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Fiona is deciding what college she should attend in the fall. She made a list of all of the pros and cons for every school she's considering. As she deliberately and consciously weighs each choice, which brain region is primarily activated?

['(A)Temporal lobe', '(B)Prefrontal cortex', '(C)Limbic system', '(D)Reticular formation', '(E)Parietal lobe']

(B)The prefrontal cortex is responsible for reasoning and decision making, both needed by Fiona to decide where to attend school. The temporal lobe, choice A, is responsible for processing auditory information. The limbic system, choice C, regulates emotional responses and memory formation. When stimulated, the reticular formation, choice D, increases arousal. The parietal lobe, choice E, contains the somatosensory cortex that processes skin sensations such as pain or pressure.

Stimulation of the somatosensory cortex would most likely lead to which of the following?

['(A)Moving your right hand to pick up a pencil', '(B)Hearing your favorite song on the car radio', '(C)Increased heart rate and feeling your fingers tingling before a job interview', '(D)Feeling your hair brushing against your forehead', '(E)Turning to pay attention to a car backfiring as it drives past']

(D)The somatosensory cortex, located in the parietal lobe, is responsible for processing touch sensations, including pain, temperature, and pressure. Thus, feeling the pressure of your hair touching your face would be the result of the actions of the parietal lobe. Choice A is referring to the processing done by the motor cortex in the frontal lobe. Choice B would result from processing of the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. Choice C might result from the actions of the medulla that control heart rate or the stimulation of the hypothalamus that initiates the autonomic functions of the sympathetic nervous system. Activation of the reticular formation, responsible for arousal, would cause you to turn toward a sudden noise (choice E).

Which of the following best demonstrates the concept of brain plasticity?

['(A)Railroad worker Phineas Gage reportedly experienced a change in personality after an accident where a metal rod passed through his frontal lobe.', '(B)After researchers implanted electrodes into the motor cortex of a paralyzed patient, Gayle was able to control a prosthetic hand with her thoughts.', '(C)Donald, who is a split-brain patient, is able to draw a circle with his left hand and simultaneously draw a square with his right hand.', '(D)Four-year-old Jill, whose left hemisphere was removed due to seizures, regained use of her right hand after intensive therapy.', "(E)A reduction in Parkinson's tremors occurred when embedded electrodes provided electrical impulses to specific targets in Charlie's brain."]

(D)Plasticity refers to changes in the brain that occur during one’s lifetime due to experience. Thus, Jill’s experience best exemplifies this concept. Phineas Gage’s experience, choice A, provided evidence that the frontal lobe was central to personality. Choice B demonstrates that an implant can be wired to the motor cortex, allowing neural messages to move a prosthesis. Research with split-brain patients, choice C, demonstrates the differences between the left and right hemispheres. Choice E reveals the impact deep-brain stimulation can have on those who suffer with Parkinson’s disease.

Aidan has red hair, but both of his parents have brown hair. Aidan has inherited (A)two dominant genes.

['(B)two recessive genes.', '(C)one dominant gene and one recessive gene.', '(D)one dominant gene only.', '(E)one recessive gene only.']

(B)Red hair is caused by a recessive gene. In order for the red hair to be expressed, both genes in a pair must be recessive. The gene for brown hair is dominant. Thus, even though both of Aidan’s parents have brown hair, they each carry a recessive red hair gene that is passed to their offspring. Since Aidan has red hair, he cannot inherit any dominant genes for brown hair. Option D is incorrect for two reasons. First, red hair is a recessive trait (A, C, and D refer to this trait coming from a dominant gene), and, second, it takes two genes (options D and E refer to one gene only).

Physician Paul Broca saw a patient called Tan. The patient was called this because after his stroke, it was the only word he could say. Broca suspected that a specific area of Tan's brain had been damaged. Where is the region that Broca proposed was responsible for the production of speech?

['(A)The corpus callosum', '(B)The right temporal lobe', '(C)The right parietal lobe', '(D)The left frontal lobe', '(E)The cerebellum']

(D)Broca’s area, as it is now called, is located in the left frontal lobe. It is primarily associated with the ability to speak. The corpus callosum, choice A, is a band of fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain. Choices B and C, the right temporal lobe and the right parietal lobe, are unrelated to speech production. The cerebellum, choice E, is primarily responsible for helping maintain balance and for coordinating motor responses.

Evolutionary psychologists attempt to explain the existence of beneficial psychological traits as the products of natural selection. Which of the following researchers was a primary contributor to this perspective?

['(A)Walter Penfield', '(B)Wilhelm Wundt', '(C)John Locke', '(D)Edward Titchener', '(E)Charles Darwin']

(E)Charles Darwin, in On the Origin of Species, suggested that an evolutionary process of natural selection led to certain beneficial physical and behavioral traits being passed down through generations. Walter Penfield, choice A, was known for his work in mapping the motor cortex. Wilhelm Wundt, choice B, established the first psychology laboratory in 1879. John Locke, choice C, was a British philosopher who suggested that the environment was exclusively responsible for shaping an individual’s traits. Edward Titchener, choice D, established structuralism, which was an early school of psychology.

The research of Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga established that

['(A)being raised in stimulating environments leads to changes in neural structure.', '(B)areas of the body that require fine motor control, such as the hands, took up more space in the motor cortex.', '(C)bumps on the skull were associated with specific traits.', '(D)the building blocks of the nervous system were neurons.', '(E)the left and right hemispheres specialize in specific tasks, such as language ability.']

(E)Sperry and Gazzaniga studied individuals whose hemispheres had been divided by cutting the corpus callosum to reduce seizures caused by epilepsy. By using specialized testing where visual images were presented to either the left or the right visual fields, they were able to establish that the hemispheres were responsible for different functions. For example, when an image was projected to the right visual field, it was processed by the left hemisphere. Patients, when asked to say what they had seen, would verbally report that image because language centers are located in the left hemisphere (in a right-handed individual). When an image was projected to the left visual field, though, the patient would not be able to identify the image verbally. Choice A is referring to the work of Paul Broca, who identified the region in the left hemisphere responsible for speech production. Choice B refers to the mapping of the motor cortex done by Walter Penfield. Phrenology, choice C, is a pseudoscience that suggests certain traits can be linked to the bumps on the skull. Choice D refers to the work of Santiago Ramón y Cajal who proposed that the neuron was the basic component of the nervous system.

Stroke patients may be able to produce fluent speech, but the phrases lack meaning. Which area of the brain has most likely been damaged?

['(A)Limbic system', "(B)Broca's area", '(C)Somatosensory cortex', "(D)Wernicke's area", '(E)Thalamus']

(D)Carl Wernicke first established that if an area in the left temporal region was damaged, the person would have difficulty producing meaningful speech and understanding language. The limbic system, choice A, is comprised of the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala. These are involved in regulating homeostasis (hypothalamus), forming memory (hippocampus), and specific emotional responses (amygdala). Paul Broca, choice B, first tied an area in the left frontal lobe to speech production. The somatosensory cortex, choice C, is responsible for receiving information from the skin. The thalamus, choice E, is a relay for all sensory information, except smell, to the cerebral cortex.

Thomas Bouchard, in the Minnesota Twin Study, reunited many twins separated at birth to study the impact of genetics on their cognitive and personality traits. Which of the following findings supports the hypothesis that genes play an important role in the development of differences in human traits, such as intelligence?

['(A)Monozygotic twins are less similar than fraternal twins on intelligence test scores.', '(B)Identical twins reared apart are as similar to one another as identical twins reared together.', '(C)There has been a steady increase in performance on intelligence tests, known as the Flynn effect.', '(D)Identical twins tend to be treated more similarly by parents, peers, and others than do fraternal twins.', '(E)If people choose mates similar to themselves, fraternal twins could share more than 50% of their genes as they would receive similar genes from their parents.']

(B)If identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins in a specific trait, such as intelligence, this is evidence of the impact of genes. Identical twins share twice as many genes in common on average as do fraternal twins. Identical twins reared separately share all of their genes in common but have been raised in different environments. Thus, according to proponents of this research, any similarities between the twins can’t be explained by environmental experiences since the twins were not reared in the same environment. Choices A, C, D, and E do not support the proposed hypothesis.

Giacomo Rizzolatti wired monkeys with electrodes implanted next to the motor cortex to monitor neural activity involved in formulating plans and performing physical actions. He found that when a monkey put a peanut into its mouth, these neurons would fire. He also found that when the monkeys watched either other monkeys or humans put a peanut in their mouths, the same neurons would fire. Rizzolatti found what is now referred to as

['(A)synaptic receptors.', '(B)mirror neurons.', '(C)glial cells.', '(D)interneurons.', '(E)agonists.']

(B)Mirror neurons are cells that fire equally when we perform an action and when we watch someone else perform the same action. Synaptic receptors, choice A, are embedded in the postsynaptic membrane and are designed to bind with neurotransmitters. Glial cells, choice C, assist neurotransmitters by helping provide nourishment and stimulate communication between neurons. Interneurons, choice D, are cells found in the brain and spinal cord. Agonists, choice E, are chemicals that mimic the action of a neurotransmitter.

Rosenzweig investigated the impact of the environment on the cerebral cortex. Twelve sets of 3 male laboratory rats, each set from the same litter, were randomly assigned to different environments. Each group was supplied with adequate food and water. One member of each group was assigned to a different sort of cage: a standard cage with other rats, a small impoverished cage where the rat was isolated, or an enriched cage with other rats and multiple toys. Researchers found that the cerebral cortexes in the rats raised in the enriched cage were heavier and thicker. What research method did Rosenzweig employ in his research? How do you know?

['(A)This was a correlational study; researchers investigated the relationship between two variables.', '(B)This was a naturalistic observation; the rats were carefully observed in their environment.', '(C)This was an experiment; the rats were randomly assigned to different conditions.', '(D)This was a longitudinal study; the same group of rats were studied and tested over a long period of time.', '(E)This was a case study; researchers collected extremely detailed information on a small sample.']

(C)Since the rats were randomly assigned to different conditions, Rosenzweig was conducting an experiment to determine if a cause-and-effect relationship existed. A correlational study, choice A, does not involve the manipulation of an independent variable across different groups. Choice B, a naturalistic observation, is a descriptive method where a researcher systematically observes behavior in real-world settings. Choice D, a longitudinal study, does not involve the manipulation of variables. Instead, it requires repeated observations of the same sample over a long period of time. A case study, choice E, is a descriptive method where no variables are manipulated. Instead, it is an in-depth study of one person or a small group that share a common characteristic.

Rosenzweig investigated the impact of the environment on the cerebral cortex. Twelve sets of 3 male laboratory rats, each set from the same litter, were randomly assigned to different environments. Each group was supplied with adequate food and water. One member of each group was assigned to a different sort of cage: a standard cage with other rats, a small impoverished cage where the rat was isolated, or an enriched cage with other rats and multiple toys. Researchers found that the cerebral cortexes in the rats raised in the enriched cage were heavier and thicker. In Rosenzweig's research, what is the independent variable?

['(A)The sex of each rat', '(B)The measured differences of the cerebral cortexes', '(C)The nourishment provided', '(D)The different cage environments', '(E)The natural intelligence of the rats']

(D)The independent variable is manipulated across the different groups. In this study, rats were raised in different environments. Choice A, the sex of each rat, was not manipulated. All subjects were male rats. Choice B is the dependent variable because it is the measured outcome of the manipulation. Choice C is incorrect because all rats received adequate amounts of food and water. Choice E is incorrect as the rats were from the same litter and were randomly assigned to different conditions.

Rosenzweig investigated the impact of the environment on the cerebral cortex. Twelve sets of 3 male laboratory rats, each set from the same litter, were randomly assigned to different environments. Each group was supplied with adequate food and water. One member of each group was assigned to a different sort of cage: a standard cage with other rats, a small impoverished cage where the rat was isolated, or an enriched cage with other rats and multiple toys. Researchers found that the cerebral cortexes in the rats raised in the enriched cage were heavier and thicker. After the rats in Rosenzweig's research lived in the varying environments, their brains were autopsied and studied. The inspection was done in random order with each rat being assigned a number so that the person doing the examination would not know if the rat was raised in an enriched, standard, or impoverished condition. Which of the following is the best explanation as to why researchers would use this technique?

['(A)This technique allows the study to be replicated by other researchers.', '(B)This technique equalizes any differences among the different rats in each group.', '(C)This technique allows researchers to generalize their results to the larger population.', '(D)This technique allows the researchers to determine if the results were statistically significant.', '(E)This technique helps control for experimenter bias.']

(E)By keeping the researcher blind as to which condition the rats were raised in, this technique helps control for experimenter bias. Choice A is incorrect because it is the operational definitions of the variables that allows the research to be replicated accurately. To equalize the groups, choice B, random assignment is necessary. To generalize the results from the sample to the population, choice C, the sample should be randomly selected. This technique is not necessary to determine statistical significance. Instead, statistical significance is determined when a p value of .05 or below is obtained. So, choice D is incorrect.

Rosenzweig investigated the impact of the environment on the cerebral cortex. Twelve sets of 3 male laboratory rats, each set from the same litter, were randomly assigned to different environments. Each group was supplied with adequate food and water. One member of each group was assigned to a different sort of cage: a standard cage with other rats, a small impoverished cage where the rat was isolated, or an enriched cage with other rats and multiple toys. Researchers found that the cerebral cortexes in the rats raised in the enriched cage were heavier and thicker. Critics of Rosenzweig's research suggested that the differences in the cerebral cortex may have been due to the handling the "enriched" rats received twice a day when researchers took the rats from the cage and changed the available toys. In this case, handling could have

['(A)been a dependent variable.', '(B)increased confidence in the internal validity of the study.', '(C)acted as a confounding variable.', '(D)led to a negative correlation.', '(E)been a placebo.']

(C)Any variable that is not controlled for, such as the handling of the rats, could act as a confounding variable. If so, the researchers would have less confidence that the changes in the cortex were actually due to the differences in the environments in which the rats were raised. A dependent variable, choice A, is the measured result of the manipulation. Internal validity, choice B, refers to the degree that change in the dependent variable is actually due to manipulation of the independent variable. Because handling of the rats was not controlled for, it may actually decrease researcher confidence in the internal validity. Choice D is incorrect because Rosenzweig performed an experiment, not a correlational study. Choice E, a placebo, is a fake treatment used to test whether belief in a treatment is leading to changes in the dependent variable instead of the manipulation of the independent variable.

A biological psychologist interested in the role of the hippocampus in memory might surgically remove the hippocampus from a rat's brain and then assess the rat's ability to complete a variety of memory tasks. The technique of destroying cells to measure their impact on brain functioning is called

['(A)electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).', '(B)a lobotomy.', '(C)lesioning.', '(D)split-brain.', '(E)neurogenesis.']

(C)Lesioning is a technique where brain cells are destroyed so that researchers can determine the effects on behavior. Electroconvulsive therapy, choice A, is used primarily to treat severe depression. In this therapy, an electric current is run through the brain, intentionally creating a seizure. A lobotomy, choice B, was an early treatment for mental disorders. It involved destroying the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex. Choice D, split-brain, refers to a surgery that cuts the corpus callosum, which is the band of fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres. This surgery is used to control epileptic seizures. Neurogenesis, choice E, is the process where new neurons are generated to compensate for damage to the nervous system.

Biological psychologists may use indirect methods to assess brain damage. A patient was shown a drawing of a house and asked to copy it. The drawing below shows the original (model) drawing on the left and the patient's drawing on the right. Based on the patient's copy, which of the following appears to have sustained damage?

['(A)The optic nerve', '(B)The reticular formation', '(C)The right hemisphere', '(D)The cerebellum', '(E)The limbic system']

(C)Hemi-inattention occurs when an individual sustains brain damage to the right hemisphere of the brain, causing the person to ignore the stimuli in the left visual field. This patient ignores the left side of the house shown in the model drawing and so does not represent that side in his or her drawing. Since this patient has no damage to the visual system, choice A is incorrect. The reticular formation, choice B, is responsible for arousal. Damage to this area would not lead to the phenomenon shown. The cerebellum, choice D, coordinates physical movement and stores implicit memory. Damage to the cerebellum would not cause the effect seen in the patient’s drawing. The limbic system, choice E, is responsible for autonomic responses to initiate the sympathetic nervous system, memory, and emotion. Damage to this system would also not lead to the neglect seen in the patient’s drawing.

A psychologist who suggests that low levels of serotonin and norepinephrine are associated with depression would most likely be considered a(n)

['(A)evolutionary psychologist.', '(B)cognitive psychologist.', '(C)developmental psychologist.', '(D)biological psychologist.', '(E)health psychologist.']

(D)Biological psychologists study the relationship between behavior and both the brain and nervous system. Such a psychologist would be primarily interested in how an imbalance in neurotransmitters might influence a person’s emotional state. An evolutionary psychologist, choice A, would be interested in identifying the beneficial traits that are the result of natural selection. A cognitive psychologist, choice B, primarily focuses on how thoughts impact behaviors. A developmental psychologist, choice C, studies how humans change across the life span cognitively, socially, and physically. A health psychologist, choice E, investigates how psychological, biological, and social factors influence an individual’s overall wellness.

Which of the following would a biological psychologist focus on when understanding happiness?

['(A)Using a more positive explanatory style', '(B)Finding out why life is worth living and experiencing flow', '(C)The role of dopamine in producing feelings of pleasure', '(D)Determining if a person has an internal or an external locus of control', '(E)Comparing oneself to others']

(C)A biological psychologist is interested in the relationship between behavior and both the brain and nervous system. When researching happiness, a biological psychologist would be interested in how the neurotransmitter dopamine is involved in a person’s experience. Choice A, using a positive explanatory style, would be of interest to a cognitive psychologist. Choice B would be of concern to a positive psychologist. A social psychologist would be interested in both choices D and E as they both concern a person’s perception of control and relative deprivation.

If a psychologist uses functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as a part of his or her research, with what perspective does the psychologist most likely identify?

['(A)Cognitive', '(B)Evolutionary', '(C)Behavioral', '(D)Biological', '(E)Psychodynamic']

(D)Since biological psychologists focus on the connection between physiological processes and behavior, they would be most likely interested in being able to see what is happening in the brain while it is working. Cognitive psychologists, choice A, are interested in how thought processes impact behavior. Evolutionary psychologists, choice B, are interested in identifying beneficial traits that are the result of natural selection. Behavioral psychologists, choice C, are interested in investigating the principles of learning. Psychodynamic psychologists, choice E, focus on the role of unconsciousness in governing behavior.

Psychologists who study the influence of genes and environment on individual differences in behavior are called

['(A)evolutionary psychologists.', '(B)social-cultural psychologists.', '(C)psychiatrists.', '(D)cognitive psychologists.', '(E)behavior geneticists.']

(E)Behavior geneticists study the role of genetics in behavior. Evolutionary psychologists, choice A, are interested in identifying beneficial traits that are the result of natural selection. Social-cultural psychologists, choice B, focus on how behavior and cognition change through different social and cultural contexts. Psychiatrists, choice C, are physicians that specialize in treating severe mental illness. Cognitive psychologists, choice D, are primarily interested in understanding how thought processes impact behavior.

Which of the following best represents the information presented?

['(A)During a typical night, younger people go through the sleep cycle more often than older people.', "(B)Older people spend less time during a typical night's sleep in NREM-3 than younger people.", '(C)Younger people are awakened more during the night than older people.', '(D)REM sleep comes right after NREM-3 sleep in both younger and older people.', '(E)Older people spend less time in lighter sleep than do younger people.']

(B)Based on the figure, after the first cycle of sleep, most older adults spend little time in deep sleep and more time in lighter sleep. This makes choice E incorrect. Younger people at the beginning of a night’s sleep experience regular periods of deep sleep. Choices A and C are incorrect because older people apparently wake up more often during a typical night. Choice D is incorrect for both age groups. REM sleep does not come directly after the NREM (non-REM) stage 3 sleep. Stage NREM-2 follows NREM-3, and then comes REM.

Which of the following best describes the circadian rhythm?

['(A)False sensory experiences that happen during stage 1 sleep', '(B)The period of time when large, slow delta waves are produced', '(C)The sleep stage when bursts of activity are produced in the brain', '(D)During REM sleep when new neural connections are strengthened', '(E)A biological process that cycles between sleepiness and wakefulness']

(E)A circadian rhythm is a biological process that regulates periods of wakefulness and sleep. Choice A refers to hypnagogic experiences, such as feelings of floating, that occur during NREM sleep. Choice B refers to NREM-stage 3 sleep when delta waves are produced. Choice C concerns the sleep spindles produced during NREM-stage 2 sleep. Memory consolidation, choice D, refers to the time during REM sleep when new neural connections are strengthened.

As an individual drifts into stage 1 sleep, he or she might experience vivid hallucinations of images or sounds or might feel that his or her still body is moving. These sensations are referred to as

['(A)delusions.', '(B)apnea.', '(C)manifest content.', '(D)hypnagogic.', '(E)REM rebound.']

(D)Hypnagogic sensations are vivid hallucinations that occur soon after a person falls asleep. Delusions, choice A, are false beliefs. Apnea, choice B, is a disorder where an individual stops breathing during a night’s sleep. The manifest content, choice C, refers to the narrative of a dream. REM rebound, choice E, occurs when a person is deprived of REM sleep during the night and is then allowed to sleep uninterrupted the next night. The person will go into REM more quickly and spend more time in that stage during the night of uninterrupted sleep.

Which light-sensitive brain region is responsible for activating circadian rhythms and inducing sleep?

['(A)Medulla', '(B)Suprachiasmatic nucleus', '(C)Cerebellum', '(D)Reticular formation', '(E)Somatosensory cortex']

(B)When light dims, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is located in the hypothalamus, leads the pineal gland to increase the production of the hormone melatonin, making a person sleepy. The medulla, choice A, is located in the brainstem and regulates heart rate and breathing. The cerebellum, choice C, coordinates movement and helps a person maintain balance. The reticular formation, choice D, does help regulate the sleep-wake cycle by helping an individual filter out extraneous external stimuli. The connections in the reticular formation begin in the brain stem and extend out into the cortex. These cells are not light sensitive as are those in the SCN. The somatosensory cortex, choice E, is responsible for processing touch sensations, such as pain, pressure, and temperature on the skin.

Which of the following best describes the process of consolidation that occurs in REM sleep?

['(A)A period of increased production of human growth hormone by the pituitary gland', '(B)The time during which the brain attempts to make sense of random neural signals produced by the pons', '(C)When the production of ghrelin, a hormone that stimulates hunger sensations, increases', '(D)When recent memories are stored in long-term memory (LTM) by strengthening new neural connections', '(E)When REM increases in frequency and duration after deprivation']

(D)Memory consolidation occurs during REM sleep. This is the time when new neural connections are strengthened, thereby helping transfer temporarily stored information to long-term storage. Increased production of human growth hormone, choice A, occurs during NREM sleep. Choice B refers to the activation-synthesis theory, which explains how a person dreams during REM sleep. Choice C refers to an event that occurs when a person is sleep deprived. This increase in ghrelin can lead to weight gain. Choice E refers to REM rebound.

Why is REM sleep considered paradoxical?

['(A)The brain is highly active, but motor function is virtually absent.', "(B)After REM sleep deprivation, there is a tendency to spend more time in REM sleep during the next day's sleep cycle.", '(C)Delta waves are present during REM.', '(D)Infants spend more of their time asleep in REM than do adults.', '(E)REM sleep seems to be more important for promoting creative thinking.']

(A)REM is considered paradoxical sleep because the brain is highly active, with beta waves being produced, but motor messages are inhibited in the brainstem. Choice B refers to REM rebound. Choice C is incorrect as delta waves, which indicate deep sleep, are present during NREM-stage 3 sleep. Although choice D does correctly describe the difference between REM sleep in infants and adults, it is not the primary feature of why REM is considered paradoxical. Choice E is incorrect because it does not accurately reflect the paradox.

With continued use, a person may experience a gradual decrease in his or her reaction to a drug. This is called

['(A)withdrawal.', '(B)diathesis stress.', '(C)tolerance.', '(D)generalization.', '(E)plasticity.']

(C)Tolerance to a drug develops gradually. The more a person takes a drug, the more the person must take to get the same effect. Withdrawal, choice A, occurs when a person is physically addicted to a drug and has negative symptoms when he or she stops using it. Diathesis stress, choice B, is an explanation for why certain disorders occur. It focuses on the interaction of one’s biological predispositions and environmental stressors. Choice D, generalization, is when an organism responds to a stimulus similar to the one that was originally learned. Plasticity, choice E, refers to changes in the brain that occur during one’s lifetime due to experience.

Which of the following is used primarily for pain relief?

['(A)Depressants', '(B)Stimulants', '(C)Hallucinogens', '(D)Narcotics', '(E)Inhalants']

(D)Narcotics, such as morphine, heroin, or oxycodone, are used primarily for pain relief. Depressants (choice A), such as alcohol, slow down the body by depressing the nervous system. Stimulants (choice B), such as cocaine, lead to an increase in heart rate. They also elevate the blood pressure and speed up body functions. Hallucinogens (choice C), such as LSD, cause a person to perceive the world differently than it really is. Inhalants (choice E) include a number of chemicals that give off vapors, which produce intoxication when they are breathed in.

Kathy had a vivid dream of seeing brightly colored jeweled rings on each of her fingers. When she awoke, she consulted an online dream dictionary that suggested each jewel represented a value in herself that others admire. According to Sigmund Freud, this explanation represents

['(A)the manifest content of the dream.', '(B)a flashbulb memory.', '(C)the latent content of the dream.', '(D)her prototype of the concept.', '(E)top-down processing.']

(C)According to Freud, the symbolic, hidden meaning of the dream is the latent content. While manifest content, Choice A, is a Freudian concept, it refers to a dream’s conscious narrative. Choice B, a flashbulb memory, refers to a detailed, emotionally charged memory. A prototype, Choice D, is the best example of a category. When our past experiences shape our interpretation of an event, Choice E, top-down processing occurs.

Kate is relaxed, has her eyes closed, and is lying in bed ready to sleep. If Kate's brain waves were being monitored on an electroencephalograph (EEG), what type of brain waves would you most likely see?

['(A)Theta', '(B)Delta', '(C)Alpha', '(D)Beta', '(E)Sleep spindles']

(C)Alpha waves are present when a person is awake but relaxed. Theta waves, choice A, are associated with both NREM-stage 1 and NREM-stage 2 sleep. Delta waves, choice B, are present during stage-3 sleep, which is deep sleep. Beta waves, choice D, are present when a person is awake and alert but are also present during REM sleep. Sleep spindles, choice E, are bursts of brain activity present during NREM stage 2 sleep.

Tack experiences sudden attacks of sleepiness where he falls to the ground and is unable to move. Tack most likely has

['(A)sleep apnea.', '(B)night terrors.', '(C)narcolepsy.', '(D)insomnia.', '(E)restless leg syndrome.']

(C)Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by periods when a person feels overwhelmingly sleepy and falls asleep at inconvenient times. Since the person drops into REM sleep, he or she loses muscle tone. Sleep apnea, choice A, occurs when a person stops breathing during a night’s sleep. Night terrors, choice B, occur during NREM sleep and happen primarily in children. Children who have night terrors experience intense fear during sleep but have no memory of the event the next day. Insomnia, choice D, is a disorder where a person has difficulty going to or staying asleep. Choice E, restless leg syndrome, is a condition where an individual feels an urge to move his or her legs to relieve discomfort.

Kenneth abused prescription narcotics after knee surgery left him in constant pain. With the supervision of his doctor, he stopped taking the drugs. Within 24 hours, Kenneth experienced muscle aches, agitation, insomnia, sweating, and vomiting. These symptoms indicate that

['(A)Kenneth was psychologically addicted to the narcotics.', "(B)narcotics speed up Kenneth's central nervous system.", '(C)narcotics are not addictive.', '(D)Kenneth had a physical dependence on the drugs.', '(E)Kenneth will be unable to stop taking the drugs.']

(D)Since Kenneth is experiencing withdrawal symptoms after discontinuing the use of narcotics, he has developed a physical dependence on the drugs. Choice A is incorrect as such an outcome cannot be determined by the evidence provided in the scenario. Choices B and C are incorrect because narcotics are highly addictive and slow down the nervous system. Because Kenneth is experiencing withdrawal symptoms after he has stopped taking the drugs, it may be difficult for him to resist taking the drugs again. But there is no reason to predict that he will be “unable” to resist taking the drugs, making choice E incorrect.

Which of the following theorists first suggested that the unconscious mind is a reservoir of unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and wishes that directs our behavior?

['(A)Carl Jung', '(B)Carl Rogers', '(C)Karen Horney', '(D)Sigmund Freud', '(E)John Allan Hobson']

(D)Sigmund Freud first suggested that the unconscious mind acts is a repository of unacceptable feelings, thoughts, and wishes that direct our behavior. Carl Jung, choice A, was a prominent Freudian psychologist, but not the first to suggest that the unconscious mind directs human behavior. Carl Rogers, choice B, is a humanistic psychologist known for his suggestion that humans need unconditional positive regard to develop a positive self-concept. Karen Horney, choice C, is a Freudian psychologist but was not the first to propose the idea of an unconscious mind. John Allan Hobson, choice E, is a sleep researcher known for his theory that dreams are a biological byproduct of an active brain during REM sleep.

Researchers are investigating the impact of alcohol on judgment. Male subjects, aged 21–40, drank alcohol until they reached a blood alcohol content of 0.08%. Subjects were then asked to take 9 steps, heel to toe, along a straight line, turn, and walk back. The researchers observed to see if the subjects took an incorrect number of steps. Which of the following is the operational definition of the dependent variable?

['(A)Blood alcohol content of 0.08%', '(B)Alcohol consumed', '(C)The number of incorrect steps taken (D)Age of the subjects', '(E)Judgment']

(C)The dependent variable is the measured outcome of manipulating the independent variable. An operational definition is a specific statement of how researchers measure the outcome. Thus, the operational definition goes beyond judgment, choice E, to how judgment will be measured. In this case, researchers measure judgment by the number of incorrect steps taken by the subjects. A blood alcohol content of 0.08%, choice A, is the variable controlled by the researchers. Thus, it is the independent variable. The same applies to the alcohol consumed, choice B. It is the variable controlled by researchers and is therefore the independent variable. The age of the subjects, choice D, is a subject variable.

Researchers are investigating the impact of alcohol on judgment. Male subjects, aged 21–40, drank alcohol until they reached a blood alcohol content of 0.08%. Subjects were then asked to take 9 steps, heel to toe, along a straight line, turn, and walk back. The researchers observed to see if the subjects took an incorrect number of steps. Subjects may come into this study having preconceived notions about how alcohol affects their behavior. This belief could impact the number of mistakes made in the subsequent task. How might researchers best control for this belief?

['(A)Make sure that subjects drink the same amount of alcohol.', '(B)Randomly sample the participants from the population.', '(C)Randomly assign subjects to an experimental or to a placebo group.', '(D)Use a correlational study instead of an experiment.', '(E)Replicate the study.']

(C)The belief that a treatment will work can lead to the placebo effect. To control for this, researchers should use a placebo group where participants receive a fake treatment. Doing so will help researchers determine whether it is the alcohol or the preconceived beliefs about alcohol’s effects that make a difference in task performance. Choice A is incorrect because this will not control for the placebo effect. The amount of alcohol was controlled by ensuring all subjects drinking alcohol had a blood alcohol content of 0.08%. Random sampling, choice B, helps ensure that the subjects are representative of the population. A correlational study, choice D, looks for relationships among variables. It is not an effective tool to determine cause and effect. Replicating a study, choice E, helps build confidence in the findings of an earlier study but does not control for the placebo effect.

Judith had a dream of being in a room full of stacked pancakes where she must eat her way out. Her analyst suggested that dreaming of pancakes indicates that Judith has several multilayered problems in her life that she needs to address. Her analyst's suggestion best reflects the focus of which of the following psychological perspectives?

['(A)Behavioral', '(B)Psychodynamic', '(C)Humanistic', '(D)Evolutionary', '(E)Biological']

(B)Psychodynamic psychologists focus on unconscious motives. They may interpret the symbolic, or latent, content of dreams to provide insight into what has been repressed to the unconscious. The behavioral perspective, choice A, focuses on observable behavior that has been learned from the environment. Humanistic psychologists, choice C, emphasize the potential for growth and self-fulfillment. Evolutionary psychologists, choice D, explain human behavior through natural selection. Biological psychologists, choice E, center on the workings of the nervous system in explaining human behavior.

Hobson and McCarley suggested that dreams occurred because the pons sent random signals to the cortex during REM that were integrated by the frontal lobe. Such an explanation for the existence of dreams reflects which of the following psychological perspectives?

['(A)Cognitive', '(B)Psychodynamic', '(C)Behavioral', '(D)Evolutionary', '(E)Biological']

(E)Biological psychologists focus on how the functioning of the nervous system produces thoughts and behavior. The activation-synthesis model suggests that dreams are a biological byproduct of an active brain. The explanation of biological psychologists for dreams reflects this perspective. The cognitive perspective, choice A, emphasizes how information is processed. The psychodynamic approach, choice B, stresses the role of the unconscious in influencing behavior. The behavioral perspective, choice C, concentrates on how behaviors are learned from the environment. The evolutionary perspective, choice D, attempts to explain the origin of adaptive human traits through the process of natural selection.

"Think about what your brain and body are doing right now: somehow these letters are getting from the page into your brain [1], and you are comprehending that the letters make words that make sense. [2] While you are reading, you might feel cold or notice that your shoes are too tight [3], and somehow all those messages from the outside world are getting into your brain [4] so that you can deal with the world. "Look at the part of the excerpt marked with the number [1]. Which of the following sentences best describes what is happening at this point in the excerpt?

['(A)Perceptions are encountered by our brains and interpreted because of our past experiences.', '(B)Human brains are wired to understand language, so the letters are interpreted by our brains.', '(C)Light reflected from the page passes through the pupil and is projected onto the retina.', '(D)The process starts in the language center of the brain, which directs the eye to look at and understand the letters.', '(E)The person in the excerpt is likely to be a visual learner since he or she comprehends the letters so quickly and efficiently.']

(C)At point [1] in the excerpt, the process of vision is being described. The image from the letters on the page are sensed by the eye as described in choice C. Choice A is not specific to this part of the excerpt. Choices B and D are factually incorrect statements about how language is processed by the brain. Choice E misrepresents the nature of learning. The idea of someone being a “visual learner” is not supported by research.

"Think about what your brain and body are doing right now: somehow these letters are getting from the page into your brain [1], and you are comprehending that the letters make words that make sense. [2] While you are reading, you might feel cold or notice that your shoes are too tight [3], and somehow all those messages from the outside world are getting into your brain [4] so that you can deal with the world. "Look at the part of the excerpt marked with the number [2]. Which of the following terms is most appropriate for the process described at this point in the excerpt?

['(A)Sensation', '(B)Transduction', '(C)Potentiation', '(D)Perception', '(E)Adaptation']

(D)At point [2] in the excerpt, the viewer is finding meaning from the sensations (reading the words), which is a perceptual process. Choice A is wrong because the sensation process occurred earlier in the excerpt. Choice B, transduction, is a different step in the process. Transduction occurs when sensations are turned into neural impulses. Choice C, potentiation, is out of context. The term long-term potentiation refers to how memories are biologically stored in the brain. Choice E, adaptation, refers to the process of stopping the perception of some sensations because of continuous exposure to those sensations.

"Think about what your brain and body are doing right now: somehow these letters are getting from the page into your brain [1], and you are comprehending that the letters make words that make sense. [2] While you are reading, you might feel cold or notice that your shoes are too tight [3], and somehow all those messages from the outside world are getting into your brain [4] so that you can deal with the world." Look at the part of the excerpt marked with the number [3]. What part of the brain is mostly likely involved in the perceptions described at this point in the excerpt?

['(A)Motor cortex', "(B)Broca's area", '(C)Ventromedial hypothalamus', '(D)Frontal lobe', '(E)Somatosensory cortex']

(E)Perceptions like the feeling of cold on your skin or the tightness of shoes are perceived in the sensory or somatosensory cortex in the brain. The motor cortex, choice A, is responsible for voluntary movements. Choice B, Broca’s area, is involved in speech. The ventromedial hypothalamus, choice C, is part of the system that controls hunger. The frontal lobe, choice D, is a large area of the brain responsible for many different functions, including decision making. However, it is not the primary area where perceptions such as cold or tightness are processed.

"Think about what your brain and body are doing right now: somehow these letters are getting from the page into your brain [1], and you are comprehending that the letters make words that make sense. [2] While you are reading, you might feel cold or notice that your shoes are too tight [3], and somehow all those messages from the outside world are getting into your brain [4] so that you can deal with the world. "Look at the part of the excerpt marked with the number [4]. All the sensations described in the excerpt pass through which of the following brain structures before being sent to their final locations in the brain?

['(A)Thalamus', '(B)Parietal lobe', '(C)Synaptic gap', '(D)Central nervous system', '(E)Amygdala']

(A)All messages received through our senses (except smell) pass through the thalamus first before being sent elsewhere in the brain. Choice B, parietal lobe, is one of the lobes of the brain. Choice C, synaptic gap, is a specific part of the neural transmission process. Choice D, central nervous system, is close to being correct. However, the question asks for a brain structure, and the brain is part of the central nervous system. Choice E, amygdala, is the part of the limbic system that is responsible for strong emotional responses.

Which of the following is the best example of a sensation?

['(A)Light entering the eye and activating rods and cones in the retina', '(B)Feature detectors firing in the occipital lobe in response to impulses from the eye', '(C)Autonomic nervous system activation because of a perceived threat', '(D)Dopamine passing through a synaptic gap and activating the next neuron', '(E)The brain interpreting energy or chemical signals from the outside world']

(A)The term sensation refers to the activation of one of our senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste, or the vestibular sense). The example of light activating rods and cones in the retina is the best example in this set. Choices B and E refer to examples (or definitions) of perception, not sensation. Choices C and D are not specific to the concept of sensation.

The following statement is an example of which term? "That bird in the tree made noise, and those sound waves traveled through the air and into my ear, where the sound waves moved neural cells in the cochlea."

['(A)Perception', '(B)Sensory adaptation', '(C)Trichromatic theory', '(D)Sensation', '(E)Convergence']

(D)The term sensation refers to the activation of one of our senses. The statement clearly refers to a sensation: hearing. Sound waves are detected in the cochlea by the movements of hair cells, which fire neurons. Choice A is incorrect because the example does not refer to the sounds being interpreted. Choices B, C, and E are not terms relevant to this statement.

Which of the following is the best example of a perception?

['(A)Light entering the eye through the pupil and activating neurons in the retina (B)Feature detectors firing in the occipital lobe in response to seeing a circle on a page (C)Sympathetic nervous system activation because of a friend jumping out at you from around a corner (D)Dopamine passing through a synaptic gap and activating the next neuron (E)One of the five senses firing because of a chemical or energy stimulus 145.As you read this question, your brain is using what you know about the English language to make meaning out of the letters on this page. What is this an example of?', '(A)Bottom-up processing', '(B)Selective attention', '(C)Top-down processing', '(D)Opponent-process theory', '(E)Monocular cues']

(B)The term perception refers to the brain interpreting (finding meaning in) sensations. Sensations start in one of the five senses, which sends neural messages to the brain. Perception occurs when the brain makes meaning out of these impulses. The example of feature detectors firing in the optical cortex (located in the occipital lobe) is the best example of perception in this set. Choices A and E refer to examples (or definitions) of sensation, not perception. Choices C and D are not specific to the concept of perception.

You encounter a piece of abstract art at the museum, and it looks completely different from any art you've seen before. You are struggling to figure out what the artist was trying to represent in this piece of art. Which of the following perceptual processes might be most applicable to this example?

['(A)Bottom-up processing', '(B)Selective attention', '(C)Top-down processing', '(D)Opponent-process theory', '(E)Kinesthetic sense']

(C)Top-down processing is a perceptual process occurring when we use past knowledge or “rules” to help us interpret sensations. Bottom-up processing, choice A, is the opposite. It occurs when we encounter unfamiliar stimuli and have to start at the “bottom,” building a perception by looking piece by piece to build an overall perception. Choice B, selective attention, is involved in the process referred to in this question. However, selective attention isn’t specifically relevant to the example in the question. Opponent-process theory (choice D) and monocular clues (choice E) are not relevant to this example.

You can tell if someone is whispering because you can see his or her lips moving, but the person is too far away for you to hear the sounds of the whispers. Which of the following terms would be the most useful if you tried to explain this phenomenon?

['(A)Difference threshold', '(B)Sensory adaptation', '(C)Vestibular sense', "(D)Weber's law", '(E)Absolute threshold']

(A)Bottom-up processing is a perceptual process occurring when we encounter unfamiliar stimuli and have to start at the “bottom,” building a perception by looking piece by piece to build an overall perception. In bottom-up processing, we use past knowledge or “rules” to help us interpret sensations. Choice B, selective attention, is involved in the process referred to in this question. However, it isn’t specifically relevant to this example. Top-down processing, choice C, is the opposite of the bottom-up processing described in the question. With top-down processing, we use past knowledge or “rules” to help us interpret sensations. Opponent-process theory (choice D) and kinesthetic sense (choice E) are not relevant to this example.

Which of the following is the best definition of difference threshold?

['(A)The minimum amount of energy or chemicals detectable by our senses i', '(B)How much a sensation needs to change in order for us to detect that change', '(C)When our brain uses past knowledge or "rules" to help us interpret sensations', '(D)The difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, which determines if a neuron fires', '(E)How much our perception of a sensation decreases if we are constantly exposed to that stimulus']

(E)The absolute threshold is the minimum amount of a sensation (in this example, sound waves) that we can perceive. Choice A, difference threshold, is a similar concept. However, it refers to how much a sensation needs to change in order for us to detect that change. Choice B, sensory adaptation, refers to the process of our senses becoming less sensitive to stimuli because of constant exposure. Vestibular sense, choice C, is not relevant to this example. Choice D, Weber’s law, is also not relevant to this example.

We are bombarded with many stimuli all the time. Which of the following concepts would you use to explain to someone why we consciously perceive only a few of these stimuli?

['(A)Bottom-up processing', '(B)Kinesthesis', '(C)Blind spot', '(D)Selective attention', '(E)Figure-ground']

(B)Difference thresholds are the amount stimuli have to change in order for us to perceive a change in the stimulus. For example, a difference threshold is how much louder something needs to be in order for us to be able to tell that it got louder. Choice A is a definition of absolute threshold. Choice C is a definition of top-down processing. Choice D doesn’t apply to this example. Choice E refers to sensory adaptation.

You may be deep in thought as you try to answer this question, and you may not be aware of other events occurring around you. Which psychological term best explains this phenomenon?

['(A)Absolute threshold', '(B)Selective attention', '(C)Mindfulness', '(D)Precognition', '(E)Perception']

(D)Our consciousness, specifically our working memory, focuses on only one or a few stimuli at a time. These stimuli are the ones that get perceived. This process is called selective attention. Choice A, bottom-up processing, refers to the process of building a perception piece by piece. However, it doesn’t explain why we perceive only a few stimuli at a time. Kinesthesis, blind spot, and figure-ground (choices B, C, and E) don’t specifically help explain why we focus on only a few stimuli at a time.

Which of the following lists the parts of the eye most relevant to the processing of visual sensations?

['(A)Cornea, cochlea, lens, pupil', '(B)Iris, fovea, frontal lobe, visual cortex', "(C)Gate-control theory, Broca's area, optic chiasm", '(D)Medulla, optic nerve, feature detectors', '(E)Pupil, lens, retina, rods, cones, optic nerve']

(B)Humans focus on one or a few stimuli at a time instead of the hundreds of stimuli that bombard us. The stimuli we focus on are the ones that we perceive. This process is called selective attention. Choice A, absolute threshold, refers to the minimum amount of a stimulus that we can perceive. However, absolute threshold doesn’t explain the scenario in the question. Choice C, mindfulness, is not a relevant sensation and perception term. Precognition, choice D, is a kind of supposed “extrasensory” phenomenon and doesn’t really exist. Perception, choice E, is not specifically relevant to this example.

Which of the following is the most useful analogy for the role the pupil plays in the process of vision?

['(A)A telescope, bringing light into focus', '(B)A movie screen with light projected onto it', '(C)A smartphone, interpreting incoming messages in useful ways', '(D)A curtain, opening or closing to let in the right amount of light', '(E)A "contrast" button on a keyboard, adding or taking away light to make an image more clear']

(E)Light enters the eye through the pupil, is focused by the lens, and then activates rods and cones in the retina. Then, nerve impulses travel to the brain via the optic nerve. Choice A includes some parts of the eye. However, it also includes the cochlea, which is part of the ear. The other choices (B, C, and D) all use terms not involved in vision.

Which of the following is the most useful analogy for the role the lens plays in the process of vision?

['(A)A telescope, bringing light into focus', '(B)A movie screen with light projected onto it', '(C)A smartphone, interpreting incoming messages in useful ways', '(D)A curtain, opening or closing to let in the right amount of light', '(E)A "contrast" button on a keyboard, adding or taking away light to make an image more clear']

(D)The pupil dilates or contracts to let more or less light into the eye. Choice A is a good analogy for the lens of the eye. Choice B is a useful analogy for the retina. Choices C and E are not useful analogies for any structure in the eye.

Which of the following is the most useful analogy for the role the retina plays in the process of vision?

['(A)A telescope bringing light into focus', '(B)A movie screen with light projected onto it', '(C)A smartphone, interpreting incoming messages in useful ways', '(D)A curtain, opening or closing to let in the right amount of light', '(E)A "contrast" button on a keyboard, adding or taking away light to make an image more clear']

(A)The lens in the eye changes shape to focus light onto the retina, much like adjusting a telescope can bring an image into focus. Choice B is a useful analogy for the retina. Choice D is a good analogy for the role of the pupil in the eye. Choices C and E are not useful analogies for any structure in the eye.

What causes the "blind spot" in the eye?

['(A)The occipital lobe doesn\'t have enough feature detectors to "cover" the entire retina, so some spots in the retina are, in effect, blind.', '(B)Eyes are spaced apart on the human face, so there is a small space in the middle that falls between the visual fields; this is the blind spot.', "(C)The place where the optic nerve attaches in the retina of each eye doesn't contain rods or cones; this is the blind spot in each eye.", "(D)Every person is born with a small number of defective receptor cells in the retina of each eye; these cells can't fire reliably, creating the blind spot.", "(E)Even though human eyes function well, human consciousness won't allow people to see some stimuli, creating blind spots unique to each person based on his or her past experiences."]

(B)The retina in the eye is a lot like a movie screen. Light enters the eye through the pupil, is focused by the lens, and is projected onto the retina. (At the retina, specialized neurons like rods and cones fire in response to the focused light.) Choice A is a useful analogy for the lens in the eye. Choice D is a good analogy for the role of the pupil in the eye. Choices C and E are not useful analogies for any structure in the eye.

In the back of each eye, the optic nerve connects to one of the important structures in the eye. What is that structure, and what phenomenon does this connection cause?

['(A)Retina; blind spot', '(B)Lens; retinal disparity', '(C)Iris; color constancy', '(D)Cornea; glaucoma', '(E)Pupil; binocular vision']

(C)The place where the optic nerves connect to each retina does not contain receptor cells, creating a blind spot in each eye. Choice A is an incorrect statement about feature detectors. Choice B is true in a sense. Eyes are spaced apart on the human face. However, the visual fields of the two eyes overlap. So, this does not explain the blind spot. Choice D is a factually incorrect statement about the retina. Choice E depends on a cognitive explanation, which is not relevant to the physiological fact of the blind spot.

Which of the following is an example of the process of transduction?

['(A)Sound waves entering the ear and moving the eardrum', '(B)Chewing food and absorbing chemicals into the tongue', '(C)Tipping your head back while practicing yoga', '(D)Light activating rods and cones, firing neurons in the optic nerve', '(E)Neurons in the prefrontal cortex firing in response to making a difficult decision']

(A)The place where the optic nerve connects to the retina in each eye does not contain receptor cells, creating a blind spot in each eye. Choices B, C, D, and E all mention an accurate structure in the eye. However, the optic nerve doesn’t connect with any of the structures listed. In addition, none of the phenomena listed are caused by the optic nerve connecting with the structure listed.

In every example of sensation and perception, either energy or chemicals are turned into neural impulses. What is this process called?

['(A)Transduction', '(B)Bottom-up processing', '(C)Convergence', '(D)Perceptual set', '(E)Action potential']

(D)Transduction occurs when energy or chemicals are changed into neural impulses. For example, light entering the eye is changed into neural impulses when rods and cones are activated and then send messages to the brain via the optic nerve. In this way, transduction is the last step in sensation and the first step in perception. Choices A, B, and C do not describe transduction because sensations are not being transformed into neural impulses. Choice E describes communication within the brain (neural transmission within the brain).

Which of the following terms is the most clear stage or process that marks where the process of sensation ends and where perception begins?

['(A)Kinesthesis', '(B)Gestalt', '(C)Depolarization', '(D)Transduction', '(E)Dissociation']

(A)Transduction occurs when either energy or chemicals are changed into neural impulses. Choices B, C, and D are not relevant to the process of transduction. Choice E, action potential, refers to a step in the process of neural transmission in which the electrical charge moves down the axon.

Where does transduction occur in the ear?

['(A)Tympanic membrane', '(B)Hammer', '(C)Cochlea', '(D)Anvil', '(E)Thalamus']

(D)During transduction, sensations (either energy or chemicals) are changed into neural impulses in our senses. Perception occurs when these neural impulses are interpreted in the brain. Kinesthesis, choice A, refers to our sense of movement and body position. Choice B, Gestalt, refers to a set of principles that describe how we group objects together and perceive them as a whole. Depolarization (choice C) and dissociation (choice E) do not refer to either sensation or perceptual processes.

Which two theories, when combined, best explain how humans perceive color?

['(A)Gestalt and vestibular theories', '(B)Trichromatic and opponent-process theories', '(C)Bottom-up and top-down theories', '(D)Figure-ground and signal detection theories', '(E)Absolute threshold and difference threshold theories 162.Which sensation and perception theory can most easily explain the phenomena of color afterimages?', '(A)Binocular vision', '(B)Retinal disparity', '(C)Trichromatic theory', '(D)Opponent-process theory', '(E)Color constancy']

(C)When sound waves move fluid in the cochlea, tiny hair cells move and then activate neurons that send neural impulses to the brain. This transformation of sound waves into neural impulses is an example of transduction. The tympanic membrane, hammer, and anvil (choices A, B, and D) are all parts of the ear that play a role in transmitting sound waves from the outside world to the inner ear. However, they do not involve transduction. Choice E, thalamus, refers to an area of the brain, not the ear. The thalamus is where all neural impulses from the senses, except the sense of smell, pass through on their way to their final destinations in the brain.

Some psychological concepts are very similar. Which of the following concepts is most similar to the cocktail party effect?

['(A)Identity formation', '(B)Spotlight syndrome', '(C)Selective attention', '(D)Egocentrism', '(E)Self-reference effect']

(B)Humans perceive color because combinations of different cones in the eye fire in response to different colors (trichromatic theory) and because cones are linked in opposing color pairs (opponent-process theory). Choices A and D include valid sensation and perception terms. However, neither of these pairs of terms relate to color vision. Choice C refers to opposing perceptual processes but not specifically to the perception of color. Choice E lists important concepts that determine which sensations we perceive. However, these theories do not specifically relate to color vision.

You and your friends go to an art opening because the gallery promised to "show art like no one has seen before—you won't know what you are looking at, but your conception of art will be expanded." Which of the following perceptual principles will you most likely use since the art will be very abstract and unfamiliar?

['(A)Top-down processing', '(B)Signal detection theory', '(C)Selective attention', '(D)Opponent-process theory', '(E)Bottom-up processing']

(D)If you stare at something that is red for long enough and then quickly stare at a white surface, you perceive a green afterimage. You perceive the opposite (complementary) color because the red and green cones are paired in the retina and because the red cones are fatigued due to constant exposure. When you look away at a white surface, the paired cones for green fire at a higher rate than the fatigued red cones, causing you to perceive the color green. This paired-cone theory is the opponent-process theory of vision. Binocular vision (choice A) and retinal disparity (choice B) explain how depth and distance are perceived. Choice C, trichromatic theory, helps explain other examples of color perception but cannot explain color afterimages. Choice E, color constancy, helps explain why an object is perceived as maintaining its color even as lighting conditions change.

Professor Benjamin holds up a pound of feathers and a one-pound weight. He says, "If these two identical weights felt the same, we wouldn't need the science of psychology; we would need only physics." Professor Benjamin is probably trying to make a point about which of the following processes?

['(A)Perception', '(B)Sensation', '(C)Transduction', '(D)Kinesthesis', '(E)Vestibular']

(C)Selective attention is one of the major factors determining what stimuli we perceive (because we pay attention to those stimuli). This is similar to the cocktail party effect, instantly noticing when someone says our name even in the midst of a noisy environment. Identity formation (choice A) and egocentrism (choice D) are stages from developmental psychology. Spotlight syndrome, choice B, is the tendency to overestimate how much others pay attention to us. Choice E, self-reference effect, relates to how we learn and remember information better when we relate that information to our own lives.

You are at a party with your friend Fred. The DJ is playing music you don't really like, and she's playing it very loudly. Fred shouts to you, "I THINK SHE IS ACTUALLY PLAYING THIS SONG LOUDER THAN THE LAST ONE!" You shout back, "HOW CAN YOU ACTUALLY TELL?" Which sensation principle determines whether or not Fred might actually be able to tell whether this song is louder than the last one?

['(A)Signal detection theory', '(B)Difference threshold', '(C)Binocular cues', '(D)Trephination', '(E)Perceptual set']

(E)You use bottom-up processing when you need to build a perception of an unfamiliar object. You examine each piece of the experience and figure out how the pieces all fit together into something you can understand and/or perceive. This is likely the process you would have to use at this very avant-garde art opening. Top-down processing, choice A, is the opposite. When you experience something familiar, you use what you know from the past to understand and/or perceive the experience. Signal detection theory (choice B) and selective attention (choice C) are perceptual processes that you use almost constantly. However, they aren’t uniquely suited to this scenario. Choice D, opponent-process theory, refers to a theory about color vision.

The vice principal of your school, Mr. Drumknott, explains the school dress code to you (again) and then asks you if you understand. You feel embarrassed and admit to Mr. Drumknott that you don't understand because you didn't really hear what he said. Which of the following terms might help best explain why you didn't perceive the sensation of Mr. Drumknott's voice and words?

['(A)Transduction', '(B)Difference threshold', '(C)Selective attention', '(D)Projection', '(E)Operant conditioning']

(A)This demonstration makes the point that humans perceive the world in ways that may not be accurate according to physics. Humans perceive that the pound of feathers is lighter than the one-pound weight. That difference in perception is worthy of studying (hence the need for psychology, not just physics). Professor Benjamin’s demonstration involves sensation (choice B), which also involves transduction (choice C). However, neither sensation nor transduction explain the point the professor is trying to make. Kinesthesis (choice D) and vestibular (choice E) refer to body movement and position.

Someone challenges you to explain exactly what you are seeing right now and how you are seeing it. Which of the following terms are you most likely to use in your answer?

['(A)Sensation, threshold, selective attention, transduction', '(B)Optic nerve, cochlea, hair cells, Gestalt', '(C)Monocular cues, binocular cues, convergence, perception', '(D)Pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve', "(E)Signal detection theory, opponent-process theory, trichromatic theory 169.Someone challenges you to explain exactly what you are hearing right now and how you are perceiving what you're hearing. Which of the following terms are you most likely to use in your answer?", '(A)Eardrum, cochlea, hair cells, temporal lobe', '(B)Auditory nerve, thalamus, frontal lobe, temporal lobe', '(C)Pitch, tone, cochlea, transduction', '(D)Signal detection, bottom-up processing, receptor cells', '(E)Frequency, amplitude, brainstem, auditory cortex']

(B)The difference threshold is the minimum amount a sensation has to change in order for a difference to be noticed. The volume would have had to exceed the difference threshold for Fred to perceive whether or not this song is louder than the last one. Signal detection theory, choice A, is involved in all perceptual events. However, it wouldn’t uniquely help Fred. Binocular cues, choice C, refers to visual depth perception. Trephination, choice D, is out of context. It refers to the history of brain research. Perceptual set, choice E, is involved in all examples of perception. However, it wouldn’t help Fred in this scenario.

You are watching the final round of the gymnastics championship at your school. The captain of the team, Sybil Ramkin, just finished an amazing routine on the uneven bars. As you watch her, you wonder how she knows where she is in space as she flips around the bar and how she makes sure she's in the right position to land perfectly on her feet. Which two sensory systems are most responsible for Sybil Ramkin's performance?

['(A)Vestibular system and sense of touch', '(B)Kinesthesis and vision', '(C)Hearing (inner ear) and gustation', '(D)Proprioception and olfaction', '(E)Transduction and kinesthesis']

(C)You do not perceive sensations unless you selectively attend (pay attention) to them. It’s possible that you’ve heard this “lecture” so many times from Mr. Drumknott that you didn’t selectively attend to it this time. Choice A, transduction, describes the stage when sensations change into perceptions. Transduction does not help explain the scenario. Choice B, difference threshold, refers to how much louder or softer the speech would have to be for you to notice the change in volume. Projection (choice D) and operant conditioning (choice E) are not sensation and perception terms. So, they don’t help explain this situation.

You are hanging out with your nephew Rufus at the park. Suddenly, Rufus looks at you excitedly and says, "Did you hear that? Someone is playing that song you like over in the neighborhood," while he points out into the neighborhood. You don't hear anything, but you smile and nod to be polite. Which perceptual principle explains why Rufus heard the song but you did not?

['(A)Difference threshold', '(B)Proprioception', '(C)Absolute threshold', '(D)Transduction', '(E)Structuralism']

(D)If you want to describe exactly what you are seeing at any given moment, you will need to use a list of the parts of the eye. Choices A, B, C, and E are random collections of terms from the sensation and perception unit. Any of these terms individually might be involved in the process of what you are seeing right now, but they are not specifically all involved in any example of vision.

You are lying on your back in the park, staring at the clouds. Suddenly, you realize that a group of clouds to the left looks exactly like the face of your school mascot. What area of sensation and perception research and thinking might be most interested in perceptual issues related to you seeing your school mascot in the clouds?

['(A)Functionalists', '(B)Structuralists', '(C)Psychodynamic', '(D)Gestalt', '(E)Naturalistic observation']

(A)Hearing involves sound waves moving the eardrum, which moves fluid in the cochlea, which moves hair cells, which cause neural impulses to go to the temporal lobe where they are perceived. Choice B includes the term frontal lobe, which is out of place in this list. Choice C includes the terms pitch and tone, which are helpful when describing sounds but don’t help answer how sounds are processed. Choice D includes perceptual terms that might apply to hearing in general but don’t help answer this specific question. Choice E includes the terms frequency and amplitude. They are useful when describing sound waves but don’t help explain how sounds are heard.

You are invited to an art class by one of your friends. She tells you that the art class will be a lot of fun because it will focus on how to portray depth more accurately in pencil and charcoal drawings. Which of the following perceptual principles is most relevant to this art class?

['(A)Binocular cues', '(B)Top-down processing', '(C)Retinal disparity', '(D)Bottom-up processing', '(E)Monocular cues']

(B)The sensory systems of kinesthesis (understanding our body’s position in space) and vision (getting visual feedback on where we are and where we need to be) are the two most relevant sensory systems responsible for the gymnastics performance. All of the other choices (A, C, D, and E) include at least one irrelevant or incorrect term, such as sense of touch, hearing (inner ear), gustation, olfaction, and transduction.

Leonard is on a trip to a debate tournament in a small, rural town he's never visited before. When he gets out of the van, Leonard immediately smells a strong odor of manure. Leonard wonders how anyone lives in the town with the constant smell of manure. What psychological principle explains why residents of the town do NOT constantly perceive that smell?

['(A)Sensory adaptation', '(B)Habituation', '(C)Perceptual set', '(D)Dissociation', '(E)Defense mechanism']

(C)The absolute threshold is the minimum amount of a sensation that you can perceive. In this case, it’s the minimum amount of sound energy you can perceive. The absolute threshold for sound typically goes up as you age and as your hearing deteriorates, which may explain why Rufus hears the song and you don’t. Choice A, difference threshold, isn’t relevant to the scenario. Choice B, proprioception, refers to knowledge of the position of parts of our body. Choice D, transduction, is a physiological process similar in all humans. Transduction is the process that changes stimuli into neural impulses. Choice E, structuralism, is a movement from the early history of psychology.

When he was growing up, Samuel visited his aunt's house every day after school. His aunt had a large portrait titled Lord Havelock hanging over the fireplace. When his aunt first acquired the portrait, it startled Samuel. After a few weeks, he eventually stopped noticing and seeing it when he visited his aunt. What psychological principle explains why Samuel stopped seeing the portrait?

['(A)Sensory adaptation', '(B)Habituation', '(C)Blind spot', '(D)Occipital lobe', '(E)Perceptual omission']

(D)The Gestalt psychologists tried to uncover the reasons why people perceive groups of stimuli as a whole instead of just seeing the individual elements of a group. For some reason, your brain reorganized the individual stimuli of those clouds into the whole of the school mascot. Gestalt researchers would be interested in figuring out why you saw the school mascot. Functionalists (choice A) and structuralists (choice B) are historical perspectives from the early history of psychology. Psychodynamic (choice C) and naturalistic observation (choice E) are not terms or schools of thought within the area of sensation and perception research and thinking.

Mr. Slant, who bills himself as a "mental psychological stage performer," claims to be able to see "auras" that are in the infrared and ultraviolet spectrum. Which of the following psychological principles would researchers test in Mr. Slant in order to check his claim?

['(A)Difference threshold', '(B)Proprioception', '(C)Absolute threshold', '(D)Transduction', '(E)Structuralism']

(E)Since this is a drawing class, students learn how to use drawing techniques to create depth, distance, and so on in their drawings. All of these techniques rely on monocular depth cues (cues that you can perceive with one eye) since they are drawn on a two-dimensional surface (the paper). Binocular cues (choice A) and retinal disparity (choice C) aren’t correct because this is a drawing class. Binocular cues and retinal disparity help you perceive depth in the real world and rely on you using both eyes. Top-down processing (choice B) and bottom-up processing (choice D) aren’t relevant to this scenario because they don’t help explain why drawing techniques portray depth in drawings.

The research of which two psychologists established the basis for the difference threshold?

['(A)Hubel and Wiesel', '(B)Skinner and Watson', '(C)Bandura and Beck', '(D)Weber and Fechner', '(E)Seligman and Peterson']

(A)Sensory adaptation occurs when a sense is constantly stimulated with the same sensation and a person experiences decreasing responsiveness to that stimuli due to the constant stimulation. If a person is surrounded by the same smell for a long period of time, he or she stops smelling it—like the residents of the town. Sensory adaptation occurs due to fatigue in the olfactory system. To smell the scent of manure again, the person would need to leave the area, giving the olfactory system time to regenerate. Choice B, habituation, is a similar concept. However, sensory habituation occurs when a person stops paying attention to frequently experienced stimuli rather than a decreased responsiveness in one of his or her senses due to constant exposure. The decreased response is due to a cognitive process. Choice C, perceptual set, helps explain why people interpret and perceive stimuli in the ways they do. Dissociation (choice D) and defense mechanism (choice E) are not relevant to sensation and perception. Instead, they both have to do with levels of consciousness and the idea of the unconscious mind.

Which two psychologists helped establish how the brain physiologically reacts to visual stimuli?

['(A)Hubel and Wiesel', '(B)Gazzaniga and Sperry', '(C)Eagleman and Ramachandran', '(D)Weber and Fechner', '(E)Gage and Wearing']

(B)Habituation occurred when Samuel stopped noticing a frequently encountered stimulus—the portrait. Habituation is similar to the process of sensory adaptation, choice A. Sensory adaptation, though, is decreased responsiveness of the sense because of constant exposure to a stimulus. There is a physiological blind spot, choice C, in each eye due to the connection to the optic nerve. It would not cause the phenomenon described in the scenario. Choice D, occipital lobe, is responsible for visual perceptions but doesn’t explain the scenario. Choice E, perceptual omission, is not a psychological term.

During brain surgery to remove a tumor in a patient's occipital lobe, a surgeon implants several very small microphones to listen for neurons firing as the patient looks at visual stimuli. The work of which researchers established the basis for this medical practice?

['(A)Nation and Benjamin', '(B)Weber and Fechner', '(C)Sternberg and Gardner', '(D)Gazzaniga and Sperry', '(E)Hubel and Wiesel']

(C)Mr. Slant claims he can see in the infrared and ultraviolet spectrum. Seeing infrared and ultraviolet light waves are beyond the absolute threshold for human eyes, so researchers would likely check his visual absolute threshold carefully in order to check Mr. Slant’s claim. Choices A and B are concepts related to perception, but they are not relevant to Mr. Slant’s claim of extraordinary sight. Choice D refers to the point at which sensations are changed into perceptions and sent to the brain—that concept is not specifically relevant to this scenario. Choice E is not a sensation/perception concept (Structuralism refers to an early psychological theory).

A researcher is interested in what factors influence which sensations we perceive and which sensations we don't notice. She decides to design an experiment to test her theory that distraction determines which visual stimuli are remembered. Which of the following is the researcher most likely to choose as an independent variable for her experiment?

['(A)Transduction', '(B)Selective attention', '(C)Absolute threshold', '(D)Perceptual constancy', '(E)Sensory habituation']

(D)Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner performed experiments separately. They theorized about the impact of changes in sensations and how these changes impact a person’s perceptions of differences and changes in sensations. The psychologists mentioned in the other choices (choices A, B, C, and E) were not involved in research related to difference thresholds.

Which of the following is likely to be an operational definition of absolute threshold that a researcher might use during a study?

['(A)The random assignment to experimental or control conditions', '(B)How intensely (bright, loud, etc.) the stimuli are presented during the experiment', '(C)The minimum amount of stimulus a participant perceives in 50% of the trials', '(D)The precise definitions of the operations involved in the methodology of the study', '(E)Removing the influence of top-down processing, resulting in more accurate measurements of perceptions']

(A)David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel won the Nobel Prize for discovering groups of neurons in the visual cortex in animals that respond to specific visual stimuli (feature detectors). The researchers mentioned in choices B, C, and D were all involved in some type of biopsychological research but not specifically reactions to visual stimuli. Choice E refers to two famous case studies in the history of brain research (Phineas Gage and Clive Wearing).

Would it be possible to assign participants randomly to the experimental group and to the control group in a study about color blindness?

['(A)Yes; random assignment is always possible if the sample is chosen carefully.', '(B)Yes; random assignment is always used in the experimental method.', '(C)It is impossible to determine whether random assignment can be used before the experiment begins.', '(D)No; since the study is about color blindness, that trait would determine the group the participant is assigned to.', '(E)No; random assignment is possible only when a researcher works with a team so that no one knows who is assigned to the control group and to the experimental group.']

(E)David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel won the Nobel Prize for discovering groups of neurons in the visual cortex in animals that respond to specific visual stimuli (feature detectors). This research established that a firing neuron can be detected by listening for the sound of that neural firing. The researchers mentioned in choices B and D were involved in brain research but not research specific to this situation. The psychologists mentioned in choices A and C were not primarily involved in brain research.

A patient reports that she is having trouble perceiving objects in her right visual field. She says that she's "not blind—I can see stuff on the right side, but I just can't tell what it is until I look at it dead on." Which of the psychological perspectives might be most useful when trying to explain the cause of this visual difficulty?

['(A)Biological perspective', '(B)Evolutionary perspective', '(C)Psychoanalytic perspective', '(D)Cognitive perspective', '(E)Sociocultural perspective']

(B)Since this researcher wants to test the impact of distraction on perception, she is likely to design a way to influence participants’ selective attention and then measure how that affects the memory of visual stimuli. Transduction, choice A, is a physiological process that changes stimuli into neural impulses. Absolute threshold, perceptual constancy, and sensory habituation (choices C, D, and E) are all concepts related to perception. However, they could not be used as independent variables because they would be difficult or impossible to manipulate or change for the purposes of the experiment.

The concept of perceptual set is most relevant to which psychological perspective?

['(A)Biological', '(B)Evolutionary', '(C)Psychoanalytic', '(D)Cognitive', '(E)Humanist']

(C)Operational definitions are used by researchers to measure variables in a study. This researcher would need to define precisely how he or she will measure absolute threshold. That is typically defined as the minimum amount of stimulus a person can detect half the time. Choices A and B are possible elements of the research, but they are not related to the operational definition. Choices D and E are not accurate statements about experimentation or about sensation and perception.

Sociocultural psychologists would be most interested in research about how people from different cultures differ in their use of which of the following perceptual clues?

['(A)Monocular cues', '(B)Blind spot', '(C)Transduction', '(D)Absolute threshold', '(E)Difference threshold']

(D)Since this study is about color blindness, the researcher would most likely have to use at least two groups of participants: one group of color-blind participants and one group of people who are not color-blind. That is not true random assignment. The other responses (choices A, B, C, and E) include factually incorrect statements about random assignment.

The table below describes the behaviors of a rat named Sniffy. The psychologist working with Sniffy was investigating how giving or taking away food pellets related to whether Sniffy stood on her hind legs or not. In each of the four conditions listed in the table, Sniffy received a food pellet or a food pellet was taken away, and Sniffy stood on her hind legs or she didn't. Sniffy Received a Food Pellet One of Sniffy's Food Pellets Was Taken Away Sniffy Stood on Her Hind Legs 1 2 Sniffy Didn't Stand on Her Hind Legs 3 4. In the cell marked with the number 1, what kind of conditioning most likely took place?

['(A)Negative reinforcement', '(B)Classical conditioning', '(C)Positive reinforcement', '(D)Negative punishment', '(E)Positive punishment']

(A)The biological perspective researches explanations for human thinking and behavior that are related to biology—genetics, brain chemistry, and/or brain structure. The symptoms this patient is reporting are most likely caused by a biological cause. Potentially, the patient is experiencing an issue in the visual cortex either in the left hemisphere or on the right side of each retina. The psychological perspectives listed in choices B, C, and D are unlikely to be useful to treat or explain these symptoms. Choice E is concerned with cultural norms and cross-cultural differences/similarities.

The table below describes the behaviors of a rat named Sniffy. The psychologist working with Sniffy was investigating how giving or taking away food pellets related to whether Sniffy stood on her hind legs or not. In each of the four conditions listed in the table, Sniffy received a food pellet or a food pellet was taken away, and Sniffy stood on her hind legs or she didn't. Sniffy Received a Food Pellet One of Sniffy's Food Pellets Was Taken Away Sniffy Stood on Her Hind Legs 1 2 Sniffy Didn't Stand on Her Hind Legs 3 4. In the cell marked with the number 2, what kind of conditioning most likely took place?

['(A)Negative reinforcement', '(B)Classical conditioning', '(C)Positive reinforcement', '(D)Negative punishment', '(E)Positive punishment']

(D)The cognitive perspective explains human thinking and behavior by examining how we think about our current experiences and remember past experiences. Perceptual sets relate to our cognitive interpretations of stimuli; they are the “mental rules” we use to change stimuli into perceptions. The perspectives listed in choices A, B, C, and E are not relevant to the concept of perceptual set.

The table below describes the behaviors of a rat named Sniffy. The psychologist working with Sniffy was investigating how giving or taking away food pellets related to whether Sniffy stood on her hind legs or not. In each of the four conditions listed in the table, Sniffy received a food pellet or a food pellet was taken away, and Sniffy stood on her hind legs or she didn't. Sniffy Received a Food Pellet One of Sniffy's Food Pellets Was Taken Away Sniffy Stood on Her Hind Legs 1 2 Sniffy Didn't Stand on Her Hind Legs 3 4. In the cell marked with the number 3, what kind of conditioning most likely took place?

['(A)Negative reinforcement', '(B)Classical conditioning', '(C)Positive reinforcement', '(D)Negative punishment', '(E)Positive punishment']

(A)Sociocultural psychologists research how psychological principles impact thinking and behavior differently in different cultures. Most sensation and perception principles operate similarly across cultures. However, some principles, like monocular cues, are culture bound. In other words, these cues influence perception differently in different cultures. Some monocular cues depend on past experiences. For example, growing up in a “carpentered environment” with many right angles influences how individuals interpret two-dimensional cues of lines and angles. Choices B through E are perceptual principles that are primary physiological. So, none of these choices differ among cultures.

The table below describes the behaviors of a rat named Sniffy. The psychologist working with Sniffy was investigating how giving or taking away food pellets related to whether Sniffy stood on her hind legs or not. In each of the four conditions listed in the table, Sniffy received a food pellet or a food pellet was taken away, and Sniffy stood on her hind legs or she didn't. Sniffy Received a Food Pellet One of Sniffy's Food Pellets Was Taken Away Sniffy Stood on Her Hind Legs 1 2 Sniffy Didn't Stand on Her Hind Legs 3 4. In the cell marked with the number 4, what kind of conditioning most likely took place?

['(A)Negative reinforcement', '(B)Classical conditioning', '(C)Positive reinforcement', '(D)Negative punishment', '(E)Positive punishment']

(C)In the cell marked with the number 1, Sniffy received a food pellet and then performed the target behavior (standing on her hind legs). This is positive reinforcement—when an organism receives a stimulus and repeats a target behavior. Choices A, D, and E correspond to other cells in the table. Choice B, classical conditioning, describes a different kind of conditioning. It relates a neutral stimulus to a preexisting relationship to a stimulus that already elicits an “unconditioned” response.

A friend came to visit Dana and knocked on the door. After Dana opened the door, her dog Phinny saw the "stranger" and barked like crazy. This happened the next few times that a "stranger" knocked on Dana's door. Now Phinny barks whenever she hears anything that sounds like someone is knocking on the door. In this example, what is the unconditioned stimulus?

['(A)Hearing a knock', '(B)Barking', '(C)Opening the door', '(D)Seeing a stranger', '(E)Generalization']

(A)In the cell marked with the number 2, one of Sniffy’s food pellets was taken away but she still performed the desired behavior (standing on her hind legs). This is negative reinforcement—when an organism gets a stimulus taken away and still repeats a target behavior. Choices C, D, and E correspond to other cells in the table. Choice B, classical conditioning, describes a different kind of conditioning. It relates a neutral stimulus to a preexisting relationship to a stimulus that already elicits an “unconditioned” response.

A friend came to visit Dana and knocked on the door. After Dana opened the door, her dog Phinny saw the "stranger" and barked like crazy. This happened the next few times that a "stranger" knocked on Dana's door. Now Phinny barks whenever she hears anything that sounds like someone is knocking on the door. In this example, what is the conditioned stimulus?

['(A)Hearing a knock', '(B)Barking', '(C)Opening the door', '(D)Seeing a stranger', '(E)Generalization']

(E)In the cell marked with the number 3, Sniffy received a food pellet but did not do the desired behavior (standing on her hind legs). This is positive punishment—when an organism receives a stimulus but does not repeat the target behavior. Choices A, C, and D correspond to other cells in the table. Choice B, classical conditioning, describes a different kind of conditioning. It relates a neutral stimulus to a preexisting relationship to a stimulus that already elicits an “unconditioned” response.

A friend came to visit Dana and knocked on the door. After Dana opened the door, her dog Phinny saw the "stranger" and barked like crazy. This happened the next few times that a "stranger" knocked on Dana's door. Now Phinny barks whenever she hears anything that sounds like someone is knocking on the door. Which of the following is both the unconditioned response as well as the conditioned response?

['(A)Hearing a knock', '(B)Barking', '(C)Opening the door', '(D)Seeing a stranger', '(E)Generalization']

(D)In the cell marked with the number 4, one of Sniffy’s food pellets was taken away and she did not do the desired behavior (standing on her hind legs). This is negative punishment—when an organism gets a stimulus removed and does not repeat the target behavior. Choices A, C, and E correspond to other cells in the table. Choice B, classical conditioning, describes a different kind of conditioning. It relates a neutral stimulus to a preexisting relationship to a stimulus that already elicits an “unconditioned” response.

A friend came to visit Dana and knocked on the door. After Dana opened the door, her dog Phinny saw the "stranger" and barked like crazy. This happened the next few times that a "stranger" knocked on Dana's door. Now Phinny barks whenever she hears anything that sounds like someone is knocking on the door. The scenario says, "Now Phinny barks whenever she hears anything that sounds like someone is knocking on the door." This is an example of which of the following learning principles?

['(A)Discrimination', '(B)Spontaneous recovery', '(C)Extinction', '(D)Reinforcement', '(E)Generalization']

(D)For many dogs, seeing a stranger will automatically cause barking, making it an unconditioned stimulus. Hearing a knock, choice A, was previously a neutral stimulus. A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that doesn’t automatically cause a specific response. Choice B, barking, is the response. At the beginning of the scenario, it was an unconditioned response. After several pairings of hearing a knock on the door and seeing a stranger, barking became a conditioned response to the knock on the door. Opening the door, choice C, is related to seeing a stranger. However, this option doesn’t describe any specific behavior Phinny does when a door opens. Choice E, generalization, is a term related to this example. Phinny is generalizing knocks on the door to anything that sounds like a knock.

What type of conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that already causes an automatic response?

['(A)Operant conditioning', '(B)Classical conditioning', '(C)Positive reinforcement', '(D)Negative reinforcement', '(E)Conjoined conditioning']

(A)Hearing a knock was previously a neutral stimulus. After several pairings of hearing a knock on the door and seeing a stranger (the unconditioned stimulus—choice D), barking (choice B) became a conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus of the knock on the door. Choice C, opening the door, is related to seeing a stranger. However, this choice doesn’t describe any specific behavior Phinny does when the door opens. Choice E, generalization, is a term related to this example. Phinny is generalizing knocks on the door to anything that sounds like a knock.

What type of conditioning involves either providing or taking away a stimulus after an organism responds and then watching to see if the organism repeats that response?

['(A)Operant conditioning', '(B)Classical conditioning', '(C)Positive reinforcement', '(D)Negative reinforcement', '(E)Secondary reinforcement']

(B)For many dogs, seeing a stranger (choice D) will automatically cause barking. So, seeing the stranger is an unconditioned stimulus causing the unconditioned response of barking. After several pairings of hearing a knock on the door (choice A—the conditioned stimulus) and of seeing a stranger, barking became a conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus of the knock on the door. Choice C, opening the door, is related to seeing a stranger. However, this scenario doesn’t describe any specific behavior Phinny does when the door opens. Choice E, generalization, is a term related to this example. Phinny is generalizing knocks on the door to anything that sounds like a knock.

Which type of conditioning is most like the common practice of providing rewards for desired behaviors?

['(A)Observational learning', '(B)Classical conditioning', '(C)Positive conditioning', '(D)Advantage learning', '(E)Operant conditioning']

(E)Generalization occurs when any stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response. In this case, Phinny is conditioned to bark (CR) at any stimulus similar to the knock on the door. Choice A, discrimination, occurs when an organism responds only to the original conditioned stimulus. In this case, if Phinny only barked at a knock on the door, and not other similar sounds, it would be an example of discrimination. Choice B, spontaneous recovery, occurs when an organism responds to a stimulus again after the response was extinct. For example, if Phinny had stopped barking to the sound of a knock on the door, but one day in response to a knock, Phinny barks again. Extinction of a conditioned response, choice C, happens when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. In Phinny’s case, her barking (CR) would stop (extinction) if she heard repeated knocks on the door (CS) unaccompanied by a “stranger” (US). Choice D, reinforcement, is an element of operant conditioning, not the classical conditioning scenario referred to in this question.

Which of the following summaries best describes classical conditioning?

["(A)Adding a stimulus or removing a stimulus after a response in order to influence an organism's behaviors", '(B)Waiting until an organism does something close to what the researcher wants it to do and giving the organism a reward', '(C)Finding a stimulus that automatically causes a response and pairing that with a new stimulus', '(D)Determining what the unconditioned response the researcher wants to condition and then figuring out the best reinforcement', '(E)Experimenting with the most effective, traditional schedule of reinforcement']

(B)Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus (like the sound of a bell) with a stimulus (like food) that already automatically causes a response (like salivation). Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus (the sound of the bell) will cause the response (salivation) all on its own. Choice A, operant conditioning, involves either providing or taking away a stimulus after an organism responds. Positive reinforcement (choice C) and negative reinforcement (choice D) are types of operant conditioning reinforcements. Choice E, conjoined conditioning, is not a psychological term.

Which of the following summaries best describes operant conditioning?

["(A)Examine how an organism interprets an event, and then modify the event to better match the organism's cognitive interpretation of the event.", "(B)Rewarding an organism will strengthen the researcher's relationship with that organism, and the organism will be more likely to do what the researcher wants.", '(C)When a researcher finds a stimulus that automatically causes an organism to do something, he or she pairs that stimulus with a new, neutral stimulus.', '(D)A researcher figures out what he or she wants the organism to do and then gives the organism something it wants when it gets close to that behavior.', '(E)Punish an organism via conditioned stimuli until the behavior conforms to desired parameters.']

(A)To condition an organism operantly, a researcher waits until the organism behaves (like a rat pushing a level) and then the researcher provides a stimulus (like a food pellet). At that point the organism may—or may not—repeat the behavior. Classical conditioning, choice B, involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that already automatically causes a response. Positive reinforcement (choice C) and negative reinforcement (choice D) are types of operant conditioning reinforcements. Secondary reinforcement, choice E, refers to a learning situation that involves using a reinforcement that has already been previously paired with a primary reinforcer.

What term would a behaviorist use for an external event or object that elicits a behavior in an organism?

['(A)Punishment', '(B)Reward', '(C)Instinct', '(D)Response', '(E)Reinforcement']

(E)The common practice of providing a reward for desired behavior is very similar to the concept of positive reinforcement used during operant conditioning. Choice A, observational learning, is a different kind of learning where researchers learn by watching a model perform behaviors. Rewards are not an element of classical conditioning, choice B. Positive conditioning (choice C) and advantage learning (choice D) are not psychological terms.

Which of the following is the best definition of a stimulus?

['(A)An external event or object that elicits a behavior in an organism', '(B)An external object that increases the chance an organism will repeat a behavior', '(C)Energy or a chemical that activates one of the human senses', '(D)A physical reaction or behavior elicited by an external event or object', '(E)An external object that decreases the chance an organism will repeat a behavior']

(C)Classical conditioning involves pairing stimuli: a neutral stimulus paired with a stimulus that automatically causes a response. Choices A and B describe operant conditioning, not classical conditioning. Choice D doesn’t make sense. Researchers don’t use reinforcements (operant conditioning) along with unconditioned responses (classical conditioning). Choice E doesn’t provide any useful information for this question. The phrase “effective, traditional schedule” isn’t useful or meaningful in the context of behaviorism and this question.

Which term would a learning researcher use for a physical reaction or behavior elicited by an external event or object?

['(A)Punishment', '(B)Reward', '(C)Instinct', '(D)Response', '(E)Reinforcement']

(D)Operant conditioning involves providing rewards (positive reinforcements) for behaviors that approximate the desired target behaviors. Choices A and B refer to cognitive interpretations and relationships, which are not a part of either behaviorism or operant conditioning. Choice C describes classical conditioning. Choice E mixes terms from operant and classical conditioning.

Which of the following is the best definition of a response?

['(A)A cognitive interpretation or a memory of an event', '(B)An external event or object that elicits a behavior in an organism', '(C)A long-term change in behavior caused by past experiences', '(D)External energy or chemicals that are changed into neural impulses', '(E)A physical reaction or behavior elicited by an external event or object']

(B)Behaviorists research how conditioning influences behavior. They do this by studying how different stimuli, which are external events that elicit behaviors, relate to responses. These responses can be physical reactions or behaviors. Punishment (choice A) and reinforcement (choice E) are kinds of stimuli in the context of operant conditioning. Choice C, instinct, is a specific kind of automatic response that occurs in some nonhuman animals. A response, choice D, is a type of behavior and, therefore, cannot elicit a behavior.

Which term describes something that automatically causes a physical reaction?

['(A)Conditioned stimulus', '(B)Unconditioned stimulus', '(C)Conditioned response', '(D)Unconditioned response', '(E)Behavioral contingency']

(A)Behaviorists research how conditioning influences human behavior. They do this by studying how different stimuli, which are external events that elicit behaviors, relate to responses. These responses can be physical reactions or behaviors. Choice B is the definition of a reinforcement. Choice C is similar to the definition of a stimulus. However, it is actually a more accurate definition of a sensation. A physical reaction or behavior, choice D, is a response. Choice E is the definition of a punishment.