone transmitter. 14 January 1878: Bell demonstrates the device to Queen Victoria and gives her an opportunity to try it. Calls are made to Cowes, Southampton and London, the first long-distance calls in the UK. The queen asks to buy the equipment that was used, but Bell offers to make a model specifically for her. 28 January 1878: The first commercial North American telephone exchange is opened in New Haven, Connecticut. 4 February 1878: Edison demonstrates the telephone between Menlo Park, New Jersey and Philadelphia. 14 June 1878: The Telephone Company (Bell's Patents) Ltd. is registered in London. Opened in London on 21 August 1879, it is Europe's first telephone exchange, followed a couple of weeks later by one in Manchester. 12 September 1878: the Bell Telephone Company sues Western Union for infringing Bell's patents. 1878: The first Australian telephone trials were made between Semaphore and Kapunda (and later Adelaide and Port Adelaide) in South Australia. 1879 to 1919 Early months of 1879: The Bell Telephone Company is near bankruptcy and desperate to get a transmitter to equal Edison's carbon transmitter. 17 February 1879: Bell Telephone merges with the New England Telephone Company to form the National Bell Telephone Company. Theodore Vail takes over operations. 1879: Francis Blake invents a carbon transmitter similar to Edison's that saves the Bell company from extinction. 2 August 1879: The Edison Telephone CompLondon Ltd, registered. Opened in London 6 September 1879. 10 September 1879: Connolly and McTighe patent a "dial" telephone exchange (limited in the number of lines to the number of positions on the dial.). 1879: The International Bell Telephone Company (IBTC) of Brussels, Belgium was founded by Bell Telephone Company president Gardiner Greene Hubbard, initially to sell imported telephones and switchboards in Continental Europe. International Bell rapidly evolved into an important European telephone service provider and manufacturer, with major operations in several countries. 19 February 1880: The photophone, also called a radiophone, is invented jointly by Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter at Bell's Volta Laboratory. The device allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light. 20 March 1880: National Bell Telephone merges with others to form the American Bell Telephone Company. 1 April 1880: world's first wireless telephone call on Bell and Tainter's photophone (distant precursor to fiber-optic communications) from the Franklin School in Washington, D.C. to the window of Bell's laboratory, 213 meters away. 1 July 1881: The world's first international telephone call is made between St. Stephen, New Brunswick, Canada, and Calais, Maine, United States. 11 October 1881: The Sydney telephone exchange opened with 12 subscribers. 1882: A telephone company—an American Bell Telephone Company affiliate—is set up in Mexico City. 14 May 1883: The Adelaide exchange was opened, with 48 subscribers. 7 September 1883: The Port Adelaide exchange was opened, with 21 subscribers. 4 September 1884: Opening of telephone service between New York and Boston (235 miles). 3 March 1885: The American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) is incorporated as the long-distance division of American Bell Telephone Company. It will become the head of the Bell System on the last day of 1899. 1886: Gilliland's Automatic circuit changer is put into service between Worcester and Leicester featuring the first operator dialing allowing one operator to run two exchanges. 1887: Tivadar Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard, that had an epochal significance in the further development of telephone exchange. 13 January 1887: the Government of the United States moves to annul the master patent issued to Alexander Graham Bell on the grounds of fraud and misrepresentation. The case, known as the 'Government Case', is later dropped after it was revealed that the U.S. Attorney General, Augustus Hill Garland had been given millions of dollars of stock in the company trying to unseat Bell's telephone patent. 1888: Telephone patent court cases are confirmed by the Supreme Court, see The Telephone Cases 1889: AT&T becomes the overall holding company for all the Bell companies. 2 November 1889: A.G. Smith patents a telegraph switch which provides for trunks between groups of selectors allowing for the first time, fewer trunks than there are lines, and automatic selection of an idle trunk. 10 March 1891: Almon Strowger patents the Strowger switch the first Automatic telephone exchange. 30 October 1891: The independent Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company is formed. 3 May 1892: Thomas Edison awarded patents for the carbon microphone based on applications lodged in 1877. 18 October 1892: Opening of telephone service between New York and Chicago (950 miles). 3 November 1892: The first Strowger switch goes into operation in LaPorte, Indiana with 75 subscribers and capacity for 99. 30 January 1894: The second fundamental Bell patent for the telephone expires; Independent telephone companies established, and independent manufacturing companies (Stromberg-Carlson in 1894 and Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company in 1897). 30 December 1899: American Bell Telephone Company is purchased by its own long-distance subsidiary, American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) to bypass state regulations limiting capitalization. AT&T assumes leadership role of the Bell System. 25 December 1900: John W. Atkins, the manager at International Ocean Telegraph Company (IOTC), a subsidiary of Western Union Telegraph Company made the first international telephone call over telegraph cable at 09:55 from his office in Key West to Havana, Cuba. Atkins was reported in the Florida Times Union and Citizen as saying, "For a long time there was no sound, except the roar heard at night sometimes, caused by electric light current." He continued calling Cuba and finally came back the words, clear and distinct: "I don't understand you." 27 February 1901: United States Court of Appeal declares void Emile Berliner's patent for a telephone transmitter used by the Bell telephone system 1902: The first Australian interstate calls between Mount Gambier and Nelson. 26 February 1914: Boston-Washington underground cable commenced commercial service. 16 January 1915: The first automatic Panel exchange was installed at the Mulberry Central Office in Newark, New Jersey; but was a semi-automatic system using non-dial telephones. 25 January 1915: First transcontinental telephone call (3600 miles), with Thomas Augustus Watson at 333 Grant Avenue in San Francisco receiving a call from Alexander Graham Bell at 15 Dey Street in New York City, facilitated by a newly invented vacuum tube amplifier. 21 October 1915: First transmission of speech across the Atlantic Ocean by radiotelephone from Arlington, Virginia to Paris, France. 1919: The first rotary dial telephones in the Bell System installed in Norfolk, Virginia. Telephones that lacked dials and touch-tone pads were no longer made by the Bell System after 1978. 1919: AT&T conducts more than 4,000 measurements of people's heads to gauge the best dimensions of standard headsets so that callers' lips would be near the microphone when holding handsets up to their ears. 1920 to 1969 16 July 1920: World's first radiotelephone service commences public service between Los Angeles and Santa Catalina Island. 11 April 1921: Opening of deep sea cable from Key West, Florida, to Havana, Cuba (115 miles). 22 December 1923: Opening of second transcontinental telephone line via a southern route. 7 March 1926: First transatlantic telephone call, from London to New York. 7 January 1927: Transatlantic telephone service inaugurated for commercial service (3500 miles). 17 January 1927: Opening of third transcontinental telephone line via a northern route. 7 April 1927: world's first videophone call via an electro-mechanical AT&T unit, from Washington, D.C. to New York City, by then-Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover. 8 December 1929: Opening of commercial ship-to-shore telephone service. 3 April 1930: Opening of transoceanic telephone service to Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay and subsequently to all other South American countries. 25 April 1935: First telephone call around the world by wire and radio. 1937: The Western Electric type 302 telephone becomes available for service in the United States. 8 December 1937: Opening of fourth transcontinental telephone line. 1941: Multi-frequency dialing introduced for operators in Baltimore, Maryland 1942: Telephone production is halted at Western Electric until 1945 for civilian distribution due to the retooling of factories for military equipment during World War II. 1946: National Numbering Plan (area codes) 1946: first commercial mobile phone call 1946: Bell Labs develops the germanium point-contact transistor 1947: December, W. Rae Young and Douglas H. Ring, Bell Labs engineers, proposed hexagonal cells for provisioning of mobile telephone service. 1948: Phil Porter, a Bell Labs engineer, proposed that cell towers be at the corners of the hexagons rather than the centers and have directional antennas pointing in 3 directions. 1950: The Western Electric Type 500 telephone becomes available in the United States after announcement in 1949. 30 June 1948: First public demonstration of the transistor by Bell Telephone Laboratories. 10 November 1951: direct distance dialing (DDD) first offered on trial basis at Englewood, New Jersey, to 11 selected major cities across the United States; this service grew rapidly across major cities during the 1950s 1955: the laying of trans-Atlantic cable TAT-1 began – 36 circuits, later increased to 48 by reducing the bandwidth from 4 kHz to 3 kHz 1958: Modems used for direct connection via voice phone lines 1959: The Princess telephone is introduced in the Bell System in the United States. 1959: UKs first public car radio-telephone service opens in Liverpool and Manchester 1959: Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Telephone Laboratories invent the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor), which later enables the rapid development and wide adoption of pulse-code modulation (PCM) digital telephony. 1960: Bell Labs conducts extensive field trial of an electronic central office in Morris, Illinois, known at the Morris System. 1960s: Bell Labs developed the electronics for cellular phones 1961: Initiation of Touch-Tone service trials 1962: T-1 service in Skokie, Illinois 18 November 1963: AT&T commences the first subscriber Touch-Tone service in the towns of Carnegie and Greensburg, Pennsylvania, using push-button telephones that replaced rotary dial instruments. 31 May 1965: The world's first electronic switching system commences commercial service in Succasunna, New Jersey in form of the 1ESS. 1965: first geosynchronous communications satellite – 240 circuits or one TV signal 1965: The Trimline telephone is introduced by Western Electric for use in the Bell System. 1970 to 1999 1970: ESS-2 electronic switch. 1970: modular telephone cords and jacks introduced. 1970: Amos E. Joel, Jr. of Bell Labs invented the "call handoff" system for "cellular mobile communication system" (patent granted 1972). 1970: British companies Pye TMC, Marconi-Elliott and GEC develop the digital push-button telephone, based on metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) technology. It uses MOS memory chips to store phone numbers, which could then be used for speed dialing. 1971: AT&T submitted a proposal for cellular phone service to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). 3 April 1973: Motorola employee Martin Cooper placed the first hand-held cell phone call to Joel Engel, head of research at AT&T's Bell Labs, while talking on the first Motorola DynaTAC prototype. 1973: packet switched voice connections over ARPANET with Network Voice Protocol (NVP). 1973: Bell Labs combined MOS technology with touch-tone technology to develop a push-button MOS touch-tone phone called the "Touch-O-Matic" telephone, which uses MOS integrated circuit chips and could store up to 32 phone numbers. 1974: David A. Hodges, Paul R. Gray and R.E. Suarez at UC Berkeley develop MOS mixed-signal integrated circuit technology, in the form of the MOS switched capacitor (SC) circuit, which they use to develop the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) chip used in digital telephony. 1975: Paul R. Gray and J. McCreary develop the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) MOS chip, used in digital telephony. 1976: Kazuo Hashimoto invented Caller ID 1978: Bell Labs launched a trial of the first commercial cellular network in Chicago using Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS). 1978: World's first NMT phone call in Tampere, Finland. 1979: VoIP – NVP running on top of early versions of IP 1980: W.C. Black and David A. Hodges develop the silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) pulse-code modulation (PCM) codec-filter chip, which has since been the industry standard for digital telephony, widely used in the public switched telephone network (PSTN) as well as cordless telephones and cell phones. 1981: The world's first fully automatic mobile phone system NMT is started in Sweden and Norway. 1981: BT introduces the British Telephone Sockets system. 1982: FCC approved AT&T proposal for AMPS and allocated frequencies in the 824-894 MHz band. 1982: Caller ID patented by Carolyn Doughty, Bell Labs 1983: last manual telephone switchboard in Maine is retired 1984: AT&T completes the divestiture of its local operating companies. This forms a new AT&T (long-distance service and equipment sales) and the Baby Bells. 1987: ADSL introduced 1988: First transatlantic fiber optic cable TAT-8, carrying 40,000 circuits 1990: analog AMPS was superseded by Digital AMPS. 1991: the GSM mobile phone network is started in Finland, with the first phone call in Tampere. 1993: Telecom Relay Service available for the disabled 1994: The IBM Simon becomes the first smartphone on the market. 1995: Caller ID implemented nationally in USA 1999: creation of the Asterisk Private branch exchange 2000 to present 11 June 2002: Antonio Meucci is recognized for "...his work in the invention of the telephone" (but not "...for inventing the telephone") by the United States House of Representatives, in United States HRes. 269. 21 June 2002: The Parliament of Canada responds by passing a motion unanimously 10 days later recognizing Alexander Graham Bell as the inventor of the telephone. 2005: Mink, Louisiana finally receives traditional landline telephone service (one of the last in the United States). See also Bell Telephone Memorial, a major monument dedicated to the invention of the telephone History of the telephone History of mobile phones Invention of the telephone Push-button telephone Telephone Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell telephone controversy Notes Bibliography Bourseul, Charles (1854), Transmission électrique de la parole, Paris: L'Illustration, 26 August 1854. Thompson, Sylvanus P. (1883), Philipp Reis, Inventor of the Telephone, London: E. & F. N. Spon, 1883. Coe, Lewis (1995), The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History, North Carolina: McFarland, 1995. Baker, Burton H. (2000), The Gray Matter: The Forgotten Story of the Telephone, Telepress, St. Joseph, Michigan, 2000. Josephson, Matthew (1992), Edison: A Biography, Wiley, Bruce, Robert V. (1990), Bell: Alexander Bell and the Conquest of Solitude, Cornell University Press, 1990. Farley, Tom (2007), "The Cell-Phone Revolution", Invention & Technology, Winter 2007, vol. 22:3, pages 8–19. External links Telephone Early Patents and Caveats Library of Congress essay on first transatlantic telephone call. American Treasures of the Library of Congress, Alexander Graham Bell - Lab notebook I, pages 40-41 (image 22) Telephone History of the telephone

Mark Gatiss

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Mark Gatiss (; born 17 October 1966) is an English actor, comedian, screenwriter, director, producer and novelist. His work includes writing for and acting in the television series Doctor Who, Sherlock, and Dracula. Together with Reece Shearsmith, Steve Pemberton and Jeremy Dyson, he is a member of the comedy team The League of Gentlemen. He played Tycho Nestoris in the HBO series Game of Thrones. Early life and education Gatiss was born in Sedgefield, County Durham, England, to Winifred Rose (née O'Kane, 1931–2003) and Maurice Gatiss (1931–2021). He grew up opposite the Victorian psychiatric hospital there, and later in Trimdon, before his father, a colliery engineer, took a job as engineer at the School Aycliffe Mental Hospital in Heighington. His family background is working class. His childhood passions included watching Doctor Who and Hammer Horror films on television, reading Sherlock Holmes and H.G. Wells, and collecting fossils. All those interests have influenced his creative work as an adult. One of his early forays into theatre was in Darlington in March 1983, playing Dad, in The Waiting Room by Tony Stowers, a macabre and surreal Pinteresque comedy, which explores a disintegrating family unit. In July of the same year, he would have acted in Stowers' follow-up, A Sense of Insecurity, but was unable to take the role because his father insisted he take his exams instead. Gatiss attended Heighington Church of England Primary School, and Woodham Comprehensive School in Newton Aycliffe. At the latter, he was two years ahead of Paul Magrs, who also went on to write Doctor Who fiction. Gatiss then studied Theatre Arts at Bretton Hall College, an arts college affiliated to the University of Leeds. Career Acting The League of Gentlemen Gatiss is a member of the sketch comedy team The League of Gentlemen (along with fellow performers Reece Shearsmith, Steve Pemberton and co-writer Jeremy Dyson). He first met his co-writers and performers in his late teens at Bretton Hall, Yorkshire, a drama school which he attended after finishing school and having spent a gap year travelling around Europe. The League of Gentlemen began as a stage act in 1995, which won the Perrier Award at Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1997. In the same year the show transferred to BBC Radio 4 as On the Town with the League of Gentlemen, and later arrived on television on BBC Two in 1999. The television programme has earned Gatiss and his colleagues a British Academy Television Award, a Royal Television Society Award and the prestigious Golden Rose of Montreux. In 2005, the film The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse was released, to generally positive reviews. Shearsmith and Pemberton reunited in 2009 to create a similarly dark BBC sitcom, Psychoville, which featured an episode guest-starring Gatiss. The three reunited again in 2012 to film a series of sketches for the fourth series of CBBC show Horrible Histories. Other television work Outside The League, Gatiss' television work has included writing for the 2001 revival of Randall & Hopkirk and script editing the popular sketch show Little Britain in 2003, making guest appearances in both. In 2001 he guested in Spaced as a villainous government employee modelled on the character of Agent Smith from The Matrix film series. In the same year he appeared in several editions of the documentary series SF:UK. Other acting appearances include the comedy-drama In the Red (BBC Two, 1998), the macabre sitcom Nighty Night (BBC Three, 2003), Agatha Christie's Marple as Ronald Hawes in "The Murder at the Vicarage", a guest appearance in the Vic & Bob series Catterick in 2004 and the live 2005 remake of the classic science fiction serial The Quatermass Experiment. A second series of Nighty Night and the new comedy-drama Funland, the latter co-written by his League cohort Jeremy Dyson, both featured Gatiss and aired on BBC Three in the autumn of 2005. He appeared as Johnnie Cradock, alongside Nighty Night star Julia Davis as Fanny Cradock, in Fear of Fanny on BBC Four in October 2006, and featured as Ratty in a new production of The Wind in the Willows shown on BBC One on 1 January 2007. He wrote and starred in the BBC Four docudrama The Worst Journey in the World, based on the memoir by polar explorer Apsley Cherry-Garrard. Gatiss has also made three credited appearances in Doctor Who. In 2007, he played Professor Lazarus in "The Lazarus Experiment". In 2011, he returned in the Series 6 episode "The Wedding of River Song" as a character known as Gantok, and in the 2017 Christmas special "Twice Upon A Time" as "The Captain". Also in 2007, he appeared as Robert Louis Stevenson in Jekyll, a BBC One serial by his fellow Doctor Who scriptwriter Steven Moffat. In 2008, he appeared in Clone as Colonel Black. In 2010, he portrayed Malcolm McLaren in the BBC drama Worried About the Boy which focused on the life and career of Boy George, and also appeared as Mycroft Holmes in the BBC drama Sherlock, which he co-created with Steven Moffat. He adapted H.G. Wells' The First Men in the Moon into a television film of the same name for the BBC, also playing Professor Cavor. He also made a three-part BBC documentary series entitled A History of Horror, a personal exploration of the history of horror cinema. This was followed on 30 October 2012 with a look at European horror with the documentary Horror Europa. On 25 December 2013, a version of the ghost story "The Tractate Middoth" by M. R. James and adapted by Gatiss was broadcast on BBC Two as part of the long-running A Ghost Story for Christmas series. It starred Sacha Dhawan, John Castle, Louise Jameson, Una Stubbs, David Ryall, Eleanor Bron, Nick Burns and Roy Barraclough. It was followed on 25 December 2013 by a screening on BBC2 of a new documentary by Gatiss titled M. R. James: Ghost Writer. The programme saw Gatiss explore the work of James and look at how his work still inspires contemporary horror today. He appeared in season four of Game of Thrones in 2014 playing Tycho Nestoris and reprised this role in season five and season seven. In the BBC's 2015 series Wolf Hall, Gatiss played King Henry VIII's secretary Stephen Gardiner. He also appeared in Channel 4's Coalition in 2015. Gatiss appears as the Prince Regent (later George IV) in the eight-part historical fiction television drama series Taboo (2017) first broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 7 January 2017 and in the United States on FX on 10 January 2017. He appeared as a modern-day incarnation/descendant of Count Dracula's servile companion Renfield in the series of his own co-creation, Dracula in the third and final episode, "The Dark Compass". Radio, stage and film Gatiss appears frequently in BBC Radio productions, including the science fiction comedy Nebulous and The Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes story The Shameful Betrayal of Miss Emily Smith. In 2009, he was The Man in Black when BBC Radio 7 revived the character (originally played by Valentine Dyall and Edward de Souza) to introduce a series of five creepy audio dramas. He is also involved with theatre, having penned the play The Teen People in the early 1990s, and appeared in a successful run of the play 'Art' in 2003 at the Whitehall Theatre in London. In film, he has starred in Sex Lives of the Potato Men (2004) and had minor roles in Birthday Girl (2001), Bright Young Things (2003), Match Point (2005) and Starter for 10 (2006). The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse, a film based on the television series, co-written by and starring Gatiss, was released in June 2005. He also plays the recurring character of Gold in the audio revival of Sapphire and Steel produced by Big Finish Productions. Gatiss also appeared in Edgar Wright's fake trailer for Grindhouse, Don't, a homage to 1970s' Hammer Horrors. In the 2008 English language re-release of the cult 2006 Norwegian animated film Free Jimmy, Gatiss voiced the character of "Jakki," a heavy-set, bizarrely dressed biker member of the "Lappish Mafia." In this his voice is used along with the other actors of League of Gentlemen such as Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith. The dialogue was written by Simon Pegg and other actors included Pegg himself, Woody Harrelson and David Tennant, who worked with Gatiss on Doctor Who. He appeared in the stage adaptation of Pedro Almodóvar's All About My Mother at the Old Vic in London from 25 August-24 November 2007. He won much critical acclaim for his portrayal of the transgender character Agrado. He was scheduled to perform in Darker Shores by Michael Punter, a ghost story for all the family, at Hampstead Theatre 3 December 2009 – 16 January 2010 but had to withdraw after a serious family illness. Tom Goodman-Hill took over his role. In March 2010, he was a guest on Private Passions, the biographical music discussion programme on BBC Radio 3. From December 2010 to March 2011, Gatiss was playing the role of Bernard in Alan Ayckbourn's Season's Greetings at the Royal National Theatre in London alongside Catherine Tate. In December 2011, he appeared in an episode of The Infinite Monkey Cage in an episode entitled The Science of Christmas, alongside Brian Cox, Robin Ince and Richard Dawkins. In January 2012, he took the role of Brazen in The Recruiting Officer at the Donmar Theatre, London. From 18 October – 24 November that year he was Charles I in the Hampstead Theatre production of 55 Days by Howard Brenton, a play dramatising the military coup that killed a King and forged a Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. In December 2013, Gatiss joined the cast of the Donmar Warehouse production of Coriolanus as Senator of Rome, Menenius. The play went from 6 December 2013 through 13 February 2014. For his performance, Gatiss received a nomination for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. In May 2017, Gatiss began a recurring role on "The Secret History Of Hollywood", a series of podcast biopics on Golden Age-era Hollywood. Its 11-part series, 'Shadows' tells the story of Val Lewton's life and career, with Gatiss providing the introductions for each episode. In November 2018, Gatiss appeared as the lead in a revival of The Madness of George III at Nottingham Playhouse. Writing Doctor Who At the age of eleven, Gatiss won a school literary competition with a short science fiction story "The Anti-Noise Machine", published in a booklet by Darlington Borough Council. Gatiss had a childhood interest in the BBC science-fiction show Doctor Who and devoted much of his early writing to the series, despite its 1989 cancellation. Gatiss's earliest published work as a professional writer was a sequence of novels in Virgin Publishing's New Adventures series of continuation stories and novels. In these works, he tried to correct the problems which had led to the show's decline in the late 1980s. The first television scripts Gatiss wrote were for a BBV direct-to-video series called "P.R.O.B.E." Gatiss's four scripts each featured a different actor who had played Doctor Whos titular character of the Doctor: Jon Pertwee, Peter Davison, Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy. The videos have since been released on DVD despite Gatiss once commenting that he would not authorise their re-release, as he regarded them as a learning exercise. His other early contributions to the Doctor Who franchise included four novels, two audio plays for BBV and two audio plays for Big Finish Productions. Gatiss has written nine episodes for the 2005 revival of the show. His first, "The Unquiet Dead," was the third episode of the revived series in 2005; the second, "The Idiot's Lantern," aired the following year in the second series. Although he acted in the third series and proposed an ultimately unproduced episode for the fourth, involving Nazis and the British Museum, it took until 2010 for Gatiss to return as writer. He wrote "Victory of the Daleks" for that year's fifth series and went on to contribute "Night Terrors" for series 6, "Cold War" and "The Crimson Horror" for series 7 and "Robot of Sherwood" for series 8. He also wrote "Sleep No More" for series 9 and "Empress of Mars" for series 10. He has also contributed to the franchise outside the main show. His early work (see above) was primarily Doctor Who expanded media, and Gatiss wrote and performed in the comedy spoof sketches The Web of Caves, The Kidnappers and The Pitch of Fear for the BBC's "Doctor Who Night" in 1999 with David Walliams. He penned 2013 docudrama An Adventure in Space and Time, a drama depicting the origins of the series, to celebrate the show's fiftieth anniversary. It ended with a cameo by Gatiss's League of Gentleman castmate Reece Shearsmith, portraying Patrick Troughton, who played the Second Doctor. A "Making Of" feature about this programme, narrated by Gatiss, was made available on the BBC Red Button service, and also posted on the BBC's official YouTube channel. He has written for Doctor Who Magazine, including a column written under the pseudonym "Sam Kisgart," which he was originally credited as in the Doctor Who Unbound audio play Sympathy for the Devil for his role as the Master. "Sam Kisgart" is an anagram of "Mark Gatiss", and is also the name under which he was credited for his cameo in Psychoville. Sherlock With Steven Moffat, with whom Gatiss worked on Doctor Who and Jekyll, he also co-created and co-produced Sherlock. Premiering in 2010, the series is a modernised adaptation of the Sherlock Holmes stories, in which Gatiss plays the role of Sherlock's brother Mycroft. Gatiss has influence on all episodes as producer and he has written four episodes, one for each series: the finale, "The Great Game," for the first series, "The Hounds of Baskerville" for the second, "The Empty Hearse" for the third and "The Six Thatchers" for the fourth. He also co-wrote "Many Happy Returns," a mini-episode released in late December 2013 which acts as a prelude to the third series, with Steven Moffat; the episode "The Sign of Three" with Moffat and Steve Thompson; and "The Abominable Bride", a special episode released in early January 2016, with Moffat. Other work as writer Gatiss has written several non-fiction works, including a biography of the film director James Whale and the documentary M.R. James: Ghost Writer, which Gatiss also presented. The documentary followed Gatiss's directorial debut with an adaption of one of James's stories, "The Tractate Middoth", for BBC Two, which was broadcast on Christmas Day 2013. Gatiss also wrote, co-produced and appeared in Crooked House, a ghost story that was broadcast on BBC Four during Christmas 2008. His first non-Doctor Who novel, The Vesuvius Club, was published in 2004, for which he was nominated in the category of Best Newcomer in the 2006 British Book Awards. A follow-up, The Devil in Amber, was released on 6 November 2006. It transports the main character, Lucifer Box, from the Edwardian era in the first book to the roaring Twenties/Thirties. A third and final Lucifer Box novel, Black Butterfly, was published on 3 November 2008 by Simon & Schuster. In 2017, Gatiss and Steven Moffat re-teamed to write three episodes for TV miniseries Dracula. The series premiered on BBC One on 1 January 2020, and was broadcast over three consecutive days. The three episodes were then released on Netflix on 4 January 2020. In June 2021, a new adaptation of The Ghosts by Antonia Barber, written and directed by Gatiss for Sky One, was announced. It broadcast on 24 December. Personal life Gatiss is gay and was featured on The Independent on Sunday's Pink List of influential gay people in the UK in 2010, 2011 and 2014. He married the actor Ian Hallard in 2008 in Middle Temple, in the City of London. Gatiss once built a Victorian laboratory in his north London home, as the fulfilment of a childhood dream. Gatiss is an atheist. The University of Huddersfield awarded him an honorary doctorate of letters in 2003. Filmography Actor Film Television Writer Director Bibliography Books Doctor Who novels Nightshade () St Anthony's Fire () The Roundheads () Last of the Gaderene (; also 2013 reissue ) The Crimson Horror () Doctor Who anthology contributions Doctor Who: The Shooting Scripts (teleplay "The Unquiet Dead") () The Doctor Who Storybook 2007 (short story "Cuckoo-Spit") () The Doctor Who Storybook 2009 (short story "Cold") () The Doctor Who Storybook 2010 (short story "Scared Stiff") () The Brilliant Book of Doctor Who 2011 (short fiction The Lost Diaries of Winston Spencer Churchill) () The Brilliant Book of Doctor Who 2012 (short fiction George's Diary) () The League of Gentlemen A Local Book for Local People () The League of Gentlemen: Scripts and That () The League of Gentlemen's Book of Precious Things () Lucifer Box novels The Vesuvius Club () The Devil in Amber () Black Butterfly () Miscellaneous non-fiction James Whale: A Biography () They Came From Outer Space!: Alien Encounters in the Movies (with David Miller) () Miscellaneous fiction The King's Men (as "Christian Fall") (). The EsseX Files: To Basildon and Beyond (with Jeremy Dyson) (). Audio plays 2000 AD (Judge Dredd audio) Death Trap Doctor Who (and related) Time Travellers: Republica Time Travellers: Island of Lost Souls Phantasmagoria Invaders from Mars'' References External links 1966 births Living people 20th-century English male actors 20th-century English novelists 21st-century English male actors 21st-century English novelists Actors from County Durham Alumni of Bretton Hall College BBC television producers British male screenwriters British male television writers English atheists English comedy writers English film producers English male comedians English male film actors English male novelists English male radio actors English male screenwriters English male stage actors English male television actors English male voice actors English radio writers English republicans English science fiction writers English screenwriters English television directors English television producers English television writers English gay actors English gay writers English LGBT novelists LGBT screenwriters People associated with the University of Huddersfield People from Heighington, County Durham People from Sedgefield The League of Gentlemen Writers of Doctor Who novels

Devshirme

eng_Latn

Devshirme (, ; usually translated as "child levy" or "blood tax") was the Ottoman practice of forcibly recruiting soldiers and bureaucrats from among the children of their Balkan Christian subjects. Those coming from the Balkans came primarily from noble Balkan families and rayah classes. It is first mentioned in written records in 1438, but probably started earlier. It created a faction of soldiers and officials loyal to the Sultan. It counterbalanced the Turkish nobility, who sometimes opposed the Sultan. The system produced a considerable number of grand viziers from the 1400s to the 1600s. This was the second most powerful position in the Ottoman Empire, after the sultan. Initially, the grand viziers were exclusively of Turk origin, but after there were troubles between Sultan Mehmed II and the Turkish grand vizier Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Younger, who was the first grand vizier to be executed, there was a rise of slave administrators (devshirme). They were much easier for the sultans to control, compared to free administrators of Turkish aristocratic extraction. The devshirme also produced many Ottoman Empire's provincial governors, military commanders, and divans during the 1400s–1600s period. Sometimes, the devshirme recruits were castrated and became eunuchs. Although often destined to the harem, many eunuchs of devshirme origin went on to hold important positions in the military and the government, such as grand viziers Hadım Ali Pasha, Sinan Borovinić, and Hadım Hasan Pasha. Ottoman soldiers would take European Christian males, aged 8 to 20, from Eastern, Southern and Southeastern Europe, and relocate them to Istanbul, where they would be trained. The fact that many were taken forcibly from their parents has been the subject of criticism. The devshirme was often resented by locals though some Christian families volunteered their sons, as service offered good career options, specifically Albanians and Bosnians according to William Gervase Clarence-Smith. Recruits sometimes used their positions to help their family. The boys were forced to convert to Islam. Muslims were not allowed into the system (with some exceptions), but some Muslim families smuggled their sons in anyway. Many scholars consider the practice of devishirme as violating Islamic law. David Nicolle writes that enslavement of Christian boys violates the dhimmi protections guaranteed in Islam, but Halil İnalcık argues that the devshirme were not slaves once converted to Islam. The boys were given a formal education, and trained in science, warfare and bureaucratic administration, and became advisers to the sultan, elite infantry, generals in the army, admirals in the navy, and bureaucrats working on finance in the Ottoman Empire. They were separated according to ability and could rise in rank based on merit. The most talented (the ichoglani) were trained for the highest positions in the empire. Others joined the military, including the famed janissaries. The practice began to die out as Ottoman soldiers preferred recruiting their own sons into the army, rather than sons from Christian families. In 1594, Muslims were officially allowed to take the positions held by the devishirme and the system of recruiting Christians effectively stopped by 1648. An attempt to re-institute it in 1703 was resisted by its Ottoman members, who coveted the military and civilian posts. Finally, in the early days of Ahmet III's reign, the practice of devshirme was abolished. History The came up out of the system of slavery that developed in the early centuries of the Ottoman Empire, and which reached this final development during the reign of Sultan Bayazit I. The were mostly prisoners from war, hostages, or slaves that were purchased by the state. The Ottoman Empire, beginning with Murad I, felt a need to "counteract the power of (Turkic) nobles by developing Christian vassal soldiers and converted as his personal troops, independent of the regular army." This elite force, which served the Ottoman Sultan directly, was called (The Hearth of the Porte Servants). They were divided into two main groups: cavalry and infantry. The cavalry was commonly known as the (The Cavalry of the Servants of the Porte) and the infantry as the (transliterated in English as janissary), meaning "the New Corps". At first, the soldiers serving in these corps were selected from the slaves captured during war. However, a new system commonly known as was soon adopted. In this system, children of the rural Christian populations of the Balkans were conscripted before adolescence and were brought up as Muslims. Upon reaching adolescence, these children were enrolled in one of the four imperial institutions: the palace, the scribes, the Muslim clergy, and the military. Those enrolled in the military would become either part of the Janissary corps, or part of another corps. The most promising were sent to the palace school (), where they were destined for a career within the palace itself and could attain the highest office of state, Grand Vizier, the Sultan's powerful chief minister and military deputy. In the beginning of the Ottoman Empire, this office was held only by Turks. However, after there were problems between sultan Mehmed II and the Turkish Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Younger, who became the first grand vizier to be executed, there was a rise of slave administrators (). They were much easier to control for the sultans, as compared to free administrators of Turkish noble origin. They were also less subject to influence from court factions. From the very beginning, the Turcoman were a danger that undermined the Sultan's creation of a strong state. Thus, the establishment of this class counterbalanced the Turkish nobility, who sometimes opposed the Sultan. An early Greek source mentioning () is a speech by Archbishop Isidore of Thessalonica, made on 28 February 1395, titled: "On the abduction of children according to sultan's order and on the Future Judgment". The speech includes references to the violent Islamization of children and their hard training in the use of dogs and falcons. A reference to is made in a poem composed in Greek by Ioannes Axayiolis, who appeals to Emperor Charles V of Germany to liberate the Christians from the Turks. The text is found in the of 1624. In another account, the Roman Catholic bishop of Chios in 1646 writes to the director of the Catholic Greek Gymnasion of Rome asking the latter to accept Paulos Omeros, a 12-year-old boy from Chios, to save him from the . The life of the The ideal age of a recruit was between 8 and 10 years of age; recruitment of boys younger than 8 was forbidden. Those were called (nursling) and (child). The system was at times locally resented, and was resisted. There were even Christian rebellions initiated specifically against the in Albania and Epirus in 1565. Many sources (including Paolo Giovio) mention attempts of Christian parents to avoid the : trying to bribe the officers, marry the boys at the age of 12, mutilate the boy or both the father and son convert to Islam. On the other hand, as the could reach powerful positions, Christian parents in Bosnia were known to bribe scouts to take their children. "The children were taken from their families and transported to Istanbul. Upon their arrival, they were force-converted to Islam, examined, and trained to serve the empire. This system produced infantry corps soldiers as well as civilian administrators and high-ranked military officials." Their village, district and province, parentage, date of birth, and physical appearance was recorded. Although the influence of Turkic nobility continued in the Ottoman court until Mehmet II (see Çandarlı Halil), the Ottoman ruling class slowly came to be ruled exclusively by the , creating a separate social class. This class of rulers was chosen from the brightest of and hand-picked to serve in the palace institution, known as the Enderûn. They had to accompany the Sultan on campaigns, but exceptional service would be rewarded by assignments outside the palace. Those chosen for the scribe institution, known as , were also granted prestigious positions. The religious institution, İlmiye, was where all orthodox Muslim clergy of the Ottoman Empire were educated and sent to provinces or served in the capital. Tavernier noted in 1678 that the janissaries looked more like a religious order than a military corps. The members of the organization were not banned from marriage, as Tavernier further noted, but it was very uncommon for them. He went on to write that their numbers had increased to a hundred thousand, but only due to a degeneration of regulations, with many of these in fact being "fake" janissaries, posing as such for tax exemptions and other social privileges. He noted that the actual number of janissaries was in fact much lower; Shaw writes that their number was 30,000 under Suleiman the Magnificent. By the 1650s, the number of janissaries had increased to 50,000, although by this time the had largely been abandoned as a method of recruitment. Recruits were sometimes gained through voluntary accessions, as some parents were eager to have their children enroll in the janissary service that ensured them a successful career and comfort. The Balkan peasantry tried to evade the tribute collectors, with many attempting to substitute their children in Bosnia, but there are cases Albanian families offering their children voluntarily, as it offered them prospects not available to them in any other manner. Conversion to Islam was used in Bosnia and Herzegovina to escape the system. Some Muslim families tried to have the recruiters take their sons so they could achieve professional advancement. Some Christian families were undeniably heartbroken to have their children taken from them; in Epirus, a traditional folk song expressed this resentment, cursing the Sultan and admonishing against the kidnapping of boys: Albertus Bobovius wrote in 1686 that diseases were common among the , and strict discipline was enforced. The BBC notes the following regarding the system: "Although members of the devshirme class were technically slaves, they were of great importance to the Sultan because they owed him their absolute loyalty and became vital to his power. This status enabled some of the 'slaves' to become both powerful and wealthy." According to Cleveland, the system offered "limitless opportunities to the young men who became a part of it." Basilike Papoulia wrote that "...the devishirme was the 'forcible removal', in the form of a tribute, of children of the Christian subjects from their ethnic, religious and cultural environment and their transportation into the Turkish-Islamic environment with the aim of employing them in the service of the Palace, the army, and the state, whereby they were on the one hand to serve the Sultan as slaves and freedmen and on the other to form the ruling class of the State." Accordingly, Papoulia agrees with Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb and Harold Bowen, authors of Islamic Society and the West, that the was a penalization imposed on the Balkan peoples since their ancestors had resisted the Ottoman invasion. Vladimir Minorsky states, "The most striking manifestation of this fact is the unprecedented system of devshirme, i.e. the periodic conscription of 'tribute boys', by which the children of Christians were wrung from their families, churches, and communities to be molded into Ottoman praetorians owing their allegiance to the Sultan and the official faith of Islam." This system as explained by Çandarlı Kara Halil Hayreddin Pasha, founder of the janissaries: "The conquered are slaves of the conquerors, to whom their goods, their women, and their children belong as lawful possession". Status under Islamic law According to scholars, the practice of devishirme was a clear violation of sharia or Islamic law. David Nicolle writes that since the boys were "effectively enslaved" under the system, this was a violation of the protections guaranteed under Islamic law to People of the Book. The practice of also involved forced conversions to Islam. This is disputed by Turkish historian Halil İnalcık, who argues that the were not slaves once converted to Islam. Some scholars point out that the early Ottoman Empire did not care about the details of sharia and thus did not see any problems with . During this time, the Ottomans believed that the Qanun, the law enacted by the Sultan, superseded sharia, even though the latter was treated with respect. The was just one example where the Sultan's wishes superseded the sharia (another example is that Ottoman sultans set maximum interest rates, even though sharia totally prohibits all interest). James L. Gelvin explains that Ottoman jurists were able to get around this injunction with an extraordinarily creative legal manoeuvre, arguing that although Islamic tradition forbade the enslavement of Christians, Balkan Christians were different because they had converted to Christianity after the advent of Islam. William Gervase Clarence-Smith points out that this reasoning is not accepted in the Hanafi school of law, which the Ottoman Empire claimed to have practiced. Contemporary Ottoman chroniclers had mixed opinions on the practice. Ottoman historian of the 1500s, Mustafa Âlî, admitted that violated sharia, but was only allowed out of necessity. Others argued the Muslim conqueror had the right to one-fifth of war booty and could thus take the Christian boys; however, Islamic law allows no such booty from communities that had submitted peacefully to conquest and certainly not from their descendants. Ethnicity of the , and exemptions The were collected once every four or five years from rural provinces in Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe and Anatolia. They were mainly collected from Christian subjects, with a few exceptions. However, some Muslim families managed to smuggle their sons in anyway. The levy was not applied to the major cities of the empire, and children of local craftsmen in rural towns were also exempt, as it was considered that conscripting them would harm the economy. According to Bernard Lewis, the janissaries were mainly recruited from the Slavic and Albanian populations of the Balkans. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Encyclopaedia of Islam, in the early days of the empire all Christians were enrolled indiscriminately. Later, those from Albania, Bosnia, and Bulgaria were preferred. What is certain is that were primarily recruited from Christians living in the Balkans, particularly Serbs and Bosnians, as well as others from the Balkans region, such as Albanians and Greeks. Well-known examples of Ottomans who had been recruited as include Skanderbeg, Sinan Pasha and Sokollu Mehmed Pasha. The early Ottoman emphasis on recruiting Greeks, Albanians, Bulgarians, and south Slavs was a direct consequence of being centred on territories, in northwestern Anatolia and the southern Balkans, where these ethnic groups were prevalent. Jews were exempt from this service. Armenians are also believed to have been exempt from the levy by many scholars, although a 1997 publication that examined Armenian colophons from the 15th to 17th centuries and foreign travelers of the time concluded that Armenians were not exempt. Boys who were orphans or who were their family's only son were exempt. Unifying factor The diversity of the also served as a unifying factor for the Ottoman Empire. Greeks, Armenians, Albanians, and other ethnicities would see that the Sultan was Turkish, but his viziers were Greek, Bulgarian, Armenian, and other ethnicities. This ethnic diversity in high-level and powerful positions of the Ottoman Empire helped to unite the diverse groups under their jurisdiction. They also prevented a hereditary aristocracy from forming, but held sway over the Sultan themselves, practically forming their own aristocracy. in the Ottoman Palace School The primary objective of the Palace School was to train the ablest children for leadership positions, either as military leaders or as high administrators to serve the Devlet. Although there are many resemblances between Enderûn and other palace schools of the previous civilizations, such as those of the Abbasids, and Seljuks or the contemporary European palace schools, Enderûn was unique with respect to the background of the student body and its meritocratic system. In the strict draft phase, students were taken forcefully from the Christian population of the Empire and were converted to Islam; Jews and Gypsies were exempted from , and so were all Muslims. Those entrusted to find these children were scouts, who were specially trained agents, throughout the Empire's European lands. Scouts were recruiting youngsters according to their talent and ability with school subjects, in addition to their personality, character, and physical perfection. The Enderûn candidates were not supposed to be orphans, or the only child in their family (to ensure the candidates had strong family values); they had to not have already learned to speak Turkish or a craft or trade. The ideal age of a recruit was between 10 and 20 years of age. Mehmed Refik Beg mentioned that a youth with a bodily defect, no matter how slight, was never admitted into palace service, since Turks believed that a strong soul and a good mind could be found only in a perfect body. The selected children were dressed in red, so that they could not easily escape on their way to Constantinople. The cost of the service and their clothes were paid by their villages or communities. The boys were gathered into cohorts of a hundred or more to walk to Constantinople where they were circumcised and divided between the palace schools and the military training. Anyone not chosen for the palace spent years being toughened by hard labor on Anatolian farms until they were old enough for the military. The brightest youths who fit into the general guidelines and had a strong primary education were then given to selected Muslim families across Anatolia to complete the enculturation process. They would later attend schools across Anatolia to complete their training for six to seven years in order to qualify as ordinary military officers. They would get the highest salaries amongst the administrators of the empire, and very well respected in public. M. Armağan, defined the system as a pyramid which was designed to select the elite of the elite, the ablest and most physically perfect. Only a very few would reach the Palace School. Eunuchs Sometimes, white eunuchs were recruited from among the . Differently from the black eunuchs, who were usually castrated in their place of origin, the were castrated at the palace. The palace eunuchs who supervised them often came from the same background as the (i.e. the Balkans). A considerable number of eunuchs of origin went on to hold important positions, both in the government and the military, and many of them became grand vizier, like Hadım Ali Pasha, Sinan Borovinić, Hadım Hasan Pasha, Hadim Mesih Pasha, and Hadım Mehmed Pasha. Others, like Sofu Hadım Ali Pasha, Hadım Şehabeddin, Hadım Yakup Pasha of Bosnia, Hadım Ali Pasha of Buda, Hadım Suleiman Pasha and his namesake Hadım Suleiman Pasha, became prominent admirals and generals. Decline According to historian Cemal Kafadar, one of the main reasons for the decline of the system was that the size of the janissary corps had to be expanded in order to compensate for the decline in the importance of the sipahi cavalry forces, which itself was a result of changes in early modern warfare (such as the introduction of firearms and increased importance of infantry). Indeed, the janissary corps would soon become the empire's largest single military corps. As a result, by the late 16th century, the system was increasingly being abandoned for less rigid recruitment methods that allowed Muslims to enter directly into the janissary corps. In 1632, the janissaries attempted an unsuccessful coup against Murad IV, who then imposed a loyalty oath on them. In 1638 or 1648, the -based recruiting system of the janissary corps formally came to an end. In an order sent in multiple copies to authorities throughout the European provinces in 1666, a recruitment target of between 300 and 320 was set for an area covering the whole of the central and western Balkans. On the accession of sultan Suleiman II in 1687, only 130 janissary inductees were graduated to the janissary ranks. The system was finally abolished in the early part of Ahmet III's reign (1703–1730). After Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, there was a reform movement in Sultan Selim III's regime, to reduce the numbers of the askeri class, who were the first class citizens or military class (also called janissaries). Selim was taken prisoner and murdered by the janissaries. The successor to the sultan, Mahmud II, was patient, but remembered the results of the uprising in 1807. In 1826, he created the basis of a new, modern army, the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye, which caused a revolt among the janissaries. The authorities kept the janissaries in their barracks and slaughtered thousands of them. This development entered the Ottoman history annals as the Auspicious Incident. See also Ottoman slavery in Central and Eastern Europe Janissary Mamluk Ghilman Black Guard Kapıkulu Annotations Notes References Further reading External links "Devsirme" in "Encyclopaedia of the Orient" Website on the Ottoman empire – original German version; here its Janissary page (to be further exploited) Military of the Ottoman Empire Slaves of the Ottoman Empire Persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire Persecution of Greeks in the Ottoman Empire before the 20th century Ottoman culture Ottoman society Education in the Ottoman Empire Slave soldiers

Ejection fraction

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An ejection fraction (EF) is the volumetric fraction (or portion of the total) of fluid (usually blood) ejected from a chamber (usually the heart) with each contraction (or heartbeat). Thus understood, ejection fraction may be used to measure a fluid of any viscosity discharged from a hollow organ to another cavity or outside of the body. Blood, bile and urine are commonly studied under this mathematical platform. For example, it may refer to the cardiac atrium, ventricle, gall bladder, or leg veins, although if unspecified it usually refers to the left ventricle of the heart. EF is widely used as a measure of the pumping efficiency of the heart and is used to classify heart failure types. It is also used as an indicator of the severity of heart failure, although it has recognized limitations. The EF of the left heart, known as the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), is calculated by dividing the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle per beat (stroke volume) by the volume of blood collected in the left ventricle at the end of diastolic filling (end-diastolic volume). LVEF is an indicator of the effectiveness of pumping into the systemic circulation. The EF of the right heart, or right ventricular ejection fraction (RVEF), is a measure of the efficiency of pumping into the pulmonary circulation. A heart which cannot pump sufficient blood to meet the body's requirements (i.e., heart failure) will often, but not invariably, have a reduced ventricular ejection fraction. Measurement Modalities applied to measurement of ejection fraction is an emerging field of medical mathematics and subsequent computational applications. Perhaps the first common bedrock measurement method was echocardiography, although cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), cardiac computed tomography, ventriculography and nuclear medicine (gated SPECT and radionuclide angiography) scans may also be used. Measurements by different modalities are not easily interchangeable. Historically, the gold standard for measurement of the ejection fraction was ventriculography, but cardiac MRI is now considered the best method. Prior to these more advanced techniques, the combination of electrocardiography and phonocardiography was used to accurately estimate ejection fraction. Physiology Normal values In a healthy man, the stroke volume is approximately 70 mL, and the left ventricular end-diastolic volume (EDV) is approximately 120 mL, giving an estimated ejection fraction of , or 0.58 (58%). Healthy individuals typically have ejection fractions between 50% and 65%, although the lower limits of normality are difficult to establish with confidence. Pathophysiology Heart failure categories Damage to heart muscle (myocardium), such as occurring following myocardial infarction or cardiomyopathy, compromises the heart's performance as an efficient pump and may reduce ejection fraction. Such reduction in the EF can manifest itself as heart failure. The 2016 European Society of Cardiology guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure subdivided heart failure into three categories on the basis of LVEF: normal or preserved LVEF [≥50%] (HFpEF) moderately reduced LVEF [in the range of 40–49%] (HFmrEF) reduced LVEF [<40%] (HFrEF)] A chronically low ejection fraction less than 30% is an important threshold in qualification for disability benefits in the US. Calculation By definition, the volume of blood within a ventricle at the end of diastole is the end-diastolic volume (EDV). Likewise, the volume of blood left in a ventricle at the end of systole (contraction) is the end-systolic volume (ESV). The difference between EDV and ESV is the stroke volume (SV). The ejection fraction is the fraction of the end-diastolic volume that is ejected with each beat; that is, it is stroke volume (SV) divided by end-diastolic volume (EDV): Where the stroke volume is given by: EF is inherently a relative measurement—as is any fraction, ratio, or percentage, whereas the stroke volume, end-diastolic volume or end-systolic volume are absolute measurements. History After William Harvey's description of the basic mechanism of the circulation in 1628, it was initially assumed that the heart emptied completely during systole. However, in 1856 Chauveau and Faivre observed that some fluid remained in the heart after contraction. This was confirmed by Roy and Adami in 1888. In 1906, Henderson estimated the ratio of the volume discharged in systole to the total volume of the left ventricle to be approximately 2/3. In 1933, Gustav Nylin proposed that the ratio of the heart volume/stroke volume (the reciprocal of ejection fraction) could be used as a measure of cardiac function. in 1952 Bing and colleagues used a minor modification of Nylin's suggestion (EDV/SV) to assess right ventricular function using a dye dilution technique. Exactly when the relationship between end diastolic volume and stroke volume was inverted into its current form is unclear. Holt calculated the ratio SV/EDV and noted that '...The ventricle empties itself in a "fractional" manner, approximately 46 per cent of its end-diastolic volume being ejected with each stroke and 54 per cent remaining in the ventricle at the end of systole'. In 1962, Folse and Braunwald used the ratio of forward stroke volume/EDV and observed that "estimations of the fraction of the left ventricular end-diastolic volume that is ejected into the aorta during each cardiac cycle, as well as of the ventricular end-diastolic and residual volumes, provide information that is fundamental to a hemodynamic analysis of left ventricular function". Elliott, Lane and Gorlin used the term "ejection fraction" in a conference paper abstract published in January 1964. In 1965 Bartle et al. used the term ejected fraction for the ratio SV/EDV, and the term ejection fraction was used in two review articles in 1968 suggesting a wide currency by that time. References Cardiovascular physiology

Charles Wilkins

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Sir Charles Wilkins, KH, FRS (1749 – 13 May 1836), was an English typographer and Orientalist, and founding member of The Asiatic Society. He is notable as the first translator of Bhagavad Gita into English, He supervised Panchanan Karmakar to create one of the first Bengali typeface. In 1788, Wilkins was elected a member of the Royal Society. Biography He was born at Frome in Somerset in 1749. He trained as a printer. In 1770 he went to India as a printer and writer in the East India Company's service. His facility with language allowed him to quickly learn Persian and Bengali. He created with his own hands the first type for printing Bengali.<ref name="annual69">. (1837). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm8EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP9&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=0_1#PPA69,M1 "No. VIII, Sir Charles Wilkins, K.H.; D.C.L.; F.R.S.," The Annual biography and obituary for the year 1817–1837, pp. 69–72.] Google Books</ref> He published the first typeset book in the language, earning himself the name "the Caxton of India". He also designed type for publications of books in Persian. In 1781 he was appointed as translator of Persian and Bengali to the Commissioner of Revenue and as superintendent of the Company's press. He successfully translated a Royal inscription in Kutila characters, which were thitherto indecipherable. In 1784, Wilkins helped William Jones establish the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Wilkins moved to Varanasi, where he studied Sanskrit under Kalinatha, a Brahmin pandit. At this period he began work on his translation of the Mahabharata, securing strong support for his activities from the governor of British India, Warren Hastings. Though he never completed the translation, portions were later published. The most important was his version of the Gita, published in 1785 as Bhagvat-geeta, or Dialogues of Kreeshna and Arjoon (London: Nourse, 1785). In his preface Wilkins argued that the Gita was written to encourage a form of monotheist "unitarianism" and to draw Hinduism away from the polytheism he ascribed to the Vedas. He had a hobby to learn about other religions. He was also a scholar of Islam. He stayed in India for 16 years (1770–1786). He also made visits to holy shrines of other religions to learn about their customs. During a visit to Varanasi, he made a stop at Patna, and visited Patna Sahib Gurudwara, the birthplace of Guru Gobind Singh Ji. He wrote his account of this visit titled as 'Sikhs and their College at Patna'. He writes about Dasam Granth there and notes in this article. Meanwhile, inscriptions of the 6th century CE in late Brahmi script were deciphered in 1785 by Charles Wilkins, who published an essentially correct translation of the Gopika Cave Inscription written by the Maukhari king Anantavarman. Wilkins seems to have relied essentially on the similarities with later Brahmic scripts, such as the script of the Pala period and early forms of Devanagari. His translation of the Gita was itself soon translated into French (1787) and German (1802). It proved to be a major influence on Romantic literature and on European perception of Hindu philosophy. William Blake later celebrated the publication in his picture The Bramins, exhibited in 1809, which depicted Wilkins and Brahmin scholars working on the translation. With Hastings' departure from India, Wilkins lost his main patron. He returned to England in 1786, where he married Elizabeth Keeble. In 1787 Wilkins followed the Gita with his translation of The Heetopades of Veeshnoo-Sarma, in a Series of Connected Fables, Interspersed with Moral, Prudential and Political Maxims (Bath: 1787). He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1788. In 1800, he was invited to take up the post of the first director of the India House Library, which became over time the world-famous 'India Office Library' (now British Library – Oriental Collections). In 1801 he became librarian to the East India Company, He was named examiner at Haileybury when a college was established there in 1805. During these years he devoted himself to the creation of a font for Devanagari, the "divine script". In 1808 he published his Grammar of the Sanskrita Language. King George IV gave him the badge of the Royal Guelphic Order and he was knighted in recognition of his services to Oriental scholarship in 1833. He died in London at the age of 86. In addition to his own translations and type designs, Wilkins published a new edition of John Richardson's Persian and Arabic dictionary – A Vocabulary Persian, Arabic, and English; Abridged from the Quarto Edition of Richardson's Dictionary as Edited by Charles Wilkins, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S. – By David Hopkins, Esq., Assistant Surgeon on the Bengal Establishment'' in 1810. He also published a catalogue of the manuscripts collected by Sir William Jones, who acknowledged his indebtedness to Wilkins. Publications See also Royal Society—Wilkins was elected to membership in the Society in 1788. Those signing that nomination letter were: James Rennell, William Marsden, Charles Blagden, Alexander Dalrymple, Samuel Harper, George Staunton, Thomas Astle. Notes References . (1837). The Annual biography and obituary for the year 1817–1837. London: Longmans. Rost, Reinhold. (1865). Works by the late Horace Hayman Wilson. London: Trubner. External links Charles Wilkins at Banglapedia 1749 births 1836 deaths People from Frome English orientalists English Indologists Sanskrit–English translators Translators of the Bhagavad Gita Fellows of the Royal Society English typographers and type designers

List of Magic: The Gathering sets

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The trading card game Magic: The Gathering has released a large number of sets since it was first published by Wizards of the Coast. After the 1993 release of Limited Edition, also known as Alpha and Beta, roughly 3-4 major sets have been released per year, in addition to various spin-off products. Magic has made three types of sets since Alpha and Beta: base/core sets, expansion sets, and compilation sets. Expansion sets are the most numerous and prevalent type of expansion; they primarily consist of new cards, with few or no reprints, and either explore a new setting, or advance the plot in an existing setting. Kamigawa: Neon Dynasty is the most recent expansion set as of February 2022. Base sets, later renamed core sets, are the successors to the original Limited Edition and are meant to provide a baseline Magic experience; they tended to consist either largely or entirely of reprints. Compilation sets also exist entirely of reprints, and tend to be made as either a special themed product, or as a way to increase supply of cards with small printings. Examples of compilation sets with randomized boosters include Chronicles and Modern Masters. There also exist compilation products with a pre-selected and fixed card pool, such as the Duel Decks and From The Vault series. Theme decks serve a similar function; however, they are always attached to a specific set or block, while compilations are free to pick and choose cards from any set. All expansion sets, and all editions of the base set from Sixth Edition onward, are identified by an expansion symbol printed on the right side of cards, below the art and above the text box. From Exodus onward, the expansion symbols are also color-coded to denote rarity: black for common and basic land cards, silver for uncommon, and gold for rare. Beginning with the Shards of Alara set, a red-orange expansion symbol denotes a new rarity: "Mythic Rare" (the Time Spiral set featured an additional purple coloration for "timeshifted" cards). For the early expansion sets (from Arabian Nights to Alliances), the rarities of cards were often much more complicated than the breakdown into common, uncommon, and rare suggests. Cards in compilations are assigned partially arbitrary rarity by Wizards, with some cards assigned rare status and some assigned mythic rare in a given set. Base/core set editions After the second version (Beta) of the first set, which contained two cards mistakenly excluded from the first version (Alpha), all subsequent base sets through 10th Edition consisted of cards that had been printed before in either the original base set or an expansion set. Alpha through Fifth Edition did not have set symbols printed on the actual cards, though those sets were retroactively given set symbols in Wizards of the Coast's official Gatherer database of Magic cards. Expansion sets Expansion sets from Mirage to Rivals of Ixalan (with the exception of Homelands) came in groups called "blocks". Blocks were cohesive products: they usually centered around one plane, followed a particular storyline, and contained cards and mechanics that supported both. Blocks generally consisted of one large "stand-alone" expansion set of 250-380 cards, followed by one or two small expansion sets of 141-200 cards which continue the themes introduced in the large set. Like the base set, stand-alone expansion sets contain basic land cards; other expansion sets do not. Beginning with Alliances, expansion sets were given codenames while in development; the code names of the expansions of a block usually fit together to form a phrase or common theme. Ice Age, Homelands, and Alliances were retroactively declared a block at some point, despite Homelands not being connected to the other two in any way. In 2006, WotC retroactively dropped Homelands from the Ice Age cycle and added Coldsnap to it. With the Zendikar cycle in 2009, the traditional large-small-small block structure began to be varied, with some blocks including a second large set later in the cycle. Starting with the Battle for Zendikar block in 2015, the default structure of a block was changed to large-small, with two blocks released per year and each block consisting of only two sets. Ice Age and Alliances were the first two sets to have a well-defined relationship, but the idea of calling connected sets a "block" or "cycle" did not exist at the time of printing. Also beginning with Alliances in June 1996, expansion sets were released in a regular pattern: the base sets were released in October with the small expansion sets being released in February and June. With the exceptions of Stronghold, a 1998 set released in March rather than February, and Scourge, a 2003 set which was released in May rather than June, this pattern of months was never broken, over a 10-year period, until 2006, when Dissension was also released a month early in May instead of June, because of the July release of Coldsnap. The third set in a block has since been released in late April or early May. From 2005-2015, there was a fourth release date each year in mid-July, usually reserved for base sets. Other summer releases included Coldsnap and Eventide. Fallen Empires was an experimental expansion in which most cards have three or four different pieces of artwork. You could see them as 121 common cards, by art, or 36 cards by the text. It was also a major expansion in the idea of tribes, especially Goblins and Merfolk. Most early expansion sets did not have exact release dates; they were just shipped out within the space of a week, and retailers could start selling them as soon as the sets were received. By the time of Alliances in 1996, however, release dates were set as Mondays (the earliest set with an exact Monday release date might possibly have preceded Alliances, but Alliances is the earliest set with a cited and confirmed Monday release date). Beginning with Mirrodin in 2003, the release dates were changed from Monday to Friday. All sets beginning with Homelands also have a pre-release date, on which cards are sold in limited quantities in pre-release tournaments. These tournaments were formerly always held two weeks before the release date, but since Shards of Alara they are now held one week before the release date. Premium cards have been inserted into booster packs since Urza's Legacy. Originally 1 premium card was inserted for every 100 cards. The ratio was changed to 1 in 70 cards with the Torment expansion. Beginning with Tenth Edition the rate was increased to 1 in 56 cards. This later changed to 1 in 45 cards with "Core Set 2020" Starting with Battle for Zendikar cycle, sets sometimes also contain an entry in the Masterpiece Series. The block model has evolved as time went on. In addition to a formalized structure (which was occasionally varied) Wizards began to have trouble developing small sets that satisfied their own quality standards. Players also reported fatigue at playing in the same environment for a year at a time. The decision to remove one small set from each block, as showcased in Battle For Zendikar block, was a result of this dissatisfaction. It culminated in the decision to delete small sets entirely; since the conclusion of Ixalan cycle, all sets have been large-sized sets. However, not all large-size sets will involve travel to a new plane; some will be sequels to the set prior to it, if the depth of the plane's story and mechanics allows. Dominaria, released in 2018, was the first set under this model. Other sets Non-rotation sets These sets are legal in non-rotating formats such as Modern, but not rotating formats such as Standard. Introductory sets These introductory sets were intended for novice Magic: The Gathering players. They were illegal in sanctioned tournaments until October 2005, when they became legal in Legacy and Vintage. Compilations/reprint sets Reprint sets are sets of certain cards from previous sets that were re-released for different reasons. Some reasons include the cards were fan favorites and popular demand brought them back or in some cases, reprints were to commemorate certain events such as widely known matches or anniversary sets. Some reprint sets revolved around a certain theme; for example, Beatdown was themed around old, out-of-print, heavy-hitting creatures. Reprinting a card in one of these sets does not affect when it leaves Standard. Deck Builder's Toolkits are released at the same time as a core set and contain only cards from sets that are legal in Standard at that time; they are not sets as such. These boxed sets therefore have no symbol or code of their own. Masterpiece Series Starting with the Kaladesh block, some sets include the Masterpiece Series. Wizards of the coast has stated "the Masterpiece Series... began with Zendikar Expeditions". They were retroactively added with the announcement of Kaladesh Inventions. Cards in the Masterpiece Series appear at a higher rarity than Mythic Rares, and consist of either reprints, or cards from the set whose packs they appear in. However, they are not considered part of that set, and instead get their own expansion symbol; moreover, as with reprint sets (see below), printing in a Masterpiece Series entry does not affect format legality. Note that entries in the Masterpiece Series do not have expansion codes, except for Zendikar Expeditions, which has code "EXP". The Guilds of Ravnica Mythic Edition is a package that is sold exclusively on Hasbro's website. It contains 24 Guilds of Ravnica packs, 8 of which contain a predetermined Masterpiece card. On January 10, 2019, the Ravnica Allegiance Mythic Edition was announced. Unlike the Guilds of Ravnica version, the Ravnica Allegiance Mythic Edition will be sold on eBay and ship globally. It contains 24 Ravnica Allegiance packs, 8 of which contain a predetermined Masterpiece card. The set codes listed below come from the 3-letter code printed on the card frames at the bottom. Collector Booster Packs Starting with the Throne of Eldraine expansion, collector packs started. Wizards of the Coast also had collector packs (premium packs) in Shards of Alara, but no sets after that until Throne of Eldraine. Collector packs in Throne of Eldraine consist of five to six foil commons, three to four foil uncommons, three alternate art cards, one card from supplemental sets (from the Brawl deck series or planeswalker deck exclusive cards), one rare or mythic rare, one extended art rare or mythic rare, one foil rare or mythic rare, and a foil double faced token. Theros Beyond Death collector boosters consist of four to five foil commons, two to three foil uncommons, two full art foil basic lands, one card from supplemental sets (Theros Beyond Death planeswalker deck exclusive cards), one rare or mythic rare, one foil rare or mythic rare, two alternate art "Constellation" cards, and a foil double faced token. Multiplayer-focused sets Starting with Planechase in 2009, Wizards of the Coast has occasionally printed sets intended primarily for multiplayer play, which do not necessarily consist entirely of reprints but are not legal in Standard; a card printed in one of these is legal only in Eternal formats, and reprinting a card in one of these sets does not affect when it leaves Standard. These sets usually consist of fixed decks. Non-DCI-sanctioned-tournament-play-legal sets These sets, though also published by Wizards of the Coast, are not legal for DCI-sanctioned tournament play. Magic: The Gathering Online exclusive sets These sets are exclusive to Magic: The Gathering Online. Notes : Two cards, the common Circle of Protection: Black and the rare Volcanic Island, were inadvertently left out of the printing of Alpha. Beta and Unlimited included the two missing cards as well as one additional alternate art variant of each of the five basic lands. Consequently, those two sets each have seven more cards than Alpha did. : When the Revised Edition was in production in 1994, a number of problems with the set became apparent. Some cards' colors were washed-out. The picture and color foreground for the Serendib Efreet were wrong (not that this was the first such misprint), and there was a growing concern with the Satanic images on some of the cards. The solution was to print a "fixed" version of Revised Edition, code named "Edgar", which has since came to be known as Summer Magic because it was printed in the summer of 1994. The cards were distributed in regular Revised Edition boosters, but no Summer Edition starters were produced. Despite its intended function as a fixed Revised Edition, there were problems with Summer Magic. On some cards, the colors were too dark. Furthermore, Hurricane was printed as a blue card and thereby became the most famous and most desired Summer Magic card of all. The Serendib Efreet had its artwork corrected, but the artist name was still wrong, as was that of Plateau (which had, uniquely out of the cards in Revised, received new art, but not an updated artist credit to reflect that). Because of all these flaws, the entire print run was recalled and destroyed which led to Revised Edition shortage in 1994. However, a few booster boxes survived. Summer Magic cards can sell for over $1000 for notable cards and some as high $5000. Summer Magic cards can best be recognized by their 1994 copyright date. : The only cards in Fifth Edition to have an expansion symbol were those printed in Simplified Chinese in 1998. : In addition to the 350 cards normally available in booster packs, the Eighth Edition Core Game contained 7 "starter cards" not available in booster packs, labeled with collector numbers S1 through S7; 3 were marked common, 3 uncommon, and 1 rare. Ninth Edition contained 9, labeled S1 through S10 (omitting S6); 6 were marked common, 2 uncommon, and 1 rare. These were meant to introduce new players to the game; most were "vanilla" creatures. Similarly, Magic 2015 contained 15 starter cards not contained in booster packs; 6 were marked common, 4 uncommon, and 5 rare. Magic Origins contained 16 such cards. : 14 of the commons were printed in two subtle variations (called "a" and "b") making 92 total cards but only 78 unique cards. : 5 of the cards came in 4 alternate art versions making the set have 100 total cards but only 85 unique cards. The different art versions also differ in rarity causing these 5 cards to make up a total of 6 commons, 9 uncommons, and 6 rares. : The first pre-release officially sponsored by Wizards of the Coast was held for Homelands in New York City. Ice Age, which preceded Homelands, had an unofficial widely attended pre-release in Toronto. : 15 of the commons came in 4 alternate art versions, while 20 of them came in 3 alternate art versions causing 187 total cards but only 102 unique cards. : Homelands was not designed as part of the Ice Age block and has no thematic link to Ice Age and Alliances. Wizards of the Coast retroactively declared it part of the Ice Age block in 1997 to fit with the then-emerging standard block structure. Nearly a decade later in 2006, Coldsnap was released as a belated third entry to the Ice Age block. Homelands was reverted to a standalone set. Coldsnap was, for purposes of card legality, part of Time Spiral as far as rotation at the time, so it was legal to play in 2006-2008 era Standard formats. (Wizards of the Coast would later separate Coldsnap and Time Spiral in Extended, however.) : 25 commons had 2 alternate art versions making 140 total cards but only 115 unique cards. : All commons had 2 alternate art versions making 199 total cards but only 144 unique cards and 55 unique commons. : The Coalition was a group assembled by Urza to defend Dominaria against the invasion of the Phyrexians. : Many creatures in the Onslaught Block had the ability to "morph." Morphed creatures looked like "clay spiders." : This does not count the alternate art for the uncommon card . Counting each version separately, there are 89 uncommons and 307 cards in the set. : In the Time Spiral Cycle there are special cards in each set that are "timeshifted". In Time Spiral TSP refers to all non-timeshifted cards in the set while TSB, which stands for "TimeShifted Bonus" (during development, the timeshifted cards were known as "bonus cards"), refers to the 121 timeshifted reprint cards. The timeshifted reprint cards have a purple expansion symbol and are not counted towards the number of cards in the set. Instead they form a subset with their own collector's numbers. Each Time Spiral booster pack contains exactly one Timeshifted bonus card, replacing a common. In Planar Chaos there are 45 Timeshifted Cards (20 common, 15 uncommon, and 10 rare), however, unlike in Time Spiral they were not reprints but instead they were existing cards from the past which were "colorshifted" (known, iconic cards that were printed in a different color). Colorshifted cards are recognizable by the white text for the name and type line and different background designs from the normal cards. In contrast to the timeshifted cards in Time Spiral the colorshifted cards in Planar Chaos and Future Sight are not bonus cards, meaning that they come in rarities of common, uncommon, and rare, and are counted towards the Collector's numbers of the set. However they are distributed differently than normal cards, with 3 of the commons in each booster being timeshifted, and one uncommon being replaced with a timeshifted uncommon 3/4 of the time and a timeshifted rare 1/4 of the time. In Future Sight there are 81 timeshifted Cards, composing 27 of each rarity; these were simply included in packs like ordinary cards of their rarity. However, unlike the previous sets these timeshifted cards have a future theme in that they have a different frame than normal cards and have keyword mechanics that may appear in future sets. : Starting in Shards of Alara Wizards of the Coast introduced a new rarity level higher than rare called Mythic Rare. A mythic rare card will appear in approximately 1 out of every 8 booster packs instead of a rare. : Chronicles, released in 1995 between Ice Age and Homelands, reprinted many previous cards, drawn from the Arabian Nights, Antiquities, Legends, and The Dark sets, that were becoming difficult to obtain but added no new cards to the game. Despite being published between Ice Age and Homelands, it is not considered part of the Ice Age Block; for purposes of tournament-legality, it was instead treated as an extension of Fourth Edition. The cards in Chronicles were reprinted with white borders, as opposed to their original black borders. Also Chronicles contained three uncommons with four alternate art versions meaning there are 125 total cards but only 116 unique cards and only 34 unique uncommons. : Many of the early compilation sets did not have expansion symbols of their own and instead the cards within these reprint sets just retained the symbol from their former set. : Portal was a series of sets featuring simplified rules intended to introduce novice players of Magic: The Gathering to the game. When they were originally released, they were not legal for DCI-sanctioned tournament play, but the DCI changed its policy and the Portal sets became legal in the Vintage and Legacy tournament formats on October 20, 2005. : 5 of the commons and 2 of the uncommons were alternate versions, so there are only 200 unique cards (85 unique common, 55 unique uncommons) in Portal. : Starter 2000 was made up of two 22-card decks and two 15-card packs, all with a fixed selection of cards. : Astral is a set of 12 cards that was never actually printed on paper and exists only in the MicroProse Magic: The Gathering computer game (with the exception of the oversized Aswan Jaguar included in the box). All 12 cards had abilities that depended on randomness and were therefore more practical to use on the computer than on paper. : The Un- sets are satirical sets which, though also published by Wizards of the Coast, are not legal for DCI-sanctioned tournament play. : Unhinged contains 1 ultra-rare, called Super Secret Tech, which only exists as a foil rare card. : The first event that used Mirage product was Pro Tour Atlanta on 13 September 1996. : The Lorwyn and Shadowmoor blocks consist of two sets each. They were released over the course of one year and thus deviate from the usual three expansion sets per year policy. Eventide was the second set in the Shadowmoor block and was released in July. : Of the cards in Innistrad, 6 commons, 7 uncommons, 6 rares, and 1 mythic are double-faced cards; though these appear in normal rarities, they are distributed differently, with one double-faced card always appearing per pack, replacing a common. The same is true of Dark Ascension; it has 4 commons, 4 uncommons, 3 rares, and 2 mythics as double-faced cards. : 10 of the commons in Dragon's Maze are reprints of the Guildgates from Return to Ravnica and Gatecrash; while these are common, they are distributed differently than other commons, in that they instead replace the basic land in the booster pack; basic lands do not appear in Dragon's Maze booster packs. Furthermore, one of the mythic rares in Dragon's Maze, , is distributed differently from the other mythic rares, in that it also replaces the basic land in the booster pack, rather than the rare. In addition, the basic land may also be replaced with one of the "shock lands" from Return to Ravnica or Gatecrash; although these can appear in Dragon's Maze booster packs, they are not considered part of Dragon's Maze, being identical to the "shock lands" that appeared in Return to Ravnica and Gatecrash. 10 of the commons in Fate Reforged are reprints of the dual lands from Khans of Tarkir; while these are common, these are distributed differently than other commons, in that they may appear in the basic land slot instead of a common slot. In addition, the land slot may also contain one of the "fetch lands" from Khans of Tarkir; although these can appear in Fate Reforged booster packs, they are not considered part of Fate Reforged, being identical to the "fetch lands" that appeared in Khans of Tarkir. In most languages, these are in fact ordinarily the only possibilities for the land slot; basic lands will not ordinarily appear except in Korean, Portuguese, Russian, and Traditional Chinese. : Although the Masterpiece Series proper would not begin until Kaladesh block, something similar was done with Battle for Zendikar block in the form of Zendikar Expeditions. There are 25 premium Zendikar Expeditions cards that may appear in Battle for Zendikar booster packs in place of a Battle for Zendikar premium card. Similarly, there are 20 premium Zendikar Expeditions cards that may appear in Oath of the Gatewatch booster packs in a similar manner, and which are also not considered part of Oath of the Gatewatch. All Zendikar Expeditions cards, both those in Battle for Zendikar booster packs and those in Oath of the Gatewatch booster packs, have expansion code "EXP" in the official Gatherer database. These cards are not included in the count here, but they may appear in booster packs. See the Masterpiece Series section for more information. : Of the cards in Shadows over Innistrad, 4 commons, 20 uncommons, 6 rares, and 3 mythics are double-faced cards; though these appear in normal rarities, they are distributed differently. There is always one common or uncommon double-faced card always appearing per pack, replacing a normal common, and about 1 in 8 booster packs contain a rare or mythic double-faced card, also replacing a normal common. In Eldritch Moon, 2 commons, 10 uncommons, 2 rares, and 1 mythic rare are double-faced cards; and 2 commons, 3 rares, and 1 mythic rare are meld cards, which have half of an extra-large card on their back face. : Of the cards in Conspiracy, 9 commons, 8 uncommons, and 8 rares are draft-related cards; though these appear in normal rarities, they are distributed differently, with one draft-related card always appearing per pack, replacing the basic land. : The Collector's Edition duplicated the Limited Edition Beta set with extra lands, had a gold bordered back instead of black, square corners instead of usual rounded, and "Collector's Edition" printed in gold on the cards. : The International Collector's Edition duplicated the Limited Edition Beta set with extra lands, had a gold bordered back instead of black, square corners instead of usual rounded, and "International Edition" printed in gold on the cards. : The Premium Foil Booster packs have a different ink formula than the foils released in Shards of Alara booster packs resulting in a light version and a dark version for each foil. The dark versions are from the actual Shards of Alara booster packs where as the light versions are from the Premium Foil Boosters. : Several cards in Unstable appear in several variations which share a card number but have various differences; cards are numbered out of 216, but there are more distinct cards than this in the set. In addition, one of the rares in the set, Steamflogger Boss, appears in the basic land slot, rather than the rare slot, and each booster pack contains exactly two Contraptions. References Further reading External links Official Magic: The Gathering sets page from Wizards of the Coast Explanation of the meaning of every expansion symbol through Time Spiral Magic: The Gathering

People (magazine)

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People is an American weekly magazine that specializes in celebrity news and human-interest stories. It is published by Dotdash Meredith, a subsidiary of IAC. With a readership of 46.6 million adults in 2009, People had the largest audience of any American magazine, but it fell to second place in 2018 after its readership significantly declined to 35.9 million. People had $997 million in advertising revenue in 2011, the highest advertising revenue of any American magazine. In 2006, it had a circulation of 3.75 million and revenue expected to top $1.5 billion. It was named "Magazine of the Year" by Advertising Age in October 2005, for excellence in editorial, circulation, and advertising. People ranked number 6 on Advertising Ages annual "A-list" and number 3 on Adweeks "Brand Blazers" list in October 2006. Peoples website, People.com, focuses on celebrity news and human interest stories. People is perhaps best known for its yearly special issues naming the "World's Most Beautiful", "Best & Worst Dressed", and "Sexiest Man Alive". The magazine's headquarters are in New York City, and it maintains editorial bureaus in Los Angeles and in London. For economic reasons, it closed bureaus in Austin, Miami, and Chicago in 2006. History The concept for People has been attributed to Andrew Heiskell, Time Inc.'s chief executive officer at the time and the former publisher of the weekly Life magazine. The founding managing editor of People was Richard Stolley, a former assistant managing editor at Life and the journalist who acquired the Zapruder film of the John F. Kennedy assassination for Time Inc. in 1963. Peoples first publisher was Richard J. "Dick" Durrell, another Time Inc. veteran. Stolley characterized the magazine as "getting back to the people who are causing the news and who are caught up in it, or deserve to be in it. Our focus is on people, not issues." Stolley's almost religious determination to keep the magazine people-focused contributed significantly to its rapid early success. It is said that although Time Inc. pumped an estimated $40 million into the venture, the magazine only broke even 18 months after its debut on February 25, 1974. Initially, the magazine was sold primarily on newsstands and in supermarkets. To get the magazine out each week, founding staff members regularly slept on the floor of their offices two or three nights each week and severely limited all non-essential outside engagements. The premiere edition for the week ending March 4, 1974, featured actress Mia Farrow, then starring in the film The Great Gatsby, on the cover. That issue also featured stories on Gloria Vanderbilt, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and the wives of U.S. Vietnam veterans who were Missing In Action. The magazine was, apart from its cover, printed in black-and-white. The initial cover price was 35 cents (). The core of the small founding editorial team included other editors, writers, photographers and photo editors from Life magazine, which had ceased publication just 13 months earlier. This group included managing editor Stolley, senior editors Hal Wingo (father of ESPN anchor Trey Wingo), Sam Angeloff (the founding managing editor of Us magazine) and Robert Emmett Ginna (later a producer of films); writers James Watters (a theater reviewer) and Ronald B. Scott (later a biographer of Presidential candidate Mitt Romney); former Time senior editor Richard Burgheim (later the founder of Times ill-fated cable television magazine View); Chief of Photography, a Life photographer, John Loengard, to be succeeded by John Dominus, a noteworthy Life staff photographer; and design artist Bernard Waber, author, and illustrator of the Lyle The Crocodile book series for children. Many of the noteworthy Life photographers contributed to the magazine as well, including legends Alfred Eisenstaedt and Gjon Mili and rising stars Co Rentmeester, David Burnett and Bill Eppridge. Other members of the first editorial staff included editors and writers Ross Drake, Ralph Novak, Bina Bernard, James Jerome, Sally Moore, Mary Vespa, Lee Wohlfert, Joyce Wansley, Curt Davis, Clare Crawford-Mason, and Jed Horne, later an editor of The Times-Picayune in New Orleans. In 1996, Time Inc. launched a Spanish-language magazine entitled People en Español. The company has said that the new publication emerged after a 1995 issue of the original magazine was distributed with two distinct covers, one featuring the murdered Tejano singer Selena and the other featuring the hit television series Friends; the Selena cover sold out while the other did not. Although the original idea was that Spanish-language translations of articles from the English magazine would comprise half the content, People en Español over time came to have entirely original content. In 2002, People introduced People Stylewatch, a title focusing on celebrity style, fashion, and beauty – a newsstand extension of its Stylewatch column. Due to its success, the frequency of People Stylewatch was increased to 10 times per year in 2007. In spring 2017, People Stylewatch was rebranded as PeopleStyle. In late 2017, it was announced that there would no longer be a print version of PeopleStyle and it would be a digital-only publication. In Australia, the localized version of People is titled Who since there was already another magazine published under the title People. The international edition of People has been published in Greece since 2010. On July 26, 2013, Outlook Group announced that it was closing down the Indian edition of People, which began publication in 2008. In September 2016, in collaboration with Entertainment Weekly, People launched the People/Entertainment Weekly Network. The "free, ad-supported online-video network... covering celebrities, pop culture, lifestyle and human-interest stories", was rebranded as PeopleTV in September 2017. In December 2016, LaTavia Roberson engaged in a feud with People after alleging they misquoted and misrepresented her interview online. Meredith purchased Time Inc., including People, in 2017. In 2019, People editor Jess Cagle announced he was stepping down from his role. It was later announced he would be replaced by deputy editor Dan Wakeford, who previously worked for In Touch Weekly. On October 6, 2021, Dotdash purchased People, including Entertainment Weekly, InStyle, and Chip and Joanna Gaines' Magnolia Journal. in a $2.7billion deal. Teen People In 1998, the magazine introduced a version targeted at teens, called Teen People. However, on July 27, 2006, the company announced that it would shut down publication of Teen People immediately. The last issue to be released was scheduled for September 2006. In exchange, subscribers to this magazine received Entertainment Weekly for the rest of their subscriptions. There were numerous reasons cited for the publication shutdown, including a downfall in ad pages, competition from both other teen-oriented magazines and the internet, and a decrease in circulation numbers. Teenpeople.com was merged into People.com in April 2007. People.com will "carry teen-focused stories that are branded as TeenPeople.com," Mark Golin, the editor of People.com explained. On the decision to merge the brands, he stated, "We've got traffic on TeenPeople, People is a larger site, why not combine and have the teen traffic going to one place?" Competition for celebrity photos In a July 2006 Variety article, Janice Min, Us Weekly editor-in-chief, blamed People for the increase in cost to publishers of celebrity photos: People reportedly paid $4.1 million for photos of newborn Shiloh Nouvel Jolie-Pitt, the child of Angelina Jolie and Brad Pitt. The photos set a single-day traffic record for their website, attracting 26.5 million page views. Sexiest Man Alive The annual feature the "Sexiest Man Alive" is billed as a benchmark of male attractiveness and typically includes only famous people. It is determined using a procedure similar to the procedure used for Times Person of the Year. The origin of the title was a discussion on a planned story on Mel Gibson. Someone exclaimed, "Oh my God, he is the sexiest man alive!" And someone else said, "You should use that as a cover line." For the first decade or so, the feature appeared at uneven intervals. Originally awarded in the wintertime, it shifted around the calendar, resulting in gaps as short as seven months and as long as a year and a half, with no selection at all during 1994 (21 years later the magazine did select Keanu Reeves to fill the 1994 gap, with runners-up including Hugh Grant and Jim Carrey). Since 1997, the dates have settled between mid-November and early December. Dates of magazine issues, winners, ages of winners at the time of selection, and pertinent comments are listed below. , former winners John F. Kennedy Jr., Sean Connery, and Patrick Swayze have since died. Kennedy Jr. and David Beckham are the only non-entertainers to have won the accolade. Sexiest Woman Alive In December 2014, People selected its first and only Sexiest Woman Alive, Kate Upton. Cindy Crawford and Richard Gere were declared "Sexiest Couple of the Year" on October 19, 1993. Cutest Baby Alive In 2019, People selected its first Cutest Baby Alive, Andy Cohen's son Benjamin. In 2020, Anderson Cooper's son, Wyatt Morgan was named the Cutest Baby Alive. Most Intriguing People of the Year At the end of each year People magazine famously selects 25 news-making individuals or couples who have received a lot of media attention over the past 12 months and showcases them in a special year-end issue, the '25 Most Intriguing People of the Year'. This series of full-page features and half-page featurettes includes world leaders and political activists, famous actors and entertainers, elite athletes, prominent business people, accomplished scientists and occasionally members of the public whose stories have made an unusual impact in news or tabloid media. 100 Most Beautiful People Peoples 100 Most Beautiful People is an annual list of 100 people judged to be the most beautiful individuals in the world. Until 2006, it was the 50 Most Beautiful People. Julia Roberts holds the record for most times named, with five. Michelle Pfeiffer, Jennifer Aniston, and Kate Hudson have appeared twice. In 2020, Goldie Hawn, Kate Hudson, and Hudson's daughter Rani made history becoming the first multigenerational cover stars of the Beautiful Issue. In addition, Hawn and her granddaughter concurrently became the oldest and youngest to cover the Beautiful Issue. Number Ones of Most Beautiful People People Magazine Yearbook People Magazine Yearbook is an annual publication released by publishers of People Magazine, currently Meredith Corporation. The Yearbook broadly covers all the major events that happened in the year that it covers. This includes socially relevant news events that made headlines around the world in general but more specifically in the United States. Besides the news headlines, it covers celebrity weddings, splits/divorces, births and deaths, and also scandalous events that generated a lot of news when they happened. Over the years, it has covered headlining events in the world of Music (Grammy Awards), Movies (Oscar Awards, The Golden Globe Awards), and Television (Emmy Awards) in a bite sized recap of the event and the award winners. The People Yearbook has had the year (say, 2010) written in Bold accompanying the word "Yearbook" on the front cover since the People Yearbook 1995, although this gradually changed in the more recent editions. Since 2015, the "year" appeared in a more inconspicuous way on the front cover until the 2019 issue and the bold style of writing the "year" made a comeback in the 2020 issue. The Year also appears on the spine. Early Years The People Magazine Yearbook was first published in the Year 1991 by The Time Inc. Magazine Company and it was called "Private Lives". This issue did not mention any year conspicuously on the front page or the inner page but the front flap of the hardcover version of the magazine described Private Lives as "People's chronicle of an extraordinary year - 1990", clearly describing that the events covered inside were from 1990. Next Year, the 1992 sequel to Private Lives was published and it was called "Private Lives Volume II". The first page had an additional tagline that described the magazine as The Year in Review: 1991 Private Lives. In 1993, there was another change in the publication and also its cover title. The year was added on the cover for the first time and this annual issue was called "Private Lives 1993". The "Year" appeared in Bold on the front cover. The first page described the publication as Private Lives The Year in Review: 1992. Next year, in 1994, People Books released Private Lives 1994 with the first page that said Private Lives Year in Review: 1993. The year 1996 ushered in the single biggest change in the magazine title. The title was reworked and found a new moniker - It was called "People Yearbook 1995". Previous title of "Private Lives" was dropped completely and the publication was defined as a "yearbook" for the first time. Changes over the Years In all the years since its inception, People Magazine Yearbook has covered events from the previous year and not the year on the front cover, and this is true even from the time period when it was called Private Lives. For example, People Magazine Yearbook 2008 covered events of 2007. And People Magazine Yearbook 1998 covered the events of the Year 1997. 2014 was the last year for this to happen. The 2014 yearbook covered events of 2013. In 2015, a shift happened in the magazine that changed for the first time the year it actually covered within its pages. Instead of covering the events of 2014, this issue covered the events of 2015 and arrived on the stands towards the end of 2015. To make the shift properly understood, the first page of this yearbook included a tagline "The Most Memorable Moments of 2015". With this move, People Magazine Yearbook changed its own 25-year-old tradition. This shift, however, resulted in the year 2014 never being covered by the People Magazine Yearbook and 2014 became the only year not to be covered since its inception in 1991. Since then, the People Magazine Yearbook has been covering events of the same year that are on the Front Page. Another typeface change was experimented for two years when People Magazine Yearbook 2013! and People Magazine Yearbook 2014! had an exclamation mark following the year. This was dropped in the 2015 Yearbook and the publication discarded the exclamation mark. However, this issue dropped the Bold writing of the "Year" on the front cover and replaced it with a more inconspicuous style and it was like that until the 2019 issue. The 2016 Yearbook was a special "flip cover" issue wherein it combined a special edition memorabilia to cherish the memories of people that died in 2016. The list included Prince, David Bowie, Nancy Reagan, Alan Rickman, Doris Roberts, Muhammad Ali etc. The special edition could be accessed by flipping over the magazine. In November 2017, Meredith Corporation announced that it would acquire Time Inc. for $2.8 billion. The acquisition was completed on January 31, 2018. Time Magazine, People Magazine and also People Magazine Yearbook are now published by Meredith Corporation. The copyright of the 2018 Yearbook was described as belonging to Time Inc. Books, a division of Meredith Corporation and published by People Books, an imprint of Time Books. This issue included the tagline, "The Most Memorable Moments of 2018" on the cover. However, in the 2019 Yearbook, the copyright was described as belonging to Meredith Corporation, without any prominent tagline. The prominent bold writing of the "Year" on the front cover made a comeback with the 2020 Yearbook, along with a tagline saying "Our Extraordinary Year Together". The trend continued with the 2021 Yearbook, along with a tagline saying, "When We All Got Together Again". Television spinoffs The magazine has inspired the television series People Magazine Investigates, a true crime series which debuted in 2016 on Investigation Discovery, and People Puzzler, a crossword puzzle-themed game show which debuted in 2021 on Game Show Network. References External links IAC (company) Weekly magazines published in the United States Celebrity magazines published in the United States Magazines established in 1974 Magazines published in New York City

Elisabeth Shue

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Elisabeth Judson Shue (born October 6, 1963) is an American actress. She is best known for her roles in the films The Karate Kid (1984), Adventures in Babysitting (1987), Cocktail (1988), Back to the Future Part II (1989), Back to the Future Part III (1990), Soapdish (1991), The Saint (1997), Hollow Man (2000), Piranha 3D (2010), Battle of the Sexes (2017), and Death Wish (2018). She was nominated for an Academy Award, a British Academy Film Award, a Golden Globe Award, and a Screen Actors Guild Award for her role in the film Leaving Las Vegas (1995). On television, she has starred as Julie Finlay in the CBS procedural forensics crime drama CSI: Crime Scene Investigation from 2012 to 2015, Madelyn Stillwell in the Amazon Prime Video series The Boys, and reprised her The Karate Kid role in the third season of Cobra Kai. She currently stars as "Anne" in the Netflix dramedy series On the Verge. Early life and education Shue was born in Wilmington, Delaware, the daughter of Anne Brewster (née Wells), and James William Shue, a one-time congressional candidate, lawyer, and real estate developer, who was president of the International Food and Beverage Corporation. Her mother was a vice president in the private banking division of the Chemical Banking Corporation. She grew up in South Orange, New Jersey. Her parents divorced when she was nine. Shue's mother is a descendant of Pilgrim leader William Brewster, while her father's family emigrated from Germany to Pennsylvania in the early 19th century. Shue was raised with her three brothers (William, Andrew and John) and was very close to them. Her younger brother, Andrew, is also an actor, best known for his role as Billy Campbell in the Fox series Melrose Place. Shue graduated from Columbia High School, in 1981 in Maplewood, New Jersey, where she and Andrew were inducted into the school's Hall of Fame in 1994. She has two half-siblings from her father's remarriage, Jenna and Harvey Shue. After graduating from high school, Shue attended Wellesley College. She then transferred to Harvard University in 1985, from which she withdrew to pursue her acting career (she was inspired by a friend to work in television commercials as a way to pay for college) one semester short of earning her degree. Over a decade later, in 2000, she returned to Harvard and completed her B.A. in political science. Career 1980s and early 1990s During her studies at Columbia High School and after her parents' divorce, Shue began acting in television commercials, becoming a common sight in advertisements for Burger King, also featuring future stars Sarah Michelle Gellar and Lea Thompson (whom Elisabeth would later co-star with in both television and film), DeBeers diamonds, Chewels bubble gum, and Best Foods/Hellmann's mayonnaise. She had small parts, credited as Lisa Shue, in (1982) and Somewhere, Tomorrow (1983) which provided an early starring role for Sarah Jessica Parker. Shue made her feature film debut in 1984, when she co-starred opposite Ralph Macchio in The Karate Kid as Ali Mills, the love interest of Macchio's main character. She reprised the role in Season 3 of Cobra Kai. She was a series regular as the teenage daughter of a military family in the short-lived television series Call to Glory between 1984 and 1985, which she followed in 1986 starring alongside Terence Stamp in the British horror film Link. In 1987 Shue appeared in the television movie Double Switch (part of the Disney Sunday Movie series), co-starring with George Newbern, who would go on to support her in her first star vehicle, the hugely popular Adventures in Babysitting, in the same year. In 1988, Shue starred in Cocktail as the love interest of Tom Cruise's lead character. The following year she starred in the short film Body Wars, which was used at Epcot in an ATLAS Simulator attraction in the Wonders Of Life Pavilion until 2007. Other roles followed, including appearing as Jennifer Parker in Back to the Future Part II (1989) and Back to the Future Part III (1990), where she replaced Claudia Wells who declined to reprise the role from Back to the Future because of a family illness. It was around this time her older brother, William, died in an accident on a family holiday. Although her career was on the rise with her playing lead roles, Shue elected to take on the smaller supporting role of Jennifer in these sequels to allow her to deal with her family loss. The sequels were filmed back to back, and she featured prominently in Part II, appearing in bookend pieces in the third part of the trilogy. She auditioned for the Ione Skye role in Say Anything... (1989), being a runner-up along with Jennifer Connelly. In May 1990, Shue made her Broadway debut in Some American Abroad at the Lincoln Center. The following year she returned to cinema where she appeared in the comedies The Marrying Man with Kim Basinger and Alec Baldwin, and Soapdish with Sally Field, Robert Downey Jr., Kevin Kline, and Whoopi Goldberg. Between 1992 and 1994 she appeared in a variety of supporting roles in both film and television. These included the comedy Twenty Bucks (reuniting with Christopher Lloyd from Back to the Future), noir thriller The Underneath, a guest appearance in Dream On, and the romantic comedy Heart and Souls (reuniting with Robert Downey Jr.). She also returned to Broadway in 1993, performing in Tina Howe's production of Birth and After Birth. 1995–present Although often cast as a girl-next-door type, in a career-defining role she starred as a prostitute in the 1995 film Leaving Las Vegas with Nicolas Cage. The role earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress. She was also nominated for a BAFTA, Golden Globe and SAG Award for Best Actress, and won Best Actress at the Independent Spirit Awards, Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards and the National Society of Film Critics Awards. Her career flourished after her Oscar nomination, landing her diverse roles. She starred in The Trigger Effect in 1996. Woody Allen's Deconstructing Harry (1996) showcased her comedic abilities amongst heavyweight co-stars Billy Crystal, Demi Moore, Robin Williams and Stanley Tucci. Shue also displayed some action movie skills in the 1997 spy remake The Saint opposite Val Kilmer. The thriller Palmetto (1998) afforded her the chance to play a film noir-ish femme fatale opposite Woody Harrelson; she co-starred in Cousin Bette (1998) with Jessica Lange, and Paul Verhoeven's Hollow Man (2000) with Kevin Bacon proved another summer blockbuster. In 1999, Shue starred as the titular Molly as an autistic young woman placed into the care of her unwilling bachelor brother, played by Aaron Eckhart. She played a mother that reveals her dark past to her teenaged daughter in the 2001 ABC movie Oprah Winfrey Presents: Amy and Isabelle. She has since stated she was "extremely proud of that film, which no one ever saw, so it's a good lesson that you do work for yourself and not necessarily for the end result". Shue starred in Leo (2002) with Joseph Fiennes and Dennis Hopper, Mysterious Skin (2004) opposite Joseph Gordon-Levitt, Hide and Seek (2005) opposite Robert De Niro and Dakota Fanning, and Dreamer (2005) again opposite Dakota Fanning and Kurt Russell. In 2007, Shue and her two brothers, Andrew Shue and John Shue, produced Gracie. Her husband Davis Guggenheim also produced and directed. She played the mother of the main character who was loosely based on her own experiences as the only girl on a boys' soccer team. Andrew also appeared as the soccer coach, and her previous co-star from The Trigger Effect Dermot Mulroney played the father of the main character. Andrew Shue initially conceived of it as a story about their late brother William, the oldest Shue sibling, who was the captain of the high school soccer team; he died in a freak accident while the family was on a vacation in 1988. The older brother character of Johnny was based on Will. She also starred in the little seen First Born (2007) with British actor Steven Mackintosh. In 2008, Shue starred in Hamlet 2 as a fictionalized version of herself. In the film, she has quit acting to become a nurse and is the favorite actress of Dana Marschz (Steve Coogan). In 2009, Shue appeared on the seventh season of HBO's Curb Your Enthusiasm as an actress competing with Cheryl Hines's character for the part of George's ex-wife for the Seinfeld reunion. In 2009 she starred alongside Thomas Haden Church in Don McKay. In 2010, Shue starred in Piranha 3D as Sheriff Julie Forester. In addition she played the former groupie mother of Abigail Breslin in Janie Jones and a psychologist in Waking Madison alongside Sarah Roemer and Imogen Poots. In 2012, Shue appeared in three wide-release theatrical films: the thriller House at the End of the Street with Jennifer Lawrence; Curtis Hanson's Chasing Mavericks opposite Gerard Butler; and David Frankel's Hope Springs as Karen the bartender in a cameo scene with Meryl Streep. The year 2012 also marked Shue's return to television in a series regular role when she joined the cast of Season 12's CSI: Crime Scene Investigation as Julie Finlay opposite Ted Danson, and replacing Marg Helgenberger. Finlay is the newest CSI, who just finished anger-management classes. She continued in the role until the end of Season 15 where her character's fate was left hanging in the balance, later revealed in the two-part 2015 TV movie wrap-up finale of the entire series to have died (Shue did not appear). During her time on the series, being a massive tennis fan as well as regular tennis player, she jokingly suggested to the producers they have an episode centered around a murder at a tennis tournament. In Season 13 her wish was granted, and her friends and former pros-turned commentators, 18-time Grand Slam champion Chris Evert, three-time Grand Slam winner Lindsay Davenport and two-time mixed doubles Slam champ Justin Gimelstob appeared in an episode as themselves. She also re-united with Back to the Future alumna Lea Thompson, who guest starred in an episode of Season 14. In 2014 she appeared as a cougar in Behaving Badly along with Selena Gomez, Nat Wolff and Heather Graham. In 2015 she guest-starred in an episode of the Patrick Stewart series Blunt Talk. In 2017, she provided a strong supporting role in Battle of the Sexes, opposite Steve Carell and Emma Stone. She had originally signed on as a tennis adviser for the film which recounts the 1973 showdown between female player Billie Jean King and former men's champ Bobby Riggs. In 2018 she co-starred in Eli Roth's remake of Death Wish opposite Bruce Willis as his ill-fated wife. In the movie, Shue was also re-united with Vincent D'Onofrio, who appeared in Adventures in Babysitting with her. In 2019, Shue took a leading role in the American superhero drama television series, The Boys, with Karl Urban and Jack Quaid, and will be playing the lead role in the TNT television pilot Constance, playing a corrupt former beauty queen. In the latter she will also be one of the executive producers along with Robert Downey Jr. (whom she previously co-starred with in Soapdish and Heart and Souls) and his wife Susan Downey among others. Constance is not going forward to series so remains to be seen if the pilot will air as a television movie. Shue starred in Greyhound opposite Tom Hanks, released in 2020. Personal life Shue married film director Davis Guggenheim in 1994. The couple have three children; Miles William, Stella Street, and Agnes Charles. Filmography Film Television Theme parks Awards and nominations References External links 1963 births Living people 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses Actresses from New Jersey Actresses from Wilmington, Delaware American film actresses American people of English descent American people of German descent American television actresses Columbia High School (New Jersey) alumni Harvard University alumni Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners People from South Orange, New Jersey

List of U-boats of Germany

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Germany has commissioned over 1,500 U-boats () into its various navies from 1906 to the present day. The submarines have usually been designated with a U followed by a number, although World War I coastal submarines and coastal minelaying submarines used the UB and UC prefixes, respectively. When Germany resumed building submarines in the 1930s, the numbering of the submarines was restarted at 1. The renumbering was restarted at 1 a third time when Germany resumed building submarines in the 1960s. World War I–era U-boats There were some 380 U-boats commissioned into the Kaiserliche Marine in the years before and during World War I. Although the first four German U-boats—, , , and —were commissioned before 1910, all four served in a training capacity during the war. German U-boats used during World War I were divided into three series. The U designation was generally reserved for ocean-going attack torpedo U-boats. The UB designation was used for coastal attack U-boats, while the UC designation was reserved for coastal minelaying U-boats. U-boats U-boats designed primarily for deep water service were designated with a U prefix and numbered up to 167. Type U 1 Type U 2 Type U 3 Type U 5 Type U 9 Type U 13 Type U 16 Type U 17 Type U 19 Type U 23 Type U 27 Type U 31 Type U 43 Type U 51 Type U 57 Type U 63 Type U 66 (Type UD) The Type U 66 submarines were originally constructed for Austro-Hungary as the U-7 class, but were sold to Germany at the start of WWI. Type UE I (Type U 71) Type U 81 Type U 87 Type U 93 Type U 115 Type UE II (Type U 117) Type U 127 Type Large MS (Type U 131 and Type U 135) Type U 139 Type U 142 Type U 151 (Deutschland Class submarine) Type U 158 UB coastal U-boats Coastal attack torpedo U-boats were smaller craft intended for operation closer to land. They were designated with a UB prefix and numbered up to 155. Type UB I UB-1 UB-2 UB-3 UB-4 UB-5 UB-6 UB-7 UB-8 UB-9 UB-10 UB-11 UB-12 UB-13 UB-14 UB-15 UB-16 UB-17 Type UB II UB-18 UB-19 UB-20 UB-21 UB-22 UB-23 UB-24 UB-25 UB-26 UB-27 UB-28 UB-29 UB-30 UB-31 UB-32 UB-33 UB-34 UB-35 UB-36 UB-37 UB-38 UB-39 UB-40 UB-41 UB-42 UB-43 UB-44 UB-45 UB-46 UB-47 Type UB III UB-48 UB-49 UB-50 UB-51 UB-52 UB-53 UB-54 UB-55 UB-56 UB-57 UB-58 UB-59 UB-60 UB-61 UB-62 UB-63 UB-64 UB-65 UB-66 UB-67 UB-68 UB-69 UB-70 UB-71 UB-72 UB-73 UB-74 UB-75 UB-76 UB-77 UB-78 UB-79 UB-80 UB-81 UB-82 UB-83 UB-84 UB-85 UB-86 UB-87 UB-88 UB-89 UB-90 UB-91 UB-92 UB-93 UB-94 UB-95 UB-96 UB-97 UB-98 UB-99 UB-100 UB-101 UB-102 UB-103 UB-104 UB-105 UB-106 UB-107 UB-108 UB-109 UB-110 UB-111 UB-112 UB-113 UB-114 UB-115 UB-116 UB-117 UB-118 UB-119 UB-120 UB-121 UB-122 UB-123 UB-124 UB-125 UB-126 UB-127 UB-128 UB-129 UB-130 UB-131 UB-132 UB-133 UB-134 UB-135 UB-136 UB-137 UB-138 UB-139 UB-140 UB-141 UB-142 UB-143 UB-144 UB-145 UB-146 UB-147 UB-148 UB-149 UB-150 UB-151 UB-152 UB-153 UB-154 UB-155 UC coastal minelaying U-boats Coastal minelaying U-boats were smaller vessels intended to mine enemy harbors and approaches. They were designated with a UC prefix and numbered up to 114. Type UC I UC-1 UC-2 UC-3 UC-4 UC-5 UC-6 UC-7 UC-8 UC-9 UC-10 UC-11 UC-12 UC-13 UC-14 UC-15 Type UC II UC-16 UC-17 UC-18 UC-19 UC-20 UC-21 UC-22 UC-23 UC-24 UC-25 UC-26 UC-27 UC-28 UC-29 UC-30 UC-31 UC-32 UC-33 UC-34 UC-35 UC-36 UC-37 UC-38 UC-39 UC-40 UC-41 UC-42 UC-43 UC-44 UC-45 UC-46 UC-47 UC-48 UC-49 UC-50 UC-51 UC-52 UC-53 UC-54 UC-55 UC-56 UC-57 UC-58 UC-59 UC-60 UC-61 UC-62 UC-63 UC-64 UC-65 UC-66 UC-67 UC-68 UC-69 UC-70 UC-71 UC-72 UC-73 UC-74 UC-75 UC-76 UC-77 UC-78 UC-79 Type UC III Thirty-five Type UC III submarines were planned, but only 25 were completed. Nine of these (UC-106 to UC-114) were never commissioned and were awarded to the United Kingdom and France and broken up in 1921. Ten of these (UC-80 to UC-89) were broken up at yard UC-80 UC-81 UC-82 UC-83 UC-84 UC-85 UC-86 UC-87 UC-88 UC-89 UC-91 UC-92 UC-93 UC-94 UC-95 UC-96 UC-97 UC-98 UC-99 UC-100 UC-101 UC-102 UC-103 UC-104 UC-105 Foreign U-boats At the outbreak of World War I Germany took charge of a number of submarines under construction in German shipyards for other countries. (ex-Norwegian A class submarine A-5) U-66 to U-70 (ex-Austro-Hungarian U-7 class U-7 to U-11) US-1 (ex-Russian Bars class Burevestnik), only test run - not in service US-2 (ex-Russian Bars class Orlan), Commissioned later abandoned to White Russian Forces US-3 (ex-Russian Bars class Utka), only test run - not in service US-4 (ex-Russian Bars class Gagara), only test run - not in service World War II U-boats In the World War II era, Germany commissioned some 1,250 U-boats into the Kriegsmarine. Type I Type II Type IIA Type IIB U-7 U-8 U-9 U-10 U-11 U-12 U-13 U-14 U-15 U-16 U-17 U-18 U-19 U-20 U-21 U-22 U-23 U-24 U-120 U-121 Type IIC U-56 U-57 U-58 U-59 U-60 U-61 U-62 U-63 Type IID U-137 U-138 U-139 U-140 U-141 U-142 U-143 U-144 U-145 U-146 U-147 U-148 U-149 U-150 U-151 U-152 Type VII Type VIIA U-27 U-28 U-29 U-30 U-31 U-32 U-33 U-34 U-35 U-36 Type VIIB U-45 U-46 U-47 U-50 U-52 U-73 U-74 U-75 U-76 U-83 U-84 U-85 U-86 U-87 U-99 U-100 U-101 U-102 Type VIIC U-69 U-70 U-71 U-72 U-77 U-78 U-79 U-80 U-81 U-82 U-88 U-89 U-90 U-91 U-92 U-93 U-94 U-95 U-96 U-97 U-98 U-132 U-133 U-134 U-135 U-136 U-201 U-202 U-203 U-204 U-205 U-206 U-207 U-208 U-209 U-210 U-211 U-212 U-221 U-222 U-223 U-224 U-225 U-226 U-227 U-228 U-229 U-230 U-231 U-232 U-235 U-236 U-237 U-238 U-239 U-240 U-241 U-242 U-243 U-244 U-245 U-246 U-247 U-248 U-249 U-250 U-251 U-252 U-253 U-254 U-255 U-256 U-257 U-258 U-259 U-260 U-261 U-262 U-263 U-264 U-265 U-266 U-267 U-268 U-269 U-270 U-271 U-272 U-273 U-274 U-275 U-276 U-277 U-278 U-279 U-280 U-281 U-282 U-283 U-284 U-285 U-286 U-287 U-288 U-289 U-290 U-291 U-301 U-302 U-303 U-304 U-305 U-306 U-307 U-308 U-309 U-310 U-311 U-312 U-313 U-314 U-315 U-316 U-331 U-332 U-333 U-334 U-335 U-336 U-337 U-338 U-339 U-340 U-341 U-342 U-343 U-344 U-345 U-346 U-347 U-348 U-349 U-350 U-351 U-352 U-353 U-354 U-355 U-356 U-357 U-358 U-359 U-360 U-361 U-362 U-363 U-364 U-365 U-366 U-367 U-368 U-369 U-370 U-371 U-372 U-373 U-374 U-375 U-376 U-377 U-378 U-379 U-380 U-381 U-382 U-383 U-384 U-385 U-386 U-387 U-388 U-389 U-390 U-391 U-392 U-393 U-394 U-395 U-396 U-397 U-398 U-399 U-400 U-401 U-402 U-403 U-404 U-405 U-406 U-407 U-408 U-409 U-410 U-411 U-412 U-413 U-414 U-415 U-416 U-417 U-418 U-419 U-420 U-421 U-422 U-423 U-424 U-425 U-426 U-427 U-428 U-429 U-430 U-431 U-432 U-433 U-434 U-435 U-436 U-437 U-438 U-439 U-440 U-441 U-442 U-443 U-444 U-445 U-446 U-447 U-448 U-449 U-450 U-451 U-452 U-453 U-454 U-455 U-456 U-457 U-458 U-465 U-466 U-467 U-468 U-469 U-470 U-471 U-472 U-473 U-474 U-475 U-476 U-477 U-478 U-479 U-480 U-481 U-482 U-483 U-484 U-485 U-486 U-551 U-552 U-553 U-554 U-555 U-556 U-557 U-558 U-559 U-560 U-561 U-562 U-563 U-564 U-565 U-566 U-567 U-568 U-569 U-570 U-571 U-572 U-573 U-574 U-575 U-576 U-577 U-578 U-579 U-580 U-581 U-582 U-583 U-584 U-585 U-586 U-587 U-588 U-589 U-590 U-591 U-592 U-593 U-594 U-595 U-596 U-597 U-598 U-599 U-600 U-684 U-685 U-686 U-701 U-702 U-703 U-704 U-705 U-706 U-707 U-708 U-709 U-710 U-711 U-712 U-713 U-714 U-715 U-716 U-717 U-718 U-719 U-720 U-721 U-722 U-731 U-732 U-733 U-734 U-735 U-736 U-737 U-738 U-739 U-740 U-741 U-742 U-743 U-745 U-746 U-747 U-748 U-749 U-750 U-751 U-752 U-753 U-754 U-755 U-756 U-757 U-758 U-759 U-760 U-761 U-762 U-763 U-764 U-765 U-766 U-767 U-768 U-771 U-772 U-773 U-774 U-775 U-776 U-777 U-778 U-779 U-780 U-781 U-782 U-821 U-822 U-823 U-824 U-825 U-826 U-901 U-902 U-903 U-904 U-905 U-906 U-907 U-908 U-921 U-922 U-923 U-924 U-925 U-926 U-927 U-928 U-951 U-952 U-953 U-954 U-955 U-956 U-957 U-958 U-959 U-960 U-961 U-962 U-963 U-964 U-965 U-966 U-967 U-968 U-969 U-970 U-971 U-972 U-973 U-974 U-975 U-976 U-977 U-978 U-979 U-980 U-981 U-982 U-983 U-984 U-985 U-986 U-987 U-988 U-989 U-990 U-991 U-992 U-993 U-994 U-1051 U-1052 U-1053 U-1054 U-1055 U-1056 U-1057 U-1058 U-1101 U-1102 U-1131 U-1132 U-1161 U-1162 U-1191 U-1192 U-1193 U-1194 U-1195 U-1196 U-1197 U-1198 U-1199 U-1200 U-1201 U-1202 U-1203 U-1204 U-1205 U-1206 U-1207 U-1208 U-1209 U-1210 Type VIIC/41 U-292 U-293 U-294 U-295 U-296 U-297 U-298 U-299 U-300 U-317 U-318 U-319 U-320 U-321 U-322 U-323 U-324 U-325 U-326 U-327 U-328 U-329 U-330 U-687 U-688 U-689 U-723 U-724 U-827 U-828 U-929 U-930 U-931 U-932 U-995 U-996 U-997 U-998 U-999 U-1000 U-1001 U-1002 U-1003 U-1004 U-1005 U-1006 U-1007 U-1008 U-1009 U-1010 U-1011 U-1012 U-1013 U-1014 U-1015 U-1016 U-1017 U-1018 U-1019 U-1020 U-1021 U-1022 U-1023 U-1024 U-1025 U-1026 U-1027 U-1028 U-1029 U-1030 U-1031 U-1032 U-1063 U-1064 U-1065 U-1103 U-1104 U-1105 U-1106 U-1107 U-1108 U-1109 U-1110 U-1133 U-1134 U-1135 U-1136 U-1163 U-1164 U-1165 U-1166 U-1167 U-1168 U-1169 U-1170 U-1171 U-1172 U-1173 U-1174 U-1175 U-1176 U-1177 U-1178 U-1179 U-1271 U-1272 U-1273 U-1274 U-1275 U-1276 U-1277 U-1278 U-1279 U-1280 U-1281 U-1282 U-1301 U-1302 U-1303 U-1304 U-1305 U-1306 U-1307 U-1308 Type VIID U-213 U-214 U-215 U-216 U-217 U-218 Type VIIF U-1059 U-1060 U-1061 U-1062 Type IX Type IXA U-37 U-38 U-39 U-40 U-41 U-42 U-43 U-44 Type IXB U-64 U-65 U-103 U-104 U-105 U-106 U-107 U-108 U-109 U-110 U-111 U-122 U-123 U-124 Type IXC U-66 U-67 U-68 U-125 U-126 U-127 U-128 U-129 U-130 U-131 U-153 U-154 U-155 U-156 U-157 U-158 U-159 U-160 U-161 U-162 U-163 U-164 U-165 U-166 U-171 U-172 U-173 U-174 U-175 U-176 U-501 U-502 U-503 U-504 U-505 U-506 U-507 U-508 U-509 U-510 U-511 U-512 U-513 U-514 U-515 U-516 U-517 U-518 U-519 U-520 U-521 U-522 U-523 U-524 Type IXC/40 U-168 U-169 U-170 U-183 U-184 U-185 U-186 U-187 U-188 U-189 U-190 U-191 U-192 U-193 U-194 U-525 U-526 U-527 U-528 U-529 U-530 U-531 U-532 U-533 U-534 U-535 U-536 U-537 U-538 U-539 U-540 U-541 U-542 U-543 U-544 U-545 U-546 U-547 U-548 U-549 U-550 U-801 U-802 U-803 U-804 U-805 U-806 U-807 U-808 U-841 U-842 U-843 U-844 U-845 U-846 U-853 U-854 U-855 U-856 U-857 U-858 U-865 U-866 U-867 U-868 U-869 U-870 U-877 U-878 U-879 U-880 U-881 U-882 U-889 U-890 U-891 U-892 U-1221 U-1222 U-1223 U-1224 U-1225 U-1226 U-1227 U-1228 U-1229 U-1230 U-1231 U-1232 U-1233 U-1234 U-1235 Type IXD U-177 U-178 U-179 U-180 U-181 U-182 U-195 U-196 U-197 U-198 U-199 U-200 U-847 U-848 U-849 U-850 U-851 U-852 U-859 U-860 U-861 U-862 U-863 U-864 U-871 U-872 U-873 U-874 U-875 U-876 U-883 Type X (XB) Originally intended as long-range minelayers, the Type X were later used as long-range cargo transports. U-116 U-117 U-118 U-119 U-219 U-220 U-233 U-234 Type XI The Type XI was a planned artillery boat, armed with four 128-mm guns in two twin turrets along with an Arado Ar 231 floatplane. Four boats were laid down in 1939 but were cancelled at the outbreak of WWII. U-112 U-113 U-114 U-115 Type XIV The Type XIV submarine was a shortened version of the Type IXD and used as tankers. Twenty-four were planned, but only 10 were commissioned; three (U-491 to U-494) were cancelled before completed and eleven were never laid down. This type was nicknamed Milchkuh (milk cow). U-459 U-460 U-461 U-462 U-463 U-464 U-487 U-488 U-489 U-490 U-491 U-492 U-493 U-494 U-495 U-496 U-497 Type XVII Type XVIIA U-792 U-793 U-794 U-795 Type XVIIB Twelve Type XVIIB submarines were planned, but only three were completed; three were cancelled at the end of the war before completion and six were cancelled in favor of the Type XXI submarine. U-1405 U-1406 U-1407 Type XVIIK U-798 Type XVIII The Type XVIII was a projected attack boat using the Walter propulsion system. Two boats were laid down in 1943, but construction was cancelled in March 1944. U-796 U-797 Type XXI U-2501 U-2502 U-2503 U-2504 U-2505 U-2506 U-2507 U-2508 U-2509 U-2510 U-2511 U-2512 U-2513 U-2514 U-2515 U-2516 U-2517 U-2518 U-2519 U-2520 U-2521 U-2522 U-2523 U-2524 U-2525 U-2526 U-2527 U-2528 U-2529 U-2530 U-2531 U-2533 U-2534 U-2535 U-2536 U-2538 U-2539 U-2540 U-2541 U-2542 U-2543 U-2544 U-2545 U-2546 U-2548 U-2551 U-2552 U-3001 U-3002 U-3003 U-3004 U-3005 U-3006 U-3007 U-3008 U-3009 U-3010 U-3011 U-3012 U-3013 U-3014 U-3015 U-3016 U-3017 U-3018 U-3019 U-3020 U-3021 U-3022 U-3023 U-3024 U-3025 U-3026 U-3027 U-3028 U-3029 U-3030 U-3031 U-3032 U-3033 U-3034 U-3035 U-3037 U-3038 U-3039 U-3040 U-3041 U-3044 U-3501 U-3502 U-3503 U-3504 U-3505 U-3506 U-3507 U-3508 U-3509 U-3510 U-3511 U-3512 U-3513 U-3514 U-3515 U-3516 U-3517 U-3518 U-3519 U-3520 U-3521 U-3522 U-3523 U-3524 U-3525 U-3526 U-3527 U-3528 U-3529 U-3530 Type XXIII U-2321 U-2322 U-2323 U-2324 U-2325 U-2326 U-2327 U-2328 U-2329 U-2330 U-2331 U-2332 U-2333 U-2334 U-2335 U-2336 U-2337 U-2338 U-2339 U-2340 U-2341 U-2342 U-2343 U-2344 U-2345 U-2346 U-2347 U-2348 U-2349 U-2350 U-2351 U-2352 U-2353 U-2354 U-2355 U-2356 U-2357 U-2358 U-2359 U-2360 U-2361 U-2362 U-2363 U-2364 U-2365 U-2366 U-2367 U-2368 U-2369 U-2371 U-4701 U-4702 U-4703 U-4704 U-4705 U-4706 U-4707 U-4709 U-4710 U-4711 U-4712 Midget submarines Biber Molch Seehund (Type XVIIB) The range of U-5000 to U-6442 was specifically allocated to German midget submarines. The following Seehund Type XXVIIB U-boats were entered into the Kriegsmarine registry as commissioned vessels U-5001 U-5002 U-5003 U-5004 U-5005 U-5006 U-5007 U-5008 U-5009 U-5010 U-5011 U-5012 U-5013 U-5014 U-5015 U-5016 U-5017 U-5018 U-5019 U-5020 U-5021 U-5022 U-5023 U-5024 U-5025 U-5026 U-5027 U-5028 U-5029 U-5030 U-5031 U-5032 U-5033 U-5034 U-5035 U-5036 U-5037 U-5038 U-5039 U-5040 U-5041 U-5042 U-5043 U-5044 U-5045 U-5046 U-5047 U-5048 U-5049 U-5050 U-5051 U-5052 U-5053 U-5054 U-5055 U-5056 U-5057 U-5058 U-5059 U-5060 U-5061 U-5062 U-5063 U-5064 U-5065 U-5066 U-5067 U-5068 U-5069 U-5070 U-5071 U-5072 U-5073 U-5074 U-5075 U-5076 U-5077 U-5078 U-5079 U-5080 U-5081 U-5082 U-5083 U-5084 U-5085 U-5086 U-5087 U-5088 U-5089 U-5090 U-5091 U-5092 U-5093 U-5094 U-5095 U-5096 U-5097 U-5098 U-5099 U-5100 U-5101 U-5102 U-5103 U-5104 U-5105 U-5106 U-5107 U-5108 U-5109 U-5110 U-5111 U-5112 U-5113 U-5114 U-5115 U-5116 U-5117 U-5118 U-5251 U-5252 U-5253 U-5254 U-5255 U-5256 U-5257 U-5258 U-5259 U-5260 U-5261 U-5262 U-5263 U-5264 U-5265 U-5266 U-5267 U-5268 U-5269 U-5330 Foreign U-boats Germany captured and commissioned 14 submarines from six countries into the Kriegsmarine during World War II. Turkey United Kingdom UB Norway UC-1 UC-2 Netherlands UD-1 UD-2 UD-3 UD-4 UD-5 France UF-1 UF-2 UF-3 Italy UIT-22 UIT-23 UIT-24 UIT-25 Post–World War II U-boats Type XXI (ex U-2540) Type XXIII (ex U-2365) (ex U-2367) Type 201 (S180) (S181) (S182) Type 205 (S180) (S181) U-4 (S183) U-5 (S184) U-6 (S185) U-7 (S186) U-8 (S187) U-9 (S188) U-10 (S189) U-11 (S190) U-12 (S191) Type 206 U-13 (S192) U-14 (S193) U-15 (S194) U-16 (S195) U-17 (S196) U-18 (S197) U-19 (S198) U-20 (S199) U-21 (S170) U-22 (S171) U-23 (S172) U-24 (S173) U-25 (S174) U-26 (S175) U-27 (S176) U-28 (S177) U-29 (S178) U-30 (S179) Type 212 U-31 (S181) U-32 (S182) U-33 (S183) U-34 (S184) U-35 (S185) U-36 (S186) See also List of U-boats never deployed List of German U-boat WW2 Raiding Careers List of naval ships of Germany :Category:Type II U-boats :Category:Type IX U-boats :Category:Type VII U-boats :Category:Type XIV U-boats :Category:Type XXI U-boats List of ships of the Second World War List of submarines of the Second World War External links List of U-boats at U-boat.net U-boat U-boats Submarines of Germany U-boats Uboat Uboat

Pulmonary artery

eng_Latn

A pulmonary artery is an artery in the pulmonary circulation that carries deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs. The largest pulmonary artery is the main pulmonary artery or pulmonary trunk from the heart, and the smallest ones are the arterioles, which lead to the capillaries that surround the pulmonary alveoli. Structure The pulmonary arteries are blood vessels that carry systemic venous blood returning to the right side of the heart through to the microcirculation of the lungs. Unlike in other organs where arteries supply oxygenated blood, the blood carried by the pulmonary arteries is deoxygenated, as it is venous blood returning to the heart. The main pulmonary arteries emerge from the right side of the heart, and then split into smaller arteries that progressively divide and become arterioles, eventually narrowing into the capillary microcirculation of the lungs where gas exchange occurs. Main pulmonary arteries In order of blood flow, the pulmonary arteries start as the main pulmonary artery or pulmonary trunk. The main pulmonary artery begins at the base of the right ventricle. It is short and wide—approximately in length and in diameter. The main pulmonary artery splits into the right and the left main pulmonary artery. The left main pulmonary artery is shorter and somewhat smaller than the right, passes horizontally in front of the descending aorta and left bronchus to the root of the left lung. Above, the left main pulmonary artery is connected to the concavity of the proximal descending aorta by the ligamentum arteriosum. The opening of the pulmonary artery (or pulmonary trunk) is circular, and situated at the summit of the conus arteriosus, close to the ventricular septum. It is placed above and to the left of the atrioventricular opening, and is guarded by the pulmonary semilunar valves. Pulmonary arterial tree The left main pulmonary artery then divides into two lobar arteries, one for each lobe of the left lung. The right main pulmonary artery follows a longer and more horizontal course as it crosses the mediastinum. It passes underneath the aortic arch, behind the ascending aorta, and in front of the descending aorta. It courses posterior to the superior vena cava and in front of the right bronchus. Upon reaching the hilum of the right lung the right main pulmonary artery divides into two branches: truncus anterior — supplies blood to the right upper lobe interlobar artery — inferior and larger branch, supplies blood to the middle and inferior lobes of the lung The right and left main pulmonary (lungs) arteriiii give off branches that roughly correspond to the lung lobes and can in such cases be termed lobar arteries. The lobar arteries branch into segmental arteries (roughly 1 for each lobe segment), which in turn branch into subsegmental pulmonary arteries. These eventually form intralobular arteries. Development The pulmonary arteries originate from the truncus arteriosus and the sixth pharyngeal arch. The truncus arteriosus is a structure that forms during the development of the heart as a successor to the conus arteriosus. By the third week of development, the endocardial tubes have developed a swelling in the part closest to the heart. The swelling is known as the bulbus cordis and the upper part of this swelling develops into the truncus arteriosus. The structure is ultimately mesodermal in origin. During development of the heart, the heart tissues undergo folding, and the truncus arteriosus is exposed to what will eventually be both the left and right ventricles. As a septum develops between the two ventricles of the heart, two bulges form on either side of the truncus arteriosus. These progressively enlarge until the trunk splits into the aorta and pulmonary arteries. During early development, the ductus arteriosis connects the pulmonary trunk and the aortic arch, allowing blood to bypass the lungs. Function The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. The blood here passes through capillaries adjacent to alveoli and becomes oxygenated as part of the process of respiration. In contrast to the pulmonary arteries, the bronchial arteries supply nutrition to the lungs themselves. Pressure The pulmonary artery pressure (PA pressure) is a measure of the blood pressure found in the main pulmonary artery. This is measured by inserting a catheter into the main pulmonary artery. The mean pressure is typically 9 - 18 mmHg, and the wedge pressure measured in the left atrium may be 6-12mmHg. The wedge pressure may be elevated in left heart failure, mitral valve stenosis, and other conditions, such as sickle cell disease. Clinical significance The pulmonary artery is relevant in a number of clinical states. Pulmonary hypertension is used to describe an increase in the pressure of the pulmonary artery, and may be defined as a mean pulmonary artery pressure of greater than 25mmHg. As can be measured on a CT scan, a diameter of more than 29 mm diameter is often used as a cut-off to indicate pulmonary hypertension. In Chest X-rays, diameter of descending pulmonary artery more than 16 mm indicates pulmonary hypertension. This may occur as a result of heart problems such as heart failure, lung or airway disease such as COPD or scleroderma, or thromboembolic disease such as pulmonary embolism or emboli seen in sickle cell anaemia. Most recently, computational fluid based tools (non-invasive) have been proposed to be at par with the current clinical tests (invasive) of pulmonary hypertension. Pulmonary embolism refers to an embolus that lodges in the pulmonary circulation. This may arise from a deep venous thrombosis, especially after a period of immobility. A pulmonary embolus is a common cause of death in patients with cancer and stroke. A large pulmonary embolus that becomes lodged in the bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk with extensions into both the left and right main pulmonary arteries is called a saddle embolus. Several animal models have been utilized for investigating pulmonary artery related pathologies. Porcine model of pulmonary artery is the most frequently used and it was recently found that their mechanical properties vary with every subsequent branching. Additional images See also Pulmonary artery sling Rasmussen's aneurysm References External links – "Heart: The Pericardial sac and Great vessels" – "Heart: Openings of Great Vessels into the Pericardial Sac" – "Mediastinal surface of the right lung" – "Mediastinal surface of the left lung" Arteries of the thorax

Post Office Ltd

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Post Office Ltd is a retail post office company in the United Kingdom that provides a wide range of products including postage stamps and banking to the public through its nationwide network of post office branches. History Post Office branches, along with the Royal Mail delivery service, were formerly part of the General Post Office and after 1969, the Post Office corporation. Post Office Counters Ltd was created as a wholly owned subsidiary of the Post Office in 1986. After the Post Office statutory corporation was changed to a public company, Royal Mail Group, in 2001, Post Office Counters Ltd became Post Office Ltd. Post Office Ltd has, in recent years, announced losses, with a reported £102 million lost in 2006. This has raised many concerns in the media regarding Post Office Ltd's ability as a company to operate efficiently. Plans to cut the £150m-a-year subsidy for rural post offices led to the announcement that 2,500 local post offices were to be closed. This announcement resulted in a backlash from local communities that relied on the service. In 2007, the government gave a £1.7 billion subsidy to Royal Mail Group so that it could turn a profit by 2011. This was to be used to invest across the whole network of Royal Mail, Post Office Ltd and Parcelforce. 85 Crown post offices were closed, 70 of which were sold to WHSmith. This followed a trial of six Post Office outlets in WHSmith stores. WHSmith was expected to make up to £2.5 million extra in annual profit. 2,500 sub-post offices closed between 2008 and 2009. Redundancy packages were provided from public funding (subpostmasters were paid over 20 months salary, roughly £65,000 each). In November 2010, the government committed £1.34 billion of funding up to 2015 to Post Office Ltd to enable it to modernise the Post Office network. As part of the Postal Services Act 2011, Post Office Ltd became independent of Royal Mail Group on 1 April 2012. A ten-year inter-business agreement was signed between the two companies to allow post offices to continue issuing stamps and handling letters and parcels for Royal Mail. The Act also contained the option for Post Office Ltd to become a mutual organisation in the future. On 8 February 2013, Post Office Ltd announced it was planning to move around seventy of its Crown post offices into shops. This would reduce the Crown network, which it stated was losing £40 million a year, to around 300. On 27 November 2013, the government committed an additional £640 million of funding for 2015 to 2018 to allow Post Office Ltd to complete its network modernisation. In April 2016, the Post Office agreed to hand over up to 61 more branches to WHSmith in a 10-year deal. The deal was condemned as "blatant back-door privatisation" by the Communications Workers Union. Corporate affairs Chief executives David Mills (2002-2005) Alan Cook (2006-2010) Paula Vennells (2012-2019) Nick Read (2019-) Chair Alice Perkins (2011-2015) Tim Parker (2015-2022) Services There are currently around 11,500 post office branches across the UK, of which 191 are directly managed by Post Office Ltd (known as Crown offices). The majority of other branches are either run by various franchise partners or local subpostmaster or operators (who may be members of the National Federation of SubPostmasters or the CWU Postmasters Branch), as "sub-postoffices". The Post Office has a wide variety of services throughout the network of branches. Products and services available vary throughout the network; main post offices generally provide the full range of services. The Post Office rolled out the 'ParcelShop' scheme in Summer 2019, allowing retail stores to accept Royal Mail internet returns, in order to expand Post Office facilities. In towns, post offices are usually open from around 09:00 to 17:30 from Monday to Friday and from 09:00 to 12:30 on Saturday. In some country areas, opening hours are much shorter—perhaps only four hours per week. In some villages an outreach service is provided in village halls or shops. There are also "mobile post offices" using converted vans which travel between rural areas. Many post offices are shut on Sundays and Bank Holidays. Some in smaller towns or villages are shut at lunchtime. Postal services The Post Office provides information on services and accepts postal items and payment on behalf of the two collection and delivery divisions of Royal Mail Group, Royal Mail and Parcelforce. These include a variety of ordinary and guaranteed services both for delivery within the United Kingdom and to international destinations. Postage stamps (including commemorative stamps and other philatelic items) are sold, while applications for redirection of mail are accepted on behalf of Royal Mail. Post Office Local Collect is a scheme whereby undelivered mail can be redirected at customer request to a post office for convenient collection. Poste restante mail can also be held for collection by people travelling. Financial services The Post Office provides credit cards, insurance products, mortgages, access to high street banking services and savings through the Post Office Money umbrella brand which was launched in 2015. Most Post Office Money branded products are provided by Bank of Ireland (UK) plc with Post Office Ltd acting as an appointed representative and credit broker. However, with the sale of the Bank of Ireland's UK assets to Jaja Finance in 2019, Post Office branded Credit Cards are now issued by Capital One UK. Branch banking Personal banking services are offered on behalf of a number of "partner banks" that the Post Office has agreements with. Although different services are available on behalf of different institutions, these may include cash withdrawals, paying in cash and cheques, and balance enquiries. Some post offices also have cash machines, mainly provided by Bank of Ireland. Business banking services are also offered for customers of twenty different UK banks. Services include balance enquiries, cash withdrawals, depositing cash and cheques, and giving change. Bill payments A number of bill payments can be accepted on behalf of a variety of organisations including utilities, local authorities and others. These are in the form of automated payments (barcoded bills, swipe cards, key charging). The Santander Transcash system, which had been a Girobank service, enabled manual bill payment transactions, but this service was discontinued by Santander in December 2017. Broadband and phone The Post Office also operates as an internet service provider; providing consumer broadband and phone services and is part of the wider Post Office Limited Group. By February 2019, it had just over half a million customers across the UK. Post Office provides asymmetric digital subscriber line broadband and fibre broadband internet products (FTTC) to residential customers. Post Office offers two variants of router: A standard Wi-Fi router (Zyxel AMG1302-T11C) router with its ADSL broadband packages and the Zyxel VMG3925-B10B with its Fibre broadband packages. Post Office Broadband and Phone services are currently supplied using the TalkTalk network and it operates UK-based call centres, with teams based in Preston, Selkirk and Chiswick. In June 2015, the Post Office launched its own mobile virtual network operator service, Post Office Mobile. However, in August 2016 it decided "to conclude the trial as the results did not give us sufficient confidence that mobile will contribute to our goal of commercial sustainability". In February 2021, the Post Office agreed to sell its broadband and phone services to Shell Energy and exit the telecoms market. The deal was believed to have cost Shell around £80million, with around 500,000 customers transferring to the new provider. Post Office also runs its own flat rate 118 Directory Enquiries service (118 855). Mobile phone top ups are also available in Post Office branches on behalf of all the major UK mobile networks. ID services A passport check-and-send service is available for passport applications, where the post office staff check that a passport application is filled in correctly and has an acceptable photograph accompanying it. The service is not affiliated with HM Passport Office. Check-and-send service is not guaranteed service. The Post Office used to offer a check-and-send service with DVLA for the photocard driving licence. Some branches now offer a photocard driving licence renewal service. Fishing licences are issued on behalf of the Environment Agency and Natural Resources Wales from branches in England and Wales. Selected branches issue International Driving Permits. In 2019, availability of this service was expanded from 89 to approximately 2,500 branches due to increased demand associated with the possibility of a "no deal" Brexit. Post Office saving stamps Post Office savings stamps were first introduced by Henry Fawcett in the 1880s but were phased out in the 1960s. These were re-introduced in August 2004 because of consumer demand. In 2010 saving stamps were withdrawn and replaced by the Budget Card. Other services National Lottery games and scratchcards Sale and encashment of postal orders Foreign currency exchange and Travel Money Card Sales of gift vouchers redeemable at certain high street merchants PostPak Fast drop Drop and Go National Express coach tickets Post offices not open to the public Seven post office branches are not open to the public: Court (Buckingham Palace) – however, this is managed by Royal Mail as of 2014 House of Commons Portcullis House Royal Automobile Club, 89 Pall Mall, London Scottish Parliament Windsor Castle 20 Finsbury Street, London, EC2Y 9AQ. Post Office HQ Controversies Horizon payment system errors In April 2015, the BBC described a confidential report that alleged that the Post Office had made 'failings' with regard to accounting issues with its Horizon IT system that were identified by sub-postmasters as early as 2000. The article claimed that an independent investigation by forensic accountants Second Sight had found that the Post Office had failed to identify the root cause of accounting shortfalls in many cases before launching court proceedings against sub-postmasters. The shortfalls could have been caused by criminals using malicious software, by IT systems or by human error, the report said. An earlier article by the BBC had claimed that a confidential report contained allegations that the Post Office had refused to hand over documents that the accountants felt they needed to investigate properly, that training was not good enough, that equipment was outdated, and that power cuts and communication problems had made things worse. The Post Office has claimed that their system was not at fault. In 2019, the Post Office was lambasted by the High Court for its 'institutional obstinacy or refusal to consider' that its Horizon computer system might be flawed. The judge, Mr Justice Fraser, characterised this stance as "the 21st-century equivalent of maintaining that the earth is flat." In spite of the court action against its sub-postmasters, which was described by a judge as "aggressive and, literally, dismissive", the Post Office's chief executive Paula Vennells, who had in the meantime left the Post Office and taken up posts in the NHS and the Cabinet Office, was controversially awarded a CBE in the 2019 New Year Honours for "services to the Post Office and to charity". On 19 March 2020 she was harshly criticised in the House of Commons, particularly by Kevan Jones, MP for North Durham, who said: See also Penny Post Credit Union 1st Class Credit Union References External links Postwatch – the watchdog for postal services joined Consumer Focus in October 2008 Financial services companies established in 1986 Government-owned companies of the United Kingdom Postal system of the United Kingdom Retail companies established in 1986 Retail companies of the United Kingdom Royal Mail 1986 establishments in the United Kingdom

Bed Bath & Beyond

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Bed Bath & Beyond Inc. is an American chain of domestic merchandise retail stores. The chain operates many stores in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Puerto Rico. Bed Bath & Beyond was founded in 1971. It is counted among the Fortune 500 and the Forbes Global 2000. History Warren Eisenberg and Leonard Feinstein worked in management positions at discount store chain Arlan's. As the company suffered financial difficulties, and the two believed that the market would shift toward specialty stores, they decided to leave and form their own company. In 1971, they opened a store in Springfield, New Jersey called Bed 'n Bath. By 1985, Eisenberg and Feinstein were operating 17 stores in the New York metropolitan area and California. Also in 1985, the first superstore was opened, as an attempt to remain competitive with Linens 'n Things, Pacific Linen, and Luxury Linens. In order to properly represent the size increase in its retail stores, the company changed its name to Bed Bath & Beyond in 1987. The company adopted integrated computer-based inventory management systems in 1993 to better compete with Linens ‘n Things, which had utilized computer inventory management since the late 1980s. By 1991, Bed Bath & Beyond had opened seven new superstores in New Jersey, California, Virginia, Illinois, Maryland, and Florida. By 2011, Bed Bath & Beyond had 1,142 stores. The company went public in June 1992, making its IPO on the NASDAQ stock exchange, where its stock continues to trade under ticker symbol BBBY. Bed Bath & Beyond first reached $1 billion in annual sales in 1999. In March 2019, three activist investment firms—Legion Partners, Marcellum Advisors, and Ancora Advisors—announced their intent to remove current CEO Steven Temares and restructure Bed Bath & Beyond’s current board of directors. The activist investors highlighted several instances of perceived nepotism, including the acquisition of Buy Buy Baby, which was founded by two of Bed Bath & Beyond co-founder Leonard Feinstein’s children, and the acquisition of Chef Central, which was created by co-founder Warren Eisenberg’s son, as examples of poor business practices at Bed Bath & Beyond. This pressure led five independent directors to step down on April 22, 2019, and also resulted in the company restructuring its board to include only 10 directors instead of the previous 12 members. On April 13, 2019 there was a report that the chain will close 40 stores but open 15 new locations. On May 13, 2019, Bed Bath & Beyond announced that CEO Steven Temares would step down “effectively immediately” and would resign his seat on the board of directors. Mary Winston, who had been appointed to the company's board as a result of the activist investment firms’ efforts, replaced Temares as interim CEO. On November 4, 2019, Mark Tritton, who was previously Target's chief merchandising officer, started as Bed Bath & Beyond's CEO. The company, which has for decades used coupon mailers and other promotional discounting tactics to attract consumers, also announced in April that it would reduce its use of promotional coupons and tighten restrictions on their use. To combat declining profitability, Bed Bath & Beyond is also creating private-label brands and opening “lab stores” that focus on home decor, food and drink, and health and beauty products. Bed Bath & Beyond currently operates approximately 1,530 stores in all 50 U.S. states, as well as in the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and Canada. In addition to more than 1,020 Bed Bath & Beyond stores, the company also operates approximately 280 Cost Plus World Markets, 100 Buybuy Baby stores, roughly 80 Christmas Tree Shops (and related brands), and more than 50 Harmon stores. The company was expected to close up to sixty stores around the United States in early 2020. In addition, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the company announced it would close more than 200 stores, about 21%, over the next two years. Bed Bath & Beyond closed several locations around 2020 and 2021 with the latest round of about 7 Store that finished up liquidation sales with Hilco Merchants on Thursday, May 13, 2021. In 2021, Bed Bath & Beyond was among a list of retailers to cut ties with MyPillow after disappointing sales of the product and the decision to start its own brand merchandise. Two new brands, Nestwell and Simply Essential, were launched by mid-2021. Competition Since the liquidation of Linens N Things in 2008, Bed Bath and Beyond has several major retail competitors, including Walmart, Target, and JCPenney. Companies such as Crate & Barrel, IKEA, and the numerous Williams Sonoma companies like Pottery Barn and West Elm are competitors as well. Subsidiaries Acquisitions Harmon Stores – acquired in March 2002, operates Face Values Buy Buy Baby – acquired in March 2007 for $67 million Cost Plus, Inc. – acquired in May 2012 for $495 million, operates Cost Plus World Market and World Market; sold in February 2021 to Front Burner LP Linen Holdings – acquired in June 2012 for $105 million Of a Kind – acquired in August 2015 for an undisclosed amount One Kings Lane – acquired in June 2016 for an undisclosed amount Other subsidiaries Bed Bath & Beyond Canada L.P. - 53 stores across Canada in 9 provinces (none in Quebec, Northwest Territories, Nunavut and Yukon) Bed Bath & Beyond Mexico – a joint venture with Home & More to operate four stores in Mexico under the name "Bed Bath & Beyond" Bed Bath & Beyond Invitations – an online wedding invitation venture New Zealand chain There is a New Zealand chain with the name "Bed Bath & Beyond", which has no corporate connection with the American company. This chain was founded in 1995 as Linen for Less and is New Zealand's largest Manchester specialist. References Further media Videos External links Union Township, Union County, New Jersey Companies listed on the Nasdaq Companies based in Union County, New Jersey Retail companies based in New Jersey Home decor retailers American companies established in 1971 Retail companies established in 1971 Retail companies of the United States Retail companies of Canada 1971 establishments in New Jersey 1992 initial public offerings

Eastern Front (World War II)

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The Eastern Front of World War II was a theatre of conflict between the European Axis powers against the Soviet Union (USSR), Poland and other Allies, which encompassed Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Northeast Europe (Baltics), and Southeast Europe (Balkans) from 22 June 1941 to 9 May 1945. It was known as the Great Patriotic War in the Soviet Union and some of its successor states, while everywhere else it was called the Eastern Front. The battles on the Eastern Front of the Second World War constituted the largest military confrontation in history. They were characterised by unprecedented ferocity and brutality, wholesale destruction, mass deportations, and immense loss of life due to combat, starvation, exposure, disease, and massacres. Of the estimated 70–85 million deaths attributed to World War II, around 30 million occurred on the Eastern Front, including 9 million children. The Eastern Front was decisive in determining the outcome in the European theatre of operations in World War II, eventually serving as the main reason for the defeat of Nazi Germany and the Axis nations. The two principal belligerent powers were Germany and the Soviet Union, along with their respective allies. Though never sending in ground troops to the Eastern Front, the United States and the United Kingdom both provided substantial material aid to the Soviet Union in the form of the Lend-Lease program along with naval and air support. The joint German–Finnish operations across the northernmost Finnish–Soviet border and in the Murmansk region are considered part of the Eastern Front. In addition, the Soviet–Finnish Continuation War is generally also considered the northern flank of the Eastern Front. Background Germany and the Soviet Union remained unsatisfied with the outcome of World War I (1914–1918). Soviet Russia had lost substantial territory in Eastern Europe as a result of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918), where the Bolsheviks in Petrograd conceded to German demands and ceded control of Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Finland, and other areas, to the Central Powers. Subsequently, when Germany in its turn surrendered to the Allies (November 1918) and these territories became independent states under the terms of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 at Versailles, Soviet Russia was in the midst of a civil war and the Allies did not recognise the Bolshevik government, so no Soviet Russian representation attended. Adolf Hitler had declared his intention to invade the Soviet Union on 11 August 1939 to Carl Jacob Burckhardt, League of Nations Commissioner, by saying: Everything I undertake is directed against the Russians. If the West is too stupid and blind to grasp this, then I shall be compelled to come to an agreement with the Russians, beat the West and then after their defeat turn against the Soviet Union with all my forces. I need the Ukraine so that they can't starve us out, as happened in the last war. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact signed in August 1939 was a non-aggression agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union. It contained a secret protocol aiming to return Central Europe to the pre–World War I status quo by dividing it between Germany and the Soviet Union. Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania would return to the Soviet control, while Poland and Romania would be divided. The Eastern Front was also made possible by the German–Soviet Border and Commercial Agreement in which the Soviet Union gave Germany the resources necessary to launch military operations in Eastern Europe. On 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland, starting World War II. On 17 September, the Soviet Union invaded Eastern Poland, and, as a result, Poland was partitioned among Germany, the Soviet Union and Lithuania. Soon after that, the Soviet Union demanded significant territorial concessions from Finland, and after Finland rejected Soviet demands, the Soviet Union attacked Finland on 30 November 1939 in what became known as the Winter War – a bitter conflict that resulted in a peace treaty on 13 March 1940, with Finland maintaining its independence but losing its eastern parts in Karelia. In June 1940 the Soviet Union occupied and illegally annexed the three Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact ostensibly provided security to the Soviets in the occupation both of the Baltics and of the north and northeastern regions of Romania (Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia, June–July 1940), although Hitler, in announcing the invasion of the Soviet Union, cited the Soviet annexations of Baltic and Romanian territory as having violated Germany's understanding of the Pact. Moscow partitioned the annexed Romanian territory between the Ukrainian and Moldavian Soviet republics. Ideologies German ideology Adolf Hitler had argued in his autobiography Mein Kampf (1925) for the necessity of Lebensraum ("living space"): acquiring new territory for Germans in Eastern Europe, in particular Russia. He envisaged settling Germans there, as according to Nazi ideology the Germanic people constituted the "master race", while exterminating or deporting most of the existing inhabitants to Siberia and using the remainder as slave labour. Hitler as early as 1917 had referred to the Russians as inferior, believing that the Bolshevik Revolution had put the Jews in power over the mass of Slavs, who were, in Hitler's opinion, incapable of ruling themselves and had thus ended up being ruled by Jewish masters. The Nazi leadership, including Heinrich Himmler, saw the war against the Soviet Union as a struggle between the ideologies of Nazism and Jewish Bolshevism, and ensuring territorial expansion for the Germanic Übermensch (superhumans), who according to Nazi ideology were the Aryan Herrenvolk ("master race"), at the expense of the Slavic Untermenschen (subhumans). Wehrmacht officers told their troops to target people who were described as "Jewish Bolshevik subhumans", the "Mongol hordes", the "Asiatic flood" and the "red beast". The vast majority of German soldiers viewed the war in Nazi terms, seeing the Soviet enemy as sub-human. Hitler referred to the war in radical terms, calling it a "war of annihilation" (Vernichtungskrieg) which was both an ideological and racial war. The Nazi vision for the future of Eastern Europe was codified most clearly in the Generalplan Ost. The populations of occupied Central Europe and the Soviet Union were to be partially deported to West Siberia, enslaved and eventually exterminated; the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or "Germanized" settlers. In addition, the Nazis also sought to wipe out the large Jewish population of Central and Eastern Europe as part of their program aiming to exterminate all European Jews. After Germany's initial success at the Battle of Kiev in 1941, Hitler saw the Soviet Union as militarily weak and ripe for immediate conquest. In a speech at the Berlin Sportpalast on 3 October, he announced, "We have only to kick in the door and the whole rotten structure will come crashing down." Thus, Germany expected another short Blitzkrieg and made no serious preparations for prolonged warfare. However, following the decisive Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943 and the resulting dire German military situation, Nazi propaganda began to portray the war as a German defence of Western civilisation against destruction by the vast "Bolshevik hordes" that were pouring into Europe. Soviet situation Throughout the 1930s the Soviet Union underwent massive industrialisation and economic growth under the leadership of Joseph Stalin. Stalin's central tenet, "Socialism in One Country", manifested itself as a series of nationwide centralised five-year plans from 1929 onwards. This represented an ideological shift in Soviet policy, away from its commitment to the international communist revolution, and eventually leading to the dissolution of the Comintern (Third International) organisation in 1943. The Soviet Union started a process of militarisation with the first five-year plan that officially began in 1928, although it was only towards the end of the second five-year plan in the mid-1930s that military power became the primary focus of Soviet industrialisation. In February 1936 the Spanish general election brought many communist leaders into the Popular Front government in the Second Spanish Republic, but in a matter of months a right-wing military coup initiated the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939. This conflict soon took on the characteristics of a proxy war involving the Soviet Union and left wing volunteers from different countries on the side of the predominantly socialist and communist-led Second Spanish Republic; while Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Portugal's Estado Novo (Portugal) took the side of Spanish Nationalists, the military rebel group led by General Francisco Franco. It served as a useful testing ground for both the Wehrmacht and the Red Army to experiment with equipment and tactics that they would later employ on a wider scale in the Second World War. Germany, which was an anti-communist régime, formalised its ideological position on 25 November 1936 by signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Fascist Italy joined the Pact a year later. Soviet Union negotiated treaties of mutual assistance with France and with Czechoslovakia with the aim of containing Germany's expansion. The German Anschluss of Austria in 1938 and the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia (1938–1939) demonstrated the impossibility of establishing a collective security system in Europe, a policy advocated by the Soviet ministry of foreign affairs under Maxim Litvinov. This, as well as the reluctance of the British and French governments to sign a full-scale anti-German political and military alliance with the USSR, led to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and Germany in late August 1939. The separate Tripartite Pact between what became the three prime Axis Powers would not be signed until some four years after the Anti-Comintern Pact. Forces The war was fought between Nazi Germany, its allies and Finland, against the Soviet Union and its allies. The conflict began on 22 June 1941 with the Operation Barbarossa offensive, when Axis forces crossed the borders described in the German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact, thereby invading the Soviet Union. The war ended on 9 May 1945, when Germany's armed forces surrendered unconditionally following the Battle of Berlin (also known as the Berlin Offensive), a strategic operation executed by the Red Army. The states that provided forces and other resources for the German war effort included the Axis Powers – primarily Romania, Hungary, Italy, pro-Nazi Slovakia, and Croatia. Anti-Soviet Finland, which had fought the Winter War against the Soviet Union, also joined the offensive. The Wehrmacht forces were also assisted by anti-Communist partisans in places like Western Ukraine, and the Baltic states. Among the most prominent volunteer army formations was the Spanish Blue Division, sent by Spanish dictator Francisco Franco to keep his ties to the Axis intact. The Soviet Union offered support to the anti-Axis partisans in many Wehrmacht-occupied countries in Central Europe, notably those in Slovakia, Poland. In addition, the Polish Armed Forces in the East, particularly the First and Second Polish armies, were armed and trained, and would eventually fight alongside the Red Army. The Free French forces also contributed to the Red Army by the formation of the GC3 (Groupe de Chasse 3 or 3rd Fighter Group) unit to fulfil the commitment of Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French, who thought that it was important for French servicemen to serve on all fronts. The above figures includes all personnel in the German Army, i.e. active-duty Heer, Waffen SS, Luftwaffe ground forces, personnel of the naval coastal artillery and security units. In the spring of 1940, Germany had mobilised 5,500,000 men. By the time of the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Wehrmacht consisted of c, 3,800,000 men of the Heer, 1,680,000 of the Luftwaffe, 404,000 of the Kriegsmarine, 150,000 of the Waffen-SS, and 1,200,000 of the Replacement Army (contained 450,400 active reservists, 550,000 new recruits and 204,000 in administrative services, vigiles and or in convalescence). The Wehrmacht had a total strength of 7,234,000 men by 1941. For Operation Barbarossa, Germany mobilised 3,300,000 troops of the Heer, 150,000 of the Waffen-SS and approximately 250,000 personnel of the Luftwaffe were actively earmarked. By July 1943, the Wehrmacht numbered 6,815,000 troops. Of these, 3,900,000 were deployed in eastern Europe, 180,000 in Finland, 315,000 in Norway, 110,000 in Denmark, 1,370,000 in western Europe, 330,000 in Italy, and 610,000 in the Balkans. According to a presentation by Alfred Jodl, the Wehrmacht was up to 7,849,000 personnel in April 1944. 3,878,000 were deployed in eastern Europe, 311,000 in Norway/Denmark, 1,873,000 in western Europe, 961,000 in Italy, and 826,000 in the Balkans. About 15–20% of total German strength were foreign troops (from allied countries or conquered territories). The German high water mark was just before Battle of Kursk, in early July 1943: 3,403,000 German troops and 650,000 Finnish, Hungarian, Romanian and other countries troops. For nearly two years the border was quiet while Germany conquered Denmark, Norway, France, the Low Countries, and the Balkans. Hitler had always intended to renege on his pact with the Soviet Union, eventually making the decision to invade in the spring of 1941. Some historians say Stalin was fearful of war with Germany, or just did not expect Germany to start a two-front war, and was reluctant to do anything to provoke Hitler. Others say that Stalin was eager for Germany to be at war with capitalist countries. Another viewpoint is that Stalin expected war in 1942 (the time when all his preparations would be complete) and stubbornly refused to believe its early arrival. British historians Alan S. Milward and M. Medlicott show that Nazi Germany—unlike Imperial Germany—was prepared for only a short-term war (Blitzkrieg). According to Edward Ericson, although Germany's own resources were sufficient for the victories in the West in 1940, massive Soviet shipments obtained during a short period of Nazi–Soviet economic collaboration were critical for Germany to launch Operation Barbarossa. Germany had been assembling very large numbers of troops in eastern Poland and making repeated reconnaissance flights over the border; the Soviet Union responded by assembling its divisions on its western border, although the Soviet mobilisation was slower than Germany's due to the country's less dense road network. As in the Sino-Soviet conflict on the Chinese Eastern Railway or Soviet–Japanese border conflicts, Soviet troops on the western border received a directive, signed by Marshal Semyon Timoshenko and General of the Army Georgy Zhukov, that ordered (as demanded by Stalin): "do not answer to any provocations" and "do not undertake any (offensive) actions without specific orders" – which meant that Soviet troops could open fire only on their soil and forbade counter-attack on German soil. The German invasion therefore caught the Soviet military and civilian leadership largely by surprise. The extent of warnings received by Stalin about a German invasion is controversial, and the claim that there was a warning that "Germany will attack on 22 June without declaration of war" has been dismissed as a "popular myth". However, some sources quoted in the articles on Soviet spies Richard Sorge and Willi Lehmann, say they had sent warnings of an attack on 20 or 22 June, which were treated as "disinformation". The Lucy spy ring in Switzerland also sent warnings, possibly deriving from Ultra codebreaking in Britain. Sweden had access to internal German communications through breaking the crypto used in the Siemens and Halske T52 crypto machine also known as the Geheimschreiber and informed Stalin about the forthcoming invasion well ahead of June 22, but did not reveal its sources. Soviet intelligence was fooled by German disinformation, so sent false alarms to Moscow about a German invasion in April, May and the beginning of June. Soviet intelligence reported that Germany would rather invade the USSR after the fall of the British Empire or after an unacceptable ultimatum demanding German occupation of Ukraine during the German invasion of Britain. Foreign support and measures A strategic air offensive by the United States Army Air Force and Royal Air Force played a significant part in reducing German industry and tying up German air force and air defence resources, with some bombings, such as the bombing of the eastern German city of Dresden, being done to facilitate specific Soviet operational goals. In addition to Germany, hundreds of thousands of tons of bombs were dropped on their eastern allies of Romania and Hungary, primarily in an attempt to cripple Romanian oil production. British and Commonwealth forces also contributed directly to the fighting on the Eastern Front through their service in the Arctic convoys and training Red Air Force pilots, as well as in the provision of early material and intelligence support. Soviet Union Among other goods, Lend-Lease supplied: 58% of the USSR's high octane aviation fuel 33% of their motor vehicles 53% of USSR domestic production of expended ordnance (artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) 30% of fighters and bombers 93% of railway equipment (locomotives, freight cars, wide gauge rails, etc.) 50–80% of rolled steel, cable, lead, and aluminium 43% of garage facilities (building materials & blueprints) 12% of tanks and SPGs 50% of TNT (1942–1944) and 33% of ammunition powder (in 1944) 16% of all explosives (from 1941 to 1945, the USSR produced 505,000 tons of explosives and received 105,000 tons of Lend-Lease imports) Lend-Lease aid of military hardware, components and goods to the Soviet Union constituted to 20% percent of the assistance. Rest were foodstuff, nonferrous metals (e.g. copper, magnesium, nickel, zinc, lead, tin, aluminium), chemical substances, petroleum (high octane aviation gasoline) and factory machinery. The aid of production-line equipment and machinery were crucial and helped to maintain adequate levels of Soviet armament production during the entire war. In addition, the USSR received wartime innovations including penicillin, radar, rocket, precision-bombing technology, the long-range navigation system Loran, and many other innovations. Of the 800,000 tons of nonferrous metals shipped, about 350,000 tons were aluminium. The shipment of aluminium not only represented double the amount of metal that Germany possessed, but also composed the bulk of aluminium that was used in manufacture of Soviet aircraft, that had fallen in critically short supply. Soviet statistics show, that without these shipments of aluminium, aircraft production would have been less than one-half (or about 45,000 less) of the total 137,000 produced aircraft. Stalin noted in 1944, that two-thirds of Soviet heavy industry had been built with the help of the United States, and the remaining one-third, with the help from other Western nations such as Great Britain and Canada. The massive transfer of equipment and skilled personnel from occupied territories helped further to boost the economic base. Without Lend-Lease aid, Soviet Union's diminished post invasion economic base would not have produced adequate supplies of weaponry, other than focus on machine tool, foodstuff and consumer goods. In the last year of war, lend-lease data show that about 5.1 million tons of foodstuff left the United States for the Soviet Union. It is estimated that all the food supplies sent to Russia could feed a 12,000,000-man strong army a half pound of concentrated food per day, for the entire duration of the war. The total lend-lease aid during the second World War had been estimated between $42–50 billion. The Soviet Union received shipments in war materials, military equipment and other supplies worth of $12.5 billion, about a quarter of the U.S. lend-lease aid provided to other allied countries. However, post-war negotiations to settle all the debt were never concluded, and as of date, the debt issues is still on in future American-Russian summits and talks. Prof. Dr. Albert L. Weeks conclude: 'As to attempts to sum up the importance of those four-year-long shipments of Lend-Lease for the Russian victory on the Eastern Front in World War II, the jury is still out – that is, in any definitive sense of establishing exactly how crucial this aid was.' Nazi Germany Germany's economic, scientific, research and industrial capabilities were one of the most technically advanced in the world at the time. However, access to (and control of) the resources, raw materials and production capacity required to entertain long-term goals (such as European control, German territorial expansion and the destruction of the USSR) were limited. Political demands necessitated the expansion of Germany's control of natural and human resources, industrial capacity and farmland beyond its borders (conquered territories). Germany's military production was tied to resources outside its area of control, a dynamic not found amongst the Allies. During the war, as Germany acquired new territories (either by direct annexation or by installing puppet governments in defeated countries), these new territories were forced to sell raw materials and agricultural products to German buyers at extremely low prices. Two-thirds of all French trains in 1941 were used to carry goods to Germany. Norway lost 20% of its national income in 1940 and 40% in 1943. Axis allies such as Romania and Italy, Hungary, Finland, Croatia and Bulgaria benefited from Germany's net imports. Overall, France made the largest contribution to the German war effort. In 1943–44, French payments to Germany may have risen to as much as 55% of French GDP. Overall, Germany imported 20% of its food and 33% of its raw materials from conquered territories and Axis allies. On 27 May 1940, Germany signed the "Oil Pact" with Romania, by which Germany would trade arms for oil. Romania's oil production amounted to approximately 6,000,000 tons annually. This production represents 35% of the total fuel production of the Axis including the synthetic products and the substitutes and 70% of the total production of crude oil. In 1941, Germany only had 18% of the oil it had in peacetime. Romania supplied Germany and its allies with roughly 13 million barrels of oil (about 4 million per year) between 1941 and 1943. Germany's peak oil production in 1944 amounted to about 12 million barrels of oil per year. Rolf Karlbom estimated that Swedish share of Germany's total consumption of iron may have amounted to 43% during the period of 1933–43. It may also be likely that 'Swedish ore formed the raw material of four out of every ten German guns' during the Hitler era'. Forced labour The use of foreign forced labour and slavery in Nazi Germany and throughout German-occupied Europe during World War II took place on an unprecedented scale. It was a vital part of the German economic exploitation of conquered territories. It also contributed to the mass extermination of populations in German-occupied Europe. The Nazi Germans abducted approximately 12 million foreign people from almost twenty European countries; about two-thirds came from Central Europe and Eastern Europe. Counting deaths and turnover, about 15 million men and women were forced labourers at one point during the war. For example, 1.5 million French soldiers were kept in POW camps in Germany as hostages and forced workers and, in 1943, 600,000 French civilians were forced to move to Germany to work in war plants. The defeat of Germany in 1945 freed approximately 11 million foreigners (categorised as "displaced persons"), most of whom were forced labourers and POWs. In wartime, the German forces had brought into the Reich 6.5 million civilians in addition to Soviet POWs for unfree labour in factories. In all, 5.2 million foreign workers and POWs were repatriated to the Soviet Union, 1.6 million to Poland, 1.5 million to France, and 900,000 to Italy, along with 300,000 to 400,000 each to Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, Hungary, and Belgium. Conduct of operations While German historians do not apply any specific periodisation to the conduct of operations on the Eastern Front, all Soviet and Russian historians divide the war against Germany and its allies into three periods, which are further subdivided into eight major campaigns of the Theatre of war: First period () (22 June 1941 – 18 November 1942) Summer–Autumn Campaign of 1941 () (22 June – 4 December 1941) Winter Campaign of 1941–42 () (5 December 1941 – 30 April 1942) Summer–Autumn Campaign of 1942 () (1 May – 18 November 1942) Second period () (19 November 1942 – 31 December 1943) Winter Campaign of 1942–43 () (19 November 1942 – 3 March 1943) Summer–Autumn Campaign of 1943 () (1 July – 31 December 1943) Third period () (1 January 1944 – 9 May 1945) Winter–Spring Campaign () (1 January – 31 May 1944) Summer–Autumn Campaign of 1944 () (1 June – 31 December 1944) Campaign in Europe during 1945 () (1 January – 9 May 1945) Operation Barbarossa: Summer 1941 Operation Barbarossa began just before dawn on 22 June 1941. The Germans cut the wire network in all Soviet western military districts to undermine the Red Army's communications. Panicky transmissions from the Soviet front-line units to their command headquarters were picked up like this: "We are being fired upon. What shall we do?" The answer was just as confusing: "You must be insane. And why is your signal not in code?" At 03:15 on 22 June 1941, 99 of 190 German divisions, including fourteen panzer divisions and ten motorised, were deployed against the Soviet Union from the Baltic to the Black Sea. They were accompanied by ten Romanian divisions, three Italian divisions, two Slovakian divisions and nine Romanian and four Hungarian brigades. On the same day, the Baltic, Western and Kiev Special military districts were renamed the Northwestern, Western and Southwestern Fronts respectively. To establish air supremacy, the Luftwaffe began immediate attacks on Soviet airfields, destroying much of the forward-deployed Soviet Air Force airfield fleets consisting of largely obsolescent types before their pilots had a chance to leave the ground. For a month the offensive conducted on three axes was completely unstoppable as the panzer forces encircled hundreds of thousands of Soviet troops in huge pockets that were then reduced by slower-moving infantry armies while the panzers continued the offensive, following the Blitzkrieg doctrine. Army Group North's objective was Leningrad via the Baltic states. Comprising the 16th and 18th Armies and the 4th Panzer Group, this formation advanced through the Baltic states, and the Russian Pskov and Novgorod regions. Local insurgents seized the moment and controlled most of Lithuania, northern Latvia and southern Estonia prior to the arrival of the German forces. Army Group Centre's two panzer groups (the 2nd and 3rd), advanced to the north and south of Brest-Litovsk and converged east of Minsk, followed by the 2nd, 4th, and 9th Armies. The combined panzer force reached the Beresina River in just six days, from their start lines. The next objective was to cross the Dnieper river, which was accomplished by 11 July. Their next target was Smolensk, which fell on 16 July, but the fierce Soviet resistance in the Smolensk area and slowing of the Wehrmacht advance by the North and South Army Groups forced Hitler to halt a central thrust at Moscow and to divert the 3rd Panzer Group north. Critically, Guderian's 2nd Panzer Group was ordered to move south in a giant pincer manoeuvre with Army Group South which was advancing into Ukraine. Army Group Centre's infantry divisions were left relatively unsupported by armour to continue their slow advance to Moscow. This decision caused a severe leadership crisis. The German field commanders argued for an immediate offensive towards Moscow, but Hitler over-ruled them, citing the importance of Ukrainian agricultural, mining and industrial resources, as well as the massing of Soviet reserves in the Gomel area between Army Group Centre's southern flank and the bogged-down Army Group South's northern flank. This decision, Hitler's "summer pause", is believed to have had a severe impact on the Battle of Moscow's outcome, by slowing down the advance on Moscow in favour of encircling large numbers of Soviet troops around Kiev. Army Group South, with the 1st Panzer Group, the 6th, 11th and 17th Armies, was tasked with advancing through Galicia and into Ukraine. Their progress, however, was rather slow, and they took heavy casualties in the Battle of Brody. At the beginning of July, the Third and Fourth Romanian Armies, aided by elements of the German 11th Army, fought their way through Bessarabia towards Odessa. The 1st Panzer Group turned away from Kiev for the moment, advancing into the Dnieper bend (western Dnipropetrovsk Oblast). When it joined up with the southern elements of Army Group South at Uman, the Group captured about 100,000 Soviet prisoners in a huge encirclement. Advancing armoured divisions of the Army Group South met with Guderian's 2nd Panzer Group near Lokhvytsa in mid September, cutting off large numbers of Red Army troops in the pocket east of Kiev. 400,000 Soviet prisoners were captured as Kiev was surrendered on 19 September. As the Red Army withdrew behind the Dnieper and Dvina rivers, the Soviet Stavka (high command) turned its attention to evacuating as much of the western regions' industry as it could. Factories were dismantled and transported on flatcars away from the front line for re-establishment in more remote areas of the Ural Mountains, Caucasus, Central Asia and south-eastern Siberia. Most civilians were left to make their own way east, with only industry-related workers evacuated with the equipment; much of the population was left behind to the mercy of the invading forces. Stalin ordered the retreating Red Army to initiate a scorched-earth policy to deny the Germans and their allies basic supplies as they advanced eastward. To carry out that order, destruction battalions were formed in front-line areas, having the authority to summarily execute any suspicious person. The destruction battalions burned down villages, schools, and public buildings. As a part of this policy, the NKVD massacred thousands of anti-Soviet prisoners. Leningrad, Moscow and Rostov: Autumn 1941 Hitler then decided to resume the advance on Moscow, re-designating the panzer groups as panzer armies for the occasion. Operation Typhoon, which was set in motion on 30 September, saw the 2nd Panzer Army rush along the paved road from Oryol (captured 5 October) to the Oka River at Plavsk, while the 4th Panzer Army (transferred from Army Group North to Centre) and 3rd Panzer armies surrounded the Soviet forces in two huge pockets at Vyazma and Bryansk. Army Group North positioned itself in front of Leningrad and attempted to cut the rail link at Mga to the east. This began the 900-day Siege of Leningrad. North of the Arctic Circle, a German–Finnish force set out for Murmansk but could get no further than the Zapadnaya Litsa River, where they settled down. Army Group South pushed down from the Dnieper to the Sea of Azov coast, also advancing through Kharkov, Kursk, and Stalino. The combined German and Romanian forces moved into the Crimea and took control of all of the peninsula by autumn (except Sevastopol, which held out until 3 July 1942). On 21 November, the Wehrmacht took Rostov, the gateway to the Caucasus. However, the German lines were over-extended and the Soviet defenders counterattacked the 1st Panzer Army's spearhead from the north, forcing them to pull out of the city and behind the Mius River; the first significant German withdrawal of the war. The onset of the winter freeze saw one last German lunge that opened on 15 November, when the Wehrmacht attempted to encircle Moscow. On 27 November, the 4th Panzer Army got to within of the Kremlin when it reached the last tramstop of the Moscow line at Khimki. Meanwhile, the 2nd Panzer Army failed to take Tula, the last Soviet city that stood in its way to the capital. After a meeting held in Orsha between the head of the OKH (Army General Staff), General Franz Halder and the heads of three Army groups and armies, decided to push forward to Moscow since it was better, as argued by the head of Army Group Center, Field Marshal Fedor von Bock, for them to try their luck on the battlefield rather than just sit and wait while their opponent gathered more strength. However, by 6 December it became clear that the Wehrmacht did not have the strength to capture Moscow, and the attack was suspended. Marshal Shaposhnikov thus began his counter-attack, employing freshly mobilised reserves, as well as some well-trained Far-Eastern divisions transferred from the east following intelligence that Japan would remain neutral. Soviet counter-offensive: Winter 1941 The Soviet counter-offensive during the Battle of Moscow had removed the immediate German threat to the city. According to Zhukov, "the success of the December counter-offensive in the central strategic direction was considerable. Having suffered a major defeat the German striking forces of Army Group Centre were retreating." Stalin's objective in January 1942 was "to deny the Germans any breathing space, to drive them westward without let-up, to make them use up their reserves before spring comes..." The main blow was to be delivered by a double envelopment orchestrated by the Northwestern Front, the Kalinin Front and the Western Front. The overall objective according to Zhukov was the "subsequent encirclement and destruction of the enemy's main forces in the area of Rzhev, Vyazma and Smolensk. The Leningrad Front, the Volkhov Front and the right wing forces of the Northwestern Front were to rout the Army Group North." The Southwestern Front and Southern Front were to defeat the Army Group South. The Caucasian Front and Black Sea Fleet were to take back the Crimea. The 20th Army, part of the Soviet 1st Shock Army, the 22nd Tank Brigade and five ski battalions launched their attack on 10 January 1942. By 17 January, the Soviets had captured Lotoshino and Shakhovskaya. By 20 January, the 5th and 33rd armies had captured Ruza, Dorokhovo, Mozhaisk and Vereya, while the 43rd and 49th armies were at Domanovo. The Wehrmacht rallied, retaining a salient at Rzhev. A Soviet parachute drop by two battalions of the 201st Airborne Brigade and the 250th Airborne Regiment on 18 and 22 January was designed to "cut off enemy communications with the rear." Lt.-Gen. Mikhail Grigoryevich Yefremov's 33rd Army aided by Gen. Belov's 1st Cavalry Corps and Soviet Partisans attempted to seize Vyazma. This force was joined by additional paratroopers of the 8th Airborne Brigade at the end of January. However, in early February, the Germans managed to cut off this force, separating the Soviets from their main force in the rear of the Germans. They were supplied by air until April when they were given permission to regain the Soviet main lines. Only part of Belov's Cavalry Corps made it to safety however, while Yefremov's men fought "a losing battle." By April 1942, the Soviet Supreme Command agreed to assume the defensive so as to "consolidate the captured ground." According to Zhukov, "During the winter offensive, the forces of the Western Front had advanced from 70 to 100 km, which somewhat improved the overall operational and strategic situation on the Western sector." To the north, the Red Army surrounded a German garrison in Demyansk, which held out with air supply for four months, and established themselves in front of Kholm, Velizh, and Velikie Luki. Further north still, the Soviet 2nd Shock Army was unleashed on the Volkhov River. Initially this made some progress; however, it was unsupported, and by June a German counterattack cut off and destroyed the army. The Soviet commander, Lieutenant General Andrey Vlasov, later defected to Germany and formed the ROA or Russian Liberation Army. In the south the Red Army lunged over the Donets River at Izyum and drove a deep salient. The intent was to pin Army Group South against the Sea of Azov, but as the winter eased the Wehrmacht counter-attacked and cut off the over-extended Soviet troops in the Second Battle of Kharkov. Don, Volga, and Caucasus: Summer 1942 Although plans were made to attack Moscow again, on 28 June 1942, the offensive re-opened in a different direction. Army Group South took the initiative, anchoring the front with the Battle of Voronezh and then following the Don river southeastwards. The grand plan was to secure the Don and Volga first and then drive into the Caucasus towards the oil fields, but operational considerations and Hitler's vanity made him order both objectives to be attempted simultaneously. Rostov was recaptured on 24 July when the 1st Panzer Army joined in, and then that group drove south towards Maikop. As part of this, Operation Shamil was executed, a plan whereby a group of Brandenburger commandos dressed up as Soviet NKVD troops to destabilise Maikop's defences and allow the 1st Panzer Army to enter the oil town with little opposition. Meanwhile, the 6th Army was driving towards Stalingrad, for a long period unsupported by 4th Panzer Army, which had been diverted to help 1st Panzer Army cross the Don. By the time the 4th Panzer Army had rejoined the Stalingrad offensive Soviet resistance (comprising the 62nd Army under Vasily Chuikov) had stiffened. A leap across the Don brought German troops to the Volga on 23 August but for the next three months the Wehrmacht would be fighting the Battle of Stalingrad street-by-street. Towards the south, the 1st Panzer Army had reached the Caucasian foothills and the Malka River. At the end of August Romanian mountain troops joined the Caucasian spearhead, while the Romanian 3rd and 4th armies were redeployed from their successful task of clearing the Azov littoral. They took up position on either side of Stalingrad to free German troops for the main offensive. Mindful of the continuing antagonism between Axis allies Romania and Hungary over Transylvania, the Romanian army in the Don bend was separated from the Hungarian 2nd army by the Italian 8th Army. Thus, all of Hitler's allies were involved – including a Slovakian contingent with the 1st Panzer Army and a Croatian regiment attached to 6th Army. The advance into the Caucasus bogged down, with the Germans unable to fight their way past Malgobek and to the main prize of Grozny. Instead, they switched the direction of their advance to approach it from the south, crossing the Malka at the end of October and entering North Ossetia. In the first week of November, on the outskirts of Ordzhonikidze, the 13th Panzer Division's spearhead was snipped off and the panzer troops had to fall back. The offensive into Russia was over. Stalingrad: Winter 1942 While the German 6th and 4th Panzer Armies had been fighting their way into Stalingrad, Soviet armies had congregated on either side of the city, specifically into the Don bridgeheads, and it was from these that they struck in November 1942. Operation Uranus started on 19 November. Two Soviet fronts punched through the Romanian lines and converged at Kalach on 23 November, trapping 300,000 Axis troops behind them. A simultaneous offensive on the Rzhev sector known as Operation Mars was supposed to advance to Smolensk, but was a costly failure, with German tactical defences preventing any breakthrough. The Germans rushed to transfer troops to the Soviet Union in a desperate attempt to relieve Stalingrad, but the offensive could not get going until 12 December, by which time the 6th Army in Stalingrad was starving and too weak to break out towards it. Operation Winter Storm, with three transferred panzer divisions, got going briskly from Kotelnikovo towards the Aksai river but became bogged down short of its goal. To divert the rescue attempt, the Red Army decided to smash the Italians and come down behind the relief attempt if they could; that operation starting on 16 December. What it did accomplish was to destroy many of the aircraft that had been transporting relief supplies to Stalingrad. The fairly limited scope of the Soviet offensive, although still eventually targeted on Rostov, also allowed Hitler time to see sense and pull Army Group A out of the Caucasus and back over the Don. On 31 January 1943, the 90,000 survivors of the 300,000-man 6th Army surrendered. By that time the Hungarian 2nd Army had also been wiped out. The Red Army advanced from the Don to the west of Stalingrad, marching through Kursk (retaken on 8 February 1943) and Kharkov (retaken 16 February 1943). To save the position in the south, the Germans decided to abandon the Rzhev salient in February, freeing enough troops to make a successful riposte in eastern Ukraine. Manstein's counteroffensive, strengthened by a specially trained SS Panzer Corps equipped with Tiger tanks, opened on 20 February 1943 and fought its way from Poltava back into Kharkov in the third week of March, when the spring thaw intervened. This left a glaring Soviet bulge (salient) in the front centered on Kursk. Kursk: Summer 1943 After the failure of the attempt to capture Stalingrad, Hitler had delegated planning authority for the upcoming campaign season to the German Army High Command and reinstated Heinz Guderian to a prominent role, this time as Inspector of Panzer Troops. Debate among the General Staff was polarised, with even Hitler nervous about any attempt to pinch off the Kursk salient. He knew that in the intervening six months the Soviet position at Kursk had been reinforced heavily with anti-tank guns, tank traps, landmines, barbed wire, trenches, pillboxes, artillery and mortars. However, if one last great blitzkrieg offensive could be mounted, then attention could then be turned to the Allied threat to the Western Front. Certainly, the peace negotiations in April had gone nowhere. The advance would be executed from the Orel salient to the north of Kursk and from Belgorod to the south. Both wings would converge on the area east of Kursk, and by that means restore the lines of Army Group South to the exact points that it held over the winter of 1941–1942. In the north, the entire German 9th Army had been redeployed from the Rzhev salient into the Orel salient and was to advance from Maloarkhangelsk to Kursk. But its forces could not even get past the first objective at Olkhovatka, just into the advance. The 9th Army blunted its spearhead against the Soviet minefields, frustratingly so considering that the high ground there was the only natural barrier between them and flat tank country all the way to Kursk. The direction of advance was then switched to Ponyri, to the west of Olkhovatka, but the 9th Army could not break through here either and went over to the defensive. The Red Army then launched a counter-offensive, Operation Kutuzov. On 12 July the Red Army battled through the demarcation line between the 211th and 293rd divisions on the Zhizdra River and steamed towards Karachev, right behind them and behind Orel. The southern offensive, spearheaded by 4th Panzer Army, led by Gen. Col. Hoth, with three Tank Corps made more headway. Advancing on either side of the upper Donets on a narrow corridor, the II SS Panzer Corps and the Großdeutschland Panzergrenadier divisions battled their way through minefields and over comparatively high ground towards Oboyan. Stiff resistance caused a change of direction from east to west of the front, but the tanks got before encountering the reserves of the Soviet 5th Guards Tank Army outside Prokhorovka. Battle was joined on 12 July, with about one thousand tanks being engaged. After the war, the battle near Prochorovka was idealised by Soviet historians as the largest tank battle of all time. The meeting engagement at Prochorovka was a Soviet defensive success, albeit at heavy cost. The Soviet 5th Guards Tank Army, with about 800 light and medium tanks, attacked elements of the II SS Panzer Corps. Tank losses on both sides have been the source of controversy ever since. Although the 5th Guards Tank Army did not attain its objectives, the German advance had been halted. At the end of the day both sides had fought each other to a standstill, but regardless of the German failure in the north Erich von Manstein proposed he continue the attack with the 4th Panzer Army. The Red Army started the strong offensive operation in the northern Orel salient and achieved a breakthrough on the flank of the German 9th Army. Also worried by the Allies' landing in Sicily on 10 July, Hitler made the decision to halt the offensive even as the German 9th Army was rapidly giving ground in the north. The Germans' final strategic offensive in the Soviet Union ended with their defence against a major Soviet counteroffensive that lasted into August. The Kursk offensive was the last on the scale of 1940 and 1941 that the Wehrmacht was able to launch; subsequent offensives would represent only a shadow of previous German offensive might. Autumn and Winter 1943–44 The Soviet multi-stage summer offensive started with the advance into the Orel salient. The diversion of the well-equipped Großdeutschland Division from Belgorod to Karachev could not counteract it, and the Wehrmacht began a withdrawal from Orel (retaken by the Red Army on 5 August 1943), falling back to the Hagen line in front of Bryansk. To the south, the Red Army broke through Army Group South's Belgorod positions and headed for Kharkov once again. Although intense battles of movement throughout late July and into August 1943 saw the Tigers blunting Soviet tank attacks on one axis, they were soon outflanked on another line to the west as the Soviet forces advanced down the Psel, and Kharkov was abandoned for the final time on 22 August. The German forces on the Mius, now comprising the 1st Panzer Army and a reconstituted 6th Army, were by August too weak to repulse a Soviet attack on their own front, and when the Red Army hit them they retreated all the way through the Donbas industrial region to the Dnieper, losing half the farmland that Germany had invaded the Soviet Union to exploit. At this time Hitler agreed to a general withdrawal to the Dnieper line, along which was meant to be the Ostwall, a line of defence similar to the Westwall (Siegfried Line) of fortifications along the German frontier in the west. The main problem for the Wehrmacht was that these defences had not yet been built; by the time Army Group South had evacuated eastern Ukraine and begun withdrawing across the Dnieper during September, the Soviet forces were hard behind them. Tenaciously, small units paddled their way across the wide river and established bridgeheads. A second attempt by the Red Army to gain land using parachutists, mounted at Kaniv on 24 September, proved as disappointing as at Dorogobuzh eighteen months previously. The paratroopers were soon repelled – but not until still more Red Army troops had used the cover they provided to get themselves over the Dnieper and securely dug in. As September ended and October started, the Germans found the Dnieper line impossible to hold as the Soviet bridgeheads grew. Important Dnieper towns started to fall, with Zaporozhye the first to go, followed by Dnepropetrovsk. Finally, early in November the Red Army broke out of its bridgeheads on either side of Kiev and captured the Ukrainian capital, at that time the third largest city in the Soviet Union. west of Kiev, the 4th Panzer Army, still convinced that the Red Army was a spent force, was able to mount a successful riposte at Zhytomyr during the middle of November, weakening the Soviet bridgehead by a daring outflanking strike mounted by the SS Panzer Corps along the river Teterev. This battle also enabled Army Group South to recapture Korosten and gain some time to rest. However, on Christmas Eve the retreat began anew when the First Ukrainian Front (renamed from the Voronezh Front) struck them in the same place. The Soviet advance continued along the railway line until the 1939 Polish–Soviet border was reached on 3 January 1944. To the south, the Second Ukrainian Front (ex Steppe Front) had crossed the Dnieper at Kremenchug and continued westwards. In the second week of January 1944 they swung north, meeting Vatutin's tank forces which had swung south from their penetration into Poland and surrounding ten German divisions at Korsun–Shevchenkovsky, west of Cherkassy. Hitler's insistence on holding the Dnieper line, even when facing the prospect of catastrophic defeat, was compounded by his conviction that the Cherkassy pocket could break out and even advance to Kiev, but Manstein was more concerned about being able to advance to the edge of the pocket and then implore the surrounded forces to break out. By 16 February the first stage was complete, with panzers separated from the contracting Cherkassy pocket only by the swollen Gniloy Tikich river. Under shellfire and pursued by Soviet tanks, the surrounded German troops, among whom were the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking, fought their way across the river to safety, although at the cost of half their number and all their equipment. They assumed the Red Army would not attack again, with the spring approaching, but on 3 March the Soviet Ukrainian Front went over to the offensive. Having already isolated the Crimea by severing the Perekop isthmus, Malinovsky's forces advanced across the mud to the Romanian border, not stopping on the river Prut. One final move in the south completed the 1943–44 campaigning season, which had wrapped up a Soviet advance of over . In March, 20 German divisions of Generaloberst Hans-Valentin Hube's 1st Panzer Army were encircled in what was to be known as Hube's Pocket near Kamenets-Podolskiy. After two weeks' of heavy fighting, the 1st Panzer managed to escape the pocket, at the cost of losing almost the entire heavy equipment. At this point, Hitler sacked several prominent generals, Manstein included. In April, the Red Army took back Odessa, followed by 4th Ukrainian Front's campaign to restore control over the Crimea, which culminated in the capture of Sevastopol on 10 May. Along Army Group Centre's front, August 1943 saw this force pushed back from the Hagen line slowly, ceding comparatively little territory, but the loss of Bryansk, and more importantly Smolensk, on 25 September cost the Wehrmacht the keystone of the entire German defensive system. The 4th and 9th armies and 3rd Panzer Army still held their own east of the upper Dnieper, stifling Soviet attempts to reach Vitebsk. On Army Group North's front, there was barely any fighting at all until January 1944, when out of nowhere Volkhov and Second Baltic Fronts struck. In a lightning campaign, the Germans were pushed back from Leningrad and Novgorod was captured by Soviet forces. After a advance in January and February, the Leningrad Front had reached the borders of Estonia. To Stalin, the Baltic Sea seemed the quickest way to take the battles to the German territory in East Prussia and seize control of Finland. The Leningrad Front's offensives towards Tallinn, a main Baltic port, were stopped in February 1944. The German army group "Narwa" included Estonian conscripts, defending the re-establishment of Estonian independence. Summer 1944 Wehrmacht planners were convinced that the Red Army would attack again in the south, where the front was from Lviv and offered the most direct route to Berlin. Accordingly, they stripped troops from Army Group Centre, whose front still protruded deep into the Soviet Union. The Germans had transferred some units to France to counter the invasion of Normandy two weeks before. The Belorussian Offensive (codenamed Operation Bagration), which was agreed upon by Allies at the Tehran Conference in December 1943 and launched on 22 June 1944, was a massive Soviet attack, consisting of four Soviet army groups totalling over 120 divisions that smashed into a thinly held German line. They focused their massive attacks on Army Group Centre, not Army Group North Ukraine as the Germans had originally expected. More than 2.3 million Soviet troops went into action against German Army Group Centre, which had a strength of fewer than 800,000 men. At the points of attack, the numerical and quality advantages of the Soviet forces were overwhelming. The Red Army achieved a ratio of ten to one in tanks and seven to one in aircraft over their enemy. The Germans crumbled. The capital of Belarus, Minsk, was taken on 3 July, trapping some 100,000 Germans. Ten days later the Red Army reached the prewar Polish border. Bagration was, by any measure, one of the largest single operations of the war. By the end of August 1944, it had cost the Germans ~400,000 dead, wounded, missing and sick, from whom 160,000 were captured, as well as 2,000 tanks and 57,000 other vehicles. In the operation, the Red Army lost ~180,000 dead and missing (765,815 in total, including wounded and sick plus 5,073 Poles), as well as 2,957 tanks and assault guns. The offensive at Estonia claimed another 480,000 Soviet soldiers, 100,000 of them classed as dead. The neighbouring Lvov–Sandomierz operation was launched on 17 July 1944, with the Red Army routing the German forces in Western Ukraine and retaking Lviv. The Soviet advance in the south continued into Romania and, following a coup against the Axis-allied government of Romania on 23 August, the Red Army occupied Bucharest on 31 August. Romania and the Soviet Union signed an armistice on 12 September. The rapid progress of Operation Bagration threatened to cut off and isolate the German units of Army Group North bitterly resisting the Soviet advance towards Tallinn. Despite a ferocious attack at the Sinimäed Hills, Estonia, the Soviet Leningrad Front failed to break through the defence of the smaller, well-fortified army detachment "Narwa" in terrain not suitable for large-scale operations. On the Karelian Isthmus, the Red Army launched a Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive against the Finnish lines on 9 June 1944, (coordinated with the Western Allied Invasion of Normandy). Three armies were pitted there against the Finns, among them several experienced guards rifle formations. The attack breached the Finnish front line of defence in Valkeasaari on 10 June and the Finnish forces retreated to their secondary defence line, the VT-line. The Soviet attack was supported by a heavy artillery barrage, air bombardments and armoured forces. The VT-line was breached on 14 June and after a failed counterattack in Kuuterselkä by the Finnish armoured division, the Finnish defence had to be pulled back to the VKT-line. After heavy fighting in the battles of Tali-Ihantala and Ilomantsi, Finnish troops finally managed to halt the Soviet attack. In Poland, as the Red Army approached, the Polish Home Army (AK) launched Operation Tempest. During the Warsaw Uprising, the Red Army were ordered to halt at the Vistula River. Whether Stalin was unable or unwilling to come to the aid of the Polish resistance is disputed. In Slovakia, the Slovak National Uprising started as an armed struggle between German Wehrmacht forces and rebel Slovak troops between August and October 1944. It was centered at Banská Bystrica. Autumn 1944 On 8 September 1944 the Red Army began an attack on the Dukla Pass on the Slovak–Polish border. Two months later, the Soviet forces won the battle and entered Slovakia. The toll was high: 20,000 Red Army soldiers died, plus several thousand Germans, Slovaks and Czechs. Under the pressure of the Soviet Baltic Offensive, the German Army Group North were withdrawn to fight in the sieges of Saaremaa, Courland and Memel. January–March 1945 The Soviet Union finally entered Warsaw on 17 January 1945, after the city was destroyed and abandoned by the Germans. Over three days, on a broad front incorporating four army fronts, the Red Army launched the Vistula–Oder Offensive across the Narew River and from Warsaw. The Soviets outnumbered the Germans on average by 5–6:1 in troops, 6:1 in artillery, 6:1 in tanks and 4:1 in self-propelled artillery. After four days the Red Army broke out and started moving thirty to forty kilometres a day, taking the Baltic states, Danzig, East Prussia, Poznań, and drawing up on a line sixty kilometres east of Berlin along the River Oder. During the full course of the Vistula–Oder operation (23 days), the Red Army forces sustained 194,191 total casualties (killed, wounded and missing) and lost 1,267 tanks and assault guns. On 25 January 1945, Hitler renamed three army groups. Army Group North became Army Group Courland; Army Group Centre became Army Group North and Army Group A became Army Group Centre. Army Group North (old Army Group Centre) was driven into an ever-smaller pocket around Königsberg in East Prussia. A limited counter-attack (codenamed Operation Solstice) by the newly created Army Group Vistula, under the command of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, had failed by 24 February, and the Red Army drove on to Pomerania and cleared the right bank of the Oder River. In the south, the German attempts, in Operation Konrad, to relieve the encircled garrison at Budapest failed and the city fell on 13 February. On 6 March, the Germans launched what would be their final major offensive of the war, Operation Spring Awakening, which failed by 16 March. On 30 March the Red Army entered Austria and captured Vienna on 13 April. OKW claim German losses of 77,000 killed, 334,000 wounded and 192,000 missing, with a total of 603,000 men, on the Eastern Front during January and February 1945. On 9 April 1945, Königsberg in East Prussia finally fell to the Red Army, although the shattered remnants of Army Group Centre continued to resist on the Vistula Spit and Hel Peninsula until the end of the war in Europe. The East Prussian operation, though often overshadowed by the Vistula–Oder operation and the later battle for Berlin, was in fact one of the largest and costliest operations fought by the Red Army throughout the war. During the period it lasted (13 January – 25 April), it cost the Red Army 584,788 casualties, and 3,525 tanks and assault guns. The fall of Königsberg allowed Stavka to free up General Konstantin Rokossovsky's 2nd Belorussian Front (2BF) to move west to the east bank of the Oder. During the first two weeks of April, the Red Army performed their fastest front redeployment of the war. General Georgy Zhukov concentrated his 1st Belorussian Front (1BF), which had been deployed along the Oder river from Frankfurt in the south to the Baltic, into an area in front of the Seelow Heights. The 2BF moved into the positions being vacated by the 1BF north of the Seelow Heights. While this redeployment was in progress, gaps were left in the lines and the remnants of the German 2nd Army, which had been bottled up in a pocket near Danzig, managed to escape across the Oder. To the south General Ivan Konev shifted the main weight of the 1st Ukrainian Front (1UF) out of Upper Silesia north-west to the Neisse River. The three Soviet fronts had altogether some 2.5 million men (including 78,556 soldiers of the 1st Polish Army); 6,250 tanks; 7,500 aircraft; 41,600 artillery pieces and mortars; 3,255 truck-mounted Katyusha rocket launchers, (nicknamed "Stalin Organs"); and 95,383 motor vehicles, many of which were manufactured in the United States. End of the war: April–May 1945 The Soviet offensive had two objectives. Because of Stalin's suspicions about the intentions of the Western Allies to hand over territory occupied by them in the post-war Soviet sphere of influence, the offensive was to be on a broad front and was to move as rapidly as possible to the west, to meet the Western Allies as far west as possible. But the over-riding objective was to capture Berlin. The two were complementary because possession of the zone could not be won quickly unless Berlin was taken. Another consideration was that Berlin itself held strategic assets, including Adolf Hitler and part of the German atomic bomb program. The offensive to capture central Germany and Berlin started on 16 April with an assault on the German front lines on the Oder and Neisse rivers. After several days of heavy fighting the Soviet 1BF and 1UF punched holes through the German front line and were fanning out across central Germany. By 24 April, elements of the 1BF and 1UF had completed the encirclement of the German capital and the Battle of Berlin entered its final stages. On 25 April the 2BF broke through the German 3rd Panzer Army's line south of Stettin. They were now free to move west towards the British 21st Army Group and north towards the Baltic port of Stralsund. The 58th Guards Rifle Division of the 5th Guards Army made contact with the US 69th Infantry Division of the First Army near Torgau, Germany at the Elbe river. On 29 and 30 April, as the Soviet forces fought their way into the centre of Berlin, Adolf Hitler married Eva Braun and then committed suicide by taking cyanide and shooting himself. In his will, Hitler appointed Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz as new President of the Reich and Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels as new Chancellor of the Reich; however, Goebbels also commited suicide, along with his wife Magda and their children, on 1 May 1945. Helmuth Weidling, defence commandant of Berlin, surrendered the city to the Soviet forces on 2 May. Altogether, the Berlin operation (16 April – 2 May) cost the Red Army 361,367 casualties (dead, wounded, missing and sick) and 1,997 tanks and assault guns. German losses in this period of the war remain impossible to determine with any reliability. Upon learning of Hitler and Goebbels's death, Dönitz (now President of the Reich) appointed Johann Ludwig Schwerin von Krosigk as new "Leading Minister" of the German Reich. Rapidly advancing Allied forces limited the jurisdiction of the new German government to an area around Flensburg near the Danish border, where Dönitz's headquarters were located, along with Mürwik. Accordingly, this administration was referred to as the Flensburg government. Dönitz and Schwerin von Krosigk attempted to negotiate an armistice with the Western Allies while continuing to resist the Soviet Army, but were eventually forced to accept an unconditional surrender on all fronts. At 2:41 am on 7 May 1945, at SHAEF headquarters, German Chief-of-Staff General Alfred Jodl signed the unconditional surrender documents for all German forces to the Allies at Reims in France. It included the phrase All forces under German control to cease active operations at 2301 hours Central European time on 8 May 1945. The next day shortly before midnight, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel repeated the signing in Berlin at Zhukov's headquarters, now known as the German-Russian Museum. The war in Europe was over. In the Soviet Union the end of the war is considered to be 9 May, when the surrender took effect Moscow time. This date is celebrated as a national holiday – Victory Day – in Russia (as part of a two-day 8–9 May holiday) and some other post-Soviet countries. The ceremonial Victory parade was held in Moscow on 24 June. The German Army Group Centre initially refused to surrender and continued to fight in Czechoslovakia until about 11 May. A small German garrison on the Danish island of Bornholm refused to surrender until they were bombed and invaded by the Soviets. The island was returned to the Danish government four months later. Soviet Far East: August 1945 After the German defeat, Joseph Stalin promised his allies Truman and Churchill that he would attack the Japanese within 90 days of the German surrender. The Soviet invasion of Manchuria began on 8 August 1945, with an assault on the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and neighbouring Mengjiang; the greater offensive would eventually include northern Korea, southern Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands. Apart from the Battles of Khalkhin Gol, it marked the only military action of the Soviet Union against Imperial Japan; at the Yalta Conference, it had agreed to Allied pleas to terminate the neutrality pact with Japan and enter the Second World War's Pacific theatre within three months after the end of the war in Europe. While not a part of the Eastern Front operations, it is included here because the commanders and much of the forces used by the Red Army came from the European Theatre of operations and benefited from the experience gained there. In many ways this was a 'perfect' operation, delivered with the skill gained during the bitter fighting with the Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe over four years. Results The Eastern Front was the largest and bloodiest theatre of World War II. It is generally accepted as being the deadliest conflict in human history, with over 30 million killed as a result. The German armed forces suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front. It involved more land combat than all other World War II theatres combined. The distinctly brutal nature of warfare on the Eastern Front was exemplified by an often wilful disregard for human life by both sides. It was also reflected in the ideological premise for the war, which also saw a momentous clash between two directly opposed ideologies. Aside from the ideological conflict, the mindframe of the leaders of Germany and the Soviet Union, Hitler and Stalin respectively, contributed to the escalation of terror and murder on an unprecedented scale. Stalin and Hitler both disregarded human life in order to achieve their goal of victory. This included the terrorisation of their own people, as well as mass deportations of entire populations. All these factors resulted in tremendous brutality both to combatants and civilians that found no parallel on the Western Front. According to Time magazine: "By measure of manpower, duration, territorial reach and casualties, the Eastern Front was as much as four times the scale of the conflict on the Western Front that opened with the Normandy invasion." Conversely, General George Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, calculated that without the Eastern Front, the United States would have had to double the number of its soldiers on the Western Front. Memorandum for the President's Special Assistant Harry Hopkins, Washington, D.C., 10 August 1943: The war inflicted huge losses and suffering upon the civilian populations of the affected countries. Behind the front lines, atrocities against civilians in German-occupied areas were routine, including those carried out as part of the Holocaust. German and German-allied forces treated civilian populations with exceptional brutality, massacring whole village populations and routinely killing civilian hostages (see German war crimes). Both sides practised widespread scorched earth tactics, but the loss of civilian lives in the case of Germany was incomparably smaller than that of the Soviet Union, in which at least 20 million were killed. According to British historian Geoffrey Hosking, "The full demographic loss to the Soviet peoples was even greater: since a high proportion of those killed were young men of child-begetting age, the postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than post-1939 projections would have led one to expect." When the Red Army invaded Germany in 1944, many German civilians suffered from reprisals by Red Army soldiers (see Soviet war crimes). After the war, following the Yalta conference agreements between the Allies, the German populations of East Prussia and Silesia were displaced to the west of the Oder–Neisse line, in what became one of the largest forced migrations of people in world history. The Soviet Union came out of World War II militarily victorious but economically and structurally devastated. Much of the combat took place in or close to populated areas, and the actions of both sides contributed to massive loss of civilian life and tremendous material damage. According to a summary, presented by Lieutenant General Roman Rudenko at the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, the property damage in the Soviet Union inflicted by the Axis invasion was estimated to a value of 679 billion rubles. The largest number of civilian deaths in a single city was 1.2 million citizens dead during the Siege of Leningrad. The combined damage consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, 2,508 church buildings, 31,850 industrial establishments, of railroad, 4,100 railroad stations, 40,000 hospitals, 84,000 schools, and 43,000 public libraries; leaving 25 million homeless. Seven million horses, 17 million cattle, 20 million pigs, 27 million sheep were also slaughtered or driven off. Wild fauna were also affected. Wolves and foxes fleeing westward from the killing zone, as the Soviet army advanced between 1943 and 1945, were responsible for a rabies epidemic that spread slowly westwards, reaching the coast of the English Channel by 1968. Leadership The Soviet Union and Nazi Germany were both ideologically driven states (by Soviet communism and by Nazism respectively), in which the foremost political leaders had near-absolute power. The character of the war was thus determined by the political leaders and their ideology to a much greater extent than in any other theatre of World War II. Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler exercised tight control over the German war-effort, spending much of his time in his command bunkers (most notably at Rastenburg in East Prussia, at Vinnitsa in Ukraine, and under the garden of the Reich Chancellery in Berlin). At crucial periods in the war he held daily situation-conferences at which he used his remarkable talent for public speaking to overwhelm opposition from his generals and from the OKW staff with rhetoric. In part because of the unexpected degree of German success in the Battle of France (despite the warnings of the professional military) Hitler believed himself a military genius, with a grasp of the total war-effort that eluded his generals. In August 1941, when Walther von Brauchitsch (commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht) and Fedor von Bock appealed for an attack on Moscow, Hitler instead ordered the encirclement and capture of Ukraine, in order to acquire the farmland, industry, and natural resources of that country. Some historians like Bevin Alexander in How Hitler Could Have Won regard this decision as a missed opportunity to win the war. In the winter of 1941–1942 Hitler believed that his obstinate refusal to allow the German armies to retreat had saved Army Group Centre from collapse. He later told Erhard Milch: I had to act ruthlessly. I had to send even my closest generals packing, two army generals, for example … I could only tell these gentlemen, "Get yourself back to Germany as rapidly as you can – but leave the army in my charge. And the army is staying at the front." The success of this hedgehog defence outside Moscow led Hitler to insist on the holding of territory when it made no military sense, and to sack generals who retreated without orders. Officers with initiative were replaced with yes-men or with fanatical Nazis. The disastrous encirclements later in the war – at Stalingrad, Korsun and many other places – resulted directly from Hitler's orders. This idea of holding territory led to another failed plan, dubbed "Heaven-bound Missions", which involved fortifying even the most unimportant or insignificant of cities and the holding of these "fortresses" at all costs. Many divisions became cut off in "fortress" cities, or wasted uselessly in secondary theatres, because Hitler would not sanction retreat or voluntarily abandon any of his conquests. Frustration at Hitler's leadership in the war was one of the factors in the attempted coup d'etat of 1944, but after the failure of the 20 July Plot Hitler considered the army and its officer corps suspect and came to rely on the Schutzstaffel (SS) and Nazi party members to prosecute the war. Hitler's direction of the war ultimately proved disastrous for the German Army, though the skill, loyalty, professionalism and endurance of officers and soldiers enabled him to keep Germany fighting to the end. F. W. Winterbotham wrote of Hitler's signal to Gerd von Rundstedt to continue the attack to the west during the Battle of the Bulge: Joseph Stalin Joseph Stalin bore the greatest responsibility for some of the disasters at the beginning of the war (for example, the Battle of Kiev (1941)), but equally deserves praise for the subsequent success of the Soviet Red Army, which depended on the unprecedentedly rapid industrialisation of the Soviet Union, which Stalin's internal policy had made the first priority throughout the 1930s. Stalin's Great Purge of the Red Army in the late 1930s involved the legal prosecution of many of the senior command, many of whom the courts convicted and sentenced to death or to imprisonment. The executed included Mikhail Tukhachevsky, a proponent of armoured blitzkrieg. Stalin promoted some obscurantists like Grigory Kulik who opposed the mechanisation of the army and the production of tanks, but on the other hand purged the older commanders who had held their positions since the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, and who had experience, but were deemed "politically unreliable". This opened up their places to the promotion of many younger officers that Stalin and the NKVD regarded as in line with Stalinist politics. Many of these newly promoted commanders proved terribly inexperienced, but some later became very successful. Soviet tank-output remained the largest in the world. From the foundation of the Red Army in 1918, political distrust of the military had led to a system of "dual command", with every commander paired with a political commissar, a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Larger units had military councils consisting of the commander, commissar and chief of staff – commissars ensured the loyalty of the commanding officers and implemented Party orders. Following the Soviet occupation of eastern Poland, of the Baltic states and of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina in 1939–1940, Stalin insisted on the occupation of every fold of the newly Sovietized territories; this move westward positioned troops far from their depots, in salients that left them vulnerable to encirclement. As tension heightened in spring, 1941, Stalin desperately tried not to give Hitler any provocation that Berlin could use as an excuse for a German attack; Stalin refused to allow the military to go on the alert – even as German troops gathered on the borders and German reconnaissance planes overflew installations. This refusal to take necessary action was instrumental in the destruction of major portions of the Red Air Force, lined up on its airfields, in the first days of the German-Soviet war. At the crisis of the war, in the autumn of 1942, Stalin made many concessions to the army: the government restored unitary command by removing the Commissars from the chain of command. Order 25 of 15 January 1943 introduced shoulderboards for all ranks; this represented a significant symbolic step, since after the Russian Revolution of 1917 shoulderboards had connotations as a symbol of the old Tsarist régime. Beginning in autumn 1941, units that had proved themselves by superior performance in combat were given the traditional "Guards" title. These concessions were combined with ruthless discipline: Order No. 227, issued on 28 July 1942, threatened commanders who retreated without orders with punishment by court-martial. Infractions by military and politruks were punished with transferral to penal battalions and to penal companies which carried out especially hazardous duties, such as serving as tramplers to clear Nazi minefields. The order stipulated to capture or shoot "cowards" and fleeing panicked troops at the rear the blocking detachments in the first three months shot 1,000 penal troops and sent 24,993 to penal battalions. By October 1942 the idea of regular blocking detachments was quietly dropped, By 29 October 1944 the units were officially disbanded. As it became clear that the Soviet Union would win the war, Stalin ensured that propaganda always mentioned his leadership of the war; he sidelined the victorious generals and never allowed them to develop into political rivals. After the war the Soviets once again purged the Red Army (though not as brutally as in the 1930s) and demoted many successful officers (including Zhukov, Malinovsky and Koniev) to unimportant positions. Repression and genocide in occupied territories The enormous territorial gains of 1941 presented Germany with vast areas to pacify and administer. For the majority of people of the Soviet Union, the Nazi invasion was viewed as a brutal act of unprovoked aggression. While it is important to note that not all parts of Soviet society viewed the German advance in this way, the majority of the Soviet population viewed German forces as occupiers. In areas such as Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (which had been annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940) the Wehrmacht was tolerated by a relatively more significant part of the native population. This was particularly true for the territories of Western Ukraine, recently rejoined to the Soviet Union, where the anti-Polish and anti-Soviet Ukrainian nationalist underground hoped in vain to establish the "independent state", relying on German armed force. However, Soviet society as a whole was hostile to the invading Nazis from the very start. The nascent national liberation movements among Ukrainians and Cossacks, and others were viewed by Hitler with suspicion; some, especially those from the Baltic States, were co-opted into the Axis armies and others brutally suppressed. None of the conquered territories gained any measure of self-rule. Instead, the Nazi ideologues saw the future of the East as one of settlement by German colonists, with the natives killed, expelled, or reduced to slave labour. The cruel and brutally inhumane treatment of Soviet civilians, women, children and elderly, the daily bombings of civilian cities and towns, Nazi pillaging of Soviet villages and hamlets and unprecedented harsh punishment and treatment of civilians in general were some of the primary reasons for Soviet resistance to Nazi Germany's invasion. Indeed, the Soviets viewed Germany's invasion as an act of aggression and an attempt to conquer and enslave the local population. Regions closer to the front were managed by military powers of the region, in other areas such as the Baltic states annexed by the USSR in 1940, Reichscommissariats were established. As a rule, the maximum in loot was extracted. In September 1941, Erich Koch was appointed to the Ukrainian Commissariat. His opening speech was clear about German policy: "I am known as a brutal dog ... Our job is to suck from Ukraine all the goods we can get hold of ... I am expecting from you the utmost severity towards the native population." Atrocities against the Jewish population in the conquered areas began almost immediately, with the dispatch of Einsatzgruppen (task groups) to round up Jews and shoot them. The massacres of Jews and other ethnic minorities were only a part of the deaths from the Nazi occupation. Many hundreds of thousands of Soviet civilians were executed, and millions more died from starvation as the Germans requisitioned food for their armies and fodder for their draft horses. As they retreated from Ukraine and Belarus in 1943–44, the German occupiers systematically applied a scorched earth policy, burning towns and cities, destroying infrastructure, and leaving civilians to starve or die of exposure. In many towns, the battles were fought within towns and cities with trapped civilians caught in the middle. Estimates of total civilian dead in the Soviet Union in the war range from seven million (Encyclopædia Britannica) to seventeen million (Richard Overy). The Nazi ideology and the maltreatment of the local population and Soviet POWs encouraged partisans fighting behind the front; it motivated even anti-communists or non-Russian nationalists to ally with the Soviets and greatly delayed the formation of German-allied divisions consisting of Soviet POWs (see Ostlegionen). These results and missed opportunities contributed to the defeat of the Wehrmacht. Vadim Erlikman has detailed Soviet losses totalling 26.5 million war related deaths. Military losses of 10.6 million include six million killed or missing in action and 3.6 million POW dead, plus 400,000 paramilitary and Soviet partisan losses. Civilian deaths totalled 15.9 million, which included 1.5 million from military actions; 7.1 million victims of Nazi genocide and reprisals; 1.8 million deported to Germany for forced labour; and 5.5 million famine and disease deaths. Additional famine deaths, which totalled one million during 1946–47, are not included here. These losses are for the entire territory of the USSR including territories annexed in 1939–40. Belarus lost a quarter of its pre-war population, including practically all its intellectual elite. Following bloody encirclement battles, all of the present-day Belarus territory was occupied by the Germans by the end of August 1941. The Nazis imposed a brutal regime, deporting some 380,000 young people for slave labour, and killing hundreds of thousands (civilians) more. More than 600 villages like Khatyn were burned with their entire population. More than 209 cities and towns (out of 270 total) and 9,000 villages were destroyed. Himmler pronounced a plan according to which of the Belarusian population was designated for "eradication" and of the racially 'cleaner' population (blue eyes, light hair) would be allowed to serve Germans as slaves. Some recent reports raise the number of Belarusians who perished in the war to "3 million 650 thousand people, unlike the former 2.2 million. That is to say not every fourth inhabitant but almost 40% of the pre-war Belarusian population perished (considering the present-day borders of Belarus)." Sixty percent of Soviet POWs died during the war. By its end, large numbers of Soviet POWs, forced labourers and Nazi collaborators (including those who were forcefully repatriated by the Western Allies) went to special NKVD "filtration" camps. By 1946, 80 per cent of civilians and 20 per cent of POWs were freed, others were re-drafted, or sent to labour battalions. Two per cent of civilians and 14 per cent of the POWs were sent to the Gulag. The official Polish government report of war losses prepared in 1947 reported 6,028,000 victims out of a population of 27,007,000 ethnic Poles and Jews; this report excluded ethnic Ukrainian and Belarusian losses. Although the Soviet Union had not signed the Geneva Convention (1929), it is generally accepted that it considered itself bound by the provisions of the Hague convention. A month after the German invasion in 1941, an offer was made for a reciprocal adherence to Hague convention. This 'note' was left unanswered by Third Reich officials. Soviet repressions also contributed into the Eastern Front's death toll. Mass repression occurred in the occupied portions of Poland as well as in the Baltic states and Bessarabia. Immediately after the start of the German invasion, the NKVD massacred large numbers of inmates in most of their prisons in Western Belarus and Western Ukraine, while the remainder was to be evacuated in death marches. Industrial output The Soviet victory owed a great deal to the ability of its war industry to outperform the German economy, despite the enormous loss of population and land. Stalin's five-year plans of the 1930s had resulted in the industrialisation of the Urals and central Asia. In 1941, thousands of trains evacuated critical factories and workers from Belarus and Ukraine to safe areas far from the front lines. Once these facilities were reassembled east of the Urals, production could be resumed without fear of German bombing. As the Soviet Union's manpower reserves ran low from 1943 onwards, the great Soviet offensives had to depend more on equipment and less on the expenditure of lives. The increases in production of materiel were achieved at the expense of civilian living standards – the most thorough application of the principle of total war – and with the help of Lend-Lease supplies from the United Kingdom and the United States. The Germans, on the other hand, could rely on a large slave workforce from the conquered countries and Soviet POWs. American exports and technical expertise also enabled the Soviets to produce goods that they wouldn't have been able to on their own. For example, while the USSR was able to produce fuel of octane numbers from 70 to 74, Soviet industry only met 4% of demand for fuel of octane numbers from 90+; all aircraft produced after 1939 required fuel of the latter category. To fulfill demands, the USSR depended on American assistance, both in finished products and TEL. Germany had far greater resources than did the USSR, and dwarfed its production in every matrix except for oil, having over five times the USSR's coal production, over three times its iron production, three times its steel production, twice its electricity production, and about 2/3 of its oil production. German production of explosives from 1940 to 1944 was 1.595 million tons, along with 829,970 tons of powder. Consumption on all fronts during the same period was 1.493 million tons of explosives and 626,887 tons of powder. From 1941 to 1945, the USSR produced only 505,000 tons of explosives and received 105,000 tons of Lend-Lease imports. Germany outproduced the Soviet Union 3.16 to 1 in explosives tonnage. Soviet armoured fighting vehicle production was greater than the Germans (in 1943, the Soviet Union manufactured 24,089 tanks and self-propelled guns to Germany's 19,800). The Soviets incrementally upgraded existing designs, and simplified and refined manufacturing processes to increase production, and were helped by a mass infusion of harder to produce goods such as aviation fuel, machine tools, trucks, and high-explosives from Lend-Lease, allowing them to concentrate on a few key industries. Meanwhile, Germany had been cut off from foreign trade for years by the time it invaded the USSR, was in the middle of two extended and costly theatres at air and sea that further limited production (Battle of the Atlantic and Defence of the Reich), and was forced to devote a large segment of its expenditures to goods the Soviets could cut back on (such as trucks) or which would never even be used against the Soviets (such as ships). Naval vessels alone constituted 10–15% of Germany's war expenditures from 1940 to 1944 depending on the year, while armoured vehicles by comparison were only 5–8%. Soviet production and upkeep was assisted by the Lend-Lease program from the United States and the United Kingdom. In the course of the war the US supplied $11 billion of materiel through Lend-Lease. This included 400,000 trucks, 12,000 armoured vehicles (including 7,000 tanks), 11,400 aircraft and 1.75 million tons of food. The British supplied aircraft including 3,000 Hurricanes and 4,000 other aircraft during the war. Five thousand tanks were provided by the British and Canada. Total British supplies were about four million tons. Germany on the other hand had the resources of conquered Europe at its disposal; those numbers are however not included into the tables above, such as production in France, Belgium, The Netherlands, Denmark, and so on. After the defeat at Stalingrad, Germany geared completely towards a war economy, as expounded in a speech given by Joseph Goebbels, (the Nazi propaganda minister), in the Berlin Sportpalast, increasing production in subsequent years under Albert Speer's (the Reich armaments minister) direction, despite the intensifying Allied bombing campaign. Casualties The fighting involved millions of Axis and Soviet troops along the broadest land front in military history. It was by far the deadliest single theatre of the European portion of World War II with up to 8.7 - 10 million military deaths on the Soviet side (although, depending on the criteria used, casualties in the Far East theatre may have been similar in number). Axis military deaths were 5 million of which around 4,000,000 were German deaths. Included in this figure of German losses is the majority of the 2 million German military personnel listed as missing or unaccounted for after the war. Rüdiger Overmans states that it seems entirely plausible, while not provable, that one half of these men were killed in action and the other half died in Soviet custody. Official OKW Casualty Figures list 65% of Heer killed/missing/captured as being lost on the Eastern Front from 1 September 1939, to 1 January 1945 (four months and a week before the conclusion of the war), with front not specified for losses of the Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe. Estimated civilian deaths range from about 14 to 17 million. Over 11.4 million Soviet civilians within pre-1939 Soviet borders were killed, and another estimated 3.5 million civilians were killed in the annexed territories. The Nazis exterminated one to two million Soviet Jews (including the annexed territories) as part of the Holocaust. Soviet and Russian historiography often uses the term "irretrievable casualties". According to the Narkomat of Defence order (No. 023, 4 February 1944), the irretrievable casualties include killed, missing, those who died due to war-time or subsequent wounds, maladies and chilblains and those who were captured. The huge death toll was attributed to several factors, including brutal mistreatment of POWs and captured partisans, the large deficiency of food and medical supplies in Soviet territories, and atrocities committed mostly by the Germans against the civilian population. The multiple battles and the use of scorched earth tactics destroyed agricultural land, infrastructure, and whole towns, leaving much of the population homeless and without food. Based on Soviet sources Krivosheev put German losses on the Eastern Front from 1941 to 1945 at 6,923,700 men: including killed in action, died of wounds or disease and reported missing and presumed dead4,137,100, taken prisoner 2,571,600 and 215,000 dead among Soviet volunteers in the Wehrmacht. Deaths of POW were 450,600 including 356,700 in NKVD camps and 93,900 in transit. According to a report prepared by the General Staff of the Army issued in December 1944, materiel losses in the East from the period of 22 June 1941 until November 1944 stood at 33,324 armoured vehicles of all types (tanks, assault guns, tank destroyers, self-propelled guns and others). Paul Winter, Defeating Hitler, states "these figures are undoubtedly too low". According to Soviet claims, the Germans lost 42,700 tanks, tank destroyers, self-propelled guns and assault guns on the Eastern front. Overall, Nazi Germany produced 3,024 reconnaissance vehicles, 2,450 other armoured vehicles, 21,880 armoured personnel carriers, 36,703 semi-tracked tractors and 87,329 semi-tracked trucks, estimated 2/3 were lost on the Eastern front. The Soviets lost 96,500 tanks, tank destroyers, self-propelled guns and assault guns, as well as 37,600 other armoured vehicles (such as armoured cars and semi-tracked trucks) for a total of 134,100 armoured vehicles lost. The Soviets also lost 102,600 aircraft (combat and non-combat causes), including 46,100 in combat. According to Soviet claims, the Germans lost 75,700 aircraft on the Eastern front. Polish Armed Forces in the East, initially consisting of Poles from Eastern Poland or otherwise in the Soviet Union in 1939–1941, began fighting alongside the Red Army in 1943, and grew steadily as more Polish territory was liberated from the Nazis in 1944–1945. When the Axis countries of Central Europe were occupied by the Soviets, they changed sides and declared war on Germany (see Allied Commissions). Some Soviet citizens would side with the Germans and join Andrey Vlasov's Russian Liberation Army, Ukrainian Liberation Army, Georgian Legion and other Ostlegionen units. Most of those who joined were Soviet POWs. These foreign volunteers in the Wehrmacht were primarily used in the Eastern Front but some were assigned to guard the beaches of Normandy. The other main group of men joining the German army were citizens of the Baltic countries annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940 or from Western Ukraine. They fought in their own Waffen-SS units, including the Latvian Legion and the Galicia Division. Hitler's notorious Commissar Order called for Soviet political commissars, who were responsible for ensuring that Red Army units remained politically reliable, to be summarily shot when identified amongst captured troops. Axis troops who captured Red Army soldiers frequently shot them in the field or shipped them to concentration camps to be used as forced labourers or killed. Additionally, millions of Soviet civilians were captured as POWs and treated in the same manner. It is estimated that between 2.25 and 3.3 million Soviet POWs died in Nazi custody, out of 5.25–5.7 million. This figure represents a total of 45–57% of all Soviet POWs and may be contrasted with 8,300 out of 231,000 British and U.S. prisoners, or 3.6%. About 5% of the Soviet prisoners who died were of Jewish ethnicity. See also Timeline of the Eastern Front of World War II Index of World War II articles Historiography of World War II Outline of World War II National and regional experiences Occupation of Baltic republics by Nazi Germany Bulgaria during World War II Byelorussia in World War II Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II Estonia in World War II Finland during World War II Greece during World War II Hungary in World War II Italian participation in the Eastern Front Romania during World War II Soviet–Japanese War Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940) Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1944) Soviet Union in World War II Women in the Russian and Soviet military Women in World War II World War II in Yugoslavia Lists List of military operations on the Eastern Front of World War II Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II Other The Battle of Russia – a film from the Why We Fight propaganda film series Horses in World War II Severity Order Barbarossa decree Commissar Order A Japanese plan to invade the Soviet Far East in 1941 Notes Sources Further reading Anderson, Dunkan, et al. The Eastern Front: Barbarossa, Stalingrad, Kursk and Berlin (Campaigns of World War II). London: Amber Books Ltd., 2001. . Beevor, Antony. Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege: 1942–1943. New York: Penguin Books, 1998. . Beevor, Antony. Berlin: The Downfall 1945. New York: Penguin Books, 2002, Erickson, John. The Road to Stalingrad. Stalin's War against Germany. New York: Orion Publishing Group, 2007. . Erickson, John. The Road to Berlin. Stalin's War against Germany. New York: Orion Publishing Group, Ltd., 2007. . Erickson, John, and David Dilks. Barbarossa, the Axis and the Allies. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995. . Glantz, David, The Soviet‐German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay. Guderian, Heinz. Panzer Leader, Da Capo Press Reissue edition. New York: Da Capo Press, 2001. . Hastings, Max. Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944–1945. Vintage Books USA, 2005. International Military Tribunal at Nurnberg, Germany. Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Supplement A, USGPO, 1947. Liddell Hart, B.H. History of the Second World War. United States of America: Da Capo Press, 1999. . Bengt Beckman. Svenska Kryptobedrifter Lubbeck, William and David B. Hurt. At Leningrad's Gates: The Story of a Soldier with Army Group North, Philadelphia: Casemate, 2006. . Mawdsley, Evan Thunder in the East: the Nazi–Soviet War, 1941–1945. London 2005. . . Müller, Rolf-Dieter and Gerd R. Ueberschär. Hitler's War in the East, 1941–1945: A Critical Assessment. Berghahn Books, 1997. . Overy, Richard. Russia's War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941–1945, New Edition. New York: Penguin Books Ltd., 1998. . Schofield, Carey, ed. Russian at War, 1941–1945. Text by Georgii Drozdov and Evgenii Ryabko, [with] introd. by Vladimir Karpov [and] pref. by Harrison E. Salisbury, ed. by Carey Schofield. New York: Vendome Press, 1987. 256 p., copiously ill. with b&2 photos and occasional maps. N.B.: This is mostly a photo-history, with connecting texts. Seaton, Albert. The Russo-German War, 1941–1945, Reprint edition. Presidio Press, 1993. . Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany New York: Simon & Schuster. SvD 2010-10-23 Svensk knäckte nazisternas hemliga koder Winterbotham, F.W. The Ultra Secret, New Edition. Orion Publishing Group Ltd., 2000. . Ziemke, Earl F. Battle For Berlin: End of the Third Reich, NY:Ballantine Books, London:Macdomald & Co, 1969. Ziemke, Earl F. The U.S. Army in the occupation of Germany 1944–1946, USGPO, 1975 Historiography External links Marking 70 Years to Operation Barbarossa on the Yad Vashem website Prof Richard Overy writes a summary about the eastern front for the BBC World War II: The Eastern Front by Alan Taylor, The Atlantic Rarities of the USSR photochronicles. Great Patriotic War 1941–1945 Borodulin Collection. Excellent set of war photos Pobediteli: Eastern Front flash animation (photos, video, interviews, memorials. Written from a Russian perspective) RKKA in World War II Armchair General maps, year by year World War II Eastern Front Order Of Battle Don't forget how the Soviet Union saved the world from Hitler. The Washington Post, 8 May 2015. Images depicting conditions in the camps for Soviet POW from Yad Vashem Videos "Operation Typhoon": , lecture by David Stahel, author of Operation Typhoon. Hitler's March on Moscow (2013) and The Battle for Moscow (2015); via the official channel of USS Silversides Museum. "Fighting a Lost War: The German Army in 1943": , lecture by Robert Citino, via the official channel of the U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center. "Kursk, The Epic Armored Engagement": , via the official channel of The National WWII Museum; session by the Robert Citino and Jonathan Parshall at the 2013 International Conference on World War II. "Mindset of WWII German Soldiers": —interview with the historian Sönke Neitzel discussing his book Soldaten: On Fighting, Killing and Dying, via the official channel of The Agenda, a programme of TVOntario, a Canadian public television station. "How the Red Army Defeated Germany: The Three Alibis": —lecture by Jonathan M. House of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, via the official channel of Dole Institute of Politics. Eastern European theatre of World War II

Dynasties in Chinese history

eng_Latn

Dynasties in Chinese history, or Chinese dynasties, were hereditary monarchical regimes that ruled over China during much of its history. From the inauguration of dynastic rule by Yu the Great in circa 2070 BC to the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 in the wake of the Xinhai Revolution, China was ruled by a series of successive dynasties. Dynasties of China were not limited to those established by ethnic Han—the dominant Chinese ethnic group—and its predecessor, the Huaxia tribal confederation, but also included those founded by non-Han peoples. Dividing Chinese history into periods ruled by dynasties is a convenient method of periodization. Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period. For example, porcelain made during the Ming dynasty may be referred to as "Ming porcelain". The word "dynasty" is usually omitted when making such adjectival references. The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the Zhou dynasty, ruling for a total length of 789 years, albeit it is divided into the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou in Chinese historiography, and its power was drastically reduced during the latter part of its rule. The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source. Chinese dynasties often referred to themselves as "" (; "Celestial Dynasty" or "Heavenly Dynasty"). As a form of respect and subordination, Chinese tributary states referred to Chinese dynasties as "" (; "Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State") or "" (; "Celestial Dynasty of the Great State"). Terminology In the Chinese language, the character "" () originally meant "morning" and "today". Politically, the word is taken to refer to the regime of the incumbent ruler. The following is a list of terms associated with the concept of dynasty in Chinese historiography: (): a dynasty (): an era corresponding to the rule of a dynasty (): while technically referring to royal dynasties, this term is often inaccurately applied to all dynasties, including those whose rulers held non-royal titles such as emperor (): generally used for imperial dynasties History Start of dynastic rule As the founder of China's first orthodox dynasty, the Xia dynasty, Yu the Great is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China. In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed absolute power and private ownership of the realm, even though in practice their actual power was dependent on numerous factors. By tradition, the Chinese throne was inherited exclusively by members of the male line, but there were numerous cases whereby the consort kins came to possess de facto power at the expense of the monarchs. This concept, known as (; "All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family"), was in contrast to the pre-Xia notion of (; "All under Heaven belongs to the public") whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary. Dynastic transition The rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule. This method of explanation has come to be known as the dynastic cycle. Cases of dynastic transition (; ) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation. The supersession of the Liao dynasty by the Jin dynasty was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of China proper under the Yuan dynasty; on the other hand, the transition from the Eastern Han to the Cao Wei, as well as from the Southern Qi to the Liang dynasty, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes, usurpers would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—a process called (; "voluntary abdicating and passing the throne")—as a means to legitimize their rule. One might incorrectly infer from viewing historical timelines that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime. For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in possessing the Mandate of Heaven. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing through renaming the Later Jin established in AD 1616, while the Ming imperial family would rule the Southern Ming until AD 1662. The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683. Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the Ming–Qing transition, most notably the Shun and the Xi dynasties proclaimed by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong respectively. This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper. Similarly, during the earlier Sui–Tang transition, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling Sui dynasty weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (; by Li Mi), Qin (; by Xue Ju), Qi (; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (; by Yuwen Huaji), Liang (; by Shen Faxing), Liang (; by Liang Shidu), Xia (; by Dou Jiande), Zheng (; by Wang Shichong), Chu (; by Zhu Can), Chu (; by Lin Shihong), Wu (; by Li Zitong), Yan (; by Gao Kaidao), and Song (; by Fu Gongshi). The Tang dynasty that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper. Frequently, remnants and descendants of previous dynasties were either purged or granted noble titles in accordance with the (; "two crownings, three respects") system. The latter served as a means for the reigning dynasty to claim legitimate succession from earlier dynasties. For example, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei was accorded the title "Prince of Zhongshan" by the Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi following the latter's deposition of the former. Similarly, Chai Yong, a nephew of the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was conferred the title "Duke of Chongyi" by the Emperor Renzong of Song; other descendants of the Later Zhou ruling family came to inherit the noble title thereafter. According to Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would compose the history of the preceding dynasty, culminating in the Twenty-Four Histories. This tradition was maintained even after the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the Republic of China. However, the attempt by the Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the political division of China into the People's Republic of China on mainland China and the Republic of China on Taiwan. End of dynastic rule Dynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the Qing dynasty following the success of the Xinhai Revolution. While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy. During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (), the Duke of Yansheng and a 76th-generation descendant of Confucius, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by Liang Qichao. Meanwhile, gentry in Anhui and Hebei supported a restoration of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (), the Marquis of Extended Grace. Both suggestions were ultimately rejected. The Empire of China (AD 1915–1916) proclaimed by Yuan Shikai sparked the National Protection War, resulting in the premature collapse of the regime 101 days later. The Manchu Restoration (AD 1917) was an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the Qing dynasty, lasting merely 11 days. Similarly, the Manchukuo (AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the Empire of Japan during World War II with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime. Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia. Political legitimacy China was politically divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties effectively functioned as separate states with their own court and political institutions. Political division existed during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern dynasties, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, among others. Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around political legitimacy, which was derived from the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven. Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of Hua–Yi distinction. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of Chinese culture and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as "legitimate" or "orthodox" (; ) are termed (; "dynasty"); "illegitimate" or "unorthodox" regimes are referred to as (; usually translated as either "state" or "kingdom"), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature. The issue of political legitimacy pertaining to some of these dynasties remains contentious in modern academia. Such legitimacy dispute existed during the following periods: Three Kingdoms The Cao Wei, the Shu Han, and the Eastern Wu considered themselves legitimate while simultaneously denounced the rivaling claims of others The Emperor Xian of Han abdicated in favor of the Emperor Wen of Cao Wei, hence the Cao Wei directly succeeded the Eastern Han in the timeline of Chinese history The Western Jin accepted the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty of the Three Kingdoms period and claimed succession from it The Tang dynasty viewed the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty during this period, whereas the Southern Song scholar Zhu Xi proposed treating the Shu Han as legitimate Eastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms The Eastern Jin proclaimed itself to be legitimate Several of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as the Han Zhao, the Later Zhao, and the Former Qin also claimed legitimacy Northern and Southern dynasties All dynasties during this period saw themselves as the legitimate representative of China; the Northern dynasties referred to their southern counterparts as "" (; "island dwelling barbarians"), while the Southern dynasties called their northern neighbors "" (; "barbarians with braids") Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Having directly succeeded the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang considered itself to be a legitimate dynasty The Later Tang regarded itself as the restorer of the earlier Tang dynasty and rejected the legitimacy of its predecessor, the Later Liang The Later Jin accepted the Later Tang as a legitimate regime The Southern Tang was, for a period of time, considered the legitimate dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period Modern historiography generally considers the Five Dynasties, as opposed to the contemporary Ten Kingdoms, to be legitimate Liao dynasty, Song dynasty, and Jin dynasty Following the conquest of the Later Jin, the Liao dynasty claimed legitimacy and succession from it Both the Northern Song and Southern Song considered themselves to be the legitimate Chinese dynasty The Jin dynasty challenged the Song's claim of legitimacy The succeeding Yuan dynasty recognized all three in addition to the Western Liao as legitimate Chinese dynasties, culminating in the composition of the History of Liao, the History of Song, and the History of Jin Ming dynasty and Northern Yuan The Ming dynasty recognized the preceding Yuan dynasty as a legitimate Chinese dynasty, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Yuan, thus considering the Northern Yuan as illegitimate Northern Yuan rulers maintained the dynastic name "Great Yuan" and claimed traditional Han-style titles continuously until AD 1388 or AD 1402; Han-style titles were restored on several occasions thereafter for brief periods The historian Rashipunsug argued that the Northern Yuan had succeeded the legitimacy from the Yuan dynasty; the Qing dynasty, which later defeated and annexed the Northern Yuan, inherited this legitimacy, thus rendering the Ming as illegitimate Qing dynasty and Southern Ming The Qing dynasty recognized the preceding Ming dynasty as legitimate, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Ming, thus refuting the claimed legitimacy of the Southern Ming The Southern Ming continued to claim legitimacy until its eventual defeat by the Qing The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan denounced the Qing dynasty as illegitimate The Joseon dynasty of Korea and the Later Lê dynasty of Vietnam had at various times considered the Southern Ming, instead of the Qing dynasty, as legitimate The Tokugawa shogunate of Japan did not accept the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty and instead saw itself as the rightful representative of (; "China"); this narrative served as the basis of Japanese texts such as Chūchō Jijitsu and Kai Hentai Traditionally, periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which prior dynasties could and should be considered orthodox, given that it was politically imperative for a dynasty to present itself as being linked in an unbroken lineage of moral and political authority back to ancient times. However, the Northern Song statesman Ouyang Xiu propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved. From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the Later Zhou. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods. As most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time. Most modern sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows: These historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People's Republic of China based in Beijing and the Republic of China based in Taipei. Both regimes formally adhere to the One-China policy and claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the whole of China. Agnatic lineages There were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with patrilineal relations, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given distinct retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes having occurred to their rule would create the need for nomenclatural distinction, despite these dynasties sharing common ancestral origins. Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded. The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians: Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou The Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou are collectively known as the Zhou dynasty The founder of the Eastern Zhou, the King Ping of Zhou, was a son of the last Western Zhou ruler, the King You of Zhou Western Han, Eastern Han, Shu Han, and Liu Song The Western Han and the Eastern Han are collectively known as the Han dynasty The first emperor of the Eastern Han, the Emperor Guangwu of Han, was a ninth-generation descendant of the Western Han founder, the Emperor Gao of Han; he was also a seventh-generation descendant of the sixth Western Han monarch, the Emperor Jing of Han The founder of the Shu Han, the Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han, was also descended from the Emperor Jing of Han The Book of Song states that the first Liu Song ruler, the Emperor Wu of Liu Song, was a male-line descendant of a younger brother of the Emperor Gao of Han, the Prince Yuan of Chu Western Jin and Eastern Jin The Western Jin and the Eastern Jin are collectively known as the Jin dynasty The Eastern Jin founder, the Emperor Yuan of Jin, was a great-grandson of the Western Jin progenitor, the Emperor Xuan of Jin; he was also a grandson of the Prince Wu of Langya and a son of the Prince Gong of Langya Han Zhao and Hu Xia The Han Zhao founder, the Emperor Guangwen of Han Zhao, and the Hu Xia founder, the Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia, were descended from Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei respectively; according to the History of the Northern Dynasties, Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qibei were brothers Former Yan, Later Yan, and Southern Yan The founder of the Later Yan, the Emperor Chengwu of Later Yan, was a son of the Former Yan founder, the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan The first monarch of the Southern Yan, the Emperor Xianwu of Southern Yan, was also a son of the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan Western Liang and Tang dynasty The founder of the Tang dynasty, the Emperor Gaozu of Tang, was a seventh-generation descendant of the Western Liang founder, the Prince Wuzhao of Western Liang Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, and Western Wei The only ruler of the Eastern Wei, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei, was a great-grandson of the seventh emperor of the Northern Wei, the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei The Western Wei founder, the Emperor Wen of Western Wei, was a grandson of the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei Southern Qi and Liang dynasty The founder of the Liang dynasty, the Emperor Wu of Liang, was a son of the Emperor Wen of Liang who was a distant cousin of the Southern Qi founder, the Emperor Gao of Southern Qi Later Han and Northern Han The first ruler of the Northern Han, the Emperor Shizu of Northern Han, was a younger brother of the Later Han founder, the Emperor Gaozu of Later Han Liao dynasty and Western Liao The Western Liao founder, the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao, was an eighth-generation descendant of the first emperor of the Liao dynasty, the Emperor Taizu of Liao Northern Song and Southern Song The Northern Song and the Southern Song are collectively known as the Song dynasty The first ruler of the Southern Song, the Emperor Gaozong of Song, was a son of the eighth Northern Song monarch, the Emperor Huizong of Song; he was also a younger brother of the last Northern Song emperor, the Emperor Qinzong of Song Yuan dynasty and Northern Yuan The Emperor Huizong of Yuan was both the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and the first ruler of the Northern Yuan Ming dynasty and Southern Ming The Southern Ming founder, the Hongguang Emperor, was a grandson of the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty, the Wanli Emperor Later Jin and Qing dynasty The Emperor Taizong of Qing was both the last Later Jin khan and the first emperor of the Qing dynasty Classification Central Plain dynasties The Central Plain is a vast area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. "Central Plain dynasties" (; ) refer to dynasties of China that had their capital cities situated within the Central Plain. This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins. Unified dynasties "Unified dynasties" (; ) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. "China proper" is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term "China". Imperial dynasties that had attained the unification of China proper may be known as the "Chinese Empire" or the "Empire of China" (; ). The concept of "great unity" or "grand unification" (; ) was first mentioned in the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals that was supposedly authored by the Qi scholar Gongyang Gao. Other prominent figures like Confucius and Mencius also elaborated on this concept in their respective works. Historians typically consider the following dynasties to have unified China proper: the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Xin dynasty, the Eastern Han, the Western Jin, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Wu Zhou, the Northern Song, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty. The status of the Northern Song as a unified dynasty is disputed among historians as the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun were partially administered by the contemporaneous Liao dynasty while the Western Xia exercised partial control over Hetao; the Northern Song, in this sense, did not truly achieve the unification of China proper. Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties According to the historian and sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper could be classified into two types, depending on the means by which the ruling ethnic groups had entered China proper. "Infiltration dynasties" or "dynasties of infiltration" (; ) refer to Chinese dynasties founded by non-Han ethnicities that tended towards accepting Han culture and assimilating into the Han-dominant society. For instance, the Han Zhao and the Northern Wei, established by the Xiongnu and Xianbei ethnicities respectively, are considered infiltration dynasties of China. "Conquest dynasties" or "dynasties of conquest" (; ) refer to dynasties of China established by non-Han peoples that tended towards resisting Han culture and preserving the identities of the ruling ethnicities. For example, the Liao dynasty and the Yuan dynasty, ruled by the Khitan and Mongol peoples respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China. These terms remain sources of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective. Naming convention Official nomenclature It was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the (; "name of the state"), upon the establishment of a dynasty. During the rule of a dynasty, its functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes. The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one of the following sources: The name of the ruling tribe or tribal confederation e.g., the Xia dynasty took its name from its ruling class, the Xia tribal confederation The noble title held by the dynastic founder prior to the founding of the dynasty e.g., the Emperor Wu of Chen adopted the dynastic name "Chen" from his pre-imperial title "Prince of Chen" upon the establishment of the Chen dynasty The name of a historical state that occupied the same geographical location as the new dynasty e.g., the Former Yan was officially named "Yan" based on the ancient State of Yan located in the same region The name of a previous dynasty from which the new dynasty claimed descent or succession from, even if such familial link was questionable e.g., the Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou officially proclaimed the Later Zhou with the official title "Zhou" as he claimed ancestry from Guo Shu, a royal of the Zhou dynasty A term with auspicious or other significant connotations e.g., the Yuan dynasty was officially the "Great Yuan", a name derived from a clause in the Classic of Changes, "" (; "Great is the Heavenly and Primal") There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as Southern Han initially used the name "Yue", only to be renamed to "Han" subsequently. The official title of several dynasties bore the character "" (; "great"). In Yongzhuang Xiaopin by the Ming historian Zhu Guozhen, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty. However, several sources like the History of Liao and the History of Jin compiled by the Yuan historian Toqto'a revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the Liao and the Jin also contained the character "". It was also common for officials, subjects, or tributary states of a particular dynasty to include the term "" (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it. For instance, The Chronicles of Japan referred to the Tang dynasty as "" (; "Great Tang") despite its dynastic name being simply "Tang". While all dynasties of China sought to associate their respective realm with (; "Central State"; usually translated as "Middle Kingdom" or "China" in English texts), none of these regimes officially used the term as their dynastic name. Although the Qing dynasty explicitly identified their state with and employed ""—and its Manchu equivalent "Dulimbai Gurun" ()—in official capacity in numerous international treaties beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk dated AD 1689, its dynastic name had remained the "Great Qing". "", which has become nearly synonymous with "China" in modern times, is a concept with geographical, political, and cultural connotations. The adoption of , as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the Sinosphere. Notably, rulers of Vietnam and Korea also declared for their respective realm. Retroactive nomenclature In Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties directly by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their official name, are used. For instance, the Sui dynasty is known as such because its formal name was "Sui". Likewise, the Jin dynasty was officially the "Great Jin". When more than one dynasty shared the same Chinese character(s) as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes. Frequently used prefixes include: Cardinal direction "Northern" (; ): e.g., Northern Qi, Northern Yuan "Southern" (; ): e.g., Southern Yan, Southern Tang "Eastern" (; ): e.g., Eastern Jin, Eastern Wei "Western" (; ): e.g., Western Liang, Western Liao Sequence "Former" (; ): e.g., Former Qin, Former Shu "Later" (; ): e.g., Later Zhao, Later Han Surname of the ruling family e.g., Wu Zhou, Ma Chu Other types of prefixes e.g., Shu Han (the prefix "Shu" is a reference to the realm's geographical location at Sichuan), Hu Xia (the prefix "Hu", meaning "barbarian", refers to the dynasty's ethnic Xiongnu origin) A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the Western Han is also known as the "Former Han", and the Yang Wu is also called the "Southern Wu". Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the Song dynasty is divided into the Northern Song and the Southern Song, with the Jingkang Incident as the dividing line; the original "Song" founded by the Emperor Taizu of Song was therefore differentiated from the "Song" restored under the Emperor Gaozong of Song. In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a nomenclatural distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the Western Qin and the Tang dynasty, which were interrupted by the Later Qin and the Wu Zhou respectively. In Chinese sources, the term "dynasty" (; ) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word "dynasty" is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the Northern Zhou is also sometimes referred to as the "Northern Zhou dynasty". Often, scholars would refer to a specific Chinese dynasty by attaching the word "China" after the dynastic name. For instance, "Tang China" refers to the Chinese state under the rule of the Tang dynasty and the corresponding historical era. Territorial extent While the earliest orthodox Chinese dynasties were established along the Yellow River and the Yangtze River in China proper, numerous Chinese dynasties later expanded beyond the region to encompass other territorial domains. At various points in time, Chinese dynasties exercised control over China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong), Taiwan, Manchuria (both Inner Manchuria and Outer Manchuria), Sakhalin, Mongolia (both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia), Vietnam, Tibet, Xinjiang, as well as parts of Central Asia, the Korean Peninsula, Afghanistan, and Siberia. Territorially, the largest orthodox Chinese dynasty was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source. This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan realm: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the Arctic coast. In contrast, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined. Apart from exerting direct control over the Chinese realm, various dynasties of China also maintained hegemony over other states and tribes through the Chinese tributary system. The Chinese tributary system first emerged during the Western Han and lasted until the 19th century AD when the Sinocentric order broke down. The modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China are inherited from the lands once held by the Qing dynasty at the time of its collapse. List of major Chinese dynasties This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. This list is neither comprehensive nor representative of Chinese history as a whole. Timelines Timeline of major historical periods Timeline of major regimes See also 1911 Revolution Ancient Chinese states Chinese expansionism Chinese historiography Chinese sovereign Conquest dynasty Dragon Throne Dynastic cycle East Asian cultural sphere Eighteen Kingdoms Emperor at home, king abroad Emperor of China Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient) Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early) Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late) Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle) Family tree of Chinese monarchs (Warring States period) Fanzhen Fengjian Golden ages of China Historical capitals of China Jiedushi Jimi system List of Chinese monarchs List of Confucian states and dynasties List of recipients of tribute from China List of tributary states of China Mandate of Heaven Monarchy of China Names of China Pax Sinica Six Dynasties Succession to the Chinese throne Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors Tianxia Timeline of Chinese history Tributary system of China Tusi Twenty-Four Histories Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project Zhonghua minzu Notes References Citations Sources China Handbook Editorial Committee, China Handbook Series: History (trans., Dun J. Li), Beijing, 1982, pp. 188–189; and Shao Chang Lee, "China Cultural Development" (wall chart), East Lansing, 1984. Specifically Section A.2 "Dynasties", in this and earlier editions, which includes subsections on "Naming the Dynasties", "Sets of Dynasties", "The Dynastic Cycle", "Legitimate Succession", "Grade School History" (the effect on common understanding of China's history). External links Columbia University. The Dynasties Song Tan Qixiang. The Historical Atlas of China History of China Chinese Royalty-related lists

Ode to Billie Joe

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"Ode to Billie Joe" is a song by American singer-songwriter Bobbie Gentry released by Capitol Records in July 1967, and later used as the title-track of her debut album. Five weeks after its release, the song topped Billboard's Pop singles chart. It also appeared in the top 10 of the Adult Contemporary and Hot R&B singles charts, and in the top 20 of the Hot Country Songs list. The song takes the form of a first-person narrative performed over sparse acoustic guitar accompaniment with strings in the background. It tells of a rural Mississippi family's reaction to the news of the suicide of Billie Joe McAllister, a local boy to whom the daughter (and narrator) is connected. The song received widespread attention, leaving its audience intrigued as to what the narrator and Billie Joe threw off the Tallahatchie Bridge. Gentry later clarified that she intended the song to portray the family's indifference to the suicide in what she deemed "a study in unconscious cruelty", while she remarked the object thrown was not relevant to the message. "Ode to Billie Joe" was nominated for eight Grammy Awards; Gentry and arranger Jimmie Haskell won three between them. Gentry's writing was adapted for the 1976 film Ode to Billy Joe. The song appeared on Rolling Stone's lists, 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and Greatest Country Songs, while Pitchfork featured it on their 200 Best Songs of the 1960s list. Background and recording Singer-songwriter Bobbie Gentry was born in Chickasaw County, Mississippi. After her parents had divorced, she continued to live there with her paternal grandparents. At age 13, Gentry moved to California to live with her mother. She graduated from high school and entered UCLA as a philosophy major, before transferring to the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music. After she met Jody Reynolds at one of his concerts, Gentry took part in a recording session with him to sing two duets. Singer-songwriter Jim Ford introduced Gentry to labels and music publishers. Ford took Gentry to Del-Fi Records, where he presented "Ode to Billie Joe" to the label's A&R man Barry White. Ford claimed credit for writing the song, telling White he had brought Gentry along because he felt he could not sing it himself. The composition impressed White, and Ford expressed an interest in selling it to him. White took the song to Del-Fi Records president Bob Keane, who did not like it and refused to make a purchase. Ford later claimed Gentry "stole the song" from him. Capitol Records producer Kelly Gordon received Gentry's demo for "Mississippi Delta". Gordon liked it, and he asked for a B-side for the song. Gentry planned to sell "Ode to Billie Joe" to Capitol Records, and she decided that recording the demo herself was cheaper than using a professional singer. The song's recording happened soon after Gentry's session that yielded "Mississippi Delta" in February 1967, while Bobby Paris assisted her in the studio in exchange for guitar session work on some of his own studio recordings. Gentry intended to have Lou Rawls record the song. Larry Shayne, Gentry's publisher, warned Gordon against adding a rhythm section to the track. Shayne was a friend of David Axelrod, Capitol Record's main A&R man. He sold Axelrod the song's recording rights for $10,000 (). Gordon liked Gentry's vocals on the demo, but he decided to add a sparse instrumental arrangement to the recording. Gordon called Jimmie Haskell, who prepared a string arrangement with four violins and two cellos. Jesse Erlich played one cello like an upright bass. Haskell felt the song sounded like a film and decided to write the arrangement as if it was a score. Gordon then overdubbed Gentry's recording with the strings. He determined that "Ode to Billie Joe" was going to be used for the A-side of the single. Haskell later claimed that a seven-minute version of the song existed, but that Gordon cut it to under five minutes to favor radio play. The existence of a seven-minute version has not been confirmed. Meanwhile, a manuscript of a draft of the song donated by Gentry to the University of Mississippi contained stanzas that were not included on the final recording. Content "Ode to Billie Joe" takes the form of a first-person narrative by the young daughter of a Mississippi Delta family. It offers fragments of dinnertime conversation on the day that a local boy, an acquaintance of the narrator, jumped to his death from a nearby bridge. The account is interspersed with everyday, polite, mealtime conversation. The song's last verse conveys the passage of events over the following year. The song begins on June 3 with the narrator, her brother and her father returning from farming chores to the family house for dinner. After reminding them to clean their feet, the mother announces she received news from Choctaw Ridge: "Billie Joe McAllister jumped off the Tallahatchie Bridge." The verse is repeated through the song as the story develops to "heighten the mystery". Unmoved, the father comments that "Billie Joe never had a lick of sense", before asking for the biscuits and adding "there's five more acres in the lower forty, I've got to plow". The brother then expresses his surprise, but continues eating his meal. The mother notices her daughter is distraught, and is not eating. She mentions the "young preacher" Brother Taylor visited the house earlier and that they would have dinner with him on Sunday. As an afterthought, the mother adds the preacher saw Billie Joe with a girl that "looked a lot" like the daughter, and "she and Billie Joe was throwin' somethin' off the Tallahatchie Bridge". A year later, the brother moves to Tupelo, Mississippi, after he marries, while the father dies of an unnamed virus. Even though she expresses no sadness over her father's death, the daughter notices her mother is still distraught by it. Rather than consoling her, she routinely picks flowers and throws them off the bridge. The song became a success because it created curiosity in listeners, as Gentry did not mention what was thrown off of the bridge or why Billie Joe committed suicide. It features perfect rhymes from the first to the sixth line of every verse. Meanwhile, the fifth and sixth lines of the song repeat the rhyme of "ridge" and "bridge" in every stanza. The composition does not have a chorus. The musical phrases begin with pickup notes, while melismas and downbeats are used for the rhymes. Gentry's comments on the lyrics In August 1967, Gentry told the Los Angeles Times she wanted to show "people's lack of ability" to empathize with others' "tragedy". She pointed at the mother, noticing but not understanding her daughter's lack of appetite, while later the daughter is unaware of the similarity of her mother's behavior after the father dies. Gentry explained that both characters had "isolated themselves in their own personal tragedies", and remained unconcerned for the others. The songwriter compared the end product to a play. On the object thrown off the Tallahatchie Bridge, she commented that the audience had found more meanings than she had intended. Gentry mentioned the theories she had heard at the time included a baby, a wedding ring, or flowers. While she indicated that what happened at the bridge was the motivation behind Billie Joe's suicide, she had left that open to the listener's interpretation. Gentry said she had no answer and her sole motivation was to show "people's apathy". In an interview with the Associated Press in November 1967, Gentry called the song "a study in unconscious cruelty". Gentry told the news agency that audiences still asked her what was thrown off the bridge rather than noticing "the thoughtlessness of people expressed in the song", adding that what had been thrown was unimportant. She said people suggested to her it was a draft card, or a bottle of LSD pills. The songwriter clarified she knew what it was, but said she considered it irrelevant to the story, and repeated that she had deliberately left interpretation open. Gentry remarked the song's message revolved around the "nonchalant way" the family discussed the suicide and that what was thrown off of the bridge was included because it established a relationship between Billie Joe and the daughter, and provided "a possible motivation for his suicide the next day". The interview ended with Gentry's suggestion that it could have been a wedding ring. Gentry told The New York Times in 1969: "I had my own idea what it was while I was writing it, but it's not that important. Actually it was something symbolic. But I've never told anyone what it was, not even my own dear mother." Release and reception The single "Mississippi Delta"-"Ode to Billie Joe" was released in July 1967. Paris was given a co-producer credit on the single with Gordon. Five weeks after its release, it reached number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100. By the sixth week, the single had sold one million copies. It also appeared at number 7 on Billboard's Adult Contemporary chart, at number 8 on the Hot R&B singles chart, and number 17 on the Hot Country Songs chart. Billboard's year-end chart placed the song at number 3, while Canada's RPM placed it at number 16. In Australia, the song reached number 4 on Go-Set's National Top 40. Meanwhile, it peaked at number 6 on the Irish Singles Chart. On the New Zealand Listener chart, the song reached number 3. In November 1967, Life published an article about the song's success after a visit with Gentry and her parents in Mississippi. Gentry showed the journalists a bridge in Money, Mississippi, that featured the characteristics of the one she wrote about as she clarified: "this is what I had in mind" she continued: "The river isn't very deep here, but the current is strong." Gentry was photographed crossing the bridge for the story. The single was nominated in eight categories at the 10th Annual Grammy Awards and won three: Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, Best New Artist, and Best Arrangement, Instrumental and Vocals. By 1969, Gentry estimated the single had sold three million copies. Gentry sued Paris to have his co-producer credit removed, claiming she was the recording's sole producer. Paris's credit was removed on the album release. Soon after she left Capitol Records, Paris sued Gentry for $100,000 and the label for $300,000 in punitive damages for failing to pay him one fifth of the royalties from the song's sales. Gentry and Paris testified against one another in the 1973 case. The jury awarded Paris one percent of the total royalties from "Ode to Billie Joe" and "Mississippi Delta", that amounted to $32,277.40 (). Gentry told Penny Anderson of the New York Times in 1974 that she originally produced "Ode To Billie Joe" and most of her recordings. She added "but a woman doesn't stand much chance in a recording studio. A staff producer's name was nearly always put on the records." Gentry expressed the desire to gain more control over the production of her songs and recordings. Critical reception The staff of Billboard welcomed the release as "fascinating material and performance" with a "potent lyric content that is worth the unusual length of the disk". The Los Angeles Times critic Leonard Feather considered it an "aural parallel" to the film In the Heat of the Night (1967), deeming them both "sardonic, knife-edge studies of human nature". Feather concluded Gentry added "a durable new dimension" to American "contemporary folklore". The New York Times commented on the success of the song four weeks after its release. Critic John S. Wilson felt the song was "a most unlikely candidate for success", as it was "long by radio programming standards" and he considered the topic "nothing startling, nothing strange, nothing particularly original". Wilson remarked the lyrics had "something to say about indifference ... which, after a couple of clarifying hearings, drifts off into the midst of forgotten poesy". Nixon Smiley wrote in his piece for the Miami Herald that "not since William Faulkner wrote As I Lay Dying has anything come out of Mississippi as earthy and as fundamental" as 'Ode to Billie Joe'". Smiley determined that upon "casual hearing there seems to be nothing great about the song, the lyrics or the rendition", but that it "captivated both the young and old". He noted disc jockeys were "surprised, even flabbergasted", and "sometimes disgusted". The Montgomery Advertiser found the song "hard to classify", and remarked that it "has [a] rhythm and blues beat, and it's clever", and it noted the presence of mystery. The Fort Worth Star-Telegram called it, "One of the most haunting songs of the year." The Honolulu Star-Bulletin wrote that "the lyrics are too much" and that "after a few listenings, the subject matter becomes clear, and the message gets across". The review pointed out that, "musically, the song is as fine as it is lyrically inventive" and that it "grips with heretofore taboo themes". Legacy Following the success of the single, Capitol Records received 500,000 pre-orders for Ode to Billie Joe, surpassing the label's record held by the Beatles's Meet the Beatles!. Gentry began receiving offers to make a motion picture based on the film in 1967, but she rejected them, preferring to wait for an offer from a movie maker who would "portray Billie Joe and his girlfriend in a serious, sensitive manner". In 1975, Gentry and her Shayne accepted an offer from Max Baer Jr., who decided to direct the film. Baer said his interest was to have two unknown young people "because the audience has to believe they are Bobbie and Billie Joe". The film would be shot on location in Mississippi with a budget of $1.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Warner Bros. commissioned Herman Raucher to write an adaptation of the song for the upcoming film; Raucher's adaptation and novel were both titled Ode to Billy Joe. Gentry was present during the shooting and contributed a musical score. At the time of the production, she told United Press International that the film would "answer many questions left unanswered by the song". The film starred Robby Benson as Billy Joe and Glynnis O'Connor as Bobbie Lee. In the adaptation, the pair throw a rag doll off of the bridge, while a homosexual experience with the owner of the sawmill is established as the reason for Billy Joe's suicide. "Ode to Billie Joe" reappeared on the charts in 1976. It charted at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100, and in Canada at numbers 92 and 42 on the RPM Top Singles and Adult Contemporary charts, respectively. After hearing "Ode to Billie Joe" on the radio, Tony Joe White was inspired to write songs. White felt that his own life experience resembled that of Billie Joe, as he inhabited a similar place during his childhood and he remarked that the song was "real". Soon after, White composed "Polk Salad Annie" (1969). By 1969, Leflore County established a fine of $180 () for people who jumped off of the Tallahatchie Bridge and the other bridges of the area. The county estimated that between 40 and 50 men had jumped off the structure, but none had died. The bridge collapsed in June 1972 after a fire and a new one was built in its place. In 2013, a memorial marker for the song was added south of the new bridge as part of the Mississippi Country Music Trail. Rolling Stone included "Ode To Billie Joe" at number 419 on its 2003 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list. The publication also listed it at number 47 on its 100 Greatest Country Songs in 2014; Richard Gehr deemed the track a "sultry country blues that drifts downstream on Gentry's ominous acoustic guitar". Meanwhile, Pitchfork placed it at number 144 on its 200 Best Songs of the 1960s list. Other versions In August 1967, Margie Singleton released a cover of the song that reached number 40 on Billboard's Hot Country Singles. Ray Bryant's version reached number 89 on Billboard's Hot 100 and number 34 on their Adult Contemporary chart soon after. King Curtis charted with his cover at number 28 on the Billboard Hot 100, also in 1967, and at number 6 on the R&B chart. Also in 1967, Joe Dassin released a cover of the song in French, entitled "Marie-Jeanne". In the song, the main character is a man, while Marie-Jeanne jumps off of the Garonne bridge. A parody by Bob Dylan entitled "Clothes Line Saga", originally recorded in 1967, was released on the 1975 album The Basement Tapes. It mimicked the conversational style of "Ode to Billie Joe" with lyrics concentrating on routine household chores. The shocking event buried in all the mundane details is a revelation that "The Vice-President's gone mad!." Dylan's song was originally titled "Answer to 'Ode'". A 2008 episode of Saturday Night Live parodied the song where Kristen Wiig and host Paul Rudd play a married singer-songwriter couple who perform "Ode to Tracking Number". Jill Sobule's album California Years (2009) featured "Where is Bobbie Gentry?", which used the same melody in a lyrical sequel. The narrator, seeking the reclusive Gentry, claims to be the abandoned child of Gentry and Billie Joe. In 2016, Lorrie Morgan covered the song at a slower pace for her 2016 album Letting Go... Slow. Morgan commented on recording the song with producer Richard Landis: "Richard purposely slowed the record down to make the musical passages through there really feel kind of spooky and eerie. Everything just felt so swampy and scary. Everybody has their own interpretation of that song and just what they threw off of the Tallahatchie Bridge." Chart performance Bobbie Gentry Weekly charts Year-end charts All-time charts Other artists References Sources External links 1967 songs Songs written by Bobbie Gentry Bobbie Gentry songs Nancy Wilson (jazz singer) songs Margie Singleton songs The Detroit Emeralds songs Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles Cashbox number-one singles RPM Top Singles number-one singles Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s) Capitol Records singles 1967 debut singles Teenage tragedy songs Songs about suicide Songs about Mississippi Songs about rivers

Pitt

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Pitt most commonly refers to: The University of Pittsburgh, commonly known as Pitt, a university located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States Pitt Panthers, the athletic teams of the University of Pittsburgh Pitt (surname), a surname of English origin, particularly associated with two British Prime Ministers: William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham (William Pitt the Elder) (1708–1778), Prime Minister of Great Britain (1766–1768) William Pitt the Younger (1759–1806), son of the above and Prime Minister of Great Britain (1783–1801) and of the United Kingdom (1801 and 1804–1806) Education Pittsburg State University ("Pitt State"), located in Pittsburg, Kansas, United States Geography Pitt County, North Carolina, a county in the United States Pitt, Hampshire, a hamlet in Hursley parish, Hampshire, England Pitt Island, an island in the Chatham Archipelago, New Zealand Pitt River (Canada), a river in British Columbia, Canada Pitt River (New Zealand), a river in Fiordland, New Zealand The River Pitt, a river in Somerset, England Pit River, a river in California, United States, which is sometimes referred to as "Pitt River" Fiction Pitt (character), a comic book character published by Full Bleed Studios The Pitt, a single issue comic book published in 1987 by Marvel Comics Fallout 3: The Pitt, the second downloadable content pack for Fallout 3 Dirk Pitt, the protagonist of a series of bestselling adventure novels written by Clive Cussler Justin Pitt, a minor character in the television series Seinfeld Other uses , a number of British warships of that name Fort Pitt, a number of military forts of that name See also Pitts (disambiguation)

Religion in the United States

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Religion in the United States is diverse, with Christianity and specifically Protestantism being the majority religion, although declining at rapid pace. Various religious faiths have flourished within the United States. Just over 40% of Americans report that religion plays a very important role in their lives, a proportion unique among developed countries. Freedom of religion in the United States is guaranteed in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Historically, the United States has always been marked by religious pluralism and diversity, beginning with various native beliefs of the pre-colonial time, though Protestantism has long been the predominant and majority religion. In colonial times, Anglicans, Quakers, and other mainline Protestants arrived from Northwestern Europe. Various dissenting Protestants who had left the Church of England greatly diversified the religious landscape. The Great Awakenings gave birth to multiple evangelical Protestant denominations; membership in Methodist and Baptist churches increased drastically in the Second Great Awakening. In the 18th century, deism found support among American upper classes and intellectual thinkers. The Episcopal Church, splitting from the Church of England, came into being in the American Revolution. New Protestant branches like Adventism emerged; Restorationists and other Christians like the Jehovah's Witnesses, the Latter Day Saint movement, Churches of Christ and Church of Christ, Scientist, as well as Unitarian and Universalist communities all spread in the 19th century. During the immigrant waves of the mid to late 19th and 20th century, an unprecedented number of Catholic, Jewish, and Orthodox Christian immigrants arrived in the United States. Protestant Pentecostalism emerged in the early 20th century as a result of the Azusa Street Revival. Scientology emerged in the 1950s. Unitarian Universalism resulted from the merge of Unitarian and Universalist churches in the 20th century. Since the 1990s, the religious share of Christians has decreased, while Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Sikhism, and other religions have spread, mainly from immigration. When including "irreligion" or "unaffiliated" as a religious category for statistical purposes, Protestantism, historically and currently the dominant form of religion in the United States, ceased to be the religious category of the majority in the early 2010s, though this is primarily the result of an increase in Americans, including Americans of Protestant descent, professing no religious affiliation, rather than being primarily the result of an increase in non-Protestant religious affiliations; Protestantism remains the most common or the majority religion among those Americans who declare a religious affiliation. The United States has the world's largest Christian population and, more specifically, contains the largest Protestant population in the world. Christianity is the largest religion in the United States, with the various Protestant Churches having the most adherents. The United States has been called a Protestant nation by a variety of sources. In 2019, Christians represent 65% of the total adult population, 43% identifying as Protestants, 20% as Catholics, and 2% as Mormons. People with no formal religious identity form 26% of the total population. However, in the latest Pew Research Center survey (2021), religiously unaffiliated adults rose to 29% while Christianity dropped to 63%, with 40% Protestant, 21% Catholic and 2% other. When consolidating all Christian denominations into one religious grouping, Judaism is the second-largest religion in the U.S., practiced by 2% of the population, followed by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam, each with 1% of the population. Mississippi is the most religious state in the country, with 63% of its adult population described as very religious, saying that religion is important to them and attending religious services almost every week, while New Hampshire, with only 20% of its adult population described as very religious, is the least religious state. The most religious state or territory of the United States is American Samoa (99.3% religious). History Ever since its early colonial days when some Protestant dissenter English and German settlers moved in search of religious freedom, America has been profoundly influenced by religion. That influence continues in American culture, social life, and politics. Several of the original Thirteen Colonies were established by settlers who wished to practice their own religion within a community of like-minded people: the Massachusetts Bay Colony was established by English Puritans (Congregationalists), Pennsylvania by British Quakers, Maryland by English Catholics, and Virginia by English Anglicans. Despite these, and as a result of intervening religious strife and preference in England the Plantation Act 1740 would set official policy for new immigrants coming to British America until the American Revolution. While most settlers and colonists during this time were Protestant, a few early Catholic and Jewish settlers also arrived from Northwestern Europe into the colonies; however, their numbers were very slight compared to the Protestant majority. Even in the "Catholic Proprietary" or colony of Maryland, the vast majority of Maryland colonists were Protestant by 1670. The text of the First Amendment in the U.S. Constitution states that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." It guarantees the free exercise of religion while also preventing the government from establishing a state religion. However, the states were not bound by the provision, and as late as the 1830s Massachusetts provided tax money to local Congregational churches. Since the 1940s, the Supreme Court has interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment as applying the First Amendment to state and local governments. President John Adams and a unanimous Senate endorsed the Treaty of Tripoli in 1797 that stated: "the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion." Expert researchers and authors have referred to the United States as a "Protestant nation" or "founded on Protestant principles," specifically emphasizing its Calvinist heritage. The modern official motto of the United States of America, as established in a 1956 law signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, is "In God We Trust". The phrase first appeared on U.S. coins in 1864. According to a 2002 survey by the Pew Research Center, nearly 6 in 10 Americans said that religion plays an important role in their lives, compared to 33% in Great Britain, 27% in Italy, 21% in Germany, 12% in Japan, and 11% in France. The survey report stated that the results showed America having a greater similarity to developing nations (where higher percentages say that religion plays an important role) than to other wealthy nations, where religion plays a minor role. In 1963, 90% of U.S. adults claimed to be Christians while only 2% professed no religious identity. In 2016, 73.7% identified as Christians while 18.2% claimed no religious affiliation. Freedom of religion The United States federal government was the first national government to have no official state-endorsed religion. However, some states had established religions in some form until the 1830s. Modeling the provisions concerning religion within the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, the framers of the Constitution rejected any religious test for office, and the First Amendment specifically denied the federal government any power to enact any law respecting either an establishment of religion or prohibiting its free exercise, thus protecting any religious organization, institution, or denomination from government interference. The decision was mainly influenced by European Rationalist and Protestant ideals, but was also a consequence of the pragmatic concerns of minority religious groups and small states that did not want to be under the power or influence of a national religion that did not represent them. Christianity The most popular religion in the U.S. is Christianity, comprising the majority of the population (73.7% of adults in 2016). According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March 2017, based on data from 2010, Christians were the largest religious population in all 3,143 counties in the country. Roughly 48.9% of Americans are Protestants, 23.0% are Catholics, 1.8% are Mormons (members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints). Christianity was introduced during the period of European colonization. The United States has the world's largest Christian population. According to a 2012 review by the National Council of Churches, the five largest denominations are: The Catholic Church, 68,202,492 members The Southern Baptist Convention, 16,136,044 members The United Methodist Church, 7,679,850 members The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 6,157,238 members The Church of God in Christ, 5,499,875 members The Southern Baptist Convention, with over 16 million adherents, is the largest of more than 200 distinctly named Protestant denominations. In 2007, members of evangelical churches comprised 26% of the American population, while another 18% belonged to mainline Protestant churches, and 7% belonged to historically black churches. A 2015 study estimates some 450,000 Christian believers from a Muslim background in the country, most of them belonging to some form of Protestantism. In 2010 there were approximately 180,000 Arab Americans and about 130,000 Iranian Americans who converted from Islam to Christianity. Dudley Woodbury, a Fulbright scholar of Islam, estimates that 20,000 Muslims convert to Christianity annually in the United States. Protestant denominations Beginning around 1600, Northwestern European settlers introduced the Anglican and Puritan religion, as well as Baptist, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Quaker, and Moravian denominations. Historians agree that members of mainline Protestant denominations have played leadership roles in many aspects of American life, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the country's leading institutes of higher education. According to Harriet Zuckerman, 72% of American Nobel Prize Laureates between 1901 and 1972, have identified from Protestant background. Episcopalians and Presbyterians tend to be considerably wealthier and better educated than most other religious groups, and numbers of the most wealthy and affluent American families as the Vanderbilts and Astors, Rockefeller, Du Pont, Roosevelt, Forbes, Whitneys, Morgans and Harrimans are Mainline Protestant families, though those affiliated with Judaism are the wealthiest religious group in the United States and those affiliated with Catholicism, owing to sheer size, have one of the largest number of adherents of all groups in the top income bracket if each Protestant denomination is divided into separate groups (though the overall percentage of Catholics in high income brackets is far lower than the percentage of any Mainline Protestant group in high income brackets, and the percentage of Catholics in high income brackets is comparable to the percentage of general Americans in high income brackets.) Some of the first colleges and universities in America, including Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Dartmouth, Williams, Bowdoin, Middlebury, and Amherst, all were founded by mainline Protestant denominations. By the 1920s most had weakened or dropped their formal connection with a denomination. James Hunter argues that: The private schools and colleges established by the mainline Protestant denominations, as a rule, still want to be known as places that foster values, but few will go so far as to identify those values as Christian.... Overall, the distinctiveness of mainline Protestant identity has largely dissolved since the 1960s. Great Awakenings and other Protestant descendants Several Christian groups were founded in America during the Great Awakenings. Interdenominational evangelicalism and Pentecostalism emerged; new Protestant denominations such as Adventism; non-denominational movements such as the Restoration Movement (which over time separated into the Churches of Christ, the Christian churches and churches of Christ, and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)); Jehovah's Witnesses (called "Bible Students" in the latter part of the 19th century); and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism). Catholicism While the Puritans were securing their Commonwealth, members of the Catholic church in England were also planning a refuge, "for they too were being persecuted on account of their religion." Among those interested in providing a refuge for Catholics was the second Lord of Baltimore, George Calvert, who established Maryland, a "Catholic Proprietary," in 1634, more than sixty years after the founding of the Spanish Florida mission of St. Augustine. The first US Catholic university, Georgetown University, was founded in 1789. Though small in number in the beginning, Catholicism grew over the centuries to become the largest single denomination in the US, primarily through immigration, but also through the acquisition of continental territories under the jurisdiction of French and Spanish Catholic powers. Though the European Catholic and indigenous population of these former territories were small, the material cultures there, the original mission foundations with their canonical Catholic names, are still recognized today (as they were formerly known) in any number of cities in California, New Mexico and Louisiana. (The most recognizable cities of California, for example, are named after Catholic saints.) While Catholic Americans were present in small numbers early in United States history, both in Maryland and in the former French and Spanish colonies that were eventually absorbed into the United States, the vast majority of Catholics in the United States today derive from unprecedented waves of immigration from primarily Catholic countries and regions (Ireland was still part of the United Kingdom until 1921 and German unification didn't officially occur until 1871) during the mid-to-late 19th and 20th century. Irish, Hispanic, Italian, Portuguese, French Canadian, Polish, German, and Lebanese (Maronite) immigrants largely contributed to the growth in the number of Catholics in the United States. Irish and German Catholics, by far, provided the greatest number of Catholic immigrants before 1900. From 1815 until the close of the Civil War in 1865, 1,683,791 Irish Catholics immigrated to the US. The German states followed, providing "the second largest immigration of Catholics, clergy and lay, some 606,791 in the period 1815-1865, and another 680,000 between 1865 and 1900, while the Irish immigration in the latter period amounted to only 520,000." Of the four major national groups of clergy (early and mid-19th century)—Irish, German, Anglo-American, and French—"the French emigre priests may be said to have been the outstanding men, intellectually." As the number of Catholics increased in the late 19th and 20th century, they built up a vast system of schools (from primary schools to universities) and hospitals. Since then, the Catholic Church has founded hundreds of other colleges and universities, along with thousands of primary and secondary schools. Schools like the University of Notre Dame is ranked best in its state (Indiana), as Georgetown University is ranked best in the District of Columbia. 12 Catholic universities are also ranked among the top 100 universities in the US. Orthodox Christianity Eastern Orthodox Christianity was present in North America since the Russian colonization of Alaska; however, Alaska would not become a United States territory until 1867, and most Eastern Orthodox Russian settlers in Alaska returned to Russia after the American acquisition of the Alaskan territory. However the native converts and a few priests remained behind, and Alaska still is represented. Most Eastern Orthodox Christians arrived in the contiguous United States as immigrants beginning in the late 19th century and throughout the 20th century. During the 19th century, two main branches of Eastern Christianity also arrived to America. Eastern Orthodoxy was brought to America by Greek, Ukrainian, Serbian, and other immigrant groups, mainly from Eastern Europe. In the same time, several immigrant groups from the Middle East, mainly Armenians, Copts and Syriacs, brought Oriental Orthodoxy to America. Demographics of various Christian groups The strength of various sects varies greatly in different regions of the country, with rural parts of the South having many evangelicals but very few Catholics (except Louisiana and the Gulf Coast, and from among the Hispanic community, both of which consist mainly of Catholics), while urbanized areas of the north Atlantic states and Great Lakes, as well as many industrial and mining towns, are heavily Catholic, though still quite mixed, especially due to the heavily Protestant African-American communities. In 1990, nearly 72% of the population of Utah was Mormon, as well as 26% of neighboring Idaho. Lutheranism is most prominent in the Upper Midwest, with North Dakota having the highest percentage of Lutherans (35% according to a 2001 survey). The largest religion, Christianity, has proportionately diminished since 1990. While the absolute number of Christians rose from 1990 to 2008, the percentage of Christians dropped from 86% to 76%. A nationwide telephone interview of 1,002 adults conducted by The Barna Group found that 70% of American adults believe that God is "the all-powerful, all-knowing creator of the universe who still rules it today", and that 9% of all American adults and 0.5% young adults hold to what the survey defined as a "biblical worldview". Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Eastern Orthodox and United Church of Christ members have the highest number of graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita of all Christian denominations in the United States, as well as the most high-income earners. However, owing to the sheer size or demographic head count of Catholics, more individual Catholics have graduate degrees and are in the highest income brackets than have or are individuals of any other religious community. Other Abrahamic religions Judaism After Christianity, Judaism is the next largest religious affiliation in the US, though this identification is not necessarily indicative of religious beliefs or practices. There are between 5.3 and 6.6 million Jews. A significant number of people identify themselves as American Jews on ethnic and cultural grounds, rather than religious ones. For example, 19% of self-identified American Jews do not believe God exists. The 2001 ARIS study projected from its sample that there are about 5.3 million adults in the American Jewish population: 2.83 million adults (1.4% of the U.S. adult population) are estimated to be adherents of Judaism; 1.08 million are estimated to be adherents of no religion; and 1.36 million are estimated to be adherents of a religion other than Judaism. ARIS 2008 estimated about 2.68 million adults (1.2%) in the country identify Judaism as their faith. According to a 2017 study, Judaism is the religion of approximately 2% of the American population. Jews have been present in what is now the US since the 17th century, and specifically allowed since the British colonial Plantation Act 1740. Although small Western European communities initially developed and grew, large-scale immigration did not take place until the late 19th century, largely as a result of persecutions in parts of Eastern Europe. The Jewish community in the United States is composed predominantly of Ashkenazi Jews whose ancestors emigrated from Central and Eastern Europe. There are, however, small numbers of older (and some recently arrived) communities of Sephardi Jews with roots tracing back to 15th century Iberia (Spain, Portugal, and North Africa). There are also Mizrahi Jews (from the Middle East, Caucasia and Central Asia), as well as much smaller numbers of Ethiopian Jews, Indian Jews, Kaifeng Jews and others from various smaller Jewish ethnic divisions. Approximately 25% of the Jewish American population lives in New York City. According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March, 2017, based on data from 2010, Jews were the largest minority religion in 231 counties out of the 3143 counties in the country. According to a 2014 survey conducted by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public life, 1.7% of adults in the U.S. identify Judaism as their religion. Among those surveyed, 44% said they were Reform Jews, 22% said they were Conservative Jews, and 14% said they were Orthodox Jews. According to the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey, 38% of Jews were affiliated with the Reform tradition, 35% were Conservative, 6% were Orthodox, 1% were Reconstructionists, 10% linked themselves to some other tradition, and 10% said they are "just Jewish". The Pew Research Center report on American Judaism released in October 2013 revealed that 22% of Jewish Americans say they have "no religion" and the majority of respondents do not see religion as the primary constituent of Jewish identity. 62% believe Jewish identity is based primarily in ancestry and culture, only 15% in religion. Among Jews who gave Judaism as their religion, 55% based Jewish identity on ancestry and culture, and 66% did not view belief in God as essential to Judaism. A 2009 study estimated the Jewish population (including both those who define themselves as Jewish by religion and those who define themselves as Jewish in cultural or ethnic terms) to be between 6.0 and 6.4 million. According to a study done in 2000 there were an estimated 6.14 million Jewish people in the country, about 2% of the population. According to the 2001 National Jewish Population Survey, 4.3 million American Jewish adults have some sort of strong connection to the Jewish community, whether religious or cultural. Jewishness is generally considered an ethnic identity as well as a religious one. Among the 4.3 million American Jews described as "strongly connected" to Judaism, over 80% have some sort of active engagement with Judaism, ranging from attendance at daily prayer services on one end of the spectrum to attending Passover Seders or lighting Hanukkah candles on the other. The survey also discovered that Jews in the Northeast and Midwest are generally more observant than Jews in the South or West. The Jewish American community has higher household incomes than average, and is one of the best educated religious communities in the United States. Islam Islam is probably the third largest religion in numbers in the United States, after Christianity and Judaism, followed, according to Gallup, by 0.8% of the population in 2016. Hinduism and Buddhism follow it closely in numbers (in 2014 the large scale Religious Life Survey found Islam with 0.9% and the other two with 0.7% each). According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published in March 2017, based on data from 2010, Muslims were the largest minority religion in 392 counties out of the 3143 counties in the country. According to the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU) in 2018, there are approximately 3.45 million Muslims living in the United States, with 2.05 million adults, and the rest being children. Across faith groups, ISPU found in 2017 that Muslims were most likely to be born outside of the US (50%), with 36% having undergone naturalization. American Muslims are also America's most diverse religious community with 25% identifying as black or African American, 24% identifying as white, 18% identifying as Asian/Chinese/Japanese, 18% identifying as Arab, and 5% identifying as Hispanic. In addition to diversity, Americans Muslims are most likely to report being low income, and among those who identify as middle class, the majority are Muslim women, not men. Although American Muslim education levels are similar to other religious communities, namely Christians, within the Muslim American population, Muslim women surpass Muslim men in education, with 31% of Muslim women having graduated from a four-year university. 90% of Muslim Americans identify as straight. Islam in America effectively began with the arrival of African slaves. It is estimated that about 10% of African slaves transported to the United States were Muslim. Most, however, became Christians, and the United States did not have a significant Muslim population until the arrival of immigrants from Arab and East Asian Muslim areas. According to some experts, Islam later gained a higher profile through the Nation of Islam, a religious group that appealed to black Americans after the 1940s; its prominent converts included Malcolm X and Muhammad Ali. The first Muslim elected to Congress was Keith Ellison in 2006, followed by André Carson in 2008. Out of all religious groups surveyed by ISPU, Muslims were found to be the most likely to report experiences of religious discrimination (61%). That can also be broken down when looking at gender (with Muslim women more likely than Muslim men to experience racial discrimination), age (with young people more likely to report experiencing racial discrimination than older people), and race, (with Arab Muslims the most likely to report experiencing religious discrimination). Muslims born in the United States are more likely to experience all three forms of discrimination, gender, religious, and racial. Research indicates that Muslims in the United States are generally more assimilated and prosperous than their counterparts in Europe. Like other subcultural and religious communities, the Islamic community has generated its own political organizations and charity organizations. ISPU also conducted a series of impact reports on Muslim Americans in both Michigan and New York City. 22.3% of Muslims live in New York City, the home of more mosques (285 total) than any other American city. Though just shy of 9% of the NYC population, Muslims make up over 12% of the city's pharmacists, lab technicians, and over 9% of all doctors. They make up 11.3% of all engineers, and are engaged at every level of civic life in the city, from senior adviser to the city government to directing outreach at the city council level. Nearly 10,000 NYC teachers are Muslim. Looking at NYC, it is evident that Muslim Americans are engaged and active in important sectors of American life. That level of engagement and dynamic interaction with the communities around them is further highlighted through the Michigan case study as well. Bahá'í Faith The United States has perhaps the second largest Bahá'í community in the world. First mention of the faith in the U.S. was at the inaugural Parliament of World Religions, which was held at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. In 1894, Ibrahim George Kheiralla, a Syrian Bahá'í immigrant, established a community in the U.S. He later left the main group and founded a rival movement. According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March, 2017, based on data from 2010, Bahá'ís were the largest minority religion in 80 counties out of the 3143 counties in the country. Rastafari Rastafarians began migrating to the United States in the 1950s, '60s and '70s from the religion's 1930s birthplace, Jamaica. Marcus Garvey, who is considered a prophet by many Rastafarians, rose to prominence and cultivated many of his ideas in the United States. Druze faith Druze began migrating to the United States in the late 1800s from the Levant (Syria and Lebanon). Druze emigration to the Americas increased at the outset of the 20th century due to the famine during World War I that killed an estimated one third to one half of the population, the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war, and the Lebanese Civil War between 1975 and 1990. The United States is the second largest home of Druze communities outside the Middle East after Venezuela (60,000). According to some estimates there are about 30,000 to 50,000 Druzes in the United States, with the largest concentration in Southern California. American Druze are mostly of Lebanese and Syrian descent. Members of the Druze faith face the difficulty of finding a Druze partner and practicing endogamy; marriage outside the Druze faith is strongly discouraged according to the Druze doctrine. They also face the pressure of keeping the religion alive because many Druze immigrants to the United States converted to Protestantism, becoming communicants of the Presbyterian or Methodist churches. Dharmic religions Buddhism Buddhism entered the US during the 19th century with the arrival of the first immigrants from East Asia. The first Buddhist temple was established in San Francisco in 1853 by Chinese Americans.The first prominent US citizen to publicly convert to Buddhism was Colonel Henry Steel Olcott in 1880 who is still honored in Sri Lanka for his Buddhist revival efforts. An event that contributed to the strengthening of Buddhism in the US was the Parliament of the World's Religions in 1893, which was attended by many Buddhist delegates sent from India, China, Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and Sri Lanka. During the late 19th century Buddhist missionaries from Japan traveled to the US. During the same time period, US intellectuals started to take interest in Buddhism. The early 20th century was characterized by a continuation of tendencies that had their roots in the 19th century. The second half, by contrast, saw the emergence of new approaches, and the move of Buddhism into the mainstream and making itself a mass and social religious phenomenon. According to a 2016 study, Buddhists are approximately 1% of the American population. According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March, 2017, based on data from 2010, Buddhists were the largest minority religion in 186 counties out of the 3143 counties in the country. Hinduism Hinduism is the fourth largest faith in the United States, representing approximately 1% of the population in 2016. In 2001, there were an estimated 766,000 Hindus in the US, about 0.2% of the total population. The first time Hinduism entered the U.S. is not clearly identifiable. However, large groups of Hindus have immigrated from India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Caribbean, southern Africa, eastern Africa, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Mauritius, Fiji, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and other regions and countries since the enactment of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. During the 1960s and 1970s Hinduism exercised fascination contributing to the development of New Age thought. During the same decades the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), a Vaishnavite Hindu reform organization, was founded in the US by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. In 2003, the Hindu American Foundation—a national institution protecting rights of the Hindu community of U.S.—was founded. According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March, 2017, based on data from 2010, Hindus were the largest minority religion in 92 counties out of the 3143 counties in the country. American Hindus have one of the highest rates of educational attainment and household income among all religious communities, and tend to have lower divorce rates. Hindus also have higher acceptance towards homosexuality (71%), which is higher than the general public (62%). Jainism Adherents of Jainism first arrived in the United States in the 20th century. The most significant time of Jain immigration was in the early 1970s. The United States has since become a center of the Jain Diaspora. The Federation of Jain Associations in North America is an umbrella organization of local American and Canadian Jain congregations to preserve, practice, and promote Jainism and the Jain way of life. Sikhism Sikhism is a religion originating from the Indian subcontinent which was introduced into the United States when, around the turn of the 20th century, Sikhs started emigrating to the United States in significant numbers to work on farms in California. They were the first community to come from India to the US in large numbers. The first Sikh Gurdwara in America was built in Stockton, California, in 1912. In 2007, there were estimated to be between 250,000 and 500,000 Sikhs living in the United States, with the largest populations living on the East and West Coasts, with additional populations in Detroit, Chicago, and Austin. The United States also has a number of non-Punjabi converts to Sikhism. East Asian religions Taoism Taoism was popularized throughout the world by the writings and teachings of Lao Tzu and other Taoists as well as the practice of Qigong, Tai Chi Chuan, and other Chinese martial arts. The first Taoists in the US were immigrants from China during the mid-nineteenth century. They settled mostly in California where the built the first Taoist temples in the country, including the Tin How Temple in San Francisco's Chinatown and the Joss House in Weaverville. Currently, the Temple of Original Simplicity is located outside of Boston, Massachusetts. In 2004, there were an estimated 56,000 Taoists in the US. No religion In 2020, approximately 28% of the Americans declared to be not religiously affiliated. Agnosticism, atheism, and humanism A 2001 survey directed by Dr. Ariela Keysar for the City University of New York indicated that, amongst the more than 100 categories of response, "no religious identification" had the greatest increase in population in both absolute and percentage terms. This category included atheists, agnostics, humanists, and others with no stated religious preferences. Figures are up from 14.3 million in 1990 to 34.2 million in 2008, representing an increase from 8% of the total population in 1990 to 15% in 2008. A nationwide Pew Research study published in 2008 put the figure of unaffiliated persons at 16.1%, while another Pew study published in 2012 was described as placing the proportion at about 20% overall and roughly 33% for the 18–29-year-old demographic. In a 2006 nationwide poll, University of Minnesota researchers found that despite an increasing acceptance of religious diversity, atheists were generally distrusted by other Americans, who trusted them less than Muslims, recent immigrants and other minority groups in "sharing their vision of American society". They also associated atheists with undesirable attributes such as amorality, criminal behavior, rampant materialism and cultural elitism. However, the same study also reported that "The researchers also found acceptance or rejection of atheists is related not only to personal religiosity, but also to one's exposure to diversity, education and political orientation – with more educated, East and West Coast Americans more accepting of atheists than their Midwestern counterparts." Some surveys have indicated that doubts about the existence of the divine were growing quickly among Americans under 30. On 24 March 2012, American atheists sponsored the Reason Rally in Washington, D.C., followed by the American Atheist Convention in Bethesda, Maryland. Organizers called the estimated crowd of 8,000–10,000 the largest-ever US gathering of atheists in one place. Deism In the United States, Enlightenment philosophy (which itself was heavily inspired by deist ideals) played a major role in creating the principle of religious freedom, expressed in Thomas Jefferson's letters and included in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. American Founding Fathers, or Framers of the Constitution, who were especially noted for being influenced by such philosophy of deism include Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Cornelius Harnett, Gouverneur Morris, and Hugh Williamson. Their political speeches show distinct deistic influence. Other notable Founding Fathers may have been more directly deist. These include Thomas Paine, James Madison, possibly Alexander Hamilton, and Ethan Allen. Belief in the existence of a god Various polls have been conducted to determine Americans' actual beliefs regarding a god: In 2014 the Pew Research Center's Religious Landscape Study showed 63% of Americans believed in God and were "absolutely certain" in their view, while the figure rose to 89% including those who were agnostic. A 2012 WIN-Gallup International poll showed that 5% of Americans considered themselves "convinced" atheists, which was a fivefold increase from the last time the survey was taken in 2005, and 5% said they did not know or else did not respond. A 2012 Pew Research Center survey found that doubts about the existence of a god had grown among younger Americans, with 68% telling Pew they never doubt God's existence, a 15-point drop in five years. In 2007, 83% of American millennials said they never doubted God's existence. A 2011 Gallup poll found 92% of Americans said yes to the basic question "Do you believe in God?", while 7% said no and 1% had no opinion. A 2010 Gallup poll found 80% of Americans believe in a god, 12% believe in a universal spirit, 6% don't believe in either, 1% chose "other", and 1% had no opinion. 80% is a decrease from the 1940s, when Gallup first asked this question. A late 2009 online Harris poll of 2,303 U.S. adults (18 and older) found that "82% of adult Americans believe in God", the same number as in two earlier polls in 2005 and 2007. Another 9% said they did not believe in God, and 9% said that they were not sure. It further concluded, "Large majorities also believe in miracles (76%), heaven (75%), that Jesus is God or the Son of God (73%), in angels (72%), the survival of the soul after death (71%), and in the resurrection of Jesus (70%). Less than half (45%) of adults believe in Darwin's theory of evolution but this is more than the 40% who believe in creationism..... Many people consider themselves Christians without necessarily believing in some of the key beliefs of Christianity. However, this is not true of born-again Christians. In addition to their religious beliefs, large minorities of adults, including many Christians, have "pagan" or pre-Christian beliefs such as a belief in ghosts, astrology, witches and reincarnation.... Because the sample is based on those who agreed to participate in the Harris Interactive panel, no estimates of theoretical sampling error can be calculated." A 2008 survey of 1,000 people concluded that, based on their stated beliefs rather than their religious identification, 69.5% of Americans believe in a personal God, roughly 12.3% of Americans are atheist or agnostic, and another 12.1% are deistic (believing in a higher power/non-personal God, but no personal God). Mark Chaves, a Duke University professor of sociology, religion and divinity, found that 92% of Americans believed in God in 2008, but that significantly fewer Americans have great confidence in their religious leaders than a generation ago. According to a 2008 ARIS survey, belief in God varies considerably by region. The lowest rate is in the West with 59% reporting a belief in God, and the highest rate is in the South at 86%. Spiritual but not religious "Spiritual but not religious" (SBNR) is self-identified stance of spirituality that takes issue with organized religion as the sole or most valuable means of furthering spiritual growth. Spirituality places an emphasis upon the wellbeing of the "mind-body-spirit," so holistic activities such as tai chi, reiki, and yoga are common within the SBNR movement. In contrast to religion, spirituality has often been associated with the interior life of the individual. One fifth of the US public and a third of adults under the age of 30 are reportedly unaffiliated with any religion, however they identify as being spiritual in some way. Of these religiously unaffiliated Americans, 37% classify themselves as spiritual but not religious. Others Many other religions are represented in the United States, including Shinto, Caodaism, Thelema, Santería, Kemetism, Religio Romana, Zoroastrianism, Vodou, Pastafarianism, Druze and many forms of New Age spirituality. Native American religions Native American religions historically exhibited much diversity, and are often characterized by animism or panentheism. The membership of Native American religions in the 21st century comprises about 9,000 people. Neopaganism Neopaganism in the United States is represented by widely different movements and organizations. The largest Neopagan religion is Wicca, followed by Neo-Druidism. Other neopagan movements include Germanic Neopaganism, Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism, and Semitic neopaganism. Druidry According to the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS), there are approximately 30,000 druids in the United States. Modern Druidism arrived in North America first in the form of fraternal Druidic organizations in the nineteenth century, and orders such as the Ancient Order of Druids in America were founded as distinct American groups as early as 1912. In 1963, the Reformed Druids of North America (RDNA) was founded by students at Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota. They adopted elements of Neopaganism into their practices, for instance celebrating the festivals of the Wheel of the Year. Wicca Wicca advanced in North America in the 1960s by Raymond Buckland, an expatriate Briton who visited Gardner's Isle of Man coven to gain initiation. Universal Eclectic Wicca was popularized in 1969 for a diverse membership drawing from both Dianic and British Traditional Wiccan backgrounds. Nordic Paganism Nordic Paganism is the umbrella term for polytheistic followers of the Proto-Norse period religions involving the Nordic pantheon of gods. This pantheon includes gods such as the Æsir; Odin, Thor, Loki, Sif, Heimdallr, Baldr, and Týr, as well as goddesses that include Vanir; Freyja, Freyr, Njörðr, and Nerthus. The followers of Nordic Paganism include Odinists, Tyrists, Lokians, Asatru, and practitioners of Seiðr, among other varying followers. Nordic Pagans follow the teachings of the Hávamál. This old text, along with the Prose Edda and Poetic Edda, gives the basis for Norse mythology, stories, legends, and beliefs. Norse mythology is portrayed in popular culture and Nordic symbols and teachings are also used by many white supremacy groups. This use has prompted some prisons to ban the wearing of these symbols, such as Mjölnir, by inmates due to their gang affiliation. New Thought Movement A group of churches which started in the 1830s in the United States is known under the banner of "New Thought". These churches share a spiritual, metaphysical and mystical predisposition and understanding of the Bible and were strongly influenced by the Transcendentalist movement, particularly the work of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Another antecedent of this movement was Swedenborgianism, founded on the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg in 1787. The New Thought concept was named by Emma Curtis Hopkins ("teacher of teachers") after Hopkins broke off from Mary Baker Eddy's Church of Christ, Scientist. The movement had been previously known as the Mental Sciences or the Christian Sciences. The three major branches are Religious Science, Unity Church and Divine Science. Unitarian Universalism Unitarian Universalists (UUs) are among the most liberal of all religious denominations in America. The shared creed includes beliefs in inherent dignity, a common search for truth, respect for beliefs of others, compassion, and social action. They are unified by their shared search for spiritual growth and by the understanding that an individual's theology is a result of that search and not obedience to an authoritarian requirement. UUs have historical ties to anti-war, civil rights, and LGBT rights movements, as well as providing inclusive church services for the broad spectrum of liberal Christians, liberal Jews, secular humanists, LGBT, Jewish-Christian parents and partners, Earth-centered/Wicca, and Buddhist meditation adherents. In fact, many UUs also identify as belonging to another religious group, including atheism and agnosticism. Major religious movements founded in the United States Christian Pentecostalism – movement which emphasizes the role of the Holy Spirit, finds its historic roots in the Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles from 1904 to 1906, sparked by Charles Parham. It is estimated to have over 279 million followers worldwide, many in Africa and South America. Adventism – began as an inter-denominational movement. Its most vocal leader was William Miller, who in the 1830s in New York became convinced of an imminent Second Coming of Jesus. The most prominent modern group to emerge from this is the Seventh-day Adventists. The Latter Day Saint movement founded in 1830 by Joseph Smith in upstate New York – a product of the Christian revivalist movement of the Second Great Awakening and based in Christian primitivism. Multiple Latter Day Saint denominations can be found throughout the United States. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the largest denomination, is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and it has members in many countries. The Community of Christ, the second-largest denomination, is headquartered in Independence, Missouri. Worldwide they claim about 15 million members. Jehovah's Witnesses – originated with the religious movement known as Bible Students, which was founded in Pennsylvania in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell. In their early years, the Bible Students were loosely connected with Adventism, and the Jehovah's Witnesses still share some similarities with it. They claim about 8.7 million active members worldwide. Christian Science – founded by Mary Baker Eddy in the late 19th century. The church claims some 400,000 members worldwide. Churches of Christ/Disciples of Christ – a restoration movement with no governing body. The Restoration Movement solidified as a historical phenomenon in 1832 when restorationists from two major movements championed by Barton W. Stone and Alexander Campbell merged. It has an estimated 3 million followers worldwide. Metropolitan Community Church – founded by Troy Perry in Los Angeles, 1968. Unitarianism Developed out of the Congregational Churches. In 1825 the American Unitarian Association was formed in Boston, MA. Universalist Church of America's first regional conference was founded in 1793. Other International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) or Hare Krishna movement- founded in 1966 in New York City by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. It preaches Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a sect of Hinduism New Thought Movement – two of the early proponents of New Thought beliefs during the mid to late 19th century were Phineas Parkhurst Quimby and the Mother of New Thought, Emma Curtis Hopkins. The three major branches are Religious Science, Unity Church and Divine Science. Scientology – founded by L. Ron Hubbard in 1954. Numbers estimated from a few tens of thousands to 15 million (latter is the religion's estimation in 2004). Reconstructionist Judaism – founded by Mordecai Kaplan and started in the 1920s. Native American Church – founded by Quanah Parker beginning in the 1890s and incorporating in 1918. An estimated 250,000 followers. Nation of Islam – a sect of Islam, created and followed predominantly by African-Americans. Church of Satan – founded in San Francisco in 1966 by Anton LaVey. Eckankar – founded in Las Vegas in 1965 by Paul Twitchell. Self-Realization Fellowship - founded in Los Angeles by Paramahansa Yogananda in 1920. Unitarian Universalist Association- founded in 1961 from the consolidation of the American Unitarian Association and the Universalist Church of America. Historically Christian denominations, the UUA is no longer Christian and is the largest Unitarian Universalist denomination in the world. Government positions The First Amendment guarantees both the free practice of religion and the non-establishment of religion by the federal government (later court decisions have extended that prohibition to the states). The U.S. Pledge of Allegiance was modified in 1954 to add the phrase "under God", in order to distinguish itself from the Marxist–Leninist atheism espoused by the Soviet Union. Various American presidents have often stated the importance of religion. On February 20, 1955, President Dwight D. Eisenhower stated that "Recognition of the Supreme Being is the first, the most basic, expression of Americanism." President Gerald Ford agreed with and repeated this statement in 1974. Statistics The U.S. Census does not ask about religion. Various groups have conducted surveys to determine approximate percentages of those affiliated with each religious group. Historical trends Sources: Based on Pew Center Research, especially editions 2007-2014 and 2019, CID-Gallup Center since 1948, Public Religion Research Institute, Christianity Today 1900-1950:Religious Trends in the United States, The Database of Religious History, and Historical information sources.<ref>The U.S. Is Retreating from Religion Scientific American</ref> Public Religion Research Institute data (2020) The Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI) has made annual estimates about religious adherence in the United States every year since 2013, and they most recently updated their data in 2020. Their data can be broken down to the state level, and data has also been made available of several large metro areas. Data is collected from roughly 50,000 telephone interviews conducted every year. Their most recent data shows that approximately 70% of Americans are Christians (down from 71% in 2013), with about 46% of the population professing belief in Protestant Christianity, and another 22% adhering to Catholicism. About 23% of the population adheres to no religion, and 7% more of the population professes a Non-Christian religion (such as Judaism, Islam, or Hinduism). 2014 Pew Research Center data 2010 ARDA data The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) surveyed congregations for their memberships. Churches were asked for their membership numbers. Adjustments were made for those congregations that did not respond and for religious groups that reported only adult membership. ARDA estimates that most of the churches not responding were black Protestant congregations. Significant difference in results from other databases include the lower representation of adherents of 1) all kinds (62.7%), 2) Christians (59.9%), 3) Protestants (less than 36%); and the greater number of unaffiliated (37.3%). Ethnicity The table below shows the religious affiliations among the ethnicities in the United States, according to the Pew Forum 2014 survey. People of Black ethnicity were most likely to be part of a formal religion, with 80% percent being Christians. Protestant denominations make up the majority of the Christians in the ethnicities. ARIS findings regarding self-identification The United States government does not collect religious data in its census. The survey below, the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) of 2008, was a random digit-dialed telephone survey of 54,461 American residential households in the contiguous United States. The 1990 sample size was 113,723; 2001 sample size was 50,281. Adult respondents were asked the open-ended question, "What is your religion, if any?" Interviewers did not prompt or offer a suggested list of potential answers. The religion of the spouse or partner was also asked. If the initial answer was "Protestant" or "Christian" further questions were asked to probe which particular denomination. About one third of the sample was asked more detailed demographic questions. Religious Self-Identification of the U.S. Adult Population: 1990, 2001, 2008Figures are not adjusted for refusals to reply; investigators suspect refusals are possibly more representative of "no religion" than any other group. Highlights: The ARIS 2008 survey was carried out during February–November 2008 and collected answers from 54,461 respondents who were questioned in English or Spanish. The American population self-identifies as predominantly Christian, but Americans are slowly becoming less Christian. 86% of American adults identified as Christians in 1990 and 76% in 2008. The historic mainline churches and denominations have experienced the steepest declines, while the non-denominational Christian identity has been trending upward, particularly since 2001. The challenge to Christianity in the U.S. does not come from other religions but rather from a rejection of all forms of organized religion. 34% of American adults considered themselves "Born Again or Evangelical Christians" in 2008. The U.S. population continues to show signs of becoming less religious, with one out of every seven Americans failing to indicate a religious identity in 2008. The "Nones" (no stated religious preference, atheist, or agnostic) continue to grow, though at a much slower pace than in the 1990s, from 8.2% in 1990, to 14.1% in 2001, to 15.0% in 2008. Asian Americans are substantially more likely to indicate no religious identity than other racial or ethnic groups. One sign of the lack of attachment of Americans to religion is that 27% do not expect a religious funeral at their death. Based on their stated beliefs rather than their religious identification in 2008, 70% of Americans believe in a personal God, roughly 12% of Americans are atheist (no God) or agnostic (unknowable or unsure), and another 12% are deistic (a higher power but no personal God). America's religious geography has been transformed since 1990. Religious switching along with Hispanic immigration has significantly changed the religious profile of some states and regions. Between 1990 and 2008, the Catholic population proportion of the New England states fell from 50% to 36% and in New York fell from 44% to 37%, while it rose in California from 29% to 37% and in Texas from 23% to 32%. Overall the 1990–2008 ARIS time series shows that changes in religious self-identification in the first decade of the 21st century have been moderate in comparison to the 1990s, which was a period of significant shifts in the religious composition of the United States. Attendance Gallup survey data found that 73% of Americans were members of a church, synagogue or mosque in 1937, peaking at 76% shortly after World War II, before trending slightly downward to 70% by 2000. The percentage declined steadily during the first two decades of the 21st century, reaching 47% in 2020. Gallup attributed the decline to increasing numbers of Americans expressing no religious preference. A 2013 Public Religion Research Institute survey reported that 31% of Americans attend religious services at least weekly. In a 2009 Gallup survey, 41.6% of American residents stated that they attended a church, synagogue, or mosque once a week or almost every week. This percentage is higher than other surveyed Western countries.NCLS releases latest estimates of church attendance , National Church Life Survey, media release, February 28, 2004 Church attendance varies considerably by state and region. The figures, updated to 2014, ranged from 51% in Utah to 17% in Vermont. When it comes to mosque attendance specifically, data collected by a 2017 poll by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU) shows that American Muslim women and men attend the mosque at similar rates (45% for men and 35% for women). Additionally, when compared to the general public looking at the attendance of religious services, young Muslim Americans attend the mosque at closer rates to older Muslim Americans. Muslim Americans who regularly attend mosques are more likely to work with their neighbors to solve community problems (49 vs. 30 percent), be registered to vote (74 vs. 49 percent), and plan to vote (92 vs. 81 percent). Overall, “there is no correlation between Muslim attitudes toward violence and their frequency of mosque attendance". Religion and politics In August 2010, 67% of Americans said religion was losing influence, compared with 59% who said this in 2006. Majorities of white evangelical Protestants (79%), white mainline Protestants (67%), black Protestants (56%), Catholics (71%), and the religiously unaffiliated (62%) all agreed that religion was losing influence on American life; 53% of the total public said this was a bad thing, while just 10% see it as a good thing. Politicians frequently discuss their religion when campaigning, and fundamentalists and black Protestants are highly politically active. However, to keep their status as tax-exempt organizations they must not officially endorse a candidate. Historically Catholics were heavily Democratic before the 1970s, while mainline Protestants comprised the core of the Republican Party. Those patterns have faded away—Catholics, for example, now split about 50–50. However, white evangelicals since 1980 have made up a solidly Republican group that favors conservative candidates. Secular voters are increasingly Democratic. Only four presidential candidates for major parties have been Catholics, all for the Democratic party: Alfred E. Smith in presidential election of 1928 was subjected to anti-Catholic rhetoric, which seriously hurt him in the Baptist areas of the South and Lutheran areas of the Midwest, but he did well in the Catholic urban strongholds of the Northeast. John F. Kennedy secured the Democratic presidential nomination in 1960. In the 1960 election, Kennedy faced accusations that as a Catholic president he would do as the Pope would tell him to do, a charge that Kennedy refuted in a famous address to Protestant ministers. John Kerry, a Catholic, won the Democratic presidential nomination in 2004. In the 2004 election religion was hardly an issue, and most Catholics voted for his Protestant opponent George W. Bush. Joe Biden, a Catholic, won the Democratic presidential nomination in 2020, and then won the 2020 presidential election, becoming the second Catholic president, after John F. Kennedy. Biden was also the first Catholic vice president. Joe Lieberman was the first major presidential candidate that was Jewish, on the Gore–Lieberman campaign of 2000 (although John Kerry and Barry Goldwater both had Jewish ancestry, they were practicing Christians). Bernie Sanders ran against Hillary Clinton in the Democratic primary of 2016. He was the first major Jewish candidate to compete in the presidential primary process. However, Sanders noted during the campaign that he does not actively practice any religion. In 2006 Keith Ellison of Minnesota became the first Muslim elected to Congress; when re-enacting his swearing-in for photos, he used the copy of the Qur'an once owned by Thomas Jefferson. André Carson is the second Muslim to serve in Congress. A Gallup poll released in 2007 indicated that 53% of Americans would refuse to vote for an atheist as president, up from 48% in 1987 and 1999. But then the number started to drop again and reached record low 43% in 2012 and 40% in 2015. Mitt Romney, the Republican presidential nominee in 2012, is Mormon and a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He is the former governor of the state of Massachusetts, and his father George Romney was the governor of the state of Michigan. On January 3, 2013, Tulsi Gabbard became the first Hindu member of Congress, using a copy of the Bhagavad Gita while swearing-in. See also American civil religion Christianity in the United States Confucianism in the United States Freedom of religion in the United States Historical religious demographics of the United States List of religious movements that began in the United States List of U.S. states and territories by religiosity Relationship between religion and science Religion in United States prisons School prayer in the United States Separation of church and state in the United States Protestantism in the United States References Bibliography . Richard Dawkins, "Secularism, the Founding Fathers and the religion of America", in The God Delusion, Black Swan, 2007 (). De La Torre, Miguel A., Encyclopedia on Hispanic American Religious Culture 2 vol, ABC-CLIO Publishers, 2009. . Goff, Philip, ed. The Blackwell Companion to Religion in America (2010) online; 43 essays by scholars. Gordon, Melton, J. Encyclopedia of American Religions (7th ed. Thomson, 2003) 1408pp Hill, Samuel S., Charles H. Lippy, and Charles Reagan Wilson, eds. Encyclopedia of Religion in the South (2005) Lippy, Charles H., ed. Encyclopedia of the American Religious Experience (3 vol Scribners, 1988) National Council of the Churches of Christ. Yearbook of American Churches: 2010 (2010) Putnam, Robert D., and David E Campbell American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us (2010) excerpt and text search Queen, Edward L. et al. eds, Encyclopedia of American Religious History'' (3rd ed. 3 vol, Facts on File, 2009) External links Association of Religion Data Archives - compilation of religion data from a project jointly supported by Penn State University, Chapman University, the Lilly Endowment, and the John Templeton Foundation The ARIS (American Religious Identification Survey) time series surveys - website of academic research team that conducted "three large replicate, representative, national surveys of adults" in the continental United States in 1990, 2001 and 2008. Includes reports, data sets, and other information. Material History of American Religion Project - based at the Vanderbilt University Divinity School and supported by the Lilly Endowment Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life - a project of the Pew Research Center, publishing statistical reports on religion and American life Religion: Gallup Historical Trends - opinion polling of Americans by the Gallup Poll from the 1940s to the present Religious demographics

List of municipalities in Georgia (U.S. state)

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Georgia is a state located in the Southern United States. According to the 2010 United States Census, Georgia is the 8th most populous state with inhabitants and the 21st largest by land area spanning of land. Georgia is divided into 159 counties and contains 535 incorporated municipalities consisting of cities, towns, consolidated city-counties, and consolidated cities. There is no legal difference in Georgia between cities and towns. Eight municipalities have merged with their counties to form consolidated city-counties: Athens with Clarke County, Augusta with Richmond County, Columbus with Muscogee County, Cusseta with Chattahoochee County, Georgetown with Quitman County, Macon with Bibb County, Statenville with Echols County, and Webster County unified government with Webster County. Athens and Augusta also have municipalities independent of the consolidated governments and are considered consolidated cities. The largest municipality by population in Georgia is Atlanta, with 420,003 residents, and the smallest municipality by population is Edge Hill, with 24 residents. The largest municipality by land area is Augusta, a consolidated city-county, which spans , and Edge Hill and Santa Claus are tied for the smallest, at each. List of municipalities Notes See also Georgia statistical areas List of counties in Georgia (U.S. state) References External links Georgia Municipal Association Municipalities Georgia, List of cities in Georgia

List of cities in Idaho

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Idaho is a state located in the Western United States. According to the 2020 United States Census, Idaho is the 13th least populous state with inhabitants but the 11th largest by land area spanning of land. Idaho is divided into 44 counties and contains 201 incorporated municipalities legally described as cities. See also Idaho List of counties in Idaho References Idaho, List of cities in Cities

Honda Civic Hybrid

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The Honda Civic Hybrid is a variation of the Honda Civic with a hybrid electric powertrain. Honda introduced the Civic Hybrid in Japan in December 2001 and discontinued it in 2015. In the United States, it was the first hybrid automobile to be certified as an Advanced Technology Partial Zero-Emissions Vehicle (AT-PZEV) from the California Air Resources Board (CARB). The Civic Hybrid uses an Integrated Motor Assist hybrid system similar to that of the Honda Insight. The Civic Hybrid was only marketed in sedan configurations. First generation (ES9; 2003–2005) The Civic Hybrid, based on the seventh generation Civic, was first introduced to the Japanese market in December 2001. Honda claimed it was the most fuel-efficient 5-passenger gasoline-powered production vehicle in the world at the time. It was introduced to the U.S. in spring 2002 as a 2003 model. It is the first hybrid vehicle to be certified as an Advanced Technology Partial Zero- Emissions Vehicle (AT-PZEV) from CARB. Design The first generation of the Honda Civic Hybrid was based on the seventh generation Honda Civic. It was the first mainstream vehicle from Honda equipped with a gasoline-electric hybrid system and became the second hybrid model of the company after Insight. Model with manual transmission was rated city / highway according to United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) fuel mileage estimates, about the same combined mileage as for the Toyota Prius, and became the most fuel-efficient five-passenger sedan ever sold in North America at the time. The following is a list of its technical features: Twin spark plugs light the lean fuel-air mixtures sent to the two-valve combustion chambers. 1.3-litre single overhead cam i-DSI lean-burn internal combustion engine with VTEC Cylinder Cut-off System, which allows three cylinders to deactivate during deceleration. The engine generates at 5,700 rpm and of torque at 3,300 rpm. Idle stop - when stopped at a traffic light, the engine shuts off automatically, then restarts immediately when the driver takes their foot off the brake, contributing to both greater fuel efficiency and lower emissions. brushless, permanent magnet assist motor, which functions as a generator during deceleration recharging the battery (regenerative braking). Combined output of both engine and electric motor is at 5,700 rpm. Maximum torque is rated at 1,500 rpm for manual transmission models and at 3,000 rpm for CVT models. 144 V Nickel-metal hydride batteries with 6.0 Ah capacity. Honda Multimatic S continuously variable transmission or 5-speed manual transmission. ULEV or AT-PZEV certification by the California Air Resources Board (CARB). Low rolling resistance tires (P185/70R14) on aluminum wheels and regenerative braking. Electric power-steering. An electric motor is sandwiched between the gasoline engine and the transmission, providing up to 13 horsepower. The motor also acts as a generator, to recharge the car's nickel-metal hydride battery located between the rear seat and the trunk, and as a starter motor. The motor in Civic Hybrid is about a quarter-inch () thicker than that of the Insight. Through improvements to the magnetic coils of the DC brushless motor, it achieves 30% greater assisting and regenerative torque than the previous model without increasing the size. It generates more torque (46 versus 36 lb⋅ft) than the motor in the Insight. The electricity is stored in a battery consisting of 120 1.2-volt Ni-MH D-cells wired in series. The battery can charge and discharge more rapidly and efficiently, though the total capacity is reduced from the Insight's (6.0 versus 6.5 Ah). The efficiency of the battery modules is increased, through a reduction in energy losses. The battery is housed with the electrical controller in a package called the Intelligent Power Unit (IPU). The new packaging reduces the size of the system by 50% and allows the IMA equipment to be placed behind the rear seat in the trunk. The unit weighs only and is one-third smaller than that of the Insight. The two spark plugs in each cylinder can fire either sequentially or simultaneously, enabling more efficient burning during lean-burn mode and more often lean-burn operation. The engine can operate at a lean 22:1 air-to-fuel ratio more than 60% of the time on a flat road. The VTEC cylinder idling system of the engine closes the valves in three of the four cylinders when the car is decelerating, reduces the power lost to the engine by 50%, and allows the IMA to extract more electrical energy during braking. The rocker arms operating the intake and exhaust valves have two modes: valve-lift mode or idle mode. They are engaged via a synchronizing piston. During deceleration, the synchro piston disengages the lift-mode rocker arm so that the valves remain at rest, effectively sealing off the cylinder. An idle-stop feature shuts off the engine automatically when stopped, then restarts immediately when the driver removes their foot from the brake. This auto idle-stop system contributes to both greater fuel efficiency and lower emissions. During stop and go driving, the engine will turn off when the car comes to a stop for the first time, however, if the car does not go above and stops again, the engine will not turn off unless the car is stopped for more than 15 seconds. With assistance from the electric motor, the combined torque at below 3,700 rpm is greater than that available from the non-hybrid Civic's 1.7-liter engine. Fuel efficiency is further improved by 6% by utilizing a new front air dam and rear spoiler, along with revised underbody panels, reducing the drag coefficient from 0.30 to 0.28; replacing traditional power steering with electrical power result as reduction in parasitic losses and special lower rolling resistance tires. The Dunlop tires improve ride quality and reduce road noise compared with other hybrids like Insight and Prius. When compared with Insight, a wider tire improves stability at highway speed. Car and Driver reported that the car can accelerate in 10.9 seconds. Fuel economy The Civic Hybrid is estimated to be 40% more fuel-efficient than its non-hybrid counterpart. Award and recognition The Civic Hybrid's engine won the International Engine of the Year "1 litre to 1.4 litre" size category award for three years straight from 2002 through 2004 as well as the "Best Fuel Economy" category for 2003 and 2004. 2003 recognized by the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy amongst the top ten Greenest Vehicles: tied for the third-best score with Toyota Prius Minor Design Changes There was a minor refresh of the design between the 2003 and 2004 model years which affected the front and rear bumper covers, hood, and headlights. On the interior, a small center console replaced the driver's armrest and the rear seats got adjustable headrests. Second generation (FA3/FD3; 2006–2011) The second-generation Civic Hybrid is based on the eighth generation Civic. As with other Civics, there are some styling differences to the exterior between the North American and the Japanese market models. Design The powertrain of the second generation Civic Hybrid is similar to that of the first generation, with the following notable changes: Updated to fourth generation Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) More powerful electric motor of 158.4 V (132 x 1.2 V) Nickel-metal hydride batteries with 5.5 Ah capacity and a 12% reduction in volume. Updated to three stage i-VTEC and VCM (Variable Cylinder Management), which permits deactivation of all four cylinders when cruising at moderate speed to run on electric power only. Engine output is increased to 93 hp (69 kW) at 6,000 rpm and maximum torque to at 4,500 rpm. Combined output of both engine and motor is at 6,000 rpm. Maximum torque is rated at 2,500 rpm. A new hybrid compressor for the air-conditioner. The continuously variable transmission provides a 9% wider ratio range of 2.52 - 0.421:1 between the maximum and minimum gear ratios for better acceleration and reduced engine rpm at high speeds. Discontinued manual transmission option. The U.S. EPA fuel economy estimate is increased to city , highway . (In 2008: EPA revised the way it estimates fuel mileage, as a result, the EPA rating for the 2008 model is: city , highway ). Updated to 15-inch lightweight aerodynamic alloy wheels (later featured on the Civic DX-G in Canada as well). Certified as AT-PZEV throughout 50 states. By using high-performance magnets and high-density windings, Honda is able to increase the power output of the electric motor by 50% to at 2,000 rpm when compared with the first generation. The inverter that controls motor speed is integrated with the motor's ECU for more precise control, resulting in greater efficiency and fuel economy. The output of the battery is increased by around 30% to 158.4 V. The battery storage box is designed for better cooling performance and vibration resistance to enhance long-term reliability. The higher output of the electric motor enables the car to run on electricity only, at a steady when cruising on a flat surface. An internal electric motor is added to the air-conditioner, so it can be powered by either the engine, an electric motor, or both. At a stop, the compressor powered by the battery keeps the cabin cool. An additional compressor that is powered by the petrol engine also engages if rapid cooling is required. When the interior temperature is stable, air conditioning is provided by the battery solely. As soon as the brake pedal is lifted, the petrol engine comes back to life again. The new three-stage i-VTEC valvetrain has low-rpm, high-rpm, and cylinder idle mode. High output valve timing helps the engine to increase its output by 9%. During deceleration, the engine is kept idle. There is no combustion in all four cylinders and the cylinders are sealed shut, reducing pumping losses by the engine. As a result, the recovery of energy wasted during braking is improved by 10%. A digital display is incorporated in the instrument dash showing how much electricity is sent to the battery or how much is used. When the car is braked moderately, all the green bars light up showing energy recaptured. When the car is braked harder, the conventional brakes are activated. Car and Driver found when compared with the previous generation, the car was faster, offered greater refinement, was quieter at highway speed, with a stiffer body and a revised suspension that handled bumps better and more quietly. Fuel economy It is estimated that, when compared to a gasoline engine only Civic sedan of 2006 with an automatic transmission, the Civic Hybrid provides an increase of fuel economy in city driving of about 63% and an increase of fuel economy in highway driving of about 27%. The CVT transmission is designed to achieve the highest efficiency for a given rpm. A class-action lawsuit filed in 2012 alleged that Honda falsely advertised the fuel economy of the Civic Hybrid and that owners were getting significantly lower mileage. The Los Angeles Times reported in May 2012 that at least 36 small-claims lawsuits had also been filed against Honda over the alleged false advertisement of gas mileage. Some users reported that the fuel economy of the Civic Hybrid was reduced after Honda installed a software update to prolong the life of the hybrid battery by reducing the electric motor's output and putting more reliance on the gasoline engine. Battery life In February 2014, Consumer Reports found a high rate of battery failure in 2009-2010 models, with over 30% of responders reporting they had needed a battery replacement within the last 12 months, and said most were probably replaced under warranty. Honda acknowledged problems with the 2006-2008 models which could cause the batteries to "deteriorate and eventually fail"; software updates were issued to prolong the life of the battery, but some owners reported these updates led to reduced fuel economy and power. The 132 NiMH cell pack suffers from imbalance as individual cells can't be monitored or charged. Monitoring is available at a 12 cell sub-pack level, but charging isn't. After years/miles of use, the cells become imbalanced as the cells charge/discharge at slightly different rates from one another. Eventually, strong cells are limiting the upper capacity of the pack and weak cells are limiting the lower capacity of the pack thereby reducing the usable capacity of the pack. In 2015, Honda extended IMA battery warranty of all 2009-2011 Civic Hybrid to 10-year / 150,000 mile. Market reception The Civic Hybrid ranks as the second best selling electric hybrid car in the U.S. Cost of ownership Consumer Reports ran an article in April 2006 stating that hybrid vehicles would not pay for themselves over 5 years of ownership. However, there was an error in the calculation of depreciation for the hybrid vehicles. It resulted in overstating how much extra money the hybrids would cost their owners during the first five years of ownership. When corrected, the Honda Civic Hybrid did have a payback period of slightly less than 5 years. In October 2010 Vincentric performed a hybrid cost of ownership analysis for the USA market. In this analysis, it compared hybrids' 5-year cost of ownership to their all-gas counterparts. The analysis showed that the 2010 Honda Civic Hybrid cost an additional $1830 over a 2010 Honda Civic EX 2D Coupe with an Automatic Transmission (the report assumes 15,000 miles are driven annually and fuel prices are based on a weighted average over the five months prior to October 2010). In August 2010, Autoblog reported that a replacement battery for the Civic Hybrid retailed at $2,100. Other markets The Civic Hybrid was introduced to Malaysia in August 2007. It was launched in China in November 2007 and in India in June 2008. Motorsport The Honda Civic Hybrid competed in 24 Hours Nürburgring in 2007, finishing 108th out of 220 teams starting. The twenty-four-hour race is held around the Nürburgring, one of the world's most grueling courses. A Group N spec Honda Civic Hybrid raced in the Jim Clark Rally and took second in class. Awards and recognition 2006 North American Car of the Year, along with the rest of the Civic range 2006 Motor Trend Car of the Year award, along with the rest of the Civic range. 2006 Automotive Journalists Association of Canada (AJAC) Award for Alternative Power Vehicle. 2006 Winner of the World Green Car Third generation (FB4; 2012–2015) The last Civic Hybrid was launched during 2011 in the U.S. and Canada as a 2012 model. It has a larger 1.5-liter i-VTEC engine that produces 90 horsepower and 97 lb⋅ft of torque and a lithium-ion battery pack instead of nickel-metal hydride. The larger engine replaces the 1.3-L engine for better mid-range torque. The DC brushless permanent magnet motor, which is placed between the engine and continuously variable transmission, provides 20 kW (23 hp) and 78 lb⋅ft of torque and weighs 0.7 kg (1.5 lb) less. The 2012 Civic Hybrid has an EPA rating of for the city and highway driving cycles, an improvement from city and highway for the previous generation. The Civic Hybrid has the latest Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) parallel hybrid system, with a new 20 kW motor – powered by lithium, a first for a Honda hybrid vehicle. The new battery is 5 kW more powerful, 9 kg (20 lb) lighter and takes up 36% less space. Battery capacity is increased from 35 kAh to 100 kAh (4.5 Ah). It comes with improved aerodynamics and Honda ECO Assist technology. The ECO Assist technology is an information system to help the driver adopt a more fuel-efficient driving style, and is proven to improve fuel economy by about 10% for Honda's hybrid vehicles in Japan. Production Production of the Civic Hybrid sedan was moved from Suzuka, Japan to Greensburg, Indiana, United States in early 2013, following the production of the Acura ILX hybrid commenced at Indiana plant in April 2012, after production capacity was expanded to 250,000. Sales In February 2009, Honda reported that since 2001 they had sold more than 255,000 Civic Hybrids, including more than 190,000 units sold in North America. For a time, the Civic Hybrid was the second-best-selling hybrid electric car in the U.S. It is reported that over 50,000 Civic Hybrids were sold during 2007 worldwide. Legal actions over mileage claims In January 2012, Heather Peters was awarded $9,867 by a Los Angeles Superior Court small-claims commissioner after alleging that her 2006 Civic Hybrid did not meet mileage claims advertised by the manufacturer. Honda won an appeal against this decision when a judge ruled that the vehicle's fuel-economy ratings complied with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's requirements, and that such ratings are for the purpose of comparison among vehicles. Consumers who purchased or leased a 2003 through 2009 Honda Civic Hybrid had until April 19, 2013 to claim a cash payment and Rebate Certificate from the class action lawsuit settlement. However, the Settlement Administrator has already begun to review claims and began mailing checks last month to those with validated claims. In March 2012, Honda Canada issued a release pledging to honor the USA class action settlement with owners and lessees in Canada when it was finalized in the USA. To date, there has been no follow up to parties concerned, but shortly after the Honda release, a class action was launched in Quebec courts on behalf of Quebec and Canadian owners and lessees. Discontinuation Honda announced that the Civic Hybrid was to be discontinued after the 2015 model year due to poor sales along with the Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid, Honda Civic GX, and Acura ILX Hybrid. References External links Civic Hybrid at Honda Worldwide Honda Civic Hybrid Honda Civic Hybrid Cars introduced in 2001 Hybrid electric cars Partial zero-emissions vehicles Sedans Hatchbacks Euro NCAP small family cars Vehicles with CVT transmission Front-wheel-drive vehicles

Pylorus

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The pylorus ( or ), or pyloric part, connects the stomach to the duodenum. The pylorus is considered as having two parts, the pyloric antrum (opening to the body of the stomach) and the pyloric canal (opening to the duodenum). The pyloric canal ends as the pyloric orifice, which marks the junction between the stomach and the duodenum. The orifice is surrounded by a sphincter, a band of muscle, called the pyloric sphincter. The word pylorus comes from Greek πυλωρός, via Latin. The word pylorus in Greek means "gatekeeper", related to "gate" () and is thus linguistically related to the word "pylon". Structure The pylorus is the furthest part of the stomach that connects to the duodenum. It is divided into two parts, the antrum, which connects to the body of the stomach, and the pyloric canal, which connects to the duodenum. Antrum The pyloric antrum is the initial portion of the pylorus. It is near the bottom of the stomach, proximal to the pyloric sphincter, which separates the stomach and the duodenum. It may temporarily become partially or completely shut off from the remainder of the stomach during digestion by peristaltic contraction of the prepyloric sphincter; it is demarcated, sometimes, from the pyloric canal by a slight groove. Canal The canal () is the opening between the stomach and the duodenum. The wall thickness of the pyloric canal is up to 3 millimeters (mm) in infants younger than 30 days, and up to 8 mm in adults. Sphincter The pyloric sphincter, or valve, is a strong ring of smooth muscle at the end of the pyloric canal which lets food pass from the stomach to the duodenum. It controls the outflow of gastric contents into the duodenum. It receives sympathetic innervation from the celiac ganglion. Histology Under microscopy, the pylorus contains numerous glands, including gastric pits, which constitute about half the depth of the pyloric mucosa. They consist of two or three short closed tubes opening into a common duct or mouth. These tubes are wavy, and are about one-half the length of the duct. The duct is lined by columnar cells, continuous with the epithelium lining the surface of the mucous membrane of the stomach, the tubes by shorter and more cubical cell which are finely granular. The glands contain mucus cells and G cells that secrete gastrin. The pylorus also contains scattered parietal cells and neuroendocrine cells. These endocrine cells including D cells, which release somatostatin, responsible for shutting off acid secretion. (There is a second hormone-sensitive population near the fundus.) Unstriated muscles, which are entirely involuntary, are located at the pylorus. Function The pylorus is one component of the gastrointestinal system. Food from the stomach, as chyme, passes through the pylorus to the duodenum. The pylorus, through the pyloric sphincter, regulates entry of food from the stomach into the duodenum. Clinical significance In such conditions as stomach cancer, tumours may partly block the pyloric canal. A special tube can be implanted surgically to connect the stomach to the duodenum so as to facilitate the passage of food from one to the other. The surgery to place this tube is called a gastroduodenostomy. Stenosis Pyloric stenosis refers to a pylorus that is narrow. This is due to congenital hypertrophy of the pyloric sphincter. The lumen of the pylorus is narrower, and less food is able to pass through. This problem is often detected in the early weeks of life. When it is present, a newborn baby may projectile vomit after eating, but despite vomiting remain hungry. Pyloric stenosis may be managed by the insertion of a stent, or through surgical cutting of the pyloric sphincter, a pyloromyotomy. Other Pyloric tumors Pyloric gland adenoma Additional images See also Human gastrointestinal tract Stomach Duodenum Digestion References External links "Pylorus", Stedman's Online Medical Dictionary at Lippincott Williams and Wilkins - "Abdominal Cavity: The Stomach" - "Stomach, Spleen and Liver: The Pylorus" Digestive system Stomach

List of cities in New York

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This list contains all municipalities incorporated as cities in New York State and shows the county in which each city is located. Two cities (New York City and Albany) were incorporated in the 17th century, while the most recent incorporation, of Rye, occurred in 1942. Except for Sherrill, the cities are distinct from towns. Geneva and New York are the only cities in more than one county. List of cities Extremes in size and population The most populous and largest city by area in the state is by far New York City, home to 8,804,190 people and comprising just over of land ( including water). The least populous city is Sherrill, with just 3,071 inhabitants. The smallest city by area is Mechanicville, which covers (of which is water). Gallery See also List of city nicknames in New York Administrative divisions of New York List of counties in New York List of towns in New York List of villages in New York List of census-designated places in New York Footnotes ^ Geneva is located within both the counties of Ontario and Seneca, although the section in Seneca County has no population and is all water. ^ 1653 is the officially recognized date. Peter Stuyvesant convinced the States General of the Netherlands to charter the city of Nieuw Amsterdam in 1653. The English envoy, Richard Nicolls, renamed the city "New York" two days after capturing it in 1664. Provincial governor Thomas Dongan rechartered the city under the auspices of the Duke of York in 1683, though the charter was not published until 1686. Finally, New York was reincorporated to include all five of its present boroughs in 1898. References New York, List of cities in Cities

NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament

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The NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament is an annual college basketball tournament for women. Held each March, the Women's Championship was inaugurated in the 1981–82 season. The NCAA tournament was preceded by the AIAW Women's Basketball Tournament, which was held annually from 1972 to 1982. Basketball was one of 12 women's sports added to the NCAA championship program for the 1981–82 school year, as the NCAA engaged in battle with the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) for sole governance of women's collegiate sports. The AIAW continued to conduct its established championship program in the same 12 (and other) sports; however, after a year of dual women's championships, the NCAA prevailed, while the AIAW disbanded. Attendance and interest in the Women's Division I Championship have grown over the years, especially from 2003 to 2016, when the final championship game was moved to the Tuesday following the Monday men's championship game. The women's championship game is the penultimate overall game of the college basketball season since 2017. From 1982 to 1990, 1996 to 2002, and since 2017 the Women's Final Four is usually played on the Friday before the Men's Final Four or the hours before the men played on the final Saturday of the tournament. The final was usually played the Sunday afternoon following the Men's Final Four; since 2017, Sunday evening. The tournament bracket is made up of champions from each Division I conference, which receive automatic bids. The remaining slots are at-large bids, with teams chosen by an NCAA selection committee. The selection process and tournament seedings are based on several factors, including team rankings, win-loss records, and NET data. Starting in 2022, the women's tournament will feature the same 68-team bracket as the men's tournament, with its own set of "play-in" games. This in turn means there are 36 at-large bids. From 2014 to 2021, the women's tournament featured 64 teams, with no "play-in" games. The women's tournament, like the men's, is staged in a single elimination format and is part of the media and public frenzy known colloquially as March Madness or The Big Dance. Both 2020 men's and women's tournaments were canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, the entire tournament was played in Texas, with most games, including the Final Four, in San Antonio; some games were played in Austin and San Marcos. Tournament format Starting in 2022, a total of 68 teams qualify for the tournament played in March and April. Of these teams, 32 earn automatic bids by winning their respective conference tournaments. Since 2017 the Ivy League conducts its own post-season tournament. The remaining teams are granted "at-large" bids, which are extended by the NCAA Selection Committee. Dr. Marilyn McNeil, vice president/director of athletics at Monmouth University is the current chairwoman. On March 1, 2011, Bowling Green State University's director of intercollegiate athletics, Greg Christopher, was appointed chair of the NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Committee during the 2011–12 academic year. The tournament begins with four opening-round games known as the First Four. Like the men's version, the women's First Four will involve the four lowest-ranked conference champions playing for 16 seeds in the round of 64, and the four lowest-ranked at-large teams playing for their own spots in the round of 64. The tournament is split into four regional tournaments, and each regional has teams seeded from 1 to 16, with the committee ostensibly making every region as comparable to the others as possible. The top-seeded team in each region plays the #16 team, the #2 team plays the #15, etc. (meaning where the two seeds add up to 17, that team will be assigned to play another). Number of teams, and seeding The first NCAA women's basketball tournament was held in 1982. The AIAW also held a basketball tournament in 1982, but most of the top teams, including defending AIAW champion Louisiana Tech, decided to participate in the NCAA tournament. The championship consisted of 32 teams from 1982 to 1985 (in 1983, 36), 40 teams from 1986 to 1988, and 48 teams from 1989 to 1993. From 1994 to 2021, 64 teams competed in each tournament. From 2022, the tournament will involve 68 teams, matching the size of the D-I men's tournament. Prior to 1996, seeding was conducted on a regional basis. The top teams (eight in the 32-, 40-, and 48-team formats, and 16 in the 64-team format) were ranked and seeded on a national basis. The remaining teams were then seeded based on their geographic region. Teams were moved outside of its geographic region only if it was necessary to balance the bracket, or if the proximity of an opponent outside of its region would be comparable and a more competitive game would result. In 1993, all teams except for the top four were explicitly unseeded. The regional seeding resumed in 1994. In 1996, seeds were assigned on a national basis using an "S-Curve" format similar to the process used in selecting the field for the men's tournament. The following table summarizes some of the key attributes of the seeding process: Selection process A special selection committee appointed by the NCAA determines which 68 teams will enter the tournament, and where they will be seeded and placed in the bracket. Because of the automatic bids, only 36 teams (the at-large bids) rely on the selection committee to secure them a spot in the tournament. Women's NCAA Division I basketball champions Team titles Multiple NCAA championship coaches NCAA Championship by Conference Note: Conferences are listed by all champions' affiliations at that time; these do not necessarily match current affiliations. NCAA Final Four locations 1982 – Norfolk, Virginia 1983 – Norfolk, Virginia 1984 – Los Angeles, California 1985 – Austin, Texas 1986 – Lexington, Kentucky 1987 – Austin, Texas 1988 – Tacoma, Washington 1989 – Tacoma, Washington 1990 – Knoxville, Tennessee 1991 – New Orleans, Louisiana 1992 – Los Angeles, California 1993 – Atlanta, Georgia 1994 – Richmond, Virginia 1995 – Minneapolis, Minnesota 1996 – Charlotte, North Carolina 1997 – Cincinnati, Ohio 1998 – Kansas City, Missouri 1999 – San Jose, California 2000 – Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2001 – St. Louis, Missouri 2002 – San Antonio, Texas 2003 – Atlanta, Georgia 2004 – New Orleans, Louisiana 2005 – Indianapolis, Indiana 2006 – Boston, Massachusetts 2007 – Cleveland, Ohio 2008 – Tampa Bay, Florida 2009 – St. Louis, Missouri 2010 – San Antonio, Texas 2011 – Indianapolis, Indiana 2012 – Denver, Colorado 2013 – New Orleans, Louisiana 2014 – Nashville, Tennessee 2015 – Tampa Bay, Florida 2016 – Indianapolis, Indiana 2017 – Dallas, Texas 2018 – Columbus, Ohio 2019 – Tampa Bay, Florida 2020 – New Orleans, Louisiana 2021 – San Antonio, Texas 2022 – Minneapolis, Minnesota 2023 – Dallas, Texas 2024 – Cleveland, Ohio 2025 – Tampa Bay, Florida 2026 – Phoenix, Arizona Result by school and by year 283 teams have appeared in the NCAA Tournament in at least one year starting with 1982 (the initial year that the post-season tournament was under the auspices of the NCAA). The results for all years are shown in this table below. Notes Tournament trends Top-ranked teams Since the women's tournament began in 1982, 17 teams have entered the tournament ranked #1 in at least 1 poll and gone on to win the tournament: 1982: Louisiana Tech 1983: USC 1986: Texas 1989: Tennessee 1995: UConn 1998: Tennessee 1999: Purdue 2000: UConn 2002: UConn 2003: UConn 2009: UConn 2010: UConn 2012: Baylor 2014: UConn 2015: UConn 2016: UConn 2019: Baylor 2021: Stanford Champions excluded the next year Only once has the reigning champion (the previous year's winner) not made it to the tournament the next year. 1985 champion Old Dominion went 15–13 in 1986. #1 seeds Since 1982, at least one #1 seed has made the Final Four every year. Under coach Geno Auriemma, Connecticut has been seeded #1 a record 22 times. Tennessee is second with 21 #1 seeds. All four #1 seeds have made it to the Final Four 4 times (champion in bold): 1989 Auburn, Louisiana Tech, Maryland, Tennessee 2012 Baylor, UConn, Notre Dame, Stanford 2015 UConn, Maryland, Notre Dame, South Carolina 2018 UConn, Mississippi State, Notre Dame, Louisville The championship game has matched two #1 seeds 14 times: 1983 USC beat Louisiana Tech 1986 Texas beat USC 1989 Tennessee beat Auburn 1991 Tennessee beat Virginia 1995 UConn beat Tennessee 2000 UConn beat Tennessee 2002 UConn beat Oklahoma 2003 UConn beat Tennessee 2010 UConn beat Stanford 2012 Baylor beat Notre Dame 2014 UConn beat Notre Dame 2015 UConn beat Notre Dame 2018 Notre Dame beat Mississippi State 2019 Baylor beat Notre Dame Three teams have beaten three #1 seeds during the course of a tournament (the largest number of such teams that can be faced) (all three teams won the national championship as beating a 3rd #1 seed in a single tournament can only happen in the finals): 1987 Tennessee (beat Auburn, Long Beach State, Louisiana Tech) 1988 Louisiana Tech (beat Auburn, Tennessee, Texas) 2005 Baylor (beat LSU, Michigan State, North Carolina) Prior to the expansion of the tournament to 64 teams, all four #1 seeds advanced to the Sweet Sixteen with three exceptions. Notably, the first two times this occurred were at the hands of the same school: 1986 East #1 seed Virginia lost to #8 seed James Madison 1991 East #1 seed Penn State lost to #8 seed James Madison 1992 Midwest #1 seed Iowa lost to #8 seed Southwest Missouri State High seeds 1999 was the first time in tournament history (since the expansion to 64 teams) that all top seeds (1, 2, 3, and 4 seeds) made it to the Sweet Sixteen. Low seeds Lowest seeds to reach each round since the expansion to 64 teams: Second Round: #16 seed Harvard in 1998 (the only #16 seed to beat a #1 seed in either the women's or men's tournament until 2018, and still the only one to do so in the women's tournament) Regional Semifinals (Sweet Sixteen): #13 seed Texas A&M in 1994 Liberty in 2005 Marist in 2007 Regional Finals (Elite Eight): #11 seed Gonzaga in 2011 National Semifinals (Final Four): #9 seed Arkansas in 1998 National Finals (Championship Game): #5 seed Louisville in 2013 National Champion: #3 seed North Carolina in 1994 Tennessee in 1997 Best Performances by #14 & #15 Seeds Unlike in the men's tournament, no #14 seed has beaten a #3 and no #15 seed has beaten a #2 seed, but they have come close. 2 points: #14 Seed Austin Peay lost to UNC in 2003 (2 points, 72–70) Eastern Michigan lost to Boston College in 2004 (2 points, 58–56) Creighton lost to St. John's in 2012 (2 points, 69–67) Overtime games: #15 Seed UTSA lost to Baylor in 2009 (5 points, 87–82). UTSA is the only #15 seed to take a game into overtime. 1 point: #15 Seed Long Beach State lost to Oregon State in 2017 (1 point, 56–55) First-round games Since the expansion to 64 teams in 1994, each seed-pairing has played 108 first-round games with these results: The #1 seed is 107–1 against the #16 seed (). The #2 & #3 seeds are 108–0 against the #15 & #14 seeds, respectively (). The #4 seed is 101–7 against the #13 seed (). The #5 seed is 85–23 against the #12 seed (). The #6 seed is 75–33 against the #11 seed (). The #7 seed is 71–37 against the #10 seed (). The #8 seed is 53–55 against the #9 seed (). Second-round games Since the expansion to 64 teams in 1994, the following results have occurred for each pairing: In the 1/16/8/9 bracket: note: The 3 losses by the #1 seed vs #8/9 were: Duke (vs Michigan St, 2009), Ohio St (vs Boston College, 2006), Texas Tech (vs Notre Dame, 1998). note: The #9 vs. #16 game was Arkansas over Harvard in 1998. In the 2/15/7/10 bracket: In the 3/14/6/11 bracket: In the 4/13/5/12 bracket: Teams entering the tournament unbeaten Of the 18 teams who have entered the tournament unbeaten, 9 went on to win the National Championship. One exception is Cal Baptist, who was excluded from the 2021 tournament as a transitional Division I member, despite a 24–0 record. In 1986, Texas entered the tournament 30–0, beat USC for the national title, and ended the season 34–0. In 1990, Louisiana Tech entered the tournament 29–0, but lost in the Final Four to Auburn. In 1992, Vermont entered the tournament 29–0, but lost in the first round to George Washington. In 1993, Vermont entered the tournament 28–0, but lost in the first round to Rutgers. In 1995, UConn entered the tournament 29–0, beat Tennessee for the national title, and ended the season 35–0. In 1997, UConn entered the tournament 30–0, but lost in the Midwest Regional Final to Tennessee. In 1998, Tennessee (33–0) and Liberty (28–0) both entered the tournament unbeaten; Liberty lost in the first round to Tennessee, which went on to beat Louisiana Tech for the national title and ended the season 39–0. In 2002, 2009, and 2010, UConn entered the tournament 33–0, won the national title in each, and ended those seasons 39–0. They respectively beat Oklahoma, Louisville, and Stanford in those championship games. In 2012, Baylor entered the tournament 34–0, beat Notre Dame for the national title, and ended the season 40–0. The Lady Bears became the first team in NCAA college basketball history, for either women or men, to win 40 games in a season. Notably, Louisiana Tech went 40–5 during the 1979–80 season. This was during the AIAW era for women's basketball. In 2014, UConn (34–0) and Notre Dame (32–0) both entered the tournament unbeaten; UConn beat Notre Dame 79–58 for the national title, ended the season 40–0 and is the 8th team to end the season unbeaten. In 2015, Princeton entered the tournament 30–0, but lost in the second round to Maryland. In 2016, UConn entered the tournament 32–0, beat Syracuse for the national title, ending the season 38–0. In 2017, UConn entered the tournament 32–0, but lost in the Final Four to Mississippi State, ending their 111-game winning streak to finish 36–1. In 2018, UConn entered the tournament 32–0, but lost in the Final Four to Notre Dame, ending their 36-game winning streak to finish 36–1. Undefeated teams not in the tournament The NCAA tournament has undergone dramatic expansion since its first edition in 1982, and only one unbeaten team has failed to qualify for the tournament—California Baptist in 2021, which was 24–0 after winning the Western Athletic Conference Tournament. As, by definition, a team would have to win its conference tournament, and thus secure an automatic bid to the tournament, to be undefeated in a season, the only way a team could finish undefeated and not reach the tournament is if the team is banned from postseason play. (Other possibilities are that the team is independent, or is from a conference not yet eligible for an automatic bid.) Postseason bans can come about for one of two reasons: The team is serving a postseason ban due to NCAA sanctions. The team is transitioning from a lower NCAA division, during which time it is barred by NCAA rule from participation in NCAA-sponsored postseason play. This is the case for California Baptist, which began a transition from Division II in 2018 and thus cannot play in the NCAA tournament until 2023. California Baptist was eligible for the WNIT because that tournament is not operated by the NCAA, unlike the men's version; the Lancers lost in the quarterfinals to eventual champion Rice. Home state Only one team has ever played the Final Four on its home court. Two other teams have played the Final Four in their home cities, and seven others have played the Final Four in their home states. The only team to play on its home court was Texas in 1987, which lost its semifinal game at the Frank Erwin Special Events Center. Old Dominion enjoyed nearly as large an advantage in 1983 when the Final Four was played at the Norfolk Scope in its home city of Norfolk, Virginia, but also lost its semifinal. The Scope has never been the Lady Monarchs' regular home court. ODU has always used on-campus arenas, first the ODU Fieldhouse and since 2002 Chartway Arena. The following year, USC won the national title at Pauley Pavilion, the home court of its Los Angeles arch-rival UCLA. Of the other teams to play in their home states, Stanford (1992) won the national title; Notre Dame (2011) lost in the championship game; and Western Kentucky (1986), Penn State (2000), Missouri State (2001), LSU (2004), and Baylor (2010) lost in the semifinals. Championship margins Overtime games in a championship game: Tennessee 70, Virginia 67/OT (1991) Maryland 78, Duke 75/OT (2006) Smallest margin of victory in a championship game: 1 point North Carolina 60, Louisiana Tech 59 (1994) Baylor 82, Notre Dame 81 (2019) Stanford 54, Arizona 53 (2021) Biggest margin of victory in a championship game: 33 points UConn 93, Louisville 60 (2013) Margin of 10 points: Louisiana Tech (1982), Tennessee (1987 & 1989), Purdue (1999), UConn (2000, 2002, 2009, 2013, 2014, 2015 & 2016), and Baylor (2012) are teams to win every game in the tournament by 10 points or more on their way to a championship. The 2016 UConn team won every game by more than 20 points. Top 9 largest point differentials accumulated over the entire tournament by tournament champion. Notably, Louisiana Tech's differential is prior to the expansion of 64 teams and the addition of one more round of play. 2016 UConn (+239) 2010 UConn (+214) 2013 UConn (+208) 2015 UConn (+197) 2000 UConn (+187) 2002 UConn (+161) 2019 Baylor (+159) 1982 Louisiana Tech (+158) 2014 UConn (+156) Same-conference championship games 7 championship games have featured two teams from the same conference (winner listed first and bolded): 1989 SEC, Tennessee and Auburn 1996 SEC, Tennessee and Georgia 2006 ACC, Maryland and Duke 2009 Big East, UConn and Louisville 2013 Big East, UConn and Louisville 2017 SEC, South Carolina and Mississippi State 2021 Pac-12, Stanford and Arizona Television coverage and revenues Broadcast rights to the NCAA women's basketball tournament are included in a larger package covering the majority of Division I national championships outside of men's basketball. ESPN has held exclusive rights to the tournament since 1996; beginning with an 11-year, $200 million contract renewal in 2003, ESPN would televise all 63 games in the tournament on television (increasing from 23), with games in the first and second rounds airing regionally on ESPN and ESPN2. Out-of-market games were carried via pay-per-view. Coverage later expanded to include ESPN's college sports-oriented network ESPNU, and ESPN360 for streaming. In 2011, ESPN renewed this agreement through the 2023–24 season, in a deal reported to be worth $500 million in total (also adding international rights to the men's tournament for ESPN International). In the first two rounds, one channel (typically ESPN or ESPN2's high definition feed) typically aired "whiparound" coverage during each window, carrying rolling coverage of all games in progress. ESPN's standard definition channels were used to broadcast games on a regional basis, while games could also be viewed in their entirety on ESPN3 or alternate channels. In 2021, ESPN adopted a broadcast arrangement similar to the men's tournament, with all games airing nationally in their entirety on either an ESPN linear channel or, for the first time, ABC. In data issued by the NCAA in 2021, it was stated that 15.9% of the value of the contract was allocated to the women's tournament, or approximately $6.1 million annually. In comparison, the contract for the men's tournament is valued at over $700 million annually. Amid scrutiny of inequality between the men's and women's tournaments that year, it has been suggested by critics that the structure of the NCAA's contract undervalues the media rights to the women's tournament. Based on average viewership, Emily Caron and Eben Novy-Williams of Sportico estimated that the women's tournament could fetch at least $20 million per-year if its media rights were sold separately. America East Conference commissioner Amy Huchthausen argued that the ESPN contract "provides a measure of financial certainty, but it does not provide women's basketball (or any of the other sports, for that matter) an incentive to grow". Following major media criticism of inequities between the 2021 men's and women's tournaments, the NCAA commissioned a comprehensive gender equity review of its championships by the law firm Kaplan Hecker & Fink. Among the report's findings was that U.S. television rights for the women's tournament would be worth at least $81 million annually by the time the current broadcast contract with ESPN expires in 2024. The current contract, which includes rights not only to the women's tournament but also 28 other NCAA championship events, provides the NCAA an average of $34 million over the life of the contract. See also AIAW Women's Basketball Tournament NAIA Women's Basketball Championships NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament NCAA Division II Women's Basketball Tournament NCAA Division III Women's Basketball Tournament References External links Attendance history (Archived) Division I Women's Basketball Championships Records Books (Through 2020) (Archived) Postseason college basketball competitions in the United States Recurring sporting events established in 1982 College women's basketball competitions in the United States

1997 World Series

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The 1997 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 1997 season. The 93rd edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff between the American League (AL) champion Cleveland Indians and the National League (NL) champion Florida Marlins. The Marlins, who were underdogs, defeated the Indians, four games to three, to win their first World Series championship. Game 7 was decided in extra innings on a walk-off single hit by Édgar Rentería. The series began on October 18 and ended on October 26 (though Game 7 ended just after midnight local time October 27). Marlins pitcher Liván Hernández was named the World Series Most Valuable Player. The Indians advanced to the World Series by defeating the New York Yankees in the AL Division Series, three games to two, and then the Baltimore Orioles in the AL Championship Series, four games to two; it was Cleveland's second World Series appearance in three years. The Marlins advanced to the World Series by defeating the San Francisco Giants in the NL Division Series, three games to none, and then the Atlanta Braves in the NL Championship Series, four games to two; the Marlins set an MLB record by reaching a World Series in just their fifth season of existence. This was the fourth time in World Series history a Game 7 went into extra innings, and was the most recent occasion until the 2016 World Series, in which the Indians also lost in extra innings. The Marlins' championship made them the first wild card team to ever win the World Series. This was the only World Series that Paul Beeston would preside over as CEO of MLB. The previous four World Series had been presided over jointly by the league presidents (first Dr. Bobby Brown and then Gene Budig for the AL, Leonard Coleman for the NL). Summary Matchups Game 1 The first World Series game in the state of Florida, Game 1 featured a youngster and a veteran facing each other on the mound. Fresh off his NLCS MVP performance, Liván Hernández took the hill for the Marlins and quickly gave up a run in the first thanks to a double by leadoff man Bip Roberts and an RBI single by David Justice. Indian starter Orel Hershiser got by the first two innings unscathed. However, after the Marlins tied the game in the third on Edgar Renteria's RBI groundout with two on, they scored four runs in the fourth. Moisés Alou's three-run home run off the left field foul pole put the Marlins up 4–1 and Charles Johnson followed with a home run to make it 5–1. After Manny Ramírez's home run in the fifth cut the lead to 5–2, Hershiser allowed a one-out walk and single in the bottom of the inning before Jeff Conine's RBI single made it 6–2 Marlins. Jeff Juden relieved Hershiser and after a force-out at second, threw a ball four wild pitch that let Bobby Bonilla score from third. Jim Thome's home run cut the lead to 7–3 in the sixth, then the Indians got another run in the eighth off of Jay Powell when Marquis Grissom walked with two outs and scored on Brian Giles's double, but Florida closer Robb Nen came in the ninth and got out of a jam by striking out Sandy Alomar Jr. and Thome with two men aboard. Game 2 Game 2 matched up Florida ace Kevin Brown against Chad Ogea, who had lost two games in the ALCS. Both teams scored in the first, thanks to RBI singles by David Justice for the Indians after Omar Vizquel doubled with one out and Jeff Conine for the Marlins with two on. Ogea barely escaped further damage when Moisés Alou got under a hanging curveball, but merely flied out to the warning track, missing his second three-run homer in as many nights by inches. After that, Ogea settled in and did not allow any more runs in innings. Brown pitched well until the fifth when the Indians took the lead by stringing together three singles by Matt Williams, Sandy Alomar Jr., and Marquis Grissom. Later in the inning, with runners on second and third, Bip Roberts drove in a pair of runs with a single up the middle giving the Tribe a 4–1 lead. The three-run lead ballooned to five when Alomar hit a laser into the left field stands for a two-run home run in the sixth. The Indians' 6–1 win tied the series heading to Cleveland. Game 3 Game 3 was a wild affair that ended with the Marlins grabbing a 2–1 series lead. Charles Nagy of the Indians faced Al Leiter of the Marlins. Both pitchers fared poorly, with Leiter giving up seven runs (four earned) in innings and Nagy gave up five in six innings. In the top of the first, Gary Sheffield started the scoring with a home run to left. In the bottom half, the Indians retaliated with two runs thanks to two broken bat RBI singles by Matt Williams and Sandy Alomar Jr. Nagy's bases loaded walk to Sheffield tied the game in the third, before Florida took a 3–2 lead in the fourth on Darren Daulton's home run. However, the Indians got a gift in the bottom of the fourth, when they drew four free passes, then a throwing error by third baseman Bobby Bonilla on Manny Ramírez's single allowed two more runs to score. The Tribe went up 7–3 on Jim Thome's two-run home run to right in the fifth inning, which also knocked Leiter out of the game. His home run was nullified in the sixth by Jim Eisenreich's two-run home run that cut the lead to 7–5. In the seventh, Craig Counsell hit a leadoff single off of Brian Anderson and moved to second on a groundout, then Édgar Rentería's single and Gary Sheffield's double off of Mike Jackson (who was charged with a blown save) each drove in a run, making the score 7–7. In the ninth, Bonilla drew a leadoff walk off of reliever Eric Plunk and scored on Daulton's single aided by an error that let Daulton go to third. After a strikeout to Alou (his third of the night) and intentional walk to pinch-hitter Cliff Floyd, an error by first baseman Thome on Plunk's pickoff attempt allowed Daulton to score. After Charles Johnson singled, Alvin Morman relieved Plunk and an error by second baseman Tony Fernández on Counsell's ground ball allowed Floyd to score. After Morman retired Devon White, a walk to Rentería loaded the bases before José Mesa relieved Morman and allowed two-run singles to Sheffield and Bonilla aided by a wild pitch that gave the Marlins at 14–7 lead. In the bottom of the inning, the Indians loaded the bases on a walk and two singles with one out off of Robb Nen before Tony Fernández's sacrifice fly and Marquis Grissom's single scored a run each, then Bip Roberts' two-run double cut the lead to 14–11, but Omar Vizquel grounded out to end the game. Dennis Cook got the win in relief by tossing a scoreless eighth and Plunk got the loss. This was the highest scoring game for 20 years until the fifth game of the 2017 World Series between the Houston Astros and the Los Angeles Dodgers; it was also the fourth time a team had scored seven runs in the ninth inning of a postseason game and the first since the 1990 ALCS. Marlins batter Gary Sheffield had five RBIs in the game to lead all batters. Game 4 This back-and-forth World Series continued that way in Game 4. Both teams were greeted by snow during batting practice and freezing temperatures throughout this contest. The official gametime temperature of 35 °F (3.3 °C) remains the coldest recorded in World Series history. As the game progressed, media outlets reported wind chill readings as low as 18 °F (−7.8 °C). Two rookies opposed each other on the mound, Jaret Wright for the Indians and Tony Saunders for the Marlins. In the bottom of the first, Omar Vizquel singled with one out before Manny Ramírez's two-run home run put the Indians up 2–0. Matt Williams then singled with two outs and scored on Sandy Alomar's double. In the third, Ramírez drew a leadoff walk, moved to second on an error and scored on David Justice's single. After another walk, Alomar's single scored Justice. After a third walk loaded the bases, Antonio Alfonseca relived Saunders and allowed an RBI single to Tony Fernández. The Marlins got on the board in the fourth on Jim Eisenreich's RBI single with two on, then Moisés Alou's two-run home run after a walk in the sixth cut the Indians' lead to 6–3, but that was as close as the Marlins got. In the bottom of the inning, Alomar's bases-loaded groundout off of Ed Vosberg made it 7–3 Indians. Next inning, Fernández hit a leadoff single, moved to second on a ground out and scored on Brian Giles's single. In the eighth, Williams' two-run home run after a walk capped the game's scoring at 10–3 as the Indians tied the series at two games apiece. Wright allowed three runs in six sharp innings and Brian Anderson wrapped up Wright's win with a three-inning save. Game 5 Game 5 was a rematch of Game 1's starting pitchers Liván Hernández and Orel Hershiser. The Marlins struck first when Darren Daulton hit a ground-rule double and scored on Charles Johnson's single. After a walk to Craig Counsell, Devon White's RBI double made it 2–0 Marlins. The Indians cut it to 2–1 in the bottom of the inning when Jim Thome tripled and scored on Sandy Alomar's single. Next inning, Alomar launched a towering three-run home run after two walks to Thome and Matt Williams to put the Indians up 4–2. In the sixth, Moisés Alou hit his second three-run home run off Hershiser in as many games and his third home run of the Series to put the Marlins up 5–4. Eric Plunk then walked Craig Counsell with the bases loaded to force in Jeff Conine, with the run charged to Hershiser. The Marlins added to their lead in the seventh when Alou hit a leadoff single off of Jeff Juden, stole second, moved to third on a groundout, and scored on Johnson's single. Next inning, Alou's single scored pinch-runner Alex Arias (running for Bonilla) with two on off of José Mesa extended the lead to 8–4. Livan pitched terrifically in the middle innings, not allowing any runs until the ninth. An error and single put two on with no outs for the Indians. Robb Nen in relief allowed a two-run single to David Justice (both of the runs charged to Hernández), then a two-out RBI single to Thome before Alomar flew out to right to end the game and give the Marlins a 3–2 series lead heading back to Florida. Game 6 Game 6's attendance of 67,498 was the highest single-game attendance for the World Series since Game 5 of the 1959 World Series, when 92,706 people filled the football-oriented Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The Series returned to the warmer climate of Miami for Game 6. Kevin Brown opposed Chad Ogea again and again Brown inexplicably struggled while Ogea flourished. Chad himself drove in the first two runs with a bases-loaded single in the second, and Manny Ramírez hit a sacrifice fly in the third (after Omar Vizquel hit a leadoff double and stole third) and the fifth (after a leadoff double and subsequent single). Darren Daulton's sacrifice fly with two on in the fifth that scored Moisés Alou from third gave the Marlins their only run of the game. With the Tribe leading 4–1 in the sixth, Ogea ran into serious trouble. The Marlins put runners on second and third with two out as reliever Mike Jackson replaced Ogea. Marlins catcher Charles Johnson stepped to the plate and proceeded to hit a sharp grounder that was headed for left field and looked like a base hit. Indians shortstop Omar Vizquel, who won the Gold Glove that year, dove for the ball, grabbed it, sprung to his feet, and hurled a perfect strike to first base just before Johnson arrived. The play ended the threat and broke the Marlins' spirits. In the ninth, closer José Mesa wrapped up the win despite allowing a triple to Devon White to tie the Series at 3–3. Game 7 For the decisive final matchup of the World Series, the first time since 1991 that a Game 7 would be played, the Marlins Al Leiter to the mound to start. Leiter had been the starter for the Marlins in the high-scoring Game 3 in Cleveland, where he gave up a total of seven runs and did not make it out of the fifth inning, but was spared a potential loss when the Marlins rallied to win. The potential existed for a Game 3 rematch of Leiter and Indians ace Charles Nagy. Nagy managed to pitch six innings and gave up five runs, all earned, in his outing. Like Leiter, he was left with a no-decision after the Cleveland bullpen allowed Florida to tie the game and later win. However, Indians manager Mike Hargrove had another option at his disposal. Rookie Jaret Wright, who was 3-0 in the postseason to this point and had started and won Game 4, was available on three days’ rest and Hargrove, who was celebrating his 48th birthday on the night, decided to take the risk and start the rookie on short rest. The Marlins managed one hit in the 1st inning, a double off the bat of Édgar Rentería. That was the only hit Wright gave up through six innings, and the Indians staked him to a 2–0 lead in the third. With nobody out, Jim Thome walked and Marquis Grissom singled him to second. Pitcher Jaret Wright sacrificed both men into scoring position. After Leiter retired Omar Vizquel for the second out, Tony Fernández singled to drive both runners in for the only runs of the game to that point. Leiter was removed after six innings and only surrendering the two runs. Leading off the bottom of the seventh for the Marlins, Bobby Bonilla hit Wright's first pitch over the right-center field wall for a home run to cut the lead to 2–1. After striking out Charles Johnson and walking Craig Counsell, Wright was removed from the game in favor of Paul Assenmacher who was scheduled to pitch to Cliff Floyd. Marlins manager Jim Leyland elected to send Kurt Abbott to the plate after the pitching change; Assenmacher retired him on a fly ball, then got Devon White swinging to end the inning. In the top of the ninth inning, Cleveland again threatened. After Antonio Alfonseca walked Matt Williams to lead off the inning and Sandy Alomar Jr. reached on a fielder's choice to take Williams off the bases, Félix Heredia gave up a single to Thome which advanced Alomar to third. He was then pulled in favor of closer Robb Nen. Nen induced a groundball from Grissom to Rentería at shortstop, who elected to throw Alomar out at home, thanks in part to a great pick and tag by Johnson. He then got Brian Giles to fly out to end the inning. The Indians sent closer José Mesa to the mound to try to win the series in the bottom of the ninth inning. Moisés Alou led off with a single, and Bonilla struck out swinging on a 3–2 pitch. Four strikes away from losing the World Series, Johnson lined a 1–2 fastball into right field, moving Alou to third. With runners on 1st and 3rd and one out, Craig Counsell fought off a low, inside fastball from Mesa, lining it into deep right field. Manny Ramírez caught the ball on the warning track for the second out, but Alou easily scored from third on the sacrifice fly to tie the game. Although Mesa retired Jim Eisenreich to send the game to extra innings, his blown save would open him to criticism for years to come. Nen struck out the side in the top of the 10th inning. In the bottom of the frame Mesa gave up back-to-back one-out singles, and after striking out John Cangelosi looking on a 3-2 pitch, was replaced by Game 3 starter Nagy, who got Alou to fly out to end the threat. After walking Williams, leading off the top of the 11th inning, Jay Powell retired Cleveland in order thanks to an alert fielder's choice on a sacrifice bunt by Alomar, which Powell fielded and threw out the lead runner at 2nd, followed by a Jim Thome inning-ending double play. Nagy took to the mound to face Florida in the bottom half of the 11th inning and gave up a single to Bonilla. Gregg Zaun followed by attempting a sacrifice bunt, but he popped out and Bonilla barely made it back to first base. Counsell followed with a slow ground ball to the second base side. Bonilla stopped running for a moment, so as not to touch the ball and be called out for interference. Fernandez, playing behind the baserunner, misplayed the ball and it went into right field. Bonilla rounded second and headed for third. With runners now on the corners and one out, Nagy put Eisenreich on base with an intentional walk to set up a potential inning ending double play with White coming to bat. On the first pitch of the at-bat, White hit a ground ball to second. Fernandez threw to the plate to force out Bonilla and give the Marlins their second out. The next batter was Rentería, who took the first pitch for a strike. On Nagy’s next pitch, Rentería hit a hard line drive back up the middle of the infield. The ball hit off of Nagy’s glove and rolled into centerfield, scoring Counsell and winning the game and the series for the Marlins. As Counsell crossed home plate, he leaped into the air raising his arms triumphmantly. After Game 7, the trophy presentation, usually taking place in the winning team's locker room regardless of venue, took place on the field for the first time ever before the crowd of 67,204. It was presided over by then-Chairman of the Executive Committee Bud Selig, who first did the honors in 1995 and would officially become Commissioner of Baseball in 1998. This is now a standard procedure whenever the champions are the home team of the deciding game (the only exception being 1999, when the New York Yankees chose to celebrate in their locker room). It was the first time since that the two teams alternated wins throughout the World Series. In only their fifth season of existence, the Marlins were the quickest expansion team to reach (and win) the World Series until , when the Arizona Diamondbacks did it in their fourth year. Composite box 1997 World Series (4–3): Florida Marlins (N.L.) beat Cleveland Indians (A.L.) Aftermath Liván Hernández was named the Most Valuable Player of the 1997 World Series. Chad Ogea became the first pitcher since Mickey Lolich in 1968 to have at least two hits and two RBIs in a World Series. The Marlins won despite not having Alex Fernandez, their number-two starter, who did not pitch due to a rotator cuff injury. On October 31, 1997, most of the key contributors of the 1997 Marlins were traded, including Moisés Alou, who was sent to the Houston Astros, and Al Leiter to the New York Mets, in a fire sale so infamous that it has come to synonymize the term in the baseball world. The Marlins also lost Jeff Conine to the Kansas City Royals in free agency and Darren Daulton who retired. World Series MVP hurler Liván Hernández, however, stayed with the team for two more years. The Marlins finished 54–108 in 1998, the worst performance ever by a defending World Series champion. As a result, these Marlins are mockingly referred to as the first "Rent-A-Team" to win the World Series. Midway through the 1998 season, the Marlins would trade Jim Eisenreich, Bobby Bonilla, Gary Sheffield, and Charles Johnson to the Los Angeles Dodgers for Todd Zeile and Mike Piazza. Piazza would be traded shortly after to the Mets in return for prospects, one of which was Preston Wilson. Jim Leyland, responding to reports that he would retire if the Marlins won the World Series, told NBC during the celebration, "My wife doesn't like me that much. I can't retire." However, he resigned in the wake of their awful performance in 1998. He managed the Colorado Rockies in 1999, then scouted for several years before joining the Detroit Tigers as manager in 2006 and taking them to a World Series runner-up finish in his first season. Marlins owner H. Wayne Huizenga, who dodged questions about selling the team during the on-field celebration, ultimately sold the team to John W. Henry after the 1998 season. Henry in turn sold it to former Montreal Expos owner Jeffrey Loria in 2001 as part of a deal to purchase the Boston Red Sox. Loria would return the team to a World Series victory in 2003. That season started with only one of the 1997 World Series players left on the roster: pitcher Rick Helling. Helling was traded mid-season to the Texas Rangers. However, the team traded with the Baltimore Orioles for Jeff Conine. Conine would be the only 1997 Marlin to participate in the 2003 World Series victory. The 1997 and 2003 seasons marked the Marlins' only trips to the postseason until 2020, when the Marlins lost the NLDS to the Atlanta Braves. The failure of José Mesa to save Game 7 ultimately ignited a heated feud with teammate Omar Vizquel. In Vizquel's autobiography, the veteran shortstop called Mesa a "choker." The two men ended their longtime friendship. Mesa later vowed to "...hit him every time" he faced him, and also stated that he wanted to kill Vizquel. Though Mesa did not actually bean Vizquel every time he subsequently faced him, he did hit him with pitches at least twice. The Indians would go on to win the AL Central three of the following four years, however would not return to the World Series during this time. The core of the 1990s Indians teams would break up in the early 2000s, most notably with Manny Ramirez joining the Boston Red Sox in 2001 and Jim Thome joining the Philadelphia Phillies in 2003. The 1997 Indians failed to end the Cleveland sports curse, which stood at 33 years since the 1964 Cleveland Browns won the city's most recent championship. The Curse would eventually end in 2016, when the Cleveland Cavaliers won the NBA Title, giving the city its first major sports title in 52 years. The total attendance of 403,627 fans is the second-largest in World Series history. The high attendance is due to the fact that the series went the full seven games and the large seating capacity at Pro Player Stadium. All four games played in Miami had over 67,000 in attendance. This Series only trails the 1959 World Series, which drew 420,784 spectators. That Series had three of its six games played at the Los Angeles Coliseum and drew over 92,000 for each game played at the Coliseum. Radio and television coverage This marked the first time since that NBC televised a World Series in its entirety. In , NBC televised Games 2, 3, and 6, while rival ABC televised Games 1, 4, and 5, having split that series since ABC was promised the strike-cancelled 1994 World Series. Both networks had announced prior to the 1995 season, that they were bailing out what was initially a six-year-long revenue sharing joint venture with Major League Baseball called "The Baseball Network". Starting with the 1996 World Series, Fox and NBC would alternate World Series broadcast rights for the next five seasons, with NBC broadcasting in odd-numbered years and Fox in even-numbered years. This arrangement ended in , when Fox became the exclusive U.S. television network for the World Series (a status it retains through at least 2028). NBC's West Coast president Don Ohlmeyer disturbed Major League Baseball when he publicly wished the World Series to end in a four-game sweep so that it wouldn't derail NBC's fall entertainment schedule. (Game 5 fell on a Thursday, which had long been the highest rated night on NBC's schedule, if not on all of television.) Midway through Game 2, "surprise guest" Joe DiMaggio joined NBC's Bob Costas, Joe Morgan and Bob Uecker in the television booth. DiMaggio joked that Morgan was a "Hall of Famer" and Costas a "future Hall of Famer", but he didn't know what to think of when it came to Uecker. The Baseball Hall of Fame would present Uecker with its Ford C. Frick Award several years later. Game 7 turned out to be Bob Uecker's final broadcast for NBC. In 1998, prior to NBC's next scheduled baseball telecast, which would've been the All-Star Game in Denver, Uecker underwent a back operation in which four discs were replaced. Consequently, for the remainder of NBC's contract with Major League Baseball (which as previously mentioned, ran through the 2000 season), Bob Costas and Joe Morgan called the games as a duo. Also working for NBC's coverage was Jim Gray, who served as field reporter based in the Florida dugout. Meanwhile, Hannah Storm and Keith Olbermann served as hosts of pre-game coverage on NBC, and the first World Series post-game show presented only on cable, on CNBC. Olbermann also served as field reporter in the Cleveland dugout for all games. Storm along with Jim Gray covered the celebration on the field following Game 7. Also following Game 7, Olbermann interviewed Indians manager Mike Hargrove from Cleveland's clubhouse. This was the last World Series broadcast on CBS Radio, which had covered the World Series consecutively since . ESPN Radio would take over the national radio contract for Major League Baseball the following year. Vin Scully and Jeff Torborg were CBS Radio's announcers for the Series (the latter had once managed the Indians and would later manage the Marlins). This was Scully's eleventh and final World Series call for CBS Radio, and seventh consecutive since he rejoined the network following NBC's 1989 loss of baseball. It was also Scully's 25th and final World Series broadcast overall, including fourteen others he called for NBC and the Los Angeles Dodgers. Torborg would continue to call games for Fox television until the end of the 2000 season, working alongside John Rooney and Chip Caray, when he elected to return to managing and was hired by the Montreal Expos. Game 7 was the final Major League Baseball game called by longtime Indians Radio Network announcer Herb Score, as he retired at season's end. Score's broadcast partner, Tom Hamilton, would take over as lead announcer and he remains in that position as of the 2021 season. It also marked the final game carried by Indians flagship station WKNR (1220); the broadcast rights would be moved to WTAM for the 1998 season. See also Cleveland sports curse Curse of Rocky Colavito 1997 Japan Series References External links 1997 Florida Marlins 1997 Cleveland Indians Did the 1989 film Back to the Future II predict that the Florida Marlins would win the 1997 World Series? World Series World Series Florida Marlins postseason Cleveland Indians postseason World Series World Series 1990s in Cleveland October 1997 sports events in the United States Sports competitions in Miami Sports competitions in Cleveland 1990s in Miami

Countries of the United Kingdom by population

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The population of the countries in Britain and regions of the United Kingdom was last measured by census in 2011, and the Census organisations have produced population estimates for subsequent years by updating the census results with estimates of births, deaths and migration in each year. The census results, and the annual population estimates, summarised below show that England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom and its population is therefore also presented by region. Population UK, Countries and Regions June 2019 See also Countries of the United Kingdom#Statistics Countries of the United Kingdom by GVA per capita Geography of the United Kingdom List of countries by population Population of England - historical population estimates Citizen Information Project proposals for a national population register References External links Office for National Statistics document search "census" Office for National Statistics document search "population" Demographics of the United Kingdom 2001 United Kingdom census United Kingdom geography-related lists United Kingdom lists by population

Police dog

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A police dog is a dog that is specifically trained to assist police and other law-enforcement personnel. Their duties include: searching for drugs and explosives, locating missing people, finding crime scene evidence, protecting people, and attacking criminals who are fleeing from or attacking police officers. Police dogs must remember several verbal cues and hand gestures. The most commonly used breeds are the German Shepherd, Belgian Malinois, Bloodhound, Dutch Shepherd, and the retriever breeds. Recently, the Belgian Malinois has become the dog of choice for police and military work due to their intense drive and focus. Malinois are smaller and more agile than German Shepherd Dogs, and have fewer health issues. However, a well-bred working line German Shepherd Dog is just as successful and robust as a Malinois. In many countries, the intentional injuring or killing of a police dog is a criminal offense. In some English-speaking countries, police dog units are often referred to as K-9 or K9, which is a homophone upon the word canine. History Early history Dogs have been used in law enforcement since the Middle Ages. Wealth and money was then tithed in the villages for the upkeep of the parish constable's bloodhounds that were used for hunting down outlaws. In France, dogs were used in the 14th century in St. Malo. Bloodhounds used in Scotland were known as "Slough dogs" – the word "Sleuth", (meaning detective) was derived from this. The rapid urbanization of London in the 19th century increased public concern regarding growing lawlessness – a problem that was far too great to be dealt with by the existing law enforcement of the time. As a result, private associations were formed to help combat crime. Night watchmen were employed to guard premises, and were provided with firearms and dogs to protect themselves from criminals. Modern era One of the first attempts to use dogs in policing was in 1889 by the Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police of London, Sir Charles Warren. Warren's repeated failures at identifying and apprehending the serial killer Jack the Ripper had earned him much vilification from the press, including being denounced for not using bloodhounds to track the killer. He soon had two bloodhounds trained for the performance of a simple tracking test from the scene of another of the killer's crimes. The results were far from satisfactory, with one of the hounds biting the Commissioner and both dogs later running off, requiring a police search to find them. It was in Continental Europe that dogs were first used on a large scale. Police in Paris began using dogs against roaming criminal gangs at night, but it was the police department in Ghent, Belgium that introduced the first organized police dog service program in 1899. These methods soon spread to Austria-Hungary and Germany; in the latter the first scientific developments in the field took place with experiments in dog breeding and training. The German police selected the German Shepherd Dog as the ideal breed for police work and opened up the first dog training school in 1920 in Greenheide. In later years, many Belgian Malinois dogs were added to the unit. The dogs were systematically trained in obedience to their officers and tracking and attacking criminals. In Britain, the North Eastern Railway Police were among the first to use police dogs in 1908 to put a stop to theft from the docks in Hull. By 1910, railway police forces were experimenting with other breeds such as Belgian Malinois, Labrador Retrievers, and German shepherds. Training Training of police dogs is a very lengthy process since it begins with the training of the canine handler. The canine handlers go through a long process of training to ensure that they will train the dog to the best of its ability. First, the canine handler has to complete the requisite police academy training and one to two years of patrol experience before becoming eligible to transfer to a specialty canine unit. This is because the experience as an officer allows prospective canine officers to gain valuable experience in law enforcement. However, having dog knowledge and training outside of the police academy is considered to be an asset, this could be dog obedience, crowd control, communicating effectively with animals and being approachable and personable since having a dog will draw attention from surrounding citizens. For a dog to be considered for a police department, it must first pass a basic obedience training course. They must be able to obey the commands of their handler without hesitation. This allows the officer to have complete control over how much force the dog should use against a suspect. Dogs trained in Europe are usually given commands in the country's native language. Dogs are initially trained with this language for basic behavior, so, it is easier for the officer to learn new words/commands, rather than retraining the dog to new commands. This is contrary to the popular belief that police dogs are trained in a different language so that a suspect cannot command the dog against the officer. Dogs used in law enforcement are trained to either be "single purpose" or "dual purpose". Single-purpose dogs are used primarily for backup, personal protection, and tracking. Dual-purpose dogs, however, are more typical. Dual-purpose dogs do everything that single-purpose dogs do, and also detect either explosives or narcotics. Dogs can only be trained for one or the other because the dog cannot communicate to the officer if it found explosives or narcotics. When a narcotics dog in the United States indicates to the officer that it found something, the officer has probable cause to search whatever the dog alerted on (i.e. bag or vehicle) without a warrant, in most states. In suspect apprehension, having a loud barking dog is helpful and can result in suspects surrendering without delay. Specialized police dogs Apprehension and attack dogs – This dog is used to locate, apprehend, and sometimes subdue suspects. Detection dogs – Trained to detect explosives or drugs such as marijuana, heroin, cocaine, crack cocaine, or methamphetamines. Some dogs are specifically trained to detect firearms and ammunition. Dual purpose dog – Also known as a patrol dog, these dogs are trained and skilled in tracking, handler protection, off-leash obedience, criminal apprehension, and article, area and building search. Search and rescue dogs (SAR) – This dog is used to locate suspects or find missing people or objects. Belgian Malinois, German Shepherds, Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers, and Bloodhounds can all be used. Popular breeds Dog breeds used by law enforcement include the Airedale terrier, Akita, Groenendael, Malinois dog, Bernese Mountain Dog, Bloodhound, Border Collie, Boxer, Bouvier des Flandres, Croatian Sheepdog, Doberman Pinscher, German Shepherd, German Shorthaired Pointer, Golden Retriever, Labrador Retriever, Rottweiler and English Springer Spaniel. Retirement Police dogs are retired if they become injured to an extent where they will not recover completely, pregnant or raising puppies, or are too old or sick to continue working. Since many dogs are raised in working environments for the first year of their life and retired before they become unable to perform, the working life of a dog is 6–9 years. However, when police dogs retire in some countries they may have the chance to receive a pension plan for their contribution to policing. In 2013, a pension scheme for police dogs in Nottinghamshire, England was introduced, wherein the police force offered £805 over the span of three years to cover any additional medical costs; the dogs were also allowed to be adopted by their original handler. In many countries, police dogs killed in the line of duty receive the same honours as their human partners. Usage by country and region Australia The Australian Federal Police and other law enforcement agencies are known to employ K9s for security priorities such as airport duties. Bangladesh Border Guards Bangladesh, Rapid Action Battalion and the Dhaka Metropolitan Police maintain several dog squads to assist in anti-narcotic and anti-bombing campaigns. Belgium The Belgian Canine Support Group is part of the country's federal police. It has 35 dog teams, most of which are Belgian Malinois. Some dogs are trained to detect drugs, human remains, hormones or fire accelerants. About a third are tracker dogs trained to find or identify living people. These teams are often deployed to earthquake areas to locate people trapped in collapsed buildings. The federal police's explosive detector dogs are attached to the Federal Police Special Units. Canada Canadians started using police dogs occasionally in 1908. However, they used privately owned dogs until 1935 when the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) saw the value of police dogs and created the first team in 1937. By the 1950s, the RCMP had German Shepherds, Schnauzers, and Doberman Pinschers in service. Many Canadian municipalities use dog squads as a means of tracking suspects. Most municipalities in Canada employ the bite and hold technique rather than the bark and hold technique meaning once the dog is deployed, it bites the suspect until the dog handler commands it to release. This often results in serious puncture wounds and is traumatic for suspects. A dog has the legal status of property in Canada. As such, developing case law is moving towards absolute liability for the handlers of animals deliberately released to intentionally maim suspects. The dog is effectively a weapon. In 2010, an Alberta Court of Queen's Bench judge stayed criminal charges against Kirk Steele, a man who was near-fatally shot by a police officer while he stabbed the officer's police dog. The judge found that the shooting was cruel and unusual treatment and excessive force. Police require reasonable suspicion they will recover evidence in order to use a dog to sniff a person or their possessions in public. This is because using a dog to detect scents is considered a search. The main exemption to that rule are the dogs of the Canada Border Services Agency who are allowed to make searches without warrants under s.98 of the Customs Act. In 2017, it was reported that the Canadian forces had approximately 170 RCMP dog teams across Canada, and was continuing to grow as more and more Canadian municipalities saw the value of police dogs. Denmark There are a total of 240 active police dogs in Denmark, each of which are ranked in one of three groups: Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3. Dogs in Group 1 are very experienced, and highly trained. Group 1 dogs are typically within the age range of four to eight years old and are used for patrolling, rescue, searching for biological evidence and major crime investigations. Group 2 dogs are employed for the same tasks as members of Group 1, but they do not participate in major crime investigations or searching for biological evidence. Group 3 is the beginner rank for police dogs, and are only employed for patrol operations. Hong Kong The Police Dog Unit (PDU; ) was established in 1949 and is a specialist force of the Hong Kong Police under the direct command of the Special Operations Bureau. Their roles are crowd control, search and rescue, and poison and explosive detection. In addition, the PDU works in collaboration with other departments for anti-crime operations. Netherlands The Dutch Mounted Police and Police Dog Service (DLHP) is part of the (KLPD; National Police Services Agency) and supports other units with horse patrols and specially trained dogs. The DLHP's dogs are trained to recognize a single specific scent. They specialize in identifying scents (identifying the scent shared by an object and a person), narcotics, explosives and firearms, detecting human remains, locating drowning people and fire accelerants. The KLPD is just one of the 26 police regions in the Netherlands. Every other region has its own canine unit. For example, the canine unit of the regional police Amsterdam-Amstelland has 24 patrol dog handlers and six special dog handlers and four instructors. The unit has 24 patrol dogs, three explosives/firearms dogs, three active narcotic dogs, two passive narcotic dogs, two scent identifying dogs, one crime scene dog and one USAR dog. They work on a 24/7 basis, every shift (07:00–15:00/15:00-23:00/23:00-07:00 local time), has a minimum of 2 patrol dog handlers on patrol. The special dog handlers work only in the dayshift or after a call. India In India, the National Security Guard inducted the Belgian Malinois into its K-9 Unit, Border Security Force, and Central Reserve Police Force use Rajapalayam as guard dogs to support the Force on the borders of Kashmir. For regional security, the Delhi Police has recruited many of the city's street dogs to be trained for security purposes. The Bengal Police uses German Shepherds, Labrador Retrievers, and the Indian pariah dog in its bomb-sniffing squad. Israel Israel utilizes canine units for border patrols to track illegal persons or objects that pose a threat. Police dogs serve in the Israel Police and Israel Prison Service. Italy All the law enforcement in Italy (Carabinieri, Polizia di Stato and Guardia di Finanza) have in service many patrol dogs for Public Order, Anti-Drug, Anti-explosive, Search and Rescue. The first train centers for police dogs in Italy were established after World War I and in 1924, Italy purchased German Shepherds from Germany for border patrol operations in the Alps. The Carabinieri Kennel Club was formed in 1957 to produce police dogs and train handlers in Italy. German and Belgian shepherds are used for multiple purposes, Labradors for drug, weapons and explosive surveillance and Rottweilers serve for protection. Japan Japan is one of the few east Asian countries that have dogs serving in law enforcement as others dislike dogs due to cultural norms. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, samurai had Akita service companions that would defend samurai while they slept at night. In modern times, the German shepherd is the common police dog of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department. Kenya Police dogs began their service in Kenya in 1948 as part of the Kenya Police Criminal Investigation Department of the Kenya Police. Since the 1950s, the main police dog in service is the German shepherd, with Labradors, Rottweilers and English Springer Spaniels being used for specialized purposes. Since the 2000s, the Kenya Police has increased the breeding and adoption of police dogs with the long-term goal of having canines serving in each police station of Kenya. Nepal The Nepal Police first established a canine unit in 1975 due to increased crime rates and to help with investigations. Since then, police dogs are in service throughout various regions of Nepal and have been present at the Tribesman International Airport since 2009. Pakistan Pakistan Customs uses a K-9 unit for anti-smuggling operations. Pakistan's Sindh Police also have a specialized K-9 unit. Peru Peru recruits various canine units for various governmental, military and police operations. The National Service of Agrarian Health (SENASA) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation has the Canine Brigade of Plant Health that detects plants that may violate phytosanitary trade practices and to prevent the contraband importation of pests in plants and fruit. The brigade is present at Jorge Chávez International Airport and in Peruvian territory. For the National Police of Peru, they prefer the German Shepherd, Belgian Shepherd Malinois, Beagle, Weimaraner, Golden Retriever and Labrador Retriever breeds for their service and accept donations of dogs between the ages of 12 and 24 months. The National Police use canine units for drug surveillance in the country's main airport, Jorge Chávez International Airport, with the force receiving canine training from United States Customs and Border Protection. The Peruvian Army has canine units trained for search and rescue as well as disaster situations. During the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru, a limitation of gatherings and curfew was enforced with the assistance of canine units that served for law enforcement. Russia Police dogs have been used in Russia since 1909 in Saint Petersburg. Attack dogs are used commonly by police and are muzzled at all times unless ordered to apprehend a suspect. Police dogs have also been used to track fugitives, which has remained common in most Soviet Union Successor States. Sweden The Swedish Police Authority currently deploys around 400 police canines. There is however no requirement for the dogs to be purebred, as long as they meet mental and physical requirements set by the police. Dogs aged 18–48 months are eligible to take admission tests for the K9 training. The police dogs live with their operators, and after retirement at age 8–10 the operator often assumes the ownership of the dog. United Kingdom Police forces across the country, as well as the RAF Police, employ dogs and handlers and dog training schools are available to cater for the ever-increasing number of dogs being used. The use of police dogs became popular in the 1930s when Scotland Yard officially added dogs to its police force. There are over 2,500 police dogs employed amongst the various police forces in the UK, with the Belgian Malinois as the most popular breed for general purpose work. In 2008, a Belgian Malinois female handled by PC Graham Clarke won the National Police Dog Trials with the highest score ever recorded. All British police dogs, irrespective of the discipline they are trained in, must be licensed to work operationally. To obtain the licence they have to pass a test at the completion of their training, and then again every year until they retire, which is usually at about the age of 8. The standards required to become operational are laid down by the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) sub-committee on police dogs and are reviewed on a regular basis to ensure that training and licensing reflects the most appropriate methods and standards. United States Police dogs are in widespread use across the United States. K-9 units are operated on the federal, state, county, and local levels and are used for a wide variety of duties, similar to those of other nations. Their duties generally include drug, bomb, and weapon detection and cadaver searches. The most common police dogs used for everyday duties are the German Shepherd and the Belgian Malinois though other breeds may be used to perform specific tasks. On the federal level, police dogs are rarely seen by the general public, though they may be viewed in some airports assisting Transportation Security Administration officials search for explosives and weapons or by Customs and Border Protection searching for concealed narcotics and people. Some dogs may also be used by tactical components of such agencies as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the United States Marshals Service. Most police agencies in the United States – whether state, county, or local – use K-9s as a means of law enforcement. Often, even the smallest of departments operates a K-9 team of at least one dog, while the officers of more metropolitan cities can be more used to working with dozens. In the former case, police dogs usually serve all purposes deemed necessary, most commonly suspect apprehension and narcotics detection, and teams are often on call; in the latter case, however, individual dogs usually serve individual purposes in which each particular animal is specialized, and teams usually serve scheduled shifts. In both cases, police dogs are almost always cared for by their specific handlers. K-9s are not often seen by the public, though specialized police vehicles used for carrying dogs may be seen from time to time. It is a felony to assault or kill a federal law enforcement animal, and it is a crime in most states to assault or kill a police animal. Yet despite common belief, police dogs are not treated as police officers for the purpose of the law, and attacking a police dog is not punishable in the same manner as attacking a police officer. Though many police departments formally swear dogs in as police officers, this swearing-in is purely honorary, and carries no legal significance. Police dogs also play a major role in American penal systems. Many jails and prisons will use special dog teams as a means of intervening in large-scale fights or riots by inmates. Also, many penal systems will employ dogs – usually bloodhounds – in searching for escaped prisoners. At the federal level, police dogs play a vital role in homeland security. Federal law enforcement officials use the dogs to detect explosives or narcotics at major U.S. transportation hubs, such as airports. L. Paul Waggoner of the Canine Performance Sciences Program at Auburn University and an expert on police dogs told Homeland Preparedness News, "It is my perspective that detector dogs are a critical component of national security – and they also provide a very visible and proven deterrent to terrorist activities." In October 2017, the U.S. House Oversight and Government Reform Intergovernmental Affairs Subcommittee held a hearing about whether there is a sufficient supply of dogs that can be trained as police dogs. Congressman Mike Rogers (R-AL) said that the continued ISIS-inspired attacks in the U.S. and all over the world "have driven demand through the roof" for police dogs. During testimony at the subcommittee hearing, a representative from the American Kennel Club said that between 80–90 percent of dogs purchased by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and U.S. Department of Defense come from foreign vendors, mostly located in Europe. The Marshall Project maintains a database of police dog bites across the United States. U.S. Supreme Court cases The United States Supreme Court is the highest federal court in the United States of America. Some U.S. Supreme Court cases that pertain to police dogs are: United States v. Place: The court determined that the sniffing of personal items of a person in a public place by a dog for the purpose of finding contraband was not considered a "search" under the Fourth Amendment. City of Indianapolis v. Edmond: It is unconstitutional to set up a checkpoint to detect evidence of "ordinary criminal wrongdoing". This case was due to a checkpoint for drugs using police dogs to sniff cars. United States v. Sharp: A canine sniff of the exterior of a vehicle is not a search under the Fourth Amendment, but if the dog enters the vehicle to sniff, it is a search. This case was ruled in favor of the officer because the dog jumped into the car, however, it was not encouraged by the officer therefore it was the dog's natural instinct to get closer to the scent. Florida v. Harris – US Supreme Court case involving an officer's assertions on the training/reliability of his dog, and their sufficiency to establish probable cause Florida v. Jardines – US Supreme Court case to determine whether a dog sniff at the front door of a home requires probable cause and a search warrant See also Detection dog Dogs in warfare Nosework Working dog References External links National Police Canine Association (US) United States Police Canine Association The North American Police Work Dog Association Los Angeles County Police Canine Association US Virginia Police Canine Association US American Working Dog Association Working dogs Dog, Police

Inva Mula

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Inva Mula (born 27 June 1963) is an Albanian opera lyric soprano. She began her soprano career at a very early age. Her father (Avni Mula) and mother () were also opera singers. She is also known for providing the voice of the diva Plavalaguna in the film The Fifth Element. Life and career Mula was born in Tirana, Albania, to an Avni Mula and Nina Mula. Avni was an Albanian man from Gjakova while Nina was a Russian woman from Izhevsk. In 1987 she won the Cantante d'Albania competition in Tirana and in 1988 the George Enescu Competition in Bucharest. In 1992 she won the Butterfly competition in Barcelona. She received an award at Plácido Domingo's first Operalia International Opera Competition in Paris, 1993. A CD of the event was released. She later performed in various concerts at the Opéra Bastille in Paris, and in Brussels for Europalia Mexico, in Munich, and in Oslo. In 1996 she performed Luigi Cherubini's opera Médée (which was taped for TV) at Compiègne in France. She then returned for Bizet's opera La jolie fille de Perth (released CD, filmed for TV, and released DVD in Japan) in 1998. After this she recorded Puccini's La rondine with Angela Gheorghiu for EMI and for 2005's stage production she took Gheorghiu's place in the leading role of Magda during performances in Toulouse and Paris. Later on, she performed Bizet's Ivan IV concert version, which had its recital debut at Salle Pleyel in Paris, and a live recording was released as CD. In 2001, she was busy in Italy, performing Verdi's Falstaff at the Teatro alla Scala and Rigoletto at the Verona Arena, both of which were taped for TV then released on DVD. Mula has sung in Lucia di Lammermoor, La bohème, and Manon, among others. She is also a renowned Violetta in La traviata, and has sung the role in many cities around the world, including Tokyo, Bilbao, Orange, Trieste, and Toronto. In 2007, she performed Adina in L'elisir d'amore at Toulouse, and in 2009 she sang the title role in Gounod's Mireille with the Paris Opera at the Palais Garnier, a performance that was issued on DVD. Also in 2009, she released the album Il Bel Sogno, a compilation of opera arias. She is often accompanied by the French-Albanian pianist Genc Tukiçi. Her ex-husband Pirro Çako is a well-known singer and composer from Albania, but she used the spelling Tchako rather than Çako. However, after mid-1990 she began using the name Inva Mula, and never returned to the old one. Her current husband is Hetem Ramadani, a businessman from Kosovo. In film Mula is perhaps best known to Western filmgoers as the singing voice of the Diva Plavalaguna, played on-screen by Maïwenn Le Besco, in the 1997 film The Fifth Element, where she is credited using her then married name as Inva Mula Tchako. She performed the aria "Il dolce suono" from the mad scene of Gaetano Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and "The Diva Dance". Director Luc Besson adored Maria Callas, but the sound quality of her 1956 EMI Classics recording of Lucia wasn't clear enough to use on a film soundtrack, so Callas's agent Michel Glotz, who had produced this recording, introduced him to Mula. See also Lists of Albanians Sources Further reading Auzias, Dominique, and Labordette, Jean-Paul (eds.), "Enfants du pays", Albanie, Petit Futé, 2009, p. 80. External links 1963 births Living people Musicians from Tirana Albanian operatic sopranos Albanian people of Russian descent Operalia, The World Opera Competition prize-winners University of Arts (Albania) alumni 20th-century Albanian women opera singers 21st-century Albanian women opera singers Çako family Albanian people of Kosovan descent

List of municipalities in Tennessee

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Tennessee is a state located in the Southern United States. There are 346 municipalities in the state of Tennessee. Municipalities in the state are designated as "cities" or "towns". As of the 2010 U.S. Census, 3,564,494 Tennesseans, or just over 56% of the state's total population of 6,346,105, lived in municipalities. The remainder lived in unincorporated areas. Municipal charters Before 1954, all Tennessee municipalities were established by private act of the state legislature and operated under charters established by private act of the legislature. As of 2007, 212 of the state's municipalities were operating under charters established by private act of the legislature. In 1953, amendments to the Tennessee Constitution prohibited subsequent incorporations by private act and provided for several new forms of municipal charter. Fourteen cities, including Memphis, Knoxville, and Chattanooga, three of the state's four largest cities, are "home rule cities" organized under charters approved by referendum of the citizens. Home rule charters are authorized by Article XI, Section 9, of the Tennessee State Constitution, as amended in 1953. Other municipalities are incorporated under one of several standardized types of charter authorized by state statute: 67 cities use a mayor-aldermanic charter under Tennessee Code Annotated (TCA) §6-1-101 et seq. Hendersonville is the largest city using this type of charter. 49 cities use a uniform city manager-commission charter under TCA §6-18-101 et seq. Brentwood is the largest city operating with a uniform manager-commission charter. Two cities (Elizabethton and Union City) are incorporated under a modified city manager-council charter under TCA §6-30-101 et seq. Consolidated city-county governments exist in three places: Nashville and Davidson County, Lynchburg and Moore County, and Hartsville and Trousdale County. City-county government consolidation is authorized by the Tennessee Constitution as amended in 1953 and TCA Title 7. Some Tennessee municipalities are called "cities" and others are called "towns." These terms do not have legal significance in Tennessee and are not related to population, date of establishment, or type of municipal charter. Under current state law (TCA Title 6), a minimum of 1,500 residents are required to incorporate as a new municipality under the mayor-alderman or city manager-commission charter, and a minimum of 5,000 residents are required to incorporate under a modified city manager-council charter. In general, unincorporated areas within three miles of an existing municipality (within five miles if the municipality has a population of 100,000 or more) are not permitted to incorporate as new municipalities. Provisions for incorporation were less restrictive in the past. The capital of Tennessee is Nashville. List of incorporated cities and towns A All but one of Tennessee's county seats are municipalities. The exception is Blountville, county seat of Sullivan County. B For municipalities located in more than one county, the primary county (according to U.S. Census) is listed first. References External links Tennessee Code Annotated (TCA) Constitution of the State of Tennessee Getting to Know and Maybe Love Your Municipal Charter'', by Sidney D. Hemsley, Municipal Technical Advisory Service, 1992, revised 2008. Tennessee Cities and towns Tennessee

Special member state territories and the European Union

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The special territories of the European Union are 32 territories of EU member states which, for historical, geographical, or political reasons, enjoy special status within or outside the European Union. The special territories divide themselves in three categories: 9 Outermost Regions (OMR) that form part of the European Union, though they benefit from derogations from some EU laws due to their geographical remoteness from mainland Europe; 13 Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT) that do not form part of the European Union, though they cooperate with the EU via the Overseas Countries and Territories Association; and 10 special cases that form part of the European Union (with the exception of the Faroe Islands), though EU laws make ad hoc provisions. The Outermost Regions were recognised at the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, and confirmed by the Treaty of Lisbon in 2007. The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union states that both primary and secondary European Union law applies automatically to the outermost regions, with possible derogations due to the particularities of these territories. The Overseas Countries and Territories are recognised by the Article 198 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union which allows them to opt into EU provisions on the freedom of movement for workers and freedom of establishment, and invites them to join the Overseas Countries and Territories Association (OCTA) in order to improve cooperation with the European Union. The status of an uninhabited territory, Clipperton, remains unclear since it is not explicitly mentioned in primary EU law and has a sui generis status at the national level. Collectively, the special territories encompass a population of some 6.1 million people and a land area of about 2,733,792 square kilometres (1,055,500 sq mi). Around 80 percent of this area is represented by Greenland. The largest region by population, the Canary Islands, accounts for more than a third of the total population of the special territories. The smallest by land area is the island of Saba in the Caribbean (13 km2 or 5 sq mi). The French Southern and Antarctic Lands is the only special territory without a permanent population. Outermost regions The Outermost regions (OMR) are territories forming part of a member state of the European Union but situated a significant distance from mainland Europe. Due to this situation, they have derogation from some EU policies despite being part of the European Union. According to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, both primary and secondary European Union law applies automatically to these territories, with possible derogations to take account of their "structural social and economic situation (...) which is compounded by their remoteness, insularity, small size, difficult topography and climate, economic dependence on a few products, the permanence and combination of which severely restrain their development". All form part of the European Union customs area, however some fall outside of the Schengen Area and the European Union Value Added Tax Area. Seven outermost regions were recognised at the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992. The Treaty of Lisbon included two additional territories (Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin) in 2007. Saint Barthélemy changed its status from OMR to OCT with effect from 1 January 2012. Mayotte, which was an OCT, joined the EU as an OMR with effect from 1 January 2014. The 9 Outermost Regions of the European Union are: Autonomous Regions of Portugal Azores and Madeira are two groups of Portuguese islands in the Atlantic. Azores and Madeira are integral parts of the Portuguese Republic, but both have the special status as Autonomous Regions, with a degree of self-governance. Some derogations from the application of EU law apply in regards to taxation, fishing and transportation. Their VAT is lower than the rest of Portugal, but they are not outside the EU VAT Area. Canary Islands The Canary Islands are a Spanish archipelago off the African coast which form one of the 17 autonomous communities of Spain–the country's principal first-level administrative division. They are outside the EU VAT Area. The Canary Islands are the most populous and economically strongest territory of all the outermost regions in the European Union. The outermost regions office for support and information is located in these islands, in the city of Las Palmas on the island of Gran Canaria. French overseas regions French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Réunion are five French overseas regions (which are also overseas departments) which under French law are, for the most part, treated as integral parts of the Republic. The euro is legal tender; however, they are outside the Schengen Area and the EU VAT Area. Mayotte is the newest of the five overseas departments, having changed from an overseas collectivity with OCT status on 31 March 2011. It became an outermost region, and thus part of the EU, on 1 January 2014. Collectivity of Saint Martin Saint Martin is the only overseas collectivity of France with the status of being an outermost region of the EU. As with the French overseas departments, the euro is legal tender in Saint Martin, and it is outside the Schengen Area and the EU VAT Area. On 22 February 2007, Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy were broken away from the French overseas department of Guadeloupe to form new overseas collectivities. As a consequence their EU status was unclear for a time. While a report issued by the French parliament suggested that the islands remained within the EU as outermost regions, European Commission documents listed them as being outside the European Community. The legal status of the islands was clarified on the coming into force of the Treaty of Lisbon, which listed them as an outermost region. However, Saint Barthélemy ceased being an outermost region and left the EU, to become an OCT, on 1 January 2012. Overseas countries and territories The overseas countries and territories (OCT) are dependent territories that have a special relationship with one of the member states of the EU. Their status is described in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, and they are not part of the EU or the European Single Market. The Overseas Countries and Territories Association was created to improve economic development and cooperation between the OCTs and the EU, and includes most OCTs except three territories which do not have a permanent local population. The OCTs have been explicitly invited by the EU treaty to join the EU-OCT Association (OCTA). They were listed in the Article 198 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, which aside from inviting them to join OCTA, also provided them the opportunity to opt into EU provisions on the freedom of movement for workers and freedom of establishment. Yet, the freedom of establishment is limited by Article 203 TFEU and the respective Council Decision on OCTs. Its Article 51(1)(a) prescribes only that "the Union shall accord to natural and legal persons of the OCTs a treatment no less favourable than the most favourable treatment applicable to like natural and legal persons of any third country with whom the Union concludes or has concluded an economic integration agreement." Again this can be, according to Article 51(2)(b) limited. The obligations provided for in paragraph 1 of this Article shall not apply to treatment granted under measures providing for recognition of qualifications, licences or prudential measures in accordance with Article VII of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) or the GATS Annex on Financial Services. The OCTs are not subject to the EU's common external customs tariffs but may claim customs on goods imported from the EU on a non-discriminatory basis. They are not part of the EU and the EU acquis does not apply to them, though those joining OCTA are required to respect the detailed rules and procedures outlined by this association agreement (Council Decision 2013/755/EU). OCTA members are entitled to ask for EU financial support. When the Rome Treaty was signed in March 1957, a total of 15 OCTs existed: French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Comoros Archipelago, French Madagascar, French Somaliland, New Caledonia, French Polynesia, French Southern and Antarctic Lands, French Togoland, French Cameroons, Belgian Congo, Ruanda-Urundi, Trust Territory of Somalia, Netherlands New Guinea. The list was since then revised multiple times, and comprised—as noted by the Lisbon Treaty—25 OCTs in 2007. One of the French territories subsequently switched status from OMR to OCT (Saint Barthélemy), while another French territory switched from OCT to OMR (Mayotte). As of July 2014, there are still 13 OCTs (six with France, six with the Netherlands and one with Denmark) of which all have joined OCTA. The 13 Overseas Countries and Territories of the European Union are: Overseas Countries and Territories Association The Overseas Countries and Territories Association (OCTA) is an organisation founded on 17 November 2000 and headquartered in Brussels. All OCTs have joined OCTA as of February 2020. Its purpose is to improve economic development in overseas countries and territories, as well as cooperation with the European Union. On 25 June 2008, a Cooperation Treaty between the EU and OCTA was signed in Brussels. The current chairman is the Premier of Curaçao, Eugene Rhuggenaath. French overseas territories The French Southern and Antarctic Lands (which also include the French Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean, and the French claim of Adélie Land in Antarctica) is a French Overseas Territory but has no permanent population. It has sui generis status within France. Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Saint Barthélemy, French Polynesia, and Wallis and Futuna are overseas collectivities (formerly referred to as overseas territories) of France, while New Caledonia is a "sui generis collectivity". Saint Barthélemy and Saint Pierre and Miquelon use the euro, while New Caledonia, French Polynesia and Wallis and Futuna use the CFP Franc, a currency which is tied to the euro and guaranteed by France. Natives of the collectivities are European citizens owing to their French citizenship and elections to the European Parliament are held in the collectivities. On 22 February 2007, Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin were separated from the French overseas department of Guadeloupe to form new overseas collectivities. As a consequence, their EU status was unclear for a time. While a report issued by the French parliament suggested that the islands remained within the EU as outermost regions, European Commission documents listed them as being outside the European Community. The legal status of the islands was clarified on the coming into force of the Lisbon Treaty which listed them as outermost regions. However, Saint Barthélemy ceased being an outermost region and left the EU, to become an OCT, on 1 January 2012. The change was made to facilitate trade with countries outside the EU, notably the United States, and was made possible by a provision of the Lisbon Treaty which allows the European Council to change the EU status of a Danish, Dutch, or French territory on the initiative of the member state concerned. Dutch overseas territories Six territories of the Netherlands—all of which are Caribbean islands—have OCT status. As such, they benefit from being able to have their own export and import policy to and from the EU, while still having access to various EU funds (such as the European Development Fund). The inhabitants of the islands are EU citizens owing to their Dutch citizenship, with the right to vote in elections to the European Parliament. Initially they did not have voting rights for such elections, but the European Court of Justice granted them such rights, when they ruled their exclusion from the franchise was contrary to EU law, as all other Dutch citizens resident outside the EU did have the right to vote. None of the islands use the euro as their currency. The US dollar is used on Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba, while Curaçao and Sint Maarten utilize their own shared currency the Antillean guilder, and finally the currency of Aruba is the Aruban florin. Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten are classified as "countries" under Dutch law, and have considerable internal autonomy. In June 2008, the Dutch government published a report on the projected effect on the islands were they to join the EU as outermost regions. It concluded that the choice would be for the islands themselves to weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of becoming part of the EU as outermost regions, and that nothing would be done absent the islands specifically requesting it. Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba (collectively called Caribbean Netherlands) are "special municipalities" of the Netherlands proper. Their current OCT status, and the prospect of advancing their status to become part of the EU as new OMRs (outermost regions), was reviewed by the Dutch parliament in 2015, as part of the planned review of the Dutch law (WOLBES and FINBES) concerning the quality of their recently implemented new public administration bodies. In October 2015, the review concluded the present legal structures for governance and integration with European Netherlands was not working well within the framework of WolBES, but no recommendations were made in regards of whether a switch from OCT to OMR status would help improve this situation. The islands inherited their OCT status from the Netherlands Antilles which was dissolved in 2010. The Netherlands Antilles were initially specifically excluded from all association with the EEC by reason of a protocol attached to the Treaty of Rome, allowing the Netherlands to ratify on behalf of the Netherlands in Europe and Netherlands New Guinea only, which it subsequently did. Following the entry into force of the Convention on the association of the Netherlands Antilles with the European Economic Community on 1 October 1964, however, the Netherlands Antilles became OCTs. Greenland Greenland joined the then European Community in 1973 as a county along with Denmark, but after gaining autonomy with the introduction of home rule within the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenland voted to leave in 1982 and left in 1985, to become an OCT. The main reason for leaving is disagreements about the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) and to regain control of Greenlandic fish resources to subsequently remain outside EU waters. Greenlandic nationals (OCT-nationals) are, nonetheless, EU citizens due to Greenland's associated relationship with the EU within the meaning of EU treaties as well as holding Danish nationality. The EU–Greenland relationship is a comprehensive partnership, which is complementary to the OCT association arrangements under "Council Decision 2013/755/EU"; based specifically on "Council Decision 2014/137 of 14 March 2014" (outlining the relations) and the Fisheries Partnership Agreement of 30 July 2006. Special cases While the outermost regions and the overseas countries and territories fall into structured categories to which common mechanisms apply, this is not true of all the special territories. 10 member state territories have ad hoc arrangements in their relationship with the EU. In those special cases, VAT rules do not apply and they may also be exempt from customs or excise rules. Åland Åland, an autonomous archipelago belonging to Finland, but with partial autonomy, located between Sweden and Finland, with a Swedish-speaking population, joined the EU along with Finland in 1995. The islands had a separate referendum on accession and like the Finnish mainland voted in favour. EU law, including the fundamental four freedoms, applies to Åland. However, there are some derogations due to the islands' special status. Åland is outside the VAT area and is exempt from common rules in relation to turnover taxes, excise duties and indirect taxation. In addition, to protect the local economy, the treaty of accession allows for a concept of hembygdsrätt/kotiseutuoikeus (regional citizenship). Consequently, there are restrictions on the holding of property and real estate, the right of establishment for business purposes and limitations on who can provide services in Åland, for people not holding this status. The status may be obtained by any Finnish citizen legally resident in Åland for 5 years who can demonstrate an adequate knowledge of the Swedish language. Büsingen am Hochrhein The German village of Büsingen am Hochrhein is an exclave entirely surrounded by Switzerland, and as such is, for practical purposes, in a customs union with the latter non-EU country. The euro is legal tender, though the Swiss franc is preferred. Büsingen is excluded from the EU customs union and the EU VAT area. Swiss VAT generally applies. Büsingen was also outside of the Schengen area until Switzerland joined on 12 December 2008. Campione d'Italia and Livigno The Italian exclave village of Campione d'Italia is enclaved by Switzerland's Ticino canton as well as Lake Lugano (or Ceresio), and is a comune in the Province of Como, whilst Livigno, a small and remote mountain resort town, is a comune in the Province of Sondrio. Both comuni are part of the Lombardy region. Although part of the EU, Livigno is excluded from the customs union and VAT area, with Livigno's tax status dating back to Napoleonic times. Campione is excluded from the EU VAT area. It was excluded from the EU customs area until the end of 2019. Shops and restaurants in Campione accept payments in both euros and Swiss francs, and prices are displayed in both euros and Swiss francs. Ceuta and Melilla Ceuta and Melilla are two Spanish cities on the North African coast. They are part of the EU but they are excluded from the common agricultural and fisheries policies. They are also outside the customs union and VAT area, but no customs are levied on goods exported from the Union into either Ceuta and Melilla, and certain goods originating in Ceuta and Melilla are exempt from customs charges. While nominally part of the Schengen Area (Schengen visas are valid), Spain performs identity checks on all sea and air passengers leaving the enclaves for elsewhere in the Schengen Area. Cyprus When the Republic of Cyprus became part of the European Union on 1 May 2004, the northern third of the island was outside of the effective control of its government due to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, a United Nations buffer zone of varying width separated the two parts, and a further 3% of the island was taken up by UK sovereign bases (under British sovereignty since the Treaty of Establishment in 1960). Two protocols to the Treaty of Accession 2003—numbers 3 and 10, known as the "Sovereign Base Areas Protocol" and the "Cyprus Protocol" respectively – reflect this complex situation. EU law only applies fully to the part of the island that is effectively controlled by the government of the Republic of Cyprus. EU law is suspended in the northern third of the island (the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, whose independence is recognised only by Turkey) by article 1(1) of the Cyprus Protocol. If the island is reunified, the Council of the European Union will repeal the suspension by a decision. Four months after such a decision has been adopted, new elections to the European Parliament will be held on the island to elect Cypriot representatives from the whole of the island. Cypriot nationality law applies to the entire island and is accordingly available to the inhabitants of Northern Cyprus and the British sovereign base areas on the same basis as to those born in the area controlled by the Republic of Cyprus. Citizens of the Republic of Cyprus living in Northern Cyprus are EU citizens and are nominally entitled to vote in elections to the European Parliament; however, elections to that Parliament are not organised in Northern Cyprus as it is governed de facto by a separate state, albeit a state recognized only by Turkey. Akrotiri and Dhekelia The United Kingdom has two sovereign base areas on Cyprus, namely Akrotiri and Dhekelia. Unlike other British overseas territories, their inhabitants (who are entitled to British Overseas Territories Citizenship) have never been entitled to British citizenship. Prior to Cypriot accession to the EU in 2004, although the United Kingdom was an EU member at the time, EU law did not apply to the sovereign base areas. This position was changed by the Cypriot accession treaty so that EU law, while still not applying in principle, applied to the extent necessary to implement a protocol attached to that treaty. This protocol applied EU law relating to the Common Agricultural Policy, customs, indirect taxation, social policy and justice and home affairs to the sovereign base areas. The sovereign base areas' authorities also made provision for the unilateral application of directly applicable EU law. The UK also agreed in the Protocol to keep enough control of the external (i.e. off-island and northern Cyprus) borders of the base areas to ensure that the border between the sovereign base areas and the Republic of Cyprus could remain fully open and would not have to be policed as an external EU border. Consequently, the sovereign base areas would have become a de facto part of the Schengen Area if and when Cyprus implemented it. The base areas are already de facto members of the eurozone due to their previous use of the Cypriot pound and their adoption of the euro as legal tender from 2008. Because Cypriot nationality law extends to Cypriots in the sovereign base areas, Cypriot residents, as citizens of the Republic of Cyprus, are entitled to EU citizenship. Just under half of the population of the sovereign base areas are Cypriots, the rest are British military personnel, support staff and their dependants. In a declaration attached to the Treaty of Establishment of the Republic of Cyprus of 1960, the British government undertook not to allow new settlement of people in the sovereign base areas other than for temporary purposes. Under a protocol to the Brexit withdrawal agreement, certain provisions of EU law on agriculture, customs, indirect taxation, social security and border control continue to apply to the sovereign base areas. United Nations buffer zone The United Nations buffer zone between north and south Cyprus ranges in width from a few metres in central Nicosia to several kilometres in the countryside. While it is nominally under the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus, it is effectively administered by the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP). The population of the zone is 8,686 (as of October 2007), and one of the mandates of UNFICYP is "to encourage the fullest possible resumption of normal civilian activity in the buffer zone". Inhabited villages located in the buffer zone are legally administered by the Republic of Cyprus but policed by UN peacekeepers.Article 2.1 of the Cyprus Protocol allows the European Council to determine to what extent the provisions of EU law apply in the buffer zone. Faroe Islands The Faroe Islands are not part of the EU, and they have not been part of the EU since Denmark joined the community in 1973. Danish citizens residing on the islands are not considered citizens of a member state within the meaning of the treaties or, consequently, citizens of the European Union. However, Faroese people may become EU citizens by changing their residence to the Danish mainland. The Faroe Islands are not part of the Schengen Area, and Schengen visas are not valid. However, the islands are part of the Nordic Passport Union and the Schengen Agreement provides that travellers passing between the islands and the Schengen Area are not to be treated as passing the external frontier of the Area. This means that there is no formal passport control, but an identity check at check-in for air or boat travel to the islands where Nordic citizens on intra-Nordic travel need no passport, only showing the ticket plus identity card. Heligoland Heligoland is an archipelago of Germany situated in the North Sea off the German north-western coast. It is part of the EU, but is excluded from the customs union and the VAT area. Mount Athos Mount Athos is an autonomous monastic region of Greece. Greece's EU accession treaty provides that Mount Athos maintains its centuries-old special legal status, guaranteed by article 105 of the Greek Constitution. It is part of the customs union but outside the VAT area. Notwithstanding that a special permit is required to enter the peninsula and that there is a prohibition on the admittance of women, it is part of the Schengen Area. The monastery has certain rights to house monks from countries outside the EU. A declaration attached to Greece's accession treaty to the Schengen Agreement states that Mount Athos's "special status" should be taken into account in the application of the Schengen rules. Areas of extraterritoriality The Saimaa Canal and Värska–Ulitina road are two of several distinct travel arrangements that exist or existed because of changes in borders over the course of the 20th century, where transport routes and installations ended up on the wrong side of the border. Some have become superfluous thanks to the Schengen Agreement. These listed examples pass the external EU border. Saimaa Canal Finland leases the -long Russian part of the Saimaa Canal from Russia and is granted extraterritoriality rights. The area is not part of the EU, it is a special part of Russia. Under the treaty signed by Finnish and Russian governments, Russian law is in force with a few exceptions concerning maritime rules and the employment of canal staff which fall under Finnish jurisdiction. There are also special rules concerning vessels travelling to Finland via the canal. Russian visas are not required for just passing through the canal, but a passport is needed and it is checked at the border. Euros are accepted for the canal fees. Prior to the 50-year lease renewal coming into effect in February 2012, the Maly Vysotsky Island had also been leased and managed by Finland. Since then it has been fully managed by Russian authorities, and is no longer part of the concession territory. Värska–Ulitina road The road from Värska to Ulitina in Estonia, traditionally the only road to the Ulitina area, goes through Russian territory for one kilometre (0.6 mi) of its length, an area called Saatse Boot. This road has no border control, but there is no connection to any other road in Russia. It is not permissible to stop or walk along the road. This area is a part of Russia but is also a de facto part of the Schengen area. Switzerland Some roads and railways along the border of Switzerland allow transit between two Swiss places though neighbour countries without customs controls (and before 2008 passport controls), or between the border and international airports. See Privileged transit traffic#Switzerland. Former special territories Many currently independent states or parts of such were previously territories of the following EU members since the latter joined the EU or, previously the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC): Belgium (with multiple territories, from ECSC formation until 1962) France (with multiple territories, from ECSC formation) Italy (with Italian Somaliland, from ECSC formation until 1960) The Netherlands (with multiple territories, from ECSC formation) Portugal (with multiple territories, from 1986 enlargement until 2002) United Kingdom (with multiple territories, from 1973 enlargement) Most of these territories seceded before the implementation of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 and the following years, meaning that cooperation like the EU citizenship, the VAT union or the Eurozone did not exist, so it made less difference to be a special territory then. These were: Cambodia (gained independence from France in 1953), no Community treaty applied there, besides ECSC preferences Laos (gained independence from France in 1954), no Community treaty applied there, besides ECSC preferences Vietnam (gained independence from France in 1954), no Community treaty applied there, besides ECSC preferences Tunisia (gained independence from France in 1956), no Community treaty applied there, besides ECSC preferences Morocco (gained independence from France in 1956), no Community treaty applied there, besides ECSC preferences Guinea (gained independence from France in 1958), had OCT status Cameroon (French-administered part gained independence from France in 1960 along with some of UK-administered parts); had OCT status for the French part Togo (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Mali (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Senegal (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Madagascar (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status DR Congo (gained independence from Belgium in 1960), had OCT status Somalia (Italian-administered part gained independence from Italy in 1960 along with UK-administered part); had OCT status for the Italian part Benin (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Niger (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Burkina Faso (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Ivory Coast (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Chad (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Central African Republic (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Congo (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Gabon (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Mauritania (gained independence from France in 1960), had OCT status Burundi (gained independence from Belgium in 1962), had OCT status Rwanda (gained independence from Belgium in 1962), had OCT status Netherlands New Guinea (transferred from the Netherlands to UN in 1962, later annexed by Indonesia), had OCT status Suriname (gained independence from the Netherlands in 1975), had OCT status, EURATOM application unsure. Algeria (gained independence from France in 1962), had a status similar to OMR Bahamas (gained independence from the UK in 1973), had OCT status Grenada (gained independence from the UK in 1973), had OCT status Comoros (gained independence from France in 1975), had OCT status Seychelles (gained independence from the UK in 1976), had OCT status French Somaliland (gained independence from France as Djibouti in 1977), had OCT status Solomon Islands (gained independence from the UK in 1976), had OCT status Tuvalu (gained independence from the UK in 1978), had OCT status Dominica (gained independence from the UK in 1978), had OCT status Saint Lucia (gained independence from the UK in 1979), had OCT status Kiribati (gained independence from the UK in 1979), had OCT status Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (gained independence from the UK in 1979), had OCT status Zimbabwe (gained de jure independence from the UK in 1980), no Community treaty applied there, besides ECSC preferences Vanuatu (gained independence from the UK and France in 1980), generally had OCT status Belize (gained independence from the UK in 1981), had OCT status Antigua and Barbuda (gained independence from the UK in 1981), had OCT status Saint Kitts and Nevis (gained independence from the UK in 1983), had OCT status Brunei (gained independence from UK in 1984), had OCT status Hong Kong (sovereignty transferred from the UK to China in 1997), no Community treaty applied there, besides ECSC preferences Macao (sovereignty transferred from Portugal to China in 1999), EURATOM was applicable, besides the ECSC preferences Timor-Leste (East Timor) (gained independence from Indonesia in 2002, considered under Portuguese administration before that), no Community treaty applied there The United Kingdom left the EU in 2020. When it was a member, some of its Crown dependencies and overseas territories were partially integrated with the EU. Gibraltar was part of the EU and partially inside its single market. Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man were not part of the EU, but were in its customs union and enjoyed free trade. Akrotiri and Dhekelia continue to have partial integration with Cyprus, an EU member state, even after the UK is no longer an EU member. Other territories were fully outside EU integration. Additionally in Europe there were special territories in the past that had different status than their "mainland", because of various reasons, but now are part of a member state. Some of these territories were as follows: The Austrian areas of Kleinwalsertal and Jungholz formerly enjoyed a special legal status. The two areas have road access only to Germany, and not directly to other parts of Austria. They were in customs and currency union with Germany and there were no border controls between Kleinwalsertal and Jungholz, respectively, and Germany. When Austria entered the EU (and its customs union) in 1995, the customs union became defunct. The entry into force of the Schengen Agreement for Austria (1997) and the introduction of the euro (2002) caused Kleinwalsertal and Jungholz to lose their remaining legal privileges. It is now legally treated in the same manner as the rest of Austria. Saar (merged with West Germany on 1 January 1957), was fully part of the Community as French-administered European territory West Berlin (merged with West Germany on 3 October 1990), was subject to the full application of the treaties East Germany was until 1972 on paper a part of one Germany and the European Community, since West Germany, the NATO countries and the European Community did not recognize East Germany until 1972. East Germany did not recognize any membership of the EC. The West German government treated trade with East Germany as inter-German trade and not subject to the EC trade tariffs. The following areas are still special member state territories, but have changed their status. See their entries in the article for details. Greenland Saint Barthélemy Mayotte Non-EU countries and territories with partial EU integration Some European countries are strongly connected to the European Union, through the European Economic Area or similar agreements. These countries are Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland, the member states of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). They are inside the single market (with exceptions) and the Schengen area, but outside the Eurozone, customs territory, and VAT area. Norway and Switzerland have special areas. Liechtenstein: Limitations on free movement of workers as a result of indefinite use of safeguard measures in Article 112 of the EEA Agreement. Norway Svalbard: Not part of the Schengen area, Norwegian VAT area or the EU single market; free movement of people into the territory regardless of nationality Switzerland Samnaun: Outside Swiss VAT area Under the Northern Ireland Protocol of the Brexit withdrawal agreement, Northern Ireland remains de facto part of the European Single Market and the European Union Customs Union for the purposes of goods only, in order to prevent the creation of a customs border on the island of Ireland. In addition, the British territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia is partially integrated with Cyprus in the areas of agriculture, customs, indirect taxation, social security and border control. Summary Summary This table summarises the various components of EU laws applied in the EU member states and their sovereign territories. Member states that do not have special-status territories are not included (as there the EU law applies fully with the exception of the opt-outs in the European Union and states under a safeguard clause or transitional period). Some territories of EFTA member states also have a special status in regard to EU laws applied as is the case with some European microstates. Summary for member states that do not have special-status territories, but do not participate in certain EU provisions as they are either not yet eligible or have an opt-out. A list of the remaining member states which do not have special-status territories, and participate in all EU provisions: See also Dependent territory Elections in the European Union Enlargement of the European Union European Union Association Agreement European Union law Eurosphere Eurozone Foreign relations of the European Union Freedom of movement for workers Future enlargement of the European Union History of the European Union Member state of the European Union Microstates and the European Union Opt-outs in the European Union Outline of the European Union Withdrawal from the European Union Notes References External links Information on the "Territorial status of EU countries and certain territories" from the European Commission Review of CARIFORUM-EU EPA – and Implications for the British and Dutch Caribbean Octs – What the CARIFORUM-EU trade deal means for current EU territories Regional policy & outermost regions Foreign relations of the European Union da:Oversøiske lande og territorier

Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman

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Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman is an American superhero television series based on the DC Comics character Superman created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. It stars Dean Cain as Clark Kent / Superman and Teri Hatcher as Lois Lane. The series aired on ABC from September 12, 1993, to June 14, 1997. Developed for television by Deborah Joy LeVine, the series loosely followed the modern origin of Superman, established by writer John Byrne, in which Clark Kent is the true personality and Superman a disguise. The series focuses on the relationship and romance between Lois and Clark as much as the adventures of Clark's alter-ego, Superman. Overview On May 17, 1966, Jonathan and Martha Kent (Eddie Jones and K. Callan) witness the crash-landing of a small spaceship in Shuster's Field outside of Smallville, Kansas. When they investigate, they discover the baby Kal-El and decide to raise him as their own, naming him Clark Jerome Kent (Dean Cain). Throughout the series, Clark proudly states his mother made his Superman costume for him. Clark often consults his parents either by telephone or in person, after impromptu Superman flights to Smallville, about personal and moral concerns and dilemmas. The series opens twenty-seven years later, on the day Clark moves to Metropolis after leaving his position as a newspaper editor of Smallville Press and interviews for a job at the Daily Planet under editor Perry White (Lane Smith). Clark becomes acquainted with photographer Jimmy Olsen (Michael Landes in season 1, Justin Whalin thereafter) and gossip columnist Cat Grant (Tracy Scoggins). Soon after being hired, Clark is partnered with star reporter Lois Lane (Teri Hatcher). Clark falls in love with Lois at first sight. When Superman saves Lois from a space shuttle disaster, she instantly becomes infatuated with Clark's alter-ego, and names him Superman. Superman's first mission interferes with the illegal dealings of Lex Luthor (John Shea), a Metropolis business giant and benefactor. After Luthor's plot was stopped, Superman lets Luthor know he is watching him and the two become arch-enemies. However, Clark respects Luthor's life, even surreptitiously using his superpowers to save Lex from bleeding to death. Luthor sees Superman as a worthy opponent; he ultimately discovers his weakness to kryptonite and realizes he has a secret identity, vowing to learn it in hopes of making the hero's life difficult. Production DC Comics president Jenette Kahn had been working for several years to sell the concept of a Superman television series. The series would be different. In 1991 Leslie Moonves and Deborah Joy LeVine helped sell the series to ABC television network with a new title, Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman. The series mirrored John Byrne's reboot of Superman, making Clark Kent more assertive and less clumsy. A few episodes directly emphasized that Clark was the unequivocal dominant personality, not Superman. Following this theme, an innovation unique to the series was the depiction of Clark Kent and Superman's traditional hairstyles being reversed—in this series, it is Superman whose hair is slicked back and Clark whose fringe falls more naturally. An additional element that reflected the post-Byrne comics was the portrayal of Lex Luthor (at least initially) as a corrupt corporate tycoon rather than the traditional mad scientist. Many of the stories in season one involved normal human criminals using advanced and powerful technology or involved in large and dangerous conspiracies—most, if not all, of the Lex Luthor stories of season one. After season one, series creator Deborah Joy LeVine left the show as a producer, and a new production team took over the series. Episode plots gradually shifted from those in which Lois, Clark, and Superman only became involved with criminal elements or dangerous situations through their own initiative to more fantastic plots. The show often centered on comic-style villains who specifically targeted Lois, Superman, or Clark from the beginning, rather than endangering the protagonists reactively when they became threats to other criminal plans. Later plots frequently revolved around villains with special superhuman powers and abilities. A fifth season of the series was initially announced by ABC. When the network unexpectedly canceled plans for season five, the producers and writers of the show were unprepared. The series ended on a cliffhanger in which Clark and Lois find an infant in their home with a note saying the child belongs to them. This mystery was never solved on the series. Series history Season one Teri Hatcher and Dean Cain received critical praise for their performances. Lane Smith breathed life and humor into the Daily Planet editor-in-chief Perry White and John Shea received positive reviews for his portrayal of Lex Luthor. Michael Landes portrayed a modern-day Jimmy Olsen and Tracy Scoggins a comedic portrayal of Cat Grant. Lex Luthor's death in the season finale occurred after disagreements between Shea and the producers over the actor's strenuous commute between New York and Los Angeles. No longer a regular cast member, he reappeared once in season two, twice in season three, and once in season four. Luthor develops an interest in Lois Lane and through most of the first season tries to woo her. Although Lois is receptive to his romantic advances, she remains infatuated with Superman. Lois also develops feelings for Clark, but represses or denies them. Luthor eventually proposes marriage to Lois. Clark, seeing he may lose Lois, attempts to convince her of Luthor's true nature, but fails. In a last-ditch attempt, Clark tells Lois that he is in love with her; she replies that she does not return his feelings but cares for him deeply as a friend. Later, Lois asks Superman if there is any chance of a romance between the two of them. Superman turns her down and Lois accepts Luthor's proposal. Luthor decides to coincide his nuptials with the death of Superman, whom he traps in a kryptonite cage in the wine cellar of Luthor Tower, which also contains the chapel where the wedding will occur. As the wedding approaches, Lois realizes she loves Clark and says no to Lex at the altar. Clark had been working with Perry and Jimmy to expose Lex and they have enough evidence for the police to interrupt the wedding. Lex eludes the police and jumps from his penthouse office to his apparent death. Superman has escaped the cage and, as Clark, rejoins Lois. However, his powers have been diminished by kryptonite and he cannot stop the villain from falling to the pavement. Newspapers report that Lex's body has been stolen from the morgue and hint he may not be dead. Clark, fearing his unrequited love for Lois may damage their relationship, tells her his profession of love was only out of a desire to protect her from Lex. Lois, who was about to tell Clark that she loves him too, instead keeps it to herself and their relationship remains a friendship. Season two In season two, the character of Cat Grant was dropped, and Michael Landes was replaced with Justin Whalin as Jimmy Olsen. The official reason, according to Landes, was that he looked too similar to Dean Cain. On the show, the explanation is that he has changed with age. Series creator Deborah Joy LeVine and the entire first-season writing team were also dismissed. The new producer, Robert Singer, planned a stronger focus on action; the show also shifted its focus onto the budding romance between Lois and Clark. Lex Luthor returned in one episode and other villains from the comics, such as The Prankster, Metallo, the Toyman and the criminal group known as Intergang, began to appear. This season also featured the debut of fan-favorite villain Tempus (Lane Davies) and H. G. Wells appeared as a time-traveler. Wells's younger self was played by Terry Kiser, and the older Wells was played by Hamilton Camp. During the season, Clark and Lois begin to consider dating but are interrupted by Mayson Drake (Farrah Forke), a district attorney who takes a romantic interest in Clark but has a total lack of regard for Superman. Mayson dies as Lois and Clark have their first date. In the next episode, a federal agent named Dan Scardino (Jim Pirri) becomes a rival to Clark for Lois' affections. After initially spurning Dan, Lois decides to date Dan when Clark frequently has to suddenly leave their talks or get-togethers to save other people (as Superman) but offers ridiculous reasons for why he had to suddenly depart. Lois eventually decides she has more feelings for Clark than for Dan, and they begin dating more seriously. In the season finale, Clark comes close to telling Lois his secret but does not, first because of his uncertainty about her reaction, and then interruptions by people plotting to expose his identity to the world. At the end of the final episode, Clark proposes to Lois but Lois' response is left as a cliffhanger for the next season. Season two became a success and garnered higher ratings in its initial airings, ending the season in 58th place. Season three Season three averaged more than 18 million viewers per episode and ranked 44th for the season. In the premiere episode, in responding to Clark's marriage proposal, Lois reveals that she knows Clark's secret identity and expresses concern about how she can trust him when he has kept that secret from her for so long. They spend more time together and after having a few disagreements which then get resolved with them being even closer, she accepts Clark's proposal in the seventh episode, "Ultra Woman". ABC announced that the wedding would occur on Valentine's Day weekend; with ABC sending heart-shaped "wedding invitations" to ABC News staff. A controversy erupted, when ABC presents the viewers with a bogus wedding, with Clark unwittingly married to a clone of Lois. This was the start of a five-part story, in which Lois is kidnapped by Lex Luthor, replaced by a clone, the real Lois suffering from amnesia, and Clark trying to find the real Lois Lane. In the third-season premiere, Lois has discovered Superman's secret identity. Initially, she resents Clark not telling her. After they separate for a time, Lois dates Patrick Sullivan, an antique dealer who is plotting to kill her in a sacrificial druid ritual, and she and Clark carry out assignments where they either pose as a married couple or are alone together for an entire weekend. Lois finally accepts Clark's engagement ring after acquiring his powers and temporarily becoming a superhero named Ultra Woman. Lois suffers a bout of amnesia and hallucinates their wedding. Once she recovers, Lois and Clark are still engaged when two other Kryptonians come to Earth, one of whom is Clark's wife. They insist Clark go with them to save their world, New Krypton, from domination by an evil tyrant named Lord Nor; Clark leaves Lois, taking her wedding ring to remember her and as a promise to return as quickly as possible. While committed to each other, they both doubt he will ever return. Season four The final season had several two-part episodes. It began with the resolution of a cliffhanger involving a previously unknown colony of Kryptonians. Lois and Clark finally wed in the third episode of the season entitled "Swear To God, This Time We're Not Kidding". The same week, DC Comics released Superman: The Wedding Album, featuring the long-awaited marriage of Lois and Clark. The series ended on a cliffhanger in which Lois and Clark find an infant in Clark's old bassinet, along with a note that claimed the child belonged to them. During the fourth season, ABC had announced a fifth season of the show; its producers and writers were unprepared when ABC later decided that no new episodes would be produced. The series had weakened in its Sunday 8:00 pm timeslot and had been shifted to 7:00 pm in January, and was moved to Saturdays in the spring. The ratings dropped even further, and the show finished its last season in 104th place, averaging less than 10 million viewers per episode. It was removed from the schedule in May 1997. ABC made up for its commitment to Warner Bros. by ordering thirteen episodes of a Debra Messing drama, Prey. The fourth season starts with Clark heading toward New Krypton, while the evil tyrant Nor has instead invaded Earth, so Clark returns just as Nor takes over Smallville. He and Lois defeat the tyrant and persuade the New Kryptonians to allow Clark to stay on Earth. After another failed wedding ceremony, Lois and Clark get married. Evil forces continue to assault them, delaying their honeymoon, but eventually, the couple moves into a new home. Throughout the season they strengthen their bond, despite some disagreements and villains trying to destroy them. The newlywed reporters discover that Clark cannot father a child with Lois, but at the end of the last episode, a child mysteriously appears. This mystery was never resolved in the television series, but Brad Buckner, executive producer, and writer for the third and fourth seasons, later revealed the planned story was that the child "was Kryptonian royalty, stashed by his mother to keep him safe from assassins". Cast Main cast Recurring Special guest Novels, collected editions and related merchandise Lois & Clark: A Superman Novel by author C. J. Cherryh, based on the television series, was released in 1996. The novel was published in a Science Fiction Book Club hardcover edition and a paperback edition by Prima Publishing. The book is an example of superhero/romantic fantasy. Other novels based on the series include: Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman: Heat Wave Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman: Exile Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman: Deadly Games DC Comics published a comic book collected edition, Lois & Clark, The New Adventures of Superman, in 1994, which featured a selection of modern era stories by John Byrne and other writers and artists. The collection includes an introduction by Byrne, with the show's star Dean Cain and Teri Hatcher as Lois and Clark on the cover. Lois & Clark, The New Adventures of Superman – collects The Man of Steel #2, Superman Annual vol. 2 #1, Superman vol. 2 #9 and 11, Action Comics #600 and 655, Adventures of Superman #445, 462, and 466. Skybox released in 1995 a series of trading cards based on the first season of the show. 90 trading cards were issued alongside 9 special cards, a series of temporary tattoos and two illustrated cards by well known artists Boris Vallejo and Julie Bell. Broadcasts United States From September 1997 to August 2003 all four seasons of the show were aired on TNT television network. The entire series became available on HBO Max in August 2021. United Kingdom The series premiered on BBC One on Saturday, January 8, 1994, with repeat showings until 2002. During it run on BBC One, the series was retitled The New Adventures of Superman. The BBC held the rights to premiere the first three seasons. It also aired on CBBC's Saturday Aardvark strand (later known as Planet Saturday) at 8:30 am. BBC Two has also repeated the series at tea times alongside The Simpsons, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air and many others. Sky One held the premiere rights to the fourth season in 1997 and broadcast the show under the original full title. The BBC broadcast the episodes a few weeks later. Sky One broadcast seasons one, two and three just before the premiere of season four in early 1997. UK Gold, Sky Living, Bravo, Channel One and ITV2 have also repeated the series. BBC2 last repeated season one in late 2005. Satellite channel Syfy repeated the first two seasons and the first half of season three in 2012, before replacing it with Smallville. Republic of Ireland The series aired on RTÉ One from 1995 to 1998 and regularly rerun on TG4 from 2000 to 2002. Home media Warner Home Video has released all four seasons of Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman on DVD in Regions 1, 2, and 4. Soundtrack Mastered at Capitol Records, Hollywood Digital editing, pre-mastering: Bruno Coon Engineers: Greg Townley (all orchestral recording) Michael Eric Hutchinson Bobby Fernandez ("Main Title Theme" recording & mixing) Ray Pyle ("Main Title Theme extended mix" recording & mixing) Art Direction: Doerte Lau Design: Andreas Adamec Awards and nominations See also List of villains in Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman References External links Official Warner Bros. Site Official DC Comics Site Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman DVD Site First Person Account from Season One Supervising Producer Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman on SupermanHomepage.com Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman Wiki on Fandom 1990s American drama television series 1990s American romance television series 1993 American television series debuts 1997 American television series endings American fantasy drama television series American romantic drama television series American action television series American adventure television series American fantasy television series Cultural depictions of H. G. Wells Fictional couples Television shows based on DC Comics American Broadcasting Company original programming English-language television shows Saturn Award-winning television series Superman television series Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios Television shows set in the United States Television shows adapted into novels

List of supermarket chains in the United States

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This is a list of supermarket companies in the United States of America and the names of supermarkets which are owned or franchised by these companies. For supermarkets worldwide, see List of supermarkets. National chains Albertsons – Operates under the following brands: Safeway (AK, AZ, CA, CO, DC, DE, HI, ID, MD, MT, NE, NV, NM, OR, SD, VA, WA and WY) Albertsons (AZ, AR, CA, CO, ID, LA, MT, NV, NM, ND, OR, TX, UT, WA and WY) Vons (CA and NV) Jewel-Osco (IA, IL and IN) Acme Markets (CT, DE, MD, NJ, NY and PA) Shaw's (MA, ME, NH, RI and VT) Local brands include Andronico's (CA), Carrs (AK), Haggen (WA), Pavilions (CA), Randalls (TX), Star Market (MA), Tom Thumb (TX) and United Supermarkets (TX) Ahold Delhaize – Operates under the following brands: Food Lion (Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, West Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia) Stop & Shop (Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York and Rhode Island) Giant Food Stores (Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia and West Virginia) also known as Martin's Food Markets Hannaford (Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York and Vermont) Giant Food (Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland and Virginia) Kroger – Besides the parent company, stores operate under these brands: Harris Teeter (D.C, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia) King Soopers (Colorado and Wyoming) Roundy's (Illinois and Wisconsin) Smith's Food and Drug (Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, Montana, Utah and Wyoming) Fred Meyer (Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington) QFC (Oregon and Washington) Ruler Foods (Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee) Food 4 Less (California, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio and Nevada) City Market (Colorado, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming) Local brands include Baker's (NE), Dillons (KS), Fry's (AZ), Gerbes (MO), JayC Food Stores (IN), Mariano's Fresh Market (IL), Owen's (IN), Pay Less Super Markets (IN) and Ralphs (CA) Target Walmart Walmart Neighborhood Market Sam’s Club Costco Regional chains West Midwest Northeast South Notable local chains Acme Fresh Market (Northeastern Ohio) Amigo Supermarkets (Puerto Rico) Big Y (Massachusetts and Connecticut) Buehler's (North-central Ohio) Caraluzzi's (Connecticut) Central Market (Texas) County Market Crest Foods (Oklahoma) Cub Foods (Minnesota) D'Agostino Supermarkets (New York City) Dierbergs Markets (St. Louis area) Fairway Market (New York City area) Festival Foods (Wisconsin) The Food Emporium (New York City area) Food Town (Houston, Texas) Foodarama (Houston, Texas) Foodland (Hawaii) FoodLand Supermarkets (Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia) Foodtown (New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania) Gelson's Markets (Southern California) Gristedes (New York City) H-E-B (Texas) Harding's - Harding's Market, Marketplace, and Fresh Express (Southwest Michigan, Northern Indiana) - sells SpartanNash OurFamily Products Harmons Grocery (Utah) Heinen's Fine Foods (Cleveland and Chicago metro areas) Highland Park Markets (Connecticut) Hitchcock's Markets (Connecticut) Homeland (Kansas, Oklahoma, Georgia, Texas) Houchens Markets (Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois) Hugo's (Minnesota, North Dakota) Jerry's Foods (Minnesota) Karns Quality Foods (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania area) Key Food (New York City metro area) King Kullen (Long Island, New York) Kuhn's Quality Foods (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) Lowes Foods (North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia) Lowe's Market (Texas, New Mexico) Lunds & Byerlys (Minnesota) Magruder's (Washington, D.C. area) Market Basket (Southeastern Texas, Southwestern Louisiana) Market of Choice (Oregon) Met Foodmarkets (New York City, New Jersey, Massachusetts) Morton Williams (New York, New Jersey) Moser's Foods (Missouri) No Frills (Omaha, Nebraska) New Seasons Market (Portland, Oregon) Nugget Markets (Northern California) Pantry Pride - (St Marys, Ohio) Price Chopper (Kansas City & Des Moines metro areas) Pueblo (Puerto Rico) Pac n Save (Rural Nebraska) Quality Dairy Company (Mid-Michigan) Reasors (Eastern Oklahoma) Redner's Markets (Eastern Pennsylvania; also in Delaware and Maryland) Remke Markets (Cincinnati, Ohio area) Ridley's Family Markets (Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming) Riesbeck's (West Virginia, Ohio) Roche Bros (Massachusetts) Rosauers Supermarkets (Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington) Rouses (Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi) Scolari's Food and Drug (California, Nevada) Seabra Foods (New Jersey, South Florida, Rhode Island, Massachusetts) Seller's Brothers (Houston, Texas) Sendik's Food Market (Wisconsin) Sentry Foods (Wisconsin) Shoppers Food & Pharmacy (Baltimore and Washington, D.C. areas) Stater Brothers (California) Stew Leonard's (Connecticut, New York, New Jersey) Strack & Van Til (Illinois, Indiana) Straub's Markets (St. Louis, Missouri) Sullivan's Foods (Northwest Illinois) SuperFresh (New York, New Jersey) Super One Foods (Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, North Dakota) Super King Markets (California) Supermercados Selectos (Puerto Rico) The Fresh Grocer (Pennsylvania, Delaware) Times Supermarkets (Hawaii) United Grocery Outlet (Tennessee, North Carolina) Westborn Market (Michigan) Western Beef (New York City, Florida) Woodman's Food Market (Illinois, Wisconsin) Yoke's Fresh Market (Washington, Idaho) Retailers' cooperatives Affiliated Food Stores (Texas panhandle, Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, Wyoming) Affiliated Foods Midwest (Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Wisconsin) Associated Food Stores – formerly Pacific Mercantile Cooperative; also see Western Family Foods Lee's Marketplace Associated Grocers Associated Grocers of Florida Associated Grocers of New England Apple Market Cash Saver Country Mart Price Chopper / Price Mart (Kansas City, Missouri area) – unrelated to Price Chopper in the Northeast SunFresh ThriftWay Associated Grocers of the South Associated Supermarkets Associated Wholesale Grocers Associated Wholesalers C-Town Central Grocers Cooperative Great Valu (Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia) IGA Shurfine Markets (Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland) ShurSave/Gerrity's Supermarkets (northeastern Pennsylvania) Spartan Stores (Michigan – operates several banners, including Glen's Markets, D&W Food Centers, and Family Fare Supermarkets; Spartan Stores is a supplier for smaller supermarkets) Thrift Way / Shop n Bag (New Jersey; Philadelphia) Unified Grocers Wakefern Food Corporation Western Family Foods (supermarket wholesaler) – formerly Pacific Mercantile Cooperative Deep-discount and limited-assortment chains 99 Cents Only Stores Aldi – Owned by Aldi Süd Lidl Big Lots Cash & Carry (Chicago) Dollar General Dollar Tree Family Dollar Food 4 Less (Kroger operates Food 4 Less stores in California, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. In markets that Kroger does not have the rights to the Food 4 Less name, it operates as Foods Co) (San Diego, Los Angeles area and northern California; Arizona, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Nebraska, Nevada, Missouri) Grocery Outlet (West) Marc's (Ohio) Xpect Discounts (Connecticut) – these stores are now closed PriceRite (Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia) – owned and operated by Wakefern Food Corporation Ruler Foods Save-A-Lot Sharp Shopper (Pennsylvania, Virginia) United Grocery Outlet (Tennessee, North Carolina) WinCo Foods (West) Ethnic chains Asian 99 Ranch Market – the largest Asian-American supermarket chain on the West Coast with additional locations in Nevada, Texas, Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. Ai Hoa Supermarket – formerly a Chinese-Vietnamese-American chain in southern California; now operates one store in South El Monte Asian Food Center (New Jersey) ASSI Plaza, Korean-American multinational supermarket chain (Georgia, Illinois, Pennsylvania) CAM Asian Market (Ohio) C-Mart Supermarket (Boston) Food Maxx International (Virginia) Fei Long Market (New York) Fresh International Market, Pan-Asian and international supermarket chain (Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, North Carolina) Galleria Market (southern California) – Korean American Global Food International (Maryland, Virginia) Good Fortune Supermarket (New York, New Jersey, Virginia, Texas, Rhode Island and California) Great Wall Supermarket (Georgia, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Virginia) Grand Mart, Korean-American supermarket chain (Washington, D.C., North Carolina and Georgia) Hannam (New Jersey, California) Hanyang Mart (New York, New Jersey) H Mart, Han Ah Reum – the largest Asian-American and the largest Korean-American chain in the United States (California, Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, Washington) - Korean-American supermarket chain H K Market Hong Kong Food Market – Vietnamese supermarket (Louisiana) Hong Kong Supermarket – Chinese-American supermarket chain India Bazaar – Indian supermarket chain in Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex Island Pacific Supermarket (California, Nevada) – Filipino American J-mart (New York) Kam Man Food (New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts) – small Asian American supermarket chain Lion Food (Northern California) – Vietnamese-Chinese supermarket Lotte Plaza – Korean-American supermarket (Maryland, Virginia) Marukai – Japanese American supermarket Mitsuwa (New Jersey, Illinois, California, Texas) – Japanese American supermarket and shopping center Nam Dae Mun Farmers Market (Georgia) New India Bazar (California) – small Indian, Pakistani and Sri-Lankan supermarket chain in San Francisco Bay Area Nijiya Market (California, Hawaii) – organic Japanese American supermarket O-Mart, Super Oriental Market (Killeen, Texas) Ocean Mart (Utah) Pacific Ocean Marketplace (Colorado) Patel Brothers – largest Indian American supermarket chain Rani's World Foods (Texas & Nevada) – Indian supermarket chain Seafood City (California, Hawaii, Washington, Nevada, Illinois) – Filipino American Skyfood Supermarket (six locations in New York) – Asian Oriental Supermarket. First oriental e-commerce supermarket to offer local delivery and nationwide shipping. Subzi Bazaar (New Jersey and New York) – South East Asian/Indian Grocery Stores Shun Fat Supermarket (California, Nevada, Texas) – Chinese Vietnamese American chain Super G Mart, Korean-American supermarket (Charlotte, North Carolina) Uwajimaya (Seattle, Washington; Portland, Oregon) zTao Marketplace (Texas, Georgia) – Asian American supermarket International Grocery Ingredients Items (New Jersey and New York) - Multiple grocery shopping online Hispanic/Latino Bravo (Northeast and Florida) El Ahorro Supermarket – Texas Fiesta Mart – Latino-American, Texas Mi Pueblo Food Center (Northern California/Bay Area) – Now merged with Cardenas Supermarkets since late 2017 Mi Tienda – Hispanic supermarket division of HEB Stores (one store in Houston, Texas) La Michoacana Meat Market (Texas) Nam Dae Mun Farmers Market (Georgia) Numero Uno Market – Hispanic chain (Los Angeles area) La Perla Tapatía Supermarkets – (California) La Placita – Hispanic chain in New Orleans area Presidente (South Florida - Miami-Dade, Broward & Palm Beach counties) Pro's Ranch Market / Los Altos Ranch Market – Hispanic (Arizona, California, New Mexico, Texas) Publix Sabor – Hispanic, operated by Publix El Pueblo (Newark) – largest Latino supermarket in New Jersey R Ranch Markets – Hispanic chain in southern California El Rancho – growing independent Hispanic chain in the Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas area Rancho Liborio (California, Nevada, Colorado) Rancho Markets (Utah) El Rey (Wisconsin) El Rio Grande Latin Market (Texas) Rio Ranch Markets – Southern California Saver's Cost Plus (Texas) Sedano's – Hispanic chain in southern Florida Seller's Bros. (Houston, Texas) El Super (Los Angeles, southern Nevada and Phoenix) La Bonita (Los Angeles, southern Nevada) Super Market Mexico – online purveyor of Mexican foods Superior Super Warehouse – Hispanic warehouse supermarket chain in southern California Supermercado El Rancho – Hispanic supermarket chain in Texas Supermercados Teloloapan (Texas) Supersaver Foods – Hispanic-geared; operated by Albertsons LLC; chain now closed except for a few stores in Utah Super A Foods – Los Angeles county Tenochtitlan Market (Utah) – upscale Latin-American Terry's / El Mariachi Supermarkets – Hispanic chain (Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas; Oklahoma City) Tresierras Supermarkets – (southern California) Twin City Supermarket – Hispanic chain (New Jersey) Vallarta Supermarkets (California) – caters to the growing Latino population of California and sells items usually not found in more Anglo-oriented American supermarkets Viva Markets (Utah) – Hispanic grocery market and mini-mall Kosher Motty's (Spring valley NY) New Day (Spring Valley NY) Wesley Kosher (Monsey NY) Evergreen (Monsey NY) Seasons – (New York, New Jersey) Seven Mile Market (Pikesville, MD), the largest Kosher store in the US Breadberry (New York) Rockland Kosher (Monsey, New York) Grand & Essex (New Jersey) Western Kosher (Los Angeles) The Market Place (Brooklyn) Kosher Konnection (New Jersey) Gourmet Glatt (Brooklyn, Cedarhurst, Monsey, Lakewood, Woodmere) Gleiberman's Gourmet (Charlotte NC) Specialty and natural foods Bristol Farms (Southern California) Erewhon Market (Southern California) Lassens Natural Food and Vitamins (California) Central Market Dorothy Lane Market – specialty markets in Dayton, Ohio Earth Fare – North Carolina, Ohio, Southeastern US (defunct as of February 2020) The Fresh Market (Southeast, Midwest, Mid-Atlantic, Northeast, and California) FreshDirect – online grocer in New York City Market of Choice – Oregon Natural Grocers by Vitamin Cottage New Seasons Market – Portland, Oregon Oliver’s Market – Sonoma County, California PCC Natural Markets – Washington state Publix Green Wise – Florida, Georgia Spec's Wine, Spirits & Finer Foods – Texas Sprouts Farmers Market Stew Leonard's – Connecticut; New York Trader Joe's – Owned by Aldi Nord Whole Foods – Sold To Amazon in 2017 Defunct chains See also List of hypermarkets in the United States Retailer Owned Food Distributors & Associates (trade association) UFCW (labor union) References United States Lists of companies of the United States by industry

Vinko Bogataj

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Vinko Bogataj (Slovenian: ; born on March 4, 1948) is a Slovenian former ski jumper. Footage of him crashing featured on ABC's Wide World of Sports represented the Agony of Defeat. Agony of Defeat jump Bogataj competed as a Yugoslav entrant at the ski flying event in Oberstdorf, West Germany on 7 March 1970. A light snow had begun falling at the start of the competition, and by the time Bogataj was ready for his third jump on the Heini Klopfer hill, the snow had become quite heavy. Midway down the inrun for his jump, Bogataj realised that the conditions had made the ramp too fast. He attempted to lower his center of gravity and stop his jump, but instead lost his balance completely and hurtled out of control off the end of the inrun, tumbling and flipping wildly, and crashing through a light retaining fence near a crowd of spectators before coming to a halt. Bogataj suffered a mild concussion and a broken ankle. A film crew from Wide World of Sports was recording the event in which Bogataj crashed. The show featured an opening narration by host Jim McKay over a montage of sports clips, and co-ordinating producer Dennis Lewin inserted the footage of the crash to coincide with the words "...and the agony of defeat." Throughout the show's long history, various images were used for the other parts of the narration, including for "the thrill of victory...", which directly preceded the above phrase and was often accompanied by images of the celebrating team at the most recent Super Bowl or World Cup, but after that point, the "agony of defeat" was always illustrated by Bogataj's failed jump. Later on, other clips were added to the "agony of defeat", but Bogataj's crash was always featured and always the first played. The melodrama of the narration—which became a catchphrase in the US—transformed the uncredited ski jumper into an American icon of bad luck and misfortune. Meanwhile, having retired to his quiet, private life in Slovenia, Bogataj was unaware of his celebrity, and so was surprised to be asked to attend the 20th anniversary celebration for Wide World of Sports in 1981. He received the loudest ovation of any athlete introduced at the gala, and attendees such as Muhammad Ali asked him for his autograph. In the 1990s, while on his way to an interview with Wide World of Sports about the incident, he got into a small automobile collision. His first line to the reporter was "every time I'm on ABC, I crash." Later life Bogataj returned to ski jumping in 1971 but never duplicated the success he had before the crash and retired from the sport competitively, save for occasional senior competitions thereafter. During his career, his best career finish was 57th in the individual normal hill competition in Bischofshofen in 1969 during that year's Four Hills Tournament. Bogataj became a ski instructor, coaching the 1991 World Champion Slovenian ski jumper Franci Petek. He supplements his income by painting and has also worked as a forklift operator at a factory, Veriga Lesce. His paintings have won awards and been exhibited in both Europe and the U.S. He also enjoys wood carving. Bogataj resides in his hometown of Lesce, Slovenia. He is married and has two daughters. See also List of ski flying accidents References External links One of Bogataj's paintings, "Morning in Lesce" Real Clear Sports' description of the crash 1948 births Living people Slovenian painters Slovenian male painters Slovenian male ski jumpers Wide World of Sports (American TV series) People from the Municipality of Radovljica

Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren

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The Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren (C199 / R199 / Z199) is a grand tourer jointly developed by German automotive manufacturer Mercedes-Benz and British automobile manufacturer McLaren Automotive and sold from 2003 to 2009. When the car was developed, Mercedes-Benz owned 40 percent of the McLaren Group and the car was produced in conjunction between the two companies. SLR is an abbreviation for "Sport Leicht Rennsport" (Sport Light Racing), a homage to the Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR which served as the car's inspiration. The car was offered in coupé, roadster and speedster bodystyles with the latter being a limited edition model. History At the 1999 North American International Auto Show, Mercedes-Benz presented their Vision SLR concept, inspired both by the Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR Uhlenhaut Coupé of 1955, which was a modified Mercedes-Benz W196S race car, and the design of closed-wheel Formula One cars, a field in which they had prior experience from Mercedes-Benz competing in Formula One in the past as constructor also winning back to back championships in their debut season 1954 then 1955. Also during the jointly developed project of Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren in 2003 Mercedes-Benz acquiring 40 percent ownership of McLaren Group competed in Formula One as partnership with the McLaren Formula One Team, and were developing powertrains and electronics for McLaren's Formula One cars. The car was presented as "Tomorrow Silver Arrow" in a clear reference to the Silver Arrows of the golden age of Mercedes in competition during the fifties. Later that year, during the Frankfurt Motor Show, a roadster version of the SLR concept was presented. The concept car was fitted with a 5.0-litre supercharged AMG V8 engine able to generate a power output of and of torque at 4,000 rpm, mated to a 5-speed automatic gearbox with Touchshift control. Wanting to bring the concept to production following its positive reception, Mercedes joined forces with their Formula One partner, McLaren, thus creating the Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren. The production version of the car was unveiled to the general public on 17 November 2003 having some minor design adjustments in respect of the initial design. The adjustments included more complex vents on both sides of the car, a redesigned front with the three pointed star plunged in the nose and red tinted rear lights. The Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren saw a production run of over six years. On 4 April 2008, Mercedes announced it would discontinue the SLR. The last of the coupés rolled off the production line at the end of 2009 and the roadster version was dropped in early 2010. Due to the automatic gear box, front mid-engine arrangement, and its driving characteristics, some automotive journalists classify the SLR McLaren as a grand tourer, whose rivals would include automobiles such as the Aston Martin DBS V12 and the Ferrari 599 GTB Fiorano. Technical highlights Brakes The SLR features Sensotronic Brake Control, a type of brake-by-wire system. The brake discs are carbon-ceramic units and provide better stopping power and fade resistance than steel discs when operating under ideal working temperature. Mercedes-Benz claims these discs are fade resistant to . The front discs are internally vented and measure in diameter; eight-piston callipers are used. Rear discs are in diameter with four-piston callipers. During wet conditions the callipers automatically skim the surface of the discs to keep them dry. Aerodynamics The SLR features active aerodynamics; there is a spoiler mounted on the rear integral air brake flap. The spoiler increases downforce depending on its angle of elevation (angle of attack). At a set speed, the spoiler/brake automatically raises to 10 degrees (15 degrees in the 722 edition), when demanded via the driver's switch, the elevation can be increased to 30 degrees (35 degrees in the 722 edition) for increased rear downforce, at the cost of increased steady state drag. The car has a flat underbody and a rear diffuser for improved downforce. Due to this, there was no other place for the exhaust pipes to exit, other than the sides of the car, making it another unique feature of the SLR. Engine The SLR has a hand-built supercharged all-aluminium alloy, SOHC 3 valves per cylinder 90° V8 engine, with a bore and stroke of and with a compression ratio of 8.8:1. The engine is lubricated via a dry sump system. The Lysholm-type twin-screw supercharger rotates at a maximum of 23,000 rpm and produces of boost. The compressed air is then cooled via two intercoolers. The engine generates a maximum power output of at 6,500 rpm and maximum torque of between 3,250 and 5,000 rpm. McLaren took the original concept car designed by Mercedes and moved the engine behind the front bumper, and around behind the front axle. They also optimised the design of the centre firewall. Transmission The SLR uses the AMG SPEEDSHIFT R five-speed automatic transmission with three manual modes. For durability, Mercedes selected a five-speed transmission rather than their seven-speed transmission which was more complex and used more parts. Performance The car uses carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) construction in an attempt to keep the weight low. Despite CFRP materials, the total curb weight is . The SLR could attain a top speed of . Car and Driver achieved a 0 to acceleration time of 3.4 seconds, and a time of 11.2 seconds at . Car and Driver also achieved top gear acceleration and times of 1.7 and 2.4 seconds, which are the fastest ever recorded by the magazine in a production car. The SLR also pulled 0.97 g on the skidpad. The magazine suggested that the times may be even lower if temperatures were lower. Motor Trend tested the SLR and achieved a 0- acceleration time of 3.3 seconds in April 2006. Road And Track tested the car in their July 2005 Road Test and reached from a standstill in 3.5 seconds. The 0 to sprint was achieved in 7.5 seconds and a run was completed in 11.5 seconds at . Variants 722 Edition A new version of the SLR was introduced in 2006, called the Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren 722 Edition. The "722" refers to the victory by Stirling Moss and his co-driver Denis Jenkinson in a Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR with the starting number 722 (indicating a start time of 7:22 a.m.) at the Mille Miglia in 1955. The "722 Edition" includes a modified version of the engine used in the SLR generating a power output of at 6,500 rpm and at 4,000 rpm. 19-inch light-alloy wheels were used to reduce unsprung mass, while modifications were also made to the suspension, with a stiffer damper setup and lower ride height introduced for improved handling. Larger diameter front brakes and a revised front air dam and rear diffuser were fitted. Other exterior changes include red "722" badging, harking back to the original 722 racer, black tinted tail lights and headlamps. The interior has carbon fibre trim and black leather upholstery combined with Alcantara. The SLR 722 can accelerate from 0 to in 3.6 seconds, 0 to in 10.2 seconds and in 27.6 seconds, and can attain a top speed of , faster than the standard Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren. Roadster A roadster version of the SLR went on sale in September 2007. It uses the same engine as its coupé sibling, generating a power output of , to propel it to a top speed of and a 0 to acceleration time of 3.6 seconds. However, as a convertible, the roadster was burdened with extra weight, which affected performance and handling. The Roadster's roof is made from a "newly developed material" and does not take the form of a folding metal arrangement, as is common on many modern cars. Following a manual unlatching, it takes ten seconds to fold away electrically. The SLR Roadster was aimed to compete against other luxurious sports cars such as the Pagani Zonda F Roadster. Roadster 722 S (2009) The Roadster variant of the 722 Edition was unveiled at the 2007 Frankfurt Motor Show. The roadster has the same engine and suspension setup as the coupé along with the folding roof mechanism shared with the standard SLR roadster. It can accelerate to from standstill in 3.1 seconds and has top speed of . The model went on sale in January 2009 and production was limited to 150 units. 722 GT (2007) The 722 GT is a racing version of the SLR 722 which was developed for a one-make racing series called the SLR Club. The cars were built by Ray Mallock Ltd. following requests from enthusiasts with approval from Mercedes-Benz. The car has new wider bodywork to accommodate OZ racing wheels. The front grill vents are removed and larger, free flowing air extractors sit on the hood and flank the side of the car. The rear now has a fixed racing wing and diffuser. Under the body, the car has shed of weight and reduced its dry weight to . The engine remains in relatively stock specification but now generates a power output of and of torque at 1.75 bar (175 kPa) of boost and is equipped with a new racing filter and exhaust system. The car has a modified Eibach racing suspension with a modified stabiliser at the front that improves handling. An adjustable wheel camber along with shock absorbers with variable compression and rebound settings allows the suspension setup to be configured for different race tracks. New 18-inch OZ racing wheels with central locking nuts allow for faster tyre changes while a pneumatic jack system aids further in the process. The stock carbon ceramic braking system has been replaced with an FIA approved racing brake system with steel brake discs having a modified cooling system and balance that ensure improved stopping power. The transmission from the standard car is retained but is now configured for race use. Inside, the car is stripped out with only the essential functions being available, controlled from a carbon fibre binnacle. The stock steering wheel has been replaced with a racing steering wheel with paddle shifters and a gear change indicator, the heated leather seats have also been removed in favour of Recaro racing bucket seats with six-point racing harness and the gauges have been replaced with a digital racing display. New carbon fibre door panels, plexiglass windows and a full roll cage complete the transformation. Production was limited to just 21 units. The 722 GT could accelerate from in 3.3 seconds and could attain a top speed of , which is less than the standard SLR due to added aerodynamic drag. SLR McLaren 722 GT was available to the North American market exclusively through their dealerships by Renntech. Stirling Moss (2009) Named after the British racing driver of the same name, the SLR Stirling Moss is a limited edition variant unveiled at the 2009 North American International Auto Show, which uses a speedster styling that does not include a roof or a windscreen. The car is designed by Korean designer Yoon Il-hun and is inspired by the 300 SLR race car. The interior was designed by Dutch designer Sarkis Benliyan. The SLR Stirling Moss was to be the last series of the McLaren SLR built under the partnership between Mercedes-Benz and McLaren, until McLaren announced their own final Edition of the SLR in late 2010. The supercharged 5.4-litre SLR AMG V8 engine is rated at . The SLR Stirling Moss could attain a top speed of with acceleration from 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph) achieved in 3 seconds. The car is approximately lighter than the regular model due to carbon fibre construction and speedster styling. The SLR Stirling Moss began production in June 2009, after the SLR Roadster was discontinued in May 2009. All 75 cars planned to be produced were completed by December 2009. The SLR Stirling Moss was available only to the existing SLR owners and each car cost in excess of US$1 million. McLaren Edition (2011–2013) In December 2010, more than a year after the SLR was officially discontinued, McLaren Special Operations (MSO) announced a bespoke program for the SLR. The McLaren Edition is based on all variants of the SLR with the exclusion of Stirling Moss and includes revised bodywork (front and rear bumper, grille, top shell, side grills, rear diffuser, wheels) and interior parts, along with upgraded steering and suspension components and a new titanium sports exhaust. The cars were modified exactly to the owner's specifications and due to this no car was similar to the other. The personalisation cost GB£150,000 and was offered for only 25 cars. Sales Total sales were 615 units in 2005, 261 units in 2006, and 275 units in 2007, falling well below Mercedes-McLaren's goal of selling 500 units annually. When the SLR was first announced, Mercedes said total production would be limited to 3,500 units. 1,400 units had been sold by the end of 2007. The factory confirmed that production would halt at the end of 2009. A total of 2,157 cars were produced. Motorsports Spencer Pumpelly entered an SLR McLaren in the Speed World Challenge GT class, driving for TRG Motorsports. See also Mercedes-Benz W196 Mercedes-Benz 300SL Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG References Notes Bibliography External links Mercedes SLR AMG Overview McLaren Mercedes-Benz SLR pages: SLR coupé, SLR Roadster, SLR 722 coupé, Roadster 722 S SLR McLaren McLaren vehicles Grand tourers Sports cars Roadsters Cars introduced in 2003 Hardtop convertibles Front mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive vehicles

Arid

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A region is arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Environments subject to arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most "arid" climates straddle the Equator; these places include parts of Africa, Asia, South America, North America, and Australia. Change over time The distribution of aridity observed at any one point in time is largely the result of the general circulation of the atmosphere. The latter does change significantly over time through climate change. For example, temperature increase (by 1.5–2.1 percent) across the Nile Basin over the next 30–40 years could change the region from semi-arid to arid, resulting in a significant reduction in agricultural land. In addition, changes in land use can result in greater demands on soil water and induce a higher degree of aridity. See also Aridity index Arid Forest Research Institute Desert climate Desiccation tolerance Drought Relative humidity Vapor pressure References Griffiths, J. F. (1985) 'Climatology', Chapter 2 in Handbook of Applied Meteorology, Edited by David D. Houghton, John Wiley and Sons, . Durrenberger, R. W. (1987) 'Arid Climates', article in The Encyclopedia of Climatology, p. 92–101, Edited by J. E. Oliver and R. W. Fairbridge, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, . Stadler, S. J (1987) 'Aridity Indexes', article in The Encyclopedia of Climatology, p. 102–107, Edited by J. E. Oliver and R. W. Fairbridge, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, . Blue Peace for the Nile Report, 2009, Strategic Foresight Group Climate patterns Soil science Water scarcity

Emergency Banking Act

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The Emergency Banking Act (EBA) (the official title of which was the Emergency Banking Relief Act), Public Law 73-1, 48 Stat. 1 (March 9, 1933), was an act passed by the United States Congress in March 1933 in an attempt to stabilize the banking system. Beginning on February 14, 1933, Michigan, an industrial state that had been hit particularly hard by the Great Depression in the United States, declared a four-day bank holiday. Fears of other bank closures spread from state to state as people rushed to withdraw their deposits while they still could do so. Within weeks, all other states held their own bank holidays in an attempt to stem the bank runs, with Delaware becoming the 48th and last state to close its banks March 4. Bank holiday Following his inauguration on March 4, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt set out to rebuild confidence in the nation's banking system and to stabilize America's banking system. On March 6 he declared a four-day national banking holiday that kept all banks shut until Congress could act. During this time the federal government would inspect all banks, re-open those that were sufficiently solvent, re-organize those that could be saved, and close those that were beyond repair. To inspire confidence about the reforms initiated FDR gave one of his first "fireside chats" explaining the alterations made by the federal government on the banking industry. Due to confidence in FDR and the proposed alterations Americans returned 1 billion dollars to bank vaults in the following week. Passage of the Emergency Banking Act A draft law, prepared by the Treasury staff during Herbert Hoover's administration, was passed on March 9, 1933. The new law allowed the twelve Federal Reserve Banks to issue additional currency on good assets so that banks that reopened would be able to meet every legitimate call. The Emergency Banking Act, an amendment to the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, was introduced on March 9, 1933, to a joint session of Congress, and was passed the same evening amid an atmosphere of chaos and uncertainty as over 100 new Democratic members of Congress swept into power determined to take radical steps to address banking failures and other economic malaise. The EBA was one of President Roosevelt's first projects in the first 100 days of his presidency. The sense of urgency was such that the act was passed with only a single copy available on the floor of the House of Representatives and legislators voted on it after the bill was read aloud to them by Chairman of the House Banking Committee Henry Steagall. Copies were made available to senators as the bill was being proposed in the Senate, after it had passed in the House. According to William L. Silber: "The Emergency Banking Act of 1933, passed by Congress on March 9, 1933, three days after FDR declared a nationwide bank holiday, combined with the Federal Reserve's commitment to supply unlimited amounts of currency to reopened banks, created 100 percent deposit insurance". Public reaction Much to everyone's relief, when the institutions reopened for business on March 13, 1933, depositors stood in line to return their stashed cash to neighbourhood banks. Within two weeks, Americans had redeposited more than half of the currency that they had squirrelled away before the bank suspension. The stock market registered its approval as well. On March 15, 1933, the first day of stock trading after the extended closure of Wall Street, the Dow Jones Industrial Average gaining 8.26 points to close at 62.10; a gain of 15.34%. , the gain still stands as the largest one-day percentage price increase ever. With the benefit of hindsight, the nationwide Bank Holiday and the Emergency Banking Act of March, 1933, ended the bank runs that had plagued the Great Depression." Hoarding gold becomes a crime One month later, on April 5, 1933, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 6102 criminalizing the possession of monetary gold by any individual, partnership, association or corporation and Congress passed a similar resolution in June 1933. 1933 Banking Act This act was a temporary response to a major problem. The 1933 Banking Act passed later that year presented elements of longer-term response, including the formation of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). See also Causes of the Great Depression Executive Order 6102 Gold Clause Cases Great Contraction References Further reading Dighe, Ranjit S. "Saving private capitalism: The US bank holiday of 1933." Essays in Economic & Business History 29 (2011). 42–57. online Edwards, Sebastian. "Gold, the Brains Trust, and Roosevelt." History of Political Economy 49.1 (2017): 1-30. online Kennedy, Susan Estabrook. The Banking Crisis of 1933 (U Press of Kentucky, 1973). Silber, William L. “Why Did FDR’s Bank Holiday Succeed?” Federal Reserve Bank of New York Economic Policy Review, (July 2009), pp 19–30 online Taylor, Jason E., and Todd C. Neumann. "Recovery spring, faltering fall: March to November 1933." Explorations in Economic History 61#1 (2016): 54–67. Wicker, Elmus. The Banking Panics of the Great Depression (Cambridge UP, 1996). Wigmore, Barrie. “Was the Bank Holiday of 1933 Caused by a Run on the Dollar?” Journal of Economic History 47#3 (1987): 739–755. External links Full Text of the Emergency Banking Act Documents on the Banking Emergency of 1933 available on FRASER 1933 in law 1933 in the United States United States federal banking legislation 73rd United States Congress 1933 in economics ko:뉴딜 정책#은행과 금융 개혁

Nine Lives

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Nine Lives may refer to the common myth that cats have nine lives. Nine Lives or 9 Lives may also refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Films Nine Lives (1957 film), or Ni Liv, a Norwegian film Nine Lives (2002 film), a horror film Unstoppable (2004 film), an American action film also released under the title Nine Lives Nine Lives (2005 film), an American drama film Nine Lives (2016 film), a French comedy film Literature "Nine Lives" (novelette), 1969 science fiction novelette by Ursula K. Le Guin Nine Lives, 1959 autobiography of the Battle of Britain pilot Alan Christopher Deere Batman: Nine Lives, a 1992 graphic novel Garfield: His 9 Lives, a 1984 collection of illustrated short stories Nine Lives: In Search of the Sacred in Modern India, a 2009 travel book by William Dalrymple The 9 Lives (manga), an Original English-language manga Music Albums 9 Lives (AZ album), 2001 9 Lives (Kat DeLuna album), 2007 9 Lives (Pandora album), 2003 Nine Lives (Aerosmith album), 1997 Nine Lives (Deuce album), 2012 Nine Lives (Last Autumn's Dream album), 2012 Nine Lives (Robert Plant album), 2006 Nine Lives (Bonnie Raitt album), 1986 Nine Lives (REO Speedwagon album), 1979 Nine Lives (Steve Winwood album), 2008 Nine Lives (Von Hertzen Brothers album), 2013 Songs "9 Lives" (Alexandra Stan song), 2017 "Nine Lives" (Aerosmith song), 1997 "Nine Lives" (Def Leppard song), 2008 "Nine Lives", by Edguy from Tinnitus Sanctus (2008) Television "9 Lives", an episode of television series Psych "Nine Lives", an episode of the first season of Kung Fu Other uses 9 lives, a line of Eveready batteries 9Lives, a pet food brand See also 9 (disambiguation)

Electronic control unit

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An electronic control unit (ECU), also known as an electronic control module (ECM), is an embedded system in automotive electronics that controls one or more of the electrical systems or subsystems in a car or other motor vehicle. Modern vehicles have many ECUs, and these can include some or all of the following: engine control module (ECM), powertrain control module (PCM), transmission control module (TCM), brake control module (BCM or EBCM), central control module (CCM), central timing module (CTM), general electronic module (GEM), body control module (BCM), and suspension control module (SCM). These ECUs together are sometimes referred to collectively as the car's computer though technically they are all separate computers, not a single one. Sometimes an assembly incorporates several individual control modules (a PCM often controls both the engine and the transmission). Some modern motor vehicles have up to 150 ECUs. Embedded software in ECUs continues to increase in line count, complexity, and sophistication. Managing the increasing complexity and number of ECUs in a vehicle has become a key challenge for original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). Types Generic Industry Controller Naming - Is the naming of controllers where the logical thought of the controller's name implies the system the controller is responsible for controlling Generic Powertrain The Generic Powertrain pertains to a vehicles emission system and is the only regulated controller name. Other Controllers All other controller names are decided upon by the individual OEM. The engine controller may have several different names, such as "DME", "Enhanced Powertrain", "PGM-FI" and many others. Door control unit (DCU) Engine control unit (ECU) — not to be confused with electronic control unit, the generic term for all these devices Electric Power Steering Control Unit (PSCU) — Generally this will be integrated into the EPS power pack. Human–machine interface (HMI) Powertrain control module (PCM): Sometimes the functions of the Engine Control Unit and transmission control module (TCM) are combined into a single unit called the Powertrain Control Module. Seat Control Unit Speed control unit (SCU) Telematic control unit (TCU) Transmission control module (TCM) Brake Control Module (BCM; ABS or ESC) Battery management system (BMS) Key elements Core Microcontroller Memory SRAM EEPROM Flash Inputs Supply Voltage and Ground Digital inputs Analog inputs Outputs Actuator drivers (e.g. injectors, relays, valves) H bridge drivers for servomotors Logic outputs Communication links Housing Bus Transceivers, e.g. for K-Line, CAN, Ethernet Embedded Software Boot Loader Metadata for ECU and Software Identification, Version Management, Checksums Functional Software Routines Configuration Data Design and development The development of an ECU involves both hardware and software required to perform the functions expected from that particular module. Automotive ECU's are being developed following the V-model. Recently the trend is to dedicate a significant amount of time and effort to develop safe modules by following standards like ISO 26262. It is rare that a module is developed fully from scratch. The design is generally iterative and improvements are made to both the hardware and software. The development of most ECUs is carried out by Tier 1 suppliers based on specifications provided by the OEM. Testing and validation As part of the development cycle, manufacturers perform detailed FMEAs and other failure analyses to catch failure modes that can lead to unsafe conditions or driver annoyance. Extensive testing and validation activities are carried out as part of the Production part approval process to gain the confidence of the hardware and software. On-board diagnostics or OBD help provide specific data related to which system or component failed or caused a failure during run time and help perform repairs. Modifications Some people may wish to modify their ECU so as to be able to add or change functionality. However modern ECUs come equipped with protection locks to prevent users from modifying the circuit or exchange chips. The protection locks are a form of digital rights management (DRM), the circumventing of which is illegal in certain jurisdictions. In the United States for example, the DMCA criminalizes circumvention of DRM, though an exemption does apply that allows circumvention the owner of a motorized land vehicle if it is required to allow diagnosis, repair or lawful modification (ie. that does not violate applicable law such as emissions regulations). References Power control Engine technology Fuel injection systems Engine control systems Engine components Onboard computers Auto parts Automation

Mitsubishi GTO

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The Mitsubishi GTO is a front-engine, all-wheel/front-wheel drive grand touring/sports car manufactured and marketed by Mitsubishi from 1990-2000 over a single generation. Manufactured in a three-door hatchback coupé body style in Nagoya, Japan, the 2+2 four-seaters were marketed in the Japanese domestic market (JDM) as the GTO, and globally as Mitsubishi 3000GT. In North America, it was sold both as the Mitsubishi 3000GT (1991–1999) and the Dodge Stealth (1991–1996), a badge engineered, mechanically identical captive import. As a collaborative effort between Chrysler and Mitsubishi Motors, Chrysler was responsible for the Stealth's exterior styling. The marketing variants were all based on Mitsubishi's Sigma/Diamante and retained their transverse mounted 3-liter, 24-valve V6 engines and front-wheel-drive layout. The GTO's engines were naturally aspirated or with twin-turbochargers and were also available with active aerodynamics (automatically adjusting front and rear spoilers), four-wheel-steering, full-time all-wheel-drive and adaptive suspension. Mitsubishi marketed a retractable hardtop variant, which were engineered and converted from coupé models in California by ASC, and marketed as the GTO Spyder or VR4 Spyder for model years 1993-1995. These were the first fully automated retractable hardtop marketed since the 1959 Ford Skyliner. The JDM model took its name from the Galant GTO, a two-door hardtop coupé marketed by the company in the early 1970s, which in turn took its name from the Ferrari 250 GTO, short for Gran Turismo Omologata which signified that it met motorsport homologation regulation. Overview Following the successful showing of the Mitsubishi HSR and Mitsubishi HSX concept cars at the 1989 Tokyo Motor Show, Mitsubishi unveiled the new GTO as a 2+2 seating grand touring car in order to compete with the Mazda Cosmo, Nissan 300ZX, Subaru SVX, and the Toyota Supra. They resurrected the GTO name, and the car went on to serve as Mitsubishi's flagship for the remainder of the decade. Despite the cachet of the badge at home, it was marketed as the Mitsubishi 3000GT and as the Dodge Stealth outside Japan; the company was concerned that connoisseurs would object to the evocative nameplate from the highly regarded Ferrari 250 GTO and Pontiac GTO being used on a Japanese vehicle. Each was built on the same production line at Mitsubishi's plant in Nagoya, Japan. Its Japanese introduction coincided with the softening Japanese economy, subsequently known as the "bubble economy". JDM GTOs were marketed at Mitsubishi's Car Plaza retail chain, with JDM buyers paying additional annual road tax as well as elevated taxes for being classified as a large car by Japan's exterior dimension regulations. A Dodge Stealth was scheduled as a 1991 Indianapolis 500 pace car, until the United Auto Workers (UAW) rejected it because of its Japanese rather than US-manufacture. A prototype of the Dodge Viper was substituted in place of it. Still used as a backup pace car, eventual race winner Rick Mears received a Dodge Stealth for winning the race and dealers sold pace car replica editions, as the Viper did not begin production until later that year. 1990–1993 Z16A Early models were internally designated Z16A and incorporated full-time four-wheel drive, four-wheel steering, active aerodynamics with automatically adjusting front and rear spoilers, sport/tour exhaust modes and electronically controlled suspension (ECS). The GTO, 3000GT and Stealth featured pop-up headlights and articulated blister caps on the hood to accommodate the ECS controllers at the top of the strut turrets. The Dodge Stealth featured a signature cross-hair front bumper fascia and crescent-shaped rear spoiler — and did not include active aerodynamics. In 1993 the engine went to a 4 bolt main and a forged crankshaft, some of the early models in 1993 still received the cast crank present in the first years. In the U.S., both the 1991 to 1993 Dodge Stealth R/T Turbo and Mitsubishi 3000GT VR-4 received the transversely mounted 24V V6 paired with a long ratio 5-speed manual. The base model Stealth was the only model to feature crank windows, without the sunroof it weighted at 3075 pounds or 1395kg. All the other models received electronic windows (automatic on the driver side). Automatic climate control was standard on all turbo models. The Stealth turbo weights 3800 pounds compared to the 3814 pounds of the VR-4. The non turbo 3000gt (with sunroof) weights 3373 pounds and 3200 without the sunroof. Electronically adjustable leather seats were standard on all US VR-4 while the GTO in japan were offered with slightly lighter cloth seats. Magazines from the era praised its brutal acceleration and AWD grip. By 1993 all electronic gadgets were still standard on the VR-4 model, with magazines quoting 0- acceleration times ranging from sub 5 seconds to 6.3 seconds and quarter mile times of 13.6-13.9 seconds at Dodge claims a 0-60 of 4.89 seconds for the 1991 RT turbo models. Only 3000GT models outside Japan could be configured with front-wheel drive rather than all-wheel drive. In Japan, the base GTO SR included all-wheel drive; no front-wheel drive version was offered. The GTO SR had similar power output figures as the US spec 3000GT SL and was offered with a different five-speed manual or four-speed automatic transmissions. The transmissions in japanese models NA models had different gear ratios and a different part number. Japanese buyers did not receive the SOHC V6 which was standard on the base model Dodge Stealth and US spec 3000GT starting in 1997. Japanese buyers had the choice of either a naturally aspirated DOHC V6 and twin-turbocharged DOHC V6. In Europe, instead of the TD04-09B turbochargers used on Japanese and US Twin Turbo models, the EU-spec model received the higher capacity TD04-13G turbochargers. While power output is no higher than contemporary market models, these have lower discharge temperatures to better handle the prolonged high speeds possible on the German Autobahn, along with an upgraded transmission. The engine was rated at ; the modifications took time and European models only went on sale in the Autumn of 1992. In 1994, Mitsubishi released a limited edition of what was now the previous generation 3000GT, branded as "Beckenbauer Edition." Honoring Franz Beckenbauer. All were painted Lamborghini yellow and were equipped with a Remus sports exhaust, OZ Futura rims, a numbered plate signed by Beckenbauer, and a C-net mobile phone system. Only 30 were made, sold through 1995. 1994–1997 Z15A (2WS) and Z16A (4WS) Facelift models were internally designated Z15A (2WS) and Z16A (4WS) and featured a revised front bumper to accommodate projector beam headlights and small, round projector fog lights. They were unveiled in August 1993 in Japan and gradually made their way to other markets as the earlier cars sold out. Some markets didn't get these models until 1996, such as the UK. The caps on the hood were replaced with integrated sheet metal blisters, and revised side air vents and rear bumpers were added. The interior was redesigned with dual air bags, a new audio system, and revised air conditioning refrigerant. The engines in the twin-turbo models received an increase to and an increase in torque from . Japanese models received an increase in torque, but the power rating remained unchanged at . The VR-4 model now included a six-speed Getrag manual transmission with revised gear ratios, especially in lower gears like 3rd which went until approximately (vs the first generation 3000GT VR-4's third gear which went until . Larger wheel/tire combinations were provided beginning in 1995. The base and SL model received 16" wheels in silver or chrome with 225/55 tires, while the VR4 now had 18" chrome wheels with 245/40 tires (the Spyder had the standard 17" with higher profile tires from 1994 to handle the additional of weight). With subsequent price increases, features were discontinued: the tunable exhaust was phased out after 1994 model year, the ECS after 1995 model year, and the active aerodynamics disappeared after 1996. This was also when Chrysler ceased sales of the Dodge Stealth captive import, and for the remainder of its life only Mitsubishi-badged versions were available. Chrysler and Mitsubishi worked with ASC to engineer and convert 3000GTs into retractable hardtops, marketed as the Spyder VR4 for 1995 and 1996 model years. In 1995, Mitsubishi's 3000GT Spyder was available in four color combinations: red with grey leather interior, black with ivory leather interior, white pearl with grey, and martinique yellow with ivory leather interior. In 1996 the 3000GT Spyder was available in red with tan interior, black pearl with tan leather, white pearl with tan leather interior, and green pearl with tan leather. SL Spyders were only available with an automatic transmission while the VR4 Spyder was only available with a 6-speed manual. GTO MR The GTO MR model appeared in the Japanese market in August 1994. The ‘Mitsubishi Racing’ or MR moniker, has been used in most performance Mitsubishis such as the Lancer Evolution, and usually meant a lighter model. The GTO MR was essentially a lightweight GTO Twin Turbo that deleted 4WS, ABS, ECS and Active Aero, but was mechanically identical to the normal GTO Twin Turbo. Chassis numbers for the MR start with Z15A. This allowed the MR edition to reach a weight of 3637 pounds. The awd system featured in the MR received the same 45% front 55% rear split ratio as the other turbo models. Best Motoring, a Japanese television program about Japanese cars, debuted the 1994 GTO MR in an hour long program where it beat the lighter R32 Skyline GT-R over a mile in acceleration. Reception The redesign of the second generation 3000GT was well received, especially the loss of pop up headlights and smoother hood. The Tuneable Exhaust System was phased out in 1995 and the Active Aero was phased out in 1996. The new 6-speed was geared well and paired with the extra horsepower and torque allowed the car to out-accelerate its rivals from a standing start. A notable change was the brake redesign, facelift models received 2 piston rear brake calipers and larger front brakes that showed no sign of fading under heavy use unlike the early models. Braking distances remained similar. These changes made all models lighter, the VR-4 was now 3737 pounds and the SL 3263 pounds. Road tests at the time showed the second generation 3000GT VR-4 to be capable of in 4.8 - 5.4 seconds and the quarter mile in 13.5 seconds at , making it faster in a straight line than the Nissan 300ZX Twin Turbo and Mazda RX-7 Twin Turbo. Though heavy, it could be taken around a track quickly, with noted under steer and a feeling of nose heaviness. 1997–2000 Z15AM The SOHC engine, previously only available in the base model Stealth, was added to the Mitsubishi range after the Dodge version was discontinued. Slower sales in the American sports car market led to a planned facelift for 1997 being abandoned in favor of minor cosmetic adjustments, including a new front bumper and rainbow shaped arched type wing. The 3000gt's featuring the single cam engine had a weight of 3131 pounds, noted that they were not offered with the sunroof and leather seats. In 1999, the car received another exterior makeover, including a new aggressive front bumper, headlamps, turn signals, sail panels, and a true inverted airfoil spoiler coined the "Combat Wing" for the 1999 VR-4 to distinguish it from previous models. The 1999 non turbo models kept the arched style spoiler. 1999 was the final year the 3000GT was available in the U.S. market. With sales slowing to a trickle and new side impact regulations looming, production for the Japanese domestic market finally ceased in 2000. A last two cars were sold the following year. In a test by Popular Mechanics the VR-4 ran a 13.44 seconds quarter mile (~402 m) at . All years Z11A The Z11A chassis code was used for the 3000GT ES and SL, and the base Dodge Stealth. The Mitsubishis lacked the "twin turbo" writing on the faux windows. The Dodges had different bumpers than the turbo cars. Otherwise the non-turbo cars looked cosmetically like the turbo cars. These cars were front wheel drive and lacked four-wheel steering and active aero. They came with a 5 speed manual (F5M33) or with automatic transmissions. Both the DOHC and SOHC 6G72 V6 was offered in this platform, with the DOHC being the more powerful. Gallery References Notes Bibliography External links GTO press release, Mitsubishi-motors.com, August 25, 1998 (Japanese) Gto 2000s cars All-wheel-drive vehicles Front-wheel-drive vehicles Front-wheel-drive sports cars Vehicles with four-wheel steering Coupés Sports cars Cars introduced in 1990

List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots

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Assassination attempts and plots on the president of the United States have been numerous, ranging from the early 19th century to the 2010s. Four sitting presidents have been killed: Abraham Lincoln (1865, by John Wilkes Booth), James A. Garfield (1881, by Charles J. Guiteau), William McKinley (1901, by Leon Czolgosz), and John F. Kennedy (1963, by Lee Harvey Oswald). Additionally, two presidents have been injured in attempted assassinations: Theodore Roosevelt (1912 [former president], by John Flammang Schrank) and Ronald Reagan (1981, by John Hinckley Jr.). In all of these cases, the attacker's weapon was a firearm. This article lists assassination attempts on former presidents and presidents-elect, but not on men who had not yet been elected president. Many assassination attempts, both successful and unsuccessful, were motivated by a desire to change the policy of the American government, undertaken by rational men. Not all such attacks, however, had political reasons. Many other attackers had questionable mental stability, and a few were judged legally insane. Historian James W. Clarke suggests that most assassination attempters have been sane and politically motivated, whereas the Department of Justice's legal manual claims that a large majority has been insane. Some assassins, especially mentally ill ones, acted solely on their own, whereas those pursuing political agendas have more often found supporting conspirators. Most assassination plotters were arrested and punished by execution or lengthy detainment in a prison or insane asylum. Since the vice president, the successor of a removed president, shares the president's political party affiliation, the death of the president is unlikely to result in major policy changes. Possibly for that reason, political groups typically do not coordinate such attacks, even in times of partisan strife. Threats of violence against the president are often made for rhetorical or humorous effect without serious intent, while threatening the president of the United States has been a federal felony since 1917. Presidents assassinated Abraham Lincoln The assassination of Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, took place on Good Friday, April 14, 1865, at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., at about 10:15 PM. The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, was a well-known actor and a Confederate sympathizer from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate Army, he had contacts within the Confederate secret service. In 1864, Booth formulated a plan (very similar to one of Thomas N. Conrad previously authorized by the Confederacy) to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. After attending an April 11, 1865, speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for black people, Booth decided to assassinate the president instead. Learning that the president would be attending Ford's Theatre, Booth formulated a plan with co-conspirators to assassinate Lincoln at the theater, as well as Vice President Andrew Johnson and Secretary of State William H. Seward at their homes. Lincoln attended the play Our American Cousin at Ford's Theatre. As the president sat in his state box in the balcony watching the play with his wife Mary and two guests, Major Henry Rathbone and his fiancée Clara Harris, Booth entered from behind. He aimed a .44-caliber Derringer pistol at the back of Lincoln's head and fired, mortally wounding him. Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped. An unconscious Lincoln was examined by doctors and taken across the street to the Petersen House. After remaining in a coma for eight hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 AM on April 15. As he died, his breathing grew quieter, his face more calm. According to some accounts, at his last drawn breath, on the morning after the assassination, he smiled broadly and then expired. Historians, particularly author Lee Davis, have emphasized Lincoln's peaceful appearance when and after he died: "It was the first time in four years, probably, that a peaceful expression crossed his face." Field wrote in a letter to The New York Times: "there was 'no apparent suffering, no convulsive action, no rattling of the throat...[only] a mere cessation of breathing'... I had never seen upon the President's face an expression more genial and pleasing." The president's secretary, John Hay, saw "a look of unspeakable peace came upon his worn features". Beyond Lincoln's death, the plot failed: Seward was only wounded and Johnson's would-be attacker did not follow through. After being on the run for 12 days, Booth was tracked down and found on April 26, 1865, by Union Army soldiers to a farm in Virginia, some south of Washington. After refusing to surrender, Booth was fatally shot by Union cavalryman Boston Corbett. Four other conspirators were later hanged for their roles in the conspiracy. James A. Garfield The assassination of James A. Garfield, the 20th president of the United States, began at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C., at 9:30 AM on Saturday, July 2, 1881, less than four months after he took office. As the president was arriving at the train station, writer and lawyer Charles J. Guiteau shot him twice with a .442 Webley British Bull Dog revolver; one bullet grazed the president's shoulder, and the other pierced his back. For the next eleven weeks, Garfield endured medical malpractice before dying on September 19, 1881, at 10:35 PM, of complications caused by iatrogenic infections, which were contracted by the doctors' relentless probing of his wound with unsterilized fingers and instruments. He had survived for a total of 79 days after being shot. Guiteau was immediately arrested. After a highly publicized trial lasting from November 14, 1881, to January 25, 1882, he was found guilty and sentenced to death. A subsequent appeal was rejected, and he was executed by hanging on June 30, 1882, in the District of Columbia, two days before the first anniversary of the shooting. Guiteau was assessed during his trial as mentally unbalanced or from the effects of neurosyphilis. He claimed to have shot Garfield out of disappointment at being passed over for appointment as Ambassador to France. He attributed the president's victory in the election to a speech he wrote in support of Garfield. William McKinley The assassination of United States president William McKinley took place at 4:07 p.m. on Friday, September 6, 1901, at the Temple of Music in Buffalo, New York. McKinley, attending the Pan-American Exposition, was shot twice in the abdomen at close range by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, who was armed with a .32 caliber revolver that was concealed underneath a handkerchief. The first bullet ricocheted off either a button or an award medal on McKinley's jacket and lodged in his sleeve; the second shot pierced his stomach. Although McKinley initially appeared to be recovering, his condition rapidly declined due to gangrene setting in around his wounds and he died on September 14, 1901, at 2:15 a.m. Members of the crowd, started by James Benjamin Parker, subdued and captured Czolgosz. Afterward, the 4th Brigade, National Guard Signal Corps, and police intervened, beating Czolgosz so severely it was initially thought he might not live to stand trial. On September 24, after a two-day trial, in which the defendant refused to defend himself, Czolgosz was convicted and later sentenced to death. He was executed by the electric chair in Auburn Prison on October 29, 1901. Czolgosz's actions were politically motivated, although it remains unclear what outcome, if any, he believed the shooting would yield. Following President McKinley's assassination, Congress directed the Secret Service to protect the president of the United States as part of its mandate. John F. Kennedy The assassination of United States president John F. Kennedy took place at 12:30 p.m. (18:30 UTC) on Friday, November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas, during a presidential motorcade in Dealey Plaza. Kennedy was riding with his wife Jacqueline, Texas Governor John Connally, and Connally's wife, Nellie when he was fatally shot by former U.S. Marine and American defector Lee Harvey Oswald from the sixth floor of the Texas School Book Depository. He was shot once in the back, the bullet exiting via his throat, and once in the head. Governor Connally was seriously wounded, and bystander James Tague received a minor facial injury from a small piece of curbstone that had fragmented after it was struck by one of the bullets. The motorcade rushed to Parkland Memorial Hospital, where President Kennedy was pronounced dead at 1:00 p.m. Oswald was arrested and charged by the Dallas Police Department for the assassination of Kennedy and for the murder of Dallas policeman J. D. Tippit, who was shot dead in a residential neighborhood in the Oak Cliff section of Dallas just hours later. On Sunday, November 24, 1963, while being transferred from the city jail to the county jail, Oswald was fatally shot in the basement of Dallas Police Department Headquarters by Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby. Ruby was convicted of Oswald's murder, even though it was later overturned on appeal. In 1967, Ruby died in prison while awaiting a new trial. In September 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Kennedy and Tippit were both killed by Oswald, that Oswald had acted entirely alone in both murders, and that Ruby had acted alone in killing Oswald. Nonetheless, polls conducted from 1966 to 2004 found that up to 80% of Americans surveyed have suspected that there was a plot or cover-up to kill President Kennedy. Conspiracy theories have persisted to the present. Presidents wounded Theodore Roosevelt Three and a half years after he left office, Theodore Roosevelt ran in the 1912 presidential election as a member of the Progressive Party. While campaigning in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on October 14, 1912, John Flammang Schrank, a saloon-keeper from New York who had been stalking him for weeks, shot Roosevelt once in the chest with a .38-caliber Colt Police Positive Special. The 50-page text of his campaign speech titled "Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual", folded over twice in Roosevelt's breast pocket, and a metal glasses case slowed the bullet, saving his life. Schrank was immediately disarmed, captured, and might have been lynched had Roosevelt not shouted for Schrank to remain unharmed. Roosevelt assured the crowd he was all right, then ordered police to take charge of Schrank and to make sure no violence was done to him. Roosevelt, as an experienced hunter and anatomist, correctly concluded that since he was not coughing blood, the bullet had not reached his lung, and he declined suggestions to go to the hospital immediately. Instead, he delivered his scheduled speech with blood seeping into his shirt. He spoke for 84 minutes before completing his speech and accepting medical attention. His opening comments to the gathered crowd were, "Ladies and gentlemen, I don't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot, but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose." Afterwards, probes and an x-ray showed that the bullet had lodged in Roosevelt's chest muscle, but did not penetrate the pulmonary pleurae. Doctors concluded that it would be less dangerous to leave it in place than to attempt to remove it, and Roosevelt carried the bullet with him for the rest of his life. He spent two weeks recuperating before returning to the campaign trail. Despite his tenacity, Roosevelt ultimately lost his bid for reelection to the Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson. At Schrank's trial, the would-be assassin claimed that William McKinley had visited him in a dream and told him to avenge his assassination by killing Roosevelt. He was found legally insane and was institutionalized until his death in 1943. Ronald Reagan March 30, 1981: As Ronald Reagan returned to his limousine after speaking at the Washington Hilton hotel, would-be assassin John Hinckley Jr. fired six gunshots toward him, striking him and three others. Reagan was seriously wounded by a bullet that ricocheted off the side of the presidential limousine and hit him in the left underarm, breaking a rib, puncturing a lung, and causing serious internal bleeding. Although "close to death" upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital, Reagan was stabilized in the emergency room, then underwent emergency exploratory surgery. He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11. Besides Reagan, White House press secretary James Brady, Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy, and police officer Thomas Delahanty were also wounded. All three survived, but Brady suffered brain damage and was permanently disabled; Brady's death in 2014 was considered homicide because it was ultimately caused by this injury. Hinckley was immediately arrested, and later said he had wanted to kill Reagan to impress actress Jodie Foster. He was deemed mentally ill and confined to an institution. Hinckley was released from institutional psychiatric care on September 10, 2016, 35 years after the incident and 12 years after Reagan's death from Alzheimer's disease. Assassination attempts and plots Andrew Jackson January 30, 1835: Just outside the Capitol Building, a house painter named Richard Lawrence attempted to shoot President Andrew Jackson with two pistols, both of which misfired. Lawrence was apprehended after Jackson beat him severely with his cane. Lawrence was found not guilty by reason of insanity and confined to a mental institution until his death in 1861. Abraham Lincoln February 23, 1861: The Baltimore Plot was an alleged conspiracy by Confederate sympathizers in Maryland to assassinate President-elect Abraham Lincoln en route to his inauguration. Allan Pinkerton's National Detective Agency played a key role in protecting the president-elect by managing Lincoln's security throughout the journey. Although scholars debate whether the threat was real, Lincoln and his advisers took actions to ensure his safe passage through Baltimore. August 1864: A lone rifle shot fired by an unknown sniper missed Lincoln's head by inches or centimeters (passing through his hat) as he rode in the late evening, unguarded, north from the White House three miles (5 km) to the Soldiers' Home (his regular retreat where he would work and sleep before returning to the White House the following morning). Near 11:00 p.m., Private John W. Nichols of the Pennsylvania 150th Volunteers, the sentry on duty at the gated entrance to the Soldiers' Home grounds, heard the rifle shot and moments later saw the president riding toward him "bareheaded". Lincoln described the matter to Ward Lamon, his old friend and loyal bodyguard. William Howard Taft In 1909, William Howard Taft and Porfirio Díaz planned a summit in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, a historic first meeting between a U.S. president and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president would cross the border into Mexico. Díaz requested the meeting to show U.S. support for his planned eighth run as president, and Taft agreed to support Díaz in order to protect the several billion dollars of American capital then invested in Mexico. Both sides agreed that the disputed Chamizal strip connecting El Paso to Ciudad Juárez would be considered neutral territory with no flags present during the summit, but the meeting focused attention on this territory and resulted in assassination threats and other serious security concerns. The Texas Rangers, 4,000 U.S. and Mexican troops, U.S. Secret Service agents, FBI agents, and U.S. Marshals were all called in to provide security. An additional 250 private security detail led by Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, was hired by John Hays Hammond. Hammond was a close friend of Taft from Yale University and a former candidate for U.S. vice president in the 1908 presidential election who, along with his business partner Burnham, held considerable mining interests in Mexico. On October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham and Private C.R. Moore, a Texas Ranger, discovered 52-year-old Julius Bergerson holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham and Moore captured and disarmed Bergerson within only a few feet (around one meter) of Taft and Díaz. Herbert Hoover On November 19, 1928, President-elect Hoover embarked on a ten-nation "goodwill tour" of Central and South America. While crossing the Andes Mountains from Chile, an assassination plot by Argentine anarchists was thwarted. The group was led by Severino Di Giovanni, who planned to blow up his train as it crossed the Argentinian central plain. The plotters had an itinerary but the bomber was arrested before he could place the explosives on the rails. Hoover professed unconcern, tearing off the front page of a newspaper that revealed the plot and explaining, "It's just as well that Lou shouldn't see it," referring to his wife. His complimentary remarks on Argentina were well received in both the host country and in the press. Franklin D. Roosevelt On February 15, 1933, seventeen days before Roosevelt's first presidential inauguration, Giuseppe Zangara fired five shots at Roosevelt in Miami, Florida. Zangara did not wound the president-elect, but Chicago mayor Anton Cermak was mortally wounded and four other people wounded. Zangara pleaded guilty to the murder of Cermak and was executed in the electric chair on March 20, 1933. It has never been conclusively determined who was Zangara's target, and most assumed at first that he had been shooting at the president-elect. Another theory is that the attempt may have been ordered by the imprisoned Al Capone, and that Cermak, who had led a crackdown on the Chicago Outfit and Chicago organized crime more generally, was the true target. The Soviet NKVD claimed to have discovered a Nazi German Waffen-SS plan to assassinate Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin at the Tehran Conference in 1943. Harry S. Truman Mid-1947: During the Jewish insurgency in Palestine before the formation of the State of Israel, the Zionist Stern Gang was believed to have sent a number of letter bombs addressed to the president and high-ranking staff at the White House. The Secret Service had been alerted by British intelligence after similar letters had been sent to high-ranking British officials and the Gang claimed credit. The mail room of the White House intercepted the letters and the Secret Service defused them. At the time, the incident was not publicized. Truman's daughter Margaret Truman confirmed the incident in her biography of Truman published in 1972. It had earlier been told in a memoir by Ira R.T. Smith, who worked in the mail room. November 1, 1950: Two Puerto Rican pro-independence activists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, attempted to kill President Truman at the Blair House, where Truman was living while the White House was undergoing major renovations. In the attack, Torresola mortally wounded White House Policeman Leslie Coffelt, who killed the attacker with a shot to the head. Torresola also wounded White House Policeman Joseph Downs. Collazo wounded another officer, and survived with serious injuries. Truman was not harmed, but he was placed at a huge risk. He commuted Collazo's death sentence after conviction in a federal trial to life in prison. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter commuted it to time served. John F. Kennedy December 11, 1960: While vacationing in Palm Beach, Florida, President-elect John F. Kennedy was threatened by Richard Paul Pavlick, a 73-year-old former postal worker driven by hatred of Catholics. Pavlick intended to crash his dynamite-laden 1950 Buick into Kennedy's vehicle, but he changed his mind after seeing Kennedy's wife and daughter bid him goodbye. Pavlick was arrested three days later by the Secret Service after being stopped for a driving violation; police found the dynamite in his car and arrested him. On January 27, 1961, Pavlick was committed to the United States Public Health Service mental hospital in Springfield, Missouri, then was indicted for threatening Kennedy's life seven weeks later. Charges against Pavlick were dropped on December 2, 1963, ten days after Kennedy's assassination in Dallas. Judge Emett Clay Choate ruled that Pavlick was unable to distinguish between right and wrong in his actions, but kept him in the mental hospital. The federal government also dropped charges in August 1964, and Pavlick was eventually released from the New Hampshire State Hospital on December 13, 1966. He died in 1975 aged 88. Richard Nixon April 13, 1972: Arthur Bremer carried a firearm to an event intending to shoot Nixon, but was put off by strong security. A few weeks later, he instead shot and seriously injured the Governor of Alabama, George Wallace, who was paralyzed until his death in 1998. Three other people were unintentionally wounded. Bremer served 35 years in prison for the shooting of Governor Wallace. Late May 1972: During Nixon's official visit to Tehran, Iran, a "Marxist terrorist group" named People's Mujahedin of Iran blew up a bomb at Reza Shah's mausoleum, where Nixon was scheduled to attend a ceremony just 45 minutes after the explosion. This may have been the earliest known attempt on the president's life by an Islamic extremist. February 22, 1974: Samuel Byck planned to kill Nixon by crashing a commercial airliner into the White House. He hijacked a DC-9 at Baltimore-Washington International Airport after killing a Maryland Aviation Administration police officer, and was told that it could not take off with the wheel blocks still in place. After he shot both pilots (one later died), an officer named Charles 'Butch' Troyer shot Byck through the plane's door window. He survived long enough to kill himself by shooting. Gerald Ford September 5, 1975: On the northern grounds of the California State Capitol, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme, a follower of Charles Manson, drew a Colt M1911 .45 caliber pistol on Ford when he reached to shake her hand in a crowd. She had four cartridges in the pistol's magazine but none in the firing chamber, and as a result, the gun did not fire. She was quickly restrained by Secret Service agent Larry Buendorf. Fromme was sentenced to life in prison, but was released from custody on August 14, 2009 (two years and eight months after Ford's death in 2006). September 22, 1975: In San Francisco, California, only 17 days after Fromme's attempt, Sara Jane Moore fired a revolver at Ford from away. A bystander, Oliver Sipple, grabbed Moore's arm and the shot missed Ford, striking a building wall and slightly injuring taxi driver John Ludwig. Moore was tried and convicted in federal court, and sentenced to prison for life. She was paroled from a federal prison on December 31, 2007, after serving more than 30 years, one year and five days after Ford's natural death. Jimmy Carter Raymond Lee Harvey was an Ohio-born unemployed American drifter. He was arrested by the Secret Service after being found carrying a starter pistol with blank rounds, ten minutes before Carter was to give a speech at the Civic Center Mall in Los Angeles on May 5, 1979. Harvey had a history of mental illness, but police had to investigate his claim that he was part of a four-man operation to assassinate the president. According to Harvey, he fired seven blank rounds from the starter pistol on the hotel roof on the night of May 4 to test how much noise it would make. He claimed to have been with one of the plotters that night, whom he knew as "Julio". (This man was later identified as a 21-year-old illegal immigrant from Mexico, who gave the name Osvaldo Espinoza Ortiz.) At the time of his arrest, Harvey had eight spent rounds in his pocket, as well as 70 unspent blank rounds for the gun. Harvey was jailed on a $50,000 bond, given his transient status, and Ortiz was alternately reported as being held on a $100,000 bond as a material witness or held on a $50,000 bond being charged with burglary from a car. Charges against the pair were ultimately dismissed for a lack of evidence. John Hinckley Jr. came close to shooting Carter during his re-election campaign, but he lost his nerve. He would later attempt to kill President Ronald Reagan in March 1981. George H. W. Bush April 13, 1993: According to Kuwaiti authorities, fourteen Kuwaiti and Iraqi men believed to be working for Saddam Hussein smuggled bombs into Kuwait, planning to assassinate former president Bush by a car bomb during his visit to Kuwait University three months after he had left office (in January 1993). Kuwaiti officials claimed to have foiled an alleged plot by the Iraqi Intelligence Service and arrested the suspected assassins. Two of the suspects, Wali Abdelhadi Ghazali and Raad Abdel-Amir al-Assadi, retracted their confessions at the trial, claiming that they were coerced. Then-president Bill Clinton responded by launching a cruise missile attack on an Iraqi intelligence building in the Mansour district of Baghdad. The plot was used as one of the justifications for the Iraq Resolution authorizing the 2003 U.S. invasion of the country. An analysis by the CIA's Counter-Terrorism Center concludes the assassination plot was likely fabricated by Kuwaiti authorities. Bill Clinton January 21, 1994: Ronald Gene Barbour, a retired military officer and freelance writer, plotted to kill Clinton while the president was jogging. Barbour returned to Florida a week later without having fired the shots at the president, who was on a state visit to Russia. Barbour was sentenced to five years in prison and was released in 1998. September 12, 1994: Frank Eugene Corder flew a stolen single-engine Cessna 150 onto the White House lawn and crashed into a tree. Corder, a truck driver from Maryland who reportedly had alcohol problems, allegedly tried to hit the White House. He was killed in the crash and was the only fatality. The president and first family were not in residence at the time. October 29, 1994: Francisco Martin Duran fired at least 29 shots with a 7.62×39mm Type 56 semi-automatic rifle at the White House from a fence overlooking the North Lawn, thinking that Clinton was among the men in dark suits standing there (Clinton was inside). Three tourists, Harry Rakosky, Ken Davis and Robert Haines, tackled Duran before he could injure anyone. Found to have a suicide note in his pocket, Duran was sentenced to 40 years in prison. November 1994: Osama bin Laden recruited Ramzi Yousef, the mastermind of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, to commit an assassination against President Clinton. However, Yousef decided that security would be too effective and decided to target Pope John Paul II instead. 1996: During his visit to the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum in Manila, Clinton's motorcade was rerouted before it was to drive over a bridge. Service officers had intercepted a message suggesting that an attack was imminent, and Lewis Merletti, the director of the Secret Service, ordered the motorcade to be re-routed. An intelligence team later discovered a bomb under the bridge. Subsequent U.S. investigation "revealed that [the plot] was masterminded by a Saudi terrorist living in Afghanistan named Osama bin Laden". October 2018: A package containing a pipe bomb addressed to wife Hillary Clinton and sent to their home in Chappaqua, New York was intercepted by the Secret Service. It was one of several mailed to other Democratic leaders in the same week, including former president Barack Obama. Bill Clinton was at the Chappaqua home when the package was intercepted, while Hillary was in Florida campaigning for Democrats in the 2018 midterm elections. Fingerprint DNA revealed that the package was sent by Florida resident Cesar Sayoc, who was captured two days after the package was intercepted. Prosecutors sought a life sentence for Sayoc, but the judge instead sentenced him to 20 years in prison. George W. Bush May 10, 2005: While President Bush was giving a speech in the Freedom Square in Tbilisi, Georgia, Vladimir Arutyunian threw a live Soviet-made RGD-5 hand grenade toward the podium. The grenade had its pin pulled, but did not explode because a red tartan handkerchief was wrapped tightly around it, preventing the safety lever from detaching. After escaping that day, Arutyunian was arrested in July 2005. During his arrest, he killed an Interior Ministry agent. He was convicted in January 2006 and given a life sentence. Barack Obama December 2008: A United States Marine, 20-year-old Kody Brittingham, wrote that he had taken an oath to "protect against all enemies, both foreign and domestic." In a signed "letter of intent," he identified President Elect Obama as a "domestic enemy" and the target of Brittingham's planned assassination plot. In June 2010, he was sentenced to 100 months in federal prison. April 2009: A plot to assassinate President Obama at the Alliance of Civilizations summit in Istanbul, Turkey was discovered after a man of Syrian origins carrying forged Al-Jazeera TV press credentials was found. The man confessed to the Turkish security services details of his plan to kill Obama with a knife. He alleged that he had three accomplices. November 2011: 21-year-old Oscar Ramiro Ortega-Hernandez was influenced by conspiracy theories and fringe religious viewpoints to murder President Obama. Having traveled from his native Idaho, he hit the White House with several rounds fired from a semi-automatic rifle. No one was injured, but a window was broken. He was sentenced to 25 years in prison. 2011 - 2012: The far-right terrorist group FEAR plotted to carry out a series of terror attacks which included assassinating President Obama. The plot was foiled when four members of the group were arrested on murder charges and one, Michael Burnett, agreed to co-operate with authorities in return for a lighter sentence. October 2012: A mentally ill man named Mitchell Kusick was arrested after confessing to his therapist that he intended to kill President Obama with a shotgun at a campaign stop in Boulder, Colorado. April 2013: Another attempt was made when a letter laced with ricin, a toxin, was sent to President Obama. October 2018: A package that contained a pipe bomb was sent to former President Obama at his home in Washington, D.C. The package was intercepted by the Secret Service. Donald Trump September 6, 2017: Gregory Lee Leingang, a 42-year-old man from North Dakota, attempted to assassinate President Donald Trump in Mandan, North Dakota. Trump was visiting North Dakota to rally public support. Leingang stole a forklift from an oil refinery and drove toward the presidential motorcade. After the forklift became jammed within the refinery, he fled on foot and was arrested by the pursuing police. While interviewed in detention, he admitted his intent to murder the president by flipping the presidential limousine with the stolen forklift, to the surprise of authorities, who suspected he was merely thieving the vehicle for personal use. The man pled guilty to the attempted attack, stealing the forklift, related charges and several other unrelated crimes on the same day. Consequently, he was sentenced to 20 years in prison. His defense attorney noted a "serious psychiatric crisis". Leingang's choice of a forklift as a weapon was unique among presidential assassination attempts. November 2017: A man affiliated with the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), whose name was not revealed, was arrested by the Philippine National Police in Rizal Park, Manila, for reportedly planning to assassinate President Trump during the diplomatic ASEAN Summit. In the prior week to the failed killing, the Secret Service already suspected a planned assault on the president because of the general presence of ISIL in the Philippines and because of threats by many people against the president on social media. Before the landing of Trump's airplane, the Secret Service discovered a credible terrorist threat from a man who threatened to kill the president on social media, quickly tracking down and arresting the terrorist. The government disclosed the incident to the public after a year of silence in a television documentary. Deaths rumored to have been assassinations On July 9, 1850, President Zachary Taylor died from an illness that was diagnosed as cholera morbus. Almost immediately after his death, rumors began to circulate that Taylor was poisoned by pro-slavery Southerners, and similar theories persisted into the 21st century. In 1991 a neutron activation analysis conducted on samples of Taylor's remains found no evidence of poisonings due to insufficient levels of arsenic. Political scientist Michael Parenti questions the traditional explanation for Taylor's death. Relying on interviews and reports by forensic pathologists, he argues that the procedure used to test for arsenic poisoning was fundamentally flawed. In June 1923, President Warren G. Harding set out on a cross-country "Voyage of Understanding", planning to meet with citizens and explain his policies. During this trip, he became the first president to visit Alaska, which was then a U.S. territory. Rumors of corruption in the Harding administration were beginning to circulate in Washington, D.C., by 1923, and Harding was profoundly shocked by a long message he received while in Alaska, apparently detailing illegal activities by his own cabinet that were allegedly unknown to him. At the end of July, while traveling south from Alaska through British Columbia, he developed what was thought to be a severe case of food poisoning. He gave the final speech of his life to a large crowd at the University of Washington Stadium (now Husky Stadium) at the University of Washington campus in Seattle, Washington. A scheduled speech in Portland, Oregon, was canceled. The president's train proceeded south to San Francisco. Upon arriving at the Palace Hotel, he developed pneumonia. Harding died in his hotel room of either a heart attack or a stroke at 7:35 p.m. (19:35) on August 2, 1923. The formal announcement, printed in The New York Times of that day, stated: "A stroke of apoplexy was the cause of death." He had been ill exactly one week. Naval physicians surmised that Harding had suffered a heart attack. The Hardings' personal medical advisor, homeopath and Surgeon General Charles E. Sawyer, disagreed with the diagnosis. His wife, Florence Harding, refused permission for an autopsy, which soon led to speculation that the president had been the victim of a plot, possibly carried out by his wife, as Harding apparently had been unfaithful to the first lady. Gaston B. Means, an amateur historian and gadfly, noted in his book The Strange Death of President Harding (1930) that the circumstances surrounding his death led to suspicions that he had been poisoned. A number of individuals attached to him, both personally and politically, would have welcomed Harding's death, as they would have been disgraced in association by Means' assertion of Harding's "imminent impeachment". See also Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy, Democratic presidential candidate, on June 5, 1968 Assassins, a musical about presidential assassins and assassination attempters Attempted assassination of George Wallace, Democratic presidential candidate, on May 15, 1972 Attempted assassination of Thomas R. Marshall, vice president, on July 2, 1915 Curse of Tippecanoe, supposed pattern of certain presidents dying while in office Kennedy curse List of assassinated and executed heads of state and government List of incidents of political violence in Washington, D.C. List of White House security breaches References Bibliography Free at the Internet Archive: Volume 1 and Volume 2. United States Assassination attempts, U.S. Presidents Presidential assassination attempts and plots Assassination attempts Assassination attempts

List of critics of the New Deal

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The following is a list of critics of the New Deal. From the Left (Liberals to far left) Mary van Kleeck, American social feminist, labor activist, and social scientist Huey Long. Governor and senator from Louisiana; supported Roosevelt in 1932; broke and was setting up a presidential campaign on the left in 1936 William Lemke, North Dakota, Picked up Huey Long support in 1936 Norman Thomas, frequent presidential candidate on the Socialist ticket. Disagreed with Roosevelt’s economic theory. John L. Lewis, leader of Mineworkers and CIO; strong supporter of Roosevelt in 1936; in opposition 1940 because of Roosevelt's foreign-policy opposing Germany From the Right (Conservatives, libertarians, etc.) Politicians John Nance Garner, supported Roosevelt in 1932; elected vice president 1932 and 1936; broke with Roosevelt in 1937 over his court packing plan. Carter Glass, Senator from Virginia, came from his death bed to the 1940 Democratic Convention to nominate Franklin Roosevelt's campaign manager James Farley as the Democratic Party's candidate for the Presidency. Glass was against Roosevelt's third term candidacy. William Randolph Hearst, former leader of left-wing of Democratic party; owned nation's largest newspaper chain; major supporter of Roosevelt in 1932, broke with Roosevelt in 1935 over Roosevelt's proposal to greatly increase taxes on the inheritances of the wealthy, and to close several tax loopholes used by the wealthy to avoid paying taxes. Hugh S. Johnson, first head of the National Recovery Administration see . Johnson fell out with Roosevelt after Roosevelt fired him in 1935. George N. Peek, farm leader; supported Roosevelt in 1932 Al Smith, Democratic nominee for U.S. president in 1928; founded American Liberty League in 1934 to attack New Deal programs as fostering unnecessary "class conflict". Rush D. Holt, Sr., Democratic West Virginian Senator; opposed Roosevelt's domestic and foreign policies. Robert A. Taft, powerful Republican Senator from Ohio from 1939 to 1953. Taft was the leader of the Republican Party's conservative wing; he consistently denounced the New Deal as "socialism" and argued that it harmed America's business interests and gave ever-greater control to the central government in Washington. Before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor Taft, a non-interventionist, vigorously opposed Roosevelt's attempts to aid Britain in World War II. Ronald Reagan, Hollywood film actor; strong New Dealer in 1940s; started opposing New Deal programs in the 1950s as a spokesman for the General Electric company; would later become President of the United States in 1980. Lewis Douglas, Budget Director, 1933 Harry F. Byrd, Democratic Senator from Virginia Frank Knox, Republican Vice Presidential candidate in 1936; joined Roosevelt's cabinet as Secretary of the Navy, 1940–44 Henry Stimson, Hoover's Secretary of State; joined Roosevelt's cabinet as Secretary of War, 1940–45 Wendell Willkie, Republican presidential candidate in 1940; supported Roosevelt 1941–43 Writers and speakers Maxwell Anderson, Playwright, American Libertarian, wrote Knickerbocker Holiday (with Kurt Weill) as a satire on the New Deal which compared Roosevelt to Hitler and Mussolini. Charles Coughlin, Irish-American Catholic priest with huge radio audience; anti-communist, originally on the left and a Roosevelt supporter in 1932 but by 1935 Coughlin "excoriated Roosevelt as 'anti-God'". Charles Coughlin denounced Roosevelt as too moderate and demanded stronger measures against "capitalism" which he associated with "Jews". Elizabeth Dilling, anti-communist activist, author of The Roosevelt Red Record and Its Background (1936) John Dos Passos, novelist; formerly on the left John T. Flynn, journalist, author of The Roosevelt Myth; formerly on the left Milton Friedman, economist. A spokesman for the Treasury during World War II; while supportive of relief and employment efforts and expansive monetary policy under the New Deal, Friedman was also critical of the National Recovery Administration. Robert Frost, poet Garet Garrett, editorial writer for Saturday Evening Post Henry Hazlitt, writer Robinson Jeffers, poet and playwright Alice Lee Jemison, Native American rights advocate Rose Wilder Lane, novelist and journalist David Lawrence, magazine columnist Walter Lippmann newspaper columnist and political philosopher H.L. Mencken, American journalist, essayist, magazine editor Raymond Moley, former top Brain Truster Albert Jay Nock, libertarian author and social critic Isabel Paterson, libertarian author Westbrook Pegler newspaper columnist Ezra Pound, American poet and expatriate; radio broadcaster for Italian leader Benito Mussolini in World War II Ayn Rand novelist, founder of Objectivism and one inspiration for libertarianism. John R. Rice, Protestant fundamentalist writer. Gerald L. K. Smith, Huey Long second-in-command; took over "SOWM" after Long's death, went in pro-Nazi direction Gertrude Stein, novelist, poet, playwright Mark Sullivan, newspaper columnist James True DeWitt Wallace, journalist and publisher of Reader's Digest Books with an anti-New Deal point of view Alfred M. Bingham & Selden Rodman, editors, Challenge to the New Deal (1934) Elizabeth Dilling, The Red Network (1934) Elizabeth Dilling, The Roosevelt Red Record and Its Background (1936) Herbert Hoover, Addresses Upon the American Road, 1933–1938 (1938) Raymond Moley, After Seven Years (1939) Herbert Hoover, Addresses Upon the American Road, 1940–1941 (1941) Thomas Jefferson Coolidge, Why Centralized Government (1941) John T. Flynn, The Roosevelt Myth (1948, revised 1952) Garet Garrett, The People's Pottage (1951, later republished as Burden of Empire and Ex America) Murray Rothbard, America's Great Depression. (1963) James J. Martin, American Liberalism and World Politics, 1931–1941 (1964) Garet Garrett, Salvos Against the New Deal: Selections from the Saturday Evening Post, 1933–1940 (2002), edited by Bruce Ramsey Thomas Fleming, The New Dealers' War: FDR and the War Within World War II (2002) Garet Garrett, Defend America First: The Antiwar Editorials of the Saturday Evening Post, 1939–1942 (2003), edited by Bruce Ramsey Jim Powell, FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression (2003) Gene Smiley, Rethinking the Great Depression (2003) Thomas Woods, The Politically Incorrect Guide to American History (2004) Robert P. Murphy, The Politically Incorrect Guide to Capitalism (2007) Amity Shlaes, The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression (2007) Jonah Goldberg, Liberal Fascism: The Secret History of the American Left, from Mussolini to the Politics of Meaning (2008) Burton W. Folsom, Jr., New Deal or Raw Deal?: How FDR's Economic Legacy Has Damaged America (2008) Robert P. Murphy, The Politically Incorrect Guide to the Great Depression and the New Deal (2009) See also Old Right (United States) Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt References Other references Gary Dean Best; The Critical Press and the New Deal: The Press Versus Presidential Power, 1933–1938 Praeger Publishers 1993. online edition Brinkley, Alan. Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, & the Great Depression (1983) Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times. (1985), an encyclopedia Kennedy, David M. Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. (1999) the best recent scholarly narrative. McCoy, Donald * R. Landon of Kansas (1966) standard scholarly biography Paterson, James. Mr. Republican: A Biography of Robert Taft (1972), standard biography Ronald Radosh. Prophets on the Right: Profiles of conservative critics of American globalism (1978) Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, 3 vols, (1957–1960), the classic pro-New Deal history, with details on critics. Online at vol 2 vol 3 Rudolf, Frederick. "The American Liberty League, 1934–1940," American Historical Review, LVI (October 1950), 19–33 online at JSTOR Smith, Richard Norton. An Uncommon Man: The Triumph of Herbert Hoover (1987) biography White, Graham J. FDR and the Press. 1979. Winfield, Betty Houchin. FDR and the News Media 1990 Williams, T. Harry. Huey Long (1969), Pulitzer Prize biography Wolfskill, George. The Revolt of the Conservatives: A History of the American Liberty League, 1934–1940 (1962) Anna Peterpants. Thesis Statement on the Depression-Era Programs (1951) Brandon Streaker. The Man and the Deal (1964) Carl McCarthy. The Great Wisconsin Brainwash (1954) New Deal Old Right (United States) New Deal Conservatism-related lists

Basic life support

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Basic life support (BLS) is a level of medical care which is used for victims of life-threatening illnesses or injuries until they can be given full medical care by advanced life support providers (paramedics, nurses, physicians). It can be provided by trained medical personnel, such as emergency medical technicians, and by qualified bystanders. Background The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) was formed in 1992 to coordinate the efforts of resuscitation worldwide. The ILCOR representatives come from various countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and from the European, Asian, and African continents. In 2000, the committee published the first resuscitation guideline. In 2005, the committee published International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and Emergency Cardiovascular Care (ECC) Science with Treatment Recommendations. Since 2010, the committee has provided materials for regional resuscitation providers such as European Resuscitation Council and American Heart Association to write their own guidelines. Since 2015, ILCOR has used a new methodology called Consensus on Science with Treatment Recommendations (COSTR) to evaluate the quality of latest evidence available and to reach a conclusion on the best treatments available in resuscitation. Using the COSTR methodology, ILCOR also started to conduct yearly reviews and published updates on the latest evidence in resuscitation, changing it from the previous 5-yearly review on resuscitation. CPR provided in the field increases the time available for higher medical responders to arrive and provide ALS care. An important advance in providing BLS is the availability of the automated external defibrillator or AED. This improves survival outcomes in cardiac arrest cases. Indications Cardiac arrest Cardiac arrest occurs when the heart stops pumping in a regular rhythm. In this situation, early defibrillation is the key to returning the victim's heart back to a normal rhythm. When a defibrillator is not readily available, a rescuer or bystander should keep the blood flowing by performing chest compressions and rescue breaths at an age-appropriate rate until it is. Respiratory Arrest Respiratory arrest is when there is no measurable breathing in a victim. It tends to occur in conjunction with cardiac arrest, but this is not always the case. Respiratory arrest is the most common indication of BLS in infants and toddlers. The most critical factor in restoring breathing in the victim is to provide high quality rescue breaths. Drowning In cases of drowning, rescuers should provide CPR as soon as an unresponsive victim is removed from the water. In particular, rescue breathing is important in this situation. A lone rescuer is typically advised to give CPR for a short time before leaving the victim to call emergency medical services. Since the primary cause of cardiac arrest and death in drowning and choking victims is hypoxemia, it is recommended to start with rescue breaths before proceeding to chest compressions (if pulseless). If the victim presents in a shockable rhythm, early defibrillation is still recommended. Choking Choking occurs when a foreign body obstructs the trachea. Rescuers should only intervene in victims who show signs of severe airway obstruction, such as a silent cough, cyanosis, or inability to speak or breathe. If a victim is coughing forcefully, rescuers should not interfere with this process and encourage the victim to keep coughing. If a victim shows signs of severe airway obstruction, anti-choking maneuvers such as thrusts should be applied until the obstruction is relieved. If a victim becomes unresponsive he should be lowered to the ground, and the rescuer should call emergency medical services and initiate CPR. When the airway is opened during CPR, the rescuer should look into the mouth for an object causing obstruction, and remove it if it is evident. Technique United States Basic Life Support Emergency Medical Services in the United States are generally identified with Emergency Medical Technicians-Basic (EMT-B). EMT-B is the highest level of healthcare provider that is limited to the BLS protocol; higher medical functions use some or all of the Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) protocols, in addition to BLS protocols. However, the American Heart Association's BLS protocol is designed for use by laypeople, as well as students and others certified first responder, and to some extent, higher medical function personnel. BLS for Healthcare Providers Course According to the American Heart Association, in order to be certified in BLS, a student must take an online or in-person course. However, an online BLS course must be followed with an in-person skills session in order to obtain a certification issued by The American Heart Association. Chain of survival The American Heart Association highlights the most important steps of BLS in a "five-link chain of survival." The chain of survival includes early recognition of an ongoing emergency, early initiation of CPR by a bystander, early use of a defibrillator, and early advanced life support once more qualified medical help arrives. Qualified bystanders with training in BLS are encouraged to perform the first three steps of the five-link chain of survival. High Quality CPR High quality cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and early defibrillation using an automated external defibrillator (AED) are the most important aspects of BLS to ensure a victim survives. CPR involves a rescuer or bystander providing chest compressions to a victim in a supine position while also giving rescue breaths. The rescuer or bystander can also choose not to provide breaths and provide compression-only CPR. Depending on the age and circumstances of the victim, there can be variations in the compression to breath ratio given. Europe European Resuscitation Council According to 2015 guidelines published by European resuscitation council, early initiation of resuscitation and coordination of lay people with medical personnel on helping an unconscious person is very helpful in increasing the chance of survival of the victim. When a person is unconscious and is not breathing normally, emergency services should be alerted and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and mouth-to-mouth resuscitation (rescue breaths) should be initiated. High quality CPR is important. An adequate ratio of high quality chest compressions and rescue breaths are crucial. An automated external defibrillator (AED) machine is essential during resuscitation. Defibrillation during the first 3 to 5 minutes during resuscitation can produce survival rates as high as 50 to 70%. Placing AEDs in public places where there is one cardiac arrest in five years is cost-effective. Although the adult CPR sequence can be safely used in children, a modified sequence of basic life support that entails less forceful chest compression is even more suitable in children. United Kingdom Adult BLS guidelines in the United Kingdom were published in 2015 by the Resuscitation Council (UK), based on the 2015 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science with Treatment Recommendations (CoSTR) published in November 2005. The newest guidelines for adult BLS allow a rescuer to diagnose cardiac arrest if the victim is unresponsive and not breathing normally. The guidelines also changed the duration of rescue breaths and the placement of the hand on the chest when performing chest compressions. These changes were introduced to simplify the algorithm, to allow for faster decision making and to maximize the time spent giving chest compressions; this is because interruptions in chest compressions have been shown to reduce the chance of survival. It is also acknowledged that rescuers may either be unable, or unwilling, to give effective rescue breaths; in this situation, continuing chest compressions alone is advised, although this is only effective for about 5 minutes. For choking, the guidelines in the United Kingdom first call for assessing the severity of the situation. If the victim is able to speak and cough effectively, the obstruction is mild. If the victim is unable to speak or cough effectively, or is unable to breathe or is breathing with a wheezy sound, the airway obstruction is severe. It is then recommended to perform back blows until the obstruction clears. If the victim becomes unresponsive, CPR is started. Other countries The term BLS is also used in some non-English speaking countries (e.g. in Italy) for the education of first responders. Terms with similar meanings for similar skill sets are also common. Spain: SVB (soporte vital básico) Belgium: aide médicale urgente ("emergency medical assistance")/ EHBO (eerste hulp bij ongelukken, "first aid") Brazil: SBV (Suporte básico de vida) France: PSE 1 & PSE 2 (Premiers Secours en Equipe niveaux 1 & 2), "First Aid as part of a team," level 2 includes stretchering and teamwork, (former CFAPSE before 2007 Certificat de Formation aux Activités des Premiers Secours en Equipe, "Training certificate for first aid teamwork") Poland: Podstawowe zabiegi resuscytacyjne/ KPP (Kwalifikowana pierwsza pomoc) Portugal: SBV (Suporte Básico de Vida) Germany: Lebensrettende Sofortmaßnahmen (basic life support) Romania: SVB (support vital de bază) Netherlands: BLS ("first aid" is referred to as EHBO (Eerste hulp bij ongelukken)) Turkey: TYD (temel yaşam desteği, "basic life support") Special Populations When performing BLS, laypeople and medical personnel are encouraged to remember that some groups of people have certain conditions that need to be taken into considerations. Pregnant women To relieve choking, chest thrusts should be used instead of abdominal thrusts when the victim is in late pregnancy. Obese If a victim of choking is obese and a rescuer cannot perform adequate abdominal thrusts, they are encouraged to instead perform chest thrusts. Infants To relieve choking, abdominal thrusts should not be used in infants under 1 year of age due to risk of causing injury. A sequence of back slaps and chest compressions are used instead. References Emergency medical services Emergency medicine courses Emergency life support