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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous

Cretaceous

The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of the entire Phanerozoic. The name is derived from the Latin creta, "chalk", which is abundant in the latter half of the period. It is usually abbreviated K, for its German translation Kreide. The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate, resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas. These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles, ammonites, and rudists, while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land. The world was ice-free, and forests extended to the poles. During this time, new groups of mammals and birds appeared. During the Early Cretaceous, flowering plants appeared and began to rapidly diversify, becoming the dominant group of plants across the Earth by the end of the Cretaceous, coincident with the decline and extinction of previously widespread gymnosperm groups. The Cretaceous (along with the Mesozoic) ended with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, a large mass extinction in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and large marine reptiles, died out. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction that lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras. Etymology and history The Cretaceous as a separate period was first defined by Belgian geologist Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1822 as the Terrain Crétacé, using strata in the Paris Basin and named for the extensive beds of chalk (calcium carbonate deposited by the shells of marine invertebrates, principally coccoliths), found in the upper Cretaceous of Western Europe. The name Cretaceous was derived from the Latin creta, meaning chalk. The twofold division of the Cretaceous was implemented by Conybeare and Phillips in 1822. Alcide d'Orbigny in 1840 divided the French Cretaceous into five étages (stages): the Neocomian, Aptian, Albian, Turonian, and Senonian, later adding the Urgonian between Neocomian and Aptian and the Cenomanian between the Albian and Turonian. Geology Subdivisions The Cretaceous is divided into Early and Late Cretaceous epochs, or Lower and Upper Cretaceous series. In older literature, the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series: Neocomian (lower/early), Gallic (middle) and Senonian (upper/late). A subdivision into 12 stages, all originating from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide. In many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use. From youngest to oldest, the subdivisions of the Cretaceous period are: Boundaries The lower boundary of the Cretaceous is currently undefined, and the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary is currently the only system boundary to lack a defined Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP). Placing a GSSP for this boundary has been difficult because of the strong regionality of most biostratigraphic markers, and the lack of any chemostratigraphic events, such as isotope excursions (large sudden changes in ratios of isotopes) that could be used to define or correlate a boundary. Calpionellids, an enigmatic group of planktonic protists with urn-shaped calcitic tests briefly abundant during the latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous, have been suggested as the most promising candidates for fixing the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary. In particular, the first appearance Calpionella alpina, coinciding with the base of the eponymous Alpina subzone, has been proposed as the definition of the base of the Cretaceous. The working definition for the boundary has often been placed as the first appearance of the ammonite Strambergella jacobi, formerly placed in the genus Berriasella, but its use as a stratigraphic indicator has been questioned, as its first appearance does not correlate with that of C. alpina. The boundary is officially considered by the International Commission on Stratigraphy to be approximately 145 million years ago, but other estimates have been proposed based on U-Pb geochronology, ranging as young as 140 million years ago. The upper boundary of the Cretaceous is sharply defined, being placed at an iridium-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the Chicxulub impact crater, with its boundaries circumscribing parts of the Yucatán Peninsula and extending into the Gulf of Mexico. This layer has been dated at 66.043 Mya. At the end of the Cretaceous, the impact of a large body with the Earth may have been the punctuation mark at the end of a progressive decline in biodiversity during the Maastrichtian age. The result was the extinction of three-quarters of Earth's plant and animal species. The impact created the sharp break known as the K–Pg boundary (formerly known as the K–T boundary). Earth's biodiversity required substantial time to recover from this event, despite the probable existence of an abundance of vacant ecological niches. Despite the severity of the K-Pg extinction event, there were significant variations in the rate of extinction between and within different clades. Species that depended on photosynthesis declined or became extinct as atmospheric particles blocked solar energy. As is the case today, photosynthesizing organisms, such as phytoplankton and land plants, formed the primary part of the food chain in the late Cretaceous, and all else that depended on them suffered, as well. Herbivorous animals, which depended on plants and plankton as their food, died out as their food sources became scarce; consequently, the top predators, such as Tyrannosaurus rex, also perished. Yet only three major groups of tetrapods disappeared completely; the nonavian dinosaurs, the plesiosaurs and the pterosaurs. The other Cretaceous groups that did not survive into the Cenozoic the ichthyosaurs, last remaining temnospondyls (Koolasuchus), and nonmammalian were already extinct millions of years before the event occurred. Coccolithophorids and molluscs, including ammonites, rudists, freshwater snails, and mussels, as well as organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example, ammonites are thought to have been the principal food of mosasaurs, a group of giant marine lizards related to snakes that became extinct at the boundary. Omnivores, insectivores, and carrion-eaters survived the extinction event, perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources. At the end of the Cretaceous, there seem to have been no purely herbivorous or carnivorous mammals. Mammals and birds that survived the extinction fed on insects, larvae, worms, and snails, which in turn fed on dead plant and animal matter. Scientists theorise that these organisms survived the collapse of plant-based food chains because they fed on detritus. In stream communities, few groups of animals became extinct. Stream communities rely less on food from living plants and more on detritus that washes in from land. This particular ecological niche buffered them from extinction. Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the water column than among animals living on or in the seafloor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on primary production from living phytoplankton, while animals living on or in the ocean floor feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding. The largest air-breathing survivors of the event, crocodilians and champsosaurs, were semiaquatic and had access to detritus. Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and can survive for months without food and go into hibernation when conditions are unfavorable, and their young are small, grow slowly, and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms or fragments of organisms for their first few years. These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous. Geologic formations The high sea level and warm climate of the Cretaceous meant large areas of the continents were covered by warm, shallow seas, providing habitat for many marine organisms. The Cretaceous was named for the extensive chalk deposits of this age in Europe, but in many parts of the world, the deposits from the Cretaceous are of marine limestone, a rock type that is formed under warm, shallow marine conditions. Due to the high sea level, there was extensive space for such sedimentation. Because of the relatively young age and great thickness of the system, Cretaceous rocks are evident in many areas worldwide. Chalk is a rock type characteristic for (but not restricted to) the Cretaceous. It consists of coccoliths, microscopically small calcite skeletons of coccolithophores, a type of algae that prospered in the Cretaceous seas. Stagnation of deep sea currents in middle Cretaceous times caused anoxic conditions in the sea water leaving the deposited organic matter undecomposed. Half of the world's petroleum reserves were laid down at this time in the anoxic conditions of what would become the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Mexico. In many places around the world, dark anoxic shales were formed during this interval, such as the Mancos Shale of western North America. These shales are an important source rock for oil and gas, for example in the subsurface of the North Sea. Europe In northwestern Europe, chalk deposits from the Upper Cretaceous are characteristic for the Chalk Group, which forms the white cliffs of Dover on the south coast of England and similar cliffs on the French Normandian coast. The group is found in England, northern France, the low countries, northern Germany, Denmark and in the subsurface of the southern part of the North Sea. Chalk is not easily consolidated and the Chalk Group still consists of loose sediments in many places. The group also has other limestones and arenites. Among the fossils it contains are sea urchins, belemnites, ammonites and sea reptiles such as Mosasaurus. In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of competent limestone beds or incompetent marls. Because the Alpine mountain chains did not yet exist in the Cretaceous, these deposits formed on the southern edge of the European continental shelf, at the margin of the Tethys Ocean. North America During the Cretaceous, the present North American continent was isolated from the other continents. In the Jurassic, the North Atlantic already opened, leaving a proto-ocean between Europe and North America. From north to south across the continent, the Western Interior Seaway started forming. This inland sea separated the elevated areas of Laramidia in the west and Appalachia in the east. Three dinosaur clades found in Laramidia (troodontids, therizinosaurids and oviraptorosaurs) are absent from Appalachia from the Coniacian through the Maastrichtian. Paleogeography During the Cretaceous, the late-Paleozoic-to-early-Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangaea completed its tectonic breakup into the present-day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the Atlantic Ocean widened, the convergent-margin mountain building (orogenies) that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the North American Cordillera, as the Nevadan orogeny was followed by the Sevier and Laramide orogenies. Gondwana had begun to break up during the Jurassic Period, but its fragmentation accelerated during the Cretaceous and was largely complete by the end of the period. South America, Antarctica, and Australia rifted away from Africa (though India and Madagascar remained attached to each other until around 80 million years ago); thus, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising eustatic sea levels worldwide. To the north of Africa the Tethys Sea continued to narrow. During the most of the Late Cretaceous, North America would be divided in two by the Western Interior Seaway, a large interior sea, separating Laramidia to the west and Appalachia to the east, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between coal beds. Bivalve palaeobiogeography also indicates that Africa was split in half by a shallow sea during the Coniacian and Santonian, connecting the Tethys with the South Atlantic by way of the central Sahara and Central Africa, which were then underwater. Yet another shallow seaway ran between what is now Norway and Greenland, connecting the Tethys to the Arctic Ocean and enabling biotic exchange between the two oceans. At the peak of the Cretaceous transgression, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged. The Cretaceous is justly famous for its chalk; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the Phanerozoic. Mid-ocean ridge activity—or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges—enriched the oceans in calcium; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the bioavailability of the element for calcareous nanoplankton. These widespread carbonates and other sedimentary deposits make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous formations from North America include the rich marine fossils of Kansas's Smoky Hill Chalk Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in Europe (e.g., the Weald) and China (the Yixian Formation). In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the Deccan Traps were erupted in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene. Climate Palynological evidence indicates the Cretaceous climate had three broad phases: a Berriasian–Barremian warm-dry phase, a Aptian–Santonian warm-wet phase, and a Campanian–Maastrichtian cool-dry phase. As in the Cenozoic, the 400,000 year eccentricity cycle was the dominant orbital cycle governing carbon flux between different reservoirs and influencing global climate. The location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was roughly the same as in the present. The cooling trend of the last epoch of the Jurassic, the Tithonian, continued into the Berriasian, the first age of the Cretaceous. The North Atlantic seaway opened and enabled the flow of cool water from the Boreal Ocean into the Tethys. There is evidence that snowfalls were common in the higher latitudes during this age, and the tropics became wetter than during the Triassic and Jurassic. Glaciation was restricted to high-latitude mountains, though seasonal snow may have existed farther from the poles. After the end of the first age, however, temperatures began to increase again, with a number of thermal excursions, such as the middle Valanginian Weissert Thermal Excursion (WTX), which was caused by the Paraná-Etendeka Large Igneous Province's activity. It was followed by the middle Hauterivian Faraoni Thermal Excursion (FTX) and the early Barremian Hauptblatterton Thermal Event (HTE). The HTE marked the ultimate end of the Tithonian-early Barremian Cool Interval (TEBCI). The TEBCI was followed by the Barremian-Aptian Warm Interval (BAWI). This hot climatic interval coincides with Manihiki and Ontong Java Plateau volcanism and with the Selli Event. Early Aptian tropical sea surface temperatures (SSTs) were 27–32 °C, based on TEX86 measurements from the equatorial Pacific. During the Aptian, Milankovitch cycles governed the occurrence of anoxic events by modulating the intensity of the hydrological cycle and terrestrial runoff. The BAWI itself was followed by the Aptian-Albian Cold Snap (AACS) that began about 118 Ma. A short, relatively minor ice age may have occurred during this so-called "cold snap", as evidenced by glacial dropstones in the western parts of the Tethys Ocean and the expansion of calcareous nannofossils that dwelt in cold water into lower latitudes. The AACS is associated with an arid period in the Iberian Peninsula. Temperatures increased drastically after the end of the AACS, which ended around 111 Ma with the Paquier/Urbino Thermal Maximum, giving way to the Mid-Cretaceous Hothouse (MKH), which lasted from the early Albian until the early Campanian. Faster rates of seafloor spreading and entry of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere are believed to have initiated this period of extreme warmth. The MKH was punctuated by multiple thermal maxima of extreme warmth. The Leenhardt Thermal Event (LTE) occurred around 110 Ma, followed shortly by the l’Arboudeyesse Thermal Event (ATE) a million years later. Following these two hyperthermals was the Amadeus Thermal Maximum around 106 Ma, during the middle Albian. Then, around a million years after that, occurred the Petite Verol Thermal Event (PVTE). Afterwards, around 102.5 Ma, the Event 6 Thermal Event (EV6) took place; this event was itself followed by the Breistroffer Thermal Maximum around 101 Ma, during the latest Albian. Approximately 94 Ma, the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum occurred, with this hyperthermal being the most extreme hothouse interval of the Cretaceous. Temperatures cooled down slightly over the next few million years, but then another thermal maximum, the Coniacian Thermal Maximum, happened, with this thermal event being dated to around 87 Ma. Atmospheric CO2 levels may have varied by thousands of ppm throughout the MKH. Mean annual temperatures at the poles during the MKH exceeded 14 °C. Such hot temperatures during the MKH resulted in a very gentle temperature gradient from the equator to the poles; the latitudinal temperature gradient during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum was 0.54 °C per ° latitude for the Southern Hemisphere and 0.49 °C per ° latitude for the Northern Hemisphere, in contrast to present day values of 1.07 and 0.69 °C per ° latitude for the Southern and Northern hemispheres, respectively. This meant weaker global winds, which drive the ocean currents, and resulted in less upwelling and more stagnant oceans than today. This is evidenced by widespread black shale deposition and frequent anoxic events. Tropical SSTs during the late Albian most likely averaged around 30 °C. Despite this high SST, seawater was not hypersaline at this time, as this would have required significantly higher temperatures still. Tropical SSTs during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum were at least 30 °C, though one study estimated them as high as between 33 and 42 °C. An intermediate estimate of ~33-34 °C has also been given. Meanwhile, deep ocean temperatures were as much as warmer than today's; one study estimated that deep ocean temperatures were between 12 and 20 °C during the MKH. The poles were so warm that ectothermic reptiles were able to inhabit them. Beginning in the Santonian, near the end of the MKH, the global climate began to cool, with this cooling trend continuing across the Campanian. This period of cooling, driven by falling levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, caused the end of the MKH and the transition into a cooler climatic interval, known formally as the Late Cretaceous-Early Palaeogene Cool Interval (LKEPCI). Tropical SSTs declined from around 35 °C in the early Campanian to around 28 °C in the Maastrichtian. Deep ocean temperatures declined to 9 to 12 °C, though the shallow temperature gradient between tropical and polar seas remained. Regional conditions in the Western Interior Seaway changed little between the MKH and the LKEPCI. Two upticks in global temperatures are known to have occurred during the Maastrichtian, bucking the trend of overall cooler temperatures during the LKEPCI. Between 70 and 69 Ma and 66–65 Ma, isotopic ratios indicate elevated atmospheric CO2 pressures with levels of 1000–1400 ppmV and mean annual temperatures in west Texas between . Atmospheric CO2 and temperature relations indicate a doubling of pCO2 was accompanied by a ~0.6 °C increase in temperature. The latter warming interval, occurring at the very end of the Cretaceous, was triggered by the activity of the Deccan Traps. The LKEPCI lasted into the Late Palaeocene, when it gave way to another supergreenhouse interval. The production of large quantities of magma, variously attributed to mantle plumes or to extensional tectonics, further pushed sea levels up, so that large areas of the continental crust were covered with shallow seas. The Tethys Sea connecting the tropical oceans east to west also helped to warm the global climate. Warm-adapted plant fossils are known from localities as far north as Alaska and Greenland, while dinosaur fossils have been found within 15 degrees of the Cretaceous south pole. It was suggested that there was Antarctic marine glaciation in the Turonian Age, based on isotopic evidence. However, this has subsequently been suggested to be the result of inconsistent isotopic proxies, with evidence of polar rainforests during this time interval at 82° S. Rafting by ice of stones into marine environments occurred during much of the Cretaceous, but evidence of deposition directly from glaciers is limited to the Early Cretaceous of the Eromanga Basin in southern Australia. Flora Flowering plants (angiosperms) make up around 90% of living plant species today. Prior to the rise of angiosperms, during the Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous, the higher flora was dominated by gymnosperm groups, including cycads, conifers, ginkgophytes, gnetophytes and close relatives, as well as the extinct Bennettitales. Other groups of plants included pteridosperms or "seed ferns", a collective term that refers to disparate groups of extinct seed plants with fern-like foliage, including groups such as Corystospermaceae and Caytoniales. The exact origins of angiosperms are uncertain, although molecular evidence suggests that they are not closely related to any living group of gymnosperms. The earliest widely accepted evidence of flowering plants are monosulcate (single-grooved) pollen grains from the late Valanginian (~ 134 million years ago) found in Israel and Italy, initially at low abundance. Molecular clock estimates conflict with fossil estimates, suggesting the diversification of crown-group angiosperms during the Upper Triassic or Jurassic, but such estimates are difficult to reconcile with the heavily sampled pollen record and the distinctive tricolpate to tricolporoidate (triple grooved) pollen of eudicot angiosperms. Among the oldest records of Angiosperm macrofossils are Montsechia from the Barremian aged Las Hoyas beds of Spain and Archaefructus from the Barremian-Aptian boundary Yixian Formation in China. Tricolpate pollen distinctive of eudicots first appears in the Late Barremian, while the earliest remains of monocots are known from the Aptian. Flowering plants underwent a rapid radiation beginning during the middle Cretaceous, becoming the dominant group of land plants by the end of the period, coincident with the decline of previously dominant groups such as conifers. The oldest known fossils of grasses are from the Albian, with the family having diversified into modern groups by the end of the Cretaceous. The oldest large angiosperm trees are known from the Turonian (c. 90 Mya) of New Jersey, with the trunk having a preserved diameter of and an estimated height of . During the Cretaceous, ferns in the order Polypodiales, which make up 80% of living fern species, would also begin to diversify. Terrestrial fauna On land, mammals were generally small sized, but a very relevant component of the fauna, with cimolodont multituberculates outnumbering dinosaurs in some sites. Neither true marsupials nor placentals existed until the very end, but a variety of non-marsupial metatherians and non-placental eutherians had already begun to diversify greatly, ranging as carnivores (Deltatheroida), aquatic foragers (Stagodontidae) and herbivores (Schowalteria, Zhelestidae). Various "archaic" groups like eutriconodonts were common in the Early Cretaceous, but by the Late Cretaceous northern mammalian faunas were dominated by multituberculates and therians, with dryolestoids dominating South America. The apex predators were archosaurian reptiles, especially dinosaurs, which were at their most diverse stage. Avians such as the ancestors of modern-day birds also diversified. They inhabited every continent, and were even found in cold polar latitudes. Pterosaurs were common in the early and middle Cretaceous, but as the Cretaceous proceeded they declined for poorly understood reasons (once thought to be due to competition with early birds, but now it is understood avian adaptive radiation is not consistent with pterosaur decline). By the end of the period only three highly specialized families remained; Pteranodontidae, Nyctosauridae, and Azhdarchidae. The Liaoning lagerstätte (Yixian Formation) in China is an important site, full of preserved remains of numerous types of small dinosaurs, birds and mammals, that provides a glimpse of life in the Early Cretaceous. The coelurosaur dinosaurs found there represent types of the group Maniraptora, which includes modern birds and their closest non-avian relatives, such as dromaeosaurs, oviraptorosaurs, therizinosaurs, troodontids along with other avialans. Fossils of these dinosaurs from the Liaoning lagerstätte are notable for the presence of hair-like feathers. Insects diversified during the Cretaceous, and the oldest known ants, termites and some lepidopterans, akin to butterflies and moths, appeared. Aphids, grasshoppers and gall wasps appeared. Rhynchocephalians Rhynchocephalians (which today only includes the Tuatara) disappeared from North America and Europe after the Early Cretaceous, and were absent from North Africa and northern South America by the early Late Cretaceous. The cause of the decline of Rhynchocephalia remains unclear, but has often been suggested to be due to competition with advanced lizards and mammals. They appear to have remained diverse in high-latitude southern South America during the Late Cretaceous, where lizards remained rare, with their remains outnumbering terrestrial lizards 200:1. Choristodera Choristoderes, a group of freshwater aquatic reptiles that first appeared during the preceding Jurassic, underwent a major evolutionary radiation in Asia during the Early Cretaceous, which represents the high point of choristoderan diversity, including long necked forms such as Hyphalosaurus and the first records of the gharial-like Neochoristodera, which appear to have evolved in the regional absence of aquatic neosuchian crocodyliformes. During the Late Cretaceous the neochoristodere Champsosaurus was widely distributed across western North America. Due to the extreme climatic warmth in the Arctic, choristoderans were able to colonise it too during the Late Cretaceous. Marine fauna In the seas, rays, modern sharks and teleosts became common. Marine reptiles included ichthyosaurs in the early and mid-Cretaceous (becoming extinct during the late Cretaceous Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event), plesiosaurs throughout the entire period, and mosasaurs appearing in the Late Cretaceous. Sea turtles in the form of Cheloniidae and Panchelonioidea lived during the period and survived the extinction event. Panchelonioidea is today represented by a single species; the leatherback sea turtle. The Hesperornithiformes were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like grebes. Baculites, an ammonite genus with a straight shell, flourished in the seas along with reef-building rudist clams. Predatory gastropods with drilling habits were widespread. Globotruncanid Foraminifera and echinoderms such as sea urchins and starfish (sea stars) thrived. Ostracods were abundant in Cretaceous marine settings; ostracod species characterised by high male sexual investment had the highest rates of extinction and turnover. Thylacocephala, a class of crustaceans, went extinct in the Late Cretaceous. The first radiation of the diatoms (generally siliceous shelled, rather than calcareous) in the oceans occurred during the Cretaceous; freshwater diatoms did not appear until the Miocene. The Cretaceous was also an important interval in the evolution of bioerosion, the production of borings and scrapings in rocks, hardgrounds and shells. See also Mesozoic Era Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction Chalk Group Cretaceous Thermal Maximum List of fossil sites (with link directory) South Polar region of the Cretaceous References Citations Bibliography —detailed coverage of various aspects of the evolutionary history of the insects. External links UCMP Berkeley Cretaceous page Cretaceous Microfossils: 180+ images of Foraminifera Cretaceous (chronostratigraphy scale) Geological periods

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar%20year

Calendar year

Generally speaking, a calendar year begins on the New Year's Day of the given calendar system and ends on the day before the following New Year's Day, and thus consists of a whole number of days. A year can also be measured by starting on any other named day of the calendar, and ending on the day before this named day in the following year. This may be termed a "year's time", but not a "calendar year". To reconcile the calendar year with the astronomical cycle (which has a fractional number of days) certain years contain extra days ("leap days" or "intercalary days"). The Gregorian year, which is in use in most of the world, begins on January 1 and ends on December 31. It has a length of 365 days in an ordinary year, with 8760 hours, 525,600 minutes, or 31,536,000 seconds; but 366 days in a leap year, with 8784 hours, 527,040 minutes, or 31,622,400 seconds. With 97 leap years every 400 years, the year has an average length of 365.2425 days. Other formula-based calendars can have lengths which are further out of step with the solar cycle: for example, the Julian calendar has an average length of 365.25 days, and the Hebrew calendar has an average length of 365.2468 days. The Lunar Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days. The astronomer's mean tropical year, which is averaged over equinoxes and solstices, is currently 365.24219 days, slightly shorter than the average length of the year in most calendars. Quarters The calendar year can be divided into four quarters, often abbreviated as Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4. In the Gregorian calendar: First quarter, Q1: 1 January – 31 March (90 days or 91 days in leap years) Second quarter, Q2: 1 April – 30 June (91 days) Third quarter, Q3: 1 July – 30 September (92 days) Fourth quarter, Q4: 1 October – 31 December (92 days) While in the Chinese calendar, the quarters are traditionally associated with the 4 seasons of the year: Spring: 1st to 3rd month Summer: 4th to 6th month Autumn: 7th to 9th month Winter: 10th to 12th month See also Academic term Calendar reform Common year Fiscal year ISO 8601 ISO week date Leap year Model year Tropical year Seasonal year References Year Units of time Types of year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozoic

Cenozoic

The Cenozoic ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds and flowering plants. It is the latest of three geological eras, preceded by the Mesozoic and Paleozoic. The Cenozoic started with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, when many species, including the non-avian dinosaurs, became extinct in an event attributed by most experts to the impact of a large asteroid or other celestial body, the Chicxulub impactor. The Cenozoic is also known as the Age of Mammals because the terrestrial animals that dominated both hemispheres were mammalsthe eutherians (placentals) in the northern hemisphere and the metatherians (marsupials, now mainly restricted to Australia and to some extent South America) in the southern hemisphere. The extinction of many groups allowed mammals and birds to greatly diversify so that large mammals and birds dominated life on Earth. The continents also moved into their current positions during this era. The climate during the early Cenozoic was warmer than today, particularly during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum. However, the Eocene to Oligocene transition and the Quaternary glaciation dried and cooled Earth. Nomenclature Cenozoic derives from the Greek words ( 'new') and ( 'life'). The name was proposed in 1840 by the British geologist John Phillips (1800–1874), who originally spelled it Kainozoic. The era is also known as the Cænozoic, Caenozoic, or Cainozoic (). In name, the Cenozoic () is comparable to the preceding Mesozoic ('middle life') and Paleozoic ('old life') Eras, as well as to the Proterozoic ('earlier life') Eon. Divisions The Cenozoic is divided into three periods: the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary; and seven epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene. The Quaternary Period was officially recognised by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in June 2009. In 2004, the Tertiary Period was officially replaced by the Paleogene and Neogene Periods. The common use of epochs during the Cenozoic helps palaeontologists better organise and group the many significant events that occurred during this comparatively short interval of time. Knowledge of this era is more detailed than any other era because of the relatively young, well-preserved rocks associated with it. Paleogene The Paleogene spans from the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, 66 million years ago, to the dawn of the Neogene, 23.03 million years ago. It features three epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene. The Paleocene Epoch lasted from 66 million to 56 million years ago. Modern placental mammals originated during this time. The devastation of the K–Pg extinction event included the extinction of large herbivores, which permitted the spread of dense but usually species-poor forests. The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of Earth. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all the continents and the subcontinent of India were separated from each other. Afro-Eurasia was separated by the Tethys Sea, and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the isthmus had not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had once predominated were extinct. Archaic mammals filled the world such as creodonts (extinct carnivores, unrelated to existing Carnivora). The Eocene Epoch ranged from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago. In the Early-Eocene, species living in dense forest were unable to evolve into larger forms, as in the Paleocene. Among them were early primates, whales and horses along with many other early forms of mammals. At the top of the food chains were huge birds, such as Paracrax. Carbon dioxide levels were approximately 1,400 ppm. The temperature was 30 degrees Celsius with little temperature gradient from pole to pole. In the Mid-Eocene, the Antarctic Circumpolar Current between Australia and Antarctica formed. This disrupted ocean currents worldwide and as a result caused a global cooling effect, shrinking the jungles. This allowed mammals to grow to mammoth proportions, such as whales which, by that time, had become almost fully aquatic. Mammals like Andrewsarchus were at the top of the food-chain. The Late Eocene saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-like areas, along with the evolution of grasses. The end of the Eocene was marked by the Eocene-Oligocene extinction event, the European face of which is known as the Grande Coupure. The Oligocene Epoch spans from 33.9 million to 23.03 million years ago. The Oligocene featured the expansion of grasslands which had led to many new species to evolve, including the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today. Many other species of plants evolved in this period too. A cooling period featuring seasonal rains was still in effect. Mammals still continued to grow larger and larger. Neogene The Neogene spans from 23.03 million to 2.58 million years ago. It features 2 epochs: the Miocene, and the Pliocene. The Miocene Epoch spans from 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago and is a period in which grasses spread further, dominating a large portion of the world, at the expense of forests. Kelp forests evolved, encouraging the evolution of new species, such as sea otters. During this time, perissodactyla thrived, and evolved into many different varieties. Apes evolved into 30 species. The Tethys Sea finally closed with the creation of the Arabian Peninsula, leaving only remnants as the Black, Red, Mediterranean and Caspian Seas. This increased aridity. Many new plants evolved: 95% of modern seed plants families were present by the end of the Miocene. The Pliocene Epoch lasted from 5.333 to 2.58 million years ago. The Pliocene featured dramatic climatic changes, which ultimately led to modern species of flora and fauna. The Mediterranean Sea dried up for several million years (because the ice ages reduced sea levels, disconnecting the Atlantic from the Mediterranean, and evaporation rates exceeded inflow from rivers). Australopithecus evolved in Africa, beginning the human branch. The isthmus of Panama formed, and animals migrated between North and South America during the great American interchange, wreaking havoc on local ecologies. Climatic changes brought: savannas that are still continuing to spread across the world; Indian monsoons; deserts in central Asia; and the beginnings of the Sahara desert. The world map has not changed much since, save for changes brought about by the glaciations of the Quaternary, such as the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Baltic sea. Quaternary The Quaternary spans from 2.58 million years ago to present day, and is the shortest geological period in the Phanerozoic Eon. It features modern animals, and dramatic changes in the climate. It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene. The Pleistocene lasted from 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. This epoch was marked by ice ages as a result of the cooling trend that started in the Mid-Eocene. There were at least four separate glaciation periods marked by the advance of ice caps as far south as 40° N in mountainous areas. Meanwhile, Africa experienced a trend of desiccation which resulted in the creation of the Sahara, Namib, and Kalahari deserts. Many animals evolved including mammoths, giant ground sloths, dire wolves, sabre-toothed cats, and Homo sapiens. 100,000 years ago marked the end of one of the worst droughts in Africa, and led to the expansion of primitive humans. As the Pleistocene drew to a close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world's megafauna, including some of the hominid species, such as Neanderthals. All the continents were affected, but Africa to a lesser extent. It still retains many large animals, such as hippos. The Holocene began 11,700 years ago and lasts to the present day. All recorded history and "the Human history" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene Epoch. Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded since the Industrial Revolution. This is sometimes referred to as the "Sixth Extinction". It is often cited that over 322 recorded species have become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution, but the rate may be as high as 500 vertebrate species alone, the majority of which have occurred after 1900. Tectonics Geologically, the Cenozoic is the era when the continents moved into their current positions. Australia-New Guinea, having split from Pangea during the early Cretaceous, drifted north and, eventually, collided with Southeast Asia; Antarctica moved into its current position over the South Pole; the Atlantic Ocean widened and, later in the era (2.8 million years ago), South America became attached to North America with the isthmus of Panama. India collided with Asia creating the Himalayas; Arabia collided with Eurasia, closing the Tethys Ocean and creating the Zagros Mountains, around . The break-up of Gondwana in Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic times led to a shift in the river courses of various large African rivers including the Congo, Niger, Nile, Orange, Limpopo and Zambezi. Climate In the Cretaceous, the climate was hot and humid with lush forests at the poles, there was no permanent ice and sea levels were around 300 metres higher than today. This continued for the first 10 million years of the Paleocene, culminating in the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum about . Around Earth entered a period of long term cooling. This was mainly due to the collision of India with Eurasia, which caused the rise of the Himalayas: the upraised rocks eroded and reacted with in the air, causing a long-term reduction in the proportion of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Around permanent ice began to build up on Antarctica. The cooling trend continued in the Miocene, with relatively short warmer periods. When South America became attached to North America creating the Isthmus of Panama around , the Arctic region cooled due to the strengthening of the Humboldt and Gulf Stream currents, eventually leading to the glaciations of the Quaternary ice age, the current interglacial of which is the Holocene Epoch. Recent analysis of the geomagnetic reversal frequency, oxygen isotope record, and tectonic plate subduction rate, which are indicators of the changes in the heat flux at the core mantle boundary, climate and plate tectonic activity, shows that all these changes indicate similar rhythms on million years' timescale in the Cenozoic Era occurring with the common fundamental periodicity of ~13 Myr during most of the time. Life Early in the Cenozoic, following the K-Pg event, the planet was dominated by relatively small fauna, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. From a geological perspective, it did not take long for mammals and birds to greatly diversify in the absence of the dinosaurs that had dominated during the Mesozoic. Some flightless birds grew larger than humans. These species are sometimes referred to as "terror birds", and were formidable predators. Mammals came to occupy almost every available niche (both marine and terrestrial), and some also grew very large, attaining sizes not seen in most of today's terrestrial mammals. The ranges of many Cenozoic bird clades were governed by latitude and temperature and have contracted over the course of this era as the world cooled. During the Cenozoic, mammals proliferated from a few small, simple, generalised forms into a diverse collection of terrestrial, marine, and flying animals, giving this period its other name, the Age of Mammals. The Cenozoic is just as much the age of savannas, the age of co-dependent flowering plants and insects, and the age of birds. Grasses also played a very important role in this era, shaping the evolution of the birds and mammals that fed on them. One group that diversified significantly in the Cenozoic as well were the snakes. Evolving in the Cenozoic, the variety of snakes increased tremendously, resulting in many colubrids, following the evolution of their current primary prey source, the rodents. In the earlier part of the Cenozoic, the world was dominated by the gastornithid birds, terrestrial crocodiles like Pristichampsus, large sharks such as Otodus, and a handful of primitive large mammal groups like uintatheres, mesonychians, and pantodonts. But as the forests began to recede and the climate began to cool, other mammals took over. The Cenozoic is full of mammals both strange and familiar, including chalicotheres, creodonts, whales, primates, entelodonts, sabre-toothed cats, mastodons and mammoths, three-toed horses, giant rhinoceros like Paraceratherium, the rhinoceros-like brontotheres, various bizarre groups of mammals from South America, such as the vaguely elephant-like pyrotheres and the dog-like marsupial relatives called borhyaenids and the monotremes and marsupials of Australia. See also Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary) Geologic time scale Late Cenozoic Ice Age References Further reading External links Western Australian Museum – The Age of the Mammals Cenozoic (chronostratigraphy scale) Geological eras 1840s neologisms

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCAspace

ARCAspace

Romanian Cosmonautics and Aeronautics Association (), also known as ARCAspace, is an aerospace company based in Râmnicu Vâlcea, Romania. It builds rockets, high-altitude balloons, and unmanned aerial vehicles. It was founded in 1999 as a non-governmental organization in Romania by the Romanian engineer and entrepreneur Dumitru Popescu and other rocket and aeronautics enthusiasts. Since then, ARCA has launched two stratospheric rockets and four large-scale stratospheric balloons including a cluster balloon. It was awarded two governmental contracts with the Romanian government and one contract with the European Space Agency. ARCASpace is currently developing a three-stage, semi-reusable steam-powered rocket called EcoRocket and in 2022 has shifted its business model to Asteroid mining. History 1999–2004: Demonstrator rocket family ARCA was established as Romanian Cosmonautics and Aeronautics Association (), a non-governmental organization in 1999 by a group of rocket and aeronautics enthusiasts. Their goal was to construct and launch space rockets. After experimenting with designs for different fuels and rocket engine types, including solid fuel rockets, they decided to use fiberglass for engine and tank construction and hydrogen peroxide as fuel. Their first vehicle was named Demonstrator and was a long, unguided, self-stabilized rocket. It never flew, instead it was used in various public exhibitions to attract funds and sponsorships. Their second rocket, Demonstrator 2, was constructed in 2003. For this, ARCA created their first rocket engine testing installation where they tested their hydrogen peroxide engine. After the tests were successful, they constructed Demonstrator 2B which was an improved version of their previous rocket. It had a length and diameter and used an high launch pad. In 2003 ARCA also signed up for the Ansari X Prize international competition and started design for the Orizont suborbital vehicle capable of carrying a crew of two up to an altitude of . Orizont was to be ARCA's competing vehicle for the Ansari X Prize. It was designed to use a disposable jet engine up to an altitude of and then ignite its main hydrogen peroxide rocket engine in order to propel it to the altitude. On September 9, 2004, ARCA successfully launched the Demonstrator 2B rocket from Cape Midia Air Force Base. Because of powerful wind gusts up to , they were forced to use only 20 percent of the intended fuel quantity in order to keep with the allocated safety zone by the Air Force. The altitude reached was . 90 journalists from Romania, Germany, and Austria were present at the launch. After the launch, ARCA started construction of the Orizont spaceplane and completed the aircraft structure by 2005. 2005–2010: Stabilo and Helen rockets ARCA organized a public presentation of their Orizont spaceplane in front of the Palace of the Parliament in Bucharest. Because of financial problems encountered with the construction of Orizont, ARCA decided to suspend its development and instead design a new, much smaller rocket called Stabilo. It was designed to be launched from a stratospheric solar balloon and carry one person into space. Design and construction of large scale polyethylene balloons started and on December 2, 2006, at Onesti, Bacau, the crew capsule of Stabilo rocket was lifted to an altitude of 14,700 m. The capsule was safely recovered that evening. The event was transmitted live on several Romanian TV stations. On 27 September 2007, the entire Stabilo rocket (crew capsule + rocket booster) was lifted to an altitude of 12,000 m using the largest solar balloon constructed until that date. The mission was launched from Cape Midia Air Force Base, and the rocket was recovered from the Black Sea surface by Romanian Navy divers. At this moment ARCA proved its ability to conduct large-scale operations and to coordinate military institutions like the Romanian Navy and the Romanian Air Force. In 2007 ARCA won two governmental contracts with the Research Ministry for a suborbital rocket and a solar balloon. The Romanian Space Agency, the University of Bucharest and other Romanian institutions were subcontractors to ARCA for these projects. In early 2008 ARCA joined the Google Lunar X Prize competition and designed the Haas orbital launcher. Their lunar rover was named European Lunar Lander and used a monopropellant rocket engine for landing and hovering. Haas was a three-stage orbital rocket powered by hybrid engines using a bitumen-based fuel and hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer. It was supposed to be launched from 18,000 m carried by the largest solar balloon ever constructed, having a volume of 2 million cubic meters. For the Haas rocket, they created a three-stage much smaller demonstrator called Helen that was intended to test technologies and operation. The Helen rocket was intentionally not aerodynamically stabilized, being intended to use a technique based on the pendulum rocket fallacy. The Romanian bank BRD – Groupe Société Générale awarded ARCA a 300,000 euro sponsorship for their activities. Romanian cosmonaut Dumitru Prunariu highly praised ARCA's achievements and noted their ability to efficiently utilize private funds. In 2009 ARCA performed a series of engine tests using the Stabilo rocket engine in order to validate the design for the Helen rocket. The first attempt to launch the Helen rocket took place on November 14, 2009. Romanian Naval Forces participated with the NSSL 281 Constanta ship, the Venus divers ship, the Fulgerul fast boat and two other fast craft boats. For this mission, ARCA constructed a massive 150,000 cubic meter solar balloon, approximately five times as large as their previous balloon. After the balloon began inflating, the mission crew discovered that the balloon inflation arms were wrapped around the lower part of the balloon. Inflation was halted and the crew attempted to unwrap the arms. Three hours later the arms were repositioned and inflation was ready to resume but the sun was already nearing the horizon, and heating the solar balloon was no longer possible. The decision was made to cancel the mission. ARCA decided to redesign the Helen rocket to use two stages and a helium balloon instead. They named the rocket Helen 2. On April 27, 2010, they performed an avionics test for the European Lunar Lander payload to be lifted by the Helen 2 rocket, using a hot air balloon that lifted three ARCA members to 5,200 m altitude. On August 4, 2010, a new attempt to launch the rocket was made, but a construction error in the helium balloon caused it to rupture and the mission was aborted. A new helium balloon was manufactured designed to carry only the second stage of Helen 2 rocket. On October 1, 2010, the rocket performed a successful flight to an altitude of 38,700 m reaching a maximum velocity of 2320 km/h. Upon atmospheric reentry the rocket capsule parachute failed to deploy and the capsule was lost at sea, but the data was transmitted to the mission control center on the 281 Constanta ship and to the Romanian Air Traffic Services Administration. 2011–2013: IAR-111 aircraft, Executor engine and Haas rocket family After the difficulties encountered with the stratospheric balloons, ARCA decided to change their approach to orbital launch for the Google Lunar X Prize. They designed a supersonic rocket plane powered by a liquid-fueled rocket engine using kerosene as fuel and liquid oxygen as oxidizer. The aircraft, initially named E-111, was renamed IAR-111 after ARCA received permission from IAR S.A. Brasov to use the traditional IAR designation for military and civilian aircraft constructed since 1925. The aircraft was intended to fly to an altitude of 17.000 m and launch a heavily modified version of the Haas rocket, named Haas 2. Haas 2 was an air-launched three-stage orbital rocket intended to place a 200 kg payload into orbit. Work on the plane structure began in late 2010. By 2011 all the fiberglass molds for the aircraft were finished and one-third of the aircraft structure was completed. The crew capsule escape system was tested on September 26, 2011, when a Mil Mi-17 helicopter belonging to the Special Aviation Unit dropped the capsule from an altitude of 700 m over the Black Sea. The emergency parachute deployed successfully and the capsule was recovered from the sea surface by the Romanian Coast Guard. In 2012 ARCA decided to focus on the construction of the rocket engine of the IAR-111 aircraft. The engine, named Executor, is made of composite materials, has a thrust of 24 tons force (52,000 lbf) and is turbopump fueled. It uses ablative cooling for the main chamber and nozzle where the outer layers of the composite material vaporize in contact with the high temperature exhaust mixture and prevent overheating. ARCA also presented a long-term space program, until 2025, that besides IAR-111 envisioned a small scale orbital rocket (Haas 2C), a suborbital crewed rocket (Haas 2B) and a medium scale crewed orbital rocket (Super Haas). In March 2012, ARCA tested an extremely lightweight composite materials kerosene tank that is intended to be used for the Haas 2C rocket. After criticism from the Romanian Space Agency (ROSA) intensified in printed media and television, ARCA decided to send a public letter to the Romanian Prime Minister to intervene in this matter. ARCA mentioned that the Romanian Space Agency is in no position to criticize after the failure of their cubesat Goliat recently launched with a Vega rocket. Furthermore, ARCA was privately funded compared with ROSA which uses public funding. In June 2012 ARCA presented their Haas 2C rocket in Victoria Square in Bucharest, in front of the Romanian Government palace. The same year ARCA won a $1,200,000 contract with the European Space Agency to participate in the ExoMars program. Named the High Altitude Drop Test, the contract consisted of a series of stratospheric balloon drop tests to verify the structural integrity of the EDM parachutes used in Martian atmospheric deceleration. On September 16, 2013, ARCA performed the first successful flight in the ExoMars program, lifting three pressurised avionics containers over the Black Sea to an altitude of 24,400 m. In November, the concrete test stand for the Executor engine was completed. 2014–2019: AirStrato to Launch Assist System On February 10 ARCA presented a high-altitude uncrewed aerial vehicle, named AirStrato, that was meant to replace stratospheric balloon usage for equipment testing and other near space missions. It was intended to be solar powered for extended endurance, was 7 m in length and had a 16 m wingspan with a takeoff weight of 230 kg. The aircraft first flew on February 28. ARCA announced that if the development was successful they would consider developing a commercial version available for sale to customers. On October 17, 2014, ARCA announced that it had transferred its headquarters to the United States to Las Cruces, New Mexico. In a press release they announced that in Romania activities related to software and rocket engine development will continue. They also announced that Air Strato UAV would be available for purchase to customers and that Las Cruces will also serve as a production center for the aircraft. On November 25 they released a website for the UAV revealing two models available for purchase, AirStrato Explorer that could reach altitudes up to 18,000 m with 20 hours endurance and AirStrato Pioneer that would be limited to 8000 m and 12 hours endurance. On July 13, 2015 ARCA announced the beginning of activities in New Mexico, including production and flight tests of AirStrato UAS and Haas rockets, investing . In November 2017, CEO Dimitru Popescu was arrested and charged with 12 counts of fraud. As a result, he left the country and reestablished operations in Romania. The charges were later dropped. In early 2019, ARCA announced the development of the steam-powered Launch Assist System and began testing the aerospike engine. 2020–Present: EcoRocket, AMi, and Pivot to Asteroid Mining In 2020, tests of the steam-powered aerospike continued and ARCA announced a new launch vehicle, the EcoRocket, derived from the LAS technology. In 2021, the EcoRocket design was altered slightly to a three-stage vehicle as tests of the steam-powered aerospike continued. In 2022, ARCA announced the AMi Exploration Initiative, effectively pivoting its business model away from the commercial launch sector and towards cryptocurrency and asteroid mining. The AMi program will utilize the AMi Cargo vehicle and EcoRocket Heavy to mine valuable materials from asteroids. Beginning in the late 2020s, the company plans to start a series of asteroid mining missions to return valuable metals (mostly platinum) to Earth for sale. It intends to fund this venture primarily through the sales of the AMi token, an upcoming cryptocurrency on the Ethereum blockchain. Vehicles Haas rocket family The Haas rocket family was to be a series of rockets of various sizes and configurations intended to replace the initial Haas balloon-launched rocket. After the difficulties encountered with balloon operation in Mission 3 and Mission 4, ARCA decided to redesign the rocket to be ground-launched. Although heavier and more expensive, ground-launched rockets are more reliable, easier to operate and can carry heavier payloads into orbit. Haas 2B Haas 2B was to be a single-stage suborbital rocket intended for space tourism. It was designed to transport a crew capsule and service module into a suborbital trajectory. The crew capsule and service module would have been the same as the ones used for the larger multi-stage Super Haas orbital rocket. At the NASA DC-X conference in Alamogordo, New Mexico in August 2013 ARCA presented an updated version of the Haas 2B rocket with a capsule capable of carrying a crew of five into space. There were discussions with Spaceport America representatives to operate the Haas 2B rocket from New Mexico. Haas 2C Haas 2C was to be an orbital rocket intended for commercial payload launches. There were two planned variants of the rocket, a single stage to orbit variant capable of placing a payload into orbit and a two-stage variant capable of lifting a payload into orbit. After testing the extremely lightweight composite tank, ARCA designed a single stage long rocket with a total weight of , having a thrust-to-weight ratio of 26:1 and a payload. The company displayed the rocket in Victoria Square in Bucharest, in front of the Romanian Government building. The second stage version was to be powered by the Executor engine for the lower stage, and the upper stage use a smaller engine adapted for vacuum, named Venator. Haas 2CA Haas 2CA was to be a rocket designed to be able to launch 100 kg into a low-Earth orbit, at a price of US$1 million per launch. The first flight was intended to launch from Wallops Flight Facility in 2018. The rocket was designed as a Single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) and featured an Aerospike engine, producing of thrust at sea level and of thrust in vacuum. IAR-111 rocket plane Romanian Aeronautical Industry Brașov (), also known as IAR-111, was a sea-launched suborbital rocket plane. It used the same Executor engine as Haas 2B and 2C rockets. It was to have a length of , a wingspan of and a take-off mass of . It can carry a crew of two, a pilot and a passenger. The flight sequence consists of take-off from sea surface, horizontal flight at subsonic speed, followed by a rapid climb to an altitude of in approximately two minutes. As a space tourism development platform, it could reach at . After fuel depletion, IAR-111 was to descend in gliding flight and land on the sea surface. In case of emergency, the crew capsule was to be detachable and equipped with two rocket-propelled parachutes. The IAR-111 capsule was flight tested during Mission 6. The mission took place in cooperation with the Special Aviation Unit and the Coast Guard, belonging to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Administration. AirStrato unmanned aerial vehicle AirStrato was an electric powered medium-sized unmanned aerial vehicle that was being developed by ARCA. There were two variants planned, the AirStrato Explorer with a target flight ceiling of 18,000 m and AirStrato Pioneer with a target flight ceiling of 8000 m. It was supposed to carry a 45 kg payload consisting of surveillance equipment, scientific instruments, or additional battery pods for extended autonomy. The first prototype's maiden flight took place on February 28, 2014. It was equipped with fixed landing gear. Two more prototypes were constructed that lacked landing gear. Instead, ARCA opted for a pneumatic catapult as a launcher and landing skids and a recovery parachute for landing. Both prototypes only performed take-off and landing testing and short low-altitude flights. ESA Drop Test Vehicle ARCA has constructed a drop test vehicle for the European Space Agency intended to test the atmospheric deceleration parachutes for the ExoMars EDM lander module. It has the same weight and parachute deployment systems present on the ESA module. The DTV is intended to be lifted to an altitude of 24 km by a stratospheric helium balloon. From that height, it will fall freely reaching a dynamic pressure similar to that encountered by the ExoMars EDM at entry into the Mars atmosphere. At that dynamic pressure the parachute will deploy and the module will land on the Black Sea surface and will be recovered by the Romanian Naval Forces. EcoRocket Demonstrator The EcoRocket Demonstrator (formerly just EcoRocket) is a partially-reusable three-stage orbital launch vehicle currently under development. The EcoRocket Demonstrator is slated to launch in 2022. The vehicle's reusable first stage will use a battery-powered steam rocket to propel a small second stage to an altitude of 7 kilometers. The second stage will then proceed to a higher altitude to deploy a tiny third stage, carrying the payload. The third stage utilizes RP-1 and high test peroxide to propel a payload of up to 10 kilograms into orbit. The rocket takes its name from the supposed ecological benefits of not burning as much kerosene (despite using kerosene to achieve most of orbital velocity). The EcoRocket will launch partially submerged in the Black Sea, in a similar manner to the Sea Dragon. Both the first and second stages are intended to be reusable, parachuting back into the ocean for recovery. The vehicle is intended to demonstrate technologies for the upcoming EcoRocket Heavy. EcoRocket Heavy The EcoRocket Heavy is a planned variant of EcoRocket, designed to support ARCA's AMi asteroid mining initiative. The EcoRocket heavy will be a three-stage launch vehicle derived from EcoRocket's technology. The stages will be arranged concentrically around the payload in the center (in a layout occasionally called "onion staging"), with the outermost stage firing, then detaching and allowing the next outermost stage to ignite, and so on. The EcoRocket heavy, like the EcoRocket, will use a three-stage design, with the first two stages using steam power and the final stage using a kerosene/liquid oxygen mixture to propel itself to orbit. Each stage will consist of multiple "propulsion modules" attached together, in a manner many commentators have compared to the now-defunct German launch company OTRAG. The vehicle will be thirty meters in diameter, and, like the EcoRocket Demonstrator, will launch from the ocean, and be partially reusable, recovering the first two stages. The EcoRocket Heavy largely abandons aerospike engines, using only traditional rocket nozzles. AMi Cargo The AMi Cargo vehicle is the vehicle designed to support ARCA's asteroid mining operations, and as the primary payload for the EcoRocket Heavy. The AMi Cargo vehicle will approach an asteroid, and then release the battery-powered Recovery Capsule (which appears to be derived from the earlier suborbital capsule for the Haas 2B), which will use the engine on its service module to approach the target asteroid. The spacecraft will then harpoon the asteroid, then reel itself in to begin mining operations. Upon completion of mining, it will return to the AMi Cargo vehicle, which will propel it back to Earth. Upon reaching Earth, the capsule will detach and jettison the service module prior to reentry. The capsule will then splash down under parachute for recovery of the material inside. ARCA intends to eventually upgrade the spacecraft for uncrewed missions to other planets. To support deep space operations, ARCA intends to construct their own Deep Space Network, akin to NASA's system. Rocket engines Executor The Executor was a liquid-fueled rocket engine intended to power the IAR-111 Excelsior supersonic plane and Haas 2B and 2C rockets. Executor was an open cycle gas generator rocket engine, that uses liquid oxygen and kerosene and has a maximum thrust of 24 tons force. ARCA decided to use composite materials and aluminum alloys on a large scale. The composite materials offer low construction costs and reduced weight of the components. They were used in the construction of the combustion chamber and the nozzle, and also the gas generator and some elements in the turbopumps. The combustion chamber and the nozzle are built from two layers. The internal layer is made of silica fiber and phenolic resin, and the external one is made of carbon fiber and epoxy resin. The phenolic resin reinforced with silica fiber pyrolyzes endothermally in the combustion chamber walls, releasing gases like oxygen and hydrogen, leaving a local carbon matrix. The gases spread through the carbon matrix and reach the internal surface of the wall where they meet the hot combustion gases and act as a cooling agent. Furthermore, the engine is equipped with a cooling system that injects 10 percent of the total kerosene mass onto the internal walls. The pump volutes were made of 6062 type aluminum alloy. The pump rotors are made through lathing and milling using 304 type steel. The supersonic turbine was made of refractory steel, both the core and the blades. The turbine rotation speed was 20,000 rpm and has a 1.5 MW power. The intake gas temperature was 620 °C. The main engine valves were made of 6060 type aluminum and were pneumatically powered, without adjustment. The engine injector and the liquid oxygen intake pipes were made of 304 L type steel and the kerosene intake pipe was made of composite materials. The engine had the possibility to shift the thrust by 5 degrees on two axes. The articulated system was made of composite materials and high-grade steel alloy. The engine is rotated using two hydraulic pistons that use kerosene from the pump exhaust system. ARCA announced that the Executor engine had a thrust/mass ratio of 110. Venator Venator was a liquid-fueled pressure-fed rocket engine that will be used to power the second stage of the Haas 2C rocket. It burned liquid oxygen and kerosene and had a maximum thrust of . The engine had no valves on the main pipes. Instead, it used burst disks on the main pipes, between the tanks and the engine. The second stage was pressurized at at lift-off and after the first stage burn-out, the second stage would be pressurized at 16 atm. At that pressure the disks would burst and the fuel would flow through the engine. LAS The Launch Assist System was an aerospike engine that was to use electrically heated water to produce steam, which would then generate thrust. The LAS was to reduce cost of rockets by manner of reducing the associated complexity, since steam powered rockets are far less complex than even the simplest liquid fueled engines. It was to be a self contained unit including both the engine and propellant tank. It could theoretically achieve a specific impulse of 67 seconds. The LAS was proposed to be a first stage for the Haas 2CA rocket, or to serve as a strap-on booster for existing vehicles, including the Atlas V, Falcon 9, Delta IV, and Ariane 6. The EcoRocket Demonstrator and Heavy will use a reworked version of this system with two nozzles (one for launch, and one for landing) called the LAS 25D. AMi Propulsion System The AMi Cargo vehicle will use a new propulsion system, described by ARCA as "electric-arc propulsion." The reaction mass will be water, and the impulse will be provided electrically using electricity from large solar arrays. Beyond this, not much is known about the nature of this system, however, ARCA intends it to be capable of running for days on end. Missions Mission 1 Mission 1 took place on December 2, 2006, when a solar balloon carried the STABILO system capsule to an altitude of . The altitude was slightly lower than intended because of extreme turbulence encountered during the last stage of the flight. In light of this, it was decided not to risk damaging the system. The flight had been planned since August 2006, when another large solar balloon was launched at low altitude in controlled flight. During this time a specially designed parachute was tested. It was the first stratospheric flight performed by ARCA, and the event was transmitted live; over 20 journalists were present. Mission 2 Mission 2 of STABILO 1B was launched on 27 September 2007 from Cape Midia Air Force Base. The Romanian Air Force participated with two radar stations. Civil Aviation and the Romanian Navy also participated, the latter with one naval diver's ship. The first and second vehicle stages reached an altitude of . After one hour and 30 minutes and having traveled from the launch location, STABILO landed on the sea surface and was intercepted by a Navy Saturn ship and recovered by divers. The recovery ship was guided by the satellite transmission system and by Air Force radar. The vehicle was transported to the Navy shipyard. The electronic equipment continued to transmit to the command center even 8 hours after the flight had ended. Mission 3, 4 and 4B Helen was a demonstrator rocket for the Haas balloon-launched orbital rocket. It was intended to test in flight the avionics and gravitational stabilization method proposed for the much larger Haas rocket. Helen was intended to reach an altitude of . Two versions were created, a three-stage rocket that had cylindrical tanks and used hydrogen peroxide as monopropellant fuel, and a two-stage spherical tank rocket that used the same propulsion type. The rocket used a physically flawed stabilization technique based on the pendulum rocket fallacy. Mission 3 took place on November 14, 2009, on the Black Sea. Romanian Naval Forces participated in the mission with one logistical ship, one diver's ship and another fast craft. For this mission, ARCA constructed the largest stratospheric helium balloon to date. An error in construction caused the balloon's inflation arms to wrap around the base of the balloon when it was inflated. The team managed to unwrap the arms and resume inflation but sunset was approaching and the solar balloon could no longer be used. The mission was cancelled. For Mission 4 ARCAspace decided to use a helium balloon instead and to redesign the Helen rocket. The new version, named Helen 2, was prepared for flight on August 4, 2010. When balloon inflation was initiated, the balloon ruptured because of a construction error and the mission was cancelled. A new attempt was made on October 1, 2010, by using only the final stage of the Helen 2 rocket and a smaller helium balloon. The flight, named Mission 4B, was successful, Helen 2 launching at an altitude of and the rocket reaching an altitude of . After the difficulties encountered with stratospheric balloons, ARCA decided to stop work on the Haas rocket and design a new family of ground-launched orbital and suborbital rockets. Mission 5 Mission 5 was carried out in partnership with the Romanian Air Club and the Romanian Aeronautic Federation. It took place before the Helen 2 rocket launch. The flight took place on April 27, 2010, between 07:45 and 08:45 AM, taking off from Hogiz, Brasov. A manned hot air balloon lifted the Helen 2 rocket pressurised capsule to an altitude of . The maximum distance between the carrier balloon and the command center at Sanpetru airfield was , which corresponded with the Helen 2 rocket simulated safety zone. The balloon crew was composed of Mihai Ilie – pilot, Mugurel Ionescu – copilot, and Dumitru Popescu – ELL equipment operator. The objective of the flight was to test telemetry, command and live TV transmission for the Helen 2 rocket. Mission 6 Mission 6 tested the recovery system for the IAR-111 supersonic plane crew capsule. On September 26, 2011, a Mi-17 helicopter from Special Aviation Unit lifted the capsule to above mean sea level. At that altitude, the helicopter released the capsule. The parachute deployed, and the capsule landed on the sea surface. It was recovered by the same helicopter with the help of the Romanian Coast Guard. WP3 WP3 was a validation test flight for the ExoMars Program High Altitude Drop Test (HADT), carried out in cooperation with the European Space Agency. The launch took place from the Black Sea coast on September 16, 2013, and the hardware comprised three pressurized containers containing the avionics equipment that will be necessary to test the ExoMars spacecraft parachute during future incoming flights. The pressurized containers, carried by a cluster balloon, were launched at 7:15 AM and the ascension took 90 minutes. When the containers reached an altitude of , they were released under a dedicated recovery parachute and landed on the sea twenty minutes later. The containers and the recovery parachute were recovered by the Navy from the launch point. The objectives were flight testing the avionics and communication systems, demonstrating the container sealing after sea landing and the capability to identify and recover the equipment from the sea surface. Mission 9 Mission 9 was to be a short vertical hop of the EcoRocket's first stage, testing the booster landing system in much the same manner as SpaceX's Starhopper. This mission has apparently been scrapped, however, ARCA completed a short, low-altitude flight of the EcoRocket Demonstrator's second stage in the fall of 2021 with no landing attempt to test the RCS systems aboard the rocket. The stage was attached to an umbilical during the flight. Mission 10 Mission 10 will be the first orbital flight of the EcoRocket. See also ArcaBoard Romanian Space Agency Rockoon References External links Ansari X Prize official site Latest ARCA Space, Space Fellowship news Google Lunar X Prize official site National Plan for Research Development and Innovation Space advocacy Science and technology in Romania Private spaceflight companies Google Lunar X Prize

4048926

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno%20clump

Juno clump

The Juno clump is a probable main-belt asteroid family that share similar orbital elements to 3 Juno. 3 Juno is a large asteroid with a mean diameter of about 235 km, but the remaining bodies are all small. , the brightest of those clearly in the visible clump would have a diameter of about 6 km, given the same albedo as 3 Juno. This indicates that it is probably a so-called cratering family composed of ejecta from impacts on 3 Juno. The HCM analysis by (Zappalà 1995) determined several likely core members, whose proper elements lie in the approximate ranges At the present epoch, the range of osculating orbital elements of these core members is References Zappalà, Vincenzo; Bendjoya, Philippe; Cellino, Alberto; Farinella, Paolo; and Froeschlé, Claude; Asteroid Families: Search of a 12,487-Asteroid Sample Using Two Different Clustering Techniques, Icarus, Volume 116, Issue 2 (August 1995), pages 291–314 Asteroid groups and families

4049281

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekadashi

Ekadashi

Ekadashi () is the eleventh lunar day (tithi) of the waxing (Shukla Pakṣa) and waning (Kṛṣṇa Pakṣa) lunar cycles in a Vedic calendar month. Ekadashi is popularly observed within Vaishnavism and Shaivism, two major paths within Sanatan Dharma. Followers offer their worship to the god Vishnu, Shiva by fasting or just as symbol, the idea was always to receive self discipline and benefits of fasting and it was connected to the way if life via Sanatam Dharma practices. Within Hinduism, the primary purpose of fasting on ekadashi is to gain control over the mind and bodily senses, and channel it towards spiritual progression. In addition, there are several health benefits linked to fasting. High protein and carbohydrate-containing foods such as beans and grains are not consumed. Instead, only fruit, vegetables, and milk products are eaten. This period of abstinence starts from sunrise on the day of ekadashi to sunrise on the following day. Rice is not eaten on ekadashi. The timing of each ekadashi is according to the position of the moon. The Indian calendar marks progression from a full moon to a new moon as divided into fifteen equal arcs. Each arc measures one lunar day, called a tithi. The time it takes the moon to traverse a particular distance is the length of that lunar day. Ekadashi refers to the 11th tithi, or lunar day. The eleventh tithi corresponds to a precise phase of the waxing and waning moon. In the bright half of the lunar month, the moon will appear roughly 3/4 full on ekadashi, and in the dark half of the lunar month, the moon will be about 3/4 dark on ekadashi. There are usually 24 ekadashis in a calendar year. Occasionally, there are two extra ekadashis that happen in a leap year. Each ekadashi day is purported to have particular benefits that are attained by the performance of specific activities. Bhagavata Purana (skandha IX, adhyaay 4) notes the observation of ekadashi by Ambarisha, a devotee of Vishnu. Legend The story behind ekadashi began with Vishnu sleeping or in a meditative state. A demon, Murdanav, approaches and attempts to attack Vishnu. At that time, a beautiful woman sprung forth from Vishnu's 11th sense (often called the "mind"). An infatuated Murdanav asked to marry her, to which responded that only if he defeated her in battle. As they fought, Murdanav was eventually killed. Vishnu awoke from his sleep, and blessed the woman by naming her "Ekadashi", and stated that if anyone were to fast on this day, they would be given moksha (spiritual liberation). List of ekadashis The table below describes the ekadashis and when they fall in the year. See also Guruvayur Ekadasi Amavasya Notes References Gangadharan, N., Agni Purana, New Delhi: Motilala Banarsidass, 1985, Chapter 178. Iyer, N.P. Subramania, Kalaprakasika: The standard book on the election (mahoortha) system: with the original text in Devanagari and English translation, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1982. External links About Ekadashi Vrat: Ekadashi Vrat Vidhi-Niyam and Vrat Bhojan List of all Ekadashi of this year 2022 11 Hindu calendar Hindu festivals Religious festivals in India Hindu festivals in Nepal Hindu holy days Vrata

4051392

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deglobalization

Deglobalization

Deglobalization or deglobalisation is the process of diminishing interdependence and integration between certain units around the world, typically nation-states. It is widely used to describe the periods of history when economic trade and investment between countries decline. It stands in contrast to globalization, in which units become increasingly integrated over time, and generally spans the time between periods of globalization. While globalization and deglobalization are antitheses, they are not mirror images. The term of deglobalization has derived from some of the very profound change in many developed nations, where trade as a proportion of total economic activity until the 1970s was below previous peak levels in the early 1910s. This decline reflects that their economies become less integrated with the rest of the world economies in spite of the deepening scope of economic globalization. At the global level only two longer periods of deglobalization occurred, namely in the 1930s during the Great Depression and 2010s, when following the Great Trade Collapse the period of the World Trade Slowdown set in. The occurrence of deglobalization has strong proponents who have claimed the death of globalization, but is also contested by the former Director-General of the World Trade Organization Pascal Lamy and leading academics such as Michael Bordo who argue that it is too soon to give a good diagnosis and Mervyn Martin who argues that US and UK policies are rational answers to essential temporary problems of even strong nations. While as with globalization, deglobalization can refer to economic, trade, social, technological, cultural and political dimensions, much of the work that has been conducted in the study of deglobalization refers to the field of international economics. 1930s versus 2010s Periods of deglobalization have mainly been seen as interesting comparators to other periods, such as 1850–1914 and 1950–2007, in which globalization had been the norm, given that globalization is the norm for most people and because the interpretation of the global economy has mainly been framed as inevitably increasing integration. Therefore, even periods of stagnant international interaction are often wrongly seen as periods of deglobalization. Recently, scientists have started to also compare the major periods of deglobalization in order to better understand drivers and consequences of this phenomenon. The two major phases of deglobalisation are not identical twins. The two phases of deglobalisation were equally triggered by a demand shock in the wake of a financial crisis. Both in the 1930s and in the 2000s the composition of trade was a second key determinant: manufacturing trade bore the brunt of the contraction. One important finding is that country experiences both during the Great Depression and Great Recession are very heterogeneous so that one-size-fits-all policies to counter negative impacts of deglobalization are inappropriate. In the 1930s, democracies supported free trade, and deglobalisation was driven by autocratic decisions to strengthen self-sufficiency. In the 2010s, political institutions are just as significant, but now democratic decisions such as the election of President Trump with an America First agenda and Brexit drive the deglobalisation process worldwide. Indeed, while the industrialised countries in the 2010s avoided the pitfalls of protectionism and deflation, they have experienced different political dynamics. Measures of deglobalization As with globalization, economic deglobalization can be measured in different ways. These centre around the four main economic flows: Goods and services, e.g. exports plus imports as a proportion of national income or per head of population. Labour/people, e.g. net migration rates; inward or outward migration flows, weighted by population (and resultant remittances in per cent of GDP) Capital, e.g. inward or outward direct investment as a proportion of national income or per head of population It is generally not thought possible to measure deglobalization through lack of flows of technology, the fourth main flow. Those areas that are measurable do suggest other possible measures, including: Average tariffs Border restrictions on labour Capital controls, including restrictions on foreign direct investment or outward direct investment The multi-dimensional globalization index of KOF Swiss Economic Institute shows a clear break for economic globalization in 2009 in 2015 KOF observed for its overall index: "The level of globalisation worldwide increased rapidly between 1990 and 2007 and has risen only slightly since the Great Recession. In 2015, globalisation decreased for the first time since 1975. The fall was due to the decline in economic globalisation, with social globalisation stagnating and political globalisation increasing slightly." Other indicators of deglobalization include the development of Foreign Direct Investment, that according to UNCTAD slipped further in 2017 and in stark contrast with production. Risks of deglobalization Typically a reduction of the level of international integration of economies and the world economy at large are expected to exert second round effects related to four feedback mechanisms: A reduction of (the rate of growth) of international trade will feed negatively into long-run growth. A loss of interaction, the co-movement of economies. Trade policy feedbacks in the sense that reduced international interaction and lower growth will stimulate protectionism and non-economic issue areas where reduced cooperation among countries and even an increasing risk of international conflict can be expected. International political economy of deglobalization Deglobalization has also been used as a political agenda item or a term in framing the debate on a new World economic order, for example by Walden Bello in his 2005 book Deglobalization. One of the prominent examples of deglobalization movement could be found in the United States of America, where the Bush and Obama administration instituted Buy American Act clause as party of massive stimulus package, which was designed to favor American-made goods over traded goods. Likewise, the EU has imposed new subsidies to protect their agricultural sectors for their own protection. These movements of deglobalization can be seen as the example of how developed nations react to the Financial crisis of 2007–08 through deglobalization movements. Recently a change in the pattern of anti-globalism has been observed: anti-globalism now has a strong foothold in the Global North and among right-wing (conservative) politicians, with much different attitudes in the Global South, particular among the BRICS countries. See also I'm Backing Britain Trade-to-GDP ratio References Cultural geography Economic geography Globalization World government

4051608

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/132P/Helin%E2%80%93Roman%E2%80%93Alu

132P/Helin–Roman–Alu

132P/Helin–Roman–Alu, also known as Helin-Roman-Alu 2, is a periodic comet in the Solar System. References External links 132P/Helin-Roman-Alu 2 – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net 132P at Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets 0132 132P 132P Comets in 2014 19891026

4051670

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular%20resonance

Secular resonance

A secular resonance is a type of orbital resonance between two bodies with synchronized precessional frequencies. In celestial mechanics, secular refers to the long-term motion of a system, and resonance is periods or frequencies being a simple numerical ratio of small integers. Typically, the synchronized precessions in secular resonances are between the rates of change of the argument of the periapses or the rates of change of the longitude of the ascending nodes of two system bodies. Secular resonances can be used to study the long-term orbital evolution of asteroids and their families within the asteroid belt. Description Secular resonances occur when the precession of two orbits is synchronised (a precession of the perihelion, with frequency g, or the ascending node, with frequency s, or both). A small body (such as a small Solar System body) in secular resonance with a much larger one (such as a planet) will precess at the same rate as the large body. Over relatively short time periods (a million years or so), a secular resonance will change the eccentricity and the inclination of the small body. One can distinguish between: linear secular resonances between a body (no subscript) and a single other large perturbing body (e.g. a planet, subscript as numbered from the Sun), such as the ν6 = g − g6 secular resonance between asteroids and Saturn; and nonlinear secular resonances, which are higher-order resonances, usually combination of linear resonances such as the z1 = (g − g6) + (s − s6), or the ν6 + ν5 = 2g − g6 − g5 resonances. ν6 resonance A prominent example of a linear resonance is the ν6 secular resonance between asteroids and Saturn. Asteroids that approach Saturn have their eccentricity slowly increased until they become Mars-crossers, when they are usually ejected from the asteroid belt by a close encounter with Mars. The resonance forms the inner and "side" boundaries of the asteroid belt around 2 AU and at inclinations of about 20°. See also Orbital resonance Asteroid belt References Orbital perturbations Orbital resonance

4051694

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/136P/Mueller

136P/Mueller

136P/Mueller, also known as Mueller 3, is a periodic comet in the Solar System. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 136P/Mueller 3 – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net 136P at Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets 0136 136P Comets in 2007 Comets in 2016 19900924

4052332

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Hand%20Day

Red Hand Day

On Red Hand Day or the International Day against the Use of Child Soldiers, February 12 each year since 2002, pleas are made to political leaders and events are staged around the world to draw attention to child soldiers: children under the age of 18 who participate in military organizations of all kinds. Red Hand Day aims to call for action to stop this practice, and support children affected by it. Background Definition The Paris Principles define a child associated with an armed force or group as: Current situation Due to the widespread military use of children in areas where armed conflict and insecurity prevent access by UN officials and other third parties, it is difficult to estimate how many children are affected. In 2017 Child Soldiers International estimated that several tens of thousands of children, possibly more than 100,000, were in state- and non-state military organizations around the world, and in 2018 the organization reported that children were being used to participate in at least 18 armed conflicts. , the UN list of countries where children are known to be used in armed conflict situations on the agenda of the Security Council includes: Afghanistan, Central African Republic, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, India, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, Libya, Mali, Myanmar, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Somalia, South Sudan, State of Palestine, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Thailand and Yemen. Child Soldiers International produces a world map showing where children are members of military organizations around the world. Since 2008 Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, and Côte d'Ivoire have been removed from the UN list of countries where children are used in hostilities. Once children have been released from military service, they typically need support to rejoin their communities. The rehabilitation and reintegration of child soldiers is an important part of a peace process but is expensive and requires the participation of whole communities. Child soldiers and the law Children aged under 15 The Additional Protocols to the 1949 Geneva Conventions (1977, Art. 77.2), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (2002) all forbid state armed forces and non-state armed groups from using children under the age of 15 directly in armed conflict (technically "hostilities"). This is now recognised as a war crime. Children aged under 18 Most states with armed forces are also bound by the higher standards of the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (OPAC) (2000) and the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (1999), which forbid the compulsory recruitment of those under the age of 18. OPAC also requires governments that still recruit children (from age 16) to "take all feasible measures to ensure that persons below the age of 18 do not take a direct part in hostilities". In addition, OPAC forbids non-state armed groups from recruiting children under any circumstances, although the legal force of this is uncertain. Movement to end the military use of children The military use of children has been common throughout history; the practice has only met with informed criticism and concerted efforts to end it in recent decades. Many international organizations are active against the use of children as soldiers. These organizations include, for example, Amnesty International, Child Soldiers International, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Terre des hommes, and the United Nations Child Fund (UNICEF). Red Hand campaign Since 2002, nations and regional coalitions from around the world have been holding events on February 12, Red Hand Day, to draw attention to the issue and encourage steps to end the use of children for military purposes. The date reflects the entry into force of the OPAC treaty. For example, in 2008, children and teenagers initiated a campaign to collect as many red hand-prints as possible to present to the United Nations on Red Hand Day. The red hands were made on paper, banners and personal messages calling for an end to the use of child-soldiers. Seven thousand red hands were collected in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo where child recruitment had increased dramatically. Former child soldiers from Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire sent messages pleading for rehabilitation and assistance for former child soldiers. Hundreds of events, such as marches, petitions, school awareness programs, exhibitions, and red hands were delivered to members of local congress and parliaments. Over 250,000 red hands were collected from youths of 101 countries around the world and presented to UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon in a book at 5 pm on February 12, 2009, in New York City by former child-soldiers from Colombia and Côte d'Ivoire accompanied by young activists from Germany. Ban said it was an impressive effort, and the UN is determined to stamp out such abuse. See also History of children in the military Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict Notes External links Child Soldiers World Index (2018), child soldier world map and statistics Red Hand Day – official website, Germany Red Hand Day 2009 – press release photos Awareness days Children in war Children's rights instruments February observances International observances Military sociology

4055192

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maa-alused

Maa-alused

Maa-alused are, in Estonian folk religion, mysterious elf-like creatures which live beneath the ground. They were believed to have a parallel existence to that of humans, the principal differences being that all orientations are reversed, such that up becomes down and left becomes right, and that all things possessed by them are diminished in size. External links Page on maa-alused and folklore (in Estonian) References Estonian legendary creatures Earth spirits

4060211

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav%20Tschermak%20von%20Seysenegg

Gustav Tschermak von Seysenegg

Gustav Tschermak von Seysenegg (19 April 1836 – 24 May 1927) was an Austrian mineralogist. Biography He was born in Litovel, Moravia, and studied at the University of Vienna, where he obtained a teaching degree. He studied mineralogy at Heidelberg and Tübingen and obtained a PhD. He returned to Vienna as a lecturer in mineralogy and chemistry and, in 1862 was appointed second vice curator of the Imperial Mineralogical Cabinet, becoming director in 1868. He resigned as director in 1877. He was also professor of petrography at the University of Vienna. He was appointed professor in 1873 and a member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1882, and a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1905. He died in 1927, aged 91. Work He did useful work on many minerals and on meteorites. The mineral tschermakite is named in his honour. In 1871 he established the Mineralogische Mitteilungen (Mineralogical Reports), published after 1878 as the Mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen (Mineralogical and Petrographical Reports). His publications include: Die Porphyrgesteine Oesterreichs (1869) Die mikroskopische Beschaffenheit der Meteoriten (1883) Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (1884; 5th ed. 1897) Digital 5th edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf Family He had two sons, Armin von Tschermak-Seysenegg, professor of physiology, and Erich von Tschermak-Seysenegg, a botanist, who were one of the re-discoverers of Mendel's laws of genetics. See also Glossary of meteoritics References 1836 births 1927 deaths People from Litovel Moravian-German people Austrian mineralogists Edlers of Austria Austrian people of Moravian-German descent Rectors of universities in Austria University of Vienna alumni Academic staff of the University of Vienna Heidelberg University alumni University of Tübingen alumni Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Meteorite researchers Burials at Döbling Cemetery

4063287

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2884522%29%202002%20TC302

(84522) 2002 TC302

, prov. designation: , is a mid-sized trans-Neptunian object located in the outermost region of the Solar System. It was discovered on 9 October 2002, by American astronomers Mike Brown, Chad Trujillo and David Rabinowitz at the Palomar Observatory in California. The resonant trans-Neptunian object stays in a 2:5 resonance with Neptune. It has a reddish color, a rotation period of 56.1 hours and measures at least in diameter. Orbit and classification orbits the Sun at a distance of 39.2–71.4 AU once every 410 years and 12 months (150,105 days; semi-major axis of 55.28 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.29 and an inclination of 35° with respect to the ecliptic. In December 2058, It will come to perihelion (minimum distance from the Sun) at 39.2 AU, which is about the same as Pluto's semi-major axis (average distance from the Sun). Given the long orbit that TNOs have around the Sun, comes to opposition in late October of each year at an apparent magnitude of 20.5. Both the Minor Planet Center (MPC) and the Deep Ecliptic Survey (DES) show to be a resonant trans-Neptunian object in a 2:5 resonance with Neptune, meaning it completes two orbits for every five orbits of Neptune. Physical characteristics has an absolute magnitude of 3.78. It has an estimated diameter of . Using the Spitzer Space Telescope, it was previously estimated to have a diameter of , which would have made it one of the largest TNOs. This overestimation was due to insufficient motion to allow for a good sky subtraction, and because was very close to a brighter background object. Brown noted that the Spitzer measurement involved a very large potential error and that the object would likely be much smaller. The red spectra suggests that has very little fresh ice on its surface. Its rotation period was initially estimated by Thirouin et al. to be 5.41 h, based on a light-curve amplitude of . However, this short rotation period was most likely an alias due to a bias for shorter and more easily discernable shorter periods. is highly oblate, and Ortiz et al. suggest a longer rotation period estimate of 56.1 hours. An occultation of a 15.3 magnitude star by on 28 January 2018 over Europe suggests that it has highly oblate shape with dimensions of  ×  and a projected axial ratio of a/c=1.18. The area equivalent diameter of is . On 11 November 2021, an occultation across North America and Europe detected an oblate shape of  km (mean 499 km), in strong agreement with the 2018 occultation results. No satellites were detected. Possible satellite The mean diameter of determined from occultations in 2018 is smaller than the larger diameter estimate of by Spitzer in 2008. Despite the large uncertainty in the Spitzer's estimate, the difference of between the two diameters is significant, implying that may have a large satellite with a possible size range of , nearly as large as itself. This possible satellite is expected to orbit at a very close distance of less than , close enough to slow down 's rotation through tidal interactions. If both the primary body and satellite are doubly tidally locked, then the expected orbital period of the satellite would be approximately 54 hours, equal to 's rotation. Given an orbital period of 54 hours, the satellite's estimated orbital separation from the primary would be , with an angular separation of 58 milliarcseconds, too small to be resolved with current space telescopes such as Hubble. Under the assumption the satellite's diameter is , it would cause 's position to oscillate by 18 milliarcseconds as it orbits around its barycenter. See also Kuiper belt Minor planet Notes References External links TNO 2002 TC302, Image of the Month (January 2003) List Of Centaurs and Scattered-Disk Objects, Minor Planet Center Trans-Neptunian objects in a 2:5 resonance Discoveries by the Palomar Observatory Possible dwarf planets Objects observed by stellar occultation 20021009

4063872

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/1948%20V1

C/1948 V1

The Eclipse Comet of 1948, formally known as C/1948 V1, was an especially bright comet discovered during a solar eclipse on November 1, 1948. Although there have been several comets that have been seen during solar eclipses, the Eclipse Comet of 1948 is perhaps the best-known; it was however, best viewed only from the Southern Hemisphere. When it was first discovered during totality, it was already quite bright, at magnitude -2; as it was near perihelion, this was its peak brightness. Its visibility during morning twilight improved as it receded outward from the Sun; it peaked near zero magnitude, and at one point displayed a tail roughly 30 degrees in length, before falling below naked eye visibility by the end of December. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Ephemeris Non-periodic comets 1948 in science 19481101

4068660

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%2076001%E2%80%9377000

Meanings of minor planet names: 76001–77000

76001–76100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 76101–76200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 76201–76300 |-id=272 | 76272 De Jong || || Eric De Jong (born 1946) works on the scientific visualization of planetary surfaces and atmospheres and the evolution of planetary systems dynamics at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. || |} 76301–76400 |-id=309 | 76309 Ronferdie || || Ronald Ferdie (1939–2007) worked in the aerospace industry in the early days of the Apollo program at the Marshall Space Flight Center. He served in the executive of a number of amateur astronomy clubs across the U.S., inspiring and encouraging many beginners to the endeavor. || |} 76401–76500 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 76501–76600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 76601–76700 |-id=628 | 76628 Kozí Hrádek || 2000 HC || Kozí Hrádek is a remnant of a 14th-century castle near Tábor, Czech Republic, abandoned since the end of the 15th century. || |} 76701–76800 |-id=713 | 76713 Wudia || || Milan Wudia (1963–2007) was an outstanding Czech engineer and a pioneer of automated telescopes. He worked at the Nicolas Copernicus Observatory and Planetarium in Brno, and among his works was a computer control system of the Ondřejov 0.65-m telescope with which this minor planet was discovered. || |} 76801–76900 |-id=818 | 76818 Brianenke || || Brian L. Enke (born 1964) is a systems and data analyst, and planetary scientist, at Southwest Research Institute, and also a recognized science-fiction author. He has participated in multiple interplanetary spacecraft missions and in the discovery of several asteroid satellites from imaging. || |} 76901–77000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 076001-077000

4068675

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%2075001%E2%80%9376000

Meanings of minor planet names: 75001–76000

75001–75100 |-id=009 | 75009 Petervereš || 1999 UC || Peter Vereš (born 1982), a Slovak astronomer at the Minor Planet Center. He graduated from Comenius University in Bratislava, observed at Modra Observatory, co-discovered many asteroids and comets with the Pan-STARRS survey (he is not directly credited as a discoverer), and simulated near-Earth object discoveries with the LSST at JPL (Src). || |-id=058 | 75058 Hanau || || The German city of Hanau, famous as the birthplace of the Brothers Grimm || |-id=063 | 75063 Koestler || || Arthur Koestler (1905–1983), a Hungarian British author and journalist || |-id=072 | 75072 Timerskine || || Timothy Joseph Erskine (born 1959), American needle safety technologist, amateur astronomer, musician, artist, and philanthropist || |} 75101–75200 |-id=190 | 75190 Segreliliana || || Asteroid 75190 honors Auschwitz survivor Liliana Segre (born 1930) who holds the same concentration camp number. In January 2018, she was appointed Senator for life by the Italian President for the poignant testimony as a captive child in the Nazi concentration camps during World War II. She devoted her life to witnessing and increasing awareness of the Holocaust so that it does not happen again. || |} 75201–75300 |-id=223 | 75223 Wupatki || || Wupatki pueblo served as a cultural and trade center situated in one of the warmest driest places on the Colorado Plateau in northern Arizona. The red rock walls originally contained 100 rooms, a community room and ball court. It was built by the Ancient Pueblo People some 800 years ago. || |-id=225 | 75225 Corradoaugias || || Corrado Augias (born 1935) is an Italian journalist, writer, author and TV host. || |} 75301–75400 |-id=308 | 75308 Shoin || || Yoshida Shōin (1830–1859), a Japanese political scientist, executed for his anti-shogunate ideology, and whose teachings played an important role in the success of the Meiji Restoration || |} 75401–75500 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 75501–75600 |-id=555 | 75555 Wonaszek || || Antal Wonaszek (1871–1902), a Hungarian astronomer and director of the Kiskartal Observatory during 1897–1902. His main field of research was the observation of clouds in Jupiter's atmosphere and the study of irregularities in Saturn's rings. He also made observations of the sun, moon and comets || |-id=562 | 75562 Wilkening || || Laurel L. Wilkening, (1944–2019), meteoriticist who served on numerous commissions related to the US space program. || |-id=564 | 75564 Audubon || 2000 AJ || John James Audubon (1785–1851), a Franco-American ornithologist, naturalist, and painter || |-id=569 | 75569 IRSOL || || IRSOL (Istituto Ricerche Solari Locarno or Solar Research Institute of Locarno), located in Locarno, Switzerland, is a leading observatory in the field of solar spectropolarimetry. It is associated with the University of Lugano (Src) || |-id=570 | 75570 Jenőwigner || || Eugene Wigner (1902–1995), a Hungarian-American physicist and Nobelist. This minor planet was discovered on the fifth anniversary of his death. || |-id=591 | 75591 Stonemose || || Vickie Stone Moseley (born 1957) is a friend and partner of Alan Hale. She inadvertently "re-discovered" this asteroid while examining images of (4151) Alanhale that were taken during the course of developing an international educational program on the small bodies of the solar system. || |} 75601–75700 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 75701–75800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 75801–75900 |-id=823 | 75823 Csokonai || || Mihály Csokonai Vitéz (1773–1805) was one of the greatest Hungarian poets. His works reflect great knowledge of philosophy, politics and the arts of his time. This minor planet was discovered on the 195th anniversary of his death. || |-id=829 | 75829 Alyea || || Gerald "Gerry" Alyea (1932–2010), a founder of the Warren Astronomical Society in Michigan. || |-id=836 | 75836 Warrenastro || || The Warren Astronomical Society in suburban Detroit Michigan, is a long-lived, very active and well educated club. Over the years a number of their members have gone on to careers in professional astronomy. They maintain an observatory at Camp Rotary in Rochester, Michigan, the site of many public star parties. || |-id=837 | 75837 Johnbriol || || John Briol (born 1955) is a dedicated amateur astronomer who has contributed thousands of asteroid observations to the OSIRIS-REx Target Asteroids! citizen science program and Target NEOs! Astronomical League Observing Program. || |-id=841 | 75841 Brendahuettner || || Brenda Huettner (born 1960) is a dedicated OSIRIS-REx Ambassador assisting the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory with public events. || |-id=842 | 75842 Jackmonahan || || Jack Monahan (born 1945) is a Navy veteran, science and math teacher and a dedicated OSIRIS-REx Ambassador who assists the University of Arizona's, Lunar and Planetary Laboratory with public events. || |-id=844 | 75844 Rexadams || || Rex Adams (born 1945) was a researcher, educator and curator at the University of Arizona's Laboratory of Tree Ring Research for 35 years. He taught numerous students and researchers methods developed by astronomer A. E. Douglass. In 2016 he received the Richard L. Holmes Award for Outstanding Service to Dendrochronology. || |-id=846 | 75846 Jandorf || || Harold "Hal" Jandorf (born 1948) is a well-liked professor of astronomy at Los Angeles Valley College in Valley Glen, California. He is also adjunct faculty at Moorpark College in California, has authored several editions of Experiences in Astronomy and is a popular outreach speaker with the Ventura County Astronomical Society. || |-id=852 | 75852 Elgie || 2000 CY || Joseph Henry Elgie (1864–1937) was an astronomy popularizer, who was elected a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1905 and member of the British Astronomical Association in 1910. He wrote seven books on astronomy and the weather, and made radio broadcasts on the BBC in the 1920s. || |} 75901–76000 |-id=969 | 75969 Backhouse || || Thomas William Backhouse (1842–1920) had an observatory on the roof of his house in Sunderland, England. He observed meteors, variable stars, novae, aurorae, Zodiacal Light, Green Flash, Gegenschein, comets and eclipses (including four total solar). In 1858 he began his "astronomical journal" diary, which ran for 36 volumes. || |-id=970 | 75970 Olcott || || William Tyler Olcott (1873–1936) was an American lawyer, amateur astronomer and co-founder of the American Association of Variable Star Observers. He wrote a number of popular books on astronomy including Star Lore-Myths, Legends and Facts and A Field Book of the Skies. || |-id=971 | 75971 Unkingalls || || Albert Graham Ingalls (Albert "Unk" Ingalls, 1888–1958) helped father amateur telescope making in the United States in the 1920s ushering in an era of amateur astronomy. He published many articles in Scientific American and was the editor of Amateur Telescope Making which was responsible for the construction of thousands of telescopes. || |-id=972 | 75972 Huddleston || || Marvin Huddleston (born 1955) is an amateur astronomer living in Mesquite, Texas. He is a member of the Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers, the Royal Astronomical Society of London and a storm spotter with the meteorological group "Texas Coccorahs". || |} References 075001-076000

4069028

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%2097001%E2%80%9398000

Meanings of minor planet names: 97001–98000

97001–97100 |-id=069 | 97069 Stek || || Stefano Klett (born 1964) is a Swiss computer scientist and amateur astronomer who observes minor planets from his home town of Camorino. He is the promoter of the Ticino section of Dark Sky Switzerland. || |} 97101–97200 |-id=186 | 97186 Tore || || Salvatore Silanus (born 1961), nicknamed Tore, is a friend of Swiss astronomer Stefano Sposetti who discovered this minor planet. || |} 97201–97300 |-id=268 | 97268 Serafinozani || || The Serafino Zani Astronomical Observatory (Osservatorio astronomico Serafino Zani) in Italy was built by Serafino Zani and his family on San Bernardo hill in the commune of Lumezzane in Brescia, Lombardy, and then given to the local amateur astronomers. || |} 97301–97400 |-id=336 | 97336 Thomasafleming || || Thomas Anthony Fleming (born 1960) is an American x-ray astronomer and educator at the University of Arizona's Steward Observatory. He discovered that DA-type white dwarfs were not copious x-ray sources, and he is known for creating and expanding interactive computer-based astronomy education. || |} 97401–97500 |-id=472 | 97472 Hobby || || The Hobby Foundation supports museums and educational organizations throughout Texas. Ten thousand schoolchildren and members of the public a year view the wonders of the heavens through the Hobby telescope at the Houston Museum of Natural Science's George Observatory. || |} 97501–97600 |-id=508 | 97508 Bolden || || Charles Frank Bolden Jr. (born 1946) is a former American astronaut who flew on four space shuttle missions (two as the pilot and two as the commander). From 2009 to 2017, he was the NASA Administrator. || |-id=512 | 97512 Jemison || || Mae Carol Jemison (born 1956) is a retired American astronaut who flew on the space shuttle in 1992. On the space shuttle she conducted scientific experiments. She was the first African American woman to travel into space and the first African American woman admitted into the astronaut training program. || |-id=582 | 97582 Hijikawa || || Hijikawa River is a 103-km-long river in the Japanese Ehime prefecture. It has its source near the Tosaka Pass in Seiyo City and flows into the Seto Inland Sea. With more than 470 tributaries, the river has supplied its abundant water to the people in the southern part of Ehime, especially for irrigation. || |} 97601–97700 |-id=631 | 97631 Kentrobinson || || Ernest Kent Robinson (born 1939), an member of the advisory board at Lowell Observatory, enthusiastically spearheaded the capital campaign for a collection center and library to protect, preserve and make available the historic archives of that institution. || |-id=637 | 97637 Blennert || || John Blennert (born 1951) is a meteorite hunter in Tucson, Arizona, one of three co-discoverers of the Gold Basin Meteorite Strewn Field || |-id=677 | 97677 Rachelfreed || || Rachel Freed (born 1972) is a teacher, an education curriculum specialist, and an avid long-distance runner. She works with the Astronomical Society of the Pacific as a volunteer and researcher. || |} 97701–97800 |-id=786 | 97786 Oauam || || The Poznań Observatory of Adam Mickiewicz University (OA UAM) in Poznań, Poland. The observatory was active in asteroid and comet observations starting in the 1930s. In the 1990s the focus shifted to physical studies of asteroids. Currently OA UAM is the main center for studies of small Solar System bodies in Poland. || |} 97801–97900 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 97901–98000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 097001-098000

4069142

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20100001%E2%80%93101000

Meanings of minor planet names: 100001–101000

100001–100100 |-id=007 | 100007 Peters || || Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters (1813–1890), a German-American astronomer and discoverer of asteroids and of comet 80P/Peters–Hartley || |-id=019 | 100019 Gregorianik || || Gregorian chant (German shortening Gregorianik) a form of monophonic, unaccompanied sacred song of the Roman Catholic Church || |-id=027 | 100027 Hannaharendt || || Hannah Arendt (1906–1975), German philosopher and political theorist || |-id=028 | 100028 von Canstein || || Carl Hildebrand von Canstein (1667–1719) established the Cansteinsche Bible Society in Halle (Saale) in 1710. Von Canstein was a friend of August Hermann Francke. || |-id=029 | 100029 Varnhagen || || Rahel Varnhagen (née Levin; 1771–1833), German writer of Jewish descent, the subject of a famous biography by Hannah Arendt || |-id=033 | 100033 Taizé || || Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, Burgundy, France, where the Taizé Community is located || |-id=046 | 100046 Worms || || Worms is one of the oldest German towns. || |-id=047 | 100047 Leobaeck || || Rabbi Leo Baeck (1873–1956), German-Jewish scholar, president of both the Council of Jews from Germany and the World Union for Progressive Judaism || |-id=049 | 100049 Césarann || || César Hernandez (born 1959) and Ann Hernandez (born 1964), brother-in-law and sister, respectively, of the discoverer Andrew Lowe || |-id=050 | 100050 Carloshernandez || || Carlos R. Hernandez (born 1996), nephew of the discoverer Andrew Lowe || |-id=051 | 100051 Davidhernandez || || David A. Hernandez (born 1998), nephew of the discoverer Andrew Lowe || |-id=077 | 100077 Tertzakian || || Peter Tertzakian (born 1961), Canadian author and energy economist || |} 100101–100200 |-id=122 | 100122 Alpes Maritimes || || Alpes-Maritimes, French département where the discovery site is located || |-id=133 | 100133 Demosthenes || || Demosthenes (384–322 BC), a famous orator of ancient Athens who was considered by Cicero as the greatest among all orators. || |} 100201–100300 |-id=229 | 100229 Jeanbailly || || Jean Sylvain Bailly (1736–1793), a French astronomer, mathematician and freemason. In 1759 he calculated an orbit for the next appearance of Halley's comet. || |-id=231 | 100231 Monceau || || Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau (1700–1782), a French physician, naval engineer and botanist. || |-id=266 | 100266 Sadamisaki || || Sadamisaki peninsula, in the westernmost part of Shikoku, the narrowest peninsula in Japan || |-id=267 | 100267 JAXA || || JAXA, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, where the second discoverer works, on the occasion of the 5th anniversary of JAXA in 2008 || |-id=268 | 100268 Rosenthal || || Hans Rosenthal (1925–1987), German Holocaust survivor, later radio and television moderator, member of the Council of Jews from Germany || |-id=292 | 100292 Harmandir || || The Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib), located in the Indian state of Punjab, is the spiritual and cultural center for the Sikh religion. || |} 100301–100400 |-id=308 | 100308 ČAS || 1995 HB || The Česká Astronomická Společnost (Czech Astronomical Society) was established in Prague in 1917. || |-id=309 | 100309 Misuzukaneko || 1995 HD || Misuzu Kaneko (1903–1930), a Japanese poet and songwriter, who composed as many as 512 poems. || |} 100401–100500 |-id=416 | 100416 Syang || 1996 CB || Stephenson Yang (born 1954), Canadian astronomer and exoplanet discoverer || |-id=417 | 100417 Philipglass || 1996 EC || Philip Glass (born 1937), American composer || |-id=433 | 100433 Hyakusyuko || || Nagai Hyakusyuko is the name of the dam lake in Nagai city, Yamagata Prefecture, Japan. || |-id=434 | 100434 Jinyilian || 1996 LJ || Jin Yilian (born 1929), academic of the China Academy of Engineering || |-id=445 | 100445 Pisa || || The Italian city of Pisa in Tuscany, known for its Leaning Tower and several other historic churches and medieval palaces. || |-id=456 | 100456 Chichén Itzá || 1996 TH || Chichen Itza, a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya during the late classic period. The archaeological site is located in Yucatán State, Mexico. || |-id=483 | 100483 NAOJ || || NAOJ, the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, on the occasion of its twentieth anniversary || |-id=485 | 100485 Russelldavies || 1996 VX || Dennis Russell Davies (born 1944), American pianist and conductor of the Bruckner Orchestra Linz from 2002 and musical director of the Basel Symphony Orchestra from 2009 || |} 100501–100600 |-id=519 | 100519 Bombig || || Anna Bombig (1919–2013), Italian teacher and poet of the Italian region of Friuli || |-id=553 | 100553 Dariofo || 1997 GD || Dario Fo (1926–2016), Italian satirist, playwright, theatre director, actor, composer and recipient of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Literature || |-id=596 | 100596 Perrett || || Kathryn M. Perrett (born 1971), Canadian astrophysicist, expert in galactic dynamics, and friend and colleague of the discoverer, David D. Balam || |} 100601–100700 |-id=604 | 100604 Lundy || || Lundy, English island in the Bristol Channel || |-id=675 | 100675 Chuyanakahara || || Chūya Nakahara (1907–1937), Japanese poet || |} 100701–100800 |-id=726 | 100726 Marcoiozzi || || Marco Iozzi (born 1965), an Italian amateur astronomer and member of the astrometry team at Beppe Forti Astronomical Observatory in Montelupo Fiorentino, Tuscany. || |-id=728 | 100728 Kamenice n Lipou || 1998 CK || Kamenice nad Lipou, small town situated in the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands of the Czech Republic || |-id=731 | 100731 Ara Pacis || 1998 DO || Ara Pacis, located in Rome, is an altar dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of peace. || |-id=732 | 100732 Blankavalois || 1998 DQ || Blanche of Valois (or Blanka of Valois, 1316–1348) was the first wife of Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV || |-id=733 | 100733 Annafalcká || || Anne of Bavaria (or Anna Falcká, 1329–1353) was the second wife of Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV || |-id=734 | 100734 Annasvídnická || || Anna von Schweidnitz (Anna Svídnická; 1339–1362) was the third wife of Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV || |-id=735 | 100735 Alpomořanská || || Elizabeth of Pomerania (or Alžběta Pomořanská, c. 1347–1393) was the fourth and final wife of Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV. || |} 100801–100900 |-id=897 | 100897 Piatra Neamt || || Piatra Neamț, capital city of Neamț County in the region of Moldavia, eastern Romania || |} 100901–101000 |-id=924 | 100924 Luctuymans || || Luc Tuymans (born 1958), Belgian painter || |-id=934 | 100934 Marthanussbaum || || Martha Nussbaum (born 1947), American philosopher at the University of Chicago. || |-id=936 | 100936 Mekong || || The Mekong is a 4350-kilometre river flowing through China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. || |-id=940 | 100940 Maunder || || Edward Walter Maunder (1851–1928), a British astronomer || |} References 100001-101000

4069155

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20101001%E2%80%93102000

Meanings of minor planet names: 101001–102000

101001–101100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 101101–101200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 101201–101300 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 101301–101400 |-id=331 | 101331 Sjöström || || Victor Sjöström (1879–1960), the father of Swedish film and one of the masters of world cinema, was a screen actor and film director. || |-id=383 | 101383 Karloff || || Boris Karloff (1887–1969), an English actor who attained cultural icon status for his portrayal of the monster in the 1931 motion picture "Frankenstein". Karloff, who also appeared in more than 150 films and television programs, has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. || |} 101401–101500 |-id=432 | 101432 Adamwest || || Adam West (1928–2017), an American actor best known for his portrayal of the title character in the television series "Batman", which ran from 1966 to 1968. West appeared in more than 40 motion pictures and nearly 100 television programs. He also was a popular voice actor. || |-id=461 | 101461 Dunedin || || Dunedin is a city in New Zealand. Adopted home to the discoverer of this asteroid, the city, known as the "Edinburgh of the south" has been the jumping off point for many Antarctic journeys of discovery. || |-id=462 | 101462 Tahupotiki || || Tahu Potiki (1966–2019) was an important New Zealand Maori leader. He served as chief executive of Te Runanga o Ngai Tahu between 2002 and 2006. Born in Palmerston, he grew up in Karitane. In addition to his immense contributions to the community he was also a noted authority on the history of his iwi, Ngai Tahu. || |-id=491 | 101491 Grahamcrombie || 1998 XA || Graham William Crombie (1963–2019) was a New Zealand-born chartered accountant. As Chairman of the Otago Museum Trust Board between 2011 and 2019, he championed the construction of the world's southernmost planetarium, which opened in December 2015. || |} 101501–101600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 101601–101700 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 101701–101800 |-id=713 | 101713 Marston || || William Moulton Marston (1893–1947) was an American psychologist, author, inventor, and creator of the comic book characterWonderWoman, who first appeared in "All Star Comics" number 8 in December 1941. Marston also invented the systolic blood pressure test, a component of the modern polygraph. || |-id=721 | 101721 Emanuelfritsch || || Emanuel Fritsch (1874–1956), Czech railway engineer from Prague who was a regional representative of the Czech Tourist Club || |-id=722 | 101722 Pursell || || Wallace Pursell (born 1929), American co-founder of the Baton Rouge Astronomical Society and a lifelong amateur astronomer. || |-id=723 | 101723 Finger || || Bill Finger (1914–1974) was a comic book writer who created the major characters Batman (with Bob Kane) and Green Lantern (with Martin Nodell). He also created Robin, Catwoman, the Joker and the Penguin. He has been inducted into the Jack Kirby Hall of Fame and the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame. || |-id=777 | 101777 Robhoskins || || Robert Edward Hoskins (1965–2016) was a recognized and lauded American attorney who specialized in protecting the rights of retired workers, and successfully argued before the United States Supreme Court (Src) || |-id=781 | 101781 Gojira || || Godzilla, known in Japanese as "Gojira", debuted in the Japanese motion picture "Gojira" on 3 November 1954. It was directed by Ishiro Honda. Gojira is a kaiju (fantastic creature) that has appeared in more than 30 movies. The character, now a pop-culture icon, may be the most recognizable fantasy creature ever. || |} 101801–101900 |-id=810 | 101810 Beiyou || || The Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beiyou, is a key multidisciplinary research university of China, with programs in engineering, management, humanities and sciences, and information technology. || |-id=813 | 101813 Elizabethmarston || || Elizabeth Holloway Marston (1893–1993) was an American attorney and psychologist. She developed, with her husband William Moulton Marston, the systolic blood-pressure test. Along with her husband's live-in mistress, Olive Byrne, she was the inspiration for the comic book creation Wonder Woman. || |} 101901–102000 |-id=902 | 101902 Gisellaluccone || 1999 RN || Gisella Luccone (born 1974), friend of Italian astronomer Gianluca Masi who discovered this minor planet || |-id=955 | 101955 Bennu || || Bennu, an ancient deity from Egyptian mythology. Bennu is associated with Osiris, Atum and Ra. || |-id=960 | 101960 Molau || || Sirko Molau (born 1971), a German computer scientist and amateur astronomer who developed software for the real-time detection of meteors on a video stream (Src and Src) || |} References 101001-102000

4069169

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20102001%E2%80%93103000

Meanings of minor planet names: 102001–103000

102001–102100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 102101–102200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 102201–102300 |-id=211 | 102211 Angelofaggiano || 1999 TQ || Angelo Faggiano (1934–2017), an Italian publisher. || |-id=224 | 102224 Raffaellolena || || Raffaello Lena (born 1959) is an Italian lunar observer. He founded Selenology Today, a journal that has produced high quality amateur lunar studies. He is the Lunar Domes Coordinator of the British Astronomical Association. || |-id=234 | 102234 Olivebyrne || || Olive Byrne (1904–1990) was an American housewife and the research assistant and live-in mistress of William Moulton Marston (who was married to Elizabeth Holloway Marston). She, along with his wife, was the inspiration for his comic book creation Wonder Woman. || |} 102301–102400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 102401–102500 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 102501–102600 |-id=536 | 102536 Luanenjie || || Luan Enjie (born 1940), an Academician of the National Academy of Engineering of China and an Academician of the International Academy of Astronautics. || |} 102601–102700 |-id=617 | 102617 Allium || || Allium is a plant that has been used worldwide for millennia. Among a multitude of varieties, A. sativum is the common cultivated sort and can be found almost yearlong, but in spring, in Gnosca and surrounding areas, people harvest and eat the delicious A. ursinum. || |-id=619 | 102619 Crespino || || Berberis, also known as barberry (in Italian, "crespino"), is a deciduous shrub with three-branched spines. This plant is easily found around the observatory. || |} 102701–102800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 102801–102900 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 102901–103000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 102001-103000

4069174

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20103001%E2%80%93104000

Meanings of minor planet names: 103001–104000

103001–103100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 103101–103200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 103201–103300 |-id=220 | 103220 Kwongchuikuen || || Kwong Chui Kuen (born 1960), American producer of television documentaries, and the wife of the discoverer (this was his first minor planet) || |} 103301–103400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 103401–103500 |-id=421 | 103421 Laurmatt || || Laurenne Greco (born 1991) and Mattia Vivarelli (born 1986), Italian amateur astronomers engaged in meteor research at San Marcello Pistoiese Observatory || |-id=422 | 103422 Laurisirén || || Lauri Sirén (1921–), Finnish amateur astronomer and founder of the amateur astronomical association Jyväskylän Sirius || |-id=460 | 103460 Dieterherrmann || || Dieter B. Herrmann (born 1939), German astronomer and physicist and director of the director of the Archenhold Observatory in Berlin || |} 103501–103600 |-id=560 | 103560 Peate || || John Peate (1820–1902) was an amateur optician who fabricated large telescope mirrors in the late 19th century, culminating with a 62" mirror in 1897, then the largest in the world. That mirror is now kept in the collections of the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of American History in Washington DC. || |} 103601–103700 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 103701–103800 |-id=733 | 103733 Bernardharris || || Bernard Anthony Harris Jr. (born 1956) is a former NASA astronaut who flew on two space shuttle missions. In 1993, he was a mission specialist who carried out research as part of Spacelab D-2. As Payload Commander on the space shuttle in 1995, he became the first African American to conduct a spacewalk. || |-id=734 | 103734 Winstonscott || || Winston Elliott Scott (born 1950) is a former NASA astronaut who has flown two missions into space. Scott completed three spacewalks to retrieve satellites and evaluate the assembly of the International Space Station. He also performed experiments about the effects of zero gravity on the human body. || |-id=737 | 103737 Curbeam || || Robert Lee Curbeam Jr (born 1962) is a retired NASA astronaut and the first person to perform four spacewalks on a single mission. While in space Curbeam helped to fix a solar panel and install a new truss in the International Space Station. He has totaled more than 37 days in space and 45 hours on spacewalks. || |-id=738 | 103738 Stephaniewilson || || Stephanie Diana Wilson (born 1966) is a NASA astronaut and the second African American women to fly in space. She has flown on three missions and as of 2020, she has logged the most time in space of any African American astronaut (42 days). She also served as the ground commander for the first all-women spacewalk in 2019. || |-id=739 | 103739 Higginbotham || || Joan Higginbotham (born 1964) is an electrical engineer and former NASA Astronaut. She actively participated in 53 space shuttle launches as an engineer at Kennedy Space Center before becoming the third African American woman to go into space. || |-id=740 | 103740 Budinger || || Donald V. Budinger (born 1942), American chairman and founding director of the Rodel Foundations and Science Foundation Arizona || |-id=770 | 103770 Wilfriedlang || || Wilfried Lang (born 1951), a German engineer || |} 103801–103900 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 103901–104000 |-id=966 | 103966 Luni || || The Italian municipality of Luni, an ancient and powerful Roman city founded in 177 BC on the shores of the Ligurian Sea || |} References 103001-104000

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20104001%E2%80%93105000

Meanings of minor planet names: 104001–105000

104001–104100 |-id=020 | 104020 Heilbronn || || Heilbronn, a German city located on the Neckar river in the southern state of Baden-Württemberg. It was the home of physician, chemist and physicist Julius von Mayer (1814–1878), and houses , the largest science centre in Germany. || |-id=052 | 104052 Zachery || || Zachery Philip Brady (born 1990), son of New Zealand astronomer Nigel Brady who discovered this minor planet || |} 104101–104200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 104201–104300 |-id=210 | 104210 Leeupton || || Lee Upton (born 1943), assistant director of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Lincoln Laboratory from 2000 to 2009 || |} 104301–104400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 104401–104500 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 104501–104600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 104601–104700 |-id=698 | 104698 Alvindrew || || Benjamin Alvin Drew (born 1962) is a former NASA astronaut who flew two Space Shuttle missions to the International Space Station as a mission specialist. He logged more than 25 days in space. He also conducted two space walks. || |} 104701–104800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 104801–104900 |-id=896 | 104896 Schwanden || || The Swiss village of Schwanden (officially known as Schwanden ob Sigriswil) is part of Sigriswil, in the canton of Berne, where the – a public observatory and planetarium, was founded by Swiss teacher Theo Gyger (born 1939) in 2000. || |} 104901–105000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 104001-105000

4069207

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20105001%E2%80%93106000

Meanings of minor planet names: 105001–106000

105001–105100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 105101–105200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 105201–105300 |-id=211 | 105211 Sanden || || Bernard (Bernie) Emerson Sanden (born 1954), an American amateur astronomer. || |-id=222 | 105222 Oscarsaa || || Oscar Miguel Saa Martinez (1942–2013) managed telescope operations at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory from 1982 to 2010. || |} 105301–105400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 105401–105500 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 105501–105600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 105601–105700 |-id=613 | 105613 Odedaharonson || || Oded Aharonson (born 1973) is a professor at the Weizmann Institute (Israel) studying Martian craters, Titan lakes, and lunar formation. He served as science P.I. for Beresheet, the first Israeli spacecraft to the Moon. || |-id=675 | 105675 Kamiukena || || Kamiukena Koto-gakko, prefectural high school in Ehime prefecture, Japan || |} 105701–105800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 105801–105900 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 105901–106000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 105001-106000

4069227

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20115001%E2%80%93116000

Meanings of minor planet names: 115001–116000

115001–115100 |-id=015 | 115015 Chang Díaz || || Franklin Chang Díaz (born 1950) was an astronaut for 25 years and flew seven Space Shuttle missions from 1986 to 2002. He logged more than 1600 hours in space and helped to deploy the Galileo spacecraft to Jupiter. He is the first Costa Rican astronaut and is also of Chinese descent. || |-id=051 | 115051 Safaeinili || || Ali Safaeinili (1964–2009), radar scientist and electrical engineer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory || |-id=058 | 115058 Tassantal || || Antal Tass (1876–1937), Hungarian astronomer, and director of Konkoly Observatory from 1916 to 1936 || |-id=059 | 115059 Nagykároly || || Károly Nagy (1797–1868), Hungarian astronomer, mathematician, chemist and politician || |} 115101–115200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 115201–115300 |-id=254 | 115254 Fényi || || Gyula Fényi (1845–1927), Hungarian Jesuit and astronomer || |} 115301–115400 |-id=312 | 115312 Whither || || Whitney Young (born 1990) and Heather Young (born 1992), granddaughters of American astronomer James Whitney Young who discovered this minor planet || |-id=326 | 115326 Wehinger || || Peter A. Wehinger (born 1938), American astronomer, and development officer for the Giant Magellan Telescope || |-id=331 | 115331 Shrylmiles || || Shryl Miles, American from Benson, Arizona, who has campaigned against light pollution || |} 115401–115500 |-id=434 | 115434 Kellyfast || || Kelly E. Fast (born 1968), a program scientist for the MAVEN spacecraft at NASA || |-id=449 | 115449 Robson || || Monty Robson, American founder and director of the John J. McCarthy Observatory in New Milford, Connecticut || |-id=477 | 115477 Brantanica || || Brandon Danielson (born 1994), Brittany Danielson (born 1996) and Monica Rahn (born 2006), grandchildren of American astronomer James Whitney Young, who discovered this minor planet || |-id=492 | 115492 Watonga || || Watonga, Oklahoma, the birthplace of the discoverer || |} 115501–115600 |-id=561 | 115561 Frankherbert || || Frank Herbert (1920–1986), American science fiction writer best known for his novel Dune || |} 115601–115700 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 115701–115800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 115801–115900 |- | 115801 Punahou || || Punahou School, a private college preparatory school in Honolulu, Hawaii, United States || |-id=885 | 115885 Ganz || || Ábrahám Ganz (1814–1867), Swiss-Hungarian technical engineer || |-id=891 | 115891 Scottmichael || || Scott Young (born 1996) and Michael Young (born 1998), grandsons of American astronomer James Whitney Young who discovered this minor planet || |} 115901–116000 |-id=950 | 115950 Kocherpeter || || Peter Kocher (born 1939), Swiss amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets || |} References 115001-116000

4069230

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20106001%E2%80%93107000

Meanings of minor planet names: 106001–107000

106001–106100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 106101–106200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 106201–106300 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 106301–106400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 106401–106500 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 106501–106600 |-id=537 | 106537 McCarthy || || Robynn "Swoopy" McCarthy, American producer and co-host of the podcast Skepticality || |-id=545 | 106545 Colanduno || || Derek Colanduno (born 1974), American producer and co-host of the podcast Skepticality || |} 106601–106700 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 106701–106800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 106801–106900 |-id=817 | 106817 Yubangtaek || || Yu Bang-taek (1320–1402), Korean Joseon Dynasty astronomer, co-author of the stone star chart Cheonsang Yeolchabunyajido || |-id=869 | 106869 Irinyi || || János Irinyi (1817–1895), Austro-Hungarian chemist and inventor of the noiseless and non-explosive match || |} 106901–107000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 106001-107000

4069238

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20116001%E2%80%93117000

Meanings of minor planet names: 116001–117000

116001–116100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 116101–116200 |-id=162 | 116162 Sidneygutierrez || || Sidney M. Gutierrez (born 1951) is a former American astronaut. He was the pilot on the Space Shuttle Columbia in 1991. That mission was the first Spacelab mission dedicated to biological sciences. He was the commander of a Space Shuttle Endeavour mission in 1994 that used radar to study the Earth. || |-id=166 | 116166 Andrémaeder || 2003 XJ || André Maeder (born 1942), Swiss astronomer and former director of the Geneva Observatory || |} 116201–116300 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 116301–116400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 116401–116500 |-id=446 | 116446 McDermid || 2004 AG || Stuart McDermid (born 1952), senior research scientist in JPL's Science Division || |} 116501–116600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 116601–116700 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 116701–116800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 116801–116900 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 116901–117000 |-id=903 | 116903 Jeromeapt || 2004 GW || Jerome Apt (born 1949), American astronaut and director of the Table Mountain Observatory || |-id=939 | 116939 Jonstewart || || Jon Stewart (born 1962), American comedian, satirist, actor, author and producer || |} References 116001-117000

4069251

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20107001%E2%80%93108000

Meanings of minor planet names: 107001–108000

107001–107100 |-id=052 | 107052 Aquincum || 2001 AQ || Aquincum, one of the northernmost Roman garrisons of the first through fourth centuries in central Europe, where now stands Óbuda, part of modern Budapest (this minor planet honours the Council of Óbuda for endorsing Hungarian amateur astronomy) || |-id=054 | 107054 Daniela || || Daniela Rapavá (born 1956) is a Slovak astronomer who is a popularizer of the natural sciences, including ecological science. She creates beautiful and unusual photography of physical phenomena, and is the founder of The Inventive Astropark at Rimavská Sobota Observatory. || |-id=074 | 107074 Ansonsylva || || Anson J. Sylva (born 1956), American member of the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing (AMOS) team || |} 107101–107200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 107201–107300 |-id=223 | 107223 Ripero || || José Ripero (born 1955), Spanish amateur astronomer, co-founder of the M 1 observers group and president of the Centro Astronomico de Ávila, author of El Vigía del Cosmos || |} 107301–107400 |-id=379 | 107379 Johnlogan || || John Logan (born 1961) is a highly acclaimed and award-winning writer of fiction and screenplays. Among his many successes are Gladiator, The Last Samurai and Penny Dreadful, each expertly probing the essence of the nature of humans. || |-id=393 | 107393 Bernacca || || Pier Luigi Bernacca (1940–2013), associate professor of astronomy, was director for several years of the PhD School of Space Sciences and Technologies at the University of Padova. || |-id=396 | 107396 Swangin || 2001 DU || Gary Swangin (born 1942) is the Planetarium Astronomer and Manager of the Panther Planetarium in Paterson NJ, and was formerly the director of the Newark Museum Planetarium in Newark, NJ. He has produced radio and video materials for public education about astronomy, recombinant DNA and other topics, and been nominated for a Peabody Award. || |} 107401–107500 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 107501–107600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 107601–107700 |-id=638 | 107638 Wendyfreedman || || Wendy Freedman (born 1957), Canadian-American astronomer, director of the Carnegie Institution's observatories, and project leader for Giant Magellan Telescope || |} 107701–107800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 107801–107900 |-id=805 | 107805 Saibi || || Saibi Koto-gakko, private high school in Ehime prefecture, Japan || |} 107901–108000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 107001-108000

4069263

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20117001%E2%80%93118000

Meanings of minor planet names: 117001–118000

117001–117100 |-id=020 | 117020 Janeconlin || || Jane Conlin (born 1946), an American activist and humanitarian. She has sponsored several of the original Sudanese lost boys and is quick to lend a hand to anyone in need. She is a committed climate activist, working tirelessly as a group leader for Citizens Climate Lobby in Arizona. || |-id=032 | 117032 Davidlane || || David Lane (born 1963), a Canadian amateur astronomer, supernova hunter, and author of The Earth Centered Universe (a planetarium and telescope-control program) || |-id=086 | 117086 Lóczy || || Lajos Lóczy (1849–1920), a Hungarian geologist, first western geologist to describe the structure, geomorphology and stratigraphy of the mountain chains bordering the Tibetan Plateau || |-id=093 | 117093 Umbria || || The Italian region of Umbria is characterized by rolling green hills and medieval cities rich in history and traditions. || |} 117101–117200 |-id=156 | 117156 Altschwendt || || The Austrian village of Altschwendt, where the Altschwendt Observatory is located. It was the first made minor-planet discovery at the observatory. || |} 117201–117300 |-id=240 | 117240 Zhytomyr || || Zhytomyr, Ukraine, the oblast in which Andrushivka, the discovery site, is found, and the birthplace of Sergej Korolev, Russian rocket engineer || |} 117301–117400 |-id=329 | 117329 Spencer || || Henry Spencer (born 1955), Canadian computer scientist and small-satellite engineer || |-id=350 | 117350 Saburo || || Saburo Itagaki (1916–1983), father of Japanese amateur astronomer Koichi Itagaki who discovered this minor planet || |-id=381 | 117381 Lindaweiland || 2004 YU || Linda Weiland, American zoning administrator of Cochise County, Arizona, who has campaigned against light pollution || |-id=384 | 117384 Halharrison || || Hal Harrison (born 1947) is an amateur astronomer and photographer and has always been fascinated by planetary science and astronomy. || |-id=386 | 117386 Thomasschlapkohl || || Thomas Schlapkohl (born 1987) is a guidance, navigation and control engineer at Lockheed Martin for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |-id=387 | 117387 Javiercerna || || Javier Cerna (born 1981), a Telecom engineer for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was also a Telecom engineer on the GRAIL Discovery program and InSight Mars-lander. || |-id=388 | 117388 Jamiemoore || || Jamie Moore (born 1986), a flight system contamination control engineer and spacecraft-curation interface at Lockheed Martin for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. She has supported multiple NASA interplanetary missions helping to ensure that contamination control requirements are met. || |-id=390 | 117390 Stephanegendron || || Stéphane Gendron (born 1963) is Materials and Thermal Engineer at the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and he acted as the CSA Thermal Engineer in the project OLA, a sophisticated Lidar instrument provided by CSA for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |} 117401–117500 |-id=406 | 117406 Blasgámez || || Blas Gámez Ortiz (1966–2017), a decorated officer of the Spanish National Police Corps, who was killed in the line of duty. || |-id=413 | 117413 Ramonycajal || || Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), Spanish physician and Nobel laureate || |-id=430 | 117430 Achosyx || || "Achosyx", (French pronunciation of "H-O-6"), is the IAU observatory code of the discovering Rent-A-Scope Observatory (Remote Astronomy Society Observatory) located in Mayhill, New Mexico. || |-id=435 | 117435 Severochoa || || Severo Ochoa (1905–1993), Spanish-born American biochemist and winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine || |-id=439 | 117439 Rosner || || Arnie and Nancy Rosner, American photographers from Fountain Valley, California. Arnie is an astrophotographer; and Nancy is a travel photographer. || |} 117501–117600 |-id=506 | 117506 Wildberg || || The German town of Wildberg, where the Wildberg Observatory is located || |-id=539 | 117539 Celletti || || Alessandra Celletti (born 1962), Italian mathematician who teaches celestial mechanics at University of Rome Tor Vergata || |-id=568 | 117568 Yadame || || Yadame Yoshikazu (born 1943), a farmer in the Kitami region of Hokkaido, founded the Kitami Astronomical Society in 1963 || |-id=572 | 117572 Hutsebaut || || Robert Hutsebaut (born 1941), Belgian amateur astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets || |-id=581 | 117581 Devinschrader || || Devin Schrader (born 1984) is a meteoriticist and cosmochemist, and is an assistant director of the Center for Meteorite Studies at Arizona State University and a science collaborator with the Carbonaceous Meteorite Working Group for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |-id=582 | 117582 Kenjikawai || || Kenji Kawai (born 1957) is a Japanese composer, musician, and conductor who has written music for numerous movies, television programs and video games. || |-id=586 | 117586 Twilatho || || Twila Gore Peck (born 1949) and Thom Peck (born 1950), American astronomy communicators. Thom has been president of astronomy clubs in several cities, while Twila has organized observing sessions and public astronomy events. || |-id=595 | 117595 Jemmadavidson || || Jemma Davidson (born 1984) is a cosmochemist and meteoriticist specializing in the study of presolar grains and pristine chondrites to determine how minor bodies formed and evolved in the early Solar System. She was previously a Science Team collaborator and webmaster for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |-id=596 | 117596 Richardkuhns || || Richard Kuhns (born 1972), manager with the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission for the Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company. Previously he was the avionics manager for the WorldView-4 (GeoEye-2) spacecraft, and a manager for Lockheed Martin Coherent Technologies. His experience includes work in machine vision and adaptive optics. || |} 117601–117700 |-id=610 | 117610 Keithmahoney || || Keith Mahoney (born 1970) was the flight system Guidance, Navigation, and Control LIDAR engineer at Lockheed Martin for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |-id=614 | 117614 Hannahmclain || || Hannah McLain (born 1985) is an astrobiologist at the Goddard Space Flight Center supporting organic contamination analysis for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |-id=640 | 117640 Millsellie || || Amelia Lucas (born 2014) and Eloise Thornton (born 2014) were born during the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. Mills, daughter of Kristen and Scott Lucas, and Ellie, daughter of Jennifer and Kevin Thornton, enjoy exploring new frontiers, hearing about the universe, and looking at stars with their grandparents Thomas and Karen Connors. || |-id=652 | 117652 Joséaponte || || José Aponte (born 1981) is an astrobiologist at the Goddard Space Flight Center for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. His research emphasis is in organic chemistry in meteorites. || |-id=657 | 117657 Jamieelsila || || Jamie Elsila (born 1974) is an astrobiologist at the Goddard Space Flight Center for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. Her research emphasis is in organic chemistry in meteorites and in spacecraft-returned samples from asteroids and comets. || |} 117701–117800 |-id=703 | 117703 Ochoa || || Ellen Ochoa (born 1958) is a former American Astronaut. In 1993, she was the first Hispanic woman to go to space. She flew four space shuttle missions, logged nearly 1000 hours in space, and became Director of the Johnson Space Center. || |-id=704 | 117704 Lopez-Alegria || || Michael Lopez-Alegria (born 1958) is a retired astronaut who flew on four NASA missions aboard the Space Shuttle, the Soyuz spacecraft and the International Space Station. He performed ten spacewalks over his 257 days in space. While in space, he performed experiments on materials, biotechnology and combustion. || |-id=711 | 117711 Degenfeld || 2005 GA || Berta Degenfeld-Schomburg (1843–1928), Hungarian amateur astronomer who took part in the work of the Kiskartal Observatory || |-id=712 | 117712 Podmaniczky || 2005 GD || Baron Géza Podmaniczky (1839–1923), Hungarian landowner and amateur astronomer || |-id=713 | 117713 Kövesligethy || || Radó Kövesligethy (1862–1924), Hungarian astronomer and geophysicist || |-id=714 | 117714 Kiskartal || || Kiskartal Observatory was founded by Baron Géza Podmaniczky (see above) in 1884 || |-id=715 | 117715 Carlkirby || || Carl Kirby (born 1949), American amateur astronomer || |-id=736 | 117736 Sherrod || || Clay Sherrod (born 1949), American archaeologist, biomedical researcher, founder and director of the Arkansas Sky Observatory || |-id=781 | 117781 Jamesfisher || || James Randall Fisher (born 1942), an author and Professor of English who earned a PhD at the University of Southern California || |} 117801–117900 |-id=852 | 117852 Constance || || Constance L. Martin-Trembley (born 1962) has been a beloved and inspirational science teacher for over a decade. Connie has organized educational trips, run an after school book club and science club, and has a passion for astronomy. She was awarded Teacher of the year for her district in 2007. || |-id=874 | 117874 Picodelteide || 2511 P-L || Pico del Teide, active volcano on Tenerife, one of the Spanish Canary Islands. || |} 117901–118000 |-id=993 | 117993 Zambujal || 1064 T-2 || Zambujal, Portugal, chalcolithic archaeological site || |-id=997 | 117997 Irazu || 1090 T-2 || Irazú, the 3432-m active volcano in Costa Rica. || |} References 117001-118000

4069271

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20108001%E2%80%93109000

Meanings of minor planet names: 108001–109000

108001–108100 |-id=072 | 108072 Odifreddi || || Piergiorgio Odifreddi (born 1950), an Italian mathematician and logician. || |-id=096 | 108096 Melvin || || As an astronaut, Leland Devon Melvin (born 1964) helped to build the International Space Station with flights aboard the space shuttle Atlantis in 2008 and 2009. Melvin is also an engineer with experience using sensors to assess damage of aerospace vehicles and was an NFL football player with the Detroit Lions. || |-id=097 | 108097 Satcher || || Robert Lee Satcher Jr (born 1965) is an orthopedic surgeon, chemical engineer and retired NASA Astronaut. He was the first orthopedic surgeon in space and participated in two EVAs as part of a space shuttle flight to the International Space Station in 2009. || |} 108101–108200 |-id=113 | 108113 Maza || || José Maza Sancho (born 1948) has discovered 100 supernovae in 30 years of searching.From 1990 to 1996 he participated in the Calán-Tololo project calibrating type Ia supernovae for cosmological applications. || |-id=140 | 108140 Alir || 2001 HO || Alphonse and Irène Hernandez, parents of one of the discoverers || |} 108201–108300 |- | 108201 Di Blasi || || Giuseppe Di Blasi (1988–2005), cousin of Italian astronomer Dario Di Maria, one of the uncredited discoverers at the Farra d'Isonzo Observatory || |-id=205 | 108205 Baccipaolo || || Paolo Bacci (born 1968), Italian amateur astronomer, member of the Gruppo Astrofili Montagna Pistoiese, and a discoverer of minor planets || |} 108301–108400 |-id=382 | 108382 Karencilevitz || || Karen Cilevitz (born 1957), South African-born Canadian amateur astronomer, member of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada || |} 108401–108500 |-id=496 | 108496 Sullenberger || || Chesley Sullenberger (born 1951), a former US Airways airline captain, is celebrated for successfully landing his disabled airliner on the Hudson River off Manhattan without loss of life on 15 January 2009. || |} 108501–108600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 108601–108700 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 108701–108800 |-id=720 | 108720 Kamikuroiwa || || Kamikuroiwa Iwakage Iseki, located in the town of Kuma Kogen, is the oldest grotto in Japan || |} 108801–108900 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 108901–109000 |-id=953 | 108953 Pieraerts || || (1908–1984), a Flemish Norbertine Father at the Norbertine Abbey of Park Louvain (Belgium) and founder of the Mira observatory in Belgium || |} References 108001-109000

4069278

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20118001%E2%80%93119000

Meanings of minor planet names: 118001–119000

118001–118100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 118101–118200 |-id=102 | 118102 Rinjani || 2254 T-3 || Rinjani, the 3726-m active volcano situated in Indonesia on the island of Lombok. || |-id=172 | 118172 Vorgebirge || || a foothills located west of the Rhine. The long ridge extends from Bonn to Cologne || |-id=173 | 118173 Barmen || || The German city of Barmen (now incorporated into Wuppertal), whence the 1934 Synod issued the Barmen Declaration defining Protestant opposition to the National-Socialist ideology || |-id=178 | 118178 Rinckart || || Martin Rinckart (1586–1649), a German author, composer, and theologian, who wrote the ecumenical hymn Nun danket alle Gott ("Now thank we all our God") || |-id=194 | 118194 Sabinagarroni || 1994 SG || Sabina Garroni (born 1972), Italian amateur astronomer || |} 118201–118300 |-id=214 | 118214 Agnesediboemia || || Agnese di Boemia (1211–1282), princess Anezka of the Premyslid family || |-id=230 | 118230 Sado || || Sado island, in the Sea of Japan, the place where Noh drama (one of the "World's Intangible Cultural Treasures") was born || |-id=233 | 118233 Gfrancoferrini || || Gianfranco Ferrini (born 1962), an Italian amateur astronomer and member of the astrometry team at Beppe Forti Astronomical Observatory in Montelupo Fiorentino, Tuscany. || |-id=235 | 118235 Federico || || Federico Colombini (born 1989) an Italian software engineer at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, and nephew of amateur astronomer Ermes Colombini, who is one of the uncredited discoveries of this minor planet at the San Vittore Observatory. || |} 118301–118400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 118401–118500 |- | 118401 LINEAR || || Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR), an astronomical survey which discovered numerous minor planets. This object is classified both as asteroid and comet (176P/LINEAR). || |-id=418 | 118418 Yangmei || || The Central Academy of Fine Arts (Yangmei) is China's top institution of higher art education and a world-renowned art school. Since its establishment in 1918, CAFA has played a leading role in the development of Chinese art, as well as art education. || |} 118501–118600 |-id=554 | 118554 Reedtimmer || || Reed Timmer (born 1980) is an American meteorologist and avid storm chaser. Reed has a love of public outreach and education. He shoots intense videos of the most dangerous weather events on the planet while also gathering important data. || |} 118601–118700 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 118701–118800 |-id=768 | 118768 Carlosnoriega || || Carlos I. Noriega was born in 1959 in Peru and became an astronaut in 1996. He was a mission specialist for both the Space Shuttle Atlantis mission that docked with the Mir Space Station and the Space Shuttle Endeavour mission to deliver and install solar arrays to the International Space Station. || |-id=769 | 118769 Olivas || || John D. Olivas (born 1966) is a former American astronaut. Olivas flew two Space Shuttle missions to assemble the International Space Station (in 2007 and 2009). He conducted five space walks during those two missions. || |} 118801–118900 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 118901–119000 |-id=945 | 118945 Rikhill || || Richard E. Hill (born 1949), American amateur astronomer who turned professional, known for his outreach activities. He worked with the Catalina Sky Survey, searching for potentially hazardous objects, and is a discoverer of minor planets and several comets such as 195P/Hill. || |} References 118001-119000

4069288

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20109001%E2%80%93110000

Meanings of minor planet names: 109001–110000

109001–109100 |-id=097 | 109097 Hamuy || || Mario Hamuy (born 1960), Professor of Astronomy at the University of Chile || |} 109101–109200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 109201–109300 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 109301–109400 |-id=330 | 109330 Clemente || || Roberto Clemente (1934–1972) was a Puerto Rican professional baseball player who played 18 seasons for the Pittsburgh Pirates. He died in a plane crash attempting to deliver supplies to earthquake victims in Managua, Nicaragua. He was the first Latin American player enshrined in the Hall of Fame. || |} 109401–109500 |-id=435 | 109435 Giraud || || Jean Giraud (1938–2012) was a French artist, cartoonist, and writer. Using an abstract and often surreal style, he produced a wide range of science fiction and fantasy works. He also contributed storyboards and concept designs to films such as Alien, The Fifth Element, Heavy Metal, the Abyss and Tron. || |} 109501–109600 |-id=573 | 109573 Mishasmirnov || || Mikhail Alexandrovich Smirnov (1954–2006) was a Russian astronomer who researched small Solar System bodies, artificial satellites and the evolution of galaxies. He was on the staff of the Institute of Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences and also popularized astronomy in Russia. || |} 109601–109700 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 109701–109800 |-id=712 | 109712 Giger || || H. R. Giger (1940–2014), a Swiss painter, sculptor, set designer and film director. His themes included science fiction, the occult, and fantasy. He was part of a team that won an Academy Award for Best Achievement in Visual Effects for its work on the film Alien. || |} 109801–109900 |-id=879 | 109879 Letelier || 2001 SL || Patricio Letelier (1943–2011), a Chilean mathematician and physicist whose work contributed to general relativity, concerning black holes, chaos, topological defects, and exact solutions of the Einstein field equations || |} 109901–110000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 109001-110000

4069291

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20119001%E2%80%93120000

Meanings of minor planet names: 119001–120000

119001–119100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 119101–119200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 119201–119300 |-id=248 | 119248 Corbally || || Christopher J. Corbally S.J. (born 1946) was ordained in the Society of Jesus and earned a PhD in astronomy. He continues a long career in astronomy where his contributions have included areas of multiple stellar systems, stellar spectral classification, galactic structure, star formation and telescope technology. || |} 119301–119400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 119401–119500 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 119501–119600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 119601–119700 |-id=602 | 119602 Italodimaria || || Italo Di Maria (1942–2002) was a town clerk in Sicily and the father of Dario Di Maria, one of the Farra d'Isonzo amateur astronomers who discovered this minor planet. || |} 119701–119800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 119801–119900 |-id=846 | 119846 Goshiina || || Go Shiina (born 1974) is a Japanese music composer and arranger. He has composed music for many video games, anime series and films, including the soundtrack of the Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba anime adaption with Yuki Kajiura. || |-id=890 | 119890 Zamka || || George D. Zamka (born 1962) is a retired American astronaut. Zamka piloted the Space Shuttle Discovery in its October 2007 mission to the International Space Station. He was the commander of the Space Shuttle mission in February 2010, an International Space Station assembly mission. || |} 119901–120000 |-id=967 | 119967 Daniellong || || Daniel Long (born 1961), American astronomer with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey || |-id=993 | 119993 Acabá || || Joseph Acabá (born 1967) is an American astronaut. He flew to the International Space Station in 2009, 2012 and 2018 aboard both the Space Shuttle and the Soyuz spacecraft. On his first flight, he participated in space walks to assemble the International Space Station. As of July 2020, he has spent 306 days in space. || |} References 119001-120000

4069297

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20110001%E2%80%93111000

Meanings of minor planet names: 110001–111000

110001–110100 |-id=026 | 110026 Hamill || || Mark Hamill (born 1951) is an American actor most famous for playing Luke Skywalker in the Star Wars films. Hamill has won acclaim as a voice actor, most notably as the Joker, Batman's archenemy. Hamill has appeared in more than 75 films, hundreds of television episodes, and more than 30 video games. || |-id=073 | 110073 Leeonki || || Lee On-ki (born 1994), student at Shun Tak Fraternal Association Yung Ya College || |-id=074 | 110074 Lamchunhei || || Lam Chun Hei (born 1991), student at Shun Tak Fraternal Association Yung Ya College in Hong Kong || |-id=077 | 110077 Pujiquanshan || || Pujiquanshan is the motto of the charitable organization, Sik Sik Yuen, founded in Hong Kong in 1965. "Pujiquanshan" means "Act benevolently and teach benevolence". || |} 110101–110200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 110201–110300 |-id=288 | 110288 Libai || || Li Bai (AD 701–762), Chinese poet, member of the group of scholars known as the "Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup" in a poem by fellow poet Du Fu (see 110289) || |-id=289 | 110289 Dufu || || Du Fu (AD 712 – 770), Chinese poet, one of the greatest along with Li Bai (see above) || |-id=293 | 110293 Oia || || Oia, a small town on the Greek island of Santorini, in the south Aegean Sea. || |-id=294 | 110294 Victoriaharbour || || Victoria Harbour, a natural harbor located between Hong Kong Island to the south and Kowloon to the North. || |-id=295 | 110295 Elcalafate || || El Calafate, a city in Patagonia, Argentina. || |-id=296 | 110296 Luxor || || The city of Luxor in Egypt, famous for the ruins of its many temples, monuments and tombs, as well as for the nearby Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens. || |-id=297 | 110297 Yellowriver || || The Yellow River in China is the sixth-longest river in the world with an estimated length of 5,464 km. || |-id=298 | 110298 Deceptionisland || || Deception Island, the caldera of an active volcanic island off the Antarctic Peninsula. || |-id=299 | 110299 Iceland || || Iceland is a volcanically and geologically active island in the North Atlantic Ocean. With an area of 103,000 square kilometer and population of about 330,000, it is the most sparsely populated country in Europe. || |-id=300 | 110300 Abusimbel || || The Abu Simbel temples near Abu Simbel on the upper Nile River in southern Egypt || |} 110301–110400 |-id=393 | 110393 Rammstein || || Rammstein, a German hard rock-metal group from Eastern Germany, named in turn after the city of Ramstein-Miesenbach where the 1988 air show disaster occurred † || |} 110401–110500 |-id=404 | 110404 Itoemi || || Emi Ito (1941–2012), born Hideyo Ito, was a popular Japanese singer from the late 1950s to the mid-1970s. Together with her identical twin sister, Yumi Ito, they became internationally famous as "The Peanuts". The sisters are perhaps best remembered as the "Mothra fairies" in the first three Mothra movies. || |-id=405 | 110405 Itoyumi || || Yumi Ito (1941–2016), born Tsukiko Ito, was a popular Japanese singer from the late 1950s to the mid-1970s. Together with her identical twin sister, Emi Ito, they became internationally famous as "The Peanuts". The sisters are perhaps best remembered as the "Mothra fairies" in the first three Mothra movies. || |-id=408 | 110408 Nakajima || || Haruo Nakajima (1929–2017) was a Japanese stunt actor who appeared in films such as Akira Kurosawa's Seven Samurai. Best known as "the man in the suit", Nakajima portrayed Gojira (Godzilla) and other kaiju (fantastic creatures) in 21 movies from Gojira (1954) to Chikyu Kogeki Meirei: Gojira tai Gaigan (1972). || |-id=416 | 110416 Cardille || || Bill Cardille (1928–2016) was a television broadcast personality in Pittsburgh. Starting in 1957, he hosted many programs on WIIC-TV (later WPXI), including Studio Wrestling and a 20-year run on Chiller Theatre. Cardille also appeared in several movies, including Night of the Living Dead. || |} 110501–110600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 110601–110700 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 110701–110800 |-id=702 | 110702 Titostagno || || Tito Stagno (1930-2022) was an Italian TV journalist. As a reporter, he followed the whole series of Apollo missions and in 1969 made live commentary of the landing of the first man on the Moon. Name suggested by M. Morelli and M. Di Martino. || |-id=742 | 110742 Tetuokudo || || Tetuo Kudo (born 1958), staff member of the Goshi Municipal Office and a renowned amateur astronomer || |-id=743 | 110743 Hirobumi || || Itō Hirobumi (1841–1909), a Japanese statesman who greatly contributed to the modernization of the Japanese political system || |} 110801–110900 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 110901–111000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 110001-111000

4069304

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20120001%E2%80%93121000

Meanings of minor planet names: 120001–121000

120001–120100 |-id=038 | 120038 Franlainsher || || Frances Fisher (born 1944) and Elaine Fisher (born 1946), former wife and sister-in-law of the discoverer James Whitney Young, respectively. || |-id=040 | 120040 Pagliarini || || Silvano Pagliarini (born 1950), Italian amateur astronomer, builder of the public amateur observatory "Padre Angelo Secchi" in Castelnovo Sotto. || |-id=074 | 120074 Bass || 2003 EA || Harry Bass (born 1935) graduated from the University of Pennsylvania Medical School in 1960. In 1977, he joined the Staff of Memorial Medical Center, Las Cruces, New Mexico, established a private practice, and is a highly respected physician by both his peers and his patients. || |} 120101–120200 |-id=103 | 120103 Dolero || || Dominique Lherault (born 1945), maiden name of the wife of French amateur astronomer Bernard Christophe who discovered this minor planet || |-id=112 | 120112 Elizabethacton || || Elizabeth A. Acton (born 1981) contributed to the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as Project Support Specialist. || |-id=120 | 120120 Kankelborg || || Charles Kankelborg (born 1967), American astrophysicist || |-id=121 | 120121 Libbyadelman || || Libby Adelman (born 1971) contributed to the NASA OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as Instrument Manager for the OLA, OVIRS and REXIS instruments. || |-id=141 | 120141 Lucaslara || || Lucas Lara Garrido (1966–2006), Spanish astrophysicist who researched active galactic nuclei at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía || |-id=153 | 120153 Hoekenga || || B. Christine Hoekenga (born 1981) worked on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as the social media lead in the Principal Investigator's office || |-id=174 | 120174 Jeffjenny || || Jeffrey Young (born 1966) and Jennifer Young (born 1967), son and daughter of the American astronomer James Whitney Young who discovered this minor planet || |-id=186 | 120186 Suealeman || || Sue Aleman (born 1957) contributed to the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as Chief Safety and Mission Assurance Officer. || |-id=188 | 120188 Amyaqueche || || Amy A. Aqueche (born 1975) contributed to the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as the Contracting Officer (CO). Prior to OSIRIS-REx, she served as the NASA CO for MAVEN and the USACE CO in support of Ft. Stewart and Hunter Army Air Field Operations in Savannah, Georgia. || |-id=191 | 120191 Tombagg || || Thomas C. Bagg III (born 1952) is the Risk Manager for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. Prior to this role, he supported the GSFC SBIR program, the HST SM4, NOAA-N and NOAA-N Prime missions. He helped develop the GSFC Systems Engineering Education Development Program || |-id=196 | 120196 Kevinballou || || Kevin M. Ballou (born 1969), an engineer at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, contributed to the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as C&DH Electrical Systems Engineer. || |} 120201–120300 |-id=208 | 120208 Brentbarbee || || Brent Barbee (born 1981), a member of the Flight Dynamics System team for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |-id=214 | 120214 Danteberdeguez || || Dante Berdeguez (born 1976) is a Spacecraft Systems Engineer at NASA's Goddard Spaceflight Center. He specializes in both spacecraft and ground system integration and testing. He contributed to the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as Ground Systems Readiness Test Engineer. || |-id=215 | 120215 Kevinberry || || Kevin E. Berry (born 1980) contributed to the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as the FDS TAG Mission Phase Lead and is a member of the Navigation and Mission Design Branch at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. He was also part of the flight dynamics teams for SDO, LCROSS and MAVEN. || |-id=218 | 120218 Richardberry || || Richard P. Berry Jr. (born 1955) contributed to the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as Configuration Control Manager. || |-id=285 | 120285 Brentbos || || Brent J. Bos (born 1969), the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission TAGCAMS instrument scientist. || |-id=299 | 120299 Billlynch || || Bill Lynch (born 1962) has worked tirelessly for many years assisting amateur and professional astronomers with their CCD cameras and related equipment || |} 120301–120400 |-id=308 | 120308 Deebradel || || Deanna Bradel (born 1964), a Financial Manager for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |-id=324 | 120324 Falusandrás || || András Falus (born 1947) is a Hungarian immunologist, full professor of the Semmelweis University, and member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. His major field is immunogenomics, allergies and oncogenomics. He was the winner of the 2001 annual science communication award of the Club of Hungarian Science Journalists. || |-id=347 | 120347 Salacia || || Salacia, Roman goddess of salt water, Neptune's wife. || |-id=349 | 120349 Kalas || || John Kalas (born 1948) and Elizabeth Kalas (born 1949) are active in proselytizing the night sky at public events || |-id=350 | 120350 Richburns || || Rich Burns (born 1967) contributed to the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as SSMO Project Manager || |-id=351 | 120351 Beckymasterson || || Rebecca A. Masterson (born 1975) is a research engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology serving tirelessly in the central role of Instrument Manager for the student-built Regolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer aboard the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |-id=352 | 120352 Gordonwong || || Gordon H. Wong (born 1969) is a software engineer who has shown great patience and dedicated support to the effort required in the design, build, test, and flight of the student-built Regolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer aboard the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |-id=353 | 120353 Katrinajackson || || Katrina Jackson (born 1989) is a video producer for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission and the Hubble Space Telescope at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center || |-id=354 | 120354 Mikejones || || Michael Paul Jones (born 1991) worked as a student engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he designed and implemented the solar X-ray monitor as a comparison instrument for the student-built Regolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer aboard the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. || |-id=361 | 120361 Guido || 2005 NZ || Ernesto Guido (born 1977), Italian amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets || |-id=364 | 120364 Stevecooley || || Steve Cooley (born 1961) contributed to the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as Lead Flight Dynamics Engineer (proposal/Phase A). || |-id=367 | 120367 Grabow || || Walter Grabow (1913–1987) was the owner of the Polaris Telescope Shop in Dearborn, Michigan in the 1960s. His patience and guidance helped many amateur astronomers in building or buying their telescopes. || |-id=368 | 120368 Phillipcoulter || || Phillip Coulter (born 1973), an Optical Engineer working at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. || |-id=375 | 120375 Kugel || || François Kugel (born 1959), French comet observer and a discoverer of minor planets || |} 120401–120500 |-id=405 | 120405 Svyatylivka || || Svyatylivka, Ukraine, one of the headquarters of the Cossack army since the 17th century || |-id=452 | 120452 Schombert || 1988 NA || James Schombert (born 1957) is an observational cosmologist, who started working during the second Palomar Observatory Sky Survey. He is now an astronomy professor at the University of Oregon working on galaxy formation and evolution and the interaction with dark matter using telescopes such as HST and Spitzer. || |-id=460 | 120460 Hambach || || The Hambach Festival of 1832, held in the Maxburg castle above the village of Hambach, Germany, where some 30 000 liberals and democrats demonstrated in favour of a free and united Germany || |-id=461 | 120461 Gandhi || || Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) was an Indian lawyer who advocated the complete independence of India. Gandhi believed that nonviolence was the path to liberty, and he became a model for many. || |-id=462 | 120462 Amanohashidate || || Amanohashidate, a well-known tourist spot in Japan || |-id=481 | 120481 Johannwalter || || Johann Walter (1496–1570), German cantor, director of the Saxon court orchestra, who wrote the melody of the hymn Each morning with its newborn light || |} 120501–120600 |-id=569 | 120569 Huangrunqian || || Huang Runqian (born 1933), Chinese astrophysicist and academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences || |} 120601–120700 |-id=643 | 120643 Rudimandl || 1996 RU || Rudi W. Mandl (1894–1948), Czech-German electrical engineer and amateur astronomer, was interested in gravitational lensing. || |} 120701–120800 |-id=730 | 120730 Zhouyouyuan || || Zhou Youyuan (born 1938) is a leading astrophysicist and a member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. He has made significant contributions to the study of quasars, active galactic nuclei, cosmology, large scale structures of the universe, and high-energy astrophysics. || |-id=735 | 120735 Ogawakiyoshi || || Kiyoshi Ogawa (born 1957) is a member of Matsue Astronomy Club. He popularizes astronomy in Shimane prefecture and is an observing partner of the discoverer, Hiroshi Abe. || |-id=741 | 120741 Iijimayuichi || || Yuichi Iijima (1968–2012) was a Japanese aerospace system engineer of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, who was one of the key members of the Japanese lunar orbiter SELENE. || |} 120801–120900 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 120901–121000 |-id=942 | 120942 Rendafuzhong || || "Rendafuzhong" is a Chinese high school affiliated with Renmin University, located in Beijing Zhongguancun Technology Park || |} References 120001-121000

4069314

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20114001%E2%80%93115000

Meanings of minor planet names: 114001–115000

114001–114100 |-id=022 | 114022 Bizyaev || || Dmitry Bizyaev (born 1969), a Russian-American astronomer with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey || |-id=023 | 114023 Harvanek || || Michael J. Harvanek (born 1963), American astronomer with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey || |-id=024 | 114024 Scotkleinman || || Scot J. Kleinman (born 1965), American astronomer with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey || |-id=025 | 114025 Krzesinski || || Jurek Krzesiński (born 1962), American astronomer with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey || |-id=026 | 114026 Emalanushenko || || Elena Malanushenko (born 1956), Ukrainian-American astronomer with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey || |-id=027 | 114027 Malanushenko || || Viktor Malanushenko (born 1955), Ukrainian-American astronomer with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey || |-id=094 | 114094 Irvpatterson || || W. Irwin Patterson (born 1930), American biology professor emeritus at Texas Lutheran University || |-id=096 | 114096 Haroldbier || || Harold D. Bier (born 1931), chemistry professor emeritus at Texas Lutheran University || |} 114101–114200 |-id=156 | 114156 Eamonlittle || || Eamon Little (1966–2006) was an Irish astronomer at Queen's University, Belfast, and a friend and colleague of astronomers Alan Fitzsimmons and Iwan P. Williams who discovered this minor planet || |} 114201–114300 |-id=239 | 114239 Bermarmi || 2002 WN || Bernard Young (1911–1988), Mary Young (1912–1996), and Michael Young (born 1937), parents and brother of American discoverer James Whitney Young || |} 114301–114400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 114401–114500 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 114501–114600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 114601–114700 | 114608 Emanuelepace || || Emanuele Pace (born 1964), an Italian professor of astronomy and astrophysics at the University of Florence and the director of its Chianti Observatory. He is also a project manager with ESA's ARIEL space telescope that will study explanetary atmospheres. The asteroid's name was suggested by CINEOS astronomer Mario Di Martino. || |-id=611 | 114611 Valeriobocci || || Valerio Bocci (born 1966), is an Italian Physicist, senior technologist at INFN Roma. He has been involved in the DELPHI at LEP (CERN), KLOE experiment of DAFNE Frascati National Laboratory, in the ATLAS and LHCb experiments at LHC CERN. He was one of the first in the scientific literature to propose and demonstrate the possibility to use Field Programmable Gate Array in radiation environment.|| |-id=612 | 114612 Sandrasavaglio || || Sandra Savaglio (born 1967) is a physicist and a leading researchers on γ-ray bursts. She has taught at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, and at the Max Planck Institute in Germany. Savaglio is currently teaching astronomy at the University of Calabria. || |-id=613 | 114613 Antoninobrosio || || Antonino Brosio (born 1987) is a structural engineer, and the founder and director of the first public observatory and astronomical park in Calabria. He has carried out several national and international collaborations involving the Calabrian schools, and is the discoverer of some variable stars and extragalactic supernovae. || |-id=649 | 114649 Jeanneacker || || Jeanne Christophe (née Acker), the mother of French astronomer Bernard Christophe, who discovered this minor planet || |-id=659 | 114659 Sajnovics || || János Sajnovics (1733–1785), Hungarian linguist and Jesuit || |-id=689 | 114689 Tomstevens || || Tom Stevens (born 1933) and his wife Dixie (born 1938), American benefactors and advisors of the George Observatory in Needville, Texas. || |} 114701–114800 |-id=703 | 114703 North Dakota || || North Dakota, the 39th U.S. state || |-id=705 | 114705 Tamayo || || Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez (born 1942) was the first person of African ancestry and the first Latin American to travel into space as a Cuban cosmonaut on the crew of Soyuz 38 in September 1980. He received the first Hero of the Republic of Cuba medal and many other honors. || |-id=725 | 114725 Gordonwalker || || Gordon A. H. Walker (born 1936), professor emeritus at the University of British Columbia || |-id=735 | 114735 Irenemagni || || Irene Magni (born 1976), a business consultant and fiancée of Italian astronomer Fabrizio Bernardi who discovered this minor planet. || |} 114801–114900 |-id=828 | 114828 Ricoromita || || Enrico Romita (born 1963), Italian software developer on Solar System dynamics, specialized on structural automatic computation || |-id=829 | 114829 Chierchia || || Luigi Chierchia (born 1957), Italian professor of mathematical analysis, and recipient of the 1995 prize of the Institut Henri Poincaré || |} 114901–115000 |-id=987 | 114987 Tittel || || Pál Tittel (1784–1831), Hungarian astronomer and professor || |-id=990 | 114990 Szeidl || || Béla Szeidl (born 1938), Hungarian astronomer, director of the Konkoly Observatory from 1974 to 1996. and president of IAU Commission 27 (Variable Stars, 1985–1988) || |-id=991 | 114991 Balázs || || Lajos G. Balázs (born 1941), Hungarian astronomer, director of the Konkoly Observatory since 1996) and co-discoverer of supernova 1969B || |} References 114001-115000

4069318

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20113001%E2%80%93114000

Meanings of minor planet names: 113001–114000

113001–113100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 113101–113200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 113201–113300 |-id=202 | 113202 Kisslászló || || László L. Kiss (born 1972), a Hungarian astronomer, a founding member of the Szeged Asteroid Program and a discoverer of minor planets. He is a long-time friend of astronomer Krisztián Sárneczky, who discovered this minor planet. || |-id=203 | 113203 Szabó || || Gyula M. Szabó (born 1979), a Hungarian astronomer, a founding member of the Szeged Asteroid Program and a discoverer of minor planets || |-id=208 | 113208 Lea || || Lea Bernardi (born 2007), daughter of Italian astronomer Fabrizio Bernardi who discovered this minor planet. || |-id=214 | 113214 Vinkó || || József Vinkó (born 1965), a Hungarian astronomer and head of the Bright Supernova Observing Group at the University of Szeged || |-id=256 | 113256 Prüm || || The German town of Prüm, located in the Eifel region of western Germany || |} 113301–113400 |-id=333 | 113333 Tyler || || David Bruce Valentine Tyler (born 1941), a British amateur astronomer and telescope maker who has assisted others through advice and creating accessories in his workshop. He is known for his solar observations and images. The British Astronomical Association awarded him its Merlin medal in 2012. || |-id=355 | 113355 Gessler || || Nick Gessler (born 1945), an American co-director of UCLA's Human Complex Systems Program, and prolific meteorite discoverer || |-id=388 | 113388 Davidmartinez || || David Martinez Delgado (born 1970) has searched and characterized the Sagittarius tidal stream and studied this satellite's interaction with our galaxy using theoretical simulations. He also discovered a tidal tail in the Ursa Minor satellite galaxy. || |-id=390 | 113390 Helvetia || || Helvetia is the Latin name for Switzerland, where this asteroid was discovered. Helvetia is also an allegorical figure, symbol for the nation. || |-id=394 | 113394 Niebur || || Susan Niebur (1978–2012), American astrophysicist and Discovery Program Scientist at NASA (Src) || |-id=395 | 113395 Curtniebur || || Curt Niebur (born 1972), American scientist responsible for NASA's New Frontiers program including the management of the program's first mission, New Horizons (Src) || |} 113401–113500 |-id=405 | 113405 Itomori || || Itomori is a fictional Japanese town depicted in the anime movie Your Name that was destroyed by the impact of a comet fragment. || |-id=415 | 113415 Rauracia || || Rauracia, a group of Celts who settled in the Jura area of Switzerland around 400 B.C. and the name of the official anthem of the Swiss canton of Jura. This Hilda asteroid was the first unusual object discovered at the Jurassien-Vicques Observatory. || |-id=461 | 113461 McCay || || Winsor McCay (1869–1934) was an American illustrator and one of the first creators of animated films. His best-known works are the cartoon strips Dream of the Rarebit Fiend and Little Nemo in Slumberland, and the animated film Gertie the Dinosaur. In 1996, he was inducted into the Will Eisner Hall of Fame. || |} 113501–113600 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 113601–113700 |-id=659 | 113659 Faltona || || Faltona, an Italian village located in the Pratomagno mountain range of Tuscany || |-id=671 | 113671 Sacromonte || || Sacro Monte di Varese is a small mountain just north of the city of Varese, where fourteen chapels and a sanctuary were built between 1604 and 1623, dedicated to the mysteries of the Rosary. Since 2003, Sacro Monte is a UNESCO World Heritage site. || |} 113701–113800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 113801–113900 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 113901–114000 |-id=949 | 113949 Bahcall || || John N. Bahcall (1934–2005), an American astrophysicist || |-id=950 | 113950 Donbaldwin || || Donald R. Baldwin (1938–2003), was the co-founder and treasurer of the Astrophysical Research Consortium, important to the Sloan Digital Sky Survey || |-id=951 | 113951 Artdavidsen || || Arthur Davidsen (1944–2001), pioneer in the field of ultraviolet spectroscopy || |-id=952 | 113952 Schramm || || David Schramm (1945–1997), an American theoretical astrophysicist || |} References 113001-114000

4069331

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20112001%E2%80%93113000

Meanings of minor planet names: 112001–113000

112001–112100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 112101–112200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 112201–112300 |-id=233 | 112233 Kammerer || || Andreas Kammerer (born 1958), German physicist and amateur astronomer, who has made photometric light-curve observations of comets || |} 112301–112400 |-id=313 | 112313 Larrylines || || Larry Lines (1949–2019) was a Canadian exploration geophysicist. During his distinguished career he was a researcher at Amoco's Tulsa lab, a professor and industry consortium leader at Memorial University of Newfoundland and the University of Calgary, and president of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists. || |-id=320 | 112320 Danielegardiol || || Daniele Gardiol (born 1968) is an astronomer at the Torino Astrophysical Observatory (Italy). He is the principal investigator of the PRISMA project, a network of all-sky cameras dedicated to the observation of bright meteors in order to determine the trajectory and orbit of the progenitor bodies and to delimit the area where possible meteorites fall. || |-id=328 | 112328 Klinkerfues || || Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827–1884), a German astronomer and meteorologist at Göttingen Observatory || |-id=337 | 112337 Francescaguerra || || Francesca Guerra (born 1984), an Italian mathematician and software developer for the Near-Earth Object Coordination Centre (NEOCC) of the European Space Agency. || |-id=338 | 112338 Seneseconte || || Senese Antonella (born 1960) and Conte Paolo (born 1961) are science communicators, working mainly in schools, explaining the sky with planetariums, telescopes and laboratories. Paolo is also editor and host of Radio3Scienza, the daily radio science broadcast of RAI, the national public broadcasting company of Italy. || |} 112401–112500 |-id=483 | 112483 Missjudy || 2002 PA || Judy Ball (born 1946), wife of American amateur astronomer Loren C. Ball, who discovered this minor planet, for her long-time support of her husband's astronomy projects. || |-id=492 | 112492 Annacipriani || || Anna Cipriani (born 1973), an assistant professor of geochemistry and environmental geochemistry at University of Modena and Reggio Emilia. || |} 112501–112600 |-id=527 | 112527 Panarese || || Rossella Panarese (1960–2021) was an Italian radio personality and science communicator, known for her Radio3 Scienza cultural programme, as well as a lecturer at SISSA and Sapienza University of Rome. || |} 112601–112700 |-id=656 | 112656 Gines || || Gines Lopez (1933–2008), friend and collaborator of Spanish astronomer Rafael Ferrando, who discovered this minor planet || |} 112701–112800 |-id=797 | 112797 Grantjudy || || Grant R. J. Harding (born 1967) and Judy L. Harding (born 1965), siblings-in-law of Canadian amateur astronomer Andrew Lowe, who discovered this minor planet || |-id=798 | 112798 Kelindsey || || Kelsey Leanne Harding (born 2000) and Lindsey Annemarie Harding (born 1998), nieces of Canadian amateur astronomer Andrew Lowe, who discovered this minor planet || |} 112801–112900 |-id=900 | 112900 Tonyhoffman || || Tony Hoffman (born 1958), an American poet, writer, editor, and director of the Amateur Astronomers Association of New York. He also discovered several sungrazing comets and is an uncredited co-discoverer of asteroid . || |} 112901–113000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 112001-113000

4069345

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20111001%E2%80%93112000

Meanings of minor planet names: 111001–112000

111001–111100 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 111101–111200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 111201–111300 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 111301–111400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 111401–111500 |-id=468 | 111468 Alba Regia || || Alba Regia, "White Region", the Roman name of the Hungarian town of Székesfehérvár, birthplace of the second discoverer || |} 111501–111600 |-id=558 | 111558 Barrett || 2002 AZ || Michael Barrett (born 1955), American amateur astronomer and eclipse chaser || |-id=561 | 111561 Giovanniallevi || || Giovanni Allevi (born 1969) is an Italian piano soloist and composer of contemporary music. || |-id=570 | 111570 Ágasvár || || Ágasvár, a 635 m peak in the Mátra Mountains, and its Ágasvár hostel, a mountain station of Hungarian amateur astronomers || |-id=571 | 111571 Bebevio || || Beatrice Vio (born 1997), better known as "Bebe Vio", is an Italian wheelchair fencer who won the European championship (2014 and 2016), World championship (2015 and 2017), and Paralympic games (2016 and 2020) in the foil B category. || |-id=594 | 111594 Ráktanya || || Ráktanya, a famed hostel in the Bakony Mountains in Hungary || |} 111601–111700 |-id=660 | 111660 Jimgray || || Jim Gray (1944–2007), an American computer scientist who received the Turing Award in 1998 || |-id=661 | 111661 Mamiegeorge || 2002 BP || Mamie George (1877–1971) and Albert George (1873–1955), husband and wife, founded the George Foundation in 1945 to promote the future of Fort Bend County, Texas || |-id=696 | 111696 Helenorman || || Helen Belton Orman (1938–2004), American professor and artist || |} 111701–111800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 111801–111900 |-id=818 | 111818 Deforest || 2002 DT || Craig Edward DeForest (born 1968), an American solar physicist || |} 111901–112000 |-id=913 | 111913 Davidgans || 2002 GD || David Gans (1541–1613), a Jewish chronicler, mathematician, geographer and astronomer || |} References 111001-112000

4070299

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%20distance%20%28navigation%29

Lunar distance (navigation)

In celestial navigation, lunar distance, also called a lunar, is the angular distance between the Moon and another celestial body. The lunar distances method uses this angle and a nautical almanac to calculate Greenwich time if so desired, or by extension any other time. That calculated time can be used in solving a spherical triangle. The theory was first published by Johannes Werner in 1524, before the necessary almanacs had been published. A fuller method was published in 1763 and used until about 1850 when it was superseded by the marine chronometer. A similar method uses the positions of the Galilean moons of Jupiter. Purpose In celestial navigation, knowledge of the time at Greenwich (or another known place) and the measured positions of one or more celestial objects allows the navigator to calculate latitude and longitude. Reliable marine chronometers were unavailable until the late 18th century and not affordable until the 19th century. After the method was first published in 1763 by British Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne, based on pioneering work by Tobias Mayer, for about a hundred years (until about 1850) mariners lacking a chronometer used the method of lunar distances to determine Greenwich time as a key step in determining longitude. Conversely, a mariner with a chronometer could check its accuracy using a lunar determination of Greenwich time. The method saw usage all the way up to the beginning of the 20th century on smaller vessels that could not afford a chronometer or had to rely on this technique for correction of the chronometer. Method Summary The method relies on the relatively quick movement of the moon across the background sky, completing a circuit of 360 degrees in 27.3 days (the sidereal month), or 13.2 degrees per day. In one hour it will move approximately half a degree, roughly its own angular diameter, with respect to the background stars and the Sun. Using a sextant, the navigator precisely measures the angle between the moon and another body. That could be the Sun or one of a selected group of bright stars lying close to the Moon's path, near the ecliptic. At that moment, anyone on the surface of the earth who can see the same two bodies will, after correcting for parallax, observe the same angle. The navigator then consults a prepared table of lunar distances and the times at which they will occur. By comparing the corrected lunar distance with the tabulated values, the navigator finds the Greenwich time for that observation. Knowing Greenwich time and local time, the navigator can work out longitude. Local time can be determined from a sextant observation of the altitude of the Sun or a star. Then the longitude (relative to Greenwich) is readily calculated from the difference between local time and Greenwich Time, at 15 degrees per hour of difference. In practice Having measured the lunar distance and the heights of the two bodies, the navigator can find Greenwich time in three steps. Step one – Preliminaries Almanac tables predict lunar distances between the centre of the Moon and the other body (published between 1767 and 1906 in Britain). However, the observer cannot accurately find the centre of the Moon (or Sun, which was the most frequently used second object). Instead, lunar distances are always measured to the sharply lit, outer edge (the limb, not terminator) of the Moon (or of the Sun). The first correction to the lunar distance is the distance between the limb of the Moon and its center. Since the Moon's apparent size varies with its varying distance from the Earth, almanacs give the Moon's and Sun's semidiameter for each day. Additionally the observed altitudes are cleared of semidiameter. Step two – Clearing Clearing the lunar distance means correcting for the effects of parallax and atmospheric refraction on the observation. The almanac gives lunar distances as they would appear if the observer were at the center of a transparent Earth. Because the Moon is so much closer to the Earth than the stars are, the position of the observer on the surface of the Earth shifts the relative position of the Moon by up to an entire degree. The clearing correction for parallax and refraction is a relatively simple trigonometric function of the observed lunar distance and the altitudes of the two bodies. Navigators used collections of mathematical tables to work these calculations by any of dozens of distinct clearing methods. For practical applications today the tables by Bruce Stark may be used for clearing the lunar distance. They are constructed such that only additions and subtractions of tabulated numbers are required instead of trigonometric evaluations Step three – Finding the time The navigator, having cleared the lunar distance, now consults a prepared table of lunar distances and the times at which they will occur in order to determine the Greenwich time of the observation. These tables were the high tech wonder of their day. Predicting the position of the moon years in advance requires solving the three-body problem, since the earth, moon and sun were all involved. Euler developed the numerical method they used, called Euler's method, and received a grant from the Board of Longitude to carry out the computations. Having found the (absolute) Greenwich time, the navigator either compares it with the observed local apparent time (a separate observation) to find his longitude, or compares it with the Greenwich time on a chronometer (if available) if one wants to check the chronometer. Errors Almanac error By 1810, the errors in the almanac predictions had been reduced to about one-quarter of a minute of arc. By about 1860 (after lunar distance observations had mostly faded into history), the almanac errors were finally reduced to less than the error margin of a sextant in ideal conditions (one-tenth of a minute of arc). Lunar distance observation Later sextants (after ) could indicate angle to 0.1 arc-minutes, after the use of the vernier was popularized by its description in English in the book Navigatio Britannica published in 1750 by John Barrow, the mathematician and historian. In practice at sea, actual errors were somewhat larger. If the sky is cloudy or the Moon is new (hidden close to the glare of the Sun), lunar distance observations could not be performed. Total error A lunar distance changes with time at a rate of roughly half a degree, or 30 arc-minutes, in an hour. The two sources of error, combined, typically amount to about one-half arc-minute in Lunar distance, equivalent to one minute in Greenwich time, which corresponds to an error of as much as one-quarter of a degree of longitude, or about at the equator. In literature Captain Joshua Slocum, in making the first solo circumnavigation of the Earth in 1895–1898, somewhat anachronistically used the lunar method along with dead reckoning in his navigation. He comments in Sailing Alone Around the World on a sight taken in the South Pacific. After correcting an error he found in his log tables, the result was surprisingly accurate: I found from the result of three observations, after long wrestling with lunar tables, that her longitude agreed within five miles of that by dead-reckoning. This was wonderful; both, however, might be in error, but somehow I felt confident that both were nearly true, and that in a few hours more I should see land; and so it happened, for then I made out the island of Nukahiva, the southernmost of the Marquesas group, clear-cut and lofty. The verified longitude when abreast was somewhere between the two reckonings; this was extraordinary. All navigators will tell you that from one day to another a ship may lose or gain more than five miles in her sailing-account, and again, in the matter of lunars, even expert lunarians are considered as doing clever work when they average within eight miles of the truth... The result of these observations naturally tickled my vanity, for I knew it was something to stand on a great ship’s deck and with two assistants take lunar observations approximately near the truth. As one of the poorest of American sailors, I was proud of the little achievement alone on the sloop, even by chance though it may have been... The work of the lunarian, though seldom practised in these days of chronometers, is beautifully edifying, and there is nothing in the realm of navigation that lifts one’s heart up more in adoration. The young Georg Forster describes 1777 in his book "A Voyage around the World" his impressions with captain James Cook on board the ship resolution in the South Pacific. James Cook had two of the new chronometers on board, one made by Mr. Kendal the other by Mr. Arnold, following the famous John Harrison clocks. On march 12, 1774, approaching Easter-Island, Georg Forster (suffering of scurvy) praises the method of lunar distances as the best and most precise method to determine longitude, as compared to the clocks which may fail due to mechanical problems. See also Royal Observatory, Greenwich Josef de Mendoza y Ríos John Harrison History of longitude Longitude prize Henry Raper Bowditch's American Practical Navigator Nathaniel Bowditch References New and complete epitome of practical navigation containing all necessary instruction for keeping a ship's reckoning at sea ... to which is added a new and correct set of tables - by J. W. Norie 1828 Andrewes, William J.H. (Ed.): The Quest for Longitude. Cambridge, Mass. 1996 Forbes, Eric G.: The Birth of Navigational Science. London 1974 Jullien, Vincent (Ed.): Le calcul des longitudes: un enjeu pour les mathématiques, l`astronomie, la mesure du temps et la navigation. Rennes 2002 Howse, Derek: Greenwich Time and the Longitude. London 1997 Howse, Derek: Nevil Maskelyne. The Seaman's Astronomer. Cambridge 1989 National Maritime Museum (Ed.): 4 Steps to Longitude. London 1962 External links About Lunars... by George Huxtable. (Free tutorial) Navigation Spreadsheets: Lunar distance Navigational Algorithms - free software for Lunars Longitude by Lunars online Time and Position by C-program LUNARS-V13 An Essay on Lunar Distance Method, by Richard Dunn Geodesy Lunar science Navigation Celestial navigation

4072086

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegasus%20%28satellite%29

Pegasus (satellite)

The Pegasus Project was a NASA initiative to study the frequency of micrometeoroid impacts on spacecraft by means of a constellation of three satellites launched in 1965. All three Pegasus satellites were launched by Saturn I rockets, and remained connected with their upper stages. The Pegasus satellites were named for the winged horse of Greek mythology and was first lofted into space by a NASA Saturn I rocket on February 16, 1965. Like its namesake, the Pegasus satellite was notable for its "wings", a pair of -long, -wide arrays of 104 panels fitted with sensors to detect punctures by micrometeoroids at high altitudes, in support of the Apollo Program to send crewed lunar landing missions starting by 1970. Micrometeoroids were believed to be potentially hazardous to the Apollo crew if they could puncture the spacecraft skin. The sensors successfully measured the frequency, size, direction and penetration of scores of micrometeoroid impacts. The satellite also carried sample protective shields mounted on the arrays. The NASA Marshall Space Flight Center was responsible for the design, production and operation of the three Pegasus satellites which were launched by Saturn I rocket test flights in 1965. At launch, a boilerplate Apollo Command/Service Module and launch escape system tower were atop the Saturn I, with the Pegasus experiment folded inside the Service Module. After first stage separation and second-stage ignition, the launch escape system was jettisoned. When the second stage attained orbit, the 10,000-pound Apollo boilerplate Command and Service modules were jettisoned into a separate orbit. Then a motor driven device extended the winglike panels on the Pegasus to a span of . The Pegasus wings remained attached to the Saturn I's second stage as planned. A television camera, mounted on the interior of the Service Module adapter, provided pictures of the satellite deploying in space and as historian Roger E. Bilstein has written, "captured a vision of the eerie silent wings of Pegasus I as they haltingly deployed." The satellite exposed more than of instrumented surface, with thickness varying up to . Ernst Stuhlinger, then director of the MSFC Research Projects Laboratory, noted that all three Pegasus missions provided more than data on micrometeoroid penetration. Scientists also were able to gather data regarding gyroscopic motion and orbital characteristics of rigid bodies in space, lifetimes of electronic components in the space environment, and thermal control systems and the degrading effects of space on thermal control coatings. Space historian Roger Bilstein reported that for physicists the Pegasus missions provided additional knowledge about the radiation environments of space, the Van Allen radiation belts and other phenomena. Orbits Pegasus 1 Launched: February 16, 1965 Launch vehicle: A-103 Orbital inclination: 31.7 degrees. Perigee: 510 km Apogee: 726 km Launch weight: 10.5 tons. Dry weight: 1451.5 kg Decayed: September 17, 1978 International Designator: 1965-009A Pegasus 2 Launched: May 25, 1965 Launch vehicle: A-104 Orbital inclination: 31.7 degrees. Perigee: 502 km Apogee: 740 km Launch weight: 10.46 tons. Dry weight: 1451.5 kg Decayed: November 3, 1979 International Designator: 1965-039A Pegasus 3 Launched: July 30, 1965 Launch vehicle: A-105 Orbital inclination: 28.9 degrees. Perigee: 441 km Apogee: 449 km Launch weight: 10.5 tons. Dry weight: 1451.5 kg Decayed: August 4, 1969 International Designator: 1965-060A References External links Encyclopedia Astronautica entry 1965 in spaceflight Satellites formerly orbiting Earth Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets Satellite constellations NASA programs

4072757

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swim%20trunks

Swim trunks

Swim trunks, also known as swimming trunks, are a form of swimsuit - clothing worn specifically for swimming. As such, they are usually made of materials specifically designed for being wet and remaining comfortable and hydrodynamic to not impede the swimmer. The choice of materials makes them distinct from underwear which may have a similar shape. The term is a catch-all for a number of styles of garment - briefs (very short with no leg coverage), shorts (fabric extends beyond the crotch and slightly onto the legs) and "jammers" (extend further down the legs, to mid thigh or even the knee, and popular with competitive swimmers). Especially in North America, the term swim trunks can also include water-friendly variants of such articles as beach shorts and boardshorts which are typically baggy, casual, and more modest—but which impede the performance of the swimmer. Other usage Other items of clothing can also be known as trunks, such as looser-fitting garments used for boxing and track and field events, and certain styles of underpants (especially in British English). In American English, the term is sometimes used to refer to trunk hose, defined by the Collins American English Dictionary as "full, baggy breeches reaching about halfway down the thigh, worn in the 16th and 17th cent." More recently, “trunks” has been used as shorthand for the relatively new trunk briefs, a shorter version of boxer briefs. References Swimsuits Trousers and shorts

4075340

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GpsOne

GpsOne

gpsOne is the brand name for a cellphone chipset manufactured by Qualcomm for mobile phone tracking. It uses A-GPS or Assisted-GPS to locate the phone more quickly, accurately and reliably than by GPS alone, especially in places with poor GPS reception. Current uses gpsOne is primarily used today for Enhanced-911 E911 service, allowing a cell phone to relay its location to emergency dispatchers, thus overcoming one of the traditional shortcomings of cellular phone technology. Using a combination of GPS satellite signals and the cell sites themselves, gpsOne plots the location with greater accuracy than traditional GPS systems in areas where satellite reception is problematic due to buildings or terrain. Geotagging - addition of location information to the pictures taken with a camera phone. Location-based information delivery, (i.e. local weather and traffic alerts). Verizon Wireless uses gpsOne to support its VZ Navigator automotive navigation system. Verizon disables gpsOne in some phones for other applications as compared to AT&T and T-Mobile. gpsOne in other systems besides Verizon can be used with any third-party applications. Future uses Some vendors are also looking at GPS phone technology as a method of implementing location-based solutions, such as: Employers can track vehicles or employees, allowing quick response from the nearest representative. Restaurants, clubs, theatres and other venues could relay SMS special offers to patrons within a certain range. When using a phone as a 'wallet' and making e-payments, the user's location can be verified as an additional layer of security against cloning. For example, John Doe in AverageTown USA is most likely not purchasing a candy bar from a machine at LAX if he was logged paying for the subway token in NYC, and calling his wife from the Empire State Building. Location-based games. Functions gpsOne can operate in four modes: Standalone - The handset has no connection to the network, and uses only the GPS satellite signals it can currently receive to try to establish a location. Mobile Station Based (MSB) - The handset is connected to the network, and uses the GPS signals and a location signal from the network. Mobile Station Assisted (MSA) - The handset is connected to the network, uses GPS signals and a location signal, then relays its 'fix' to the server. Which then uses the signal strength from the phone to the network towers to further plot the user's position. Users can still maintain voice communication in this scenario, but not 'Internet/Network service', (i.e. Web browser, IM, streaming TV etc.) Mobile Station Hybrid - Same as above, but network functionality remains. Normally only in areas with exceptional coverage. Adoption Since introduction in 2000, the gpsOne chipset has been adopted by 40+ vendors, and is used in more than 250 cellphone models worldwide. More than 300 million gpsOne enabled handsets are currently on the market, making it one of the most widely deployed solutions. External links Product website The gpsOne XTRA MSB assistance data format: Vinnikov & Pshehotskaya (2020): Deciphering of the gpsOne File Format for Assisted GPS Service, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 1184:377-386 Vinnikov, Pshehotskaya and Gritsevich (2021): Partial Decoding of the GPS Extended Prediction Orbit File, 2021 29th Conference of Open Innovations Association Mobile telecommunications Global Positioning System Qualcomm

4081360

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonization%20of%20the%20asteroid%20belt

Colonization of the asteroid belt

Asteroids, including those in the asteroid belt, have been suggested as a possible site of space colonization. Motives include the survival of humanity, and the specific economic opportunity for asteroid mining. Obstacles include transportation distance, temperature, radiation, lack of gravity, and psychological issues. Space habitats Most asteroids have minerals that could be mined. Because these bodies do not have substantial gravity wells, only a low delta-V is needed to haul materials to a construction site. There is estimated to be enough material in the main asteroid belt alone to build enough space habitats to equal the habitable surface area of 3,000 Earths. Ceres Ceres is a dwarf planet and the largest body in the asteroid belt. As it is cryovolcanic it has potential for asteroid mining of resources for colonization. Its gravitational pull is stronger than other bodies in the asteroid belt, making surface colonization a more realistic possibility. Driving forces One of the primary arguments for space colonization is to ensure the long-term survival of the human species. In the event of worldwide artificial or natural disaster a space colony would allow the human species to continue on. Michael Griffin, the NASA administrator in 2006, stated the case as follows:“... the goal isn't just scientific exploration ... it's also about extending the range of human habitat out from Earth into the solar system as we go forward in time ... In the long run a single-planet species will not survive ... If we humans want to survive for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we must ultimately populate other planets.” A specific argument for asteroid colonization is the potential economic gain from asteroid mining. Asteroids contain a significant amount of valuable materials, including rare minerals and precious metals, which can be mined and transported back to Earth to be sold. With approximately as much iron as the world produces in 100,000 years, 16 Psyche is one such asteroid worth approximately $10 quintillion in metallic iron and nickel. NASA is planning a mission for October 10, 2023 for the Psyche orbiter to launch and get to the asteroid by August 2029 to study. 511 Davida could have $27 quadrillion worth of minerals and resources. NASA estimates that between 1.1 and 1.9 million asteroids in the asteroid belt are larger than 1 kilometer in diameter. Millions are smaller. Approximately 8% of known main belt asteroids are similar in composition to 16 Psyche. One company, Planetary Resources, is already aiming to develop technologies with the goal of using them to mine asteroids. Planetary Resources estimates some 30-meter long asteroids to contain as much as $25 to $50 billion worth of platinum. Transportation Interplanetary spaceflight is a challenge because the asteroid belt is far, hundreds of millions of miles or km away. A human mission to Mars, tens of millions of miles or km, is similarly challenging. The Mars rover mission, for example, took 253 days to get to Mars. Russia, China, and the European Space Agency ran an experiment, called MARS-500, between 2007 and 2011 to gauge the physical and psychological limitations of crewed space flight. The experiment concluded that 18 months of solitude was the limit for a crewed space mission. With current technology the journey to the asteroid belt would be greater than 18 months, suggesting that a crewed mission may be beyond our current technological capabilities. Landing Asteroids are not large enough to produce significant gravity, making it difficult to land a spacecraft. Humans have yet to land a spacecraft on an asteroid in the asteroid belt, but uncrewed spacecraft have temporarily landed on a few asteroids, the first of which in 2001 was 433 Eros, a NEA from the Amor group, more recently 162173 Ryugu, another NEA of the Apollo group. This was part of the Hayabusa2 mission that was conducted by the Japanese Space Agency. The landing used four solar ionic thrusters and four reaction wheels for orientation control and orbit control of the spacecraft to land on Ryugu. These technologies may be applied to complete a successful similar landing in the asteroid belt. Mining the Asteroid Belt from Mars Since Mars is much closer to the Asteroid belt than Earth is, it would take less Delta-v to get to the Asteroid belt and return minerals to Mars. One hypothesis is that the origin of the Moons of Mars (Phobos and Deimos) are actually Asteroid captures from the Asteroid belt. Using the moon Phobos to launch spacecraft is energetically favorable and a useful location from which to dispatch missions to main belt asteroids. Mining the asteroid belt from Mars and its moons could help in the Colonization of Mars. A space elevator based on Phobos could reduce the cost of transport. See Colonization_of_Mars#Transportation Challenges for human habitation Gravity Lack of gravity has many adverse effects on human biology. Transitioning gravity fields has the potential to impact spatial orientation, coordination, balance, locomotion, and induce motion sickness. Asteroids, without artificial gravity, have relatively little gravity in comparison to earth. Without gravity working on the human body, bones lose minerals, and bone density decreases by 1% monthly. In comparison, the rate of bone loss for the elderly is between 1-1.5% yearly. The excretion of calcium from bones in space also places those in low gravity at a higher risk of kidney stones. Additionally, a lack of gravity causes fluids in the body to shift towards the head, possibly causing pressure in the head and vision problems. Overall physical fitness tends to decrease as well, and proper nutrition becomes much more important. Without gravity, muscles are engaged less and overall movement is easier. Without intentional training, muscle mass, cardiovascular conditioning and endurance will decrease. Artificial gravity Artificial gravity offers a solution to the adverse effects of zero gravity on the human body. One proposition to implement artificial gravity on asteroids, investigated in a study conducted by researchers at the University of Vienna, involves hollowing out and rotating a celestial body. Colonists would then live within the asteroid, and the centrifugal force would simulate Earth's gravity. The researchers found that while it may be unclear as to whether asteroids would be strong enough maintain the necessary spin rate, they could not rule out such a project if the dimensions and composition of the asteroid were within acceptable levels. Currently, there are no practical large-scale applications of artificial gravity for spaceflight or colonization efforts due to issues with size and cost. However, a variety of research labs and organizations have performed a number of tests utilizing human centrifuges to study the effects of prolonged sustained or intermittent artificial gravity on the body in an attempt to determine feasibility for future missions such as long-term spaceflight and space colonization. A research team at the University of Colorado Boulder found that they were able to make all participants in their study feel comfortable at approximately 17 revolutions per minute in a human centrifuge, without the motion sickness that tends to plague most trials of small-scale applications of artificial gravity. This offers an alternative method which may be more feasible considering the significantly reduced cost in comparison to larger structures. Temperature Most asteroids are located in the asteroid belt, between Mars and Jupiter. This is a cold region, with temperatures ranging from -73 degrees Celsius to -103 degrees. Human life will require a consistent energy source for warmth. Radiation In space, cosmic rays and solar flares create a lethal radiation environment. Cosmic radiation has the potential to increase risk of heart disease, cancer, central nervous system disorder, and acute radiation syndrome. On Earth, we are protected by a magnetic field and our atmosphere, but asteroids lack this defense. One possibility for defense against this radiation is living inside of an asteroid. It is estimated that humans would be sufficiently protected from radiation by burrowing 100 meters deep inside of an asteroid. However, the composition of asteroids creates an issue for this solution. Many asteroids are loosely organized rubble piles with very little structural integrity. Psychology Space travel has a huge impact on human psychology, including changes to brain structure, neural interconnectivity, and behavior. Cosmic radiation has the ability to impact the brain, and has been studied extensively on rats and mice. These studies show the animals suffer from decreases in spatial memory, neural interconnectivity, and memory. Additionally, the animals had an increase in anxiety and fear. The isolation of space and difficulty sleeping in the environment also contribute to psychological impacts. The difficulty of speaking with those on Earth can contribute to loneliness, anxiety, and depression. A Russian study simulated the psychological impacts of extended space travel. Six healthy males from various countries but with similar educational backgrounds to astronauts lived inside an enclosed module for 520 days in 2010–11. The members of the survey reported symptoms of moderate depression, abnormal sleep cycles, insomnia, and physical exhaustion. In addition, NASA reports that missions on the global scale have ended or been halted due to mental issues. Some of these issues include shared mental delusions, depression, and becoming distressed from failed experiments. However, in many astronauts, space travel can actually have a positive mental impact. Many astronauts report an increase of appreciation for the planet, purpose, and spirituality. This mainly results from the view of Earth from space. See also 16 Psyche Colonization of Mars Asteroid mining Mining the Asteroid Belt from Mars Space colonization Asteroid belt Space habitat Exploration of 16 Psyche - mission scheduled for 2023 launch and 2029 arrival Gravity train Space elevator Orbital ring References Asteroids +Asteroids Asteroid mining

4083909

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Herivel

John Herivel

John William Jamieson Herivel (29 August 1918 – 18 January 2011) was a British science historian and World War II codebreaker at Bletchley Park. As a codebreaker concerned with Cryptanalysis of the Enigma, Herivel is remembered chiefly for the discovery of what was soon dubbed the Herivel tip or Herivelismus. Herivelismus consisted of the idea, the Herivel tip and the method of establishing whether it applied using the Herivel square. It was based on Herivel's insight into the habits of German operators of the Enigma cipher machine that allowed Bletchley Park to easily deduce part of the daily key. For a brief but critical period after May 1940, the Herivel tip in conjunction with "cillies" (another class of operator error) was the main technique used to solve Enigma. After the war, Herivel became an academic, studying the history and philosophy of science at Queen's University Belfast, particularly Isaac Newton, Joseph Fourier, Christiaan Huygens. In 1956, he took a brief leave of absence from Queen's to work as a scholar at the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. In retirement, he wrote an autobiographical account of his work at Bletchley Park entitled Herivelismus and the German Military Enigma. Recruitment to Bletchley Park John Herivel was born in Belfast, and attended Methodist College Belfast from 1924 to 1936. In 1937 he was awarded a Kitchener Scholarship to study mathematics at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, where his supervisor was Gordon Welchman. Welchman recruited Herivel to the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park. Welchman worked with Alan Turing in the newly formed Hut 6 section created to solve Army and Air Force Enigma. Herivel, then aged 21, arrived at Bletchley on 29 January 1940, and was briefed on Enigma by Alan Turing and Tony Kendrick. Enigma At the time that Herivel started work at Bletchley Park, Hut 6 was having only limited success with Enigma-enciphered messages, mostly from the Luftwaffe Enigma network known as "Red". He was working alongside David Rees, another Cambridge mathematician recruited by Welchman, in nearby Elmers School, testing candidate solutions and working out plugboard settings. The process was slow, however, Herivel was determined to find a method to improve their attack, and he would spend his evenings trying to think up ways to do so. Intercepted Morse coded messages had been enciphered by the Germans' Enigma, an electro-mechanical rotor cipher machine that implemented a polyalphabetic cipher. The main model in use in 1940 had three rotors that set an electrical pathway from the keyboard to the lampboard. Pressing a key caused one lamp to light and the right-most rotor to advance by one letter position. This changed the electrical pathway so that pressing the same key again caused a different letter to light up. At one of the 26 positions, a notch on the right-most rotor engaged with the middle rotor so that the two rotors advanced together, and similarly the middle rotor would engage with the left-most rotor, giving a very long period before the sequence repeated (26 × 26 × 26 = 17,576). The ring on the rotor that contained the notch and so caused the next rotor to advance, could be set to any one of the 26 positions. The three rotors were selected from a set of five, giving 60 different ways of mounting rotors in the machine. However, because the Germans laid down the rule that no rotor should be in the same position on successive days, if the previous days's rotors and their positions were known, this number was reduced to 32. The Enigma machine worked reciprocally so that an identical machine with identical settings would, if fed the enciphered letters, show the deciphered letters on the lampboard. Hut 6 had Enigma replica machines that were logically identical to the machines that the Germans were using. To decipher the intercepted messages required that the selection of rotors, the ring settings and the plugboard connections were known. At this time, the first three letters of the prelude to the message were used as an indicator to tell the receiving operator the letters that should appear in the windows for this particular message. Herivel tip Herivel had an insight in February 1940 that some lazy German code clerks might give away the Enigma's ring settings (Ringstellung) in their first message of the day. If there were several lazy clerks, the first message Grundstellungs would not be random but would have a clustering around the Ringstellung. The insight became known as the Herivel tip. It was not needed at the time because the Luftwaffe was doubly-enciphering their message keys so techniques such as Zygalski sheets could be used. In May 1940, the Germans stopped the doubly-enciphered keys. Other methods becoming ineffective, Bletchley Park started using the Herivel tip to break Luftwaffe traffic. It continued to be the main method until the bombe was delivered in August 1940. Enigma enciphering procedure The rotors and the positioning of the ring containing the notch were changed daily. The settings were defined in a codebook that was common to all operators on that network. At the start of each day, before any messages were sent or received, Enigma operators implemented the day's rotor selection and ring settings. Having selected the three rotors, they adjusted the ring settings. That could be done before the rotors were mounted on their axle or after they had been inserted into the machine. It was possible to adjust the ring settings of the loaded rotors by moving the spring-loaded retaining pin to the right and turning the rotor to display the specified letter. Herivel thought it likely that at least some of the operators would adjust the rings after they had mounted the rotors in the machine. Having set the alphabet rings and closed the lid, the operator should then have moved the rotors well away from the positions that displayed the three letters of the ring setting in the windows, but some operators did not. Herivel's great insight came to him one evening in February 1940 while he was relaxing in front of his landlady's fire. Stressed or lazy operators who had set the rings when the rotors were in the machine might then have left ring setting at or near the top and used those three letters for the first message of the day. For each transmitted message, the sending operator would follow a standard procedure. From September 1938, he would use an initial position to encrypt the indicator and send it in clear, followed by the message key that had been enciphered at that setting. If the ground setting () was GKX for example, he would then use Enigma with the rotors set to GKX to encrypt the message setting, which he might choose to be RTQ; which might encrypt to LLP. (Before May 1940, the encrypted message setting was repeated, but that makes no difference to Herivel's insight.) The operator would then turn his rotors to RTQ and encrypt the actual message. Thus, the preamble to the message would be the unencrypted ground setting (GKX), followed by the encrypted message setting (LLP). A receiving Enigma operator could use the information to recover the message setting and then decrypt the message. The ground setting (GKX in the above example) should have been chosen at random, but Herivel reasoned that if operators were lazy, in a hurry or otherwise under pressure, they might simply use whatever rotor setting was currently showing on the machine. If that was the first message of the day and the operator had set the ring settings with the rotors already inside the machine, the rotor position currently showing on the machine could well be the ring setting itself or be very close to it. (If that situation occurred in the above example, GKX would be the ring setting or close to it). Polish cryptographers used the idea at PC Bruno during the Phoney War. Herivel square The day after his insight, Herivel's colleagues agreed that his idea was a possible way into Enigma. Hut 6 began looking for the effect predicted by the Herivel tip and arranged to have the first messages of the day from each transmitting station to be sent to them early. They plotted the indicators in a grid termed a "Herivel square", an example of which is shown below. The rows and columns of the grid are labelled with the alphabet. The first indicator of the first message of the day received from each station on the network, was entered into the grid. It was done by finding the column corresponding to the first letter, the row corresponding to the second letter, and entering the third letter into the cell where the row and column intersected. For example, GKX would be recorded by entering a X in the cell in column G and row K. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ---------------------------------------------------------- Z| |Z Y| S |Y X| |X W| L |W V| |V U| E |U T| |T S| |S R| K |R Q| S |Q P| |P O| |O N| N |N M| X |M L| W T |L K| X Y |K J| W X |J I| |I H| Q |H G| |G F| |F E| A |E D| |D C| V |C B| J |B A| P |A ---------------------------------------------------------- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z The Herivel tip suggested that there would be a cluster of entries close together, such as the cluster around GKX in the above example. That would narrow the options for the ring settings down from 17,576 to a small set of possibilities, perhaps 6 to 30, which could be tested individually. The effect predicted by Herivel did not immediately show up in the Enigma traffic, however, and Bletchley Park had to continue to rely on a different technique to get into Enigma: the method of "perforated sheets", which had been passed on by Polish cryptologists. The situation changed on 1 May 1940, when the Germans changed their indicating procedure, rendering the perforated sheet method obsolete. Hut 6 was suddenly unable to decrypt Enigma. Fortunately for the codebreakers, the pattern predicted by the Herivel tip began to manifest itself soon after on 10 May, when the Germans invaded the Netherlands and Belgium. David Rees spotted a cluster in the indicators, and on 22 May a Luftwaffe message sent on 20 May was decoded, the first since the change in procedure. Additional key components Although the Herivel tip provided the Enigma's ring settings, it did not provide other parts of the Enigma key: the rotor order and the plugboard settings. A Luftwaffe key at the time chose from 5 rotors, so there were 60 possible rotor orders. In addition, there might be 8 to 10 plugboard connections, which means that all but 6 of the 26 letters are permuted by the plugboard. The codebreakers had to use other methods to find the remaining portions of the Enigma key. The Herivel tip was used in combination with another class of operator mistake, known as "cillies", to solve the settings and decipher the messages. The Herivel tip was used for several months until specialised codebreaking machines designed by Alan Turing, the so-called "bombes", were ready for use. Recognition Gordon Welchman wrote that the Herivel tip was a vital part of breaking Enigma at Bletchley Park. Because of the importance of his contribution, Herivel was singled out and introduced to Winston Churchill during a visit to Bletchley Park. He also taught Enigma cryptanalysis to a party of Americans assigned to Hut 6 in an intensive two-week course. Herivel later worked in administration in the "Newmanry", the section responsible for solving German teleprinter ciphers by using machine methods such as the Colossus computers, as assistant to the head of the section, mathematician Max Newman. In 2005, researchers studying a set of Enigma-encrypted messages from World War II noted the occurrence of clustering, as predicted by the Herivel tip, in messages from August 1941. After World War II After the end of the war, Herivel taught mathematics in a school for a year, but he found he could not handle the "rumbustious boys". He then joined Queen's University Belfast, where he became reader in the History and Philosophy of Science. One of the students that he supervised was the actor Simon Callow, who said of him: He published books and articles on Isaac Newton, Joseph Fourier and Christiaan Huygens. His publications include: The research on which this paper is based was carried out in Paris in 1964 with the aid of a Bourse de Marque awarded by the French Government through their Embassy in London, and with a grant from the Research Committee of the Academic Council of the Queen's University, Belfast. In 1978 he retired to Oxford, where he became a Fellow of All Souls College. In his retirement he published: He died in Oxford in 2011. He is survived by his daughter Josephine Herivel. Notes References in This contains an account of the pre-war work on Enigma in Poland, written with the care of a professional historian. External links "Mind of a Codebreaker", companion web site to "Decoding Nazi Secrets", originally broadcast on 9 November 1999. Part one and part two. (Contains similar material on the Herivel Tip to Smith, 1998). 1918 births 2011 deaths People educated at Methodist College Belfast Alumni of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge Bletchley Park people Cryptographic attacks Historians of science British biographers Academics of Queen's University Belfast Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford Historians from Northern Ireland Newton scholars Male non-fiction writers from Northern Ireland Academics of the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 20th-century biographers from Northern Ireland

4084795

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora%20family

Flora family

The Flora family (adj. Florian; ; also known as Ariadne family) is a prominent family of stony asteroids located in the inner region of the asteroid belt. It is one of the largest families with more than 13,000 known members, or approximately 3.5% of all main-belt asteroids. The origin and properties of this family are relatively poorly understood. It is a very broad family which gradually fades into the surrounding background population. While the largest members, 8 Flora and 43 Ariadne, are located near the edge, there are several distinct groupings within the family, possibly created by later, secondary collisions. Due to this complex internal structure and the poorly defined boundaries, the Flora family has also been described as an asteroid clan. Only few interlopers have been identified. This family may be the source of the impactor that formed the Chicxulub crater, the likely culprit in the extinction of the dinosaurs. Characteristics The largest member is 8 Flora, which measures 140 km in diameter and comprises about 80% of the total family mass. Nevertheless, the parent body was almost certainly disrupted by the impact/s that formed the family, and Flora is probably a gravitational aggregate of most of the pieces. 43 Ariadne makes up much of the remaining mass (about a further 9%). Because of the family's poorly defined boundaries, and the location of Flora itself near the edge, it has also been called the "Ariadne family", when Flora did not make it into the group during an analysis (e.g. the WAM analysis by Zappalà, 1995). The remaining family members are fairly small, below 30 km in diameter. A noticeable fraction of the parent body has been lost from the family since the original impact, presumably due to later processes such as secondary collisions. For example, it has been estimated that Flora contains only about 57% of the parent body's mass (Tanga 1999), but about 80% of the mass in the present family. The Flora family is very broad and gradually fades into the background population (which is particularly dense in this part of space) in such a way that its boundaries are very poorly defined. There are also several non-uniformities or lobes within the family, one cause of which may have been later secondary collisions between family members. Hence, it is a classical example of a so-called asteroid clan. Curiously, the largest members, 8 Flora and 43 Ariadne, are located near the edge of the family. The reason for this unusual mass distribution within the family is unknown at present. 951 Gaspra, a medium-sized core family member, was visited by the Galileo spacecraft on its way to Jupiter, and is one of the most extensively studied asteroids. Studies of Gaspra suggests that the family's age is of the order of 200 million years (indicated by the crater density), and that the parent body was at least partially differentiated (indicated by the high abundance of olivine) (Veverka 1994). The Flora family members are considered good candidates for being the parent bodies of the L chondrite meteorites (Nesvorny 2002), which contribute about 38% of all meteorites impacting of the Earth. This theory is supported by the family's location close to the unstable zone of the ν6 secular resonance, and because the spectral properties of family members are consistent with being the parent bodies of this meteorite type. The Flora family was one of the five original Hirayama families that were first identified. It has a high number of early discovered members both because S-type asteroids tend to have high albedo, and because it is the closest major asteroid grouping to Earth. Location and size A HCM numerical analysis by Vincenzo Zappalà in 1995 determined a large group of 'core' family members, whose proper orbital elements lie in the approximate ranges The boundaries of the family are, however, very indistinct. At the present epoch, the range of osculating orbital elements of these core members is Zappalà's 1995 analysis found 604 core members, and 1027 in a wider group. A search of a recent proper element database (AstDys)for 96944 minor planets in 2005 yielded 7438 objects lying within the rectangular-shaped region defined by the first table above. However, this also includes parts of the Vesta and Nysa families in the corners so that a more likely membership estimate is 4000–5000 objects (by eye). This means that the Flora family represents 4–5% of all main belt asteroids. Interlopers Because of the high background density of asteroids in this part of space, one might expect that a great number of interlopers (asteroids unrelated to the collision that formed the family) would be present. However, few have been identified. This is because interlopers are hard to distinguish from family members because the family is of the same spectral type (S) that dominates the inner main belt overall. The few interlopers that have been identified are all small (Florczak et al. 1998, and also by inspection of the PDS asteroid taxonomy data set for non S-type members.) They include 298 Baptistina, 422 Berolina, 2093 Genichesk, 2259 Sofievka (the largest, with a 21 km diameter), 2952 Lilliputia, 453 Tea, 3533 Toyota, 3850 Peltier, 3875 Staehle, 4278 Harvey, 4396 Gressmann, and 4750 Mukai. References Zappalà, Vincenzo; Bendjoya, Philippe; Cellino, Alberto; Farinella, Paolo; and Froeschlé, Claude; Asteroid Families: Search of a 12,487-Asteroid Sample Using Two Different Clustering Techniques, Icarus, Volume 116, Issue 2 (August 1995), pages 291–314 Florczak, M., et al.; A Visible Spectroscopic Survey of the Flora Clan, Icarus Vol. 133, p. 233 (1998). PDS asteroid taxonomy data set Bus, Schelte J.; and Binzel, Richard P.; Phase II of the Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey, Icarus Vol. 158, p. 106 (2002). Data set online here. Nesvorný, D., et al.; The Flora Family: A Case of the Dynamically Dispersed Collisional Swarm?, Icarus, Vol. 157, p. 155 (2002). AstDys site. Proper elements for 96944 numbered minor planets. Tanga, P., et al.; On the Size Distribution of Asteroid Families: The Role of Geometry, Icarus, Vol. 141, p. 65 (1999). Veverka, J., et al.; Galileo's Encounter with 951 Gaspra: Overview, Icarus, Vol. 107, p. 2 (1994). Asteroid groups and families

4087834

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Whitney%20Young

James Whitney Young

James Whitney Young (born January 24, 1941) is an American astronomer who worked in the field of asteroid research. After nearly 47 years with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at their Table Mountain Facility, Young retired July 16, 2009. He was a very prolific minor planet-observer of both physical properties and astrometric positions, and had discovered more than 250 asteroids since 2002, most of them from the main-belt, as well as several near-Earth objects, Mars-crossers and Jupiter trojans. He also discovered SN 2004eg, an extra-galactic supernova. The Florian asteroid 2874 Jim Young was named in his honor. Biography James W. Young (aka Jim Young) was born in Portland, Oregon and recently retired as the resident astronomer of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Table Mountain Observatory (TMO) near Wrightwood, California having been with them for 47 years. Young was the lead technical guide at the NASA exhibit of the Seattle World's Fair during 1962. It was there he was encouraged to apply for an 'assistant observer' and 'darkroom technician' position at the recently developed Table Mountain Observatory with its new telescope which had just begun full operations in late 1962. Table Mountain Observatory Along with Charles F. Capen, Jr. (TMO's first resident astronomer), Young carried out photographic synoptic patrols using specific colors (UV through IR) of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Several technical reports were published of 'patrol' images of Mars during two Martian apparitions (1964–65 and 1966–67). The 1964 inferior conjunction of Venus was well observed from TMO. Color astrophotography was carefully investigated for planetary imaging using recently developed high speed color film emulsions. With the newly (1966) installed Cassegrain/Coudé telescope, Young began his asteroid observations with JPL astronomers, Ellis D. Miner and Alan W. Harris. Asteroid rotational rates became his speciality soon thereafter and by 1980, over 30 publications in Icarus with Alan W. Harris resulted in nearly half of the (then) known rotational rates of these small solar system bodies. With the advent of powerful lasers, Young became involved with several projects that aimed lasers successfully, first at the Surveyor VII spacecraft on the Moon (1968), later as two laser ranging programs developed at JPL in the 1990s found their marks on low and high earth orbiting satellites, and finally to the Galileo spacecraft some 6 million kilometers from Earth. In each case, Young was responsible for aiming/tracking the telescope on each successive target. Hypersensitization Other noteworthy projects Young was involved in included the 1969 installation of a large planetary spectrograph utilizing the Coudé focus of the telescope. Spectroscopic studies of the planet Venus were carried out by JPL astronomers, Andrew and Louise Young, with Jim Young assisting with hypersensitization of Eastman Kodak IR spectroscopic glass plates. Jim Young developed a new technique of cold storage for these extremely sensitive plates. His experimentation of 'clean' and properly washed plates, stored at −70 °C. for over two years, were without increased noise or loss of sensitivity. Previous experimenters could manage around a two-month reliability. 2-Micron All Sky Survey In 1998, Young was asked to be an official observer for the 2-Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint venture of Caltech (California Institute of Technology) and the University of Massachusetts Amherst (UMass). Young carried out observations for this project at Mount Hopkins (south of Tucson, Arizona) and at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) in Chile until 2000, all the while maintaining his full Table Mountain Observatory responsibilities for JPL. Near Earth Objects Late in 2002, Young began his last asteroid research, centering on NEOs and comets that have been discovered by several NASA funded NEO search teams such as NEAT, LINEAR, LONEOS, Catalina Sky Survey (CSS), and Spacewatch. With the use of Astrometrica software, Young become an extremely prolific astrometrist for the Minor Planet Center (MPC) of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The director of the MPC, Dr. Brian G. Marsden called Young the third most accurate and reliable observer in the world then. He also co-authored and authored over 1500 MPECs (Minor Planet Electronic Circulars) and IAUCs (International Astronomical Union Circulars) during these last 7 years at JPL. NASA awarded Young a three-year grant to further his studies of NEOs and comets for JPL and the MPC during the last years before his retirement. In 2003 Young accepted a new responsibility as 'Astronomy Team Leader' at Table Mountain, and supervised a staff of three employees in maintaining two optical telescopes (0.4 and 0.6 meter cassegrain systems), four CCD cameras, and a computer network of over 20 computers. Young maintained the optical performance of the telescopes, and the vacuum requirements for the CCD cameras. He also was in charge of the telescope scheduling for all visiting astronomers and his staff. TMO recently placed their new on-line webpage for all users as well as the public (see below link). List of discovered minor planets James Whitney Young is credited as "J. W. Young" by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 256 minor planets made between 2002 and 2009. Outreach Young taught an astronomy extension course for the University of California, Riverside in 1969 and 1970 specifically for high school and junior college teachers and educators. Young frequently lectures about his work to youth, school, civic, and church groups around the western USA. In 2006 he attended the International Astronomical Union's (IAU) General Assembly 2006 in Prague, Czech Republic. Young gave a presentation on his activities taking astrometric observations of NEOs and comets at Table Mountain Observatory in the S236 Symposium on August 14. Young, and his wife Karen (a HS Science and Math teacher), hold annual star-parties for their local communities as an Outreach Program. The 13th annual event, was held on October 15, 2010. The event was attended by approximately 80 people, with many school children, parents, and Boy Scouts present. With six telescopes, many from members of the High Desert Astronomical Society (HiDAS), participants viewed the moon, and later when the clouds cleared in the east, a shadow transit of Io across Jupiter's cloud surface was seen. Mr. Young spoke at the Imiloa Astronomy Center in Hilo, Hawaii on December 23, 2010. Young's presentation, entitled "The First Asteroid Discovery to Near-Earth Hazards" featured Scott Manley's visualization titled, '1980-2010 Asteroid Discoveries', a six-minute version (made especially for this presentation, with a re-mix of the music "Transgenic" from Trifonic Music, LLC). Still in Hilo, Mr. Young also gave an evening fireside at the Hilo Stake Center of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, entitled, "The Creation as Viewed by an Astronomer". This same fireside was given in Dallas, Texas; Atlanta, Georgia; and Medina, Ohio in May, 2011. On the afternoon of June 5, Young held a viewing of the Venus transit from Wrightwood, California for the local community. Mr. Young's 6-inch telescope was used with a solar filter for the 80-100 people who attended, as well as photography to record the event with a 2000mm telephoto lens. Honors The Florian asteroid 2874 Jim Young, discovered by Edward Bowell in 1982, was named in his honor. Memberships and affiliations Asteroid meanings See also List of minor planet discoverers References External links TMO website Astrophotography site Professional Photography Site 1941 births 20th-century American astronomers 21st-century American astronomers Discoverers of asteroids Living people NASA people People from Wrightwood, California Scientists from California Scientists from Portland, Oregon

4088601

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20migrant

Environmental migrant

Environmental migrants are people who are forced to leave their home region due to sudden or long-term changes to their local or regional environment. These changes compromise their well-being or livelihood, and include increased drought, desertification, sea level rise, and disruption of seasonal weather patterns (such as monsoons). Though there is no uniform, clear-cut definition of environmental migration, the idea is gaining attention as policy-makers and environmental and social scientists attempt to conceptualize the potential social effects of climate change and other environmental degradation, such a deforestation or overexploitation. "Environmental migrant" and "climate migrant" (or "climate refugee") are used somewhat interchangeably with a range of similar terms, such as ecological refugee, environmental refugee, forced environmental migrant, environmentally motivated migrant, environmentally displaced person (EDP), disaster refugee, environmental displacee, eco-refugee, ecologically displaced person, or environmental-refugee-to-be (ERTB). The distinctions between these terms remain contested. Definition and concept The vast majority of people fleeing environmental distress migrate over short distances, often temporarily. Moreover, the refugees aren't leaving their homes because of fear they will be persecuted, or because of "generalized violence or events seriously disturbing public order." Even though the definition of who is a refugee was expanded since its first international and legally binding definition in 1951 people who are forced to flee due to environmental change are still not offered the same legal protection as refugees. The term "environmental refugee" was first proposed by Lester Brown in 1976. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) proposes the following definition for environmental migrants: "Environmental migrants are persons or groups of persons who, for compelling reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move either within their country or abroad." Climate migrants are a subset of environmental migrants who were forced to flee "due to sudden or gradual alterations in the natural environment related to at least one of three impacts of climate change: sea-level rise, extreme weather events, and drought and water scarcity." Types The International Organisation for Migration proposes three types of environmental migrants: Environmental emergency migrants: people who flee temporarily due to an environmental disaster or sudden environmental event. (Examples: someone forced to leave due to a hurricane, tsunami, earthquake, etc.) Environmental forced migrants: people who have to leave due to deteriorating environmental conditions. (Example: someone forced to leave due to a slow deterioration of their environment such as deforestation, coastal deterioration, etc. The village of Satabhaya in the Kendrapara district of Odisha in India is “one of the foremost victims of coastal erosion and submergence due to rising sea levels”. The villagers were losing their homes to the encroaching sea and their cultivable lands to saline ingress, and were forced to migrate elsewhere. In Nepal, many villages in mass migration has been reported from Sivalik Hills / Chure regions due to water scarcity. Similarly, in eastern highland of Nepal 10 households in Chainpur, Sankhuwasabha, 25 households in Dharmadevi and 10 households in Panchkhapan have been forced to migrate due to water crises in their areas. Environmental motivated migrants also known as environmentally induced economic migrants: people who choose to leave to avoid possible future problems. (Example: someone who leaves due to declining crop productivity caused by desertification. A study conducted between 2014 and 2018 reveals that a large proportion of the deltaic populations of Volta delta in Africa, the Ganges Brahmaputra Meghna delta in Bangladesh and India, and Mahanadi delta in India cited economic reasons as a cause of their migration and only 2.8% cited environment reasons. But one third of migrant households perceived an increased exposure to environmental hazards and deltaic populations associated environmental factors with more insecure livelihoods. This shows how the environment is having a proximate effect on migration.) Other scholars have proposed various other types of migrant including: Pressured environmental migrants – slow onset This type of migrant is displaced from their environment when an event is predicted prior to when it would be imperative for the inhabitants to leave. Such events could be desertification or prolonged drought, where the people of the region are no longer able to maintain farming or hunting to provide a hospitable living environment. Imperative environmental migrants – gradual onset These are migrants that have been or will be "permanently displaced" from their homes due to environmental factors beyond their control. Temporary environmental migrants – short term, sudden onset- This includes migrants suffering from a single event (i.e. Hurricane Katrina). This does not go to say that their status of being temporary is any less severe than that of the other, it simply means that they are able to go back to the place they fled from (though it may be undesirable to do so) granted that they are able to rebuild what was broken, and go on to maintain a similar quality of life to the one prior to the natural disaster. This type of migrant is displaced from their home state when their environment rapidly changes. They are displaced when disastrous events occur, such as tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes, and other natural disasters occur. Global statistics There have been a number of attempts over the decades to enumerate environmental migrants and refugees. Jodi Jacobson (1988) is cited as the first researcher to enumerate the issue, stating that there were already up to 10 million 'Environmental Refugees'. Drawing on 'worst-case scenarios' about sea-level rise, she argued that all forms of 'Environmental Refugees' would be six times as numerous as political refugees. By 1989, Mustafa Tolba, Executive Director of United Nations Environment Programme, was claiming that 'as many as 50 million people could become environmental refugees' if the world did not act to support sustainable development. In the mid-1990s, British environmentalist, Norman Myers, became the most prominent proponent of this 'maximalist' school (Suhrke 1993), noting that "environmental refugees will soon become the largest group of involuntary refugees". Additionally, he stated that there were 25 million environmental refugees in the mid-1990s, further claiming that this figure could double by 2010, with an upper limit of 200 million by 2050 (Myers 1997). Myers argued that the causes of environmental displacement would include desertification, lack of water, salination of irrigated lands and the depletion of biodiversity. He also hypothesised that displacement would amount to 30m in China, 30m in India, 15m in Bangladesh, 14m in Egypt, 10m in other delta areas and coastal zones, 1m in island states, and with otherwise agriculturally displaced people totalling 50m by 2050. More recently, Myers has suggested that the figure by 2050 might be as high as 250 million. Norman Myers is the most cited researcher in this field, who found that 25 million environmental migrants existed in 1995 in his work (Myers & Kent 1995), which drew upon over 1000 sources. However, Vikram Kolmannskog has stated that Myers' work can be 'criticized for being inconsistent, impossible to check and failing to take proper account of opportunities to adapt' (2008: 9). Furthermore, Myers himself has acknowledged that his figures are based upon 'heroic extrapolation' (Brown 2008: 12). More generally, Black has argued that there is 'surprisingly little scientific evidence' that indicates that the world is 'filling-up with environmental refugees' (1998: 23). Society and culture Popular culture The notion of 'environmental migrant' has been a part of popular culture at least since The Grapes of Wrath, a 1939 novel by John Steinbeck. Documentary films Eco Migrants: The Case of Bhola Island (2013), documentary movie directed by Susan Stein. Starring Katherine Jacobsen, Nancy Schneider, Bogumil Terminski Refugees of the Blue Planet (2006), documentary movie directed by Hélène Choquette & Jean-Philippe Duval. The Land Between (2014) documentary movie directed by David Fedele. See also References Further reading Bogumil Terminski, Environmentally-Induced Displacement. Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges, CEDEM, University of Liège, 2012. External links World Refugee & Migration Council (2021) 'Solutions for the Global Governance of Climate Displacement' Environmental issues Refugees by type Globalization

4089134

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve%20Stones

Twelve Stones

Twelve Stones (twelve מצבות (matzevot) or standing stones) was a common form of marking a spectacular religious event in the days of Kingdom of Judah before the time of King Josiah (). The stones were specifically placed in a circle at Gilgal where the heads of each tribe stood at the meeting that the Twelve Tribes had with Joshua as their leader immediately following the crossing of the Jordan River into the land of Israel ()). This was practiced for a limited period of time in the northern Kingdom of Israel. Similarly, the prophet Elijah used twelve stones to build an altar (). The stones were from a broken altar that had been built on Mount Carmel before the First Temple was erected. Upon the completion of the Temple, offerings on other altars became forbidden. What was unique with Elijah's altar was that God would ignite the offering with fire (or lightning) from heaven. The timing of this display made it the most spectacular religious event since the Exodus from Egypt. Hence, use of a Twelve-Stone monument became a form of marking a spectacular event. King Josiah abolished the practice because some people attached religious significance to the stones themselves, resembling idolatry. See also Priestly breastplate – a jewelled breastplate symbolizing the Twelve Tribes of Israel References Hebrew Bible objects Sacred rocks Tribes of Israel

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanaya

Nanaya

Nanaya (Sumerian , DNA.NA.A; also transcribed as "Nanāy", "Nanaja", "Nanāja", '"Nanāya", or "Nanai"; antiquated transcription: "Nanâ"; in Greek: Ναναια or Νανα; Aramaic: ננױננאױ; Syriac: ܢܢܝ) was a Mesopotamian goddess of love, closely associated with Inanna. While she is well attested in Mesopotamian textual sources from many periods, from the times of the Third Dynasty of Ur to the conquest of Babylonia by the Achaemenids and beyond, and was among the most commonly worshipped goddesses through much of Mesopotamian history, both her origin and the meaning of her name are unknown. It has been proposed that she originated either as a minor Akkadian goddess or as a hypostasis of Sumerian Inanna, but the evidence is inconclusive. Her primary role was that of a goddess of love, and she was associated with eroticism and sensuality, though she was also a patron of lovers, including rejected or betrayed ones. Especially in early scholarship she was often assumed to be a goddess of the planet Venus like Inanna, but this view is no longer supported by most Assyriologists. In addition to Inanna, she could be associated with other deities connected either to love or to the city of Uruk, such as Ishara, Kanisurra or Uṣur-amāssu. Name and origin It is accepted in modern literature that "Nanaya" is more likely to be the correct form of the goddess' name than "Nana," sometimes used in past scholarship. The meaning of the name is unknown. Joan Goodnick Westenholz notes that based on the suffix it is most likely Akkadian in origin. She also considers the only possible forerunner of Nanaya to be a goddess whose name was written Na-na, without a divine determinative, known from a few personal names from the earliest records from the Gasur and Diyala areas. The land later known as Namri might be located particularly close to the metaphorical birthplace of Nanaya. However, she notes the evidence is contradictory, as Nanaya herself is not common in later records from the same area, and her cult was centered in Uruk, rather than in the periphery. Two theories which are now regarded as discredited but which gained some support in past scholarship include the view that Nanaya was in origin an Aramean deity, implausible in the light of Nanaya being attested before the Arameans and their language, and an attempt to explain her name as derived from Elamite, which is unlikely due to her absence from oldest Elamite sources. Occasionally Indo-European etymologies are proposed too, but the notion that there was an Indo-European substrate in Mesopotamia is generally considered to be the product of faulty methodology and words to which such an origin had been attributed in past studies tend to have plausible Sumerian, Semitic or Hurrian origin. Frans Wiggermann proposes that Nanaya was originally an epithet of Inanna connected to her role as a goddess of love, and that the original form of the name had the meaning "My Inanna!" but eventually developed into a separate, though similar, deity. Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz considers it a possibility that Nanaya was initially a hypostasis of "Inanna as quintessence of womanhood," similar to how Annunitum represented her as a warrior. However, Joan Goodnick Westenholz argued that the view that Nanaya was a manifestation of Inanna in origin should be considered a misconception. An artificial Sumerian etymology was created for the name in late Babylonian texts, deriving it from NA, "to call," with a feminine suffix, A. A possible translation of this ancient scholarly explanation is "the one who keeps calling" or "the calling one". Invented etymologies were a common topic of late cuneiform commentaries. Functions and iconography Nanaya's primary function was that of a goddess of love, and she was referred to as bēlet ru'āmi, "lady of love". The physical aspect of love was particularly strongly associated with her, and texts dedicated to her could be explicit. For example, a cultic song describes her in the following terms: "When you lean the side against the wall, your nakedness is sweet, when [you] bow down, the hips are sweet," and indicates that the goddess was believed to charge fees for sexual services. She was also viewed as a guardian of lovers, according to a text from Sippar (Si 57) titled "The Faithful Lover" and to some spells especially the disillusioned or rejected ones. Joan Goodnick Westenholz describes her character as seen through the Sumerian texts as that of a "sweet erotic lover" and "perpetual lover and beloved". A characteristic frequently attributed to Nanaya as a goddess of love, present in the majority of royal inscriptions pertaining to her and in many other documents, was described with the Sumerian word ḫili and its Akkadian equivalent kubzu, which can be translated as charm, luxuriance, voluptuousness or sensuality. Joan Goodnick Westenholz favors "sensuality" in translations of epithets involving this term, while Paul-Alain Beaulieu - "voluptuousness." Such titles include belet kubzi, "lady of voluptuousness/sensuality," and nin ḫili šerkandi, "the lady adorned with voluptuousness/sensuality." An inscription of Esarhaddon describes her as "adorned with voluptuousness and joy." However, it was not an attribute exclusively associated with her, and in other sources it is described as a quality of both male and female deities, for example Shamash, Aya, Ishtar and Nisaba. Nanaya was also associated with kingship, especially in the Isin-Larsa period, when a relationship with her, possibly some type of hieros gamos, was "an aspect of true kingship". Joan Goodnick Westenholz rules out any association between Nanaya and nursing in the context of royal ideology. Nanaya was also one of the deities believed to protect from the influence of the demon lamashtu, in this role often acting alongside Ishtar. Nanaya eventually developed a distinctly warlike aspect, mostly present in relation to the so-called "Nanaya Eurshaba", worshipped in Borsippa independently from Nabu. She was instead associated with the god Mār-bīti, described as warlike and as a "terrifying hero", and, like in Uruk, with Uṣur-amāssu. Like Inanna, she could also be identified with Irnina, the deified victory. According to Joan Goodnick Westenholz it is possible that a further aspect of Nanaya which presently cannot be determined is alluded to in an incantation from Isin, according to which she was the denizen of a location usually regarded as profane rather than sacred, the šutummu, understood as treasury, storehouse or granary. The text contrasts her dwelling place with the dais on which Ishtar sits. Neo-Babylonian archives from Uruk contain extensive lists of cultic paraphernalia dedicated to Nanaya, including a feathered tiara (presumably similar to that depicted on the kudurru of Meli-Shipak II), a crown, multiple breast ornaments (including breastplates decorated with depictions of snakes and fantastic animals), assorted jewelry and other small valuables like mirrors and cosmetic jars, and a large variety of garments, some of them decorated with golden rosette-shaped sequins). In a single late text Nanaya is associated with an unidentified spice, ziqqu. Astral associations One of the most recurring questions in scholarship about Nanaya through history was her potential association with Venus, or lack thereof. Many early Assyriologists assumed that Nanaya was fully interchangeable with Inanna and likewise a Venus goddess, but in the 1990s Joan Goodnick Westenholz challenged this view, and her conclusions were accepted by most subsequent studies. Westenholz argues that the evidence for an association between Nanaya and the planet Venus is scarce, and an argument can be made that she was more often associated with the moon. Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz, following her research, concluded in her monograph Mesopotamian Goddess Nanajā that Nanaya was not herself a Venus goddess, and at most could acquire some such characteristics due to association or conflation with Inanna/Ishtar. Michael P. Streck and Nathan Wassermann in an article from 2013 also follow the conclusions of Westenholz and do not suggest an association with Venus in discussion of Nanaya as a luminous deity. Piotr Steinkeller nonetheless asserted as recently as 2013 that Nanaya was simply a Venus goddess fully analogous to Inanna, and interchangeable both with her and with Ninsianna, without discussing the current state of research. Ninsianna is well attested as a Venus deity and was associated with Ishtar and the Hurrian form of Pinikir who had similar character, but Nanaya was regarded as a figure distinct from Ninsianna in Uruk and in Larsa. Corona Borealis was associated with Nanaya in astronomical texts. Nanaya in art While references to statues of Nanaya are known from earlier periods, with no less than six mentions already present in documents from the Ur III period, the oldest presently known depiction of her is the kudurru of Kassite king Meli-Shipak II, which shows her in a flounced robe and a crown decorated with feathers. This work of art is regarded as unusual, as the inscription and the deity depicted on the monument are integrated with each other. The other figures depicted on it are the king in mention, Meli-Shipak II, and his daughter Ḫunnubat-Nanaya, who he leads to the enthroned goddess. Above them the symbols of Ishtar, Shamash and Sin are placed, most likely in order to make these deities serve as a guarantee of the land grant described in the accompanying text. Another possible depiction of Nanaya is present on a kudurru from Borsippa from the reign of Nabu-shuma-ishkun. On an Aramean pithos from Assur Nanaya is depicted in robes with a pattern of stars and crescents. A number of Hellenized depictions of Nanaya are known from the Parthian period, one possible example being the figure of a naked goddess discovered as a tomb deposit, wearing a crescent-shaped diadem. Late depictions also often show her with a bow, but it is uncertain if it was a part of her iconography before the Hellenistic period. Associations with other deities Deities from the circle of Inanna God lists consistently associated Nanaya with Inanna and her circle, starting with the so-called Weidner god list from the Ur III period. In the standard arrangement she is placed third in her entourage, after Dumuzi, Inanna's husband, and Ninshubur, her sukkal. Another text enumerates Ninshubur, Nanaya, Bizilla and Kanisurra as Inanna's attendants, preserving Nanaya's place right after the sukkal. In later times Ishtar and Nanaya were considered the main deities of Uruk, with the situation being comparable to Marduk's and Nabu's status in Babylon. While Ishtar was the "Lady of Uruk" (Bēltu-ša-Uruk), Nanaya was the "Queen of Uruk" (Šarrat Uruk). Many sources present Nanaya as a protégée of Inanna, but only three known texts (a song, a votive formula and an oath) also describe them as mother and daughter, and they might only be epithets implying a close connection between the functions of the two rather than an account of a theological speculation. Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz assumes that the evidence only makes it plausible that king Lipit-Ishtar regarded Nanaya as a daughter of Inanna. Joan Goodnick Westenholz describes the relationship between the two goddesses as "definite if unspecified". Only in very late sources from the first millennium BCE they could be fully conflated with each other. Laura Cousin and Yoko Watai argue that their character was not necessarily perceived as identical even in late periods, and attribute the predominance of Nanaya over Ishtar in Neo-Babylonian theophoric names to her nature being perceived as less capricious. A variety of epithets associate Nanaya both with Inanna and the Eanna temple, for example "ornament of Eanna", "pride of the Eanna", "the deity who occupies the high throne of the land of Uruk". As early as in the Ur III period, Nanaya came to be associated with the goddess Bizilla. Her name might mean "she who is pleasing" in Sumerian. God lists could equate them with each other. It is assumed that Bizilla occurs among deities from the court of the prison goddess Nungal in some sources too, though Jeremiah Peterson considers it possible that there might have been two deities with similar names, one associated with Nungal and the other with Nanaya. It is possible that Bizilla was regarded as the sukkal of Enlil's wife Ninlil in Ḫursaĝkalama. Much like Ninshubur, Nanaya was frequently associated with the lamma goddesses, a class of minor deities believed to intercede between humans and major gods, and in some texts she is called the "lady of lamma." One example comes from inscriptions of Kudur-Mabuk and Rim-Sîn I, who apparently regarded Nanaya as capable of mediating on their behalf with An and Inanna, and of assigning lamma deities to them. Uṣur-amāssu is another deity who is well attested in connection with Nanaya. Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz notes that some publications regard Uṣur-amāssu to be a cognomen of Nanaya rather than an independent deity. However, they were two distinct deities in Neo-Babylonian Uruk, and Uṣur-amāssu's origin as an originally male deity from the circle of Adad is well attested. The Elamite goddess Narundi, in Mesopotamia best known for her connection to the Sebitti, was possibly associated with Nanaya or Ishtar. Kanisurra and Gazbaba The minor goddess Kanisurra and Gazbaba were regarded as attendants and hairdressers of Nanaya. The latter was associated with the sexual sphere, and her name might be derived from the term kubzu, frequently attested in association with Nanaya. In Šurpu she is described as the "smiling one," which might also point at a connection to eroticism, as smiles are commonly highlighted in Akkadian erotic poetry. Paul-Alain Bealieu notes that association with Nanaya is the best attested characteristic of the otherwise enigmatic Kanisurra, and that her name might therefore simply be an Akkadian or otherwise non-standard pronunciation of ganzer, a Sumerian term for the underworld or its entrance. It is commonly assumed that both Kanisurra and Gazbaba were daughters of Nanaya. However, as remarked by Gioele Zisa there is however no direct evidence in favor of this interpretation. In the Weidner god list, the line explaining whose daughter Kanisurra is, is not preserved. In one text from the Maqlû corpus Ishtar, Dumuzi, Nanaya identified as "lady of love") and Kanisurra (identified as "mistress of the witches", bēlet kaššāpāti) were asked to counter the influence of a malevolent spell. In some love incantations, Ishtar, Nanaya, Kanisurra and Gazbaba are invoked together. Another goddess sometimes associated with combinations of them in such texts was Ishara. In late texts Kanisurra and Gazbaba are collectively labeled as "Daughters of Ezida". Most groups of such "divine daughters" are known from northern Mesopotamia: Ezida in Borsippa, Esagil in Babylon, Emeslam in Kutha, Edubba in Kish, Ebabbar in Sippar, Eibbi-Anum in Dilbat, and from an unidentified temple of Ningublaga, though examples are also known from Uruk, Nippur, Eridu and even Arbela in Assyria. Based on the fact that daughters of Esagil and of Ezida are identified as members of courts of Sarpanit and of Nanaya respectively, specifically as their hairdressers, it has been proposed by Andrew R. George that these pairs of goddesses were imagined as maidservants in the household of the major deity or deities of a given temple. Marital status In love incantations, Nanaya occurs with an anonymous lover in parallel with Ishtar/Inanna with Dumuzi and Ishara with almanu, a common noun of uncertain meaning whose proposed translations include "widower," "man without family obligations," or perhaps simply "lover." In some early sources Nanaya's spouse was the sparsely attested god Muati, though from the Kassite period onward she started to be associated with Nabu instead. She sometimes appeared as part of a trinity in which Nabu's original spouse Tashmetum was also included. In the role of Nabu's spouse Nanaya could be referred to as kalat Esagil, "daughter in law of Esagil", which reflected a connection to Nabu's father Marduk. Both Nanaya and Tashmetum could be called the "queen of Borsippa", though the former eventually overshadowed the latter in that city. Tashmetum however retains the role of spouse of Nabu in most Neo-Assyrian sources, and was worshipped in this role in Kalhu and Nineveh. The evidence of worship of Nanaya in the same areas is inconclusive. In the first millennium BCE pairing Nabu with Nanaya in some cases, for example in Uruk, represented efforts to subordinate the pantheons of various areas of Mesopotamia to the dominant state ideology of the Babylonian empire, which elevated Marduk and Nabu above other deities. One late Babylonian litany assigns the epithets of Tashmetum, but also Ninlil and Sarpanit, to Nanaya. Parentage Urash, the city god of Dilbat, could be identified as Nanaya's father. She was sometimes specifically called his firstborn daughter, and she had a connection to his main temple, Eibbi-Anum. This parentage is especially commonly mentioned in emesal texts, where "firstborn of the god Urash" is the most commonly recurring phrase describing her. Another of Urash's children was the underworld deity Lagamal, while his wife was Ninegal. In one neo-Babylonian ritual text, Nanaya and Urash, paired with Ninegal, appear in a single formula. Texts from the reign of Rim-Sin I and Samsu-Iluna are the oldest sources to identify her as a daughter of Anu, a view later also present in an inscription of Esarhaddon. Paul-Alain Beaulieu speculates that Nanaya developed in a milieu in which An and Inanna were viewed as a couple, and that she was initially envisioned as their daughter. However, as noted by Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz, direct references to Nanaya being regarded as the daughter of Inanna are not common, and it is possible that an epithet indicating closeness between the deities rather than a statement about actual parentage is meant. References to Nanaya as a daughter of Sin, likely a result of syncretism between her and Ishtar are also known, for example from a hymn from the reign of the neo-Assyrian king Sargon II. Other attested connections It is possible that the goddess Ninḫilisu (Sumerian: "graceful lady"), who was worshipped in Ur III Umma where she was served by a gudu4 priest, was related to Nanaya, as elsewhere nin-ḫi-li-sù is attested as her epithet. In a bilingual Akkadian-Amorite lexical list dated to the Old Babylonian period, Nanaya's Amorite counterpart is Pidray, a goddess otherwise only known from later texts from Ugarit, in which she is treated as analogous to the Hurrian goddess Ḫepat instead. Worship First texts mentioning Nanaya come from the period of Shulgi's reign. She is attested in the administrative texts from Puzrish-Dagan, where she is among the 12 deities who received offerings the most frequently. Records also show that queen Shulgi-simti, one of the wives of Shulgi, made offerings to many foreign or minor deities, among them Nanaya, as well as "Allatum" (the Hurrian goddess Allani), Ishara, Belet Nagar, Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban. Her principal cult center was Uruk, where she is already mentioned in year names of kings Irdanene and Sin-Eribam from the Old Babylonian period. Her main temple in that city was Emeurur, "the temple which gathers the me." She was also worshipped in a sanctuary within Eanna, the main temple of Inanna, which was called Ehilianna, "house of luxuriance of heaven." It is possible that it was originally built by the Kassite king Nazi-Maruttash. According to an inscription of Esarhaddon, Eriba-Marduk expanded it. It still functioned in the Seleucid period. Another of her temples located in Uruk was Eshahulla, "house of the joyful heart," built by king Sin-kashid. In neo-Babylonian Uruk, Nanaya was second in rank only to Ishtar in the local pantheon. Paul-Alain Bealieu considers them to be the main pair among the city's quintet of major local goddesses, the other three being Bēltu-ša-Rēš (later replaced by Sharrahitu, a goddess identified with Ashratum, the spouse of Amurru), Uṣur-amāssu and Urkayītu (a theos eponymos of Uruk,) As early as in the Middle Babylonian period, Nanaya was called the "queen of Uruk and Eanna," as attested on a kudurru from Larsa. In Neo-Babylonian sources from Uruk, she is called the "queen of Uruk," while Ishtar was the "lady of Uruk." Nanaya was among the deities taken away from Uruk when Sennacherib sacked the city, though she was subsequently returned to it by Esarhaddon. Ashurbanipal also claimed that he brought her statue back to Uruk, though he instead states that she spent 1635 years in Elam. It is presently unknown what event his inscriptions refer to, and it might merely be a rhetorical figure. If it refers to a historical event, it is possible that it occurred during the reign of Ebi-Eshuh, during which Elamites raided Sippar and perhaps Kish, though due to lack of any sources other than the aforementioned late annals this cannot be conclusively proven. Offerings made to Nanaya in neo-Babylonian Uruk included dates, barley, emmer, flour, beer, sweets, cakes, fish and meat of oxen, sheep, lambs, ducks, geese and turtle doves. After the reorganization of the pantheon of Uruk around Anu and Antu in the Achaemenid and Seleucid periods, Nanaya continued to be worshipped and she is attested as one of the deities whose statues were paraded in Uruk in a ritual procession accompanying Ishtar (rather than Antu) during a New Year celebration. The scale of her popular cult in Uruk grew considerably through Seleucid times. The name Eshahulla, known from Uruk, was applied to a temple in Larsa built by Kudur-Mabuk and his son Rim-Sin I, which seemingly was also a temple of Inanna, unless two temples with the same name existed in the same city. In Larsa, Nanaya was one of the foremost deities, next to Utu (the city's tutelary god), Inanna, Ishkur and Nergal. Joint offerings to Inanna and Nanaya of Larsa are known from a number of documents. She is also attested as one member of a trinity whose other two members were Innanna and Ninsianna, in which Inanna's functions were seemingly split between the three goddesses, with Nanaya being allotted the role of the love goddess. In offering lists from the archives of the First Dynasty of Sealand Nanaya appears alongside various hypostases of Inanna, including Inanna of Larsa, though the latter could also be associated with the rainbow goddess Manzat instead. In a single case, Nanaya is also accompanied by Kanisurra in an offering list. A temple of Nanaya built by Lipit-Ishtar existed in Isin. The oldest recorded hymn dedicated to her also comes from this city. However, there is overall less evidence for the worship of Nanaya in Isin than in Larsa, as the kings of Isin apparently favored the goddesses Ninisina and Ninsianna instead. In Babylon Nanaya is attested for the first time during the reign of Sumulael, who ordered statues of her and of Inanna to be fashioned in his twenty sixth year on the throne. Later she was worshipped in the Eturkalamma, "house, cattle pen of the land," built by Hammurabi for deities of Uruk - Inanna, Nanaya, Anu and Kanisurra, and later on in the temples Emeurur and Eurshaba, "house, oracle of the heart." A temple named Eurshaba existed in Borsippa too, though Nanaya was worshipped in a chapel in Ezida, the temple of Nabu as well. A late ritual text describes the procession undertaken by Nanaya, her court and various other deities from Borsippa to Kish. A festival celebrating the marriage of Nanaya and Nabu is still attested from Borsippa from Seleucid times. A unique writing of Nanaya's name, dNIN.KA.LI, is known from documents related to it. In the late Old Babylonian period the cult of Nanaya was also introduced to Kish, where the clergy of Uruk found refuge after abandoning the temporarily destroyed city. Temples of Nanaya are also attested from Kazallu (Eshahulla, "house of the happy heart"), and from Nerebtum, though the name of the latter is not known, and it is simply called e dNa-na-a-a in known texts. In Nippur Nanaya had no temple of her own, though offerings to her are attested from a temple of Ninurta located there. It is possible that Nanaya was worshipped in Der, though the evidence is limited to a list of deities of that city taken away by Shamshi-Adad V during his fifth campaign against Babylonia. Some evidence also exists for offerings made to her in Sippar and in Dur-Kurigalzu. In Assur, there was a gate named in honor of Nanaya and Uṣur-amāssu. However, it is uncertain if her cult had much presence in northern Mesopotamia. There is a lot of evidence for private worship of Nanaya, including seals with the phrase "servant of Nanaya" seemingly owned by many women. In incantations related to love (for example asking for feelings to be returned) she is attested as early as in the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods. Numerous theophoric names are attested as well. However, none of them come from the Ur III period, and in the Old Babylonian period they are limited to only a few cities, including Dilbat, Kish, Sippar, Larsa, Ur and most likely Uruk. Over two thirds of the known Old Babylonian names come from the first two of these settlements alone. Both men and women with such names are listed in records. In the neo-Babylonian period, Nanaya was the deity most commonly present in theophoric names of women, with 106 individual women and 52 different names attested. Examples include: Qis-Nanaya ("Gift of Nanaya), Nanaja-šamhat ("Nanaya is the most beautiful"), Nanaya-ilu ("my deity Nanaya"). One historically notable individual bearing such a name was Ḫunnubat-Nanaya, daughter of Babylonian king Melišipak (ca. 1186-1172 BCE), depicted alongside her father and the goddess on a famous kudurru. Another was Iddin-Nanaya, a sanga priest of this goddess active during the reign of king Irdanene of Uruk, apparently responsible for various misdeeds, including the removal of a star symbol from the doors of the Nanaya temple. Outside Mesopotamia In offering lists from Ur III period Mari, a goddess named dNin-Na-na-a, seemingly Nanaya with the determinative "lady" (nin) added to her name, appears in among gods introduced from Uruk, alongside Ninshubur, Dumuzi and (Nin-)Bizila. Additionally, a deity of uncertain identity known from Mari and Khana, Nanni, is more likely to be connected to Nanaya than Nanna, as the name is grammatically feminine. In the west Nanaya is also attested in Emar, though only in a god list. The only known reference to worship of Nanaya among the Hittites comes from a single document mentioning her as the goddess of the town Malidaskuriya in the district of Durmitta, located in the proximity of the middle of the river Kızılırmak. It has been proposed that her worship in that location was a relic of Old Assyrian practices. Possible theophoric names are known from Hittite sources too. Nanaya was also worshipped in Susa in Elam, where she is particularly well attested in Seleucid times. It is uncertain at which point was she introduced to this city, though it has been proposed her arrival in the local pantheon was connected with the theft of her statue during a raid. Greek authors regarded her as the main goddess of Susa. Literature A bilingual Sumero-Akkadian hymn to Nanaya from the first millennium BCE, written in the first person as a self-laudation, describes many other goddesses as manifestations of her, in line with the syncretic tendencies typical for the literature of this time period. Each of them is listed alongside a specific location. Among the goddesses mentioned are Damkina (Eridu and Kullaba), Ninlil (Nippur), Ishara, Bau (both in Kish), Sarpanit (in Babylon), Shala (in Karkar), Annunitum (in Agade), Mammitum (in Kutha), Manzat (in Der), a number of goddesses whose names are not preserved, as well as various forms of Ishtar, including Ishtar of Babylon (described as bearded), Ishtar of Daduni and Ishtar of Uruk. Nanaya herself is assigned two cities, Borsippa and Sippar. No mention is made of Tashmetum. The purpose of this composition was most likely elevation of Nanaya above the other goddesses. In a mythical explanation of the rites of Egashankalamma (the temple of the Assyrian Ishtar of Arbela) pertaining to the mourning of Ishtaran's death, Nanaya is described as a goddess who provides Bel with an iron arrows. In the Hurrian tale of Appu six deities are listed alongside the cities where they were worshipped, among them Marduk, Shaushka and Nanaya, whose cult center in this text is Kiššina. Joan Goodnick Westenholz considers it to be an unidentified location, but Volkert Haas assumes the name might be derived from Kish. Later relevance In a papyrus from Achaemenid Egypt the formula "Nanaya of Eanna will bless you" occurs. In the following Hellenic period, her cult spread to various distant locations, including Armenia, Sogdia and Bactria, though it has been pointed out that the goddess in mention was the result of a process of Hellenistic syncretism and it is difficult to tell which of her features had their origin in the Mesopotamian image of Nanaya. It has been proposed that Parthian coinage was in part responsible for her spread, though no known coins explicitly identify any figures depicted on them as her. The first attested reference to Nanaya in Bactria is a coin of Yuezhi ruler Sapadbizes. Later she occurs in an inscription of Kushan emperor Kanishka, who proclaimed that he received kingship from her. She also appears on Kushan coins. Her name is always spelled as "Nanaia" in Greek, but as "Nana" in Bactrian. The iconography associated with her is entirely Hellenic in origin, rather than Mesopotamian, though her position as a giver of kingship might be derived from Mesopotamian tradition. Nanaya is mentioned in the Second Book of Maccabees. She also appears in Acts of Mar Mu'ain, according to which Sasanian king Shapur II ordered the eponymous Syriac saint to make offerings to various deities, including her. Dedications to Nanaya, written in Pahlavi scripts, appear on some jewelry from the Sasanian period. However, there is no evidence that the rulers from this dynasty were involved in her cult, similar evidence is also lacking for the Achaemenid emperors from the earlier period of Persian history. The last Mesopotamian reference to Nanaya appears in a Mandean spell from Nippur dated to the fifth or sixth century in which she appears alongside Shamash, Sin, Bel and Nergal, though all of these deities, including her, appear to be treated as male in this case, indicating that the precise identity of the figures invoked was already forgotten. Some late references to a goddess partially derived from Nanaya are known from Sogdia, where a Greek and Kushan-influenced version of her was worshipped in Panjakent as late as in the eighth century. Her depictions in Sogdian art have no clear forerunners in earlier tradition, and appear to be based on four-armed Mahayana Buddhist figures. Syriac scholar Bar Bahlul, active around the year 1000, in his Syriac-Arabic dictionary defined Nanaya as a name which Arabs purportedly applied to the planet Venus. This is the last known pre-modern reference to Nanaya. References Bibliography External links A tigi to Nanaya for Išbi-Erra (Išbi-Erra C) in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature A balbale to Inana as Nanaya (Inana H) in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature A German translation of Appu (CTH 360.1) in Mythen der Hethiter. Das Projekt of the University of Marburg Mesopotamian goddesses Love and lust goddesses War goddesses Inanna

4099285

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V.%20P.%20Engel%27gardt%20Astronomical%20Observatory

V. P. Engel'gardt Astronomical Observatory

The V. P. Engel'gardt Astronomical Observatory (), also known simply as the Engelhardt Observatory, is located 20 kilometers west of Kazan, Russia. Its observatory code is 136. The co-ordinates are about . Zelenchukskaya Station The observatory's Zelenchukskaya Station, observatory code 114, abbreviated as "Zelenchukskaya Stn" by the IAU/MPC, is located at altitude near Zelenchukskaya in the North Caucasus region of the Caucasus Mountains, using a 0.3-meter f/7.7 reflector. The Station is known for it numerous cometary observations (see external links) and discoveries of minor planets by Russian amateur astronomer Timur Valer'evič Krjačko. In addition, the MPC directly credits the Zelenchukskaya Station for the discovery of 6 minor planets in 2008 (see list), which includes 212929 Satovski, a main-belt asteroid named after Boris Ivanovich Satovski (1908–1982), a laureate of the USSR State Prize. Note, the Special Astrophysical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Science () with its Large Altazimuth Telescope is also located near Zelenchukskaya. List of discovered minor planets See also List of asteroid-discovering observatories List of observatory codes References External links Comet Observations (114 Engelhardt Observatory, Zelenchukskaya Station), database search at SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS) Astronomical observatories in Russia Minor-planet discovering observatories Cultural heritage monuments of regional significance in Tatarstan

4100081

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think%20globally%2C%20act%20locally

Think globally, act locally

The phrase "Think globally, act locally" or "Think global, act local" has been used in various contexts, including planning, environment, education, mathematics, business and the church. Definition "Think globally, act locally" urges people to consider the health of the entire planet and to take action in their own communities and cities. Long before governments began enforcing environmental laws, individuals were coming together to protect habitats and the organisms that live within them. These efforts are referred to as grassroots efforts. They occur on a local level and are primarily run by volunteers and helpers. "Think Globally, Act Locally" originally began at the grassroots level, however, it is now a global concept with high importance. It is not just volunteers who take the environment into consideration. Corporations, government officials, education system, and local communities also see the importance of taking necessary actions that can impact positively the environment. Warren Heaps states, "It's really important to recognize that markets are different around the world, and company compensation programs should reflect a balance between global corporate philosophy and local practice and culture". Origin in town planning The original phrase "Think global, act local" has been attributed to Scots town planner and social activist Patrick Geddes, a Scottish biologist, sociologist, philanthropist and pioneering town planner. Although the exact phrase does not appear in Geddes' 1915 book Cities in Evolution, the idea (as applied to city planning) is clearly evident: "'Local character' is thus no mere accidental old-world quaintness, as its mimics think and say. It is attained only in course of adequate grasp and treatment of the whole environment, and in active sympathy with the essential and characteristic life of the place concerned." Geddes was also responsible for introducing the concept of "region" to architecture and planning. He has made significant contributions to the consideration of the environment. Geddes believed in working with the environment, versus working against it. Town planning is important to understanding of the idea "think globally, act locally". Urban management and development highly impacts the surrounding environment. The ways in which this is initiated is vital to the health of the environment. Corporations need to be aware of global communities when expanding their companies to new locations. Not only do corporations need to be aware of global differences, but also Urban and rural areas who plan on expanding or changing the dynamics of their community. As stated "Addressing the complex urban environmental problems, in order to improve urban livability through Urban Environmental Strategies (UES), involves taking stock of the existing urban environmental problems, their comparative analysis and prioritization, setting out objectives and targets, and identification of various measures to meet these objectives". Origins of the phrase The first use of the phrase in an environmental context is disputed. Some say it was coined by David Brower as a slogan for Friends of the Earth when he founded it in 1971, although others attribute it to René Dubos in 1977. Canadian "futurist" Frank Feather also chaired a conference called "Thinking Globally, Acting Locally" in 1979 and has claimed the paternity of the expression. Other possible originators include French theologian Jacques Ellul. Education The term was increasingly applied to initiatives in international education and was advanced by Stuart Grauer in his 1989 University of San Diego publication, "Think Globally, Act Locally: A Delphi Study of Educational Leadership Through the Development of International Resources in the Local Community". In this publication it was attributed to Harlan Cleveland. It is not only corporations that are acknowledging the importance of environmental issues, but also the education system. Government officials and school boards across the world are beginning to develop a new way of teaching. Globalization is now thought of as an important concept to understanding the world. Certain schools believe it is important to discuss global issues as young as 5 years old. It is students who are our future, therefore understanding the concept of "think globally, act locally" is fundamental to our future. Business The term is also used in business strategy, where multinational corporations are encouraged to build local roots. This is sometimes expressed by converging the words "global" and "local" into the single word "glocal", a term used by several companies (coined by Akio Morita, founder of Sony Corporation) in their advertising and branding strategies in the 1980s and 1990s. Currently more and more corporations are finding it extremely important to analyze the environmental damage of their company. The pressure they receive from government officials and local communities regarding environmental issues is vital to their company's image. Globalization is an emerging concept throughout the business world. It was first developed by the Japanese; however, it has now emerged throughout Western society. Globalization refers to the practice of conducting business according to both local and global considerations. Church While the Christian church has traditionally "thought globally and acted locally", some Christian leaders have reversed the slogan by suggesting that the church should "think locally and act globally" by encouraging the empowerment of local leaders e.g. on a multi-site campus, rather than trying to direct and equip them centrally. Variations For many environmental activists, the phrase has been changed into "act globally, act local" due to the growing concern for the whole planet and thus the need of activism everywhere in the world. See also Global citizenship Green politics Netherlands fallacy References Further reading Gianinazzi, Willy (2018). "Penser global, agir local. Histoire d'une idée", EcoRev'. Revue critique d'écologie politique, N. 46, Summer, p. 19-30. External links #WorldsLargestLesson - Tell everyone, let's leave no one behind Environmental sayings New Urbanism Localism (politics) Globalization

4105326

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS%20tracking%20unit

GPS tracking unit

A GPS tracking unit, geotracking unit, satellite tracking unit, or simply tracker is a navigation device normally on a vehicle, asset, person or animal that uses satellite navigation to determine its movement and determine its WGS84 UTM geographic position (geotracking) to determine its location. Satellite tracking devices may send special satellite signals that are processed by a receiver. Locations are stored in the tracking unit or transmitted to an Internet-connected device using the cellular network (GSM/GPRS/CDMA/LTE or SMS), radio, or satellite modem embedded in the unit or WiFi work worldwide. GPS antenna size limits tracker size, often smaller than a half-dollar (diameter 30.61 mm). In 2020 tracking is a $2 billion business plus military-in the gulf war 10% or more targets used trackers. Virtually every cellphone tracks its movements. Tracks can be map displayed in real time, using GPS tracking software and devices with GPS capability. Architecture A GPS "track me" essentially contains a GPS module that receives the GPS signal and calculates the coordinates. For data loggers, it contains large memory to store the coordinates. Data pushers additionally contain a GSM/GPRS/CDMA/LTE modem to transmit this information to a central computer either via SMS or GPRS in form of IP packets. Satellite-based GPS tracking units will operate anywhere on the globe using satellite technology such as GlobalStar or Iridium. They do not require a cellular connection. Types There are three types of GPS trackers, though most GPS-equipped phones can work in any of these modes depending on the mobile applications installed: Data loggers GPS loggers log the position of the device at regular intervals in its internal memory. GPS loggers may have either a memory card slot, or internal flash memory card and a USB port. Some act as a USB flash drive, which allows downloading the track log data for further computer analysis. The track list or point of interest list may be in GPX, KML, NMEA or other format. Most digital cameras save the time a photo was taken. Provided the camera clock is reasonably accurate or used GPS as its time source, this time can be correlated with GPS log data, to provide an accurate location. This can be added to the Exif metadata in the picture file. Cameras with a GPS receiver built in can directly produce such a geotagged photograph. In some private investigation cases, data loggers are used to keep track of a target vehicle. The private investigator need not follow the target too closely, and always has a backup source of data. Data pushers A data pusher is the most common type of GPS tracking unit, used for asset tracking, personal tracking and vehicle tracking systems. Virtually every cell phone is in this mode per user agreement, even if shut off or disabled storing the data for future transmission. Also known as a "GPS beacon", this kind of device push (i.e. "sends"), at regular intervals, the position of the device as well as other information like speed or altitude to a determined server, that can store and analyze the data instantly. A GPS navigation device and a mobile phone sit side-by-side in the same box, powered by the same battery. At regular intervals, the phone sends a text message via SMS or GPRS, containing the data from the GPS receiver. Newer GPS-integrated smartphones running GPS tracking software can turn the phone into a data pusher (or logger) device. As of 2009, open source and proprietary applications are available for common Java ME enabled phones, iPhone, Android, Windows Mobile, and Symbian. Most 21st-century GPS trackers provide data "push" technology, enabling sophisticated GPS tracking in business environments, specifically organizations that employ a mobile workforce, such as a commercial fleet. Typical GPS tracking systems used in commercial fleet management have two core parts: location hardware (or tracking device) and tracking software. This combination is often referred to as an Automatic Vehicle Location system. The tracking device is most often hardwired installed in the vehicle, connected to the CAN-bus, ignition system switch, battery. It allows collection of extra data, which is later transferred to the GPS tracking server. There it is available for viewing, in most cases via a website accessed over the Internet, where fleet activity can be viewed live or historically using digital maps and reports. GPS tracking systems used in commercial fleets are often configured to transmit location and telemetry input data at a set update rate or when an event (door open/close, auxiliary equipment on/off, geofence border cross) triggers the unit to transmit data. Live GPS tracking used in commercial fleets generally refers to systems that update regularly at one-minute, two-minute or five-minute intervals while the ignition status is on. Some tracking systems combine timed updates with heading change triggered updates. GPS tracking solutions such as Telematics 2.0, an IoT based telematics technology for the automotive industry, are being used by mainstream commercial auto insurance companies. Data pullers GPS data pullers are also known as "GPS transponders". Unlike data pushers that send the position of the devices at regular intervals (push technology), these devices are always on, and can be queried as often as required (pull technology). This technology is not in widespread use, but an example of this kind of device is a computer connected to the Internet and running gpsd. These can often be used in the case where the location of the tracker will only need to be known occasionally (e.g. placed in property that may be stolen, or that does not have a constant source of energy to send data on a regular basis, like freight or containers.) Data Pullers are coming into more common usage in the form of devices containing a GPS receiver and a cell phone which, when sent a special SMS message reply to the message with their location. Covert GPS trackers Covert GPS trackers contain the same electronics as regular GPS trackers but are constructed in such a way as to appear to be an everyday object. One use for covert GPS trackers is for power tool protection; these devices can be concealed within power tool boxes and traced if theft occurs. Applications The applications of GPS trackers include: Personal tracking Race control: in some sports, such as gliding, participants are required to carry a tracker. In particular, this allows race officials to know if the participants are cheating, taking unexpected shortcuts, and how far apart they are. This use was illustrated in the movie Rat Race. Law enforcement: an arrested suspect out on bail may have to wear a GPS tracker, usually an ankle monitor, as a bail condition. GPS tracking may also be ordered for persons subject to a restraining order. Espionage/surveillance: a tracker on a person or vehicle allows movements to be tracked. Vehicle tracking: some people use GPS Trackers to monitor activity of their own vehicle, especially in the event of a vehicle being used by a friend or family member. GPS personal tracking devices are used in the care of the elderly and vulnerable, and can be used to track small children who may get into danger. Some devices can send text alerts to carers if the wearer moves into an unexpected place. Some devices allow users to call for assistance, and optionally allow designated carers to locate the user's position, typically within five to ten meters. Their use helps promote independent living and social inclusion for the elderly. Devices often incorporate either one-way otwo-way voice communication. Some devices also allow the user to call several phone numbers using pre-programmed speed dial buttons. Trials using GPS personal tracking devices for people living with dementia are underway in several countries. Text and voice communication is usually provided by a connection to mobile telephony, but GPS devices are available that use satellite communications, always available even if out of mobile telephone range. Some Internet Web 2.0 pioneers have created their own personal web pages that show their position constantly, and in real time, on a map within their website. These usually use data push from a GPS enabled cell phone or a personal GPS tracker. Sports: the movements of a ramblers, cyclists, and so on, can be tracked. Statistics such as instantaneous and average speed, and distance travelled, are logged. In the rugby union Six Nations Championship, all players wear trackers, sewn into their shirts. Some rugby clubs also use GPS units on their players. The England Rugby Union team uses GPS. Adventure sports: GPS tracking devices such as the SPOT Satellite Messenger are available to allow the position of a person to be tracked. In particular, this allows rescue personnel to locate the carrier. These devices also allow the carrier to send messages and emergency alerts, even when out of cellular telephone range. Monitoring employees: GPS-handled tracking devices with a built-in cellphone are used to monitor employees by various companies, especially those engaged in fieldwork. Lone Workers : It is ideal for improving the safety of your employees working in distant, isolated work sites. Maintenance workers, forestry, mining, and employees in similar fields may be required to work in remote areas without any contact nearby, in such scenarios the risk of their well-being increases Asset tracking Solar Powered: the advantage of some solar powered units is that they have much more power over their lifetime than battery-powered units. This gives them the advantage of reporting their position and status much more often than battery units which need to conserve energy to extend their life. Some wireless solar-powered units, such as the RailRider can report more than 20,000 times per year and work indefinitely on solar power, eliminating the need to change batteries. Aircraft tracking Aircraft can be tracked either by ADS-B (primarily airliners and General Aviation aircraft with ADS-B-out enabled transponder), or by FLARM data packets picked up by a network of ground stations (primarily used by General Aviation aircraft, gliders and UAVs), both of which are data pushers. ADS-B is to be superseded by ADS-C, a data puller. Animal tracking Animal monitoring (GPS wildlife tracking): when put on a wild animal (e.g. in a GPS collar), it allows scientists to study the animal's activities and migration patterns. Vaginal implant transmitters mark the location where pregnant females give birth. Animal tracking collars may also be put on domestic animals, to locate them in case they get lost. Legislation Australian law There are no Australian Federal Laws for surveillance and GPS tracker legality. However, most states have statutes covering the use and restrictions of tracking devices used for surveillance. The below states have formal statutes. At present, only Queensland and Tasmania do not have legislation. United States law In the United States, the use of GPS trackers by government authorities is limited by the 4th Amendment to the United States Constitution. So police, for example, usually require a search warrant. While police have placed GPS trackers in vehicles without a warrant, this usage was questioned in court in early 2009. Use by private citizens is regulated in some states, such as California, where California Penal Code Section 637.7 states: (a) No person or entity in this state shall use an electronic tracking device to determine the location or movement of a person. (b) This section shall not apply when the registered owner, lesser, or lessee of a vehicle has consented to the use of the electronic tracking device with respect to that vehicle. (c) This section shall not apply to the lawful use of an electronic tracking device by a law enforcement agency. (d) As used in this section, "electronic tracking device" means any device attached to a vehicle or other movable thing that reveals its location or movement by transmission of electronic signals. (g) A violation of this section is a misdemeanor. (f) A violation of this section by a person, business, firm, company, association, partnership, or corporation licensed under Division 3 (commencing with Section 5000) of the Business and Professions Code shall constitute grounds for revocation of the license issued to that person, business, firm, company, association, partnership, or corporation, pursuant to the provisions that provide for the revocation of the license as set forth in Division 3 (commencing with Section 5000) of the Business and Professions Code. Note that 637.7 pertains to all electronic tracking devices, and does not differentiate between those that rely on GPS technology or not. As the laws catch up with the times, it is plausible that all 50 states will eventually enact laws similar to those of California. Other laws, like the common law invasion of privacy tort as well as state criminal wiretapping statutes (for example, the wiretapping statute of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, which is extremely restrictive) potentially cover the use of GPS tracking devices by private citizens without consent of the individual being so tracked. Privacy can also be a problem when people use the devices to track the activities of a loved one. GPS tracking devices have also been put on religious statues to track the whereabouts of the statue if stolen. In 2009, debate ensued over a Georgia proposal to outlaw hidden GPS tracking, with an exception for law enforcement officers but not for private investigators. See Georgia HB 16 - Electronic tracking device; location of person without consent (2009). United Kingdom law The law in the UK has not specifically addressed the use of GPS trackers, but several laws may affect the use of this technology as a surveillance tool. Data Protection Act 1998 It is quite clear that if client instructions (written or digitally transmitted) that identify a person and a vehicle are combined with a tracker, the information gathered by the tracker becomes personal data as defined by the Data Protection Act 1998. The document “What is personal data? – A quick reference guide” published by the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) makes clear that data identifying a living individual is personal data. If a living individual can be identified from the data, with or without additional information that may become available, is personal data. Identifiability An individual is 'identified' if distinguished from other members of a group. In most cases, an individual's name, together with some other information, will be sufficient to identify them, but a person can be identified even if their name is not known. Start by looking at the means available to identify an individual and the extent to which such means are readily available to you. Does the data 'relate to' the identifiable living individual, whether in personal or family life, business or profession? Relates to means: Data which identifies an individual, even without an associated name, may be personal data which is processed to learn or record something about that individual, or the processing of information that affects the individual. Therefore, data may 'relate to' an individual in several different ways. Is the data 'obviously about a particular individual? Data 'obviously about' an individual will include their medical history, criminal record, record of work, or their achievements in a sporting activity. Data that is not 'obviously about' a particular individual may include information about their activities. Data such as personal bank statements or itemised telephone bills will be personal data about the individual operating the account or contracting for telephone services. Where data is not 'obviously about' an identifiable individual it may be helpful to consider whether the data is being processed, or could easily be processed, to learn, record or decide something about an identifiable individual. Information may be personal data where the aim, or an incidental consequence, of the processing, is that one learns or records something about an identifiable individual, or the processing could affect an identifiable individual. Data from a Tracker would be to identify the individual or their activities. It is therefore personal data within the meaning of the Data Protection Act 1998. Any individual who wishes to gather personal data must be registered with the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) and have a DPA number. It is a criminal offense to process data and not have a DPA number. Trespass It may be a civil trespass for an individual to deploy a tracker on another's car. But in the OSC's annual inspection, the OSC's Chief Surveillance Commissioner Sir Christopher Rose stated "putting an arm into a wheel arch or under the frame of a vehicle is straining the concept of trespass". However, entering a person's private land to deploy a tracker is clearly a trespass which is a civil tort. Prevention of Harassment Act 1997 At times, the public misinterprets surveillance, in all its forms, as stalking. Whilst there is no specific legislation to address this kind of harassment, a long-term pattern of persistent and repeated efforts at contact with a particular victim is generally considered stalking. The Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 created two new offenses of stalking by inserting new sections 2A and 4A into the PHA 1997. The new offences which came into force on 25 November 2012, are not retrospective. Section 2A (3) of the PHA 1997 sets out examples of acts or omissions which, in particular circumstances, are ones associated with stalking. Examples are: following a person, watching or spying on them, or forcing contact with the victim through any means, including social media. Such behavior curtails a victim's freedom, leaving them feeling that they constantly have to be careful. In many cases, the conduct might appear innocent (if considered in isolation), but when carried out repeatedly, so as to amount to a course of conduct, it may then cause significant alarm, harassment or distress to the victim. The examples given in section 2A (3) are not an exhaustive list but an indication of the types of behavior that may be displayed in a stalking offense. Stalking and harassment of another or others can include a range of offenses such as those under the Protection from Harassment Act 1997; the Offences Against the Person Act 1861; the Sexual Offences Act 2003; and the Malicious Communications Act 1988. Examples of the types of conduct often associated with stalking include direct communication; physical following; indirect contact through friends, colleagues, family or technology; or, other intrusions into the victim's privacy. The behavior curtails a victim's freedom, leaving them feeling that they constantly have to be careful. If the subject of inquiry is aware of the tracking, then this may amount to harassment under the Prevention of Harassment Act 1997. There is a case at the Royal Courts of Justice where a private investigator is being sued under this act for the use of trackers. In December 2011, a Claim was brought against Richmond Day & Wilson Limited (First Defendant) and Bernard Matthews Limited (Second Defendant), Britain's leading Turkey Provider. The case relates to the discovery of a tracking device found in August 2011 on a vehicle supposedly connected to Hillside Animal Sanctuary. Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 Property Interference: The Home Office published a document entitled "Covert Surveillance and Property Interference, Revised Code of Practice, Pursuant to section 71 of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000" where it suggests in Chapter 7, page 61 that; General basis for lawful activity 7. 1 Authorizations under section 5 of the 1994 Act or Part III of the 1997 Act should be sought wherever members of the intelligence services, the police, the services police, Serious and Organised Crime Agency (SOCA), Scottish Crime and Drug Enforcement Agency (SCDEA), HM Revenue and Customs (HMRC) or Office of Fair Trading (OFT), or persons acting on their behalf, conduct entry on, or interference with, property or with wireless telegraphy that would be otherwise unlawful. 7. 2 For the purposes of this chapter, "property interference" shall be taken to include entry on, or interference with, property or with wireless telegraphy. Example: The use of a surveillance device for providing information about the location of a vehicle may involve some physical interference with that vehicle as well as subsequent directed surveillance activity. Such an operation could be authorized by a combined authorization for property interference (under Part III of the 1997 Act) and, where appropriate, directed surveillance (under the 2000 Act). In this case, the necessity and proportionality of the property interference element of the authorization would need to be considered by the appropriate authorizing officer separately to the necessity and proportionality of obtaining private information by means of the directed surveillance. This can be interpreted to mean that placing a tracker on a vehicle without the consent of the owner is illegal unless you obtain authorization from the Surveillance Commissionaire under the RIPA 2000 laws. Since a member of the public cannot obtain such authorizations, it is therefore illegal property interference. Another interpretation is that it is illegal to do so if you are acting under the instruction of a public authority and you do not obtain authorization. The legislation makes no mention of property interference for anyone else. Currently, there is no legislation in place that deals with the deployment of trackers in a criminal sense except RIPA 2000 and that RIPA 2000 only applies to those agencies and persons mentioned in it. Uses in marketing In August 2010, Brazilian company Unilever ran an unusual promotion where GPS trackers were placed in boxes of Omo laundry detergent. Teams would then track consumers who purchased the boxes of detergent to their homes where they would be awarded a prize for their purchase. The company also launched a website (in Portuguese) to show the approximate location of the winners' homes. See also Automatic Packet Reporting System Data privacy Electronic tagging GPS aircraft tracking GPS navigation device GPS tracking server GPS watch GPS wildlife tracking Intelligent transportation system (ITS) IVMS Mobile phone Radio clock#GPS clocks Real-time locating Telematics Telematics 2.0 Vehicle infrastructure integration Vehicle tracking system References External links Global Positioning System Surveillance Geopositioning Navigational equipment de:Track Log fr:Géolocalisation

4107325

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20first%20orbital%20launches%20by%20country

Timeline of first orbital launches by country

This is a timeline of first orbital launches by country. While a number of countries, incl. Canada, Australia, Germany, Brazil, Algeria, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Argentina, Italy, Malaysia, Poland, South Africa, the Philippines, Egypt, Spain, Mexico, Thailand and Chile, have built or launched satellites, as of 2022, eleven countries, incl. the United States, Japan, India, China, Iran, Israel, France, the United Kingdom and South Korea, have had the capability to send objects into orbit with their own launch vehicles. Russia and Ukraine inherited the capability of the space launchers and satellites from the Soviet Union, following its dissolution in 1991. Russia launches its rockets from its own and foreign (Kazakh) spaceports. Ukraine launched only from foreign (Kazakh and Russian) launch facilities until 2015, after which political differences with Russia effectively halted Ukraine's ability to produce orbital rockets. France became a space power independently, launching a payload into orbit from Algeria, before joining space launcher facilities in the multi-national Ariane project. The United Kingdom became a space power independently following a single payload insertion into orbit from Australia. Ten countries and one inter-governmental organisation (ESA) have a proven orbital launch capability, . Three countries (France, Italy and the United Kingdom) formerly had such an independent capability. In all cases where a country has conducted independent human spaceflights (as of 2021, three — China, the Soviet Union/Russia, and the United States), these launches were preceded by independent uncrewed launch capability. The race to launch the first satellite was closely contested by the Soviet Union and the United States, and was the beginning of the Space Race. The launching of satellites, while still contributing to national prestige, is a significant economic activity as well, with public and private rocket systems competing for launches, using cost and reliability as selling points. List of first orbital launches by country Countries like Italy are not included since they have not yet developed an orbital rocket from scratch; i.e., an orbital rocket that was designed and engineered in its entirety in the country in question. Partial contributions to orbital launch systems Two countries, Italy and New Zealand, have contributed in the creation or continuation of orbital launch systems. Notes Other launches and projects The above list includes confirmed satellite launches with rockets produced by the launching country, like Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, South Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, the United Kingdom or the United States. Lists with differing criteria might include the following launches: Failed launches had yet to launch a satellite into orbit independently and its space program suffered three satellite launch failures, the latest being the explosion of a VLS-1 rocket on 22 August 2003 at the Alcântara Launch Centre, which resulted in 21 deaths. Launches of non-indigenous launch vehicles Some countries have no self-developed rocket systems, but have provided their spaceports for launches of their own and foreign satellites on foreign launchers: with the first successful launch from Hammaguir of the French satellite Astérix on 26 November 1965 by French Diamant A. The last orbital launch from Hammaguir was on 15 February 1967 by French Diamant A and there are no further launches scheduled (the first Algerian satellite is AlSAT-1 launched by Russian Kosmos-3M from Plesetsk, Russia on 28 November 2002). with the first successful launch from the San Marco platform of its satellite San Marco 2 on 26 April 1967 by US Scout B (the first Italian satellite is San Marco 1 launched by another Scout from Wallops, USA on 15 December 1964). The last orbital launch from San Marco was on 25 March 1988 by US Scout G-1 and there are no further launches scheduled. with the first successful launch from Woomera Test Range of its first satellite WRESAT on 29 November 1967 by US Sparta. The second and final successful orbital launch from Woomera was performed on 28 October 1971 by the UK Black Arrow. with the first launch after its independence from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on 21 January 1992 of the Russian Soyuz-U2 and Progress M-11 (the first Kazakh satellite is KazSat launched by Russian Proton-K from Baikonur on 17 June 2006). Currently the spaceport continues to be utilized for launches of various Russian rockets. ; a single Pegasus-XL was launched from Orbital Sciences' Stargazer aircraft flying from Gran Canaria Airport in April 1997. with a successful launch of a Pegasus-H rocket from Orbital Sciences' Stargazer aircraft flying from Kwajalein Atoll in October 2000. Five ground-based launches were made by SpaceX using Falcon 1 rockets between 2006 and 2009, with the first success on 28 September 2008. Three further Pegasus launches occurred between 2008 and 2012, using the Pegasus-XL configuration. Currently there are no plans announced for a Marshall Islands satellite. Privately developed launch vehicles Orbital Sciences Corporation (USA) became the first company to launch a privately developed rocket into orbit, the Pegasus on April 5, 1990. Orbital subsequently developed the Minotaur rocket family. Orbital joined SpaceX as one of only two private entities to supply the International Space Station with its launch of the Cygnus Orb-D1 mission on its Antares rocket on September 28, 2013. SpaceX (USA) became the second company to launch a rocket into orbit using a rocket developed with private—not government—funds. Its first successful launch was performed on September 28, 2008, by Falcon 1 from the Omelek Island, Marshall Islands and its first launch from US spaceport was Falcon 9 Flight 1 on June 4, 2010, from Cape Canaveral. Its Dragon spacecraft docked with the International Space Station on October 11, 2012, to deliver supplies. American private company Rocket Lab successfully launched its Electron rocket from Mahia Launch Center in New Zealand on January 21, 2018, carrying three cubesats into low Earth orbit. This was the first time that a rocket entered orbit after launching from a privately owned and operated spaceport. Chinese private company i-Space successfully launched its Hyperbola 1 rocket from Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center and sent several small payloads, including the CAS-7B amateur radio satellite into Earth orbit on July 25, 2019. Galactic Energy successfully launched its Ceres-1 solid rocket from Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center into Sun-synchronous orbit on November 7, 2020, becoming the second Chinese private company capable of launching satellites into orbit. Virgin Orbit successfully achieved orbit on January 17, 2021, using their LauncherOne vehicle to deploy 10 CubeSats into Low Earth Orbit for NASA. Astra Rocket 3.3 vehicle successfully reached orbit on November 20, 2021, after launching from Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska (PSCA) carrying the demonstration payload STP-27AD2 for the United States Space Force. Firefly Aerospace launched Firefly Alpha rocket, which successfully reached an orbit lower than the expected one, on October 1, 2022. Space Pioneer successfully launched its first rocket Tianlong-2 into orbit on April 2, 2023. It was the first Chinese company that achieved the goal with the liquid rocket. LandSpace became a private company with orbital launch capability by successfully launched Zhuque-2, world's first methane-fueled rocket to reach orbit, on July 12, 2023. Sub-orbital launch Innospace successfully launched its first rocket HANBIT-TLV into orbit on March 21, 2023 from the Alcantara Space Center in Brazil, making it the first civilian-made space rocket from South Korea. The inertial navigation system from Brazil, called SISNAV, being carried onboard as a payload of HANBIT-TLV, functioned properly, thus making it South Korea's first private launch service provider. Other launches launched its first satellite, named Astérix, from Algeria in late 1965. launched its first satellite, named Ohsumi, in early 1970. launched its first satellite in early 1975. Abandoned projects / was developing larger designs in the Aggregat series as early as 1940. A combination of A9 to A12 components could have produced orbital capability as early as 1947 if work had continued. Further preliminary development of numerous rocket space launchers and re-usable launch systems (Sänger II, etc.) took place after WWII, although these were never realized as national or European projects. Also, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the private German company OTRAG tried to develop low-cost commercial space launchers. Only the sub-orbital tests of the first prototypes of the rockets were carried out. did not proceed with a 1946 proposal to develop German V-2 technology into the "Megaroc" system to be launched in 1949. The UK also developed the Black Arrow rocket system and successfully launched a satellite in 1971, shortly after the program had been cancelled. had developed the gun-based space launchers Martlet and GLO as the joint Canadian-American Project HARP in the 1960s. The rockets were never tested. In fact, in different periods, they worked in cooperation with Australia, Brazil, South Korea and the United Kingdom. developed the space launcher RSA-3 in the 1980s. This rocket was tested 3 times without a satellite payload in 1989 and 1990. The program was postponed and canceled in 1994. Iraq claimed to have developed and tested "Al-Abid", a three-stage space launch vehicle without a payload or its upper two stages on 5 December 1989. The rocket's design had a clustered first stage composed of five modified scud rockets strapped together and a single scud rocket as the second stage in addition to a SA-2 liquid-fueled rocket engine as the third stage. The video tape of a partial launch attempt which was retrieved by UN weapons inspectors, later surfaced showing that the rocket prematurely exploded 45 seconds after its launch. previous attempts at developing space launcher based on their Condor missile were scrapped in 1993. The VLS-1 was cancelled after decades of development and high expenditures with poor results and a failed association with Ukraine that slowed the program for years. tried to develop space launcher as part of its various ballistic missile programs in the second half of the 20th century. In different periods, they worked either independently or in cooperation with Algeria, Argentina, Canada, Iraq and North Korea. developed the space launcher Capricornio (Capricorn) in the 1990s. The rocket was related to the Condor missile from Argentina and its test, scheduled for 1999/2000, was not conducted. As a result, in different periods, they worked in cooperation with Japan and the United States. Swiss Space Systems company planned to develop the micro satellite launcher-spaceplane SOAR by 2018 but went bankrupt. Thus, in different periods, they worked in cooperation with Chile, Poland and Ukraine. Other projects developed an orbital rocket called Tronador II, whose maiden flight is expected to take place in the next four years as of late 2020. 's ATSpace developed an orbital launch vehicle called Kestrel, tentatively being launched in 2022 from Whalers Way. 's Gilmour Space Technologies developed an orbital launch vehicle called Eris, scheduled to be launched in 2023. announced that it would launch its VLM rocket from the Alcântara Launch Center in 2025. planned to launch military and security satellites. The first phase began in 2022. planned to launch military and security satellites. The first phase will begin in 2024. announced that it would launch some satellites in 2024 or any later year. Orbex developed its Prime launch vehicle, whose first launch was planned in 2023 from Sutherland spaceport. Blue Origin developed its New Glenn launch vehicle, whose first launch was planned for sometime in 2023. The private company PLD Space developed the Miura 5 orbital launch vehicle, whose first launch is planned for 2024. OrbitX, a private company of the Philippines, planned to develop Haribon, a biofuel-powered launch vehicle. The private company of Malaysia Independence-X Aerospace developed an orbital launch vehicle called DNLV, being launched in 2023. Thai Space Consortium developed a satellite called TSC-Pathfinder, being launched in 2023. 's Institute Of Aviation developed a rocket named ILR-33 Bursztyn (ILR-33 Amber). announced that it would launch some satellites some time in 2024. planned to launch several rockets starting in 2023. launched a rocket in early 2023 from the space center in Brazil. planned to launch some satellites beginning in 2024. Satellite operators Many other countries, such as Mexico, Poland, Chile, Japan and India, launched their own satellites on one of the foreign launchers listed above, the first being British owned and operated; American-built satellite Ariel 1, which was launched by a US rocket in April 1962. In September 1962, the Canadian satellite, Alouette-1, was launched by a US rocket, but unlike Ariel 1, it was constructed by Canada. See also List of orbital launch systems List of missiles by country Orbital spaceflight Satellite Spaceport (including timeline of first orbital launches by spaceport) Discovery and exploration of the Solar System (including exploration by country) Timeline of first artificial satellites by country Timeline of Solar System exploration Timeline of space exploration References External links First Satellites Launched By Spacefaring Nations, Anthony R. Curtis, Ph.D., Space Today Online, accessed 17 February 2006. National Briefings: Iraq, Ranger Associates, accessed 17 February 2006. The 31 August 1998 North Korean Satellite Launch: Factsheet, Kevin Orfall and Gaurav Kampani, with Michael Dutra, Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Monterey Institute of International Studies, accessed 17 February 2006. News Release 25-98, United States Space Command, 8 September 1998, accessed 17 February 2006. Daily Press Briefing, James P. Rubin, United States Department of State, 14 September 1998, accessed 17 February 2006. BBC World: Brazil Launches rocket into space Space.com: Brazil completes successful rocket launch Herald Tribune: Brazil launches rocket for gravity research AFP: Iran rocket test 'unfortunate': White House Space-Travel.com: Iran opens its first space centre, riling the US New York Times: Iran Launches Rocket to Commemorate New Space Center MSNBC: Iran unveils space center, launches rocket Orbital launches orbital

4109184

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7066%20Nessus

7066 Nessus

7066 Nessus is a very red centaur on an eccentric orbit, located beyond Saturn in the outer Solar System. It was discovered on 26 April 1993, by astronomers of the Spacewatch program at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Tucson, Arizona. The dark and reddish minor planet is likely elongated and measures approximately in diameter. It was named after Nessus from Greek mythology. Orbit and classification Nessus is a centaur, a dynamically unstable population of minor planets between the classical asteroids and the trans-Neptunian objects. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 11.9–37.4 AU once every 122 years and 4 months (44,670 days; semi-major axis of 24.64 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.52 and an inclination of 16° with respect to the ecliptic. At its perihelion (11.9 AU), it moves much closer to the Sun than Uranus (19.2 AU) but not as close as Saturn (9.6 AU), while at its aphelion (37.4 AU), it moves out well beyond the orbit of Neptune (30.1 AU). The orbits of centaurs are unstable due to perturbations by the giant planets. Nessus is an "SE object" because currently Saturn controls its perihelion and its aphelion is within the Kuiper belt. It is estimated to have a relatively long orbital half-life of about 4.9 million years. Fifty clones of the orbit of Nessus suggest that it will not pass within 1 AU (or 150 million kilometers) of any planet for at least 20,000 years. Discovery and naming Nessus was discovered by David Rabinowitz (not officially credited), working with the Spacewatch program, at Kitt Peak National Observatory on 26 April 1993. The discovery was announced on 13 May 1993 in an IAU Circular (IAUC 5789) of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. It was the third discovery of a centaur after 2060 Chiron and 5145 Pholus, discovered by Charles Kowal and David Rabinowitz in 1977 and 1992, respectively. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Kitt Peak in April 1993. This minor planet was named after Nessus, a centaur from Greek mythology, who poisoned and was killed by the divine hero Heracles. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 22 April 1997 (). A symbol derived from that for 2060 Chiron, (), was devised in the late 1990s by German astrologer Robert von Heeren. It replaces Chiron's K with an N for Nessus. Physical characteristics Nessus has a very red color (RR), with a B–R magnitude of 1.847 and 1.88, respectively. Color indices were also determined by Bauer (2003) and Hainaut (2002, 2012). Rotation period As of 2018, no rotational lightcurve of Nessus has been obtained from photometric observations. However, a brightness variation of 0.5 magnitude was measured in the 1990s, indicating that the body has a non-spherical, elongated shape. The body's rotation period and pole remain unknown. Diameter and albedo According to the Herschel Space Observatory with its PACS instrument, Nessus measures 57 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.086, while infrared observations with the Spitzer Space Telescope gave a diameter of 60 kilometers with an albedo of 0.065. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a carbonaceous standard albedo of 0.057 and derives a diameter of 68.48 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 9.55. In popular culture 7066 Nessus is a playable destination in the 2017 video game Destiny 2, after previously being referenced in the series' 2014 debut entry Destiny. Known simply as "Nessus," it is described as a planetoid that has been terraformed by a cybernetic species known as the Vex into a "machine world." See also References External links Selected Notable Spacewatch Discoveries, www.spacewatch.lpl.arizona.edu (archived) Chiron and friends – The Naming, Zane B. Stein Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (5001)-(10000) – Minor Planet Center Centaurs (small Solar System bodies) 007066 Named minor planets 19930426

4109505

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solstice%20Cyclists

Solstice Cyclists

The Solstice Cyclists (also known as The Painted [Naked] Cyclists of the Solstice Parade, or The Painted Cyclists) is an artistic, non-political, clothing-optional bike ride celebrating the summer solstice. It is the unofficial start of the Summer Solstice Parade & Pageant, an event produced by the Fremont Arts Council in the Fremont district of Seattle. The event was started by streakers who crashed the parade. The first people to do so were a small group of friends and roommates from the adjacent (Wallingford) neighborhood, several of whom were bicycle couriers by trade. Participants now emphasize bodypainting and other artistry. The group is the largest and fastest growing ensemble associated with the parade. The parade, put on by Fremont Arts Council, is held on a Saturday close to the actual solstice. Art bikes are common and cycles include BMX bikes, cycle rickshaws, unicycles, clown bicycles, tall bikes, lowrider bicycles, tandem bicycles and tricycles. People come from all over the country to ride. Full and partial (especially topfree) nudity is popular, but not mandatory. While cyclists open the parade, they are not in the parade line-up (except in 2003 when they had a float). Parade rules say "any printed communications, written words, recognizable logos, signage, leaf-letting, or advertising in any form are prohibited on the parade route." Recent events include a pre-ride bodypainting party, a party ride through the city, and the parade itself at noon. Controversy 2001 and subsequent years were controversial for the naked cyclists, including references to them as "parade crashers". In 2001, police and organizers posted laws against indecent exposure to warn of possible prosecution. Organizers claimed cyclists were getting in the way of the event's artistic freedom. "Here in the self-anointed center of the universe, where the Waiting for the Interurban sculptures wear more clothing than the nude cyclists who grace the annual Solstice Parade, high-tech is moving in." "Meanwhile, Hadrann says the scent of rebellion is in the air in Fremont - or maybe it's just another rumor. 'Some people in the community are going to get nude if he (Sidran) starts arresting the cyclists,' he says. ... 'First, there was 50, now there's like 100 people. . . . Who knows what kind of chain reaction this is going to bring.'" This article also includes Seattle Police Department Lt. Mark Kuehn's suggestions for safety for nude cyclists such as: "Refrain from trying out saddles in the nude, for obvious sanitary reasons. Hadrann suggests shoppers take along a few pairs of Chinese disposable underwear (made of paper) for saddle-buying expeditions." "The council decided this week against posting 'no nudity' signs for the neighborhood's arts parade, where two men were arrested for naked bike riding last year. Police had asked that the signs be posted for this year's parade, set for Saturday. ...Council President Bradley Erhlich said the public nudity might be a form of artistic expression. ... 'If it is art, then the Arts Council should support them,' Erhlich said. ... Crowds booed when last year's naked riders were arrested and handcuffed." 2000 In the nude cyclists' ninth year, bodypainting artist Steven Bradford joined the bodypainting team and assisted in transforming 4 women into Fire, Earth, Air, and Water at the painting party at Fire's home. 2001 In 2001, according to The Seattle Times, there were 50 cyclists, mostly in bodypaint. To the amusement of many, this year an artist had a painting in the parade showing a naked female bicyclist next to a baton-wielding police officer. The pose itself could have either shown the apprehension or the cop gleefully stopping for a picture next to the bicyclist. The panel was put on a small platform on wheels and parade goers were invited to have their pictures taken with their heads poking out of the holes of the naked bicyclists and the officer. In 2001, the city threatened to withdraw the event permit for the Fremont Arts Council because of the nudity. Signs were actually made warning naked cyclists that they may be subject to arrest. The city ended up backing off before the event day. Fremont Arts Council parade organizers urged riders to participate within the artistic spirit of the event. Many locals were very upset that the city would threaten to arrest one of the parade's most popular and creative ensembles. The blowback effect, as predicted by Seattle City Council Chair Nick Licata, ended up being more publicity and popularity for the cyclists which, in turn, led to more cyclists wanting to join the ensemble. In efforts to combat this effect, the Seattle City Council was invited by the Fremont Arts Council to participate in the parade. Nick Licata was the only one who agreed and ended up cycling through as the "un-naked cyclist". After jeers of "Take your clothes off" he was met by a parade monitor who told him to get off the parade route, stating "Yeh? We still don't have bike riding in the parade. If one person rides then others will and then the whole parade will have bikes riding all over the place." Licata later lamented in a Seattle Times article, "I was waving to the photographer - smack in the middle of a pack of painted, naked bicyclists." "There was no better illustration of the fair's quirkiness than in its parade - with its wild costumes, floats and giant puppets - and nude bicyclists, which led to a flap over the permit for this year's parade. ... Before the city issued this year's parade permit, police said they have gotten numerous complaints about the nude cyclists every year. They asked the Fremont Arts Council to post signs along the parade route warning cyclists, who are not a sanctioned part of the parade, about laws against indecent exposure. The council said no, even though members discouraged the nudity. ... In 1998, two bikers in the buff were arrested. None were arrested this year." 2002 "What solstice is complete without nude cyclists? To get your annual fix, see the Fremont Summer Solstice Parade and Fair on Saturday and Sunday." "As has been the tradition, a number of unauthorized naked bicycle riders start the parade. Last year there were 50 — most in body paint." 2003 2003 marked the twelfth year of naked cyclists taking part in the Solstice Parade. The parade took place on June 21, 2003. Numbers quadrupled from previous years to between 75 and 80 riders. An internet discussion forum was established for the first time. The bodypainting party took place at the host's house in the Ravenna neighborhood, with a photo shoot at Cowen Park. The procession then began south through the University District on Roosevelt and then on 45th through Wallingford to Phinney Ridge. This is also the first year that the cyclists were officially part of the parade with their Helios-themed float, which several cyclists (partially dressed) climbed aboard after they cycled through the parade. The float featured wispy clouds and gold-painted "chariot" exercise bikes to evoke a sense of pulling the sun through the summer. Ironically, toward the end of the parade, and despite all the "Happy Solstice" chants, the sky clouded over and it began to rain. Two digital video films were produced from footage of this year's event. One is called Naked & Painted: The Fremont Solstice Riders 2003 and is sold to friends and future potential riders with proceeds going to a local charity. The other video was called Solstice: A Celebration of the Art of Bodypainting produced by James W. Taylor/Circle Rock Productions and premiered at Naked Freedom Film Festival , held at the Seattle Art Museum on May 15, 2004. Unusually cool weather this year resulting in a number of weather-themed paint jobs. Also in 2003, much publicity was focused on David Zaitzeff's determination to walk naked through the Solstice Parade. Zaitzeff sued Seattle police Chief Gil Kerlikowske in a federal lawsuit because he "desires to go nude at the Fremont Solstice Parade without fear of unjust arrest". U.S. District Judge Robert Lasnik said that because Zaitzeff had not been arrested for indecent exposure, the court couldn't make a prospective ruling on the matter. Much later in the year there was a suggestion to have the group become part of a larger international naked bike ride, later known as the World Naked Bike Ride (WNBR). The idea was unpopular because the Solstice Parade, unlike WNBR, is a non-political arts event. Secondary reasons for not liking the idea included that WNBR would not be as spontaneous of an event and some may not be as inclined to participate in an artistic way. 2004 The parade took place on June 19, 2004. About 116 cyclists participated, setting a new record. The main group started to ride from the pre-parade bodypainting party at the old Segway building in Ballard. (The building was later demolished to make way for Ballard Civic Center Park.) The ride proceeded down NW Market Street to Leary Way to the parade. The cyclists did not have a float in the parade in 2004, but there were more elaborate art installations on bikes. 2004 also marked the beginning of the Synchronised Cycling Drill Team within the group. The year's theme was Noah's Ark animals. One of the cyclists provided rides to children along the parade route in her cycle rickshaw. A week prior to the event, on June 12, was the first annual World Naked Bike Ride Seattle event and was the first time a major naked cycling event has crossed the channel into downtown Seattle. This ride featured a pre-ride bodypainting party at Gas Works Park, where the end of the painted cyclists ride traditionally took place. 2005 The parade took place on June 18, 2005. Approximately 138 cyclists leave bodypainting party on the south side of the Lake Washington Ship Canal, and once joined by those waiting at the parade, the numbers probably grew to around 160 cyclists. Part of the ride included going down the Ballard Bridge on 15th Avenue and turning again on NW Market Street. About five cyclists broke off from the group after the end of the parade ride and rode around Green Lake and came back to Fremont. One of the big controversies in 2005 was the Fremont Arts Council excluding People Undergoing Real Experiences (PURE) (now known as Pure cirkus) from dressing "up as pirates with two people suspended on a pirate ship float from hooks in their skin" as they go through the parade. Much of the media noted that while the naked cyclists are tolerated and widely popular, this has become the new controversial area for the council. A week later, a third painted ride, called the Body Pride Ride, was started by one of the painted cyclists, and took place for the first time in the Seattle Gay Pride Parade on Capitol Hill. A WNBR mini-ride in September marked 2005 as a record-setting year not only for the number of painted cyclists participating, but also for doubling the number of painted naked rides in Seattle to a total of four. "If bike riders rode nude in a Los Angeles summer solstice celebration, the LAPD would shoot them dead, after a 'slow speed' chase televised on all 28 local channels." "Really, that's just the crazy naked bicyclists who precede the parade every year. They get all the press, all the hype, all the lasting impressions. People who work on the parade openly despise them. ... The nude bikers take away from all the legitimate art that volunteers spend countless hours creating. With one exhibitional blow, months of hard work by solstice parade artists is knocked from our collective conscious." 2006 The 18th Annual Summer Solstice Parade & Pageant, on June 17, 2006, marked the 15th year that naked cyclists have participated in the parade. On March 27, 2006, the Painted Cyclists went public with a public portal website: The Painted Cyclists. KUOW-FM in Seattle did an interview for their program called Weekday with the cyclists at the Ballard neighborhood where the bodypainting party was taking place, taking up at least three residential lots. The interview was reportedly about cycling safety in Seattle. This is confirmed by several cyclists and pictures taken at the bodypainting party. The segment aired on June 22, 2006. 2007 The 19th Annual Solstice Parade took place on June 16, 2007, marking the sixteenth consecutive year the painted cyclists have ridden in the parade. 267 cyclists took to the streets at 11:45 a.m. with little or no confrontation, legal or otherwise. The annual painting party took place at a nearby residence on NW 48th Street in Ballard. For the first time, a video presented by a painted inline skater was shot at the painting party and posted to the website of The Stranger newspaper. 2008 The 20th Annual Solstice Parade took place on June 21, 2008, marking the 17th consecutive year that the painted cyclists have accompanied. Slightly fewer cyclists than in previous years rode, and tension between both the Seattle police and the Fremont Arts Council was minimal. The painting party took place this time in Belltown, meaning the cyclists had to ride a full three miles through the Seattle neighborhood of Queen Anne to get to Fremont. Painting parties were also going on independently of the main party downtown, so riders had to coordinate meeting up at a common location before entering the parade. After making a surprise entrance by entering through the crowd at the middle of the parade route, on Fremont Avenue (which had never been done before), riders were initially rerouted because of the timing of the permits. They later reentered the parade route closer to the traditional starting point and proceeded through the parade, ending the ride at Gas Works Park. 2009 The 21st Annual Solstice Parade took place on June 20, 2009, marking the 18th consecutive year of the painted cyclists. The painting party took place at Hale's Ales in Ballard, and attracted an estimated 430 cyclists, plus painters. After riding through Ballard and watching their numbers swell as riders from independent paint parties joined the group, the riders traversed the parade route in Fremont, ending once again at Gas Works Park. Media coverage included an article and video by the Seattle P-I. Ensembles included the "Stimulus Package" group, appropriate for a year of controversial economic bailouts. This year was also the first year of the Gardens Everywhere Bike Parade. 2010 The 22nd Annual Solstice Parade took place on Saturday, June 19, 2010, marking the nineteenth consecutive year of the painted (and some not-so-painted) solstice cyclists. The painting party again took place at Hale's Ales in Ballard, and attracted hundreds of cyclists, plus painters. Then they jumped on their bikes and headed to Ballard for a warm-up ride in the relatively chilly mid-50s air, surprising unsuspecting drivers and whooping it up down Market Street before returning for the noon start of the parade, where the riders completed the parade route in Fremont. An optional repeat loop-back plan through part of the route was added in 2010, designed to extend the experience for both the riders who opted for it as well as the crowd lining the streets, with a side benefit of minimizing any time gap between the end of the cyclists and the start of the parade proper. That plan met with some confusion due to communication issues with parade officials, and therefore mixed results, but riders vowed to remedy that in 2011. The cyclists ended at the now-traditional clothing-optional "victory celebration" at and around Kite Hill in Gas Works Park. 2011 The parade took place on June 18, the day before Fathers Day. The skies were overcast and the temperature was in the mid-50s with intermittent misty light rain—for the second year in a row, the third Saturday in June was unseasonably cool. But that did not deter the 600+ riders nor curb their enthusiasm. For many, the day started at the old Ballard Library building, which had been rented as the central location for body painting. Earlier in the week, plastic had been laid on the floor and taped into one big surface, then tables set out to delineate separate painting areas. Aisles were painted on the floor in orange with "Keep Clear" to keep the fire marshal happy and facilitate movement around the area; bumping into someone covered in paint leaves a mark. In the northwest corner was the film crew for Beyond Naked, a documentary about four first time riders. The parade riders gathered in the parking lot next to the library awaiting the go-ahead for the trip through Ballard. Most participants shivered in the cold while logistics were confirmed. Then, off through Ballard, to the amazement of unsuspecting pedestrians, many whooping and hollering encouragement. From there the parade snaked through Fremont in a circuitous route, getting longer at each pass, until it finally ended at Gas Works Park. 2012 The solstice cyclists rode for the 21st consecutive year, starting out by hosting their painting party at the Old Ballard Library, on NW 57th St. and 24th Avenue (the same place as the previous year). The weather was overcast with temperatures in the 60's. 2013 After a morning paint party at a marine hangar in Seattle's Shilshole neighborhood, hundreds of cyclists and skaters rode through Ballard, pausing for a group photo at Ross Park, before entering the parade course in Fremont at 2:45 pm. For the first time in several years the weather was hot and sunny, and as a result the crowd watching the parade was especially dense, and the number of participants was much larger than in previous years, with estimates ranging from several hundred to 1000. 2015 A small group of longtime organizers once again hosted a mass paint party in the Silshole neighborhood. The organizers took a video of the painted cyclists heading out through the gate and counted well over 945 cyclists just at this paint party. En route to the parade starting point they were joined by hundreds of other painted cyclists who swelled the ranks at each passing intersection . The artistry displayed on naked riders' bodies has become more and more intricate each year with some riders bringing their own personal painters to the party. Donations were collected at the entrance and after all expenses were paid the paint party volunteers donated $4,500 to the Fremont Art Council in order to help pay the parade expenses. 2016 In the weeks prior to the parade this year there was some friction between the Fremont Arts Council, the official parade organizers, and the cyclist organizers, a non-hierarchical consensus group that comes together once a year and has no formal organization. The FAC wanted the cyclists to become official members of the parade and under their control. The cyclist group are basically anarchists in the way they operate and refused. They agreed to disagree and things went on as usual with close cooperation between the two groups. The numbers dwindled this year as the day dawned cold and damp. A seasoned group of 10 volunteers once again opened the gates to the large, group paint party at a private marina in the 4100 block of Shilshole Ave. N.W. At an entry portal donations were taken and only people who were cyclists to be painted or their painters were allowed to enter. Over several hours 600 clothed cyclists entered and at noon 600 cold (but exuberant) painted naked cyclists exited. The group rode through the Ballard neighborhood and then on to the Fremont Solstice Parade route where they were joined by approximately 100 more painted cyclists from private paint parties. After subtracting expenses, the organized paint party group was able to donate $2,000 to the Fremont Arts Council to help defray the parade costs the following spring. 2019 The warm and sunny weather brought over 700 people to the main cyclist paint party this year. As in past years, the painted, naked (mostly) cyclists filed out of the boat marina in the Ballard neighborhood and did a ride through the streets of the Ballard neighborhood. As the riders entered the parade route, prior to the start of the actual parade, they were not allowed to circulate on the route as had been arranged beforehand with the official Fremont Solstice Parade organizers. Instead they were forced to ride straight through the route with no slow looping back as had become the custom and agreed upon pattern for many years. This left the artists who had spent hours painting, and those who had come to view the parade and the cyclists with a less than satisfactory experience. The alliance between the free-spirited biking artists and the Fremont Arts Council who holds the permit for the actual parade is rapidly fraying at the edges and the outcome remains to be seen. The cyclist paint party group donated $4,000 to the Fremont Arts Council to help toward the cost of the parade. 2020 and 2021 There was no parade either year due to COVID-19, but a small group of cyclists met up at Gasworks Park and rode through the city. See also References External links Recurring events established in 1992 Culture of Seattle Festivals in Seattle Fremont, Seattle Naked cycling events Pacific Northwest art Clothing-optional events Unofficial observances 1992 establishments in Washington (state) Summer solstice

4112140

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmyk%20Steppe

Kalmyk Steppe

Kalmuk Steppe, or Kalmyk Steppe is a steppe with a land area of approximately 100,000 km², bordering the northwest Caspian Sea, bounded by the Volga on the northeast, the Manych on the southwest, and the territory of the Don Cossacks on the northwest. The historic home to the Kalmuck or Kalmyks, it is in the Federal subject of Astrakhan Oblast in Russia. Before the appearance of the Kalmyks to this region, the area was long known as the Povoletsk steppe by the Russians. The western Kalmuck Steppe occupied by the Yergeni hills, is deeply trenched by ravines and rises 300 and occasionally 630 ft. above the sea. It is built up of Tertiary deposits, belonging to the Sarmatian division of the Miocene period and covered with bess and black earth, and its escarpments represent the old shore-line of the Caspian. No Caspian deposits are found on or within the Yergeni. These hills exhibit the usual black earth flora, and they have a settled population. The eastern part of the steppe is a plain, lying for the most part 30 to 40 ft. below the level of the sea and sloping gently towards the Volga. Post-Pliocene Aral-Caspian deposits, containing the usual fossils (Hydrobia, Neritina, eight species of Cardium, two of Dreissena, three of Adacna and Lithoglyphus caspius), attain thicknesses varying from 105 ft. to 7 or 10 feet, and disappear in places. Lacustrine and fluviatile mineral deposits occur intermingled with the above. Large areas of moving sands exist near Enotayevsk, where high dunes or barkhans have been formed. A narrow tract of land along the coast of the Caspian, known as the “hillocks of Baer,” is covered with hillocks elongated from west to east, perpendicularly to the coast-line, the spaces between them being filled with water or overgrown with thickets of reed, Salix, Ulmus campestris, almond trees, &c. An archipelago of little islands is thus formed close to the shore by these mounds, which are backed on the N. and N.W. by strings of salt lakes, partly desiccated. Small streams originate in the Yergeni, but are lost as soon as they reach the lowlands, where water can only be obtained from wells. The scanty vegetation is a mixture of the flora of south-east Russia and that of the deserts of central Asia. As of 1911, the steppe had an estimated population of 130,000 persons, living in over 27,700 kibitkas, or felt tents. There were many Buddhist monasteries. Part of the Kalmucks were settled (chiefly in the hilly parts), the remainder being nomads. Antony Beevor, in his 1998 book Stalingrad, said that "Russians from the north thought of [Kalmyk Steppe] as 'the end of the world'". In 1943 the people were forcibly deported (see Kalmykia). See also Kalmykia The Kalmyk Steppe was partly occupied by Germans in August-December 1942, the Abwehr until November 1943. References I. V. Mushketov, Geol. Researches in the Kalmyk Steppe in 1884–1885 (St Petersburg, 1894, in Russian); Kostenkov’s works (1868–1870); and other works quoted in Semenov’s Geogr. Dict. and Russ. Encycl. Dict. Geography of Kalmykia Eurasian Steppe Grasslands of Russia Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

4117029

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20246

NGC 246

NGC 246 (also known as the Skull Nebula or Caldwell 56) is a planetary nebula in the constellation Cetus. It is the first known planetary nebula to have a hierarchical triple star system at its center. The nebula and the stars associated with it are listed in several catalogs, as summarized by the SIMBAD database. NGC 246 was discovered by William Herschel in 1785. The nebula is roughly 1,600 light-years away. NGC 246's central star is the 12th magnitude white dwarf HIP 3678 A. NGC 246 is not to be confused with the Rosette Nebula (NGC 2337), which is also referred to as the "Skull." Among some amateur astronomers, NGC 246 is known as the "Pac-Man Nebula" because of the arrangement of its central stars and the surrounding star field. Discovery and research In 1785, William Herschel discovered NGC 246. In 2014, astronomers discovered a second companion to NGC 246's central star, HIP 3678 A, which has a comoving companion star called HIP 3678 B. The second companion star, a red dwarf known as HIP 3678 C, was discovered using the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope. Image gallery References External links Planetary nebulae Cetus 0246 056b 17841127

4117087

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201514

NGC 1514

NGC 1514 is a planetary nebula in the zodiac constellation of Taurus, positioned to the north of the star Psi Tauri along the constellation border with Perseus. Distance to the nebula is 466 pc, according to GAIA DR2 data. It was discovered by William Herschel on November 13, 1790, describing it as "a most singular phenomenon" and forcing him to rethink his ideas on the construction of the heavens. Up until this point Herschel was convinced that all nebulae consisted of masses of stars too remote to resolve, but now here was a single star "surrounded with a faintly luminous atmosphere". He concluded: "Our judgement I may venture to say, will be, that the nebulosity about the star is not of a starry nature." This is a double-shell nebula that is described as, "a bright roundish amorphous PN" with a radius of around and a faint halo that has a radius of . It consists of an outer shell, an inner shell, and bright blobs. The inner shell appears to be distorted, but was likely originally spherical. An alternative description is of "lumpy nebula composed of numerous small bubbles" with a somewhat filamentary structure in the outer shell. Infrared observations show a huge region of dust surrounds the planetary nebula, spanning . There is also a pair of rings forming what appears to be a diabolo-like structure, similar to those found in MyCn 18, but these are extremely faint and only visible in the mid-infrared, The combined mass of the gas and dust is estimated at The ionized gas is moderately excited, and the electron temperature is estimated to be 15,000 K. The nebula originated from a binary star system with the designation HD 281679 from the Henry Draper Catalogue. The bright, visible component is a giant star on the horizontal branch with a stellar classification of A0III, while the nebula-generating companion is now a hot, sub-luminous O-type star. The two were originally thought to have an orbital period on the order of 10 days, but observations of the system over years showed that their orbit is actually one of the longest known for any planetary nebula, with a period of about 9 years. Their orbital eccentricity is about 0.5. References External links Basic data on NGC 1514 Discussion on the dynamics of the NGC 1514 system Planetary nebulae 1514 Taurus (constellation) Discoveries by William Herschel

4117298

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisha%20semi-evergreen%20forests

Odisha semi-evergreen forests

The Odisha semi-evergreen forests (also Orissa semi-evergreen forests) are a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of eastern India. The ecoregion covers an area of on the coastal plain of Odisha state, bounded by the Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests west and north-west, transitioning from the huge ecoregion Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests along the north coastland, and surrounding the smaller ecoregion Godavari-Krishna mangroves along a stretch of the south-east coast by the Bay of Bengal. Several of Odisha's largest cities, including Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Puri, Chhatrapur, Kendrapara, and Bhadrak, lie within this ecoregion, and it has been extensively cleared for agriculture and urbanization. According to the WWF, 96% of the ecoregion's area has been cleared, and only 4% remains in the original semi-evergreen rain forest. Much of the remaining forest has been degraded by grazing and fuelwood harvesting. Flora Fauna This ecoregion does not harbour any endemic species, but despite the heavy anthropogenic changes of the landscape and the almost total deforestation, several large mammals are still living here, including elephant and tiger. Important mammals in need of special attention here, includes the tiger, Asian elephant, gaur, dhole (cuon alpinus), sloth bear, and chousingha (tetracerus quadricornis). The birdlife in the Odisha semi-evergreen ecoregion is quite diverse with 215 known species. The lesser florican (Eupodotis indica) is globally threatened and has found a sanctuary here. Protected areas Of the total ecoregion area, about 12.8% is protected. Balukhand-Konark Wildlife Sanctuary (70 km2) Chilka Wildlife Sanctuary (980 km2), including the Nalbana Bird Sanctuary Nandankanan Wildlife Sanctuary (50 km2) Only tiny fragments of semi-deciduous forest remains in Kapilash Forest Range, Chandaka Forest, Bolagarh Forest and Khallikote Forest. Conservation The original biome of this ecoregion is almost non-existing. According to older surveys, this has been the case since at least 1968. If left to itself, the habitat is believed to be replaced by tropical evergreen forests, not semi-evergreen forests. Forest management A study done by Reddy, Jha, & Dadhwal in this area is being used to shape environmental policies in India to protect biodiversity. Through monitoring long term forest resource changes show a loss in overall species and ecosystem services that can be measured in physical data. The results of this study show a connection between deforestation and habitat fragmentation, and loss of important biodiversity in the ecoregion. See also List of ecoregions in India References External links Geographical ecoregion maps and basic info. Ecoregions of India Forests of Odisha Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Forests of India Geography of Odisha Indomalayan ecoregions

4117766

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20Highlands%20moist%20deciduous%20forests

Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests

The Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests, presently known as East Deccan moist deciduous forests, is a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregion in east-central India. The ecoregion covers an area of , extending across portions of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, and Telangana states. Setting The Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests extend from the Bay of Bengal coast in northern Andhra Pradesh and southern Orissa, across the northern portion of the Eastern Ghats range and the northeastern Deccan Plateau, to the eastern Satpura Range and the upper Narmada River valley. The forests of the ecoregion are sustained by the moisture-bearing monsoon winds from the Bay of Bengal, which lies to the southeast. The ecoregion is bounded on the north and west by tropical dry deciduous forest ecoregions, including the Central Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests to the southwest and west, the Narmada valley dry deciduous forests to the northwest, and the Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests to the north and northeast. The drier Northern dry deciduous forests ecoregion, lying west of the Eastern Ghats range, is completely surrounded by the Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests, in the rain shadow of the Ghats, which partially block the moisture-laden monsoon winds off the Bay of Bengal. The humid Orissa semi-evergreen forests ecoregion lies to the northeast in the coastal lowlands of Orissa. Flora The ecoregion's forests are dominated by Sal (Shorea robusta), in association with Terminalia, Adina, Toona, Syzygium, Buchanania, Cleistanthus, and Anogeissus, according to soil variations. The flora of the ecoregion shares many species with the moist forests of the Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalayas. From the Western Ghats this includes plants like jackfruit and several lianas such as Schefflera vine (Heptapleurum venulosum), joint fir (Gnetum edule), and common rattan. From the Eastern Himalayas this includes the peculiar Indian pepper tree and several shrubs, herbs and flowers such as yellow Himalayan raspberry, false nettle (Boehmeria macrophylla), and whipcord cobra lily among others. Several globally threatened plant species are found in this ecoregion, including the two endemic plants Leucas mukerjiana and Phlebophyllum jeyporensis. Fauna The ecoregion still harbours large intact areas of tropical moist deciduous forest and is an important refuge for healthy populations of most of the original large vertebrates associated with this habitat. Large mammals include the predators Indian tiger, wolf, dhole, and sloth bear, and the herbivores gaur, chousingha, blackbuck, and chinkara. The Asian elephants that once lived were extirpated long ago. The only endemic species found in the ecoregion is the cave-dwelling Khajuria's leaf-nosed bat. Conservation Approximately 25% of the original habitat remains, much of it in blocks of 5000 km² or larger. 31 protected areas, totaling 13,540 km², preserve about 4% of the ecoregion's intact habitat. The largest protected area in the ecoregion is Simlipal National Park in Odisha state. Achanakmar Wildlife Sanctuary, Chhattisgarh (550 km²) Badalkhol Wildlife Sanctuary, Chhattisgarh (120 km²) Baisipalli Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha (170 km²) Balimela Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha (130 km²) Barnawapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Chhattisgarh (240 km²) Bhairamgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Bijapur district, Chhattisgarh (160 km²) Bori Wildlife Sanctuary, Hoshangabad district, Madhya Pradesh (460 km²) Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Warangal district, Telangana (120 km²) Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha (140 km²) Indravati National Park, Bijapur district, Chhattisgarh (1,150 km²) Kambalakonda Wildlife Sanctuary, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh (70 km²) Kanha National Park, Mandla and Balaghat districts, Madhya Pradesh (900 km²) Karlapat Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha (150 km²) Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Adilabad district, Telangana (1,080 km²) Kinnerasani Wildlife Sanctuary, Khammam district, Telangana (290 km²) Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary (480 km², partially in the Central Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests ecoregion). Kondakameru Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha (400 km²) Kotgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha (400 km²) Lakhari Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, Ganjam district, Odisha (180 km²) Lanjamadugu Wildlife Sanctuary, Karimnagar district, Telangana (80 km²) Mahuadaur Wildlife Sanctuary, Jharkhand (60 km²) Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh (500 km²) Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary, Warangal district, Telangana (120 km²) Pamed Wildlife Sanctuary, Chhattisgarh (60 km²) Papikonda Wildlife Sanctuary, East and West Godavari districts, Andhra Pradesh (530 km²) Phen Wildlife Sanctuary, Mandla district, Madhya Pradesh (100 km²) Pranahita Wildlife Sanctuary, Adilabad district, Telangana (130 km²) Satkosia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha (790 km²) Satpura National Park, Madhya Pradesh (490 km²) Simlipal National Park, Mayurbhanj district, Odisha (2,550 km²)) Sitanadi Wildlife Sanctuary, Chhattisgarh (670 km²) Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary, Chhattisgarh (340 km²) See also List of ecoregions in India Flora of Madhya Pradesh Arid Forest Research Institute (AFRI) References External links Geographical ecoregion maps and basic info. Ecoregions of India Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Forests of India Environment of Andhra Pradesh Environment of Chhattisgarh Environment of Jharkhand Environment of Madhya Pradesh Environment of Maharashtra Environment of Odisha Forests of Odisha Environment of Telangana Indomalayan ecoregions

4117985

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20dry%20deciduous%20forests

Northern dry deciduous forests

The Northern dry deciduous forests, presently known as the North Deccan dry deciduous forests, is a tropical dry broadleaf forest ecoregion of east-central India. Geography It covers an area of , mostly in western Odisha state, with portions in neighboring Chhattisgarh. The region extends northeast–southwest in the dry western rain shadow of the Eastern Ghats range, which block the moisture-laden monsoon winds from the Bay of Bengal to the east. It is surrounded by the more humid Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests ecoregion. The ecoregion lies mostly in the middle basin of the Mahanadi River and its tributary the Tel. The southern portion of the ecoregion lies in the upper basin of the Indravati River, a tributary of the Godavari. Flora The original vegetation was a multi-storied forest of mostly dry-season deciduous trees, dominated by sal (Shorea robusta). Little of the original forest remains. Teak (Tectona grandis), which favors drier conditions, is more common in the remaining forests. Frequent fires, intensive grazing, and over-harvesting trees for firewood and fodder has reduced other areas to open scrubland or savanna. Much of the ecoregion has been converted to agriculture or pasture. Fauna The ecoregion has 68 native mammal species. Threatened mammals include the tiger (Panthera tigris), dhole (Cuon alpinus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), and chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis). There are 261 bird species in the ecoregion. They include the Indian grey hornbill (Ocyceros birostris) and Oriental pied hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris). Conservation A 1997 assessment found that more than three-quarters of the ecoregion's natural habitat had been cleared or degraded. Four protected areas encompassed about 2.5 percent of the ecoregion's area. A 2017 assessment estimated that 1,604 km2, or 3%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Another 12% is forested but unprotected. Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha (340 km2) Gomarda Wildlife Sanctuary, Raigarh district, Chhattisgarh (290 km2) Kanger Ghati National Park, Chhattisgarh (230 km2) Sunabeda Tiger Reserve, Nuapada district, Odisha (591 km2) See also List of ecoregions in India External links References Ecoregions of India Indomalayan ecoregions Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests

4118330

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/138P/Shoemaker%E2%80%93Levy

138P/Shoemaker–Levy

138P/Shoemaker–Levy, also known as Shoemaker–Levy 7, is a faint periodic comet in the Solar System. The comet last came to perihelion on 11 June 2012, but only brightened to about apparent magnitude 20.5. There were 4 recovery images of 138P on 8 August 2018 by Pan-STARRS when the comet had a magnitude of about 21.5. The comet comes to perihelion on 2 May 2019. This comet should not be confused with Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (D/1993 F2), which crashed into Jupiter in 1994. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 138P/Shoemaker-Levy 7 – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net Elements and Ephemeris for 138P/Shoemaker-Levy – Minor Planet Center 138P at Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets 0138 138P 138P 138P Comets in 2012 Comets in 2019 19911113

4118466

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/139P/V%C3%A4is%C3%A4l%C3%A4%E2%80%93Oterma

139P/Väisälä–Oterma

139P/Väisälä–Oterma is a periodic comet in the Solar System. When it was discovered in 1939 it was not recognized as a comet and designated as asteroid 1939 TN. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 139P/Vaisala-Oterma – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net 139P at Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets 0139 Discoveries by Liisi Oterma + Comets in 2017 19391007

4118832

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower%20Gangetic%20Plains%20moist%20deciduous%20forests

Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests

The Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests is a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregion of Bangladesh and India. The ecoregion covers an area of , comprising most of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar and Tripura, and extending into adjacent states of Odisha, Uttar Pradesh and a tiny part of Assam, as well as adjacent western Myanmar. Geography The Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests extends across the alluvial plain of the lower Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, which form the world's largest river delta. The ecoregion is currently one of the most densely populated regions on earth, and the forests have largely been replaced with intensive agriculture. The ecoregion is bounded on the east and northeast by montane tropical rain forests; the Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests covers the Chin Hills and Chittagong Hills to the east, extending into Myanmar and other states of Northeast India, while the Meghalaya subtropical forests covers the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya and southern Assam, and almost defines the Bangladesh border with Northeast India. To the north, the ecoregion extends to the base of the Himalayas, where it is bounded by the Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands. The upper portion of the Brahmaputra valley in Assam is home to the humid lowland Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests. To the northwest, the forests are bounded by the Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests. The dry Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests lie on the Chota Nagpur Plateau to the southwest. The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests and Sundarbans mangroves ecoregions lie in the swampy, semi-brackish and brackish southern reaches of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta bordering the Bay of Bengal. The ecoregion is home to several large cities, including Kolkata, Dhaka, Patna, and Chittagong. Climate The climate of the ecoregion is tropical and humid. Most of the annual rainfall comes during the southwest monsoon from June to September. Flora The natural vegetation is mostly semi-deciduous forest. The upper canopy is predominantly of deciduous trees, with a lower storey of evergreen trees. Characteristic trees in disturbed forests are Bombax ceiba together with Albizia procera, Duabanga sonneratioides, and Sterculia villosa. As forests mature sal (Shorea robusta) becomes predominant, but most of the remaining forests do not mature to climax stage because of human disturbance. Where annual fires occur frequently during the dry season, fire-hardy trees and shrubs Zizyphus mauritiana, Madhuca latifolia, Aegle marmelos, Butea monosperma, Terminalia tomentosa, and Ochna pumila are common. Riparian forests are typically an Acacia-Dalbergia association, with Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Albizia procera, Bombax ceiba, and Sterculia villosa. Fauna The ecoregion is home to 126 native mammal species. They include threatened species like the tiger (Panthera tigris), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis), smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata), and great Indian civet (Viverra zibetha). The ecoregion is home to 380 species of birds species, including the Bengal florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis), lesser florican (Sypheotides indicus), Pallas's fish-eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus), swamp francolin (Francolinus gularis), Indian grey hornbill (Ocyceros birostris), and Oriental pied hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris). Conservation The ecoregion has been densely settled for many centuries, yet much forest remained until the early 20th century. Forest clearance accelerated during the 20th century, and by the end of the century, only 3% of the ecoregion remained in natural forest. Remaining forest areas are mostly small patches, except for one large block of forest south of Varanasi. In 1997, the World Wildlife Fund identified over 40 protected areas in the ecoregion, with a combined area of about 7010 km², or approximately 3% of the ecoregion's area. Over half of these protected areas were smaller than 100 km² Gautam Buddha Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar (140 km²; also extends into the Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests) Udaipur Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar (50 km²) Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar (2,370 km²) Chandra Prabha Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh (80 km²) Rajgir Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar (290 km²) Kaimoor Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh (120 km²) Valmiki National Park, Bihar (230 km²; also extends into the Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests) Raiganj Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal (40 km²) Kabartal Bird Sanctuary, Bihar (30 km²) Ramsagar National Park, Bangladesh (10 km²) Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bihar 160 km²) Nakti Dam Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar (200 km²) Narendrapur Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal (90 km²) Jaldapara National Park, West Bengal (70 km²) Chalan Beel Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (170 km²) Bil Bhatia Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (30 km²) Madhupur National Park, Bangladesh (110 km²) Hail Haor Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (100 km²) Roa Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura (10 km²) Bhawal National Park, Bangladesh (90 km²) Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (50 km²) Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura (420 km²) Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura (20 km²) Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura (270 km²) Aila Beel Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (30 km²) Kawadighi Haor Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (10 km²) Unnamed (20 km²) Dakhar Haor Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (40 km²) Dubriar Haor Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (20 km²) Erali Beel Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (10 km²) Hakaluki Haor Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (160 km²) Kawadighi Haor Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (20 km²) Kuri Beel Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (30 km²) Meda Beel Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (20 km²) Rajkandi Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (50 km²) Tangua Haor Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh 160 km²) West Bhanugach Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (50 km²) Hazarikhil Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (30 km²) Rampahar-Sitapahar Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (10 km²) Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (90 km²) Chimbuk Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (30 km²) Himchari National Park, Bangladesh (20 km²) Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh (100 km²) Sangu Matamuhari, Bangladesh (960 km²) References External links Geographical ecoregion maps and basic info. Ecoregions of India Ecoregions of Bangladesh Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Ganges basin Forests of Bangladesh Forests of India Environment of Assam Environment of Bihar Environment of West Bengal Environment of Odisha Environment of Tripura Environment of Uttar Pradesh Indomalayan ecoregions

4120578

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisei%20Spaceguard%20Center

Bisei Spaceguard Center

The is a spaceguard facility adjacent to the (BAO), an astronomical observatory located at Bisei-chō, Ibara, Okayama Prefecture, Japan. The facility was constructed during 1999–2000, where it since conducts the Bisei Asteroid Tracking Telescope for Rapid Survey or , an astronomical survey that solely tracks asteroids and space debris. BATTeRS has discovered numerous minor planets and the periodic, Halley-type comet and near-Earth object C/2001 W2 (BATTERS). Space debris, along with defunct spaceships, satellites as well as other small objects can present a hazard to operating spacecraft. Built by the Japan Space Forum (JSF) with contributions by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, all expenses of the center are covered by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The telescopes which keep track of any space debris are staffed and operated by members of the Japan Spaceguard Association. The 1-meter Cassegrain telescope has a field of view of three degrees and there are plans to use a mosaic of ten CCD detectors each one of which will have dimensions of 2096 x 4096 pixels. A 0.5-meter telescope with a field of view of 2 x 2 degrees began operations in February 2000. Once the 1-meter NEO search telescope begins operations, the 0.5-meter telescope will be used to provide follow-up astrometric observations. The main-belt asteroid 17286 Bisei, discovered by BATTeRS in July 2000, was named after the town where the Bisei Spaceguard Center and the Bisei Astronomical Observatory are located. List of discovered minor planets BATTeRS has discovered more than 400 minor planets during its course. As an anomaly, the survey is also credited with the discovery of at Kiso Observatory in 1996, or 4 years before the Bisei Spaceguard Center was constructed. Members of the program include Atsuo Asami, David J. Asher and Syuichi Nakano. Takeshi Urata was also a former member of BATTerS. See also Japan Spaceguard Association References External links Official website BATTeRS (プロジェクト) Japan Spaceguard Association Astronomical surveys Asteroid surveys Minor-planet discovering observatories JAXA

4121526

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20Auchincloss%20Brown

Hugh Auchincloss Brown

Hugh Auchincloss Brown (23 December 1879 – 19 November 1975) was an electrical engineer who advanced a theory of catastrophic pole shift. Brown claimed that massive accumulation of ice at the poles caused recurring tipping of the axis in cycles of approximately 4000–7500 years. He argued that because the earth wobbles on the axis and the crust slides on the mantle, a shift was demonstrably imminent, and suggested the use of nuclear explosions to break up the ice to forestall catastrophe. Brown graduated from Columbia University in 1900. He is a grandson of the Scottish American merchant Hugh Auchincloss (1780–1855), who founded a mercantile company which became known as J & H Auchincloss, or Auchincloss Brothers. Through his mother, Matilda Auchincloss (1824–1894), Brown was a cousin of businessman Hugh D. Auchincloss Sr. and first cousin once removed of stockbroker and Standard Oil heir Hugh D. Auchincloss Jr., stepfather of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and Lee Radziwill. Through his father, Horatio Silas Brown, he was descended from John Howland, a signatory of the Mayflower Compact, and Elizabeth Tilley, a fellow Mayflower passenger. Works Popular awakening concerning the impending flood (privately printed 1948) Cataclysms of the Earth (1967) References External links "Can the Earth Capsize?" Time 13 September 1948 1879 births 1975 deaths Catastrophism Pole shift theory and theorists Columbia School of Mines alumni Auchincloss family

4121656

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20Today

2000 Today

2000 Today was an internationally broadcast television special to commemorate the beginning of the Year 2000. This program included New Year's Eve celebrations, musical performances, and other features from participating nations. Most international broadcasts such as the Olympic Games coverage originate from a limited area for worldwide distribution. 2000 Today was rare in that its live and taped programming originated from member countries and represented all continents including Europe, Asia, Africa, South America and North America & Oceania. Development 2000 Today was conceived as part of the Millennium celebrations, given the numerical significance of the change from 1999 to 2000. 2000 Today was commissioned by the BBC as one of the five main millennium projects that were broadcast across TV, radio and online services throughout 1999 and 2000. Most nations that observe the Islamic calendar were not involved in 2000 Today. However, a few predominantly Muslim nations were represented among the programme's worldwide broadcasters such as Egypt (ERTU) and Indonesia (RCTI). Africa was minimally represented in 2000 Today. The only participating nations from that continent were Egypt and South Africa. Portugal-based RTP África distributed the programme to some African nations. Antarctica was mentioned on the programme schedule, although it was unclear if 2000 Today coverage was recorded or live. Production The programme was produced and televised by an international consortium of 60 broadcasters, headed by the BBC in the United Kingdom and WGBH (Now known as GBH) in Boston, United States. The editorial board also included representatives from ABC (Australia), CBC (Canada), CCTV (China), ETC (Egypt), RTL (Germany), SABC (South Africa), TF1 (France), TV Asahi (Japan), TV Globo (Brazil) and ABC (USA). The BBC provided the production hub for receiving and distributing the 78 international satellite feeds required for this broadcast. The idents for the programme were designed in the UK by Lambie-Nairn and the BBC for use by all the participating broadcasters taking part in the event. The linking theme throughout all the idents and promotions was a distinctively shaped stone engraved with the year 2000. The themes were: desert, fire, ice, lasers and water; plus a special BBC News ident. Up to 5,000 staff worked on 2000 Today, 1,500 of them in BBC Television Centre in West London, where all eight television studios were used during the 28-hour broadcast. Each participant financed and produced its own contributions and shared the core costs proportionately to its size and wealth. It is estimated to have cost $6 million to produce and broadcast. 2000 Today was nominated for "Best Visual Effects and Graphic Design" at the 2000 British Academy Television Craft Awards. Programme timeline 2000 Today's core international broadcast was 28 hours long, following the beginning of the New Year 2000 across the world's time zones. The programme was tailored by individual broadcasters to provide local content and hosts. The broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom started on 31 December 1999 at 09:15 UTC. 2000 Today started its international feed at 09:40 UTC, with the Kiribati Line Islands celebrating the arrival of 2000 at 10:00 UTC. Most of Europe celebrated midnight at 23:00 UTC. Broadcasting celebrations from many countries under Central European Time posed a particularly complex broadcast challenge. 2000 Today chose to rapidly air each nation's midnight observances in succession, using tape delays in most cases. This hour of the broadcast included a blessing by Pope John Paul II from Vatican City and the pyrotechnic display of the Eiffel Tower in Paris. ABC 2000 Today however decided to use Paris for its broadcast in the United States while French broadcasters TF1 and France 2 covered the festivities live from the Eiffel Tower. In addition, Italian broadcaster Rai used the pope's blessing for its Millennium - La Notte Del 2000 broadcast. 2000 Today's international feed finished shortly after midnight celebrations were broadcast from Samoa on 1 January 2000 at 11:00 UTC. BBC One in the United Kingdom continued to broadcast with national features until 13:30. Later the same evening, it aired a two-hour highlights programme, The Best of 2000 Today. Personalities National hosts Argentina (Canal 13 – El Día del Milenio) Mónica Cahen D'Anvers and César Mascetti (presenters of Telenoche) Marley Julián Weich Pancho Ibañez Luís Otero Santo Biasatti Guillermo Andino Mercedes Sosa and Alejandro Lerner Lito Vitale Coro de Buenos Aires Julio Bocca and Eleonora Cassano Australia (ABC Australia) George Negus Maxine McKew Deborah Kennedy Mike Bailey Andrea Stretton Caroline Baum John Lombard Jennifer Byrne James O'Loghlin Daniel Marsden Peter Thompson Kathy Bowlen Brazil (Rede Record) Boris Casoy Eliana José Luiz Datena Eleonora Paschoal Virgínia Nowicki Dalton Vigh Fábio Jr Raul Gil (BAND) Otaviano Costa Márcia Peltier Fernando Vannucci Susana Alves Marcos Hummel Luciano do Valle Silvia Poppovic Canada (CBC) Peter Mansbridge (primary host, most hours) Laurie Brown (00:00–08:00 UTC, with Mansbridge) Alison Smith (13:00–18:00 UTC) (Radio-Canada) At the time, technicians at Radio-Canada were on strike. Transmissions were seen as scheduled, but using only the main feed from the BBC, with a French voice-over. Also, as a consequence, 2000 footage from Canada was scarce on SRC's presentation, while footage from Quebec was not available at all worldwide (though the CBC did manage to get the only Quebec coverage on their own network—a video shot of midnight fireworks in Hull, Quebec, shot from Ottawa, Ontario). Chile (TVN) Jennifer Warner Mauricio Bustamante Jorge Hevia Margot Kahl Karen Doggenweiler Felipe Camiroaga Pedro Carcuro Rafael Araneda Andrea Molina Colombia (RCN Televisión) Claudia Gurisatti William Calderón Iñaki Berrueta Czech Republic (Czech Television) Marek Beneš Vladimír Jiránek Karel Gott Břetislav Pojar Pavel Koutský Jiří Lábus Ota Jirák Václav Postránecký Petr Haničinec Petr Skoumal Jiřina Bohdalová Blanka Bohdanová Jiri Salamoun Karel Cernoch Martin Klásek Jan Balej Karel Fiala Zdenek Miler Alena Munkova Jiri Munk Robert Hájek Kristýna Květová Petr Narozny Josef Dvorak Jiri Barta Estonia (TV3) There was no in-vision commentary or studio used for the broadcast and was aired without commentary between midnight and 6:00 UTC. Ene Veiksaar (9:40–12:00 UTC) Lauri Hussar (9:40–12:00 UTC) Jüri Aarma (12:00–15:00 UTC) Priit Aimla (12:00–15:00 UTC) Rein Lang (15:00–18:00 UTC) Kiur Aarma (15:00–18:00 UTC) Harri Tiido (18:00–21:00 UTC) Vello Rand (18:00–21:00 UTC) Mart Luik (21:00–00:00 UTC) Märt Treier (06:00–09:00 UTC) Kätlin Kontor (06:00–09:00 UTC) Enn Eesmaa (09:00–11:00 UTC) Finland Katariina Lillqvist France (TF1 – Le Millénium) Jean-Claude Narcy Valérie Benaïm Christophe Dechavanne Carole Rousseau Jean-Pierre Pernaut Évelyne Dhéliat Claire Chazal Patrick Poivre d'Arvor Charles Villeneuve Germany (RTL Television) Peter Kloeppel Antonia Rados Bernd Fuchs Heiner Bremer Michael Karr Birgit von Bentzel Ireland (RTÉ One – Millennium Eve: Celebrate 2000) Miriam O'Callaghan Mark Little Geri Maye Pat Kenny Liz Bonnin Joe Duffy Israel (Keshet 2) Miki Haimovich Jacob Elon Italy (RAI – Millennium - La notte del 2000) Bruno Pizzul Monica Maggioni Carlo Conti Gigi Proietti Valeria Marini Clarissa Burt Japan (NHK - Kōhaku Uta Gassen) Masato Kubota Kihachiro Kawamoto South Korea (MBC) Sohn Suk-hee Shim Hye-jin Mexico (Televisa) Ernesto Laguardia Mayra Saucedo Marco Antonio Regil Guilliermo Ochoa Guilliermo Ortega Lolita Ayala (Once TV) Adriana Perez Cañedo Jose Angel Dominguez Sergio Uzeta Christina Pacheco Rocío Brauer Lilia Silvia Hernandez Netherlands (NOS) Astrid Kersseboom Jeroen Overbeek Kees Prins Siem van Leeuwen Philippines (GMA Network) Mike Enriquez Jessica Soho Mel Tiangco Jay Sonza German Moreno Angelique Lazo Vicky Morales Paolo Bediones Karen Davila Arnold Clavio Mickey Ferriols Miriam Quiambao Ryan Agoncillo KC Montero Suzi Entrata Kara David Bernadette Sembrano Luchi Cruz-Valdes Ninna Castro Lyn Ching Margaux Salcedo Arnell Ignacio Susan Enriquez Tisha Silang Antoinette Taus Francis Magalona Dingdong Dantes Martin Andanar Butch Francisco Tito Sotto Vic Sotto Joey de Leon Cacai Velasquez Janno Gibbs The Eraserheads Jaya Side A Verni Varga Poland (TVP2) Halina Filek-Marszalek Portugal (RTP) José Rodrigues dos Santos Manuela Moura Guedes Slovakia (Jednotka) Julius Pantik Spain (Televisión Española) Jesús Álvarez Cervantes Alfredo Urdaci Helena Resano Ramón García Anne Igartiburu Nuria Roca Ukraine Vlad Ryashyn (Inter) Svitlana Leontyeva (Inter) Yuriy Makarov (1+1) United Kingdom (BBC One) David Dimbleby Michael Parkinson Michael Buerk Peter Sissons Peter Snow Philippa Forrester Jamie Theakston Gaby Roslin Huw Edwards Shauna Lowry Tim Vincent Siân Lloyd Noel Thompson Kate Thornton Fergal Keane Tony Robinson Jackie Bird Kirsty Wark Sian Williams John Kettley Dale Winton Steve Wilson Emma Ledden Katy Hill Alan Dedicoat John Cunliffe Ken Barrie United States (ABC – ABC 2000 Today) Peter Jennings Barbara Walters Diane Sawyer Charles Gibson Elizabeth Vargas Jack Ford Sam Donaldson Connie Chung Cokie Roberts Deborah Roberts Carole Simpson Morton Dean Dick Clark PBS Various participants Vietnam (VTV) Nguyễn Thanh Lâm Thu Uyên Music performers Musical artists were part of the 2000 Today broadcast, including: Africa Jean Michel Jarre – Giza pyramid complex, Egypt Asia Maki Ohguro – Nara, Japan Regine Velasquez – Makati, Philippines Europe Björk – Reykjavík, Iceland Charlotte Church – United Kingdom The Corrs – London, England, United Kingdom Eurythmics – United Kingdom Ronan Keating – Dublin, Ireland Manic Street Preachers – Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom Martine McCutcheon – United Kingdom Natalie MacMaster – Ireland Robyn – Sweden Ruslana – Kyiv, Ukraine Simply Red – London, England, United Kingdom Spice Girls – London, England, United Kingdom North America Bee Gees – Miami, Florida, United States Juan Gabriel – Mexico Great Big Sea – St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada Kenny G – New York City, New York, United States Phish – Big Cypress Indian Reservation, Florida, United States The Tragically Hip – Toronto, Ontario, Canada Oceania Split Enz – Auckland, New Zealand Kiri Te Kanawa – Gisborne, New Zealand South America Los Fabulosos Cadillacs – Ushuaia, Argentina Alejandro Lerner and Mercedes Sosa – Iguazú Falls, Argentina Lito Vitale and Estudio Coral de Buenos Aires – Perito Moreno Glacier, Argentina Participating broadcasters The following nations broadcast 2000 Today. Some nations were licensees of the broadcast, rather than formal members of the broadcast consortium. Argentina: El Trece Australia: ABC Austria: ORF Belgium: VRT (Dutch) and RTBF (French) Brazil: Rede Record and BAND Canada: CBC (English) and Radio-Canada (French) Cape Verde: RTP África Caribbean: CBU Chile: TVN China: CCTV Colombia: RCN Televisión Czech Republic: ČT Denmark: DR and TV3 Ecuador: Teleamazonas Egypt: ETV Estonia: TV3 Fiji: Fiji TV Finland: YLE France: TF1 Germany: RTL Greece: ERT Guinea-Bissau: RTP África Hong Kong: ATV Hungary: MTV (MTV1, selected coverage; MTV2, full coverage) Iceland: IBC India: Doordarshan and Zee TV Indonesia: RCTI Ireland: RTÉ Israel: IBA and ICP Italy: RAI Japan: TV Asahi Jordan: JRTC Lebanon: MTV Lithuania: TV3 Macau: TDM (possibly also Channel 32 and Channel 30) Malaysia: RTM Malta: Super One Mexico: Once TV Mozambique: RTP África Netherlands: NPO New Zealand: TV3 Norway: NRK and TV3 Oman: Oman TV Panama: Telemetro Paraguay: Telefuturo Peru: Panamericana Televisión Philippines: GMA Network Poland: TVP Portugal: RTP Romania: Antena 1 (licensee) Russia: VGTRK and Prometey AST Samoa: Samoa TV São Tomé and Príncipe: RTP África Singapore: TCS, CNA, STV12 and SCV Slovakia: (licensee) Slovenia: POP TV (licensee) South Africa: SABC South Korea: MBC Spain: TVE Sri Lanka: MTV Sweden: TV3 and SVT Switzerland: SRG SSR Taiwan: PTS Thailand: BBTV Channel 7 Tonga: TBC Ukraine: Novyi Kanal, Inter, 1+1 United Kingdom: BBC United States: ABC and PBS Uruguay: Teledoce and TNU Vietnam: VTV and HTV Venezuela: RCTV Recorded time broadcasts Longest time broadcasts: HTV (34 hours) Shortest time broadcasts: VTV (6 hours) Ratings 2000 Today had an estimated worldwide audience of 800 million people, with an audience of 12.6 million people on the BBC alone. Soundtrack 2000 Today: A World Symphony for the Millennium is a television soundtrack album of music commissioned by the BBC for its internationally broadcast television special, 2000 Today and released by Sony Classical Records in December 1999. The music was composed and conducted by multi award-winning composer Tan Dun, and performed by the BBC Concert Orchestra, London Voices choir, New London Children's Choir, and a group of world instrument performers from around the world. It was featured on PBS and ABC throughout the promotions leading up to the broadcast and throughout the broadcast itself, providing musical "stepping stones" from country to country, culture to culture, day to night. The programme's theme song was a cover version of Bob Marley's song "One Love" performed by the Gipsy Kings, Ziggy Marley, Tsidii Le Loka and the Boys Choir of Harlem. This version was released as a single in Europe. "One Love" was performed live by Gipsy Kings as part of the broadcast from Miami, Florida. Track listing Personnel Tan Dun – composer, conductor, producer Charles Harbutt – engineer, post production Mary Lou Humphrey – liner notes Photonica – photographer FPG International – photographer Grace Row – producer See also ABC 2000 Today, the commercial American broadcast Millennium Eve: Celebrate 2000, the Irish broadcast Millennium Live, the supposed nemesis of the successful 2000 Today broadcast New Year's Eve References External links 2000 Today at the British Film Institute CBC archive of New Year's Eve 2000 2000 Today (BBC) on YouTube New Year's television specials 1999 television specials 2000 television specials Simulcasts Turn of the third millennium International broadcasting International telecommunications

4122305

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19%20Kislev

19 Kislev

The 19 Kislev () refers to the 19th day of the Jewish month of Kislev. The date is celebrated by Hasidic Jews as the Yom Hillula (anniversary of death) of the Maggid of Mezritch, successor of the Baal Shem Tov (the founder of Hasidism), who died on this date in 1772, and more significantly within the Chabad movement, as the date of the liberation of Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (1798). Festival of the liberation of Rabbi Shneur Zalman History Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (), the first Rebbe of Chabad (also known as the "Alter Rebbe" in Yiddish), was informed upon by a misnaged named Avigdor and arrested on charges of supporting the Ottoman Empire by urging his followers to send money to the Land of Israel as "evidence" of his alleged insurrectionist aspirations (in fact, the money was sent to support poor Jews). At the time, the Land of Israel was a part of the Ottoman Empire, which was at war with Russia. Shneur Zalman was charged with treason, and released in the secular year 1798 on the Jewish date of Tuesday, 19 Kislev. The fifty-three days of Rabbi Shneur Zalman's imprisonment are said to correspond to the fifty-three chapters of the first section of the Tanya. Commemoration This day is regarded in the Chabad movement as a divine vindication, and is celebrated by Chabad Chasidim with farbrengens. It is regarded as "the New Year of Chassidus (Hasidism)," when each Chassid wishes the other, "may you be signed and sealed for a good year in the study and ways of Chassidus." Tachanun is not recited. The last verses of Psalm 55, "He has redeemed my soul in peace," are traditionally sung on this day. These verses are a reference to the experienced by the Alter Rebbe on this day. Rabbi Shneur Zalman said: "Whoever participates in my celebration will merit to see nachas from his descendants." The day is also marked by many other non-Chabad Chassidic groups. 20 Kislev When the Alter Rebbe left prison he was mistakenly brought to the home of a misnaged (one opposed to Chassidus), who caused him to suffer with his questions. Afterwards, the Alter Rebbe said that the three hours he spent at the misnaged's home were more difficult than all the time he had spent in prison. In commemoration of the fact that the Alter Rebbe's liberation was not complete until he left the misnaged's house, Chassidim mark 20 Kislev as a day of liberation as well. Incidents during imprisonment During Rabbi Shneur Zalman's imprisonment he was questioned by an erudite government minister, who posed the following question: "The verse states that God called to man and said to him, 'Where are you?' Didn't God know where Adam was?" Rabbi Shneur Zalman answered him in accordance with Rashi's explanation that God asked Adam the question "Where are you?" in order to gently begin conversing with Adam, so that Adam would not become startled and disconcerted by God's sudden appearance. The minister indicated that he was aware of that answer, but he wanted to hear Rabbi Shneur Zalman's explanation. After ascertaining that the minister believed in the eternality of the Torah and its directives, Rabbi Shneur Zalman replied: "When a person is, for example, so and so many years old (mentioning the exact age of his questioner), God asks him: Where are you? Are you aware of why you were created on this earth? Are you aware of what you are expected to do and how much you actually have done?" Chasidic lore tells that the spirits of the Maggid of Mezeritch and the Baal Shem Tov came to visit Rabbi Shneur Zalman in prison. Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn is reputed to have once visited the cell (when he was in Saint Petersburg in the summer of 1911), and when he returned, his father, Rabbi Sholom Dovber Schneersohn, the fifth Chabad Rebbe, asked him if the cell had enough room for three people, which implies that Rabbi Sholom Dovber believed that they had appeared as souls in bodies. Other significant events Rabbi Yaakov of Marvege (Korebil), a twelfth-century Tosafist and Kabbalist, wrote a book called "Responsa from Heaven," in which he recorded halachic (Jewish legal) responsa he said he had heard from Heaven. After discussing the concept that one should only study Torah after immersion in a mikveh (ritual bath), he describes 19 Kislev as "a day that will herald good tidings." 19 Kislev, 1744 - considered to mark the day upon which Rabbi Shneur Zalman was conceived, as he was born exactly nine months later, on 18 Elul. 19 Kislev, 1809 - the birth date of the Alter Rebbe of Chasidei Zychlin, . It was celebrated as the birth date of the Zychlin dynasty until 95% of its followers were murdered in The Holocaust. 19 Kislev, 2011 - the day that the Iraq War ended. 19 Kislev, 2017 - U.S. President Donald Trump says that Jerusalem is the capital of the Nation-State of Israel, and that the US Embassy shall be relocated to the city. References External links A collection of articles about 19 Kislev About 19 Kislev A collection of sources about 19 Kislev 1772 in religion 1798 in religion Chabad history Kislev 19 Chabad-Lubavitch (Hasidic dynasty) Days of the Hebrew calendar Kislev observances Shneur Zalman of Liadi

4122547

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper%20chase%20%28game%29

Paper chase (game)

A paper chase (also known as a chalk chase or as hare and hounds) is an outdoor racing game with any number of players. Method of play At the start of the game, one or two players are designated the 'hares' and are given a bag of small paper clippings known as the 'scent'. Other members of the group are the 'hounds' who will pursue them. The 'hare' is given a head start of five to fifteen minutes, and runs ahead periodically throwing out a handful of paper shreds, which represent the scent of the hare. Just as scent is carried on the wind, so too are the bits of paper, sometimes making for a difficult game. After some designated time, the hounds must chase after the hare and attempt to catch them before they reach the ending point of the race. The game is generally played over distance of several miles, but shorter courses can be set, or the game played according to a time limit. If the hare makes it to the finish line, they get to choose the next hare, or to be the hare themselves. Similarly, the person who catches the hare gets to choose the next hare. The game may also be played with a piece of chalk instead of paper, where the hares leave marks on walls, stones, fence posts or similar surfaces. History A game called "Hunt the Fox" or "Hunt the Hare" was played in English schools since at least the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Shakespeare appears to make reference to it in Hamlet, when he eludes the guards at Elsinore he cries "Hide, fox, and all after". Around 1800 the game was organised at Shrewsbury School into an outdoor game called "the Hunt" or "the Hounds", to prepare the young gentlemen for their future pastime of fox hunting. The two runners making the trail with paper were called "foxes", those chasing them were called "hounds". Hare coursing rather than fox hunting was used as an analogy when the game spread to Bath School, so the trail-makers were called "hares". This term was made popular by the paper chase scene in Tom Brown's School Days and is still used in modern hashing and in club names like Thames Hare and Hounds, but Shrewsbury continues to use fox hunting terms as evidenced in The Way of All Flesh by Samuel Butler- "in this case the hare was a couple of boys who were called foxes". The Royal Shrewsbury School Hunt is the oldest cross-country club in the world, with written records going back to 1831 and evidence that it was established by 1819. The club officers are the Huntsman, Senior and Junior Whips whilst the runners are Hounds, who start most races paired into "couples"; the winner of a race is said to "kill". The main inter-house cross-country races are still called the Junior and Senior Paperchase, although no paper is dropped and urban development means the historical course can no longer be followed. In 1938, British immigrants founded the Hash House Harriers in Kuala Lumpur based on this game. Literary and cinema references Thomas Hughes' 1857 novel Tom Brown's School Days depicts a meet by the Big-Side Hare and Hounds. Students busily tear up old newspapers copybooks and magazines into small pieces to fill four large bags with the paper ‘scent’. Forty or fifty boys gather and two good runners are chosen as hares who carry the bags and start across the fields laying the trail. When a member of the pack finds the paper scent they call "Forward!" (hashers now call “ON! ON!”). In the story, members of the pack work together finding scent and strain to keep up with the hare. In chapter 39 of his semi-autobiographical novel The Way of All Flesh of 1903, Samuel Butler describes a school based on his alma mater of Shrewsbury. The main protagonist's favourite recreation is running with "the Hounds" so "a run of six or seven miles across country was no more than he was used to". In the book The Railway Children, written by Edith Nesbit in 1906, the children observe a game of paper chase. The book was made into a television series four times and into a movie twice, the most recent of which was in 2000. In the novel Daddy Long Legs, written in 1912 by Jean Webster, the girls play a game of paper chase where the hares cheat: they leave a paper trail indicating they entered a locked barn through a high window, while in actuality they went around the building. In by H.P. Lovecraft's novella At the Mountains of Madness, first published in 1936, the narrator references the game when using paper to blaze a trail through an unexplored city: "Fortunately we had a supply of extra paper to tear up, place in a spare specimen bag, and use on the ancient principle of hare and hounds for marking our course in any interior mazes we might be able to penetrate." In the 1946 Orson Welles movie, The Stranger, Rankin's students are in the midst of a paper chase through the woods as Rankin kills his former colleague. Rankin misdirects the "hounds" to keep them from finding the body by moving the shreds of paper. In the 1954 memoir by Vyvyan Holland, Son of Oscar Wilde, he describes playing paper chase at Neuenheim College in Heidelberg, Germany in 1896. "[W]hen the river was frozen and the snow lay thick upon the ground, so that it was impossible either to row or to play football, paper chases were organised by the master in charge of games. No form of exercise is quite so utterly pointless and boring as a paper chase, and we used to try to slink off and get lost and find our way home by ourselves; though this, if discovered, was apt to lead to a painful interview with the games master." In the 1975 Disney movie, One of Our Dinosaurs Is Missing, the nannies notice a trail of paper scraps on the ground while trying to hide a dinosaur skeleton in a wood. They remark that it must be a paper chase at which point a group of schoolboys crash through the wood following the trail. A 1986 episode of the animated television series The Wind in the Willows is called "Paperchase", and the focus is of that game. References Outdoor locating games Children's games

4127383

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20%28period%29

Atlantic (period)

The Atlantic in palaeoclimatology was the warmest and moistest Blytt–Sernander period, pollen zone and chronozone of Holocene northern Europe. The climate was generally warmer than today. It was preceded by the Boreal, with a climate similar to today's, and was followed by the Subboreal, a transition to the modern. Because it was the warmest period of the Holocene, the Atlantic is often referenced more directly as the Holocene climatic optimum, or just climatic optimum. Subdividing the Atlantic The Atlantic is equivalent to pollen zone VII. Sometimes a Pre-atlantic or early Atlantic is distinguished, on the basis of an early dividing cold snap. Other scientists place the Atlantic entirely after the cold snap, assigning the latter to the Boreal. The period is still in the process of definition. Dating Beginning of the Atlantic period It is a question of definition and the criteria: Beginning with the temperatures, as derivable from Greenland ice core data, it is possible to define an 'Early' or 'Pre-Atlantic' period at around 8040 BC, where the 18O isotope line remains above 33 ppm in the combined curve after Rasmussen et al. (2006), which then would end at the well-known 6.2 ka BC (8.2 ka calBP)-cold-event. Or one single Atlantic period is defined, starting at that just mentioned cold-event. After a lake-level criterion, Kul’kova and others define the Atlantic as running from 8000 to 5000 (cal?) BP. Early Atlantic, or AT1, was a time of high lake levels, 8000–7000 BP; in Middle Atlantic, AT2, lakes were at a lower level, 7000–6500 BP; and in Late Atlantic I, 6500–6000 BP, and II, 6000–5700 BP, levels were on the rise. Each period has its distinctive ratios of species. End of the Atlantic period According to the ice-core criterion it is extremely difficult to find a clear boundary, because the measurements still differ too much and alignments are still under construction. Many find a decline of temperature significant enough after 4800 BC. Another criterion comes from bio-stratigraphy: the elm-decline. However, this appears in different regions between 4300 and 3100 BC. Description The Atlantic was a time of rising temperature and marine transgression on the islands of Denmark and elsewhere. The sea rose to 3 m above its present level by the end of the period. The oysters found there required lower salinity. Tides of up to 1 m were present. Inland, lake levels in all north Europe were generally higher, with fluctuations. The temperature rise had the effect of extending southern climates northward in a relatively short period. Thermophilous ("heat-loving") species migrated northward. They did not replace the species that were there, but shifted the percentages in their favor. Across middle Europe, the boreal forests were replaced by climax or "old growth" deciduous ones, which, though providing a denser canopy, were more open at the base. The dense canopy theory, however, has been questioned by F. Vera. Oak and hazel require more light than is allowed by the dense canopy. Vera hypothesizes that the lowlands were more open and that the low frequency of grass pollen was caused by the browsing of large herbivores, such as aurochs and wild horses, a thesis referred to as the wood-pastury hypothesis. Flora During the Atlantic period the deciduous temperate zone forests of south and central Europe extended northward to replace the boreal mixed forest, which found refugia on the mountain slopes. Mistletoe, Water Chestnut (Trapa natans) and Ivy (Hedera helix) were present in Denmark. Grass pollen decreased. Softwood forests were replaced by hardwood. Birch and pine were replaced by oak, linden (lime, both small and large leaf species), beech, oak, hazel, elm, alder, and ash, spreading to the north from further south. The period is sometimes called "the alder-elm-lime period". In northeast Europe, the Early Atlantic forest was but slightly affected by the rise in temperature. The forest had been pine with an underbrush of hazel, alder, birch, and willow. Only about 7% of the forest became broad-leaved deciduous, dropping to Boreal levels in the cooling of the Middle Atlantic. In the warmer Late Atlantic, the broad-leaved trees became 34% of the forest. Along the line of the Danube and the Rhine, extending northward in tributary drainage systems, a new factor entered the forest country: the Linear Pottery culture, clearing the arable land by slash and burn methods. It flourished about 5500–4500 BC, falling entirely within the Atlantic. By the end of the Atlantic, agricultural and pasture lands extended over much of Europe and the once virgin forests were contained within refugia. The end of the Atlantic is signaled by the "Elm decline", a sharp drop in Elm pollen, thought to be the result of climate, disease or human food-producing activities. In the subsequent cooler Sub-Boreal, forested country gave way to open range once more. Fauna The best picture of Atlantic Period fauna comes from the kitchen middens of the Ertebølle culture of Denmark and others like it. Denmark was more of an archipelago. Humans lived on the shorelines, exploiting waters rich in marine life, marshes teeming with birds, and forests where deer and boars as well as numerous small species were plentiful. The higher water levels offset the effects of the submarine toxic zone in the Baltic Sea. It contained fish now rare there, such as the anchovy, Engraulis encrasicolus, and the three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus. Also available were pike, whitefish, cod, and ling. Three kinds of seals were found there, the ringed, harp and grey. Mesolithic man hunted them and whales in the estuaries. The main birds were maritime: the red-throated diver, the black-throated diver, and the gannet. The Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus), which is now found only as far north as south-eastern Europe, has been found in Denmark. The capercaillie, as is the case now, was found in forested areas. In the lofty canopy could be found a continuous zone of smaller animals, such as the ubiquitous squirrel (Sciuris vulgaris). Daubenton's bat (Myotis daubentonii) was common. In and around the big trees hunted the wildcat, pine marten, polecat (Mustela putorius), and wolf. The forest floor was prolific with larger browsers and rooters such as the red deer, roe deer, and wild boar. Not all the former plains mammals had abandoned the country. They remained in the open forest and meadows. These include the aurochs, ancestor of cattle, and the wild horse which, as a discovery, was something of a revelation. The horses were not entirely hunted out, were not confined to the plains further east, and were not entirely the property of the Indo-European cultures there. The Mesolithic Ertebølle people were hunting them in Denmark. Human cultures Human cultures of Northern Europe were primarily Mesolithic. The Kongemose culture (6400–5400 BC) settled on the coastline and lake margins of Denmark. Late in the Atlantic, Kongemose culture settlements were abandoned because of the rising water of the Littorina Sea; and the succeeding Ertebølle culture (5400–3900 BC) settled more densely on the new shorelines. Northeastern Europe was uninhabited in the Early Atlantic. When the Mesolithic Sertuan Culture appeared there in the Middle Atlantic, around 7000 BP, it already had pottery and was more sedentary than earlier hunter-gatherers, depending on the great abundance of wildlife. Pottery was being used around the lower Don and Volga from about 8000 BP. In the Late Atlantic, Sertuan culture evolved into Rudnya culture, which used pottery like that of the Narva and Dnieper-Donets cultures. That use of pottery upsets the idea that pottery belongs to the Neolithic. Further to the south, the Linear Pottery culture had already spread into the riverlands of Central Europe and was working a great transformation of the land. On the steppe to the east, the Samara culture was deeply involved with large numbers of horses, but it is not yet clear in what capacity. See also Mediterranean Basin Notes Bibliography External links .03 Geological ages Paleoclimatology Blytt–Sernander system

4127669

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kookaburra%20%28rocket%29

Kookaburra (rocket)

Kookaburra is an Australian sounding rocket consisting of a Lupus-rocket as first stage and a Musca rocket as second stage. The Kookaburra was launched 33 times, from Woomera, South Australia, and from Gan, which is an island located in Addu Atoll, the southernmost atoll of the Maldives and also from Kelaa Island, again another island located up in the north of Maldives. Technical data Apogee: 75 km Total Mass: 100 kg Core Diameter: 0.12 m Total Length: 3.40 m External links https://web.archive.org/web/20081015145230/http://astronautix.com/lvs/kooburra.htm Sounding rockets of Australia

4128758

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmaputra%20Valley%20semi-evergreen%20forests

Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests

The Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests is a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of Northeastern India, southern Bhutan and adjacent Bangladesh. Location and description The ecoregion covers and encompasses the alluvial plain of the upper Brahmaputra River as it moves westward through India's Assam state (with small parts of the ecoregion in the states of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland and also south Bhutan and northern Bangladesh). The valley lies between the Himalayas to the north and the Lushai hills to the south and when the river floods during the June to September monsoon it brings up to 300 cm of water onto the plain carrying rich soils to create a fertile environment which has been extensively farmed for thousands of years. Other rivers that water the plains as well as the Brahmaputra include the Manas and the Subansiri. Flora/plants The extensive farming has meant that the original semi-evergreen forest now exists only in patches. Typical canopy trees include the evergreen Syzygium, Cinnamomum and Magnoliaceae along with deciduous Terminalia myriocarpa, Terminalia citrina, Terminalia tomentosa, Tetrameles species. Understory trees and shrubs include the laurels Phoebe, Machilus, and Actinodaphne, Polyalthias, Aphanamixis, and cultivated Mesua ferrea and species of mahogany, cashews, nutmegs and magnolias, with bamboos such as Bambusa arundinaria and Melocanna bambusoides. Fauna/animals Despite the centuries of human clearance and exploitation, the forests and grasslands along the river remain a habitat for a variety of wildlife including tiger (Panthera tigris), clouded leopard (Pardofelis nebulosa), capped langur (Semnopithecus pileatus), gaur (Bos gaurus), barasingha deer (Cervus duvaucelii), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), wild water buffalo (Bubalus arnee), India's largest population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and the world's largest population of Indian rhinoceros, while Asian black bears live in the higher slopes of the valley sides. Most of these mammals are threatened or endangered species. The Brahmaputra is a natural barrier to the migration of much wildlife and many species, such as the pygmy hog, hispid hare, or the Malayan sun bear, pig-tailed macaque, golden langur, stump-tailed macaque, western hoolock gibbon live on one side of the river only. The area is a meeting point of species of Indian and Malayan origin. The endemic mammals of the valley are the pygmy hog and the hispid hare, both of which inhabit the grasslands of the riverbanks. The valley is home to rich bird life with 370 species of which two are endemic, the Manipur bush quail (Perdicula manipurensis) and the marsh babbler (Pellorneum palustre) and one, the Bengal florican is very rare. Woodland birds like kalij pheasant, great hornbill, rufous necked hornbill, brown hornbill, Oriental pied hornbill, grey hornbill, peacock pheasant and tragopan are quite common. Threats and preservation This area has been densely populated for centuries and most of the valley has been and still are used for agriculture. Some blocks of natural habitat do remain, however, mainly in national parks the largest of which are Manas, Dibru-Saikhowa and Kaziranga National Parks in India. In Bhutan, these areas are part of Royal Manas National Park. Protected areas In 1997, the World Wildlife Fund identified twelve protected areas in the ecoregion, with a combined area of approximately 2,560 km2, that include 5% of the ecoregion's area. Dehing Patkai Landscape, including Dehing Patkai National Park and Dehing Patkai Elephant Reserve Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh (190 km2, also includes portions of the Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests and Himalayan subtropical pine forests) Manas National Park, Assam (560 km2) Bornadi Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam (90 km2) Kaziranga National Park, Assam (320 km2) Orang National Park, Assam (110 km2) Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam (170 km2) Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam (80 km2) Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam (160 km2) Nameri National Park, Assam (90 km2) Dibru-Saikhowa National Park, Assam (490 km2) D'Ering Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh (190 km2) Pabha Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam (110 km2) Vulture breeding Rani Vulture Breeding Centre was established in 2008 inside Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests at Rani in Kamprup district with the help of Jatayu Conservation Breeding Centre, Pinjore, which now houses 90 vultures as of December 2018. 40 million vultures have died in last 20 years. See also List of ecoregions in Bhutan List of ecoregions in India References External links Geographical ecoregion maps and basic info. Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Ecoregions of Bhutan Ecoregions of India Biota of Bhutan Biota of India Indomalayan ecoregions Environment of Assam

4129264

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meghalaya%20subtropical%20forests

Meghalaya subtropical forests

The Meghalaya subtropical forests is an ecoregion of Northeast India. The ecoregion covers an area of , and despite its name, comprise not only the state of Meghalaya, but also parts of southern Assam, and a tiny bit of Nagaland around Dimapur and adjacent Bangladesh. It also contains many other habitats than subtropical forests, but the montane subtropical forests found in Meghalaya is an important biome, and was once much more widespread in the region, and for these reasons chosen as the most suitable name. The scientific designation is IM0126. The Meghalaya subtropical forests are part of the larger Indo-Burma biological hotspot with many endemic species not found anywhere else in the world. Together with the Western Ghats, Northeast India are the only two regions of India endowed with rainforest. For these and other reasons, protection and conservation of the Meghalaya subtropical forests are important on a local, national, regional and even global level. The ecoregion is one of the most species-rich areas in India, with a rich diversity of birds, mammals, and plants in particular. The lowlands holds mostly tropical forests, while the hills and mountains, that comprise most of the area, are covered in grasslands and several distinct types of forest habitats, including subtropical moist broadleaf forests in some of the montane areas above 1,000 metres. The region is one of the wettest areas in the world, with some places, notably Mawsynram and Cherrapunji in the south of Meghalaya, receiving up to eleven meters of rain in a year. The Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests ecoregion lies to the north, the Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests ecoregion lies to the east, and the Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests ecoregion lies to the west and south in Bangladesh. Flora The elevated and damp forest ecoregion is a center of diversity for the tree genera Magnolia and Michelia, and the families Elaeocarpaceae and Elaeagnaceae. Over 320 species of orchids are native to Meghalaya. The endemic pitcher plant (Nepenthes khasiana) is now an endangered species. About 3,128 flowering plant species have been reported from the state, of which 1,236 are endemic. In the later half of the 1800s, Joseph Dalton Hooker, a British botanist and explorer, made a huge taxonomic collection for the Kew Herbarium from Khasi and Jaintia Hills and remarked the place as one of the richest biodiversity spots in India, perhaps in all of Asia as well. Meghalaya state is rich in medicinal plant species, but the natural occurrence of most medicinal plants has decreased due to habitat loss. A total of 131 RET (Rare, Endemic and Threatened) medicinal plant species, including 36 endemic and 113 species under different threat categories, are found within Meghalaya. As in other rural areas of India, Meghalaya villages have an ancient tradition of nurturing sacred groves. These are sacred spots within the forest where medicinal and other valued plants are grown and harvested sustainably, and they present a very high biodiversity. In Meghalaya these sacred groves are known as Law Kyntang or Law Lyngdoh. Fauna The montane ecoregion is home to a diverse mix of birds, with a total of 659 species recorded as of 2017. Some of the birds living here are endemic to the Indo-Burma ecoregion, and quite a few species are threatened or near threatened on a global scale. Of these, two kinds of vultures, the Oriental White-backed Vulture and the Slender-billed Vulture, are both in need of extra protection as critically endangered species near extinction. The Meghalaya forests are not only important as a wildlife refuge for birds, it is also important to migratory birds on their long-distance flights. The subtropical forests presents a diverse range of reptiles, with as much as 56 species of known snakes, in addition to several lizards and turtles. The Tokay Gecko, among the largest geckos in the world, are here, as are three different kinds of monitor lizards, all of them to be protected since 1972, and a new species of skink (sphenomorphus apalpebratus) was discovered in the forests as late as 2013. Both Brahminy Blind snake and Copperhead Rat Head are among the more common snakes encountered in the forests, but there are several venomous and deadly serpents too, such as the Green Pit viper and the King Cobra, the longest venomous snake in the world. Many of the snake species here are elusive (and rare), such as the Cherrapunji keelback, Khasi keelback or Khasi earth snake. The damp and moist environment of the Meghalaya forests also supports what is the most diverse range of amphibians in North-east India, with a total of 33 recorded species living here. The two frog species Shillong bush frog and Khasi Hill toad are endemic, and both rare and threatened. Molluscs thrive in the moist conditions and are abundant throughout, both on land and in the water, As much as 223 species has been recorded by science, and many of the land-dwelling molluscs are endemic to Meghalaya. Fresh water molluscs are generally considered a good indicator species of clean waters, and Meghalaya's waterways are home to 35 species, with a lot of paludomus-snails in the hill streams. Several types of fresh water snails are part of the hill tribes diet, including the large bellamya bengalensis snails. Situated between the mighty Brahmaputra in the north and the Barak River to the south, Meghalaya's many waterways are also home to a diverse range of fish species. 152 known species has been observed as of 2017. Two types of mahseer (neolissochilus and tor) are fished for sport. The subtropical forests are home to 110 species of mammals, none of which are endemic. By far, most of these species comprise smaller mammals, in particular bats and small carnivores, and the population of large mammals is comparatively sparse. The Western hoolock gibbons in the forests of Meghalaya are globally endangered, and also threatened in this particular habitat, but they have a special place among the local tribes who cherish their song. Other large mammals important to conservation here includes the tiger (Panthera tigris), clouded leopard (Pardofelis nebulosa), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), dhole or Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus), sun bear (Ursus malayanus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata), Indian civet (Viverra zibetha), Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis), bear macaque (Macaca arctoides), and capped leaf monkey (Semnopithecus pileatus). Protected areas The ecoregion has several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, but they are all of relatively small size. In addition, Meghalaya holds a total of 712.74 km2 reserved forest and 12.39 km2 protected forest. Balphakram National Park, a large national park in south Garo Hills Nokrek National Park, in east Garo Hills Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary Siju Wildlife Sanctuary, a bird sanctuary Narpuh Wildlife Sanctuary Baghmara Pitcher Plant Sanctuary, a small sanctuary park of 2 hectares Some of the reserved forest is used by locals for voluntary wildlife reserves, in particular to help save the threatened Hoolock Gibbons. Other parts of the reserved forest are maintained as wildlife corridors, for elephants for example, and to safeguard against damaging habitat fragmentation. Related parks and gardens The nature and wildlife of Meghalaya, and the montane rainforests of the ecoregion in particular, is of interest to the tourist industry in the area, and to cater for these interests, an Eco Park has been created in Cherrapunjee. Several waterfalls and caves of the region are also of interest to nature loving tourists. The state of Meghalaya maintains a total of three botanical gardens, all three are in the capital of Shillong. Conservation status The Meghalaya subtropical forest ecoregion is part of the larger Indo-Burma biological hotspot with many endemic species not found anywhere else in the world. Together with the Western Ghats, Northeast India are the only two regions of India, endowed with rainforest. For these, and other, reasons, protection and conservation of the Meghalaya subtropical forests are important on a local, national, regional and even global level. As seen in other rainforests of the world, deforestation occurs on an alarming scale in Meghalaya too, with accelerated clearcutting for agriculture, industry, mining and infrastructure projects since the 1990s. Apart from the obvious loss of primary forest, this has also caused local problems with soil erosion and fragmentation of habitats. The clearcut areas in Meghalaya are sometimes allowed to regrow, but the second-growth forests are much less species-rich (both flora and fauna), than the original forest. In addition to these problematic issues, the dense forest habitats of Meghalaya are also dwindling because of tree thinning. This forestry practise puts extra pressure on species that can only thrive in dense forests. The root motivation for the increase in these environmentally changing practises are thought to be a high population growth and increased industrial activity in Meghalaya. See also List of ecoregions in India Indomalayan realm Sources Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment, Island Press; Washington, DC. Aabid Hussain Mir, Krishna Upadhaya and Hiranjit Choudhury (2014): Diversity of endemic and threatened ethnomedicinal plant species in Meghalaya, North-East India, Int. Res. J. Env. Sc. 3(12): 64-78. Hooker, J.D. 1872-1897. The Flora of British India, 7 vols. L. Reeva and Company, London. Khan, M.L., Menon, S. and Bawa, K.S. 1997. Effectiveness of the protected area network in biodiversity conservation: A case study of Meghalaya state, Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 853-868. Notes and references External links Geographical ecoregion maps and basic info. Flora of Meghalaya (Government of Meghalaya) Ecoregions of India Indomalayan ecoregions Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

4130473

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/143P/Kowal%E2%80%93Mrkos

143P/Kowal–Mrkos

143P/Kowal–Mrkos is a periodic comet in the Solar System. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 143P/Kowal-Mrkos – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net 143P at Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets 0143 Discoveries by Charles T. Kowal Comets in 2018 19840423

4130512

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2010307

HD 10307

HD 10307 (HR 483) is a spectroscopic binary star in the constellation Andromeda. The primary is similar to the Sun in mass, temperature and metal content. situated about 42 light-years from Earth Its companion, HR 483 B, is a little-studied red dwarf. HD 10307 was identified in September 2003 by astrobiologist Margaret Turnbull from the University of Arizona in Tucson as one of the most promising nearby candidates for hosting life based on her analysis of the HabCat list of stars. System HR 483 is a binary located 42.6 ly away, in Andromeda. The two stars orbit one another elliptically (e=0.44), approaching as close as 4.2 AU and receding to 10.5 AU, with a period of just under twenty years. HD 10307 A, the larger component, is a G-type main-sequence star similar to the Sun, only slightly brighter, hotter, larger, and older than the Sun—though with a slightly smaller mass. It has a low level of activity and is a candidate Maunder minimum analog. HR 483 B, the smaller component, appears to be a red dwarf, with as little as thirty-eight percent the mass of the sun. A debris disk has been detected in this system. The presence of a moderately close companion could disrupt the orbit of a hypothetical planet in HD 10307's habitable zone. However, the uncertainty of the orbital parameters makes it equally uncertain exactly where stable orbits would be in this system. METI message to HD 10307 There was a METI message sent to HD 10307. It was transmitted from Eurasia's largest radar, 70-meter Eupatoria Planetary Radar. The message was named Cosmic Call 2, it was sent on July 6, 2003, and it will arrive at HD 10307 in September 2044. References External links High proper-motion Star Image HD 10307 Space.com: Top 10 List of Habitable Stars to Guide Search Spectra HD 10307 G-type main-sequence stars M-type main-sequence stars Solar analogs Maunder Minimum Spectroscopic binaries Andromeda (constellation) Durchmusterung objects 010307 0067 007918 0483

4132777

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy%203C

Galaxy 3C

Galaxy 3C (or Galaxy 13) is a communications satellite operated by PanAmSat from 2000 to 2006, and by Intelsat from 2006 to today. It spent most of its operational life at an orbital location of 95° W. Galaxy 3C was launched on June 15, 2002, with a Зенит 3SL Zenit launch vehicle, from 154°w, 00°s, and covered North America & S. America (optional) with twenty-four transponders each on the C- and sixteen in Ku band. References External links Satellites using the BSS-702 bus Spacecraft launched in 2002

4133052

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy%204R

Galaxy 4R

Galaxy 4R was a communications satellite operated by PanAmSat from 2000 to 2006, and by Intelsat from 2006 to 2009. It spent most of its operational life at an orbital location of 99° W, a slot once occupied by the Galaxy IV, which suffered a failure in 1998. G4R was launched on April 18, 2000, with an Ariane launch vehicle, and covered North America with twenty-four transponders each on the C- and Ku bands. The satellite was stationed at 76.8°W, inclined. Users included Warner Brothers, National Public Radio, Public Radio International, Buena Vista Television Distribution, FOX, and Televisa. The satellite was also utilized for satellite internet services through DirecPC. Much of the Ku side was occupied by the HITS service, which re-distributes programming found on other satellites to cable providers. Designed for an operational lifespan of 15 years, Galaxy 4R suffered a propulsion system failure in 2003 and was replaced by Galaxy 16 on August 14, 2006. It was moved to 76.85 degrees west after being replaced and its orbit was allowed to become more inclined in order to save station-keeping propellant. The satellite was decommissioned in April 2009 and moved to a graveyard orbit. References External links Satellites using the BSS-601 bus Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Spacecraft launched in 2000 Spacecraft decommissioned in 2009 Derelict satellites orbiting Earth

4139084

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple%20of%20Mars%20Ultor

Temple of Mars Ultor

The Temple of Mars Ultor was a sanctuary erected in Ancient Rome by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 2 BCE and dedicated to the god Mars in his guise as avenger. The centerpiece of the Forum of Augustus, it was a peripteral style temple, on the front and sides, but not the rear (sine postico), raised on a platform and lined with eight columns in the Corinthian order style. According to Suetonius and Ovid, the young Octavian vowed to build a temple to Mars in 42 BCE just before the Battle of Philippi if the god would grant him and Marcus Antonius victory over two of the assassins of Julius Caesar, Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus. However, work did not commence on the temple until after the recovery of the Aquilae in 20 BCE that had been lost by Marcus Licinius Crassus in the disastrous Battle of Carrhae 33 years earlier. Originally, the Roman Senate had decreed that the returned standards were to be housed in a temple to Mars Ultor that was to be built on the Capitoline Hill. Augustus however, declared that he would build it at his own expense on the site of his new forum. Augustus’s decision to wait to fulfill his vow has been speculated to have been due to a reluctance to celebrate his victory over those who were seen as the defenders of Libertas, whereas the return of the standards, and its symbolic revenge against the Parthians, was a more acceptable victory to commemorate. The temple was dedicated, albeit in an incomplete state, in 2 BCE, to coincide with Augustus’s celebration of his 13th consulship as well as his acceptance of the title Pater Patriae. The temple (and the forum within which it was placed) was part of imperial propaganda campaign to glorify and bring about an acceptance of the authority of the new Augustan empire. To the imperial regime, it was vital to accentuate the favour of the gods, as well as glorifying the ancestral figures and past of Rome, and so overcome the disorder of the civil wars that had plagued the state for over 50 years. In the words of Augustus himself, “I have fashioned this to lead the citizens to require me, while I live, and the rulers of later times as well, to attain the standard set by those great men of old.” On the pediment of the temple was inscribed the name of Augustus, along with a series of reliefs honouring the divinities that played a part in influencing the outcome of battles and wars through their intercession. In the centre was the figure of Mars, flanked by the goddesses Fortuna and Venus. Next to these were the seated figures of Romulus (in the guise of an augur) and the goddess Roma in arms. Finally, in the gable corners were reclining figures of the personification of the Palatine Hill and Father Tiber. It was to these divinities that Augustan propaganda ascribed the self-styled “victory” over the Parthians that saw the return of the lost standards during Augustus’s visit to Syria in 20 BCE (and to a lesser extent, his victory at the Battle of Philippi as an act of filial vengeance against the assassins of his adoptive father, Julius Caesar). Further, it also emphasized the role that the goddess Fortuna played his triple victory in Illyria (33 BCE), at the Battle of Actium and in Egypt defeating Cleopatra. Finally, the role of Mars Ultor was critical in Augustus’s attempts to refashion the events of his coming to power in a way that obscured the illegality of much of his actions during those years. Within the temple there stood three statues. In the middle, a colossal Mars Ultor depicted in full military dress, holding a large spear in his right hand and a shield in his left. On the right side of the god stood a statue of the goddess Venus, with Cupid – it was Venus whom all of the gens Julia claimed descent from. To the left of the god was a statue of Julius Caesar, or more specifically ‘Divus Julius’, as he had been deified after a comet was seen in the sky during his funeral games. In 19 CE, the emperor Tiberius added two arches, one on either side of the temple, and it was later restored during the reign of Hadrian. The temple was used by the Senate as a meeting place to discuss matters of foreign policy, discussions around declarations of war, and to make decisions for awarding triumphs. It also served as a reception place to meet foreign embassies. By the end of the 4th century, the temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire, when the Christian Emperors issued edicts prohibiting non-Christian worship. During the ninth century, an oratory church was built in the ruins of the temple, and was called the church of San Basilio in Scala Mortuorum. This church was mentioned in the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae and by the late 19th century, the temple ruins was home to the convent of the nuns of Santa Annunziata. See also List of Ancient Roman temples References Temples on the Aventine Mars Ultor Roman temples by deity Temples of Ares 1st-century BC religious buildings and structures

4139830

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depensation

Depensation

In population dynamics, depensation is the effect on a population (such as a fish stock) whereby, due to certain causes, a decrease in the breeding population (mature individuals) leads to reduced production and survival of eggs or offspring. The causes may include predation levels rising per offspring (given the same level of overall predator pressure) and the Allee effect, particularly the reduced likelihood of finding a mate. Critical depensation When the level of depensation is high enough that the population is no longer able to sustain itself, it is said to be a critical depensation. This occurs when the population size has a tendency to decline when the population drops below a certain level (known as the "Critical depensation level"). Ultimately this may lead to the population or fishery's collapse (resource depletion), or even local extinction. The phenomenon of critical depensation may be modelled or defined by a negative second order derivative of population growth rate with respect of population biomass, which describes a situation where a decline in population biomass is not compensated by a corresponding increase in marginal growth per unit of biomass. See also Abundance (ecology) Conservation biology Local extinction Overexploitation Overfishing Small population size Threatened species References External links Optimal harvesting in the presence of critical depensation On line source of definitions and other fish info Extinction Ecological processes Population dynamics

4141406

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20dynamo

Solar dynamo

The solar dynamo is a physical process that generates the Sun's magnetic field. It is explained with a variant of the dynamo theory. A naturally occurring electric generator in the Sun's interior produces electric currents and a magnetic field, following the laws of Ampère, Faraday and Ohm, as well as the laws of fluid dynamics, which together form the laws of magnetohydrodynamics. The detailed mechanism of the solar dynamo is not known and is the subject of current research. Mechanism A dynamo converts kinetic energy into electric-magnetic energy. An electrically conducting fluid with shear or more complicated motion, such as turbulence, can temporarily amplify a magnetic field through Lenz's law: fluid motion relative to a magnetic field induces electric currents in the fluid that distort the initial field. If the fluid motion is sufficiently complicated, it can sustain its own magnetic field, with advective fluid amplification essentially balancing diffusive or ohmic decay. Such systems are called self-sustaining dynamos. The Sun is a self-sustaining dynamo that converts convective motion and differential rotation within the Sun to electric-magnetic energy. Currently, the geometry and width of the tachocline are hypothesized to play an important role in models of the solar dynamo by winding up the weaker poloidal field to create a much stronger toroidal field. However, recent radio observations of cooler stars and brown dwarfs, which do not have a radiative core and only have a convection zone, have demonstrated that they maintain large-scale, solar-strength magnetic fields and display solar-like activity despite the absence of tachoclines. This suggests that the convection zone alone may be responsible for the function of the solar dynamo. Solar cycle The most prominent time variation of the solar magnetic field is related to the quasi-periodic 11-year solar cycle, characterized by an increasing and decreasing number and size of sunspots. Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's photosphere and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field. At a typical solar minimum, few or no sunspots are visible. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses towards its maximum, sunspots tend to form closer to the solar equator, following Spörer's law. The 11-year sunspot cycle is half of a 22-year Babcock–Leighton solar dynamo cycle, which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic fields. At solar-cycle maximum, the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength, but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation within the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the convection zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west with opposite magnetic polarities. The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon known as the Hale cycle. During the solar cycle's declining phase, energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field, and sunspots diminish in number. At solar minimum, the toroidal field is, correspondingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare and the poloidal field is at maximum strength. During the next cycle, differential rotation converts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealized, simplified scenario, each 11-year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change in the polarity of the Sun's large-scale magnetic field. Long minima of solar activity can be associated with the interaction between double dynamo waves of the solar magnetic field caused by the beating effect of the wave interference. See also Stellar magnetic field Solar phenomena Atmospheric dynamo References Dynamo Magnetism in astronomy

4142398

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%20Boundary%20Explorer

Interstellar Boundary Explorer

Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX or Explorer 91 or SMEX-10) is a NASA satellite in Earth orbit that uses energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) to image the interaction region between the Solar System and interstellar space. The mission is part of NASA's Small Explorer program and was launched with a Pegasus-XL launch vehicle on 19 October 2008. The mission is led by Dr. David J. McComas (IBEX principal investigator), formerly of the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and now with Princeton University. The Los Alamos National Laboratory and the Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center built the IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo sensors respectively. The Orbital Sciences Corporation manufactured the satellite bus and was the location for spacecraft environmental testing. The nominal mission baseline duration was two years after commissioning, and the prime ended in early 2011. The spacecraft and sensors are still healthy and the mission is continuing in its extended mission. IBEX is in a Sun-oriented spin-stabilized orbit around the Earth. In June 2011, IBEX was shifted to a new, more efficient, much more stable orbit. It does not come as close to the Moon in the new orbit, and expends less fuel to maintain its position. The spacecraft is equipped with two large aperture imagers which detect ENAs with energies from 10 eV to 2 keV (IBEX-Lo) and 300 eV to 6 keV (IBEX-Hi). The mission was originally planned for a 24 month operations period. The mission has since been extended, with the spacecraft still in operation as of March 2023. Spacecraft The spacecraft is built on an octagonal base, roughly high and across. The dry mass is of which the instrument payload comprises . The fully fueled mass is , and the entire flight system launch mass, including the ATK Star 27 solid rocket motor, is . The spacecraft itself has a hydrazine attitude control system. Power is produced by a solar array with a 116 watts capability, nominal power use is 66 W (16 W for the payload). Communications are via two hemispherical antennas with a nominal downlink data rate of 320 kbps and an uplink rate of 2 kbps. Science goal The Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science goal is to discover the nature of the interactions between the solar wind and the interstellar medium at the edge of the Solar System. IBEX has achieved this goal by generating full sky maps of the intensity (integrated over the line-of-sight) of ENAs in a range of energies every six months. Most of these ENAs are generated in the heliosheath, which is the region of interaction. Mission Launch The IBEX satellite was mated to its Pegasus XL launch vehicle at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, and the combined vehicle was then suspended below the Lockheed L-1011 Stargazer mother airplane and flown to Kwajalein Atoll in the central Pacific Ocean. Stargazer arrived at Kwajalein Atoll on 12 October 2008. The IBEX satellite was carried into space on 19 October 2008, by the Pegasus XL launch vehicle. The launch vehicle was released from Stargazer, which took off from Kwajalein Atoll, at 17:47:23 UTC. By launching from this site close to the equator, the Pegasus launch vehicle lifted as much as more mass to orbit than it would have with a launch from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Mission profile The IBEX satellite initially launched into a highly-elliptical transfer orbit with a low perigee and used a solid fuel rocket motor as its final boost stage at apogee in order to raise its perigee greatly and to achieve its desired high-altitude elliptical orbit. IBEX is in a highly-eccentric elliptical terrestrial orbit, which ranges from a perigee of about to an apogee of about . Its original orbit was about — that is, about 80% of the distance to the Moon — which has changed primarily due to an intentional adjustment to prolong the spacecraft's useful life. This very high orbit allows the IBEX satellite to move out of the Earth's magnetosphere when making scientific observations. This extreme altitude is critical due to the amount of charged-particle interference that would occur while taking measurements within the magnetosphere. When within the magnetosphere of the Earth (), the satellite also performs other functions, including telemetry downlinks. Orbit adjusted In June 2011, IBEX shifted to a new orbit that raised its perigee to more than . The new orbit has a period of one third of a lunar month, which, with the correct phasing, avoids taking the spacecraft too close to the Moon, whose gravity can negatively affect IBEX's orbit. The now spacecraft uses less fuel to maintain a stable orbit, increasing its useful lifespan to more than 40 years. Instruments The heliospheric boundary of the Solar System is being imaged by measuring the location and magnitude of charge-exchange collisions occurring in all directions. The satellite's payload consists of two energetic neutral atom (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each consists of a collimator that limits their fields of view (FoV) a conversion surface to convert neutral hydrogen and oxygen into ions, an electrostatic analyzer (ESA) to suppress ultraviolet light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. Both of these sensors are a single-pixel camera with a field of view of roughly 7° x 7°. The IBEX-Hi instrument is recording particle counts in a higher energy band (300 eV to 6 keV) than the IBEX-Lo energy band (10 eV to 2 keV). The scientific payload also includes a Combined Electronics Unit (CEU) that controls the voltages on the collimator and the ESA, and it reads and records data from the particle detectors of each sensor. Communication Compared to other space observatories, IBEX has a low data transfer rate due to the limited requirements of the mission. Data collection IBEX is collecting energetic neutral atom (ENA) emissions that are traveling through the Solar System to Earth that cannot be measured by conventional telescopes. These ENAs are created on the boundary of our Solar System by the interactions between solar wind particles and interstellar medium particles. On the average IBEX-Hi detects about 500 particles per day, and IBEX-Lo, less than 100. By 2012, over 100 scientific papers related to IBEX were published, described by the principal investigator as "an incredible scientific harvest". Data availability As the IBEX data is validated, the IBEX data is made available in a series of data releases on the SwRI IBEX Public Data website. In addition, the data is periodically sent to the NASA Space Physics Data Facility (SPDF), which is the official archive site for IBEX data. SPDF data can be searched at the Heliophysics Data Portal. Science results Initial data revealed a previously unpredicted "very narrow ribbon that is two to three times brighter than anything else in the sky". Initial interpretations suggest that "the interstellar environment has far more influence on structuring the heliosphere than anyone previously believed". It is unknown what is creating the energetic neutral atoms (ENA) ribbon. The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud, and the heliosphere's size and shape are key factors in determining its shielding power from cosmic rays. Should IBEX detect changes in the shape of the ribbon, that could show how the heliosphere is interacting with the Local Fluff. It has also observed ENAs from the Earth's magnetosphere. In October 2010, significant changes were detected in the ribbon after six months, based on the second set of IBEX observations. It went on to detect neutral atoms from outside the Solar System, which were found to differ in composition from the Sun. Surprisingly, IBEX discovered that the heliosphere has no bow shock, and it measured its speed relative to the local interstellar medium (LISM) as , improving on the previous measurement of by Ulysses. Those speeds equate to 25% less pressure on the Sun's heliosphere than previously thought. In July 2013, IBEX results revealed a 4-lobed tail on the Solar System's heliosphere. See also Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP), a follow-on mission to IBEX David J. McComas, Principal Investigator of IBEX (Princeton University) References External links IBEX Public Data from IBEX Science Team Heliophysics Data Portal by NASA's Heliophysics Division IBEX Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration Satellites orbiting Earth Astronomical surveys Explorers Program Spacecraft launched in 2008 Articles containing video clips Spacecraft launched by Pegasus rockets Geospace monitoring satellites

4144577

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted%20life%20year

Disability-adjusted life year

The disability-adjusted life year (DALY) is a measure of overall disease burden, expressed as the number of years lost due to ill-health, disability or early death. It was developed in the 1990s as a way of comparing the overall health and life expectancy of different countries. The DALY has become more common in the field of public health and health impact assessment (HIA). It not only includes the potential years of life lost due to premature death, but also includes equivalent years of 'healthy' life lost by virtue of being in states of poor health or disability. In so doing, mortality and morbidity are combined into a single, common metric. Calculation The disability-adjusted life year is a societal measure of the disease or disability burden in populations. DALYs are calculated by combining measures of life expectancy as well as the adjusted quality of life during a burdensome disease or disability for a population. DALYs are related to the quality-adjusted life year (QALY) measure; however, QALYs only measure the benefit with and without medical intervention and therefore do not measure the total burden. Also, QALYs tend to be an individual measure, and not a societal measure. Traditionally, health liabilities were expressed using one measure, the years of life lost (YLL) due to dying early. A medical condition that did not result in dying younger than expected was not counted. The burden of living with a disease or disability is measured by the years lost due to disability (YLD) component, sometimes also known as years lost due to disease or years lived with disability/disease. DALYs are calculated by taking the sum of these two components: DALY = YLL + YLD The DALY relies on an acceptance that the most appropriate measure of the effects of chronic illness is time, both time lost due to premature death and time spent disabled by disease. One DALY, therefore, is equal to one year of healthy life lost. How much a medical condition affects a person is called the disability weight (DW). This is determined by disease or disability and does not vary with age. Tables have been created of thousands of diseases and disabilities, ranging from Alzheimer's disease to loss of finger, with the disability weight meant to indicate the level of disability that results from the specific condition. Examples of the disability weight are shown on the right. Some of these are "short term", and the long-term weights may be different. The most noticeable change between the 2004 and 2010 figures for disability weights above are for blindness as it was considered the weights are a measure of health rather than well-being (or welfare) and a blind person is not considered to be ill. "In the terminology, the term disability is used broadly to refer to departures from optimal health in any of the important domains of health." At the population level, the disease burden as measured by DALYs is calculated by adding YLL to YLD. YLL uses the life expectancy at the time of death. YLD is determined by the number of years disabled weighted by level of disability caused by a disability or disease using the formula: YLD = I × DW × L In this formula, I = number of incident cases in the population, DW = disability weight of specific condition, and L = average duration of the case until remission or death (years). There is also a prevalence (as opposed to incidence) based calculation for YLD. Number of years lost due to premature death is calculated by YLL = N × L where N = number of deaths due to condition, L = standard life expectancy at age of death. Life expectancies are not the same at different ages. For example, in Paleolithic era, life expectancy at birth was 33 years, but life expectancy at the age of 15 was an additional 39 years (total 54). Historically Japanese life expectancy statistics have been used as the standard for measuring premature death, as the Japanese have the longest life expectancies. Other approaches have since emerged, include using national life tables for YLL calculations, or using the reference life table derived by the GBD study. Age weighting The World Health Organization (WHO) used age weighting and time discounting at 3 percent in DALYs prior to 2010 but discontinued using them starting in 2010. There are two components to this differential accounting of time: age-weighting and time-discounting. Age-weighting is based on the theory of human capital. Commonly, years lived as a young adult are valued more highly than years spent as a young child or older adult, as these are years of peak productivity. Age-weighting receives considerable criticism for valuing young adults at the expense of children and the old. Some criticize, while others rationalize, this as reflecting society's interest in productivity and receiving a return on its investment in raising children. This age-weighting system means that somebody disabled at 30 years of age, for ten years, would be measured as having a higher loss of DALYs (a greater burden of disease), than somebody disabled by the same disease or injury at the age of 70 for ten years. This age-weighting function is by no means a universal methodology in studies, but is common when using DALYs. Cost-effectiveness studies using , for example, do not discount time at different ages differently. This age-weighting function applies only to the calculation of DALYs lost due to disability. Years lost to premature death are determined from the age at death and life expectancy. The Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD) 2001–2002 counted disability adjusted life years equally for all ages, but the GBD 1990 and GBD 2004 studies used the formula where is the age at which the year is lived and is the value assigned to it relative to an average value of 1. In these studies, future years were also discounted at a 3% rate to account for future health care losses. Time discounting, which is separate from the age-weighting function, describes preferences in time as used in economic models. The effects of the interplay between life expectancy and years lost, discounting, and social weighting are complex, depending on the severity and duration of illness. For example, the parameters used in the GBD 1990 study generally give greater weight to deaths at any year prior to age 39 than afterward, with the death of a newborn weighted at 33 DALYs and the death of someone aged 5–20 weighted at approximately 36 DALYs. As a result of numerous discussions, by 2010 the World Health Organization had abandoned the ideas of age weighting and time discounting. They had also substituted the idea of prevalence for incidence (when a condition started) because this is what surveys measure. Economic applications The methodology is not an economic measure. It measures how much healthy life is lost. It does not assign a monetary value to any person or condition, and it does not measure how much productive work or money is lost as a result of death and disease. However, HALYs, including DALYs and QALYs, are especially useful in guiding the allocation of health resources as they provide a common numerator, allowing for the expression of utility in terms of dollar/DALY, or dollar/QALY. For example, in Gambia, provision of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine costs $670 per DALY saved. This number can then be compared to other treatments for other diseases, to determine whether investing resources in preventing or treating a different disease would be more efficient in terms of overall health. Examples Schizophrenia has a 0.53 weighting and a broken femur a 0.37 weighting in the latest WHO weightings. Australia Cancer (25.1/1,000), cardiovascular (23.8/1,000), mental problems (17.6/1,000), neurological (15.7/1,000), chronic respiratory (9.4/1,000) and diabetes (7.2/1,000) are the main causes of good years of expected life lost to disease or premature death. Despite this, Australia has one of the longest life expectancies in the world. Africa These illustrate the problematic diseases and outbreaks occurring in 2013 in Zimbabwe, shown to have the greatest impact on health disability were typhoid, anthrax, malaria, common diarrhea, and dysentery. PTSD rates Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) DALY estimates from 2004 for the world's 25 most populous countries give Asian/Pacific countries and the United States as the places where PTSD impact is most concentrated (as shown here). Noise-induced hearing loss The disability-adjusted life years attributable to hearing impairment for noise-exposed U.S. workers across all industries was calculated to be 2.53 healthy years lost annually per 1,000 noise-exposed workers. Workers in the mining and construction sectors lost 3.45 and 3.09 healthy years per 1,000 workers, respectively. Overall, 66% of the sample worked in the manufacturing sector and represented 70% of healthy years lost by all workers. History and usage Originally developed by Harvard University for the World Bank in 1990, the World Health Organization subsequently adopted the method in 1996 as part of the Ad hoc Committee on Health Research "Investing in Health Research & Development" report. The DALY was first conceptualized by Christopher J. L. Murray and Lopez in work carried out with the World Health Organization and the World Bank known as the Global Burden of Disease Study, which was undertaken in 1990. It is now a key measure employed by the United Nations World Health Organization in such publications as its Global Burden of Disease. The DALY was also used in the 1993 World Development Report. Criticism Both DALYs and QALYs are forms of HALYs, health-adjusted life years. Some critics have alleged that DALYs are essentially an economic measure of human productive capacity for the affected individual. In response, defenders of DALYs have argued that while DALYs have an age-weighting function that has been rationalized based on the economic productivity of persons at that age, health-related quality of life measures are used to determine the disability weights, which range from 0 to 1 (no disability to 100% disabled) for all disease. These defenders emphasize that disability weights are based not on a person's ability to work, but rather on the effects of the disability on the person's life in general. Hence, mental illness is one of the leading diseases as measured by global burden of disease studies, with depression accounting for 51.84 million DALYs. Perinatal conditions, which affect infants with a very low age-weight function, are the leading cause of lost DALYs at 90.48 million. Measles is fifteenth at 23.11 million. Some commentators have expressed doubt over whether the disease burden surveys (such as EQ-5D) fully capture the impacts of mental illness, due to factors including ceiling effects. According to Pliskin et al., the QALY model requires utility independent, risk neutral, and constant proportional tradeoff behaviour. Because of these theoretical assumptions, the meaning and usefulness of the QALY is debated. Perfect health is difficult, if not impossible, to define. Some argue that there are health states worse than being dead, and that therefore there should be negative values possible on the health spectrum (indeed, some health economists have incorporated negative values into calculations). Determining the level of health depends on measures that some argue place disproportionate importance on physical pain or disability over mental health. The method of ranking interventions on grounds of their cost per QALY gained ratio (or ICER) is controversial because it implies a quasi-utilitarian calculus to determine who will or will not receive treatment. However, its supporters argue that since health care resources are inevitably limited, this method enables them to be allocated in the way that is approximately optimal for society, including most patients. Another concern is that it does not take into account equity issues such as the overall distribution of health states – particularly since younger, healthier cohorts have many times more QALYs than older or sicker individuals. As a result, QALY analysis may undervalue treatments which benefit the elderly or others with a lower life expectancy. Also, many would argue that all else being equal, patients with more severe illness should be prioritised over patients with less severe illness if both would get the same absolute increase in utility. As early as 1989, Loomes and McKenzie recommended that research be conducted concerning the validity of QALYs. In 2010, with funding from the European Commission, the European Consortium in Healthcare Outcomes and Cost-Benefit Research (ECHOUTCOME) began a major study on QALYs as used in health technology assessment. Ariel Beresniak, the study's lead author, was quoted as saying that it was the "largest-ever study specifically dedicated to testing the assumptions of the QALY". In January 2013, at its final conference, ECHOUTCOME released preliminary results of its study which surveyed 1361 people "from academia" in Belgium, France, Italy and the UK. The researchers asked the subjects to respond to 14 questions concerning their preferences for various health states and durations of those states (e.g., 15 years limping versus 5 years in a wheelchair). They concluded that "preferences expressed by the respondents were not consistent with the QALY theoretical assumptions" that quality of life can be measured in consistent intervals, that life-years and quality of life are independent of each other, that people are neutral about risk, and that willingness to gain or lose life-years is constant over time. ECHOUTCOME also released "European Guidelines for Cost-Effectiveness Assessments of Health Technologies", which recommended not using QALYs in healthcare decision making. Instead, the guidelines recommended that cost-effectiveness analyses focus on "costs per relevant clinical outcome". In response to the ECHOUTCOME study, representatives of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, the Scottish Medicines Consortium, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development made the following points. First, QALYs are better than alternative measures. Second, the study was "limited". Third, problems with QALYs were already widely acknowledged. Fourth, the researchers did not take budgetary constraints into consideration. Fifth, the UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence uses QALYs that are based on 3395 interviews with residents of the UK, as opposed to residents of several European countries. Finally, people who call for the elimination of QALYs may have "vested interests". See also Bhutan GNH Index Broad measures of economic progress Disease burden Economics Full cost accounting Green national product Green gross domestic product (Green GDP) Gender-related Development Index Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) Global burden of disease Global Peace Index Gross National Happiness Gross National Well-being (GNW) Happiness economics Happy Planet Index (HPI) Human Development Index (HDI) ISEW (Index of sustainable economic welfare) Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) Progress (history) Progressive utilization theory Legatum Prosperity Index Leisure satisfaction Living planet index Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Money-rich, time-poor Post-materialism Psychometrics Subjective life satisfaction Where-to-be-born Index Wikiprogress World Values Survey (WVS) World Happiness Report Quality-adjusted life year (QALY) Pharmacoeconomics Healthy Life Years Seven Ages of Man References External links WHO Definition Global health Health economics World Health Organization Pejorative terms for people with disabilities Life expectancy

4147091

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20countries%20by%20length%20of%20coastline

List of countries by length of coastline

This article contains a list of countries by length of coastline, in kilometers. Though the coastline paradox stipulates that coastlines do not have a well-defined length, there are various methods in use to measure coastlines through ratios and other metrics. A coastline of zero indicates that the country is landlocked. Overview The coastline paradox states that a coastline does not have a well-defined length. Measurements of the length of a coastline behave like a fractal, being different at different scale intervals (distance between points on the coastline at which measurements are taken). The smaller the scale interval (meaning the more detailed the measurement), the longer the coastline will be. This "magnifying" effect is greater for convoluted coastlines than for relatively smooth ones. Data marked The World Factbook or TWF covers 198 countries and 55 territories, from the book published by the Central Intelligence Agency. In addition to coastline lengths, this is the source of the land area used to calculate the "coast/area ratio" for both TWF and WRI (see below) coastline measurement. This ratio measures how many metres of coastline correspond to every square kilometer of land area. The ratio illustrates the ease of accessibility to the country's coast from every point in its interior. Therefore, an island country like Maldives, or a country carved by the sea like Greece, is more likely to have a high ratio, while a landlocked country will have a ratio of zero. Note that the scales at which The World Factbook figures were measured are not stated, nor is it known whether the figures are all reported using the same scale, thus the figures are not necessarily comparable across different countries. Data marked World Resources Institute or WRI covers 182 independent countries and 13 dependencies, based on data calculated in 2000 from the World Vector Shoreline, United States Defense Mapping Agency, 1989. It may include territories whose status have changed. According to their technical notes, the "coastline length was derived from the World Vector Shoreline database at 1:250,000 scale. The estimates (...) were calculated using a Geographic Information System (GIS) and an underlying database consistent for the entire world. The methodology used to estimate length is based on the following: 1) A country's coastline is made up of individual lines, and an individual line has two or more vertices and/or nodes. 2) The length between two vertices is calculated on the surface of a sphere. 3) The sum of the lengths of the pairs of vertices is aggregated for each individual line, and 4) the sum of the lengths of individual lines was aggregated for a country. In general, the coastline length of islands that are part of a country, but are not overseas territories, are included in the coastline estimate for that country (e.g., Canary Islands are included in Spain). Coastline length for overseas territories and dependencies are listed separately. Disputed areas are not included in country or regional totals." List See also Coastal India Coastline of Brazil Coastline of China Coastline of Malta Coastline of New Zealand Coastline of the United Kingdom Coastline of Western Australia List of countries bordering on two or more oceans List of U.S. states by coastline Notes References Further reading Coastline length, list by Geography-related lists Coastline, country Coasts fi:Luettelo valtioiden rantaviivan ja maarajojen pituuksista

4153951

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanarium

Oceanarium

An oceanarium can be either a marine mammal park, such as Marineland of Canada, or a large-scale aquarium, such as the Lisbon Oceanarium, presenting an ocean habitat with marine animals, especially large ocean dwellers such as sharks. First marine mammal parks Marineland of Florida, one of the first theme parks in Florida, United States, started in 1938, claims to be "the world's first oceanarium" Marineland of Florida was developed as Marine Studios near St. Augustine in Marineland, Florida, which was followed in Florida by Miami Seaquarium, opened in 1955 and in California by Marineland of the Pacific, opened in 1954 near Los Angeles, and Marine World, Africa USA, opened in 1968 near San Francisco. SeaWorld SeaWorld San Diego was opened in 1964, developed by four fraternity brothers Milt Shedd, Ken Norris, David DeMott and George Millay. SeaWorld Aurora opened in 1970 near Cleveland, Ohio. SeaWorld Orlando was opened in 1973. SeaWorld (San Diego, Aurora, Orlando) was sold to Harcourt Brace Jovanovich (a publishing company listed on the New York Stock Exchange) in 1976. They purchased Marineland of the Pacific in 1986 and closed the park. They had opened SeaWorld San Antonio in 1988. In 1989 they sold SeaWorld (San Diego, Aurora, Orlando, San Antonio) to Anheuser-Busch, the world's largest brewer and owner of the Busch Gardens Safari Parks, for US$1.1 billion. In 2001, Anheuser-Busch sold SeaWorld Ohio to Six Flags, which combined the park with the neighboring Geauga Lake to form Six Flags Worlds of Adventure. The animal aquatics portion of the park closed prior to 2004 when Six Flags sold the park to Cedar Fair. World's largest marine life park When a new 170,000-square-foot exhibit at the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago opened on April 27, 1991, it debuted as the largest indoor marine mammal facility in the world. The position as world's largest oceanarium has since shifted repeatedly in recent years. From 2005 to 2012 it was the Georgia Aquarium in the United States with an initial total water volume of , later it expanded to , and home to 100–120,000 animals of 700 species. In 2012 it was surpassed by Marine Life Park in Singapore with a total water volume of and over 100,000 animals of more than 800 species. In 2014, the Singapore park was surpassed by the Chimelong Ocean Kingdom in China, the current record holder, with a total water volume of . Marine public aquariums Modern marine aquariums try to create natural environments. A host of marine animals swim together in the four-story cylindrical tank of the New England Aquarium in Boston, which opened in 1969. At the National Aquarium in Baltimore, which opened in 1981, a walkway spirals up through the center of two gigantic cylindrical tanks, the Atlantic Coral Reef and the Shark Alley, which display sharks, sawfish, and other sea creatures. Since then, many new aquariums have sought even greater realism, often concentrating on local environments. Monterey Bay Aquarium in California, which opened in 1984, is an example. The Afrykarium is the only themed oceanarium devoted solely to exhibiting the fauna of Africa and located in Wrocław, Poland. A part of the Wrocław Zoo, the idea behind the Afrykarium is to comprehensively present selected ecosystems from the continent of Africa. Nur-Sultan, the capital of Kazakhstan, is home to the only oceanarium in Central Asia. See also Manila Ocean Park Moscow Oceanarium Nordsøen Oceanarium, Hirtshals, Denmark. Dolphinarium Public aquarium UnderWater World Guam Notes Further reading Lou Jacobs, Wonders of an oceanarium: The story of marine life in captivity. Golden Gate Junior Books, 1965. Joanne F. Oppenheim, Oceanarium. BBooks, 1994. . Patryla, Jim. (2005). A Photographic Journey Back To Marineland of the Pacific. Lulu Publishing. . Brunner, Bernd. The Ocean at Home: An Illustrated History of the Aquarium. Reaktion Books, 2011. External links Oceanarium — The Bournemouth Aquarium, UK Oceanarium, West Australia — suppliers of marine aquarium specimens Marine Life Park - Resorts World @ Sentosa Oceanographical terminology Oceanarium

4162288

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Holetschek

Johann Holetschek

Johann Holetschek (29 August 1846 in Thuma – 20 November 1923 in Vienna) was an Austrian astronomer, known for his research on comets. Born in Thuma, in Lower Austria, he worked at the observatory of the University of Vienna. He died at Vienna. The crater Holetschek on the Moon is named after him. Sources All About Austria 19th-century Austrian astronomers 1846 births 1923 deaths Discoverers of comets 20th-century Austrian astronomers People from Waidhofen an der Thaya District Academic staff of the University of Vienna University of Vienna alumni

4162710

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/152P/Helin%E2%80%93Lawrence

152P/Helin–Lawrence

152P/Helin–Lawrence is a periodic comet in the Solar System. The comet came to perihelion on 9 July 2012, and reached about apparent magnitude 17. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 152P/Helin-Lawrence – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net Elements and Ephemeris for 152P/Helin-Lawrence – Minor Planet Center 152P at Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets 0152 152P 19930517

4162767

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/157P/Tritton

157P/Tritton

157P/Tritton is a periodic comet with a 6-year orbital period. Fragment B was first observed on 21 August 2022. Observational history Keith Tritton (U. K. Schmidt Telescope Unit, Coonabarabran) discovered this comet on a deep IIIa-J exposure made with the 122-cm Schmidt telescope on 1978 February 11.66. The comet was not detected during the predicted returns of 1984, 1990 or 1996 and was presumed lost. However, on 2003 October 6.44, using CCD images obtained with a 0.12-m refractor, C. W. Juels (Fountain Hills, Arizona, USA) and P. Holvorcem (Campinas, Brazil) detected a comet that proved to be on a similar orbit to the lost comet. B. G. Marsden was able to calculate a new orbit, published in IAU Circular No. 8215, issued 2003 October 7, which confirmed that it was indeed identical to comet Tritton. The comet was also recovered at its 2010, 2016, and 2022 apparitions. On 2 October 2022 the discovery of a new fragment of the comet was published in MPEC 2022-T23. With a smaller orbit, fragment B should come to perihelion in 2028 March and the primary fragment should come to perihelion in 2029 May ( later). References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 157P/Tritton – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net 157P at Gary W. Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets 0157

4162827

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/158P/Kowal%E2%80%93LINEAR

158P/Kowal–LINEAR

158P/Kowal–LINEAR is a periodic comet in the Solar System that has an orbit out by Jupiter. The Minor Planet Center had the comet coming to perihelion on 9 May 2021, and JPL had the comet coming to perihelion on 12 May 2021. A close approach to Jupiter on 24 July 2022 will notably lift the orbit and increase the orbital period. The next perihelion passage will be in 2036 at a distance of 5.2 AU from the Sun. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 158P/Kowal-LINEAR – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net 158P at Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets 0158 Discoveries by Charles T. Kowal

4162899

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/159P/LONEOS

159P/LONEOS

159P/LONEOS is a periodic comet in the Solar System. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 159P/LONEOS – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net 159P at Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets 0159 Comets in 2018

4162989

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/160P/LINEAR

160P/LINEAR

160P/LINEAR is a periodic comet in the Solar System. The comet came to perihelion on 18 September 2012, and reached about apparent magnitude 17. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 160P on Seiichi Yoshida's comet list Elements and Ephemeris for 160P/LINEAR – Minor Planet Center Periodic comets 0160 Astronomical objects discovered in 2004

4163162

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If%20Nobody%20Speaks%20of%20Remarkable%20Things

If Nobody Speaks of Remarkable Things

If Nobody Speaks of Remarkable Things is British writer Jon McGregor's first novel, which was first published by Bloomsbury in 2002. It portrays a day in the life of a suburban British street, with the plot alternately following the lives of the street's various inhabitants. All but one person's viewpoint is described in the third person, and the narrative uses a flowing grammatical style which mimics their thought processes. Receiving generally positive critical reviews, the book notably won the prestigious Somerset Maugham Award, issued by the Society of Authors. Inspiration On his website, Jon McGregor explains that the book began partly as a book about the reaction to the death of Princess Diana, set in 'a street where life was going on regardless'. His aim was 'to take a day in the life of one street in a city, and try to show the vast multiplicity of stories which were happening there, and to look at how those stories interacted with each other in an environment where people were constantly moving in and out and rarely knew each other’s names'. He goes on to state that the setting is Bradford, where McGregor lived in the late 1990s. Plot summary If Nobody Speaks of Remarkable Things eschews a traditional narrative structure, instead moving from one resident of an unnamed English street to another, describing their actions and inner world over the course of a single day, the last day of Summer in 1997. These characters are not named, and are described by an omniscient third person narrator. These sections are intercut with another character, a young woman who has recently discovered that she is pregnant, who narrates in the first person and whose story covers several days. She regularly refers ambiguously to a day in the past when something terrible happened, and it gradually becomes clear that the rest of the novel is set during this day. Awards and nominations If Nobody Speaks of Remarkable Things was longlisted for the Booker Prize, and in 2003 won both the Betty Trask Award and the Somerset Maugham Award. Reception If Nobody Speaks of Remarkable Things received largely favourable reviews from critics. William Leith, writing for The Daily Telegraph, stated "this is an ordinary world, shabby and melancholy, but McGregor describes it with mesmeric power...It all works extremely well," and David Wiegand said in the San Francisco Chronicle that the characters "become momentarily vivid through his keen sense of detail and lyrical writing style." Writing for The Guardian, however, Julie Myerson stated that "though you couldn't say this is a poor novel...it would be hard to imagine a paler one, its lifeblood sucked out by a Virginia Woolfish adherence to the fey, the pretend, the fortuitously elegant." See also 2002 in literature Even the Dogs Somerset Maugham Award References 2002 British novels Bloomsbury Publishing books Fiction set in 1997 Bradford Novels set in Bradford Novels set in Yorkshire Novels by Jon McGregor 2002 debut novels Novels set in one day Novels set in the 1990s

4166273

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/161P/Hartley%E2%80%93IRAS

161P/Hartley–IRAS

161P/Hartley–IRAS is a periodic comet with an orbital period of 21 years. It fits the classical definition of a Halley-type comet with (20 years < period < 200 years). This was one of six comets discovered by the infrared space telescope IRAS, in 1983. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 161P/Hartley-IRAS – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net 161P at Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets Halley-type comets 161P 0161 Discoveries by Malcolm Hartley Discoveries by IRAS IRAS catalogue objects 19831104

4166394

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/164P/Christensen

164P/Christensen

164P/Christensen is a periodic comet in the Solar System. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 164P/Christensen – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net Elements and Ephemeris for 164P/Christensen – Minor Planet Center Periodic comets 0164 164P 20041221

4167519

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological%20effects%20of%20high-energy%20visible%20light

Biological effects of high-energy visible light

High-energy visible light (HEV light) is short-wave light in the violet/blue band from 400 to 450 nm in the visible spectrum, which has a number of purported negative biological effects, namely on circadian rhythm and retinal health (blue-light hazard), which can lead to age-related macular degeneration. Increasingly, blue blocking filters are being designed into glasses to avoid blue light's purported negative effects. However, there is no good evidence that filtering blue light with spectacles has any effect on eye health, eye strain, sleep quality or vision quality. Background Blue LED light Blue LEDs are often the target of blue-light research due to the increasing prevalence of LED displays and Solid-state lighting (e.g. LED illumination), as well as the blue appearance (higher color temperature) compared with traditional sources. However, natural sunlight has a relatively high spectral density of blue light, so exposure to high levels of blue light is not a new or unique phenomenon despite the relatively recent emergence of LED display technologies. While LED displays emit white by exciting all RGB LEDs, white light from lighting is generally produced by pairing a blue LED emitting primarily near 450 nm combined with a phosphor for down-conversion of some of the blue light to longer wavelengths, which then combine to form white light. This is often considered “the next generation of illumination” as SSL technology dramatically reduces energy resource requirements. Luminous efficiency Blue LEDs, particularly those used in white LEDs, operate at around 450 nm, where V(λ)=0.038. This means that blue light at 450 nm requires about 25 times the radiant flux (energy) for one to perceive the same luminous flux as green light at 555 nm. For comparison, UV-A at 380  nm (V(λ)=0.000 039) requires 25 641 times the amount of radiometric energy to be perceived at the same intensity as green, three orders of magnitude greater than blue LEDs. Studies often compare animal trials using identical luminous flux rather than radiance meaning comparative levels of perceived light at different frequencies rather than total emitted energy. Physiological effects Blue light hazard A 2019 report by France's Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) highlights short-term effects on the retina linked to intense exposure to blue LED light, and long-term effects linked to the onset of age-related macular degeneration. Although few studies have examined occupational causes of macular degeneration, they show that long-term sunlight exposure, specifically its blue-light component, is associated with macular degeneration in outdoor workers. However, the CIE published its position on the low risk of blue-light hazard resulting from the use of LED technology in general lighting bulbs in April 2019. The international standard IEC 62471 assesses the photobiological safety of light sources. A proposed standard, IEC 62778, provides additional guidance in the assessment of blue-light hazard of all lighting products. Circadian rhythm The circadian rhythm is a mechanism that regulates sleep patterns. One of the primary factors affecting the circadian rhythm is the excitation of melanopsin, a light sensitive protein that absorbs maximally at 480 nm, but has at least 10% efficiency in the range of 450-540 nm. The periodic (daily) exposure to sunlight generally tunes the circadian rhythm to a 24-hour cycle. However, exposure to light sources that excite melanopsin in the retina during nighttime can interfere with the circadian rhythm. Harvard Health Publishing asserts that exposure to blue light at night has a strong negative effect on sleep. The aforementioned ANSES report "highlights [the] disruptive effects to biological rhythms and sleep, linked to exposure to even very low levels of blue light in the evening or at night, particularly via screens". A 2016 press release by the American Medical Association concludes that there are negative effects on the circadian rhythm from the unrestrained use of LED street lighting and white LED lamps have 5 times greater impact on circadian sleep rhythms than conventional street lamps. However, they also indicate that street lamp brightness is more strongly correlated to sleep outcomes. Blue light is essential for regulating the circadian rhythm, because it stimulates melanopsin receptors in the eye. This suppresses daytime melatonin, enabling wakefulness. Working in blue-free light (aka yellow light) for long periods of time disrupts circadian patterns because there is no melatonin suppression during the day, and reduced melatonin rebound at night. Eye strain Blue light has been implicated as the cause of digital eye strain, but there is no robust evidence to support this hypothesis. Dermatology As with other types of light therapy, there is no good evidence that blue light is of use in treating acne vulgaris. Blue light blocking Concerns over exposure to blue light has predicated several solutions to decreasing blue light exposure, including disabling or attenuating blue LEDs in displays, color shifting displays towards yellow, or wearing glasses that filter out blue light. Digital filters Apple's and Microsoft's operating systems and even the preset settings of standalone computer monitors include options to reduce blue-light emissions by adjusting color temperature to a warmer gamut. However, these settings dramatically reduce the size of the color gamut of the display, as they essentially simulate tritan color blindness, thereby sacrificing the usability of the displays. The filters can be set on a schedule to activate only when the sun is down. Intraocular lenses During cataract surgery, the opaque natural crystalline lens is replaced with a synthetic intraocular lens (IOL). The IOL may be designed to filter out equal, more or less UV light than the natural lens (have a higher or lower cutoff), and therefore attenuate or accentuate the blue-light hazard function. The effects of long term exposure of UV, violet and blue light on the retina can then be studied. However, it has been argued that IOLs that remove more blue light than natural lenses negatively affect color vision and the circadian rhythm while not offering significant photoprotection. Systematic reviews found no evidence of any effect in IOLs filtering blue light, and none provided any reliable statistical evidence to suggest any effect regarding contrast sensitivity, macular degeneration, vision, color-discrimination or sleep disturbances. One study claimed a large difference in observed fluorescein angiography examinations and observed markedly less "progression of abnormal fundus autofluorescence"; however the authors failed to discuss the fact that the excitation beam is filtered light between 465 and 490 nm, is largely blocked by blue light filtering IOLs but not clear IOLs present in the control patients. Blue light blocking lenses Lenses that filter blue light have been on the market for a long time in the form of brown-, orange-, and yellow-tinted sunglasses. These tinted lenses were popular for the belief that they enhanced contrast and depth perception, but after early research showing the health risks of blue light exposure, became more popular for the purported health benefits of blocking blue light. The efficacy of blue-blocking lenses in blocking blue light is not disputed, but whether typical exposure to blue light is hazardous enough to require blue blocking lenses is highly disputed. One problem with the glasses is that they cannot achieve positive outcomes in blue-light hazard and sleep simultaneously. To be effective in against blue-light hazard, the glasses must be worn continuously, especially during the day when exposure is higher. However, to force blue-light exposure that mimics the normal daylight cycle, the glasses must only be worn at night, when the exposure is already quite low from a photoprotective perspective. Regardless, some evidence shows that lenses that block blue light may be particularly useful for people with insomnia, bipolar disorder, delayed sleep phase disorder, or ADHD, though less beneficial for healthy sleepers. Aggressive advertisements may contribute to the incorrect public perception of the purported dangers of blue light. Even when research has shown no evidence to support the use of blue-blocking filters as a clinical treatment for digital eye strain, ophthalmic lens manufacturers continue to market them as lenses that reduce digital eye strain. The UK's General Optical Council has criticised Boots Opticians for their unsubstantiated claims regarding their line of blue-light filtering lenses; and the Advertising Standards Authority fined them £40,000. Boots Opticians sold the lenses for a £20 markup. Trevor Warburton, speaking on behalf of the UK Association of Optometrists stated: "...current evidence does not support making claims that they prevent eye disease.". Apple's and Microsoft's operating systems and even the preset settings of standalone computer monitors include options to reduce blue-light emissions by adjusting color temperature to a warmer gamut. These settings dramatically reduce the color gamut of the display, sacrificing the usability of devices without providing any of the alleged benefits of reducing eye strain or preventing circadian rhythm disruption. In July 2022, a Gamer Advantage advert on Twitch channel BobDuckNWeave was banned by the Advertising Standards Authority for making claims that blue light glasses could improve sleep without substantiation. See also Fluorescent lamps and health Phase response curve#Light Ultraviolet light References Ophthalmology Optical spectrum Technology hazards Circadian rhythm Sleeplessness and sleep deprivation

4171139

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of%20a%20Fire%20on%20the%20Moon

Of a Fire on the Moon

Of a Fire on the Moon (, ) is a work of non-fiction by Norman Mailer which was serialised in Life magazine in 1969 and 1970, and published in 1970 as a book. It is a documentary and reflection on the Apollo 11 Moon landing from Mailer's point of view. Writing and publication After spending time at the space center and Mission Control in Houston, and witnessing the launch of the Saturn V at Cape Kennedy in Florida, Mailer began writing his account of the historic voyage at his home in Provincetown, Massachusetts, during marathon writing sessions to meet his deadlines for the magazine. His account, which ran to 115,000 words, was published between August 1969 and January 1970 in three long installments—A Fire on the Moon, The Psychology of Astronauts, and A Dream of the Future's Face. In a foreword to Mailer's first installment, Life Managing Editor Ralph Graves introduced "some 26,000 words—the longest non-fiction piece Life has ever published in one issue." On February 26, 1970, after the magazine series had concluded, Mailer wrote to Apollo 11 commander, Neil Armstrong, "I've worked as assiduously as any writer I know to portray the space program in its largest, not its smallest, dimension". His account was published as a book called Of a Fire on the Moon in 1970. In the UK, it was published with its original article title, A Fire on the Moon. Critical reception Alvin Kernan, in his book The Imaginary Library, included a chapter on Of a Fire on the Moon, arguing that Mailer's book is representative of the declining relevance of the Romantic conception of literature to the present day. $112,500 coffee table edition The 40th anniversary of the first Moon landing was marked in 2009 by the release of an abridged, limited edition of the text, re-packaged with images from NASA and Life magazine. This production retitled the work, MoonFire, and was presented in an aluminium box with a lid shaped like the crater-pocked surface of the Moon; the object was mounted on four legs resembling the Apollo Lunar Module's struts. Thus, the coffee table book came inside its own lunar-themed "coffee table", with an uneven surface (see photograph). The package included a numbered print of the famous portrait of Buzz Aldrin standing on the Moon, framed in plexiglass and signed by the astronaut himself—and enclosed a lunar meteorite. Only 12 were created and the price was $112,500. Norman Mailer died two years before the package was launched. A conventional hardback edition of the same volume was released in 2015. Painting on first edition cover The painting on the cover of the first edition (Little, Brown & Co, 1970) is Le Monde Invisible, a 1954 oil painting by René Magritte. Mailer describes seeing this painting in Chapter 5 ("A Dream of the Future's Face") of the first part ("Aquarius"). "In the foyer was a painting by Magritte, a startling image of a room with an immense rock situated in the center of the floor." The 1970 dust jacket cites that the painting is part of a private collection. Editions and title variations Life serializations: Part I: "A Fire on the Moon" — Life magazine, 29 August 1969. Part II: "The Psychology of Astronauts" — Life magazine, 14 November 1969. Part III: "A Dream of the Future's Face" — Life magazine, 9 January 1970. Of a Fire on the Moon — Little, Brown & Co, Boston, 1970, . A Fire on the Moon — Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1970, . MoonFire: The Epic Journey of Apollo 11 — Taschen GmbH, Köln, 2009, , . Resources Gallery of Mailer's research materials, hand written notes, and manuscripts for this book. Norman Mailer archive at the University of Texas. References Further reading Notes Non-fiction books by Norman Mailer American non-fiction books Spaceflight books Apollo 11 Works originally published in Life (magazine) Literature first published in serial form Little, Brown and Company books Weidenfeld & Nicolson books 1970 non-fiction books

4171813

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-powered%20pump

Solar-powered pump

Solar-powered pumps run on electricity generated by photovoltaic (PV) panels or the radiated thermal energy available from collected sunlight as opposed to grid electricity- or diesel-run water pumps. Generally, solar-powered pumps consist of a solar panel array, solar charge controller, DC water pump, fuse box/breakers, electrical wiring, and a water storage tank. The operation of solar-powered pumps is more economical mainly due to the lower operation and maintenance costs and has less environmental impact than pumps powered by an internal combustion engine. Solar pumps are useful where grid electricity is unavailable or impractical, and alternative sources (in particular wind) do not provide sufficient energy. Components A PV solar-powered pump system has three main parts - one or more solar panels, a controller, and a pump. The solar panels make up most (up to 80%) of the system's cost. The size of the PV system is directly dependent on the size of the pump, the amount of water that is required, and the solar irradiance available. The purpose of the controller is twofold. Firstly, it matches the output power that the pump receives with the input power available from the solar panels. Secondly, a controller usually provides a low- or high-voltage protection, whereby the system is switched off, if the voltage is too low or too high for the operating voltage range of the pump. This increases the service life of the pump, thus reducing the need for maintenance. Other ancillary functions include automatically shutting down the system when the water source level is low or when the storage tank is full, regulating water output pressure, blending power input between the solar panels and an alternate power source such as the grid or an engine-powered generator, and remotely monitoring and managing the system through an online portal offered as a cloud service by the manufacturer. Voltage of the solar pump motors can be alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). DC motors are used for small to medium applications up to about 4 kW rating, and are suitable for applications such as garden fountains, landscaping, drinking water for livestock, or small irrigation projects. Since DC systems tend to have overall higher efficiency levels than AC pumps of a similar size, the costs are reduced, as smaller solar panels can be used. Finally, if an AC solar pump is used, an inverter is necessary to change the DC power from the solar panels into AC for the pump. The supported power range of inverters extends from 0.15 to 55 kW, and can be used for larger irrigation systems. The panel and inverters must be sized accordingly, though, to accommodate the inrush characteristic of an AC motor. To aid in proper sizing, leading manufacturers provide proprietary sizing software tested by third-party certifying companies. The sizing software may include the projected monthly water output, which varies due to seasonal change in insolation. Water pumping Solar-powered water pumps can deliver drinking water, water for livestock, or irrigation water. Solar water pumps may be especially useful in small-scale or community-based irrigation, as large-scale irrigation requires large volumes of water that in turn require a large solar PV array. As the water may only be required during some parts of the year, a large PV array would provide excess energy that is not necessarily required, thus making the system inefficient, unless an alternative use can be found. Solar PV water pumping systems are used for irrigation and drinking water in India. Most of the pumps are fitted with a 2.0 - 3.7 kW motor that receives energy from a 4.8 kWp PV array. The 3.7 kW systems can deliver about 124,000 liters of water/day from a total of 50 meters setoff head and 70 meters dynamic head. By 30 August 2016, a total of 120,000 solar PV water pumping systems had been installed around the world. Energy storage in the form of water storage is better than energy storage in the form of batteries for solar water pumps because no intermediary transformation of one form of energy to another is needed. The most common pump mechanics used are centrifugal pumps, multistage pumps, borehole pumps, and helical pumps. Important scientific concepts of fluid dynamics such as pressure vs. head, pump heads, pump curves, system curves, and net suction head are really important for the successful deployment and design of solar-powered pumps. Oil and gas To combat negative publicity related to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels, including fracking, the oil and gas industry is embracing solar-powered pumping systems. Many oil and gas wells require the accurate injection (metering) of various chemicals under pressure to sustain their operation and to improve extraction rates. Historically, these chemical injection pumps (CIPs) have been driven by gas reciprocating motors using the pressure of the well's gas, and exhausting the raw gas into the atmosphere. Solar-powered electrical pumps (solar CIPs) can reduce these greenhouse gas emissions. Solar arrays (PV cells) not only provide a sustainable power source for the CIPs, but can also provide an electricity source to run remote SCADA-type diagnostics with remote control and satellite/cell communications from very remote locations to a desktop or notebook monitoring computer. Stirling engine Instead of generating electricity to turn a motor, sunlight can be concentrated on the heat exchanger of a Stirling engine and used to drive a pump mechanically. This dispenses with the cost of solar panels and electric equipment. In some cases, the Stirling engine may be suitable for local fabrication, eliminating the difficulty of importing equipment. One form of Stirling engine is the fluidyne engine, which operates directly on the pumped fluid as a piston. Fluidyne solar pumps have been studied since 1987. At least one manufacturer has conducted tests with a Stirling solar-powered pump. See also List of solar powered products List of photovoltaic power stations Notes References Solar-powered devices Pumps Applications of photovoltaics

4172185

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20solar%20eclipses%20visible%20from%20the%20United%20Kingdom

List of solar eclipses visible from the United Kingdom

This is a partial list of solar eclipses visible from the British Isles between AD 1AD 2091. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partially obscuring Earth's view of the Sun. Below is a complete list of total and annular eclipses visible anywhere within the modern extent of the United Kingdom between AD 1 and AD 2090 and a description of forthcoming partial solar eclipses visible in Britain in the next fifteen years or so. For a complete list of solar eclipses visible from the United Kingdom between AD 1501 and AD 2500, see the Journal of the British Astronomical Association, February 2001. 5th century (401-500) 16 April 413 A total eclipse was visible in far southern Ireland, northern Wales, and the English Midlands. Totality lasted about 2 minutes. 28 May 458 Another total eclipse of similar duration (2:21), it followed a somewhat more oblique path, from South Wales to Lincolnshire. The point of greatest eclipse was located just east of Llandovery (then Alabum), where it occurred at about 11 in the morning. 7th century (601-700) 1 May 664 A total eclipse which was widely visible across the United Kingdom. It is the first eclipse for which there are recorded observations from England. Totality occurred at around 5:30 pm and lasted for over 2 minutes. 12th century (AD 1101 – 1200) 2 August 1133 "King Henry's Eclipse": A total eclipse, recorded in the Peterborough Chronicle (under 1135 due to the vagaries of the dating system in use): and the next day, as he lay asleep on ship, the day darkened over all lands, and the Sun was all ** 20 March 1140 A total eclipse, recorded by William of Malmesbury in his Historia Novella. In his opinion this was a sign which foretold the capture of King Stephen in the Battle of Lincoln in 1141. This is the Lenten eclipse also reported in the Peterborough Chronicle as being on the thirteenth day before the kalends of April: '''After this, during Lent, the sun and the day darkened about the noon-tide of the day, when men were eating; and they lighted candles to eat by. That was the thirteenth day before the kalends of April. Men were greatly wonderstricken Totality was experienced at about 3:00pm at the centre line of the eclipse (near Derby). 15th to 16th centuries (AD 1401 – 1600) 26 June 1424 A total eclipse of almost 2 and a half minutes duration in the extreme north of Scotland, Orkney and Shetland. 17 June 1433 Another Scottish total eclipse from the Hebrides in the north-west to the English borders in the east and then a strip of the Yorkshire coast. 16 March 1485 Partial eclipse visible in London the same day as Richard III's queen, Anne Neville, died. Claimed as an ill omen by Richard's Tudor opponents. 25 February 1597 (March 7, 1598 by Gregorian calendar) A total eclipse with a diagonal track from Cornwall in the south-west to Aberdeen in the north-east of Scotland. 17th to 19th centuries (AD 1601–1900) 8 April 1652 Another total solar eclipse with a diagonal track, this time across Pembrokeshire, the Lake District and then Scotland from the south-west to the north-east, including most of the major cities. 12 August 1654 Yet another total eclipse for Scotland, this time a track across the north of Scotland near Aberdeen. 23 September 1699 A narrow path of totality just clipped the north-east corner of Scotland, including Wick. 3 May 1715 A marvellous British Total Solar Eclipse from Cornwall in the south-west to Lincolnshire and Norfolk in the east. Edmund Halley, (later the second man to be appointed Astronomer Royal), observed the eclipse from London. The city of London enjoyed 3 minutes 33 seconds of totality. 22 May 1724 A fine Total Solar Eclipse with a north-west to south-east track, from southern Wales and Devon in the west, eastwards to Hampshire and Sussex, but passing to the south of London. There was no Total Solar Eclipse visible from the United Kingdom between 1724 and 1925. 20th century (AD 1901 – 2000) 24 January 1925 Total Solar Eclipse: A short duration total eclipse at sunset in British waters to the north of the Hebrides. Although it nowhere touched land, the path of totality ran very close to several outlying Scottish islands, including St Kilda; the islet of Sula Sgeir experienced 99.9% totality. 29 June 1927 Total Solar Eclipse: A mere 24 seconds of totality in the early morning, along a narrow track from North Wales, through Lancashire to the English north-east coast, but weather was very poor with cloud and high winds. However the Astronomer Royal's expedition to Giggleswick in North Yorkshire was amongst the few to catch sight of totality. 30 June 1954 Total Solar Eclipse at Unst in the Shetland Islands, although the centre line was north of British territorial waters. A large partial eclipse was widely observed over the whole of the UK. 2 October 1959 A partial eclipse visible over the whole of the United Kingdom ranging from approximately 20% in Northern Scotland to approximately 40% in South West Cornwall. 15 February 1961 The United Kingdom was greeted at dawn with a large portion of the Sun covered with maximum eclipse being approximately on the horizon ranging from 85% in Northern Scotland to between 92% and 95% in Southern England. Partial solar eclipses also occurred on 20 May 1966, 22 September 1968, 25 February 1971, 10 July 1972, 30 June 1973, 11 May 1975, 29 April 1976, 20 July 1982, 15 December 1982, 4 December 1984, 21 May 1993 and 10 May 1994. (Source: HMNAO Eclipses On-line Portal.) 12 October 1996 A partial solar eclipse which covered 60% of the Sun over the British Isles. 11 August 1999 Total Solar Eclipse over Cornwall and part of south Devon, partial over the rest of the United Kingdom. Totality was observable from English Channel and the island of Alderney in the Channel Islands, but was almost universally clouded out on the British mainland. The clouds did clear in the Newquay area, though, allowing observation of full totality. A large partial eclipse was visible in the south-east of England and south Wales. Observers in various places noted birds falling silent, daylight colours turning to grey, and temperatures falling, augmented by a passing wisp of cloud at the moment of peak eclipse. 21st century (AD 2001 – 2100) 31 May 2003 An annular solar eclipse at sunrise was visible in the far north-west of Scotland. 3 October 2005 Partial eclipse approaching 75% partial in South West England. 29 March 2006 A small partial eclipse was visible across the country. South East England saw the greatest magnitude at around 30%, northern Scotland the least at around 15%. The eclipse was total in Libya and Turkey. 1 August 2008 A small partial eclipse over the whole of the UK as a total eclipse crosses central Russia east of the Urals. 40% in northern Scotland falling to less than 20% in the south-west of England. 4 January 2011 A partial eclipse, which was nowhere total, could be seen at sunrise in South East England, where with a favourable south-eastern horizon a Sun 75% covered by the Moon was seen. 20 March 2015 An eclipse which was total across the north Atlantic including the Faroe Islands resulted in a large partial eclipse across the UK, greater than 80% everywhere. While the line of totality didn't touch the mainland in the United Kingdom, it passed less than ten kilometres to the north-west of the island of Rockall. 21 August 2017 A total solar eclipse in parts of the USA results in a small partial eclipse visible at sunset. 11 August 2018 A very small partial eclipse, about 2%, on the northern coast of Scotland, Orkney and Shetland. 10 June 2021 An eclipse which was annular across Canada and the Arctic gave rise to partial eclipse across Britain ranging from 50% in northern Scotland to 30% in south-east England. 25 October 2022 An eclipse which is nowhere total results in a partial eclipse across Britain with north-east Scotland the most favoured, at around 35% falling to less than 20% in Cornwall. 8 April 2024 A partial eclipse may be visible from parts of Britain just before sunset. 29 March 2025 Partial ranging from 40% partial in Kent to about 50% partial in the north-west of Scotland. 12 August 2026 An eclipse which is total across Iceland, the Atlantic Ocean and Spain results in a very large partial eclipse across Britain with western Ireland the most favoured, at around 96% in Cornwall falling to 91% in Aberdeen. 2 August 2027 Partial ranging from about 30% partial in the north of Scotland to almost 60% partial in the south-west of England. Total eclipse from Gibraltar. 26 January 2028 About 40% partial at sunset. 1 June 2030 About 50% partial at sunrise. 21 August 2036 60–70% partial, greatest in the north of Scotland. 16 January 2037 50–60% partial at sunrise, most in the north of Scotland. 5 January 2038 Less than 20% partial nationwide at sunset. 2 July 2038 Less than 20% partial nationwide. 21 June 2039 Over 60% partial, touching 80% in the north of Scotland. 11 June 2048 Annular passing just north of Shetland. Over 60% across mainland UK. 14 November 2050 Over 80% partial across all except south and south west of England. 12 September 2053 40–60% partial, best in south. 5 November 2059 70–80% partial at sunrise, best in SW England. 3 September 2062 Partial grazing the north of Scotland, best in Shetland but still less than 20% partial. 5 February 2065 Partial; over 80% for whole UK. No totality. 21 April 2069 Partial eclipse, peaking at around 50% in NW Scotland. 12 September 2072 Limited partial eclipse peaking at around 40% in NE Scotland. 13 July 2075 Over 60% partial at sunrise nationally. 26 November 2076 Partial, between 40 and 60% partial 1 May 2079 Over 40% partial over 60% in NW Scotland. 3 September 2081 Totality in the Channel Islands, over 80% partial across England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Over 60% through Scotland. 27 February 2082 60–80% partial at sunset, best in the south. 21 April 2088 Around 40–50% partial, best in the south east. 23 September 2090 Total Solar Eclipse: the next total eclipse visible in the UK follows a track similar to that of 11 August 1999, but shifted slightly further north and occurring very near sunset. Maximum duration in Cornwall will be 2 minutes and 10 seconds. Same day and month as the eclipse of 23 September 1699. 18 February 2091 Partial Solar Eclipse: viewable from most areas of the UK. It will be visible from 08:25 to 10:55am, and at its peak at around 09:30. From southern England about 55% of the Sun will be eclipsed. From northern Scotland, over 60% will be eclipsed. 7 February 2092 40–50% partial at sunset. 23 July 2093 Annular eclipse over southern Scotland, Northern England and most of Northern Ireland. Over 80% partial for the rest of the country. Near the centre line, just over 5 minutes of annularity will be observed. The centre line runs roughly from Ayr to Newcastle. 22nd century (AD 2101 – 2200) 3 June 2133 Total eclipse over the far north-west of Scotland, including the Isles of Lewis, Harris, northern Skye and Shetland, partial eclipse elsewhere. Maximum duration will be 3 minutes and 36 seconds. 7 October 2135 Total eclipse over central and southern Scotland and north-east England. The centre line runs from the islands of Tiree and Mull, north of Glasgow and south of Edinburgh, through Livingston to Seahouses in Northumberland. Maximum duration will be 4 minutes and 50 seconds. 14 June 2151 Total eclipse over south-west Scotland, Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, north, central and eastern England and north-east Wales. The centre line runs from the southern tip of the Kintyre peninsula in Argyll and Bute, through Lancashire, West and South Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and the Wash to the Suffolk coast. Maximum duration will be 3 minutes and 48 seconds. 4 June 2160 Total eclipse over Land's End in Cornwall and the Scilly Isles, as well as the far southwestern tip of Ireland, partial eclipse elsewhere. Maximum duration will be 2 minutes and 58 seconds. 8 November 2189 Total eclipse over Cornwall and south Devon and the Channel Islands, as well as southwest Ireland, partial eclipse elsewhere. The centre line runs from Tralee, through Truro and passing just to the south of Jersey. Maximum duration will be 4 minutes and 10 seconds. 14 April 2200 Total eclipse over Northern Ireland and northern England. The centre line runs from Enniskillen, through Armagh, Downpatrick, the Isle of Man, Morecambe Bay and North Yorkshire to the East coast between Bridlington and Hornsea. Maximum duration will be 1 minute and 23 seconds. References External links The NASA solar eclipse calculator for Europe List of solar eclipses in United Kingdom Solar eclipses United Kingdom Historical events in the United Kingdom Solar eclipses

4173095

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20transition%20region

Solar transition region

The solar transition region is a region of the Sun's atmosphere between the upper chromosphere and corona. It is important because it is the site of several unrelated but important transitions in the physics of the solar atmosphere: Below, gravity tends to dominate the shape of most features, so that the Sun may often be described in terms of layers and horizontal features (like sunspots); above, dynamic forces dominate the shape of most features, so that the transition region itself is not a well-defined layer at a particular altitude. Below, most of the helium is not fully ionized, so that it radiates energy very effectively; above, it becomes fully ionized. This has a profound effect on the equilibrium temperature (see below). Below, the material is opaque to the particular colors associated with spectral lines, so that most spectral lines formed below the transition region are absorption lines in infrared, visible light, and near ultraviolet, while most lines formed at or above the transition region are emission lines in the far ultraviolet (FUV) and X-rays. This makes radiative transfer of energy within the transition region very complicated. Below, gas pressure and fluid dynamics usually dominate the motion and shape of structures; above, magnetic forces dominate the motion and shape of structures, giving rise to different simplifications of magnetohydrodynamics. The transition region itself is not well studied in part because of the computational cost, uniqueness, and complexity of Navier–Stokes combined with electrodynamics. Helium ionization is important because it is a critical part of the formation of the corona: when solar material is cool enough that the helium within it is only partially ionized (i.e. retains one of its two electrons), the material cools by radiation very effectively via both black-body radiation and direct coupling to the helium Lyman continuum. This condition holds at the top of the chromosphere, where the equilibrium temperature is a few tens of thousands of kelvins. Applying slightly more heat causes the helium to ionize fully, at which point it ceases to couple well to the Lyman continuum and does not radiate nearly as effectively. The temperature jumps up rapidly to nearly one million kelvin, the temperature of the solar corona. This phenomenon is called the temperature catastrophe and is a phase transition analogous to boiling water to make steam; in fact, solar physicists refer to the process as evaporation by analogy to the more familiar process with water. Likewise, if the amount of heat being applied to coronal material is slightly reduced, the material very rapidly cools down past the temperature catastrophe to around one hundred thousand kelvin, and is said to have condensed. The transition region consists of material at or around this temperature catastrophe. See also Moreton wave Coronal hole Solar spicule References External links Animated explanation of the Transition Region (and Chromosphere) (University of South Wales). Animated explanation of the temperature of the Transition Region (and Chromosphere) (University of South Wales). Space plasmas Transition region Light sources

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal%20hole

Coronal hole

A coronal hole is a temporary region of relatively cool, less dense plasma in the solar corona where the Sun's magnetic field extends into interplanetary space as an open field. Compared to the corona's usual closed magnetic field that arches between regions of opposite magnetic polarity, the open magnetic field of a coronal hole allows solar wind to escape into space at a much quicker rate. This results in decreased temperature and density of the plasma at the site of a coronal hole, as well as an increased speed in the average solar wind measured in interplanetary space. If streams of high-speed solar wind from coronal holes encounter the Earth, they can cause major displays of aurorae. Near solar minimum, when activity such as coronal mass ejections is less frequent, such streams are the main cause of geomagnetic storms and associated aurorae. History In the 1960s, coronal holes appeared on X-ray images taken by sounding rockets and in observations at radio wavelengths by the Sydney Chris Cross radio telescope. At the time, what they were was unclear. Their true nature was recognized in the 1970s, when X-ray telescopes in the Skylab mission were flown above the Earth's atmosphere to reveal the structure of the corona. Solar cycle Coronal hole size and population correspond with the solar cycle. As the Sun heads toward solar maximum, the coronal holes move closer and closer to the Sun's poles. During solar maxima, the number of coronal holes decreases until the magnetic fields on the Sun reverse. Afterwards, new coronal holes appear near the new poles. The coronal holes then increase in size and number, extending farther from the poles as the Sun moves toward a solar minimum again. Solar wind Coronal holes generally discharge solar wind at a speed about twice the average. The escaping solar wind is known to travel along open magnetic field lines that pass through the coronal hole area. Since coronal holes are regions in the Sun's corona that have much lower densities and temperatures than most of the corona, these regions are very thin, which contributes to the solar wind, since particles within the chromosphere can more easily break through. Influence on space weather During solar minima, coronal holes are the primary sources of space weather disturbances, including aurorae. Typically, geomagnetic (and proton) storms originating from coronal holes have a gradual commencement (over hours) and are not as severe as storms caused by coronal mass ejections (CMEs), which usually have a sudden onset. Because coronal holes can last for several solar rotations (i.e. several months), predicting the recurrence of this type of disturbance is often possible significantly farther in advance than for CME-related disturbances. See also Heliophysics List of solar storms References Further reading Jiang, Y., Chen, H., Shen, Y., Yang, L., & Li, K. (2007, January). Hα dimming associated with the eruption of a coronal sigmoid in the quiet Sun. Solar Physics, 240(1), 77–87. External links Solar phenomena