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Cellulosic ethanol commercialization and owned and operated by China Resources Alcohol Corporation that is currently producing cellulosic ethanol from corn stover (stalks and leaves) on a continuous, 24-hour-per-day basis. Inbicon's bioethanol plant in Kalundborg, with the capacity to produce 5.4 million liters (1.4 million gallons) annually, was opened in 2009. Believed to be the world's largest cellulosic ethanol plant as of early 2011, the facility runs on about 30,000 metric tons (33,000 tons) of straw per year and the plant employs about 30 people. The plant also produces 13,000 metric tons of lignin pellets per year, used as fuel at combined-heat-and-power plants, and 11,100 metric tons of C5 molasses which is currently used for biomethane production via anaerobic digestion, and has been tested as a high carbohydrate animal feed supplement and potential bio-based feedstock for production of numerous commodity chemicals including diols, glycols, organic acids, and biopolymer precursors and intermediates. Since October 2010, an E5 blend of 95% gasoline and 5% cellulosic ethanol blend has been available at 100 filling stations across Denmark. Distributed by Statoil, the Bio95 2G mixture uses ethanol derived from wheat straw collected on Danish fields after harvest and produced by Inbicon (a div. of DONG Energy), using enzyme technology from Novozymes. The biofuel company Butalco has recently signed a research and development contract with Hohenheim University

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11989180

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization The Institute of Fermentation Technology within the Department of Food Science and Biotechnology at Hohenheim University has been concerned with questions on the production of bioethanol for almost 30 years. The focus in recent years has been on the improvement of the material, energy and life cycle assessment of the production of ethanol. Special interest to BUTALCO is the use of the newly built pilot plant, which is equipped with a safety class 1 approved fermentation room with 4 x 1.5 m³ fermenters. The concept of the plant allows both starch and lignocellulosic based raw materials to be processed. The collaboration will allow BUTALCO to optimise its C5 sugar fermenting and butanol producing yeast strains on a technical scale and produce first amounts of bioethanol from lignocellulose. The whole process of the production of biofuel from the choice of cellulosic biomass feedstock to the conversion into sugars and fermentation through to the purification will be optimised under industrial conditions. In Straubing, the specialty chemicals company Clariant has been operating a precommercial plant based on its sunliquid process since 2012. The plant is able to produce up to 1000 tons of cellulosic ethanol from agricultural residues such as wheat straw, corn stover or sugarcane bagasse. The process technology uses enzymatic hydrolysis, followed by fermentation of C5 and C6 sugar into ethanol. The company plans to licence the technology worldwide

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11989180

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization Cellulosic ethanol production currently exists at "pilot" scale, with efforts being made on utilization of waste lignocellulosic biomass for ethanol production. Pilot scale studies for utilization of pine needles and Lantana weed undertaken at Cellulose and Paper Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India. Italy-based Mossi & Ghisolfi Group broke ground for its per year cellulosic ethanol facility in Crescentino in northwestern Italy on April 12, 2011. The project will be the largest cellulosic ethanol project in the world, 10 times larger than any of the currently operating demonstration-scale facilities. The plant is "expected to become operational in 2012 and will use a variety of locally sourced feedstocks, beginning with wheat straw and Arundo donax, a perennial giant cane". The company went to bankruptcy on 2018 and had to auction the plant. Nippon Oil Corporation and other Japanese manufacturers including Toyota Motor Corporation plan to set up a research body to develop cellulose-derived biofuels. The consortium plans to produce 250,000 kilolitres (1.6 million barrels) per year of bioethanol by March 2014, and produce bioethanol at 40 yen ($0.437) per litre (about $70 a barrel) by 2015. In March 2009, Honda Motor announced an agreement for the construction of a new cellulosic ethanol research facility in Japan. The new Kazusa-branch facility of the Honda Fundamental Technology Research Center will be built within the Kazusa Akademia Park, in Kisarazu, Chiba

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11989180

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization Construction is scheduled to begin in April 2009, with the aim to begin operations in November 2009. In October 2010, Norway-based cellulosic ethanol technology developer Weyland commenced production at its 200,000 liter (approximately 53,000 gallon) pilot-scale facility in Bergen, Norway. The plant will demonstrate the company’s acid hydrolysis production process, paving the way for a commercial-scale project. The company also plans to market its technology worldwide. A commercial factory converting wood (50% softwood + 50% hardwood) into Ethanol is in operation in Northern Russia, the city of Kirov, since 1972 and is still profitable. As side products the company, Kirov Biochemical Works, is offering dry fodder yeast (20 tons/month) and Lignin. To install equipment for drying and burning Lignin, both fresh and accumulated in the landfill, for steam and electricity, a bank loan of $200 million was recently secured. Abengoa continues to invest heavily in the necessary technology for bringing cellulosic ethanol to market. Utilizing process and pre-treatment technology from SunOpta Inc., Abengoa is building a cellulosic ethanol facility in Spain and have recently entered into a strategic research and development agreement with Dyadic International, Inc. (AMEX: DIL), to create new and better enzyme mixtures which may be used to improve both the efficiencies and cost structure of producing cellulosic ethanol

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11989180

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization SEKAB has developed an industrial process for production of ethanol from biomass feed-stocks, including wood chips and sugar cane bagasse. The development work is being carried out at an advanced pilot plant in Örnsköldsvik, and has sparked international interest. The technology will be gradually scaled up to commercial production in a new breed of bio-refineries from 2013 to 2015. The US government actively supports the development and commercialization of cellulosic ethanol through a variety of mechanisms. In the first decade of the 21st century, a lot of companies announced plans to build commercial cellulosic ethanol plants, but most of those plans eventually fell apart, and many of the small companies went bankrupt. Currently (2016), here are many demonstration plants throughout the country, and handful of commercial-scale plants which are in operation or close to it. With the market for cellulosic ethanol in the United States projected to continue growing in the coming years, the outlook for this industry is good. The US Federal government is actively promoting the development of ethanol from cellulosic feedstocks as an alternative to conventional petroleum transportation fuels. For example, programs sponsored by U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) include research to develop better cellulose hydrolysis enzymes and ethanol-fermenting organisms, to engineering studies of potential processes, to co-funding initial ethanol from cellulosic biomass demonstration and production facilities

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11989180

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization This research is conducted by various national laboratories, including the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and Idaho National Laboratory (INL), as well as by universities and private industry. Engineering and construction companies and operating companies are generally conducting the engineering work. In May 2008, Congress passed a new farm bill that will accelerate the commercialization of advanced biofuels, including cellulosic ethanol. The "Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008" provides for grants covering up to 30% of the cost of developing and building demonstration-scale biorefineries for producing "advanced biofuels," which essentially includes all fuels that are not produced from corn kernel starch. It also allows for loan guarantees of up to $250 million for building commercial-scale biorefineries to produce advanced biofuels. Using a newly developed tool known as the "Biofuels Deployment Model", Sandia researchers have determined that of cellulosic ethanol could be produced per year by 2022 without displacing current crops. The Renewable Fuels Standard, part of the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act, calls for an increase in biofuels production to a year by 2022. In January 2011, the USDA approved $405 million in loan guarantees through the 2008 Farm Bill to support the commercialization of cellulosic ethanol at three facilities owned by Coskata, Enerkem and INEOS New Planet BioEnergy

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11989180

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization The projects represent a combined per year production capacity and will begin producing cellulosic ethanol in 2012. The USDA also released a list of advanced biofuel producers who will receive payments to expand the production of advanced biofuels. In July 2011, the US Department of Energy gave in $105 million in loan guarantees to POET for a commercial-scale plant to be built Emmetsburg, Iowa. The cellulosic ethanol industry in the United States developed some new commercial-scale plants in 2008. Plants totaling 12 million liters (3.17 million gal) per year were operational, and an additional 80 million liters (21.13 million gal.) per year of capacity - in 26 new plants - was under construction. (For comparison the estimated US petroleum consumption for all uses was about 816 million gal/day in 2008.) Cellulosic ethanol and grain-based ethanol are, in fact, the same product, but many scientists believe cellulosic ethanol production has distinct environmental advantages over grain-based ethanol production. On a life-cycle basis, ethanol produced from agricultural residues or dedicated cellulosic crops has significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions and a higher sustainability rating than ethanol produced from grain. According to US Department of Energy studies conducted by the Argonne National Laboratory of the University of Chicago, cellulosic ethanol reduces greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 85% over reformulated gasoline. By contrast, starch ethanol (e.g

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11989180

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization , from corn), which usually uses natural gas to provide energy for the process, reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 18% to 29% over gasoline. Critics such as Cornell University professor of ecology and agriculture David Pimentel and University of California at Berkeley engineer Tad Patzek question the likelihood of environmental, energy, or economic benefits from cellulosic ethanol technology from non-waste.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11989180

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

Cytotechnology is the microscopic interpretation of cells to detect cancer and other abnormalities. This includes the examination of samples collected from the uterine cervix (Pap test), lung, gastrointestinal tract or body cavities. A cytotechnologist is an allied health professional trained in cytotechnology. Cytotechnologists evaluate specimens on glass slides using microscopes. In some laboratories, a computer performs an initial evaluation, pointing out areas that may be of particular interest for later examination. In many laboratories, cytotechnologists perform the initial evaluation. The cytotechnologist performs a secondary evaluation and determines whether a specimen is normal or abnormal. Abnormal specimens are referred to a pathologist for final interpretation or medical diagnosis. Different countries have different certification requirements and standards for cytotechnologists. In the United States there are currently two routes for certification: a person can first earn a baccalaureate degree and then attend an accredited program in cytotechnology for 1 year, or they can attend a cytotechnology program that also awards a baccalaureate degree. After successful completion of either route the individual becomes eligible to take a certification exam offered by the American Society for Clinical Pathology. People who complete the requirements and pass the examination are entitled to designate themselves as "CT (ASCP)". The American Society for (ASCT) sets U.S

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11992117

Cytotechnology

Cytotechnology professional standards, monitors legislative and regulatory issues, and provides education. Individual states regulate the licensure of cytotechnologists, usually following American Society of Cytopathology (ASC) guidelines. The ASC is for cytopathologists but certain qualified cytotechnologists can join it too.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11992117

Cytotechnology

List of tallest people This is a list of the tallest people to be measured and verified, living and dead. This is a list of notable people who have or had a form of gigantism.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11994740

List of tallest people

Nasolabial fold The nasolabial folds, commonly known as "smile lines" or "laugh lines", are facial features. They are the two skin folds that run from each side of the nose to the corners of the mouth. They are defined by facial structures that support the buccal fat pad. They separate the cheeks from the upper lip. The term derives from Latin "nasus" for "nose" and "labium" for "lip". With ageing the fold may grow in length and depth. Dermal fillings may be used to replace lost fats and collagen in this facial area.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11994909

Nasolabial fold

Skin fold Skin folds or skinfolds are areas of skin where it folds. Many skin folds are distinct, heritable anatomical features, and may be used for identification of animal species, while others are non-specific and may be produced either by individual development of an organism or by arbitrary application of force to skin, either by the actions of the muscles of the body or by external force, e.g., gravity. Anatomical folds can also be found in other structures and tissues besides the skin, such as the ileocecal fold beneath the terminal ileum of the cecum. Skin folds are of interest for cosmetology, as some kinds may be considered aesthetically undesirable, and for medicine, because some of them are susceptible to inflammation and infection. The skin creases of the human body are features of great anatomical, morphological, and surgical interest and important for the maintenance of the contour of each anatomic area. In the literature, when referring to a skin crease, there is variation of terms used other than "crease", such as "fold" and "sulcus", but these terms do not accurately reflect their histology structure nor their function. In the review of literature, a record of the creases of the human body for each anatomic area, including the synonyms that are used for each crease in the literature, has been attempted

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11995021

Skin fold

Skin fold The skin crease as a fixed and permanent line, according to their histology, is related to connective tissue attachments with the underlying structures or extensions of the underlying muscle fibers in the dermis of the crease site. The skin fold is characterized by skin redundancy that is responsible partly, often in combination with connective tissue attachments, for the skin crease. It is essential to use appropriate terms that accurately reflect the anatomic structure and histology when referring to the skin lines. The following distinct skin fold types are among the roughly 100 identified in human anatomy:

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11995021

Skin fold

Available name In zoology, an available name is a scientific name for a taxon of animals that has been published conforming to all the mandatory provisions of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature for the establishment of a zoological name. For a name to be available, there are a number of general requirements it must fulfill: it must use only the Latin alphabet, be published in a timely fashion by a reputable source, etc. In some rare cases, a name which does not meet these requirements may nevertheless be available, for historical reasons. An available name is not necessarily a valid name, because an available name may be in synonymy. However, a valid name must always be an available one. Under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, this term is not used. It corresponds to a validly published name in botany. The botanical equivalent of zoology's term "valid name" is correct name.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12004602

Available name

Detection of genetically modified organisms The detection of genetically modified organisms in food or feed is possible by biochemical means. It can either be qualitative, showing which genetically modified organism (GMO) is present, or quantitative, measuring in which amount a certain GMO is present. Being able to detect a GMO is an important part of GMO labeling, as without detection methods the traceability of GMOs would rely solely on documentation. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a biochemistry and molecular biology technique for isolating and exponentially amplifying a fragment of DNA, via enzymatic replication, without using a living organism. It enables the detection of specific strands of DNA by making millions of copies of a target genetic sequence. The target sequence is essentially photocopied at an exponential rate, and simple visualisation techniques can make the millions of copies easy to see. The method works by pairing the targeted genetic sequence with custom designed complementary bits of DNA called primers. In the presence of the target sequence, the primers match with it and trigger a chain reaction. DNA replication enzymes use the primers as docking points and start doubling the target sequences. The process is repeated over and over again by sequential heating and cooling until doubling and redoubling has multiplied the target sequence several million-fold. The millions of identical fragments are then purified in a slab of gel, dyed, and can be seen with UV light. It is not prone to contamination

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12006607

Detection of genetically modified organisms

Detection of genetically modified organisms Irrespective of the variety of methods used for DNA analysis, only PCR in its different formats has been widely applied in GMO detection/analysis and generally accepted for regulatory compliance purposes. Detection methods based on DNA rely on the complementarity of two strands of DNA double helix that hybridize in a sequence-specific manner. The DNA of GMO consists of several elements that govern its functioning. The elements are promoter sequence, structural gene and stop sequence for the gene. Quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) is used to measure the quantity of a PCR product (preferably real-time, QRT-PCR). It is the method of choice to quantitatively measure amounts of transgene DNA in a food or feed sample. Q-PCR is commonly used to determine whether a DNA sequence is present in a sample and the number of its copies in the sample. The method with currently the highest level of accuracy is quantitative real-time PCR. QRT-PCR methods use fluorescent dyes, such as Sybr Green, or fluorophore-containing DNA probes, such as TaqMan, to measure the amount of amplified product in real time. If the targeted genetic sequence is unique to a certain GMO, a positive PCR test proves that the GMO is present in the sample. Whether or not a GMO is present in a sample can be tested by Q-PCR, but also by multiplex PCR. Multiplex PCR uses multiple, unique primer sets within a single PCR reaction to produce amplicons of varying sizes specific to different DNA sequences, i.e. different transgenes

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12006607

Detection of genetically modified organisms

Detection of genetically modified organisms By targeting multiple genes at once, additional information may be gained from a single test run that otherwise would require several times the reagents and more time to perform. Annealing temperatures for each of the primer sets must be optimized to work correctly within a single reaction, and amplicon sizes, i.e., their base pair length, should be different enough to form distinct bands when visualized by gel electrophoresis. When producers, importers or authorities test a sample for the unintended presence of GMOs, they usually do not know which GMO to expect. While EU authorities prefer an event-specific approach to this problem, US authorities rely on construct-specific test schemes. An event-specific detection searches for the presence of a DNA sequence unique to a certain GMO, usually the junction between the transgene and the organism's original DNA. This approach is ideal to precisely identify a GMO, yet highly similar GMOs will pass completely unnoticed. Event-specific detection is PCR-based. The construct-specific detection methods can either be DNA or protein based. DNA based detection looks for a part of the foreign DNA inserted in a GMO. For technical reasons, certain DNA sequences are shared by several GMOs. Protein-based methods detect the product of the transgene, for example the Bt toxin. Since different GMOs may produce the same protein, construct-specific detection can test a sample for several GMOs in one step, but is unable to tell precisely which of the similar GMOs are present

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12006607

Detection of genetically modified organisms

Detection of genetically modified organisms Especially in the USA, protein-based detection is used for the construct-specific approach. Currently, it is highly unlikely that the presence of unexpected or even unknown GMOs will be detected, since either the DNA sequence of the transgene or its product, the protein, must be known for detection. In addition, even testing for known GMOs is time-consuming and costly, as current reliable detection methods can test for only one GMO at a time. Therefore, research programmes such as Co-Extra are developing improved and alternative testing methods, for example DNA microarrays. Improving PCR based detection of GMOs is a further goal of the European research programme Co-Extra. Research is now underway to develop multiplex PCR methods that can simultaneously detect many different transgenic lines. Another major challenge is the increasing prevalence of transgenic crops with stacked traits. This refers to transgenic cultivars derived from crosses between transgenic parent lines, combining the transgenic traits of both parents. One GM maize variety now awaiting a decision by the European Commission, MON863 x MON810 x NK603, has three stacked traits. It is resistant to an herbicide and to two different kinds of insect pests. Some combined testing methods could give results that would triple the actual GM content of a sample containing this GMO. Almost all transgenic plants contain a few common building blocks that make unknown GMOs easier to find

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12006607

Detection of genetically modified organisms

Detection of genetically modified organisms Even though detecting a novel gene in a GMO can be like finding a needle in a haystack, the fact that the needles are usually similar makes it much easier. To trigger gene expression, scientists couple the gene they want to add with what is known as a transcription promoter. The high-performing 35S promoter is a common feature to many GMOs. In addition, the stop signal for gene transcription in most GMOs is often the same: the NOS terminator. Researchers now compile a set of genetic sequences characteristic of GMOs. After genetic elements characteristic of GMOs are selected, methods and tools are developed for detecting them in test samples. Approaches being considered include microarrays and anchor PCR profiling. Near infrared fluorescence (NIR) detection is a method that can reveal what kinds of chemicals are present in a sample based on their physical properties. By hitting a sample with near infrared light, chemical bonds in the sample vibrate and re-release the light energy at a wavelength characteristic for a specific molecule or chemical bond. It is not yet known if the differences between GMOs and conventional plants are large enough to detect with NIR imaging. Although the technique would require advanced machinery and data processing tools, a non-chemical approach could have some advantages such as lower costs and enhanced speed and mobility. The Cantons of Switzerland perform tests to assess the presence of genetically modified organisms in foodstuffs

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12006607

Detection of genetically modified organisms

Detection of genetically modified organisms In 2008, 3% of the tested samples contained detectable amounts of GMOs. In 2012, 12% of the samples analysed contained detectable amounts of GMOs (including 2.4% of GMOs forbidden in Switzerland). Except one, all the samples tested contained less than 0.9% of GMOs; which is the threshold that impose labelling indicating the presence of GMOs.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12006607

Detection of genetically modified organisms

Transplastomic plant A transplastomic plant is a genetically modified plant in which genes are inactivated, modified or new foreign genes are inserted into the DNA of plastids like the chloroplast instead of nuclear DNA. Currently, the majority of transplastomic plants are a result of chloroplast manipulation due to poor expression in other plastids. Chloroplasts in plants are thought to have originated from an engulfing event of a photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacterial ancestor) by a eukaroyte. There are many advantages to chloroplast DNA manipulation because of its bacterial origin. For example, the ability to introduce multiple genes (operons) in a single step instead of many steps and the simultaneous expression of many genes with its bacterial gene expression system. Other advantages include the ability to obtain organic products like proteins at a high concentration and the fact that production of these products will not be affected by epigenetic regulation. The reason for product synthesis at high concentrations is because a single plant cell can potentially carry up to a 100 chloroplast (like in "Arabidopsis"), which if all transformed, can express multiple copies of the introduced foreign genes. This is more advantageous compared to transformation of the nucleus which can only express one copy of the gene. The advantages provided by chloroplast DNA manipulation has seen growing interest into this field of research and development, particularly in agricultural and pharmaceutical applications

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Transplastomic plant However, there are some limitations in chloroplast DNA manipulation, such as the inability to manipulate cereal crop DNA material and poor expression of foreign DNA in non- green plastids as mentioned before. In addition, the lack of post- translational modification capability like glycosylation in plastids may make some human- related protein expression difficult. Nevertheless, much progress has been made into plant transplatomics, for example, the production of edible vaccines for Tetanus by using a transplastomic tobacco plant. The first requirement for transplastomic plant generation is to have a suitable gene construct that can be introduced into a plastid like a chloroplast in the form of an "E. coli" plasmid vector. There are several key features of a suitable gene cassette including but not limited to (1) selectable marker (2) flanking sequences (3) gene of interest (4) promoter sequences (5) 5' UTR (6) 3' UTR (7) intercistronic elements. The selectable marker typically tends to be an antiobiotic resistant gene, which would give the plant cell the ability to tolerate being grown on antibiotic containing agar plates. Flanking sequences are crucial for introduction of the gene construct at precise predetermined points of the plastid genome through homologous recombination. The gene of interests introduced have many different applications and can range from pest resistance genes to vaccine antigen production

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Transplastomic plant Intercistronic elements (IEE) are important for facilitating high levels of gene expression if multiple genes are introduced in the form of an operon. Finally, the 5' UTR and 3' UTR enhances ribosomal binding and increases transcript stability respectively. The most common method for plastid tranformations is biolistics: Small gold or tungsten particles are coated with the plasmid vector and shot into young plant cells or plant embryos, penetrating multiple cell layers and into the plastid. There will then be a homologous recombination event between the shot plasmid vector and the plastid's genome, hopefully resulting in a stable insertion of the gene cassette into the plastid. Whilst the transformation efficiency is lower than in agrobacterial mediated transformation, which is also common in plant genetic engineering, particle bombardment is especially suitable for chloroplast transformation. Other transformation methods include the use of polyethylene glycol (PEG)- mediated transformation, which involves the removal of the plant cell wall in order to expose the "naked" plant cell to the foreign genetic material for transformation in the presence of PEG. PEG- mediated transformation however, is notoriously time consuming, very technical and labor intensive as it requires the removal of the cell wall which is a key protective structural component of the plant cell. Interestingly, a paper released in 2018 has described a successful plastid transformation of the chloroplast from the microalgae species "N

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Transplastomic plant oceanica" and "C. reinhardtii" through electroporation. Whilst no study has been attempted yet for plastid transformation of higher plants using electroporation, this could be an interesting area of study for the future. In order to persist and be stably maintained in the cell, a plasmid DNA molecule must contain an origin of replication, which allows it to be replicated in the cell independently of the chromosome. When foreign DNA is first introduced to the plant tissue, not all chloroplasts will have successfully integrated the introduced genetic material. There will be a mixture of normal and transformed chloroplast within the plant cells. This mix of normal and transformed chloroplasts are defined to be "heteroplasmic" chloroplast population. Stable gene expression of the introduced gene requires a "homoplasmic" population of transformed chloroplasts in the plant cells, where all the chloroplasts in the plant cell has successfully integrated the foreign genetic material. Typically, homoplasmicity can be achieved and identified through multiple rounds of selection on antibiotics. This is where the transformed plant tissue are grown repeatedly on agar plates that contain antibiotics like spectinomycin. Only plant cells that have successfully integrated the gene cassette as shown above will be able to express the antibiotic resistance selectable marker and therefore grow normally on agar plates containing antibiotics

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Transplastomic plant Plant tissue that do not grow normally will have a bleached appearance as the spectinomycin antibiotic inhibits the ribosome of the plant cell, thereby preventing maintenance of the chloroplast However, as heteroplasmic population of chloroplasts may still be able to grow on agar plates effectively, many rounds of antibiotic selection and regrowth are required to cultivate a plant tissue that is homoplasmic and stable. Generation of homoplasmic plant tissue is considered to be a major difficulty in tranplastomics and incredibly time consuming. Some plant species such as "Nicotiana tabacum" are more receptive to transplastomics compared to members of the same genus such as "Nicotiana glauca" and "Nicotiana benthamiana." An experiment conducted in 2012 highlighted the possibility of facilitating transplastomics for difficult plant species using grafting. Grafting occurs when two different plants are joined together and continue to grow, this technique has been widely employed in agricultural applications and can even occur naturally in the wild. A transplastomic "N. tabacum" plant was engineered to have spectinomycin resistance and GFP fluorescence. Whilst the nuclear transgenic plants "N. benthamiana" and "N. glauca" were engineered to have kanamycin antiobiotic resistance and YFP fluorescence. The transplastomic plant and the nuclear transgenic plants were then grafted unto each other and the grafted tissues were then analysed

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Transplastomic plant Florescence microscopy and antibiotic selection on agar plates with both kanamycin and spectinomycin revealed that the grafted plant tissue had both transplastomics and nuclear transgene DNA material. This was further confirmed through PCR analysis. This study highlighted that plastids like the chloroplast are able to pass between cells across graft junctions and result in the transfer of genetic material between two different plant cell lines. This finding is hugely significant as it provides an alternative pathway for generation of transplastomic plants for species that are not as easily transformed using our current experimental methodology as seen above. Inducible expression systems such as theoriboswitches and pentatricopeptide repeat proteins have been widely studied in an effort to control and modulate expression of transgene products in transplastomic plants. One big advantage in using inducible expression systems is to optimize concentration of transgene protein production. For example, young plants need to devote energy and resources into growth and development to become mature plants. Constitutive expression of the transgene would therefore be detrimental for plant growth and development, as it takes away valuable energy and resources to express the foreign gene construct instead. This would result in a poorly developed transplastomic plant with low product yield

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Transplastomic plant Inducible expression expression of the transgene would overcome this limitation and allow the plant to mature fully like a normal wildtype plant before it is induced chemically to begin production of the transgene which can then be harvested. Genetically modified plants must be safe for the environment and suitable for coexistence with conventional and organic crops. A major hurdle for traditional nuclear genetically modified crops is posed by the potential outcrossing of the transgene via pollen movement. Initially it was thought that, plastid transformation, which yields transplastomic plants in which the pollen does not contain the transgene, not only increases biosafety, but also facilitates the coexistence of genetically modified, conventional and organic agriculture. Therefore, developing such crops was a major goal of research projects such as Co-Extra and Transcontainer. However, a study conducted on the tabacco plant in 2007 has disproved this theory. Led by Ralph Bock from the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology in Germany, researchers studied genetically modified tobacco in which the transgene was integrated in chloroplasts. A transplatomic tabacco plant generated through chloroplast mediated transformation was bred with plants that were male sterile with an untouched chloroplast. The transplastomic plants were engineered to have resistance to the antibiotic spectinomycin and engineered to produce a fluorescent molecule (GFP)

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Transplastomic plant Therefore, it was hypothesized that any offspring produced by from these two lines of tabacco plant should not be able to grow on spectinomycin or be fluorescent, as the genetic material in the chloroplast should not be able to transfer via pollen. However, it was found that some of the seeds were resistant to the antibiotic and could germinate on spectinomycin agar plates. Calculations showed that 1 out of every million pollen grains contained plastid genetic material, which would be hugely significant in an agricultural farm setting. Because tobacco has a strong tendency towards self-fertilisation, the reliability of transplastomic plants is assumed to be even higher under field conditions. Therefore, the researchers believe that only one in 100,000,000 GM tobacco plants actually would transmit the transgene via pollen. Such values are more than satisfactory to ensure coexistence. However, for GM crops used in the production of pharmaceuticals, or in other cases in which absolutely no outcrossing is permitted, the researchers recommend the combination of chloroplast transformation with other biological containment methods, such as cytoplasmic male sterility or transgene mitigation strategies. This study showed that whilst transplatomic plants do not have absolute gene containment, the level of containment is extremely high and would allow for coexistence of conventional and genetically modified agricultural crops

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Transplastomic plant There are public concerns regarding a possible transmission of antibiotic resistant genes to unwanted targets including bacteria and weeds. As a result of this, technologies have been developed to remove the selectable antibiotic resistance gene marker. One such technology that has been implemented is the Cre/lox system, where the nuclear encoded Cre recombinase can be placed under control of an inducible promoter to remove the antibiotic resistant gene once homoplasmicity has been achieved from the transformation process. A recent example of tranplastomics in agricultural applications was conferring potato plants protection against the Colorado potato beetle. This beetle is dubbed a "super-pest" internationally because it has gained resistance against many insecticides and are extremely voracious feeders. The beetle is estimated to cause up to 1.4 million USD in crop damages annually in Michigan alone. A study conducted in 2015 by Zhang utilized tranplastomics to introduce double stranded RNA producing transgenes into the plastid genome. The double stranded RNA confers protection to the transgenic potato plant via a RNA interference methodology, where consumption of the plant tissue by the potato beetle would result in silencing of key genes required by the beetle for survival. There was a high level of protection conferred, the leaves of the tranplastomic potato plant were mostly unconsumed when exposed to the adult beetles and larvae

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Transplastomic plant The investigation also revealed a 83% killing efficacy for larvae that consumed the leaves of the transplastomic plant. This study highlights that as pests gain resistance to traditional chemical insecticides, the use of transplastomics to deliver RNAI- mediated crop protection strategies could become increasingly viable in the future. Another notable tranplastomics based approach is the production of artemisinic acid through tranplastomic tabaco plants which is the precursor molecule that can be used to produce artemisinin. Artemisinin- based combination therapy is the preferred and recommended treatment of choice by the WHO (World Health Organization) against malaria. Artemisinin is naturally derived from the plant "Artemisia annua", however, only low concentrations of artemisinin in the plant can be harvested naturally and there is currently an insufficient supply for the global demand. A study conducted in 2016 led by Fuentes, managed to introduce the artemisininic acid production pathway into the chloroplast of "N. tabacum" through a biolistics approach before using their novel synthetic biology tool COSTREL (combinatorial supertransformation of transplastomic recipient lines) to generate a transplastomic "N. tabacum" plant that had a very high arteminisin acid yield. This study illustrates the potential benefits of tranplastomics for bio-pharmaceutical applications in the future

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Transplastomic plant Despite tranplastomics being non- viable for non green plastids at the moment, plant transplastomics work done on the chloroplast genome has proved extremely valuable. The applications for chloroplast transformation includes and is not limited to agriculture, bio-fuel and bio-pharmaceuticals. This is because of a few factors, which include ease of multiple transgene expression in the form of operons and high copy number expression. The study of transplastomics still remains a work in progress. More research and development is still required to improve other areas such as tranplastomics in non- green plastids, inability to transform cereal crops through transplastomics and a way to circumvent the lack of glycosylation capability in the chloroplast. Further improvements in this field of study will only give us a potential robust biotechnological route in many applications important in our day to day lives.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12007423

Transplastomic plant

Tre recombinase is an experimental enzyme that in lab tests has removed DNA inserted by HIV from infected cells. Through selective mutation, Cre recombinase which recognizes loxP sites are modified to identify HIV long terminal repeats (loxLTR) instead. As a result, instead of performing Cre-Lox recombination, the new enzyme performs recombination at HIV provirus sites. The structure of Tre in complex with loxLTR has been resolved (), allowing for analyzing the roles of individual mutations.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12008564

Tre recombinase

Sociophysiology is the "interplay between society and physical functioning" (Freund 1988: 856) involving "collaboration of two neighboring sciences: physiology and sociology" (Mauss 1936: 373). In other words, sociophysiology is physiological sociology, a special science that studies the physiological side of human (and other animals') interrelations (Zeliony 1912: 405–406). In addition to having been termed an "interdisciplinary area for research, an area which demonstrates the concomitant relationship between physiology and social behavior" (Di Mascio et al. 1955: 4), sociophysiology may also be described as "social ethology" and "social energetics" (Waxweiler 1906: 62). That is, the "physiology of reactive phenomena caused by the mutual excitations of individuals of the same species" (Waxweiler 1906: 62). The interdisciplinary nature of sociophysiology largely entails a "synthesis of psychophysiology and social interaction" (Adler 2002: 884) such that a "socio-psycho-biological study" (Mauss 1936: 386) of "biologico-sociological phenomena" (Mauss 1936: 385) may ensue. Such "socio-psycho-biological study" has uncovered a "sharing of physiology between people involved in a meaningful interaction" (Adler 2002: 884), as well as "mutually responsive physiologic engagement having normative function in maintaining social cohesion and well-being in higher social animals" (Adler 2002: 885)

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12009633

Sociophysiology

Sociophysiology This "mutually responsive physiologic engagement" brings into play the "close links uniting social phenomena to the biological phenomena from which they immediately derive" (Solvay 1906: 26). Furthermore, sociophysiology explores the "intimate relationship and mutual regulation between social and physiological systems that is especially vital in human groups" (Barchas 1986: 210). In other words, sociophysiology studies the "physio- and psycho-energetic phenomena at the basis of social groupings" (Solvay 1906: 25). Along these lines, Zeliony (1912) noted that In addition, sociophysiology "describes structure-function relationships for body structures and interactive functions relevant to psychiatric illness" (Gardner 1997: 351), and also "assumes that psychiatric disorders are pathological variants of the motivation, emotions, and conflict involved in normal communicational processes" (Gardner and Price 1999: 247–248). Psychiatry, thus, involves the diagnosis and treatment of what Lilienfeld (1879: 280) termed "physiological social pathology", and may be classed as a subfield of sociophysiology, called "pathological sociophysiology" by Zeliony (1912: 405). As summarized by Ellwood (1916), Zeliony thought that, in the future, Ellwood (1916: 298) also noted that Zeliony's future sociophysiology, being a natural biological science, must be Darwinian. In short, sociophysiology is "reciprocal, interpersonal physiology" (Adler 2002: 885)

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12009633

Sociophysiology

Sociophysiology Such interpersonal physiology may have implications in the realm of human politics. For example, the findings of a recent study "suggest that political attitudes vary with physiological traits linked to divergent manners of experiencing and processing environmental threats" (Oxley et al. 2008: 1669).

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12009633

Sociophysiology

Antibiosis is a biological interaction between two or more organisms that is detrimental to at least one of them; it can also be an antagonistic association between an organism and the metabolic substances produced by another. Examples of antibiosis include the relationship between antibiotics and bacteria or animals and disease-causing pathogens. The study of antibiosis and its role in antibiotics has led to the expansion of knowledge in the field of microbiology. Molecular processes such cell wall synthesis and recycling, for example, have become better understood through the study of how antibiotics affect beta-lactam development through the antibiosis relationship and interaction of the particular drugs with the bacteria subjected to the compound. is typically studied in host plant populations and extends to the insects which feed upon them. "resistance affects the biology of the insect so pest abundance and subsequent damage is reduced compared to that which would have occurred if the insect was on a susceptible crop variety. resistance often results in increased mortality or reduced longevity and reproduction of the insect."

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12017661

Antibiosis

Andrew Thompson (parasitologist) Andrew Thompson is an Australian parasitologist. He is Professor of Parasitology at Murdoch University and a member of the Management Committee of the Australian Society for Parasitology.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12018787

Andrew Thompson (parasitologist)

Blastocladiomycota is one of the currently recognized phyla within the kingdom Fungi. was originally the order Blastocladiales within the phylum Chytridiomycota until molecular and zoospore ultrastructural characters were used to demonstrate it was not monophyletic with Chytridiomycota. The order was first erected by Petersen for a single genus, "Blastocladia", which was originally considered a member of the oomycetes. Accordingly, members of are often referred to colloquially as "chytrids." However, some feel "chytrid" should refer only to members of Chytridiomycota. Thus, members of Blastocladiomyota are commonly called "blastoclads" by mycologists. Alternatively, members of Blastocladiomycota, Chytridiomycota, and Neocallimastigomycota lumped together as the zoosporic true fungi. contains 5 families and approximately 12 genera. This early diverging branch of kingdom Fungi is the first to exhibit alternation of generations. As well, two (once) popular model organisms—"Allomyces macrogynus" and "Blastocladiella emersonii"—belong to this phylum. Morphology in varies greatly. For example, members of Coelomycetaceae are simple, unwalled, and plasmodial in nature. Some species in "Blastocladia" are monocentric, like the chytrids, while others are polycentric. The most remarkable are those members, such as "Allomyces" that demonstrate determinant, differentiated growth. As stated above, some members of exhibit alternation of generations. Members of this phylum also exhibit a form of sexual reproduction known as anisogamy

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12024353

Blastocladiomycota

Blastocladiomycota Anisogamy is the fusion of two sexual gametes that differ in morphology, usually size. In "Allomyces", the thallus (body) is attached by rhizoids, and has an erect trunk on which reproductive organs are formed at the end of branches. During the haploid phase, the thallus forms male and female gametangia that release flagellated gametes. Gametes attract one another using pheromones and eventually fuse to form a Zygote. The germinated zygote produces a diploid thallus with two types of sporangia: thin-walled zoosporangia and thick walled resting spores (or sporangia). The thin walled sporangia release diploid zoospores. The resting spore serves as a means of enduring unfavorable conditions. When conditions are favorable again, meiosis occurs and haploid zoospores are released. These germinate and grow into haploid thalli that will produce “male” and “female” gametangia and gametes. Similar to Chytridiomycota, members of produce asexual zoospores to colonize new substrates. In some species, a curious phenomenon has been observed in the asexual zoospores. From time to time, asexual zoospores will pair up and exchange cytoplasm but not nuclei. Similar to Chytridiomycota, members of are capable of growing on refractory materials, such as pollen, keratin, cellulose, and chitin. The best known species, however, are the parasites. Members of "Catenaria" are parasites of nematodes, midges, crustaceans, and even another blastoclad, "Coelomyces"

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12024353

Blastocladiomycota

Blastocladiomycota Members of the genus "Physoderma" and "Urophlyctis" are obligate plant parasites. Of economic importance is "Physoderma maydis", a parasite of maize and the causal agent of brown spot disease. Also of importance are the species of "Urophlyctis" that parasitize alfalfa. However, ecologically, "Physoderma" are important parasites of many aquatic and marsh angiosperms. Also of human interest, for health reasons, are members of "Coelomomyces", an unusual parasite of mosquitoes that requires an alternate crustacean host (the same one parasitized by members of "Catenaria") to complete its life cycle. Others that are ecologically interesting include a parasite of water bears and the zooplankter "Daphnia". Based on the work of Philippe Silar and "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research" and synonyms from "Part 1- Virae, Prokarya, Protists, Fungi".

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12024353

Blastocladiomycota

RNase PhyM is a type of endoribonuclease which is sequence specific for single stranded RNAs. It cleaves 3'-end of unpaired A and U residues.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12026695

RNase PhyM

Oligonucleotidase (, "oligoribonuclease") is an exoribonuclease derived from "Flammulina velutipes". This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12026760

Oligonucleotidase

Deoxyribonuclease IV (phage-T4-induced) (, "endodeoxyribonuclease IV (phage T4-induced)", "E. coli endonuclease IV", "endodeoxyribonuclease", "redoxyendonuclease", "deoxriboendonuclease", "Escherichia coli endonuclease II", "endonuclease II", "DNA-adenine-transferase") is an enzyme. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction is a type of deoxyribonuclease that functions at AP-sites.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12027727

Deoxyribonuclease IV

Anamorphosis (biology) Anamorphosis or Anamorphogenesis refers to postembryonic development and moulting in Arthropoda that results in the addition of abdominal body segments, even after sexual maturity. An example of this occurs in proturans and millipedes. Protura hatch with only 8 abdominal segments and add the remaining 3 in subsequent moults. These new segments arise behind the last abdominal segment, but in front of the telson. Anamorphosis has been depicted various times throughout early modern literature

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12028764

Anamorphosis (biology)

FYVE, RhoGEF and PH domain containing (FGD) is a gene family consisting of: Type 1 is associated with Aarskog-Scott syndrome.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12044574

FYVE, RhoGEF and PH domain containing

Flory convention The for defining the variables involved on modeling the position vectors of atoms in macromolecules it is often necessary to convert from Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) to generalized coordinates. It is named after nobel prize-winning Paul Flory. As an example of its use, a peptide bond can be described by the x,y,z positions of every atom in this bond or the can be used. Here one must know the bond lengths formula_1, bond angles formula_2, and the dihedral angles formula_3 (note that the sequence of dihedral angles is specified using angle 0 as "trans"). Applying a vector conversion from the Cartesian coordinates to the generalized coordinates will describe the same three-dimensional structure using the Flory convention.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12045114

Flory convention

ATP2A2 is an ATPase associated with Darier's disease and Acrokeratosis verruciformis. This gene encodes one of the SERCA Ca(2+)-ATPases, which are intracellular pumps located in the sarcoplasmic or endoplasmic reticula of muscle cells. This enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP coupled with the translocation of calcium from the cytosol to the sarcoplasmic reticulum lumen, and is involved in calcium sequestration associated with muscular excitation and contraction. Alternative splicing results in multiple transcript variants encoding different isoforms.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12049925

ATP2A2

Alveolar nerve The alveolar nerves include three superior alveolar nerves: the anterior superior alveolar nerve, middle superior alveolar nerve, and posterior superior alveolar nerve, and an inferior alveolar nerve. The superior alveolar nerves are all branches of the maxillary nerve which is the second branch of the trigeminal nerve. The inferior alveolar nerve is a branch of the mandibular nerve which is the third branch of the trigeminal nerve.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12052787

Alveolar nerve

Megan and Morag Megan and Morag, two domestic sheep, were the first mammals to have been successfully cloned from differentiated cells. They are not to be confused with Dolly the sheep which was the first animal to be successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell or Polly the sheep which was the first cloned and transgenic animal. Megan and Morag, like Dolly and Polly, were cloned at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1995. The team at the Roslin Institute were seeking a way to modify the genetic constitution of sheep and cattle more effectively than the hit and miss method that was the only method and had sort of aids available at the time – microinjection. In microinjection, DNA is injected into the pronuclei of fertilized oocytes. However, only a small proportion of the animals will integrate the injected DNA into their genome and in the rare cases that they do integrate this new genetic information, the pattern of expression of the injected piece of DNA's gene, due to the random integration, is very variable. The team choose to combine two approaches – microinjection and embryonic stem cells. In order to achieve this they decided to try to transfer the nucleus from one cell to another and stimulate this new cell to grow and become an animal, a process known as nuclear transfer. The team at the Roslin Institute tried to make immortalized and undifferentiated embryonic stem cell lines in sheep, but failed. As a result, they decided to work with cultured blastocyst cells

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12054042

Megan and Morag

Megan and Morag The nuclear material of these blastocyst cells would be transferred into an unfertilized sheep egg cell, an oocyte where the nucleus had been removed. To optimize the chances of successful nuclear transfer, they put the cultured cells into a state of quiescence, which was a similar state to that of the unfertilized egg cell. Nuclear transfer was done, using electrical stimuli both to fuse the cultured cell with the enucleated egg and to kick start embryonic development. From 244 nuclear transfers, 34 developed to a stage where they could be placed in the uteri of surrogate mothers. In the summer of 1995, five lambs were born, of which two – – survived to become healthy fertile adults. These were the first mammals cloned from differentiated cells. They were born with the names 5LL2 and 5LL5 in June 1995. The production of demonstrated that viable sheep can be produced by nuclear transfer from cells which have been cultured in vitro. They signified the technical breakthrough that made Dolly the sheep possible. The birth of Megan and Morag, a year before Dolly, with their huge beneficial potential, made relatively few headlines. , Megan was still alive and was the oldest cloned animal at the time.

Biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12054042

Megan and Morag