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Cossack Uprising and the Deluge The Ukrainian Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a Cossack uprising, known as Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648–1657), under the premise that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews." At that time it is estimated that the Jewish population in Ukraine numbered 51,325. An army of Cossacks massacred and took into captivity numerous Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniates in 1648–49.
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4,044,444
Recent estimates range from fifteen thousand to thirty thousand Jews killed or taken captive, and 300 Jewish communities totally destroyed. 3,000-6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks in Nemirov in May 1648 and 1,500 in Tulczyn in July 1648. Rise of Hasidism and internal struggles The Cossack Uprising and the Deluge left a deep and lasting impression on the Jewish social and spiritual life.
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4,044,444
In this time of mysticism and overly formal rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of Eastern Europe. His disciples taught and encouraged a new fervent brand of Judaism, related to Kabbalah, known as Hasidism. The rise of Hasidism had a great influence on the rise of Haredi Judaism, with a continuous influence through its many Hasidic dynasties.
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4,044,444
A radically different movement was started by Jacob Frank in the middle of the 18th century. Frank's teachings were extremely unorthodox (such as purification through transgression, as well as adoption of elements of Christianity), and he was excommunicated along with his numerous followers. They eventually converted to Catholicism. Russian Empire and Austrian rule
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4,044,444
Russian Empire and Austrian rule The traditional measures of keeping the Russian Empire free of Jews were hindered when the main territory of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was annexed during the partitions of Poland. During the second (1793) and the third (1795) partitions, large populations of Jews were taken over by the Russian Empire, and Catherine the Great established the Pale of Settlement that included Congress Poland and Crimea.
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4,044,444
During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odessa after the death of the Greek Orthodox patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first pogrom, while according to others (such as the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1911 ed.) say the first pogrom was the 1859 riot in Odessa. The term became common after a wave of large-scale anti-Jewish violence swept southern Russian Empire, including Ukraine, between 1881 and 1884, after Jews were blamed for the assassination of Alexander II.
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4,044,444
In May 1882, Alexander III of Russia introduced temporary regulations called May Laws that stayed in effect for more than thirty years, until 1917. Systematic policies of discrimination, strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed to obtain education and professions caused widespread poverty and mass emigration. In 1886, an edict of Expulsion was applied to the Jews of Kyiv. In 1893–1894, some areas of Crimea were cut out of the Pale.
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4,044,444
When Alexander III died in Crimea on 20 October 1894, according to Simon Dubnow: "as the body of the deceased was carried by railway to St. Petersburg, the same rails were carrying the Jewish exiles from Yalta to the Pale. The reign of Alexander III ended symbolically. It began with pogroms and concluded with expulsions." Odessa became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to account for some 37% of the population.
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4,044,444
Political activism and emigration Persons of Jewish origin were over-represented in the Russian revolutionaries leadership. However, most of them were hostile to traditional Jewish culture and Jewish political parties, and were loyal to the Communist Party's atheism and proletarian internationalism, and committed to stamping out any sign of "Jewish cultural particularism".
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4,044,444
Counter-revolutionary groups, including the Black Hundreds, opposed the Revolution with violent attacks on socialists and pogroms against Jews. There was also a backlash from the conservative elements of society, notably in spasmodic anti-Jewish attacks – around five hundred were killed in a single day in Odessa. Nicholas II of Russia himself claimed that 90% of revolutionaries were Jews. Early 20th century
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4,044,444
Early 20th century At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur in cities and towns across the Russian Empire such as Kishinev, Kyiv, Odessa, and many others. Numerous Jewish self-defense groups were organized to prevent the outbreak of pogroms among which the most notorious one was under the leadership of Mishka Yaponchik in Odessa.
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In 1905, a series of pogroms erupted at the same time as the Revolution against the government of Nicholas II. The chief organizers of the pogroms were the members of the Union of the Russian People (commonly known as the "Black Hundreds").
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4,044,444
From 1911 to 1913, the antisemitic tenor of the period was characterized by a number of blood libel cases (accusations of Jews murdering Christians for ritual purposes). One of the most famous was the two-year trial of Menahem Mendel Beilis, who was charged with the murder of a Christian boy (Lowe 1993, 284–90). The trial was showcased by the authorities to illustrate the perfidy of the Jewish population.
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4,044,444
From March to May 1915, in the face of the German army, the government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas, which coincide with the Pale of Settlement. World War I aftermath During the 1917 Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War, an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 Jewish civilians were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire in this period. In the territories of modern Ukraine an estimated 31,071 died in 1918–1920. Ukrainian People's Republic
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4,044,444
During the establishment of the Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1921), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. In the Ukrainian People's Republic, Yiddish was an official language, while all government posts and institutions had Jewish members. A Ministry for Jewish Affairs was established (it was the first modern state to do so). All rights of Jewish culture were guaranteed. All Jewish parties abstained or voted against the Tsentralna Rada's Fourth Universal of 25 January 1918 which was aimed at breaking ties with Bolshevik Russia and proclaiming a
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4,044,444
at breaking ties with Bolshevik Russia and proclaiming a sovereign Ukrainian state, since all Jewish parties were strongly against Ukrainian independence.
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4,044,444
In Ukraine alone, the number of civilian Jews killed during the period was estimated to be between 35,000 and 50,000. Archives declassified after 1991 provide evidence of a higher number; in the period from 1918 to 1921, "according to incomplete data, at least 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in the pogroms." The Ukrainian People's Republic did issue orders condemning pogroms and attempted to investigate them. But it lacked authority to stop violence. In the last months of its existence it lacked any power to create social stability.
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4,044,444
Among the prominent Ukrainian statesmen of this period were Moisei Rafes, Pinkhas Krasny, Abram Revutsky, Moishe Zilberfarb, and many others. (see General Secretariat of Ukraine) The autonomy of Ukraine was openly greeted by the Ukrainian Jewish Volodymyr Zhabotinsky. Between April and December 1918 the Ukrainian People's Republic was non-existent and overthrown by the Ukrainian State of Pavlo Skoropadsky who ended the experiment in Jewish autonomy.
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4,044,444
Provisional Government of Russia and Soviets The February 1917 revolution brought a liberal Provisional Government to power in the Russian Empire. On 21 March/3 April, the government removed all "discrimination based upon ethnic religious or social grounds". The Pale was officially abolished. The removal of the restrictions on Jews' geographical mobility and educational opportunities led to a migration to the country's major cities.
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4,044,444
One week after the 25 October / 7 November 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the new government proclaimed the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples [Nations] of Russia," promising all nationalities the rights of equality, self-determination and secession. Jews were not specifically mentioned in the declaration, reflecting Lenin's view that Jews did not constitute a nation.
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4,044,444
In 1918, the RSFSR Council of Ministers issued a decree entitled "On the Separation of Church from State and School from Church", depriving religious communities of the status of juridical persons, the right to own property and the right to enter into contracts. The decree nationalized the property of religious communities and banned their assessment of religious tuition. As a result, religion could be taught or studied only in private.
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4,044,444
On 1 February 1918 the Commissariat for Jewish National Affairs was established as a subsection of the Commissariat for Nationality Affairs. It was mandated to establish the "dictatorship of the proletariat in the Jewish streets" and attract the Jewish masses to the regime while advising local and central institutions on Jewish issues. The Commissariat was also expected to fight the influence of Zionist and Jewish-Socialist Parties. On 27 July 1918 the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree stating that antisemitism is "fatal to the cause of the ... revolution". Pogroms were
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4,044,444
is "fatal to the cause of the ... revolution". Pogroms were officially outlawed. On 20 October 1918 the Jewish section of the CPSU (Yevsektsia) was established for the Party's Jewish members; its goals were similar to those of the Jewish Commissariat.
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4,044,444
The White Army and counterrevolutionary pogroms
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4,044,444
In contrast with the Bolshevik government's official policy of equality among citizens, antisemitism remained deeply entrenched in the political and social ideologies of the tsarist counterrevolutionaries, especially among paramilitary groups such as the Black Hundreds. These far-right militias espoused a doctrine of Christian monarchism that frequently manifested itself in the incitement and organization of pogroms against Russian Jews. In fact, the official slogan of the Black Hundreds was "Bei Zhidov," meaning 'Beat the Jews.' Thus, during the Russian Civil War that
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4,044,444
'Beat the Jews.' Thus, during the Russian Civil War that followed the 1917 Revolution, the Jews became a crucial site of the conflict between the revolutionary Reds and the counterrevolutionary Whites, particularly in the contested territory of Ukraine. The Bolsheviks' official opposition to antisemitism -- coupled with the prominence of Jews such as Leon Trotsky within the Bolshevik ranks -- allowed the Christian nationalist movements of both the White Army and the emergent Ukrainian National Republic to link Ukrainian Jews to the despised communism. These connections, combined
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4,044,444
to the despised communism. These connections, combined with the well-established cultural tradition of antisemitism among Russian peasantry, provided ample justification for the Whites to inflict extreme violence upon Ukraine's Jewish population. Between 1918 and 1921, almost all of the approximately 2,000 pogroms carried out in Ukraine were organized by White Army forces. During these pogroms, several eyewitnesses reported hearing counterrevolutionary milita members expound slogans such as, "We beat the Yids, we beat the Commune", and "This is the answer to the Bolsheviks
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4,044,444
beat the Commune", and "This is the answer to the Bolsheviks for the Red Terror." Recent studies hold that about 30,000 Jews were killed directly in these pogroms, while another 150,000 died from wounds sustained during the violence.
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4,044,444
Pogroms in western Ukraine
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4,044,444
The pogroms which erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of Volhynia spread during February and March to the cities, towns, and villages of many other regions of Ukraine. After Sarny it was the turn of Ovruch, northwest of Kyiv. In Tetiev on 25 March, approximately 4,000 Jews were murdered, half in a synagogue set ablaze by Cossack troops under Colonels Kurovsky, Cherkowsy, and Shliatoshenko. Then Vashilkov (6 and 7 April). In Dubovo (17 June) 800 Jews were decapitated in assembly-line fashion. According to David A. Chapin, the town of Proskurov (now Khmelnitsky), near the city
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4,044,444
the town of Proskurov (now Khmelnitsky), near the city of Sudilkov, "was the site of the worst atrocity committed against Jews this century before the Nazis." Massive pogroms continued until 1921.
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4,044,444
Pogroms across Podolia On 15 February 1919, during the Ukrainian-Soviet war, Otaman Ivan Semesenko initiated a pogrom Proskurov in which many Jews were massacred on Shabbat (parashah Tesaveh) from three p.m. until next Sunday (?Saturday). Semesenko claimed that the pogrom was in retaliation for a previous Bolshevik uprising, which he believed was led by Jews.
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4,044,444
According to the pinqasim record books those murdered in the pogrom included 390 men, 309 women and 76 children. The number of wounded exceeded 500. Two weeks later Order 131 was published in the central newspaper by the head of Directorate of Ukraine. In it Symon Petliura denounced such actions and eventually executed Otaman Semesenko by firing-squad in November 1919. Semesenko's brigade was disarmed and dissolved. This event is especially remarkable for being used to justify Sholem Schwarzbard's assassination of the Ukrainian leader in 1926. Although Petliura's direct
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4,044,444
the Ukrainian leader in 1926. Although Petliura's direct involvement was never proven, Schwartzbard was acquitted in light of revenge. The series of Jewish pogroms in various places around Ukraine culminated in the Kyiv pogroms of 1919 between June and October of that year.
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4,044,444
Bolsheviks/USSR consolidation of power In July 1919, the Central Jewish Commissariat dissolved the kehillot (Jewish Communal Councils). The kehillot had provided a number of social services to the Jewish community.
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4,044,444
From 1919 to 1920, Jewish parties and Zionist organizations were driven underground as the Communist government sought to abolish all potential opposition. The Yevsektsiya Jewish section of the Soviet Communist party was at the forefront of the anti-religious campaigns of the 1920s that led to the closing of religious institutions, the break-up of religious communities and the further restriction of access to religious education. To that end a series of "community trials" against the Jewish religion were held. The last known such trial, on the subject of circumcision, was held in
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such trial, on the subject of circumcision, was held in 1928 in Kharkiv. At the same time, the body also worked to establish a secular identity for the Jewish community.
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4,044,444
In 1921 many Jews in the newly formed USSR emigrated to Poland, as they were entitled by a peace treaty in Riga to choose the country they preferred. Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Jewish minority of the Polish Second Republic.
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4,044,444
On 31 January 1924 the Commissariat for Nationalities' Affairs was disbanded. On 29 August 1924 an official agency for Jewish resettlement, the Commission for the Settlement of Jewish Toilers on the Land (KOMZET), was established. KOMZET studied, managed and funded projects for Jewish resettlement in rural areas. A public organization, the Society for the Agricultural Organization of Working Class Jews in the USSR (OZET), was created in January 1925 to help recruit colonists and support the colonization work of KOMZET. For the first few years the government encouraged Jewish
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4,044,444
For the first few years the government encouraged Jewish settlements, particularly in Ukraine. Support for the project dwindled throughout the next decade. In 1938 OZET was disbanded, following years of declining activity. The Soviets set up three Jewish national raions in Ukraine as well as two in the Crimea – national raions occupied the 3rd level of the soviet system, but were all disbanded by the end of World War II.
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4,044,444
The cities with the largest populations of Jews in 1926 were Odessa, 154,000 or 36.5% of the total population; Kyiv, 140,500 or 27.3%; Kharkiv, 81,500 or 19.5%; and Dnipropetrovsk, 62,000 or 26.7%. In 1931 Lviv's Jewish population numbered 98,000 or 31.9%, and in Chernivtsi, 42,600 or 37.9%.
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4,044,444
On 8 April 1929 the new Law on Religious Associations codified all previous religious legislation. All meetings of religious associations were to have their agenda approved in advance; lists of members of religious associations had to be provided to the authorities. In 1930 the Yevsektsia was dissolved, and there was now no central Soviet-Jewish organization. Although the body had served to undermine Jewish religious life, its dissolution led to the disintegration of Jewish secular life as well; Jewish cultural and educational organizations gradually disappeared.
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4,044,444
When the Soviet government reintroduced the use of internal passports in 1933, "Jewish" was considered an ethnicity for these purposes.
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4,044,444
The Soviet famine of 1932–1933 affected the Jewish population, and led to a migration from the shtetls to the overcrowded cities.
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4,044,444
As the Soviet government annexed territory from Poland, Romania (both would be incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR after World War II) and the Baltic states, roughly two million Jews became Soviet citizens. Restrictions on Jews that had existed in the formerly independent countries were now lifted. At the same time, Jewish organizations in the newly acquired territories were shut down and their leaders were arrested and exiled. Approximately 250,000 Jews escaped or were evacuated from the annexed territories to the Soviet interior prior to the Nazi invasion.
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4,044,444
Jewish settlement in Crimea In 1921, Crimea became an autonomous republic. In 1923, the All-Union Central Committee passed a motion to resettle a large number of the Jewish population from Ukrainian and Belarusian cities to Crimea, 570,400 families. The plan to further resettle Jewish families was again confirmed by the Central Committee of the USSR on 15 July 1926, assigning 124 million roubles to the task and also receiving 67 million from foreign sources.
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4,044,444
The Soviet initiative of Jewish settlement in Crimea was opposed by Symon Petliura, who regarded it as a provocation. This train of thought was supported by Arnold Margolin who stated that it would be dangerous to set up Jewish colonies there. The Soviets twice sought to establish Jewish autonomy in Crimea; once, in the 1920s, with the support of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, and secondly, in 1944, by the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee. World War II
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4,044,444
World War II The total number of civilians who died during the war and the German occupation of Ukraine is estimated to be as high as seven million; this estimate includes over one million Jews who were shot and killed by the Einsatzgruppen and local Ukrainian collaborators in various regions of Ukraine.
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4,044,444
The total number of Jews who were killed in the Holocaust in Eastern Ukraine, or the Ukrainian SSR (within its 1938 borders), is estimated to be slightly less than 700,000 out of a total pre-Holocaust Jewish population of slightly over 1.5 million. Within the borders of Modern Ukraine, the death toll is estimated to be around 900,000.
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4,044,444
Post-war situation Ukraine had 840,000 Jews in 1959, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population declined significantly during the Cold War. In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was thirty years earlier (in 1959). The overwhelming majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 left Ukraine and moved to other countries (mostly to Israel) in the 1990s during and after the collapse of Communism.
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4,044,444
Such new immigrants to Israel included artists, such as Marina Maximilian Blumin and street artist Klone, as well as activists, such as Gennady Riger and Lia Shemtov.
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4,044,444
Independent Ukraine In 1989, a Soviet census counted 487,000 Jews living in Ukraine. Although discrimination by the state all but halted very soon after Ukrainian independence in 1991, Jews were still discriminated against in Ukraine during the 1990s. For instance, Jews were not allowed to attend some educational institutions. Antisemitism has since declined. According to the European Jewish Congress, as of 2014, there are 360,000–400,000 Jews in Ukraine.
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4,044,444
During the 1990s, some 266,300 Ukrainian Jews emigrated to Israel as part of a wave of mass emigration of Jews from the former Soviet Union to Israel in the 1990s. The 2001 Ukrainian Census counted 106,600 Jews living in Ukraine (the number of Jews also dropped due to a negative birthrate). According to the Public Diplomacy and Diaspora Affairs Minister of Israel, early 2012 there were 250,000 Jews in Ukraine, half of them living in Kyiv.
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4,044,444
By 1999 there were various Ukrainian Jewish organizations who disputed each other's legitimacy. Since 2005, two Ukrainian rabbis, Rabbi Moshe Reuven Azman and Rabbi Yaakov Bleich claim to be the Chief Rabbi of Ukraine. In November 2007, an estimated 700 Torah scrolls previously confiscated from Jewish communities during the Soviet Union's Communist rule were returned to Jewish communes in Ukraine by the state authorities.
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The Ukrainian Jewish Committee was established in 2008 in Kyiv with the aim of concentrating the efforts of Jewish leaders in Ukraine on resolving the community's strategic problems and addressing socially significant issues. The Committee declared its intention to become one of the world's most influential organizations protecting the rights of Jews and "the most important and powerful structure protecting human rights in Ukraine".
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4,044,444
In the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary elections, All-Ukrainian Union "Svoboda" won its first seats in the Ukrainian Parliament, garnering 10.44% of the popular vote and the fourth most seats among national political parties; This led to concern among Jewish organizations both inside and outside Ukraine who accused "Svoboda" of openly Nazi sympathies and being antisemitic. In May 2013, the World Jewish Congress listed the party as neo-Nazi. "Svoboda" itself has denied being antisemitic.
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4,044,444
Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still a problem in Ukraine. Since the February 2014 ending of the Euromaidan protests unrest has gripped southern and eastern Ukraine, and this escalated in April 2014 into the ongoing War in Donbas.
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4,044,444
In April 2014, leaflets were distributed by three masked man as people left a synagogue in Donetsk (the biggest city in Donbas) ordering Jews to register to avoid losing their property and citizenship "given that the leaders of the Jewish community of Ukraine support the Banderite junta in Kyiv and are hostile to the Orthodox Donetsk Republic and its citizens". While many speak of a hoax (concerning the authorship of the tracts) which took on international proportions, the fact that these flyers were distributed remains undisputed.
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4,044,444
Due to the growing 2014 Ukrainian unrest, Ukrainian Jews making aliyah from Ukraine reached 142% higher during the first four months of 2014 compared to the previous year. 800 people arrived in Israel over January–April, and over 200 signed up for May 2014. On the other hand, chief rabbi and Chabad emissary of Kyiv Rabbi Jonathan Markovitch claimed late April 2014 "Today, you can come to Kyiv, Dnipro or Odessa and walk through the streets openly dressed as a Jew, with nothing to be afraid of".
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4,044,444
In August 2014, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported that the International Fellowship of Christians and Jews is organizing chartered flights to allow at least 150 Ukrainian Jews, to immigrate to Israel in September. Jewish organizations within Ukraine, as well as the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, the Jewish Agency for Israel and the Jewish community of Dnipropetrovsk, have arranged temporary homes and shelters for hundreds of Jews who fled the War in Donbas in eastern Ukraine. Hundreds of Jews have reportedly fled the cities of Luhansk and Donetsk, and Rabbi
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4,044,444
fled the cities of Luhansk and Donetsk, and Rabbi Yechiel Eckstein stated (in August 2014) that more Jews may leave for Israel if the situation in eastern Ukraine continues to deteriorate.
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4,044,444
In 2014 the Jews Ihor Kolomoyskyi and Volodymyr Groysman were appointed Governor of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast and Speaker of the Parliament respectively. Groysman became Prime Minister of Ukraine in April 2016. Ukraine elected its first Jewish president in the 2019 presidential election where former comedian and actor of the TV series Servant of the People, Volodymyr Zelensky won over incumbent Petro Poroshenko. 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
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4,044,444
In February 2022, when Russia invaded Ukraine, the Israeli Embassy stayed open on the Sabbath to facilitate the evacuation of an estimated 200,000 Jews from Ukraine. A total of 97 Jews chose to flee Ukraine for Israel. In addition, 140 Jewish orphans have fled from Ukraine to Romania and Moldova. 100 Jews fled from Ukraine to Belarus in order to prepare for their eventual move to Israel On 2 March 2022, the Jewish Agency for Israel reported that hundreds of Ukrainian Jewish war refugees sheltering in Poland, Romania and Moldova were scheduled to leave for Israel by the following week. On March
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4,044,444
to leave for Israel by the following week. On March 13, 2022, 600 Jews fleeing from Ukraine went to Israel, and by March 21, 2022, the number was 12,000. As of 23 March, more than 15,200 Ukrainian refugees arrived in Israel, of whom only 4,200 would have otherwise been eligible for citizenship As of 7 April 2022 the number of Jews from Ukraine who have gone up to Israel is reported to be 10,000. As of 4 May 2022 12,500 Jews have been evacuated from Ukraine.
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4,044,444
Jewish communities
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4,044,444
As of 2012, Ukraine had the fifth-largest Jewish community in Europe and the twelfth-largest Jewish community in the world, behind South Africa and ahead of Mexico. The majority of Ukrainian Jews live in four large cities: Kyiv (about half of all Jews living in Ukraine), Dnipro, Kharkiv and Odessa. Rabbis Jonathan Markovitch of Kyiv and Shmuel Kaminetsky of Dnipro are considered to be among the most influential foreigners in the country. Opened in October 2012 in Dnipro, the multifunctional Menorah center is probably one of the biggest Jewish community centers in the world.
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4,044,444
There is a growing trend among some Israelis to visit Ukraine on a "roots trip" to follow the footsteps of Jewish life there. Among the places of interest Kyiv is usually mentioned, where it is possible to trace the paths of Sholem Aleichem and Golda Meir; Zhytomyr and Korostyshiv, where one can follow the steps of Haim Nahman Bialik; Berdychiv, where one can trace the life of Mendele Mocher Sforim; Rivne, where one can follow the course of Amos Oz; Buchach – the path of S.Y. Agnon; Drohobych – the place of Maurycy Gottlieb and Bruno Schulz.
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4,044,444
Notable Ukrainian Jews See also
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4,044,444
Antisemitism in Europe Racism in Europe Racism in Lithuania Racism in Poland Antisemitism in Russia Racism in Russia Antisemitism in the Soviet Union Racism in the Soviet Union Antisemitism in Ukraine Racism in Ukraine Galician Jews History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia History of the Jews in Europe History of the Jews in Kyiv History of the Jews in Lithuania History of the Jews in Poland History of the Jews in Russia History of the Jews in the Soviet Union Israel–Lithuania relations
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4,044,444
Israel–Lithuania relations Israel–Poland relations Israel–Russia relations Soviet Union and the Arab–Israeli conflict Israel–Ukraine relations Janowska concentration camp Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee Jewish gauchos Jewish–Ukrainian relations in Eastern Galicia List of Galician Jews List of Polish Jews Lithuanian Jews Lwów Ghetto Lwów Uprising The Holocaust in Lithuania The Holocaust in Poland The Holocaust in Russia The Holocaust in the Soviet Union
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4,044,444
The Holocaust in the Soviet Union The Holocaust in Ukraine Three hares Wooden synagogue Yerusalimka
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4,044,444
Notes References Further reading Velychenko, Stephen (2021) Ukraine's Revolutions and anti-Jewish Pogroms * (historians.in.ua). External links
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4,044,444
Chabad-Lubavitch Centers in Ukraine Federation of Jewish Communities of the CIS Jewish Agricultural Colonies, adjacent towns and villages in Southern Ukraine Jewish Agricultural Colonies of South Ukraine and Crimea webpage with names and maps of Jewish settlements Jewish Renaissance in Odessa Video of Lecture on Jews of 17th-century Ukraine by Dr. Henry Abramson Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova at Routes to Roots Foundation
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4,044,444
Routes to Roots Foundation's Archive Database – search includes Ukraine and Moldova Routes to Roots Foundation's Image Database – search includes Ukraine and Moldova
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4,044,444
Ethnic groups in Ukraine History of religion in Ukraine
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4,044,459
The history of the Jews in Belarus begins as early as the 8th century. Jews lived in all parts of the lands of modern Belarus. Jews were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. In 1897, the Jewish population of Belarus reached 910,900, or 14.2% of the total population. Following the Polish-Soviet War (1919-1920), under the terms of the Treaty of Riga, Belarus was split into Eastern Belorussia (under Soviet occupation) and Western Belorussia (under Polish occupation), and causing 350,000-450,000 of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World
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4,044,459
of the Jews to be governed by Poland. Prior to World War II, Jews remained the third largest ethnic group in Belarus and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as Minsk, Pinsk, Mahiliou, Babrujsk, Viciebsk, and Homiel was more than 50% Jewish. In 1926 and 1939 there were between 375,000 and 407,000 Jews in Belarus (Eastern Belorussia) or 6.7-8.2% of the total population. Following the Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939, including Western Belorussia, Belarus would again have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000
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4,044,459
have 1,175,000 Jews within its borders, including 275,000 Jews from Poland, Ukraine, and elsewhere. It is estimated 800,000 of 900,000 — 90% of the Jews of Belarus —were killed during the Holocaust. According to the 2019 national census, there were 13,705 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000. However, the number of Belarusians with Jewish descent is assumed to be higher.
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4,044,459
Early history Throughout several centuries the lands of modern Belarus and the Republic of Lithuania were both parts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Therefore, the history of Belarusian Jews is closely related to the history of Jews in Lithuania and historically they could be seen as a subset of Lithuanian Jews.
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4,044,459
As early as the 8th century Jews lived in parts of the lands of modern Belarus. Beginning with that period they conducted the trade between Ruthenia, Lithuania, and the Baltic, especially with Danzig, Julin (Vineta or Wollin, in Pomerania), and other cities on the Vistula, Oder, and Elbe.
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4,044,459
The origin of Belarusian Jews has been the subject of much speculation. It is believed that they were made up of two distinct streams of Jewish immigration. The older and significantly smaller of the two entered the territory that would later become the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the east. These early immigrants spoke Judeo-Slavic dialects which distinguished them from the later Jewish immigrants who entered the region from the Germanic lands.
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4,044,459
While the origin of these eastern Jews is not certain, historical evidence places Jewish refugees from Babylonia, Palestine, the Byzantine Empire and other Jewish refugees and settlers in the lands between the Baltic and Black Seas that would become part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The later and much larger stream of immigration originated in the 12th century and received an impetus from the persecution of the German Jews by the Crusaders. The traditional language of the vast majority of Lithuanian Jews, Yiddish, is based largely upon the Medieval German and Hebrew spoken by the
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4,044,459
largely upon the Medieval German and Hebrew spoken by the western Germanic Jewish immigrants.
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4,044,459
The peculiar conditions that prevailed in Belarus compelled the first Jewish settlers to adopt a different mode of life from that followed by their western ethnic brethren. At that time there were no cities in the western sense of the word in Belarus, no Magdeburg Rights or close guilds at that time.
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4,044,459
Some of the cities which later became the important centers of Jewish life in Belarus were at first mere villages. Hrodna, one of the oldest, was first mentioned in the chronicles of 1128. Navahrudak was founded somewhat later by Yaroslav I the Wise; Kerlov in 1250; Voruta and Twiremet in 1252; Eiragola in 1262; Halshany and Kowno in 1280; Lida, Telšiai, Vilna and Troki in 1320.
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4,044,459
Increasing prosperity and the great charter (1320–1432)
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4,044,459
With the campaign of Hiedzimin and his subjection of Kiev and Volhynia (1320–1321) the Jewish inhabitants of these territories were induced to spread throughout the northern provinces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The probable importance of the southern Jews in the development of Belarus and Lithuania is indicated by their numerical prominence in Volhynia in the 13th century. According to an annalist who describes the funeral of the grand duke Vladimir Vasilkovich in the city of Vladimir (Volhynia), "the Jews wept at his funeral as at the fall of Jerusalem, or when being led into the
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4,044,459
as at the fall of Jerusalem, or when being led into the Babylonian captivity." This sympathy and the record thereof would seem to indicate that long before the event in question the Jews had enjoyed considerable prosperity and influence, and this gave them a certain standing under the new régime. They took an active part in the development of the new cities under the tolerant rule of duke Hiedzimin.
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4,044,459
Little is known of the fortunes of the Belarusian Jews during the troublous times that followed the death of Hiedzimin and the accession of his grandson Vitaut (1341). To the latter, the Jews owed a charter of privileges which was momentous in the subsequent history of the Jews of Belarus and Lithuania. The documents granting privileges first to the Jews of Brest (July 1, 1388) and later to those of Hrodna, Troki (1389), Lutsk, Vladimir, and other large towns are the earliest documents to recognize the Jews of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as possessing a distinct organization.
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0.020511170849204063, 0.04780085012316704, 0.06551354378461838, 0.019165674224495888, -4.1913001069815436e-8, 0.050619322806596756, -0.015028417110443115, -0.07065403461456299, -0.00606359401717782, -0.05096445605158806, -0.06065581366419792, -0.03381083160638809, 0.009843876585364342, -0.06192857399582863, 0.06931013613939285, -0.09988009184598923, 0.039649128913879395, -0.04317713528871536, -0.027669642120599747, 0.10506056249141693, -0.02230309695005417, 0.014391083270311356, -0.08503338694572449, -0.0009422998991794884, 0.04063872992992401, -0.03314784914255142, -0.010418443940579891, 0.030834682285785675, -0.03756417706608772, -0.09999081492424011, -0.08212479203939438, 0.040651895105838776, -0.07442604005336761, 0.06988871097564697, -0.06788583099842072, -0.019656764343380928, 0.04804639890789986, -0.02177608013153076, -0.01809501089155674, -0.034032221883535385, 0.08254248648881912, 0.004690449684858322, -0.07151635736227036, -0.019009750336408615, -0.035105131566524506, -0.004264133516699076, 0.04800429567694664, -0.04668477177619934, -0.013597714714705944, -0.06505116075277328, -0.029955189675092697, 0.021285856142640114, -0.04318936914205551, 0.06435810774564743, -0.01972845010459423, -0.0008146914769895375, 0.05498692765831947, 0.020980950444936752, 0.06027069315314293, -0.03859511390328407, 0.02143574133515358, -0.0019402287434786558, -0.00017828011186793447, -0.008214644156396389, -0.02059408836066723, 0.047906432300806046, 0.054562538862228394, 0.033406343311071396, -0.08400162309408188 ]
4,044,459
The gathering together of the scattered Jewish settlers in sufficient numbers and with enough power to form such an organization and to obtain privileges from their Lithuanian rulers implies the lapse of considerable time. The Jews who dwelt in smaller towns and villages were not in need of such privileges at this time, and the mode of life, as Abraham Harkavy suggests, "the comparative poverty, and the ignorance of Jewish learning among the Lithuanian Jews retarded their intercommunal organization." But powerful forces hastened this organization toward the close of the 14th century.
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4,044,459
this organization toward the close of the 14th century. The chief of these was probably the cooperation of the Jews of Poland with their brethren in the GDL. After the death of Casimir III (1370), the condition of the Polish Jews changed for the worse. The influence of the Roman Catholic clergy at the Polish court grew; Louis of Anjou was indifferent to the welfare of his subjects, and his eagerness to convert the Jews to Christianity, together with the increased Jewish immigration from Germany, caused the Polish Jews to become apprehensive for their future.
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4,044,459
The Charter of 1388 On this account it seems more than likely that influential Polish Jews cooperated with the leading Belarusian and Lithuanian communities in securing a special charter from Vitaut (Witold). The preamble of the charter reads as follows:
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4,044,459
In the name of God, Amen. All deeds of men, when they are not made known by the testimony of witnesses or in writing, pass away and vanish and are forgotten. Therefore, we, Alexander, also called Vitovt, by the grace of God Grand Duke of Lithuania and ruler of Brest, Dorogicz, Lutsk, Vladimir, and other places, make known by this charter to the present and future generations, or to whomever it may concern to know or hear of it, that, after due deliberation with our nobles we have decided to grant to all the Jews living in our domains the rights and liberties mentioned in the following charter.
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4,044,459
The charter itself was modeled upon similar documents granted by Casimir the Great, and earlier by Boleslaw of Kalisz, to the Jews in Poland in 1084. Under the charter, the Jews of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania formed a class of freemen subject in all criminal cases directly to the jurisdiction of the grand duke and his official representatives, and in petty suits to the jurisdiction of local officials on an equal footing with the lesser nobles (szlachta), boyars, and other free citizens. The official representatives of the grand duke were the elder (starosta), known as the "Jewish judge"
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4,044,459
duke were the elder (starosta), known as the "Jewish judge" (judex Judæorum), and his deputy. The Jewish judge decided all cases between Christians and Jews and all criminal suits in which Jews were concerned; in civil suits, however, he acted only on the application of the interested parties. Either party who failed to obey the judge's summons had to pay him a fine. To him also belonged all fines collected from Jews for minor offenses. His duties included the guardianship of the persons, property, and freedom of worship of the Jews. He had no right to summon any one to his court except upon the
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4,044,459
He had no right to summon any one to his court except upon the complaint of an interested party. In matters of religion the Jews were given extensive autonomy.
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4,044,459
Under these equitable laws the Jews of Belarus and Lithuania reached a degree of prosperity unknown to their Polish and German co-religionists at that time. The communities of Brest, Hrodna, Minsk, Troki and Lutsk rapidly grew in wealth and influence. Every community had at its head a Jewish elder. These elders represented the communities in all external relations, in securing new privileges, and in the regulation of taxes. Such officials are not, however, referred to by the title "elder" before the end of the 16th century. Up to that time the documents merely state, for instance, that the
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-0.01778201386332512, -0.020084315910935402, -0.036042775958776474, 0.007974915206432343, -0.007668835110962391, -0.0007959152571856976, -0.023393329232931137, 0.023847047239542007, 0.02051832526922226, -0.04140625521540642, 0.02456691674888134, 0.09593144059181213, 0.030634302645921707, 0.05034017562866211, -0.037260543555021286, -0.03618772700428963, 0.028236210346221924, 0.056892089545726776, -0.005362990777939558, -0.05679212138056755, 0.1088683158159256, -0.05598697438836098, 0.010573424398899078, -0.10241442918777466 ]
4,044,459
time the documents merely state, for instance, that the "Jews of Brest humbly apply," etc. On assuming office the elders declared under oath that they would discharge the duties of the position faithfully, and would relinquish the office at the expiration of the appointed term. The elder acted in conjunction with the rabbi, whose jurisdiction included all Jewish affairs with the exception of judicial cases assigned to the court of the deputy, and by the latter to the king. In religious affairs, however, an appeal from the decision of the rabbi and the elder was permitted only to a council
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4,044,459
of the rabbi and the elder was permitted only to a council consisting of the chief rabbis of the king's cities. The cantor, sexton, and shochet were subject to the orders of the rabbi and elder.
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4,044,459
The goodwill and tolerance of Vitaut endeared him to his Jewish subjects, and for a long time traditions concerning his generosity and nobility of character were current among them. His cousin, the king of Poland Jagiello, did not interfere with his administration during Vitaut's lifetime.
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