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3620980

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Holy%20Mountain%20%281973%20film%29

The Holy Mountain (1973 film)

The Holy Mountain () is a 1973 Mexican surreal film directed, written, produced, co-scored, co-edited by and starring Alejandro Jodorowsky, who also participated as a set designer and costume designer on the film. Following Jodorowsky's underground hit El Topo, acclaimed by both John Lennon and George Harrison, the film was produced by the Beatles manager Allen Klein of ABKCO Music and Records. Lennon and Yoko Ono put up production money. It was shown at various international film festivals in 1973, including Cannes, and limited screenings in New York and San Francisco. Plot A man (later identified as the thief), representing The Fool tarot card, lies in the desert with flies covering his face. He is befriended by a footless, handless dwarf representing the Five of Swords, and the pair travel into the city where they make money entertaining tourists. Because the thief resembles Jesus Christ in appearance, some locals—a nun and three warriors—cast an impression of his body and sell the resulting crucifixes. After a dispute with a priest, the thief eats off the face of his wax statue and sends it skyward with balloons, symbolically eating the body of Christ and offering "himself" up to Heaven. Soon after, he notices a crowd gathered around a tall tower, where a large hook with a bag of gold has been sent down in exchange for food. The thief, wishing to find the source of the gold, ascends the tower. There he finds the alchemist and his silent assistant. After a confrontation with the alchemist, the thief defecates into a container. The excrement is transformed into gold by the alchemist, who proclaims: "You are excrement. You can change yourself into gold." The thief accepts the gold, but smashes a mirror with the gold when shown his reflection. The alchemist then takes the thief as an apprentice. The thief is introduced to seven people who will accompany him on his journey. Each is introduced as a personification of one of the planets, in particular the negative characteristics that are associated with the respective planet. They consist of a cosmetics manufacturer representing Venus, a weapons manufacturer representing Mars, a millionaire art dealer representing Jupiter, a war toy maker representing Saturn, a political financial advisor representing Uranus, a police chief representing Neptune, and an architect representing Pluto. The alchemist instructs the seven to burn their money as well as wax effigies of themselves. Together with the alchemist, the thief, and the alchemist's assistant, they form a group of ten. The characters are led by the alchemist through various transformation rituals. The ten journey by boat to "Lotus Island" in order to gain the secret of immortality from nine immortal masters who live on a holy mountain. Once on Lotus Island they are sidetracked by the Pantheon Bar, a cemetery party where people have abandoned their quest for the holy mountain and instead engage in drugs, poetry, or acts of physical prowess. Leaving the bar behind, they ascend the mountain. Each has a personal symbolic vision representing their worst fears and obsessions. Near the top, the thief is sent back to his "people" along with a young prostitute and an ape who have followed him from the city to the mountain. The rest confront the cloaked immortals, who are shown to be only faceless dummies. The alchemist then breaks the fourth wall with the command "Zoom back, camera!" and reveals the film apparatus (cameras, microphones, lights, and crew) just outside the frame. He instructs everyone, including the audience of the film, to leave the holy mountain: "Goodbye to the Holy Mountain. Real life awaits us." Cast Production Inspiration The film is based on Ascent of Mount Carmel by John of the Cross and Mount Analogue by René Daumal, who was a student of George Gurdjieff. In this film, much of Jodorowsky's visually psychedelic story follows the metaphysical thrust of Mount Analogue. This is revealed in such events as the climb to the alchemist, the assembly of individuals with specific skills, the discovery of the mountain that unites Heaven and Earth "that cannot not exist", and symbolic challenges along the mountain ascent. Daumal died before finishing his allegorical novel, and Jodorowsky's improvised ending provides a way of completing the work (both symbolically and otherwise). Preparation Before the principal photography would commence, Jodorowsky and his wife spent a week without sleep under the direction of a Japanese Zen master. The central members of the cast spent three months doing various spiritual exercises guided by Oscar Ichazo of the Arica Institute. The Arica training features Zen, Sufi and yoga exercises along with eclectic concepts drawn from the Kabbalah, the I Ching and the teachings of George Gurdjieff. After the training, the group lived for one month communally in Jodorowsky's home before production. Thereafter, the filming started in early 1972. The film was shot sequentially, entirely in Mexico, at a budget of $750,000. Jodorowsky was also instructed by Ichazo to take LSD for the purpose of spiritual exploration. He also administered psilocybin mushrooms to the actors during the shooting of the death-rebirth scene. Release The Holy Mountain was completed just in time for the 1973 Cannes Film Festival, where it was much awaited. Jodorowsky edited out twenty minutes of dialogue from the film, with the intention of removing as much dialogue as he could. The film had its premiere at Waverly Theatre, an art house movie theater in New York City on 29 November 1973, where it had restricted run at midnights on Friday and Saturday for sixteen months. It was also shown at Filmex on 30 March 1974, which was described as the "American premiere." At a few places it was released as a double bill with Jodorowsky's 1970 film, El Topo, and eventually became a cult film with its influence on popular culture. In 2010, the Alamo Drafthouse held a screening of The Holy Mountain as part of their "High for the Holidays" event. To commemorate this event, a limited-edition movie poster was designed by German artist Florian Bertmer. The DVD's extra segment includes a deleted scene in which we see two children; a young Brontis Jodorowsky and a naked girl, watching a cross made from television sets. In his commentary, Jodorowsky explains how the scene was deleted because the girl's mother threatened to sue for potential pedophilia because of the young girl's nudity. Home media The film was not given a wide release until over 30 years following its original premiere, except for two heavily censored Japanese LaserDisc releases. A restored print was shown in Cannes on 23 May 2006. It toured the United States, screening with El Topo. It was released in DVD format on 1 May 2007, and a Blu-ray was released on 26 April 2011. Reception On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, The Holy Mountain holds an approval rating of 84%, based on 25 reviews, and an average rating of 7.2/10. Its consensus reads, "A visual treat rich in symbolism, The Holy Mountain adds another defiantly idiosyncratic chapter to Jodorowsky's thoroughly unique filmography." References External links 1973 films 1973 drama films 1973 LGBT-related films Mexican avant-garde and experimental films Mexican drama films Mexican LGBT-related films 1970s English-language films 1970s Spanish-language films Films directed by Alejandro Jodorowsky Films about animal cruelty Lesbian-related films Mannequins in films Mountaineering films Films about religion Psychedelic films Sacred mountains Self-reflexive films Surrealist films 1970s avant-garde and experimental films Magic realism films Metaphysical fiction films 1970s Mexican films

3621650

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Rhodesia%20and%20Nyasaland

Coat of arms of Rhodesia and Nyasaland

The coat of arms of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was designed by M.J. Morris (later Information Attaché to the Federal High Commission in Pretoria, South Africa) and was granted by Royal Warrant on 22 July 1954. The coat of arms had elements to represent all three territories which comprised the Federation: the rising sun on a blue field in the upper shield and leopard were taken from the arms of Nyasaland; the white wavy lines on a black field at the base of the shield and the eagle are from the arms of Northern Rhodesia; while the dovetail fesse (which links the component parts of the shield), bearing the lion passant, and the sable antelope supporter are from the arms of Southern Rhodesia. Blazon (heraldic description) The following is the heraldic description of the state arms of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland: Crest On a wreath of the colours, an Eagle reguardant wings extended Or perched upon and grasping in the talons a Fish Argent. Supporters Dexter a sable antelope and sinister a leopard. Motto (in Latin) Magni Esse Mereamur (Let us deserve Greatness) Shield Per fesse Azure and Sable in Chief a Sun rising Or and in base six Palets wavy Argent over all a fesse dovetailed counter-dovetailed of the last thereon a Lion passant Gules. Note: The shield component of the arms appears in the fly of the national flag of the Federation Legacy These arms are no longer used since the dissolution of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland on 31 December 1963, but the coat of arms of Zambia currently uses the same shield as used by Northern Rhodesia and in the coat of arms of Malawi there is a rising sun, albeit on a black field and a yellow, rather than red, lion passant in its shield. The current coat of arms of Zimbabwe has white palets on a blue (as opposed to black) background representing the importance of water and symbolic of the Victoria Falls. Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Federation of Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federation Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federation Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federation Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federation Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federation Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federation Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federation

3622275

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein%20Tower

Einstein Tower

The Einstein Tower (German: Einsteinturm) is an astrophysical observatory in the Albert Einstein Science Park in Potsdam, Germany built by architect Erich Mendelsohn. It was built on the summit of the Potsdam Telegraphenberg to house a solar telescope designed by the astronomer Erwin Finlay-Freundlich. The telescope supports experiments and observations to validate (or disprove) Albert Einstein's relativity theory. The building was first conceived around 1917, built from 1919 to 1921 after a fund-raising drive, and became operational in 1924. Although Einstein never worked there, he supported the construction and operation of the telescope. It is still a working solar observatory today as part of the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam. Light from the telescope is directed down through the shaft to the basement where the instruments and laboratory are located. There were more than half a dozen telescopes in the laboratory. This was one of Mendelsohn's first major projects, completed when a young Richard Neutra was on his staff, and is his best-known building. Between 1917–1920 Mendelsohn created numerous sketches with the attempt to create a structure that reflects Einstein's groundbreaking theories. The exterior was originally conceived in concrete, but due to construction difficulties with the complex design and shortages from the war, much of the building was actually realized in brick, covered with stucco. Because the material was changed during construction of the building, the designs were not updated to accommodate them. This caused many problems, such as cracking and dampness. Extensive repair work had to be done only five years after the initial construction, overseen by Mendelsohn himself. Since then numerous renovations have been done periodically. The building was heavily damaged by Allied bombing during World War II, leaving it in a state that, as the architecture blog A456 noted, was ironically more in line with Mendelsohn's conceptual sketches than the pre-war structure was. It underwent a full renovation in 1999, for its 75th anniversary, to correct problems with dampness and decay that had meant decades of repair. It is often cited as one of the landmarks of expressionist architecture. According to lore, Mendelsohn took Einstein on a long tour of the completed structure, waiting for some sign of approval. The design, while logical and perfectly sufficient to its purpose, stood out like an "ungainly spaceship" in the suburbs of Potsdam. Einstein said nothing until hours later, during a meeting with the building committee, when he whispered his one-word judgment: "Organic". Mendelsohn himself said that he had designed it out of some unknown urge, letting it emerge from "the mystique around Einstein's universe". Research Equipment and initial research focus In 1911 Einstein published the initial version of his innovative General Theory of Relativity. One of the predicted effects according to the theory was a slight shift of spectral lines in the sun’s gravitation field, now known as the red shift. The solar observatory in Potsdam was designed and constructed primarily to verify this phenomenon. The Mount Wilson Observatory in California, the first tower telescope worldwide, was the model for the facility designed by Freundlich. In tower telescopes a coelostat (a system with two deflecting mirrors, pronounced "seelostat") at the top of a vertical construction directs light down to an objective. The actual lens system is rigidly integrated into the construction. The mirrors at the top are movable and only these small lightweight instrument components are needed to track the sun. Because of the vertical arrangement, air turbulence near the ground has virtually no effect. In the Einstein Tower the construction containing the optics consists of two wooden platforms, each six m high, placed one above the other. The telescope has a lens objective of 60 cm diameter and focal length of 14 m. Rooms for observations and measurements are located at the base of the tower. In California the lab rooms are under each other; in Potsdam they are arranged horizontally. Another rotating mirror directs the sunlight to the spectrograph lab located in the basement behind an earthen wall on the southern side of the tower. It is about 14 m long and thermally insulated. Here is where the light is split up into its spectral components and analyzed. This design of a horizontal laboratory wing led to the elongated profile of the entire facility. Soon after research started at the site, it became evident that the proof sought would be harder to obtain than originally anticipated since the minimal shift of spectral lines was obscured by other solar influences. The reason was atmospheric turbulence on the solar surface. However, Einstein and Freundlich had from the beginning not only been interested in the specific problem of the red shift, but had also intended basic research in solar physics, and the laboratories were so designed that new equipment could be installed without difficulty. The turbulent behavior of the outer solar atmosphere soon became the primary subject of research at the Einstein Tower. The red shift could be proved only in the 1950s after it became possible to precisely analyze the complex disturbances of the solar atmosphere. Present work The characteristics and behavior of magnetic fields provide the key to understanding solar activity and are at the focus of work at the Einstein Tower. The solar magnetic field can be measured with the help of a double spectrograph and two photoelectric polarization analyzers. Measurements in the photosphere, the visible light realm, permit conclusions about the situation at higher altitude levels. The Potsdam astronomers participate in the operation of an observatory on Tenerife. Instruments to be used there are first developed and tested at the Einstein Tower. The Einstein Tower also plays an important role in training students. Main sights Einstein Sculpture In the tower’s entrance area there is a bronze bust of Einstein which was originally located in one of the rooms of the observatory. After the Nazis' anti-Semitic dictatorship began in 1933, the Einstein Tower lost its name and status as an independent institute. Pictures of Einstein were removed and sculptures were supposedly melted down. However, after 1945 it was discovered that staff members had rescued the portrait bust now to be seen at the base of the tower by hiding it behind crates in the spectrograph lab. As a hidden homage to Einstein a single stone (German: 'ein Stein') was placed where the bust had stood, a tradition that is still kept (the stone is regularly stolen or moved and has to be replaced). The 3 SEC Bronze Brain A few meters in front of the stairs to the Einstein Tower and set into the pavement of the forecourt is a fist-sized art object, a bronze reproduction of a human brain highly reduced in size, its shiny surface a sign of wear, inscribed with the four characters, 3 SEC. It was created by the Berlin artist Volker März, who placed it here and in an identical form in front of the Neurological Institute of the Charité in Berlin. The small sculpture refers to a scientific thesis of Ernst Pöppel according to which "the experience of continuity is based on an illusion. Continuity arises through the networking of contents, which in each case are represented in a time window of three seconds. We reconstruct temporal continuity based on what is represented in the individual islands of consciousness" (translation). Taking up this idea, März titled his work "the 3 SEC Bronze Brain – Admonition to the Now – Monument to the continuous present" (translation). Digital Exhibition With the newest refurbishment of the Einstein Tower, a sign in front was unveiled with an access to the digital exhibition Einsteinturm revisited. The exhibition shows how the Einstein Tower was conceived both scientifically and architecturally, and explains, why it needs to be refurbished on a regular basis. See also List of solar telescopes References Sources Klaus Hentschel: The Einstein Tower An Intertexture of Dynamic Construction, Relativity Theory, and Astronomy, Stanford University Press, Stanford 1997. Paul Sigel, Silke Dähmlow, Frank Seehausen and Lucas Elmenhorst: Architekturführer Potsdam - Architectural Guide, Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin 2006, . Vaughan Hart, 'Erich Mendelsohn and the Fourth Dimension', ARQ, 2.1, 1995, pp. 50–59 External links Digital Exhibition on Einstein Tower Urania: Einsteinturm und Wissenschaftspark – operates tours of the Einstein Tower Detailed description Great Buildings page with many photos Sonnenobservatorium Einsteinturm (first page in German, but many pages in English with excellent illustrations and photos) Web site with photographs of architecture Astronomical observatories in Germany Buildings and structures completed in 1921 Buildings and structures in Potsdam Erich Mendelsohn buildings Expressionist architecture Modernist architecture in Germany Solar telescopes Art Nouveau architecture in Germany Tourist attractions in Potsdam Towers in Germany

3623876

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos%20482

Kosmos 482

Kosmos 482 ( meaning Cosmos 482), launched March 31, 1972, at 04:02:33 UTC, was an attempted Venus probe which failed to escape low Earth orbit. It is expected to crash back to Earth between 2023 and 2025. Its landing module, which weighs , is highly likely to reach the surface of Earth in one piece as it was designed to withstand 300 G's of acceleration and 100 atmospheres of pressure. Beginning in 1962, the name Kosmos was given to Soviet spacecraft which remained in Earth orbit, regardless of whether that was their intended final destination. The designation of this mission as an intended planetary probe is based on evidence from Soviet and non-Soviet sources and historical documents. Typically Soviet planetary missions were initially put into an Earth parking orbit as a launch platform with a rocket engine and attached probe. The probes were then launched toward their targets with an engine burn with a duration of roughly four minutes. If the engine misfired or the burn was not completed, the probes would be left in Earth orbit and given a Kosmos designation. Kosmos 482 was launched by a Molniya booster on March 31, 1972, four days after the Venera 8 atmospheric probe and may have been similar in design and mission plan. After achieving an Earth parking orbit, the spacecraft made an apparent attempt to launch into a Venus transfer trajectory. It separated into four pieces, two of which remained in low Earth orbit and decayed within 48 hours into south New Zealand and two pieces (presumably the payload and detached engine unit) went into a higher 210 km x 9,800 km, 52 deg inclination orbit. An incorrectly set timer caused the Blok L stage to cut off prematurely, preventing the probe from escaping Earth orbit. At 1:00 AM on April 3, 1972, four red-hot titanium alloy balls landed within a radius of each other just outside Ashburton, New Zealand. The spheres scorched holes in crops and made deep indentations in the soil, but no one was injured. A similarly shaped object was discovered near Eiffelton, New Zealand, in 1978. Space law required that the space junk be returned to its national owner, but the Soviets denied knowledge or ownership of the satellite. Ownership therefore fell to the farmer upon whose property the satellite fell. The pieces were thoroughly analyzed by New Zealand scientists which determined that they were Soviet in origin because of manufacturing marks and the high-tech welding of the titanium. The scientists concluded that they were probably gas pressure vessels of a kind used in the launching rocket for a satellite or space vehicle and had decayed in the atmosphere. See also Kosmos (satellite) List of missions to Venus Russian space program References External links Space.com: Aussies, Kiwis Take Mir Deorbit in Stride 02:11 pm ET February 20, 2001 Wired Magazine: Awaiting Mir's Crash Down Under 02:00 AM Feb, 19, 2001 1972 in spaceflight 1972 in the Soviet Union Satellites formerly orbiting Earth Ashburton, New Zealand Kosmos 0482 Space accidents and incidents in the Soviet Union Venera program Spacecraft launched in 1972

3625464

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-greenhouse%20effect

Anti-greenhouse effect

The anti-greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when energy from a celestial object's sun is absorbed or scattered by the object's upper atmosphere, preventing that energy from reaching the surface, which results in surface cooling – the opposite of the greenhouse effect. In an ideal case where the upper atmosphere absorbs all sunlight and is nearly transparent to infrared (heat) energy from the surface, the surface temperature would be reduced by 16%, which is a significant amount of cooling. This case is described in more detail below. Coined by Dr. Christopher McKay in 1991, the anti-greenhouse effect was first observed on Saturn's moon, Titan. In Titan's stratosphere, a haze composed of organic aerosol particles simultaneously absorbs solar radiation and is nearly transparent to infrared energy from Titan's surface. This acts to reduce solar energy reaching the surface and lets infrared energy escape, cooling Titan's surface. Titan has both a greenhouse and an anti-greenhouse effect which compete with one another. The greenhouse effect warms Titan by 21 K while the anti-greenhouse effect cools Titan by 9 K, so the net warming is 12 K (= 21 K - 9 K). It has been suggested that Earth potentially had a similar haze in the Archean eon, causing an anti-greenhouse effect. It is theorized that this haze helped to regulate and stabilize early Earth's climate. Other atmospheric phenomena besides organic hazes act similarly to the anti-greenhouse effect, such as Earth's stratospheric ozone layer and thermosphere, particles formed and emitted from volcanoes, nuclear fallout, and dust in Mars's upper atmosphere. Outside of the Solar system, calculations of the impact of these hazes on the thermal structure of exoplanets have been conducted. Energy balance theory Energy balance To understand how the anti-greenhouse effect impacts a planet or large moon with its host star as an external source of energy, an energy budget can be calculated, similar to how it is done for Earth. For each component in the system, incoming energy needs to equal outgoing energy to uphold the conservation of energy and remain at a constant temperature. If one energy contributor is larger than the other, there is an energy imbalance and the temperature of an object will change to reestablish a balance. Energy sources across the whole electromagnetic spectrum need to be accounted for when calculating the energy balance. In the case of Earth, for example, a balance is struck between incoming shortwave radiation from the Sun and outgoing longwave radiation from the surface and the atmosphere. After establishing a component's energy balance, a temperature can be derived. Ideal anti-greenhouse effect In the most extreme case, suppose that a planet's upper atmosphere contained a haze that absorbed all sunlight which was not reflected back to space, but at the same time was nearly transparent to infrared longwave radiation. By Kirchhoff's law, since the haze is not a good absorber of infrared radiation, the haze will also not be a good emitter of infrared radiation and will emit a small amount in this part of the spectrum both out to space and towards the planet's surface. By the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the planet emits energy directly proportional to the fourth power of surface temperature. At the surface, the energy balance is as follows, where is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, is the surface temperature, and is the outgoing longwave radiation from the haze in the upper atmosphere. Since the haze is not a good absorber of this longwave radiation, it can be assumed to all pass through out to space. The incoming solar energy must be scaled down to account for the amount of energy that is lost by being reflected to space since it is not within the planet-atmosphere system. In the upper atmosphere, the energy balance is as follows, where is the incoming solar energy flux, is planetary albedo (i.e., reflectivity), and is the effective mean radiating temperature. The incoming solar flux is divided by four to account for time and spatial averaging over the entire planet and the factor is the fraction of the solar energy that is absorbed by the haze. Replacing with in the second equation, we have, and the ratio equals or 0.84. This means that the surface temperature is reduced from the effective mean radiating temperature by 16%, which is a potentially significant cooling effect. This is an ideal case and represents the maximum impact the anti-greenhouse effect can have and will not be the impact for a real planet or large moon. Outdated concept of anti-greenhouse effect Earlier discussions in the scientific community pre-dating the current definition established by Dr. Christopher McKay in 1991 referred to the anti-greenhouse effect as a precursor to the Late Precambrian glaciation, describing it more as a carbon sequestration process. This is no longer the current usage of the term, which emphasizes surface cooling due to high-altitude absorption of solar radiation. Comparison to negative greenhouse effect The negative greenhouse effect is a phenomenon that can produce localized, rather than planetary, cooling. Whereas the anti-greenhouse effect involves an overall temperature inversion in the stratosphere, the negative greenhouse effect involves a localized temperature inversion in the troposphere. Both effects increase outgoing thermal emissions—locally in the case of a negative greenhouse effect and globally in the case of the anti-greenhouse effect. On Titan The organic haze in Titan's stratosphere absorbs 90% of the solar radiation reaching Titan, but is inefficient at trapping infrared radiation generated by the surface. This is due to Titan's atmospheric window occurring from roughly 16.5 to 25 micrometers. Although a large greenhouse effect does keep Titan at a much higher temperature than the thermal equilibrium, the anti-greenhouse effect due to the haze reduces the surface temperature by 9 K. Because the greenhouse effect due to other atmospheric components increases it by 21 K, the net effect is that the real surface temperature of Titan (94 K) is 12 K warmer than the effective temperature 82 K (which would be the surface temperature in the absence of any atmosphere, assuming constant albedo). In the ideal anti-greenhouse case described above, the maximum impact of the organic haze on Titan is (1-0.84) 82 K = 13 K. This is higher than the 9 K found on Titan. The organic haze is formed through the polymerization of methane photolysis products and nitriles, meaning the products combine into longer chains and bigger molecules. These methane-derived polymers can be made of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polyacetylene. The distribution of these polymers is not vertically uniform in Titan's atmosphere, however. The nitrile and polyacetylene polymers are formed in the upper atmosphere while the PAH polymers are created in the stratosphere. These polymers then aggregate to form haze particles. The opacity to sunlight of this organic haze on Titan is determined primarily by the haze production rate. If haze production increases, opacity of the haze increases, resulting in more cooling of the surface temperature. Additionally, the presence of this organic haze is the cause of the temperature inversion in Titan's stratosphere. On Earth Past The presence of an organic haze in Earth's Archean atmosphere was first suggested in 1983 and could have been responsible for an anti-greenhouse effect. This hypothesis stems from attempts at resolving the faint young Sun paradox, where a reduced solar output in the past must be reconciled with the existence of liquid water on Earth at that time. In order to explain how water could remain in liquid form, it has been proposed that greenhouse gases helped keep Earth warm enough to prevent water from completely freezing. While one hypothesis suggests that only carbon dioxide was responsible for the additional warmth, another hypothesis includes the presence of both carbon dioxide and methane. One model found that methane in the postbiotic Archean could have existed at a mixing ratio of 1,000 ppm or higher, while the carbon dioxide could be as low as 5,000 ppm to still prevent Earth from freezing over, about 12 times the amount in 2022. However, at this 0.2 ratio of methane to carbon dioxide, products deriving from methane photolysis can polymerize to form long-chain molecules that can aggregate into particles, forming the anti-greenhouse organic haze. The haze is formed when the ratio of methane to carbon dioxide exceeds roughly 0.1. It is posited that the organic haze allowed the creation of a negative feedback loop to stabilize the climate on Archean Earth. If temperatures increased in Archean Earth, methane production would increase due to methanogens' possible preference for warmer temperatures (see thermophiles). Increasing temperatures would also increase the carbon dioxide loss through weathering due to an assumed increase in precipitation, leading to decrease carbon dioxide concentrations. This would lead to a higher methane to carbon dioxide ratio and would stimulate the production of the organic haze. This increase in organic haze production would lead to increased opacity of the atmosphere to sunlight, decreased amounts of solar energy reaching the surface, and thus decreases in surface temperature, thus negating the initial increase in surface temperature. One estimation of the anti-greenhouse effect on Archean Earth calculated the impact to be up to about 20 K in surface cooling. Present In the modern state of Earth's atmosphere, there are a few sources of an anti-greenhouse effect. It has been suggested that stratospheric ozone and Earth's thermosphere create a partial anti-greenhouse effect due to their low thermal opacity and high temperatures. Additionally, ejected dust like that from volcanoes and nuclear fallout after a nuclear war has been suggested to typify an anti-greenhouse effect. Also, the formation of stratospheric sulfur aerosols from volcanic sulfur dioxide emissions has been seen to have a cooling effect on Earth that lasts approximately 1 to 2 years. All of these sources act to create a temperature structure where a hot upper layer lies above a cold surface, which typifies the anti-greenhouse effect. On other planets There has been discussion about a weak anti-greenhouse effect on Mars, where storms carry dust into the upper atmosphere. Evidence for this effect came from Viking 1 measurements made in 1976-77 when in the aftermath of a global storm, the average daytime temperature above the ground dropped by 5 degrees Celsius. Studies using computer simulations have investigated the impact of photochemical hazes on exoplanets' thermal structure. Applying this model to hot Jupiters, scientists found that the inclusion of haze for HD 189733 b led to an expansion of the atmosphere, helping to explain an observed steep transit signature in the electromagnetic spectrum. Also, the model for HD 209458 b predicted both photochemical haze and objects like clouds. References Planetary atmospheres Atmospheric dynamics

3625756

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vito%20Dumas

Vito Dumas

Vito Dumas (Buenos Aires, Argentina, September 26, 1900 – March 28, 1965) was a prominent Argentine solo sailor and adventurer, known for his remarkable achievements in long-distance single-handed sailing. Dumas excelled in various fields, including swimming, athletics, photography, painting, and writing. However, it was his indomitable spirit and unparalleled solo sailing expeditions that truly distinguished him as one of the greatest solo navigators of all time. Dumas embarked on daring voyages that were deemed impossible, not only due to the challenging routes he chose but also because of the demanding sailing conditions he faced. He braved the vast seas in small wooden boats, devoid of any modern conveniences such as motors, electricity, or crew. These formidable challenges did not deter him but rather fueled his determination to conquer the elements. Throughout his expeditions, Dumas encountered a myriad of hardships. He battled ferocious hurricanes, suffered from scurvy and severe infections, endured scarcity of water and food supplies, and even faced perilous encounters with whales. His unwavering resolve was tested to the extreme, as he was willing to sacrifice his own limb to save his life. At one point, he contemplated opening the floodgates of his vessel, willing to sink and end his protracted struggle in the vast and unforgiving ocean. Dumas etched his name in history by becoming the first person to circumnavigate the globe solo along the treacherous "southern route." This route, previously considered impassable since the 16th century when European explorers set sail, came to be known as the "roaring forties" – a circumnavigation along the 40th parallel in the southern hemisphere, unobstructed by land masses and subjected to the relentless onslaught of fierce winds and monumental waves. Admirable sailors such as Moitessier, Robin Knox Johnston, and Chichester regard Dumas as their esteemed "Maestro" in the art of navigating through tempestuous conditions. Dumas documented his extraordinary voyages in four books: Sólo rumbo a la Cruz del Sur (Heading towards the Southern Cross alone), Los cuarenta bramadores (Alone through the Roaring Forties), El crucero de lo imprevisto (The cruise of the unexpected), and El viaje del Sirio (The journey of the Sirius). These captivating accounts of his maritime escapades have been translated into numerous languages, with The Roaring Forties now considered a timeless classic in nautical literature. Dumas received countless accolades and honors throughout his illustrious nautical career. His expeditions garnered worldwide attention, gracing the pages of newspapers, magazines, and news programs, both within and beyond the maritime sphere. Furthermore, he was bestowed with the highest distinctions in various countries, and his legendary status was immortalized in popular songs, comic strips, and films. In recognition of his pioneering contributions to solo navigation, Vito Dumas was honored by the Cruising Club of America with the prestigious Blue Water Medal, awarded “Without Date”, the most esteemed recognition a sailor can receive. Even decades after his awe-inspiring journeys, Vito Dumas continues to be revered within the nautical community and remains an enduring figure of inspiration. His extraordinary achievements and unwavering spirit continue to captivate the imaginations of sailors and adventurers worldwide. Single-handed circunnavigation through the Roaring Forties. On 27 June 1942, while the world was in the depths of World War II, he set out on a single-handed circumnavigation of the Southern Ocean. He left Buenos Aires in June, sailing LEHG II, a 31-foot ketch an acronym representing "four names which marked my life". He had only the most basic and makeshift gear; he had no radio, for fear of being shot as a spy, and was forced to stuff his clothes with newspaper to keep warm. With only three landfalls, the legs of his trip were the longest that had been made by a single-hander, and in the most ferocious oceans on the Earth; but most of all, it was a powerful retort to a world which had chosen to divide itself by war. He recounted the experience in his book Los Cuarenta Bramadores: La Vuelta al Mundo Por la "Ruta Imposible" (Alone Through The Roaring Forties). He donated his boat to the Argentine Navy for training, but after a few years it was neglected, and was finally wrecked against a pier at the entrance of La Plata's port in 1966. A wealthy Argentine yachtsman paid to have it restored and donated it to the Argentina Naval Museum in Tigre, a coastal river town on a backwater of the River Plate. The LEHG II is now on display in Tigre, which is a short train ride from Buenos Aires. Dumas was the inspiration for an Argentine tango entitled Navegante, written by Jaime Yanin (music) and José Horacio Staffolani (lyrics). It was recorded in Buenos Aires on 5 August 1943 by the Orquesta típica of Carlos di Sarli, featuring Roberto Rufino on vocals. References Vito Dumas "La Leyenda continua......." Sitio Web del gran Navegante Argentino, dirigido por Jorge Mario Bertolino(in Spanish) Vito Dumas, argentino universal, uno de los más grandes navegantes solitarios de todos los tiempos(Spanish) Roberto Alonso - Ricardo Cufre "Testimonios de una leyenda" - 1995 - , page 284. 1900 births 1965 deaths Sportspeople from Buenos Aires Argentine sailors Burials at La Chacarita Cemetery Single-handed circumnavigating sailors

3625943

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moondial

Moondial

Moondials are time pieces similar to a sundial. The most basic moondial, which is identical to a sundial, is only accurate on the night of the full moon. Every night after it becomes an additional (on average) 48 minutes slow, while every night preceding the full moon it is (again on average) 49 minutes fast, assuming there is even enough light to take a reading by. Thus, one week to either side of the full moon the moondial will read 5 hours and 36 minutes before or after the proper time. More advanced moondials can include charts showing the exact calculations to get the correct time, as well as dials designed with latitude and longitude in mind. Moondials are very closely associated with lunar gardening (night-blooming plants) and some comprehensive gardening books may mention them. See also Time Notes Bibliography Ralf Kern: Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit. Vom 15. – 19. Jahrhundert. Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König 2010, Clocks Timekeeping Sundials

3627082

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global%20spread%20of%20H5N1

Global spread of H5N1

The global spread of H5N1 influenza in birds is considered a significant pandemic threat. While other H5N1 influenza strains are known, they are significantly different on a genetic level from a recent, highly pathogenic, emergent strain of H5N1, which was able to achieve hitherto unprecedented global spread in 2008. The H5N1 strain is a fast-mutating, highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAI) found in multiple bird species. It is both epizootic (an epidemic in non-humans) and panzootic (a disease affecting animals of many species especially over a wide area). Unless otherwise indicated, "H5N1" in this timeline refers to the recent highly pathogenic strain of H5N1. Tens of millions of birds have died of H5N1 influenza and hundreds of millions of birds have been slaughtered and disposed of, to limit the spread of H5N1. Countries that have reported one or more major highly pathogenic H5N1 outbreaks in birds (causing at least thousands but in some cases millions of dead birds) are (in order of first outbreak occurrence): South Korea, Vietnam, Japan, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, China, Malaysia, Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Turkey, Romania, Croatia, Ukraine, Cyprus, Iraq, Nigeria, Egypt, India, France, Niger, Bosnia, Azerbaijan, Albania, Cameroon, Myanmar, Afghanistan, Israel, Pakistan, Jordan, Burkina Faso, Germany, Sudan, Ivory Coast, Djibouti, Hungary, United Kingdom, Kuwait, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Ghana, Czech Republic, Togo, Nepal, Bhutan, the Philippines, and Chile. Highly pathogenic H5N1 has been found in birds in the wild in numerous other countries: Austria, Bulgaria, Denmark, Greece, Iran, Italy, Poland, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and Uruguay. Surveillance of H5N1 in humans, poultry, wild birds, cats and other animals remains very weak in many parts of Asia and Africa. Much remains unknown about the exact extent of its spread. H5N1 has low pathogenic varieties endemic in birds in North America. H5N1 has a highly pathogenic variety that is endemic in dozens of species of birds throughout south Asia and parts of Africa. So far, it is very difficult for humans to become infected with H5N1. The presence of highly pathogenic (deadly) H5N1 around the world in both birds in the wild (swans, magpies, ducks, geese, pigeons, eagles, etc.) and in chickens and turkeys on farms has been demonstrated in millions of cases with the virus isolate actually sequenced in hundreds of cases yielding definitive proof of the evolution of this strain of this subtype of the species Influenzavirus A (bird flu virus). According to Robert G. Webster: On July 25, 2008, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) released an Avian Influenza Disease Emergency Situation Update, reporting that H5N1 pathogenicity was continuing to gradually rise in endemic areas but the avian influenza disease situation in farmed birds was being held in check by vaccination. Eleven outbreaks of H5N1 were reported worldwide in June 2008 in five countries (China, Egypt, Indonesia, Pakistan and Vietnam) compared to 65 outbreaks in June 2006 and 55 in June 2007. Human cases Timeline 1959–1997 A highly pathogenic strain of H5N1 caused flu outbreaks with significant spread to numerous farms, resulting in great economic losses in 1959 in Scotland in chickens and in 1991 in England in turkeys. These strains were somewhat similar to the current pathogenic strain of H5N1 in two of its ten genes, the gene that causes it to be type H5 and the gene that causes it to be N1. The other genes can and have been reassorted from other subtypes of the bird flu species (their ease at exchanging genes is part of what makes them all one species). Evolution by reassortment of H5N1 from 1999 to 2002 created the Z genotype which became the dominant strain of highly pathogenic H5N1 in 2004 and is now spreading across the entire world in both wild and domestic birds. "The precursor of the H5N1 influenza virus that spread to humans in 1997 was first detected in Guangdong, China, in 1996, when it caused a moderate number of deaths in geese and attracted very little attention." In 1997, in Hong Kong, 18 humans were infected and 6 died in the first known case of H5N1 infecting humans. On December 28 to 29, 1997, 1.3 million chickens were killed by the government of Hong Kong. The government also suspended the import of chickens from mainland China. 2003 In 2003 the first cases in humans since 1997 were diagnosed. Three people in one family were infected after visiting Fujian province in mainland China and 2 died. By midyear of 2003 outbreaks of poultry disease caused by H5N1 occurred in Asia, but were not recognized as such. That December animals in a Thai zoo died after eating infected chicken carcasses. Later that month H5N1 infection was detected in 3 flocks in the Republic of Korea. H5N1 in China in this and later periods is less than fully reported. Blogs have described many discrepancies between official Mainland Chinese government announcements concerning H5N1 and what people in Mainland China see with their own eyes. Many reports of total H5N1 cases exclude Mainland China due to widespread disbelief in Mainland China's official numbers. 2004 In January 2004 a major new outbreak of H5N1 surfaced in Vietnam and Thailand's poultry industry, and within weeks spread to ten countries and regions in Asia, including Indonesia, South Korea, Japan and China. In October 2004 researchers discovered H5N1 is far more dangerous than previously believed because waterfowl, especially ducks, were directly spreading the highly pathogenic strain of H5N1 to chickens, crows, pigeons, and other birds and that it was increasing its ability to infect mammals as well. From this point on, avian influenza experts increasingly refer to containment as a strategy that can delay but not prevent a future avian flu pandemic. 2005 In January 2005 an outbreak of avian influenza affected thirty three out of sixty four cities and provinces in Vietnam, leading to the forced killing of nearly 1.2 million poultry. Up to 140 million birds are believed to have died or been killed because of the outbreak. In April 2005 there begins an unprecedented die-off of over 6,000 migratory birds at Qinghai Lake in central China over three months. This strain of H5N1 is the same strain as is spread west by migratory birds over at least the next ten months. In August 2005 H5N1 spread to Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Russia. On September 29, 2005, David Nabarro, the newly appointed Senior United Nations System Coordinator for Avian and Human Influenza, warned the world that an outbreak of avian influenza could kill 5 to 150 million people. David Nabarro later stated that as the virus had spread to migratory birds, an outbreak could start in Africa or the Middle East. Later in 2005 H5N1 spread to Turkey, Romania, Croatia and Kuwait. 2006 In the first two months of 2006 H5N1 spread to other Asian countries (such as India), north Africa, and Europe in wild bird populations possibly signaling the beginning of H5N1 being endemic in wild migratory bird populations on multiple continents for decades, permanently changing the way poultry are farmed. By April 2006 scientists had concluded that containment had failed due to the role of wild birds in transmitting the virus and were now emphasizing far more comprehensive risk mitigation and management measures. In June 2006 WHO predicted an upsurge in human deaths due to H5N1 during late 2006 or early 2007 following a summer/fall lull in most countries, as H5N1 appears to be somewhat seasonal in nature. In July and August 2006 significantly increased numbers of bird deaths due to H5N1 were recorded in Cambodia, China, Laos, Nigeria, and Thailand while continuing unabated a rate unparalleled in Indonesia. In June, there was a human outbreak in Indonesia when 8 members of a family in Sumatra became infected and 7 died. The WHO reported that this may have been the first recorded instance of human-to-human transmission. In September, Egypt and Sudan joined the list of nations seeing a resurgence of bird deaths due to H5N1. In November and December, South Korea and Vietnam joined the list of nations seeing a resurgence of bird deaths due to H5N1. 2007 In January, Japan, Hungary, Russia, and the United Kingdom joined the list of nations seeing a resurgence of bird deaths due to H5N1. In February, Pakistan, Turkey, Afghanistan, and Myanmar joined the list and Kuwait saw its first major outbreak of H5N1 avian influenza. In March Bangladesh and Saudi Arabia each saw their first major outbreak of H5N1 avian influenza and Ghana in May. As H5N1 continued killing many birds and a few people throughout the spring in countries where it is now endemic, in June Malaysia and Germany saw a resurgence of bird deaths due to H5N1, while the Czech Republic and Togo experienced their first major outbreak of H5N1 avian influenza. In July France and India also saw a resurgence of bird deaths due to H5N1. 2008 January January 24, 2008: China's health ministry has confirmed a 22-year-old man has died from H5N1 in central Hunan province. February February 26, 2008: H5N1 killed a school teacher from northern Vietnam in the country's 51st death from the disease, and health officials fretted that the virus would spread further. February 28, 2008: There are no indications that H5N1 is becoming a bigger problem in China despite the deaths of three people from the disease this year, the World Health Organisation said Wednesday. March March 4, 2008: H5N1 virus confirmed as the cause of death for a 25-year-old female from Sennoris District, Fayum Governorate, Egypt. June June 7, 2008: Hong Kong found the H5N1 bird flu virus at a poultry stall in Sham Shui Po. 2,700 birds were ordered to be killed by the local government. A new regulation requires all live chickens not sold by 8pm to be killed. The chairman of the Hong Kong Poultry Wholesalers Association said the government's decision makes it very difficult for their business to continue. Retailers who keep live poultry after 8pm are now subject to a fine of HK$50,000 and six months imprisonment. July As of the July 25, 2008 FAO Avian Influenza Disease Emergency Situation Update, H5N1 pathogenicity is continuing to gradually rise in wild birds in endemic areas but the avian influenza disease situation in farmed birds is being held in check by vaccination. Eleven outbreaks of H5N1 were reported worldwide in June 2008 in five countries (China, Egypt, Indonesia, Pakistan and Vietnam) compared to 65 outbreaks in June 2006 and 55 in June 2007. The "global HPAI situation can be said to have improved markedly in the first half of 2008 [but] cases of HPAI are still underestimated and underreported in many countries because of limitations in country disease surveillance systems". 2009 January January 16, 2009: H5N1 hits Nepal for first time. In a January 16 report to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), government officials in Nepal said the virus struck backyard poultry in a village in Jhapa district in the southeastern corner of Nepal. Though the Nepal Government announced that bird flu in the country's Kankarbhitta area is under control, avian virus surfaced again in Sharanamati of Jhapa district. Over 150 chickens died in the Indian border town, 35 km southwest of Kankarbhitta. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives declared the area surrounding Sharanamati a "bird-flu affected area" and increased surveillance along the border. A Rapid Response Team (RRT) was dispatched to control the virus. The government also banned the transportation of poultry products throughout the country. The first outbreak was confirmed in Kankarbhitta on January 16. 28,000 chickens were killed in the area to control the virus. Earlier, Agriculture Minister Jayprakash Gupta asked the international community and donor agencies to provide help to Nepal fight the disease. The Indo-Nepal border was in heightened alert because of the disease. February February 21, 2009: H5N1 killed a 23-year-old woman named Lý Tài Múi from Nà Cáng, Quảng An, Đầm hà, Quảng Ninh Province, Vietnam. February 25, 2009: H5N1 virus confirmed as the cause of death for a 32-year-old man from Quảng Bình Province, Vietnam. March March 19, 2009: H5N1 virus confirmed as the cause of death for a 3-year-old boy from Đồng Tháp Province, Vietnam. March 21, 2009: State media reported H5N1 might be the cause of a death of a female in Bạc Liêu, Vietnam. April April 24, 2009: H5N1 virus confirmed as the cause of death for a 23-year-old woman from Thanh Hóa, Vietnam. June July 1, 2009: Three cases of H5N1 were confirmed in Egypt, all three of whom recovered. 2010 February February 22, 2010: First case of H5N1 in birds confirmed in Bhutan in the district of Chhukha. 2011 June June 16, 2011: Five cases of H5N1 were confirmed in Egypt, three of which were fatal. December December 20, 2011: Details of research on H5N1 on mutations which enable its transmission to ferrets —the standard mammalian model for influenza research— are requested by the U.S. National Security Advisory Board for Biotechnology (NSABB) to be redacted due to concerns over bioterrorism potential. 2012 February February 7, 2012: H5N1 is discovered again in crows in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. February 17, 2012: WHO decides in a two-day meeting held in Geneva, Switzerland that additional analysis of public health and security risks is needed to determine whether research on man-made H5N1 virus capable of aerosol transmission between mammals (ferrets) should be released in full. May May 26, 2012: A 10-year-old girl is to said to have died in the southwestern Kampong Speu province, Cambodia. According to the WHO in a joint statement with the Cambodian health ministry, the girl had developed shortness of breath and a fever on May 20 and died on Sunday May 27. 2014 January January 3, 2014: An Alberta, Canada resident dies of H5N1 after returning from Beijing, China and feeling unwell on a return flight from Beijing to Vancouver (Air Canada 030) and Vancouver to Edmonton (Air Canada 244) on December 27, 2013 and hospitalized on January 1, 2014; this is the first case in Canada and North America. 2022 January January 2022: The first cases of H5N1 in birds were detected in farms in Central Luzon in the Philippines. Suidae (pigs) Avian influenza virus H3N2 is endemic in pigs ("swine flu") in China and has been detected in pigs in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. Health experts say pigs can carry human influenza viruses, which can combine (i.e. exchange homologous genome sub-units by genetic reassortment) with H5N1, passing genes and mutating into a form which can pass easily among humans. H3N2 evolved from H2N2 by antigenic shift and caused the Hong Kong Flu pandemic of 1968 and 1969 that killed up to 750,000 humans. The dominant strain of annual flu in humans in January 2006 is H3N2. Measured resistance to the standard antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine in H3N2 in humans has increased to 91% in 2005. A combination of these two subtypes of the species known as the avian influenza virus in a country like China is a worst-case scenario. In August 2004, researchers in China found H5N1 in pigs. In 2005, it was discovered that H5N1 "could be infecting up to half of the pig population in some areas of Indonesia, but without causing symptoms [...] Chairul Nidom, a virologist at Airlangga University's tropical disease center in Surabaya, Java, was conducting independent research earlier this year. He tested the blood of 10 apparently healthy pigs housed near poultry farms in western Java where avian flu had broken out, Nature reported. Five of the pig samples contained the H5N1 virus. The Indonesian government has since found similar results in the same region, Nature reported. Additional tests of 150 pigs outside the area were negative." Felidae (cats) "In Bangkok, Thailand, all the cats in one household are known to have died of H5N1 in 2004. Tigers and leopards in Thai zoos also died, while in 2007 two cats near an outbreak in poultry and people in Iraq were confirmed to have died of H5N1, as were three German cats that ate wild birds. In Austria, cats were infected but remained healthy". Cats in Indonesia were also found to have been infected with H5N1. The spread to more and more types and populations of birds and the ability of felidae (cats) to catch H5N1 from eating this natural prey means the creation of a reservoir for H5N1 in cats where the virus can adapt to mammals is one of the many possible pathways to a pandemic. October 2004 Variants have been found in a number of domestic cats, leopards, and tigers in Thailand, with high lethality. "The Thailand Zoo tiger outbreak killed more than 140 tigers, causing health officials to make the decision to cull all the sick tigers in an effort to stop the zoo from becoming a reservoir for H5N1 influenza. A study of domestic cats showed H5N1 virus infection by ingestion of infected poultry and also by contact with other infected cats (Kuiken et al., 2004)." The initial OIE report reads: "the clinical manifestations began on 11 October 2004 with weakness, lethargy, respiratory distress, and high fever (about 41-42 degrees Celsius). There was no response to any antibiotic treatment. Death occurred within three days following the onset of clinical signs with severe pulmonary lesions." February 28, 2006 A dead cat infected with the H5N1 bird flu virus was found in Germany. March 6, 2006 Hans Seitinger, the top agriculture official in the southern state of Styria, Austria announced that several still living cats in Styria have tested positive for H5N1: August 2006 It was announced in the August 2006 CDC EID journal that while literature describing HPAI H5N1 infection in cats had been limited to a subset of clade I viruses; a Qinghai-like virus (they are genetically distinct from other clade II viruses) killed up to five cats and 51 chickens from February 3 to 5, 2006 in Grd Jotyar (~10 km north of Erbil City, Iraq). Two of the cats were available for examination. "An influenza A H5 virus was present in multiple organs in all species from the outbreak site in Grd Jotyar (Table). cDNA for sequencing was amplified directly from RNA extracts from pathologic materials without virus isolation. On the basis of sequence analysis of the full HA1 gene and 219 amino acids of the HA2 gene, the viruses from the goose and 1 cat from Grd Jotyar and from the person who died from Sarcapcarn (sequence derived from PCR amplification from first-passage egg material) are >99% identical at the nucleotide and amino acid levels (GenBank nos. DQ435200–02). Thus, no indication of virus adaptation to cats was found. The viruses from Iraq are most closely related to currently circulating Qinghai-like viruses, but when compared with A/bar-headed goose/Qinghai/65/2005 (H5N1) (GenBank no. DQ095622), they share only 97.4% identity at the nucleic acid level with 3 amino acid substitutions of unknown significance. On the other hand, the virus from the cat is only 93.4% identical to A/tiger/Thailand/CU-T4/2004(H5N1) (GenBank no. AY972539). These results are not surprising, given that these strains are representative of different clades (8,9). Sequencing of 1,349 bp of the N gene from cat 1 and the goose (to be submitted to GenBank) show identity at the amino acid level, and that the N genes of viruses infecting the cat and goose are >99% identical to that of A/bar-headed goose/Qinghai/65/2005(H5N1). These findings support the notion that cats may be broadly susceptible to circulating H5N1 viruses and thus may play a role in reassortment, antigenic drift, and transmission." January 24, 2007 "Chairul Anwar Nidom of Airlangga University in Surabaya, Indonesia, told journalists last week that he had taken blood samples from 500 stray cats near poultry markets in four areas of Java, including the capital, Jakarta, and one area in Sumatra, all of which have recently had outbreaks of H5N1 in poultry and people. Of these cats, 20% carried antibodies to H5N1. This does not mean that they were still carrying the virus, only that they had been infected - probably through eating birds that had H5N1. Many other cats that were infected are likely to have died from the resulting illness, so many more than 20% of the original cat populations may have acquired H5N1." June 26, 2023 On 20 and 21 June in Poland multiple reports of cats dying from unknown causes with neurological and respiratory symptoms that matched H5N1 to some degree. Some viral alerts have risen, mostly posted on Facebook by veterinary clinics alerting their clients. At that time most of the data was anecdotal. On 26 June it was confirmed by Polands Chief Veterinary Officer Paweł Niemczuk, who stated that in 9 of 11 tested cases it is indeed H5N1: "The results of subsequently tested samples taken from cats from Lublin and Poznań are available. Until June 26 at 11:00 11 samples were tested at the National Veterinary Institute in Puławy, of which 9 gave a positive result for H5N1 influenza. Positive samples come from Poznań, Tri-City, and Lublin. Further detailed studies of the genetic material of viruses are underway. Preliminary research excludes the origin of the influenza virus that has been causing gulls to become ill in recent weeks. Today, a sanitary and epizootic meeting was held, where a plan for further action was discussed." Mammals in general H5N1 has been transmitted in laboratories to many species including mice and ferrets to study its effects. A purposely mutated strain in ferrets has engendered a notable international policy debate regarding the openness of scientific research, the mandates of public health, and the potential for bioterrorism. H5N1 was transmitted in the wild to three civet cats in Vietnam in August 2005 and a stone marten in Germany in March 2006. The BBC reported that a stray dog in Azerbaijan died from the disease on March 15, 2006. People living in areas where the A(H5N1) virus has infected birds are advised to keep their cats indoors. "Cats can be infected through the respiratory tract. Cats can also be infected when they ingest the virus, which is a novel route for influenza transmission in mammals. But cats excrete only one-thousandth the amount of virus that chickens do [...] The concern is that if large numbers of felines and other carnivores become infected, the virus might mutate in a series of events that could lead to an epidemic among humans. Dogs, foxes, seals, and other carnivores may be vulnerable to A(H5N1) virus infection, Dr. Osterhaus said. Tests in Thailand have shown that the virus has infected dogs without causing apparent symptoms." H5N1 has the potential to infect cattle. Asymptomatic shedding of H5N1 by infected calves and subsequent seroconversion is possible. Bird-to-calf transmission resulting in seroconversion is probable. While the incidence of clinical infections of cattle with H5N1 in H5N1 endemic regions should be low, "serum from bovine species would be a valuable source of additional information about transmission events, especially in regions like Asia and Egypt, where HPAIV (H5N1) is endemic and probability of contact between poultry and cattle is high." See also Fujian flu Disease surveillance Human security 2002–2004 SARS outbreak Dog flu Horse flu Bird flu Yarding References 2003 disease outbreaks 2004 disease outbreaks 2005 disease outbreaks 2006 disease outbreaks 2007 disease outbreaks 2008 disease outbreaks 2009 disease outbreaks 2010 disease outbreaks 2011 disease outbreaks 2012 disease outbreaks 2013 disease outbreaks 2014 disease outbreaks Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Bird diseases Global health

3627180

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20Rowing%20Race

Atlantic Rowing Race

The Atlantic Rowing Race is an ocean rowing race from the Canary Islands to the West Indies, a distance of approximately 2,550 nm (2,930 statute miles or 4,700 km). The race was founded in 1997 by Sir Chay Blyth with subsequent races roughly every two years since. The early races were run by Challenge Business Ltd. until the race was bought by Woodvale Events Ltd., managed by Simon Chalk, in October 2003. In May 2012, Atlantic Campaigns SL, managed by Carsten Heron Olsen bought the rights to the Atlantic Rowing Race, now called The "Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge" – The World's Toughest Row. Since 2015, the race has been held annually starting each December. 1997 – Port St. Charles Rowing Race Departure Port: Playa San Juan, Tenerife Arrival Port: Port St. Charles, Barbados Race Start: 12 October 1997 Teams Starting: 30 Teams Finishing: 24 Categories: Pairs Winning Boat: Kiwi Challenge Team Name: Kiwi Challenge Country: Rowers: Rob Hamill and Phil Stubbs Time: 41 days, 2 hours, and 55 minutes 2001 – Ward Evans Atlantic Rowing Race Departure Port: Playa San Juan, Tenerife Arrival Port: Port St. Charles, Barbados Race Start: 7 October 2001 Teams Starting: 36 Teams Finishing: 33 Categories: Pairs Winning Boat: Telecom Challenge 1 Team Name: Telecom Challenge 1 Country: Rowers: Matt Goodman and Steve Westlake Time: 42 days, 4 hours, and 3 minutes 2003 – Woodvale Atlantic Rowing Race Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: Port St. Charles, Barbados Race Start: 19 October 2003 Teams Starting: 17 Teams Finishing: 14 Categories: Singles, Pairs Winning Boat: Team Name: Holiday Shoppe Challenge Country: Rowers: James Fitzgerald and Kevin Biggar Time: 40 days, 4 hours, and 3 minutes 2004 – Ocean Rowing Society Atlantic Rowing Regatta Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: English Harbour, Antigua Race Start: 20 January 2004 Teams Starting: 13 Teams Finishing: 12 Categories: Singles, Pairs, 1x Four Winning Boat: Team Name: Atlantic-4 Country: Rowers: David Martin, Neil Wightwick, Glynn Coupland, and George Simpson Time: 49 days, 14 hours, 21 minutes 2005 – Woodvale Atlantic Rowing Race Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: English Harbour, Antigua Race Start: 30 November 2005 Teams Starting: 27 Teams Finishing: 20 Categories: Singles, Pairs, Fours Winning Boat: Team Name: C2 Country: Rowers: Clint Evans and Chris Andrews Time: 52 days, 2 hours, 10 minutes For more race details, see: 2005 Woodvale Atlantic Rowing Race 2007 – Woodvale Atlantic Rowing Race Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: English Harbour, Antigua Race Start: 2 December 2007 Teams Starting: 22 Teams Finishing: 20 Categories: Singles, Pairs, Fours Winning Boat: Team Name: Pure Vida Country: Rowers: John Cecil-Wright, Robbie Grant, Tom Harvey, and Carl Theakston Time: 48 Days, 2 hours, 52 minutes For more race details, see: 2007 Woodvale Atlantic Rowing Race 2009/2010 – Woodvale Atlantic Rowing Race Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: Antigua Race Start: 4 January 2010 (Race delayed by a month) Teams Starting: 7 Solos, 20 Pairs, 3 Fours Teams Finishing: 20 Categories: Singles, Pairs, Fours Winning Boat: JJ (Insure & Go) Team Name: Charlie Pitcher Country: Rowers: Charlie Pitcher Time: 52 days 6 hours and 47 minutes 2011 – Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: Port St. Charles, Barbados Race Start: 5 December 2011 Teams Starting: 17 Teams Finishing: 11 Categories: Singles, Doubles, Fours, Fives, and Sixes Winning Boat: Box No 8 Team Name: Box No 8 Country: Rowers: Toby Iles and Nick Moore Time: 40 days, 9 hours, 15 minutes 2013 – Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: Antigua Race Start: 4 December 2013 Teams Starting: 17 Teams Finishing: 11 Categories: Singles, Doubles, Trios, Fours, Fives Winning Boat: Locura Team Name: Team Locura Country: Rowers: Tom Salt and Mike Burton Time: 40 days, 2 hours, 38 minutes, 54 seconds 2015 – Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: Antigua Race Start: 20 December 2015 Teams Starting: 26 Teams Finishing: 26 Categories: Singles, Doubles, Trios, Fours Winning Boat: Ocean Reunion Team Name: Ocean Reunion Country: Rowers: Angus Collins, Gus Barton, Joe Barnett, Jack Mayhew Time: 37 days, 9 hours, 12 minutes 2016 – Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: Antigua Race Start: 14 December 2016 Teams Starting: 12 Teams Finishing: 11 Categories: Singles, Doubles, Trios, Fours Winning Boat: American Spirit Team Name: Latitude 35 Country: Mixed ( and ) Rowers: Jason Caldwell (USA), Matthew Brown (USA), Angus Collins (UK), Alex Simpson (UK) Time: 35 days, 14 hours, 3 minutes (New Race Record) 2017 – Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: English Harbour, Antigua Race Start: 14 December 2017 Teams Starting: 26 Teams Finishing: 22 Categories: Singles, Doubles, Trios, Fours Winning Boat: Aegir Team Name: The Four Oarsmen Country: Rowers: George Biggar, Peter Robinson, Stuart Watts, Richard Taylor Time: 29 days, 14 hours, 34 minutes (New Race Record) 2018 – Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: English Harbour, Antigua Race Start: 12 December 2018 Teams Starting: 28 Teams Finishing: 27 Categories: Singles, Doubles, Trios, Fours, Fives Winning Boat: Rose Team Name: Dutch Atlantic Four Country: Rowers: Marcel Ates, Erik Koning, David de Bruijn, Bart Adema Time: 34 days, 12 hours, 9 minutes 2019 – Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: English Harbour, Antigua Race Start: 12 December 2019 Teams Starting: 35 Teams Finishing: 35 Categories: Singles, Doubles, Trios, Fours, Fives Winning Boat: Team Name: Fortitude IV Country: Rowers: Oliver Palmer, Tom Foley, Hugh Gilum, Max Breet Time: 32 days, 12 hours, 35 minutes, 2 seconds 2019 – Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge Diversity: In 2019 the first Black team and the first Caribbean team completed the challenge. The team was composed of Christal Clashing, Samara Emmanuel, Kevinia Francis and Elvira Bell-Bailey. Three of the team, named Antigua Island Girls, went on to compete in and finish the 2023 inaugural World's Toughest Row-Pacific, using the funds raised to establish a home for girls in conflict with the law. 2021 – Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge Departure Port: San Sebastián de la Gomera Arrival Port: English Harbour, Antigua Race Start: 12 December 2021 Teams Starting: 36 Teams Finishing: 35 Categories: Singles, Doubles, Trios, Fours, Fives Winning Boat: Team Name: SWISS RAW Country: Rowers: Roman Moeckli, Ingvar Groza, Samuel Widmer, Jan Hurni Time: 34 days, 23 hours, 42 minutes 2021 – Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge Current Race Records Ocean rowing records for The Atlantic Rowing Race are maintained by Ocean Rowing Stats. References External links Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge 2015 Ocean Rowing Stats Atlantic Rowing Race 2009 Atlantic Rowing Race 2005 Woodvale Events Association of Ocean Rowers Ocean Rowing Society International BBC report of the 2005 start BBC report – Champagne for Beer Rowers Atlantic Ocean

3628970

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deo%20optimo%20maximo

Deo optimo maximo

Deo optimo maximo, often abbreviated D.O.M. or Deo Opt. Max., is a Latin phrase which means "to the greatest and best god", or "to God, most good, most great". It was originally used as a pagan formula addressed to Jupiter. Its usage while the Roman Empire was a polytheistic state referred to Jupiter, the chief god of the Roman pantheon polytheists: Iovi Optimo Maximo (I.O.M.). When the Roman Empire adopted monotheism in the form of Christianity as the state religion, the phrase was used in reference to the Christian God. Its use continued long after the fall of the Roman Empire as Latin remained the ecclesiastical and scholarly language in the West. Thus the phrase, or its abbreviation, can be found on many Renaissance-era churches and other buildings, especially over sarcophagi, particularly in Italy and Malta. It is also inscribed on bottles of Bénédictine liqueur. See also List of Latin phrases Takbir References Latin religious words and phrases Paganism Epithets of Jupiter

3635575

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet%20dust

Comet dust

Comet dust refers to cosmic dust that originates from a comet. Comet dust can provide clues to comets' origin. When the Earth passes through a comet dust trail, it can produce a meteor shower. Physical characteristics Size The majority of dust from comet activity is sub-micrometer to roughly micrometer in size. However, this fraction is short-lived, as radiation pressure causes them to blow out of the Solar System or spiral inwards. The next size class is large, "fluffy" or "cluster-type" aggregates of the above grains. These are typically 20-100 micrometers, a size not arbitrary but observed as the porous aggregates tend to fracture or compact. Larger particles are micrometeoroids, not dust. In the absence of a definition from the IAU, groups devised their own definitions of dust: smaller than 100 micrometers, 50, 40, 30, and 20 microns, and <10 μm. Some of these dust/micrometeorite definitions are approximate or ambiguous, some overlapping or self-conflicting. The IAU released a formal statement in 2017. Meteoroids are 30 micrometers to 1 meter, dust is smaller, and the term "micrometeoroid" is discouraged (though not micrometeorite). The IMO noted the new definition, but still displays a prior definition on their site. The Meteoritical Society site retains its prior definition, 0.001 cm. The AMS has posted no rigorous definition. Composition Dust is generally chondritic in composition. Its monomers contain mafic silicates, such as olivine and pyroxene. Silicates are rich in high-condensation temperature forsterite and enstatite. As these condense quickly, they tend to form very small particles, not merging droplets. As with chondritic meteoroids, particles contain Fe(Ni) sulfide and GEMS (glass with embedded metal and sulfides) Various amounts of organics (CHON) are present. Though organics are cosmically abundant, and were widely predicted to exist in comets, they are spectrally indistinct in most telescopes. Organics were only confirmed via mass spectrometry during the Halley flybys. Some organics are in the form of PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons). Very small inclusions of presolar grains (PSGs) may be found. Dust and comet origin The models for the origin of comets are: the interstellar model, the Solar System model, primordial rubble piles, aggregation of planetesimals in the dust disk around the Uranus–Neptune region, cold shells of material swept out by the protostellar wind. Bulk properties of the comet dust such as density as well as the chemical composition can distinguish between the models. For example, the isotopic ratios of comet and of interstellar dust are very similar, indicating a common origin. The 1) interstellar model says that ices formed on dust grains in the dense cloud that preceded the Sun. The mix of ice and dust then aggregated into a comet without appreciable chemical modification. J. Mayo Greenberg first proposed this idea in the 1970s. In the 2) Solar System model, the ices that formed in the interstellar cloud first vaporized as part of the accretion disk of gas and dust around the protosun. The vaporized ices later resolidified and assembled into comets. So the comets in this model would have a different composition than those comets that were made directly from interstellar ice. The 3) primordial rubble pile model for comet formation says that comets agglomerate in the region where Jupiter was forming. Stardust's discovery of crystalline silicates in the dust of comet Wild 2 implies that the dust formed above glass temperature (> 1000 K) in the inner disk region around a hot young star, and was radially mixed in the solar nebula from the inner regions a larger distance from the star or the dust particle condensed in the outflow of evolved red giants or supergiants. The composition of the dust of comet Wild 2 is similar to the composition of dust found in the outer regions of the accretion disks around newly-forming stars. A comet and its dust allow investigation of the Solar System beyond the main planetary orbits. Comets are distinguished by their orbits; long period comets have long elliptical orbits, randomly inclined to the plane of the Solar System, and with periods greater than 200 years. Short period comets are usually inclined less than 30 degrees to the plane of the Solar System, revolve around the Sun in the same counterclockwise direction as the planets orbit, and have periods less than 200 years. A comet will experience a range of diverse conditions as it traverses its orbit. For long period comets, most of the time it will be so far from the Sun that it will be too cold for evaporation of ices to occur. When it passes through the terrestrial planet region, evaporation will be rapid enough to blow away small grains, but the largest grains may resist entrainment and stay behind on the comet nucleus, beginning the formation of a dust layer. Near the Sun, the heating and evaporation rate will be so great, that no dust can be retained. Therefore, the thickness of dust layers covering the nuclei of a comet can indicate how closely and how often a comet's perihelion travels are to the Sun. If a comet has an accumulation of thick dust layers, it may have frequent perihelion passages that don't approach the Sun too closely. A thick accumulation of dust layers might be a good description of all of the short period comets, as dust layers with thicknesses on the order of meters are thought to have accumulated on the surfaces of short-period comet nuclei. The accumulation of dust layers over time would change the physical character of the short-period comet. A dust layer both inhibits the heating of the cometary ices by the Sun (the dust is impenetrable by sunlight and a poor conductor of heat), and slows the loss of gases from the nucleus below. A comet nucleus in an orbit typical of short period comets would quickly decrease its evaporation rate to the point that neither a coma or a tail would be detectable and might appear to astronomers as a low-albedo near-Earth asteroid. Further assemblages and bodies Dust particles, aided by ices and organics, form "aggregates" (less often, "agglomerates") of 30 to hundreds of micrometers. These are fluffy, due to the imperfect packing of cluster-type (large) dust particles, and their subsequent, imperfect packing into aggregates. The next size category is pebbles, of millimeters to centimeters scale. Pebbles were inferred at 103P/Hartley 2, and imaged directly at 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Astrophysical use of the word "pebble" differs from its geological meaning. In turn, the next-larger geological term, "cobble," has been skipped by Rosetta scientists. Even larger bodies are "boulders" (decimeter-scale and above) or "chunks." These are rarely seen in the coma, as gas pressure is often insufficient to lift them to significant altitude or escape velocity. The building blocks of comets are the putative cometesimals, analogous to planetesimal. Whether the actual cometesimals/planetesimals were pebble-scale, boulder-scale, or otherwise has been a key topic in Solar System and exoplanet research. (Mis)Use of the term "dust" At best, "dust" is a collective noun for the non-gas portion of the coma and tail(s). At worst, the term is an English usage, understood well by astronomers in the field, but not to the general public, teachers, and scientists from other fields. The larger solids are more properly called "debris" or, for all non-gases, the general "particles" or "grains." Comet 2P/Encke Encke is officially a dust-poor, gas-rich comet. Encke actually emits most of its solid mass as meteoroids or "rocks," not dust. ISO measured no infrared evidence of a classical cometary dust tail due to small particles. References Dust Cosmic dust

3637988

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohini%20%28satellite%29

Rohini (satellite)

Rohini is a series of satellites launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The Rohini series consisted of four satellites, each of which was launched by the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) and three of which made it successfully to orbit. The series were mostly experimental satellites, with the first launch being in 1979. There was an earlier series of ISRO sounding rockets with the same name, first launched 1967. Satellites in series Rohini Technology Payload (RTP) It was a experimental spin stabilized satellite that used 3W of power and was launched on 10 August 1979 from SDSC. The satellite contained instruments to monitor the launch vehicle. The satellite could not be placed into its intended orbit. RS-1 It was also a experimental spin stabilized satellite that used 16W of power and was successfully launched on 18 July 1980 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre into an orbit of with an inclination of 44.7°. It was the first satellite successfully launched by the indigenous launch vehicle SLV. This was India's first indigenous satellite launch, making it the seventh nation to possess the capability to launch its own satellites on its own rockets. It provided data on the fourth stage of SLV. The satellite had mission life of 1.2 years and an orbital life of 20 months. RS-D1 It was a experimental spin stabilized satellite that used 16W of power and was launched on 31 May 1981. The launch of the SLV was a partial success as the satellite did not reach the intended height and thus it only stayed in orbit for 9 days. It achieved an orbit of with an inclination of 46°. The satellite carried a solid state camera for remote sensing applications (Landmark Tracker) and performed to specifications. RS-D2 It was a experimental spin stabilized satellite that used 16W of power and was launched successfully on 17 April 1983 into an orbit of and an inclination of 46°. The satellite was in operation (mission life) for 17 months and its main payload, a smart sensor camera, took over 2500 pictures. The camera had the capability to take pictures both in visible and infrared bands. After an orbital life of 7 years, the satellite reentered the Earth atmosphere on 19 April 1990. See also List of Indian satellites References External links Space programme of India Satellites formerly orbiting Earth Satellites of India

3639402

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite%20Launch%20Vehicle

Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Satellite Launch Vehicle or SLV was a small-lift launch vehicle project started in the early 1970s by the Indian Space Research Organisation to develop the technology needed to launch satellites. SLV was intended to reach a height of and carry a payload of . The first experimental flight of SLV, in August 1979, was a failure. The first successful launch took place on 18 July 1980. It was a four-stage rocket with all solid-propellant motors. The first launch of the SLV took place in Sriharikota on 10 August 1979. The fourth and final launch of the SLV took place on 17 April 1983. It has taken approximately seven years to realise the vehicle from start. The solid motor case for first and second stage are fabricated from 15 CDV6 steel sheets and third and fourth stages from fibre reinforced plastic. Launch history All four SLV launches occurred from the SLV Launch Pad at the Sriharikota High Altitude Range. The first two launches were experimental (E) and the next 2 were designated as developmental (D) as this was the first launch vehicle being developed by India not intended for a long service life. Launch statistics Decade-wise summary of SLV launches See also Comparison of orbital launchers families Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes References https://web.archive.org/web/20071009040815/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/SPACE/space-launchers-slv.html Space programme of India ISRO space launch vehicles Microsatellite launch vehicles Satish Dhawan Space Centre Vehicles introduced in 1979

3640338

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transglobal%20Secure%20Collaboration%20Participation

Transglobal Secure Collaboration Participation

The Transglobal Secure Collaboration Participation, Inc. (TSCP), which sponsors the Transglobal Secure Collaboration Program, was established in 2002 as a collaborative forum of organizations in the defense industry to address security issues with collaboration. TSCP is a government and industry partnership for secure electronic transmission and sharing of sensitive information internationally. Description The group was originally called the Transatlantic Secure Collaboration Project, based in the USA and the UK. The first phase of a framework was published by US and UK contractors by March 5, 2003. For TSCP members (which include government departments and agencies, as well as system integrators and defense manufacturers) this framework enables secure access to other members’ sensitive data by creating a collaborative environment based on trust mechanisms. TSCP’s chain of trust includes government entities and their prime contractors, as well as suppliers. Its focus expanded from secure data access to data-centric information protection, particularly as a defense against cyber threats. It is based in Vienna, Virginia, USA. Members Government United States Department of Defense United States General Services Administration United States Secret Service NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration ANSSI - Agence nationale de la sécurité des systèmes d’information (French Agency for National Security of Information Systems) Ministry of Defence (Netherlands) Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom) Industry BAE Systems The Boeing Company EADS Lockheed Martin Northrop Grumman Raytheon CA Technologies Microsoft Axiomatics Boldon James Deep-Secure Deloitte & Touche LLP Electrosoft Fugen Solutions Gemalto HID Global (formerly ActivIdentity) ID DataWeb Intercede Litmus Logic National Aerospace Laboratory (NLR) NextLabs Ping Identity Syneren Technologies Corporation Wave Systems Corporation Chevron Corporation See also Netherlands Atlantic Association References Globalization Organizations established in 2002

3641477

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7796%20J%C3%A1racimrman

7796 Járacimrman

7796 Járacimrman () is a dark Adeonian asteroid orbiting in the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 11 kilometers in diameter. Discovered by Zdeněk Moravec at the Kleť Observatory in 1996, it was later named after Jára Cimrman, a Czech fictional character. Discovery Járacimrman was discovered by Zdeněk Moravec at the Kleť Observatory in the Czech Republic, on 16 January 1996 and was initially designated . Observations continued until April 1996, and then again between June and July 1997. The asteroid was later determined to be a lost asteroid which had previously been observed twice: at the Brera-Merate Observatory in northern Italy on 12 December 1973, and at Mount Stromlo Observatory, near Canberra, Australia, on 8 and 9 July 1990. Classification and orbit The asteroid is a member of the Adeona family (), a large family of carbonaceous asteroids. In 1997, Járacimrmans orbit was calculated more precisely by additional observatories and it could therefore be numbered as asteroid 7796, the 312th recognized (numbered) asteroid discovered at the Kleť Observatory. Moravec suggested naming it after the fictional Czech polymath Jára Cimrman. Physical characteristics According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Járacimrman measures 11.312 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.055, which is typical for carbonaceous C-type asteroids. However, no spectral data is available for the asteroid, thus neither its chemical nor mineralogical composition is currently known. In addition, no rotational lightcurve has been obtained of Járacimrman as of 2017. Naming The citation accompanying the suggestion said: "Named for Jára Cimrman, a fictitious Czech genius. An analogue to Leonardo da Vinci, he was a playwright, composer, poet, painter, versatile scientist, inventor, polar explorer, sportsman, first man on the moon, etc. Although his name is not mentioned in any encyclopedia, his work is explored at the Jára Cimrman Theatre in Prague. This theatre is headed by the famous cimrmanologists Z. Svěrák and L. Smoljak, who endorsed the name proposal." The name was approved by International Astronomical Union (IAU) Committee on Small Body Nomenclature and published on 11 February 1998 (). References External links 7796 Járacimrman in Kleť minor planets database 7796 Járacimrman, AstDys asteroid orbital elements database Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info ) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (5001)-(10000) – Minor Planet Center 007796 Discoveries by Zdeněk Moravec Named minor planets 19960116

3641834

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulayman%20Mountain

Sulayman Mountain

The Sulayman Mountain (, also known as Sulaiman-Too, Sulayman Rock, or Sulayman Throne) is the only World Heritage Site located entirely in the country of Kyrgyzstan. It is located in the city of Osh and was once a major place of pre-Muslim pilgrimage. The rock rises abruptly from the surrounding plains of the Fergana Valley and is a popular place among locals and visitors, with a splendid view. History This mountain is thought by some researchers and historians to be the famous landmark of antiquity known as the “Stone Tower”, which Claudius Ptolemy wrote about in his famous treatise Geography. It marked the midpoint on the ancient Silk Road, the overland trade route taken by caravans between Europe and Asia. Sulayman Shrine Sulayman (Solomon) is a prophet in the Qur'an, and the mountain contains a shrine that supposedly marks his grave. Women who ascend to the shrine on top and crawl though an opening across the holy rock will, according to legend, give birth to healthy children. The trees and bushes on the mountain are draped with numerous "prayer flags", small pieces of cloth that are tied to them. Area protection According to the UNESCO, the mountain is "the most complete example of a sacred mountain anywhere in Central Asia, worshipped over several millennia". The site is still a popular place for local Muslims, with stairs leading up to the highest peak where there stands a small mosque originally built by Babur in 1510. Much of the mosque was reconstructed in the late 20th century. The rock also contains the National Historical and Archaeological Museum Complex Sulayman that was built during the Soviet era, showing archaeological findings from the area and its history. The lower slope of the mountain is surrounded by a cemetery. Notes References See also List of World Heritage Sites in Kyrgyzstan Osh Sacred mountains Mountains of Kyrgyzstan World Heritage Sites in Kyrgyzstan

3646203

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expanding%20Earth

Expanding Earth

The expanding Earth or growing Earth hypothesis argues that the position and relative movement of continents is due at least partially to the volume of Earth increasing. Conversely, geophysical global cooling was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting. Although it was suggested historically, since the recognition of plate tectonics during the mid 20th century, scientific consensus has rejected the idea of any significant expansion or contraction of Earth. Different forms of the hypothesis Expansion with constant mass In 1834, during the second voyage of HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin investigated stepped plains featuring raised beaches in Patagonia which indicated to him that a huge area of South America had been "uplifted to its present height by a succession of elevations which acted over the whole of this space with nearly an equal force". While his mentor Charles Lyell had suggested forces acting near the crust on smaller areas, Darwin hypothesized that uplift at this continental scale required "the gradual expansion of some central mass" [of the Earth] "acting by intervals on the outer crust" with the "elevations being concentric with form of globe (or certainly nearly so)". In 1835 he extended this concept to include the Andes Mountains as part of a curved enlargement of the Earth's crust due to "the action of one connected force". Not long afterwards, he abandoned this idea and proposed that as the mountains rose, the ocean floor subsided, explaining the formation of coral reefs. In 1889 and 1909 Roberto Mantovani published a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental drift. He assumed that a closed continent covered the entire surface of a smaller Earth. Thermal expansion caused volcanic activity, which broke the land mass into smaller continents. These continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion at the rip-zones, where oceans currently lie. Although Alfred Wegener noticed some similarities to his own hypothesis of continental drift, he did not mention Earth expansion as the cause of drift in Mantovani's hypothesis. A compromise between Earth-expansion and Earth-contraction is the "theory of thermal cycles" by Irish physicist John Joly. He assumed that heat flow from radioactive decay inside Earth surpasses the cooling of Earth's exterior. Together with British geologist Arthur Holmes, Joly proposed a hypothesis in which Earth loses its heat by cyclic periods of expansion. By their hypothesis, expansion caused cracks and joints in Earth's interior that could fill with magma. This was succeeded by a cooling phase, where the magma would freeze and become solid rock again, causing Earth to shrink. Mass addition In 1888 Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky suggested that some sort of aether is absorbed within Earth and transformed into new chemical elements, forcing the celestial bodies to expand. This was associated with his mechanical explanation of gravitation. Also the theses of Ott Christoph Hilgenberg (1933, 1974) and Nikola Tesla (1935) were based on absorption and transformation of aether-energy into normal matter. After initially endorsing the idea of continental drift, Australian geologist Samuel Warren Carey advocated expansion from the 1950s (before the idea of plate tectonics was generally accepted) to his death, alleging that subduction and other events could not balance the sea-floor spreading at oceanic ridges, and describing yet unresolved paradoxes that continue to plague plate tectonics. Starting in 1956, he proposed some sort of mass increase in the planets and said that a final solution to the problem is only possible by cosmological processes associated with the expansion of the universe. Bruce Heezen initially interpreted his work on the mid-Atlantic ridge as confirming S. Warren Carey's Expanding Earth Theory, but later ended his endorsement, finally convinced by the data and analysis of his assistant, Marie Tharp. The remaining proponents after the 1970s, like the Australian geologist James Maxlow, are mainly inspired by Carey's ideas. To date no scientific mechanism of action has been proposed for this addition of new mass. Although the earth is constantly acquiring mass through accumulation of rocks and dust from space such accretion, however, is only a minuscule fraction of the mass increase required by the growing earth hypothesis. Decrease of the gravitational constant Paul Dirac suggested in 1938 that the universal gravitational constant had decreased during the billions of years of its existence. This caused German physicist Pascual Jordan to propose in 1964, a modification of the theory of general relativity, that all planets slowly expand. This explanation is considered a viable hypothesis within the context of physics. Measurements of a possible variation of the gravitational constant showed an upper limit for a relative change of per year, excluding Jordan's idea. Formation from a gas giant According to the hypothesis of J. Marvin Herndon (2005, 2013) the Earth originated in its protoplanetary stage from a Jupiter-like gas giant. During the development phases of the young Sun, which resembled those of a T Tauri star, the dense atmosphere of the gas giant was stripped off by infrared eruptions from the sun. The remnant was a rocky planet. Due to the loss of pressure from its atmosphere it would have begun a progressive decompression. Herndon regards the energy released due to the lack of compression as a primary energy source for geotectonic activity, to which some energy from radioactive decomposition processes was added. He terms the resulting changes in the course of Earth's history by the name of his theory Whole-Earth Decompression Dynamics. He considered seafloor spreading at divergent plate boundaries as an effect of it. In his opinion mantle convection as used as a concept in the theory of plate tectonics is physically impossible. His theory includes the effect of solar wind (geomagnetic storms) as cause for the reversals of the Earth magnetic field. The question of mass increase is not addressed. Main arguments against Earth expansion The hypothesis had never developed a plausible and verifiable mechanism of action. During the 1960s, the theory of plate tectonics— based initially on the assumption that Earth's size remains constant, and relating the subduction zones to burying of lithosphere at a scale comparable to seafloor spreading—became the accepted explanation in the Earth Sciences. The scientific community finds that significant evidence contradicts the Expanding Earth theory, and that the evidence used for it is explained better by plate tectonics: Measurements with modern high-precision geodetic techniques and modeling of the measurements by the horizontal motions of independent rigid plates at the surface of a globe of free radius, were proposed as evidence that Earth is not currently increasing in size to within a measurement accuracy of 0.2 mm per year. The main author of the study stated "Our study provides an independent confirmation that the solid Earth is not getting larger at present, within current measurement uncertainties". The motions of tectonic plates and subduction zones measured by a large range of geological, geodetic and geophysical techniques helps verify plate tectonics. Imaging of lithosphere fragments within the mantle is evidence for lithosphere consumption by subduction. Paleomagnetic data has been used to calculate that the radius of Earth 400 million years ago was 102 ± 2.8 percent of the present radius. Examinations of data from the Paleozoic and Earth's moment of inertia suggest that there has not been any significant change of Earth's radius during the last 620 million years. See also :Category:Plate tectonics Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (before 1954) Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (after 1952) Notes Bibliography ; 1976: "The Expanding Earth", Developments in Geotectonics (10), Elsevier, ; digital edition 2013: ASIN B01E3II6VY. ;1988: "Theories of the Earth and Universe: A History of Dogma in the Earth Sciences", Stanford University Press, . ; 1993: Holmes' principles of physical geology, Chapman & Hall (4th ed.), . ; 1990: The Solid Earth, an introduction to Global Geophysics, Cambridge University Press, . ; 1999: Earth System History, W.H. Freeman & Co, . External links Historical Ott Christoph Hilgenberg: G. Scalera: Roberto Mantovani an Italian defender of the continental drift and planetary expansion Giancarlo Scalera: Variable Radius CartographyBirth and Perspectives of a New Experimental Discipline G. Scalera, Braun: Ott Christoph Hilgenberg in twentieth-century geophysics G. Scalera: Samuel Warren Carey – Commemorative memoir Andrew Alden: Warren Carey, Last of the Giants Contemporary Database of Expansion Tectonic Scientists, living and deceased Structure of the Earth Geophysics Geodynamics Obsolete geology theories

3646653

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grzegorz%20Pojma%C5%84ski

Grzegorz Pojmański

Grzegorz Pojmański (born April 16, 1959, in Warsaw), is a Polish astronomer and professor at the Warsaw University Astronomical Observatory, Poland. In 1997 Pojmański together with professor Bohdan Paczyński implemented the project All Sky Automated Survey (ASAS). With the ASAS Alert System Pojmański discovered two new comets: C/2004 R2 (ASAS) and C/2006 A1 (Pojmański). Pojmański connects with the ASAS automatic telescope located in Las Campanas Observatory, Chile, via Internet. Publications Eclipsing binaries in ASAS catalog by B. Paczynski, D. Szczygiel, B. Pilecki, G. Pojmański The All Sky Automated Survey. The Catalog of Variable Stars. V. Declinations 0 deg - 28 deg of the Northern Hemisphere by G. Pojmański, B. Pilecki, D. Szczygiel The All Sky Automated Survey. The Catalog of Variable Stars. IV.18^h - 24^h Quarter of the Southern Hemisphere by G. Pojmański, Gracjan Maciejewski The All Sky Automated Survey. The Catalog of Variable Stars. III. 12h - 18h Quarter of the Southern Hemisphere by G. Pojmański, Gracjan Maciejewski The All Sky Automated Survey. The Catalog of Variable Stars. II.6h-12h Quarter of the Southern Hemisphere by G. Pojmański The All Sky Automated Survey. A Catalog of almost 3900 variable stars by G. Pojmański The All Sky Automated Survey. Variable Stars in the 0h - 6h Quarter of the Southern Hemisphere by G.Pojmański Vertical Structure of Accretion Discs with Hot Coronae in AGN by A. Rożańska, B. Czerny (N.Copernicus Astronomical Center Poland), P.T. Zycki (University of Durham England), G. Pojmański (Astronomical Observatory of Warsaw University Poland) The All Sky Automated Survey. The Catalog of the Short Period Variable Stars in the Selected Fields by G. Pojmański The All Sky Automated Survey by G. Pojmanski See also OGLE Andrzej Udalski References ASAS Home Page Basic info from Warsaw University Science research (SYNABA II) External links Polish telescope discovers new comet article in AngolaPress Komputerowy łowca komet - Sukces polskiego astronoma 1959 births Living people 21st-century Polish astronomers Discoverers of comets 20th-century Polish astronomers

3652107

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawlerway

Crawlerway

The Crawlerway is a double pathway at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. It runs between the Vehicle Assembly Building and the two launch pads at Launch Complex 39. It has a length of to Pad 39A and Pad 39B, respectively. A bed of stones lies beneath a layer of asphalt and a surface made of Alabama river rocks. The Crawlerway was originally designed to support the weight of the Saturn V rocket and its payload, plus the Launch Umbilical Tower and mobile launcher platform, atop a crawler-transporter during the Apollo program. It was also used from 1981 to 2011 to transport the lighter Space Shuttles to their launch pads. Construction of the Crawlerway connected Merritt Island with the mainland, forming a peninsula. The main vehicle access road to and from the launch pads, the Saturn Causeway, runs alongside the Crawlerway. Construction The Crawlerway is composed of two lanes, separated by a median. The top layer is Alabama river rock, thick on the straight sections and thick on curves. Alabama river rock was chosen for many properties, including hardness, roundness, sphericity and LA abrasion test score. Beneath that is of graded, crushed stone, resting on two layers of fill. By 2013, a project to repair and upgrade the Crawlerway was undertaken, the first time since it was constructed that the foundation had been repaired. Additional rock was added to the surface in June 2014. Gallery References External links Kennedy Space Center Apollo program Space Shuttle program Buildings and structures in Merritt Island, Florida National Register of Historic Places in Brevard County, Florida 1964 establishments in Florida

3654881

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underwater%20World%2C%20Singapore

Underwater World, Singapore

Underwater World, also known as Underwater World Singapore Pte Ltd, was an oceanarium located on the offshore Singaporean island of Sentosa. It was opened on 13 May 1991 and closed on 26 June 2016. History The oceanarium was developed by the Western Australian Development Corporation in the late 1980s. It opened to the public on 13 May 1991 and was sold to private investors a year later. It had more than 2,500 marine animals of 250 species from different regions of the world. The oceanarium was mostly underground and it was owned by the Haw Par Corporation. The Underwater World's ticket included admission to the Dolphin Lagoon at Palawan Beach. It re-opened on 23 February 2010 after a revamp of several attractions within the park. Underwater World was also involved in several environmental and educational projects, such as the Living in the Ocean Programme, Ocean Ambassador Programme and the Coral Club. The Underwater World also provided exclusive venues to host events, such as ocean-themed functions. Attractions Underwater World had a long travelator that moved visitors along a submerged thick acrylic-windowed tunnel from which they could look at an array of marine life including coral reefs, stingrays, moray eels, turtles, sharks and others. Adventures The Underwater World and Dolphin Lagoon offered numerous adventures to the visitors. Some of them included: Marine Discovery Dive With the Sharks Swim With the Dolphins Dolphin Lagoon The Dolphin Lagoon was home to several Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins, also known as the "pink dolphins". Several "Meet-the-Dolphins" sessions were held daily that allowed visitors to enter the waist-deep pool and interact closely with the dolphins. The ticket to the Underwater World & dolphin show did not include the direct contact with the dolphins, an additional photo-coupon had to be purchased. The lagoon also included a Dolphin Suite where visitors could watch the dolphin performance from within an air-conditioned area. In August 2014 the organizations Wildlife Watcher Singapore, in collaboration with Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, reported sub-standard living conditions for the animals. The pink dolphins have since been rehoused in Chimelong Ocean Kingdom, an oceanarium in Zhuhai, China. Effect of plans for Sentosa Integrated Resort On 6 December 2006, Underwater World Singapore launched three new attractionsan interactive stingray feeding pool, a display of small marine reef species, and 'Fish Reflexology', Singapore's first fish reflexology spa, where two species of doctor fish gently nibble away at the dead skin on visitors' feet. The new features cost 650,000. This was amid plans that were being proposed for Sentosa's Integrated Resorts. Genting Group's 5.2 billion proposal, Resorts World, would feature the world's largest oceanarium at that point in timethe Quest Marine Life Parkwhich would house 700,000 marine animals in a lagoon. Rival bidder Kerzner-CapitaLand's proposal would have an even larger marine habitat, with a capacity of , including the world's largest jellyfish enclosure and an artificial reef for diving and snorkelling. A week later it was announced that Genting International won the bid. In 2012, the Marine Life Park (also known as S.E.A. Aquarium) opened in Resorts World Sentosa. Closure On 6 June 2016, it was announced by operator Haw Par that the venue would close on 26th of that month. Its pink dolphins, fur seals and otters had been transferred to Chimelong Ocean Kingdom in Zhuhai, China the week before the announcement. List of animals in Underwater World and Dolphin Lagoon Golden trevally Bluespotted ribbontail ray Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin Coconut crab Cownose ray Dugong (Dugong dugon) Moon jellyfish (Aurelia aurita) Spider crab Yellow tang Sand tiger shark Green sea turtle Nibble fish All kinds of reef fish Pufferfish Sea stars/starfishes Chambered nautilus Arapaima Angel shark Bannerfishes Butterfly fishes Rainbow crab Vinegar crab Box crabs Decorator crab Humphead wrasse Shovelnose rays Eagle rays Nurse sharks Bamboo sharks Leafy seadragon Weedy seadragon Clown fishes Sea anemones Giant grouper White-tip reef shark Leopard shark Lion's mane jellyfish Blue jellyfish Sea nettle See also Jurong Bird Park Night Safari Marine Life Park Singapore Zoo Van Kleef Aquarium Transit The Underwater World Monorail Station used to serve this attraction, but it no longer does since the station closed in 2005. A 3 Cabin Beach shuttle ( Beach Tram ) Serve the Former attraction but little is known about it. References External links Demolished buildings and structures in Singapore 1991 establishments in Singapore Oceanaria Sentosa Southern Islands 2016 disestablishments in Singapore

3657045

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulate%20of%20the%20Sea

Consulate of the Sea

The Consulate of the Sea (; ) was a quasi-judicial body set up in the Crown of Aragon, later to spread throughout the Mediterranean basin, to administer maritime and commercial law. The term may also refer to a celebrated collection of maritime customs and ordinances in Catalan language, also known in English as The Customs of the Sea, compiled over the 14th and 15th centuries and published at Valencia in or before 1494. In the 21st century, the Catalan term Consolat de mar is today used for a commercial arbitration service operated by the Barcelona Chamber of Commerce, and also for a series of trade-promotion offices operated by the city of Barcelona. Medieval institution The Catalan institution can be traced to the grant of the Carta Consular to the city of Barcelona by Jaume I of Aragon in 1258. This gave Barcelona merchants the right to settle their commercial disputes without interference from the royal courts: in return, the king received much needed financial support for his wars of expansion. Mercantile Law (ius mercadorium) was becoming established at the same time through much of Europe, and similar bodies had already been established in Messina (first third of the 13th century) and Genoa (1250). As the territories of the Crown of Aragon expanded, it was customary to establish new Consulates of the Sea in the major ports. One of the earliest was in Valencia (1283), where the charter of Peter III of Aragon makes it clear that disputes are to be settled "according to maritime customs, as these are accepted in Barcelona." Book of the Consulate of the Sea The full title in Catalan is Les costums marítimes de Barcelona universalment conegudes per Llibre del Consolat de mar, or "The maritime customs of Barcelona universally known as the Book of the Consulate of the Sea". The earliest extant printed edition of the work (Barcelona, 1494) is without a title-page or frontispiece, but it is described by the above-mentioned title in the epistle dedicatory prefixed to the table of contents. The only known copy of this edition () is preserved in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris. The epistle dedicatory states that the work is an amended version of the Book of the Consulate of the Sea, compiled by Francis Celelles with the assistance of numerous shipmasters and merchants well versed in maritime affairs. According to a statement made by Capmany in his Codigo de los costumbras maritimas de Barcelona, published at Madrid in 1791, there was extant to his knowledge an older edition, printed in semi-Gothic characters, which he believed to be of a date prior to 1484. There are, however, two Catalan manuscripts preserved in the Bibliothèque nationale de France, the earliest of which, being MS. Espagnol 124, contains the two first treatises which are printed in the Book of the Consulate of the Sea of 1494, and which are the most ancient portion of its contents, written in a hand of the 14th century, on paper of that century. The subsequent parts of this manuscript are on paper of the 15th century, but there is no document of a date more recent than 1436. The later of the two manuscripts, being MS. Espagnol 56, is written throughout on paper of the 15th century, and in a hand of that century, and it purports, from a certificate on the face of the last leaf, to have been executed under the superintendence of Peter Thomas, a notary public, and the scribe of the Consulate of the Sea at Barcelona. The edition of 1494 contains, in the first place, a code of procedure issued by the kings of Aragon for the guidance of the courts of the consuls of the sea, in the second place, a collection of ancient customs of the sea, and thirdly, a body of rules for the government of cruisers of war. A colophon at the end of these ordinances informs the reader that the book commonly called the Book of the Consulate of the Sea ends here; after which there follows a document known by the title of The Acceptations, which purports to record that the previous chapters and ordinances had been approved by the "Roman" people in 1075, and by various princes and peoples in the 12th and 13th centuries: this is generally regarded as of no historical value. The paging of the edition of 1494 ceases with this document, at the end of which is the printer's colophon, reciting that the work was completed on 14 July 1494, at Barcelona, by Pere Posa, priest and printer. The remainder of the volume consists of what may be regarded as an appendix to the original Book of the Consulate. This appendix contains various maritime ordinances of the kings of Aragon and of the councillors of the city of Barcelona, ranging over a period from 1271 to 1493. It is printed apparently in the same type with the preceding part of the volume. The original Book of the Consulate of the Sea, coupled with this appendix, circulated in Europe under the title, The Consulate of the Sea, and in the 16th century was translated into the Castilian, the Italian, and the French languages. The Italian translation, printed at Venice c. 1549 by Jean Baptista Pedrezano, was the version that obtained the largest circulation in the north of Europe, and led many jurists to suppose the work to have been of Italian origin. In the next century, the work was translated into Dutch by Westerven, and into German by Engelbrecht, and it is also said to have been translated into Latin. An excellent translation into French of The Customs of the Sea, which are the most valuable portion of the Book of the Consulate, was published by Pardessus in the second volume of his Collection des lois maritimes (Paris, 1834), under the title of La Compilation connue sous le nom do consulat de la mer. See introduction, by Sir Travers Twiss, to the Black Book of the Admiralty (London, 1874), which in the appendix to vol. iii, contains his translation of The Customs of the Sea, with the Catalan text. References Consulate of the Sea and Related Documents. Translated by Stanley S. Jados (1975). University of Alabama Press. Les costums marítimes de Barcelona universalment conegudes per Llibre del Consolat de mar. Edited by Ernest Moliné y Brasés (1914). Barcelona: Henrich. "De la favor de les causes mercantivols." Constitution of the Corts de Catalunya, Montsó, 1510. External links Consolat de Mar Conflict Resolution Centre Law of the sea Catalan language History of Valencia Principality of Catalonia Crown of Aragon Spanish Empire Quasi-judicial bodies Catalan law Legal history of Spain fr:Lonja de la seda#Salle du Consulat de Mer

3663565

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunglint

Sunglint

Sunglint is a phenomenon that occurs when sunlight reflects off the surface of the ocean at the same angle that a satellite or other sensor is viewing the surface. In the affected area of the image, smooth ocean water becomes a silvery mirror, while rougher surface waters appear dark. Sometimes the sunglint region of satellite images reveals interesting ocean or atmospheric features that the sensor does not typically record. As an example of interesting features revealed by sunglint, the accompanying image shows a large, overlapping wave pattern in the sunglint region of an image of Indonesia (the islands at the top of the image) and Australia (the landmass at the bottom of the image). The wave pattern seen in the image is not from large ocean waves, however. The pattern is of atmospheric gravity waves above the surface of the ocean. They form when buoyancy pushes air up, and gravity pulls it back down. On its descent into the low-point of the wave (the trough), the air touches the surface of the ocean, roughening the water. The long, vertical dark lines show where the troughs of gravity waves have roughened the surface. The brighter regions show the crests of the atmospheric waves. Beneath the crests, the water is calm and reflects light directly back towards the sensor. Clouds commonly form at the crests of the waves, and such clouds are visible throughout this scene. Images that show sunglint Below is a gallery of images that show sunglint. See also Sun glitter References Atmospheric optical phenomena Atmospheric radiation

3667154

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A9nega

Ciénega

A ciénega (also spelled ciénaga) is a wetland system unique to the American Southwest and Northern Mexico. Ciénagas are alkaline, freshwater, spongy, wet meadows with shallow-gradient, permanently saturated soils in otherwise arid landscapes that often occupy nearly the entire widths of valley bottoms. That description satisfies historic, pre-damaged ciénagas, although few can be described that way now. Incised ciénagas are common today. Ciénagas are usually associated with seeps or springs, found in canyon headwaters or along margins of streams. Ciénagas often occur because the geomorphology forces water to the surface, over large areas, not merely through a single pool or channel. In a healthy ciénaga, water slowly migrates through long, wide-scale mats of thick, sponge-like wetland sod. Ciénaga soils are squishy, permanently saturated, highly organic, black in color or anaerobic. Highly adapted sedges, rushes and reeds are the dominant plants, with succession plants—Goodding's willow, Fremont cottonwoods and scattered Arizona walnuts—found on drier margins, down-valley in healthy ciénagas where water goes underground or along the banks of incised ciénagas. Ciénagas are not considered true swamps due to their lack of trees, which will drown in historic ciénagas. However, trees do grow in many damaged or drained ciénagas, making the distinction less clear. Current state The distribution and conservation status of ciénegas of Arizona and adjacent New Mexico were first inventoried and assessed systematically in 1985. Characterized by slow-moving, broad flows through extensive emergent vegetation, intact ciénegas were then rare, but reviews of historic accounts of the surface waters and landscapes of that region indicated they were previously extensive. Broadscale incision of ciénegas and conversion of large segments of former ciénegas to ephemeral surface flows through deeply incised former ciénega-formed soils, was hypothesized to have occurred predominantly in the late 1800s as a result of overgrazing, water diversions, and changing climates. More recent updates and geographically broadened inventories and status assessments of ciénegas now extend throughout Arizona and New Mexico eastward into Texas and south into Chihuahua and Sonora (México). Though often diverse local factors have clearly played major roles in altering some former ciénegas, the hypothesis of ongoing region-wide erosion since arrival of Europeans, and subsequent alteration of the land and aquifers (including more recent pumping of them), has been generally supported. "Since the late 1800s, natural wetlands in arid and semi-arid desert grasslands of the American Southwest and Northern Mexico have largely disappeared.". Historic ciénegas are now deeply entrenched and generally dry, or left with far less-permanent, often now ephemeral water. Broad grasslands adjacent to former ciénegas, once supported by shallow and stable groundwater maintained by ciénegas, are gone, replaced largely by mesquite and other arid-land vegetation, sometimes with narrow, remnant ciénegas persisting in deeply incised channels. Additional resources about ciénegas are available, including an extensive bibliography of relevant literature. Properties Ciénegas occur at intermediate elevations (1000-2000 m) and are characterized by saturated, reducing soils with reliable water supply via seepage. Sedges, rushes, and grasses are the dominant plants, with a few trees that can withstand saturated soils, such as willows. Ciénegas trap organic matter from their surroundings, and are thus highly productive ecosystems. The structure of a natural ciénega is influenced by long-term climatic cycles of wet and dry periods. During dry periods, falling water tables lead to a reduction in vegetation. Prolonged wet periods lead to increased vegetation and trapping of sediment, while brief periods of high rainfall may lead to carving of gullies. Runaway gully growth, as can occur when vegetation is artificially removed (e.g., by overgrazing), can lead to channelization and loss of the ciénega. Importance and conservation As a primary source of water in arid environments, ciénegas support a broad range of terrestrial life, including numerous endangered species. For instance, in Arizona, 19% of threatened, endangered, or candidate threatened or endangered species are directly associated with ciénegas. Ciénegas also purify surface water and mitigate flooding when heavy precipitation occurs, and help to cycle nutrients between water and soil. Humans have also long relied on the water provided by ciénegas: Indigenous Americans used ciénegas for water and hunting grounds, and a majority of pre-historic agricultural settlements occurred in the vicinity of ciénegas. Indigenous inhabitants of the American Southwest also gave spiritual significance to ciénegas and local watering holes. The decline of ciénegas has been caused largely by changes in land use, primarily overgrazing (which removes water-absorbing vegetation) and overexploitation of ground water for agriculture and urban use. Direct removal of vegetation from the vicinity of wetlands has also been a cause of ciénega loss, as has the extirpation of beaver from the region. Preservation of existing ciénegas, and restoration of degraded ciénegas, depends on reversing these trends in land use and preventing their recurrence in the vicinity of ciénegas. This preservation is complicated by the fact that a majority of ciénegas are found on privately-owned land, most of which do not have binding conservation agreements or easements in place. Occurrence It is likely that there were many hundreds of long lost ciénagas, although there are only 155 identified or named ciénagas since the European arrival in the entire International Four Corners Region of the Southwest — that is, Arizona and New Mexico in the United States and Chihuahua and Sonora in Mexico. The tables below (with minor updates from ) summarize current knowledge of the distribution and status of ciénegas in the indicated U.S. and Mexican states. In late 2018, as part of his effort to create a wetland action plan for the state of New Mexico, retired former New Mexico botanist Robert Sivinski discovered via satellite an additional 119 small ciénagas in New Mexico. This surprising number of previously unidentified or unstudied ciénagas suggests there may be more to be found. Further site-specific status assessment information and general information about ciénegas may be found in an open bibliography of ciénega literature. See also References Topography Wetlands Springs (hydrology)

3668578

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adonia

Adonia

The Adonia (Greek: ) was a festival celebrated annually by women in ancient Greece to mourn the death of Adonis, the consort of Aphrodite. It is best attested in classical Athens, though other sources provide evidence for the ritual mourning of Adonis elsewhere in the Greek world, including Hellenistic Alexandria and Argos in the second century AD. According to Ronda R. Simms in her article, "Mourning and Community at the Athenian Adonia", the celebration of the Adonia was the only evidence that was found about worship of Adonis in Athens, as of 1997. There were no temples, statues, or priests in worship to Adonis. Athenian festival In Athens, the Adonia took place annually, and was organised and celebrated by women. It was one of a number of Athenian festivals which were celebrated solely by women and addressed sexual or reproductive subjects – others included the Thesmophoria, Haloa, and Skira. Unlike these other festivals, however, the Adonia was not state-organised, or part of the official state calendar of religious celebration. In fact, it was not found to be celebrated by any official cults, like the cult of Bendis, or foreign cults, whose participants were mostly non-natives, like Isis. Prostitutes, respectable women, non-citizens and citizens alike celebrated the Adonia. Also unlike the Thesmophoria, the Adonia was never celebrated in a designated area. Over the course of the festival, Athenian women took to the rooftops of their houses. They danced, sang, and ritually mourned the death of Adonis. They planted "Gardens of Adonis" – lettuce and fennel seeds, planted in potsherds – which sprouted before withering and dying. After the rooftop celebrations, the women descended to the streets with these Gardens of Adonis, and small images of the god; they then conducted a mock funeral procession, before ritually burying the images and the remains of the gardens at sea or in springs. The rites observed during the festival are not otherwise paralleled in ancient Greek religion; like Adonis himself they probably originated in the Near East. Date The date of the Adonia at Athens is uncertain, with ancient sources contradicting one another. Aristophanes, in his Lysistrata, has the festival take place in the early spring of 415 BC, when the Sicilian Expedition was proposed; Plutarch puts the festival on the eve of the expedition's setting sail, in midsummer that year. Theophrastus' Enquiry into Plants (Περι φυτων ιστορια) and Plato's Phaedrus are both often taken as evidence for the Adonia having been celebrated in the summer. In Egypt and Syria in the Roman period, the Adonia coincided with the rising of the star Sirius in late July. As the Sicilian Expedition sailed in June 415, this contradicts both Aristophanes' and Plutarch's dating of the Adonia; the Athenian Adonia must have been celebrated at a different time. Modern scholars disagree on which of these sources is correct. Many agree with Plutarch, and put the festival around midsummer, though Dillon argues that Aristophanes' placement of the festival near the beginning of spring is "without question" correct. Some scholars, such as James Fredal, suggest that there was in fact no fixed date for the Adonia to be celebrated. Gardens of Adonis The main feature of the festival at Athens were the "Gardens of Adonis", broken pieces of terracotta which had lettuce and fennel seeds sown in them. These seeds sprouted, but soon withered and died. Though most scholars say that these gardens withered due to being exposed to the heat of the summer, Dillon, who believes that the Adonia was held in the spring, says that the plants instead failed because they could not take root in the shallow soil held by the terracotta shards. In support of this, he cites Diogenianus, who says that in the Gardens of Adonis, seedlings "wither quickly because they have not taken root". In ancient Greece, the phrase "Gardens of Adonis" was used proverbially to refer to something "trivial and wasteful". The symbolism of the Gardens of Adonis is also widely debated: according to James George Frazer, the Gardens of Adonis were supposed to be a sort of ritual performed in order to promote a good harvest, that the actual crops were to grow fast like the little gardens. To John J. Winkler the gardens were meant to represent how men had very little power when it came to regeneration in either plants or humans. Purposes of the Gardens There have also been debates on what the woman did with the gardens. Most assume they put the gardens out on their rooftops to wither and die, in order to symbolize how Adonis "sprouted and died quickly". Simms believes that the gardens were made to be used as funerary biers for the little effigies of Adonis to be placed in. These little effigies were made so that the women could have something to focus their mourning towards, because this entire festival is supposed to mourn the loss of Adonis himself. Outside Athens Outside of Athens, a celebration of Adonis is attested in Hellenistic Alexandria, in Theocritus' 15th Idyll. The Idyll 15 is said to be the longest surviving account of the Adonia we have to date. The festival described by Theocritus, unlike the one celebrated in Athens, was a cult with state patronage. It included an annual competition between women singing dirges for Adonis. Rites lamenting the death of Adonis are also attested in Argos in the second century AD: the Greek geographer Pausanias describes the women of Argos mourning Adonis' death at a shrine inside the temple of Zeus Soter. Also in the second century, On the Syrian Goddess, attributed to Lucian, describes an Adonia celebrated in Byblos. There is no mention of Gardens of Adonis at this festival, but ritual prostitution and mystery rites are involved in the celebrations. Laurialan Reitzammer argues that the festival described by Lucian is one that was brought back to Syria from Greece, rather than being of native Syrian origin. The Phoenician text of the Pyrgi Tablets (western central Italy) seem to indicate that the commemoration of the death of Adonis was an important rite in Central Italy, that is if, as is generally assumed, the Phoenician phrase bym qbr ʼlm "on the day of the burial of the divinity" refers to this rite. This claim would be further strengthened if Schmidtz's recent claim can be accepted that the Phoenician phrase bmt n' bbt means "at the death of (the) Handsome (one) [=Adonis]." Together with evidence of the rite of Adonai in the Liber Linteus in the 7th column, there is a strong likelihood that the ritual was practiced in (at least) the southern part of Etruria from at least circe 500 bce through the second century bce (depending on one's dating of the Liber Linteus). The Liber Linteus also seems to support the date of this ritual in July. Adonis himself does not seem to be directly mentioned in any of the extant language of either text. In the Roman world, the festival was celebrated on 19 July. References Works cited Greek mythology Ancient Greek culture Festivals in ancient Greece

3671687

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton%20calculus%20controversy

Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy

In the history of calculus, the calculus controversy () was an argument between the mathematicians Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz over who had first invented calculus. The question was a major intellectual controversy, which began simmering in 1699 and broke out in full force in 1711. Leibniz had published his work first, but Newton's supporters accused Leibniz of plagiarizing Newton's unpublished ideas. Leibniz died in disfavour in 1716 after his patron, the Elector Georg Ludwig of Hanover, became King George I of Great Britain in 1714. The modern consensus is that the two men developed their ideas independently. Newton said he had begun working on a form of calculus (which he called "the method of fluxions and fluents") in 1666, at the age of 23, but did not publish it except as a minor annotation in the back of one of his publications decades later (a relevant Newton manuscript of October 1666 is now published among his mathematical papers). Gottfried Leibniz began working on his variant of calculus in 1674, and in 1684 published his first paper employing it, "". L'Hôpital published a text on Leibniz's calculus in 1696 (in which he recognized that Newton's of 1687 was "nearly all about this calculus"). Meanwhile, Newton, though he explained his (geometrical) form of calculus in Section I of Book I of the of 1687, did not explain his eventual fluxional notation for the calculus in print until 1693 (in part) and 1704 (in full). The prevailing opinion in the 18th century was against Leibniz (in Britain, not in the German-speaking world). Today the consensus is that Leibniz and Newton independently invented and described the calculus in Europe in the 17th century. One author has identified the dispute as being about "profoundly different" methods: On the other hand, other authors have emphasized the equivalences and mutual translatability of the methods: here N Guicciardini (2003) appears to confirm L'Hôpital (1696) (already cited): Scientific priority in the 17th century In the 17th century, as at the present time, the question of scientific priority was of great importance to scientists. However, during this period, scientific journals had just begun to appear, and the generally accepted mechanism for fixing priority by publishing information about the discovery had not yet been formed. Among the methods used by scientists were anagrams, sealed envelopes placed in a safe place, correspondence with other scientists, or a private message. A letter to the founder of the French Academy of Sciences, Marin Mersenne for a French scientist, or to the secretary of the Royal Society of London, Henry Oldenburg for English, had practically the status of a published article. The discoverer could 'time-stamp' the moment of his discovery, and prove that he knew of it at the point the letter was sealed, and had not copied it from anything subsequently published. Nevertheless, where an idea was subsequently published in conjunction with its use in a particularly valuable context, this might take priority over an earlier discoverer's work, which had no obvious application. Further, a mathematician's claim could be undermined by counter-claims that he had not truly invented an idea, but merely improved on someone else's idea, an improvement that required little skill, and was based on facts that were already known. A series of high-profile disputes about the scientific priority of the 17th century—the era that the American science historian D. Meli called "the golden age of the mud-slinging priority disputes"—is associated with the name Leibniz. The first of them occurred at the beginning of 1673, during his first visit to London, when in the presence of the famous mathematician John Pell he presented his method of approximating series by differences. To Pell's remark that this discovery had already been made by François Regnaud and published in 1670 in Lyon by Gabriel Mouton, Leibniz answered the next day. In a letter to Oldenburg, he wrote that, having looked at Mouton's book, he admits Pell was right, but in his defense, he can provide his draft notes, which contain nuances not found by Renault and Mouton. Thus, the integrity of Leibniz was proved, but in this case, he was recalled later. On the same visit to London, Leibniz was in the opposite position. February 1, 1673, at a meeting of the Royal Society of London, he demonstrated his mechanical calculator. The curator of the experiments of the Society, Robert Hooke, carefully examined the device and even removed the back cover for this. A few days later, in the absence of Leibniz, Hooke criticized the German scientist's machine, saying that he could make a simpler model. Leibniz, who learned about this, returned to Paris and categorically rejected Hooke's claim in a letter to Oldenburg and formulated principles of correct scientific behaviour: "We know that respectable and modest people prefer it when they think of something that is consistent with what someone's done other discoveries, ascribe their own improvements and additions to the discoverer, so as not to arouse suspicions of intellectual dishonesty, and the desire for true generosity should pursue them, instead of the lying thirst for dishonest profit." To illustrate the proper behaviour, Leibniz gives an example of Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc and Pierre Gassendi, who performed astronomical observations similar to those made earlier by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Hevelius, respectively. Learning that they did not make their discoveries first, French scientists passed on their data to the discoverers. Newton's approach to the priority problem can be illustrated by the example of the discovery of the inverse-square law as applied to the dynamics of bodies moving under the influence of gravity. Based on an analysis of Kepler's laws and his own calculations, Robert Hooke made the assumption that motion under such conditions should occur along orbits similar to elliptical. Unable to rigorously prove this claim, he reported it to Newton. Without further entering into correspondence with Hooke, Newton solved this problem, as well as the inverse to it, proving that the law of inverse-squares follows from the ellipticity of the orbits. This discovery was set forth in his famous work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica without indicating the name Hooke. At the insistence of astronomer Edmund Halley, to whom the manuscript was handed over for editing and publication, the phrase was included in the text that the compliance of Kepler's first law with the law of inverse squares was "independently approved by Wren, Hooke and Halley." According to the remark of Vladimir Arnold, Newton, choosing between refusal to publish his discoveries and constant struggle for priority, chose both of them. Background Invention of differential and integral calculus By the time of Newton and Leibniz, European mathematicians had already made a significant contribution to the formation of the ideas of mathematical analysis. The Dutchman Simon Stevin (1548–1620), the Italian Luca Valerio (1553–1618), the German Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) were engaged in the development of the ancient "method of exhaustion" for calculating areas and volumes. The latter's ideas, apparently, influenced – directly or through Galileo Galilei – on the "method of indivisibles" developed by Bonaventura Cavalieri (1598–1647). The last years of Leibniz's life, 1710–1716, were embittered by a long controversy with John Keill, Newton, and others, over whether Leibniz had discovered calculus independently of Newton, or whether he had merely invented another notation for ideas that were fundamentally Newton's. No participant doubted that Newton had already developed his method of fluxions when Leibniz began working on the differential calculus, yet there was seemingly no proof beyond Newton's word. He had published a calculation of a tangent with the note: "This is only a special case of a general method whereby I can calculate curves and determine maxima, minima, and centers of gravity." How this was done he explained to a pupil a full 20 years later, when Leibniz's articles were already well-read. Newton's manuscripts came to light only after his death. The infinitesimal calculus can be expressed either in the notation of fluxions or in that of differentials, or, as noted above, it was also expressed by Newton in geometrical form, as in the Principia of 1687. Newton employed fluxions as early as 1666, but did not publish an account of his notation until 1693. The earliest use of differentials in Leibniz's notebooks may be traced to 1675. He employed this notation in a 1677 letter to Newton. The differential notation also appeared in Leibniz's memoir of 1684. The claim that Leibniz invented the calculus independently of Newton rests on the basis that Leibniz: published a description of his method some years before Newton printed anything on fluxions, always alluded to the discovery as being his own invention (this statement went unchallenged for some years), enjoyed the strong presumption that he acted in good faith, and demonstrated in his private papers his development of the ideas of calculus in a manner independent of the path taken by Newton. According to Leibniz's detractors, the fact that Leibniz's claim went unchallenged for some years is immaterial. To rebut this case it is sufficient to show that he: saw some of Newton's papers on the subject in or before 1675 or at least 1677, and obtained the fundamental ideas of the calculus from those papers. No attempt was made to rebut #4, which was not known at the time, but which provides the strongest of the evidence that Leibniz came to the calculus independently from Newton. This evidence, however, is still questionable based on the discovery, in the inquest and after, that Leibniz both back-dated and changed fundamentals of his "original" notes, not only in this intellectual conflict, but in several others. He also published "anonymous" slanders of Newton regarding their controversy which he tried, initially, to claim he was not author of. If good faith is nevertheless assumed, however, Leibniz's notes as presented to the inquest came first to integration, which he saw as a generalization of the summation of infinite series, whereas Newton began from derivatives. However, to view the development of calculus as entirely independent between the work of Newton and Leibniz misses the point that both had some knowledge of the methods of the other (though Newton did develop most fundamentals before Leibniz started) and in fact worked together on a few aspects, in particular power series, as is shown in a letter to Henry Oldenburg dated 24 October 1676, where Newton remarks that Leibniz had developed a number of methods, one of which was new to him. Both Leibniz and Newton could see by this exchange of letters that the other was far along towards the calculus (Leibniz in particular mentions it) but only Leibniz was prodded thereby into publication. That Leibniz saw some of Newton's manuscripts had always been likely. In 1849, C. I. Gerhardt, while going through Leibniz's manuscripts, found extracts from Newton's De Analysi per Equationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas (published in 1704 as part of the De Quadratura Curvarum but also previously circulated among mathematicians starting with Newton giving a copy to Isaac Barrow in 1669 and Barrow sending it to John Collins) in Leibniz's handwriting, the existence of which had been previously unsuspected, along with notes re-expressing the content of these extracts in Leibniz's differential notation. Hence when these extracts were made becomes all-important. It is known that a copy of Newton's manuscript had been sent to Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus in May 1675, a time when he and Leibniz were collaborating; it is not impossible that these extracts were made then. It is also possible that they may have been made in 1676, when Leibniz discussed analysis by infinite series with Collins and Oldenburg. It is probable that they would have then shown him the manuscript of Newton on that subject, a copy of which one or both of them surely possessed. On the other hand, it may be supposed that Leibniz made the extracts from the printed copy in or after 1704. Shortly before his death, Leibniz admitted in a letter to Abbé Antonio Schinella Conti, that in 1676 Collins had shown him some of Newton's papers, but Leibniz also implied that they were of little or no value. Presumably he was referring to Newton's letters of 13 June and 24 October 1676, and to the letter of 10 December 1672, on the method of tangents, extracts from which accompanied the letter of 13 June. Whether Leibniz made use of the manuscript from which he had copied extracts, or whether he had previously invented the calculus, are questions on which no direct evidence is available at present. It is, however, worth noting that the unpublished Portsmouth Papers show that when Newton went carefully into the whole dispute in 1711, he picked out this manuscript as the one which had probably somehow fallen into Leibniz's hands. At that time there was no direct evidence that Leibniz had seen Newton's manuscript before it was printed in 1704; hence Newton's conjecture was not published. But Gerhardt's discovery of a copy made by Leibniz tends to confirm its accuracy. Those who question Leibniz's good faith allege that to a man of his ability, the manuscript, especially if supplemented by the letter of 10 December 1672, sufficed to give him a clue as to the methods of the calculus. Since Newton's work at issue did employ the fluxional notation, anyone building on that work would have to invent a notation, but some deny this. Development The quarrel was a retrospective affair. In 1696, already some years later than the events that became the subject of the quarrel, the position still looked potentially peaceful: Newton and Leibniz had each made limited acknowledgements of the other's work, and L'Hôpital's 1696 book about the calculus from a Leibnizian point of view had also acknowledged Newton's published work of the 1680s as "nearly all about this calculus" ("presque tout de ce calcul"), while expressing preference for the convenience of Leibniz's notation. At first, there was no reason to suspect Leibniz's good faith. In 1699, Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, a Swiss mathematician known for his work on the zodiacal light problem, publicly accused Leibniz of plagiarizing Newton, although he privately had accused Leibniz of plagiarism twice in letters to Christiaan Huygens in 1692. It was not until the 1704 publication of an anonymous review of Newton's tract on quadrature, a review implying that Newton had borrowed the idea of the fluxional calculus from Leibniz, that any responsible mathematician doubted that Leibniz had invented the calculus independently of Newton. With respect to the review of Newton's quadrature work, all admit that there was no justification or authority for the statements made therein, which were rightly attributed to Leibniz. But the subsequent discussion led to a critical examination of the whole question, and doubts emerged. Had Leibniz derived the fundamental idea of the calculus from Newton? The case against Leibniz, as it appeared to Newton's friends, was summed up in the Commercium Epistolicum of 1712, which referenced all allegations. This document was thoroughly machined by Newton. No such summary (with facts, dates, and references) of the case for Leibniz was issued by his friends; but Johann Bernoulli attempted to indirectly weaken the evidence by attacking the personal character of Newton in a letter dated 7 June 1713. When pressed for an explanation, Bernoulli most solemnly denied having written the letter. In accepting the denial, Newton added in a private letter to Bernoulli the following remarks, Newton's claimed reasons for why he took part in the controversy. He said, "I have never grasped at fame among foreign nations, but I am very desirous to preserve my character for honesty, which the author of that epistle, as if by the authority of a great judge, had endeavoured to wrest from me. Now that I am old, I have little pleasure in mathematical studies, and I have never tried to propagate my opinions over the world, but I have rather taken care not to involve myself in disputes on account of them." Leibniz explained his silence as follows, in a letter to Conti dated 9 April 1716: To Newton's staunch supporters this was a case of Leibniz's word against a number of contrary, suspicious details. His unacknowledged possession of a copy of part of one of Newton's manuscripts may be explicable; but it appears that on more than one occasion, Leibniz deliberately altered or added to important documents (e.g., the letter of 7 June 1713 in the Charta Volans, and that of 8 April 1716 in the Acta Eruditorum), before publishing them, and falsified a date on a manuscript (1675 being altered to 1673). All this casts doubt on his testimony. Considering Leibniz's intellectual prowess, as demonstrated by his other accomplishments, he had more than the requisite ability to invent the calculus. What he is alleged to have received was a number of suggestions rather than an account of calculus; it is possible, since he did not publish his results of 1677 until 1684 and since differential notation was his invention, that Leibniz minimized, 30 years later, any benefit he might have enjoyed from reading Newton's manuscript. Moreover, he may have seen the question of who originated the calculus as immaterial when set against the expressive power of his notation. In any event, a bias favouring Newton tainted the whole affair from the outset. The Royal Society, of which Isaac Newton was president at the time, set up a committee to pronounce on the priority dispute, in response to a letter it had received from Leibniz. That committee never asked Leibniz to give his version of the events. The report of the committee, finding in favour of Newton, was written and published as "Commercium Epistolicum" (mentioned above) by Newton early in 1713. But Leibniz did not see it until the autumn of 1714. Leibniz's death and end of dispute Leibniz never agreed to acknowledge Newton's priority in inventing calculus. He also tried to write his own version of the history of differential calculus, but, as in the case of the history of the rulers of Braunschweig, he did not complete the matter. At the end of 1715, Leibniz accepted Johann Bernoulli's offer to organize another mathematician competition, in which different approaches had to prove their worth. This time the problem was taken from the area later called the calculus of variations – it was required to construct a tangent line to a family of curves. A letter with the wording was written on 25 November and transmitted in London to Newton through Abate Conti. The problem was formulated in not very clear terms, and only later it became clear that it was required to find a general, and not a particular, as Newton understood, solution. After the British side published their decision, Leibniz published his, more general, and, thus, formally won this competition. For his part, Newton stubbornly sought to destroy his opponent. Not having achieved this with the "Report", he continued his painstaking research, spending hundreds of hours on it. His next study, entitled "Observations upon the preceding Epistle", was inspired by a letter from Leibniz to Conti in March 1716, which criticized Newton's philosophical views; no new facts were given in this document. With Leibniz's death in November 1716, the controversy gradually subsided. According to A. Rupert Hall, after 1722 this question ceased to interest Newton himself. See also Possibility of transmission of Kerala School results to Europe List of scientific priority disputes References Sources W. W. Rouse Ball (1908) A Short Account of the History of Mathematics], 4th ed. Richard C. Brown (2012) Tangled origins of the Leibnitzian Calculus: A case study of mathematical revolution, World Scientific Ivor Grattan-Guinness (1997) The Norton History of the Mathematical Sciences. W W Norton. Stephen Hawking (1988) A Brief History of Time From the Big Bang to Black Holes. Bantam Books. Kandaswamy, Anand. The Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context. External links Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe, Reihe VII: Mathematische Schriften, vol. 5: Infinitesimalmathematik 1674-1676, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2008, pp. 288–295 ("Analyseos tetragonisticae pars secunda", 29 October 1675) and 321–331 ("Methodi tangentium inversae exempla", 11 November 1675). Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis...", 1684 (Latin original) (English translation) Isaac Newton, "Newton's Waste Book (Part 3) (Normalized Version)": 16 May 1666 entry (The Newton Project) Isaac Newton, "De Analysi per Equationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas (Of the Quadrature of Curves and Analysis by Equations of an Infinite Number of Terms)", in: Sir Isaac Newton's Two Treatises, James Bettenham, 1745. 17th-century controversies 18th-century controversies 17th century in science 18th century in science Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz History of calculus Isaac Newton Scientific rivalry Discovery and invention controversies Plagiarism controversies

3673870

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VV%20Cephei

VV Cephei

VV Cephei, also known as HD 208816, is an eclipsing binary star system located in the constellation Cepheus, approximately 5,000 light years from Earth. It is both a B[e] star and shell star. VV Cephei is an eclipsing binary with the third longest known period. A red supergiant, it fills its Roche lobe when closest to a companion blue star, the latter appearing to be on the main sequence. Matter flows from the red supergiant onto the blue companion for at least part of the orbit and the hot star is obscured by a large disk of material. The supergiant primary, known as VV Cephei A, is currently recognised as one of the largest stars in the galaxy although its size is not certain. The best estimate is , which is nearly as large as the orbit of Jupiter. Variability The fact that VV Cephei is an eclipsing binary system was discovered by American astronomer Dean McLaughlin in 1936. VV Cephei experiences both primary and secondary eclipses during a 20.3 year orbit. The primary eclipses totally obscure the hot secondary star and last for nearly 18 months. Secondary eclipses are so shallow that they have not been detected photometrically since the secondary obscures such a small proportion of the large cool primary star. The timing and duration of the eclipses is variable, although the exact onset is difficult to measure because it is gradual. Only ε Aurigae (period = 27.08 years), and AS Leonis Minoris (period = 69.1 years) have longer periods. VV Cephei also shows semiregular variations of a few tenths of a magnitude. Visual and infrared variations appear unrelated to variations at ultraviolet wavelengths. A period of 58 days has been reported in UV, while the dominant period for longer wavelengths is 118.5 days. The short wavelength variations are thought to be caused by the disc around the hot secondary, while pulsation of the red supergiant primary caused the other variations. It has been predicted that the disc surrounding the secondary would produce such brightness variability. Spectrum The spectrum of VV Cep can be resolved into two main components, originating from a cool supergiant and a hot small star surrounded by a disk. The material surrounding the hot secondary produces emission lines, including [FeII] forbidden lines, the B[e] phenomenon known from other stars surrounded by circumstellar disks. The hydrogen emission lines are double-peaked, caused by a narrow central absorption component. This is caused by seeing the disk almost edge on where it intercepts continuum radiation from the star. This is characteristic of shell stars. Forbidden lines, mainly of FeII but also of CuII and NiII, are mostly constant in radial velocity and during eclipses, so they are thought to originate in distant circumbinary material. The spectrum varies dramatically during the primary eclipses, particularly at the ultraviolet wavelengths produced most strongly by the hot companion and its disc. The typical B spectrum with some emission is replaced by a spectrum dominated by thousands of emission lines as portions of the disc are seen with the continuum from the star blocked. During ingress and egress, the emission line profiles change as one side or the other of the disc close to the star becomes visible while the other is still eclipsed. The colour of the system as a whole is also changed during eclipse, with much of the blue light from the companion blocked. Out of eclipses, certain spectral lines vary strongly and erratically in both strength and shape, as well as the continuum. Rapid random variations in the short wavelength (i.e. hot) continuum appear to arise from the disc around the B component. Shell absorption lines show variable radial velocities, possibly due to variations in accretion from the disk. Emission from FeII and MgII strengthens around periastron or secondary eclipses, which occur at about the same time, but the emission lines also vary randomly throughout the orbit. In the optical spectrum, the Hα is the only clear emission feature. Its strength varies randomly and rapidly out of eclipse, but it becomes much weaker and relatively constant during the primary eclipses. Distance The distance has been estimated by a variety of techniques to be around , which places it within the Cepheus OB2 association. Some older studies found a larger distance and consequently very high luminosity and radius, but it now seems that the distance is more likely to be around , although both the Hipparcos and Gaia Data Release 2 parallax measurements imply a distance below . Properties It should be possible to calculate the masses of eclipsing binary stars with some accuracy, but in this case mass loss, changes in the orbital parameters, a disk obscuring the hot secondary, and doubt about the distance of the system have led to wildly varying estimates. The traditional model, from the spectroscopically derived orbit, has the masses of both stars around , which is typical for a luminous red supergiant and an early A main sequence star. An alternative model has been proposed based on the unexpected timing of the 1997 eclipse. Assuming that the change is due to mass transfer altering the orbit, dramatically lower mass values are required. In this model, the primary is a AGB star and the secondary is an B star. The spectroscopic radial velocities showing the secondary with equal mass to the primary is explained as being of a portion of the disc rather than the star itself. The angular diameter of VV Cephei A can be estimated using photometric methods and has been calculated at 0.00638 arcseconds. This allows a direct calculation of the actual diameter, which is in good agreement with the derived from a complete orbital solution and eclipse timings. Analysis of earlier eclipses had given radius values between and and an upper limit of . The diagrams of the roche lobe of VV Cephei A are contradictory, for example, the roche lobe is calculated to be about , thus the radius cannot be larger than this, although in another diagram, the roche lobe is calculated to be much larger at . The size of the secondary is even more uncertain, since it is physically and photometrically obscured by a much larger disc across. The secondary is certainly much smaller than either the primary or the disc, and has been calculated at to from the orbital solution. The temperature of the VV Cephei stars is again uncertain, partly because there simply isn't a single temperature that can be assigned to a significantly non-spherical diffuse star orbiting a hot companion. The effective temperature generally quoted for stars is the temperature of a spherical blackbody that approximates the electromagnetic radiation output of the actual star, accounting for emission and absorption in the spectrum. VV Cephei A is fairly clearly identified as an M2 supergiant, and as such, it is given a temperature around 3,800 K. The secondary star is heavily obscured by a disk of material from the primary, and its spectrum is almost undetectable against the disc emission. Detection of some ultraviolet absorption lines narrow down the spectral type to early B and it is apparently a main-sequence star, but likely to be abnormal in several respects due to mass transfer from the supergiant. Although VV Cephei A is an extremely large star showing high mass loss and having some emissions lines, it is not generally considered to be a hypergiant. The emission lines are produced from the accretion disc around the hot secondary and the absolute magnitude is typical for a red supergiant. See also Stellar classification VY Canis Majoris References External links Largest stars at space.Com Universe Today - largest stars VV Cephei at Kempten observatory Aladin image of VV Cephei Cepheus (constellation) Algol variables M-type supergiants Cephei, VV B-type main-sequence stars 8383 208816 108317 BD+62 2007 Shell stars B(e) stars J21563917+6337319 IRAS catalogue objects Semiregular variable stars TIC objects Population I stars

3673908

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KY%20Cygni

KY Cygni

KY Cygni is a red supergiant of spectral class M3.5Ia located in the constellation Cygnus. It is approximately 5,000 light-years away. Observations KY Cyg lies near the bright open cluster NGC 6913, but is not thought to be a member. The location is close to the bright star γ Cygni. It was identified as a variable star in 1930, and later named as KY Cygni. The spectrum was given the MK classification of M3 Ia, with only minor adjustments since. KY Cygni is heavily reddened due to interstellar extinction, losing an estimated 7.75 magnitudes at visual wavelengths. It would be a naked eye star if no light was lost. Properties KY Cygni is classified as a luminous red supergiant with a strong stellar wind. It is losing mass at around and has been described as a cool hypergiant. Its properties are uncertain, but the temperature is around 3,500 K. A model fit based on K-band infrared brightness gives a luminosity of , corresponding to a radius of . Another model based on visual brightness gives an unexpectedly large luminosity of , with the difference due mainly to the assumptions about the level of extinction. The radius corresponding to the higher luminosity would be . These parameters are larger and more luminous than expected for any red supergiant, making them doubtful. More recently, integration of the spectral energy distributions across a full range of wavelengths from U band to the 60 micron microwave flux gives an even lower luminosity of , and calculation of the bolometric luminosity based on its Gaia Data Release 2 parallax gives a luminosity below with a corresponding radius of . KY Cygni is a variable star with a large amplitude but no clear periodicity. At times, it varies rapidly, at others it is fairly constant for long periods. The photographic magnitude range is given as 13.5 - 15.5, while a visual range is 10.60 - 11.74. See also List of largest known stars References External links http://jumk.de/astronomie/big-stars/ky-cygni.shtml http://www.astronomy.com/asy/default.aspx?c=a&id=2772 List of Largest Stars Gets 3 New Chart Toppers, Robert Roy Britt, space.com, 10 January 2005. Accessed on line November 12, 2010. M-type supergiants Cygnus (constellation) Slow irregular variables Cygni, KY J20255805+3821076 IRAS catalogue objects M-type hypergiants Population I stars

3680578

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentine%20real

Argentine real

The real was the currency of Argentina until 1881. From 1822, it was subdivided into 10 décimos. The sol was also issued during this period and was equal to the real, whilst the peso was worth 8 reales and the escudo was worth 16 reales. History Spanish colonial reales circulated alone until 1813, when Argentina began issuing its own coins. From 1820, paper money was also issued. In 1826, the peso moneda corriente and peso fuerte were introduced in paper money only. In 1854, coins were issued denominated in centavos. However, decimalization did not occur until in 1881, when the real was replaced by the peso moneda nacional at a rate of 8 reales to 1 peso. Coins Silver coins were issued in the name of the "Río de la Plata Province" in denominations of , 1, 2, 4 and 8 reales and , 1, 2, 4 and 8 soles, whilst gold coins (87.5%) were issued in denomination of 1, 2, 4 and 8 escudos. The state of Buenos Aires issued its own coins starting in 1822, denominated in reales and décimos, with 10 décimos = 1 real. Coins were issued in denominations of 1, 5, 10 and 20 décimos, together with , (actually shown as ), 1 and 2 reales. They were all minted of copper. Other provinces issued coins denominated in reales (silver) and escudos (gold): Córdoba, Entre Ríos, La Rioja, Mendoza, Salta, Santiago del Estero and Tucumán. Since these coins were scarce, it was common to use silver coins from other countries (especially Bolivian soles). In 1854, coins were issued in the name of the "Argentine Confederation" in denominations of 1, 2 and 4 centavo coins. As notes above, this issue did not lead to full decimalization. Banknotes In 1820, the Government of the Province of Buenos Aires introduced notes in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 40, 50 and 100 pesos. These were followed in 1823 by 1, 3 and 5 pesos. The Banco de Buenos Ayres began issuing notes in 1822 in denominations of 20, 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1000 pesos. 1 and 2 peso notes followed in 1823. General references Currencies of Argentina Modern obsolete currencies Sun on coins

3680869

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%20standstill

Lunar standstill

A lunar standstill or lunistice is when the Moon reaches its furthest north or furthest south point during the course of a month (specifically a draconic month of about 27.2 days). The declination (a celestial coordinate measured as the angle from the celestial equator, analogous to latitude) at lunar standstill varies in a cycle 18.6 years long between 18.134° (north or south) and 28.725° (north or south), due to lunar precession. These extremes are called the minor and major lunar standstills. The last minor lunar standstill was in October 2015, and the next one will be in May 2034. The last major lunar standstill was in June 2006, and the next one will be in January 2025. Presently the northern lunistice occurs when the Moon is seen in the direction of Taurus, northern Orion, Gemini, or sometimes the southernmost part of Auriga (as at the time of a major lunistice). The southern lunistice occurs when the Moon is in Sagittarius or Ophiuchus. Due to precession of the Earth's axis, the northernmost and southernmost locations of the Moon in the sky move westward, and in about 13,000 years the northern lunistice will occur in Sagittarius and Ophiuchus and the southern lunistice in the area of Gemini. During a minor lunar standstill, tidal forces are slightly increased in some places, leading to increased amplitude of tides and tidal flooding. At a major lunar standstill, the Moon's range of declination, and consequently its range of azimuth at moonrise and moonset, reaches a maximum. As a result, viewed from the middle latitudes, the Moon's altitude at upper culmination (the daily moment when the object appears to contact the observer's meridian) changes in two weeks from its maximum possible value to its minimum possible value above the horizon, due north or due south (depending on the observer's hemisphere). Similarly, its azimuth at moonrise changes from northeast to southeast and at moonset from northwest to southwest. In a year of a major lunar standstill, solar eclipses occur in March at ascending node and in September at descending node, whereas lunar eclipses at descending node occur in March, lunar eclipses at ascending node occur in September. In a year of a minor lunar standstill the situation is reversed. The times of lunar standstills appear to have had special significance for the Bronze Age societies who built the megalithic monuments in Britain and Ireland. It also has significance for some neopagan religions. Evidence also exists that alignments to the moonrise or moonset on the days of lunar standstills can be found in ancient sites of other ancient cultures, such as at Chaco Canyon in New Mexico, Chimney Rock in Colorado and Hopewell Sites in Ohio. Major lunar standstill A major lunar standstill occurs when the Moon's declination reaches a maximum monthly limit, stopping at 28.725° north or south. An eclipse season near the March equinox has solar and lunar eclipses at an odd-numbered saros, while another eclipse season near the September equinox has solar and lunar eclipses at an even-numbered saros. Between 1951 and 2050, these dates are 29 March 1969, 8 November 1987, 19 June 2006, 29 January 2025 and 10 September 2043. Minor lunar standstill A minor lunar standstill occurs when the Moon's declination reaches a minimum monthly limit, stopping at 18.134° north or south. An eclipse season near the March equinox has solar and lunar eclipses at an even-numbered saros, while another eclipse season near the September equinox has solar and lunar eclipses at an odd-numbered saros. Between 1951 and 2050, these dates are 7 December 1959, 19 July 1978, 27 February 1997, 10 October 2015 and 21 May 2034. Origin of name The term lunar standstill was apparently first used by engineer Alexander Thom in his 1971 book Megalithic Lunar Observatories. The term solstice, which derives from the Latin solstitium: sol- (sun) + -stitium (a stoppage), describes the similar extremes in the Sun's varying declination. Neither the Sun nor the Moon stands still, obviously; what stops, momentarily, is the change in declination. The word tropic, as in Tropic of Capricorn, comes from ancient Greek meaning "to turn", referring to how ascending (or descending) motion turns to descending (or ascending) motion at the solstice. Informal explanation As Earth rotates on its axis, the stars in the night sky appear to follow circular paths around the celestial poles. (This daily cycle of apparent movement is called diurnal motion.) All the stars seem fixed on a celestial sphere surrounding the observer. In the same way that positions on Earth are measured using latitude and longitude, the apparent places of stars on this sphere are measured in right ascension (corresponding to longitude) and declination (corresponding to latitude). If viewed from a latitude of 50° N on Earth, any star with a declination of +50° would pass directly overhead (reaching the zenith at upper culmination) once every sidereal day (23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds), whether visible at night or obscured in daylight. Unlike the stars, the Sun and Moon do not have a fixed declination. Since Earth's rotational axis is tilted by about 23.5° with respect to a line perpendicular to its orbital plane (the ecliptic), the Sun's declination ranges from +23.5° at the June solstice to −23.5° at the December solstice, as the Earth orbits the Sun once every tropical year. Therefore, in June, in the Northern Hemisphere, the midday Sun is higher in the sky, and daytime then is longer than in December. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed. This obliquity causes Earth's seasons. The Moon's declination also changes, completing a cycle once every lunar nodal period of 27.212 days. Thus, lunar declination ranges from a positive value to a negative one in just under two weeks, and back. Consequently, in under a month, the Moon's altitude at upper culmination (when it contacts the observer's meridian) can shift from higher in the sky to lower above the horizon, and back. Thus the Moon's declination varies cyclically with a period of about four weeks, but the amplitude of this oscillation varies over an 18.6 year cycle. A lunar standstill occurs at the points in this latter cycle when this amplitude reaches a minimum or a maximum. The Moon differs from most natural satellites around other planets in that it remains near the ecliptic (the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun) instead of Earth's equatorial plane. The Moon's maximum and minimum declination vary because the plane of the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5.14° with respect to the ecliptic plane, and the spatial direction of the Moon's orbital inclination gradually changes over an 18.6-year cycle, alternately adding to or subtracting from the 23.5° tilt of Earth's axis. Therefore, the maximum declination of the Moon varies roughly from (23.5° − 5° =) 18.5° to (23.5° + 5° =) 28.5°. At the minor lunar standstill, the Moon will change its declination during the nodal period from +18.5° to −18.5°, for a total range of 37°. Then 9.3 years later, during the major lunar standstill, the Moon will change its declination during the nodal period from +28.5° to −28.5°, which totals 57° in range. This range is enough to bring the Moon's altitude at culmination from high in the sky to low above the horizon in just two weeks (half an orbit). Strictly speaking, the lunar standstill is a moving position in space relative to the direction of Earth's axis and to the rotation of the Moon's orbital nodes (lunar nodal precession) once every 18.6 years. The standstill position does not persist over the two weeks that the Moon takes to move from its maximum (positive) declination to its minimum (negative) declination, and it most likely will not exactly coincide with either extreme. However, because the 18.6 year cycle of standstills is so much longer than the Moon's orbital period (about 27.3 days), the change in the declination range over periods as short as half an orbit is very small. The period of the lunar nodes precessing in space is slightly shorter than the lunar standstill interval due to Earth's axial precession, altering Earth's axial tilt over a very long period relative to the direction of lunar nodal precession. Put simply, the standstill cycle results from the combination of the two inclinations. Apparent position of the Moon during standstill The azimuth (horizontal direction) of moonrise and moonset varies according to the Moon's nodal period of 27.212 days, while the azimuth variation during each nodal period varies with the lunar standstill period (18.613 years). For a latitude of 55° north or 55° south on Earth, the following table shows moonrise and moonset azimuths for the Moon's narrowest and widest arc paths across the sky. The azimuths are given in degrees from true north and apply when the horizon is unobstructed. Figures for a time midway between major and minor standstill are also given. The arc path of the full Moon generally reaches its widest in midwinter and its narrowest in midsummer. The arc path of the new Moon generally reaches its widest in midsummer and its narrowest in midwinter. The arc path of the first quarter moon generally reaches its widest in midspring and its narrowest in midautumn. The arc path of the last quarter moon generally reaches its widest in midautumn and its narrowest in midspring. {| class="wikitable" |+ Azimuth of full Moon on horizon(as viewed from 55° north) |- ! ! colspan=2 | Narrowest arc ! colspan=2 | Widest arc |- ! Epoch || Moonrise || Moonset || Moonrise || Moonset |- | Minor standstill || 124° || 236° || 56° || 304° |- | Midway || 135° || 225° || 45° || 315° |- | Major standstill || 148° || 212° || 32° || 328° |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Azimuth of full Moon on horizon(as viewed from 55° south) |- ! ! colspan=2 | Widest arc ! colspan=2 | Narrowest arc |- ! Epoch || Moonrise || Moonset || Moonrise || Moonset |- | Minor standstill || 124° || 236° || 56° || 304° |- | Midway || 135° || 225° || 45° || 315° |- | Major standstill || 148° || 212° || 32° || 328° |} For observers at the middle latitudes (not too near the Equator or either pole), the Moon is highest in the sky in each period of 24 hours when it reaches the observer's meridian. During the month, these culmination altitudes vary so as to produce a greatest value and a least value. The following table shows these altitudes at different times in the lunar nodal period for an observer at 55° north or 55° south. The greatest and least culminations occur about two weeks apart. {| class="wikitable" |+ Altitude at culmination(as viewed from 55° north or south) |- ! Epoch ! Greatest ! Least |- | Minor standstill || 53.5° || 16.5° |- | Midway || 58.5° || 11.5° |- | Major standstill || 63.5° || 6.5° |} The following table shows some occasions of a lunar standstill. The times given are for when the Moon's node passed the equinox—the Moon's greatest declination occurs within a few months of these times, depending on its detailed orbit. However, the Moon is close to standstill for a year or so on either side of these dates. {| class="wikitable" |+ Times of lunar standstill ! Major standstill !! Minor standstill |- | May 1988 || February 1997 |- | June 2006 || October 2015 |- | April 2025 || March 2034 |- | September 2043 || March 2053 |} Effects on Earth During a minor lunar standstill, the tidal forces (gravitational forces) of solar objects are more aligned. This leads to an increased amplitude in tides and tidal flooding at the 18.6 year interval. Detailed explanation A more detailed explanation is best considered in terms of the paths of the Sun and Moon on the celestial sphere, as shown in the first diagram. This shows the abstract sphere surrounding the Earth at the center. The Earth is oriented so that its axis is vertical. The Sun is, by definition, always seen on the ecliptic (the Sun's apparent path across the sky) while Earth is tilted at an angle of e = 23.5° to the plane of that path and completes one orbit around the Sun in 365.25636 days, slightly longer than one year due to precession altering the direction of Earth's inclination. The Moon's orbit around Earth (shown dotted) is inclined at an angle of i = 5.14° relative to the ecliptic. The Moon completes one orbit around the Earth in 27.32166 days. The two points at which Moon crosses the ecliptic are known as its orbital nodes, shown as "N1" and "N2" (ascending node and descending node, respectively), and the line connecting them is known as the line of nodes. Due to precession of the Moon's orbital inclination, these crossing points, the nodes and the positions of eclipses, gradually shift around the ecliptic in a period of 18.59992 years. Looking at the diagram, note that when the Moon's line of nodes (N1 & N2) rotates a little more than shown, and aligns with Earth's equator, (from front to back, N1, Earth, and N2, seem to be the same dot), the Moon's orbit will reach its steepest angle with the Earth's equator, and in 9.3 years (from front to back, N2, Earth, N1 seem to be the same dot) it will be the shallowest: the 5.14° declination (tilt) of the Moon's orbit either adds to (major standstill) or subtracts from (minor standstill) the inclination of earth's rotation axis (23.439°). The effect of this on the declination of the Moon is shown in the second diagram. During the course of the nodal period, as the Moon orbits the Earth, its declination swings from –m° to +m°, where m is a number in the range (e – i) ≤ m ≤ (e + i). At a minor standstill (e.g., in 2015), its declination during the month varies from –(e – i) = –18.5° to +(e – i) = 18.5°. During a major standstill (e.g., in 2005–2006), the declination of the Moon varied during each month from about –(e + i) = –28.5° to +(e + i) = 28.5°. However, an additional subtlety further complicates the picture. The Sun's gravitational attraction on the Moon pulls it toward the plane of the ecliptic, causing a slight wobble of about 9 arcmin within a 6-month period. In 2006, the effect of this was that, although the 18.6-year maximum occurred in June, the maximum declination of the Moon was not in June but in September, as shown in the third diagram. Other complications Because the Moon is relatively close to the Earth, lunar parallax alters declination up to 0.95° when observed from Earth's surface versus geocentric declination, the declination of the Moon from the center of the Earth. Geocentric declination may be up to about 0.95° different from the observed declination. The amount of this parallax varies with latitude, hence the observed maximum of each standstill cycle varies according to position of observation. Atmospheric refraction – the bending of the light from the Moon as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere – alters the observed declination of the Moon, more so at low elevation, where the atmosphere is thicker (deeper). Not all the maxima are observable from all places in the world – the Moon may be below the horizon at a particular observing site during the maximum, and by the time it rises, it may have a lower declination than an observable maximum at some other date. 2006 standstill Note that all dates and times in this section, and in the table, are in UTC, all celestial positions are in topocentric apparent coordinates, including the effects of parallax and refraction, and the lunar phase is shown as the fraction of the Moon's disc which is illuminated. In 2006, the minimum lunar declination, as seen from the centre of the Earth, was at 16:54 UTC on 22 March, when the Moon reached an apparent declination of −28:43:23.3. The next two best contenders were 20:33 on 29 September, at a declination of −28:42:38.3 and 13:12 on 2 September at declination −28:42:16.0. The maximum lunar declination, as seen from the centre of the Earth, was at 01:26 on 15 September, when the declination reached +28:43:21.6. The next highest was at 07:36 on 4 April, when it reached +28:42:53.9 However, these dates and times do not represent the maxima and minima for observers on the Earth's surface. For example, after taking refraction and parallax into account, the observed maximum on 15 September in Sydney, Australia, was several hours earlier, and then occurred in daylight. The table shows the major standstills that were actually visible (i.e. not in full daylight, and with the Moon above the horizon) from both London, UK, and Sydney, Australia. For other places on the Earth's surface, positions of the Moon can be calculated using the JPL ephemeris calculator. During a major lunar standstill, the moon was on the 29th parallel because eclipses of odd numbered saros occurred near March Equinox and even numbered saros occurring near September Equinox. During a minor lunar standstill, the moon was on the 18th parallel because eclipses of even numbered saros occurred near March Equinox and odd numbered saros occurred near September Equinox. References JPL ephemeris calculator (HORIZONS) External links Major Lunar Standstill 2006 A photographic digital mosaic of the 2006 event from Greece Lunar Standstill Season A webcamera at Calanais I (Lewis, Scotland) recording the lunar standstill events in 2005, 2006 and 2007 A project to study the major standstill events in 2005, 2006 and 2007 at (pre-)historic buildings Major Lunar Standstill at Chimney Rock Spherical astronomy Standstill Archaeoastronomy 1970s neologisms

3681677

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus%20Keil

Klaus Keil

Klaus Keil (November 15, 1934–February 25, 2022) was a professor at the School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. He was the former Director of the Hawaiʻi Institute of Geophysics and Planetology. He was also the former director of the University of New Mexico Institute of Meteoritics. Klaus pioneered the use of the electron microprobe to study meteorite samples. He was one of the co-inventors of the Energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer. In 1988, Klaus won the Leonard Medal, which is awarded by the Meteoritical Society. In 2006, he won the J. Lawrence Smith Medal, which is awarded by the National Academy of Sciences. These awards are for his pioneering quantitative studies of minerals in meteorites and important contributions to understanding the nature, origin, and evolution of their parent bodies. Asteroid 5054 Keil and the mineral keilite are named after Klaus. Klaus is the father of professional tennis players Mark Keil and Kathrin Keil. See also Glossary of meteoritics References 1934 births 2022 deaths German emigrants to the United States University of Hawaiʻi faculty Meteorite researchers American scientists Scientists from Hamburg

3681742

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collier%E2%80%93Seminole%20State%20Park

Collier–Seminole State Park

Collier–Seminole State Park is a Florida State Park located on US 41, south of Naples, Florida. The park is the home of a National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark, the Bay City Walking Dredge used to build the Tamiami Trail through the Everglades. The park includes of of mangrove swamp, cypress swamps, salt marshes, mangrove river estuaries, and pine flatwoods. Among the wildlife of the park are American alligators, raccoons, ospreys, and American white ibis. brown pelicans, wood storks, bald eagles, red-cockaded woodpeckers, American crocodiles, Florida black bears (Ursus americanus floridanus) and Big Cypress fox squirrels (Sciurus niger avicennia) also inhabit the park. Activities include picnicking, hiking, bicycling, and canoeing, camping, wildlife viewing, fishing and boating. Amenities include an RV park, four pavilion picnic shelters, a boat ramp, and a full-facility campground with youth, group and primitive campsites. The park has a number of trails. A canoe trail that flows down the Blackwater River through a mangrove forest. A hiking trail runs through the park. A .9-mile nature trail features a boardwalk system and observation platform that overlooks the salt marsh. The park is open from 8:00 am until sundown year-round. Gallery References and external links Collier–Seminole State Park Florida State Parks – Collier–Seminole State Park State parks of Florida Parks in Collier County, Florida Everglades Mangroves Protected areas established in 1947 1947 establishments in Florida Nature centers in Florida Buildings and structures in Naples, Florida Landforms of Collier County, Florida Wetlands of Florida

3684349

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TomTom

TomTom

TomTom N.V. is a Dutch multinational developer and creator of location technology and consumer electronics. Founded in 1991 and headquartered in Amsterdam, TomTom released its first generation of satellite navigation devices to market in 2004. As of 2019 the company has over 4,500 employees worldwide and operations in 29 countries throughout Europe, Asia-Pacific, and the Americas. History The company was founded in Amsterdam in 1991 as Palmtop Software, by Corinne Vigreux, Peter-Frans Pauwels and Pieter Geelen. The company focused on corporate handheld device software before focusing on the consumer market and releasing the first route planning software for mobile devices in 1996. Software was developed mainly for Psion devices and the company was one of the largest developers of Psion software in the late 1990s. Palmtop also worked with Psion in the development of EPOC32. Software was also developed for Palm and Windows CE devices. In 1999, Vigreux's husband, Harold Goddijn left Psion Netherlands, for which TomTom made software and where Vigreux was previously sales director, to join TomTom. He had previously invested in TomTom. In 2001, the company's brand name changed to TomTom, while its legal name was also changed by 2003. On 27 May 2005, TomTom listed on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange, valuing the company at nearly €50 million. In September 2005 TomTom acquired Datafactory AG, a telematics service provider based in Leipzig. Datafactory AG employed around 30 people and realized a turnover of approximately €5 million in 2004 and a small net profit. In January 2006, TomTom acquired the UK company Applied Generics, forming TomTom Traffic. In 2008, TomTom acquired Tele Atlas, a digital map maker, for €2.9 billion. In 2010, they produced an advert saying You are not stuck in traffic. You are traffic. A photograph of this was widely circulated on the internet. It became a meme, often with different images and sometimes reworded slightly. On 11 June 2012, at an event for Apple's iOS 6 preview, TomTom was announced as the main mapping data provider for Apple's revamped iOS 6 "Maps" app, replacing Google Maps. In 2014, TomTom partnered with Volkswagen Group for joint research on Highly Automated Driving (HAD) systems. TomTom signed deals to provide their navigation devices to several carmakers including Volkswagen Group, Daimler, Toyota and others. In late 2015, TomTom extended its deal with Apple and signed a new contract with Uber, in which Uber driver app uses TomTom maps and traffic data in 300 cities worldwide. In May 2018, TomTom launched new portable navigation device the TomTom Go Camper to cater for the requirements of caravan and motorhome users. In January 2018 the company faced criticism for announcing that it would no longer be providing map updates for some devices. It also said that "lifetime" meant the "useful life" of a device. In 2020, the company signed a deal with Chinese manufacturer Huawei to use TomTom's map data in Petal Maps, a replacement service to Google Maps for the company's smartphones. Product history Until 1996, TomTom developed business-to-business applications such as meter reading and bar-code reading for handheld devices, such as Palm Pilot, Compaq iPaq and Psion Series 5. Subsequently, the company moved its focus to PDA software for the consumer market. Early mapping software included EnRoute, Citymaps and Routeplanner. By 2001, they released the first car satellite navigation software, the TomTom Navigator, shifting the company's focus to GPS car navigation. In 2004 a built-in subscription-based traffic update service was added. The first all-in-one device personal navigation device, the TomTom Go was released in March 2004, creating a new consumer electronics category. TomTom reports it has sold about 250,000 units of TomTom Go and this product represented 60% of the company's revenue for 2004. , the company had sold nearly 80 million navigation devices worldwide. In 2005, the ability to download new voices was introduced. The ruggedized, water-resistant Rider navigation device was released for motorcycle users in 2006. The Rider was the first portable satellite navigation device designed for motorcycles and scooters. Text-to-speech for road names was first introduced in 2006, along with hands-free calling and traffic support. TomTom Home, software for managing and downloading content for TomTom on a PC, was first released at this time. TomTom partnered with Vodafone in 2007 to create a high definition traffic service, designed to deliver real-time traffic data to Vodafone users through their devices. New features introduced in 2008 included IQ Routes, which estimated journey times based on average recorded speeds, rather than speed limits, and "Advanced Lane Guidance", an on-screen representation of the correct lane to take. In the autumn of 2008 devices were introduced with built-in GSM SIM cards, for connected features including HD Traffic, Google Local Search, real-time speed camera updates, and the facility to search for the cheapest fuel on route. In 2013 TomTom entered the GPS sports watch market with the launch of the TomTom Runner and TomTom Multi-Sport GPS. TomTom extended its range of GPS sports watches with the launch of the Runner Cardio GPS in 2014 with a built-in heart rate monitor. In 2015, TomTom entered a new product category with the launch of its new action camera, the Bandit. It had a built-in media server, enabling users to share footage in a matter of minutes. TomTom launched a new sports watch in 2016, the TomTom Spark, which in addition to GPS and a heart-rate monitor, included music on the wrist and a 24/7 activity tracker. A year later, the company announced that it was reorganizing he sports division and was withdrawing from the consumer sports market although products would continue to be supported. A company press release in June 2023 announced that support for sports watches and other wearable products will be discontinued from September 2023. This includes TomTom's own platforms as well as integration with third-party services such as Strava. In 2018, TomTom became the primary supplier of data for Apple's map app. TomTom Group business structure TomTom's business model targets two major market segments: B2B and Enterprise. Location Technology Location technology comprises the company's automotive and enterprise businesses, providing maps and navigation software as components of customer applications. The firm's automotive segment sells location technology components to carmakers. TomTom's navigation software is integrated into vehicles to provide current map data, online routing, and guidance and search information, allowing for vehicle features like destination prediction, traffic expectations, or charging points location and availability for electric vehicles. TomTom's enterprise segment sells its location technologies to tech. companies, government bodies, and traffic management entities. Consumer The consumer segment of TomTom's business sells portable, personal satellite navigation devices, once its core profit center. Usage of standalone GPS devices has since declined, despite the brand's efforts to contrast features to those of smartphone integrated alternatives. Recently, the company has transitioned its consumer business away from devices to offer software applications instead with digital maplinked services. This shift in focus is due partially to declining profitability as consumers utilize GPS alternatives with integrated navigation apps, and also to the anticipated rise in autonomous vehicle usage. Products and services TomTom as a company offers three types of products in different shapes and forms: maps, connected services and (navigation) software. TomTom Navigation devices (PNDs) and TomTom GO navigation apps are sold directly or indirectly to end-consumers. In-dashboard systems are released for the automotive market. The navigation devices and portable devices with installed software are referred to as units. TomTom partners with several car manufacturers and offers built-in navigation devices. Navigation TomTom units provide a flying interface with an oblique bird's-eye view of the road, as well as a direct-overhead map view. They use a GPS receiver to show the precise location and provide visual and spoken directions on how to drive to the specified destination. Some TomTom systems also integrate with mobile phones using Bluetooth, traffic congestion maps or to actually take calls and read SMS messages aloud. Navigation devices TomTom's all-in-one GPS navigation devices come with a touch screen, speaker, USB port, internal Lithium ion battery. Most models have Bluetooth transceivers that allow connection to a smartphone, allows the device to be used as a speakerphone to make and receive handsfree calls. TomTom Go, Via and Start – general purpose navigation devices. TomTom Camper & Caravan / RV – these models have a map that is supplied with height and width restrictions, which allows vehicle size and weight data to be entered for the route planning. TomTom Truck – designed for professional truck drivers and include truck-specific software and maps. TomTom Rider – Portable water-resistant models for motorcycle and motorscooter users. They differ from other devices in that the Rider is partly shielded and has a 'glove-friendly' screen and GUI. TomTom One and One XL – The TomTom One is the base model for automobile navigation. The difference between the TomTom One XL and the TomTom One is the size of the touch screen (4.3 vs 3.5 in or 110 vs 89 mm). Neither model of the One contains the added functions included in the Go models, such as Bluetooth hands-free calling and MP3 Jukebox. However, the One is able to receive traffic and weather updates using the TomTom Plus service when paired via Bluetooth with a mobile phone with a DUN data service. The reduced software capability means less demand on the hardware, which allows the One to be sold at a significantly lower price than the Go. The XL is also available as a Live version with integrated Live Services. Navigation software Current TomTom Go Navigator (formerly TomTom Go Mobile), GPS navigation software for the Android operating system. It replaced the old app, which had similar features to the iOS app. In March 2015, TomTom announced the new TomTom Go Mobile app for Android with a freemium subscription model for maps with the first 50 miles/75 kilometres per month being free, including all the maps that are available, TomTom Traffic and Speed Cameras. The previous app, which had promised "free lifetime updates", is not available for purchase on Play Store anymore and its maps are not updated since October 2015. TomTom claims their definition of lifetime map updates is "the period of time that TomTom continues to support the app with updates". Previous customers of TomTom's Android navigation app are offered a discount on the subscription in the new app for three years. There is no provision for users who want to keep using the old app under the conditions it was sold with lifetime map updates. TomTom AmiGO (formerly TomTom Speed Cameras), a mobile software application released in 2015 free of charge. It provides turn-by-turn navigation, speed camera alerts and incorporates user-submitted information. It is a community-driven initiative and is totally free, unlike the premium TomTom GO Navigation app offered by TomTom. Former TomTom Navigator – a GPS navigation software product for personal digital assistants (PDAs), Palm devices, Pocket PCs, and some smartphones. TomTom Navigator 6 replaced the earlier TomTom Mobile 5.2. It can use GPS receivers built into the device or external (e.g., Bluetooth-connected) receivers. Navigator 7 was the latest release of this software, released as a part of the software that came with the June 2008 HTC Touch Diamond. Frequently used functions can be added to the main screen of the program, and users can report map corrections and share them with other users. Navigator supports touch screens; devices without touch screens use a cursor to input data. The software is available on SD card and DVD. It runs on a number of devices listed on the TomTom website, but will run successfully on many unlisted devices using the Windows Mobile operating system, discontinued in 2010. The DVD version includes a DVD, printed 15-character product code, Quick Start Guide, Licensing Agreement, a poster with a picture diagram for setup procedure of DVD version and SD card version, and an advertisement for associated TomTom Plus services. The DVD contains installation software for TomTom Home, software for mobile devices, licenses, manuals, maps, and voices. The software for mobile devices includes CAB files for Palm, PPC, Symbian, and UIQ3. TomTom for iOS – GPS navigation software product for iOS devices, originally announced for the iPhone at the Apple WWDC Keynote speech in early June 2009, and released internationally on 15 August 2009 in the Apple App Store, with various map packs for different regions. TomTom Vice President of Marketing Development gave information in an interview by Macworld in July 2009. Currently the app works with iPhone (all models), the iPod Touch (all models) and the iPad (all models), however Apple dropped the support for the early models and latest versions of the TomTom iOS app might have issues on certain devices. There are two separate TomTom car kits available for certain Apple devices. The current maps available in each countries' app stores varies according to language availability of the app itself, the country of the app store, and thus differing region group map packs are available. Turkey and Greece were not included in the larger Europe map pack; this is related to the AppStore's app size limitation of 2 GB. These maps are available separately. Iceland is not available in any map package sold by TomTom at the moment, but they are working on it (and a few other countries too). Also most likely there will be a new iOS app available, based on the NavKit, which might cure the issue with the size limit (also Apple increased the app size limit to 4 GB). Navigation software for several mobile phones was discontinued after release 5.2; Navigator, which does not support all the phones that Mobile did, is the nearest equivalent. Mobile 5.2 cannot use maps later than v6.60 build 1223; this and earlier program versions are not compatible with all map versions, particularly other builds of version 6. In September 2012, Apple collaborated with TomTom to provide mapping data for its revamped iOS 6 updated Apple Maps app. The partnership was in part due to Apple's decision to wean itself off the products of its competitor, Google. As of 2018 TomTom continues to provide data for Apple Maps. Support applications TomTom Home (stylized as TomTom HOME) is a 32-bit PC application that allows synchronization/updates to be sent to the mobile device. TomTom Home version 2.0 and above is implemented on the XULRunner platform. With version 2.2, TomTom Home added a content-sharing platform where users can download and upload content to personalize their device such as voices, start-up images, POI sets, etc. At the moment TomTom Home is on version 2.9. Despite being based on the cross-platform XULRunner, TomTom Home lacks support for Linux. It is, for instance, impossible to update the maps in these devices by connecting them to another machine running Linux, even when using a common web browser like Firefox that normally allowed such an update under Microsoft Windows. However, the devices can still be read in a Linux OS as a disk drive. There is even software made by the community to manage some functions of the TomTom. The NAV3 and NAV4 range of models use MyDrive Connect. MyDrive Connect is compatible with 32bit and 64bit versions of Windows XP/Vista/7/8/8.1/10 preview and with most Mac OS X versions. The internal flash memory or the memory card content of the device cannot be accessed through USB for security reasons (modified applications would easily accept a map that wasn't sold by TomTom). The device can update itself by getting files through the HTTP protocol over USB. The support app is nothing more than a proxy on the PC buffering the download. So far the security achieved using this mechanism has not been broken yet. Also, the usage of the non-FAT/FAT32 file system brought stability improvements in device operations. Traffic services A traffic monitoring service that uses multiple sources to provide traffic information. The service does this by combining data from: traditional sources: governmental/third-party data such as induction loops in the roads, cameras and traffic surveillance new sources: traffic flow of millions of anonymous mobile phone users The information is merged by TomTom and algorithms are used to improve the data and filter out anomalous readings. The system sends updates to all TomTom Traffic users every two minutes (and the data the users receive is never older than 30 seconds). Users can receive the service through the built-in SIM, via a smartphone connection or on older devices via a standard phone connection. Re-routing can be set to be transparent to the user with the only sign that the route has been changed due to a traffic jam being a sound indication from the device and a changed . The system was first launched in the Netherlands in 2007 and expanded to the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Switzerland in 2008. By mid-2011, TomTom Live services including TomTom Traffic were available in the United States, South Africa, New Zealand and seventeen European countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. , the service is vastly expanded and current coverage is available on the TomTom Traffic site (34 countries and the list expands every few months to new regions). HD Traffic 6.0 (August 2012): More accurate location of traffic jams, improved coverage of automatically detected road closures TomTom Traffic 7.0 (September 2013): Increased accuracy of jam location now allows for 'Jam Ahead Warnings', warning drivers when approaching a jam-tail too fast. Improved coverage of automatic road closure detection started to include also major secondary roads. Automatic road works detection on highways. TomTom also added 'Predictive Flow Feed' for better predicting approaching traffic delays, with the goal of improving optimal route calculation and ETA. TomTom Traffic 8.0 (November 2014): TomTom included real-time weather information in their routing algorithms, and warns users in areas of bad weather. Also, version 8.0 now incorporates in their real-time traffic information road closures that are reported via the online Map Share Reporter tool. Consumer The company offers fee-based services under the name TomTom Plus (stylized TomTom PLUS), which include services to warn drivers about speed cameras, provide weather updates, change voices and provide traffic alerts. Currently, the fees are only for European countries. Traffic data is also available to subscribers in many parts of Europe and the US via a Bluetooth-enabled cell phone with Internet service or an add-on aerial, which picks up RDS data (broadcast on FM radio frequencies) offering traffic information without the requirement for a data connection. The TomTom Plus service is not compatible with Apple's iPhone. In October 2008 the company released Live Services on the Go 940 Live. These allowed users to receive updates over the mobile telephone network using the SIM card in the device. These services included HD Traffic, Safety Alerts, Local Search with Google and Fuel Prices. On 12 May 2011, TomTom announced that it was offering up its real-time traffic products to "industry partners" in the United States. On the latest NAV4 devices the service is not available anymore in the old form. The included services had been separated and now being called TomTom Traffic and Speed Cameras. On the x0/x00/x000 devices the traffic service is free of charge either via the built-in SIM (Always Connected models) or via a compatible smartphone (smartphone-connected or BYOD – bring-your-own-device). The speed camera service is free for three months on these models. However, there is a newer range, the x10/x100 models, which come now with free lifetime speed camera subscription too. Map Share is a proprietary map technology launched by TomTom in June 2007. Map Share allows users to make changes to the maps on their navigation devices and share them with others. It allows drivers to make changes to their maps directly on their navigation devices. Drivers can block or unblock streets, change the direction of traffic, edit street names and add, edit or remove points of interest (POIs). Improvements can be shared with other users through TomTom Home, TomTom's content management software. An online version called Map Share Reporter is on the TomTom website. IQ Routes, developed by TomTom and available since spring 2008 on the TomTom Go 730 and Go 930, uses anonymous travel time data accumulated by users of TomTom satnav devices. Newer TomTom devices use this data to take into account the time and day when determining the fastest route. Travel time data is stored in Historical Speed Profiles, one for each road segment, covering large motorways, main roads and also small local roads. Historic Speed Profiles are part of the digital map and are updated with every new map release. They give insight into real-world traffic patterns. This is a fact-based routing system based on measured travel times, compared to most other methods which use speed limits or ‘assumed’ speeds. In September 2008, map upgrade v8.10 was released for x20 series models, extending the IQ Routes feature to those devices with a free software update using TomTom Home. On the NAV3 and NAV4 models the IQ Routes feature is available by default on all map versions. Mapping TomTom worked with auto parts manufacturer Bosch, starting in 2015, to develop maps for use in self-driving vehicles. Bosch defined the specifications for TomTom maps to follow as they began first road-tests on U.S. highway I-280 and Germany's A81. TomTom commented at the time on the contrast in details required in those newly developed maps compared with earlier versions, specifically including "precision to the decimeter" and other complex data required to help a self-driving car "see" key road features as it travels. In 2015, TomTom was one of the only independent producers of digital maps that remained in the marketplace as they partnered with brands like Volkswagen to provide maps in the auto industry. The company also partnered with Uber in 2015, and extended the partnership further in 2020. Together the companies have worked to integrate TomTom maps and traffic data across the ridesharing app's platform. This lets Uber serve as a "trusted map editing partner", making it one of the first brands to join TomTom's Map Editing Partnership (MEP) program. As part of the MEP program, users provide feedback on road conditions as they encounter them so that live maps can be updated to reflect current conditions. The program estimates 3 million edits monthly by its partners globally. Apple has relied on licensed data from TomTom and others to fill in data gaps in its Maps app since launching it in 2012. In January 2020 Apple confirmed that it was no longer licensing data from TomTom and would rely on its own underlying Maps app framework going forward after a recent app update at the time. As of 2019, TomTom claimed to have 800 million people using its products across physical hardware and apps using TomTom technology. The same year, TomTom sold its telematics division, TomTom Telematics, to Japanese Bridgestone to prioritize business linked to its digital maps, as the brand shifted focus away from consumer devices to software services instead. In 2019, TomTom Telematics became Webfleet Solutions. The brand leveraged its real-time driving and parking data in collaboration with Microsoft and Moovit (a public transport data platform)in 2019, as well as struck map and navigation deals with auto industry tycoons like Nissan, Fiat Chrysler, Porsche, Lamborghini, and Bentley among others. Teaming up with the University of Amsterdam, the partners launched Atlas Lab, a research lab dedicated to AI development to support HD maps to be used in autonomous vehicles. TomTom has also been developing High Definition (HD) maps intended for use in autonomous cars to assist with environmental data where sensors are limited. The company announced in March 2019 that they would supply HD maps to "multiple top 10" auto manufacturers that would provide centimeter accuracy in representing terrain; and announced a new "map horizon" feature, allowing self-driving cars to simulate a virtual picture of the road ahead in real-time. The company partnered with Volvo the same year (2019) to build its own vehicle capable of "level 5" autonomy in hopes of further improving its maps technology. The Volvo XC90 included custom sensing equipment to provide data about the vehicle's surroundings that could be referenced against TomTom's HD maps. TomTom crowdsourced camera data through its partnership with Hella Aglaia, announced in September 2019, to feed into its real-time map updates for ongoing improvement to the new HD maps technology. In early 2020, TomTom publicly announced the recent closing of a deal with Huawei Technologies where Huawei would use TomTom's maps, data, and navigation tools to develop its own apps for use in Chinese smartphones. Tomtom participates in OpenStreetMap contributes and uses map data from the service. Tomtom's vice president of community is a founder of OpenStreetMap. TomTom has collected a range of live and historical data since 2008, analysing data from a variety of sources including connected devices and its community of users. Additionally, TomTom's "MoMa" vehicles (short for mobile mapping) cover over 3 billion km annually, using both radar and LiDAR cameras to capture 375 million images annually to sense road changes that are then verified and used to update its maps. TomTom pairs this data with input from partnering brands to process around 2 billion map changes on average each month to keep maps current and reflective of existing road conditions. The brand puts out an updated map database commercially on a weekly basis. Controversy In April 2011, TomTom "apologized for supplying driving data collected from customers to police to use in catching speeding motorists". The company had collected data from its Dutch customers which Dutch police subsequently used to set targeted speed traps. As a result of this, TomTom was investigated by the Dutch Data Protection Authority, who found that TomTom had not contravened the . In 2011, TomTom improved the clarity of its explanation of how it uses the data it collects from its customers. In May 2011, the company announced that it was planning to sell aggregated customer information to the Roads & Traffic Authority of the Australian state of New South Wales, which could also potentially be used for targeted speed enforcement. The privacy implications of this announcement were widely reported, particularly the lack of anonymity and the potential to associate the data with individuals. The company's practice of selling its user data has been criticised by Electronic Frontiers Australia. David Vaile of the University of New South Wales' Cyberspace Law and Policy Centre has called for an independent technical analysis of the company's data collection practices. TomTom navigation devices collect user data that includes point of origin, point of destination, journey times, speeds and routes taken. The Australian Privacy Foundation said it would be easy to trace the data back to individual customers, even if TomTom claimed it used only aggregated, anonymous data. TomTom VP of Marketing Chris Kearney insisted the information was totally anonymous. In addition to this, he said TomTom never sold the information to Dutch authorities with speed cameras in mind, although Kearney would not rule out selling the user data for similar use in Australia. Such data is being purchased from various mapping companies by governments on a fairly regular basis. It is not known if governments use this data for purposes other than the placement of speed cameras, such as to improve the road network, introduce traffic lights or find accident hotspots. Open Map Community Controversies In 2012, Tomtom made aggressive remarks on reliability of OpenStreetMap, an open-source mapping and routing competitor. Contributors disputed that out of 100,000 attacks by Google contractors only about a dozen were 'hit' and they were swiftly reverted by community. Evaluation by researchers found that in Germany the difference was 9%. OSM in fact exceeded the proprietary dataset by 27%. Since 2012, TomTom has worked alongside OpenStreetMap with organised editing activities, and have been one of many sponsors of The State of The Map Conference for the OpenStreetMap community. Competition TomTom's main retail car satellite navigation competitors are MiTAC (Navman and Magellan Navigation) and Garmin. TomTom's main autonomous driving HD maps competitor is Here, which is owned by a consortium of German automotive companies including Audi, BMW, and Daimler. See also Comparison of commercial GPS software References External links TomTom Open-Source Manufacturing companies based in Amsterdam Electronics companies of the Netherlands Satellite navigation Electronics companies established in 1991 Dutch companies established in 1991 Dutch brands Multinational companies headquartered in the Netherlands Navigation system companies Self-driving car companies Automotive navigation systems

3685970

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travelling%20gnome

Travelling gnome

The travelling gnome or roaming gnome is a garden gnome lawn ornament brought on a trip and photographed in front of famous landmarks. The practice is called gnoming. Some instances have become national and international news stories, where people have stolen a garden gnome from a garden, and then sent the owner photos of the gnome for a period of time as a practical joke, before returning it. The Garden Gnome Liberation Front in France is a community that considers gnoming to be stealing garden gnomes from other people's property, without the intention of returning them, as part of their purported mission to "free" gnomes and "return them to the wild", which has sometimes led to criminal charges, jail time, or fines. Origins The concept of the travelling gnome dates back to the 1970s when Henry Sunderland photographed his own garden gnomes, which he named Harry and Charlie, while he was travelling around Antarctica. The earliest record of a prank involving a travelling gnome is from Australia in 1986 when the Sydney Morning Herald reported that an "Eastern Suburbs gnome-owner was distressed when she discovered her gnome had been stolen at the weekend. A note was found in its place: 'Dear mum, couldn't stand the solitude any longer. Gone off to see the world. Don't be worried, I'll be back soon. Love Bilbo xxx.'" Travelling gnome prank A running prank has developed, which has made national news at times, where people steal a garden gnome from an unknowing person's lawn and then send the owner photos of the gnome and sometimes cryptic messages that were supposedly written by the gnome for a time as a practical joke before returning it. A notable instance of the travelling gnome prank was arguably in 2005 when a group of college students took a garden gnome, dubbed "Gnome Severson" in news, from a property in Redmond, Washington, U.S. and brought it on a roadtrip to California and Nevada. Gnome Severson became a national news story after the group ran into socialite Paris Hilton at a gas station, who posed for a picture with the gnome that was printed in People magazine. At the end of the week-long trip, the friends anonymously returned the gnome to its owner's front porch with a photo album titled "Gnome’s Spring Break 2005", which included the issue of People and other pictures of the gnome around Hollywood, San Francisco, and Las Vegas. The owner, who had not even noticed the gnome was missing until she found it returned on her porch, was interviewed on Good Morning America. According to ABC News, the owner decided to auction the gnome on eBay, which sold with the photo album for in May 2005, because she became tired of all of the media attention. However, in February 2006, it was reported that the gnome had actually been secretly purchased on eBay by the owner's friends who continued to take photos of it around the world in locations such as Canada, Mexico, Italy, and Thailand. After it was returned for the second time, the original owner, referring to it as "the prodigal gnome", said she had decided to keep it and would not sell it on eBay again. In 2016, an ASDA Gnome named Gnorman was stolen from its owner in Luton, England. The perpetrator sent him a letter stating "Goodbyes are not forever, Goodbyes are not the end, They simply mean I‘ll miss you, Until we meet again.", and then continued to taunt him by making a Facebook profile in the Gnome's name then followed by posting pictures of it in many locations, such as the cinema, pubs, a trampoline park, a bowling alley, and an arcade. Gnoming as theft There have also been a number of criminal incidents in which individuals or groups steal large numbers of garden gnomes without the intention of returning, often with the purported mission of "freeing" gnomes and "returning them to the wild". These crimes can cause distress to the victims of the theft, particularly if the gnomes have sentimental value. France's Garden Gnome Liberation Front (), which in 2006 claimed 100 active members in France, Canada, Germany, Spain, and the United States, became known to the public in the 1990s when they took credit for the theft of hundreds of garden gnomes around France. In 1997, their ringleader was sent to prison and fined for stealing over 150 garden gnomes over a period of several years. In 1998, the Garden Gnome Liberation Front made headlines again when they staged a "mass suicide" of gnomes by hanging 11 garden gnomes with nooses around their necks under a bridge at Briey in northeastern France with a note that stated, "When you read these few words we will no longer be part of your selfish world, where we serve merely as pretty decorations." The Front was in the news again in 2000 when they stole 20 gnomes overnight from a garden exhibition in Paris, and they were suspected in 2006, when 80 gnomes were stolen in the central Limousin region of France under a banner that said "gnome mistreated, gnome liberated". In 2008, a 53-year-old man, who law enforcement officials believed acted alone, was arrested on suspicion of stealing as many as 170 garden gnomes in the Brittany region of France. In 2018, Louisville Metro Police Department arrested Barton E. Bishop (commonly known as 'Gnome bandit'), a Highlands, Georgia thief who was responsible for stealing garden gnomes among other valuables from people's porches. In popular culture The travelling gnome prank was a subplot on the British soap Coronation Street in May 1995, when the Wiltons first noticed their gnome missing (episode 3853) and then received a postcard from Eastbourne purportedly sent by that gnome (episode 3855). The prank was further popularized by the film Amélie (2001) in which the main character persuaded her father to follow his dream of touring the world by stealing his garden gnome and having an air hostess friend send pictures of it from all over the world. The traveling gnome theme later became the basis for Travelocity's "Where is my Gnome?" advertising campaign. The short fantasy story "The Garden Gnome Freedom Front" (2005) by Laura Frankos, published in The Enchanter Completed: A Tribute Anthology for L. Sprague de Camp, deals with the supernatural aspect of this custom. The travelling gnome has appeared in several video games. For example, it has been used as a recurring Easter egg in The Sims computer game series, such as Sim City 3 (1999) and The Sims 3 (2009) where different varieties of garden gnomes appear and move or change position daily and in Sim City 4 (2004), in which gnomes reveal themselves in the game's buildable landmarks. In The Sims 4: Seasons, the garden gnomes are randomly spawned during various holidays with the player's task is to appease them with various stuff, including coffee, fruitcake pie, salad, toy or future cube. In the video game Half-Life 2: Episode Two (2007), players receive a special achievement award for launching a garden gnome into outer space in a rocket after carrying it throughout most of the game. In November 2020, a replica of the garden gnome from Half-Life 2: Episode Two was launched into low Earth orbit on board a Rocket Lab Electron rocket. Gnonstop Gnomes, a mobile app for Android and iOS devices, lets users attach clipart of virtual gnomes to their travel photographs that they can share with friends. See also Gnome Reserve List of practical joke topics The Flat Stanley Project – a similar project where a physical object is photographed in various locales ToyVoyagers Wastwater References Practical jokes Theft Gnomes

3687137

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome%20Observatory

Rome Observatory

The Astronomical Observatory of Rome (Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma in Italian) is one of twelve Astronomical Observatories in Italy. The main site of the Observatory is Monte Porzio Catone. Part of the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica since 2002. Monte Mario Monte Mario Observatory (IAU code 034), the "historical" Observatory of Rome, located at 84 via del Parco Mellini in the northwest part of the city, atop Monte Mario, since 2002 is only the administrative seat of the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF). Nevertheless, the Astronomical Observatory of Roma has the responsibility for the Astronomical Copernican Museum and the Solar Tower in Monte Mario. Monte Porzio Catone Monte Porzio Catone is located approximately 20 kilometres southeast of Rome proper. The Astronomical Observatory of Rome (OAR) was established in 1938, inside the 19th-century Villa Mellini on the hill of Monte Mario in Rome. In the same period, a new Observatory was built in Monteporzio Catone, in order to host a large telescope. With the Second World War, this project failed. In 1948, the building of Monteporzio was assigned to the Astronomical Observatory of Roma. In 1965, a new observing station was built in Campo Imperatore (2200 metres above sea level), on the Gran Sasso mountain. In 2017, the management of this station was transferred to the newly-established Osservatorio D’Abruzzo. Since 1988, the researchers of the Astronomical Observatory of Rome have been carrying out their research activity in Monteporzio Catone. The seat of Monteporzio includes the main building (three floors), the guesthouse, two small hoses for the janitors, AstroLAB, LightLAB, and the Monteporzio Telescope (MPT). These three latter structures are entirely devoted to public outreach. A few areas inside the main building are also occasionally used for visitors, i.e. historical rooms, “Livio Gratton” conference room, the modern library inside the main dome. The total area occupied by the structure within the compound sum up to about 8,750 square metres. Together with the garden, it adds up to about 75,000 square metres. OAR is responsible for the management of the “Museo Astronomico e Copernicano” (Astronomical Copernican Museum – MAC), in the ground floor of Villa Mellini. MAC was established in 1873 by Arthur Wolynski, upon the basis of a Copernican collection, put together on the occasion of the fourth centenary of the birth of Copernicus. This collection was implemented over the years with scientific instruments and historical books belonging to the older Observatories in the centre of Rome, following the evolution of astronomical instruments, private donations, and public institutes. The Museum's collection includes, among other objects, 17th century eyepieces, 14th century telescopes, sextants for measuring the angular distance between stars, astrolabes and night dials (the oldest astrolabe dates back to the twelfth century). Moreover, there is a rich collection of armillary spheres, as well as sky and earth globes, including Mercatore's and Cassini's. The old library contains about 4000 volumes, some of which are rare and precious. For instance, there is a fourteenth century manuscript code, which collects the main astronomical works of the time, 5 incunabula, over 270 “” (16th century books) and 450 “” (17th century books). In particular, among books of ancient Astronomy, one could mention the first editions of Copernicus’ works, Ptolem's Almagestos, Sacrobosco's Sphaera, Hevel's Theatrum Cometarum, Scheiner's Rosa Ursina, and the first editions of Galilei's works. Scientific and Technological Activity OAR's scientific productivity is quite high among the 20 institutes belonging to INAF, as proved by ANVUR's National check and by Nature Index. For example, in the year between November 2016 and November 2017, OAR researchers have taken part in writing 160 articles in referees reviews, which have produced 1597 citations. From 2014 to 2017, the total number of articles is 430, with 7555 citations. The scientific activity covers all the research areas inside INAF. In the Eighties and Nineties, the scientific area which involved most researchers, and was therefore the most productive was Stellar Astrophysics, with a remarkable number of researchers who were active in the areas of Extra-galactic Astrophysics and Solar Astrophysics. Starting from the mid-Nineties, a number of researchers were recruited in the areas of Relativistic Astrophysics, and Astrophysics of the Solar System. Nowadays, the scientific areas which absorbs most young researchers are Extra-galactic Astrophysics and Cosmology. OAR researchers make use of most earth and space infrastructures, from radio to gamma rays: ALMA, NOEMA, JVLA VLT, LBT, TNG, HST Chandra, XMM, Nustar, Swift Fermi, Magic OAR Researchers are either PI or are involved in a good number of Large Programs on VLT, LBT, Chandra, and XMM. Cutting-edge research is in the following areas: Extra-galactic Astrophysics and Cosmology – Accelerated Evolution of the Universe, Dark Matter, Dark Energy The first stars, galaxies, black holes, re-ionization of the Universe Formatione and evolution of galaxies, and of their Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) Discovery and characterization Physical processes, stellar formation, accretion upon black holes, feedback Semi-analytical Models Stellar Astrophysics – Synthesis of stellar populations Stellar Clusters Galaxies and the Local Group The production of dust and stellar winds Models and observations of Supernovae Stellar Evolution and Astroseismology Stellar Formation and proto-stars The Sun and the Solar System – The structure of the magnetic field in the solar atmosphere Research and characterization of minor bodies of the Solar system Relativistic Astrophysics – Neutron Stars Anatomy of Magnetars X-ray pulsars Equation of state of neutron stars Gamma-Ray Burst, Physics and Astrophysics Multi-messenger Astrophysics (Gravitational waves and e electromagnetic signals) OAR takes part in a large number of technological projects, both on the ground and in the space: ESO REM – Remir VLT/MOONS Laser Guide Stars E-ELT HIRES LBT SHARK – PI of the VIS section, participation in NIR LBC LINK ESA GAIA – software Euclid – Science preparation, simulations, EBC participation, Lead OU-Mer Athena – Science preparation, Ground Segment, Innovation center Juice Solar Orbiter CTA/ASTRI – Archive, Software for data analysis SAMM – Solar Telescope with magnetic-optical filters Management of the instruments in the observing station of Campo Imperatore, namely Schmidt and AZT telescopes NASA/NuSTAR – management of calls for the support to scientific research, and activities of the science team NASA/Osiris-REX Laboratories and technological/scientific infrastructures OAR hosts and optical lab and an electronic lab. OAR hosts the LBT Italian Coordination Center, and manages proposals, observations, data reduction and analysis, as well as an archive of scientific data OAR supports the activities of di ASI Science Data Center, manages its staff, and carries on a scientific and technological collaboration. Museum, library, historical archive, Public Outreach and teaching OAR has always been committed to a very intense activity of Astronomy outreach and teaching. OAR hosts AstroLAB (since 2001) and LightLAB (since 2013), interactive labs open to school groups. Every year, a total number of 5.000 to 10.000 pupils (from kindergarten to primary and secondary schools) visit these labs with experienced guides. OAR has organized three editions of “Cosmoscuola”, a series of Astronomy lessons and practical activities for children from 7 to 14 years of age. A certain number of OAR researchers have collaborated in organizing lessons on their scientific area of study. OAR has organized – in particular in the years from 2011 to 2017 – 15 to 50 star-gazing nights per year, open to the public. These evenings, in which visitors could visit Astrolab, observe planets and the Moon at the MPT telescope, listen to an astronomer's lecture or take part in activities with their children (Astrokids) have attracted 1000 to 5000 visitor per year. OAR has also organized a certain number of temporary exhibitions: 2014 Guarda che scoperta! 2015 Astronomi, GPS del passato 2016 Nidi di stelle. Scienza e Arte alla scoperta del cosmo. Opere di Enrico Benaglia 2017 Chrono-grafia. Copper engravings especially made by many artists for the event Finally, OAR has organized, from 2012 to 2017, six editions of “Estate Sotto le Stelle” (Summer under the Styars), offering to the public a series of lectures, concerts, debates, exhibitions inside its “Parco Scientifico”. Relationships with Universities OAR maintains intense relationships with all three Universities of Roma, with which it signed agreements years ago. Several lecturers and researchers of the three Universities hold teaching assignments with OAR. OAR Researchers hold lections for both Bachelor and master's degree courses at the Physics departments of La Sapienza (4) and Roma Tre (1). OAR takes part in the Doctorate in Astronomy, Astrophysics and Space Science which represents a consortium between la Sapienza and Tor Vergata Universities. Human Resources OAR houses 40 researchers and technologists, 39 technicians, and administrative staff, all tenure track. OAR houses 9 temporary researchers and technologists and manages 6 contracts for fixed-term researcher or technologist and 1 contract for a technicians at ASI SSDC. OAR houses 2 Astrofit2 OAR houses 15 grant recipients and manages another 5 at ASI SSDC Every year, OAR welcomes a dozen Masters-degree students, as well as 10 to 15 PhD students. All in all, OAR houses about 130 people, including staff, post-doc and students. See also List of astronomical observatories References External links https://www.natureindex.com/institution-outputs/italy/national-institute-for-astrophysics-inaf/5139073d34d6b65e6a00226f Astronomical observatories in Italy Buildings and structures in Rome Buildings and structures in Lazio Buildings and structures in Abruzzo Minor-planet discovering observatories

3687431

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min%20Kao

Min Kao

Min H. Kao () is a Taiwanese-American electrical engineer, billionaire businessman, and philanthropist. He is the co-founder of Garmin, with Gary Burrell, and its chairman. In 2011, Kao was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for leadership in developing and commercializing compact GPS navigation devices. Early life Min H. Kao was born in 1949 in Zhushan, Nantou, a small town in Taiwan. He graduated from the National Taiwan University, and earned a doctorate in electrical engineering from the University of Tennessee in 1977. Career Kao undertook research for NASA and the United States Army. He was subsequently a systems analyst for Teledyne Systems, an algorithm designer for Magnavox Advanced Products, and an engineering group leader for King Radio Corporation. He also worked for AlliedSignal. In 1989, with Gary Burrell, Kao co-founded Garmin, a company best known for manufacturing devices that use the Global Positioning System. Kao stepped down as CEO of Garmin in 2012, but remains executive chairman and a member of the board. Philanthropy In 2005, Kao gave $17.5 million to the College of Engineering of the University of Tennessee, $12.5 million of which was designated for the construction of a new facility. In May 2007, groundbreaking ceremonies were conducted for the new Min Kao Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Building. The building was dedicated in March 2012. In 2014, Kao donated $1 million to the University of Kansas College of Engineering for the building of electrical and computer engineering design labs. In 2015, Kao donated $1 million to the Kansas State University College of Engineering for building four labs. Personal life Kao is married to Fan Kao. They have a son, Ken Kao, who is a film producer, and a daughter, Jen Kao, who is a fashion designer. They reside in Leawood, Kansas. In 2011, he purchased an apartment in 15 Central Park West, Manhattan, New York City. He spends the majority of his time in Manhattan. As of February 2020, his personal wealth was estimated at $4.1 billion. References 1949 births Living people People from Nantou County People from Leawood, Kansas Taiwanese emigrants to the United States American people of Chinese descent National Taiwan University alumni University of Tennessee alumni American company founders American technology chief executives Businesspeople from Kansas Garmin American philanthropists American billionaires People associated with the Global Positioning System Business duos

3687739

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heel%20Stone

Heel Stone

The Heel Stone is a single large block of sarsen stone standing within the Avenue outside the entrance of the Stonehenge earthwork in Wiltshire, England. In section it is sub-rectangular, with a minimum thickness of , rising to a tapered top about high. Excavation has shown that a further is buried in the ground. It is from the centre of Stonehenge circle. It leans towards the southwest nearly 27 degrees from the vertical. The stone has an overall girth of and weighs about 35 tons. It is surrounded by the Heelstone Ditch. References Atkinson, R J C, Stonehenge (Penguin Books, 1956) Cleal, Walker, & Montague, Stonehenge in its Landscape (London, English Heritage 1995) Cunliffe, B, & Renfrew, C, Science and Stonehenge (The British Academy 92, Oxford University Press 1997) Hawley, Lt-Col W, Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge during the season of 1923 (The Antiquaries Journal 5, Oxford University Press, 1925) Further reading Newall, R S, Stonehenge, Wiltshire (Ancient monuments and historic buildings) (Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1959) Pitts, M, Hengeworld (Arrow, London, 2001) Pitts, M W, On the Road to Stonehenge: Report on Investigations beside the A344 in 1968, 1979 and 1980 (Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 48, 1982) Stone, J F S, Wessex Before the Celts (Frederick A Praeger Publishers, 1958) Stonehenge

3691948

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomarketing

Geomarketing

In marketing, geomarketing (also called marketing geography) is a discipline that uses geolocation (geographic information) in the process of planning and implementation of marketing activities. It can be used in any aspect of the marketing mix — the product, price, promotion, or place (geo targeting). Market segments can also correlate with location, and this can be useful in targeted marketing. Geomarketing is applied in the financial sector by identifying ATMs traffic generators and creating hotspot maps based on geographical parameters integrated with customer behavior. Geomarketing has a direct impact on the development of modern trade and the reorganization of retail types. Site selection becomes automated and based on scientific procedures that saves both time and money. Geomarketing uses key facts, a good base map, Whois data layers, consumer profiling, and success/fail criteria. GPS tracking and GSM localization can be used to obtain the actual position of the travelling customer. Software GIS software is used to display data that can be linked to a geographic region or area. It can be used to: Recommend nearby social events. Determine where the customers are (on country, city, street or user level). Determine who the customer is (on organisation or user level), or make a guess on it based on earlier encounters by tracking IP address, credit card information, VOIP address, etc. Visualize any data in a geographic context by linking it to a digital map. Locate a web client's computer on a digital map. Calculate summary information for specific areas. Select customers within specific areas. Select customers within drive times of a point. Select customers with a certain radius of a point. Using micro-geographic segmentation select customers similar to a specific type in the rest of the country. Applications Different content by choice Location-based social media marketing uses geo-specific tools to draw imaginary perimeters that will display all of the social content posted by users in that particular area. A typical example for different web content by location is the FedEx website at FedEx.com where users have the choice to select their country geo — location first and are then presented with different site or article content depending on their selection. Automated different content Individuals can deliver different content in internet marketing, and mobile app marketing through paid or organic search results, based on the geographical geolocation of the targeted audiences. Other applications Solve problems regarding location of a new retail outlet Map consumer demand trends to best distribute products and advertising. This links with trade zone management. Scope digital advertising towards individual consumers and producers. Research consumer shopping patterns and observe traffic within shopping centers and between retail outlets. It also helps in visualisation of market research findings and help improve the overall planning ability of organisations. Improve customer cooperation. Creation of sales territories We can define the geo-marketing as a strategy and mechanism that provides valuable information that helps in the process of making business decisions using geographical information. The functions of this to search and evaluate marketing opportunities, analyzing geographical information such as location residential areas, topography, it also analyzes demographic information such as age, genre, annual income and lifestyle. This information can be segmented as primary data and sub-segmented as secondary data; in addition, it helps us to develop successful promotional campaigns achieving our marketing goals. This also works with retail chain stores in the sales industry, real estate, and renewable energy, among others. With geomarketing, the general data of a company changes to be more specific regarding their customers and market trends. This allows companies to use secondary data wisely, providing excellent results at low cost compared with traditional market research methods. All data is acquired accurately with GPS equipment and geographical information software, once the data is acquired, this information is processed by professionals in the field. Geomarketing has helped companies to acquire valuable information such as transit behaviors, most visited places or areas, etc., this information will help these companies to deliver the right message (or promotion), at the right time and place. Most companies use their mobile apps to obtain this information. Mobile apps became more sophisticated using GPS, Bluetooth, and also social networks to obtain their market information, this information helps to improve their promotional campaigns. According to comScore, about 60 percent of all Internet activities in the U.S. originates from mobile devices and about half of total Internet traffic flows through mobile apps. One example of Geo Location is Google Maps — you can search in Google Maps Restaurants near me and it will show different options around your location. One important factor that companies (in this case restaurants) is that they must be sure to optimize their business in Google's directory list. Another mapping for-profit service that provides geomarketing solutions such as business density, commercial enhancement or employment policy for economical urban planning is the Catalan observatory EIXOS. See also Digital marketing Geotargeting GSM localization Local advertising Location-based advertising Location-based service Location intelligence References Bibliography Amaduzzi S., Geomarketing. I sistemi informativi territoriali SIT - GIS a supporto delle aziende e della pubblica amministrazione, Roma, EPC editore 2011, , https://web.archive.org/web/20120408195416/http://www.amaduzzi.it/geomarketing/ Maguire D., Kouyoumjian V., Smith R., The Business Benefits of GIS - An ROI Approach, ESRI Press, 2008. Peterson K., The power of place - Advanced customer and location analytics for market planning, Integras, 2004 Cliquet G., Geomarketing - Methods and Strategies in Spatial Marketing, Iste, 2002. External links

3695211

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azoic%20Age

Azoic Age

Azoic Age, Azoic Era, Azoic Period and Azoic Eon were terms used before 1950 to describe the age of rocks formed before the appearance of life in the geologic sequence. The word "Azoic" is derived from the Greek a- meaning without and zoön meaning animal (or living being), it was first used to mean without death. Azoic was used as early as 1846 by a geologist named Adams, and gradually replaced the earlier term Primitive. Due to the controversy over evolution, "Azoic" was replaced, by 1900, in most usages by the term "Archaean" or "Archaeozoic The Archaean was later subdivided into the Archaean and the even earlier Hadean. Many of the rocks that had originally been thought to be of Azoic time were reclassified as Archaean, but the period itself is now essentially the Hadean. J.D. Dana in 1863, said that the Azoic "stands as the first [age] in geologic history, whether science can point out unquestionably the rocks of that age or not." He went on to say that when fossils had been found in strata which had previously been classified as Azoic, the boundary was simply moved lower. "Such changes are part of the progress of the science." Notes Geologic time scales of Earth

3703622

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maera%20%28hound%29

Maera (hound)

In Greek mythology, Maera (Ancient Greek: Μαῖρα means 'the sparkler') was the hound of Erigone, daughter of Icarius of Athens. Mythology Icarius was a follower of the wine god Dionysus and had been taught how to make wine. While travelling, Icarius met some shepherds and gave them wine; they became intoxicated and believed Icarius had poisoned them, so they killed him. Erigone was worried about her father, and set off with Maera to find him. Maera led her to his grave, and both became so overwhelmed with grief that she hung herself and Maera leapt off a cliff. Upon hearing the news, Dionysus was angry and punished Athens with a plague, inflicting insanity on all the unmarried women, who all hung themselves, imitating Erigone. The plague did not cease until the Athenians introduced honorific rites for Icarius and Erigone. Zeus or Dionysus placed Icarius, Erigone and Maera in the sky as the constellations Virgo (Erigone), Boötes (Icarius), and the star, Procyon (Maera). Notes References Gaius Julius Hyginus, Astronomica from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Mythological dogs Deeds of Zeus Attic mythology

3705856

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple%20of%20Venus%20Genetrix

Temple of Venus Genetrix

The Temple of Venus Genetrix (Latin: Templum Veneris Genetricis) is a ruined temple in the Forum of Caesar, Rome, dedicated to the Roman goddess Venus Genetrix, the founding goddess of the Julian gens. It was dedicated to the goddess on September 26, 46 BCE by Julius Caesar. History The forum and temple were perhaps planned as early as 54 BC, and construction began shortly thereafter. On the eve of the Battle of Pharsalus, Caesar vowed the temple to Venus Victrix. He eventually decided to dedicate the temple to Venus Genetrix, the mother of Aeneas, and thus the mythical ancestress of the Julian family. The Temple was dedicated on 26 September 46 BC, the last day of Caesar's triumph. The forum and temple were eventually completed by Octavian. The area was damaged by the fire in 80 AD. Later the temple was rebuilt by Domitian and was restored and rededicated by Trajan on 12 May 113 AD. It was then burned again in 283 AD, and again restored, this time by Diocletian. The three columns now visible belong to this later reconstruction. Location and structure The temple originally sat up against the saddle that joined the Capitoline Hill to the Quirinal Hill. The temple was built of brick faced with marble and had eight columns (octastyle) on the facade, and also eight columns on each side. The columns were spaced one and a half diameters apart (pycnostyle). The ceiling of the temple was vaulted. There were some nontraditional elements in the design of the temple such as the height of the podium it sat upon and the method of accessing it. Access to the cella was afforded by circulation through the flanking arches, up narrow stairs on either side, to a landing in front of the temple, from which several more steps extending the width of the facade conducted to the cella level.It was placed at the far end of the court enclosed by the Forum, a standard practice among the Romans. Adornment Items deposited inside the Temple included a statue of Venus Genetrix by Arcesilaus as well as statues of Julius Caesar. Numerous Greek paintings by Timomachus of Ajax and Medea, six collections of engraved gems, a breastplate decorated with pearls from Britannia, and a controversial golden statue of Queen Cleopatra as the goddess Isis once filled the Temple. The Temple was styled in Corinthian order. This included carved mouldings, capitals, and entablature. One of the mouldings, the cyma moulding, has carved dolphins, shells, and tridents. These particular symbols refer to Venus and the sea. There were three fountain basins: one at the front of the façade and one on either corner of the Temple. See also List of Ancient Roman temples List of ancient monuments in Rome References 46 BC 1st-century BC religious buildings and structures Temples of Venus Venus

3710251

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacus%20Temporis

Lacus Temporis

Lacus Temporis (Latin temporis, Lake of Time) is a small lunar mare that is located in the northeastern quadrant of the Moon's near side. The selenographic coordinates of this feature are , and it lies within a diameter of 117 km. This small mare is composed of two large, roughly circular patches of relatively smooth surface, with a pair of small, cup-shaped craters located prominently at their intersection. Both of these regions of basaltic lava covered surface have some smaller side lobes, which are most likely impact features that have become flooded. Just to the southwest of this feature is the crater Chevallier and to the southeast lies Carrington. See also Volcanism on the Moon Temporis

3711351

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somnium%20%28novel%29

Somnium (novel)

Somnium (Latin for "The Dream") — full title: Somnium, seu opus posthumum De astronomia lunari — is a novel written in Latin in 1608 by Johannes Kepler. It was first published in 1634 by Kepler's son, Ludwig Kepler, several years after the death of his father. In the narrative, an Icelandic boy and his witch mother learn of an island named Levania (the Moon) from a daemon. Somnium presents a detailed imaginative description of how the Earth might look when viewed from the Moon, and is considered the first serious scientific treatise on lunar astronomy. Carl Sagan and Isaac Asimov have referred to it as one of the earliest works of science fiction. Plot summary The story begins with Kepler reading about a skillful magician named Libussa. He falls asleep while reading about her. He recounts a strange dream he had from reading that book. The dream begins with Kepler reading a book about Duracotus, an Icelandic boy who is 14 years old. Duracotus' mother, Fiolxhilde, makes a living selling bags of herbs and cloth with strange markings on them. After he cuts into one of these bags and ruins her sale, Duracotus is sold by Fiolxhilde to a skipper. He travels with the skipper for a while until a letter is to be delivered to Tycho Brahe on the island of Hven (now Ven, Sweden). Since Duracotus is made seasick by the trip there, the skipper leaves Duracotus to deliver the letter and stay with Tycho. Tycho asks his students to teach Duracotus Danish so they can talk. Along with learning Danish, Duracotus learns of astronomy from Tycho and his students. Duracotus is fascinated with astronomy and enjoys the time they spend looking at the night sky. Duracotus spends several years with Tycho before returning home to Iceland. Upon his return to Iceland, Duracotus finds his mother still alive. She is overjoyed to learn that he is well-studied in astronomy as she too possesses knowledge of astronomy. One day, Fiolxhilde reveals to Duracotus how she learned of the heavens. She tells him about the daemons she can summon. These daemons can move her anywhere on Earth in an instant. If the place is too far away for them to take her, they describe it in great detail. She then summons her favorite daemon to speak with them. The summoned daemon tells them, "Fifty thousand miles up in the Aether lies the island of Levania," which is Earth's Moon. According to the daemon, there is a pathway between the island of Levania and Earth. When the pathway is open, daemons can take humans to the island in four hours. The journey is a shock to humans, so they are sedated for the trip. Extreme cold is also a concern on the trip, but the daemons use their powers to ward it off. Another concern is the air, so humans have to have damp sponges placed in their nostrils in order to breathe. The trip is made with the daemons pushing the humans toward Levania with great force. At the Lagrangian point between the Earth and the Moon, the daemons have to slow the humans down lest they hurtle with great force into the Moon. After describing the trip to Levania, the daemon notes that daemons are overpowered by the Sun. They dwell in the shadows of the Earth, called Volva by the inhabitants of Levania. The daemons can rush to Volva during a solar eclipse, otherwise they remain hidden in shadows on Levania. After the daemon describes other daemons' behavior, she goes on to describe Levania. Levania is divided into two hemispheres called Privolva and Subvolva. The two hemispheres are divided by the divisor. Privolva never sees Earth (Volva), Subvolva sees Volva as their moon. Volva goes throughout the same phases as the actual Moon. The daemon continues the descriptions of Subvolva and Privolva. Some of these details are scientific in nature such as: how eclipses would look from the Moon, the size of the planets varying in size due to the Moon's distance from the Earth, an idea about the size of the Moon and more. Some details of Levania are science fiction such as: descriptions of the creatures that inhabit Subvolva and Privolva, plant growth on each side, and the life and death cycle of Levania. The dream is cut short in the middle of the description of the creatures of Privolva. Kepler wakes up from the dream because of a storm outside. He then realizes that his head is covered and he is wrapped in blankets just like the characters in his story. Publication history Development Somnium began as a student dissertation in which Kepler defended the Copernican doctrine of the motion of the Earth, suggesting that an observer on the Moon would find the planet's movements as clearly visible as the Moon's activity is to the Earth's inhabitants. Nearly 20 years later, Kepler added the dream framework, and after another decade, he drafted a series of explanatory notes reflecting upon his turbulent career and the stages of his intellectual development. The book was edited by Ludwig Kepler and Jacob Bartsch, after Kepler's death in 1630. Publication There are many similarities to Kepler's real life in Somnium. Duracotus spends a considerable amount of time working for Tycho Brahe. Kepler worked under Tycho Brahe in 1600 before becoming Imperial Mathematician. Kepler's mother, Katharina Kepler, would be arrested on charges of being a witch. Kepler fought for five years to free her. After her death, Kepler wrote extensive notes to explain his narrative. The book was published posthumously in 1634 by his son, Ludwig Kepler. Science Levania Kepler uses a daemon to describe the island of Levania in many scientific ways. The fixed stars are in the same position as the Earth's fixed stars. The planets appear larger from Levania than from Earth due to the distance Levania is from Earth. Levania also sees planetary motions in a different way. For instance, Levania does not seem to move but the Earth seems to orbit around it just as the Moon seems to orbit the Earth whiles on the planet (Earth). This is an example of Kepler defending Copernicus' diurnal rotation. The inhabitants at the divisor see the planets different from the rest of the Moon. Mercury and Venus specifically seem bigger to them. Privolva A day is around 14 Earth days sometimes less. Night on Privolva is 15 or 16 Earth days. During the nights, Privolva experiences intense cold and strong winds. During the day, Privolva experiences extreme heat with no wind. During the night, water is pumped to Subvolva. During the Privolvan day, some of the water is pumped back to Privolva to protect its inhabitants from the intense heat. The inhabitants are described as giants that hide under water to escape from the heat of the day. Subvolva A day and night is around 30 Earth days. A day on Subvolva represents the Phases of the Moon on Earth. Subvolva sees the Earth as its moon. The Earth goes through phases just as the Moon does during their night. Kepler notes that Subvolva is inhabited by serpent-like creatures. The Subvolvan terrain is full of fields and towns, just like Earth. At night on Privolva all of the water is pumped to Subvolva to submerge the land so only a small portion of land remains above the waves. The Subvolvans are protected from the Sun by almost constant cloud cover and rain. In popular culture Fresh Aire V by Mannheim Steamroller is a concept album based on the work, and Kim Stanley Robinson's novel Galileo's Dream draws direct inspiration from it. In Past Continuous, a novel by the Israeli author Yaakov Shabtai, one of the characters (Goldman) translates Somnium into Hebrew. Sylvia Brownrigg's novel (2012) and its same-titled cinematic adaptation Kepler's Dream (2016) are based on it. Dutch multi-instrumentalist Jacco Gardner released a 2018 album, Somnium, as a nod to the novel. Editions References External links Christianson, Gale E., Kepler's Somnium: Science Fiction and the Renaissance Scientist The Somnium Project: Latin original, English translation, and blog 1608 novels 1634 novels History of astronomy 1630s science fiction novels German science fiction novels Works by Johannes Kepler 17th-century Latin books Novels set in Iceland Novels set on the Moon Novels about dreams Novels published posthumously Novels about witches and witchcraft Latin-language novels

3716301

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohini%20%28goddess%29

Rohini (goddess)

Rohini (रोहिणी) is a goddess in Hinduism and the favorite consort of Chandra, the moon god. She is one of the 27 daughters of the sage-king Daksha and his wife Asikni. Rohini, as “the red goddess” (Rohini Devi), is the personification of the orange-red star Aldebaran, the brightest star in the Taurus constellation. In Hindu mythology In Hindu mythology, all the daughters of Daksha and Asikni are married to Chandra, the moon god. Rohini is the favourite and chief consort of Chandra. Chandra spent most of his time with Rohini, which enraged his other wives and they complained about this to their father. Seeing his daughters unhappy, Daksha cursed Chandra to lose his glory. Chandra's glory was partially restored by Shiva. Rohini, along with her sisters Kṛttikā and Revati are often described as deified beings and “mothers”. In Indian astronomy In Indian astronomy, the 27 lunar stations or Nakshatras are named for the daughters of Daksha and Asikni. The lunar station Rohini spans from 10° 0' to 23° 20' in Vṛṣabha constellation (Taurus). In Indian astrology In Indian astrology, also known as Jyotisha, Rohini is the fourth lunar station or nakshatra of the zodiac, ruled by the Moon. Lord Krishna's birth star is Rohini and it is believed there exists a significance in his choice to be born under the influence of this star. References Hindu astrology Daughters of Daksha Hindu astronomy Hindu goddesses Nakshatra Taurus (constellation)

3718181

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llano%20del%20Hato%20National%20Astronomical%20Observatory

Llano del Hato National Astronomical Observatory

The Llano del Hato National Astronomical Observatory (, code: 303) is an astronomical observatory in Venezuela. It is 3600 meters above sea level and is the country's main observatory. It is situated above the village of Llano del Hato in the Venezuelan Andes, not far from Apartaderos which lies about 50 kilometers north-east of Mérida, Mérida State. Description This facility is the closest major optical observatory to the equator lying at 8 degrees and 47.51 minutes north. It therefore has access to most parts of both the northern and southern skies. It benefits from a very dark site, and its altitude of 3,600 meters (12,000 feet) above sea level means atmospheric turbulence is greatly reduced. The observatory is under the auspices of the Centro de Investigaciones de Astronomia (CIDA), the main astronomical research body in Venezuela. CIDA conducts many projects in collaboration with other research organizations, academic institutions and international bodies. It also conducts valuable research in its own right and has a record that includes several important discoveries. There are four large optical telescopes, each in its own cupola or dome: a 1-m Askania Schmidt camera (one of the largest telescopes of this type in the world), a 65-cm Zeiss refractor, a 1-m Zeiss reflector and a 50-cm Askania double astrograph. These instruments were acquired by the Venezuelan government 1954 and installed at Llano del Hato in early 1955. The observatory also has a museum and exhibition centre where visitors can learn about the work of the observatory and CIDA as well as astronomy in general. The Quasar Equatorial Survey Team (QUEST) project is a joint venture between Yale University, Indiana University, and CIDA to photographically survey the sky. It now uses the 48 inch (1.22-m) aperture Samuel Oschin telescope at the Palomar Observatory with a digital camera, an array of 112 charge-coupled devices. Previously, it used the 1.0-metre Schmidt telescope of the Llano del Hato National Astronomical Observatory. List of discovered minor planets At OAN de Llano del Hato, Mérida, a total of 50 minor planets have been discovered and credited to the astronomers Orlando Naranjo, Jürgen Stock, Ignacio Ferrín and Carlos Leal: References External links Information about the observatory from CIDA Llano del Hato Automatic Weather Station Astronomical observatories in Venezuela Buildings and structures in Mérida (state) Minor-planet discovering observatories

3719339

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1%2C2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane

1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane

1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane, or R-114, also known as cryofluorane (INN), is a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) with the molecular formula ClFCCFCl. Its primary use has been as a refrigerant. It is a non-flammable gas with a sweetish, chloroform-like odor with the critical point occurring at 145.6 °C and 3.26 MPa. When pressurized or cooled, it is a colorless liquid. It is listed on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's list of ozone depleting chemicals, and is classified as a Montreal Protocol Class I, group 1 ozone depleting substance. When used as a refrigerant, R-114 is classified as a medium pressure refrigerant. The U.S. Navy uses R-114 in its centrifugal chillers in preference to R-11 to avoid air and moisture leakage into the system. While the evaporator of an R-11 charged chiller runs at a vacuum during operation, R-114 yields approximately 0 psig operating pressure in the evaporator. Manufactured and sold R-114 was usually mixed with the non symmetrical isomer 1,1-dichlorotetrafluoroethane (CFC-114a), as separation of the two isomers is difficult. Dangers Aside from its immense environmental impacts, R114, like most chlorofluoroalkanes, forms phosgene gas when exposed to a naked flame. References External links Material Safety Data Sheet from Honeywell International Inc., dated 22 August 2007. CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerants Greenhouse gases Ozone depletion GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators

3720914

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAR-Lupe

SAR-Lupe

SAR-Lupe is Germany's first reconnaissance satellite system and is used for military purposes. SAR is an abbreviation for synthetic-aperture radar, and "Lupe" is German for magnifying glass. The SAR-Lupe program consists of five identical (770 kg) satellites, developed by the German aeronautics company OHB-System, which are controlled by a ground station responsible for controlling the system and analysing the retrieved data. A large data archive of images will be kept in a former Cold War bunker belonging to the (Strategic Reconnaissance Command) of the Bundeswehr. The total price of the satellites was over 250 million Euro. Specifications SAR-Lupe's "high-resolution" images can be acquired day or night through all weather conditions. The satellites are able to provide up-to-date imagery from almost all regions of the world. The first satellite was launched from Plesetsk in Russia on 19 December 2006, about a year after the intended launch date; four more satellites were launched at roughly six-month intervals, and the entire system achieved full operational readiness on 22 July 2008. The constellation is planned for 10 years of operational life. The five satellites operate in three 500-kilometre orbits in planes roughly 60° apart. They use an X-band radar with a 3-metre dish, providing a resolution of about 50 centimetres over a frame size of 5.5 km on a side ("spotlight mode", in which the satellite rotates to keep the dish pointed at a single target) or about 1 metre over a frame size of 8 km × 60 km ("stripmap mode", in which the satellite maintains a fixed orientation over the Earth, and the radar image is formed simply by the satellite's motion along its orbit). Response time for imaging of a given area is 10 hours or less. Thales Alenia Space provided the core of the synthetic-aperture radar sensors. History The SAR-Lupe satellites are the first German military satellites. The testing of SAR-Lupe involved an inverse procedure, in which the satellite, mounted in a radome on Earth, was used to image the International Space Station, whose orbit is reasonably close to the one the satellite will eventually be in. One-metre resolution at the ISS was apparently achieved. On 30 July 2002 a cooperation treaty between Germany and France was signed, under which the SAR-Lupe satellites and the French Helios optical reconnaissance satellite will operate jointly. Other EU countries have been invited to join as well, and Italy has shown considerable interest. Radar component XSAR of SAR-Lupe is observing in X-band (center frequency of 9.65 GHz corresponding to a wavelength of 3.1 cm). Global observation coverage capability. Use of a parabolic SAR reflector antenna of 3.3 m × 2.7 m size. The choice of using a single-beam offset reflector antenna instead of an active beam-steering antenna represented a major cost saving in the development of the instrument. SAR-Lupe uses a single-beam offset reflector antenna and a travelling-wave tube (TWT) transmitter, illuminated by a feed horn on a deployable boom. The highly efficient TWT and a low-loss high-gain antenna are providing good power potential for radar with efficient DC power utilization. Prior to an image acquisition, the satellite rolls in an appropriate position and stabilizes its attitude. Then, the SAR image is acquired. After that, the satellite rolls back into its standby attitude and continues to charge its batteries, preparing itself for the next SAR image acquisition. Number of scenes of area of interest: ≥ 30/day. System response time: < 36 hours. System availability: 95%. Automated monitoring and control of the constellation via a ground control station. Automated data reception and image processing. LEOP (launch and early orbit phase) support is provided by DLR/GSOC. The mean response time of the system is in the range of 10 hours. System availability is provided by the distribution of the satellites in their orbital planes. The modular interface design of the ground segment permits also future integration into an international reconnaissance network (mutual utilization of the system, etc.). SAR imaging modes provided: stripmap and spotlight. Stripmap imaging involves antenna pointing into a fixed direction (normally in cross-track). Internally, these modes are referred to as “Strip-SAR” and “Slip-SAR”. Strip-SAR observations are conducted in the nadir direction. In Slip-SAR mode, the entire spacecraft is rotated into the direction of the target to increase the integration time and therefore the in-track resolution. Spatial resolution of SAR data: 0.5 m in spotlight mode for a scene of about 5.5 km × 5.5 km in size; a stripmap scene has a size of 60 km × 8 km. It can provide NESZ (noise equivalent sigma naught) range up to −19.91 dB. Satellite operations permit “spotlight imaging” of a scene. This involves rotation of the entire spacecraft about a target area to increase the integration time of the scene (the SAR beacon is pointable). In SAR-Lupe terminology, spotlight imaging is referred to as “Slip-SAR”. An onboard image storage capability of 128 Gbit (EOL) is provided. The main image products are: 1) stripmap scenes of size 60 km × 8 km, and 2) square scenes of 5.5 km × 5.5 km in size. The following additional products can also be generated: a) elevation models from multipass interferometric products, b) multipass stereo products, c) change detection products, d) products with enhanced radiometric resolution. Launches Contractors Prime contractor: OHB-System LSE Space Engineering & Operations AG Future A replacement of SAR-Lupe, called SARah, will be put into service from 2022. It will consist of 3 radar satellites and one optical satellite. The satellites of SARah will be bigger and more capable than those of SAR-Lupe. SARah-1, a phased-array-antenna satellite, launched on Falcon 9 on 18 June 2022 and SARah-2 and -3, passive-antenna synthetic aperture radars, are planned to be launched on Falcon 9 sometime in 2023. See also SAOCOM, two Argentine SAR-satellites. COSMO-SkyMed, a system of four military and civil SAR-satellites of Italy TerraSAR-X, a civilian German radar satellite European Union Satellite Centre References SAR-Lupe Constellation, eoPortal Directory Germany’s SAR-Lupe constellation puts Europe ahead, C4ISR Journal German Earth-observing radar satellite launched Imaging reconnaissance satellites Satellites of Germany Synthetic aperture radar satellites Satellite constellations Military equipment introduced in the 2000s

3721945

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTV-G-4%20Bumper

RTV-G-4 Bumper

The RTV-G-4 Bumper was a sounding rocket built by the United States. A combination of the German V-2 rocket and the WAC Corporal sounding rocket, it was used to study problems pertaining to two-stage high-speed rockets. The Bumper program launched eight rockets between May 13, 1948 and July 29, 1950. The first six flights were conducted at the White Sands Missile Range; the seventh launch, Bumper 8 on July 24, 1950, was the first rocket launched from Cape Canaveral. Bumper program Background The Bumper program to produce and launch a two-stage combination of the V-2 and WAC Corporal rockets was conceived in July 1946 by Colonel Holger N. Toftoy. Both the WAC Corporal and the V-2 had been extensively tested at White Sands Proving Grounds, the WAC Corporal's launch series occurring in late 1945/early 1946 and the V-2 launches beginning March 15, 1946. Bumper was started on June 20, 1947, to: Investigate launching techniques for a two-stage missile and separation of the two stages at high velocity. Conduct limited investigation of high-speed high-altitude phenomena. Attain record-setting velocities and altitudes. Bumper employed the V-2 as first stage and the WAC Corporal as second stage. In a typical flight, the V-2 engine would fire first, taking the Bumper combination to an altitude of , at which point the WAC Corporal would be released under its own power. This separation occurred before V-2 Brennschluss (engine cutoff) to ensure that the WAC Corporal had a stable, actively controlled platform to lift off from, and also so that the V-2 would impart close to maximum possible speed to the Bumper's second stage. The V-2 rocket had a maximum altitude of around , while the WAC Corporal without its solid rocket booster, had a theoretical maximum altitude of ( with). Together, Bumper could reach altitudes of more than twice those attainable by the V-2 alone. Engineering and limited scientific results (for instance, air resistance at high altitude determined by the rocket's trajectory) would be obtained from the telemetry payload carried by the WAC Corporal second stage. Though the Bumper program was not, itself, a secret, aspects of it were classified, particularly the way the WAC Corporal was fitted into the nose of the V-2. Planning Overall responsibility for the Bumper program was given to the General Electric Company and was included in the Hermes project. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was assigned to perform the theoretical investigations required, design the second stage, and create the basic design of the separation system. The Douglas Aircraft Company was assigned to fabricate the second stage, and do detailed design and fabrication of the special V-2 rocket parts required. No German engineers were directly involved with Project Bumper, though some worked on the initial studies regarding the mating of the V-2 and WAC corporal. Two women, Mary Taggard and Bea Sylvester, were on the Bumper team providing rocket (but not launch) support. Operations Six Bumper launches were made from White Sands Proving Grounds. The first four, launched in 1947/48 were test flights of varying degrees of success. The first fully successful Bumper flight was the fifth in the series, launched at 3:14 P.M. (MST), February 24, 1949. Bumper 5 was the first in the Bumper series to be launched with a fully fueled second stage. One minute after blast-off, at an altitude of and a speed of just under per second, the WAC Corporal detached from the V-2 first stage and fired its own engine. Forty seconds later, at second stage Brennschluss, the WAC Corporal had reached its maximum speed of per second. It reached its peak altitude of , a world record, six and a half minutes after launch. The V-2 first stage crashed into the New Mexico desert five minutes after launch north of its firing site. The WAC Corporal hit the ground 12 minutes after take-off from its launch pad. So great was its velocity upon impact, higher than any rocket to date, that the wreck was not found for analysis until January 1950. In 1949, the Joint Long Range Proving Ground was established at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on the east coast of Florida, where the last two Bumper launches would take place. On July 24, 1950, Bumper 8 became the inaugural launch of "the Cape", still in use as of 2023. Both Bumpers 8 and 7 (fired in that sequence, a week apart) were much ballyhooed in the American press. Bumper 8 and 7 saw significant modifications to the WAC Corporal. The nose cone was coated in teflon, while the WAC Corporal body was coated in perlite to resist heating caused by atmospheric friction. Down range tracking was provided by the USS Sarsfield (DD-837), which was positioned beneath the point where staging was to occur. Bumper 7 suffered the first pad abort at Cape Canaveral causing Bumper 8 to be launched first. Bumper 8 pitched over to an angle only 10 degrees above the horizon instead of the planned 22 degrees. The WAC Corporal nose was observed to fail from the tracking ship USS Sarsfield following second stage separation. There was no telemetry received following the separation and disintegration of the WAC Corporal. Despite the failure of the WAC Corporal the flight was declared a success as the missile range facilities had all functioned as intended. As the WAC Corporal was still highly classified, its failure was not reported. Bumper 7 was launched a week later. Bumper 7's V-2 saw thrust decay while only 14 miles east of the Cape at an altitude of only 8.5 miles. As intended following V-2 thrust decay the WAC Corporal then fired for 40 seconds achieving only 3,286 mph, slightly over half the speed expected. Joint Long Range Proving Ground Commander Col. Harold R. Turner announced that the test was "a complete success in every way." The myth that the Bumper program at the Cape was a success, when in fact there were significant failures of the missiles, has continued to this day. Launch history See also Spaceflight before 1951 References Spaceflight before 1951 United States Army equipment Experimental rockets of the United States Sounding rockets of the United States

3722099

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin%20Hood%27s%20Ball

Robin Hood's Ball

Robin Hood’s Ball is a Neolithic causewayed enclosure on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England, approximately northwest of the town of Amesbury, and northwest of Stonehenge. The site was designated as a scheduled monument in 1965. Etymology Robin Hood's Ball is unrelated to the folklore hero Robin Hood. 19th-century maps indicate that Robin Hood's Ball was the name given to a small circular copse of trees just to the northwest of the earthworks; it is probable that over time the name came to be associated with the enclosure instead. Greenwood's map of 1820 shows the copse named as Robin Hood's Ball and the enclosure as Neath Barrow. Context A causewayed enclosure consists of a circuit of ditches dug in short segments, leaving 'causeways' passing between them to the centre. Whilst some have three or four causeways, Robin Hood’s Ball has only one, cutting through two circuits of ditches with low banks behind them. If it is assumed that the area was free of woodland in the Neolithic period, then its position on a low hill would have afforded clear views of the plain in all directions, and the site of Stonehenge would have been visible, although it is likely that the enclosure predates it by some time. Robin Hood's Ball is outside the northern boundary of the Stonehenge World Heritage Site. History Robin Hood’s Ball is a Neolithic feature that dates from the earliest developments around the plain. It was probably constructed at around 4000 BC and in use possibly up to 3000 BC. When first constructed, none of the monuments to the south such as the Stonehenge Cursus, Durrington Walls, or Stonehenge itself had yet been constructed. However, there may have been a henge at Coneybury, one mile east of Stonehenge, and it is possible that there were earlier features at Stonehenge before the bank and ditch were dug, as indicated by the Mesolithic postholes found beneath the former visitors' car park (in use until 2013) and now marked in grassland, adjacent to the access track to the main site. Several long barrows were constructed on the plain around the same time, including one close to the Ball and several more within short distances such as White Barrow and Winterbourne Stoke Long Barrow. It is estimated that the site began to fall out of use around 3000 BC, about the same time as the earliest earthworks at Stonehenge (itself originally a causewayed enclosure) began. Use Though Robin Hood's Ball has never been comprehensively excavated and its use is unclear, it has been suggested that these camps may have served as centres or rally points for a fairly wide area, where tribal ceremonies could be performed. The exact functions of causewayed enclosures are unknown. Suggestions include use as trade centres, for defence, ritual, and celebration, with multiple uses possible. The site was constructed at a time of transition from hunter-gatherer to permanent settlement during the Neolithic revolution, and the relatively even spacing of causewayed enclosures across the south indicates that they may have been the central points of tribes or communities. Location The site is within the Salisbury Plain Training Area, inside the boundaries of the Larkhill live firing area. It is next to a public right of way, but this can only be used when danger flags are not flying, and it is not permissible to leave the track. Bibliography Chippendale, C, Stonehenge Complete. (Thames and Hudson, London, 2004) Richards, J, The Stonehenge Environs Project. (English Heritage, 1990) English Heritage Guidebooks: Stonehenge (English Heritage, 2005) References Further reading Archaeological sites in Wiltshire Stone Age sites in Wiltshire Scheduled monuments in Wiltshire Sites associated with Stonehenge Causewayed enclosures

3722228

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Station%20Stones

Station Stones

The Station Stones are elements of the prehistoric monument of Stonehenge. Originally there were four stones, resembling the four corners of a rectangle that straddles the inner sarsen circle, set just inside Stonehenge's surrounding bank. Two stood on earth mounds at opposing corners, one corner broadly in the north of the site and one in the south. The mounds are called the North and South barrows although they never contained burials. The ring ditches surrounding these barrows respect the presence of Stonehenge's encircling bank indicating that they postdate this feature. The other two corners of the rectangle are occupied by the two surviving stones which are undressed sarsens. Their installation at the monument dates to sometime in Stonehenge phase 3, perhaps around 4,000 years ago. Various astronomical alignments have been suggested for the stones, all involving other features at the site. As they cannot be said with certainty to have been contemporaneous with other stones or posts at Stonehenge, archaeoastronomical theories regarding their function have been treated with scepticism by mainstream archaeology. Although described as forming a rectangle, the two stones and the two stone settings can also be described as representing two opposite facets of an octagon. This suggests that they were laid out to a geometric plan and challenges the theory that the positions were astronomically determined. References Bibliography Mike Pitts, Hengeworld, London: Arrow, 2001, John Edwin Wood, Sun, Moon and Standing Stones. Oxford University Press, 1980, Stonehenge

3722468

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser%20scanning%20at%20Stonehenge

Laser scanning at Stonehenge

The first use of 3D laser scanning at Stonehenge was of the Bronze Age dagger and axes inscribed on the sarsens, which was undertaken in 2002 by a team from Wessex Archaeology and Archaeoptics. They used a Minolta Vivid 900 scanner to analyse and record surfaces of the prehistoric and post-medieval carvings. The Bronze Age carvings of a dagger and an axehead were first discovered by archaeologist Richard J. C. Atkinson in 1953 on stone number 53, one of the imposing sarsen trilithons. A contemporary survey in 1956 by Robert Newall revealed that the total number of axes on this stone totalled 14, all on the same face of the stone, looking inwards to the centre of the stone circle. Typologically, the axes have a Middle Bronze Age date. The surface of stone 53 containing Bronze Age carvings was laser scanned at a resolution of 0.5mm, resulting in hundreds of thousands of individual 3D measurements known as a point cloud. These data were then processed into a meshed 3D solid model for analysis using custom software written by Archaeoptics called Demon3D. The team pioneered some visualisation techniques to enhance the outlines of the known carvings. During this process, the faint outline of two previously unknown axes was spotted in an animation, separate from the carvings recorded by Newall. Subsequent enhancement of the data confirmed that the shapes were of flanged axes, similar in shape to those clearly visible, but either badly eroded, or were originally carved much shallower than their counterparts. The larger of the two carvings differs slightly from the other axes in that it has two 'lugs' along its shaft, and others have interpreted that it could represent either an axe, a mushroom, or a ram's skull. The results of these investigations were published in an article entitled "The Stonehenge Laser Show" in the November 2003 edition of British Archaeology. In 2011 English Heritage commissioned a full laser scan of the visible faces of all stones as Stonehenge in high resolution (sub-millimetre), as well as a lower resolution scan of the ground in the area known as the "Stonehenge Triangle". References External links https://web.archive.org/web/20051225111736/http://www.stonehengelaserscan.org/ Stonehenge

3722666

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excavations%20at%20Stonehenge

Excavations at Stonehenge

Records of archaeological excavations at the Stonehenge site date back to the early 17th century. Early research The first known excavations at Stonehenge were undertaken by Dr William Harvey and Gilbert North in the early 17th century. Both Inigo Jones and the Duke of Buckingham also dug there shortly afterwards. In 1666 the antiquarian John Aubrey could still see the central sunken hollow where the Duke of Buckingham's pit had been filled. A few minor investigations followed. Further excavations at Stonehenge were carried out by William Cunnington and Richard Colt Hoare. In 1798, Cunnington investigated the pit beneath a recently fallen trilithon, and in 1810 both men dug beneath the fallen Slaughter Stone and concluded that it had once stood up. They may have also excavated one of the Aubrey Holes beneath it. In 1839, a Captain Beamish dug around the Altar Stone, and not long after that Charles Darwin was granted permission by the Antrobus family who owned Stonehenge to conduct a small excavation to test his theories about earthworm activity burying ancient structures. Modern studies On New Year's Eve 1900, Stone 22 of the Sarsen Circle fell over, taking with it a lintel. Following public pressure and a letter to The Times by William Flinders Petrie, the then owner of Stonehenge, Edmund Antrobus, agreed to some remedial engineering work to be undertaken with archaeological supervision so that records could be made of the below ground archaeology. Antrobus appointed a mining engineer named William Gowland to manage the work. Despite having no archaeological training, Gowland produced some of the finest, most detailed excavation records ever made at the monument. Gowland established that antler picks were used to dig the stone holes and suggested the stones themselves were worked to shape on site. The largest series of excavations at Stonehenge were undertaken by Colonel William Hawley and his assistant Robert Newall after the site came into state hands. Stonehenge and of land was purchased by Mr. Cecil Chubb for £6,600 on September 21, 1915 for his wife — she donated the land to the British government three years later. Their work began in 1919 following the transfer of land, funded by the Office of Works, and continued until 1926. Hawley and Newall excavated portions of most of the features at Stonehenge and were the first to establish that it was a multi-phase site. In 1950 the Society of Antiquaries commissioned Richard J. C. Atkinson, Stuart Piggott and John FS Stone to carry out further excavations. They recovered many cremations and developed the phrasing that still dominates much of what is written about Stonehenge. As part of service trenching in 1979 and 1980, Mike Pitts led two smaller investigations close by the Heelstone, finding the evidence for its neighbour. More recent excavations have been held to mitigate the effects of electrical cables, sewage pipes, and a footpath through the site. Since 2003, Mike Parker Pearson has led investigations in the stones area as part of the Stonehenge Riverside Project in an attempt to better relate Stonehenge to its surrounding environs. National Geographic Channel screened a two-hour documentary exploring Parker Pearson's theories and the work of the Riverside Project in depth in May 2008. In April 2008 Professor Tim Darvill of the University of Bournemouth and Professor Geoff Wainwright of the Society of Antiquaries excavated a small area inside the stone circle It is hoped this will establish a more precise date for the earliest stone structure that occupied the Q and R Holes. From 2005 excavation of the area around a spring pool known as Blick Mead about a mile from Stonehenge, have taken place under the direction of Professor David Jacques of the University of Buckingham. These have revealed the earliest settlement in the area dating to the period 7900 BC to 4050 BC. Britain's Bournemouth University archaeologists, led by Geoffrey Wainwright, president of the London Society of Antiquaries, and Timothy Darvill, on September 22, 2008, found it may have been an ancient healing and pilgrimage site, since burials around Stonehenge showed trauma and deformity evidence: "It was the magical qualities of these stones which ... transformed the monument and made it a place of pilgrimage for the sick and injured of the Neolithic world." Radio-carbon dating places the construction of the circle of bluestones at between 2,400 B.C. and 2,200 B.C., but they discovered charcoals dating 7,000 B.C., showing human activity in the site. It could be a primeval equivalent of Lourdes, since the area was already visited 4,000 years before the oldest stone circle, and attracted visitors for centuries after its abandonment. See also Stonehenge Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge Battle of the Beanfield Theories about Stonehenge Stonehenge replicas and derivatives Stone circle Cultural depictions of Stonehenge Stonehenge road tunnel Stonehenge Riverside Project References Stonehenge Archaeology of the United Kingdom 17th-century archaeological discoveries

3722814

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Killaraus

Mount Killaraus

In Arthurian legend, Mount Killaraus () is a legendary place in Ireland where Stonehenge originally stood. According to the narrative presented in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, King Ambrosius Aurelianus embarks on a quest to construct a memorial for the Celtic Britons who were treacherously slain by Anglo-Saxons. When conventional methods fail to produce an awe-inspiring monument, Ambrosius turns to the renowned wizard Merlin for guidance. In response, Merlin advises the king to transport a stone circle known as the Giant's Ring from Mount Killaraus in Ireland, attributing magical and healing properties to these stones, which were believed to have been brought from Africa by giants. This prompts Uther Pendragon to lead an expedition to Ireland, where a battle against the Irish king Gillomanius ensues, resulting in the successful retrieval of the stones with Merlin's magical assistance. While the story itself is fictional, archaeological research by Mike Parker Pearson suggests intriguing connections between Stonehenge and the Waun Mawn stone circle in Wales, indicating the potential for a historical basis within the legendary narrative. Merlin legend The first record of the Merlin story is in Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th century Historia Regum Britanniae ('History of the Kings of Britain'). It tells how king Aurelius Ambrosius sought to build a memorial to the Celtic Britons who were treacherously slain by Anglo-Saxons. When his carpenters and masons cannot come up with a suitably awe-inspiring monument, Ambrosius asks the wizard Merlin for advice. Merlin tells the king to transport a stone circle called the Giant's Ring from Mount Killaraus in Ireland. He says they are magical healing stones that had been brought from Africa by giants. Uther Pendragon sails to Ireland with 15,000 men to retrieve the stones. The Irish king Gillomanius marches against them with a large army, but is defeated. With Merlin's help, the Britons transport the stones to Britain and set them up as they had originally stood. Possible original Hill of Uisneach, Ireland The name mons Killaraus could mean the "hill of Killare" and thus may refer to the Hill of Uisneach. This is an ancient ceremonial site with numerous prehistoric monuments, which was seen as the sacred centre of Ireland. Waun Mawn circle, Wales Many of Stonehenge's original bluestones have been traced to quarries in the Preseli Hills, in west Wales. Although the Merlin tale is fiction, archaeologist Mike Parker Pearson suggests that there may be a "tiny grain of truth" in it. Pearson's team of archaeologists found evidence suggesting that most of the Waun Mawn stone circle in the Preseli Hills was taken down and brought to Salisbury Plain, where it became the first phase of Stonehenge. References Locations associated with Arthurian legend British folklore Stonehenge Locations in Celtic mythology Killaraus

3723209

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosie%20Swale-Pope

Rosie Swale-Pope

Rosie Swale-Pope, MBE (born 2 October 1946) is a British author, adventurer and marathon runner. She successfully completed a five-year around-the-world run, raising £250,000 for a charity that supports orphaned children in Russia and to highlight the importance of early diagnosis of prostate cancer. Her other achievements include sailing single-handed across the Atlantic in a small boat, and trekking alone through Chile on horseback. Early life Rosie Swale-Pope was born Rosie Griffin in Davos, Switzerland. Her Swiss mother was suffering from tuberculosis, and her Irish father Major Ronald Peter Griffin was serving in the British Army- Royal Engineers, so she was brought up by the wife of the local postman. She was two when her mother died, and she went to live with her paternal grandmother, named Carlie Ponsonby, who was bedridden with osteoarthritis, in New Bridge, Askeaton in County Limerick, Ireland. When she was five, her father remarried and moved to Ireland, with his French wife Marriane Griffin. They had four children, Maude, Greald, Nicholas and Ronnie. Although they were only in the next cottage, Swale stayed with her grandmother and looked after four orphaned donkeys, seven goats, and a pet cow called Cleopatra. Swale learnt to ride, often going out on her black horse Columbine all day exploring the countryside. Her grandmother was very religious and worried that the local school would be a bad influence, so Swale-Pope was schooled at home. Although her coursework mostly consisted of simply writing about what she had done each day, it proved to be useful training for her later writing about her travels and adventures. Her father died in 1957, and when she was thirteen, Swale-Pope was sent to a strict boarding school for girls in Cork. Aged 18, her first job was as a reporter for a regional newspaper, the Surrey Advertiser. This did not last long; she then hitch-hiked to Delhi, Nepal and Russia, with almost no money or luggage. Rosie was married to Colin Swale in her early twenties. They originally lived in a small flat in London, but when their daughter Eve was born, they bought a catamaran (named the Anneliese, in memory of Rosie's sister whom she only knew from a photo) and sailed to Italy, where Rosie's son James was born on board the boat. Sailing round the world Beginning in December 1971, Swale sailed around the world from Gibraltar via Australia, with husband Colin and daughter Eve on the Anneliese. The trip was part-sponsored by the Daily Mail newspaper and also by ITN (Independent Television News), which provided them with a camera to record their own news reports of the journey. They sailed across the Atlantic Ocean, through the Panama Canal and across the Pacific, stopping at the Galapagos Islands, the Marquesas, Tahiti and Tonga, before reaching Australia in 1973. They were the first catamaran crew to round Cape Horn. Although both Swale and her husband were able to sail and had prepared as well as they could, the trip had its risks, and it nearly ended in disaster three times: when Rosie fell overboard in the Caribbean from the closest land; again when she needed emergency medical treatment in hospital; and a third time when the whole family suffered food poisoning from a meal of insufficiently cooked beans. The hardships were survived, however, and the voyage was a significant navigational achievement, using only an old Spitfire compass, nautical charts and a sextant, in the days before GPS. By the time the family finally returned to Plymouth, Rosie had not only completed her first book, Rosie Darling (often working below decks on her typewriter for up to six hours at a time), but had also written her second book, Children of Cape Horn. Atlantic crossing In 1983, Rosie Swale sailed solo across the Atlantic in a small cutter, which she had found in a cowshed in Wales and named Fiesta Girl. Aiming to become the fourth woman to sail alone to America in a small boat from England (the first being Ann Davison in 1952–1953, followed by Nicolette Milnes-Walker in 1972 and Clare Francis in 1973), she also wanted to raise funds for a CAT Scanner for the Royal Marsden Hospital in London. Divorced from Colin Swale, Rosie also found her second husband, sailor and photographer Clive Pope, during the preparations for the trip, when he rigged the boat for her. Departing from Pembroke in Wales on 13 July 1983, she sailed to the Azores and Caribbean Islands. Simply equipped, Rosie navigated by the stars and was nearly run down by an oil tanker. When she was north of Puerto Rico, she was becalmed for so long she was without food and water for five days and nearly drowned when she was swept overboard in storms. She arrived at Staten Island, New York, after completing her record-breaking in 70 days – navigating by the stars with the aid of her Timex watch. Chile on horseback A year after returning from her Atlantic crossing, Rosie decided that she really wanted to see Cape Horn again and decided to plan a trek through Chile on horseback. The journey took her from the northern port of Antofagasta to Cape Horn, and she rode two Chilean Aculeos horses, named 'Hornero' and 'Jolgorio'. From the Hacienda Los Lingues, the horses of the Aculeo Stables were originally brought to Chile by the Spanish Conquistadors in 1492. Leaving Antofagasta on 22 July 1984, Rosie had secured the protection of General César Mendoza, who was the head of Chile's Military Police (and later the leader of the military junta there). An Olympic horseman, Mendoza provided her with an armed escort for the first stage. The whole trip was planned to take four months but actually took fourteen. In the first week of her journey, Rosie was caught in a desert sandstorm that scattered the horses and all her equipment. Later she fell from one of the horses and broke two ribs. She also faced starvation when she became lost in the southern rain forests and ran out of food. Delayed by bad weather, Rosie arrived at Cape Horn on 2 September 1985, a total of 409 days after she had set out. Rosie wrote of her experiences in Chile in her book Back to Cape Horn in 1986. Walks, runs and marathons Walk around Wales On 25 September 1987, Rosie set off from the beach near her home in Tenby to walk around Wales in winter. She was carrying everything she needed, including a small tent to sleep in, and was supported by her husband Clive, who also walked with her when other commitments permitted. Rosie completed on foot and wrote about her experiences in her book Winter Wales. London Marathon In 1995 Rosie ran her first London Marathon in a time of six hours and described it as her most memorable sporting moment. Sahara run In 1997 Rosie ran across the Sahara desert in the Sahara marathon. Described as 'the toughest footrace on earth', the 'Marathon des Sables' is run over six days and is the equivalent of five and a half normal marathons. Like all the other competitors, Rosie had to carry everything she needed on her back in a rucksack. She ran across the Sahara a second time in 2000. Romania run In the same year, Rosie ran through Romania to the Hungarian border. Iceland run Rosie ran solo across Iceland in 1999. The run took her from the Arctic Circle to the capital, Reykjavík. South Africa Ultramarathons To mark the millennium, Rosie Swale achieved a long-standing ambition and successfully completed the challenging 'Comrades Marathon', one of the world's oldest and largest ultramarathons, run over a distance of approximately between the capital of the Kwazulu-Natal Province of South Africa, Pietermaritzburg, and the coastal city of Durban. The direction of the race alternates each year between the up run starting from Durban and the down run starting from Pietermaritzburg. Equivalent to running two marathons, Rosie Swale-Pope completed it in 11 hours 1 minute 1 second. She was awarded a bronze medal for completing the race, which has been described as the roadrunner's equivalent to climbing Mount Everest. Albania run In 2000 Rosie ran through the Balkans from Macedonia. It was a dangerous run, and she was held up at gunpoint but managed to escape to reach the border. She flew into Skopje on 11 April 2001 and ran across the then-closed border into Kosovo, then across a closed border through Montenegro, where she ran for twenty-four hours, through deserted villages and deep snow until she reached northern Albania. Cuba run On 8 November 2001, Rosie set off to run across Cuba. It took 46 days and she was running the marathon distance every day (and several nights) with a rucksack on her back and camping in a lightweight bivouac. She lived on rice and sugar cane and had to avoid the Cuban Police, who were concerned for her safety. She also entered and completed the Havana Marathon, finishing in 4 hours and 52 minutes. Crossing from West to East, and running alone to raise money for the charity Age Concern, the straight-line distance was , but Rosie covered over , camping by the side of the road and in the jungle. The run took almost seven weeks. She reached the Punta de Maisi lighthouse, her finish point, on Christmas Day 2001. Cardiff Marathon Rosie ran the Marathon in Cardiff in 2002, in aid of her local Hospital in West Wales where her husband Clive had died of prostate cancer ten weeks before. She finished in a time of 4.15.35 (h.m.s), despite a nasty fall six miles (9.7 km) from the finishing line, and received the award for the fastest 55-year-old competitor. Nepal run In April 2003 Rosie ran across Nepal to raise money for the Nepal Trust, a small charity which carries out development work in the remote rural areas of North-West Nepal in a region referred to as the 'Hidden Himalayas'. The journey from one end of Nepal to the other was and established a new world-record time of 68 days. Rosie also raised over US$8000 which was used to help sponsor a health camp at the district headquarters of Simikot, Humla. Running around the world When her second husband, Clive, 73, died of prostate cancer in 2002, Rosie decided to run around the world to raise money for the Prostate Cancer Charity and an orphanage in Kitezh, Russia which provides children with education and care. Her aim was to run around the northern hemisphere taking in as much land mass as possible, with no support crew and just minimal supplies and sponsorship. Rosie started from her home town of Tenby in Wales on her 57th birthday, 2 October 2003, where her first footfall is engraved in a flagstone on her front step. Equipped with just a small specially designed cart of food and basic camping equipment, the trip was funded by renting out her cottage. By 5 April 2004, she reached Moscow, Russia, and on 15 September 2005, she reached Magadan in far eastern Russia. After facing extreme conditions in the Alaskan Winter, she reached the road again on 17 April 2006, and in October 2006, she was in Edmonton, Canada. Four years after the departure, on 2 October 2007, she reached New York City, US. She ran harnessed to her cart, which was designed for sleeping, shelter and storage. Her son James maintained a website that was followed closely by her supporters and provided regular updates and messages about her progress. Her supporter Geoff Hall organised supplies and equipment to reach her around the world. In the Faroes, she took part in an organised midnight hike to take in the scenery. She also gave cultural talks while on the road, and described how she met a naked man with a gun, how Siberian wolves ran with her for a week, and taking a break to run the Chicago marathon along the way. Surviving on minimal rations, Rosie fell ill near Lake Baikal in Russia, possibly from a tick bite, and wandered into the path of a bus. She was knocked unconscious and taken in the bus to hospital. In Alaska, she had to cope with temperatures of and nearly froze in her sleeping bag at night. She was stuck in a blizzard by the Yukon River and got severe frostbite of her foot. She had no alternative but to call friends in Wales for help, who then called the Alaskan National Guard, who helped her get the frostbite treated, so she could continue on her run. She left Canada by air from St John's (Newfoundland) on 24 January 2008, to make a short visit to Greenland before flying to Iceland on 9 February 2008, and continued running to eastern Iceland. While running, she slipped on the ice, breaking several ribs and cracking her hip. She was over a hundred miles (160 km) from the nearest house from where she fell and had to walk two miles (3.2 km), with her injuries, before she was found and got medical attention. On 18 June 2008, she arrived at Scrabster, in Scotland's far north, by ferry from Iceland, and ran from Scrabster back home to Tenby. Rosie successfully completed the journey, and despite stress fractures in both legs, which turned the final few miles back to Tenby into a hobble on crutches, she returned to her home on 25 August 2008, at 14:18 local time. A large crowd of Tenby residents and Bank Holiday visitors turned out to witness her return and welcome her home. Her distance travelled was . Swale wrote a book about her experiences entitled "Just a Little Run Around the World: 5 Years, 3 Packs of Wolves and 53 Pairs of Shoes", which was released on 28 May 2009. The British progressive rock band Big Big Train's song The Passing Widow (from the 2017 album The Second Brightest Star) was written about Swale's round-the-world run. Chicago Marathon While running around the world, she took a break from it during a week after having reached Edmonton, Canada. She took part in the 2006 Chicago Marathon, to which she was invited in order to support charity work. The marathon race took 4:40. After the race, she flew back to Edmonton and continued running around the world. Ireland Run In September 2009, Rosie Swale Pope ran along the east coast of Ireland, from Rosslare to the Giant's Causeway, pulling her cart which she named 'Icebird' to highlight the importance of cancer awareness. She completed the run on her birthday, 2 October 2009 and the anniversary of setting out on her round-the-world run in 2003, and said that the Wicklow Mountains were one of her toughest challenges. Run across America In 2015 Rosie began running 3,371 miles across America, from New York to San Francisco. Honours and Patronage Swale-Pope was awarded an MBE for her charity work in the 2008/9 new year honours list. Queen Elizabeth II presented her with the MBE. Paul Harris Fellowship Rotary International. Margarette Golding Award. Fellow of the RSGS. Citation from Governor of New Jersey on completion of solo transatlantic voyage. Swale-Pope is a patron of PHASE (Practical Help Achieving Self Empowerment) Worldwide, an organisation that works with disadvantaged communities in extremely isolated Himalayan villages in Nepal. TV presenting In 1990, Swale presented Channel 4's documentary film Revenge of the Rain Gods, directed by Simon Normanton, about her journey around the Maya World. In the documentary, Swale explores Mayan ruins and meets surviving Mayan communities, which cameraman Desmond Seal described as 'a very wet trip around the edge of the Caribbean, Guatemala, Belize and Mexico'. Published works Charity Work Swale-Pope is a patron of PHASE Worldwide, which works to improve education, healthcare and livelihoods in remote areas of Nepal. See also List of pedestrian circumnavigators References External links Rosie's around the world website Clip from Channel 4 documentary 'In search of the Rain Gods' Pembroke Dock Civic Reception 2009 (Video) 1946 births Living people British ultramarathon runners British female long-distance runners Pedestrian circumnavigators of the globe Members of the Order of the British Empire People from Tenby British people of Irish descent British people of Swiss descent Swiss people of Irish descent Female ultramarathon runners

3725496

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodricke-Pigott%20Observatory

Goodricke-Pigott Observatory

The Goodricke-Pigott Observatory is a private astronomical observatory in Tucson, Arizona. It was formally dedicated on October 26, 1996, and observations began that evening with imaging of Comet Hale–Bopp. The observatory is named after John Goodricke and Edward Pigott, two late-eighteenth century astronomers who lived in York, England. Observatory telescopes The observatory opened with a Celestron C14, 0.35-meter aperture, f/11 Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope. This instrument has been upgraded with a new optics lens and a new clock drive, and an ST-4 star tracker was attached to the telescope's side to correct a two-minute, ten-arc second periodic motional error. There is another telescope dubbed MOTESS (Moving Object and Transient Event Search System) which is essentially a giant camera aimed at the sky. See also List of astronomical observatories Roy A. Tucker References Astronomical observatories in Arizona Buildings and structures in Tucson, Arizona Minor-planet discovering observatories

3729586

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorotrifluoromethane

Chlorotrifluoromethane

Chlorotrifluoromethane, R-13, CFC-13, or Freon 13, is a non-flammable, non-corrosive, nontoxic chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and also a mixed halomethane. It is a man-made substance used primarily as a refrigerant. When released into the environment, CFC-13 has a high ozone depletion potential, and long atmospheric lifetime. Only a few other greenhouse gases surpass CFC-13 in global warming potential (GWP). The IPCC AR5 reported that CFC-13's atmospheric lifetime was 640 years. Production CFC-13like all chlorofluorocarbon compoundscontains atoms of carbon (C), chlorine (Cl), and fluorine (F). It can be prepared by reacting carbon tetrachloride with hydrogen fluoride in the presence of a catalytic amount of antimony pentachloride: CCl4 + 3HF → CClF3 + 3HCl This reaction can also produce trichlorofluoromethane (CCl3F), dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) and tetrafluoromethane (CF4). Montreal Protocol Following the unanimous ratification of the 1987 Montreal Protocolin response to concerns about the role of concentrations of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in ozone layer-depletion in the stratospherea process was put into place to gradually phase out and replace CFC-13 and all the other CFCs. Research in the 1980s said that these man-made CFC compound compounds had opened a hole in ozone layer in the upper atmosphere or stratosphere that protects life on earth from UV radiation. CFC-13's ozone depletion potential (ODP) is high 1 (CCl3F = 1)it is categorized as a Class I in the IPCC's list of ozone-depleting substances. CFC-13's radiative efficiency is high which results in a high global warming potential (GWPs) of 13 900 GWP-100 yr that is "surpassed by very few other greenhouse gases." It is categorized as a Class I in the list of ozone-depleting Substances. Increase in atmospheric abundance of CFC-13 in 2010s Starting in the 2010s, despite a global ban on the production of CFCs, five of these ozone-damaging emissions were on the rise. The atmospheric abundance of CFC-13 rose from 3.0 parts per trillion (ppt) in year 2010 to 3.3 ppt in year 2020 based on analysis of air samples gathered from sites around the world. Contrary to the Montreal Protocol, the atmospheric emissions of CFC-13 and four other chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), increased between 2010 and 2020. As of 2023, the drivers behind the increase in CFC-13 and CFC-112a emissions were not certain. Physical properties The IPCC AR5 reported that CFC-13's Atmospheric lifetime was 640 years. See also IPCC list of greenhouse gases List of refrigerants References External links MSDS at mathesontrigas.com Entry at Air Liquide gas encyclopaedia The crystal structure of chlorotrifluoromethane, CF3Cl; neutron powder diffraction and constrained refinement Termochemical data table Chlorofluorocarbons Halomethanes Refrigerants Greenhouse gases Ozone depletion Trifluoromethyl compounds

3730333

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge%20replicas%20and%20derivatives

Stonehenge replicas and derivatives

This is a list of Stonehenge replicas and derivatives that seeks to collect all the non-ephemeral examples together. The fame of the prehistoric monument of Stonehenge in England has led to many efforts to recreate it, using a variety of different materials, around the world. Some have been carefully built as astronomically aligned models whilst others have been examples of artistic expression or tourist attractions. Astronomically aligned replicas Australia and New Zealand The only astronomically aligned, full-scale, "exact" replica of (a pristine) Stonehenge in natural stone (granite) is Esperance Stonehenge at Esperance, Western Australia. It cost over A$250,000 to build. Some of the blocks weigh more than 50 tonnes. Stonehenge Aotearoa, in the Wairarapa region of New Zealand, is a modern adaptation aligned with the astronomy seen from the Antipodes. It was built by the Phoenix Astronomical Society from wood and sprayed concrete. A full-scale replica in sandstone was started in the rural township of Buckland in Tasmania in the first years of the 21st century, but was demolished by order of the municipal authorities. It did not have the necessary planning approval from the local council. North America The Maryhill Stonehenge: A full-size concrete replica of Stonehenge, as it would have been originally built, saw construction commence and had its original dedication on 4 July 1918. Built in Maryhill, Washington by Sam Hill, it was the first monument in the United States to honour the dead of World War I, and specifically soldiers from Klickitat County, Washington who had died in the still on-going war. The altar stone is placed to be aligned with sunrise on the Summer Solstice. Hill, a Quaker pacifist, was mistakenly informed that the original Stonehenge had been used as a sacrificial site, and thus constructed the replica as a reminder that "humanity is still being sacrificed to the god of war" The monument was originally located in the centre of Maryhill, which later burned down leaving only the Stonehenge replica. There was a second formal dedication of the monument upon its completion on 30 May 1929. There is a full-scale, limestone replica of Stonehenge on private property just northeast of Fortine, Montana, owned by inventor Jim Smith. A Stonehenge replica is located on the campus of the University of Texas of the Permian Basin in Odessa, Ector County, US. About twenty stone blocks, similar in size, shape, and appearance to the ancient Stonehenge, were unveiled in the summer of 2004. Foamhenge is a full-size, astronomically aligned Stonehenge made out of foam in Virginia, US. Bamahenge is a full-size, astronomically-aligned fiberglass replica of Stonehenge located in Baldwin County, Alabama, US. Missouri S&T has a half-scale replica built from solid granite located on campus. Other British Foamhenge, a full-size, correctly aligned replica made from carpet tubes and polystyrene, was constructed for a UK TV programme titled "Stonehenge Live", broadcast in June 2005. The positions of each stone were accurately plotted using RTK GPS, which has centimetric accuracy. The replica quickly became known as "Foamhenge". It was removed soon after filming, and the "stones" placed in storage. Less accurate replicas Europe Bavarian Strawhenge; a full-size replica, was assembled in Kemnath in Bavaria in 2003 from 350 bales of straw and used as a music venue. In the late 1970s, in Glasgow, an astronomically aligned stone circle was built in Sighthill Park. Tankhenge existed in the border zone of Berlin in the early 1990s after the collapse of the Wall. It was constructed from three ex-Soviet armoured personnel carriers. At the 2007 Glastonbury Festival, England, graffiti artist Banksy constructed a "Stonehenge" made from portable toilets. Achill-henge is a 2011 concrete structure on Achill Island, off the northwest coast of Ireland. In 2012, British artist Jeremy Deller created a life-size inflatable bouncy castle-style replica of Stonehenge titled 'Sacrilege' which first appeared in Greenwich Park, London and other parks in the capital; the interactive artwork has since toured nationally and internationally. Bladehenge is the name of a Charlotte Moreton sculpture located at Solstice Park, Amesbury, 2 miles from Stonehenge, England. The final piece of the "Solstice Park Sculptures", it is inspired by aeronautical forms of propellers and turbine, with three twisting steel monoliths designed to recall Stonehenge. It was installed in 2013. Steel Henge, which is in fact made using iron ingots, at Centenary Riverside Park, Rotherham, Yorkshire, England. North America Carhenge was constructed from vintage American cars near Alliance, Nebraska by the artist Jim Reinders in 1987. Georgia Guidestones Canadian Strawhenge is in Ontario. Phonehenge is made of old-fashioned British telephone booths and is located at Freestyle Music Park in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. Phonehenge West was an unrelated folk art construction in Los Angeles County, California, eventually demolished by authorities for building code violations. Mudhenge was erected for the 1996 Burning Man Festival. Munfordville Stonehenge, built by a local stonemason in Kentucky and set up along compass lines. Twinkiehenge, another Burning Man replica, constructed in 2001 out of Twinkies. Stonehenge II in Texas is a concrete sculpture inspired by the original. The Clarke Memorial Fountain, also nicknamed Stonehenge, is a war memorial on the campus of the University of Notre Dame. Stroudhenge: East Stroudsburg University, in East Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, has a small replica located on its campus called "Stroudhenge". Mystical Horizons, located near Carbury, North Dakota, consists of six granite walls of varying heights that are intended to represent a 21st-century design. It functions as a working solar calendar. It was built in 2005. Fridgehenge: another modern take on Stonehenge once existed outside of Santa Fe, New Mexico, constructed out of junked refrigerators, known as 'Fridgehenge'. The structure was created by the artist Adam Jonas Horowitz. It no longer exists: all fridges have been removed after a complaint, confirmed on 5 August 2008. Truckhenge, "an eclectic combination of farm, salvage & recycled art ..... consists of 6 antique trucks jutting out of the ground - reminiscent of England's Stonehenge", Topeka, Kansas Other Stonehenge microstructure: in 2004, scientists from the National University of Singapore created the smallest 3D replica of Stonehenge. Measuring only 80 micrometres in diameter, the Stonehenge microstructure was created by a process called silicon micromachining which uses a high-energy proton beam writer to produce 3-D microshapes and structures of high structural accuracy on the surface of materials such as silicon. In 1995, Graeme Cairns of Hamilton, New Zealand, built a replica of Stonehenge out of 41 refrigerators at a farm in Gordonton. Hanazono Central Park (花園中央公園, south of Hanazono Rugby Stadium, 1 Chome-1-1 松原南 Higashiosaka, Osaka, Japan, has a Stonehenge type pedestrian park feature. Other replicas The rock band Black Sabbath had a Stonehenge stage set for the 1983–1984 Born Again tour that ended up being too large to fit in most venues. This was parodied in the film This is Spinal Tap, when the band orders a Stonehenge set but it arrives in miniature due to a confusion between feet and inches. In 1984, US artist Richard Fleischner constructed an abstract Stonehenge-like series of granite blocks at the University of California, San Diego as part of the Stuart Collection called The La Jolla Project. It is affectionately known as Stonehenge by students and faculty. In 2005, the archaeological television programme Time Team created a replica of a timber circle located near Woodhenge as part of the Stonehenge Riverside Project. In February 2010, Peter Salisbury, founder of the Michigan Druids, created a 1/3 scale replica of Stonehenge, made of snow, at the MacKay Jaycees Family Park in Grand Rapids, Michigan. It was named Snowhenge. Muchołapka, a 10 metres tall dodecagonal concrete ring structure with a diameter of 30 metres, which was built during World War II near Ludwikowice Kłodzkie, Lower Silesia, Poland, is nicknamed "Hitler's Stonehenge". It was presumably the base of a cooling tower, but some people claim it was built for testing advanced aircraft. , Comparable archaeological sites A henge near Stonehenge containing concentric rings of postholes for standing timbers, discovered in 1922, was named Woodhenge by its excavators because of similarities with Stonehenge. The name woodhenge is also used for a series of timber circles found at the Native American site of Cahokia (Cahokia Woodhenge). The timber Seahenge in Norfolk was named as such by journalists writing about its discovery in 1998. In November 2004, a circle of postholes in diameter was found in Russia and publicised as the Russian Stonehenge. Other prehistoric sites elsewhere, often also with proposed astronomical alignments, are often described by journalists as being that region's '"answer to Stonehenge". In May 2006, reports emerged of an "Amazon Stonehenge" Calçoene, 390 kilometres from Macapá, the capital of Amapá state, near Brazil's border with French Guiana. It comprises 127 stones, possibly forming astronomical observing points. America's Stonehenge is an unrelated and controversial site in the U.S. state of New Hampshire. Other sunlight alignments Box Tunnel, a railway tunnel on the Great Western Main Line (GWML) between Bath and Chippenham, is allegedly aligned so that the sun would shine through it on Isambard Kingdom Brunel's birthday. Manhattanhenge, in New York City: due to the street grid's skew of about 28.9° and the strict grid plan on most of Manhattan island, the sunset is aligned with the street grid lines in May and July and the sunrise is so aligned in December and January. Raleighhenge in Raleigh, North Carolina: alignment of the street grids brings sunrise alignment. MIThenge: at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the setting sun shines directly down the Infinite Corridor twice each year. The Armed Forces Memorial, Staffordshire, England has an opening in its wall which allows the sun to illuminate its centre at 11:00 on Armistice Day. Gallery References Further reading External links Roadside America: American Stonhenges STANHENGE... a plan for the real deal! Hear the sound within the MaryHill Replica Acoustic measurements of the MaryHill Replica Sculptures Lists of replicas

3731092

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telit%20Cinterion

Telit Cinterion

Telit Cinterion (known as Telit prior to January 1, 2023) is an Internet of Things (IoT) Enabler company headquartered in Irvine, California, United States. It is a privately held company with key operations in the US, Brazil, Italy, Israel, and Korea. Overview Telit Cinterion is an IoT Enabler providing IoT modules, edge-to-cloud services including connectivity plans, IoT SIMs, IoT embedded software and PaaS IoT deployment managed services. On July 29 2022, Telit and Thales (Euronext Paris: HO), a global leader in Aerospace, Defense, Security & Digital Identity, jointly announced they entered into an agreement under which Telit would acquire Thales' cellular IoT products. The transaction which was concluded on December 31, 2022, included Thales' IoT services platform and portfolio of cellular wireless communication modules, gateways, and data (modem) cards, ranging from 4G LTE, LPWAN to 5G. On August 26 2022, Telit announced the acquisition of group assets from Mobilogix, a California-based startup company specializing in custom IoT solutions worldwide. The acquisition added device engineering expertise and resources that focus on optimizing specifications for handoff to electronic manufacturing services, original device manufacturing, and the attainment of regulatory approvals and carrier certifications. In 2021, the company launched Telit NeXT, a cloud-native core network to enhance its global IoT connectivity offering. The company developed the ball-grid-array (BGA) module; the “Family” and “Unified-Form-Factor” concepts; the smallest GPS receiver module; a Gigabit LTE data card module; a 5G data card module; simWISE, integrated SIM technology with data subscription services; OneEdge, an IoT deployment management tool; deviceWISE® Industrial IoT Integration and Enablement Platform; Telit IoT Portal, a Cloud-Based Platform as a Service for IoT; and Telit secureWISE, a Secure IIoT Platform for Industrial Systems. The company also provides cellular, short-range, and global navigation satellite system (GNSS) modules. The products are available in over 80 countries from 20 sales offices, supported regionally from 12 application engineering hubs. Its module portfolio includes products in GSM/GPRS, EDGE, UMTS, HSPA, LTE (including NB-IoT, LTE-M, Categories 1, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13 Gigabit LTE Category 18), 5G (3GPP Rel 15 and 16) products as well as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and GPS/GNSS modules. Its module families feature a single form factor that is interchangeable across regional cellular networks, technologies and standards. History In 2006, with the acquisition of Bellwave, a regional headquarters was opened in Seoul. In 2008, it further expanded with regional operations in São Paulo, Brazil; Johannesburg, South Africa and Ankara, Turkey. In 2009 Telit acquired France-based One RF. It also launched Infinita Services to simplify M2M solution deployment and maintenance of device software, and a short-range GSM/GPRS module, the GE865-QUAD. In March 2011, Telit acquired Motorola Solutions' M2M modules business unit In January 2012 Telit acquired California-based Navman Wireless OEM Solutions. In July 2012, Telit formed a new business unit, m2mAIR, to offer M2M services. m2mAIR offers module and subscription lifecycle management via a Software as a Service (SaaS) platform and global wireless coverage in partnership with Telefónica. It also includes the Jupiter SL869 multi-constellation GNSS receiver supporting GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and QZSS; followed by the 3D-SiP based SE880. In 2013, the company acquired Florida-based ILS Technology LLC, a provider of industrial automation and IoT cloud platform. It also acquired Illinois-based CrossBridge Solutions and NXP B.V., NXP’s ATOP business and a fully owned subsidiary of NXP Semiconductors N.V. (Nasdaq: NXPI) adding to the company's company’s OEM automotive products unit. The OEM automotive product business unit was sold in 2019. In 2022, the company announced its acquisition of Thales Cinterion for a 25% stake in Telit. In 2022, the company also announced the acquisition of California-based Mobilogix Inc. Research and development (R&D) The company has R&D centers in Irvine - California, Boca Raton - Florida, Trieste - Italy, Seoul - Korea, and Bangalore - India. The Trieste R&D center is complemented with facilities in Cagliari. This center focuses on the advancement of 4G LTE Categories 4, 1, Mobile IoT standards LTE-M and NB-IoT and hardware design for short range wireless and Wi-Fi products. It is also the R&D base for the Telit simWISE integrated SIM (iUICC) product and Telit OneEdge, software suite and tools for IoT deployment management. The facility also houses the company's advanced RF lab. The Florida center in Boca Raton, houses software engineering and R&D in charge of advancing cloud and platform technologies. It is the lead software development center for Telit Connectivity, Telit simWISE, Telit OneEdge and deviceWISE IoT/Industrial IoT platform. Boca Raton is also the Global Headquarters for Telit's secureWISE platform—the leading remote connection solution for the semiconductor industry. The R&D center in Seoul (Korea) is the company’s primary APAC hardware R&D center is located in Seoul, South Korea, and is the development site for the cellular broadband products in 5G, and in 4G LTE Categories 1 and above. The Bangalore (India) software competence hub is for short-range wireless technologies. The Bangalore center develops system and application software for the company's cellular, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth modules. The Irvine center is responsible for turnkey IoT solutions, engineering, and design. References Telecommunications equipment vendors Telecommunications companies of Italy Satellite telephony Italian brands Electronics companies of Italy Manufacturing companies based in Trieste Technology companies based in London Telecommunications companies established in 1986 Italian companies established in 1986

3731591

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave%20cloud

Wave cloud

A wave cloud is a cloud form created by atmospheric internal waves. Formation The atmospheric internal waves that form wave clouds are created as stable air flows over a raised land feature such as a mountain range, and can form either directly above or in the lee of the feature. As an air mass travels through the wave, it undergoes repeated uplift and descent. If there is enough moisture in the atmosphere, clouds will form at the cooled crests of these waves. In the descending part of the wave, those clouds will evaporate due to adiabatic heating, leading to the characteristic clouded and clear bands. The cloud base on the leeward side is higher than on the windward side, because precipitation on the windward side removes water from the air. It is possible that simple convection from mountain summits can also form wave clouds. This occurs as the convection forces a wave or lenticular wave cloud into the more stable air above. Importance Climate modeling Wave clouds are typically mid- to upper-tropospheric ice clouds. They are relatively easy to study, because they are quite consistent. As a result, they are being analyzed to increase our understanding of how these upper-level ice clouds influence the Earth's radiation budget. Understanding this can improve climate models. Recreation The streamlines in these clouds have the steepest slope a few kilometers downwind of the lee slope of a mountain. It is in these regions of highest vertical velocity that sailplanes can reach record-breaking altitudes. Structure In an ideal model, a wave cloud consists of supercooled liquid water at the lower part, a mixed phase of frozen and liquid water near the ridge, and ice beginning slightly below the ridge and extending downstream. However, this doesn't always occur. Wave cloud structure ranges from smooth and simple, to jumbled phases occurring randomly. Often, ice crystals can be found downwind of the waves. Whether this happens depends on the saturation of the air. The composition of the ice is currently an active topic of study. The main mechanism for ice formation is homogeneous nucleation. The ice crystals are mostly small spheroidal and irregular-shaped particles. Ice columns make up less than 1%, and plates are virtually nonexistent. Multi-level mountain wave clouds form when the moisture in the air above the mountain is located in distinct layers, and vertical mixing is inhibited. See also Lee waves Orographic lift Horizontal convective rolls References Cumulus Cloud types Atmospheric dynamics Mountain meteorology Mesoscale meteorology

3733682

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makgadikgadi%20Pan

Makgadikgadi Pan

The Makgadikgadi Pan (Tswana pronunciation ), a salt pan situated in the middle of the dry savanna of north-eastern Botswana, is one of the largest salt flats in the world. The pan is all that remains of the formerly enormous Lake Makgadikgadi, which once covered an area larger than Switzerland, but dried up tens of thousands of years ago. Recent studies of human mitochondrial DNA suggest that modern Homo sapiens first began to evolve in this region some 200,000 years ago, when it was a vast, exceptionally fertile area of lakes, rivers, marshes, woodlands and grasslands especially favorable for habitation by evolving hominins and other mammals. Location and description Lying southeast of the Okavango Delta and surrounded by the Kalahari Desert, Makgadikgadi is technically not a single pan, but many pans with sandy desert in between, the largest being the Sua (Sowa), Ntwetwe and Nxai Pans. The largest individual pan is about . In comparison, Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is a single salt flat of , rarely has much water, and is generally claimed to be the world's largest salt pan. A dry, salty, clay crust most of the year, the pans are seasonally covered with water and grass, and are then a refuge for birds and animals in this very arid part of the world. The climate is hot and dry, but with regular annual rains. The main water source is the Nata River, called Amanzanyama in Zimbabwe, where it rises at Sandown about from Bulawayo. A smaller amount of water is supplied by the Boteti River from the Okavango Delta. These salt pans cover in the Kalahari Basin and form the bed of the ancient Lake Makgadikgadi, which evaporated many millennia ago. Archaeological recovery in the Makgadikgadi Pan has revealed the presence of prehistoric man through abundant finds of stone tools; some of these tools have been dated sufficiently early to establish their origin as earlier than the era of Homo sapiens. Pastoralists herded grazing livestock here when water was more plentiful earlier in the Holocene. The lowest place in the basin is Sua Pan with an elevation of 2,920 feet. Geology As the ancestral Lake Makgadikgadi shrank, it left relic shorelines, which are most evident in the southwestern part of the basin. As the lake shrank numerous smaller lakes formed with progressively smaller shorelines. The relic shorelines at elevations of 3100 feet and 3018 feet can be seen mostly easily on Gidikwe Ridge, west of the Boteti River. The geologic processes behind the formation of the basin are not well understood. It is conjectured that there was a gentle down-warping of the crust, with accompanying mild tectonics and associated faulting; however, no significant plate boundary faults have been identified. The main axis of the developing graben runs northeast–southwest. Kubu Island and Kukome Island are igneous rock "islands" in the salt flat of Sua pan. Kubu Island lies in the southwestern quadrant of Sua Pan, contains a number of baobab trees, and is protected as a national monument. Flora The pans themselves are salty desert whose only plant life is a thin layer of blue-green algae. However the fringes of the pan are salt marshes and further out these are circled by grassland and then shrubby savanna. The prominent baobab trees found in the area function as local landmarks. One of them, named after James Chapman, served as an unofficial post office for 19th-century explorers. Fauna Very little wildlife can exist here during the harsh dry season of strong hot winds and only salt water, but following a rain the pan becomes an important habitat for migrating animals including wildebeest and one of Africa's biggest zebra populations, and the large predators that prey on them. The wet season also brings migratory birds such as ducks, geese and great white pelicans. The pan is home of one of only two breeding populations of greater flamingos in southern Africa, and only on the Soa pan, which is part of the Makgadikgadi pans. The other breeding population is at Etosha, in the Northern part of Namibia. The only birds here in the dry season are ostriches, chestnut-banded plover (Charadrius pallidus) and Kittlitz's plover (Charadrius pecuarius). The grasslands on the fringes of the pan are home to reptiles such as tortoises, rock monitor (Varanus albigularis), snakes and lizards including the endemic Makgadikgadi spiny agama (Agama hispida makgadikgadiensis). The region's salt water is home to the cladoceran crustacean Moina belli. Threats and preservation The salt pans are very inhospitable and human intervention has been minimal so they remain fairly undisturbed, although land surrounding the pans is used for grazing and some areas have been fenced off, preventing the migration of wildlife. Modern commercial operations to extract salt and soda ash began on Sua Pan in 1991, and there are also plans to divert water from the Nata River for irrigation, which would cause severe damage to the salt pan ecosystem. Another threat is the use of quad bikes and off-road vehicles by tourists, which disturbs breeding colonies of flamingos. Illegal hunting in the national parks is a persistent problem. There are some protected areas within the Makgadikgadi and Nxai Pan National Park. The Makgadikgadi Pans Game Reserve is the scene of large migrations of zebra and wildebeest from the Boteti River across to Ntwetwe Pan, while the Nata Sanctuary in Sua Pan is a place to see birdlife and antelopes. In Nxai Pan the baobabs painted by 19th century British artist Thomas Baines are still visible. The area can be accessed between the towns of Nata and Maun, or from the town of Gweta. Gallery See also Daphnia barbata Lovenula africana Sigara Top Gear: Botswana Special References External links Images from the Mkgadikgadi Pans Salt flats of Botswana Endorheic basins of Africa National parks of Botswana Ecoregions of Botswana Flooded grasslands and savannas Zambezian region

3733819

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maputaland%E2%80%93Pondoland%20bushland%20and%20thickets

Maputaland–Pondoland bushland and thickets

The Maputaland-Pondoland bushland and thickets is one of the ecoregions of South Africa. It consists of the montane shrubland biome. Geography The ecoregion occupies the foothills of the Drakensberg mountains, covering an area of in South Africa's Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces. It is bounded on the east by the KwaZulu-Cape coastal forest mosaic, which lies in the humid coastal strip along the Indian Ocean; to the west it is bounded by the higher-elevation Drakensberg montane grasslands, woodlands and forests. To the south, it transitions to the drier Albany thickets, which are characterized by more succulent and spiny plants. Climate The ecoregion experiences a dry subtropical climate characterised by varying rainfall levels, ranging from 800 mm to 450 mm per year. The majority of rainfall, approximately three-quarters, occurs during the warm summer months between October and March. Frosts are infrequent due to the moderating influence of the nearby Indian Ocean. Flora The typical vegetation is sclerophyll evergreen shrubs, which form dense, closed canopy thickets up to six meters in height. The ecoregion, which is in a transition between moist and dry, montane and lowland, and temperate and tropical, has a rich diversity of species, although with few endemics. Fauna The ecoregion is home to a variety of animal species, including endangered black rhinos (Diceros bicornis) and white rhinos (Ceratotherium simum). Protected areas A 1994 survey found that about 7.5% of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Protected areas include the Great Fish River Nature Reserve, Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve, and Thomas Baines Nature Reserve. See also References External links Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Afromontane ecoregions Afrotropical ecoregions Drakensberg Ecoregions of South Africa Grasslands of South Africa Montane grasslands and shrublands

3734214

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KwaZulu%E2%80%93Cape%20coastal%20forest%20mosaic

KwaZulu–Cape coastal forest mosaic

The Kwazulu-Cape coastal forest mosaic is a subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of South Africa. It covers an area of in South Africa's Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces. Limits The Kwazulu-Cape coastal forest mosaic occupies the humid coastal strip between the Indian Ocean and the foothills of the Drakensberg mountains. It is part of a strip of moist coastal forests that extend along Africa's Indian Ocean coast from southern Somalia to South Africa. The northern limit of the ecoregion is at the St. Lucia estuary in KwaZulu Natal, where the forests transition to the Maputaland coastal forest mosaic. The southern limit is at Cape St. Francis, east of Port Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape Province, where the KwaZulu-Cape forests transition to the Albany thickets. Climate The ecoregion has a seasonally-moist subtropical climate. Rainfall ranges from 1500 mm to 900 mm per year. The northern portion is generally receives more rainfall, typically in the summer months, while the southern portion receives most of its rainfall in the winter months, which is typical of the Mediterranean climate region to the west. Rainfall diminishes away from the coast, and the coastal forest mosaic yields to the drier Maputaland-Pondoland bushland and thickets in the Drakensberg foothills, above 300 to 450 meters elevation. Flora The ecoregion comprises a mosaic of different plant communities, including coastal belt forest, sand forest, dune forest, short, dry forests known as Alexandria forest, grasslands, palm woodlands, and thorn scrublands. Forests are typically made up of evergreen trees, interspersed with dry-season semi-deciduous and deciduous trees. Protected areas Approximately 9% of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Protected areas include Addo Elephant National Park, Amatikulu Nature Reserve, Dwesa-Cwebe Nature Reserve, East London Coast Nature Reserve, Great Fish River Nature Reserve, Geelkrans Nature Reserve, Hluleka Nature Reserve, Kap River Nature Reserve, Mansfield Game Reserve, Mbumbazi Nature Reserve, Mkhambathi Nature Reserve, Richards Bay Nature Reserve, Sunshine Coast Nature Reserve, Vernon Crookes Nature Reserve, and Woody Cape Nature Reserve. See also References External links Afrotropical ecoregions Drakensberg Ecoregions of South Africa Flora of the Cape Provinces Flora of KwaZulu-Natal Geography of the Eastern Cape Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

3734374

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maputaland%20coastal%20forest%20mosaic

Maputaland coastal forest mosaic

The Maputaland coastal forest mosaic is a subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion on the Indian Ocean coast of Southern Africa. It covers an area of in southern Mozambique, Eswatini, and the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. Mozambique's capital Maputo lies within the ecoregion. Geography The Maputaland coastal forest mosaic occupies the humid coastal strip along the Indian Ocean, inland to the Lebombo Mountains for much of its length. This is part of a strip of moist coastal forests that extend along Africa's Indian Ocean coast from southern Somalia to South Africa. The northern limit of the ecoregion is north of the mouth of the Limpopo River, near Xai-Xai in Mozambique, where the forests transition to the Southern Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal forest mosaic. The southern limit is near the St Lucia estuary in KwaZulu-Natal, where the Maputaland forests transition to the Kwazulu-Cape coastal forest mosaic. Climate The ecoregion has a seasonally moist, tropical to subtropical climate. Rainfall ranges from 1000 mm per year near the coast to less than 600 mm per year inland. Most of the rain falls in the summer months. The coastal strip includes areas of wetland, the largest of which is Lake St. Lucia, the largest estuarine system in Africa. Flora The ecoregion comprises a mosaic of many different plant communities, from the forest of the Lemombo Mountains through savanna, woodland, palm veld, grassland, sand dunes with patches of dense sand forest, and wetland habitats. The flora of the region includes a number of endemic species. Fauna The 100 species of mammal found here include the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), now contained in reserves along the coast, and large predators, of which leopard (Panthera pardus) are the most common. More than 470 bird species are found here, of which 4 are endemic and 43 near-endemic. Threats and preservation The South African portion of this region is under threat of change due to increasing population and the introduction of foreign plant species such as the shrub Chromolaena odorata, Australian acacias, guava (Psidium guajava), pines and eucalyptus. In Mozambique this coast is not so heavily populated but the area is affected by forestry and other projects including the Pongolapoort Dam and irrigation schemes. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, 14% of the ecoregion is protected in reserves. Protected areas in the ecoregion include iSimangaliso Wetland Park (formerly Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park – 3,280 km²) in KwaZulu-Natal, and Maputo Special Reserve (900 km²) in Mozambique, which has lost most of its large mammals and is being increasingly settled. There are plans to link the Maputo Reserve with Tembe Elephant Park of South Africa in the large cross-border Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area, which would allow elephants to roam more freely. There is little game left along this coast outside of the reserves. External links References Afrotropical ecoregions Ecoregions of Mozambique Ecoregions of South Africa Ecoregions of Eswatini Flora of Mozambique Flora of Southern Africa Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

3736308

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales%20Ecclesiastici

Annales Ecclesiastici

Annales Ecclesiastici (full title Annales ecclesiastici a Christo nato ad annum 1198; "Ecclesiastical annals from Christ's nativity to 1198"), consisting of twelve folio volumes, is a history of the first 12 centuries of the Christian Church, written by Caesar Baronius and Odorico Raynaldi. Significance The Annales were first published between 1588 and 1607. This work functioned as an official response to the Lutheran Historia Ecclesiae Christi (History of the Church of Christ). In that work the Magdeburg theologians surveyed the history of the Christian church in order to demonstrate how the Catholic Church represented the Antichrist and had deviated from the beliefs and practices of the early church. In turn, the Annales fully supported the claims of the papacy to lead the unique true church. Before Baronius was appointed Librarian of the Vatican in 1597, he had access to material and sources in its archives that were previously unpublished or unused. He used these in the development of his work. Accordingly, the documentation in Annales Ecclesiastici is considered by most as extremely useful and complete. Lord Acton called it "the greatest history of the Church ever written." First edition The details of the first edition are as follows: The difficulties which beset Baronius in the publication of the Annales Ecclesiastici were many and annoying. He prepared his manuscript unaided, writing every page with his own hand. His brother Oratorians at Rome could lend him no assistance. Those at Naples, who helped him in revising his copy, were scarcely competent and almost exasperating in their dilatoriness and uncritical judgment. The proofs he read himself. His printers, in the infancy of their art, were neither prompt nor painstaking. In the Spring of 1588 the first volume appeared and was universally acclaimed for its surprising wealth of information, its splendid erudition, and its timely vindication of papal claims. The Magdeburg Centuries were eclipsed. Those highest in ecclesiastical and civil authority complimented the author, but more gratifying still was the truly phenomenal sale the book secured and the immediate demand for its translation into the principal European languages. It was Baronius' intention to produce a volume every year; but the second was not ready until early in 1590. The next four appeared yearly, the seventh late in 1596, the other five at still-longer intervals, up to 1607, when, just before his death, he completed the twelfth volume, which he had foreseen in a vision would be the term of his work. It brought the history down to 1198, the year of the accession of Innocent III. The first volume dealt with Gentile prophets, among whom were Hermes Trismegistus, the supposed author of the Corpus Hermeticum, and the Sibylline Oracles of Rome. Some, it was claimed, had foreseen Christ's birth. This was disputed by post-Protestant Reformation scholars, including Isaac Casaubon in his De rebus sacris et ecclesiasticis exercitationes, XVI. The compilation of a monumental account of Church history, the Annales Ecclesiastici, could not fail to have its controversial aspects, even within the bounds of the Roman obedience; for example, discussions of the papal relations with the Normans in the eleventh century led to the Spanish resenting consideration of their rights in the Kingdom of Naples. Baronius incurred Philip's further displeasure by supporting the cause of his enemy, the excommunicate Henry IV of France, whose absolution Baronius warmly advocated. For these reasons the Annales Ecclesiastici were condemned by the Spanish Inquisition. Baronius surpassed the Centuriators in the extent of his quotation from and of original documents, to which he had privileged access as librarian; the early volumes of the work contain many pieces of epigraphic evidence - coins and medals are discussed and illustrated. Baronius was gifted with a critical spirit which was, to say the least, much keener than that of his contemporaries. Like most serious scholars by this date, he rejected the Donation of Constantine and many other traditional bits of papal apparatus. References to authorities are even more plentiful than in the Centuries and, useful device (though not his own invention), the exact location of the text quoted was removed to a marginal note instead of encumbering the text. Like the Centuries, the work was well indexed. Baronius' Annales Ecclesiastici included many documents from the Vatican Archives which are still unavailable elsewhere. Influence Annales Ecclesiastici were immediately and immensely successful among both protestants and catholics. There were many reprints and compendia, the latter being widely translated. The first two volumes (1588, 1590) were printed on the presses of the Vatican; later editions had the honour of being issued by Plantin (1589-1609) and Moretus (1596-1610). Above all it was continued. Bzovius carried the story down from 1198, where Baronio had ended (vol. XII, 1607), to the year 1572. Later others took up the task, notably Raynaldi (1646-77) and in the nineteenth century Theiner; meanwhile many other scholars had revised and enriched the work, notably Giovanni Domenico Mansi (1692-1769). Continuations Antoine Pagi and his nephew François Pagi made corrections to the Annales in the late 17th century. Continuators of Baronius of the Early Modern period were Odorico Raynaldi, Giacomo Laderchi, Henri Spondanus, and Abraham Bzovius. In the 19th century the Annales were continued by August Theiner. External links Annales Ecclesiastici Vols 1-37 online at Internet Archive References History books about Catholicism 1588 books 16th-century Christian texts 17th-century Christian texts 16th-century history books 17th-century history books 16th-century Latin books 17th-century Latin books

3738199

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose%20symbolism

Rose symbolism

Various folk cultures and traditions assign symbolic meaning to the rose, though these are seldom understood in-depth. Examples of deeper meanings lie within the language of flowers, and how a rose may have a different meaning in arrangements. Examples of common meanings of different coloured roses are: true love (red), mystery (blue), innocence or purity (white), death (black), friendship (yellow), and passion (orange). In religion Greco-Roman religion In ancient Greece, the rose was closely associated with the goddess Aphrodite. In the Iliad, Aphrodite protects the body of Hector using the "immortal oil of the rose" and the archaic Greek lyric poet Ibycus praises a beautiful youth saying that Aphrodite nursed him "among rose blossoms". The second-century AD Greek travel writer Pausanias associates the rose with the story of Adonis Book Eleven of the ancient Roman novel The Golden Ass by Apuleius contains a scene in which the goddess Isis, who is identified with Venus, instructs the main character, Lucius, who has been transformed into a donkey, to eat rose petals from a crown of roses worn by a priest as part of a religious procession in order to regain his humanity. Judaism In the Song of Songs 2:1-2, the Jewish people are compared with a rose, remaining beautiful amongst thorns, although some translations instead refer to a "lily among thorns." The Zohar uses a "thirteen-petalled rose" as a symbol for the thirteen attributes of Divine Mercy named in Exodus 34:6-7. The rose and rosettes were also used to symbolize royalty and Israel, and were used in wreaths for the bridegroom at weddings in Biblical times. Christianity Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire, the rose became identified with the Virgin Mary. The rose symbol eventually led to the creation of the rosary and other devotional prayers in Christianity. Ever since the 1400s, the Franciscans have had a Crown Rosary of the Seven Joys of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In the 1400s and 1500s, the Carthusians promoted the idea of sacred mysteries associated with the rose symbol and rose gardens. Albrecht Dürer's painting The Feast of the Rosary (1506) depicts the Virgin Mary distributing garlands of roses to her worshippers. Islam The cultivation of geometrical gardens, in which the rose has often held pride of place, has a long history in Iran and surrounding lands. In the lyric ghazal, it is the beauty of the rose that provokes the longing song of the nightingale – an image prominent, for example, in the poems of Hafez. In turn, the imagery of lover and beloved became a type of the Sufi mystic's quest for divine love, so that Ibn Arabi, for example, aligns the rose with the beloved's blushing cheek on the one hand and, on the other, with the divine names and attributes. Other well-known examples of rose symbolism in Sufism include: The Sufi master Jilani is known as "the Rose of Baghdad" and his order, the Qadiriyya, uses the rose as its symbol. Two prominent books aligned with Sufism are The Rose Garden by Saadi and Mahmud Shabistari's The Rose Garden of Secrets. In Europe Spain Catalans in the north eastern of Spain have traditionally celebrated Saint George's Day (April 23) – which commemorates Saint George (Sant Jordi), the patron saint of the Catalonia region; as the dia dels enamorats ("lovers' day"), on which lovers exchange blood-red roses. England The rose is the national flower of England, a usage dating back to the English civil wars of the fifteenth century (later called Wars of the Roses), in which a red rose represented the House of Lancaster, and a white rose represented the House of York. The Tudor dynasty created the Tudor rose, which united both the white and the red roses, a symbolism dramatized by Shakespeare in his play Richard III. The traditional ballad "The Rose of England" (Child 166) recounts the seizure of the crown by Earl of Richmond (who became Henry VII of England, the founder of the Tudor dynasty), using the "red rose" as an allegory for Henry. The England national rugby union team and Rugby Football Union adopted the red rose as their symbol in 1871, and the rose has appeared on players' kit ever since. The red rose is the symbol for the UK Labour Party. In North America United States In 1986, the rose was adopted as the national floral emblem of the United States. It is the state flower of five U.S. states and the District of Columbia. Iowa: The wild rose was adopted as the state's flower in 1896. North Dakota: The wild prairie rose was adopted as the official state flower of North Dakota in 1907. The colors of the rose (green and pink) had previously been adopted by the first graduating class of the University of North Dakota in 1889. Georgia: The Cherokee rose (R. laevigata) was adopted as the state's official floral emblem in 1916. New York: In 1955, the state adopted the rose as the state flower; the legislation stated: "The rose shall be the official flower of the state in any color or combination of colors common to it." Oklahoma: In 2004, Oklahoma adopted a new cultivar named Oklahoma rose as state flower. Portland, Oregon has counted "City of Roses" among its nicknames (see roses in Portland, Oregon) since 1888, and has held an annual Rose Festival since 1905. The city is also known for its International Rose Test Garden. Pasadena, California – also nicknamed the "City of Roses" – has held the annual Tournament of Roses Parade since 1890, and 1902 the Parade has been held in conjunction with the Rose Bowl Game (which is now played at the city's Rose Bowl stadium, built in 1922). In April 2011, the U.S. government's space program agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), celebrated the Hubble Space Telescope's 21st anniversary by releasing an image of spiral galaxies Arp 273 positioned in a rose-like shape. The red rose is also part of the official logo of the Democratic Socialists of America (DSA), being a symbol of socialism generally. Canada In 1930, Rosa acicularis (the wild rose or prickly rose) was adopted as the official provincial flower of the Canadian province of Alberta. The suggestion that a provincial floral emblem be adopted by first made by an Edmonton newspaper editor; "the Women's Institutes took up the suggestion and passed it on to the Department of Education, and the province's schoolchildren made the final choice." The Wildrose Party, a now-defunct Albertan political party, was named after the province's official flower. Mexico The Mexican city of Guadalajara, the capital of Jalisco, is nicknamed the "City of Roses" (Ciudad de las Rosas). Socialism Since the 1880s, the red rose has been a symbol of socialism. The origin of the rose as a symbol of socialism relates to its association with the color red. Since at least 1848, red was associated with socialism. Following the French Revolution of 1848, the socialists pushed to have the revolution's red flag be designated the national flag. The republicans, however, prevailed and the French tricolor flag remained the national flag. The provisional government as a compromise decreed that: "As a sign of rallying and as a remembrance of recognition for the last act of the popular revolution, members of the provisional government and other authorities will wear the red rosette, which will also be placed at the flagstaff." During the Paris Commune in 1871, the red flag solidified its link with socialism when it flew as the flag of the Communards' short-lived government. Following the collapse of the Paris Commune, German Chancellor Bismarck out of fear of the growing strength of the socialists in Germany had parliament pass the Anti-Socialist laws to suppress the activities of the Social Democratic Party. As part of the Anti-Socialist laws in 1878, the display of emblems of the Social Democratic Party were banned. To circumvent the law, social democrats wore red bits of ribbons in their buttonholes. These actions, however, led to arrest and jail sentences. Subsequently, red rosebuds were substituted by social democrats. These actions also led to arrest and jail sentences. The judge ruled that in general everyone has a right to wear any flower as suits their taste, but when socialists as a group wear red rosebuds, it becomes a party emblem. Due to the Anti-Socialist laws, which banned social democratic activities, hundreds of socialists were fined, imprisoned, or exiled from Germany. Subsequently, the German exiles spread the red rose symbol of socialism across Europe and to the United States. The socialist Johann Most was one of these German socialist exiles, who first went to England, and then later went to the United States and carried the red rosebud symbol with him. The red rosebud was worn in his lapel in 1887 during speeches he gave in support of the eight individuals convicted in the Haymarket Affair in a sign of socialist solidarity. Similarly, the wearing of a red flower, such as a red carnation or red rose, became common during the commemoration ceremonies in France at the Communards' Wall which remembered the victims of the collapse of the Paris Commune. By the 1910s, the red rose was universally identified as a symbol of the socialist movement. The Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Archives at New York University states that the rose "has always been an important symbol with anti-authoritarian associations." The rose is used to show the end after the means, meaning "lay a rose on the grave". The rose symbol became popular as a political logo among socialist and social democratic political parties in post-World War II Western Europe. The fist and rose, in which the rose is held by a clenched fist, is used by the Socialist International "and many of its member parties". The French Socialist Party (PS) was the first party to adopt it in 1971, using imagery popular with left-wing movements of the era. Centre-leaning and moderate parties tend to use a red rose alone, doing away with the revolutionary heritage of the raised fist. The British Labour Party has used a red rose as its symbol since the late 1980s; the rose replaced the party's previous symbol, the red flag. Allegorically in literature The rose in an allegorical sense appears many times in literature. In William Blake's poem "The Sick Rose" the rose is a symbol for love or passion, it is crimson and dark but now sick, the worm has infected it. The rose in the popular 13th-century French poem "Romance of the Rose" is a personification of the woman, the object of the lover's attentions, and his plucking of the rose represents his conquest of her. In the title of William Faulkner's short story "A Rose for Emily" the rose has a number of possible meanings: as Emily's lover now dried and preserved, or a secret as per sub rosa. In a postscript to The Name of the Rose, Umberto Eco discusses the reason behind the title to his 1983 novel: "because the rose is a symbolic figure so rich in meanings that by now it hardly has any meaning left". Relationships A red rose is a gift primarily given to a love interest, symbolizing a marital or romantic relationship. A white rose is gifted when the gifter's intention is friendship and there are no romantic feelings involved. Red is traditionally seen as a symbol of passion, while white is a symbol of purity and innocence. Other The "White Rose" (German die Weiße Rose) was a World War II non-violent intellectual resistance group in the Third Reich led by a group of students and a professor at the University of Munich. The group conducted an anonymous leaflet and graffiti campaign that called for active opposition to the Nazi party regime. Their activities started in Munich on 27 June 1942, and ended with the arrest of the core group by the Gestapo on 18 February 1943. Under Gestapo interrogation, Hans Scholl gave several explanations for the origin of the name "The White Rose," and suggested he may have chosen it while he was under the emotional influence of a 19th-century poem with the same name by German poet Clemens Brentano. It was also speculated that the name might have been taken from either the Cuban poet, Jose Marti's verse "Cultivo una rosa blanca" or a German novel Die Weiße Rose (The White Rose), written by B. Traven, the German author of The Treasure of the Sierra Madre. Hans Scholl and Alex Schmorell had read this novel. They also wrote that the symbol of the white rose was intended to represent purity and innocence in the face of evil. See also Bread and Roses – a political slogan as well as the name of an associated poem and song Christmas rose – common name for some flowering plants The List of plants with symbolism Rose (heraldry) – often used both as a charge on a coat of arms and by itself as an heraldic badge :Category:Coats of arms with roses References Symbolism Symbolism Language of flowers Socialist symbols

3739358

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RX-250-LPN

RX-250-LPN

The RX-250-LPN is an Indonesian sounding rocket, part of the RX rocket family. It was launched six times between 1987 and 2007. Technical data Specifications come from the rocket's summary datasheet published by Indonesian space agency LAPAN. Apogee: 70 kilometres Liftoff thrust: 53 kilonewtons Burning time: 6 seconds Specific impulse: 220 seconds Propellant: HTPB Total mass: 300 kilograms Core diameter: 0.25 metres Total length: 5.30 metres Payload: 30–60 kg References Rockets and missiles Space launch vehicles of Indonesia

3741942

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knysna%E2%80%93Amatole%20montane%20forests

Knysna–Amatole montane forests

The Knysna–Amatole montane forests ecoregion, of the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, is in South Africa. It covers an Afromontane area of in the Eastern Cape and Western Cape provinces. Setting The ecoregion, which is South Africa's smallest in area, covers two separate enclaves. The Knysna forest extends along the coast between 22°E and 25°E, generally along 34°S in a region called the Garden Route. The KwaZulu-Cape coastal forest mosaic lies along the coast to the north-east. The Amatole forests lie in the Amatole mountains, which lie inland and 400 km ENE of the Knysna forest. The ecoregion has a subtropical/warm-temperate climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification). Rainfall occurs year-round, and ranges from 525 mm to 1,220 mm per year in the Knysna forest, and from 750 mm to 1,500 mm in the Amatole forests. Flora The trees are of tropical and afromontane origin, and include Ironwood (Olea capensis), Stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), Outeniqua Yellowwood (Afrocarpus falcatus), Real Yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), Cape Holly (Ilex mitis), White Pear (Apodytes dimidiata), Cape beech (Rapanea melanophloeos), Bastard Saffron (Cassine peragua), Cape Plane (Ochna arborea), assegai tree (Curtisia dentata), Kamassi (Gonioma kamassi), White Alder (Platylophus trifoliatus), and Red Alder (Cunonia capensis). Fauna The forests are home to the African elephant - in the last count (2017-2019) there was just one single adult female, age 45 years, surviving, - African leopard, bushbuck, blue duiker, bushpig and other mammals. The area has a rich assortment of birds including the near-endemic Knysna lourie (Tauraco corythaix), Knysna warbler (Bradypterus sylvaticus), Knysna woodpecker (Campethera notata), chorister robin-chat (Cossypha dichroa) and forest canary (Serinus scotops), while birds of prey found here include the crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus) and the African wood owl (Strix woodfordii). Reptiles include the endemic Knysna dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion damaranum). Human use and conservation Thomas Henry Duthie was the first appointed Supervisor of Crown Forests and Lands. Despite the small size of the ecoregion, the Knysna and Amatole forests are South Africa's largest individual forests. The Knysna forest has been exploited for valuable timber since the 18th century, and the Amatole forests since the 20th century. Since 1939 the forests have mostly been within protected areas and are recovering well, although managed timber harvesting is allowed. References External links Afromontane ecoregions Afromontane forests Afrotropical ecoregions Rainforests of Africa Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Ecoregions of South Africa Forests of South Africa Geography of the Eastern Cape Geography of the Western Cape

3742793

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%E2%80%93space%20compression

Time–space compression

Time–space compression (also known as space–time compression and time–space distanciation) is an idea referring to the altering of the qualities of space–time and the relationship between space and time that is a consequence of the expansion of capital. It is rooted in Karl Marx's theory of the "annihilation of space by time" originally elaborated in the Grundrisse, and was later articulated by Marxist geographer David Harvey in his book The Condition of Postmodernity. A similar idea was proposed by Elmar Altvater in an article in PROKLA in 1987, translated into English as "Ecological and Economic Modalities of Time and Space" and published in Capitalism Nature Socialism in 1990. Time–space compression occurs as a result of technological innovations driven by the global expansion of capital that condense or elide spatial and temporal distances, including technologies of communication (telegraph, telephones, fax machines, Internet) and travel (rail, cars, trains, jets), driven by the need to overcome spatial barriers, open up new markets, speed up production cycles, and reduce the turnover time of capital. According to Paul Virilio, time-space compression is an essential facet of capitalist life, saying that "we are entering a space which is speed-space ... This new other time is that of electronic transmission, of high-tech machines, and therefore, man is present in this sort of time, not via his physical presence, but via programming" (qtd. in Decron 71). In Speed and Politics, Virilio coined the term dromology to describe the study of "speed-space". Virilio describes velocity as the hidden factor in wealth and power, where historical eras and political events are effectively speed-ratios. In his view, acceleration destroys space and compresses time in ways of perceiving reality. Theorists generally identify two historical periods in which time–space compression occurred; the period from the mid-19th century to the beginnings of the First World War, and the end of the 20th century. In both of these time periods, according to Jon May and Nigel Thrift, "there occurred a radical restructuring in the nature and experience of both time and space ... both periods saw a significant acceleration in the pace of life concomitant with a dissolution or collapse of traditional spatial co-ordinates". Criticism Doreen Massey critiqued the idea of time-space compression in her discussion of globalization and its effect on our society. She insisted that any ideas that our world is "speeding up" and "spreading out" should be placed within local social contexts. "Time-space compression", she argues, "needs differentiating socially": "the ways in which people are placed within 'time-space compression' are complicated and extremely varied". In effect, Massey is critical of the notion of "time-space compression" as it represents capital's attempts to erase the sense of the local and masks the dynamic social ways through which places remain "meeting places". For Moishe Postone, Harvey's treatment of space-time compression and postmodern diversity are merely reactions to capitalism. Hence Harvey's analysis remains "extrinsic to the social forms expressed" by the deep structure concepts of capital, value and the commodity. For Postone, the postmodern moment is not necessarily just a one-sided effect of the contemporary form of capitalism but can also be seen as having an emancipatory side if it happened to be part of a post-capitalism. And because postmodernism usually neglects its own context of embeddedness it can legitimate capitalism as postmodern, whereas at the level of deep structure it may in fact be more concentrated, with large capitals that, accumulate rather than diverge, and with an expansion of commodification niches with fewer buyers. Postone asserts that one cannot step outside capitalism and declare it a pure evil or as a one-dimensional badness, since the emancipatory content of such things as equal distribution or diversity are potentials of capitalism itself in its abundant and diverse productive powers. This initial perspective misfires however, when forms of society such as modernity and subsequently postmodernism take itself as the true whole of life for being oppositional to capitalism, when in fact they are grounded in the reproduction of the same capitalist relations that created them. See also Global village Late capitalism Late modernism Social production of space Space of flows References Further reading Jeff Lewis (2008), Cultural Studies, Sage, London. . [Sophie Raine] (2022), ''What is Time-Space Compression? Perception History of telecommunications Spacetime Postmodernism Postmodern theory Cultural geography Globalization

3743670

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahoney%20tables

Mahoney tables

The Mahoney tables are a set of reference tables used in architecture, used as a guide to climate-appropriate design. They are named after architect Carl Mahoney, who worked on them together with John Martin Evans, and Otto Königsberger. They were first published in 1971 by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. The tables use readily available climate data and simple calculations to give design guidelines, in a manner similar to a spreadsheet, as opposed to detailed thermal analysis or simulation. There are six tables; four are used for entering climatic data, for comparison with the requirements for thermal comfort; and two for reading off appropriate design criteria. A rough outline of the table usage is: Air Temperatures. The max, min, and mean temperatures for each month are entered into this table. Humidity, Precipitation, and Wind. The max, min, and mean figures for each month are entered into this table, and the conditions for each month classified into a humidity group. Comparison of Comfort Conditions and Climate. The desired max/min temperatures are entered, and compared to the climatic values from table 1. A note is made if the conditions create heat stress or cold stress (i.e. the building will be too hot or cold). Indicators (of humid or arid conditions). Rules are provided for combining the stress (table 3) and humidity groups (table 2) to check a box classifying the humidity and aridity for each month. For each of six possible indicators, the number of months where that indicator was checked are added up, giving a yearly total. Schematic Design Recommendations. The yearly totals in table 4 correspond to rows in this table, listing schematic design recommendations, e.g. 'buildings oriented on east–west axis to reduce sun exposure', 'medium-sized openings, 20%–40% of wall area'. Design Development Recommendations. Again the yearly totals from table 4 are used to read off recommendations, e.g. 'roofs should be high-mass and well insulated'. References Further reading Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Solar design Sustainable building

3743846

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fengyun

Fengyun

Fēngyún (FY, ) are China's meteorological satellites. Launched since 1988 into polar Sun-synchronous and geosynchronous orbit, each three-axis stabilized Fengyun satellite is built by the Shanghai Academy of Spaceflight Technology (SAST) and operated by the China Meteorological Administration (CMA). To date, China has launched twenty-one Fengyun satellites in four classes (FY-1 through FY-4). Fengyun 1 and Fengyun 3 satellites are in polar, Sun-synchronous orbit and Low Earth orbit while Fengyun 2 and 4 are geosynchronous orbit. On 11 January 2007, China destroyed one of these satellites (FY-1C, COSPAR 1999-025A) in a test of an anti-satellite missile. According to NASA, the intentional destruction of FY-1C created more than 3,000 high-velocity debris items, a larger amount of dangerous space junk than any other space mission in history. Classes Fengyun 1 The four satellites of the Fengyun 1 (or FY-1) class were China's first meteorological satellites placed in polar, Sun-synchronous orbit. In this orbit, FY-1 satellites orbited the Earth at both a low altitude (approximate 900 km above the Earth's surface), and at a high inclination between 98.8° and 99.2° traversing the North Pole every 14 minutes, giving FY-1-class satellites global meteorological coverage with a rapid revisit time and closer proximity to the clouds they image. FY-1A, launched in September 1988, lasted 39 days until it suffered attitude control problems. FY-1B, launched in September 1990 along with the first two QQW (Qi Qui Weixing) balloon satellites, lasted until late 1992 when its attitude control system also failed. FY-1C, launched in May 1999 along with Shijian-5, also completed its two-year design life operating until January 2004. The last satellite of the class, FY-1D, was launched in May 2002 and operated continuously for nine years until in May 2011 operations were temporarily lost. Despite resuscitation, FY-1D failed on 1 April 2012. All Fengyun 1 satellites were launched from Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center (TSLC) in Shanxi Province on Long March 4A and 4B rockets and weighed 750 kg, 880 kg, 954 kg, and 954 kg respectively. Aboard each satellite were two multichannel visible and infrared scanning radiometers (MVISR) built by the Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics (SITP) bearing an optical scanner, image processor, radiant cooler, and controller for the radiant cooler. FY-1C and FY-1D satellites also carried on board a high-energy particle detector (HEPD) for study of the space environment, contributing to their increased mass. FY-1 satellites are powered by two deployable solar arrays and internal batteries. Destruction of FY-1C On 11 January 2007, China conducted its first anti-satellite (ASAT) missile test, destroying FY-1C with a kinetic kill vehicle, identified by the United States Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) as the SC-19, a modified DF-21 ballistic missile with mounted kill vehicle. The shootdown, and the subsequent creation of a record-setting amount of in-orbit debris, drew serious international criticism. Fengyun 2 Satellites of the Fengyun 2 class are based on the spin-stabilized Dong Fang Hong 2 platform and are China's first class of meteorological satellites in geostationary orbit. Unlike meteorological satellites in polar orbit (like the FY-1 and FY-3 classes), FY-2 satellites in geostationary orbit remain in a fixed position relative to the Earth 35,000 km above its surface and maintain a constant watch over an assigned area. Unlike polar orbiting satellites which view the same area about twice a day, geostationary satellites can image a location as fast as once a minute and show long term meteorological trends - at the cost of resolution. Built by the Shanghai Institute of Satellite Engineering and operated by the Chinese Meteorological Administration, FY-2 satellites are 4.5 m tall and are spin-stabilized rotating at 100 rotations per minute. FY-2-class satellites have been marketed for their openly available data whereby any user with a receiver could view FY-2 derived sensory data. Satellites of the Fengyun 2 class have a mass of 1,380 kilograms, use solar cells and batteries for power, and a FG-36 apogee motor jettisoned after attaining orbit. On 2 April 1994, China attempted to launch the Fengyun 2 from Xichang Satellite Launch Center (XSLC) when, prior to its mating with the Long March 3, a fire caused an explosion destroying the satellite, killing a technician, and injuring 20 others. Officials of the Chinese space agency described the $75 million USD loss of the satellite as a "major setback" to the Chinese space program. Despite this, China launched eight successive Fengyun 2 satellites without incident. Fengyun 3 Chinese participation in the monitoring of auroras for scientific and space weather investigation was initiated with the launch of the Fengyun-3D satellite, which carries a wide-field auroral imager. Fengyun 4 As of 2021, China has launched two Fengyun 4 class satellites. List of satellites See also China Meteorological Administration 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test Yaogan Gaofen References External links Fēngyún-3 satellite programme Satellites of China Weather satellites Spacecraft launched by Long March rockets Intentionally destroyed artificial satellites Satellite collisions Spacecraft that broke apart in space

3744298

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siding%20Spring%20Survey

Siding Spring Survey

The Siding Spring Survey (SSS) was a near-Earth object search program that used the 0.5-metre Uppsala Southern Schmidt Telescope at Siding Spring Observatory, New South Wales, Australia. It was the southern hemisphere counterpart of the Catalina Sky Survey (CSS) located in the Santa Catalina Mountains on Mount Bigelow, near Tucson, Arizona, USA. The survey was the only professional search for dangerous asteroids being made in the Southern Hemisphere. SSS was jointly operated by the University of Arizona and the Australian National University, with funding from NASA. SSS (IAU observatory code E12) was located at Siding Spring Observatory (IAU observatory code 413) at , approximately north-west of Sydney at an altitude of about . Images of 30 seconds' exposure time were collected using a 4×4K charge-coupled device at intervals and then compared with software. The survey ended in July 2013 after funding was discontinued. Discoveries Since 2004 the survey has discovered 400 potentially hazardous objects with a diameter greater than 100 m. In early January 2013, Robert H. McNaught discovered a new comet named C/2013 A1 using data collected while searching for asteroids. List of discovered minor planets See also List of near-Earth object observation projects References External links Siding Spring Survey 2004 establishments in Australia 2013 disestablishments in Australia Astronomical surveys Asteroid surveys Siding Spring Observatory University of Arizona

3744382

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriszti%C3%A1n%20S%C3%A1rneczky

Krisztián Sárneczky

Krisztián Sárneczky (born 6 November 1974 in Budapest) is a Hungarian teacher of geography and prolific discoverer of minor planets and supernovae, researching at Konkoly Observatory in Budapest, Hungary. He is a board member of the Hungarian Astronomical Association (HAA) and member of the American Association of Variable Star Observers, leader of the Comet Section of the HAA, and is a contributor in the editorial work of Hungarian Astronomical Almanach. Personal life In 1990 he joined the Hungarian Astronomical Association and became the Co-ordinator of the Cometary Section the same year. In 1994 he became a member of the Executive Committee and in 1996 he was appointed secretary. In 1996 he also joined the American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO). Krisztián Sárneczky has published a number of articles in the astronomy community, and has a large number of asteroid discoveries to his credit (see ). Professional experience Astrometry of comets and minor planets (including rotational light curves) Photometry of supernovae. Places of field work Siding Spring Observatory, NSW, Australia (visiting astronomer, 2007), Hungarian Astronomical Association's Polaris Observatory, Budapest, (from 2006 - ) Baja Astronomical Observatory (visiting astronomer, 2005) The German-Spanish Astronomical Center at Calar Alto Observatory (visiting astronomer, 2000 and 2001) Observatory of Hungarian Scientific Academy Konkoly-Thege Miklós Astronomical Research Institute at Piszkéstetõ, Hungary (visiting astronomer from 1997) Observatory of Szeged (from 1996) Conferences GAIA-FUN-SSO-2 Workshop, September 19–21, 2012, Paris, Supernovae Illuminating the Universe: from Individuals to Populations, September 10–14, 2012, Garching bei München, MPA/ESO/MPE/Excellence Cluster Universe Conference on Supernovae Illuminating the Universe: from Individuals to Populations IAU Colloquium 192, "Supernovae - 10 years of SN 1993J", April 22–26, 2003, Valencia, National Young Scientists' Conference (OTDK), second place in Physics Section, Astronomy subsection (1999), IAU Colloquium 173,"Evolution and Source Regions of Asteroids and Comets", August 24–28, 1998, Tatranska Lomnica, Awards and honors Eötvös Fellowship (2007) National Young Scientists' Conference (OTDK), first place in Physics-Earth Sciences-Mathematics Section, Astronomy I. (Solar System) subsection (2001) Pro Renovanda Cultura Hungariae DT 2000/43. National Young Scientists' Conference (OTDK), second place in Physics Section, Astronomy subsection (1999) Young Scientists' Conference at University of Szeged (TDK), first place in Physics Section (1998 and 2000) In 2017, asteroid 10258 Sárneczky was named after him Books Sváb-hegyi kisbolygók, (Márta Sragner Keszthelyiné) Az égbolt mindenkié. Budapest: Introducing the Hungarian Astronomical Association, 2005, Publications Sárneczky K., Szabó Gy., Kiss L.L.: 1999, CCD observations of 11 faint asteroids, Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, 137., 363, List of publications by Krisztián Sárneczky from 1999 to 2007 List of publications by Krisztián Sárneczky from 2005 to 2013, Csillagászati hírportál, Interview The first astronomical program on the internet. 2009 Asteroid hunter from Piszkéstető, 2010 Discoveries As of 2018, Krisztián Sárneczky is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery and co-discovery of 379 numbered minor planets during 2000–2012. He has also co-discovered 5 supernovae including and . He also discovered 2022 EB5, which impacted Earth on March 11. List of discovered minor planets Co-discoverers: L. Kiss G. Szabó Z. Heiner A. Derekas S. Mészáros B. Sipőcz G. Fűrész D. Szám T. Szalai Z. Kuli B. Csák Á. Kárpáti C. Orgel A. Szing S. Kürti J. Kelemen E. Bányai References External links Sárneczky Krisztián amateur astronomer webpage Asteroid hunter from Piszkéstető Comet Hale-Bopp finally goes dormant as it passes Neptune Krisztián Sárneczky JATE asteroid survey - numbered minor planets 1974 births Discoverers of asteroids 21st-century Hungarian astronomers Living people

3745506

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiky%C5%AB

Chikyū

is a Japanese scientific drilling ship built for the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP). The vessel is designed to ultimately drill beneath the seabed, where the Earth's crust is much thinner, and into the Earth's mantle, deeper than any other hole drilled in the ocean thus far. While the planned depth of the hole is significantly less than the Russian Kola Superdeep Borehole (which reached depth on land), the scientific results are expected to be much more interesting since the regions targeted by Chikyū include some of the most seismically-active regions of the world. Other deep holes have been drilled by the drill ship JOIDES Resolution during the Deep Sea Drilling Project and the Ocean Drilling Program. Operation The Japanese part of the IODP program is called , Japanese for "Earth Discovery". Chikyū is operated by the Centre for Deep Earth Research (CDEX), a subdivision of the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC). JAMSTEC also operates the DSV Shinkai, Earth Simulator supercomputer and other marine scientific research projects. CDEX is responsible for the services to support activities including on-board staffing, data management for core samples and logging; implements engineering site surveys; and conducts engineering developments. CDEX contracts with the Mantle Quest Japan Company for the navigation of the ship. The Chikyū Hakken program is part of an international scientific collaborative effort with scientists from the United States, ECORD, a consortium consisting of several European countries and Canada, China, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand (ANZIC), and India. Design D/V Chikyū was built by the Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding and launched on 18 January 2002 in Nagasaki, Nagasaki. The ship was outfitted by the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and delivered to JAMSTEC on 29 July 2005. The hull of the ship is long, in width, high, and has an approximate gross tonnage of about . The ship has a draft of and a maximum cruising speed of . The amidships derrick is above sea level, and the top drive has a lifting capacity of . Its complement of 150 crew are divided between 100 operators and 50 science personnel, with at sea crew changes handled by helicopter transfer. Key innovations include a GPS system and six adjustable computer controlled azimuth thrusters ( in diameter) that enable precise positioning to maintain a stable platform during deep water drilling. The maximum drilling water depth for riser drilling is and can support a drill string up to long. The helipad can serve very large helicopters transporting as many as 30 persons per landing. History The D/V Chikyū was built for deep-sea geological scientific research, which now includes not only research of earthquake-generating zones in the Earth's crust but also hydrothermal vents and subsea methane hydrate research. On 16 November 2007 Chikyū began drilling the transect as planned, reaching at the site of a future deep subsea floor observatory. The first stage of four NanTroSEIZE Stages was completed in February 2008. The whole project was envisioned to be completed by 2012. The ship was damaged by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011. The ship was moored off the coast of Hachinohe, Aomori, but was cut loose by the tsunami and collided with a pier of Hachinohe port. One of the six stabilizers was damaged and a hole was made in the bottom. Local preliminary school children who were visiting the ship at the time of the earthquake spent one night on board and were rescued by Japan Self-Defense Forces helicopters next day. The ship was repaired at a dock in Shingū, Wakayama and returned to service in June 2011. World record According to the IODP, on 27 April 2012, Chikyū drilled to a depth of below sea level, setting a new world record for deep-sea drilling. This record has since been surpassed by the ill-fated Deepwater Horizon mobile offshore drilling unit, operating on the Tiber prospect in the Mississippi Canyon Field, United States Gulf of Mexico, when it achieved a world record for total length for a vertical drilling string of . The previous record was held by the U.S. vessel Glomar Challenger, which in 1978 drilled to below sea level in the Mariana Trench. On 6 September 2012 Scientific deep sea drilling vessel Chikyū set a new world record by drilling down and obtaining rock samples from deeper than 2,111 meters below the seafloor off the Shimokita Peninsula of Japan in the northwest Pacific Ocean. In addition, the 27 April 2012 drilling set a record for the depth of water for drilling of . That record still stands. In popular culture The D/V Chikyū is featured and plays a pivotal role in the 2006 film Sinking of Japan. See also Scientific drilling program Project Mohole Kola Superdeep Borehole Ocean Drilling Program German Continental Deep Drilling Program San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Scientific drilling ships JOIDES Resolution Glomar Challenger Mohorovičić discontinuity Earthscope USARRAY References External links The Biggest Dig: Japan builds a ship to drill to the earth's mantle – Scientific American (September 2005) JAMSTEC's Chikyu Hakken Official Page for Integrated Ocean Drilling Program CDEX Homepage, JAMSTEC. NanTroSEIZE homepage at CDEX, JAMSTEC. MANTLE QUEST JAPAN COMPANY IODP Riser Vessel homepage T-Limit Expedition Science and technology in Japan Structure of the Earth 2002 ships Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology Drillships

3745518

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isopycnal

Isopycnal

Isopycnals are layers within the ocean that are stratified based on their densities and can be shown as a line connecting points of a specific density or potential density on a graph. Isopycnals are often displayed graphically to help visualize "layers" of the water in the ocean or gases in the atmosphere in a similar manner to how contour lines are used in topographic maps to help visualize topography. Types Oceanography Water masses in the ocean are characterized by their properties. Factors such as density, temperature, and salinity can all be used to identify these masses and their origins as well as where they are in the water column. Density plays a large role in stratifying the ocean into layers. In a body of water, as the depth increases, so does the density; water masses with the highest density are at the bottom and the lowest densities are at the top. Typically, warm freshwater is less dense than cold salty water, thus the colder water will sink below the warmer water. Isopycnals are used to display this vertical distribution of the water. Variations in temperature and salinity along isopycnals can be described with spiciness. This creates distinguishable layers of water with differing physical properties. This phenomenon is called stratification. The strata are held in place by the large differences in physical and chemical properties between layers that prevent mixing.Turbulence can disturb boundaries between the layers, causing them to bend, which causes the isopycnals to appear uneven. These boundaries are known as diapycnals (Talley, 162). The ways in which the isopycnals and diapycnal are transformed can be used by oceanographers to identify the force that caused the underwater disturbance. Mixing Isopycnal mixing and diapycnal mixing work together to mix and ventilate the entire ocean. Isopycnal mixing is when surface waters moving into the interior of the ocean typically run horizontally, along the isopycnal layers, settling into their correct density-dependent layer (Talley, 67). This process is important for ventilating the ocean with oxygen. Diapycnal mixing is the movement of water by either upwelling or downwelling. This mixing is occurring vertically, across the isopycnal layer boundaries. These mixing processes are essential for nutrient distribution and the upwelling of cold bottom water. Mixing of waters of the same densities is easier than across densities which is why diapycnal mixing does not occur as frequently as isopycnal mixing Meteorology In meteorology, isopycnals are used to display different layers of gases in the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, varying degrees of humidity, temperature, and pressure change the density of air. Isopycnals are not used in meteorology as frequently as they are in oceanography, since the density gradients observed in the atmosphere are typically gradual, unlike in stratified bodies of water. In these cases, isopycnals are less relevant, as they do not display any substantial features. See also Atmosphere of Earth Internal wave References Talley, Lynne D, Pickard, George L, Emery, William J, Swift, James H, Descriptive Physical Oceanography An Introduction, Elsevier LTD., 2011 External links Atmospheric dynamics Physical oceanography

3747256

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian%20Riviera

Austrian Riviera

The Austrian Riviera (German: Österreichische Riviera, Italian: Riviera Austriaca, Slovene: Avstrijska riviera, Croatian: Austrijska rivijera) was a term used for advertising the seaside resorts on the Adriatic coast of the Austrian crown lands of Gorizia and Istria. The name arose with the emergence of tourism in the Austrian Littoral from the mid 19th century onwards and was common until the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of World War I. The Riviera covered the coastal areas centered around the Imperial Free City of Trieste and its port, it stretched from the Grado via Duino, Brioni (Brijuni) to Abbazia (Opatija) and the border with the Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia. The southeastern continuation is called the Croatian Littoral. Today split between Italy, Slovenia and Croatia, the coast still presents a picturesque landscape, numerous historic buildings, and a year-round mild Mediterranean climate. Geography The Austrian coast ran from the border with the Kingdom of Italy (Veneto) on the Gulf of Trieste down to Pola (Pula) on the southern tip of the Istrian peninsula and to Opatija on the Kvarner Gulf. The Istrian coast up to Trieste is now part of the Italian municipality of Muggia (), the Coastal-Karst of Slovenia, and the County of Istria in Croatia. The coast north of Trieste is partially rocky, and partially sandy, with the Laguna di Grado; it is now part of the autonomous Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of Italy. History In Ancient Roman times, the region was the site of important settlements like Aquileia. From the Late Middle Ages until the 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio, most of the area was administrated by the Republic of Venice, while in 1382, Trieste was joined with the Habsburg monarchy which also controlled most of the hinterland. Trieste developed into an important port and trade hub and by 1719, a free port was constituted and further developed as the Habsburg Austria's principal commercial port and shipbuilding center. The Habsburgs had also acquired the adjacent lands of Gorizia and held some smaller eastern Istrian territories which were administrated within Inner Austria. In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars, the remaining coastal villages became part of the new Austrian Empire and the completion of the Southern Railway line from Vienna to Trieste in 1857 not only helped to further develop trade between the two cities but also brought Viennese upper class society to the mild winters of the Littoral. Trieste developed into a buzzing cosmopolitan city visited by artists, musicians, poets and writers from all over the Austrian Empire (Austria-Hungary from 1867) and the rest of Europe. The surrounding coastal towns and villages developed into favorite hot spots for the rich and famous. In 1850, Lošinj (Italian: Lussino, German: Lötzing) became a summer residence of the Habsburg Imperial family, and in 1860 Miramare Castle was completed for Archduke Maximilian. In 1883, the beach resort on Brijuni Islands (Italian Brioni) was set up, and in 1904 the Austrian Riviera Journal (Österreichische Riviera Zeitung) was first published in Pula (Italian, German Pola). Resorts: Grado (Slovene Gradež) Duino (Devin) Sistiana (Sesljan) Muggia (Milje) Portorož (Italian Portorose) Poreč (Parenzo) Rovinj (Rovigno) Opatija (Abbazia) Lovran (Laurana) Mali Lošinj (Lussinpiccolo'') Several luxury hotels were built during this era, like the Hotel Kvarner in Opatija (1884) and Hotel Palace in Portorož (1910). The eastern shore of Kvarner Gulf was then under administration of the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary with additional resorts developing, like Kraljevica (), Crikvenica and Novi Vinodolski. After World War I In 1919, after World War I, the Austrian Riviera became part of Italy and was cut off from most of its hinterland. During the 1920s, the Riviera flourished somewhat as an "Austro-Italian Riviera", but the splendor of its heyday was gone. The French Riviera and Italian Riviera in the western Mediterranean became more favorable resorts. In 1947 Trieste, together with a small stretch of the adjacent coast became an independent Free Territory of Trieste. However, in 1954, the Free Territory was dissolved and its territory split between Italy and Yugoslavia. Trieste, Grado, Sistiana and Muggia remained part of Italy. Other After the political closure of most of the Adriatic Coast in 1945 due to the Cold War, the State of Carinthia in Austria began to call its Wörthersee lake district the "Austrian Riviera." See also Austrian Littoral Croatian Littoral Istria Riviera, featuring links to articles on the many coastal strips around the world which are known as Riviera Slovenian Littoral Venezia Giulia External links Trieste and its Riviera Coasts Geography of Friuli-Venezia Giulia History of Friuli-Venezia Giulia 19th-century neologisms

3747894

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric%20dispersion%20modeling

Atmospheric dispersion modeling

Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere. It is performed with computer programs that include algorithms to solve the mathematical equations that govern the pollutant dispersion. The dispersion models are used to estimate the downwind ambient concentration of air pollutants or toxins emitted from sources such as industrial plants, vehicular traffic or accidental chemical releases. They can also be used to predict future concentrations under specific scenarios (i.e. changes in emission sources). Therefore, they are the dominant type of model used in air quality policy making. They are most useful for pollutants that are dispersed over large distances and that may react in the atmosphere. For pollutants that have a very high spatio-temporal variability (i.e. have very steep distance to source decay such as black carbon) and for epidemiological studies statistical land-use regression models are also used. Dispersion models are important to governmental agencies tasked with protecting and managing the ambient air quality. The models are typically employed to determine whether existing or proposed new industrial facilities are or will be in compliance with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in the United States and other nations. The models also serve to assist in the design of effective control strategies to reduce emissions of harmful air pollutants. During the late 1960s, the Air Pollution Control Office of the U.S. EPA initiated research projects that would lead to the development of models for the use by urban and transportation planners. A major and significant application of a roadway dispersion model that resulted from such research was applied to the Spadina Expressway of Canada in 1971. Air dispersion models are also used by public safety responders and emergency management personnel for emergency planning of accidental chemical releases. Models are used to determine the consequences of accidental releases of hazardous or toxic materials, Accidental releases may result in fires, spills or explosions that involve hazardous materials, such as chemicals or radionuclides. The results of dispersion modeling, using worst case accidental release source terms and meteorological conditions, can provide an estimate of location impacted areas, ambient concentrations, and be used to determine protective actions appropriate in the event a release occurs. Appropriate protective actions may include evacuation or shelter in place for persons in the downwind direction. At industrial facilities, this type of consequence assessment or emergency planning is required under the U.S. Clean Air Act (CAA) codified in Part 68 of Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations. The dispersion models vary depending on the mathematics used to develop the model, but all require the input of data that may include: Meteorological conditions such as wind speed and direction, the amount of atmospheric turbulence (as characterized by what is called the "stability class"), the ambient air temperature, the height to the bottom of any inversion aloft that may be present, cloud cover and solar radiation. Source term (the concentration or quantity of toxins in emission or accidental release source terms) and temperature of the material Emissions or release parameters such as source location and height, type of source (i.e., fire, pool or vent stack) and exit velocity, exit temperature and mass flow rate or release rate. Terrain elevations at the source location and at the receptor location(s), such as nearby homes, schools, businesses and hospitals. The location, height and width of any obstructions (such as buildings or other structures) in the path of the emitted gaseous plume, surface roughness or the use of a more generic parameter "rural" or "city" terrain. Many of the modern, advanced dispersion modeling programs include a pre-processor module for the input of meteorological and other data, and many also include a post-processor module for graphing the output data and/or plotting the area impacted by the air pollutants on maps. The plots of areas impacted may also include isopleths showing areas of minimal to high concentrations that define areas of the highest health risk. The isopleths plots are useful in determining protective actions for the public and responders. The atmospheric dispersion models are also known as atmospheric diffusion models, air dispersion models, air quality models, and air pollution dispersion models. Atmospheric layers Discussion of the layers in the Earth's atmosphere is needed to understand where airborne pollutants disperse in the atmosphere. The layer closest to the Earth's surface is known as the troposphere. It extends from sea-level to a height of about and contains about 80 percent of the mass of the overall atmosphere. The stratosphere is the next layer and extends from to about . The third layer is the mesosphere which extends from to about . There are other layers above 80 km, but they are insignificant with respect to atmospheric dispersion modeling. The lowest part of the troposphere is called the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) or the planetary boundary layer (PBL) . The air temperature of the atmosphere decreases with increasing altitude until it reaches what is called an inversion layer (where the temperature increases with increasing altitude) that caps the Convective Boundary Layer, typically to about in height. The upper part of the troposphere (i.e., above the inversion layer) is called the free troposphere and it extends up to the tropopause (the boundary in the Earth's atmosphere between the troposphere and the stratosphere). In tropical and mid-latitudes during daytime, the Free convective layer can comprise the entire troposphere, which is up to in the Intertropical convergence zone. The ABL is of the most important with respect to the emission, transport and dispersion of airborne pollutants. The part of the ABL between the Earth's surface and the bottom of the inversion layer is known as the mixing layer. Almost all of the airborne pollutants emitted into the ambient atmosphere are transported and dispersed within the mixing layer. Some of the emissions penetrate the inversion layer and enter the free troposphere above the ABL. In summary, the layers of the Earth's atmosphere from the surface of the ground upwards are: the ABL made up of the mixing layer capped by the inversion layer; the free troposphere; the stratosphere; the mesosphere and others. Many atmospheric dispersion models are referred to as boundary layer models because they mainly model air pollutant dispersion within the ABL. To avoid confusion, models referred to as mesoscale models have dispersion modeling capabilities that extend horizontally up to a few hundred kilometres. It does not mean that they model dispersion in the mesosphere. Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation The technical literature on air pollution dispersion is quite extensive and dates back to the 1930s and earlier. One of the early air pollutant plume dispersion equations was derived by Bosanquet and Pearson. Their equation did not assume Gaussian distribution nor did it include the effect of ground reflection of the pollutant plume. Sir Graham Sutton derived an air pollutant plume dispersion equation in 1947 which did include the assumption of Gaussian distribution for the vertical and crosswind dispersion of the plume and also included the effect of ground reflection of the plume. Under the stimulus provided by the advent of stringent environmental control regulations, there was an immense growth in the use of air pollutant plume dispersion calculations between the late 1960s and today. A great many computer programs for calculating the dispersion of air pollutant emissions were developed during that period of time and they were called "air dispersion models". The basis for most of those models was the Complete Equation For Gaussian Dispersion Modeling Of Continuous, Buoyant Air Pollution Plumes shown below: The above equation not only includes upward reflection from the ground, it also includes downward reflection from the bottom of any inversion lid present in the atmosphere. The sum of the four exponential terms in converges to a final value quite rapidly. For most cases, the summation of the series with m = 1, m = 2 and m = 3 will provide an adequate solution. and are functions of the atmospheric stability class (i.e., a measure of the turbulence in the ambient atmosphere) and of the downwind distance to the receptor. The two most important variables affecting the degree of pollutant emission dispersion obtained are the height of the emission source point and the degree of atmospheric turbulence. The more turbulence, the better the degree of dispersion. Equations for and are: (x) = exp(Iy + Jyln(x) + Ky[ln(x)]2) (x) = exp(Iz + Jzln(x) + Kz[ln(x)]2) (units of , and , and x are in meters) The classification of stability class is proposed by F. Pasquill. The six stability classes are referred to: A-extremely unstable B-moderately unstable C-slightly unstable D-neutral E-slightly stable F-moderately stable The resulting calculations for air pollutant concentrations are often expressed as an air pollutant concentration contour map in order to show the spatial variation in contaminant levels over a wide area under study. In this way the contour lines can overlay sensitive receptor locations and reveal the spatial relationship of air pollutants to areas of interest. Whereas older models rely on stability classes (see air pollution dispersion terminology) for the determination of and , more recent models increasingly rely on the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory to derive these parameters. Briggs plume rise equations The Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation (discussed above) requires the input of H which is the pollutant plume's centerline height above ground level—and H is the sum of Hs (the actual physical height of the pollutant plume's emission source point) plus ΔH (the plume rise due to the plume's buoyancy). To determine ΔH, many if not most of the air dispersion models developed between the late 1960s and the early 2000s used what are known as the Briggs equations. G.A. Briggs first published his plume rise observations and comparisons in 1965. In 1968, at a symposium sponsored by CONCAWE (a Dutch organization), he compared many of the plume rise models then available in the literature. In that same year, Briggs also wrote the section of the publication edited by Slade dealing with the comparative analyses of plume rise models. That was followed in 1969 by his classical critical review of the entire plume rise literature, in which he proposed a set of plume rise equations which have become widely known as "the Briggs equations". Subsequently, Briggs modified his 1969 plume rise equations in 1971 and in 1972. Briggs divided air pollution plumes into these four general categories: Cold jet plumes in calm ambient air conditions Cold jet plumes in windy ambient air conditions Hot, buoyant plumes in calm ambient air conditions Hot, buoyant plumes in windy ambient air conditions Briggs considered the trajectory of cold jet plumes to be dominated by their initial velocity momentum, and the trajectory of hot, buoyant plumes to be dominated by their buoyant momentum to the extent that their initial velocity momentum was relatively unimportant. Although Briggs proposed plume rise equations for each of the above plume categories, it is important to emphasize that "the Briggs equations" which become widely used are those that he proposed for bent-over, hot buoyant plumes. In general, Briggs's equations for bent-over, hot buoyant plumes are based on observations and data involving plumes from typical combustion sources such as the flue gas stacks from steam-generating boilers burning fossil fuels in large power plants. Therefore, the stack exit velocities were probably in the range of 20 to 100 ft/s (6 to 30 m/s) with exit temperatures ranging from 250 to 500 °F (120 to 260 °C). A logic diagram for using the Briggs equations to obtain the plume rise trajectory of bent-over buoyant plumes is presented below: {| border="0" cellpadding="2" |- |align=right|where: |  |- !align=right| Δh |align=left|= plume rise, in m |- !align=right| F  |align=left|= buoyancy factor, in m4s−3 |- !align=right| x |align=left|= downwind distance from plume source, in m |- !align=right| xf |align=left|= downwind distance from plume source to point of maximum plume rise, in m |- !align=right| u |align=left|= windspeed at actual stack height, in m/s |- !align=right| s  |align=left|= stability parameter, in s−2 |} The above parameters used in the Briggs' equations are discussed in Beychok's book. See also Atmospheric dispersion models List of atmospheric dispersion models provides a more comprehensive list of models than listed below. It includes a very brief description of each model. ADMS AERMOD ATSTEP CALPUFF CMAQ DISPERSION21 FLACS FLEXPART HYSPLIT ISC3 NAME MERCURE OSPM Fluidyn-Panache RIMPUFF SAFE AIR PUFF-PLUME POLYPHEMUS MUNICH Organizations Air Quality Modeling Group Air Resources Laboratory Finnish Meteorological Institute KNMI, Royal Dutch Meteorological Institute National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute TA Luft UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison Committee UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau Desert Research Institute VITO (institute) Belgium; https://vito.be/en Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI Others Air pollution dispersion terminology List of atmospheric dispersion models Portable Emissions Measurement System (PEMS) Roadway air dispersion modeling Useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion modeling Air pollution forecasting References Further reading Books Introductory Advanced Proceedings Guidance External links EPA's Support Center for Regulatory Atmospheric Modeling EPA's Air Quality Modeling Group (AQMG) NOAA's Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison Committee web site UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau web site Atmospheric Chemistry transport model LOTOS-EUROS The Operational Priority Substances model OPS HAMS-GPS Dispersion modelling Wiki on Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling. Addresses the international community of atmospheric dispersion modellers - primarily researchers, but also users of models. Its purpose is to pool experiences gained by dispersion modellers during their work. Air pollution Environmental engineering Industrial emissions control

3748458

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaphore%2C%20South%20Australia

Semaphore, South Australia

Semaphore is a northwestern suburb of Adelaide in the Australian state of South Australia. It is located on the Gulf St Vincent coastline of the Lefevre Peninsula about from the Adelaide city centre. History Semaphore was first surveyed for sale in 1849, at which time it was isolated by swamps to the south and the Port River to the east. In 1851, George Coppin, a prominent publican, theatrical entrepreneur and actor, built a two-storeyed timber hotel on the southern corner of The Esplanade and Blackler Street. A very high flagpole was erected to signal to his "White Horse Cellars" hotel at Port Adelaide the approach of ships, earning the area the name Semaphore, often called "The Semaphore". In 1856, an official government signal station was established at the intersection of The Esplanade and Semaphore Road, where officers would record the details of all vessels in Gulf St Vincent. It was also used to record information on water depth, tides and cargo loading. A Telegraph Office opened in 1856 and became a Post and Telegraph Office in March 1871. In 1875, the Time Ball Tower was erected adjacent to the Signal Station. The area was isolated from Port Adelaide by the Port River until 1859 when a wooden bridge, later replaced by the Jervois Bridge, was opened. The following year saw the construction of the jetty. In 1880, an octagonal brick tower with thick walls was erected in Blackler Street to maintain a water supply when the Jervois Bridge had to be raised for passing ships. It was in use until 1972, after which it was converted into a residence. The Corporate Town of Semaphore was established on 17 January 1884. This centralised the local governance of Semaphore and its surrounds, which formerly had been part of the Lefevre's Peninsula and Glanville councils on the north and south of Semaphore, respectively. In 1884 the Mechanics Institute was built, becoming the Semaphore Town Hall in 1889 (later Semaphore Cinema, and now the heritage-listed Semaphore Library. The road link to Port Adelaide allowed for more convenient commuting from Semaphore to the commercial area, and contributed to increased residential development in the area, as well as churches, schools and pubs. This was further augmented by the construction in 1878 of a railway, which attracted affluent holiday-makers to the seaside. Carnivals, sideshows and open air cinemas were opened, and 1917 a tram service from Port Adelaide was built. From around 1911 until 1919, an open-air theatre showing silent films used to operate in the summer on the Esplanade, run by the Wondergraph company, until the company built the Wondergraph Picture Theatre, opened in May 2020. In 1928, a merry-go-round, the largest in Australia, was constructed, driven by an electrical lift motor and gearbox, unlike the predominantly steam-driven machines of the era. In the mid-1930s, the Great Depression brought a decline to Semaphore, with the tram service being closed down and the functions of the Signal Station and Time Ball Tower being moved to Outer Harbor, while the jetty was shortened due to storm damage, with repairs being unaffordable. Description Semaphore is bounded to the north by Union and Hargrave Streets, to the south by Hart Street, to the west by Gulf St Vincent and to the east by Woolnough Road and Swan Terrace. Semaphore is primarily a residential suburb, although its seaside location makes it a popular local tourist destination, with numerous restaurants, takeaway food outlets and other tourism-oriented businesses. It is adjacent to Semaphore South, Glanville, Exeter and Largs Bay. Landmarks The Semaphore jetty, which was completed in 1860, once stood at 652 m (2,150 ft) in length, but today is 585 m (1,930 ft). It overlooks the Fort Glanville steam train, which operates as a heritage item by the National Railway Museum. A World War I memorial clock was built in 1925 at the landward end of the jetty. The birthplace of Sir Ross Smith, the aviator who flew from the United Kingdom to Australia is preserved to this day at 36 Newman Street. Odeon Star cinema The Odeon Star in Semaphore Road is the oldest purpose-built cinema in Adelaide, opened on 22 May 1920 as the Wondergraph Picture Palace. It was designed by a prominent South Australian architect, Eric McMichael, and built by Emmett Bros. It was renamed Star Theatre in 1930 (as part of the Clifford Theatre Circuit), and in January 1931, sound equipment was installed to cater for talkies. After a takeover by Greater Union Cinemas in 1946 it was renamed to Semaphore Odeon Cinema from 12 June 1952, eventually closing on 13 November 1976 due to declining audiences, with the building converted into a furniture shop. It was renovated and reopened as the Odeon Star on 19 December 1991, and enlarged and refurbished in 1997, becoming a three-screen cinema. It was part of the Wallis Cinemas chain for some time, but by 2009 was being run by independent operators. Facilities Semaphore's beach is the busiest of those on the LeFevre Peninsula, as it is the most convenient beach to people living in the northern suburbs of metropolitan Adelaide. There are large car parks on the foreshore to accommodate visitors. During weekends of the summer months the beach is patrolled by the Semaphore Surf Life Saving club, with the swimming flags often being placed 50m south of the jetty or outside the club at Point Malcolm ( south of the jetty). The beach is wide, with a large amount of wide sand. The surf is low and good for swimming, but surfing is generally not possible. Sandbars extend out a considerable distance, with holes, troughs and channels in the bars creating the major safety hazard on a generally safe beach. Other substantial hazards on the beach are jumping from the jetty (the depth of the water under the jetty varies considerably during the day and between visits) and non-swimmers climbing on the groyne at Semaphore South finding themselves cut off from land by a rising tide. The jetty is the focus of cultural events such as the annual Kite Festival and Greek Festival. The local public primary school is LeFevre Primary School in the neighbouring suburb of Birkenhead. The local high school is LeFevre High School in the neighbouring suburb of Semaphore South. The only school located in Semaphore is Dominican Primary School, a private school run by the Catholic Education Office. Another nearby faith-based private school is Portside Christian College in neighbouring Ethelton, a primary and secondary school. Semaphore is served by the historic Semaphore Library, and Semaphore Road contains a large number of retail stores. Some are aimed at the large number of summer visitors, with a large range of food vendors, clothing boutiques and gift retailers. Semaphore Road was voted the People's Choice Award for best main street in South Australia for 2014. The Odeon Star cinema runs regular programmes of films as well as special screenings for the Adelaide Film Festival. Heritage listings Semaphore has a number of heritage-listed sites, including: 40 Blackler Street: Semaphore Water Tower Semaphore Road: Semaphore Soldiers Memorial Clock Esplanade: Semaphore Palais 64 Esplanade: Dwelling 68 Esplanade: Richard Jagoe's House 74 Esplanade: Semaphore Customs Boarding Station 176-186 Military Road: Bute Terrace 6 Newman Street: Dwelling Semaphore Road: Semaphore Jetty Semaphore Road: Semaphore Timeball Tower 10-14 Semaphore Road: Semaphore Soldiers Memorial Hall, designed by Christopher Arthur Smith. 10-14 Semaphore Road: Semaphore Library 15 Semaphore Road: Semaphore Post and Telegraph Office 43 Semaphore Road: Warrinilla Politics Semaphore is in state and federal electorates that are considered historically "safe" Labor-held seats. This is a reflection of the working class heritage of the nearby docks of Port Adelaide, where the dock workers had a bitter struggle against shipping owners for reasonable terms of employment, wages, and safety. In the 1970s the docks were containerised and moved to Outer Harbor. The resulting unemployment and poverty in Port Adelaide entrenched the political appeal of Labor. Since the 1990s Semaphore has seen an influx of urban professionals, and whilst this diminished the Labor vote it did not increase the Liberal vote proportionally. In recent years the Labor margin of both seats has diminished due to new and expensive housing in West Lakes, Port Adelaide and New Port (a residential suburb created in 2007 on land once used by maritime facilities). Transport The 157 and 333 buses have stops on Military Road. The 352 and 353 buses have stops on Semaphore Road. The Glanville railway station is nearby, with a service to the Adelaide CBD every 30 minutes every day. On-road cycling lanes are on most major roads, although operation of these is typically limited to peak hours. A separated cycling and walking path runs along the beach's foreshore. Another separated cycling and walking path forms a loop through Semaphore, Ethelton, Port Adelaide and New Port. Some limited short stay car parking is available along Semaphore Road. Larger long-stay carparks stretch along the foreshore, with access from The Esplanade. Most residential streets have on-street parking available for non-residents, although in the older areas of the suburb many residents park on the street as houses of the pre-car era lack off-street parking. Notable people Susan Close politician Colin Hayes horse trainer Charles Todd telegraph pioneer and meteorologist Geoffrey Proud artist See also Semaphore (disambiguation) Semaphore railway line Electoral district of Semaphore Corporate Town of Semaphore References External links Semaphore Mainstreet Association website Suburbs of Adelaide Beaches of South Australia Gulf St Vincent Time balls Lefevre Peninsula

3752644

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20availability%20anti-spoofing%20module

Selective availability anti-spoofing module

A Selective Availability Anti-spoofing Module (SAASM) is used by military Global Positioning System receivers to allow decryption of precision GPS observations, while the accuracy of civilian GPS receivers may be reduced by the United States military through Selective Availability (SA) and anti-spoofing (AS). However, on May 1, 2000 it was announced that SA was being discontinued, along with a United States Presidential Directive that no future GPS programs will include it. Before the advent of L2C, AS was meant to prevent access to dual-frequency observations to civilian users. SAASM allows satellite authentication, over-the-air rekeying, and contingency recovery. Those features are not available with the similar, but older, PPS-SM (Precise Positioning Service Security Module) system. PPS-SM systems require periodic updates with a classified "Red Key" that may only be transmitted by secure means (such as physically taking the receiver to a secure facility for rekeying or having a trusted courier deliver a paper tape with a new key to the receiver, after which that paper tape must be securely destroyed). SAASM systems can be updated with an encrypted "Black Key" that may be transmitted over unclassified channels. All military receivers newly deployed after the end of September 2006 must use SAASM. SAASM does not provide any additional anti-jam capability, however, the higher data (chipping) rate of P(Y) code can provide a higher processing gain which will provide better tracking performance in a jamming environment. Future GPS upgrades, such as M-Code, will provide additional improvements to anti-jam capabilities. SAASM hardware is covered with an anti-tampering coating, to deter analysis of their internal operation. Deployment of the next generation military signal for GPS, called M-code, commenced with the launch of IIR-M and IIF satellites, beginning in 2005. A complete constellation of 18 satellites with M-code capability is planned for 2016. See also Defense Advanced GPS Receiver Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver References External links GPSworld.com article "Saving SAASM" by Robert Huffman (January 2006) - The file is not available. Global Positioning System

3755350

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus%20and%20Adonis%20%28opera%29

Venus and Adonis (opera)

Venus and Adonis is an opera in three acts and a prologue by the English Baroque composer John Blow, composed no later than 1684 (when we know it was revived) and no earlier than 1681 (when its text was completed). It was written for the court of King Charles II at either London or Windsor Castle. It is considered by some to be either a semi-opera or a masque, but The New Grove names it as the earliest known English opera. The author of the libretto was surmised to have been Aphra Behn due to the feminist nature of the text, and that she later worked with Blow on the play The Luckey Chance. However, according to the musicologist Bruce Wood, in his 2008 critical edition of the work for the Purcell Society, the librettist "has been identified by James Winn as Anne Kingsmill, subsequently married as Anne Finch". The story is based on the Classical myth of Venus and Adonis, which was also the basis for Shakespeare's poem Venus and Adonis, as well as Ovid's poem of the same name in his Metamorphoses. Roles Music Venus and Adonis is considered by some to be either a semi-opera or a masque, but The New Grove names it as the earliest surviving English opera. In fact, an early manuscript source is subtitled "A masque for the entertainment of the king". In overall form the opera owes much to French operas of the period, especially those of Jean-Baptiste Lully. The French elements in the opera are the French overture, the prologue which refers in scarcely veiled terms to the court for which it was written, and also includes many dances popular at the time. The piece is a clear model for Henry Purcell's opera Dido and Aeneas, both in structure and the use of the chorus. The piece is remarkable for the period because of its through-composed nature; there are no clear arias or set pieces, but the music continues throughout, using recitative to further the plot. Libretto The traditional myth of Venus and Adonis runs as follows: Venus is with her son Cupid, and he accidentally pierces her with one of his arrows. The next person Venus sees is the handsome youth Adonis, with whom she immediately falls in love. He is a hunter, and she decides that in order to be with him, she will take on the form of the goddess of the hunt, Artemis. Eventually she warns Adonis of the danger of hunting the wild boar, but he does not heed the warning, and is gored to death by the boar. In Blow's version, Venus encourages Adonis to go hunting, despite his protestations: Adonis: Adonis will not hunt today: I have already caught the noblest prey. Venus: No, my shepherd haste away: Absence kindles new desire, I would not have my lover tire. This parallels the scene in Purcell's later Dido and Aeneas (1688), when Dido rebuffs Aeneas' offer to stay with her. In addition to this major divergence from the myth in Adonis' motivation, Blow's version also includes the addition of a number of comic scenes with Cupid, including the spelling lesson he gives to the young cupids and his opinion that almost no one in the court is faithful—the latter an especially pungent critique given that it is believed that Cupid was played by Lady Mary Tudor, then around 10 years old and Charles II's illegitimate daughter, and Venus by Mary (Moll) Davis, the king's former lover. Synopsis Prologue After a French overture, Cupid addresses assorted shepherds and shepherdesses, accusing them of infidelity, and invites them to enjoy true pastoral pleasures. Act 1 The couple are resting on a couch, and Venus, accompanied by obbligato recorder, is toying with Adonis's sexual anticipation. Just before she gives in, hunting music is heard, and she encourages him to leave her and join the chase. The huntsmen intrude and sing of an enormous boar that is causing severe problems; thus goaded, Adonis leaves. Act 2 Cupid is studying the art of love, learning from his mother how to strike love into human hearts. He in turn teaches this lesson to a group of little Cupids. Cupid advises his mother that the way to make Adonis love her more is to "use him very ill". They then call the Graces, the givers of beauty and charm, to give honour to the goddess of love. Act 3 Venus and Cupid are shown struck by grief. Adonis is brought in, dying from the wound given to him by the boar. He duets with Venus, and dies in her arms. As a lament she begins a funeral march, and the refrain is taken up by the pastoral characters (in reality, Venus' courtiers). The opera ends with the G minor chorus "Mourn for thy servant", a strong example of elegiac counterpoint. Recordings 1951 – Margaret Ritchie (Venus), Gordon Clinton (Adonis), Margaret Field-Hyde (Cupid) – Ensemble Orchestral de L'Oiseau-Lyre, Anthony Lewis (L'Oiseau-Lyre) 1988 – Lynne Dawson (Venus), Stephen Varcoe (Adonis), Nancy Argenta (Cupid) – London Baroque, Charles Medlam (Harmonia Mundi) 1994 – Catherine Bott (Venus), Michael George (Adonis), Libby Crabtree (Cupid) – New London Consort, Philip Pickett (L'Oiseau-Lyre) 1999 – Rosemary Joshua (Venus), Gerald Finley (Adonis), Robin Blaze (Cupid) – Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, René Jacobs (Harmonia Mundi) 2009 – Amanda Forsythe (Venus), Tyler Duncan (Adonis), Mireille Lebel (Cupid) – Boston Early Music Festival Orchestra, Paul O'Dette (cpo) References Notes External links Libretto of Venus and Adonis at Stanford.edu Operas English-language operas Operas by John Blow Pastoral operas 1683 operas Operas based on classical mythology

3755949

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuya%20Steppe

Chuya Steppe

The Chuya Steppe () in the Siberian Altai Mountains is a depression formed by tectonic movement of major faults in the Earth's crust. Its name comes from the large river which runs through the steppe, the Chuya River. Major settlements Kosh-Agach is a major village in the north of the steppe. Other large settlements include Chaganuzun and Beltir. Geology The Chuya Steppe is filled with Cenozoic sediments, derived from the surrounding mountains of the Chuya Belki. Seismicity The 7.3 Altai earthquake shook South Central Siberia with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme), causing $10.6–33 million in damage, three deaths, and five injuries. Grasslands of Russia Geography of Siberia Natural history of Siberia Depressions of Russia Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Geography of the Altai Republic

3758628

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrub%E2%80%93steppe

Shrub–steppe

Shrub-steppe is a type of low-rainfall natural grassland. While arid, shrub-steppes have sufficient moisture to support a cover of perennial grasses or shrubs, a feature which distinguishes them from deserts. The primary ecological processes historically at work in shrub-steppe ecosystems are drought and fire. Shrub-steppe plant species have developed particular adaptations to low annual precipitation and summer drought conditions. Plant adaptations to different soil moisture regimes influence their distribution. A frequent fire regime in the shrub-steppe similarly adds to the patchwork pattern of shrub and grass that characterizes shrub-steppe ecosystems. North America The shrub-steppes of North America occur in the western United States and western Canada, in the rain shadow between the Cascades and Sierra Nevada on the west and the Rocky Mountains on the east. They extend from south-central British Columbia down into south central and south-eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and eastern California, and across through Idaho, Nevada, and Utah into western Wyoming and Colorado, and down into northern and central New Mexico and northern Arizona. Growth is dominated primarily by low-lying shrubs, such as big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), with too little rainfall to support the growth of forests, though some trees do occur. Other important plants are bunchgrasses such as Pseudoroegneria spicata, which have historically provided forage for livestock as well as wildlife, but are quickly being replaced by nonnative annual species like cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), tumble mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum), and Russian thistle (Salsola kali). There is also a suite of animals that call the shrub-steppe home, including sage grouse, pygmy rabbit, Western rattlesnake, and pronghorn. Historically, much of the shrub-steppe in the state of Washington was referred to as "scabland" because of the deep channels cut into pure basalt rock by cataclysmic floods more than 10,000 years ago (see Channeled Scablands). Major threats to the ecosystem include overgrazing, fires, invasion by nonnative species, development (since much of it is at lower elevations), conversion to cropland, and energy development. Less than 50% of the state of Washington's historic shrub-steppe remains; according to some estimates, only 12 to 15% remains. Shrub-steppe ecoregions of North America include: Great Basin shrub steppe in eastern California, central Nevada, western Utah, and southeastern Idaho. Snake–Columbia shrub steppe in south-central Washington state, eastern Oregon, northeastern California, northern Nevada, and Idaho. Wyoming Basin shrub steppe in central Wyoming, reaching into south-central Montana, northeastern Utah, southeastern Idaho, and northwestern Colorado. Okanagan shrub steppe in the Okanagan Valley in south-central British Columbia, and the southern Similkameen Valley in south-central British Columbia and north-central Washington state. See also Arid Lands Ecology Reserve (in Washington state in the US) Artemisia tridentata Deserts and xeric shrublands Rangeland Steppe Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands References External links U.S. Government article: "Shrub-steppes" Bioimages.vanderbilt.edu: Index to Deserts & Xeric Shrublands Washington Dept. of Fish and Game- Species & Ecosystem Science, Shrubsteppe Ecology Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Ecoregions Grasslands

3763072

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoose-V

Mongoose-V

The Mongoose-V 32-bit microprocessor for spacecraft onboard computer applications is a radiation-hardened and expanded 10–15 MHz version of the MIPS R3000 CPU. Mongoose-V was developed by Synova of Melbourne, Florida, USA, with support from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. The Mongoose-V processor first flew on NASA's Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) satellite launched in November 2000 where it functioned as the main flight computer. A second Mongoose-V controlled the satellite's solid-state data recorder. The Mongoose-V requires 5 volts and is packaged into a 256-pin ceramic quad flatpack (CQFP). Examples of spacecraft that use the Mongoose-V include: Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) NASA's Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP), launched in June 2001, carried a Mongoose-V flight computer similar to that on EO-1. NASA's Space Technology 5 series of microsatellites CONTOUR TIMED Pluto probe New Horizons See also RAD750 Power PC LEON ERC32 Radiation hardening Communications survivability Faraday cage Institute for Space and Defense Electronics, Vanderbilt University Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter MESSENGER Mercury probe Mars rovers TEMPEST References External links Mongoose-V product page at Synova's website Avionics computers MIPS implementations Radiation-hardened microprocessors New Horizons

3766627

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracking%20and%20data%20relay%20satellite

Tracking and data relay satellite

A tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) is a type of communications satellite that forms part of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) used by NASA and other United States government agencies for communications to and from independent "User Platforms" such as satellites, balloons, aircraft, the International Space Station, and remote bases like the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. This system was designed to replace an existing worldwide network of ground stations that had supported all of NASA's crewed flight missions and uncrewed satellites in low-Earth orbits. The primary system design goal was to increase the amount of time that these spacecraft were in communication with the ground and improve the amount of data that could be transferred. These TDRSS satellites are all designed and built to be launched to and function in geosynchronous orbit, above the surface of the Earth. The first seven TDRSS satellites were built by the TRW corporation. The three later versions have been manufactured by the Boeing corporation's Satellite Systems division. Thirteen satellites have been launched; however, one was destroyed in the Challenger disaster. TDRS-1 was decommissioned in October 2009. TDRS-4 was decommissioned in December 2011. Ten TDRSS satellites are currently in service. All of the TDRSS satellites have been managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. The contract for TDRS versions L & K was awarded to Boeing on December 20, 2007. On November 30, 2011, NASA announced the decision to order an additional third-generation TDRS satellite, TDRS M. Operations The first tracking and data relay satellite was launched in 1983 on the Space Shuttle Challenger's first flight, STS-6. The Boeing-built Inertial Upper Stage that was to take the satellite from Challenger's orbit to its ultimate geosynchronous orbit suffered a failure that caused it not to deliver the TDRS to the correct orbit. As a result, it was necessary to command the satellite to use its onboard rocket thrusters to move it into its correct orbit. This expenditure of fuel reduced its capability to remain in a geostationary orbit; by late 1997 the orbit had changed to the point that the satellite was able to see the South Pole, and an uplink/downlink station was installed at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station in January 1998; TDRS-1 was an important communication uplink for Antarctic research until 2009. The second tracking and data relay satellite was destroyed along with Challenger shortly after launch during the STS-51-L mission in January 1986. The next five TRW-built TDRSS satellites were successfully launched on other Space Shuttles. Three follow-up Boeing-built satellites were launched by Atlas rockets in 2000 and 2002. A NASA Press Release summarized the capabilities of the system as a whole: "Working solo, TDRS-1 provided more communication coverage, in support of the September 1983 Shuttle mission, than the entire network of NASA tracking stations had provided in all previous Shuttle missions." The first generation of TDRS are planned to be retired in 2015. TDRSS ground terminals The two TDRSS satellite ground terminals are located at NASA White Sands Complex, which is in the Las Cruces area. All radioed commands and received telemetry that go to and from the tracking and data relay satellites go by way of these terminals at the White Sands Complex. At first, just one large ground terminal system for the TDRSS was designed and built. However, some years later, due to increased user demand NASA ordered the design and construction of a second ground terminal system about away. Thus, there are now two functionally identical and redundant satellite ground terminals there, which are known as the White Sands Complex. Due to a Zone of Exclusion, no user support over the Indian Ocean, a ground terminal was built in Guam to support TDRS. Bilateration ranging transponder system The bilateration ranging transponder system (BRTS) provides tracking support for TDRS spacecraft. BRTS consists of four sites located at White Sands Missile Range (WSC), Guam (GRGT), Ascension Island (ACN), and Alice Springs, Australia (ALS). Design The communications systems of the TDRSS satellites were designed to support multiple missions at the same time. Each satellite has S band, Ku band (1st Gen only), and Ka band (2nd gen only) electronic communication systems hardware that operate at different carrier frequencies and also support various data-rates. The newer Boeing satellites are able to support more communications than the older TRW-built satellites. Different versions of the TDRS Section source: NASA TDRSS official site First generation TDRS: models A to G Second generation TDRS: models H to J Third generation TDRS: models K to M Launch site: Cape Canaveral, United States Launch vehicle: Space Shuttle, Atlas II or Atlas V booster Mass: 2108.0 kg Nominal power: 1700.0W Launch history Sub-section source: NSSDC Master Catalog Display: Spacecraft Note: while a TDRSS satellite is in the manufacturing process it is given a letter designation, but once it has successfully achieved the correct geosynchronous orbit it is referred to with a number (for example, TDRS-A during development and before on-orbit acceptance, and TDRS-1 after acceptance on orbit and put into operational use). Thus, satellites that are lost in launch failures or have massive malfunctions are never numbered. TDRS background Source: NASA: TDRS A Satellite TDRS-A was the first of TDRSS multiple satellite tracking system. The system is a concept utilizing communication satellite technology that improves and economizes the satellite tracking and telemetry operations. The base three geosynchronous satellites (one a standby) track and receive data from satellites for relay to a ground station. The two primary active satellites are separated in orbit by at least 130 degrees longitude. One system is used for tracking satellites with apogees below 2000 km (the great majority of satellites), and the other for those with higher apogees. Use of operating frequencies near 2150 (plus or minus 150) MHz and near 14.3 (plus or minus 0.9) GHz were the initial plan. TDRSS was originally intended to support satellites with apogees below 12,000 km. Spacecraft in the TDRSS require only one communications system, since ground-based telemetry stations will be compatible with TDRSS equipment. Gallery See also TDRS GSFC NASA page SCaN Program European Data Relay System Luch (satellite) Indian Data Relay Satellite System Space Network Deep Space Network Near Earth Network Eastern Range References Notes NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center TDRS K/L Official Page NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Space Network Official Page External links NASA's TDRSS program overview page Boeing 2nd Generation Boeing 3rd Generation Communications satellites Satellites of the United States Articles containing video clips Satellites by type

3766662

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MODTRAN

MODTRAN

MODTRAN (MODerate resolution atmospheric TRANsmission) is a computer program designed to model atmospheric propagation of electromagnetic radiation for the 100-50,000 cm−1 (0.2 to 100 µm) spectral range. This covers the spectrum from middle ultraviolet to visible light to far infrared. The most recently released version of the code, MODTRAN6, provides a spectral resolution of 0.2 cm−1 using its 0.1 cm−1 band model algorithm. Some aspects of MODTRAN are patented by Spectral Sciences, Inc. and the US Air Force, who have shared development responsibility for the code and related radiation transfer science collaboratively since 1987. The acronym MODTRAN was registered as a trademark of the US Government, represented by the US Air Force, in 2008. All MODTRAN code development and maintenance is currently performed by Spectral Sciences while the Air Force handles code validation and verification. MODTRAN6 may be obtained from Spectral Sciences, Inc. MODTRAN is written entirely in FORTRAN. MODTRAN6 adds support for JSON formatted input files, along with a graphical user interface that enables users to load existing cases, interactively enter or modify inputs, save their JSON formatted input files, run MODTRAN6, and graphically view the newly generated spectral output data. Third parties, including Ontar, have also developed graphical user interfaces for MODTRAN in order to facilitate user interaction and ease of use. See also HITRAN - a compilation of spectroscopic parameters List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes SMARTS - Simple Model of the Atmospheric Radiative Transfer of Sunshine External links MODTRAN web site USAF patent 5884226 USAF patent 7433806 Google scholar papers on MODTRAN Main Page Air Force Site Electromagnetic radiation Fortran libraries Atmospheric radiative transfer codes

3767858

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/180th%20meridian

180th meridian

The 180th meridian or antimeridian is the meridian 180° both east and west of the prime meridian in a geographical coordinate system. The longitude at this line can be given as either east or west. On Earth, the prime and 180th meridians form a great circle that divides the planet into the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. The antimeridian passes mostly through the open waters of the Pacific Ocean but also runs across land in Russia, Fiji, and Antarctica. An important function of this meridian is its use as the basis for the International Date Line, which snakes around national borders to maintain date consistency within the territories of Russia, the United States, Kiribati, Fiji and New Zealand. Starting at the North Pole of the Earth and heading south to the South Pole, the 180th meridian passes through: The meridian also passes between (but not particularly close to): through the Aleutian Island chain of US territory the Gilbert Islands and the Phoenix Islands of Kiribati North Island and the Kermadec Islands of New Zealand the Bounty Islands and the Chatham Islands, also of New Zealand The only places where roads cross this meridian are in Fiji and Russia. Fiji has several such roads and some buildings very close to it. Russia has three roads in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. Software representation problems Many geographic software libraries or data formats project the world to a rectangle; very often this rectangle is split exactly at the 180th meridian. This often makes it non-trivial to do simple tasks (like representing an area, or a line) over the 180th meridian. Some examples: The GeoJSON specification strongly suggests splitting geometries so that neither of their parts cross the antimeridian. In OpenStreetMap, areas (like the boundary of Russia) are split at the 180th meridian. See also 179th meridian east 179th meridian west Prime meridian International Date Line Notes m180 meridian Pacific Ocean

3769352

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasol%20%28satellite%29

Parasol (satellite)

PARASOL (Polarization & Anisotropy of Reflectances for Atmospheric Sciences coupled with Observations from a Lidar) was a French-built Earth observing research satellite. It carried an instrument called POLDER which studied the radiative and microphysical properties of clouds and aerosols. PARASOL was launched from the French spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana on December 18, 2004, by an Ariane 5 G+. It flew in formation in the "A Train" constellation with several other satellites (Aqua, CALIPSO, CloudSat and Aura). These satellites had, for the first time ever, combined a full suite of instruments for observing clouds and aerosols, from passive radiometers to active lidar and radar sounders. On 2 December 2009, PARASOL was manoeuvred out of the A-Train, dropping some 4 km below the other satellites by early January 2010. The satellite's mission was formally ended exactly 9 years after launch on December 18, 2013. External links PARASOL site References Earth observation satellites of France Spacecraft launched in 2004 Spacecraft launched by Ariane rockets

3773230

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalized%20difference%20vegetation%20index

Normalized difference vegetation index

The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is a widely-used metric for quantifying the health and density of vegetation using sensor data. It is calculated from spectrometric data at two specific bands: red and near-infrared. The spectrometric data is usually sourced from remote sensors, such as satellites. The metric is popular in industry because of its accuracy. It has a high correlation with the true state of vegetation on the ground. The index is easy to interpret: NDVI will be a value between -1 and 1. An area with nothing growing in it will have an NDVI of zero. NDVI will increase in proportion to vegetation growth. An area with dense, healthy vegetation will have an NDVI of one. NDVI values less than 0 suggest a lack of dry land. An ocean will yield an NDVI of -1. Brief history The exploration of outer space started in earnest with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957. This was the first man-made satellite orbiting the Earth. Subsequent successful launches, both in the Soviet Union (e.g., the Sputnik and Cosmos programs), and in the U.S. (e.g., the Explorer program), quickly led to the design and operation of dedicated meteorological satellites. These are orbiting platforms embarking instruments specially designed to observe the Earth's atmosphere and surface with a view to improve weather forecasting. Starting in 1960, the TIROS series of satellites embarked television cameras and radiometers. This was later (1964 onwards) followed by the Nimbus satellites and the family of Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer instruments on board the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) platforms. The latter measures the reflectance of the planet in red and near-infrared bands, as well as in the thermal infrared. In parallel, NASA developed the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS), which became the precursor to the Landsat program. These early sensors had minimal spectral resolution, but tended to include bands in the red and near-infrared, which are useful to distinguish vegetation and clouds, amongst other targets. With the launch of the first ERTS satellite – which was soon to be renamed Landsat 1 – on July 23, 1972 with its MultiSpectral Scanner (MSS) NASA funded a number of investigations to determine its capabilities for Earth remote sensing. One of those early studies was directed toward examining the spring vegetation green-up and subsequent summer and fall dry-down (the so-called “vernal advancement and retrogradation”) throughout the north to south expanse of the Great Plains region of the central U.S. This region covered a wide range of latitudes from the southern tip of Texas to the U.S.-Canada border, which resulted in a wide range of solar zenith angles at the time of the satellite observations. The researchers for this Great Plains study (PhD student Donald Deering and his advisor Dr. Robert Hass) found that their ability to correlate, or quantify, the biophysical characteristics of the rangeland vegetation of this region from the satellite spectral signals was confounded by these differences in solar zenith angle across this strong latitudinal gradient. With the assistance of a resident mathematician (Dr. John Schell), they studied solutions to this dilemma and subsequently developed the ratio of the difference of the red and infrared radiances over their sum as a means to adjust for or “normalize” the effects of the solar zenith angle. Originally, they called this ratio the “Vegetation Index” (and another variant, the square-root transformation of the difference-sum ratio, the “Transformed Vegetation Index”); but as several other remote sensing researchers were identifying the simple red/infrared ratio and other spectral ratios as the “vegetation index,” they eventually began to identify the difference/sum ratio formulation as the normalized difference vegetation index. The earliest reported use of NDVI in the Great Plains study was in 1973 by Rouse et al. (Dr. John Rouse was the Director of the Remote Sensing Center of Texas A&M University where the Great Plains study was conducted). However, they were preceded in formulating a normalized difference spectral index by Kriegler et al. in 1969. Soon after the launch of ERTS-1 (Landsat-1), Compton Tucker of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center produced a series of early scientific journal articles describing uses of the NDVI. Thus, NDVI was one of the most successful of many attempts to simply and quickly identify vegetated areas and their "condition," and it remains the most well-known and used index to detect live green plant canopies in multispectral remote sensing data. Once the feasibility to detect vegetation had been demonstrated, users tended to also use the NDVI to quantify the photosynthetic capacity of plant canopies. This, however, can be a rather more complex undertaking if not done properly, as is discussed below. Rationale Live green plants absorb solar radiation in the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) spectral region, which they use as a source of energy in the process of photosynthesis. Leaf cells have also evolved to re-emit solar radiation in the near-infrared spectral region (which carries approximately half of the total incoming solar energy), because the photon energy at wavelengths longer than about 700 nanometers is too large to synthesize organic molecules. A strong absorption at these wavelengths would only result in overheating the plant and possibly damaging the tissues. Hence, live green plants appear relatively dark in the PAR and relatively bright in the near-infrared. By contrast, clouds and snow tend to be rather bright in the red (as well as other visible wavelengths) and quite dark in the near-infrared. The pigment in plant leaves, chlorophyll, strongly absorbs visible light (from 400 to 700 nm) for use in photosynthesis. The cell structure of the leaves, on the other hand, strongly reflects near-infrared light (from 700 to 1100 nm). The more leaves a plant has, the more these wavelengths of light are affected. Since early instruments of Earth Observation, such as NASA's ERTS and NOAA's AVHRR, acquired data in visible and near-infrared, it was natural to exploit the strong differences in plant reflectance to determine their spatial distribution in these satellite images. The NDVI is calculated from these individual measurements as follows: where Red and NIR stand for the spectral reflectance measurements acquired in the red (visible) and near-infrared regions, respectively. These spectral reflectances are themselves ratios of the reflected radiation to the incoming radiation in each spectral band individually, hence they take on values between 0 and 1. By design, the NDVI itself thus varies between -1 and +1. NDVI is functionally, but not linearly, equivalent to the simple infrared/red ratio (NIR/VIS). The advantage of NDVI over a simple infrared/red ratio is therefore generally limited to any possible linearity of its functional relationship with vegetation properties (e.g. biomass). The simple ratio (unlike NDVI) is always positive, which may have practical advantages, but it also has a mathematically infinite range (0 to infinity), which can be a practical disadvantage as compared to NDVI. Also in this regard, note that the VIS term in the numerator of NDVI only scales the result, thereby creating negative values. NDVI is functionally and linearly equivalent to the ratio NIR / (NIR+VIS), which ranges from 0 to 1 and is thus never negative nor limitless in range. But the most important concept in the understanding of the NDVI algebraic formula is that, despite its name, it is a transformation of a spectral ratio (NIR/VIS), and it has no functional relationship to a spectral difference (NIR-VIS). In general, if there is much more reflected radiation in near-infrared wavelengths than in visible wavelengths, then the vegetation in that pixel is likely to be dense and may contain some type of forest. Subsequent work has shown that the NDVI is directly related to the photosynthetic capacity and hence energy absorption of plant canopies. Although the index can take negative values, even in densely populated urban areas the NDVI usually has a (small) positive value. Negative values are more likely to be observed in the atmosphere and some specific materials. Performance and limitations It can be seen from its mathematical definition that the NDVI of an area containing a dense vegetation canopy will tend to positive values (say 0.3 to 0.8) while clouds and snow fields will be characterized by negative values of this index. Other targets on Earth visible from space include: free standing water (e.g., oceans, seas, lakes and rivers) which have a rather low reflectance in both spectral bands (at least away from shores) and thus result in very low positive or even slightly negative NDVI values, soils which generally exhibit a near-infrared spectral reflectance somewhat larger than the red, and thus tend to also generate rather small positive NDVI values (say 0.1 to 0.2). In addition to the simplicity of the algorithm and its capacity to broadly distinguish vegetated areas from other surface types, the NDVI also has the advantage of compressing the size of the data to be manipulated by a factor 2 (or more), since it replaces the two spectral bands by a single new field (eventually coded on 8 bits instead of the 10 or more bits of the original data). The NDVI has been widely used in applications for which it was not originally designed. Using the NDVI for quantitative assessments (as opposed to qualitative surveys as indicated above) raises a number of issues that may seriously limit the actual usefulness of this index if they are not properly addressed. The following subsections review some of these issues. Mathematically, the sum and the difference of the two spectral channels contain the same information as the original data, but the difference alone (or the normalized difference) carries only part of the initial information. Whether the missing information is relevant or valuable is for the user to judge, but it is important to understand that an NDVI product carries only a fraction of the information available in the original spectral reflectance data. Users of NDVI have tended to estimate a large number of vegetation properties from the value of this index. Typical examples include the Leaf Area Index, biomass, chlorophyll concentration in leaves, plant productivity, fractional vegetation cover, accumulated rainfall, etc. Such relations are often derived by correlating space-derived NDVI values with ground-measured values of these variables. This approach raises further issues related to the spatial scale associated with the measurements, as satellite sensors always measure radiation quantities for areas substantially larger than those sampled by field instruments. Furthermore, it is of course illogical to claim that all these relations hold at once, because that would imply that all of these environmental properties would be directly and unequivocally related between themselves. The reflectance measurements should be relative to the same area and be acquired simultaneously. This may not be easy to achieve with instruments that acquire different spectral channels through different cameras or focal planes. Mis-registration of the spectral images may lead to substantial errors and unusable results. Also, the calculation of the NDVI value turns out to be sensitive to a number of perturbing factors including Atmospheric effects: The actual composition of the atmosphere (in particular with respect to water vapor and aerosols) can significantly affect the measurements made in space. Hence, the latter may be misinterpreted if these effects are not properly taken into account (as is the case when the NDVI is calculated directly on the basis of raw measurements). Clouds: Deep (optically thick) clouds may be quite noticeable in satellite imagery and yield characteristic NDVI values that ease their screening. However, thin clouds (such as the ubiquitous cirrus), or small clouds with typical linear dimensions smaller than the diameter of the area actually sampled by the sensors, can significantly contaminate the measurements. Similarly, cloud shadows in areas that appear clear can affect NDVI values and lead to misinterpretations. These considerations are minimized by forming composite images from daily or near-daily images. Composite NDVI images have led to a large number of new vegetation applications where the NDVI or photosynthetic capacity varies over time. Soil effects: Soils tend to darken when wet, so that their reflectance is a direct function of water content. If the spectral response to moistening is not exactly the same in the two spectral bands, the NDVI of an area can appear to change as a result of soil moisture changes (precipitation or evaporation) and not because of vegetation changes. Anisotropic effects: All surfaces (whether natural or man-made) reflect light differently in different directions, and this form of anisotropy is generally spectrally dependent, even if the general tendency may be similar in these two spectral bands. As a result, the value of NDVI may depend on the particular anisotropy of the target and on the angular geometry of illumination and observation at the time of the measurements, and hence on the position of the target of interest within the swath of the instrument or the time of passage of the satellite over the site. This is particularly crucial in analyzing AVHRR data since the orbit of the NOAA platforms tended to drift in time. At the same time, the use of composite NDVI images minimizes these considerations and has led to global time series NDVI data sets spanning more than 25 years. Spectral effects: Since each sensor has its own characteristics and performances, in particular with respect to the position, width and shape of the spectral bands, a single formula like NDVI yields different results when applied to the measurements acquired by different instruments. Modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP): NDVI is ubiquitous as an index of vegetation. Since mapping and monitoring of vegetation takes place via ‘big data’ image processing systems. These systems may use pixel- or object-based algorithms to assess vegetation health, evapotranspiration, and other ecosystem functions. When a category of vegetation consists of multiple pixels, the calculation of a ‘mean’ can be a mean of NDVI values for each pixel (pixel-based), or a mean of the Red values and a mean of the NIR values for all the pixels in which the mean NDVI is the ratio of these (object-based). NDVI can suffer from the intractable problems that are associated with MAUP. In particular, a recent study demonstrated that when NDVI mean values are estimated for certain buffer distances, the scale of the analysis can influence NDVI measures due to the presence of scale effects associated with MAUP. Another study demonstrated that MAUP does not significantly impact in case of pure vegetation pixels in an urban environment. A modification known as MAUI-NDVI specifically addresses the problem. A number of derivatives and alternatives to NDVI have been proposed in the scientific literature to address these limitations, including the Perpendicular Vegetation Index, the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index, the Atmospherically Resistant Vegetation Index<ref>Kaufman, Y. J. and D. Tanre (1992) 'Atmospherically resistant vegetation index (ARVI) for EOS-MODIS', in 'Proc. IEEE Int. Geosci. and Remote Sensing Symp. '92, IEEE, New York, 261-270.</ref> and the Global Environment Monitoring Index. Each of these attempted to include intrinsic correction(s) for one or more perturbing factors. A current alternative adopted by USGS is the enhanced vegetation index (EVI), correcting for soil effects, canopy background, and aerosol influences. It is not until the mid-1990s, however, that a new generation of algorithms were proposed to estimate directly the biogeophysical variables of interest (e.g., the fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation, FAPAR), taking advantage of the enhanced performance and characteristics of modern sensors (in particular their multispectral and multiangular capabilities) to take all the perturbing factors into account. In spite of many possible perturbing factors upon the NDVI, it remains a valuable quantitative vegetation monitoring tool when the photosynthetic capacity of the land surface needs to be studied at the appropriate spatial scale for various phenomena. Agriculture Applications Within precision agriculture, NDVI data provides a measurement of crop health. Today, this often involves agricultural drones, which are paired with NDVI to compare data and recognize crop health issues. One example of this is agriculture drones from PrecisionHawk and Sentera, which allow agriculturalists to capture and process NDVI data within one day, a change from the traditional NDVI uses and their long lag times. Much of the research done currently has proved that the NDVI images can even be obtained using the normal digital RGB cameras by some modifications in order to obtain the results similar to those obtained from the multispectral cameras and can be implemented effectively in the crop health monitoring systems. Recently, mobile applications using NDVI data as crop health monitoring tools have proliferated. Mobile applications such as Doktar's Orbit provide NDVI data within health maps to detect any anomalies in the farmer's field. These applications aim to digitalize farming and introducing new ways of field scouting. NDVI-based remote field monitoring tools allow farmers to save fuel costs as these tools reduce field visits and enable better irrigation management. Landsat 8, Sentinel-2 and PlanetScope are some of the main providers of satellite imagery to make NDVI maps and monitor crop health. See also Normalized difference water index (NDWI) Red edge Revised Simple Biosphere Model (SIB-2) Notes References Deering, D.W. 1978. Rangeland reflectance characteristics measured by aircraft and spacecraft sensors. Ph.D. Diss. Texas A&M Univ., College Station, 338p. Deering D.W., J.W. Rouse, Jr., R.H. Haas, and J.A. Schell. 1975. Measuring "forage production" of grazing units from Landsat MSS data, pp. 1169–1178. In Proc. Tenth Int. Symp. on Remote Sensing of Environment. Univ. Michigan, Ann Arbor. Rouse, J.W., Jr., R.H. Haas, J.A. Schell, and D.W. Deering. 1973. Monitoring the vernal advancement and retrogradation (green wave effect) of natural vegetation. Prog. Rep. RSC 1978-1, Remote Sensing Center, Texas A&M Univ., College Station, 93p. (NTIS No. E73-106393) Rouse, J. W., R. H. Haas, J. A. Schell, and D. W. Deering (1973) 'Monitoring vegetation systems in the Great Plains with ERTS', Third ERTS Symposium, NASA SP-351 I, 309-317. Tucker, C.J. (1979) 'Red and Photographic Infrared Linear Combinations for Monitoring Vegetation', Remote Sensing of Environment'', 8(2),127-150. External links Derivation of NDVI Background on NOAA AVHRR Background on NDVI FAQ about vegetation indices FAPAR as a replacement for NDVI NDVICentral VEGETATION Processing and Archiving Facility at VITO VEGETATION Programme VEGETATION INDEX Satellite meteorology Remote sensing Biogeography

3774825

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal%20degrees

Decimal degrees

Decimal degrees (DD) is a notation for expressing latitude and longitude geographic coordinates as decimal fractions of a degree. DD are used in many geographic information systems (GIS), web mapping applications such as OpenStreetMap, and GPS devices. Decimal degrees are an alternative to using sexagesimal degrees (degrees, minutes, and seconds - DMS notation). As with latitude and longitude, the values are bounded by ±90° and ±180° respectively. Positive latitudes are north of the equator, negative latitudes are south of the equator. Positive longitudes are east of the Prime Meridian; negative longitudes are west of the Prime Meridian. Latitude and longitude are usually expressed in that sequence, latitude before longitude. The abbreviation dLL has been used in the scientific literature with locations in texts being identified as a tuple within square brackets, for example [54.5798,-3.5820]. The appropriate decimal places are used,<ref>W. B. Whalley, 2021.'Mapping small glaciers, rock glaciers and related features in an age of retreating glaciers: using decimal latitude-longitude locations and 'geomorphic information tensors,Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria 2021:44 55-67,DOI 10.4461/ GFDQ.2021.44.4</ref> negative values are given as hyphen-minus, Unicode 002D. Precision The radius of the semi-major axis of the Earth at the equator is resulting in a circumference of . The equator is divided into 360 degrees of longitude, so each degree at the equator represents . As one moves away from the equator towards a pole, however, one degree of longitude is multiplied by the cosine of the latitude, decreasing the distance, approaching zero at the pole. The number of decimal places required for a particular precision at the equator is: A value in decimal degrees to a precision of 4 decimal places is precise to at the equator. A value in decimal degrees to 5 decimal places is precise to at the equator. Elevation also introduces a small error: at elevation, the radius and surface distance is increased by 0.001 or 0.1%. Because the earth is not flat, the precision of the longitude part of the coordinates increases the further from the equator you get. The precision of the latitude part does not increase so much, more strictly however, a meridian arc length per 1 second depends on the latitude at the point in question. The discrepancy of 1 second meridian arc length between equator and pole is about because the earth is an oblate spheroid. Example A DMS value is converted to decimal degrees using the formula: For instance, the decimal degree representation for 38° 53′ 23″ N, 77° 00′ 32″ W (the location of the United States Capitol) is 38.8897°, -77.0089° In most systems, such as OpenStreetMap, the degree symbols are omitted, reducing the representation to 38.8897,-77.0089 To calculate the D, M and S components, the following formulas can be used: where is the absolute value of and is the truncation function. Note that with this formula only can be negative and only may have a fractional value. See also ISO 6709 Standard representation of geographic point location by coordinates'' geo URI scheme References Geographic data and information Geographic coordinate systems

3776164

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic%20Interoperable%20Scrambling%20System

Basic Interoperable Scrambling System

Basic Interoperable Scrambling System, usually known as BISS, is a satellite signal scrambling system developed by the European Broadcasting Union and a consortium of hardware manufacturers. Prior to its development, "ad hoc" or "occasional use" satellite news feeds were transmitted either using proprietary encryption methods (e.g. RAS, or PowerVu), or without any encryption. Unencrypted satellite feeds allowed anyone with the correct equipment to view the program material. Proprietary encryption methods were determined by encoder manufacturers, and placed major compatibility limitations on the type of satellite receiver (IRD) that could be used for each feed. BISS was an attempt to create an "open platform" encryption system, which could be used across a range of manufacturers equipment. There are mainly two different types of BISS encryption used: BISS-1 transmissions are protected by a 12 digit hexadecimal "session key" that is agreed by the transmitting and receiving parties prior to transmission. The key is entered into both the encoder and decoder, this key then forms part of the encryption of the digital TV signal and any receiver with BISS-support with the correct key will decrypt the signal. BISS-E (E for encrypted) is a variation where the decoder has stored one secret BISS-key entered by for example a rights holder. This is unknown to the user of the decoder. The user is then sent a 16-digit hexadecimal code, which is entered as a "session key". This session key is then mathematically combined internally to calculate a BISS-1 key that can decrypt the signal. Only a decoder with the correct secret BISS-key will be able to decrypt a BISS-E feed. This gives the rights holder control as to exactly which decoder can be used to decrypt/decode a specific feed. Any BISS-E encrypted feed will have a corresponding BISS-1 key that will unlock it. BISS-E is amongst others used by EBU to protect UEFA Champions League, NBC in the United States for NBC O&O and Affiliated station and other high-profile satellite feeds. External links BISS-E Technical Specification by EBU Digital television Digital rights management systems Broadcast engineering Satellite broadcasting Conditional-access television broadcasting

3780225

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter%20Press%20Service

Inter Press Service

Inter Press Service (IPS) is a global news agency headquartered in Rome, Italy. Its main focus is news and analysis about social, political, civil, and economic subjects as it relates to the Global South, civil society and globalization. History IPS was set up in 1964 as a non-profit international journalist cooperative. Its founders were the Italian journalist Roberto Savio and Argentine political scientist Pablo Piacentini. Initially, the primary objective was to fill the information gap between Europe and Latin America after the political turbulence following the Cuban Revolution of 1959. Later the network expanded to include all continents, from its Latin American base in Costa Rica in 1982. In 1994, IPS changed its legal status to that of a "public-benefit organization for development cooperation". In 1996, IPS had permanent offices and correspondents in 41 countries, covering 108 nations. Its subscribers included over 600 print media, around 80 news agencies and database services and 65 broadcast media, in addition to over 500 NGOs and other institutions. Approach IPS's stated aims are to present voices of marginalized and vulnerable people and groups, to report from the perspectives of developing countries, and to reflect the views of civil society. The mainstreaming of gender in reporting and the assessment of the impacts of globalization are priorities. IPS may be unique in its concentration on developing countries and the strong relationships with civil society. For this reason, IPS has been termed by some probably the "largest and most credible of all 'alternatives' in the world of news agencies." It is also considered by some as the "first and only independent and professional news agency which provides on daily basis information with a Third World focus and point of view." Legal status IPS is registered as an international not-for-profit association. It has "general" NGO consultative status with ECOSOC at the United Nations, and the OECD status of "ODA eligible international organization". Organizational structure Five editorial desks coordinate the project: Montevideo, (regional bureau for Latin America); Berlin-London (for Europe and the Mediterranean); Bangkok (for Asia and the Pacific); New York City (North America and the Caribbean) and Johannesburg (Africa). Most of IPS's journalists and editors are native to the country or region in which they work. IPS receives funding from various sources: through its subscribers and clients, from multilateral and national development cooperation programmes and from project financing from foundations. It is not, as are most other agencies, financed by a country or newspaper group. The agency's budget is comparatively small for "roughly the sixth-largest international news-gathering organization". Role IPS's role is to provide an alternative to sometimes non-existent or unaffordable clipping services. One study by the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization in 1991 found that of the nearly 3,000 clippings with news agency bylines, 13% credited IPS, making it the third-most cited. IPS reports were collected from 138 publications in 39 countries, more countries than any other agency. IPS was particularly strong in Latin America; 72% of clippings from Latin America with news agency bylines came from IPS. Notable contributors Jim Lobe Fitzroy Nation Mohammed Omer Gareth Porter Don Gasangwa See also New World Information Order Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool Non-Aligned News Network Languages Dilema Wikidoc IPS Notes References Further reading (excerpt) External links Official news website News agencies based in Italy International development organizations Globalization Alternative journalism organizations International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons International organisations based in Italy

3782072

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiwaz%20%28rune%29

Tiwaz (rune)

The t-rune is named after Týr, and was identified with this god. The reconstructed Proto-Germanic name is *Tîwaz or *Teiwaz. Tiwaz rune was an ideographic symbol for a spear. Rune poems Tiwaz is mentioned in all three rune poems. In the Icelandic and Norwegian poems, the rune is associated with the god Týr. Usage Ancient Multiple Tiwaz runes Multiple Tiwaz runes either stacked atop one another to resemble a tree-like shape, or repeated after one another, appear several times in Germanic paganism: The charm (alu) on the Lindholm amulet, dated from the 2nd to the 4th century, contains three consecutive t runes, which have been interpreted as an invocation of Týr. The Kylver Stone (400 AD, Gotland) features 8 stacked Tiwaz runes at the end of an Elder Futhark inscription. From 500 AD, a Scandinavian C-bracteate (Seeland-II-C) features an Elder Futhark inscription ending with three stacked Tiwaz runes. Poetic Edda According to the runologist Lars Magnar Enoksen, the Tiwaz rune is referred to in a stanza in Sigrdrífumál, a poem in the Poetic Edda. Sigrdrífumál tells that Sigurd has slain the dragon Fafnir and arrives at a fortress of shields on top of a mountain which is lit by great fires. In the fortress, he finds an enchanted sleeping valkyrie whom he wakes by cutting open her corslet with his sword. The grateful valkyrie, Sigrdrífa, offers him the secrets of the runes in return for delivering her from the sleep, on condition that he shows that he has no fear. She begins by teaching him that if he wants to achieve victory in battle, he is to carve "victory runes" on his sword and twice say the name "Týr" - the name of the Tiwaz rune. Name in Futhorc Futhorc manuscripts give different names to the t-rune. Sangallensis 270 (9th century) and Vindobonensis 795 (9th century) call the rune "Ti", while Cotton MS Domitian A IX (10th century?) calls it "Tir", and the Byrhtferth's Manuscript (12th century) calls it "Tyr". Ti may be an uninflected form of the possessive "Tiwes" as found in "Tiwesdæg", which would make it the name of an English god. Similar spellings of this god's name (such as Tii) are attested to in Old English. Modern Germanic neopaganism The Týr rune is commonly used by Germanic neopagans to symbolize veneration of the god Týr. Usage in Nazism and Neo-Nazism The Týr rune in Guido von List's Armanen Futharkh was based on the version found in the Younger Futhark. List's runes were later adopted and modified by Karl Maria Wiligut, who was responsible for their adoption by the Nazis, and they were subsequently widely used on insignia and literature during the Third Reich. It was the badge of the Sturmabteilung training schools, the Reichsführerschulen in Nazi Germany. In World War II, it was adopted as the unit insignia of the 32nd SS Volunteer Grenadier Division "30 Januar". In Neo-Nazism it has appeared, together with the Sowilo rune, in the emblem of the Kassel-based think tank Thule Seminar. It has also appeared as the former logo of the fashion label Thor Steinar, which was banned in Germany over resemblance to SS officer uniforms, and the Scandinavia-based Nordic Resistance Movement which uses the symbol onto a diamond with stripes (in the same shape as the Hitlerjugend flag) in green, white, and black. (It might also be noted that both these uses were technically incorrect, since both Thor and Thule would be spelled with a thurisaz, ᚦ, rune.) The symbol was one of the numerous Nazi/neo-Nazi and fascist symbols/slogans used by the perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings Brenton Harrison Tarrant alongside the Black Sun, the Othala/Odal rune, the Celtic Cross, the Kolovrat swastika, the Fourteen Words, and the Archangel Michael's Cross of the pro-Nazi Romanian organization Iron Guard. Olympics In 2018 the symbol was incorporated on the sweaters of the 2018 Norwegian Alpine ski team. The sweaters were however quickly pulled from market, when the Nazi and far-right association raised controversy. Popular culture In Vinland Saga, Thors has carved two Týr-runes into his dagger, likely in the same context as stated in Sigrdrífumál: to achieve victory in battle. In Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans, Teiwaz is a mafia-like faction representing the Outer Sphere and the largest conglomerate on Jupiter. See also Broad arrow Planet symbols#Mars References Bibliography Runes Mars in culture Nazi symbolism

3784291

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appulse

Appulse

Appulse is the least apparent distance between one celestial object and another, as seen from a third body during a given period. Appulse is seen in the apparent motion typical of two planets together in the sky, or of the Moon to a star or planet while the Moon orbits Earth, as seen from Earth. An appulse is an apparent phenomenon caused by perspective only; the two objects involved are not near in physical space. An appulse is related to a conjunction, but the definitions differ in detail. While an appulse occurs when the apparent separation between two bodies is at its minimum, a conjunction occurs at the moment when the two bodies have the same right ascension or ecliptic longitude. In general, the precise time of an appulse will be different from that of a conjunction. Objects which exhibit retrograde motion (such as planets) occasionally display an appulse event without an associated conjunction event. In these cases, the two objects appear to approach each other, but turn away before reaching a momentary coincidence of right ascension. When the celestial bodies appear so close together that one actually passes in front of the other, the event is classified as a transit, occultation, or eclipse, and not an appulse. Appulses are naked-eye events for general observers when involving bright planets and the Moon. They facilitate finding faint objects when such objects are involved. Very close appulse events provide an opportunity to witness two objects together in the same telescopic field of view, which is an appealing curiosity in amateur telescopy, e.g. Jupiter-Saturn appulse of December 13, 2020. See also Opposition (astronomy) Syzygy (astronomy) References Astrometry Astronomical events of the Solar System

3786565

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20level%20%28device%29

Water level (device)

A water level ( [Alfadolasticho]) is a siphon utilizing two or more parts of the liquid water surface to establish a local horizontal line or plane of reference. It is used to determine the apparent inclination of an object or surface and for matching water level elevations at locations that are too far apart for a spirit level to span. The simplest water level is a section of clear tubing, partially filled with water. Water is easily procured for use, and easily discarded after use. The ends are held vertical, and the rest of the tubing lies on the ground or floor. The water level at each end of the tube will be at the same elevation, whether the two ends are adjacent or far apart, so a line between them will be horizontal at its midpoint and a shed base, building foundation or similar structure laid out using several such lines will be "horizontal" within building tolerances on any scale over which use of a water level is practicable. Water levels have been used for many years. The water level is lower-tech than the laser level, but it can be more accurate over long distances, and works without a sightline, such as around corners. To avoid error, all of the water should be at the same temperature. Other sources of error include difficulty reading due to meniscus. If the water level is used often, dye can be added to the water to make it easier to see. If the water level is used outdoors in winter, antifreeze can be added to the water. Automotive window washer fluid can also be used for antifreeze and increased visibility. Additionally it inhibits the formation of error-causing bubbles. A surfactant (surface active agent), such as hand-dishwashing liquid detergent, can be added to the water to significantly lower the surface tension of the water. This liquid solution will flow more easily and more rapidly in the tube than plain water, so operation of the device will be more precise, repeatable, and responsive – particularly when using a small-diameter tube. Also, this liquid solution can be emptied from a small-diameter tube more easily than plain water. In geodesy and surveying, the use of a water level device extended over long distances (sometimes, kilometers) is termed hydrostatic levelling, after the principles of hydrostatic equilibrium and levelling. See also Communicating vessels References External links Merriam Webster Dictionary Definition of level (Entry 3 of 3): conforming to the curvature of the liquid parts of the earth's surface How to Build a Simple but Effective Water Level Construction equipment Construction surveying Inclinometers Vertical position

3796445

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20Macedonian%20calendar

Ancient Macedonian calendar

The Ancient Macedonian calendar is a lunisolar calendar that was in use in ancient Macedon in the It consisted of 12 synodic lunar months (i.e. 354 days per year), which needed intercalary months to stay in step with the seasons. By the time the calendar was being used across the Hellenistic world, seven total embolimoi (intercalary months) were being added in each 19 year Metonic cycle. The names of the ancient Macedonian Calendar remained in use in Syria even into the Christian era. Names The names of the Macedonian months, just like most of the names of Greek months, are derived from feasts and related celebrations in honor of the Greek gods. Most of them combine a Macedonian dialectal form with a clear Greek etymology (e.g Δῐός from Zeus; Περίτιος from Heracles Peritas (“Guardian”) ; Ξανδικός/Ξανθικός from Xanthos, “the blond” (probably a reference to Heracles); Άρτεμίσιος from Artemis etc.) with the possible exception of one, which is attested in other Greek calendars as well. Description The Macedonian calendar was in essence the Babylonian calendar with the substitution of Macedonian names for the Babylonian ones, and as such it paralleled the Hebrew calendar which is also lunisolar, and was used during the Parthian Empire too. An example of inscriptions from Decapolis, Jordan, bearing the Solar Macedonian calendar, starts from the month Audynaeus. The solar type was merged later with the Julian calendar. In Roman Macedonia, both calendars were used. The Roman one is attested in inscriptions with the name Kalandôn gen. calendae and the Macedonian Hellenikei dat. Hellenic. Finally an inscription from Kassandreia of about   bearing a month Athenaion suggests that some cities may have used their own months even after the Macedonian expansion. ‡   Months marked with a double-dagger and including the word "Embolimos" were used only occasionally, for intercalation, as noted in the remarks Year numbering Years were usually counted from the re-conquest of Seleucus I Nicator of Babylon, which became "year 1". This is equivalent to 312 BCE / 311 BCE in the Anno Domini year count of the modern Gregorian calendar. This practice spread outside the Seleucid Empire and found use in Antigonid Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt, and other major Hellenistic states descended from Alexander's conquests as well. Years can be abbreviated SE, S.E., or occasionally AG (Anno Graecorum). See also Ancient Greek calendars Attic calendar References Calendar Obsolete calendars Calendar Lunisolar calendars

3797013

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20carbon

Black carbon

Chemically, black carbon (BC) is a component of fine particulate matter (PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter). Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms. It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass, and is one of the main types of particle in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot. Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality. Because of these human health impacts, many countries have worked to reduce their emissions, making it an easy pollutant to abate in anthropogenic sources. In climatology, black carbon is a climate forcing agent contributing to global warming. Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice (direct effects) and indirectly by interaction with clouds, with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2. Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks, whereas potent greenhouse gases have longer lifecycles, for example, carbon dioxide () has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years. The IPCC and other climate researchers have posited that reducing black carbon is one of the easiest ways to slow down short term global warming. The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology, referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires. Especially in the tropics, black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients. Overview Michael Faraday recognized that soot was composed of carbon and that it was produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels. The term black carbon was coined by Serbian physicist Tihomir Novakov, referred to as "the godfather of black carbon studies" by James Hansen, in the 1970s. Smoke or soot was the first pollutant to be recognized as having significant environmental impact yet one of the last to be studied by the contemporary atmospheric research community. Soot is composed of a complex mixture of organic compounds which are weakly absorbing in the visible spectral region and a highly absorbing black component which is variously called "elemental", "graphitic" or "black carbon". The term elemental carbon has been used in conjunction with thermal and wet chemical determinations and the term graphitic carbon suggests the presence of graphite-like micro-crystalline structures in soot as evidenced by Raman spectroscopy. The term black carbon is used to imply that this soot component is primarily responsible for the absorption of visible light. The term black carbon is sometimes used as a synonym for both the elemental and graphitic component of soot. It can be measured using different types of devices based on absorption or dispersion of a light beam or derived from noise measurements. Early mitigation attempts The disastrous effects of coal pollution on human health and mortality in the early 1950s in London led to the UK Clean Air Act 1956. This act led to dramatic reductions of soot concentrations in the United Kingdom which were followed by similar reductions in US cities like Pittsburgh and St. Louis. These reductions were largely achieved by the decreased use of soft coal for domestic heating by switching either to "smokeless" coals or other forms of fuel, such as fuel oil and natural gas. The steady reduction of smoke pollution in the industrial cities of Europe and United States caused a shift in research emphasis away from soot emissions and the almost complete neglect of black carbon as a significant aerosol constituent, at least in the United States. In the 1970s, however, a series of studies substantially changed this picture and demonstrated that black carbon as well as the organic soot components continued to be a large component in urban aerosols across the United States and Europe which led to improved controls of these emissions. In the less-developed regions of the world where there were limited or no controls on soot emissions the air quality continued to degrade as the population increased. It was not generally realized until many years later that from the perspective of global effects the emissions from these regions were extremely important. Influence on Earth's atmosphere Most of the developments mentioned above relate to air quality in urban atmospheres. The first indications of the role of black carbon in a larger, global context came from studies of the Arctic Haze phenomena. Black carbon was identified in the Arctic haze aerosols and in the Arctic snow. In general, aerosol particles can affect the radiation balance leading to a cooling or heating effect with the magnitude and sign of the temperature change largely dependent on aerosol optical properties, aerosol concentrations, and the albedo of the underlying surface. A purely scattering aerosol will reflect energy that would normally be absorbed by the earth-atmosphere system back to space and leads to a cooling effect. As one adds an absorbing component to the aerosol, it can lead to a heating of the earth-atmosphere system if the reflectivity of the underlying surface is sufficiently high. Early studies of the effects of aerosols on atmospheric radiative transfer on a global scale assumed a dominantly scattering aerosol with only a small absorbing component, since this appears to be a good representation of naturally occurring aerosols. However, as discussed above, urban aerosols have a large black carbon component and if these particles can be transported on a global scale then one would expect a heating effect over surfaces with a high surface albedo like snow or ice. Furthermore, if these particles are deposited in the snow an additional heating effect would occur due to reductions in the surface albedo. Measuring and modeling spatial distribution Levels of Black carbon are most often determined based on the modification of the optical properties of a fiber filter by deposited particles. Either filter transmittance, filter reflectance or a combination of transmittance and reflectance is measured. Aethalometers are frequently used devices that optically detect the changing absorption of light transmitted through a filter ticket. The USEPA Environmental Technology Verification program evaluated both the aethalometer and also the Sunset Laboratory thermal-optical analyzer. A multiangle absorption photometer takes into account both transmitted and reflected light. Alternative methods rely on satellite based measurements of optical depth for large areas or more recently on spectral noise analysis for very local concentrations. In the late 1970s and early 1980s surprisingly large ground level concentrations of black carbon were observed throughout the western Arctic. Modeling studies indicated that they could lead to heating over polar ice. One of the major uncertainties in modeling the effects of the Arctic haze on the solar radiation balance was limited knowledge of the vertical distributions of black carbon. During 1983 and 1984 as part of the NOAA AGASP program, the first measurements of such distributions in the Arctic atmosphere were obtained with an aethalometer which had the capability of measuring black carbon on a real-time basis. These measurements showed substantial concentrations of black carbon found throughout the western Arctic troposphere including the North Pole. The vertical profiles showed either a strongly layered structure or an almost uniform distribution up to eight kilometers with concentrations within layers as large as those found at ground level in typical mid-latitude urban areas in the United States. The absorption optical depths associated with these vertical profiles were large as evidenced by a vertical profile over the Norwegian arctic where absorption optical depths of 0.023 to 0.052 were calculated respectively for external and internal mixtures of black carbon with the other aerosol components. Optical depths of these magnitudes lead to a substantial change in the solar radiation balance over the highly reflecting Arctic snow surface during the March–April time frame of these measurements modeled the Arctic aerosol for an absorption optical depth of 0.021 (which is close to the average of an internal and external mixtures for the AGASP flights), under cloud-free conditions. These heating effects were viewed at the time as potentially one of the major causes of Arctic warming trends as described in Archives of Dept. of Energy, Basic Energy Sciences Accomplishments. Presence in soils Typically, black carbon accounts for 1 to 6% but also up to 60% of the total organic carbon stored in soils is contributed by black carbon. Especially for tropical soils black carbon serves as a reservoir for nutrients. Experiments showed that soils without high amounts of black carbon are significantly less fertile than soils that contain black carbon. An example for this increased soil fertility are the Terra preta soils of central Amazonia, which are presumably human-made by pre-Columbian native populations. Terra preta soils have on average three times higher soil organic matter (SOM) content, higher nutrient levels and a better nutrient retention capacity than surrounding infertile soils. In this context, the slash and burn agricultural practice used in tropical regions does not only enhance productivity by releasing nutrients from the burned vegetation but also by adding black carbon to the soil. Nonetheless, for a sustainable management, a slash-and-char practice would be better in order to prevent high emissions of and volatile black carbon. Furthermore, the positive effects of this type of agriculture are counteracted if used for large patches so that soil erosion is not prevented by the vegetation. Presence in waters Soluble and colloidal black carbon retained on the landscape from wildfires can make its way to groundwater. On a global scale, the flow of black carbon into fresh and salt water bodies approximates the rate of wildfire black carbon production. Emission sources By region Developed countries were once the primary source of black carbon emissions, but this began to change in the 1950s with the adoption of pollution control technologies in those countries. Whereas the United States emits about 21% of the world's CO2, it emits 6.1% of the world's soot. The European Union and United States might further reduce their black carbon emissions by accelerating implementation of black carbon regulations that currently take effect in 2015 or 2020 and by supporting the adoption of pending International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations. Existing regulations also could be expanded to increase the use of clean diesel and clean coal technologies and to develop second-generation technologies. Today, the majority of black carbon emissions are from developing countries and this trend is expected to increase. The largest sources of black carbon are Asia, Latin America, and Africa. China and India together account for 25–35% of global black carbon emissions. Black carbon emissions from China doubled from 2000 to 2006. Existing and well-tested technologies used by developed countries, such as clean diesel and clean coal, could be transferred to developing countries to reduce their emissions. Black carbon emissions are highest in and around major source regions. This results in regional hotspots of atmospheric solar heating due to black carbon. Hotspot areas include: the Indo-Gangetic plains of India eastern China most of Southeast Asia and Indonesia equatorial regions of Africa Mexico and Central America most of Brazil and Peru in South America. Approximately three billion people live in these hotspots. By source Approximately 20% of black carbon is emitted from burning biofuels, 40% from fossil fuels, and 40% from open biomass burning. Similar estimates of the sources of black carbon emissions are as follows: 42% Open biomass burning. (forest and savanna burning) 18% Residential biomass burned with traditional technologies. 14% Diesel engines for transportation. 10% Diesel engines for industrial use. 10% Industrial processes and power generation, usually from smaller boilers. 6% Residential coal burned with traditional technologies. Black carbon sources vary by region. For example, the majority of soot emissions in South Asia are due to biomass cooking, whereas in East Asia, coal combustion for residential and industrial uses plays a larger role. In Western Europe, traffic seems to be the most important source since high concentrations coincide with proximity to major roads or participation to (motorized) traffic. Fossil fuel and biomass soot have significantly greater amounts of black carbon than climate-cooling aerosols and particulate matter, making reductions of these sources particularly powerful mitigation strategies. For example, emissions from the diesel engines and marine vessels contain higher levels of black carbon compared to other sources. Regulating black carbon emissions from diesel engines and marine vessels therefore presents a significant opportunity to reduce black carbon's global warming impact. Biomass burning emits greater amounts of climate-cooling aerosols and particulate matter than black carbon, resulting in short-term cooling. However, over the long-term, biomass burning may cause a net warming when CO2 emissions and deforestation are considered. Reducing biomass emissions would therefore reduce global warming in the long-term and provide co-benefits of reduced air pollution, CO2 emissions, and deforestation. It has been estimated that by switching to slash-and-char from slash-and-burn agriculture, which turns biomass into ash using open fires that release black carbon and GHGs, 12% of anthropogenic carbon emissions caused by land use change could be reduced annually, which is approximately 0.66 Gt CO2-eq. per year, or 2% of all annual global CO2-eq emissions. In a research study published in June 2022, atmospheric scientist Christopher Maloney and his colleagues noted that rocket launches release tiny particles called aerosols in the stratosphere and increase ozone layer loss. They used a climate model to determine the impact of the black carbon coming out of the rocket's engine nozzle. Using various scenarios of growing number of rocket launches, they found that each year, rocket launches could expel 1–10 gigagrams of black carbon at the lower end to 30–100 gigagrams at the extreme end in next few decades. In another study published in June 2022, researchers used a 3D model to study the impact of rocket launches and reentry. They determined that the black carbon particles emitted by the rockets results in an enhanced warming effect of almost 500 times more than other sources. Impacts Black carbon is a form of ultrafine particulate matter, which when released in the air causes premature human mortality and disability. In addition, atmospheric black carbon changes the radiative energy balance of the climate system in a way that raises air and surface temperatures, causing a variety of detrimental environmental impacts on humans, on agriculture, and on plant and animal ecosystems. Public health impacts Particulate matter is the most harmful to public health of all air pollutants in Europe. Black carbon particulate matter contains very fine carcinogens and is therefore particularly harmful. It is estimated that from 640,000 to 4,900,000 premature human deaths could be prevented every year by utilizing available mitigation measures to reduce black carbon in the atmosphere. Humans are exposed to black carbon by inhalation of air in the immediate vicinity of local sources. Important indoor sources include candles and biomass burning whereas traffic and occasionally forest fires are the major outdoor sources of black carbon exposure. Concentrations of black carbon decrease sharply with increasing distance from (traffic) sources which makes it an atypical component of particulate matter. This makes it difficult to estimate exposure of populations. For particulate matter, epidemiological studies have traditionally relied on single fixed site measurements or inferred residential concentrations. Recent studies have shown that as much black carbon is inhaled in traffic and at other locations as at the home address. Despite the fact that a large portion of the exposure occurs as short peaks of high concentrations, it is unclear how to define peaks and determine their frequency and health impact. High peak concentrations are encountered during car driving. High in-vehicle concentrations of black carbon have been associated with driving during rush hours, on highways and in dense traffic. Even relatively low exposure concentrations of black carbon have a direct effect on the lung function of adults and an inflammatory effect on the respiratory system of children. A recent study found no effect of black carbon on blood pressure when combined with physical activity. The public health benefits of reduction in the amount of soot and other particulate matter has been recognized for years. However, high concentrations persist in industrializing areas in Asia and in urban areas in the West such as Chicago. The WHO estimates that air pollution causes nearly two million premature deaths per year. By reducing black carbon, a primary component of fine particulate matter, the health risks from air pollution will decline. In fact, public health concerns have given rise to leading to many efforts to reduce such emissions, for example, from diesel vehicles and cooking stoves. Climate impacts Direct effect Black carbon particles directly absorb sunlight and reduce the planetary albedo when suspended in the atmosphere. Semi-direct effect Black carbon absorb incoming solar radiation, perturb the temperature structure of the atmosphere, and influence cloud cover. They may either increase or decrease cloud cover under different conditions. Snow/ice albedo effect When deposited on high albedo surfaces like ice and snow, black carbon particles reduce the total surface albedo available to reflect solar energy back into space. Small initial snow albedo reduction may have a large forcing because of a positive feedback: Reduced snow albedo would increase surface temperature. The increased surface temperature would decrease the snow cover and further decrease surface albedo. Indirect effect Black carbon may also indirectly cause changes in the absorption or reflection of solar radiation through changes in the properties and behavior of clouds. Research scheduled for publication in 2013 shows black carbon plays a role second only to carbon dioxide in climate change. Effects are complex, resulting from a variety of factors, but due to the short life of black carbon in the atmosphere, about a week as compared to carbon dioxide which last centuries, control of black carbon offers possible opportunities for slowing, or even reversing, climate change. Radiative forcing Estimates of black carbon's globally averaged direct radiative forcing vary from the IPCC's estimate of + 0.34 watts per square meter (W/m2) ± 0.25, to a more recent estimate by V. Ramanathan and G. Carmichael of 0.9 W/m2. The IPCC also estimated the globally averaged snow albedo effect of black carbon at +0.1 ± 0.1 W/m2. Based on the IPCC estimate, it would be reasonable to conclude that the combined direct and indirect snow albedo effects for black carbon rank it as the third largest contributor to globally averaged positive radiative forcing since the pre-industrial period. In comparison, the more recent direct radiative forcing estimate by Ramanathan and Carmichael would lead one to conclude that black carbon has contributed the second largest globally averaged radiative forcing after carbon dioxide (CO2), and that the radiative forcing of black carbon is "as much as 55% of the CO2 forcing and is larger than the forcing due to the other greenhouse gasses (GHGs) such as CH4, CFCs, N2O, or tropospheric ozone." Table 1: Estimates of Black Carbon Radiative Forcing, by Effect Table 2: Estimated Climate Forcings (W/m2) Effects on Arctic ice and Himalayan glaciers According to the , "the presence of black carbon over highly reflective surfaces, such as snow and ice, or clouds, may cause a significant positive radiative forcing." The IPCC also notes that emissions from biomass burning, which usually have a negative forcing, have a positive forcing over snow fields in areas such as the Himalayas. A 2013 study quantified that gas flares contributed over 40% of the black carbon deposited in the Arctic. According to Charles Zender, black carbon is a significant contributor to Arctic ice-melt, and reducing such emissions may be "the most efficient way to mitigate Arctic warming that we know of". The "climate forcing due to snow/ice albedo change is of the order of 1.0 W/m2 at middle- and high-latitude land areas in the Northern Hemisphere and over the Arctic Ocean." The "soot effect on snow albedo may be responsible for a quarter of observed global warming." "Soot deposition increases surface melt on ice masses, and the meltwater spurs multiple radiative and dynamical feedback processes that accelerate ice disintegration," according to NASA scientists James Hansen and Larissa Nazarenko. As a result of this feedback process, "BC on snow warms the planet about three times more than an equal forcing of CO2." When black carbon concentrations in the Arctic increase during the winter and spring due to Arctic Haze, surface temperatures increase by 0.5 °C. Black carbon emissions also significantly contribute to Arctic ice-melt, which is critical because "nothing in climate is more aptly described as a 'tipping point' than the 0 °C boundary that separates frozen from liquid water—the bright, reflective snow and ice from the dark, heat-absorbing ocean." Black carbon emissions from northern Eurasia, North America, and Asia have the greatest absolute impact on Arctic warming. However, black carbon emissions actually occurring within the Arctic have a disproportionately larger impact per particle on Arctic warming than emissions originating elsewhere. As Arctic ice melts and shipping activity increases, emissions originating within the Arctic are expected to rise. In some regions, such as the Himalayas, the impact of black carbon on melting snowpack and glaciers may be equal to that of CO2. Warmer air resulting from the presence of black carbon in South and East Asia over the Himalayas contributes to a warming of approximately 0.6 °C. An "analysis of temperature trends on the Tibetan side of the Himalayas reveals warming in excess of 1 °C." A summer aerosol sampling on a glacier saddle of Mt. Everest (Qomolangma) in 2003 showed industrially induced sulfate from South Asia may cross over the highly elevated Himalaya. This indicated BC in South Asia could also have the same transport mode. And such kind of signal might have been detected in at a black carbon monitoring site in the hinterland of Tibet. Snow sampling and measurement suggested black carbon deposited in some Himalayan glaciers may reduce the surface albedo by 0.01–0.02. Black carbon record based on a shallow ice core drilled from the East Rongbuk glacier showed a dramatic increasing trend of black carbon concentrations in the ice stratigraphy since the 1990s, and simulated average radiative forcing caused by black carbon was nearly 2 W/m2 in 2002. This large warming trend is the proposed causal factor for the accelerating retreat of Himalayan glaciers, which threatens fresh water supplies and food security in China and India. A general darkening trend in the mid-Himalaya glaciers revealed by MODIS data since 2000 could be partially attributed to black carbon and light absorbing impurities like dust in the springtime, which was later extended to the whole Hindu Kush-Kararoram-Himalaya glaciers research finding a widespread darkening trend of -0.001 yr−1 over the period of 2000–2011. The most rapid decrease in albedo (more negative than -0.0015 yr−1) occurred in the altitudes over 5500 m above sea level. Global warming In its 2007 report, the IPCC estimated for the first time the direct radiative forcing of black carbon from fossil fuel emissions at + 0.2 W/m2, and the radiative forcing of black carbon through its effect on the surface albedo of snow and ice at an additional + 0.1 W/m2. More recent studies and public testimony by many of the same scientists cited in the IPCC's report estimate that emissions from black carbon are the second-largest contributor to global warming after carbon dioxide emissions, and that reducing these emissions may be the fastest strategy for slowing climate change. Since 1950, many countries have significantly reduced black carbon emissions, especially from fossil fuel sources, primarily to improve public health from improved air quality, and "technology exists for a drastic reduction of fossil fuel related BC" throughout the world. Given black carbon's relatively short lifespan, reducing black carbon emissions would reduce warming within weeks. Because black carbon remains in the atmosphere only for a few weeks, reducing black carbon emissions may be the fastest means of slowing climate change in the near term. Control of black carbon, particularly from fossil-fuel and biofuel sources, is very likely to be the fastest method of slowing global warming in the immediate future, and major cuts in black carbon emissions could slow the effects of climate change for a decade or two. Reducing black carbon emissions could help keep the climate system from passing the tipping points for abrupt climate changes, including significant sea-level rise from the melting of Greenland and/or Antarctic ice sheets. "Emissions of black carbon are the second strongest contribution to current global warming, after carbon dioxide emissions". Calculation of black carbon's combined climate forcing at 1.0–1.2 W/m2, which "is as much as 55% of the CO2 forcing and is larger than the forcing due to the other [GHGs] such as CH4, CFCs, N2O or tropospheric ozone." Other scientists estimate the total magnitude of black carbon's forcing between + 0.2 and 1.1 W/m2 with varying ranges due to uncertainties. (See Table 1.) This compares with the IPCC's climate forcing estimates of 1.66 W/m2 for CO2 and 0.48 W/m2 for CH4. (See Table 2.) In addition, black carbon forcing is two to three times as effective in raising temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere and the Arctic than equivalent forcing values of CO2. Jacobson calculates that reducing fossil fuel and biofuel soot particles would eliminate about 40% of the net observed global warming. (See Figure 1.) In addition to black carbon, fossil fuel and biofuel soot contain aerosols and particulate matter that cool the planet by reflecting the sun's radiation away from the Earth. When the aerosols and particulate matter are accounted for, fossil fuel and biofuel soot are increasing temperatures by about 0.35 °C. Black carbon alone is estimated to have a 20-year Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 4,470, and a 100-year GWP of 1,055–2,240. Fossil fuel soot, as a result of mixing with cooling aerosols and particulate matter, has a lower 20-year GWP of 2,530, and a 100-year GWP of 840–1,280. The Integrated Assessment of Black Carbon and Tropospheric Ozone published in 2011 by the United Nations Environment Programme and World Meteorological Organization calculates that cutting black carbon, along with tropospheric ozone and its precursor, methane, can reduce the rate of global warming by half and the rate of warming in the Arctic by two-thirds, in combination with CO2 cuts. By trimming "peak warming", such cuts can keep current global temperature rise below 1.5 ˚C for 30 years and below 2 ˚C for 60 years, in combination with CO2 cuts. (FN: UNEP-WMO 2011.) See Table 1, on page 9 of the UNEP-WMO report. The reduction of CO2 as well as SLCFs could keep global temperature rise under 1.5 ˚C through 2030, and below 2 ˚C through 2070, assuming CO2 is also cut. See the graph on page 12 of the UNEP-WMO report. Control technologies Ramanathan notes that "developed nations have reduced their black carbon emissions from fossil fuel sources by a factor of 5 or more since 1950. Thus, the technology exists for a drastic reduction of fossil fuel related black carbon." Jacobson believes that "[g]iven proper conditions and incentives, [soot] polluting technologies can be quickly phased out. In some small-scale applications (such as domestic cooking in developing countries), health and convenience will drive such a transition when affordable, reliable alternatives are available. For other sources, such as vehicles or coal boilers, regulatory approaches may be required to nudge either the transition to existing technology or the development of new technology." Hansen states that "technology is within reach that could greatly reduce soot, restoring snow albedo to near pristine values, while having multiple other benefits for climate, human health, agricultural productivity, and environmental aesthetics. Already soot emissions from coal are decreasing in many regions with transition from small users to power plants with scrubbers." Jacobson suggests converting "[U.S.] vehicles from fossil fuel to electric, plug-in-hybrid, or hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, where the electricity or hydrogen is produced by a renewable energy source, such as wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, wave, or tidal power. Such a conversion would eliminate 160 Gg/yr (24%) of U.S. (or 1.5% of world) fossil-fuel soot and about 26% of U.S. (or 5.5% of world) carbon dioxide." According to Jacobson's estimates, this proposal would reduce soot and CO2 emissions by 1.63 GtCO2–eq. per year. He notes, however, "that the elimination of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides would also eliminate some cooling particles, reducing the net benefit by at most, half, but improving human health," a substantial reduction for one policy in one country. For diesel vehicles in particular there are several effective technologies available. Newer, more efficient diesel particulate filters (DPFs), or traps, can eliminate over 90% of black carbon emissions, but these devices require ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel (ULSD). To ensure compliance with new particulate rules for new on-road and non-road vehicles in the U.S., the EPA first required a nationwide shift to ULSD, which allowed DPFs to be used in diesel vehicles in order to meet the standards. Because of recent EPA regulations, black carbon emissions from diesel vehicles are expected to decline about 70 percent from 2001 to 2020." Overall, "BC emissions in the United States are projected to decline by 42 percent from 2001 to 2020. By the time the full fleet is subject to these rules, EPA estimates that over 239,000 tons of particulate matter will be reduced annually. Outside of the US diesel oxidation catalysts are often available and DPFs will become available as ULSD is more widely commercialized. Another technology for reducing black carbon emissions from diesel engines is to shift fuels to compressed natural gas. In New Delhi, India, the supreme court ordered shift to compressed natural gas for all public transport vehicles, including buses, taxis, and rickshaws, resulted in a climate benefit, "largely because of the dramatic reduction of black carbon emissions from the diesel bus engines." Overall, the fuel switch for the vehicles reduced black carbon emissions enough to produce a 10 percent net reduction in CO2-eq., and perhaps as much as 30 percent. The main gains were from diesel bus engines whose CO2-eq. emissions were reduced 20 percent. According to a study examining these emissions reductions, "there is a significant potential for emissions reductions through the [UNFCCC] Clean Development for such fuel switching projects." Technologies are also in development to reduce some of the 133,000 metric tons of particulate matter emitted each year from ships. Ocean vessels use diesel engines, and particulate filters similar to those in use for land vehicles are now being tested on them. As with current particulate filters these too would require the ships to use ULSD, but if comparable emissions reductions are attainable, up to 120,000 metric tons of particulate emissions could be eliminated each year from international shipping. That is, if particulate filters could be shown reduce black carbon emissions 90 percent from ships as they do for land vehicles, 120,000 metric tons of today's 133,000 metric tons of emissions would be prevented. Other efforts can reduce the amount of black carbon emissions from ships simply by decreasing the amount of fuel the ships use. By traveling at slower speeds or by using shore side electricity when at port instead of running the ship's diesel engines for electric power, ships can save fuel and reduce emissions. Reynolds and Kandlikar estimate that the shift to compressed natural gas for public transport in New Delhi ordered by the Supreme Court reduced climate emissions by 10 to 30%. Ramanathan estimates that "providing alternative energy-efficient and smoke-free cookers and introducing transferring technology for reducing soot emissions from coal combustion in small industries could have major impacts on the radiative forcing due to soot." Specifically, the impact of replacing biofuel cooking with black carbon-free cookers (solar, bio, and natural gas) in South and East Asia is dramatic: over South Asia, a 70 to 80% reduction in black carbon heating; and in East Asia, a 20 to 40% reduction." Biodegradation Condensed aromatic ring structures indicate black carbon degradation in soil. Saprophytic fungi are being researched for their potential role in the degradation of black carbon. Policy options Many countries have existing national laws to regulate black carbon emissions, including laws that address particulate emissions. Some examples include: banning or regulating slash-and-burn clearing of forests and savannas; requiring shore-based power/electrification of ships at port, regulating idling at terminals, and mandating fuel standards for ships seeking to dock at port; requiring regular vehicle emissions tests, retirement, or retrofitting (e.g. adding particulate traps), including penalties for failing to meet air quality emissions standards, and heightened penalties for on-the-road "super-emitting" vehicles; banning or regulating the sale of certain fuels and/or requiring the use of cleaner fuels for certain uses; limiting the use of chimneys and other forms of biomass burning in urban and non-urban areas; requiring permits to operate industrial, power generating, and oil refining facilities and periodic permit renewal and/or modification of equipment; and requiring filtering technology and high-temperature combustion (e.g. supercritical coal) for existing power generation plants, and regulating annual emissions from power generation plants. The International Network for Environmental Compliance & Enforcement issued a Climate Compliance Alert on Black Carbon in 2008 which cited reduction of carbon black as a cost-effective way to reduce a major cause of global warming. See also Nuclear winter Asian brown cloud Global dimming Peat bog Environmental impact of the coal industry Diesel exhaust References Further reading External links Integrated Assessment of Black Carbon and Tropospheric Ozone , 2012, United Nations Environmental Programme. Why Black Carbon and Ozone Also Matter, in September/October 2009 Foreign Affairs with Veerabhadran Ramanathan and Jessica Seddon Wallack. The Climate Threat We Can Beat, in May/June 2012 Foreign Affairs with David G. Victor, Charles F. Kennel, Veerabhadran Ramanathan UCSD Researchers: Where International Climate Policy Has Failed, Grassroots Efforts Can Succeed; Control of greenhouse agents other than CO2 needs to reach the local level, according to a new Foreign Affairs essay April 26, 2012 University of California, San Diego Allotropes of carbon Fire Environmental science Articles containing video clips Particulates Smoke Air pollution Climate forcing

3798542

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shani

Shani

Shani (, ), or Shanaishchara (, ), refers to the divine personification of the planet Saturn in Hinduism, and is one of the nine heavenly objects (Navagraha) in Hindu astrology. Shani is also a male Hindu deity in the Puranas, whose iconography consists of a black figure carrying a sword or danda (sceptre) and sitting on a crow. He is the god of karma, justice, and retribution, and delivers results depending upon one's thoughts, speech, and deeds. Shani is the controller of longevity, misery, sorrow, old age, discipline, restriction, responsibility, delays, ambition, leadership, authority, humility, integrity, and wisdom born of experience. He also signifies spiritual asceticism, penance, discipline, and conscientious work. He is associated with two consorts: Neela, the personification of the gemstone sapphire, and Manda, a gandharva princess. Planet Shani as a planet appears in various Hindu astronomical texts in Sanskrit, such as the 5th-century Aryabhatiya by Aryabhatta, the 6th-century Romaka by Latadeva and Pancha Siddhantika by Varahamihira, the 7th-century Khandakhadyaka by Brahmagupta and the 8th-century Sisyadhivrddida by Lalla. These texts present Shani as one of the planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion. Other texts such as Surya Siddhanta dated to have been complete sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various planets as divine knowledge linked to deities. The manuscripts of these texts exist in slightly different versions, present Shani's motion in the skies, but vary in their data, suggesting that the text were open and revised over their lives. The texts slightly disagree in their data, in their measurements of Shani's revolutions, apogee, epicycles, nodal longitudes, orbital inclination, and other parameters. For example, both Khandakhadyaka and Surya Siddhanta of Varaha state that Shani completes 146,564 revolutions on its own axis every 4,320,000 earth years, an Epicycle of Apsis as 60 degrees, and had an apogee (aphelia) of 240 degrees in 499 CE; while another manuscript of Soorya Siddhantha revises the revolutions to 146,568, the apogee to 236 degrees and 37 seconds and the Epicycle to about 49 degrees. The 1st-millennium-CE Hindu scholars had estimated the time it took for sidereal revolutions of each planet including Shani, from their astronomical studies, with slightly different results: Iconography Shani is depicted wearing blue or black robes, having dark complexion and riding a vulture or on an iron chariot drawn by eight horses. He holds in his hands a bow, an arrow, an axe and a trident. He is canonically represented riding on a large crow which follows him wherever he goes. Some astrologers believe he has more than one mount such as a horse, elephant, donkey, lion, dog, jackal, deer and vulture, although this is controversial. Shani is believed to be the incarnation of Krishna according to Brahma Vaivarta Purana where Krishna said that he is "Shani among planets". He is also called Saneeswar meaning "Lord of Saturn" and is designated the task of granting the fruits of one's action, thus becoming the most feared amongst Hindu astrological gods. He is often the most misunderstood deity in the Hindu Pantheon as he is said to cause persistent chaos in one's life, and is known to be milder if worshipped. Shani is the root for name for the day Saturday in many other Indian languages. In modern Hindi, Odia, Telugu, Bengali, Marathi, Urdu, Kannada and Gujarati, Saturday is called Shanivaar; Tamil: Sani kizhamai; Malayalam: Shaniyazhcha; Thai: Wạn s̄eār̒ (วันเสาร์). Calendar Shani is the basis for Shanivara – one of the seven days that make a week in the Hindu calendar. This day corresponds to Saturday – after Saturn – in the Greco-Roman convention for naming the days of the week. Shani is considered to be the most malefic planet that brings restrictions and misfortunes. Shani is part of the Navagraha in Hindu zodiac system, considered malefic, associated with spiritual asceticism, penance, discipline and conscientious work. The role and importance of the Navagraha developed over time with various influences. Deifying planetary bodies and their astrological significance occurred as early as the Vedic period and was recorded in the Vedas. The earliest work of astrology recorded in India is the Vedanga Jyotisha which began to be compiled in the 14th century BCE. It was possibly based on works from the Indus Valley Civilization as well as various foreign influences. Babylonian astrology which was the first astrology and calendar to develop, and was adopted by multiple civilizations including India. The classical planets, including Saturn. The Navagraha developed from early works of astrology over time. Saturn and various classical planets were referenced in the Atharvaveda around 1000 BCE. The Navagraha was furthered by additional contributions from Western Asia, including Zoroastrian and Hellenistic influences. The Yavanajataka, or 'Science of the Yavanas', was written by the Indo-Greek named "Yavanesvara" ("Lord of the Greeks") under the rule of the Western Kshatrapa king Rudrakarman I. The Yavanajataka written in 120 CE is often attributed to standardizing Indian astrology. The Navagraha would further develop and culminate in the Shaka era with the Saka or Scythian, people. Additionally the contributions by the Saka people would be the basis of the Indian national calendar, which is also called the Saka calendar. The Hindu calendar is a Lunisolar calendar which records both lunar and solar cycles. Like the Navagraha, it was developed with the successive contributions of various works. Planet Shani rules over both zodiac signs, Capricorn and Aquarius, two of the twelve constellations in the zodiac system of Hindu astrology. If Shani rules over your zodiac sign, it is said you must wear a ring with a stone made of Blue Sapphire. Deity Shani is a deity in medieval era texts, who is considered inauspicious and is feared for delivering misfortune and loss to those who deserve it. He is also capable of conferring boons and blessings to the worthy, depending upon their karma. In medieval Hindu literature, he is mainly referred to as the son of Surya and Chhaya, or in few accounts as the son of Balarama and Revati. His alternate names include Ara, Kona and Kroda. As per the Hindu texts, 'peepal' or fig tree is the abode of Shani (while other texts associate the same tree with Vasudeva). He is also believed to be the greatest teacher who rewards the righteous acts and punishes those who follow the path of evil, Adharma and betrayal. In 2013, a 20-foot-tall statue of Lord Shani was established at Yerdanur in the mandal of Sangareddy, Medak district, Telangana, nearly 40 kilometers from Hyderabad city. It was carved from a Monolith and weighs about nine tonnes. Mantra translation Shani's mantra is depicted here, in Sanskrit and English, with the translation; Sanskrit: ॐ काकध्वजाय विद्महे खड्ग हस्ताय धीमहि तन्नो मंदः प्रचोदयात् । Transliteration: "Om kaakadhwajaaya vidmahe khadga hastaaya dheemahi tanno mandah prachodayaat'' Translation: Om, Let me meditate on him who has crow in his flag, Oh, He who has a sword in his hand, give me higher intellect, And let Saneeswara illuminate my mind. Sanskrit: ॐ नीलांजन समऻभाशम रविपुत्रं यमाग्रजम छाया मर्तांड संभूतम त्वाम नमामि शनिस्वरंम । Transliteration: "Om Neelanjana Samabhashama Ravi Putram Yamaagrajama Chhayaa Martanda Sambhootama Twama Namaami Shaniswarama" Translation: O Lord, You are like the Blue Sapphire and You admire the Blue Sapphire, You are the son of Lord Surya, and Brother of Lord Yama. You are the son of Lord Surya and Goddess Chhaya, I bow to you Lord of Planet Saturn, Dedicated Day On Saturdays, it is believed that one should worship Lord Shani to keep oneself away from evil and to reduce the hardships of life as he blesses those who willingly and voluntarily donate to the poor without seeking anything in return. Shani puja is usually done to keep one safe from Lord Shani's malefic effects. On Saturday, the devotee also fasts from dawn to dusk. Wake up early in the morning and take oil bath after applying sesame oil on your body. After bath, wear black clothes for the day. On the whole day, use Sesame oil for lighting lamp. Saturn temples Shani temples are found in more populated areas of India, such as Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. Shani Shingnapur Dham in particular is a famous holy place associated with Lord Shani, the deity. Shani Shinganapur or Shingnapur is a village in the Indian state of Maharashtra. Situated in Nevasa taluka in Ahmednagar district, the village is known for its popular temple of Shani, the Hindu god associated with the planet Saturn. Shingnapur is 35 km from Ahmednagar city. More common than Shani temples are artwork related to himself, which are found in all types of temples of various traditions within Hinduism, mostly connected to Shaivism. Popularity for praying to Shani, especially on Saturday's, has increased gradually over the years. In television Daya Shankar Pandey played the role of Shani Dev in Mahima Shani Dev Ki which aired on NDTV Imagine from 2010 to 2012. On 7 November 2016 the show Karmafal Daata Shani aired on Colors TV; it depicts the life of Shani. Kartikey Malviya plays the role of younger Shani and Rohit Khurana of mature Shani.The show ended on 9 March 2018. In 2017 the remake of the Karmafal Daata Shani was made in Kannada titled Shani telecasted on Colors Kannada. Sunil plays the role of young Shani. Pranav Sridhar plays the role of mature Shani. In 2020 the show Devi Adi Parashakti aired on Dangal TV; Rohit Khurana plays the role of Lord Shani. See also Rigvedic deities Nakshatra List of Natchathara temples Aditi Surya Namaskar Kakabhushundi List of Hindu deities List of Hindu temples List of Hindu pilgrimage sites Notes Further reading External links Astronomical Names for the Days of the Week, M Falk (1999) The God Shani or the Planet Saturn, Iconongraphy on a column in Madurai Meenakshi Temple, British Library Shani Chalisa In Hindi With English PDF File Shani Mantra Navagraha Hindu gods Rigvedic deities Saturnian deities Planetary gods Justice gods Shani

3800394

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaea%20%28crater%29

Gaea (crater)

Gaea is an impact crater on Amalthea, one of the small moons of Jupiter. It is 75 km wide and at least 10–20 km deep. Its center coordinates are -80°S, 90°W. One of two named craters on Amalthea (the other being Pan), it is named after the Greek goddess Gaia. One third of Gaea's interior is covered by a bright spot, the largest on Amalthea. Its brightness is at least 2.3 times greater than the area outside the crater. It is about 25 km wide and appears to extend beyond the crater. Gaea is near Amalthea's south pole, far south from the moon's other bright areas, Lyctos Facula and Ida Facula, which are on the slopes of a prominent mountain elongated along the meridian. See also Greek mythology References Amalthea (moon) Impact craters on Jupiter's moons

3800726

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyctos%20Facula

Lyctos Facula

Lyctos Facula is a bright mountain on one of Jupiter's smallest moons Amalthea. It is believed to have a width of 25 kilometers . It is one of two named faculae that appear on Amalthea, the other being Ida Facula. It was discovered by Voyager 1 in 1979 and in the same year named for the region of Crete in which Zeus was raised. Firstly it was named simply Lyctos. References Amalthea (moon) Extraterrestrial mountains Surface features of Jupiter's moons

3800795

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ida%20Facula

Ida Facula

Ida Facula is a bright mountain on Amalthea, one of Jupiter's smallest moons. It is known to be about 15 kilometers in width, somewhat smaller than the neighboring mountain Lyctos Facula. It was discovered by Voyager 1 in 1979 and in the same year named for Mount Ida, a mountain in Crete where Zeus played as a child. Firstly it was called simply Ida. References Amalthea (moon) Extraterrestrial mountains Surface features of Jupiter's moons

3801543

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray%20telescope

X-ray telescope

An X-ray telescope (XRT) is a telescope that is designed to observe remote objects in the X-ray spectrum. In order to get above the Earth's atmosphere, which is opaque to X-rays, X-ray telescopes must be mounted on high altitude rockets, balloons or artificial satellites. The basic elements of the telescope are the optics (focusing or collimating), that collects the radiation entering the telescope, and the detector, on which the radiation is collected and measured. A variety of different designs and technologies have been used for these elements. Many of the existing telescopes on satellites are compounded of multiple copies or variations of a detector-telescope system, whose capabilities add or complement each other and additional fixed or removable elements (filters, spectrometers) that add functionalities to the instrument. Optics The most common methods used in X-ray optics are grazing incidence mirrors and collimated apertures. Focusing mirrors The utilization of X-ray mirrors allows to focus the incident radiation on the detector plane. Different geometries (e.g. Kirkpartrick-Baez or Lobster-eye) have been suggested or employed, but almost the totality of existing telescopes employs some variation of the Wolter I design. The limitations of this type of X-ray optics result in much narrower fields of view (typically <1 degree) than visible or UV telescopes. With respect to collimated optics, focusing optics allow: a high resolution imaging a high telescope sensitivity: since radiation is focused on a small area, Signal-to-noise ratio is much higher for this kind of instruments. The mirrors can be made of ceramic or metal foil coated with a thin layer of a reflective material (typically gold or iridium). Mirrors based on this construction work on the basis of total reflection of light at grazing incidence. This technology is limited in energy range by the inverse relation between critical angle for total reflection and radiation energy. The limit in the early 2000s with Chandra and XMM-Newton X-ray observatories was about 15 kilo-electronvolt (keV) light. Using new multi-layered coated mirrors, the X-ray mirror for the NuSTAR telescope pushed this up to 79 keV light. To reflect at this level, glass layers were multi-coated with tungsten (W)/silicon (Si) or platinum (Pt)/silicon carbide(SiC). Collimating optics While earlier X-ray telescopes were using simple collimating techniques (e.g. rotating collimators, wire collimators), the technology most used in the present day employs coded aperture masks. This technique uses a flat aperture patterned grille in front of the detector. This design gives results that are less sensitive than focusing optics; also the imaging quality and identification of source position is much poorer. Though this design offers a larger field of view and can be employed at higher energies, where grazing incidence optics become ineffective. Also the imaging is not direct, but the image is rather reconstructed by post-processing of the signal. Detectors Several technologies have been employed on detectors for X-ray telescopes, ranging from counters like Ionization chambers, geiger counters or scintillators to imaging detectors like CCDs or CMOS sensors. The use of micro-calorimeters, that offer the added capability of measuring with great accuracy the energy of the radiation, is planned for future missions. Missions employing X-ray telescopes History of X-ray telescopes The first X-ray telescope employing Wolter Type I grazing-incidence optics was employed in a rocket-borne experiment on October 15, 1963, 1605 UT at White Sands New Mexico using a Ball Brothers Corporation pointing control on an Aerobee 150 rocket to obtain the X-ray images of the Sun in the 8–20 angstrom region. The second flight was in 1965 at the same launch site (R. Giacconi et al., ApJ 142, 1274 (1965)). The Einstein Observatory (1978–1981), also known as HEAO-2, was the first orbiting X-ray observatory with a Wolter Type I telescope (R. Giacconi et al., ApJ 230,540 (1979)). It obtained high-resolution X-ray images in the energy range from 0.1 to 4 keV of stars of all types, supernova remnants, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. HEAO-1 (1977–1979) and HEAO-3 (1979–1981) were others in that series. Another large project was ROSAT (active from 1990 to 1999), which was a heavy X-ray space observatory with focusing X-ray optics. The Chandra X-Ray Observatory is among the recent satellite observatories launched by NASA, and by the Space Agencies of Europe, Japan, and Russia. Chandra has operated for more than 10 years in a high elliptical orbit, returning thousands 0.5 arc-second images and high-resolution spectra of all kinds of astronomical objects in the energy range from 0.5 to 8.0 keV. Many of the spectacular images from Chandra can be seen on the NASA/Goddard website. NuStar is one of the latest X-ray space telescopes, launched in June 2012. The telescope observes radiation in a high-energy range (3–79 keV), and with high resolution. NuStar is sensitive to the 68 and 78 keV signals from decay of 44Ti in supernovae. Gravity and Extreme Magnetism (GEMS) would have measured X-ray polarization but was canceled in 2012. See also List of telescope types List of X-ray space telescopes X-ray astronomy Wolter telescope: A type of X-ray telescope built with glancing incidence mirrors. References External links Scientific applications of soft x-ray microscopy Radiography Solar telescopes Scientific techniques

3801832

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROBA

PROBA

PROBA is minisatellite technology demonstration mission in ESA's General Study Program with the objective to address issues of on-board operational autonomy of a generic platform. PROBA (Project for On-Board Autonomy), renamed PROBA-1, is a Belgian satellite launched atop an Indian Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle by ISRO on 22 October 2001. The satellite was funded through the ESA's MicroSat program. This small (60×60×80 cm; 95 kg) boxlike system, with solar panel collectors on its surface, has remarkable image-making qualities. It hosts two Earth Observation instruments dubbed CHRIS and HRC. CHRIS is a hyperspectral system (200 narrow bands) that images at 17 m resolution, while HRC is a monochromatic camera that images visible light at 5 m resolution. With an initial lifetime of one to two years, the satellite celebrated its 20th year of operations in 2021. On 9 March 2018, it surpassed ERS-2 as ESA's longest operated Earth observation mission of all time. Series of satellites PROBA is also the name of the series of satellites starting with PROBA-1. The name is also used to refer to the bus of the satellites. The second satellite in the PROBA series, PROBA-2, was launched on 2 November 2009 together with the SMOS satellite. The third satellite to be launched was PROBA-V (PROBA-Vegetation), on 7 May 2013. Further planned satellites in the PROBA series include the formation flying demonstration mission PROBA-3 and limb sounder ALTIUS. See also Miniaturized satellite References External links http://earth.esa.int/proba/ PROBA-1 article on eoPortal by ESA PROBA-2 article on eoPortal by ESA PROBA-3 article on eoPortal by ESA PROBA-V article on eoPortal by ESA PROBA-V plus one article on eoPortal by ESA Earth observation satellites of the European Space Agency European Space Agency Spacecraft launched in 2001 Spacecraft launched by PSLV rockets Technology demonstrations