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what would happen if you put separate ends of a "rope" into 2 different blackholes? | hypothetically, the rope is strong enough to not break. | the rope cannot be strong enough not to break. already in special relativity it is found that the concept of rigid body is impossible to realize, and anything must necessarily have some elasticity and be able to break. practically speaking, extended objects are made of interacting components. rigidity should happen as a consequence of these interactions between neighbouring pieces. but in the situation you describe, the interactions necessary to mantain rigidity would have to carry information faster than light / back in time, which is impossible. | 45 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there evidence of more supercontinents? | what's the evidence for there having been multiple supercontinents in the past? during the afaik only known one, pangaea, could there have been an ante-pangaea on the other side of the planet? what kind of evidence could there be of that if the tectonic plate itself had since been submerged or slid under another plate? ps. this was already asked in the panthalassa question, but only as a comment so it wasn't visible enough to get an answer. | although it's not without debate, the standing model is that supercontinents form roughly every 500 million years. before pangaea there was [rodinia](_url_0_), and before that the columbia supercontinent, and a few more before those. the evidence isn't terribly strong for some of them, but it's the best understanding we have at the moment. nope, see below for an explanation. continental crust just doesn't do this. oceanic crust does, but you need continental crust to make a continent, and there is no way you will ever "slide it under another plate". the reason for this is that continental crust is much less dense than oceanic crust, or what our mantle is made of, so it can not be submerged in any meaningful amount. for a modern day example, think of india crashing into the rest of china. nothing of note is submerged, which is why you have the largest mountain chain on the planet (by *far*) at that location. if there was an "ante-pangaea", all that crust would have to still be around somewhere. since it isn't, we know there was no such continent. i've made a couple generalizations in this post, but just for the sake of brevity. let me know if you have any questions. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodinia"
] | [
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when e-data is deleted, does the energy get discharged as heat? | i've seen a few articles discussing the mass of the internet, such as [here](_url_0_) and [here](_url_1_). the latter discusses how the mass of a kindle increases with each download (albeit an infinitesimally small amount), due to the addition of electrons carrying information that get stored. this has me wondering about how the energy from those electrons (or electrons from any type of computer) gets dissipated upon deletion. it has to go somewhere. are the electrons discharged as heat through a computer's processor? some other way? | wherever they're grounded. on a laptop, back into the battery, or some small amount lost as heat over time. on a desktop, same deal, only to ground through the power. it's not really accurate to say that data increases electron mass. moving electrons from the battery to an "on" bit doesn't increase its mass in a laptop. when brought from a power line it could, but this, again, doesn't apply to devices like a kindle. edit: devices are hot, however, because they absorb/emit electrons. that's where pretty much all of the heat comes from. | 4 | [] | [
"http://discovermagazine.com/2007/jun/how-much-does-the-internet-weigh/article_view?b_start:int=0&-C=",
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2057018/Internet-weighs-strawberry.html"
] | [] | [
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if silly putty is hit forcefully, it keeps it shape and bounces back. however, if it is pressed slowly, it loses its shape easily. does that mean it's slightly non-newtonian? | by definition it is *completely* non-newtonian. in more technical terms, a newtonian fluid has a shear rate (flow) that is proportional to the shear stress (essentially an applied pressure) in the fluid. the relationship between shear rate and shear stress in a newtonian fluid is governed solely by the fluid's viscosity. the amount or duration of an applied stress plays no role in the resulting shear rate. since silly putty does not fit this model, it is non-newtonian. as you've pointed out, there is a time-dependence to its viscoelasticity: over long time periods it acts as a fluid, while short impacts demonstrate elastic behavior. this is the definition of a thixotropic material. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why and how do axolotls turn into salamanders? | [deleted] | axolotls are salamanders, so it’s not a matter of them turning into anything. they are considered perennibranchiate, which basically means they keep their gills. their retained gills are an example of neoteny: a juvenile trait retained even after sexual maturity. my understanding is that they’re not all neotenic in the wild (or were, rather, because their wild population is in a dire state). their neotenous traits are due to a lack of a certain hormone called [thyroid-stimulating hormone](_url_0_), which stimulates the thyroid to make additional hormones that stimulate the metabolism, including one called thyroxine. metamorphosis can be induced in captive axolotls by injecting them with iodine or thyroxine. if this is done at around the same stage of maturity that closely-related species metamorphose, they just end up looking a lot like the tiger salamanders that they’re closely related to. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid-stimulating_hormone"
] | [
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does a pond of bullfrogs coordinate their croaking? | i was camping this weekend near bullfrog pond (appropriately named for sure). the croaking was very loud and continuous, but at one point all the frogs quieted down within a 15 second span. i heard them all, then a dozen, then one, then silence. about 20 seconds later, it started up again in reverse order with one frog starting and then all the others joining in. it totally caught me off guard and was very eerie being in the middle of the woods with silence after the cacophony of croakers. what was happening here? do bull frogs follow a leader when they croak? why would they all stop at the same time? has anyone else experienced this? thanks in advance for any responses. | bullfrogs, indeed, all anurans (frogs and toads) which gather to breed in relatively high densities, face considerable acoustic problems due to the number of competing males. they need to time their calls so that they're not interfered with or masked by those of the frogs around them. after all, individual males need the females to find them and not just any random suitor. studies have shown that calling males pay attention to each other, space themselves and respond to the calls of others, by following certain rules. ^1,2,3 the interactions between individuals which result from these observations lead to pulses of seemingly synchronised calls; they begin to call because their neighbours are doing so, and stop for the same reason.^4,5,6 in small ponds, these choruses can begin and die off relatively abruptly. in larger waterbodies or where many ponds are close together, the chorus can ripple out from its point of origin, with a 'silent ripple' occurring from another point, some time later. in short, synchronised calling is a behavioural adaptation to large breeding aggregations in many anurans. they do 'follow a leader'; the leader, however, is almost certainly different for every chorus. ----- 1. boatright-horowitz sl, horowitz ss, simmons am (2000) patterns of vocal response in a bullfrog (rana catesbeiana) chorus: preferential responding to far neighbors. ethology. 106:701–712 [link](_url_0_) 2. greenfield md, rand as (2000) frogs have rules: selective attention algorithms regulate chorusing in physalaemus pustulosus (leptodactylidae) ethology. 2000;106:331–347 [link](_url_5_) 3. whitney, c.l. and krebs, j.r. (1975) spacing and calling in pacific tree frogs, hyla regilla. canadian journal of zoology, 53(11), pp.1519-1527. [link](_url_2_) 4. michael, d.m., artificial anuran chorusing. plymouth university. [pdf link](_url_1_) 5. stewart, m.m. and bishop, p.j. (1994). effects of increased sound level of advertisement calls on calling male frogs, eleutherodactylus coqui. journal of herpetology, pp.46-53. [link](_url_4_) 6. klump, g.m. and gerhardt, h.c. (1992). mechanisms and function of call-timing in male-male interactions in frogs. in playback and studies of animal communication (pp. 153-174). [link](_url_3_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1439-0310.2000.00580.x/abstract",
"http://cmr.soc.plymouth.ac.uk/musical2007/papers/michael.pdf",
"http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z75-187#.WI_TVflkjDd",
"http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4757-6203-7_11",
"http://www.jstor.org/stable/1564679?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1439-0310.2000.00525.x/abstract"
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about all those lonely trees falling in forests... | everything is observed due to every particle being gravitationally attracted to every other particle which makes every particle in the universe 'visible' to every other particle? ...which boils down to: there is always someone within earshot of a falling tree. does this sound about right? | it seems like i need to explain this more clearly... i was talking about being within 'earshot' as in observing a gravitational pull. if a tree falls or a particle moves it will create a wave which will ripple through space-time. so if a tree falls and no one is around to hear it the change in gravity although extremely small is still there to signal to an observer in the universe that yes a tree has in fact fallen and was 'heard' gravitationally. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how dangerous are waterspouts? | since they don't have the near level of debris within them as a tornado, how dangerous are they to a boat or swimmer? | waterspouts, generally, are not as dangerous as tornadoes -- they are more akin to "dust devils" than tornadoes. during thunderstorms, there is quite a bit of tight rotation that cannot be seen under normal circumstances. when this rotation occurs over water, the condensing water droplets makes it easy to see. from wikipedia's page on water spouts: [_url_0_](_url_0_) > **"tornadic waterspouts"**, also accurately referred to as "tornadoes over water", are formed from mesocyclonic action in a manner essentially identical to traditional land-based tornadoes in connection with severe thunderstorms, but simply occurring over water.[10] a tornado which travels from land to a body of water would also be considered a tornadic waterspout.[11] since the vast majority of mesocyclonic thunderstorms occur in land-locked areas of the united states, true tornadic waterspouts are correspondingly rarer than their fair-weather counterparts in that country. however, in some areas, such as the adriatic, aegean and ionian seas, tornadic waterspouts can make up half of the total number.[12]" | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterspout"
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i had an mri recently and noticed during certain parts of the procedure i felt as if i were swaying from head to toe or from floor to ceiling. what could cause this sensation? | of course i wasn't actually moving but i'm still not sure how electromagnets could affect my sense of equilibrium in that way. edit: i guess i should specify that it was an open mri. | as icp says: fucking magnets. but seriously, some people experience odd sensations (movement, dizziness, nausea) because of the magnetic field. humans can go into a 3t and mostly be ok. once you hit 7t, a larger number of people start to "feel weird". 14t is currently off-limits for humans because we assume it's dangerous and don't have a good way of testing yet. 14t are used for animals, though (mostly mice/rats, i believe). these magnets in mri are actually causing water molecules to move and align on an axis. from this point forward on why people get dizzy, i have no idea. i'll leave that to a radiologist/physicist/anatomist. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110607121523.htm"
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response time of t-cell lymphokines? | a query i had following a mantoux test recently.... how long is the response timescale for lymphokines in response to exposure to an antigen? i.e. assuming you have t-cells pre-sensitised to an antigen, what is the timescale for recruiting lymphokines to an infection site? i'm assuming that the concentration of lymphokines obeys an exponential with a timescale? possibly with a lag time? also, (given that the mantoux test can sensitise people with some prior exposure) what is the timescale for the body increasing the concentration of t-cells in response to known — but mostly forgotten — antigen? | so [this image](_url_0_) shows t cell response to the antigen. the lymphokines aren't really a factor - lymphokines are molecules produced by lymphocytes that attract other lymphocytes and blood cells to the infection site, but the t cells should find the antigen relatively quickly after the infection (and it's really cytokines, produced by innate cells, that bring t cells in in the early response). the test is based off the fact that your body is constantly making t cells with receptors for completely random patterns. the first time an antigen is presented, there are only a few t cells in your body that can recognize it. it binds the antigen, tuberculin in this case, and is activated, and starts dividing like once every 6 hours - i'm not 100% sure on the time to divide. you get exponential division, but that takes a long time - 6 hours for 2 specific t cells, 12 hours for 4, 18 hours for 8, 24 for 16. by the end of a week or so there are enough t cells to fight off the infection, and then most of them die off. but some remain as memory cells, so now your body inherently has 10 to 100 times as many tuberculin specific t cells floating around, and they live for decades. since tuberculosis will remain latent, you'll have the memory cells but not active cells if you've already fought off the initial infection. because it's an exponential response (based on 2 to the whatever power because each tuberculin specific t cell is dividing to make 2 specific t cells), it takes much less time to respond. some people can be sensitized by the test because the handful of naive tuberculin specific t cells their bodies randomly made find the antigen and respond, it just takes longer to get the response. so the short answer is, it takes from 1 to 3 days to get the response if you have memory, but about a week or a bit more if people are sensitized by the test without previous exposure. tl;dr: it takes 1 to 3 days if you have memory of the antigen, and 7 days or a bit more if you've never been exposed but are sensitized by the test. edit: edited to add, there's not really an exact curve to determine response time because there is no way to know exactly how many t cells you have when the antigen initially infects or is injected in the test, or how long it takes those cells to be activated. both of those obviously have a huge impact when you're talking about an exponential response. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://d1yboe6750e2cu.cloudfront.net/i/b1588a570f4bb95cccab0c17f52e5fd5a62013bc"
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what scientists alive today will future generations learn about? | i hope john venter will be. sequencing the human genome and creating synthetic life. this man has contributed immensely to biology. i also hope knuth will be studied in the future. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
regarding voyager i and gravity slingshots... | currently, voyager i is the most distant man-made object out there. and currently, nothing is threatening its leading position. my question is: with optimal use of gravity sling-shots, how much can we add to the 'velocity-at-infinity' of such an object? does this depend on the velocity at which we launch the object from earth? could we, in practice, reuse the same planets and moons multiple times, thereby increasing the total added 'velocity-at-infinity'? | [wikipedia does a pretty good job at explaining it in a simple manner.](_url_0_) the (unpowered) gravity assist can only reach a speed that is the sum of the original speed of the spacecraft plus the speed of the massive object relative to the sun. in other words, initially accelerating the spacecraft to a velocity which is greater than the velocity of the object that you want to use for the gravity assist (relative to the sun) will do you no good. once you reach a speed faster than that of any object in relation to the sun, you then have to move on to the sun for a gravity assist, but your destination can no longer be within our solar system, as the sun is at rest relative to the planets. such an assist would have to be powered and your destination interstellar. also, its really hot. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist#Explanation"
] | [
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] |
what happened to masers? at the beginning of 2012 they were "the next big thing" | in 2012 a few scientist created a room-temperature solid-state maser by putting in practice an old japanese paper. it was supposed to be revolutionary but a google search reveals nothing new since then. what happened to it? | i watched the video and scanned the paper, which was published in august 2012. a year is a quite short time for a scientific discovery to spread and be replicated by other groups. a google scholar search yields 7 citations. two of them are pseudoscience, e.g. "quantum reversal of soul energy". at this point this device is a lab curiosity, and if it were truly revolutionary, it would have generated a lot more interest than 5 citations. even if it did take off, it would probably be at least 10 years before you ever saw an application outside the lab. it's been 9 years since graphene was first isolated. the only commercial product i've seen is as some paint additive, despite it having ridiculously good electronic and optoelectronic characteristics. my hunch is that this discovery is not that great, although there is the possibility that it has not been looked at closely. i've come across many good inventions that never took off for a variety of reasons, such as them being impractical, not cost effective, or not good enough to displace an existing solution. check again in a couple years, perhaps the original authors will refine it into something practical. one year is too short to judge its merits. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v488/n7411/full/nature11339.html",
"http://ipnpr.jpl.nasa.gov/progress_report/42-115/115f.pdf"
] | [
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what's the difference between hyperplasia and dysplasia? | i found these definitions but they still sound alike to me. help! dysplasia: the enlargement of an organ or tissue by the proliferation of cells of an abnormal type, as a developmental disorder or an early stage in the development of cancer hyperplascia: the enlargement of an organ or tissue caused by an increase in the reproduction rate of its cells, often as an initial stage in the development of cancer. | hyperplasia is when cells are more numerous than they should be. dysplasia is when cells are disorganized. typically dysplastic cells are not fully differentiated, have different cellular structure, and have different architecture at the tissue level. edit: hypertrophy is when cells are larger than normal. this is what skeletal muscle does when you 'build muscle.' you can have them together. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how fast is rocky in 'rocky'? | i was re-watching 'rocky', and it suddenly struck me that sly appears to be sprinting ***reaaallly*** fing fast as he runs next the boat in the training montage. [here's the clip for reference](_url_0_) can anyone tell me what stallone's top speed is in this sequence? cheers in advance:). *sorry if this is the wrong sub, but i am really interested in getting an accurate answer to this question, and so i figured you science folk would be right the people to ask.* | i'm not positive, somebody from philly should correct me, but i think that ship might be [the moshulu](_url_0_) (i googled 4 mast ship penn's landing.) it's about 100m long, and from the clip it looks like it takes him about 15 seconds to go bow to stern. that's a decently fast sprint (6.7m/s / 15mph), but not absurdly so - fast sprinters doing that distance in under 10 seconds from a dead stop. | 19 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=DP3MFBzMH2o#t=98"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshulu"
] | [
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] |
half the time i say "centigrade"... why do i even know that word? and is it still an acceptable term? | _url_0_ celsius created a temperature scale with 100 steps and named it "centigrade" (although, dumbass, he put 0 for boiling water and 100 for freezing water). later the scale was flipped and renamed for mr. celsius. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Celsius"
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|
where do minnows come from way up in the mountains, above impassable waterfalls? | ive frequently wondered this. i've hiked a lot, climbing many tall mountains in maine. several times i'll be way up a mountain (~1500 feet above the base) and find vernal polls or a stream with a small pool of water. these pools are small, maybe 10-20 feet across, as shallow as 1 foot, as deep as about 8 feet. every once in a while i've noticed a handful of minnows in these pools. a short hike downhill from these pools and there are small waterfalls that are at least 5-10 feet high, with water barely trickling down them. i'm pretty sure that a 2-3" minnow can't jump over 5 feet high, much less several, so where did they come from? observations: the pools seem to run with small amounts of water all year long, as in they dont dry up. i've hiked by a few of them in the winter, and though frozen it does appear that under a foot of ice there is at least a few feet of liquid water. these pools/streams are low volume except when it rains a lot. they aren't river, creeks, or even brooks. usually the water coming from above is just barely trickling in, maybe half the volume of a kitchen sink faucet at full blast (which for a stream is pretty low). the pools are well protected from above, lots of trees and cover to provide them shade, so i'm assuming they maintain a cool temp in the summer rather than heat up. i've never seen a fish larger than a minnow in these pools. the largest minow was no more than 3 inches long. so if a larger fish spawned there, i've seen no sign of it besides the minnows. other thoughts: could a bird have dropped them? seems unlikely to me, the odds of everything being so perfect that the fish didn't suffocate on the way there, and landed in this small pool....multiple times maybe a bigger fish jumped the waterfalls, following a trickle of water and spawned? i could believe it except that some of these waterfalls are approaching about 10 feet high and the water is such a trickle that i'm doubtful that there was enough water to get a good jump...but maybe in a storm? i have no idea and hope someone more knowledgable than me can offer some insight. thanks! | fish eggs adhering to the legs and feathers of water birds is apparently the most common cause of introduction of fish to otherwise inaccessible places. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how closely related any two people on average? | you probably have no idea how complicated of a question you've just asked. so complicated that i've had a really hard time typing up the following response, and have typed things out and deleted them a number of times (i probably typed about twice as many words as you're seeing). there are two different ways to approach this question. you could be asking something along the lines of to answer: first off, there's significant heterogeneity because different populations have different degrees of relatedness. say we draw two random humans alive today, and we get one [san bushman](_url_5_), and one european. those populations diverged from one another ~150,000 years ago, so those two individuals aren't going to share a common ancestor until at least 150,000 years back. say we get one european and one asian. these populations have been separated for about 30,000 years, so they're unlikely to share any ancestors during that period. the thing is, the previous statement is likely false. it's entirely possible that some early european many thousands of years ago migrated east, and mated with someone in the middle east. that mating could, over the course of just a handfull of generations, lead to an astronomically high number of descendants. (if you have two kids, and each of them have two kids, and each of them have two kids, and each of them has two kids, it doesn't take very long before everyone in the population can claim you as an ancestor.) if just one or a few of those descendants migrates south into africa (or east into asia), they could, within a few generations, be claimed as an ancestor to almost all of the individuals living in whatever population they mated into. this only has to happen once for it to be true that the most recent common ancestor of all individuals across the two populations lived only a few thousand years ago, maybe even less. the process doesn't necessarily happen in giant leaps as i've portrayed it. it's probably much more of a slow wave of relatedness diffusing across the landscape as people migrated back and forth just a handful of miles at a time over the course of the generations. in fact, we in population genetics actually use [the exact same sort of equation](_url_7_) to model the diffusion of genes across a population over time as physicists use to [model diffusion of heat](_url_1_) across space over the course of time. **so the massively oversimplified answer is that most people probably share a common ancestor within the last few thousand years, with members of very divergent populations (say, native americans and san bushmen) possibly being much more distant, and members of the same population (say, british people), all sharing a common ancestor within the last few hundred years)** unfortunately, it's pretty much impossible to actually reconstruct with certainty patterns of relatedness more than just a handful of generations back from genetic data. there are probably estimates out there, but i don't know them, because relatedness at the genetic level gets really complicated (and thus they're not terribly relevant to *genetic relatedness*, which is a much more interesting question, in my opinion). consider: if you have a sibling, on average you will share 50% of your genetic makeup. if you have a first cousin, on average you share 12.5% of your genetic makeup. if you have a second cousin, you will, on average, share 3.125% of your genetic makeup. if you keep going back farther and farther (third cousin, fourth cousin, fifth cousin, etc.), this number gets closer and closer to zero very quickly. but that number is just an average, and it has a variance which is decidedly non-zero. so that means that plenty of 10th cousins won't share any genetic material at all from the common ancestor from which they are 10th cousins. no [alleles](_url_0_) will have survived from one generation to the next in both lineages simultaneously such that they actually share genes "identical by descent", (as we say in population genetics) from that ancestor. they may be 8th cousins via a different common ancestor, and 13th cousins via another, and 13th cousins again via a different route and they may share some genetic material via those relationships (or not), but it's entirely possible that they may not share any genetic material via that 10th cousin relationship that they have. alternatively, it's entirely possible that two individuals could be 20th cousins via one common ancestor, and may actually happen to share genetic material via that relationship, but might not share any genetic material via a 10th cousin relationship that they have. basically, it all comes down to the fact that this stuff is highly stochastic (random), so there's a lot of variance in how closely related any two individuals are at a particular genetic loci. much of the above (and the below) is derived from something called [coalescent theory](_url_6_), which i'm now discovering is incredibly hard to explain in such a way that someone who's not a population genetic phd student will follow. so, i'm going to do something i don't normally do, and offer an answer without a proper explanation, because i really don't know how to offer an explanation without saying "go read this textbook" (for the brave/statistically inclined [hudson, 1991](_url_4_) is a good place to start, but you're going to need a good genetics or statistics foundation): you and your sibling share, on average, 50% of your genetic material "identical by descent" from your parents. that means that if you pick a random dna base pair, at 50% of them you will have received the same base pair at the same locus from the same parent. these base pairs are "identical by descent with respect to your parents". at the vast majority of the other base pairs in the genome you will also have identical base pairs (that is if they have an a, you will also have an a, if they have a g, you will also have a g), however. this is because your parents already shared identical base pairs at this location, because those base pairs are "identical by descent" with respect to some distant relative that your parents share (and because there's been no mutation on the lineage leading to your parents from that common ancestor in order to make them different). so the truly remarkable thing is that you if you draw two random individuals from the same population (i.e. european, asian, native american, one of any number of african populations), and assume a historic population size of 10,000 (which is fairly accurate for most ancient human populations prior to the population explosion of the last few thousand years), at any particular place in the genome, on average, you have to go back 20,000 generations (or 400,000 years) to find the ancestor with respect to which those two individuals are "identical by descent". the standard deviation of this estimate is itself 20,000 generations, however, so it's just incredibly variable. this is true *independently* for different loci across the genome, as the process of [genetic recombination](_url_2_) (and [independent assortment](_url_3_) among chromosomes) causes different loci to have independent histories in the population. this means that the relatedness of any two individuals is highly variable across different parts of their genome. so we come to the very counter intuitive, but nonetheless true, conclusion that most individuals share a "bloodline" most recent common ancestor that lived not long ago at all, but don't actually share much genetic material via that particular relationship, and at the vast majority of genetic loci likely don't have a common ancestor until many hundreds of thousands of years ago. ok, phew. i hope that was at least somewhat understandable. *edit: another super simple way to talk about it that i should have put in last night is that on average any two human beings drawn from the population will differ at about 1 in a 1000 dna bases. this is something that we can empirically observe, ~~but which doesn't necessarily tell us all that much about patterns of "relatedness" in the terms i've discussed above. so it's really just a measure of how genetically "similar" two people are, and not how "related".~~ eh, i would say that was a misstatement. it actually is a statement about average relatedness, which is indeed what the op was asking about. it's just that that figure leaves out all of the interesting information about how variable relatedness is across different parts of the genome, which i guess is why i saw fit to launch into this ridiculously long explanation.* | 1,601 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alleles",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_equation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombination_(biology\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_assortment#Law_of_Independent_Assortment_.28The_.22Second_Law.22.29",
"http://web.eve.ucdavis.edu/pbg298/pdfs/Hudson_OxfordSurveysEvolBiol_1991.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalescent_theory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_equation",
"http://www.genomesunzipped.org/2011/04/inbreeding-genetic-disease-and-the-royal-wedding.php"
] | [
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|
is there any scientific consensus on the taxonomic placement of ediacaran biota now? | i'm very interested in incertae sedis organisms, particularity ones of especial peculiarity. the genus dendrogramma recently made headlines, and some were suggesting they were refuge populations of ediacaran biota (though these are heavily controversial). but most information i find on ediacaran biota predates 1990. is there any recent information that has driven a stronger scientific consensus? if so, what is it? are there other similar fossils and creatures found which stumps biological taxonomy? | i first heard about *dendrogramma* today, and i must say i'm charmed! it really looks to my eye like nothing we previously know about. i'm super curious about its ecology and behavior (does it swim? crawl? burrow through mud?) and i also can't wait until someone finds new live specimens so we can sequence the thing's dna. someone in a blog comment mentioned its uncanny resemblance to the curious (and, admittedly, ten times as large) [franceville fossils](_url_0_), also a fairly recent discovery. the franceville fossils are controversial - if they are indeed fossils, they push the advent of multicellular life back by ages, from the ediacaran to more than 2 billion years ago. which would obviously completely overturn the narrative of evolution as we know it. i guess the jury's still out on those guys. :p as for the ediacarans themselves (sorry for burying the lede), i don't think there's anything approaching a consensus. part of the problem with the way we tend to ask this question is implicitly assuming that ediacaran fossils represent a single group of organisms, when they're probably very different things (some of them early worms, others early cnidarians, some of them trace fossils, etc). they all have to be interpreted independently. for your last question, i raise you the [placozoans](_url_1_), with only a single described species *trichoplax adhaerens*. much simpler anatomy than *dendrogramma* (about as simple as you could make a multicellular animal, really): a flat, amorphous disc, three or four cell layers thick, crawling along on downward-facing cilia. if i remember correctly, the first specimen was discovered on the inside of a vat of liquid in a lab in the late 1800s. nobody knows quite what to make of them, except that they're certainly a very basal branch on the animal family tree. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francevillian_biota",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placozoa"
] | [
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how to assume material wear? | hello! my question is - how to assume wear of the material over time? i.e.1 - i have a pipe. in time pipe's walls can get thinner due to wear. but how to approximate rate of the wear process over the years? i.e.2 - i have a steel bowl or funnel. i pour granules or flings of a softer metal (let's take copper as example). what can happen to the funnel over time? in theory copper is much softer so it can't even make a scratch. i have found scientific articles on wear with experimental data, but i suppose this is so case-specific, that i can't make any extrapolations or assumptions for other cases based on that. or can i? | the best way would probably be to a sample of the material and have a lab do some sort of [accelerated wear test](_url_0_). there are several different types of standard tests depending on the type of wear - dry abrasion, wet abrasion, metal-on-metal, high or low stress, etc. this still may not give you a number that can just be extrapolated to service life, but you could compare it to a reference material that you know the life of, test several materials and get a ranking, or use it to establish a pass/fail criterion. or if you can find some relevant data (same material, similar application), you could make a conservative guess and build in a large safety margin (basically just overdesign it) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.falex.com/testing.html"
] | [
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why do i regularly hear of a country's economy being crushed under debt while i never hear of the creditor country benefiting from successful repayments? | surely if these debts are so important that countries such as greece hold more weight on their shoulders than atlas, they must benefit the creditor substantially. | related issue is that a nation can be both a debtor and a creditor. those of us in the us are constantly hearing about the federal debt, but never about money owed to us. seems that as of this article a few years ago that for every dollar the us owes to other countries ('bout half the total debt), it is owed $.89. and as the interest rates for what is owed is lower that that which is owed back, its pretty much a wash. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/02/opinion/krugman-nobody-understands-debt.html"
] | [
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how does the iss thermoregulate? | the iss is hit by the sun and is not fully reflective, the machinery and astronauts on board all generate heat, so heat must build up. given that the space through which the iss moves doesn't have a lot of gas to pass its heat off to, the only way it would be able to get rid of it is through em radiation. what's going on? also, by this logic why do i always hear that space is cold? other than initial expansion which would cool things off, once in space things should get hot. what am i missing? | yes, it's all em radiation. since this is a very inefficient method of transferring heat, the radiators are just huge. they are clearly visible as white plates in [this picture](_url_0_). it's actually more complex because they have a full heat collection and heat distribution system based on fluid loops and pumps. this is what we normally call an "active thermal system". some modules even send their heat to the fluid loop of an attached module instead of reaching the radiators directly. ammonia is used in external loops because it can resist much lower temperatures without freezing; water is used in internal loops to avoid the toxicity of ammonia. this change of loop implies additional complexity. far away from any radiation sources, you only get the cmb, which can be approximated as black body radiation at 2.7ºk. that's why it's cold. but in earth's proximity you have intense sunlight, earth's albedo and infrared emissions from the ground, it's actually quite warm! the iss panels are white but it's a white paint designed to look black in infrared. that way they avoid absorbing sunlight but still emit at longer wavelengths. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg"
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what's the difference between autoimmunity and autoinflammation? | inflammation is part of an immune response. autoinflammation would be a symptom of autoimmunity. so if you have an autoimmune disorder, you're probably going to also have inflammation from it. autoimmunity, on the other hand, is when your immune system reacts to your own self. inflammation is usually part of that, but other things can be as well. for example, system lupus erythematosus (commonly called "lupus") is an autoimmune disorder. it is *autoimmunity* against proteins in the cell nucleus, which almost all your cells have. your immune system therefore attacks your cells. that's autoimmunity. part of that attack involves making antibodies. antibodies can trigger *inflammation*, which could cause swelling and loss of movement and lots of pain. they *also* can clump together into "immune complexes" that deposit in places around your body, like joints and your kidneys, and cause other problems(like renal failure). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
which are the most important discoveries in psychology of the 21st century? | edit: wrong century. but i already wrote this, so here are some important discoveries of the 20th century as a preview: **the twin study.** the twin study revolutionized psychology by allowing us to quantify how much of our psychology is explained by genetic factors. the method is brilliantly simple: take two twins who share the same dna, raise them in different environments, and then see how much of their psychology matches after a certain number of years. (no one does this for an experiment, but it happens naturally through adoption and so forth). twin studies have led to an enormous number of shocking and counterintuitive discoveries. for example, our personality is about 40-60% genetic on average,^[1](_url_5_),[2](_url_1_) as are most mental health conditions (e.g., depression is about [40-50%](_url_4_) genetic on average, while schizophrenia is around [80%](_url_3_) on average, and substance abuse disorder is around [30-70%](_url_7_) on average depending on the drug). **lithium for bipolar disorder.** the discovery in the [1940's](_url_2_) that lithium could treat bipolar disorder revolutionized psychiatry (and by extension, psychology). this occurred at a time when many people thought that mental illnesses were the result of unfulfilled wish fulfillments or other freudian explanations that have now been debunked (although to be fair, freud's ideas still have some supporters). the idea that mental health conditions like bipolar disorder could be treated effectively through chemistry was revolutionary, and lithium ushered in a new era for psychology. **ketamine for depression.** quote from a [paper](_url_6_) published in 2012: *"recent studies report what is arguably the most important discovery in half a century: the therapeutic agent ketamine ... produces rapid (within hours) antidepressant actions in treatment-resistant depressed patients."* the discovery in the late 1990s to early 2000's that ketamine (an anesthetic from the 1950's) is also an extremely powerful and quickly-acting antidepressant is currently revolutionizing psychiatry. i could provide more examples of important drug discoveries, since there are many, but i'll stop here for brevity. **classical and operant conditioning.** this is cliché to include on this list, but it's important. before the early pioneers of conditioning like pavlov and skinner began studying this effect in the early 1900's, no one had any clue how our behaviors could be learned from experiences. this early research on conditioning laid the foundation for us to begin understanding the cellular basis of learning and memory in the brain (for example, processes like [hebb's rule](_url_0_)). **mri**. nuclear magnetic resonance was discovered in physics in the early 1940's, but this also became an enormous discovery for psychology in the 1970's with the invention of the mri machine. apart from its immediate applications in clinical psychology, mri allowed researchers to study the brain non-invasively, with unprecedented clarity compared to earlier techniques. mri also led to the development of fmri, which now allows us to observe which parts of the brain activate in certain contexts. the significance of mri and fmri for psychology cannot be overstated. **cognitive behavioral therapy.** it's hard to say exactly when cbt was discovered, but its most popular clinical form has been around since around the 1980's. unlike some earlier forms of therapy, cbt is evidence-based and can be extremely effective for treating an enormous number of different mental health conditions. although researchers are still trying to figure out exactly how it works, it's now standard treatment for many different psychological conditions. for many conditions, the combination of therapy and medication appears to be more effective than either alone, so cbt can also make other treatments more effective. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15642626",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25985137",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3712976/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28987712",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3077049/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2218526",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4424898/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3410620/"
] | [
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|
iama m.s. in oceanography graduate that studied the effects of ocean warming on algae. i am currently working for an eye-care pharmaceuticals company. ama. | i have b.s. in biology and a b.s in marine science. i graduated recently with a m.s. degree in oceanography. my thesis investigated the effects of ocean temperature increase on marine diatoms (algae). although i did no new research on global warming, i conducted extensive reviews on old and new global warming research and consider myself very knowledgeable on the subject. i currently work for a major eye-care pharmaceutical company in their microbiology department, testing products and the environments they're made in for biological contamination. | how do you feel about the transition from an academic stem environment to a commercial scientific organization? how does it differ from the environment you worked in during your ms? what do you currently plan as your future for your career? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can orcas jump so high? | i remember seeing free willy and thinking it was absurd how high willy jumped, but then i saw [this picture](_url_0_) and i'm quite perplexed. that's way higher than a great white shark can jump, and they are powerful swimmers and much lighter to boot. so how does an orca pull it off? | it's all about velocity, the faster you can approach the surface of the water, the higher you can jump. however it's not an issue of being better swimmers in general, sharks are neutral buoyancy, orcas are positive buoyancy. this means orcas store energy as they dive, and this gets converted into velocity as they ascend. it makes sense from a survival perspective, sharks don't have to surface to breathe, but if orcas were neutral buoyancy and overestimated their dive endurance, they'd drown. similarly, but less extreme, if sharks were positive buoyancy, they'd have to waste energy to maintain their depth. | 10 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/KlE5f"
] | [] | [
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can someone explain me the phenomenon of synchronization? | i have attached a link in this text so you guys can understand what i'm talking about ---- > _url_0_ | the pendulums are collectively moving the surface on which they're all attached which is applying a force that in turn affects the pendulums, creating a dynamical system. for pendulums moving faster than the "group" speed, there is a force that causes them to slow down. similarly, for pendulums that move more slowly, there is a force that causes them to speed up. this is a stable equilibrium. so while the oscillation can be fairly chaotic for a while, eventually it falls into the stable equilibrium where they're all moving the same speed. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W1TMZASCR-I"
] | [] | [
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do blood-thinners (such as curcumin) affect the permeability of the blood-brain barrier? | i've been searching high and low to no avail. does anyone know of any literature on this? specifically, would taking, say, turmeric or something else that induces blood thinning, make the bbb more permeable? | "blood thinner" is a term used to indicate that a drug inhibits clotting. blood clotting occurs all the time in your body, and it needs to, or else you'd bleed to death from tiny internal injuries. but too much clotting is bad, because a clot might block off your blood supply someplace important (like your lungs, or your brain). blood thinners don't really affect viscosity at all, even though it sounds like they should. it wouldn't be totally wrong to think of the bbb as a really finely-woven filter, but it's so finely-woven (molecule-sized holes) that viscosity wouldn't affect the action of the bbb, even if blood thinners did affect viscosity. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does askscience think of the e-cat? | the e-cat (energy catalyzer) is supposedly a low-energy nuclear reaction build by an italian inventor, rossi. it has gained some credibility this week by running three hours sustaining it self and generating an even amount of heat with no signs of decrease. description from [wikipedia](_url_1_): > the energy catalyzer (sometimes shortened to e-cat) is an apparatus built by inventor[1] andrea rossi,[2] with support from his scientific consultant, physicist and emeritus professor[3] sergio focardi. the 2009 patent application[4] claims "a method and apparatus for carrying out nickel and hydrogen exothermal reactions," with production of copper.[5] although the patent cites previous works on cold fusion,[6] one statement by rossi asserted that it is not cold fusion, but rather lenr, low-energy nuclear reaction.[7][8] claims of a similar system, but yielding considerably less power, had previously been advanced by focardi et al.[9] according to focardi, "the hydrogen is heated at a given temperature with a simple resistor. when the ignition temperature is reached, the energy production process starts: the hydrogen atoms penetrate into the nickel and transform it into copper.”[10] > the device has been demonstrated to an invited audience several times, and has been commented on positively by bologna physics professor giuseppe levi, and by the swedish technology magazine ny teknik, together with the online publication new energy times. however, ny teknik and the new energy times, together with other sources, have since published less favourable reports - with ny teknik pointing out apparent flaws in the science involved in testing, and the new energy times going as far as to assert that rossi's claims may be fraudulent. according to rossi, commercial application of the device will begin in october of 2011. snake oil? what would it mean if it is real? here is a link to [ny teknik with test results](_url_2_) here is a [link to wired article](_url_0_) | i know we've discussed it a million times, but i'm having trouble finding old discussions on the matter, so i'll just go ahead and summarize my usual arguments here. 1. they don't have open-box demonstrations, so who the hell knows what they're doing. without reproducibility it's not science in the classical sense. i understand their perceived need for protection for their idea, but until the effect can be independently verified and reproduced, it's not a part of public physics knowledge. which then leads into a discussion of whether science is a public vs. private concept, and a particularly interesting argument someone gave me about secret cryptoanalysis studies and whether that counts as science even if it isn't publicly disclosed and peer-reviewed. 2. they don't have a good proposal of what's physically happening. fusion requires two nuclei to overcome their mutual repulsion to then form a lower-energy bound state. without a good explanation of how this happens, i remain skeptical at best. to date, they've only self-published an explanation, and haven't published in a peer-reviewed source. again, without open-box knowledge who the hell knows what's going on. i would be skeptical, extremely skeptical. if they can make more energy than it costs to produce the energy, even if it's not fusion, then they'll make money, and that's fine. but i doubt it highly. right now it's a magic trick ("an illusion, michael"). it's a black box where they claim magic happens and energy is produced. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2011-10/06/e-cat-cold-fusion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Catalyzer",
"http://www.nyteknik.se/nyheter/energi_miljo/energi/article3284823.ece"
] | [] | [
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so, what's is the origin of everything? | alright, a bit of a big one but i'll try and give some background. i'll start off right at the beginning by saying that i haven't yet found a theological explanation that tackles this better than current scientific theory, so i'll ignore spiritual explanation for this one cheers. at about the age of 6 or so, it hit me that you could only keep playing the 'but where did that come from?' game for so long. at some point you got to the beginning of the universe itself. so i read a little, spoke to my parents, and the big bang was the general answer i received. some years later as a philosophy major in my final year and i decide to use my dissertation to look at this hoping i might get a little closer to being able to even pose the question in a meaningful way. see, that's the first problem with this. you can't even ask the question meaningfully. at first you want to ask: what came before everything? the answer is presumably 'nothing'. and after that? more nothing. no time, no space, nada. then something. stuff. matter. energy. phenomena and hydrogen and a few billion years later, us. so how does a zero-energy state system produce anything at all? what comes between absolutely nothing whatsoever and matter? i often come across the answer that the big bang was the result of quantum fluctuations, or somehow arose out of of 'virtual particles'. again, like the big bang, this doesn't actually answer the question. the question isn't 'where did matter come from?' but where did 'everything' come from, energy itself. the temptation is just to say, 'well, how did the quantum fluctuations/virtual particles get there?'. another approach i took was to look at the mad alternative, the steady-state model, the idea that the universe didn't have a beginning in time at all, rather, it's been around forever and will continue to do so indefinitely. this sounds just as insane as 'shit came outta nothing for no reason'. it also opens up the old infinite-monkeys with infinite-typewriters scenario, so the jury's out on that one too. the truly mind bending element of this is that one of those two had to be the case, and both of them are completely insane. everything came out of nowhere for no reason whatever with no prior cause (by definition), or it's always been here forever and causation is just a stupid word that humans use. so. yeah. what d'you think reddit? | this is a subtle point: the answer is *not* nothing. the answer is that there's no answer. one cannot apply the concept "before" to the beginning of the universe. it simply has no meaning. the cliché is to stand at the north pole and face north. you can't. there is no north at the north pole. at the north pole, the direction "north" does not exist. at the first moment of the big bang, the direction "before" does not exist. so no, you cannot say there was nothing before the big bang, any more than you can say there was custard before the big bang. there's no "before" there. which means it's equally meaningless to contemplate a "zero-energy state" before the big bang. again: there's no "before" there. we could just as well *define* the first instant of the big bang as being the instant to which "before" does not apply. you can disregard that one. it's been empirically disproved. repeatedly, actually. well no, in fact neither is the case. that's the *origin* of what you call "mind bending." the fact that thinking along these lines confuses you is a sign that you've made an error in your premise. you're trying to apply a "before" to a situation to which "before" is inapplicable. that's the fundamental contradiction in your thinking. that's why you're flummoxed; that's the sensation of your brain telling you you've made a category error. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how come we know so little about denisovans? how much research is being done on them? | because there is little more than teeth and digits of them if i recall correctly. the genome is sequenced and their relationships (genetically) to sapiens and neanderthals have been elucidated. the fact of the matter is, it is unlikely that we will ever learn more about this organism without larger skeletal finds. i think the relatively recent discovery of denisovan hominin and floresienses coupled with signals of unidentified introgression demonstrates how many hominin species have exsisted from the transition from australopithecines to modern sapiens. its exciting. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does the body divert blood to specific areas, for example to the stomach after eating thanksgiving dinner? | i read that post-meal drowsiness is due mostly the fact that our body is diverting a large amount of blood to our digestive system after eating large amount of food. this got me to wonder how is our body able to discriminate where blood even goes? more blood goes to other areas such as muscles, brains, genitals, etc., when they are being used heavily as well. how does this work? | different (locally released or otherwise) hormones can cause blood vessels in different parts of the body to dilate or constrict, giving a somewhat uneven distribution of blood where ever it may be needed. one example is adrenaline, which dilates blood vessels in the muscles and constricts vessels to the digestive system _url_0_ _url_1_ _url_2_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response#Physiology",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system"
] | [
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why are there 144hz monitor? where did that number come from | it's the highest refresh rate dual link dvi (connection) can support at 1920x1080. dual link dvi can do 1920x1200 @ 120hz or 1920x1080 @ 144hz to get more bandwidth, you would have to use displayport 1.2 or 1.3, which i think would allow for 1080p @ 240hz in the case of 1.2 | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why the special embryological origin of anterior pituitary ? | i am preparing for usmle step 1. i have been wondering, what is so special about the anterior pituitary that it had to originate from the rathke's pouch, rather than the prosencephalon. it must be something to do with the hormones being produced... cant really figure it out... thanks in advance | it is of epithelial cell origin. it may at one time simply have been a mucus secreting structure in the mouth. then it evolved to secrete hormones and migrated posteriorly to fuse with the neurohypophysis. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why did the launch of insight travel mostly south? | i just watched the launch of the latest nasa mars probe and it headed basically sse (looked like 150 - 160 degrees). the solar system and equator are are similar planes and the earths tilt is max 23 degrees so why head out in this direction? | the orbital path of a satellite around a single body is a [conic section](_url_1_). if the orbital speed is below escape velocity, the path is a circle or ellipse; above escape velocity, it's a hyperbola; and exactly at escape velocity, it's a parabola. consider what happens when you're trying to maneuver a satellite from the earth's surface into a hyperbolic escape orbit. in order to efficiently launch into this orbit, you want to burn in a direction tangential to the surface, with the burn ending near the hyperbola's vertex (the point of minimum aititude). but the direction that the satellite will ultimately end up traveling as it leaves the earth's sphere of influence is different. it falls along another tangent line, or asymptote, which the hyperbola approaches in the limit of infinite distance (as seen in [this diagram](_url_0_), where earth is at the focus). the angle between the vertex tangent and the asymptote can be anywhere from zero to 90 degrees, depending on the launch speed. furthermore, the final trajectory *relative to the earth* is different from the final velocity *relative to the sun*. in order to enter a transfer orbit that intersects both earth and mars, you need to gain speed in the direction of earth's orbit, which lengthens the axis of your heliocentric orbit. but since mars' orbit isn't coplanar with earth's, there will be a significant north-south component to the velocity as well. and the resulting velocity vector will be in a different direction relative to the earth's surface, depending on your latitude and the time of day. so, all told, the launch direction that an interplanetary spacecraft has a pretty complicated relationship with where it will end up. the mission planners have to figure out what direction and speed they want to end up leaving earth in. then, they have to find a departure orbit that *ends up* in that orbit, with a starting point that the launch vehicle can achieve (which includes letting the earth's rotation provide some of the eastward velocity). and finally they have to wait for a launch window, when the earth's rotation carries the launch site close enough to the hyperbola's vertex for an efficient launch. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbola#/media/File:Hyperbel-def-ass-e.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conic_section",
"https://www.wired.com/story/why-is-nasas-insight-mars-mission-launching-from-california/"
] | [
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is there any way to count a second flawlessly? | thought about this while watching 'the cube' on tv today, one of the challenges required the contestents to count down from 10 to 0 and press a buzzer to pass (they were allowed 9 - 10 seconds) so it got me thinking is there a method of counting perfect seconds every time? | atomic clocks are pretty much the most accurate way i think, specifically the caesium one at npl, with accuracy of ~ 2.3 × 10-16. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do white/red dwarfs have a habitable zone? | if a planet for all intents and purposes identical to earth were to orbit around a white or red dwarf, would the "dead" star be able to supply enough energy to sustain life? if they can, where would the zone be, and how long could the star provide for it's hypothetical life-bearing planet? | first off, a white dwarf is a "dead" star, while a red dwarf is just a small normal star. what we call a habitable zone is just the zone in which water on the surface would be liquid on a planet with sufficient atmospheric pressure. because these dwarfs give off less energy than the sun, the zone is closer to the star. red dwarfs would be able to provide life longer than the sun could, because red dwarfs live longer. white dwarfs most likely won't support life because they cool down from when they form, which means that the zone keeps moving inward. so planets will only have a limited amount of time in the habitable zone | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
bacteriophages are interesting! a little like pitting two enemies (viruses and bacteria) against one another. a few questions, though: | are phages harmful to intestinal bacteria? are they flexible? customizable? any chance of mutation when inside the body? how viable are they compared to the commonly used antibiotics? could phages be synthesized to attack other things like cancer cells? [wiki for those that are unfamiliar.](_url_0_) | * in general, for every species of bacteria you can think of, there are phage that can infect it. so there are certainly phage that will infect intestinal fauna, perhaps someone else knows of cases where that's problematic. * not sure exactly what you mean by "flexible." if by customizable you mean "are we able to we edit their genomes" the answer is yes, depending on the phage. phage that integrate into host genomes are generally easier to manipulate genetically than ones that don't, but if you're determined enough there's often a way, [and it's an active area of research for many phage labs](_url_0_) * mutation while in the body: all the time. they reproduce in numbers that are difficult to conceptualize, and every time their genome is reproduced there's a chance at mutation, just like us. * there is a ton of interest in using phage as treatment, particularly for drug resistant bacteria, and from what i understand it's actually used in a few countries. the general issue is that phage tend to be very specific about what bacteria they will use as a host, so you have to know the species of bacteria causing the infection. this differs from a broad spectrum antibiotic which will do things that effect many species, like interfering in bacterial cell wall formation. * you're not going to get bacteriophage that directly infect mammalian cells, you'd have to start with a mammalian virus. the problem is getting it to distinguish between healthy cells and cancer cells (a problem with pretty much every cancer treatment), and even if you're successful there's a very real chance it will mutate and infect your healthy cells anyway. | 4 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophage"
] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v6/n11/abs/nrmicro2014.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR"
] | [
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is there a material that allows for absolutely no current to travel in it? | my teacher told me that even insulators like wood and rubber allow a slight flow of electrons through, but barely noticeable, so is there any material that doesn't allow any electron movement? | short answer: no. for that to happen you would need infinite resistance and infinite don't appear in nature except in places where we really don't know what we're talking about. long answer: sort of. current is defined by the motion of charged particles through an area. matter as we experience it in everyday life can't have experience this but there are more exotic substances that can have this property, the problem is that most of these wouldn't qualify as a "material" by most common definitions of the word. light for example is charge-less and thus can't have a property of current, but since you can't really construct anything out of it it's kind of a moot point. the same could be said for neutrinos, gluons, higgs bosons and z bosons the problem is that you kind of need electrical charge to make anything above the sub-atomic scale. gravity is too weak, strong force is too short range, and i can't tell you shit about weak force. only electricity is both strong and long-range enough to bring matter together to create materials outside of extreme and rare scenarios | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is the bootes void and why is it empty? | [deleted] | it's a very large section of the universe, roughly 300 million light years across and sort of spherical, which has very little in it. a space that size would be expected contain 2,000 or so galaxies: so far, we have found only 60, all roughly running through the middle of the area. so, it is not entirely empty, just emptier than we would expect. as to why, it could be that a number of smaller voids were joined together by the expansion of the universe (think of bubbles that come together), which would explain the distribution of the galaxies that are there, or it could be a fluke. we have *no* idea how big the universe really is, but what we can see is large enough that a void that is less than .3% of the observable universe is not so anomolous. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do i ensure my body goes to science? | hoping this won't be relevant any time soon, but what are the logistics for donating my body after i die? (i'm already an organ donor.) | when you get older and are settled in one place you can approach a university and arrange through them. medical schools for example need bodies and are very grateful if you decide to donate your body. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is 'height loss'? how and why does it happen? | i came across this when i was going through some information about post menopausal osteoporosis. | most of an individual's loss of height occurs due to degeneration of the vertebral discs in our spine. our spine is made of bone, obviously, which are the individual vertebrae, but between every two vertebrae we have a disc which serves a number of functions that i won't flesh out here. as we age, these discs become more rigid and the nucleus pulposis (the gooey part in the center of the disc) becomes less able to regenerate. the end result of degeneration is that each of our discs slowly lose their vertical width, meaning we lose height. some height can also be lost if we lead sedentary lifestyles because our bones are constantly remodeling themselves throughout our lives, and if we don't put a lot of stress on our bones over a long period of time, then the driving 'force', if you can call it that, of gravity is no longer present. without this force, bones lose some height over time. this effect is usually seen in the long bones of the lower extremity. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is the 'god effect' produced in ordinary situations? | [the god helmet](_url_0_) has the ability to make individuals perceive superstitious phenomena. because of this, paranormal occurrences á la out-of-body experiences or an oracles visions are often discredited as (hyper-?)stimulation of certain brain regions. however, if we need such an apparatus to help us experience these things in a lab, how do people experience these things, say, at night or in churches? how can the 'god effect' occur naturally? i realize that my wording seems rather odd, i hope you understand what i am asking. | there's something very important being lost in other responses to this question. from op's wp link: why should we try to explain **why** something works, when it hasn't been sufficiently demonstrated **that** it works? | 21 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_helmet"
] | [] | [
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how did we know what to expect when first venturing into space? | i couldn't think of a great way to title my question, so please allow me to elaborate. now we know that we need very sophisticated materials to keep from getting fried to a crisp while leaving the earths atmosphere and again when re-entering it. now we know of the extreme temperature differences in the void of space (freezing to burn you alive). we know about the radiation, microscopic meteorites, etc.... but how did we figure it out? was it wild speculation that got lucky? or was it trial and error? i know we've sent up monkeys, dogs, etc, but since they're unable to return or communicate, i think it'd be fair to say sending them up did little in the way of "hey...what's it feel like up there?" so in other words...are there human beings up there floating around somewhere either as one big ice cube or perhaps fried to a crisp because we didn't know what to expect? | scientists and engineers knew roughly what to expect because the very basic physical conditions could be predicted and designed around. they knew they couldn't rely on convection to remove waste heat, they knew approximately how much solar radiation the craft would receive at any given time in it's orbit, etc etc. so the first few flights weren't so much wild speculation as educated estimations; the various systems on the craft were then refined using data collected from the earlier launches once solid data on exactly what was needed was received. a large part of it is material science questions ("how does the tensile strength of material x change after long periods of expose to a high vacuum?", "exactly how much aluminum is needed to properly shield electronics?", etc) that you can estimate via experimentation here on earth but refine using real data later on. the live animal testing was to show that extended stays in microgravity didn't produce immediate harmful results in biological specimens, which was an open question at the time. it's much like the first time humans took to the seas in great ships larger than anything designed or built before them. the shipwrights had a very broad idea of what worked and what didn't because they've been building much smaller ships to move cargo and people around a local area, but it's only through experience that those broad ideas and concepts are tempered into known material truths and proven designs. experimentation and scaled testing of individual components could only get them so far before they just had to build it and see what worked. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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reddit, is it possible for two objects to impact each other and each be sliced? | for example: can two swords hit each other and both be sliced at the impact point? how about a wing of a plane hitting a tree, slicing the tree all the way through, but also being sliced all the way through? when two objects hit they exude the same force on each other, so if the two objects have the same amount of force required to break them, then will they both break? | consider what happens when the blades collide. each gets a nick at the point of contact, and assuming they are identical, the surface of the nick will be more or less flat, and they will stop slicing. so no, they can't. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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da vinci said "the function of muscle is to pull and not to push, except in the case of the genitals and the tongue." how much truth is there in that statement? | it's from ["dell' anatomia"](_url_0_). | when a muscle undergoes activity, it contracts due to the shortening of long rod-like protein filament associations called myofibrils, brought about by an increase in overlap of the protein filaments. as muscle activity is necessarily a shortening, it will always have a 'pulling' effect: i.e. it will act to approximate its origin and insertion. this is why when you tense your biceps brachii muscle - which originates from your scapula (shoulder blade) and inserts into your radius (one of the bones of your forearm), flexion of the elbow occurs (as well as other actions including turning of the forearm and shoulder joint flexion). the muscles of the tongue follow the same principles but may appear to have slightly confusing actions, due to their origins/insertion not being completely bony (as was the case with the example above). da vinci may be talking about protrusion of the tongue, which appears to be pushing the tongue outwards. however, this is brought about by a muscle named genioglossus, which originate on the internal surface of your chin (i.e. the mandible) and inserts into the muscular body of the tongue. contraction of this muscle therefore appears to 'push' the tongue out of the mouth. the 'pushing' effect of this muscle is evident in unilateral vagus nerve lesions (the vagus nerve innervates the muscle). when asked to protrude the tongue, the tongue will be observed to move towards the affected side, almost as if it were being pushed over by the still-functioning muscle. in terms of genitals, i am not entirely sure what he is talking about. if he is considering the erectile tissues (of the penis and clitoris), then these are in fact not muscles, but rather spongy tissues capable of receiving blood. he may be talking about the muscles which are involved with pushing blood into the erectile tissues (ischiocavernosus, bulbospongiosus), but these still function by contracting around a blood reservoir, forcing blood into the penis. this is, however, solely considering one type of muscle (skeletal). there are further examples of what could be considered 'pushing' in cardiac muscle (in the heart) and smooth muscle (lining various tubes in the body: the digestive tract, the vascular system). however these too function by shortening. if we consider peristalsis in the gut - one of the methods by which food is pushed along from mouth to anus - constriction behind the food bolus and relaxation in front of it appear to push it onwards: this is still, however, shortening and constriction (this action is also present in the urogenital systems, but i'm not sure how much knowledge da vinci had of smooth muscle). hope this kinda answers your question! source: have just finished my anatomy and physiology courses as part of my medicine degree (of course there are people out there who know a lot more about this stuff than i do, but i thought i would be able to give a decent answer - let me know if i've got anything muddled!) | 43 | [] | [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=hXoM3F9tr5UC&pg=PA102&dq=%22function+of+muscle+is+to+pull+and+not+to+push,+except+in+the+case+of+the+genitals+and+the+tongue.%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=B73QUajGHfGFyQGnn4H4Ag&ved=0CFoQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=%22function%20of%20muscle%20is%20to%20pull%20and%20not%20to%20push%2C%20except%20in%20the%20case%20of%20the%20genitals%20and%20the%20tongue.%22&f=false"
] | [] | [
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what are the a, b and c frequency weightings? | what are they exactly? where did they come from historically? which is best for what measurements and why? | they are measurement curves for representing sound pressure levels in a "human relevant" way. historically, they are based loosely off of the [equal loudness contours](_url_0_) first measured by fletcher and munson. those curves show how, at different frequencies, the same measured sound pressure level (unweighted) correspond to the same perceived loudness by a human subject. actual equal loudness contours have a lot of little variations, but the weighting curves smooth a lot of those out, to make the filters easier to implement in devices. historically, a weighting was meant for quiet sounds, b for medium sounds, and c for loud sounds. these each corresponded to an appropriate hearing curve. in general, a weights low-frequency less than c. b was between a and c, but is no longer in use. d weighting was proposed to be used in the aviation industry to measure the annoyance of plane noise, but i'm not sure how much it is used, and it's no longer detailed in the standard. sometimes you will also see z-weighting, which is another way to describe an unweighted spl. in theory, c should be used for loud sounds and a should be reserved for quiet sounds. in practice, a is used almost exclusively. the full description of these weighting curves is given in the iec 61672:2003 standard, which also details different grades of sound level meters. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal-loudness_contour"
] | [
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could you use gravity fluctuations to transmit information and how fast could you do it? | suppose i had an accelerometer on a very large asteroid, and the sensor was focused on a much smaller asteroid a long distance away so that it could detect its gravitational pull. if i were able to move the asteroid back and forth along the sensing axis and the sensor interpreted the perturbations as 1s and 0s, what would the latency be (assuming they are always at a constant distance and there were no other objects to disrupt the sensor)? i've always assumed that changes in gravity would be felt instantaneously, but in this case, that would enable faster-than-light information, which should be impossible. | yes - you can wiggle heavy masses around to generate gravitational waves. *however* 1) those waves travel at the speed of light. 2) it takes a lot more energy to wiggle heavy masses to generate gravitational waves than to wiggle electrons around to generate electomagnetic waves. 3) gravitational waves are very hard to detect over large distances because they are very weak. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there such a thing as maximum concentration ? | is there a maximum amount of salt we can dissolve in water? i have noticed that putting salt in a certain amount of water, the salt starts dissolving in the water, until i put "too much" salt , where i can still see the salt at the bottom, not being fully dissolved in the water . why does that happen ? | when a solvent has the most possible solute, it's called saturated. a saturated salt solution is about 26% salt by weight, and has a freezing temperature of zero fahrenheit. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone please explain ideal despotic distribution? | i understand ideal free distribution but can't understand ideal despotic distribution. | think of ideal distribution as the general theory that populations will grow towards some ideal amount that a given piece of land can support. again, ideal distribution is just the general trend. however, there are exceptions. despotic distribution is one such exception. it says that territorial animals will mess with this distribution, because the dominant animals will 'hog' the best areas, instead of letting them naturally fill up with the amount of animals they support (and there are experiments that prove this is sometimes the case). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how would/does microgravity affect the function of an induction motor? | how does/would microgravity affect the function of an induction motor? if the stator was not anchored to anything would part of it's torque be transfer to itself resulting in the stator spinning counter directionally to the rotor and decreased rotational speed for the rotor relative to the initial position of the stator? for another example on earth a motor spins it's rotor clockwise at 1rpm, would and attempt to run this motor in microgravity result in the rotor spinning clockwise at .5rpm and stator spinning counterclockwise at .5rpm? how does the mass of rotor and stator play into this? basically in space will the stator stay? | it would mostly not affect it. in a running motor, the electromagnetic forces dominate, and do not depend on gravity. the momentum of the motor would of course have to go somewhere. if you start a motor with a stator that is free to rotate, the stator will of course start to rotate. this could be demonstrated by mounting the motor on a rotating disk here on earth. the speed of each part would depend on the inertia of those parts. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the general opinion of the "energy catalyzer" aka "cold fusion generator" | here's a relevant article: _url_1_ also, the wikipedia article if you're still not sure what i'm talking about: _url_0_ i'm interested in knowing the scientific community's thoughts on this device. how the developers claim it works, theories on how it *actually* works, why it might not work, etc. | the wiki article already does a pretty good job of summarizing that. i don't think anyone puts much stock in rossi's own (vague) ideas of what (if anything) is going on. he's claiming nuclear stuff, but hasn't actually shown anything like neutron production, that'd be a tell-tale sign of that. it's not known if it works at all yet. it hasn't been independently verified. very little details of the actual thing have been released. you can't really explain what's going on without first knowing if something actually _is_ going on in the first place. it's probably a hoax, or rather a self-delusion. these things typically are. since "free energy" is so easy to imagine, and naturally very desirable, it's all the more reason to be extremely skeptical, because it creates a powerful motive for self-delusion. but since the guy is supposedly opening a 1 mw plant within a week, i suppose we'll find out soon enough, though. if you want to be taken seriously in science, you either need a solid theory on why you believe something should be possible, or strong, independently-verified empirical evidence that something actually happens, whatever the explanation may be. this invention has neither, so far. | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Catalyzer",
"http://www.forbes.com/sites/markgibbs/2011/10/17/hello-cheap-energy-hello-brave-new-world/"
] | [] | [
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how does adhesion work? | i understand (to a certain extent) that glues work to make a chemical bond between two surfaces, but how do things like stickers and post-its work? | adhesion is the sticking-together of substances that are not alike. kind of like water sticking to the side of a cup or something. this is caused by non-covalent bonds between the molecules. water is a polar molecule, with a partially negative charge on the oxygen and partially positive charges on the hydrogens. the thing is, this doesn't just happen with water, it can happen to any kind of polar bond, where the difference in electronegativites between the atoms is greater than 2.1 i think. so anyway, these partial charges allow for partial bonding. so the partial negative charge on an oxygen in a water molecule could kind of "hang out" with a partially positive charge on an atom in a molecule that makes up the other adhesive material, and wa-la! adhesion. does this answer your question? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why is alumium and boron in group 13 instead of group 3? | because between the 2nd and 3th main or primary groups are 10 secondary groups. so al is in the 3th main group or in the 13th group. it's a matter of how you look at it. you should ckeck out what is the difference between the 2 types of groups, something related to the numbers of electrons on the last orbit, and why they are intercalated. a video: _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/periodic-table/copy-of-periodic-table-of-elements/v/periodic-table-introduction"
] | [
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|
how did people think pregnancy and impregnation work before modern medicine gave us so much insight? | like, what did people think semen did? what happened during pregnancy? i'm curious as to what the societal perception was. | not a scientist, but i am a historian. i can't speak for every culture out there; but from a purely european standpoint, people have understood pregnancy for a very long time. the first written records of effective birth control date back to egypt in nearly 2000 bce, safe sex even pops up in the old testament. later on the romans had a very thorough understanding of how reproduction worked. they even had fairly sophisticated birth control measures. and that knowledge wasn't lost when rome fell. during the medieval period there were manuscripts detailing the intricacies of primitive birth control and even a few recipes to induce miscarriage. really though, sex is a pretty common human experience and people who lived in the past weren't stupid. there's no reason to believe they didn't understand very well where babies came from. granted they may not have had all the microscopic details right, but the general course of events is pretty easy to figure out. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how would i go about testing a rock for its composition? | so me and my friends went camping, and found a large rock on the beach, it looks very out of place, much larger, smoother and less eroded than the other rocks around it, and it almost looks like someone has painted it. i know that its not paint because the rock is essentially in the middle of nowhere and the amount of paint it would take to cover the thing would be ridiculous, as well as it would be flaking off. i broke a small piece off, and it was really really hard, broke 3 rocks in half before getting a small chunk off of it. out of curiosity i was wondering what its made of, would i have to send it to a spectrometer, or is there somewhere that does testing like this i can easily mail a piece to? | if you actually wanted its elemental composition, yes, you would need to send it to a lab. for major rock forming elements (e.g. si, ti, al, na, ca, mn, mg, k, p, etc) and more abundant trace elements, we often use a [x-ray fluorescence spectrometer (xrf)](_url_0_). for trace elements that occur in much smaller amounts, we would use a [mass spectrometer](_url_4_). if you really wanted to know the elemental composition of this random rock, there's nothing to stop you from sending it to a geochemistry lab that does contract work, all things considered it's not that expensive, e.g. [wsus geochem lab](_url_3_) will give you an analysis of a single specimen using the xrf and report the analyses for 29 elements for $120 (i don't think you're going to qualify for the research institution rate of $60). in most situations though, knowing the minerals in the rock along with their textures/relations to each other is sufficient to (1) define what the rock is classified as, (2) determine how it was formed / describe its history, and (3) give a rough approximation of the elemental composition (because we know the elemental compositions of the minerals forming the rock). most geologists (with a [hand lens](_url_1_)) could identify the minerals in your rock and give you this information. if it was really fine grained, we might need to cut a [thin section](_url_2_) and look at it under a microscope. assuming you can see individual minerals without magnification or if the rock has a clear 'texture' to it, you might try taking a couple of well lit and in focus picture of your rock chunk from different angles and posting them on /r/whatisthisrock or /r/geology, lots of lovely people there love trying to identify rocks from pictures (which is actually kind of a pain, it's much easier in person). | 16 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence",
"https://geology.com/store/hand-lens/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_section",
"https://environment.wsu.edu/facilities/geoanalytical-lab/service/prices/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry"
] | [
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are there complimentary sounds? the same way there are complimentary colors? | take the [light spectrum](_url_0_) you can wrap it end to end, to make a [wheel](_url_1_) and find out the colors complements. red complements green, blue to orange, and so on. does the same thing apply to sound? is there such a thing as a complimentary sound? | kind of. in music, different intervals (distances between notes) are used to create different harmonies. for example, a perfect 5^th (5 whole tomes apart, such as a c and g played together) is a basic clean sound. a minor second (a semitone apart, such as a b and c) makes a very sharp, dissonant, almost unpleasant sound. interestingly, the intervals make similar sounds (not pitch, obviously), no matter what notes are actually played. [more](_url_0_) | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.thepurpletent.us/images/Spectrum.jpg",
"http://copiccreations.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/color-wheel-complementary-colors.gif?w=600"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_(music)"
] | [
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do primates ever keep the tools they fashion? ie plan ahead? | i was just thinking of what the real differences are cognitively between humans and one of our closer cousin species. i know one thing that has now been very well documented is the use of rudimentary tools, ie chimpanzees stripping and fashioning a stick to be used to insert into termite mounds. however i was wondering if it's ever been documented of the chimpanzee keeping the stick for future use? that is to understand that they're probably going to need this at some point in the future? i'm probably going to reel off assumptions here, but i'm guessing when first picking a stick out they have certain specifications they think it should meet... so therefore would it be much a leap for them to actually recognize they've made a particularly good tool that is worth keeping for the future? just that as far as i can tell that superior human intelligence only seems to stem from returning to their group with the tool still in hand for future use, obviously leading to the notion of refining or upgrading it which culminates in art, literature, space travel, the internet etc... but i'm probably assuming way too much here - any insights from the experts? | okay i managed to find a source. i was reasonably sure i'd seen the keeping of tools in jane goodall books but i wanted to find something i could cite. here is a quote from an npr interview about chimps keeping stone tools used for nut breaking. [source](_url_0_). > what's extraordinary is that these nut trees are in groves in the forest, and the only fruit at certain times of the year. and the stone hammers, which are particularly precious, stone is very rare in rainforests. and it's so rare that the stone hammers, which are particularly important to crack, a large or very hard nut, called a panda nut, the chimps will carry these stones with them for a long time, through the forest, looking for new panda nuts. and more than anything else, making sure that none of the other chimps nick their favorite tool. | 362 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wbur.org/npr/150734375/following-the-lives-of-chimpanzees-on-screen?ft=3&f=150734375",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/chimpanzee-plans-throws-stones-zoo/",
"https://www.wfs.org/futurist/january-february-2014-vol-48-no-1/planning-among-primates",
"http://www.radiolab.org/story/91939-fu-manchu/",
"http://www.academia.edu/4094013/Use_of_stone_hammer_tools_and_anvils_by_bearded_capuchin_monkeys_over_time_and_space_construction_of_an_archeological_record_of_tool_use",
"http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/photos/hairy-houdinis-6-animal-escape-artists/fu-manchu-the-orangutan"
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] |
why is my pee omni-directional somtimes | most men only use their penises for two activities, which means that men generally ignore what their penises are doing the rest of the time. despite your best efforts (or possibly because of them) you will see or think of something sexually stimulating during your daily activities (or accidentally rub up against something and experience manual stimulation), which will cause your reproductive organs to spring into action. your internal reproductive organs will secrete some seminal fluid (natural lubrication) as a result of this involuntary reaction to sexual stimulation. if the stimulation is very short and does not continue into sexual activity, the production of seminal fluid will stop and your penis will go back to its usual non-sexual activities (i am not making this up: moving around on its own within your trousers, dodging the movements of your testicles as they regulate the temperature of your sperm, etc.). since most men do not take multiple showers in a day, that seminal fluid will stick around in your penis. some of it will have made it to the tip of your urethra, causing the opening to stick shut. when you next urinate, the edges of the urethral opening at the tip of the penis will spring open first, but the center, with more surface area to stick together, will stay stuck for a second or two. this will cause the urine to squirt out the sides of the urethral opening, initially forming two streams. as the stream continues and knocks away at the dried seminal fluid, eventually the entire urethral opening completely unblocks, and the two urine streams merge into one. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
dоеs thе bоdу nаturаllу рrоduсе еnоugh рrоlіnе аnd glусіnе fоr hеаlіng sоft tіssuе іnјurіеs? | if you have a healthy diet then yes. obviously consult your doctor before beginning single amino acid supplementation as it can disrupt your metabolism. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
with so much subterranean work in new york city, how do engineers know the surface weight can be supported? | you see articles about subways, sewers, mining facilities and various underground structures being made all the time. this is all directly below 80+ story skyscrapers. that is a tremendous amount of weight. how can the engineers know the intervening space can support that colossal mass without buckling? | when buildings are built, they have to take the existing tunnels into account. when new tunnels are built, they have to take the existing buildings into account. there are maps laying out everything. it also helps that new york is on some pretty solid bedrock that extends almost up to the surface (indeed, it does poke out here and there in central park). you can read about the geology of the area here: _url_0_ | 26 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.newyorknature.net/Geology.html"
] | [
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why would a thinner layer of compound mixture be better at the start of column chromatography? | i was told that it had something to do with the effective separation of the components in that mixture but i could not reason it out with myself. | if you apply your compound in a thick layer of solvent, the compound at the bottom has a head start over the compound at the top. basically, you are spreading out your compounds before you even start running the column. so, you will end up with much thicker bands running down the column instead of nice tight bands. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is happening in this picture ? | a friend of mine took [this](_url_0_) picture from inside his car with a phone. why does it look like the rainbow is dividing the sky in two different colors ? | oh cool, [alexander's dark band](_url_1_). this is a meteorological phenomenon, so i'll cede the floor to our experts in that field. your question may be worded too vaguely for the relevant panelists to find, however, and if that's the case we'll have you resubmit now that you know the name of what you're looking at. [here](_url_0_) is a great source for atmospheric optics. | 2 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/iFyDze2"
] | [
"http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/adband.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%27s_band"
] | [
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why aren't muons stopped in calorimeters? | the only answer i could find is that there is little interaction, but why is this interaction so small, is it that they are more energetic? | the interaction is small compared to an electron because the muon is over 200 times more massive than the electron. because of this, the muon accelerates more slowly in response to its passage through matter (remember f=ma), and therefore radiates fewer photons, and therefore loses fractional energy more slowly. the interaction is small compared to hadrons like protons or neutrons, because the muon does not interact through the strong interaction. muons actually do leave a "trail" of energy through the calorimeters that can sometimes be seen, and often this few-gev effect is taken into account when adding up the energy in the calorimeters (you don't want to "double count" the overall energy in the detector, since the muon's energy is usually determined from its track in the inner detector, before it looses energy in the calorimeter). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is lighting jagged instead of curvy? | i've always wondered why lightning isn't smoother. | "during a thunderstorm, the lower portion of a cloud contains a region that accumulates a large negative charge, and the upper portion becomes positively charged. also, a positive charge is induced on the surface of the earth, because the negative charge in the cloud is closer to the ground. although some lightning strikes or flashes transfer the positive charge to the ground, positive flashes are rare in comparison to lightning flashes that transfer a negative charge to ground. from the appearance of a lightning flash, it is clear this charge transfer occurs in a channel with a width that is small compared to its length. because air is normally an electrical insulator, it must break down so the conductive channel can form in order for a lightning flash to occur. this breakdown of the air between the cloud and the ground does not happen all at once. it happens in discrete steps of about 50 meters, with each step taking about one microsecond, and about 50 microseconds elapsing between steps. because of the discrete nature of this process, the initial channel of a lightning flash is called a 'stepped leader'. although the formation of a lightning channel is a result of the attraction between a negative charge in the cloud, and a positive charge induced into the ground, the individual steps are often far from vertical. this variability arises because the conductivity of the air is not uniform. the channel will tend to spread out to regions of higher conductivity. as a result, the relatively short step size and the random distribution of such regions of higher conductivity render the channel jagged rather than smooth. also, the point where the channel contacts the ground may be displaced a considerable distance horizontally from the point inside the cloud where the channel began." source: _url_0_ | 43 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-are-lightning-bolts-j/"
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what is breaking when something breaks? | when something breaks--say, a metal bar--what is really breaking? atomic bonds? pieces of the material that are just wedged up against each other? at the two edges where the break occurs, what physically is being separated? | metal bars are not quite a perfect material; instead of it being one perfect lattice of metal atoms, there are 'grains' of material of various sizes. the grain boundaries are bonded to each other more weakly than the atoms within a grain lattice. while it is possible to cleave an individual grain along a lattice plane most 'bulk' material failures occur by failures along a series of grain boundaries until a crack propagates. this also accounts for the elastic properties of steel; when a relatively small forces is applied the grains can slide over one another, then when the force is released the can slide back into their original positions. so the bonds being broken are atomic bonds, but they are not the ideal bonds you find in a well defined lattice. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are events remembered differently from facts? | i've noticed that i can remember trivia or information for school with hardly any effort, but ask me whether or not i locked the door on the way out, or if i did on homework yet, and i'll have to struggle to remember. is there any scientific basis for this, or is it confirmation bias or some other fallacy? | yes! for declarative memory there are two primary types. semantic memory, that is memory for facts, and episodic memory, memory for events. when we encode episodic memory we usually encode some sort of trigger for us to find it again. if the trigger is the same over and over again, aka we habituate to it it is no longer novel and we can not distinguish one memory from another. it seems like it is all the same memory. memory in general is reconstructive, which means we actually remake the memory each time we remember it, so if we are remaking locking the door, since it is such a simple task we may have forgotten to encode the day for it, since it looks like in our memory that it was that day. for semantic memory, the memory and information is stored in a different way rather than a sequence it is more item like, and only present once. both types of memory are recorded each time they are recalled, but semantic memory is more easily verified than episodic, and so we can always re encode correctly. i know this is very confusing so i am a simple article on this as well. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.human-memory.net/types_episodic.html"
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have we discovered anything from eco-spheres? | with the popularity and widespread availability of eco-spheres, and even a large one at the america museum of natural history, is there anything substantial that we have actually discovered, solidified to a theory or fact or learned from the use of eco-spheres, and if so, what was it? | the ecosphere requires external energy input, in the form of light, and as such is not the closed systems it claims to be. while a popular hobby and conversation piece, there appears to be little value research-wise. all scientific publications i have located are referring to earth or closed systems, such as investigations on microorganism diversity in marine enclosures, and not the item you are referencing. the only educational substance ascertainable from ecospheres would be environmental simulations, which are utilized in primary schooling to demonstrate: water cycles, photosynthesis, nutrient cycles, etc. resources: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www2.nau.edu/lrm22/lessons/bottle_biology/"
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someone throws a pot of boiling water at your torso. you have two choices: normal 100% cotton t- shirt or no shirt. which is better? | i've always believed that it would be much better to have no shirt -- while it would hurt, you could immediately wick away the water with your hand, whereas a cotton shirt would absorb the hot water and keep it close to your skin. are there other factors? | i'd rather be sans shirt considering this is water and 100% cotton, it's going to make the cotton stick and thus make it more difficult to remove, increasing the time you're in contact with high thermal energy. i don't know if anyone can provide sources that prove this is accurate however. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.accuratebuilding.com/images/services/charts/hot_water_burn_scalding_lrg.gif"
] | [
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do humans really affect the environment all that much? | there are the same hurricanes, rainfall, temperatures, and wind currents each year that don't change all that much. i might be simplifying it. although i'd like to see some evidence that we are affecting our planet negatively. | [intergovernmental panel on climate change](_url_1_) [national academies of sciences](_url_1_) [nasa](_url_0_) the above are reports on global warming. i can also provide many more on that topic, as well other anthropogenic disasters such as the holocene mass extinctions. we're currently living in the holocene fyi. its indisputable that humans are seriously messing up the earth. edit: people, please top downvoting op. s/he's genuinely curious and he's asking for proof. s/he's not being close-minded and rejecting evidence, s/he's asking for it and being very civilized. i for one am proud of him/her. there's no need to be condescending, patronizing, etc. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://climate.nasa.gov/effects",
"http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/booklets/warming_world_final.pdf",
"http://unimaps.com/aral-sea/aral-pic.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aral_Sea"
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do people have easy knock out weak points? | so my dad has passed down some advice from his dad to me a few times (both seriously and in the context of a joke) about a “knockout button.” my recollection of what he said about it is a tad fuzzy but i’ll try to describe it best as i can. this “ko button,” according to him, is a nerve ending or some such weak point just left of center on people’s chins. according to him, a well aimed punch to that area can put someone out cold with far less force than a traditional ko would require. my question is: is there any truth to this statement? perhaps something that actually does exist that’s similar and he’s just confusing the description? i’m not really savvy in this field and i’ve never had a situation to test it out but was wondering if anyone could shed light on the prospect. | is there some truth to this statement? yes, but not a lot. we don't know the exact mechanism for knockouts, for the obvious reason that it is hard to do experimentally, and that knowledge is of limited benefit to society. but we do know quite a lot about how the brain gets damaged by injury. excluding blunt force trauma that damages the skull, impacts to the head put force on the brain in a variety of different ways. first, you need to picture the brain as a soft object (think avocado) free to rattle around inside a hard object (think the dice inside a magic 8 ball). when the head is subjected to rapid linear acceleration (i.e. someone hits it) the skull starts moving, and the brain remains stationary, so it impacts the inner surface of the skull. there are lots of details that i could go into, but the point here is that when the head is accelerated, the brain lags, and whacks into the skull. in order to knock someone out, you have to damage the brain, not necessarily permanently (though that is another debate), but enough to disrupt the behavior of brain cells for a moment. so what does all this have to do with your dad's "knock out button". well first, you can accelerate the head without moving it linearly. there is also angular (rotational) acceleration. think about a heavy wheel on an axle. if you grab the wheel near the axle, and try to spin it, it is hard to get it moving. however, if you grab it near it's rim, it is easier to get it moving. that's because by applying the same force at a further distance from an axle means you are applying more torque. the same is true for the head. the easiest way to start a head rotating the to push it far from it's axle (the neck) and the furthest point from the neck is the chin. so when people get punched in the chin, their head rapidly rotates, and the brain impacts into the internal surfaces of the skull. you can see this in the famous knock out of [anderson silva by chirs weidman](_url_0_), and i'm sure many others that i can't think of right now. silva has his chin up, and chris just clips him on the tip of his chin, not even throwing a very hard punch (it may look like silva is already dizzy before that, but he is just faking). for what it's worth, i also have a theory that rotating the head twists some of the arousal (like wake/sleep) related areas of the brain in the brain stem, which also aids in knocking people out, but that is just a pet theory. so there is no special nerve ending there, if you want to knock people out, you have to accelerate their head, and it's easier to accelerate a rotating object if you apply the same for at a longer distance from the axle (i.e. you are applying more torque). | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JwTP7YvpTpM"
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what really went down 65 million years ago? | i've been fascinated with dinosaurs ever since i was a young boy and i've read several theories about asteroids, volcanic activity, ice ages, disease and even inability to adapt. is there any substantial proof to back up the asteroid theory? which claims the dust that got thrown in the air blocked out the sun and killed both plants and the dinosaurs. the volcanic theory is much the same except with ash. ice ages and disease are self explanatory but seem like they would be hard to back up. and as far as i am aware, it was my understanding that dinosaurs were very adaptable. so what theory has the most scientific proof backing it up? what really happened to the dinosaurs? | in general, it's always difficult to determine what the causal mechanism for a mass extinction could have been. usually, the evidence for a causal mechanism is some combination of the particular selectivity in the extinction or lack thereof (e.g., mostly large land animals died or mostly tropical species or marine invertebrates or everything died, etc.), how quickly it occurred (inferred from the rock record of course) and co-occurrence of some event that might have been able to cause an extinction. for the end-cretaceous extinction, we have pretty decent evidence that a major impact happened at about the right time. besides the fact that we have an [impact crater](_url_2_) dated to about the right age, there is the so-called [iridium anomaly (check out section titled alvarez impact hypothesis)](_url_3_) which is coincident with the cretaceous-paleogene boundary suggesting that a large impact occurred at this time. there would have been a lot of potential effects of this massive impact. dust in the air reducing solar energy is a big one, not to mention the massive tsunamis which would have been generated and done a decent amount of damage (which there is also some geologic evidence of). the other theory that is floating around that you alluded to is the eruption of the [deccan traps](_url_1_), basically a massive flood basalt province in india. here the theory goes that in addition to ash and other particulates, volcanic gases like carbon dioxide may have had dramatic effects on the climate, causing the mass extinction. there is some question as to whether these happen quickly enough to produce a violent enough effect to have caused a mass extinction, but on the basis of the amount of material extruded and the amount of gas which would have come with that material, a big change in the climate is not hard to imagine. another interesting hypothesis is that of a massive regression (lowering of sea level) that may have caused severe ecological upheaval leading to the mass extinction (see the link with the iridium anomaly and scroll down to "maastrichtian sea-level regression"). the short version is that we still don't know exactly, maybe one of these, maybe all three, maybe some other. it's often difficult to tie a particular cause to an extinction (hence why there is so much focus on what types of organisms died out, because this is usually our biggest clue as to what type of trigger may have caused the extinction). a lot also hinges on the exact dating of both the event and the beginning of the extinction, and in detail the dates for all of these have migrated a small amount over the years, favoring some hypotheses for a while until a new date comes out. if you start looking into other mass extinctions, you'll find a similar situation in terms of uncertain driving mechanisms and many similar players (big impact, flood basalt eruption, etc). the dinosaurs are the mass extinction which gets the most popular attention, but i've always been more fascinated by the [end permian](_url_0_) where nearly everything in the ocean was wiped out along with huge extinctions on land and a massive recovery time (several million years) for biodiversity to begin to return to pre-extinction levels. at the end of the day though, i just study the rocks, maybe someone who studies the bones might have a better answer. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_Traps",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicxulub_crater",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary"
] | [
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why does the blood flow in the brain have a different reynolds number than the aorta? | hi ! i was reading the wikipedia article on reynolds number and came across the fact that the typical reynolds number for blood flow for the brain is a factor of 10 smaller than the re for the aorta, could anyone give a short explanation of what it means and why exactly there's such a big difference? thank you in advance ! & #x200b; | not a medical professional or anything, but i'm a mechanical engineer that works in fluid mechanics. reynolds number is ρul/μ , where l is the characteristic length. approximating flow through a blood vessel as pipe flow, the characteristic length would be the diameter of the "pipe". as the aorta is a bigger blood vessel than ones in the brain, this would make sense that the aorta would have a higher re. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the lagrangeformalism is based on the principle of extremal action,are there any areas in physics where you use it to find the maximum action instead of the lowest? | yes, there are cases where the action is indeed maximum. in fact, the lagrange formalism indicates that the action should be stationary, so strictly speaking, a solutions can be neither maximum nor minimum, it can be an inflection point, or it can be a saddle point. a concrete physical example where the action is maximum is the [reflection of light by a concave mirror](_url_0_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/a/erUW9"
] | [
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|
could someone explain to me what a time lens is? | as referenced [here](_url_0_). i've tried doing some research, and after googling my 18th polysyllabic physics vocab word i think i'm officially insane. | i tried to answer some questions on the temporal optical cloak [here](_url_0_), maybe that helps. i think your best chance of understanding this is as an analogue of the spatial lens, as shown in the figure in the article you reference. the spatial (harry-potter-style) optical cloak works by "bending" light around an object, so that it disappears to an observer behind the cloak. in this conceptual picture, this is achieved with a pair of concave lenses, which diffract and refocus light around the object. this diffraction works by introducing different optical pathlengths for different spatial positions in the light beam. similarly, the temporal lens used for the temporal optical cloak temporally displaces parts of a light pulse around an object, by accelerating one half of it and by decelerating the second half. so that's what a "time lens" does in this example. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/01/05/boffin_time_cloak/"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/o3rb2/time_cloak_how_does_it_work/"
] | [
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what would it be like to move through a superfluid with zero viscosity? | let's say you drop a ball into liquid helium. let's assume that the ball is chilled to the same temperature as the helium so nothing like the leidenfrost effect happens (does that even apply to superfluids?). will there be no drag and no resistance? | [here's a 1966 phd thesis studying exactly that.](_url_0_) experimental findings have shown that at low velocity, you do get 0 drag to within experimental error, and the flow looks identical to potential flow. weirder stuff starts happening as you accelerate the flow, and you do get drag. there are suggestions that quantum mechanical effects play an important role here, which is interesting as that's not something you ever see in more conventional fluids. i'm not at all familiar with the literature on superfluids so this is a little speculative, but i believe there can be a classical explanation for this drag over a certain threshold. even for a perfectly inviscid fluid, above a certain reynolds number (edit: well, velocity, re has no meaning for an inviscid fluid) any kind of curvature in the flow induces production of turbulent kinetic energy which behaves largely in the same way as viscosity (boussinesq eddy viscosity hypothesis). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://thesis.library.caltech.edu/2383/"
] | [
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breathing argon | how great of a percent of argon can you have to replace with nitrogen before it is deadly? i know that it is non-toxic, but wikipedia states that it can cause asphyxiation. so let me lay out the question: if you were to have oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases at the same ratio as normally present in air, but changed the percentage of nitrogen and argon, how high of a percentage of argon could you have and it still be healthy? 20% argon and 60% nitrogen, 30/50? even higher? | asphyxiation has to do with lack of oxygen, not the presence of something else. 100% nitrogen will cause asphyxiation just as quickly as 100% argon. as long as there's enough oxygen, it's fine. you could fully replace n2 with ar and have no problems. the reason it causes asphyxiation is because if it gets above ~85-90% there's not enough oxygen in the mix to keep you alive (at atmospheric pressure). | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is the sloan great wall? is it something physical? what is 'on the other side?' | the sloan great wall is a large region of space with an above-average density of galaxies. it's not really a boundary or anything, the space on the far side of it isn't substantially different from the space on this side. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
kindergarten teacher needs to tell kiddies how new discoveries get named | things are named with bits and pieces of languages old and new (greek latin etc), or after people, places, or events which have some importance relavent to the discovery, or they are named _by_ the discoverer after themselves or something important to themselves... and on and on and on. for example 'electric' (-tron/-tricity/etc) comes from the ancient greek word for amber ( ἤλεκτρον – elektron ) because when you rub amber with fur you get a buildup of static electricity... one of the first electric phenomena studied. if you want a bunch of additional stories, look up the wikipedia entries on some of the heavier elements – it is full of elements named after people and places and the stories that led to those names. any more it is quite rare for a discovery to be made by just one person – it is usually very large teams sometimes all around the world. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does electrical force cause some kind of distortion? | i don't really understand the concept of gravity being a space distortion instead of being a real force. so it makes me a little confused when i'm studying (highschool's level) electrical force. it seems soo close to gravity by it's formulas, so... is it a distortion of something too? what are the similarities and differences, and why they seem similar? | no, the electromagnetic force is most accurately described by quantum electrodynamics, which is a quantum field theory and part of the standard model. it's an interaction of particles fields and meditated by a boson particle (photon), just like the strong and weak nuclear forces. gravity has no quantum field explanation. gravity is most accurately described by general relativity, a geometric theory of gravity based in the curvature of spacetime. they look so similar because you aren't actually learning either of these theories in high school. you're learning our older understandings of these phenomenon, newton's law of gravitation and coulomb's law. they are an identical law based off of an instantaneous force flux falling off with a growing spherical area in 3d space. we know know this is wrong for both of them and only an approximation under certain scenarios, a very good approximation really in most cases. reuniting gravity's explanation with the electromagnetic force (as well as weak and strong nuclear) is basically the highest goal in physics right now. we certainly like for them to be more similar again. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory"
] | [
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what is the average survival for patients with glioblastoma (gbm) without any treatment? (please note the text) | i'm writing a paper for the topic, and i've come across a very curious problem. many places cite 3 months, with a few citing 4 1/2 months, but i have not seen a single scholarly study to actually back up the claim. whenever i do find something that i think will finally end my search, i look into the source it cites to find there's no actual mention of that number anywhere in the paper. this has happened a surprising number of times and i'm hoping someone can help. | [this](_url_0_) is the best i could find. looks like gbm has been treated with radiation since the 1920s. if you read the case reports you'll see many of them had little to no treatment prior to the novel radiotherapy. in one case it was 1 month from diagnosis, until the they got therapy and the authors note they thought he was about to die. most people had been dx'd 1-3 months before therapy, after therapy people lived 2-3 months -- therapy showed a little bit of improvement, but not much. so 3-6 months seems about right. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.osti.gov/opennet/servlets/purl/906755-ufEeu6/906755.pdf"
] | [
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] |
what is turbulent dissipation and what is the difference between k epsilon and k omega models in fluid dyanamics? | i came across these terms in ansys ! | you'll get more complete answers in /r/cfd as this is a very specific question. [turbulence dissipation, epsilon is the rate at which turbulence kinetic energy is converted into thermal internal energy.](_url_1_) that's the epsilon in k-epsilon. [omega is just the specific turbulent dissipation rate and is basically the same thing but with different dimensions (frequency).](_url_2_) [this post at cfd-online has a pretty good comparison of the two in terms of practical effects.](_url_0_) it pretty much mirrors my own experience. i personally use k-w sst for practically everything in aerodynamics. there is no one-size-fits-all turbulence model -- your general approach should be to find publications of similar flows to whatever you're studying where they've tested different turbulence models. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cfd-online.com/Forums/main/75554-use-k-epsilon-k-omega-models.html#post256749",
"http://www.cfd-online.com/Wiki/Turbulence_dissipation_rate",
"http://www.cfd-online.com/Wiki/Specific_turbulence_dissipation_rate"
] | [
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what are some scientifically accurate documentaries worth watching? | there are so many that fabricate, misinterpret or jump to outrageous conclusions. what are some worth watching that are scientifically accurate? thanks in advance. | on a similar note [top documentaries](_url_0_) provides loads of free docs on all subjects - history, politics, science, literature, language, conspiracy theories, health, mathematics... you name it. of course its up to you to determine if the source is reputable, but in general government funded (bbc, pbs, cbc,) are reliable sources, or those hosted by notable scientists/celebrities with brains (david attenborough, neil degrasse tyson, morgan freeman...) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/"
] | [
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chemists of /r/askscience -- what are some chemicals / compounds that you simply refuse to work with? | i'm talking about stuff that will drop you dead in a heartbeat, will start fires impossible to put out, etc. what's the real nasty stuff out there? | i hate working with a lot of sulfur compounds since they have very strong, gross smells. it's especially bad if there are undergrads/a busy undergrad lab involved since the chemical won't sit nicely in the fumehood, people are going to be taking it out and droppering it everywhere. thus, massiv stank. real nasty things i can think of... concentrated hydrofluoric acid is a common one, hf is lipid-soluble so it will dissolve deep into your tissues and you don't immediately feel a "burn". the fluoride ions react with the calcium in your bones and melt them. supposedly one of our profs had to work with conc hf for a long time and had a syringe of calcium gluconate nearby at all times in case of a burn; if injected quickly, the calcium will sequester the f- before it gets to your bones. the other ones i can think of are organomercury compounds, which can be extremely nasty: _url_0_ most chemicals can be worked with safely with proper training and equipment, and the ones that are too dangerous are usually hard to get a hold of and safer alternatives exist. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Wetterhahn"
] | [
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what is the black spot that was on a cern diagram? is it just a blotch or dust particle that got picked up? | _url_0_ | that is where the beam passed through a ceramic screen on its way to the beam dump. the beam dumps are long, water-cooled rods of carbon encased in steel, designed to absorb the energy of the beams when they get ejected out of the lhc. each beam can contain around 150 mj of kinetic energy, which is about 10% that of a typical lightning bolt. the beams get ejected in a spiral pattern in order to spread out the energy and prevent stuff from melting. _url_1_ the image you link to is the btvdd (beam tv dump detector) which is just one part of the beam dump monitoring system. it consists of a radiation-hard camera pointed at a special ceramic screen that will emit light in response to ionising radiation. the black dots are where the beam passed through, and you can make out part of the typical spiral that a full beam would make. check out the following link for some more technical details and diagrams, particularly the plot showing the typical spiral and the diagram of the apparatus at the bottom of the third page. _url_0_ | 8 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/hKhnISP"
] | [
"https://accelconf.web.cern.ch/accelconf/d07/papers/tupb28.pdf",
"https://lhc-machine-outreach.web.cern.ch/lhc-machine-outreach/components/beam-dump.htm"
] | [
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orbital trajectories and error? | i first appreciated what a free return trajectory was when i watched [this video](_url_0_) where a science teacher uses a lycra sheet and weights to demonstrate gravity (free return is at the 6:20 mark). the trajectory makes sense to me and i guess you could say you "fall" all the way to the moon and fall all the way home again. what i don't understand is that ideally the whole path is predetermined by the velocity of the object when it leaves the earth. how is this done so accurately? i know that mid course corrections are possible but i assume they must be minimal. maybe a better question is how accurate does the initial velocity need to be? that is an earth/moon question from the apollo era. i had the same sense of "how do they achieve that accuracy" this year when new horizons not only reached pluto but passed between pluto and charon.......wow | it's simple: they don't have the needed accuracy at launch (for some trips you might need to be unpractically precise). you might know that in general, the error in the configuration of a mechanical system grows exponentially, so no matter how good you are, you often aren't able to calibrate everything in advance. they just make adjustments mid-flight. if you've been smart, the adjustments won't be large. a minimalist plan of periodic orbital reassessment and corrections is enough to bring that exponentially small precision requirement at launch into something reasonable. | 9 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTY1Kje0yLg"
] | [] | [
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i saw a meme about turning the sun down 20 degrees, and wondered what the actual affects of this would be. | [this is the post](_url_0_) but what got me going was wondering what would actually happen to us as a civilization if the sun were to drop 20 degrees (centigrade). would the world freeze over in anyway? perhaps bird migration and other sun related instincts could be thrown off? what do you make of this? | the earths orbital position and rotational axis have more influence on the geographical temperature than a 20 degree reduction on the sun would. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AdviceAnimals/comments/1222vy/its_october_and_still_85_degrees_outside/"
] | [] | [
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how do we determine what a "safe" or "acceptable" level of something is for humans? | things like radiation, or mercury, or iron... how do we figure out what levels are safe for consumption/exposure? is it just trial and error? expose tim to 10rad, record results, increase dose and try again? or is there another way of checking these things that doesn't result in loss of human life? | it's a combination of using human analogues (bacterium, mice, etc.), and case studies where these things actually happened to the person. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i have a few questions about temperature? | 1. does it take the same ammount of energy to heat something from 5°c to 6°c as it takes to heat that same thing from 1002°c to 1003°c? 2. as i understand it, atoms can turn their internal energy (temperature) into photons through blackbody radiation. is there a bottom cutoff at which temperature they dont do that anymore? and if so, what limits it? 3. if i had a group of atoms (all of the same isotope) that i keep at a constant temperature would the photons they produce all be at the same wavelength or would their wavelengths (graphed) look more like a bell curve? 4. (kinda related to question 2) assume a perfect vacuum with no cosmic rays, sunlight, gravity or anything. in that empty space ill "put" a single atom (preferably an element that wont decay soon) at 1000°c. whats the lowest temperature itll ever reach (through blackbody radiation)? are there other phenomena that would also cool it somehow? how long untill it reaches that lowest temperature? 5. is it even correct to say a single atom has a temperature like i did in question 4? thanks for any answers. | in general: no. there are some cases where this isn't a bad approximation, however - gases close to ideal gases (helium for example). no. it is [a broad distribution](_url_0_). sunlight is an example. temperature is a macroscopic property, a single atom doesn't have a temperature. if you put some matter in space that doesn't have any matter or radiation it will just keep cooling, getting closer and closer to 0 k over time. in our universe it won't cool below 3 k however due to the cosmic microwave background. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck's_law",
"https://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/property_tables/air/air_cp_cv.html"
] | [
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is my thinking on this thought experiment right? (dry ice in a balloon) | if i put some dry ice in a balloon and put it on a balance what would you predict would happen to the reading on the balance as the dry ice sublimes and fills the balloon? initially i would think that the balance reading would stay the same as the same amount of stuff is on the balance. but then think that the balance reading of 0 includes the air pressure on the balance . as the balloon expands it is displacing the air above the balance. now co2 is denser than air. so would the balance reading actually increase? | actually, it would decrease. the mass does not change, but the it will have bigger volume and the archimedes' principle applies. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the differences between a regular möbius band and an open möbius band? | first of all, i think this is a math question but if it's more physics, just let me know. secondly, i'm researching möbius strips for personal reasons and am stuck on figuring out which, if any, differences between closed and open bands actually exist. the information i'm coming up with is so math-based that it seems completely abstract to me -- i am not a smart woman. i'm pretty sure i understand the core concept of a möbius band (no beginning, no end, one edge, one plane) but clearly i don't understand it enough to make it click. if i'm wrong and it's not too much trouble, please correct me, and please, for the love of fuck, help me sort out this little conundrum. thank you! | the difference between an open and closed mobius band is the same as the difference between an open set and what mathematicians call the _closure_ of that set. let's talk about the difference between an open disk and a closed disk, first. a closed disk of radius 1 centered at (0,0) is the set of all points (x,y) with x^2 + y^2 < =1. (by " < =" i mean less-than-or-equal-to), and an open disk is the set of points (x,y) so that x^2 + y^2 < 1. the open disk does not actually contain the boundary, but it does contain points arbitrarily close to the boundary. so an open mobius band doesn't actually contain that one edge, just all the points that are next to it (and they can be infinitesimally close). now, an important fact is that topologists (people who study this kind of stuff) don't distinguish between open disks and the entire euclidean plane. in fact, we don't distinguish between any open n-dimensional ball and the n-dimensional euclidean space. in more mathematical terms, we say that the open n-disk is _homeomorphic to_ r^n. let's look at the case n=1. an open 1-disk is just the interval of points (-1,1) -- all the real numbers between -1 and 1 but not including 1 and -1 themselves. let x be a variable that takes values on this open interval. then the function f(x)=1/(x+1) + 1/(x-1) sends every x in (-1,1) to a unique real number, and it's a continuous function, and its range is, in fact, all real numbers. it's important to note that the inverse of this function is also continuous. that's what makes it a "homeomorphism", a fancy word for "topologists are too dim to notice any difference between the domain and the range". notice that f(x) sends -1 to -infinity and 1 to infinity, but -1 and 1 aren't actually included in the domain! you can write down a similar function for any open n-dimensional ball to the n-dimensional real numbers. going back to the mobius band. when you're on the surface of the mobius strip, there's two main directions you can go in, so it's a 2-dimensional surface. if it's closed, well, that means in one of the directions, parallel to the edge, you keep going forever and end up on the opposite side every once in a while. go in the other directions, and you hit an edge. (much like the russian fairy tales where ivan the idiot stands at a crossroads and a sign says "go to the right, a dragon will eat you, go to the left, a witch will end you, go straight, and meet your doom. from which came the schoolyard joke, that ivan stood for a long time in front of a sign that says "go to the right, get hit in the head. go to the left, get hit in the head. go straight, get hit in the head," so he stands for a while, and then the hand of god comes down and hits him in the head and says "well don't just stand there, you idiot!" but i digress.) on an open mobius band, one of those directions is the same -- you go around twice and end up where you started. but the other direction is now an _open_ interval, whereas before it was a closed interval. this means that, to us silly topologists, the mobius band may as well be infinitely wide. how do you picture this? the answer is, you don't. but, how do you construct a mobius band? you take a strip of paper, twist it once, and glue the ends together. now, let's talk a strip of paper that's got one infinitely long dimension. you can picture this as the subset of r^2 that's between the lines x=-1 and x=1, but the y-value can range over anything. the edges of this strip that you are gluing are exactly those two vertical lines: x=-1 and x=1. but you need to twist them before gluing them together. so if you draw a horizontal line inside your infinitely tall strip of paper, at, say, y=2, and follow it to the right, when it hits the edge x=1 it emerges from the other edge, but at y=-2, because the edges need to be flipped with respect to each other. so the two lines at y=2 and y=-2 look like they're different lines, but once you've remembered that those two edges are actually glued together with a flip, they become the same line. it's important that you don't try to visualize an infinitely tall mobius band -- the fact is, it doesn't fit into our 3-dimensional space, so you'll just give yourself a headache. but you can picture this long strip of paper and remember that the edges are glued with a flip, and that's almost as good. in more technical terms, then open mobius band is what we call a _non-compact_ space. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are standards of measurement determined? | more specifically, how is the accuracy of an instrument determined? for example, i've heard that atomic clocks are much more accurate than regular clocks, but what were they compared to to determine this? and a question that is only slightly related, how are new digits of pi calculated? my apologies if this has been answered already, i didn't see anything after a quick search of the subreddit. | most of the standards are defined in some universal sense - distance and time are both defined off of measurable, constant physical quantities; others, such as the kilogram, use a standard that is *defined* to be that. there's a chunk of pt-ir alloy in paris defined to be the kilogram - it's discussed [here](_url_1_). as far as digits of pi, there are a number of [computational techniques](_url_0_); a lot of them reduce to giving some series representation of pi, and then computing / summing terms. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi#Computer_era_and_iterative_algorithms",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram#Glossary",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi#History",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_base_unit#The_seven_SI_base_units"
] | [
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how do brine pools persist despite an established solute gradient? | from what i understand of thermodynamics, [brine pools](_url_0_) shouldn't be permanent. i understand that brine is more dense than ocean water, but the brine/ocean interface is subject to the same thermal motion as any other molecules. so, why doesn't water from the normal ocean volume seep in and dissipate concentration gradient? if the difference in weight between salt and water is enough to overcome the entropic drive to dissipate the salt gradient, will any nacl solution, given enough time and at an appropriately low temperature, form a sharp salinity boundary as brine pools have? in short, is a brine pool stable because it is a natural consequence of any cold, still salt water, or are all brine pools only transient? | they are all transient. this isn't really just an earth science question, but brine pools need a continual supply of salt to remain for any useful amount of time. two major sources are [brinicles](_url_3_), where a stalactite of very salty water forms under sea ice which channels salt to the floor and [cold seeps](_url_2_) which are basically hydrocarbon vents. once the salt runs out the brine pool will eventually run out as well, though this process can easily take hundreds or even a few thousand years. a lava lamp provides a good example, except that the wax doesn't escape and therefore replenishes its own pool at the bottom of the jar. for anybody else who wants to know, the "boundary" between these liquids of different densities are subject to [rt instability](_url_0_) because of the heavier briny water accelerating through the lighter sea water followed by [kh instability](_url_1_) caused by the undersea current passing over the pool. op is asking how brine pools exist for appreciable lengths of time in the presence of these and other hydrodynamic instabilities, and the answer is they simply don't unless they are being resupplied. | 7 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brine_pool"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh%E2%80%93Taylor_instability",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_instability",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_seep",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brinicle"
] | [
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i put liquid latex on a magnet, stuck it to a mirror, and before it dried pulled it off. the result was fractals? (pic included) | so, i got a marker board that has a square magnet on the back, and i wanted to stick it to a mirror. obviously mirrors are not magnetic, so i put it on with liquid latex (makeup artist here). i let go of the marker board before it dried all the way, and it fell off with the latex on the magnet looking like this: _url_0_ why did it form amazing fractals like that? does the magnetic field have anything to do with the formation? | that looks a lot like the phenomenon of [viscous fingering](_url_0_), which can produce a fractal structure. it occurs when a low-viscosity fluid (i guess air in this case) infiltrates a high-viscosity fluid (latex). if that is the case then the magnetic field has no effect on the pattern formation. | 184 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/5y6H8.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscous_fingering",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion-limited_aggregation",
"https://i.minus.com/i9v8okHY3ZF6E.JPG",
"https://i.minus.com/ibieGENB9Gs0tB.JPG",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_grease",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iZD1DRDgxN4&feature=g-upl"
] | [
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what is a "potential well', how does it relate to the lennard-jones potential, and is there a simpler expression that can be used to graph the function that is commonly shown in the lennard-jones potential? | also, is there anything called an equilibrium range related to any of this? any simple information on lennard-jones potential would also be appreciated. edit: this should probably be under chemistry, not physics, right? | a potential well is a region in which some kind of potential (say, electric or gravitational) is lower (typically, more negative) than elsewhere. they occur when an object makes a significant contribution to the appropriate local field. for example, a star or planet contributes significantly to the local gravitational field, and so rests at the bottom of a gravitational potential well. if you plot the value of the gravitational potential at various points around the planet, you'll find that they're more negative nearer the planet than farther away. if you visualise this you end up with something that looks like the [rubber sheet model](_url_0_) that you may have seen in various places. objects sitting in a potential well that are subject to that potential (i.e. any object in a gravitational potential, charged objects in electric potentials) will tend to move downwards towards the bottom of the well if not acted on by other forces, as evidenced by the fact that things fall to the ground if you drop them. the lennard-jones potential is an approximation of the potential of interactions between neutral particles. it describes a potential well that is steep on one side (when you bring particles too close together, a strong repulsive force builds up extremely quickly) and gentle on the other (as particles are separated, they gradually lose their influence over each other). i'm not aware of any simpler functions for the l-j potential - isn't it already simple enough? r^(-12) is used because it's simple to calculate as the square of the more physically reasonable r^(-6) term. | 4 | [] | [] | [
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why doesn't my digital multimeter detect the resistance between two points on the surface of my skin? | i know the resistance of the skin is fairly high but my meter reads up to 1mω. how come it doesn't show a reading? | the resistance of dry skin between two points can exceed 1 mohm. a multimeter with 10m resistance range would almost certainly show a reading; slightly moistening your skin (e.g. with saliva) would give a reading on your existing meter (unless it or the probe cables are broken). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what do scientists mean by "information?" | i've heard the term bandied about some. as in "information cannot be create nor destroyed" and "information is encoded into the event horizon of a black hole." but i've never heard it defined exactly what they mean in this context. edit: spelling. | anything that describes or distinguishes one thing from another. on the most fundamental level it's a physical systems quantum state. some links: _url_2_ _url_0_ _url_1_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_information",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_information",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_state"
] | [
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] |
how do lysosomes in phagocytes know only to attach to *food vacuoles*, and not simply affix themselves to the interior of the cell and eat that? | i assume the new vacuole is created with a phospholipid bilayer analogous (if not identical) to the cell membrane that was just used to eat whatever was engulfed. is it simply the hydrophobic nature of the outside of the vacuole that draws the lysosome over like some sexy hooker and is like "hey stud. you look like you're pretty hungry. why don't you come over here and take a bite outta this ass?" ^ (pretty sure that's how it happens scientifically.) | there are multiple mechanisms, but one fairly specific one is that phagocytosis (the process of engulfing a pathogen) also brings in any antibodies that were attached to that pathogen. those antibodies then [signal to nearby lysosomes](_url_0_) to merge with the phagosome. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/103/48/18226.full"
] | [
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say i'm in a supermassive black hole, i point my arms toward the singularity, can i point them back down again? | if i'm inside a supermassive black hole and point my arms toward the center, they are closer to the singularity yes? if i then try to point my arms back down...what happens? | according to the predictions of general relativity, if you have passed through the event horizon of a supermassive black hole you probably won't have noticed anything special. you would feel approximately like you were freely floating in space, but you are on a trajectory that will ultimately take you into the singularity. you can wave your arms any way you like, you can even throw a baseball away from the singularity. you and the baseball are still headed to the singularity in this case, you are just heading there faster than the baseball you threw. once you get close to the singularity you will start to feel the difference in gravitational pull between the parts of your body that are closer to and farther away from the singularity. eventually these forces will rip you apart. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is a 'cyclonic wave break'? | my local weatherman tweeted that there was a cyclonic wave break near greenland. when i searched the phrase, all i found were scholarly articles that were over my head. can anyone explain what it is simply? thanks. | the waves referred to are rossby waves which i think are explained well enough [here](_url_0_). while the term 'cyclonic wave break' looks a little intimidating it is really just a breaking wave, similar to the breaking of an ocean wave. the situation you are looking at here is essentially a lobe of the wave being so curved that it breaks off and forms a spinning body of air. the pressure of this body is determined by where this occurs, in the case you described above this is a low pressure system (cyclonic). this process is rather complicated but in the end a cyclonic wave break just means that a cyclone has been formed. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.climatecentral.org/news/whats-a-rossby-wave-17936"
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