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[ "2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup Cup tournaments in the same calendar year. England has also become the third country, after Brazil and North Korea, to win both U-17 and U-20 World Cup in their respective gender tournaments on the same year, as North Korea had also won both U-17 and U-20 Women's World Cup last year. The Official Match Ball of the Tournament is Adidas Krasava. The bids for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup had to be submitted by 15 November 2013. On 28 May 2013 it was announced by FIFA that Azerbaijan, India, Republic of Ireland, and Uzbekistan would bid for the hosting" ]

[ "India national under-17 football team second time since 2013. The AIFF Youth Cup was first competed for in 2016. It was organised by the All India Football Federation (AIFF) as a preparatory tournament for the India under-17 team for the 2016 AFC U-16 Championship and the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup. The first tournament was held from 15 May to 25 May 2016 at the Tilak Maidan Stadium in Vasco, Goa. A total of five teams participated in the tournament after being invited by the All India Football Federation. The final was won 2–1 by South Korea over the United States. The following officials are", "Boris Singh Thangjam of the season against Chennai City. He started and scored the third and final goal in the 90th minute for the Indian Arrows as they won 3–0. Thangjam represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. Boris Singh Thangjam Boris Singh Thangjam (born 3 January 2000) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a defender for Indian Arrows on loan from ATK in the I-League. Born in Manipur, Thangjam was part of the AIFF Elite Academy batch that was preparing for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to", "Abhijit Sarkar (footballer) side in the Arrow's first match of the season against Chennai City. He came on as a 90th-minute substitute for Jeakson Singh Thounaojam as Indian Arrows won 3–0. On 10 February 2018 Sarkar came on as a substitute and scored twice in injury time to lift the arrows to a 2–1 victory over Churchill Brothers. Sarkar represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. Abhijit Sarkar (footballer) Abhijit Sarkar (born 5 January 2000) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Indian Arrows in I-League on", "Jitendra Singh (footballer) City. He started and helped the team keep the cleansheet as Indian Arrows won 3–0. A month later, on 26 December, Singh scored his first professional goal against Shillong Lajong. His 19th-minute goal was the first in a 3–0 victory for the Indian Arrows. Singh represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. Jitendra Singh (footballer) Jitendra Singh (born 13 June 2001) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a defender for Indian Arrows in the I-League. Born in Manipur, Singh was part of the AIFF Elite Academy", "Seema Jaswal world travelled to India to take part in the FIFA U-17 World Cup. The matches were played across 6 host cities in India from October 6 with the final on the 28th October in Kolkata. Seema’s role as presenter involved hosting all of the live matches from the studio in Mumbai for Sony Pictures Network India throughout the course of the tournament. Seema was accompanied by managers and players including David Moyes, Stuart Pearce and Luis García, as well as players past and present including Baichung Bhutia and Renedy Singh. Seema also presented the FIFA U17 World Cup live draw", "India national under-17 football team and Columbia. On 6 October 2017, India played their First Ever match in FIFA-U17 World Cup history in front of 47000 people against U.S.A.But unfortunately, India lost the match by 3–0. India played their Second match against Colombia. In 82nd minute Jeakson Singh Thounaojam became the First Indian Goal Scorer in any FIFA Tournament. For the third match of group stage, India faced Ghana where they went down to lose 4–0, finishing bottom of the group A. The AFC U-16 Championship is the top level tournament for under-16 football teams in Asia and began in 1985. India participated in the", "India national under-17 football team India national under-17 football team The India national under-17 football team represents India in international football at the under-17 level. Controlled by the All India Football Federation, the governing body for football in India, the team is part of the Asian Football Confederation and the South Asian Football Federation. India has participated for the first time in FIFA U-17 World Cup as hosts in the 2017 edition of the tournament. This was the first time ever that a team representing India participated in the finals of a FIFA-organised world tournament. India was placed in Group A along With, U.S.A, Ghana", "India national under-23 football team Guangzhou, China, India were placed in a group with Qatar, Kuwait Athletes, and Singapore. India lost their first match against the Kuwait Athletes 2–0 and then lost their second match against Qatar 2–1 with the lone India goal coming from Dharmaraj Ravanan. India went on to win their final match of the group stage against Singapore 4–1. Four players scored each goal, Jewel Raja, Balwant Singh, Jibon Singh, and Manish Maithani. The victory managed to help India finish in third-place which then helped India become the best third-place team out of all the other third-placed teams and thus qualified them", "Jeakson Singh Thounaojam them playing time, on loan from Minerva Punjab. He made his professional debut for the side in the Arrow's first match of the season against Chennai City. He started and played 90 minutes as Indian Arrows won 3–0. Thounaojam represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. In India's second match of the tournament, on 9 October 2017 against Colombia, he scored India's first ever goal in a FIFA tournament ever. His 82nd minute header from a corner was the equaliser for India but the team soon conceded again,", "2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup the final match of the Round of 16, which made India only the third nation after China and Mexico to register an attendance of over a million for the event. On 28 October 2017, in the 3rd place match-up between Brazil and Mali, India finally beat the existing record of 1,230,976 set in the 1985 FIFA U-16 World Championship edition in China on 28 October 2017. The final attendance figures were 1,347,133. After being awarded the hosting rights for the FIFA U-17 World Cup, eight locations were shortlisted: Bangalore, Guwahati, Kochi, Kolkata, Margao, Navi Mumbai, New Delhi and Pune.On 29", "Bangladesh national under-17 football team Bangladesh national under-17 football team The Bangladesh U-17 national football team is a youth football team operated under the Bangladesh Football Federation. The team would represent Bangladesh in the AFC U-16 Championship, SAFF U-16 Championship and has yet to qualify for the FIFA U-17 World Cup. The team won the won the 2018 SAFF U-15 Championship, defeating Pakistan in the final. Goal Keepers:<br> Mohammed Emon Hawlader<br> Md Sameule Bashar<br> Lemon Hossen Defenders:<br> Md Saiful Islam<br> Yeasin Arafat(c)<br> Nazmul Biswas<br> Rony Kumer<br> Md Jihad Hossain <br> Sadekujaman Fahim<br> Md Runi Hadeir Midfielders:<br> Md Minhazul Karim Shadin<br> Mohammed Raja Sheikh<br> Md Faysal", "Jeakson Singh Thounaojam a minute later, and went on to be defeated 2–1. Jeakson Singh Thounaojam Jeakson Singh Thounaojam (born 21 June 2001) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Indian Arrows in the I-League on loan from Kerala Blasters in the Indian Super League. He scored India's first ever goal in a FIFA tournament, by scoring against Colombia in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup. Born in Manipur, Thounaojam was part of the Minerva Punjab youth team. After the FIFA U-17 World Cup, Thounaojam was selected to play for the Indian Arrows, an All India Football Federation owned", "Anwar Ali (footballer, born 2000) started and helped the team keep the cleansheet as Indian Arrows won 3–0. Ali represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. He scored the winning goal in the 2-1 win against Argentina under-20 national football team in 2018 Cotif Cup. Anwar Ali (footballer, born 2000) Anwar Ali (born 28 August 2000) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a defender for Indian Arrows in the I-League on loan from Mumbai City FC. Born in Punjab, Ali was part of the Minerva Punjab youth team. After the tournament,", "2017 South American U-17 Championship 2017 South American U-17 Championship The 2017 South American Under-17 Football Championship (, ) was the 17th edition of the South American Under-17 Football Championship, a football competition for the under-17 national teams in South America organized by CONMEBOL. It was held in Chile from 23 February to 19 March 2017. Brazil were crowned champions, and together with Chile, Paraguay and Colombia, which were the top four teams of this tournament, qualified for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup in India. Each team registered a squad of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers). The venues were Estadio El", "2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup rights. Finally, on 5 December 2013, FIFA announced that India had won the 2017 FIFA World Cup hosting rights. As host, India made their first ever appearance at the FIFA U-17 World Cup and their first appearance in the World Cup at any age level. As well as India, New Caledonia and Niger also made their first appearance in the FIFA U-17 World Cup. The previous U-17 World Cup title holders, Nigeria, failed to qualify for this edition. In failing to qualify, Nigeria became the first nation since Switzerland in 2009 to fail to qualify for the next edition of", "Danny Hay of the All Whites. In 2007, he retired from international football to pursue a teaching career at Sacred Heart College in Auckland which also involved him training the First XI and youth development teams. Hay was appointed as coach of the New Zealand under-17 national team in April 2015. He was manager of the U17s at the 2015 FIFA U-17 World Cup where they lost to Brazil in the round of 16 having qualified from a group featuring Syria, Paraguay and finishing second-place in to France. In February 2017, his team won the 2017 OFC U-17 Championship with a 7–0", "Sanjeev Stalin Cup to be hosted in India. After the tournament, Stalin was selected to play for the Indian Arrows, an All India Football Federation-owned team that would consist of India under-20 players to give them playing time. He made his professional debut for the side in the Arrow's first match of the season against Chennai City. He started and helped the team keep the cleansheet as Indian Arrows won 3–0. Stalin represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. Sanjeev Stalin Sanjeev Stalin (born 17 January 2001) is an Indian", "India women's national under-17 football team beyond the group stage. This was India's only AFC Women's U16 Championship campaign, as they failed to qualify any of the championships held since, which is being organised by AFC on every odd years. SAFF U15 Women's championship was first organised in 2017, where India became runners-up as defeated by Bangladesh by a sloitary goal. In the next edition in 2018, the final was repeated again, but the result was different, this time India beat Bangladesh by a solitary goal and become the SAFF champion. In 2018, at the second edition of BRICS U-17 Football Cup, which is a U-17", "Prithvi Shaw semi-finals of the 2016–17 Ranji Trophy on 1 January 2017. He scored a century in the second innings and was man of the match. He earned another distinction by scoring a century in his debut match of the Duleep Trophy and equalled the record held by Sachin Tendulkar who had scored for the first time a century each in his debut matches of Ranji Trophy and Duleep Trophy. In December 2017, he was named captain of India's squad for the 2018 Under-19 Cricket World Cup. He led India in the final where they beat Australia by 8 wickets to win", "Vinícius Júnior victory. In March 2017, Vinícius debuted in the Under-17 South American Championship for Brazil with a goal in a 3–0 victory over Peru. In the final stage, he scored two goals in a 3–0 win over Ecuador and two goals in a 3–0 victory over Colombia, securing Brazil's place in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup in India. After leading Brazil to win the Under-17 South American Championship, Vinícius Júnior was named the tournament's best player and was top goal-scorer with 7 goals. Shortly after his arrival at Real in July 2018, \"ESPN FC\" journalist Dermot Corrigan described Vinícius as", "Aryan Juyal his debut in the Under-19 category for Uttar Pradesh. With 401 runs from five innings, he topped the batting charts for the Vinoo Mankad Trophy in 2017, and was in the top five of the Vinoo Mankad inter-zonal trophy. These performances earned him a slot in the Challenger Trophy, where he was the fourth highest run getter with 171 runs in four innings.In 2017, Juyal was selected for the 2018 Under-19 Cricket World Cup team, only the second uncapped player in the side. In this tournament, India won the finals against Australia on 3 February 2018, India's fourth U19 World", "West Bengal between Argentina and Venezuela featuring Lionel Messi. In 2008 Legendary German Goalkeeper, Oliver Kahn played his last farewell match on this ground. The stadium hosted the final match of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup. Notable sports persons from West Bengal include former Indian national cricket captain Sourav Ganguly, Pankaj Roy, Olympic tennis bronze medallist Leander Paes, and chess grand master Dibyendu Barua. West Bengal West Bengal () is an Indian state, located in Eastern India on the Bay of Bengal. With over 91million inhabitants (as of 2011), it is India's fourth-most populous state. It has an area of .", "2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup The 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup was the 17th FIFA U-17 World Cup, a biennial international football tournament contested by men's under-17 national teams. Organized by FIFA, the tournament took place in India between 6 and 28 October 2017, after the country was awarded the hosting rights on 5 December 2013. The tournament marked the first time India have hosted a FIFA tournament and the first Asian country to host U-17 World Cup since 2013. The attendance for this World Cup was a record 1,347,133 surpassing China's record in 1985 with 1,230,976. The matches were", "2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup record of 172 during the 2013 edition in the United Arab Emirates. The 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup also recorded the highest goal average of 3.40 per match since the tournament format was expanded from 16 teams to 24 teams in 2007. In September 2017, India submitted a bid to host the 2019 FIFA U-20 World Cup, but lost to Poland. 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup The 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup was the 17th FIFA U-17 World Cup, a biennial international football tournament contested by men's under-17 national teams. Organized by FIFA, the tournament took place in India between", "Amarjit Singh Kiyam season against Chennai City. He started and played the whole match as Indian Arrows won 3–0. On 29 December 2017, Amarjit earned his first sending off after he was issued a second yellow card in the 64th minute during Indian Arrows' match against Mohun Bagan. Amarjit represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. Amarjit Singh Kiyam Amarjit Singh Kiyam (born 6 January 2001) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Jamshedpur FC in the Indian Super League. Born in Manipur, Amarjit was part of", "Siddarth Kaul of SRH that took them to their 2nd finals. Kaul was named in the squad for the India U-19s team for the 2008 Under-19 World Cup in Malaysia. He played in all of India's matches as they proceeded to the final, where they defeated the South African U-19 cricket team by 12 runs (adjusted by the DL method). Siddarth was entrusted with the task of bowling the final over by his then skipper Virat Kohli against South Africa in Malaysia, where India won the under-19 World Cup for the second time. The skiddy pacer ended with 10 wickets from 5", "2008 Under-19 Cricket World Cup venues for the group stage. The figures in brackets indicate respective seedings. All matches start at 0200 UTC. All matches started at 0200 UTC. All matches start at 0200 UTC. All matches start at 0200 UTC. 2008 Under-19 Cricket World Cup The 2008 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup was held in Malaysia from 17 February 2008 to 2 March 2008. The opening ceremony took place on 15 February 2008. The final was played between South Africa and India, which India won by 12 runs by D/L Method. The matches took place at three locations, Kuala Lumpur, Johor and Penang. The", "Deependra Singh Negi Indian team in 2014. Negi has played in domestic competitions like ONGC, Subroto Cup. He was also captain of the AIFF team that won the Subroto Cup in 2015. Negi has represented the India under-17 and under 20 side. He was a former India under-17 national team captain. He has represented India in the SAFF championship in Nepal where the Indian team defeated Nepal 1-0 in the final played at the Dasharath Stadium in Kathmandu. Negi has also participated in the AFC Cup qualifiers held in Kuwait. In 2016, at the age of 17, Deependra Singh Negi moved to Spain", "Rahim Ali Chennai City. He came on as a 73rd-minute substitute for Rahul Praveen as Indian Arrows won 3–0. Ali represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. Rahim Ali Rahim Ali (born 21 April 2000) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a forward for Indian Arrows in the I-League. Born in Barrackpore, West Bengal, Ali was part of the AIFF Elite Academy batch that was preparing for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to be hosted in India. After the tournament, Ali was selected to play for the", "Gouramangi Singh 2002 AFC U-17 Championship, Abu Dhabi. He was also part of the U-20 Indian squad participating in the 2004 Asian Youth Championship, Malaysia. He played in the Olympic qualifiers for the Indian U-23 team where his defending allowed India to earn an unlikely 1–1 draw with the Iraq U-23 team. In 2006, Gouramangi made his debut for India and was a vital member of the Indian team that won the Nehru Cup International Football Tournament 2007 beating Syria. He was also an important part of the victorious India team at the 2008 AFC Challenge Cup. After joining the national team", "India women's national under-20 football team the AFC U19 Championships and FIFA U20 Worldcup. Its a preparatory tournament for the South Asian teams for AFC U19 championship qualification round. India thrashed host Bhutan and Maldives by 4−0 and 8−0 respectively in the group matches, reaching to the semi-finals they lost to Nepal through penalty shoot-out by 1−3 as the full time ended in a 1−1 tie, thus their dream of first SAFF u18 champion ended here but they won the third place in the tounament by defeating Bhutan again by a solitary goal. \"The following players were called up for 2019 AFC U-19 Women's Championship qualification.", "Paulinho (footballer, born 2000) The clubs agreed to a €20 million fee, a club-record deal for Vasco. He joined Leverkusen ahead of the 2018–19 season and signed a five-year contract. In March 2017, Paulinho, along with Vinícius Júnior, Lincoln and Alan, helped Brazil win the South American Under-17 Championship. He scored two goals during the tournament, including the opening goal in Brazil's 5–0 win over Chile in the final. In October 2017, Paulinho helped Brazil reach 3rd place of 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup. Paulinho scored the winning goals against Spain at Brazil's debut, North Korea and on quarterfinals against Germany. Brazil U17 Brazil", "Abhijit Sarkar (footballer) Abhijit Sarkar (footballer) Abhijit Sarkar (born 5 January 2000) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Indian Arrows in I-League on loan from Chennaiyin FC in the Indian Super League. Born in Kalyani, West Bengal, Sarkar was part of the AIFF Elite Academy batch that was preparing for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to be hosted in India. After the tournament, Sarkar was selected to play for the Indian Arrows, an All India Football Federation-owned team that would consist of India under-20 players to give them playing time. He made his professional debut for the", "2016 BRICS U-17 Football Cup 2016 BRICS U-17 Football Cup The 2016 BRICS U-17 Football Cup was the first edition of the BRICS U-17 Football Cup. It took place in the Indian state of Goa during the 8th BRICS summit which was also held in India. It began on 5 October and concluded with the final on 15 October. Brazil won the cup defeating South Africa in the final. The tournament featured the under-17 teams of all five members of BRICS with the final taking place at the Fatorda Stadium. All five teams in the tournament shall play each other in a round-robin before the", "Ravindra Jadeja the couple married on 17 April 2016. They were blessed with a baby girl on 8 June 2017 and they named her Nidhyana Jadeja made his first Under-19 appearance for India in 2005 at the age of 16. He was picked in the Indian squad for the 2006 U/19 Cricket World Cup in Sri Lanka. India finished runners-up with Jadeja impressing in the final against Pakistan with a haul of 3 wickets. He was the vice-captain of the victorious Indian team at the 2008 U/19 Cricket World Cup. He played a crucial role with the ball in the tournament, taking", "2016 BRICS U-17 Football Cup top two teams qualify for the final and the third and fourth place teams play in the third-place match. 2016 BRICS U-17 Football Cup The 2016 BRICS U-17 Football Cup was the first edition of the BRICS U-17 Football Cup. It took place in the Indian state of Goa during the 8th BRICS summit which was also held in India. It began on 5 October and concluded with the final on 15 October. Brazil won the cup defeating South Africa in the final. The tournament featured the under-17 teams of all five members of BRICS with the final taking place", "India national under-17 football team champions, India entered the 2015 edition of the tournament with a 5–0 victory over Sri Lanka. India then suffered a 2–1 defeat to Bangladesh to finish second in the group, and but still qualified for the semi-finals. In the semi-finals, India once again defeated Nepal 1–0, but lost to Bangladesh in the final on penalties. At the 2017 edition India entered into semi-final, defeating Maldives and Nepal by 9–0 and 2–1 respectively. In the semi-final they defeated Bhutan by 3–0 and entered to the final and faced Nepal again and defeated them by 2–1 to become SAFF champion for the", "Claudio Gomes Shield at Wembley Stadium, coming on in added time for John Stones. He was in the game for one second before the final whistle blew and his team won the trophy. Gomes is a youth international for France, having captained the France U17s at the 2017 UEFA European Under-17 Championship, and the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup. He was named in the team of the tournament at the former in Croatia, in which the French reached the quarter-finals. In France's opening match at the latter tournament in India, he scored in a 7–1 win over New Caledonia. In August 2018,", "Deepak Chougule in a day. This was a junior world record. He represented Karnataka in the Under-16 V. Pattabhiraman Trophy and Under-19 Ghulam Ahmed Trophy tournaments. He won his junior cap for India and played a crucial role to enable India to win the Asia cup Under-17 tournament in Dhaka in 2000. He bagged the Border-Gavaskar scholarship from the National Cricket Academy and was sent to Australia for training. He was selected to play for India in the Under-19 cricket world cup held in New Zealand in the year 2002. He batted in the crucial one-down position in the World cup but", "Honduras national under-17 football team which had surprisingly drawn against Syria. The \"mini H\" lost 4-1 with captain, Johnny Leveron, scoring the only and final goal of the tournament by means of a penalty kick. The final game, to complete their World Cup journey, was a defeat 2-0 at hands of Syria. The Honduran youngsters finished in last place of Group A, losing close games to Argentina and Nigeria 0–1 each, and losing 1–3 to Germany. Anthony Lozano scored the lone goal. The following players were selected for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup. Head coach: José Valladares Honduras national under-17 football team The Honduras", "Afghanistan national under-19 cricket team Cup, losing out to India by 77 runs. In the league stages of the tournament Afghanistan lost their first match, being defeated by Bangladesh. However, they won their next two matches against Pakistan and Singapore. They advanced to the semifinals on the basis of NRR. Afghanistan won the 2017 ACC Under-19 Asia Cup, defeating Pakistan in the final by a huge margin of 185 runs. In the league stages, Afghanistan won their matches against Pakistan and UAE but lost to Sri Lanka. They faced Nepal in the semifinals, whom they defeated by 7 wickets. The Afghanistan U-19 Cricket squad selected", "Aniket Jadhav match of the season against Chennai City. He started and scored a brace as Indian Arrows won 3–0. Jadhav represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. Aniket Jadhav Aniket Anil Jadhav (born 13 July 2000) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a forward for Indian Arrows in the I-League on loan from Jamshedpur FC. Born in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, Jadhav was part of the AIFF Elite Academy batch that was preparing for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to be hosted in India. After the tournament, Jadhav", "Football in India round of the 2012 Olympics qualifiers against Myanmar but were knocked out by Qatar. India played their next official matches against United Arab Emirates in the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers which India lost on aggregate 5–2. In 2014, India hosted the first-ever Unity World Cup in Goa, Hyderabad and Bangalore. India has participated for the first time in FIFA U-17 World Cup as hosts in the 2017 edition of the tournament. This was the first time ever that a team representing India participated in the finals of a FIFA-organised world tournament. India was placed in Group A along With,", "Matteo Tosetti Wil. In July 2013, he joined FC Lugano on loan from BSC Young Boys. On 19 February 2014, he was then sold to Lugano. Tosetti is of Italian descent. Tosetti is a Switzerland youth international, having previously competed at under-17 and under-19 level and currently under-20 level. In 2009, he was part of the Swiss under-17 team that won the 2009 FIFA U-17 World Cup beating the host nation Nigeria 1-0 in the final. Tosetti featured as a substitute in one match at the tournament, a win in the semi-final versus Colombia. Matteo Tosetti Matteo Tosetti (born 15 February 1992)", "India national under-17 football team 2009, the SAFF U-15 Championship was launched. India participated in the first edition of the tournament in 2011. After an opening day surprise defeat to Pakistan, India qualified for the next round after defeating the Maldives 5–0. India then made it to the final, defeating Nepal on penalties, but again lost to Pakistan in the final 2–1. India fared much better in the 2013 edition, finishing first in their group of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, before defeating Afghanistan in the semi-final on penalties. In the final, India defeated Nepal 1–0 to win the tournament for the first time. As reigning", "Dheeraj Singh Moirangthem give them playing time. He made his professional debut for the side in the Arrow's first match of the season against Chennai City. He started and kept the cleansheet as Indian Arrows won 3–0. On 31 December 2017 he ended his contract with the AIFF to attend trials in Europe, beginning with Motherwell in the Scottish Premiership. Dheeraj represented the India under-17 side that participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India in which was the first choice goalkeeper. Dheeraj represents Kerala Blasters in the ongoing 2018–19 Indian Super League season. He played their first", "Florian Thauvin Premier League inbetween. Thauvin earned 30 caps and scored 14 goals for France from under-18 to under-21 level, winning the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup. He made his senior debut in June 2017 and was part of their squad that won the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Born in Orléans, Thauvin played for youth teams at Ingre, Saint-Jean-de-la-Ruelle, Orléans, and Grenoble before rising through the ranks at the latter, and drawing the interest of larger clubs. He made his first team debut for Grenoble on 11 March 2011 in a 1–1 Ligue 2 away draw against Vannes. Grenoble was relegated to", "India women's national under-17 football team Football tournament played among teams of five BRICS countries, the U17 women's teams of the respective countries were invited to play in the tournament. India played four matches, each against other four countries respectively, first against South Africa, seen a loss by 5−1, then seen another deafeat against Russia by 3−1, then Brazil deafeat India by 5−0 and finally by China by 2−1. \"The following players were called up for the 2018 BRICS U-17 Football Cup. Caps and goals correct as of 23 July 2018.\" \"The following players are called up for the 2019 AFC U16 W Championship Q. Caps", "Dav Whatmore the Director of the National Cricket Academy in 2007 and later took charge of the India under-19 team, which would go on to win the 2008 Under-19 Cricket World Cup in Malaysia with Virat Kohli leading the team. Whatmore was one of the three men interviewed by the Pakistan Cricket Board for the coaching job of the national team, but Geoff Lawson was preferred for the job after former Sri Lankan captain Arjuna Ranatunga suggested to the PCB that they not choose Whatmore for the job. Whatmore had problems with Ranatunga in the past while he was the coach of", "Bangalore Football Stadium which was almost full to capacity. The final I-League match to be played at the stadium was between Bengaluru FC and Pune on 28 March 2014. The match ended 1–1 with Anthony D'Souza scoring the final goal at the stadium. Overall, the average home attendance for Bengaluru FC at the stadium was 7,500. On 5 December 2013 it was officially announced by FIFA that India would be the hosts of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup, the countries first FIFA international competition. It was also announced that Bangalore would be among the choices for being a host city for the", "Anirudh Thapa match and played 67 minutes. He almost scored his first goal but unfortunately it was given an own goal. After the conclusion of the 2016 ISL season, Thapa signed with Minerva Punjab of the I-League on loan for the 2016–17 season. Thapa first represented India at the under-14 level. He was part of the under-16 side that won the 2013 SAFF U-16 Championship and participated in the qualifiers for the AFC U-16 Championship. Thapa then went on to represent the under-19 side in the SAFF U-19 Championship. Anirudh Thapa Anirudh Thapa (born 15 January 1998) is an Indian professional footballer", "Amine Gouiri a 0–0 home draw against Montpellier in Ligue 1. He entered the field after 73 minutes replacing Tanguy Ndombele. A youth international for France, Gouiri was the top scorer at the 2017 UEFA European Under-17 Championship, scoring 7 goals and was the top scorer in the tournament. After his success in the tournament, Gouiri garnered attention of various European clubs and was rated one the best young talents in the world by The Guardian. Gouri also represented France at the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup in India, scoring a brace in his debut in the tournament against the New Caledonia", "Suresh Singh Wangjam Chennai City. He started and played the whole match as Indian Arrows won 3–0. Wangjam represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. Suresh Singh Wangjam Suresh Singh Wangjam (born 7 August 2000) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Indian Arrows in the I-League. Born in Manipur, Wangjam was part of the AIFF Elite Academy batch that was preparing for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to be hosted in India. After the tournament, Wangjam was selected to play for the Indian Arrows, an", "DY Patil Stadium their first real taste of the new, exciting T20 format when the Dr. D.Y. Patil Sports Academy (DYPSA) organized the country’s first official T20 tournament in 2005. This Year the stadium hosted 14th D Y Patil T20 Cup. Reliance 1 Came as the champions of the tournament. It has hosted Football matches of Indian Super League for the club Mumbai City FC, and the stadium hosted some matches of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup. Redevelopment for FIFA U-17 The stadium underwent Rs. 30 crores worth of refurbishment, including changing the roof, building 16 emergency exit bridges, two additional dressing", "Charyl Chappuis win in a friendly match against Simork. Chappuis made his league return on 8 May 2016 coming on as a substitute in the 80th minute for goalscorer Carmelo in a 1-0 win over Army United. Chappuis was a Switzerland youth international. In 2009, he was part of the Swiss under-17 team that won the 2009 FIFA U-17 World Cup beating the host nation Nigeria 1—0 in the final, featuring in all seven matches at the tournament. Chappuis was called up by Thailand's ex-coach Winfried Schäfer to play against Lebanon national football team for the 2015 AFC Asian Cup qualification. He", "Bengaluru FC Reserves and Academy along with United, Aizawl and Sporting Goa. Bengaluru U15 placed third in the group stage and failed to advance. In 2016–17 season Under–16 team, playing in Rest of India zone (Goa) also won the group stage, winning all three games against Dempo, Salgaocar and Sporting Goa, however they lost to eventual champions, Minerva Punjab in the semifinals. In 2017–18 season Under–15 team, won the Karnataka zone to qualify for national finals. In final round the team was clubbed with MSP FA, SAI Guwahati and FC Goa. Bengaluru topped the group and entered the semifinals, were they lost in penalty shoot-out", "India national under-17 football team with the nation hosting the tournament. Despite home advantage, India once again could not make it beyond the group stage and finished last in their group which consisted of themselves, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. India qualified for 2018 AFC U-16 Championship by participating in the qualification round. India defeated Palestine, 3–0, then seen a draw against Nepal, 2–2 but finally qualified for the 2018 edition when they played a goalless draw against the defending champion Iraq. India will be going to play their group match against Vietnam, Iran and Indonesia at the 2018 edition at Malaysia. In", "Under-19 Cricket World Cup the Under-19 World Cup. India defeated Australia by 8 wickets, with Manjot Kalra scoring a match-winning 101*. The Man of the match was awarded to Manjot Kalra, while player of the tournament was awarded to Shubman Gill. India now holds the most wins record in Under-19 World Cup. In the table below, teams are sorted by best performance, then winning percentage, then (if equal) by alphabetical order. Note: the win percentage excludes no results and counts ties as half a win. Under-19 Cricket World Cup The ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup is an international cricket tournament organised by the International", "Indian Arrows new permanent head coach of the India U23 and Pailan Arrows on 24 May 2012. Papas came to the club after coaching his former club, Oakleigh Cannons FC, to the 2011 Victorian Premier League runners-up title. On 29 August 2013 it was announced that Pailan Arrows had been disbanded by the All India Football Federation as the club sponsors, Pailan Group, could not financially support the team. After successful hosting of 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup, AIFF revived the project with the aim of giving regular game time to U–17 world cup players as a team, and fielded the team", "2006 Under-19 Cricket World Cup articles on the other u19 ICC World Cups? A dramatic final was played between Pakistan and India in Colombo. After Pakistan set a very low target of 110 runs to win for India, a stunning Pakistani bowling performance devastated India's top-order batsmen, taking the first six wickets for nine runs. India was eventually dismissed for 71, enabling Pakistan to become the first country ever to defend the title successfully and become back-to-back champions of the tournament. Players that featured for their national team in the future were: Austalia – Moises Henriques, Jon Holland, Jackson Bird, Aaron Finch, Usman Khawaja, Matthew", "2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup May 2015, Kochi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Guwahati were provisionally selected as host locations and was informed two more would be provisionally approved from the list of Bengaluru, Chennai, Goa, New Delhi and Pune . On 27 October 2016, FIFA officially announced Guwahati, Kochi, Kolkata, Margao, Navi Mumbai and New Delhi as the official host cities for the FIFA U-17 World Cup. The draw for the FIFA U-17 World Cup was held on 7 July 2017 in Mumbai. The draw was attended by former U-17 World Cup champions Nwankwo Kanu (Nigeria) and Esteban Cambiasso (Argentina), as well as India senior international", "2013 FIFA U-17 World Cup 2013 FIFA U-17 World Cup The 2013 FIFA U-17 World Cup was the fifteenth tournament of the FIFA U-17 World Cup. The tournament was held in the United Arab Emirates between 17 October and 8 November. Nigeria won the tournament after defeating Mexico 3–0 in the final, claiming the country's fourth title. Sweden won the bronze with a 4–1 victory over Argentina in the third-place play-off match. There were two official bids: In June 2012, FIFA selected the Sheikh Khalifa International Stadium in Al Ain, the Al Nahyan Stadium in Abu Dhabi, the Al-Rashid Stadium in Dubai, the Emirates Club", "Kingsley Michael 79th-minute substitute for Raffaele Bianco. He represented Nigeria national under-17 football team at the 2015 African U-17 Championship, where Nigeria finished 4th, and 2015 FIFA U-17 World Cup, which Nigeria won. Michael scored a goal in the 3–0 quarterfinal victory over Brazil, but did not appear in the semifinal or final. Kingsley Michael Kingsley Dogo Michael (born 26 August 1999) is a Nigerian football player. He plays in Italy for Perugia on loan from Bologna. He joined Italian club Bologna on 29 August 2017 and was assigned to their Under-19 team. At the end of the 2017–18 Serie A season", "Prabhsukhan Singh Gill process for goalkeeper Gill who is 16 years old. He made a fantastic save in the second half. The team needs to protect the goalie.\" While a member of the Chandigarh Football Academy, Gill had a trial with the India under-17 side which was to take part in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup in India. The trial was successful and Gill joined the team and the AIFF Elite Academy. On 21 September 2017, Gill was announced to be part of the 21-man side that would participate in the FIFA U-17 World Cup. He would be the number 2 goalkeeper", "Gursimrat Singh Gill national under-20 side. In 2013, Gill, along with four other players from the under-17's, was sent to the Nike All Asia Camp in Doha, Qatar. The camp lasted for three days and at the end, Gill, alongside India teammate Bidyananda Singh, was selected to participate in the All-Star Game. During the game and the camp overall, both Gill and Singh managed to catch the eye of European clubs such as Barcelona and Inter Milan. Two years later, in 2015, Gill helped the AIFF Elite Academy win the 2014–15 I-League U19. After spending four years with the AIFF Elite Academy, Gill", "India national under-20 football team South Asian countries as they continuously failing to qualify for AFC U-20 championships. In the 2015 inaugural edition, India became runners-up facing a defeat from Nepal through penalty shoot out. In the next edition in 2017, the tournament was a round robin, where India seen two wins against Bhutan and Maldives and two defeats from Bangladesh and Nepal, thus achieved the third place in the tournament. The AIFF finally acted and opened their eyes to bring out the team from its misery and started various plans and programmes to tackle to present pathetic situation. One of the most important steps", "Ashish Chettri October 2007 against Sri Lanka U17 coming on as a 78th-minute substitute for Tanmoy Ghosh as India U16s won the match 6–0. He scored his first goal at u16 level on 7 November 2007 against Bhutan in 34th minute as India U16 went on to win that match and qualify for the final rounds of the 2008 AFC U-16 Championship. \"Statistics accurate as of 12 May 2013\" Ashish Chettri Ashish Chettri (born 22 December 1992 in Sikkim, India) is an Indian footballer who plays as a defender for United Sikkim in the I-League. After spending time at Royal Wahingdoh, Chettri", "Erik Paartalu to the side. In October 2016, Paartalu joined Qatari Stars League club Al Kharaitiyat. On 5 July 2017, Paartalu joined Indian Super League club Bengaluru FC on a one-year deal. In November, he scored a brace against Delhi Dynamos. On 14 March 2018, his contract was extended until the end of 2020. Paartalu represented Australia at the 2003 FIFA U-17 World Championship. Paartalu played in all three of Australia's three games in the tournament, including losses against Argentina and Nigeria. On 21 February 2012 he was selected to play for the \"Socceroos\" against Saudi Arabia national football team in a", "Aniket Jadhav Aniket Jadhav Aniket Anil Jadhav (born 13 July 2000) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a forward for Indian Arrows in the I-League on loan from Jamshedpur FC. Born in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, Jadhav was part of the AIFF Elite Academy batch that was preparing for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to be hosted in India. After the tournament, Jadhav was selected to play for the Indian Arrows, an All India Football Federation-owned team that would consist of India under-20 players to give them playing time. He made his professional debut for the side in the Arrow's first", "Daniel Opare Sadick Adams with precise crosses from wide areas. At the back, he looks equally comfortable and composed. He assisted on many of Ghana's goals at the 2007 African Under-17 Championship in Togo in March 2007, as well as in the U-17 World Cup, where he was a standout in all seven matches he played in. In September 2009, Opare was included in the Ghana national under-20 team (\"the Black Satellites\") for the 2009 U-20 World Cup in Egypt, in which Opare had helped the Ghana team win for the first time by defeating Brazil in the finals at the Cairo", "Unmukt Chand to victory in the 2012 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup in Australia. His counterpart William Bosisto's half-century had rescued Australia from 38 for 4 to a respectable score of 225, but Chand's 130-run stand with Smit Patel ensured India won with more than two overs to spare. India defeated Australia in the final to lift the World Cup, with Chand scoring a captain's knock of 111* in 130 balls which consisted of 6 sixes and 7 fours. On 3 March 2013, Chand scored 116 for Delhi in the Vijay Hazare Trophy final against Assam to show his penchant for scoring", "Emanuel Bentil 1995 FIFA U-17 World Championship, scoring what turned out to be the winning goal in the 3–2 victory over Brazil in the final. Emanuel Bentil Emanuel Bentil (born December 3, 1978 in Tema) is a Ghanaian footballer who last played for Hollywood United Hitmen in the USL Premier Development League. Bentil began his playing career with Okwawu United, making his debut for the team aged 16, before scouts spotted him as he captained Ghana U-17 to victory at the 1995 FIFA U-17 World Championship, scoring the decisive goal against Brazil in the final. He subsequently signed for famed German side", "Tim Southee in early 2007. His last youth appearance was at the 2008 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup, where he was player of the tournament. Southee was 17 years old when he debuted in the 2006 ICC Under-19 World Cup on 5 February, against Bangladesh in Colombo, Sri Lanka. He also played against Pakistan, Ireland, the USA and Nepal in that tournament. He ended with 5 wickets at an average of 38.8, and 113 runs at 22.6. New Zealand lost the Plate Final to Nepal. In 2007 Southee played his only three Youth Tests when New Zealand hosted India. In the second", "India national under-20 football team the FIFA U-20 World Cup as the finalist only qualify for the competition. In 2002, at the AFC U-19 Championship, India reached the quarter final for the 6th time, by the virtue of third place qualifiers, but defeated heavily by South Korea, where the Korean found the Indian net 7 times. Next two edition they ended their competition in group stages and next 7 editions from 2008 to 2018, India failed to qualify again for the championships and so for the FIFA U20 Worldcup. In the meanwhile, SAFF started SAFF U-19 Championship from 2015 to develop the youth teams of", "Nigeria national under-17 football team of the team was determined by MRI scanning to be overage and excluded from the team. In their first match, the team defeated the defending champions Mexico with a 6-1 score. They only failed to defeat Sweden in the group stage, but they did so in the semi-finals. In the final match they faced and defeated Mexico for a second time, obtaining their fourth U-17 World Cup and becoming the national team to win the most U-17 tournaments so far. The team were again the subject of age cheating accusations when 26 members, almost half, of the squad failed MRI", "Amarjit Singh Kiyam Amarjit Singh Kiyam Amarjit Singh Kiyam (born 6 January 2001) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Jamshedpur FC in the Indian Super League. Born in Manipur, Amarjit was part of the AIFF Elite Academy batch that was preparing for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to be hosted in India. After the tournament, Amarjit was selected to play for the Indian Arrows, an All India Football Federation-owned team that would consist of India under-20 players to give them playing time. He made his professional debut for the side in the Arrow's first match of the", "Iain Hume July 2017, Hume re-signed for Kerala Blasters ahead of the 2017–18 Indian Super League season. He opened his account for the campaign on 10 January, scoring a hat-trick in a 3–1 win at Delhi Dynamos. At age 15, Hume turned down the opportunity to represent Scotland at under-16 level, saying that he is more devoted to Canada. Hume played at the 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship in Argentina, alongside Atiba Hutchinson and Mike Klukowski among others. He starred for Canada at the 2003 FIFA World Youth Championship. He scored three goals, including the game winner versus Czech Republic. The win", "Boris Singh Thangjam Boris Singh Thangjam Boris Singh Thangjam (born 3 January 2000) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a defender for Indian Arrows on loan from ATK in the I-League. Born in Manipur, Thangjam was part of the AIFF Elite Academy batch that was preparing for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to be hosted in India. After the tournament, Thangjam was selected to play for the Indian Arrows, an All India Football Federation-owned team that would consist of India under-20 players to give them playing time. He made his professional debut for the side in the Arrow's first match", "Rahul K.P which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. Rahul then got promoted to India under-20 side. Rahul K.P Rahul Kannoly Praveen (born 16 March 2000) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Indian Arrows. Born in Kerala, Rahul was part of the AIFF Elite Academy batch that was preparing for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to be hosted in India. After the tournament, Praveen was selected to play for the Indian Arrows, an All India Football Federation-owned team that would consist of India under-20 players to give them playing", "Kolkata Maidan, a vast field that serves as the city's largest park, hosts several minor football and cricket clubs and coaching institutes. Eden Gardens, which has a capacity of 68,000 , hosted the final match of the 1987 Cricket World Cup. It is home to the Bengal cricket team and the Kolkata Knight Riders. The multi-use Salt Lake Stadium, also known as Yuva Bharati Krirangan, is India's largest stadium by seating capacity. Most matches of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup were played in the Salt Lake Stadium including both Semi-Final matches and the Final match. Kolkata also accounted for 45%", "Jordi Bitter Not making any appearances in the final tournament, which the Dutch won, securing their first European Under-17 Championship title. The three qualification matches in which Bitter did appear in were against Austria U-17, Croatia U-17 and Portugal U-17, which ended in 2 wins and a draw for the Netherlands. He did however play again in the 2011 FIFA U-17 World Cup for the Netherlands U-17, appearing in the fixtures against North Korea U-17 and Mexico U-17 in Mexico, which ended in a draw and a loss for the Dutch as they exited the tournament after the group stage. Jordi Bitter", "Dhyan Chand team played a practice match against Germany and lost 4–1. As such, manager Pankaj Gupta informed the IHF that Ali Dara had to be sent immediately to replace the out of form Mirza Masood. On 5 August, India won its first match against Hungary 4–0. India won the rest of the group matches against USA (7–0, with Chand scoring 2 goals) and Japan (9–0, with Chand scoring 4). On 10 August, Ali Dara arrived. Their fourth match was the semi-final against France, whom they defeated 10–0, with Chand scoring 4 goals. Meanwhile, Germany had beaten Denmark 6–0, beaten Afghanistan 4–1", "Under-19 Cricket World Cup Under-19 Cricket World Cup The ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup is an international cricket tournament organised by the International Cricket Council (ICC) contested by national under-19 teams. First contested in 1988, as the Youth World Cup, it was not staged again until 1998. Since then, the World Cup has been held as a biennial event, organised by the ICC. The first edition of the tournament had only eight participants, but every subsequent edition has included sixteen teams. India, the current champions, has won the World Cup four times which is the highest amongst all teams, while Australia has won thrice,", "Jerry Lalrinzuala participate in the inaugural SAFF U-19 Championship. Despite helping the side reach the final against Nepal, India couldn't win the championship as they fell 5–4 on penalties. In February 2017, after his performances for both Chennaiyin in the Indian Super League and DSK Shivajians in the I-League, India head coach Stephen Constantine called Lalrinzuala up to the senior team. He would be part of the 31 player preparatory camp that would be preparing for India's first AFC Asian Cup qualifier against Myanmar and their friendly against Cambodia. After the camp, it was announced that Lalrinzuala had made the final 24", "2000 Under-19 Cricket World Cup especially in Group C, where only two matches could be played to completion. In the final, played at Colombo's Sinhalese Sports Club, India defeated Sri Lanka by six wickets. Both teams had made the final for the first time. Indian all-rounder Yuvraj Singh was named player of the tournament, while South Africa's Graeme Smith was the leading run-scorer and Pakistan's Zahid Saeed was the leading wicket-taker. The nine full members of the International Cricket Council (ICC) qualified automatically for the World Cup, while another seven teams qualified via other paths. Bangladesh and Nepal qualified as the top two teams at", "Mexico national under-17 football team include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks Mexico was placed in Group C along with Australia, Turkey and Uruguay in which Mexico came in second behind Turkey. In the knockout stage, an extra-time victory over zone rivals Costa Rica led to a then convincing victory over the Netherlands. Mexico ended up defeating Brazil 3–0 in the final. The 2011 FIFA U-17 World Cup was held in home soil. Mexico was placed in Group A together with North Korea, Congo and the Netherlands. Mexico eventually finished first of their group after winning their three matches and advanced to the Round of", "Pankaj Sona trials with Churchill Brothers in Goa. Sona reportedly skipped his classes to catch a plane to Goa and attend the trials, where he impressed Churchill Brothers officials and coaches. He began playing first-team matches for the club in the Goa Professional League. On 7 March 2017, three years after signing with the club, Sona made his professional debut for the club in the I-League against East Bengal. He came on as a 86th-minute substitute for Brandon Fernandes as Churchill Brothers won 2–1. Sona has represented India at the under-20 and under-23 levels. For the under-20 side, Sona traveled with the", "2012 Under-19 Cricket World Cup squad for the tournament. Teams in Green Qualify for the 2014 U-19 World Cup as full members. 2012 Under-19 Cricket World Cup The 2012 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup was a one-day cricket competition for sixteen international U-19 cricketing teams which was held in August 2012. This was the ninth edition of the tournament. The event was staged in the Australian state of Queensland, with matches being shared between the cities of Brisbane, Sunshine Coast and Townsville. In the final, India beat Australia by six wickets to win the tournament. India's Unmukt Chand scored 111 not out, facing 130 balls", "India Cup team and other in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country. India has a in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships, and the Commonwealth Games. Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton (Saina Nehwal and P V Sindhu are two of the top-ranked female badminton players in the world), boxing, and wrestling. Football is popular in West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-eastern states. India was the host country for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup. The matches were held from 6", "India national under-23 football team Championship in Bangladesh, it was announced that India would send the under-23 side to the tournament. India were placed in Group A with Afghanistan, Maldives, and Nepal. In their first match against Afghanistan, India won 1–0 through Jeje Lalpekhlua. In their next match against Nepal, a Sushil Kumar Singh goal was the difference as India won again 1–0. Despite losing the last match of the group stage to Maldives 2–0 India were still through to the semi-finals. India defeated Bangladesh in the semi-finals 1–0 through Sushil Kumar Singh. Finally, in the final against Maldives, India won through penalties 3–1 after", "India national under-23 football team Asian Games. The under-23 side participated in their first ever tournament during the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, South Korea. They were put into a group with China, Turkmenistan, and Bangladesh. Their first match was against Bangladesh. India won 3–0 through a brace from future senior captain Baichung Bhutia and a strike from Renedy Singh. India played their second match two days later against Turkmenistan. They won 3–1. Bhutia again scored a brace while Abhishek Yadav scored the third goal as India ran out 3–1 winners. Unfortunately, in their final match against China, India could not find the net as", "India national under-17 football team tournament for the first time in 1990. They were knocked-out of the tournament in the group stage, finishing third in their four-team group with one against Jordan. The team qualified again for the tournament in 1996 where they finished last in their group which included Bahrain, China, Iran, and Thailand. The team lost three of their four matches, with their sole victory coming against China. India qualified again for the tournament in 2002, where they reached the quarter-final round, in their best result to date. The team took on South Korea in the quarter-finals but lost 3–1, and thus failed", "Jerry Lalrinzuala 2013, during the final against hosts Nepal, Lalrinzuala scored the only goal of the match from 35-yards out to earn India the championship. After leading India's triumph at the SAFF U-16 Championship, Lalrinzuala was included in the India U16 side for the 2014 AFC U-16 Championship qualifiers. Despite a good start during the qualifiers, including two victories and a draw in their opening three matches, defeat to Kuwait 2–1 in the final match meant that India failed to qualify for the tournament proper. Almost two years later, in August 2015, Lalrinzuala was called-up into the India U19 squad that would", "India national cricket team Jadeja as two of the best spinners and all-rounders. They spun webs around touring batsmen, much like the spinning quartet of the 1970s. This was followed by limited overs victories over Australia and Sri Lanka away from home. India was knocked out of the 2015 World Cup in the semi-final stage, to eventual winners Australia. India began 2016 by winning the 2016 Asia Cup, remaining unbeaten throughout the tournament, beating Pakistan along the way. India were favourites to win the 2016 ICC World Twenty20 which was being held at home, but they lost in the semi-final to eventual champions West", "Nic Maddinson batting averages for Australia in a home series against Sri Lanka Under-19s, when he averaged 72 and scored a 133 not out at a run-a-ball, in a 50-over match in Darwin. Maddinson used these performances to get selected for the Australian Under-19 side that flew to New Zealand to compete in the ICC U19 World Cup in January 2010. During the tournament, Maddinson opened the batting for Australia and was part of the victorious side that defeated Pakistan by 25 runs in the final at Lincoln, to lift the trophy. Maddinson also had an excellent season in 2009-10 with the", "Ninthoinganba Meetei a 85th minute substitute as Indian Arrows lost 2–0. Meetei represented the India under-17 side which participated in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup which was hosted in India. Ninthoinganba Meetei Khumanthem Ninthoinganba Meetei (born 13 July 2001) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Indian Arrows in the I-League. Born in Manipur, Meetei was part of the AIFF Elite Academy batch that was preparing for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to be hosted in India. After the tournament, Meetei was selected to play for the Indian Arrows, an All India Football Federation-owned team that", "John Yeboah his youth international career with the Germany under-16 team, making his debut on 16 May 2016 in a friendly against France, which finished as a 1–1 away draw. In 2017, he was included in Germany's squad for the 2017 UEFA European Under-17 Championship in Croatia. He scored against Serbia in the group stage, with Germany managing to reach the semi-finals before losing on penalties to Spain. Later that year, Yeboah was included in Germany's squad for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup in India. He scored against Colombia in the round of 16, with Germany later being eliminated in the", "Nigeria national under-17 football team Nigeria national under-17 football team The Golden Eaglets are Nigeria's national under-17 football team. The team won the maiden edition of FIFA U-17 World Cup in 1985 at China, the 1985 Edition tournament was sponsored by Kodak (when it was known as the U-16 tournament), 1993, 2007, 2013, and 2015 (Becoming only the second team since Brazil to win it back to back); making them the first team ever to win the junior world cup five times. They also won the African Under-17 Championship in 2001 and 2007, and were runners-up in 1995. After the 2007 victory there was some", "Komal Thatal only two appearances for ATK in the entire season. ATK retained Thatal for the following 2018–19 season. He made his first start for ATK on their opening fixture of the season against Delhi Dynamos which ATK won 1–2. On 31 October 2018, Thatal scored his first goal for ATK in the 15th minute against Bengaluru FC. However, ATK lost the game 1–2. After passing the trials in 2014, Thatal joined the India U17 side which was to play in the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup in India. On 21 September 2017, Thatal was announced as part of the final 21-man", "Bhutan national under-17 football team Dorji scoring a consolation goal for Bhutan in injury time at the end of the game. They were however unable to build on this, losing their final group game to India 4-0, to return home pointless for the second time. For the first time in their history Bhutan competed in two consecutive editions of the AFC U-17 Championship qualifying rounds, travelling to Sana'a in Yemen for another round of five matches in their attempt to qualify for the 2010 AFC U-16 Championship. Their campaign got off to a terrible start, as they nearly eclipsed their unenviable record defeat suffered in" ]

[ 6.6796875 ]

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[ "Forbes was good at decoding language." ]

[ "Forbes was unsure what was meant by that.", "The men are looking at something.", "The ballerina is performing inside the dance hall.", "Cross tabbing can point out counter-indications.", "His upper lip was difficult to look at.", "A man is attaching something to himself.", "The man is wearing a cap and holding onto a sign." ]

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[ "If time permits, it's a fantastic place to check out." ]

[ "I'd say you should just skip visiting it.", "The women are drowning.", "Leonardo da Vinci did not stay in the small manor home that was turned into a museum.", "Two kids playing in a park.", "The kids are sitting on the grass.", "A woman is running.", "The man are on pluto." ]

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[ "Naval Support Activity Hampton Roads Naval Support Activity Hampton Roads (NSA HR) is a United States Navy Echelon 4 regional support commander that is responsible to Navy Region Mid-Atlantic for the operation and maintenance of the installation of the same name that it is headquartered on. Adjacent to, but separate from Naval Station Norfolk, NSA Hampton Roads has the largest concentration of fleet headquarters administrative and communication facilities outside of Washington, D.C., including the headquarters for United States Fleet Forces Command , Naval Reserve Forces Command and United States Marine Corps Forces Command, along with components of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Joint Forces Staff College. NSA Hampton Roads is also home to NATO Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic", "Naval Station Norfolk Air Operations conducts over 100,000 flight operations each year, an average of 275 flights per day or one every six minutes. Over 150,000 passengers and 264,000 tons of mail and cargo depart annually on Air Mobility Command (AMC) aircraft and other AMC-chartered flights from the airfield's AMC Terminal." ]

[ "Manassas Park station Manassas Park station is a Virginia Railway Express station in Manassas Park, Virginia. The station serves the Virginia Railway Express Manassas Line, and shares the right-of-way with Amtrak's \"Cardinal\" and \"Crescent\" trains; however, no Amtrak trains stop here.", "Neo-bulk cargo In the ocean shipping trade, neo-bulk cargo is a type of cargo that is a subcategory of general cargo, alongside the other subcategories of break-bulk cargo and containerized cargo. (Gerhardt Muller, erstwhile professor at the United States Merchant Marine Academy and Manager of Regional Intermodal Planning of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, promotes it from a subcategory to being a third major category of cargo in its own right, alongside general and bulk cargo. ) It comprises goods that are prepackaged, counted as they are loaded and unloaded (as opposed to bulk cargo where individual items are not counted), not stored in containers, and transferred as units at port. Types of neo-bulk cargo goods include heavy machinery, lumber, bundled steel, scrap iron, bananas, waste paper, and cars. The category has only become recognized as a distinct cargo category in its own right in recent decades.", "Mercury Boulevard Mercury Boulevard in the cities of Hampton and Newport News in the Peninsula region of southeastern Virginia carries U.S. Highway 258 approximately 10 mi south from Fort Monroe at Old Point Comfort on Hampton Roads to the north end of the James River Bridge. Mercury Boulevard is a major north-south commercial corridor in the region, and intersects Interstate 64 in an elaborate interchange with flyovers in Hampton near the Hampton Coliseum.", "Interstate 664 Interstate 664 (I-664) is an auxiliary Interstate Highway in the U.S. state of Virginia. The Interstate runs 20.79 mi from I-64 and I-264 in Chesapeake north to I-64 in Hampton. I-664 forms the west side of the Hampton Roads Beltway, a circumferential highway serving the Hampton Roads metropolitan area. The Interstate crosses Hampton Roads via the Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel between Suffolk and Newport News. I-664 is connected to the other major cities of the metropolitan area—Portsmouth, Norfolk, and Virginia Beach—by I-264. The Interstate also has a connection to Portsmouth through Virginia State Route 164 (SR 164) and to Suffolk via U.S. Route 13, US 58, and US 460.", "Port Newark–Elizabeth Marine Terminal Port Newark–Elizabeth Marine Terminal, a major component of the Port of New York and New Jersey, is the principal container ship facility for goods entering and leaving New York metropolitan area and the northeastern quadrant of North America. Located on Newark Bay, the facility is run by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Its two components—Port Newark and the Elizabeth Marine Terminal (sometimes called \"Port Newark\" and \"Port Elizabeth\")—sit side by side within the cities of Newark and Elizabeth, New Jersey, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike and Newark Airport.", "VR-62 Fleet Logistics Support Squadron SIX TWO (FLELOGSUPPRON SIX TWO, or VR-62, nicknamed the \"Nomads\") is one of five U.S. Navy Reserve squadrons operating the Lockheed C-130T medium-lift cargo aircraft. VR-62 used to be stationed at Naval Air Station South Weymouth and Naval Air Station Brunswick.", "Bureau of Transportation The Bureau of Transportation of the United States Post Office Department was established in 1960. It was the successor to the Postal Transportation Service (PTS); the PTS had responsibility for mail transportation contracting as well as employees assigned to Mobile Unit and stationary PTS facilities such as Air Mail Facility, Terminal Railway Post Office, or Transfer Office operations. Only the contract issuance and administration responsibilities for mail routes were given to the Bureau of Transportation. Human Resources were transferred to postmasters in the cities where Mobile and Stationary Units were located. This division of activity continued to the end of the Post Office Department and after it became the U.S. Postal Service.", "Hampton Roads Hampton Roads is the name of both a body of water in Virginia and the surrounding metropolitan region in Southeastern Virginia and Northeastern North Carolina, United States. Comprising the Virginia Beach–Norfolk–Newport News, VA–NC metropolitan area and an extended Combined Statistical Area that includes the Elizabeth City, NC Micropolitan Statistical Area and Kill Devil Hills, NC Micropolitan Statistical Area, Hampton Roads is known for its large military presence, ice-free harbor, shipyards, coal piers, and miles of waterfront property and beaches, all of which contribute to the diversity and stability of the region's economy.", "Tide Mill, Virginia Tidemill Farms is a neighborhood in Hampton, Virginia. The community is bounded by a marsh to the South and West, North Armistead Avenue (a major street of the Hampton Roads area) to the East, and Langley Air Force Base to the North. It is mostly a residential community that includes three churches, Machen Elementary School and Park, and a shopping center. It is also next to the Sentara Careplex, the largest hospital in the city, and the Boo Williams Sportsplex, which hosts numerous sporting events, primarily basketball and indoor track meets.", "Type R ship The Type R ship is a United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) designation for World War II refrigerated cargo ship, also called a reefer ship. The R type ship was used in World War II, Korean War, Vietnam War and the Cold War. Type R ships were used to transport perishable commodities which require temperature-controlled transportation, such as fruit, meat, fish, vegetables, dairy products and other foods. The US Maritime Commission ordered 41 new refrigerated ships for the US Navy. Because of the difficulty of building refrigerated ships only two were delivered in 1944, and just 26 were delivered in 1945 and the remainder in 1946–48. The 41 R type ships were built in four groups. Two of design types were modified type C1 ships and two were modified type C2 ships. The United Fruit Company operated many of the R type ships in World War 2. The type R2-S-BV1 became the US Navy Alstede-class stores ship and the type R1-M-AV3 became the US Navy Adria-class stores ship.", "Merrimack Valley Regional Transit Authority The Merrimack Valley Regional Transit Authority (MVRTA) is a public, non-profit organization in Massachusetts, charged with providing public transportation to an area consisting of the cities and towns of Amesbury, Andover, Boxford, Georgetown, Groveland, Haverhill, Lawrence, Merrimac, Methuen, Newbury, Newburyport, North Andover, Rowley, Salisbury and West Newbury, as well as a seasonal service to the popular nearby summer destination of Hampton Beach, New Hampshire", "USS Suffolk (AKA-69) USS \"Suffolk\" (AKA-69) was a \"Tolland\"-class attack cargo ship of the United States Navy, named after counties in Massachusetts and New York. \"Suffolk\" was designed to carry military cargo and landing craft, and to use the latter to land weapons, supplies, and Marines on enemy shores during amphibious operations. She served as a commissioned ship for 20 months.", "Hampton, New Hampshire Hampton is a town in Rockingham County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 14,976 at the 2010 census. Located beside the Atlantic Ocean, Hampton is home to Hampton Beach, a summer tourist destination.", "Newport News station Newport News station is a train station in Newport News, Virginia, serving Amtrak, the United States' national passenger system. It is a terminus of the \"Northeast Regional\" train and is a stop for the Amtrak Thruway Motorcoach.", "Fort Wool Fort Wool is a decommissioned island fortification located approximately one mile south of Fort Monroe in the mouth of Hampton Roads. Now known as Rip Raps Island, the fort has an elevation of 7 feet and sits near Old Point Comfort, Old Point Comfort Light, Willoughby Beach and Willoughby Spit, adjacent to the Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel (HRBT).", "Metropolitan Transportation Authority The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) is a public benefit corporation responsible for public transportation in the U.S. state of New York, serving 12 counties in Downstate New York, along with two counties in southwestern Connecticut under contract to the Connecticut Department of Transportation, carrying over 11 million passengers on an average weekday systemwide, and over 800,000 vehicles on its seven toll bridges and two tunnels per weekday. MTA is the largest public transit authority in the United States.", "Attack transport Attack transport is a United States Navy ship classification for a variant of ocean-going troopship adapted to transporting invasion forces ashore. Unlike standard troopships – often drafted from commercial shipping fleets – that rely on either a quay or tenders, attack transports carry their own fleet of landing craft.", "Hingham Naval Ammunition Depot The Hingham Naval Ammunition Depot, is a former United States Navy ammunition depot located in Hingham, Massachusetts. At its peak, it employed over 2,400 people. It also consisted of 90 buildings at that time. The Hingham Naval Ammunition Depot Annex was located nearby, and served as a storage area for the depot.", "Hampton Beach, New Hampshire Hampton Beach is a village district, census-designated place, and beach resort in the town of Hampton, New Hampshire, United States, along the Atlantic Ocean. Its population at the 2010 census was 2,275. Hampton Beach is in Rockingham County, about 15 mi south of Portsmouth. The community is a popular tourist destination and the busiest beach community in New Hampshire. Ocean Boulevard, the main street along the beach, includes a boardwalk, many shops and businesses, several seasonal hotels, and the Hampton Beach Casino Ballroom, which hosts national acts in the summer. Hampton Beach State Park was named one of four \"Superstar\" beaches in the United States in 2011, for having had perfect water-quality testing results in each of the previous three years.", "USS Transfer (IX-46) USS \"Transfer\" was a steam-propelled, derrick-rigged freight lighter. She was laid down on 18 August 1904 at the New York Navy Yard, launched on 24 May 1905 and placed in service at New York on 19 July 1910." ]

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[ "Humus the other nutrients (nutrient cycle) in the decomposed organic matter are recycled. Depending on the conditions in which the decomposition occurs, a fraction of the organic matter does not mineralize, and instead is transformed by a process called \"humification\" into concatenations of organic polymers. Because these organic polymers are resistant to the action of microorganisms, they are stable, and constitute \"humus\". This stability implies that humus integrates into the permanent structure of the soil, thereby improving it. Humification can occur naturally in soil or artificially in the production of compost. Organic matter is humified by a combination of saprotrophic fungi,", "Soil horizon horizon These horizons are also heavily organic, but are distinct from O horizons in that they form under waterlogged conditions. The “P” designation comes from their common name, peats. They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same way as O horizons. A horizon The A horizon is the top layer of the mineral soil horizons, often referred to as 'topsoil'. This layer contains dark decomposed organic matter, which is called \"humus\". The technical definition of an A horizon may vary between the systems, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to deeper layers. \"A\" horizons" ]

[ "Humus Humus In soil science, humus (derived in 1790–1800 from the Latin \"humus\" for earth, ground) denominates the fraction of soil organic matter that is amorphous and without the \"cellular cake structure characteristic of plants, micro-organisms or animals.\" Humus significantly affects the bulk density of soil and contributes to its retention of moisture and nutrients. In agriculture, \"humus\" sometimes also is used to describe mature or natural compost extracted from a woodland or other spontaneous source for use as a soil conditioner. It is also used to describe a topsoil horizon that contains organic matter (humus type, humus form, humus profile).", "Humus soil organisms to feed and reproduce, and is often described as the \"life-force\" of the soil. Humus In soil science, humus (derived in 1790–1800 from the Latin \"humus\" for earth, ground) denominates the fraction of soil organic matter that is amorphous and without the \"cellular cake structure characteristic of plants, micro-organisms or animals.\" Humus significantly affects the bulk density of soil and contributes to its retention of moisture and nutrients. In agriculture, \"humus\" sometimes also is used to describe mature or natural compost extracted from a woodland or other spontaneous source for use as a soil conditioner. It is also", "Humus Humus is the dark organic matter that forms in soil when dead plant and animal matter decays. Humus has many nutrients that improve the health of soil, nitrogen being the most important. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C:N) of humus is 10:1. It is difficult to define humus precisely because it is a very complex substance which is not fully understood. Humus is different from decomposing soil organic matter. The latter looks rough and has visible remains of the original plant or animal matter. Fully humified humus, on the contrary, has a uniformly dark, spongy, and jelly-like appearance, and", "Soil soils under forests, which characteristically store most of their organic matter in the forest floor (O horizon) and thin A horizon. Humus refers to organic matter that has been decomposed by soil flora and fauna to the point where it is resistant to further breakdown. Humus usually constitutes only five percent of the soil or less by volume, but it is an essential source of nutrients and adds important textural qualities crucial to soil health and plant growth. Humus also hold bits of undecomposed organic matter which feed arthropods and worms which further improve the soil. The end product, humus,", "Humus inside small aggregates of soil particles, or tightly sorbed or complexed to clays. Most humus that is not protected in this way is decomposed within 10 years and can be regarded as less stable or more labile. Stable humus contributes few plant-available nutrients in soil, but it helps maintain its physical structure. A very stable form of humus is formed from the slow oxidation of soil carbon after the incorporation of finely powdered charcoal into the topsoil. This process is speculated to have been important in the formation of the very fertile Amazonian \"terra preta do Indio\". Humus has a", "Humus is amorphous; it may gradually decompose over several years or persist for millennia. It has no determinate shape, structure, or quality. However, when examined under a microscope, humus may reveal tiny plant, animal, or microbial remains that have been mechanically, but not chemically, degraded. This suggests an ambiguous boundary between humus and soil organic matter. While distinct, humus is an integral part of soil organic matter. Microorganisms decompose a large portion of the soil organic matter into inorganic minerals that the roots of plants can absorb as nutrients. This process is termed \"mineralization\". In this process, nitrogen (nitrogen cycle) and", "Soil to plants and microbes for many years. High soil tannin (polyphenol) content can cause nitrogen to be sequestered in proteins or cause nitrogen immobilisation. Humus formation is a process dependent on the amount of plant material added each year and the type of base soil. Both are affected by climate and the type of organisms present. Soils with humus can vary in nitrogen content but typically have 3 to 6 percent nitrogen. Raw organic matter, as a reserve of nitrogen and phosphorus, is a vital component affecting soil fertility. Humus also absorbs water, and expands and shrinks between dry and", "Humus one of the primary precursors of humus, together with by-products of microbial and animal activity. The humus produced by humification is thus a mixture of compounds and complex biological chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin that has many functions and benefits in soil. Some judge earthworm humus (vermicompost) to be the optimal organic manure. Much of the humus in most soils has persisted for more than 100 years, rather than having been decomposed into CO, and can be regarded as stable; this organic matter has been protected from decomposition by microbial or enzyme action because it is hidden (occluded)", "Humus importance of chemically stable humus is thought by some to be the fertility it provides to soils in both a physical and chemical sense, though some agricultural experts put a greater focus on other features of it, such as its ability to suppress disease. It helps the soil retain moisture by increasing microporosity, and encourages the formation of good soil structure. The incorporation of oxygen into large organic molecular assemblages generates many active, negatively charged sites that bind to positively charged ions (cations) of plant nutrients, making them more available to the plant by way of ion exchange. Humus allows", "Soil carbon biota. Microbial populations are typically higher in the rhizosphere than in adjacent bulk soil. Organic carbon is vital to soil capacity to provide edaphic ecosystem services. The condition of this capacity is termed soil health, a term that communicates the value of understanding soil as a living system as opposed to an abiotic component. Specific carbon related benchmarks used to evaluate soil health include CO release, humus levels, and microbial metabolic activity. The exchange of carbon between soils and the atmosphere is a significant part of the world carbon cycle. Carbon, as it relates to the organic matter of soils,", "Humus Sapien he uses his powers, random people around the world die. Humus Sapien's final battle, after which he voluntarily leaves Earth, drains the lives of 2,400 random people across the globe, including the Middle Eastern superhero, the Arabian Knight. Humus Sapien Humus Sapien (Sonny Baredo) is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He first appeared as Humus Sapiens in \"FOOM\" #3 (Autumn 1973), created by Michael A. Barreiro. He first appeared as Humus Sapien in \"Thunderbolts\" #54 (Sept. 2001), by the writer-artist team of Fabian Nicieza and Patrick Zircher. Humus Sapien first appeared in Marvel's", "Soil sulfates, phosphates) are filtered out by the soil. Soil organisms metabolise them or immobilise them in their biomass and necromass, thereby incorporating them into stable humus. The physical integrity of soil is also a prerequisite for avoiding landslides in rugged landscapes. Land degradation refers to a human-induced or natural process which impairs the capacity of land to function. Soils degradation involves the acidification, contamination, desertification, erosion or salination. Soil acidification is beneficial in the case of alkaline soils, but it degrades land when it lowers crop productivity and increases soil vulnerability to contamination and erosion. Soils are often initially acid", "Soil organic matter has accumulated and colloids are washed downward, leaving deposits of clay, humus, iron oxide, carbonate, and gypsum, producing a distinct layer called the B horizon. This is a somewhat arbitrary definition as mixtures of sand, silt, clay and humus will support biological and agricultural activity before that time. These constituents are moved from one level to another by water and animal activity. As a result, layers (horizons) form in the soil profile. The alteration and movement of materials within a soil causes the formation of distinctive soil horizons. However, more recent definitions of soil embrace soils without any", "Soil water-soluble constituents, cellulose and hemicellulose, and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. As the residues break down, only stable molecules made of aromatic carbon rings, oxygen and hydrogen remain in the form of humin, lignin and lignin complexes collectively called humus. While the structure of humus has few nutrients, it is able to attract and hold cation and anion nutrients by weak bonds that can be released into the soil solution in response to changes in soil pH. Lignin is resistant to breakdown and accumulates within the soil. It also reacts with amino acids, which further increases its resistance", "Soil is soluble in water and forms a weak acid that can attack silicate minerals. Humus is a colloid with a high cation and anion exchange capacity that on a dry weight basis is many times greater than that of clay colloids. It also acts as a buffer, like clay, against changes in pH and soil moisture. Humic acids and fulvic acids, which begin as raw organic matter, are important constituents of humus. After the death of plants and animals, microbes begin to feed on the residues, resulting finally in the formation of humus. With decomposition, there is a reduction of", "Soil soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is included in the broader concept of regolith, which also includes other loose material that lies above the bedrock, as can be found on the Moon and other celestial objects, as well. Soil is also commonly referred to as earth or dirt; some scientific definitions distinguish \"dirt\" from \"soil\" by restricting the former term specifically to the displaced soil. Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming to", "Soil science and various kinds of living and dead organisms. A 1914 encyclopedic definition: \"the different forms of earth on the surface of the rocks, formed by the breaking down or weathering of rocks\". serves to illustrate the historic view of soil which persisted from the 19th century. Dokuchaev's late 19th century soil concept developed in the 20th century to one of soil as earthy material that has been altered by living processes. A corollary concept is that soil without a living component is simply a part of earth's outer layer. Further refinement of the soil concept is occurring in view of", "Soil wet states, increasing soil porosity. Humus is less stable than the soil's mineral constituents, as it is reduced by microbial decomposition, and over time its concentration diminshes without the addition of new organic matter. However, humus may persist over centuries if not millennia. The production, accumulation and degradation of organic matter are greatly dependent on climate. Temperature, soil moisture and topography are the major factors affecting the accumulation of organic matter in soils. Organic matter tends to accumulate under wet or cold conditions where decomposer activity is impeded by low temperature or excess moisture which results in anaerobic conditions. Conversely,", "Soil carbon major source of soil organic carbon. Plant materials, with cell walls high in cellulose and lignin, are decomposed and the not-respired carbon is retained as humus. Cellulose and starches are easily degraded, resulting in relatively short residence times. More persistent forms of organic C include lignin, humus, organic matter encapsulated in soil aggregates, and charcoal. These resist alteration and have long residence times. Soil organic carbon tends to be concentrated in the topsoil. Topsoil ranges from 0.5% to 3.0% organic C for most upland soils. Soils with less than 0.5% organic C are mostly limited to desert areas. Soils containing", "Humus (band) Humus (band) Humus is a psychedelic band from Mexico that has been active since the late 1980s. Humus was founded in 1987 by Jorge Beltran as a one man band, where he played all instruments in home recordings made through the ping pong recording technique. He chose the name \"Humus\" based on the earthy, humus-like sound caused by sound degradation caused by the reduction mixing. During the late 1980s and early 1990s Beltran released five cassettes, causing interest in the underground quarters of Mexico City, where there had been a long history of progressive rock. Jose Luis Garnica, a long", "Soil horizon 2C with the buried profile commencing at 2A2. O: Organic soil materials (not limnic). A: Mineral; organic matter (humus) accumulation. E: Mineral; some loss of Fe, Al, clay, or organic matter. B: Subsurface accumulation of clay, Fe, Al, Si, humus, CaCO, CaSO; or loss of CaCO; or accumulation of sesquioxides; or subsurface soil structure. C: Little or no pedogenic alteration, unconsolidated earthy material, soft bedrock. L: Limnic soil materials. W: A layer of liquid water (W) or permanently frozen water (Wf) within or beneath the soil (excludes water/ice above soil). M: Root-limiting subsoil layers of human-manufactured materials. R: Bedrock, strongly", "Martian soil long period. A second lander will then gather the samples and return them to Earth. Martian soil Martian soil is the fine regolith found on the surface of Mars. Its properties can differ significantly from those of terrestrial soil, including its toxicity due to the presence of perchlorates. The term Martian soil typically refers to the finer fraction of regolith. On Earth, the term \"soil\" usually includes organic content. In contrast, planetary scientists adopt a functional definition of soil to distinguish it from rocks. Rocks generally refer to 10 cm scale and larger materials (e.g., fragments, breccia, and exposed outcrops)", "Humus Sapien Humus Sapien Humus Sapien (Sonny Baredo) is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He first appeared as Humus Sapiens in \"FOOM\" #3 (Autumn 1973), created by Michael A. Barreiro. He first appeared as Humus Sapien in \"Thunderbolts\" #54 (Sept. 2001), by the writer-artist team of Fabian Nicieza and Patrick Zircher. Humus Sapien first appeared in Marvel's self-produced fan magazine, \"FOOM\" # 3 (Fall 1973), created (as supervillain Humus Sapiens) by Michael A. Barreiro of Penn Hills, Pennsylvania, and was the winning entry in the magazine's character-creation contest. Although \"FOOM\" founding editor Jim Steranko wrote", "Lunar soil and a robust array of contributing biological processes. Some have argued that the term \"soil\" is not correct in reference to the Moon because on Earth, soil is defined as having organic content, whereas the Moon has none. However, standard usage among lunar scientists is to ignore that distinction. The term \"lunar soil\" is often used interchangeably with lunar regolith, but typically refers to only the finer fraction of regolith, that which is composed of grains 1 cm in diameter or less. Lunar dust generally connotes even finer materials than lunar soil. There is no official definition of what size", "Soil erosion to travel over at higher speeds. Heavy grazing reduces vegetative cover and causes severe soil compaction, both of which increase erosion rates. In an undisturbed forest, the mineral soil is protected by a layer of \"leaf litter\" and an \"humus\" that cover the forest floor. These two layers form a protective mat over the soil that absorbs the impact of rain drops. They are porous and highly permeable to rainfall, and allow rainwater to slow percolate into the soil below, instead of flowing over the surface as runoff. The roots of the trees and plants hold together soil particles, preventing", "Soil erosion causes increased erosion rates due to exposure of mineral soil by removing the humus and litter layers from the soil surface, removing the vegetative cover that binds soil together, and causing heavy soil compaction from logging equipment. Once trees have been removed by fire or logging, infiltration rates become high and erosion low to the degree the forest floor remains intact. Severe fires can lead to significant further erosion if followed by heavy rainfall. Globally one of the largest contributors to erosive soil loss in the year 2006 is the slash and burn treatment of tropical forests. In a number", "Soil grams of soil (1 meq/100 g). Hydrogen ions have a single charge and one-thousandth of a gram of hydrogen ions per 100 grams dry soil gives a measure of one milliequivalent of hydrogen ion. Calcium, with an atomic weight 40 times that of hydrogen and with a valence of two, converts to (40/2) x 1 milliequivalent = 20 milliequivalents of hydrogen ion per 100 grams of dry soil or 20 meq/100 g. The modern measure of CEC is expressed as centimoles of positive charge per kilogram (cmol/kg) of oven-dry soil. Most of the soil's CEC occurs on clay and humus", "Soil to new conditions. Whether these are slow or rapid changes depends on climate, topography and biological activity. The physical properties of soils, in order of decreasing importance for ecosystem services such as crop production, are texture, structure, bulk density, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour and resistivity. Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil mineral particles, called soil separates: sand, silt, and clay. At the next larger scale, soil structures called peds or more commonly \"soil aggregates\" are created from the soil separates when iron oxides, carbonates, clay, silica and humus, coat particles and cause", "Polish Soil Classification each soil was described by three types of characteristics: The Polish Soil Classification has a hierarchical construction. Type of soil is a basic unit of the classification. They are distinguished on a basis of specific layout of main soil genetic or diagnostic horizons, similar chemical, physical and biological properties, type of humus, type of weathering and movement and deposition of results of that weathering. In principle, soil type is a result of main soil forming process. Types of soil are grouped into soil orders. They are identified based on the presence or absence of diagnostic horizons and properties reflecting the", "Soil termed suction and usually expressed in units of bars (10 pascal) which is just a little less than one-atmosphere pressure. Alternatively, the terms \"soil moisture tension\" or water potential may be used. The forces with which water is held in soils determine its availability to plants. Forces of adhesion hold water strongly to mineral and humus surfaces and less strongly to itself by cohesive forces. A plant's root may penetrate a very small volume of water that is adhering to soil and be initially able to draw in water that is only lightly held by the cohesive forces. But as", "Soil bound in the crystals of those minerals. The nutrients adsorbed onto the surfaces of clay colloids and soil organic matter provide a more accessible reservoir of many plant nutrients (e.g. K, Ca, Mg, P, Zn). As plants absorb the nutrients from the soil water, the soluble pool is replenished from the surface-bound pool. The decomposition of soil organic matter by microorganisms is another mechanism whereby the soluble pool of nutrients is replenished – this is important for the supply of plant-available N, S, P, and B from soil. Gram for gram, the capacity of humus to hold nutrients and water", "Soil health the boundary definition of the soil at issue. Different soils will have different benchmarks of health depending on the “inherited” qualities, and on the geographic circumstance of the soil. The generic aspects defining a healthy soil can be considered as follows: This translates to: An unhealthy soil thus is the simple converse of the above. On the basis of the above, soil health will be measured in terms of individual ecosystem services provided relative to the benchmark. Specific benchmarks used to evaluate soil health include CO release, humus levels, microbial activity, and available calcium. Soil health testing is spreading in", "Soil health of their carbon (humus), causing biological fertility to drop drastically. Many critics of the current system say this is sufficient evidence that the old soil testing models have failed us, and need to be replaced with new approaches. These older models have stressed \"maximum yield\" and \" yield calibration\" to such an extent that related factors have been overlooked. Thus, surface and groundwater pollution with excess nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) has grown enormously, and is reported presently (in the United States) to be the worst it has been since the 1970s, before the advent of environmental consciousness. Soil health Soil", "Red soil Red soil Red soil is a type of soil that develops in a warm, temperate, moist climate under deciduous or mixed forest, having thin organic and organic-mineral layers overlying a yellowish-brown leached layer resting on an illuvium red layer. Red soils are generally derived from crystalline rock. They are usually poor growing soils, low in nutrients and humus and difficult to cultivate because of its low water holding capacity. Red soils denote the third largest soil group of India covering an area of about 3.5 lakhs sq. km (10.6% of India's area) over the Peninsula from Tamil Nadu in the", "Earth tone Earth tone Earth tone is a color scheme with multiple meanings. In its narrowest sense, it refers to \"any color containing some brown\" – the color of ground or soil (earth). It can also refer to \"natural colors\" (colors found in nature) such as brown soil, green leaf, cloudy sky, as well as the red sun. These palettes can create a warm, nature-friendly atmosphere. More generally, it refers to \"neutral colors\", which are muted and flat in an emulation of natural colors. Neutral colors can be created by mixing two complimentary colors or combining a pure color with white, black,", "Martian soil Martian soil Martian soil is the fine regolith found on the surface of Mars. Its properties can differ significantly from those of terrestrial soil, including its toxicity due to the presence of perchlorates. The term Martian soil typically refers to the finer fraction of regolith. On Earth, the term \"soil\" usually includes organic content. In contrast, planetary scientists adopt a functional definition of soil to distinguish it from rocks. Rocks generally refer to 10 cm scale and larger materials (e.g., fragments, breccia, and exposed outcrops) with high thermal inertia, with areal fractions consistent with the Viking Infrared Thermal Mapper (IRTM)", "Soil must extend their roots. Plants move ions out of their roots in an effort to move nutrients in from the soil. Hydrogen H is exchanged for other cations, and carbonate (HCO) and hydroxide (OH) anions are exchanged for nutrient anions. As plant roots remove nutrients from the soil water solution, they are replenished as other ions move off of clay and humus (by ion exchange or desorption), are added from the weathering of soil minerals, and are released by the decomposition of soil organic matter. Plants derive a large proportion of their anion nutrients from decomposing organic matter, which typically", "Soil is far greater than that of clay minerals. All in all, small amounts of humus may remarkably increase the soil's capacity to promote plant growth. Nutrients in the soil are taken up by the plant through its roots. To be taken up by a plant, a nutrient element must be located near the root surface; however, the supply of nutrients in contact with the root is rapidly depleted. There are three basic mechanisms whereby nutrient ions dissolved in the soil solution are brought into contact with plant roots: All three mechanisms operate simultaneously, but one mechanism or another may be", "Soil color is black. Throughout the stages of organic matter breakdown the colour imparted to the soil varies from browns to black. Sodium content influences the depth of colour of organic matter and therefore the soil. Sodium causes the organic matter (humus) to disperse more readily and spread over the soil particles, making the soil look darker (blacker). Often described by using general terms, such as dark brown, yellowish brown, etc., soil colors are also described more technically by using Munsell soil color charts, which separate color into components of hue (relation to red, yellow and blue), value (lightness or darkness) and", "Soil effect of the organisms that live within it. Organisms colonise and break down organic materials, making available nutrients upon which other plants and animals can live. After sufficient time, humus moves downward and is deposited in a distinctive organic surface layer called the A horizon. Soil is classified into categories in order to understand relationships between different soils and to determine the suitability of a soil for a particular use. One of the first classification systems was developed by Russian scientist Dokuchaev around 1880. It was modified a number of times by American and European researchers, and developed into the", "Component video Component video Component video is a video signal that has been split into two or more component channels. In popular use, it refers to a type of component analog video (CAV) information that is transmitted or stored as three separate signals. Component video can be contrasted with \"composite video\" (NTSC, PAL or SECAM) in which all the video information is combined into a single line level signal that is used in analog television. Like composite, component-video cables do not carry audio and are often paired with audio cables. When used without any other qualifications the term \"component video\" usually refers", "USDA soil taxonomy horizons distinguish one soil from another. About 185 great groups are recognized in the United States. Horizons marked by clay, iron, humus and hard pans and soil features such as the expansion-contraction of clays (that produce self-mixing provided by clay), temperature, and marked quantities of various salts are used as distinguishing features. The great group categories are divided into three kinds of soil subgroups: typic, intergrade and extragrade. A typic subgroup represents the basic or 'typical' concept of the great group to which the described subgroup belongs. An intergrade subgroup describes the properties that suggest how it grades towards (is", "Plaggen soil Plaggen soil Plaggen soil or plaggic anthrosol is a type of soil created in parts of northwest Europe in the Middle Ages, as a result of so-called \"plaggen\" agriculture on marginal podzol soils. In order to fertilize the fields, pieces of heath or grass including roots and humus (\"plaggen\") were cut and used as bedding for cattle. In springtime, this bedding, enriched with slurry was then spread over the fields near the village as manure. The long term practice of this form of agriculture created a rich agricultural soil to a depth of between 40 cm and over 1.50 m,", "Soil governance in 2011 has recognized the need for an interdisciplinary approach to soil governance underpinning the diverse ecosystem services and functions including the production of healthy food. Soil governance Soil governance refers to the policies, strategies, and the processes of decision-making employed by nation states and local governments regarding the use of soil. Globally, governance of the soil has been limited to an agricultural perspective due to increased food insecurity from the most populated regions on earth. The Global Soil Partnership, GSP, was initiated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and its members with the hope to improve governance of", "Soil governance Soil governance Soil governance refers to the policies, strategies, and the processes of decision-making employed by nation states and local governments regarding the use of soil. Globally, governance of the soil has been limited to an agricultural perspective due to increased food insecurity from the most populated regions on earth. The Global Soil Partnership, GSP, was initiated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and its members with the hope to improve governance of the limited soil resources of the planet in order to guarantee healthy and productive soils for a food-secure world, as well as support other essential ecosystem", "Soil color have less air in the soil, specifically less oxygen. In well drained (and therefore oxygen rich soils) red and brown colors caused by oxidation are more common, as opposed to in wet (low oxygen) soils where the soil usually appears grey or greenish due to the presence of reduced (ferrous) iron oxide. The presence of other minerals can also affect soil color. Manganese oxide causes a black color, glauconite makes the soil green, and calcite can make soil in arid regions appear white. Organic matter tends to make the soil color darker. Humus, the final stage of organic matter breakdown", "Humus (band) the main digital stores. Sientate y escucha (1988)<br> Cero Melodico (1989)<br> Jardines Colgantes (1989)<br> Sopa Invisible (1990)<br> Planepantla (1992) Tus Oidos Mienten (1992)<br> Humus (1994)<br> Malleus Crease (1995)<br> Four Degrees (1997)<br> Whispering Galleries (1999)<br> Happy Days Ahead (2011)<br> Wheel Of Malarkey (2014) Song: Brylereem (included in the International psychedelic compilation \"Floralia 2\"), 1996. On/Off Records,Italy.<br> Song: El Vampiro (included in the international Horror Movies soundtracks tribute \"E tu vivrai nel terror\"), 1998, Black Widow Records, Italy Current members:<br> Jorge Beltrán: guitars, keyboards<br> Victor Basurto: bass<br> Charly López: drums<br> Enrique Curiel: keyboards<br> Pepe Bobadilla: keyboards, acoustic guitar Humus (band) Humus is", "Earth tone or gray. Pure-neutral colors include black, white, and all grays, while near-neutral hues include browns, tan, and darker colors. Many earth tones originate from clay earth pigments, such as umber, ochre, and sienna. Earth tone Earth tone is a color scheme with multiple meanings. In its narrowest sense, it refers to \"any color containing some brown\" – the color of ground or soil (earth). It can also refer to \"natural colors\" (colors found in nature) such as brown soil, green leaf, cloudy sky, as well as the red sun. These palettes can create a warm, nature-friendly atmosphere. More generally, it", "Humus (band) continents: Jorge Beltran lives in Mexico and Victor Basurto lives in The Netherlands. The manage to continue playing together through the use of the new communication technologies. Because of their limited press runs, Humus albums have been rare, and some of them reach up to US$250 in international distributor listings. However, late in 2006 Smogless Records put out new CD editions of the first three Humus albums, \"Tus Oidos Mienten\", \"Humus\", and \"Malleus Crease\". A totally new album called \"Happy Days Ahead\" was independently released on July 23, 2011, the first one in digital format only, available through some of", "Soil retrogression and degradation Soil retrogression and degradation Soil retrogression and degradation are two regressive evolution processes associated with the loss of equilibrium of a stable soil. Retrogression is primarily due to soil erosion and corresponds to a phenomenon where succession reverts the land to its natural physical state. Degradation is an evolution, different from natural evolution, related to the local climate and vegetation. It is due to the replacement of primary plant communities (known as climax vegetation) by the secondary communities. This replacement modifies the humus composition and amount, and affects the formation of the soil. It is directly related to human activity.", "Soil biology and in humus formation, and their presence is responsible for the sweet \"earthy\" aroma associated with a good healthy soil. They require plenty of air and a pH between 6.0 and 7.5, but are more tolerant of dry conditions than most other bacteria and fungi. A gram of garden soil can contain around one million fungi, such as yeasts and moulds. Fungi have no chlorophyll, and are not able to photosynthesise. They cannot use atmospheric carbon dioxide as a source of carbon, therefore they are chemo-heterotrophic, meaning that, like animals, they require a chemical source of energy rather than being", "Soil retrogression and degradation were introduced to the new technique. Soil retrogression and degradation Soil retrogression and degradation are two regressive evolution processes associated with the loss of equilibrium of a stable soil. Retrogression is primarily due to soil erosion and corresponds to a phenomenon where succession reverts the land to its natural physical state. Degradation is an evolution, different from natural evolution, related to the local climate and vegetation. It is due to the replacement of primary plant communities (known as climax vegetation) by the secondary communities. This replacement modifies the humus composition and amount, and affects the formation of the soil. It", "Pore space in soil earth at the desired depth and soil horizon. The samples are then oven dried and weighed. Bulk density = (mass of oven dry soil)/volume The bulk density of soil is inversely related to the porosity of the same soil. The more pore space in a soil the lower the value for bulk density. formula_2 or formula_3 Porosity is a measure of the total pore space in the soil. This is measured as a volume or percent. The amount of porosity in a soil depends on the minerals that make up the soil and the amount of sorting that occurs within", "Soil any more hydrogen ions or aluminum hydroxyl cations drives the pH even lower (more acidic) as the soil has been left with no buffering capacity. In areas of extreme rainfall and high temperatures, the clay and humus may be washed out, further reducing the buffering capacity of the soil. In low rainfall areas, unleached calcium pushes pH to 8.5 and with the addition of exchangeable sodium, soils may reach pH 10. Beyond a pH of 9, plant growth is reduced. High pH results in low micro-nutrient mobility, but water-soluble chelates of those nutrients can correct the deficit. Sodium can be", "Soil water (retention) over typically dry summers when monthly evaporation exceeds rainfall. Soils generally contain more nutrients, moisture, and humus. Soil moisture has an effect on the thermal properties of a soil profile, including conductance and heat capacity. The association of soil moisture and soil thermal properties has a significant effect on temperature-related biological triggers, including seed germination, flowering, and faunal activity. (more water causes soil to more slowly gain or lose temperature given equal heating; water has roughly double the Heat capacity of soil) Recent climate modelling by Timbal et al. (2002) suggests a strong linkage between soil moisture and the persistence", "Soil series the \"central nucleus\" or essential characteristics of a class. On the other hand, a mapping unit delineates areas of soil in the landscape (i.e. adjacent pedons or polypedons) that possess similar characteristics. The characteristics of a soil series (taxonomic unit) may or may not overlap either fully or partially with the characteristics of pedons within a given mapping unit. Mapping units consist of one or more components. Each component represents polypedons that belong to a particular soil series. The name of a map unit is usually named after the dominant component within the mapping unit. For example, the dominant component", "Soil retrogression and degradation Soil degradation may also be viewed as any change or ecological disturbance to the soil perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. At the beginning of soil formation, the bare rock out crops is gradually colonized by pioneer species (lichens and mosses). They are succeeded by herbaceous vegetation, shrubs and finally forest. In parallel, the first humus-bearing horizon is formed (the A horizon), followed by some mineral horizons (B horizons). Each successive stage is characterized by a certain association of soil/vegetation and environment, which defines an ecosystem. After a certain time of parallel evolution between the ground and the vegetation, a", "Cast Earth Cast Earth Cast Earth is a proprietary natural building material developed since the mid-1990s by Harris Lowenhaupt and Michael Frerking based on the earlier Turkish Alker, which is a concrete-like composite with soil of a suitable composition as its bulk component stabilized with about 15% calcined gypsum (plaster of Paris) instead of Portland cement. It can be used to form solid walls that need not be reinforced with a steel frame or timber framing, unless extra seismic reinforcement is necessary. Forms are set up and filled with Cast Earth, which sets quickly and solidly. Once the forms are removed the", "Soil (30%), waxes, and fats that are resistant to breakdown by microbes. Its chemical assay is 60% carbon, 5% nitrogen, some oxygen and the remainder hydrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. On a dry weight basis, the CEC of humus is many times greater than that of clay. In the extreme environment of high temperatures and the leaching caused by the heavy rain of tropical rain forests, the clay and organic colloids are largely destroyed. The heavy rains wash the alumino-silicate clays from the soil leaving only sesquioxide clays of low CEC. The high temperatures and humidity allow bacteria and fungi to virtually", "Soil carbon relatively inert C in materials derived from plant remains: humus and charcoal. Of the 2,700 Gt of C stored in soils worldwide, 1550 GtC is organic and 950 GtC is inorganic carbon, which is approximately three times greater than the current atmospheric C and 240 times higher compared with the current annual fossil fuel emission. The balance of soil carbon is held in peat and wetlands (150 GtC), and in plant litter at the soil surface (50 GtC). This compares to 780 GtC in the atmosphere, and 600 GtC in all living organisms. The oceanic pool holds 38,200 GtC. About", "Soil can rapidly pass water. They are able to hold large quantities of phosphates. Sesquioxides have low CEC but are able to hold anions as well as cations. Such soils range from yellow to red in colour. Such clays tend to hold phosphorus so tightly that it is unavailable for absorption by plants. Humus is the final state of decomposition of organic matter. While it may linger for a thousand years, on the larger scale of the age of the mineral soil components, it is temporary. It is composed of the very stable lignins (30%) and complex sugars (polyuronides, 30%), proteins", "Humus (band) LP format. \"Humus 4 degrees\", released in 1997, is the band's only album to exist only in CD format, all others were both CD and LP productions. This album was released through Smogless Records and newly formed Nuggetphase productions, and from there all albums produced by either of the bands led by Jorge and Victor have been released in the Nuggetphase label. Also in 1997 Humus found themselves in an international tour of England and Italy . In Exeter They recorded an album with American Dave Tor who became singer for the only vocal album ever made by either Jorge", "Soil growth. Soil structure often gives clues to its texture, organic matter content, biological activity, past soil evolution, human use, and the chemical and mineralogical conditions under which the soil formed. While texture is defined by the mineral component of a soil and is an innate property of the soil that does not change with agricultural activities, soil structure can be improved or destroyed by the choice and timing of farming practices. Soil structural classes: At the largest scale, the forces that shape a soil's structure result from swelling and shrinkage that initially tend to act horizontally, causing vertically oriented prismatic", "Soil roots, carrying with it clay, humus, nutrients, primarily cations, and various contaminants, including pesticides, pollutants, viruses and bacteria, potentially causing groundwater contamination. In order of decreasing solubility, the leached nutrients are: In the United States percolation water due to rainfall ranges from zero inches just east of the Rocky Mountains to twenty or more inches in the Appalachian Mountains and the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Soil physics (Darcy-type model) predicts that at suctions less than one-third bar, water moves theoretically in all directions via unsaturated flow at a rate that is dependent on the square of the", "Soil upon by amoebas, which in turn are fed upon by nematodes and arthropods. Organic matter holds soils open, allowing the infiltration of air and water, and may hold as much as twice its weight in water. Many soils, including desert and rocky-gravel soils, have little or no organic matter. Soils that are all organic matter, such as peat (histosols), are infertile. In its earliest stage of decomposition, the original organic material is often called raw organic matter. The final stage of decomposition is called humus. In grassland, much of the organic matter added to the soil is from the deep,", "Soil 10 years long\" The chemistry of a soil determines its ability to supply available plant nutrients and affects its physical properties and the health of its microbial population. In addition, a soil's chemistry also determines its corrosivity, stability, and ability to absorb pollutants and to filter water. It is the surface chemistry of mineral and organic colloids that determines soil's chemical properties. \"A colloid is a small, insoluble, nondiffusible particle larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended in a fluid medium without settling. Most soils contain organic colloidal particles called humus as well as the inorganic colloidal", "Soil There are 12 soil orders (the top hierarchical level) in soil taxonomy. Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the anchor and primary nutrient base for plants; however, as demonstrated by hydroponics, it is not essential to plant growth if the soil-contained nutrients can be dissolved in a solution. The types of soil and available moisture determine the species of plants that can be cultivated. Soil material is also a critical component in the mining, construction and landscape development industries. Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects. The movement of massive volumes of soil can be", "Component video set incorrectly the image may not be properly displayed. Progressive scan, for example, is often not enabled by default, even when component video output is selected. Component video Component video is a video signal that has been split into two or more component channels. In popular use, it refers to a type of component analog video (CAV) information that is transmitted or stored as three separate signals. Component video can be contrasted with \"composite video\" (NTSC, PAL or SECAM) in which all the video information is combined into a single line level signal that is used in analog television. Like", "Soil carbon 60 GtC/yr is added to soil. This 60 GtC/yr is the balance of 120 GtC/yr taken out of the atmosphere by terrestrial plant photosynthesis reduced by 60 GtC/yr plant respiration. An equivalent 60 GtC/yr is respired from soil, joining the 60G tC/yr plant respiration to return to the atmosphere. Soil organic carbon is divided between living soil biota and dead biotic material derived from biomass. Together these comprise the soil food web, with the living component sustained by the biotic material component. Soil biota includes earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, fungi, bacteria and different arthropods. Detritus resulting from plant senescence is the", "Houdek (soil) biomass from vegetation and other materials that have been deposited over thousands of years. Prairie conditions form a thick, dark colored, humified surface horizon or layer that is humus rich (1 to 4% organic C). This is a key characteristic that makes these soils fertile. Characteristics: The depth to carbonates ranges from 14 to 24 inches. Thickness of the mollic epipedon ranges from 8 to 20 inches and includes all or part of the Bt horizon. The soil contains 0 to 10 percent by volume of coarse fragments as pebbles. Some pedons contain up to 20 percent by volume of", "Brown earth of mull humus (well decomposed alkaline organic matter) and mineral matter. It is biologically active with many soil organisms and plant roots mixing the mull humus with mineral particles. As a result, the boundary between the A and B horizons can be ill-defined in unploughed examples. Horizon B is mostly composed of mineral matter which has been weathered from the parent material, but it often contains inclusions of more organic material carried in by organisms, especially earthworms. It is lighter in colour than the A horizon, and is often weakly illuviated (leached). Due to limited leaching only the more soluble", "Soil had apparently been produced only by the addition of water, with no reduction in the soil's weight. John Woodward (d. 1728) experimented with various types of water ranging from clean to muddy and found muddy water the best, and so he concluded that earthy matter was the essential element. Others concluded it was humus in the soil that passed some essence to the growing plant. Still others held that the vital growth principal was something passed from dead plants or animals to the new plants. At the start of the 18th century, Jethro Tull demonstrated that it was beneficial to", "Soil biology able to use light as an energy source, as well as organic substrates to get carbon for growth and development. Many fungi are parasitic, often causing disease to their living host plant, although some have beneficial relationships with living plants, as illustrated below. In terms of soil and humus creation, the most important fungi tend to be saprotrophic; that is, they live on dead or decaying organic matter, thus breaking it down and converting it to forms that are available to the higher plants. A succession of fungi species will colonise the dead matter, beginning with those that use sugars", "Humus (band) time friend of Jorge's and a rock connoisseur, was very much impressed by the quality of sound of these recordings, but mostly by Beltran's musicianship, so he became producer of Humus's first LP, \"Tus Oidos mienten\" in June 1992. The album finally gave recording status to Humus, and soon international reviews from the U.S., Germany, France, and in particular from Italy began to emerge, praising the new band from Mexico. From the second album, called simply \"Humus\" (released Dec. 1994), the one man band concept changed to a live performing band, which included old time school friend and bass player", "Humus Sapien In 1998, writer Kurt Busiek and editor Tom Brevoort decided to use Barreiro's character in the superhero series, \"Thunderbolts\". Fabian Nicieza, who succeeded Busiek as \"Thunderbolts\" writer (and had also entered the \"FOOM\" contest), agreed. Renamed Humus Sapien, the character finally debuted, after 28 years, in \"Thunderbolts\" #54 (cover-dated Sept. 2001). Barreiro was allowed to ink one page of the issue featuring the character. Humus Sapien fought the Redeemers when he emerged from a suspended animation chamber where he had been imprisoned by Ogre and Factor Three. He has vaguely defined superhuman abilities powered by Earth's population; however, each time", "Humus (band) or Victor, and for this project a new name was devised: Euphoric Darkness, since it detached completely from the instrumental approach always favoured by Humus. The resulting album was named \"Colours You Can Hear\" and only 100 copies were made. In Pesaro they recorded Humus's fifth album, \"Whispering Galleries\", under the production of Italy's doom metal legend Paul Chain, who also contributed to the album. Three hundred numbered copies were made. Since 1998 Humus has recorded no less than five albums, though none has been released as of 2014. The band continues to be active, though members live in different", "Soil organic matter of less than 1% organic matter are mostly limited to desert areas, while the SOM content of soils in low-lying, wet areas can be as high as 90%. Soils containing 12-18% SOC are generally classified as organic soils. It can be divided into three general pools: living biomass of microorganisms, fresh and partially decomposed residues, and humus: the well-decomposed organic material. Surface plant litter is generally not included as part of soil organic matter. The primary source of organic matter contained in soil is vegetal. In forest or prairies, as well as agricultural fields, dead plants are transformed by different", "Soil horizon horizons are transitional between the overlying B layers and the material beneath it, whether C or D horizon. The A3, B1, and B3 horizons are not tightly defined, and their use is generally at the discretion of the individual worker. Plant roots penetrate through this layer, but it has very little humus. It is usually brownish or reddish due to iron oxides. The above layers may be referred to collectively as the \"solum\". The layers below have no collective name but are distinct in that they are noticeably less affected by surface soil-forming processes. C horizon The C horizon is", "Diatomaceous earth minerals) and 0.5–2% iron oxide. Diatomaceous earth consists of fossilized remains of diatoms, a type of hard-shelled protist (chrysophytes). It is used as a filtration aid, mild abrasive in products including metal polishes and toothpaste, mechanical insecticide, absorbent for liquids, matting agent for coatings, reinforcing filler in plastics and rubber, anti-block in plastic films, porous support for chemical catalysts, cat litter, activator in blood clotting studies, a stabilizing component of dynamite, a thermal insulator, and a soil for potted plants and trees like bonsai. Each deposit of diatomaceous earth is different, with varying blends of pure diatomaceous earth combined with", "The Soil (band) The Soil (band) The Soil is a South African a cappella group formed in 2003. The Soil currently consists of four members: Buhlebendalo \"Soil Sister\" Mda, Ntsika \"Fana-tastic\" Ngxanga, Luphindo \"Master P\" Ngxanga and Theo \"Songstress\" Matshoba. Theo joined the group in February 2016 as an occasional replacement for Buhlebendalo Mda. Ntsika and Luphindo are biological brothers. During interviews, The Soil usually refers to God as the first member of the group. Its inception came about in 2003 when all the members met in high school during jam sessions. Back then the group was known as 'Particles of the Soil", "Soil B, and C. The solum normally includes the A and B horizons. The living component of the soil is largely confined to the solum, and is generally more prominent in the A horizon. The soil texture is determined by the relative proportions of the individual particles of sand, silt, and clay that make up the soil. The interaction of the individual mineral particles with organic matter, water, gases via biotic and abiotic processes causes those particles to flocculate (stick together) to form aggregates or peds. Where these aggregates can be identified, a soil can be said to be developed, and", "Lifted or The Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground copies in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan. Up to 2009. it has sold 340,000 copies in US. Lifted or The Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground Lifted or The Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground is the fourth album by Bright Eyes and the 46th release of Saddle Creek Records. The band made its national television debut in support of the album, performing \"The Trees Get Wheeled Away\" (a track that was not on the album) on the \"Late Show with David Letterman\". The album is referenced in", "Lifted or The Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground Lifted or The Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground Lifted or The Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground is the fourth album by Bright Eyes and the 46th release of Saddle Creek Records. The band made its national television debut in support of the album, performing \"The Trees Get Wheeled Away\" (a track that was not on the album) on the \"Late Show with David Letterman\". The album is referenced in the Jonathan Franzen novel \"Freedom\" when the main characters Walter and Richard attend a Bright Eyes concert in Washington", "Soil excessive rain and high temperatures of tropical climates enables rapid decomposition of organic matter and leaching of plant nutrients; forest ecosystems on these soils rely on efficient recycling of nutrients and plant matter to maintain their productivity. Excessive slope may encourage the erosion of the top layer of soil which holds most of the raw organic material that would otherwise eventually become humus. Cellulose and hemicellulose undergo fast decomposition by fungi and bacteria, with a half-life of 12–18 days in a temperate climate. Brown rot fungi can decompose the cellulose and hemicellulose, leaving the lignin and phenolic compounds behind. Starch,", "Soil carbon is a major component of soil and catchment health. Several factors affect the variation that exists in soil organic matter and soil carbon; the most significant has, in contemporary times, been the influence of humans and agricultural systems. Although exact quantities are difficult to measure, human activities have caused massive losses of soil organic carbon. First was the use of fire, which removes soil cover and leads to immediate and continuing losses of soil organic carbon. Tillage and drainage both expose soil organic matter to oxygen and oxidation. In the Netherlands, East Anglia, Florida, and the California Delta, subsidence of", "Soil biodiversity rate of decay and oxidation. Soil structure is essential to soil health and fertility; soil structure decline has a direct effect on soil and surface food chain and biodiversity as a consequence. Continued crop cultivation eventually results in significant changes within the soil, such as its nutrient status, pH balance, organic matter content, and physical characteristics. While some of these changes can be beneficial to food and crop production, they can also be harmful towards other necessary systems. For example, studies have shown that tilling has had negative consequences towards soil organic matter (SOM), the organic component of soil composed", "Soil thermal properties accurately determine soil thermal conductivity across the site. Soil thermal properties The thermal properties of soil are a component of soil physics that has found important uses in engineering, climatology and agriculture. These properties influence how energy is partitioned in the soil profile. While related to soil temperature, it is more accurately associated with the transfer of energy (mostly in the form of heat) throughout the soil, by radiation, conduction and convection. The main soil thermal properties are: It is hard to say something general about the soil thermal properties at a certain location because these are in a constant", "Soil defertilisation take hold. Soil defertilisation is done by growing specific cover crops (e.g., \"Phacelia\", \"Sinapis alba\", \"Lolium multiflorum\") on them and then, instead of ploughing them under, removing them from the soil. By doing this, the nutrients that have accumulated in the crops are removed together with the crops. The crops may be used on other land that needs to be fertilsed (instead of defertilised), for example agricultural land. Soil defertilisation Soil defertilisation refers to the practice of reducing soil fertility in order to reduce the number of plants that can grow on that soil. It is often done on land", "Soil gravelly sandy loam. When the organic component of a soil is substantial, the soil is called organic soil rather than mineral soil. A soil is called organic if: The clumping of the soil textural components of sand, silt and clay causes aggregates to form and the further association of those aggregates into larger units creates soil structures called peds (a contraction of the word pedolith). The adhesion of the soil textural components by organic substances, iron oxides, carbonates, clays, and silica, the breakage of those aggregates from expansion-contraction caused by freezing-thawing and wetting-drying cycles, and the build-up of aggregates by", "Soil biodiversity the size of 500 sheep. A first step has been taken in identifying areas where soil biodiversity is most under pressure is to find the main proxies which decrease soil biodiversity. Soil biodiversity will be measured in the future, especially thanks to the development of molecular approaches relying on direct DNA extraction from the soil matrix. Soil biodiversity Soil biodiversity refers to the relationship of soil to biodiversity and to aspects of the soil that can be managed in relation to biodiversity. Soil biodiversity relates to some catchment management considerations. According to the Australian Department of the Environment and Water", "Soil thermal properties Soil thermal properties The thermal properties of soil are a component of soil physics that has found important uses in engineering, climatology and agriculture. These properties influence how energy is partitioned in the soil profile. While related to soil temperature, it is more accurately associated with the transfer of energy (mostly in the form of heat) throughout the soil, by radiation, conduction and convection. The main soil thermal properties are: It is hard to say something general about the soil thermal properties at a certain location because these are in a constant state of flux from diurnal and seasonal variations.", "Soil science a world with a growing population, possible future water crisis, increasing per capita food consumption, and land degradation. Soil occupies the pedosphere, one of Earth's spheres that the geosciences use to organize the Earth conceptually. This is the conceptual perspective of pedology and edaphology, the two main branches of soil science. Pedology is the study of soil in its natural setting. Edaphology is the study of soil in relation to soil-dependent uses. Both branches apply a combination of soil physics, soil chemistry, and soil biology. Due to the numerous interactions between the biosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere that are hosted within", "Consolidation (soil) Consolidation (soil) In soil mechanics, consolidation refers to the process by which soil changes volume gradually in response to a change in pressure. This happens because soil is a two-phase material, comprising soil grains and pore fluid, usually groundwater. When soil saturated with water is subject to an increase in pressure, the high volumetric stiffness of water compared to the soil matrix means that the water initially absorbs all the change in pressure without changing volume, creating excess pore water pressure. As water diffuses away from regions of high pressure due to seepage, the soil matrix gradually takes up the", "Soil them to adhere into larger, relatively stable secondary structures. Soil bulk density, when determined at standardized moisture conditions, is an estimate of soil compaction. Soil porosity consists of the void part of the soil volume and is occupied by gases or water. Soil consistency is the ability of soil materials to stick together. Soil temperature and colour are self-defining. Resistivity refers to the resistance to conduction of electric currents and affects the rate of corrosion of metal and concrete structures which are buried in soil. These properties vary through the depth of a soil profile, i.e. through soil horizons. Most", "Consolidation (soil) method with formula_7 or the root method with formula_8 t time to 50% deformation (consolidation) and t is 95% Where T=1.129 T=0.197 Consolidation (soil) In soil mechanics, consolidation refers to the process by which soil changes volume gradually in response to a change in pressure. This happens because soil is a two-phase material, comprising soil grains and pore fluid, usually groundwater. When soil saturated with water is subject to an increase in pressure, the high volumetric stiffness of water compared to the soil matrix means that the water initially absorbs all the change in pressure without changing volume, creating excess", "Soil biodiversity Soil biodiversity Soil biodiversity refers to the relationship of soil to biodiversity and to aspects of the soil that can be managed in relation to biodiversity. Soil biodiversity relates to some catchment management considerations. According to the Australian Department of the Environment and Water Resources, biodiversity is \"the variety of life: the different plants, animals and micro-organisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which they are a part.\" Biodiversity and soil are strongly linked, because soil is the medium for a large variety of organisms, and interacts closely with the wider biosphere. Conversely, biological activity is a primary factor in", "Subsoil been the primary source of material for adobe, cob, rammed earth, wattle and daub, and other earthen construction methods for millennia. Coarse sand, the other ingredient in most of these materials, is also found in subsoil. Although by no means sterile, subsoil is relatively barren in terms of soil organisms compared to humus-rich topsoil. Subsoil Subsoil is the layer of soil under the topsoil on the surface of the ground. Like topsoil it is composed of a variable mixture of small particles such as sand, silt and/or clay, but with a much lower percentage of organic matter and humus. Below", "Soil the specific heat of wet soil is ~ 0.2 to 1 calories per gram (0.8 to 4.2 kJ per kilogram). Also, a tremendous energy (~540 cal/g or 2260 kJ/kg) is required to evaporate water (known as the heat of vaporization). As such, wet soil usually warms more slowly than dry soil – wet surface soil is typically 3 to 6 °C colder than dry surface soil. Soil heat flux refers to the rate at which heat energy moves through the soil in response to a temperature difference between two points in the soil. The heat flux density is the amount" ]

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[ "Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr., an American clergyman and civil rights leader, was shot at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4, 1968. King was rushed to St. Joseph's Hospital, and was pronounced dead at 7:05 p.m. CST. He was a prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement and a Nobel Peace Prize laureate who was known for his use of nonviolence and civil disobedience. James Earl Ray, a fugitive from the Missouri State Penitentiary, was arrested on June 8, 1968, in London at Heathrow Airport, extradited to the United States, and charged", "Martin Luther King Jr. assassination conspiracy theories Martin Luther King Jr. assassination conspiracy theories The conspiracy theories relating to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., a prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement, relate to different accounts of the assassination that took place on April 4, 1968, in Memphis Tennessee. King was assassinated on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel, one day after giving his final speech: \"I've Been to the Mountaintop.\" Claims soon arose over suspect aspects of King's assassination and the role of the alleged assassin, James Earl Ray. Since MLK's assassin, James Earl Ray, pled guilty early on, there was no trial. Suspicions", "Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. assassination. King had been targeted by COINTELPRO and had also been under surveillance by military intelligence agencies during the period leading up to his assassination under the code name Operation Lantern Spike. A church minister, Ronald Denton Wilson, claimed his father, Henry Clay Wilson, assassinated Martin Luther King Jr., not James Earl Ray. He stated, \"It wasn't a racist thing; he thought Martin Luther King was connected with communism, and he wanted to get him out of the way.\" But Wilson had reportedly previously admitted his father was a member of the Ku Klux Klan. In 2004, Jesse Jackson, who" ]

[ "Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most visible spokesperson and leader in the civil rights movement from 1954 until his death in 1968. Born in Atlanta, King is best known for advancing civil rights through nonviolence and civil disobedience, tactics his Christian beliefs and the nonviolent activism of Mahatma Gandhi helped inspire. King led the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott and in 1957 became the first president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). With the SCLC, he led an unsuccessful 1962", "Martin Luther King Jr. would be redesigned to depict various historical events that had occurred at the Lincoln Memorial. Among the planned designs are images from King's \"I Have a Dream\" speech and the 1939 concert by opera singer Marian Anderson. Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most visible spokesperson and leader in the civil rights movement from 1954 until his death in 1968. Born in Atlanta, King is best known for advancing civil rights through nonviolence and civil disobedience, tactics his Christian beliefs and", "Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. was with King when he was assassinated, noted: According to biographer Taylor Branch, King's friend and colleague James Bevel put it more bluntly: \"There is no way a ten-cent white boy could develop a plan to kill a million-dollar black man.\" Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr., an American clergyman and civil rights leader, was shot at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4, 1968. King was rushed to St. Joseph's Hospital, and was pronounced dead at 7:05 p.m. CST. He was a prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement and a Nobel Peace", "Martin Luther King Jr. High School (Cleveland) located in it: Martin Luther King Jr. High School (Cleveland) Martin Luther King Jr. High School is a public high school located in Cleveland, Ohio. It is part of the Cleveland Metropolitan School District. The school nickname is King. The school was built in 1973. Like many schools that opened in the 10 years after his 1968 assassination, the school was named after Martin Luther King, Jr.. This school is a big help for those students who are interested in the medical and law industry. The classes are hands on experiences which will prepare teens for college. The school has", "Martin Luther King Jr. High School (Cleveland) Martin Luther King Jr. High School (Cleveland) Martin Luther King Jr. High School is a public high school located in Cleveland, Ohio. It is part of the Cleveland Metropolitan School District. The school nickname is King. The school was built in 1973. Like many schools that opened in the 10 years after his 1968 assassination, the school was named after Martin Luther King, Jr.. This school is a big help for those students who are interested in the medical and law industry. The classes are hands on experiences which will prepare teens for college. The school has two \"Small Schools\"", "Robert F. Kennedy's speech on the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Robert F. Kennedy's speech on the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. On April 4, 1968, Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York delivered an improvised speech several hours after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.. Kennedy, who was campaigning to earn the Democratic Party's presidential nomination, made his remarks while in Indianapolis, Indiana, after speaking at two Indiana universities earlier in the day. Before boarding a plane to attend campaign rallies in Indianapolis, he learned that King had been shot in Memphis, Tennessee. Upon arrival, Kennedy was informed that King had died. \"Oh God,\" Kennedy said, hands buried", "Martin Luther King III Martin Luther King III Martin Luther King III (born October 23, 1957) is an American human rights advocate and community activist. He is the oldest son and oldest living child of civil rights leaders Martin Luther King Jr. and Coretta Scott King. Martin Luther King III was born on October 23, 1957, to civil rights advocates Martin Luther King Jr. and Coretta Scott King. His mother had reservations about naming him after his famous father, \"realizing the burdens it can create for the child,\" but King Jr. always wanted to name his son Martin Luther III. King's birth occurred as", "Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr. trip to the South View Cemetery, a burial place predominantly reserved for African Americans. His remains were exhumed in 1977 and reburied at their current location at the plaza between the King Center and Ebenezer, and his widow Coretta was buried next to him in 2006. Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr. The first memorial service following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. on April 4, 1968, took place the following day at the R.S. Lewis Funeral Home in Memphis, Tennessee. This was followed by two funeral services on April 9, 1968, in Atlanta, Georgia, the first held for", "Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr. Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr. The first memorial service following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. on April 4, 1968, took place the following day at the R.S. Lewis Funeral Home in Memphis, Tennessee. This was followed by two funeral services on April 9, 1968, in Atlanta, Georgia, the first held for family and close friends at Ebenezer Baptist Church, where King and his father had both served as senior pastors, followed by a three-mile procession to Morehouse College, King's alma mater, for a public service. President Lyndon B. Johnson declared a national day of mourning for the", "Martin Luther King III legacy that should go to the King Center. On April 4, 2008, the fortieth anniversary of his father's death, King and Al Sharpton led a march around Memphis, Tennessee. There, he visited the Lorraine Hotel for the first time since his father's death and placed a wreath where he stood before being shot. As he spoke to those who participated in the march, King called for them to continue his father's fight and promoted Realizing the Dream, which he said sought to eliminate poverty. Martin Luther King III spoke on behalf of the 2008 Democratic Party presidential nominee, Senator Barack", "Martin Luther King Jr. Community Hospital who opened the new organization in 2015 have been relieved of their duties since the new Caucasian CNO Susie Reinsvold and many have been replaced with non African American leaders . The hospital on the site of the former Martin Luther King Jr. Multi-Service Ambulatory Care Center, originally named the Martin Luther King Jr./Drew Medical Center, known as King/Drew. The adjacent Los Angeles County Department of Health Services Martin Luther King Jr. Outpatient Center opened in a new building in 2014. The closure of Martin Luther King Jr. Multi-Service Ambulatory Care Center (King/Drew) in 2007, due to revocation of federal", "Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park the \"International Civil Rights Walk of Fame\" which commemorates some of the courageous pioneers who worked for social justice. Annual events celebrating Martin Luther King Jr. Day in January typically draw large crowds. Speakers have included Presidents of the United States, national and local politicians, and civil rights leaders. Remembrances are also held during Black History Month (February), and on the anniversary of King's April 4, 1968, assassination in Memphis, Tennessee. The Martin Luther King Jr. Historic District, an area bounded roughly by Irwin, Randolph, Edgewood, Jackson, and Auburn avenues, was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places", "Martin Luther King Sr. Martin Luther King Sr. Martin Luther King Sr. (born Michael King; December 19, 1899November 11, 1984) was an American Baptist pastor, missionary, and an early figure in the Civil Rights Movement. He was the father of civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. King was born Michael King in Stockbridge, Georgia, the son of Delia (née Linsey; 1875–1924) and James Albert King (1864–1933). He led the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, Georgia, and became a leader of the Civil Rights Movement, as the head of the NAACP chapter in Atlanta and of the Civic and Political League. He encouraged his", "Martin Luther King Bridge (St. Louis) Martin Luther King Bridge (St. Louis) The Martin Luther King Bridge (formerly known as the Veterans Bridge) in St. Louis, Missouri, is a cantilever truss bridge of about in total length across the Mississippi River, connecting St. Louis with East St. Louis, Illinois. Opened in 1951, the bridge serves as traffic relief connecting the concurrent freeways of Interstate 55, Interstate 64, and U.S. Route 40 with the downtown streets of St. Louis. It was renamed for King in 1968 after the national civil rights leader was assassinated that year. The bridge was built across the Mississippi River in 1951 as", "Martin Luther King III he owed the federal government more than $200,000 in back taxes and fines. Also in 1993, King helped found the Estate of Martin Luther King Jr. Inc., the company that manages the license of Martin Luther King Jr.'s image and intellectual property. King remains a commissioner in the company as of 2008. During his service as a commissioner in Fulton County, King expressed appreciation to an officer who potentially saved his mother from harm from a crazed man. In February 2009, King and his wife traveled to India, fifty years after his father and mother made the trip. During his", "Martin Luther King III In May 2006, Martin Luther King III married longtime girlfriend Arndrea Waters. On May 25, 2008, the couple had a daughter, Yolanda Renee King, the first and only grandchild of Martin Luther King and Coretta Scott King. She was named after her aunt, Yolanda King, who had died of a heart condition at age 51 in Santa Monica, California, the previous year. Yolanda Renee appeared with her family at the 50th anniversary of the March on Washington celebration, where President Obama and various leaders and other notable persons were charmed by her presence. Yolanda Renee helped her family ring a", "Martin Luther King Jr. Day Martin Luther King Jr. Day Martin Luther King Jr. Day (officially Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. and sometimes referred to as MLK Day) is an American federal holiday marking the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. It is observed on the third Monday of January each year, which is around King's birthday, January 15. The holiday is similar to holidays set under the Uniform Monday Holiday Act. The earliest Monday for this holiday is January 15 and the latest is January 21. King was the chief spokesperson for nonviolent activism in the Civil Rights Movement, which successfully protested racial", "Martin Luther King Jr. Outpatient Center with six out-patient surgeries and a dental clinic, with an estimated total cost of more than $350 million. King Drew Magnet High School of Medicine and Science, is located adjacent to the hospital in Willowbrook. It is a Los Angeles Unified School District magnet school affiliated with the MLK Jr. hospital Martin Luther King Jr. Outpatient Center The Martin Luther King Jr. Outpatient Center (MLK OC), formerly known as Martin Luther King Jr. Multi-Service Ambulatory Care Center (MLK–MACC), Martin Luther King Jr./Drew Medical Center (King/Drew) and later Martin Luther King Jr.–Harbor Hospital (MLK–Harbor or King–Harbor),was a public urgent care center", "Martin Luther King Jr. Outpatient Center Martin Luther King Jr. Outpatient Center The Martin Luther King Jr. Outpatient Center (MLK OC), formerly known as Martin Luther King Jr. Multi-Service Ambulatory Care Center (MLK–MACC), Martin Luther King Jr./Drew Medical Center (King/Drew) and later Martin Luther King Jr.–Harbor Hospital (MLK–Harbor or King–Harbor),was a public urgent care center and outpatient clinic and former hospital in Willowbrook, an unincorporated section of Los Angeles County, California, north of the city of Compton and south of the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles. Founded as a major public hospital, it was shut down in August 2007 because of its poor record of patient", "Martin Luther King Jr. Outpatient Center was broken on the hospital in April 1968. It was originally named the Los Angeles County Southeast General Hospital but was soon renamed Martin Luther King Jr. General Hospital, days after the namesake's assassination. After a dedication in February, it opened on March 27, 1972 as a full-service medical center. The facility changed its name again, to Martin Luther King Jr./Drew Medical Center, when it became the teaching hospital of the adjacent Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science. In 1981 the hospital expanded into psychiatric care by opening the Augustus F. Hawkins Mental Health Center. In 1998 it", "Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue (also known as MLK Ave) is a major street in the District of Columbia traversing through both the Southwest and Southeast quadrants. Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue SW begins at the southwestern tip of the District of Columbia near the Blue Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant. Headed north, the avenue overlaps with South Capitol Street from 2nd St SW to Halley Place SE, where it turns northeast, becoming Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue SE. As it crosses through the Congress Heights neighborhood, MLK Ave changes from a primarily residential neighborhood", "Martin Luther King Jr. assassination conspiracy theories Dr King.\" The HSCA's Chief Counsel, Robert Blakey, said that if the CIA or FBI had been involved, all incriminating documents would have been destroyed long before 1979. Martin Luther King Jr. assassination conspiracy theories The conspiracy theories relating to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., a prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement, relate to different accounts of the assassination that took place on April 4, 1968, in Memphis Tennessee. King was assassinated on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel, one day after giving his final speech: \"I've Been to the Mountaintop.\" Claims soon arose over suspect aspects", "Martin Luther King Sr. preach in several black churches in Atlanta. In 1926, King started his ministerial degree at the Morehouse School of Religion. On Thanksgiving Day in 1926, after eight years of courtship, he married Alberta in the Ebenezer Church. The couple had three children in four years: a daughter, Willie Christine King (born 1927), Martin Luther King Jr. (born Michael King Jr., 1929–1968), and a second son, Alfred Daniel Williams King (1930–1969). King became leader of the Ebenezer Baptist Church in March 1931 after the death of Williams. With the country in the midst of the Great Depression, church finances were struggling,", "Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Medical Campus High School Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Medical Campus High School The Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Medical Campus High School is a high school in Buffalo, New York. It is located at 487 High Street and serves Grades 9 through 12. The first school building built on High Street was constructed in 1885, with a two-story brick addition constructed four years later. The current building structure was completed in 1926 and would be renovated and renamed the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Multicultural Institute in 1968, then renovated again in 2006. During that renovation, the MLK School was housed at the", "Martin Luther King III demonstrates Dexter King's misuse of power and his history of making poor decisions involving the Center without seeking proper input from his siblings. In October 2008, Martin Luther King III had not seen his brother since June, and Dexter had yet to meet his niece, Yolanda. Martin, Bernice, and Dexter have each expressed love for each other and hope that they will reconcile once their legal matters have been resolved. In October 2009, Martin and his siblings settled the lawsuit out of court. On April 6, 2010, Martin Luther King III, brother Dexter King, and sister Bernice King issued a", "Martin Luther King III guest speaker at SUNY Canton on February 23, 2010, at the College Union Board's invitation. In July 2008, Martin Luther King III & Bernice King filed a lawsuit against his brother, Dexter King, accusing him of improperly taking money from the estate of their late mother and transferring it to the Estate of Martin Luther King Jr. Inc., where Dexter King serves as president. According to the suit, Dexter failed to keep Martin and Bernice informed about the company's financial affairs. It alleged the company's assets were being \"misapplied or wasted,\" and demanded that Dexter produce documents pertaining to the", "Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park in 2018. Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park The Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park consists of several buildings in Atlanta, Georgia, including Martin Luther King Jr.'s boyhood home and the original Ebenezer Baptist Church, the church where King was baptized and both his father Martin Luther King Sr. and he were pastors. These places, critical to the interpretation of the life of Martin Luther King Jr. and his legacy as a leader of the American Civil Rights Movement, were included in the park when it was established on October 10, 1980. Formerly a National Historic Site, the", "Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park The Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park consists of several buildings in Atlanta, Georgia, including Martin Luther King Jr.'s boyhood home and the original Ebenezer Baptist Church, the church where King was baptized and both his father Martin Luther King Sr. and he were pastors. These places, critical to the interpretation of the life of Martin Luther King Jr. and his legacy as a leader of the American Civil Rights Movement, were included in the park when it was established on October 10, 1980. Formerly a National Historic Site, the unit was", "Martin Luther King Sr. Community Resources Collaborative Collaborative's Executive Director, Detria Russell is located throughout the Martin Luther King Sr. Community Resources Collaborative's three floors. Because the Collaborative is located in the \"National Historic King District,\" The National Park Service administers the Collaborative's parking lot and surrounding land, which includes the old Historic Ebenezer Baptist Church building, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s birth home and gravesite, as well as, a community playground. Martin Luther King Sr. Community Resources Collaborative The Martin Luther King Sr. Community Resources Collaborative named after the late Reverend turned community activist Martin Luther King Sr., held its official dedication ceremony, November 4, 2012.", "Martin Luther King Sr. and the disenfranchisement of blacks throughout the South to the era of prohibition and war time. Over this background, there are two more stories — that of Daddy King and the story of Daddy’s influence on Martin Jr. Part one of \"In the Hour of Chaos\" aired on public television in early 2016 and the full film was released online July 1, 2016. Martin Luther King Sr. Martin Luther King Sr. (born Michael King; December 19, 1899November 11, 1984) was an American Baptist pastor, missionary, and an early figure in the Civil Rights Movement. He was the father of civil", "Martin Luther King Jr. of the common law regarding settlement of unpaid labor, but clarified that he felt that the money should not be spent exclusively on blacks. He stated, \"It should benefit the disadvantaged of \"all\" races.\" On being awarded the Planned Parenthood Federation of America's Margaret Sanger Award on May 5, 1966, King said: FBI director J. Edgar Hoover personally ordered surveillance of King, with the intent to undermine his power as a civil rights leader. According to the Church Committee, a 1975 investigation by the U.S. Congress, \"From December 1963 until his death in 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was the", "Martin Luther King High School (Detroit) Martin Luther King High School (Detroit) Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. High School is located at 3200 East Lafayette Boulevard in Detroit, Michigan; the building is operated by the Detroit Board of Education. King's district encompasses Downtown and Midtown Detroit; it also includes Lafayette Park, the Martin Luther King Apartments and Riverfront Condominiums. The Brewster-Douglass Housing Projects were zoned to MLK prior to their demolition. In addition it includes the three Wayne State University housing complexes that permit families with children (Chatsworth Tower, DeRoy, and University Tower). The facility that came to be known as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.", "Martin Luther King High School (Riverside, California) (DECA), Game Design, Science Olympiad, Robotics, and a selection of Advanced Placement (AP) courses. Martin Luther King High School, commonly referred to as \"King High School,\" opened in 1999 and was the first high school to be built in Riverside, California since 1973. The first year enrollment was 858 students in grades 9 and 10. Martin Luther King High School added grade 11 in 2000 and grade 12 in 2001. Its first class graduated in 2002. Its first four-year class (students who attended Martin Luther King High School for all four years of their high school career) graduated in 2003.", "Martin Luther King Jr. cities and states beginning in 1971; the holiday was enacted at the federal level by legislation signed by President Ronald Reagan in 1986. Hundreds of streets in the U.S. have been renamed in his honor, and a county in Washington State was also rededicated for him. The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., was dedicated in 2011. King was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, to the Reverend Martin Luther King Sr. and Alberta Williams King. King's legal name at birth was Michael King, and his father was also born Michael King,", "Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial new finish for the side of the artwork. Sculptor Lei Yixin carved grooves over the former words to match existing horizontal \"striation\" marks in the memorial and deepened all the memorial's grooves so that they match. Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial is located in West Potomac Park next to the National Mall in Washington, D.C., United States. It covers four acres and includes the Stone of Hope, a granite statue of Civil Rights Movement leader Martin Luther King carved by sculptor Lei Yixin. The inspiration for the memorial design is a line from King's", "Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial is located in West Potomac Park next to the National Mall in Washington, D.C., United States. It covers four acres and includes the Stone of Hope, a granite statue of Civil Rights Movement leader Martin Luther King carved by sculptor Lei Yixin. The inspiration for the memorial design is a line from King's \"I Have A Dream\" speech: \"Out of the mountain of despair, a stone of hope.\" The memorial opened to the public on August 22, 2011, after more than two decades of planning, fund-raising, and construction. This", "Martin Luther King Memorial Prize a Dark Time\" (1984) edited by Nicholas Humphrey and Robert Lifton, \"The Heart of the Race: Black Women's Lives in Britain\" (1985) by Beverley Bryan, Stella Dadzie and Suzanne Scafe\", The European Tribe\" (1987) by Caryl Phillips, and \"Behind the Frontlines: Journey into Afro-Britain\" (1988) by Ferdinand Dennis. Martin Luther King Memorial Prize The Martin Luther King Memorial Prize was instituted by novelist John Brunner and his wife and was awarded annually to a literary work published in the US or Britain that was deemed to improve interrracial understanding, \"reflecting the ideals to which Dr. Martin Luther King dedicated his", "Martin Luther King Memorial Prize Martin Luther King Memorial Prize The Martin Luther King Memorial Prize was instituted by novelist John Brunner and his wife and was awarded annually to a literary work published in the US or Britain that was deemed to improve interrracial understanding, \"reflecting the ideals to which Dr. Martin Luther King dedicated his life\". The author of the winning work was awarded £100. Winners of the prize have included \"Because They're Black\" (1972) by Derek Humphry and Gus John, \" Black and White: The Negro and English Society\" (1975) by James Walvin, \"A Dry White Season\" (1980) by André Brink, \"In", "Martin Luther King Drive station Martin Luther King Drive station The Martin Luther King Drive station of the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail (West Side Branch) is located adjacent to the Hub in the Jackson Hill neighborhood of Jersey City, New Jersey. The station opened on April 22, 2000, with a memorial to slain civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. at its entrance. and other related public art throughout the station. The original cut of the Newark and New York Railroad Branch of Central Railroad of New Jersey excavated through Bergen Hill in 1869 with service running until 1946. The unrenovated former CNJ train station was", "Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue W3, 90, 92, and 93 serve MLK Ave, with many others crossing the street. \"For more information, see List of Metrobus routes\" Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue (also known as MLK Ave) is a major street in the District of Columbia traversing through both the Southwest and Southeast quadrants. Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue SW begins at the southwestern tip of the District of Columbia near the Blue Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant. Headed north, the avenue overlaps with South Capitol Street from 2nd St SW to Halley Place SE, where it turns northeast, becoming", "Martin Luther King Jr. to a Native American congregation, and then went on to give another speech at the University of Arizona. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. would continue to attract the attention of Native Americans throughout the civil rights movement. During the 1963 March on Washington there was a sizable Native American contingent, including many from South Dakota, and many from the Navajo nation. Native Americans were also active participants in the Poor People's Campaign in 1968. Dr. King was a major inspiration along with the civil rights movement which inspired the Native American rights movement of the 1960s and many of its", "Martin Luther King High School (Riverside, California) place as principal. She was followed by Dan Brooks in 2006, who held the position until June 2011. Darel Hansen was principal from July 2011 to June 2015. Michael West became principal in August 2015. In November 2002, Martin Luther King High School was one of twelve schools honored by the Siemens Foundation for having one of the most extensive, rigorous and promising Advanced Placement math, science, and computer science course offerings in the region. Martin Luther King High School was recognized as a California Distinguished School in 2005 and 2009. Martin Luther King High School also has an excellent", "Martin Luther King High School (Detroit) program was the MLK Project. At a cost of $46.4 million, the redeveloped Martin Luther King Jr. Senior High School re-opened in September 2011. The school emphasizes a Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Curriculum. In 2012 Kettering High School closed, and some students were rezoned to King. In 2017, King was marked for closure by the State of Michigan due to its poor academic performance from 2014 to 2016. A later agreement between the state and the Detroit Board of Education saved the school from closure. Martin Luther King High School (Detroit) Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. High School", "Martin Luther King Jr. Day Jr. Day is observed in the Japanese city of Hiroshima under mayor Tadatoshi Akiba, who holds a special banquet at the mayor's office as an act of unifying his city's call for peace with King's message of human rights. The City of Toronto, in Ontario, Canada, is another city that has officially recognized Martin Luther King Jr. Day, although not as a paid holiday: all government services and businesses remain open. In 1984, during a visit by the U.S. Sixth Fleet, Navy chaplain Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff conducted the first Israeli presidential ceremony in commemoration of Martin Luther King Jr. Day,", "Martin Luther King Drive station still standing as recently as the Autumn of 2011, but has since been demolished. The new station was raised to a level crossing. Martin Luther King Drive was once called Jackson Avenue, and until 1947 Public Service Railway's # 7 Jackson streetcar line ran along it. A small block called Jackson still exists that was not included in a realignment. It was later named in honor of the slain civil right leader Martin Luther King, Jr., who had twice spoken in the city. The drive has been the heart of the African American community in Jersey City for decades, and", "Martin Luther King III system, and that \"we all have to roll up our sleeves and do work to ensure that the dream that he shared can be fulfilled.\" On January 19, 2009, the Martin Luther King Jr. national holiday, King joined Obama in painting and refurbishing the Sasha Bruce Youthwork shelter for homeless teens in Northeast Washington for the nationwide day of community service. Martin Luther King III gave a tribute at Michael Jackson's memorial service on July 7, 2009, and spoke at Jackson's funeral at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California, alongside his sister, Bernice. He also spoke as a campus", "Martin Luther King Jr. to honor King. Observed for the first time on January 20, 1986, it is called Martin Luther King Jr. Day. Following President George H. W. Bush's 1992 proclamation, the holiday is observed on the third Monday of January each year, near the time of King's birthday. On January 17, 2000, for the first time, Martin Luther King Jr. Day was officially observed in all fifty U.S. states. Arizona (1992), New Hampshire (1999) and Utah (2000) were the last three states to recognize the holiday. Utah previously celebrated the holiday at the same time but under the name Human Rights Day.", "Martin Luther King Jr. (Wilson sculpture) four children and Christine King Farris. Martin Luther King Jr. (Wilson sculpture) Martin Luther King Jr. is a public sculpture by American artist John Woodrow Wilson located at the United States Capitol rotunda in Washington, D.C., United States. The bust depicts Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in a contemplative and peaceful mood, looking slightly downward, patinated to match the black marble base. John Woodrow Wilson, born in 1922 in Roxbury, Massachusetts. He graduated from Tufts University in 1947. He was professor of art at Boston University from 1964 to 1986. The bust was unveiled in the Rotunda, on January 16,", "Martin Luther King Jr. (Wilson sculpture) Martin Luther King Jr. (Wilson sculpture) Martin Luther King Jr. is a public sculpture by American artist John Woodrow Wilson located at the United States Capitol rotunda in Washington, D.C., United States. The bust depicts Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in a contemplative and peaceful mood, looking slightly downward, patinated to match the black marble base. John Woodrow Wilson, born in 1922 in Roxbury, Massachusetts. He graduated from Tufts University in 1947. He was professor of art at Boston University from 1964 to 1986. The bust was unveiled in the Rotunda, on January 16, 1986, by Coretta Scott King, their", "Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial steps of the Lincoln Memorial in 1963 but was postponed until October 16 (the 16th anniversary of the 1995 Million Man March on the National Mall) due to Hurricane Irene. Although this is not the first memorial to an African American in Washington, D.C., King is the first African American honored with a memorial on or near the National Mall and only the fourth non-President to be memorialized in such a way. The King Memorial is administered by the National Park Service (NPS). Martin Luther King Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968), an American clergyman, activist, and prominent", "Martin Luther King Jr. East Busway is also used by some Westmoreland Transit routes, which run further into the Pittsburgh suburbs, ending in the cities of Greensburg and Latrobe in Westmoreland County. As of October 2018, the Port Authority bus routes that use the East Busway are as follows: Martin Luther King Jr. East Busway The Martin Luther King Jr. East Busway is a two-lane bus-only highway serving the city of Pittsburgh and many of its eastern neighborhoods and suburbs. It was named after Martin Luther King Jr. in recognition of the eastern portion of the route's serving many predominantly African-American neighborhoods, such as Wilkinsburg and", "Martin Luther King Jr. Plaza (Toledo) Martin Luther King Jr. Plaza (Toledo) Martin Luther King Jr. Plaza (formerly Central Union Terminal and Central Union Plaza) is the main passenger rail and intercity bus station of Toledo, Ohio. Toledo is served by two Amtrak routes: the \"Capitol Limited,\" which operates daily between Chicago and Washington D.C, and the Lake Shore Limited, which operates daily between Chicago and (via two sections east of Albany,) Boston or New York City In addition it is also served by Greyhound Lines and Barons Bus Lines. Named for Martin Luther King Jr., the building is constructed in a Streamline Moderne style designed", "Martin Luther King Jr. East Busway Martin Luther King Jr. East Busway The Martin Luther King Jr. East Busway is a two-lane bus-only highway serving the city of Pittsburgh and many of its eastern neighborhoods and suburbs. It was named after Martin Luther King Jr. in recognition of the eastern portion of the route's serving many predominantly African-American neighborhoods, such as Wilkinsburg and East Liberty. It is owned and maintained by the Port Authority of Allegheny County. Originally occupied by a railroad line, planning for the East Busway began shortly after the Port Authority of Allegheny County purchased the Pittsburgh Railways Company in 1964. The original", "Martin Luther King High School (Riverside, California) in 2000, has garnered accolades in recent years. In 2008, King HS was named a National Project Lead the Way Model School. In 2009, King HS was named a Riverside County Model School of Excellence for its engineering program. In 2009, Martin Luther King High School's Academic Performance Index score rose to 817 . In 2013, Martin Luther King High School attained an Academic Performance Index score of 825, scoring the highest in its school district. King is host to many Advanced Placement (AP) classes. King is supports and host many different sports and activities. Martin Luther King High School", "Martin Luther King III joint statement, announcing the re-election of Martin Luther King III as President and CEO of The King Center. \"It's the right time, and Martin is in the right place to take this great organization forward,\" Dexter King said in a statement. Bernice King said she is \"proud that my brothers and I are speaking with one voice to communicate our parents' legacy to the world.\" Martin King added, \"We are definitely working together. My brother and sister and I are constantly in communication...It's a great time for us.\" As president of The King Center, King has been credited with spearheading", "Robert F. Kennedy's speech on the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. the events surrounding it, was produced by Covenant Productions at Anderson University and released in 2008. It includes interviews with associates of Kennedy and members of the audience. The speech was performed verbatim by Linus Roache in the 2002 film \"RFK\". Robert F. Kennedy's speech on the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. On April 4, 1968, Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York delivered an improvised speech several hours after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.. Kennedy, who was campaigning to earn the Democratic Party's presidential nomination, made his remarks while in Indianapolis, Indiana, after speaking at two", "Martin Luther King High School (Riverside, California) Martin Luther King High School (Riverside, California) Martin Luther King High School (or King) is a comprehensive public high school in Riverside, California. It is a two-time California Distinguished School and currently a part of the Big VIII League and ranks amongst the best schools in the area and the nation. Martin Luther King High School has served 15 years as host for \"King High Remembers\" a program created by Mr. John Corona of the Social Science Department to honor the veterans. In addition, the high school provides programs like Project Lead the Way (PLTW), Distributive Education Clubs of America", "Martin Luther King Jr. Day Greater Philadelphia King Day of Service, the largest event in the nation honoring King. Several other universities and organizations around the U.S., such as Arizona State University, Greater DC Cares and City Year, participate in the Martin Luther King Jr. Day of Service. In honor of MLK, hundreds of Volunteer Centers, and volunteers across the country donate their time to make a difference on this day. The only other official national day of service in the U.S., as designated by the government, is September 11 National Day of Service (9/11 Day). One place outside the U.S. where Martin Luther King", "Martin Luther King Sr. Community Resources Collaborative Martin Luther King Sr. Community Resources Collaborative The Martin Luther King Sr. Community Resources Collaborative named after the late Reverend turned community activist Martin Luther King Sr., held its official dedication ceremony, November 4, 2012. The 8-million-dollar brick complex is located at 101 Jackson Street NE, in the \"National Historic King District,\" of Atlanta, Georgia, which is also known as the Sweet Auburn and Old Fourth Ward Districts. The Collaborative, often referred to as the MLK Sr. CRC, is three stories tall and houses the fellowship hall of Historic Ebenezer Baptist Church, where Reverend King Sr. once pastored and co-pastored", "Martin Luther King High School (Philadelphia) Martin Luther King High School (Philadelphia) Martin Luther King High School is a neighborhood public high school located in the West Oaklane section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States, at the intersection of Stenton Avenue and Haines Street. It is a neighborhood school, meaning no application is necessary for those students who live in the West Oak Lane and Germantown sections of Philadelphia. The school opened on February 8, 1972. Originally it housed grades 9-10, while nearby Germantown High School housed grades 11-12, as the school district intended to keep students in Northwest Philadelphia economically integrated. Multiple students were stabbed and", "Martin Luther King Jr. Expressway (Portsmouth) to be tolled $1.00 for non-tunnel users and $.50 for users who also travel through the tunnel. However, Virginia Governor Terry McAuliffe announced on July 10, 2015, that $78 million of construction money originally designated for the now defunct Route 460 project (which was another PPP approved by his predecessor, Bob McDonnell) would be reallocated to buy out the MLK Freeway tolls for the remainder of the concession period. Martin Luther King Jr. Expressway (Portsmouth) The Martin Luther King Freeway is a stretch of U.S. Route 58 (US 58) in the state of Virginia that connects State Route 164 (SR", "Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act The Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act, or MLK Records Act, is proposed legislation that would release United States government records pertaining to the life and death of Martin Luther King Jr. Versions of the law have been proposed on multiple occasions, and a complete version was brought to both houses of the United States Congress in 2005–2006. In the years after King was assassinated, reports emerged that the government was destroying sensitive documents related to the murder case. The FBI was criticized for appearing unusually reluctant to release records pertaining to", "Martin Luther King Sr. King delivered the invocation at the 1976 and 1980 Democratic National Conventions. King was also a member of Omega Psi Phi. King Sr.'s wife and King Jr.'s mother, Alberta, was murdered by Marcus Wayne Chenault on Sunday, June 30, 1974, at the Ebenezer Baptist Church during Sunday services. Chenault was a 23-year-old black man from Ohio who stood up and yelled, \"You are serving a false God\", and began to fire from two pistols while Alberta was playing \"The Lord's Prayer\" on the church organ. Upon capture, the assassin disclosed that his intended target was Martin Luther King Sr., who", "Martin Luther King Jr. Day have been those who thought they could kill the dream by slaying the dreamer, but – as the example of King's life shows – such people are always wrong. Every year, since 1986, the Dr. Martin Luther King Tribute and Dinner is held in Wassenaar, The Netherlands. The Tribute includes young people and veterans of the Civil Rights Movement as well as music. it always ends with everyone holding hands in a circle and singing \"We Shall Overcome.\" The Tribute is held on the last Sunday in January and bridges Dr. King's birthday and Black History Month. 1985–2100 Martin Luther", "Martin Luther King High School (Philadelphia) hit with metal pipes during a December 5, 1972 altercation between gangs. Some neighborhoods in proximity to King, such as East Mount Airy and West Oak Lane, wanted King to become a 9-12 school because Germantown High was located near poorer areas. Eventually Germantown and King became separate 9-12 schools. The campuses are about apart. On October 26, 1999, 16-year-old Donald McNeil was shot and killed outside of Martin Luther King High School. Sources say he and a girl classmate were arguing, when the girl then told McNeil she would get her \"cousins\" on him. McNeil was a sophomore with", "Martin Luther King Jr. followed in her husband's footsteps and was active in matters of social justice and civil rights until her death in 2006. The same year that Martin Luther King was assassinated, she established the King Center in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to preserving his legacy and the work of championing nonviolent conflict resolution and tolerance worldwide. Their son, Dexter King, serves as the center's chairman. Daughter Yolanda King, who died in 2007, was a motivational speaker, author and founder of Higher Ground Productions, an organization specializing in diversity training. Even within the King family, members disagree about his religious and political views", "Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (Dwight sculpture) vandalized with red paint. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (Dwight sculpture) Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is an outdoor 2007 bronze sculpture of Martin Luther King Jr. by American artist Ed Dwight, installed at Hermann Park's McGovern Centennial Gardens in Houston, Texas, in the United States. The sculpture was vandalized with white paint in August 2017. John D. Harden, Margaret Kadifa, Mike Morris, and Brooke A. Lewis of the \"Houston Chronicle\" noted that the vandalism occurred around the same time that protesters demanded the removal of Confederate monuments and memorials in Houston, and the same day that the city's statue", "Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (Dwight sculpture) Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (Dwight sculpture) Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is an outdoor 2007 bronze sculpture of Martin Luther King Jr. by American artist Ed Dwight, installed at Hermann Park's McGovern Centennial Gardens in Houston, Texas, in the United States. The sculpture was vandalized with white paint in August 2017. John D. Harden, Margaret Kadifa, Mike Morris, and Brooke A. Lewis of the \"Houston Chronicle\" noted that the vandalism occurred around the same time that protesters demanded the removal of Confederate monuments and memorials in Houston, and the same day that the city's statue of Christopher Columbus was", "Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story for social change. \"Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story\" became a major attraction on his website, and the next \"Overstreet Comic Book Price Guide\" listed the book for the first time. By 2006, there were only a handful of copies of \"Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story\" left in existence. That year, cartoonist/archivist Ethan Persoff scanned an original copy of the comic and posted it on his blog for Martin Luther King, Jr. Day. In 2008, Persoff reported that the Cairo director of the American Islamic Congress (AIC) had translated the scanned comic into Arabic and Persian. The", "Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story is a 16-page comic book about Martin Luther King, Jr., Rosa Parks, and the Montgomery Bus Boycott published in 1957 by the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR USA). It advocates the principles of nonviolence and provides a primer on nonviolent resistance. Although ignored by the mainstream comics industry, \"The Montgomery Story\" was widely distributed among civil rights groups, churches, and schools. It helped inspire nonviolent protest movements around the Southern United States, and later in Latin America, South Africa, the Middle East, and elsewhere. Over 50 years", "Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act Archive, and would charge the Archivist of the United States to maintain all disclosed records. The law would also create a Review Board to oversee the proper disclosure of records. Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act The Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act, or MLK Records Act, is proposed legislation that would release United States government records pertaining to the life and death of Martin Luther King Jr. Versions of the law have been proposed on multiple occasions, and a complete version was brought to both houses of the United States Congress in 2005–2006. In the years after", "Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story Lewis' own story would make strong material for comic book treatment: Aydin repeatedly suggested that Lewis himself write a comic book, and eventually Lewis decided to commit to the project, on the condition that Aydin write it with him. The award-winning \"March\" trilogy, written by Lewis & Aydin, illustrated by Nate Powell, and published beginning in 2013 by Top Shelf Productions, is the result. Top Shelf's authorized re-issue of \"Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story\" won the 2014 Glyph Comics Award for Best Reprint Publication. Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story", "Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park availability. In 1968, after King's death, Coretta Scott King founded the Martin Luther King Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change. Since 1981 the Center has been housed in a building that is part of the King complex located on Auburn Avenue adjacent to Ebenezer Baptist Church. In 1977, a memorial tomb was dedicated to King. His remains were moved to the tomb, on a plaza between the center and the church. King's gravesite and a reflecting pool are located next to Freedom Hall. After her death, Mrs. King was interred with her husband on February 7, 2006. An eternal flame", "Martin Luther King High School (Philadelphia) team forfeited. After Germantown closed in 2013 much of its athletic roster joined King's football team. Ed Dunn served as the volunteer head coach of the post-2013 King football team. He had previously worked as a mathematics teacher but had been laid off. In its first year as a merged team, the King football team won its first Philadelphia Public League championship after having nine straight wins. Feeder K-8 schools: Feeder middle schools: Feeder elementary schools: The John L. Kinsey School fed into King prior to Kinsey's closure. Martin Luther King High School (Philadelphia) Martin Luther King High School is", "Martin Luther King High School (Detroit) (1959–62). In September 1967, Eastern High School relocated to 3200 East Lafayette Boulevard; bordering historic Elmwood Cemetery, within walking distance of Detroit's central business district. In September 1968, Eastern was renamed as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Senior High School; the official school colors were changed from orange and black, to gold and black; the school logo/mascot was changed from an American Indian, to the Crusaders. The Crusader women's basketball program has enjoyed tremendous success. Over the past twenty-six seasons, King High School – coached by William Winfield – has appeared in eleven Michigan High School Athletic Association championship finals", "Martin Luther King Jr. Park (ca. 1926). The park was designed in 1874 by Frederick Law Olmsted and originally connected to Delaware Park via the Humboldt Parkway. That connection was lost in the early 1960s with the construction of the Kensington Expressway. The park originally contained a large wooden refectory, designed by Calvert Vaux; it was destroyed by fire in 1877. In July 2009, a neatly manicured, tree-and flower-filled pedestrian pathway was unveiled by the Buffalo Olmsted Parks Conservancy. Martin Luther King Jr. Park Martin Luther King Jr. Park, originally The Parade and after 1896, Humboldt Park, is a historic park located in Buffalo in", "Martin Luther King Jr. Park Martin Luther King Jr. Park Martin Luther King Jr. Park, originally The Parade and after 1896, Humboldt Park, is a historic park located in Buffalo in Erie County, New York. The park is located in east Buffalo and bisected by Fillmore Avenue. The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. The park is on a , slightly \"L\"-shaped site and was originally conceived as a place for military displays and active children's sports. It contains four contributing structures: The brick Shelter House (1904), Buffalo Museum of Science building (1926), Greenhouse (1907), and Humboldt Park Casino", "Martin Luther King Jr. Day discrimination in federal and state law. The campaign for a federal holiday in King's honor began soon after his assassination in 1968. President Ronald Reagan signed the holiday into law in 1983, and it was first observed three years later. At first, some states resisted observing the holiday as such, giving it alternative names or combining it with other holidays. It was officially observed in all 50 states for the first time in 2000. The idea of Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a holiday was promoted by labor unions in contract negotiations. After King's death, U.S. Representative John Conyers", "Martin Luther King III 2006 sale of some of Martin Luther King Jr.'s documents. In response, Dexter King accused his siblings of continuously using their parents' legacy for their own benefit and \"to further their own personal and religious agendas.\" Although critics said the lawsuit was at odds with their father's message and legacy, King III maintained it was in keeping with his history of negotiation and nonviolent direct action, claiming, \"My father also used the court system.\" Dexter filed a similar countersuit against Martin and Bernice on August 18, 2008, claiming they breached their duties to the King Center and their father's estate,", "Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. The sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King Jr., comprise an extensive catalog of American writing and oratory – some of which are internationally well-known, while others remain unheralded, and some await re-discovery. Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent African-American clergyman, a civil rights leader, and a Nobel laureate. King himself observed, \"In the quiet recesses of my heart, I am fundamentally a clergyman, a Baptist preacher.\" The famous \"I Have a Dream\" address was delivered in August 1963 from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. Less well-remembered", "Martin Luther King Drive station has sometimes been called \"The Hill\", though the area is not within the state designated Bergen Hill Historic District. The 100th affiliate of the National Urban League is located on MLK Drive., which is one of the city's shopping districts. The Cunningham Branch of the Jersey City Public Library, the city's newest named for former mayor Glenn Dale Cunningham, is located on MLK Drive. Lincoln High School and St. Patrick's Parish and Buildings, listed on National Register of Historic Places is nearby at Grand Street and Bramhall Avenue. Martin Luther King Drive station The Martin Luther King Drive station of", "Martin Luther King Jr. Federal Building the railroad network, which then handled most long-distance mail. Later the building became a Federal office building, receiving its present name in 1988. The General Services Administration (GSA) undertook renovation in 2012, as far as possible in line with current \"green building\" criteria. Martin Luther King Jr. Federal Building The Martin Luther King Jr. Federal Building (shorter form King Federal Building) is a building in Atlanta, Georgia. It was completed in 1933 in Modernist style for the United States Postal Service, and is now used as office accommodation by the United States Federal Government. It is included in the National", "Martin Luther King Jr. High School (Lithonia, Georgia) MLK. Martin Luther King Jr. High School (Lithonia, Georgia) Martin Luther King Jr. High School is a public high school located in Lithonia, Georgia, United States. It opened in August 2001 as the newest high school in the DeKalb County School System, and was named after the late civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. The school was opened to alleviate overcrowding in surrounding middle schools. It originally included only grades 6-7 and 9-10. Tenth grade students came from Lithonia and Southwest DeKalb High Schools to relieve crowding and also due to the rezoning of DeKalb County. The following year,", "Martin Luther King Jr. High School (Lithonia, Georgia) Martin Luther King Jr. High School (Lithonia, Georgia) Martin Luther King Jr. High School is a public high school located in Lithonia, Georgia, United States. It opened in August 2001 as the newest high school in the DeKalb County School System, and was named after the late civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. The school was opened to alleviate overcrowding in surrounding middle schools. It originally included only grades 6-7 and 9-10. Tenth grade students came from Lithonia and Southwest DeKalb High Schools to relieve crowding and also due to the rezoning of DeKalb County. The following year, after", "Martin Luther King Jr. Federal Building Martin Luther King Jr. Federal Building The Martin Luther King Jr. Federal Building (shorter form King Federal Building) is a building in Atlanta, Georgia. It was completed in 1933 in Modernist style for the United States Postal Service, and is now used as office accommodation by the United States Federal Government. It is included in the National Register of Historic Places. The building was constructed by the Work Projects Administration, a New Deal agency, reflecting the expansion of Federal activity at that time. It was located adjacent to Terminal Station in Spring Street, and mail was transferred via tunnels from", "Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library The Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library (also known locally as the MLK Library) is a 136-foot (41 m) tall public library in downtown San Jose, California, which had its grand opening on August 16, 2003. , it is the largest library building in the western United States built in a single construction project, with over 475,000 square feet (44,000 m²) of space on eight floors and approximately 1.6 million volumes. The King Library is a collaboration between the City of San José and San José State University: it is the main library for", "Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway (Jacksonville) route after him, and the change was effected on January 15, 2001, the 72nd anniversary of the slain leader's birth. Jacksonville was one of the last major cities in the country to rename a road for Dr. King; by choosing this route, the city was able to pay homage and yet because the entire route is without any addresses, either residential or business, the council was able to avoid irritating constituents, as often happens with such name changes. For the same reason, the frontage roads are still named Haines Street. Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway (Jacksonville) The Martin Luther King", "Bust of Martin Luther King Jr. (Alston) bust of King. A second cast of Alston's bust of King was donated to the National Museum of African American History and Culture in January 2016. Bust of Martin Luther King Jr. (Alston) A bronze bust of Martin Luther King Jr. was made by African-American artist Charles Alston in 1970, two years after King was assassinated. Alston received a commission from the Reverend Donald S. Harrington, of the Community Church of New York, to create a bust of King for $5,000. Five bronze busts were cast in 1970, each approximately high. One cast was acquired in 1974 for the collection", "Martin Luther King Jr. with the phenomenon of self-defense in the movement. He publicly discouraged it as a widespread practice, but acknowledged that it was sometimes necessary. Throughout his career King was frequently protected by other civil rights activists who carried arms, such as Colonel Stone Johnson, Robert Hayling, and the Deacons for Defense and Justice. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was an avid supporter of Native American rights. Native Americans were also active supporters of Dr. King's Civil Rights Movement which included the active participation of Native Americans. In fact, the Native American Rights Fund (NARF) was patterned after the NAACP’s Legal Defense", "Martin Luther King III he began to endure racial comments and insults from a Caucasian boy in his class, who also happened to like to draw. When he approached the boy and complimented him on a drawing of his, the harassment ceased. He was ten years old when his father was assassinated. Years prior to his father's death, Harry Belafonte set up a trust fund for King and his siblings. After he attended The Galloway School, he attended Morehouse College, the same school his father, his grandfather, and his great-grandfather attended. Martin Luther King III is a member of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, as", "Martin Luther King High School (Riverside, California) and have achieved gold status each time. The King Choirs hold five concerts each year Fall, Winter, Cabaret, Spring, the end-of-the-year barbecue in the King School's outdoor amphitheater. \"King High School\". Riverside Unified School District. Riverside Unified School District. Archived from the original on December 11, 2010. Retrieved November 6, 2010. Martin Luther King High School (Riverside, California) Martin Luther King High School (or King) is a comprehensive public high school in Riverside, California. It is a two-time California Distinguished School and currently a part of the Big VIII League and ranks amongst the best schools in the area and", "Martin Luther King Jr. Day the day as part of break. Some factories and manufacturers used MLK Day as a floating or movable holiday. The national Martin Luther King Day of Service was started by former Pennsylvania U.S. Senator Harris Wofford and Atlanta Congressman John Lewis, who co-authored the King Holiday and Service Act. The federal legislation challenges Americans to transform the King Holiday into a day of citizen action volunteer service in honor of King. The federal legislation was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on August 23, 1994. Since 1996, Wofford's former state office director, Todd Bernstein, has been directing the annual", "Parc Clichy-Batignolles – Martin-Luther-King Parc Clichy-Batignolles – Martin-Luther-King The Parc Clichy-Batignolles or Parc Clichy-Batignolles - Martin Luther King is a green space in Paris' 17th arrondissement (district). It is part of a project to transform 54 hectares of land formerly occupied by freight yards for the French railway company SNCF. The park will eventually cover 10.8 ha, and 4 ha have been open to the public since 2007. When finished (scheduled for around 2015), it will be the largest green space in the 17th arrondissement, as well as the 8th biggest park in Paris. It is located in the Batignolles district, also extending into", "Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library community organizations without permanent offices to use wireless Internet, DVD players, projectors, and Smart Boards. The Center for Accessibility in room 215 has Braille magazines and specialists in adaptive technologies to assist disabled people. Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library (MLKML) is the central facility of the District of Columbia Public Library (DCPL). Ludwig Mies van der Rohe designed the 400,000 square foot (37,000 m²) steel, brick, and glass structure, and it is a rare example of modern architecture in Washington, D.C. This library was Mies's last building, his only public library, and", "Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library (MLKML) is the central facility of the District of Columbia Public Library (DCPL). Ludwig Mies van der Rohe designed the 400,000 square foot (37,000 m²) steel, brick, and glass structure, and it is a rare example of modern architecture in Washington, D.C. This library was Mies's last building, his only public library, and his only building constructed in Washington, D.C. The building was completed in 1972 at a cost of $18 million. Maintenance was then somewhat neglected and there were problems with the HVAC system. DCPL has", "Martin Luther King Bridge (St. Louis) January 2019. Local traffic is being asked to detour onto the Eads Bridge, which is less than a 1/2 mile downstream. Thru traffic is being asked to detour onto one of the Interstate highways in the area - either Interstate 70 via the Stan Musial Veterans Memorial Bridge, or Interstates 55/64 via the Poplar Street Bridge. The Missouri half of the bridge is designated as unsigned Route 799 by the Missouri Department of Transportation. Martin Luther King Bridge (St. Louis) The Martin Luther King Bridge (formerly known as the Veterans Bridge) in St. Louis, Missouri, is a cantilever truss bridge", "Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library stations can be operated with print cards. Cash-only copiers are available on most floors. The Library is a major nexus point for student life at SJSU. Students often arrive with their laptops and engage in study groups both at tables and in study rooms. After the Library is closed for the day to the public, it remains open for \"extended study hours\" to SJSU students, staff and faculty and to students from other approved local institutions. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library The Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library (also known locally as the MLK Library) is a 136-foot (41" ]

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[ "The New Daughter The New Daughter is a 2009 American horror film and the feature directorial debut of Spanish screenwriter Luis Berdejo. It stars Kevin Costner, Ivana Baquero and Samantha Mathis. Based on the short story of the same name by John Connolly, it tells the story of a novelist and his two children who encounter a malevolent presence when they move to a house in the country adjacent to a burial mound.", "Kevin Costner Kevin Michael Costner (born January 18, 1955) is an American actor, director, producer, and musician. His accolades include two Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and one Emmy Award." ]

[ "Michael Paré Michael Kevin Paré (born October 9, 1958) is an American actor.", "Patty Duke Anna Marie \"Patty\" Duke (December 14, 1946March 29, 2016) was an American actress, appearing on stage, film, and television. She first became known as a teen star, winning an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress at age 16 for her role as Helen Keller in \"The Miracle Worker\" (1962), a role which she had originated on Broadway. The following year she was given her own show, \"The Patty Duke Show,\" in which she portrayed \"identical cousins\". She later progressed to more mature roles such as that of Neely O'Hara in the film \"Valley of the Dolls\" (1967). Over the course of her career, she received ten Emmy Award nominations and three Emmy Awards, and two Golden Globe Awards. Duke also served as president of the Screen Actors Guild from 1985 to 1988.", "Russell Todd Russell Todd Goldberg (born March 14, 1958) is an American former film and television actor. His film and television acting career includes a part in the film \"He Knows You're Alone\" and roles in television series including \"Another World\", \"The Bold and the Beautiful\" and \"The Young and the Restless\".", "Jimmy Bridges (actor) James Daniel Bridges Jr. (born September 15, 1960 in San Francisco, California) is an American actor. He is the son of Betty A. Bridges, an actress, and James Bridges Sr. and the brother of Todd Bridges of Diff'rent Strokes and Verda Bridges. His three daughters, Penny Bae Bridges, Brooke Marie Bridges, and Rachel Bridges are all actresses.", "Dylan Penn Dylan Frances Penn (born April 13, 1991) is an American model and actress. She is the daughter of Sean Penn and Robin Wright. Her early public roles included modelling campaigns for Gap Inc., a controversial magazine cover for \"treats!\", a music video appearance in Nick Jonas' \"Chains\" and an acting role in \"Elvis & Nixon\".", "Deborah Foreman Deborah Lynn Foreman (born October 12, 1962) is an American actress. She is perhaps best known for her starring role in the 1983 movie \"Valley Girl\", as \"Julie Richman\" acting opposite Nicolas Cage as \"Randy\".", "Elisabeth Shue Elisabeth Judson Shue (born October 6, 1963) is an American actress, known for her roles in the films \"The Karate Kid\" (1984), \"Adventures in Babysitting\" (1987), \"Cocktail\" (1988), \"Back to the Future Part II\" (1989), \"Back to the Future Part III\" (1990), \"Soapdish\" (1991), \"Leaving Las Vegas\" (1995), \"The Saint\" (1997), and \"Hollow Man\" (2000). She has won several acting awards and has been nominated for an Academy Award, a Golden Globe and a BAFTA. She starred as Julie Finlay in the CBS police drama \"\" from 2012 to 2015.", "Joe Mantegna Joseph Anthony Mantegna ( , ] ; born November 13, 1947) is an American actor, producer, writer and director.", "Tim Thomerson Joseph Timothy \"Tim\" Thomerson (born April 8, 1946) is an American actor and comedian.", "John Getz John Getz (born October 15, 1946) is an American actor.", "Paul Le Mat Paul Le Mat (born September 22, 1945) is an American actor. He first came to prominence with his role in \"American Graffiti\" (1973); his performance was met with critical acclaim and earned him the Golden Globe Award for New Star Of The Year - Actor.", "Glenn Plummer Glenn E. Plummer (born August 18, 1961) is an American film and television actor.", "Maude Apatow Maude Apatow (born December 15, 1997) is an American actress. She is the elder daughter of director Judd Apatow and actress Leslie Mann and is known for her roles as the daughter to her real-life mother's characters in \"Knocked Up\" (2007), \"Funny People\" (2009), and \"This Is 40\" (2012).", "Jeff McCarthy Jeff McCarthy (born October 16, 1954) is an American actor.", "The Son-Daughter The Son-Daughter is a 1932 American pre-Code drama film directed by Clarence Brown and written by John F. Goodrich, Claudine West and Leon Gordon. The film stars Helen Hayes, Ramon Novarro, Lewis Stone, Warner Oland and Ralph Morgan. The film was released on December 23, 1932, by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.", "Gambling Daughters Gambling Daughters is a 1941 American mystery film directed by Max Nosseck and starring Cecilia Parker, Roger Pryor and Robert Baldwin.", "Fred Willard Frederick Charles \"Fred\" Willard (born September 18, 1939) is an American actor, comedian, voice actor and writer, best known for his improvisational comedy. He is known for his roles in the Rob Reiner mockumentary film \"This Is Spinal Tap\", the Christopher Guest mockumentary films \"Waiting for Guffman\", \"Best in Show\", \"A Mighty Wind\", \"For Your Consideration\", and \"Mascots\", and the \"\" films. He is an alumnus of The Second City. He received three Emmy nominations for his recurring role on the TV series \"Everybody Loves Raymond\" as Robert Barone's father-in-law, Hank MacDougall. In 2010 he received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his role on the ABC TV series \"Modern Family\" as Phil Dunphy's father, Frank Dunphy.", "Guru Singh Gurpreet \"Guru\" Singh (born March 21, 1980) is an American actor.", "Kelly Curtis Kelly Lee Curtis (born June 17, 1956) is an American actress. She is best known for her film roles in \"Trading Places\" (1983), \"Magic Sticks\" (1987), and \"The Devil's Daughter\" (1991).", "Trent Lewis Thomas Trent Lewis II (born 16 November 1979), known professionally as Trent Lewis, is an American actor." ]

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[ "Fiat Croma of this car were not marketed in the United Kingdom. In March 2005, Fiat announced a large crossover wagon with an upright tailgate, reminiscent of that of the Fiat Stilo, resurrecting the Croma nameplate. Again, Giugiaro styled the exterior, while the chassis was provided via the short lived link with General Motors. The new Croma (Type 194) is therefore based on the extended variant of the GM Epsilon platform sharing components with the Opel Vectra and Saab 9-3. It went on sale in Italy in June 2005. The car was shown in the Geneva Motor Show in 2005. Unlike the", "Fiat Croma look) and rear bumper, as well as some material changes inside are the main differences. Fiat now designates the revised model as \"Station Wagon\" instead of the previously used term \"Comfort Wagon\".<ref name=\"italiaspeed.com/new_models/2007\"></ref> The \"Nuova Croma\" was only sold in mainland Europe, not including the United Kingdom. The Croma, built at Fiat's Cassino factory, had three trim levels and five engine options. Like the chassis, petrol engines were supplied by Opel, beginning with the brand new evolution of the Family 1 \"Ecotec\" 1.8 L with 140 PS (103 kW), followed by the torquier L850 \"Ecotec\" 2.2 L with 147 PS", "Fiat Croma Fiat Croma Fiat Croma is the name used for two different large family cars produced by Italian automaker Fiat, one a five door liftback built from 1985 to 1996, and the other a crossover station wagon built from 2005 to 2010. The original Croma (Type 154) was a five door notchback liftback penned by Giorgetto Giugiaro of Ital Design and built on the Type Four platform, which was designed in cooperation between several companies and was also used for the Saab 9000, Lancia Thema and Alfa Romeo 164. It was released in May 1985. Although the other models were executive", "Fiat Croma cars, the Croma was marketed in the large family car segment, replacing the Fiat Argenta in the Fiat lineup. The Croma was the first large car produced by Fiat to feature a transverse mounted engine and front wheel drive. The Croma received a light facelift for 1988, first shown in Frankfurt in September 1987. The black plastic between the rear lamps was now ridged rather than smooth, the lower portion of the bumpers were body coloured, and the turn signals received clear glass rather than amber. A more significant facelift was released in January 1991, with a new front design,", "Fiat Croma previous model, and aware of its lack of image in the upper market segments, Fiat opted for not developing a standard large family car, but developing a \"Comfort Wagon\", an automobile with design elements of both estates and large MPVs. Its height of falls between the Mitsubishi Grandis and Ford S-Max large MPVs ( and respectively) and SEAT Altea XL (). In February 2007, Fiat UK announced that the Croma would no longer be generally available in the United Kingdom, after less than 900 were sold in the whole of 2005. The car was still offered only on special order,", "Fiat Croma including changes to the lights, bumpers grille and sheet metal changes to wings and bonnet. Also in 1991, the direct injected diesel engine was equipped with a variable geometry turbocharger (\"VNT\"). Another facelift was released in June 1993. Production ceased in December 1996, and Fiat abandoned the large family car segment. Because the Bravo/Brava based Fiat Marea small family car débuted at the same time, it is sometimes said that the Marea replaced the Croma, but in fact Fiat never had a large family car after the Croma (until the resurrection in 2005), and Fiat eventually abandoned this segment of", "Fiat Croma (108 kW). However, the bulk of the sales is represented by Fiat's own Multijet engine, available in three variants 1.9 L with 8 valves and 120 PS (88 kW), 1.9 L with 16 valves and 150 PS (110 kW), and the range topper five cylinder 2.4 L 20V, with 200 PS(147 kW). The diesel engines were fitted with a standard six speed manual gearbox, six speed automatic (standard on 2.4 engines) is also available. Fiat Croma Fiat Croma is the name used for two different large family cars produced by Italian automaker Fiat, one a five door liftback built from", "Fiat Croma the worldwide market altogether. The Croma was available with a variety of petrol and diesel engines, the former from the Fiat DOHC engine family. Base models had the 1585 cc, and 1995 cc, 90 PS (66 kW) \"Controlled High Turbulence\" (CHT) powerplants, followed by two fuel injected 2.0 L units, one with 120 PS (88 kW) and the other a turbocharged and intercooled version giving . The later 2.5 L petrol V6 unit was from Alfa Romeo, but as with the 1.6 L engine, was not available in all markets. The 2.0 CHT was designed specifically to provide low fuel", "Fiat Croma consumption under light and medium loads thanks to two separate inlet manifolds of different diameters. The Fiat Croma was the first passenger car in the world to have a direct injection Diesel (Turbo D i.d.) engine, in 1986. Other diesel engines were the Fiat's 1.9 L fitted with a turbocharger with direct injection, giving 92 PS (68 kW), and the 2499 cc unit supplied by Iveco, with a normally aspirated version giving 75 PS (55 kW) and a turbocharged one with 115 PS (85 kW). This one replaced the original 2446 cc with 100 PS (74 kW). Diesel engined variants" ]

[ "Fiat Croma with RHD models manufactured to customer specifications. Production of the second generation Croma ceased in the end of 2010. Despite not being a showroom hit, the Croma managed to sell in quite reasonable numbers, with 65,000 sold in one year alone. The Croma has seven airbags as standard, including one knee bag for the driver. As standard, the Croma is equipped with anti-lock braking system and electronic brakeforce distribution. It has a five star EuroNCAP crash rating for adult occupant protection: The Croma got a minor facelift in November 2007, and was termed the \"Nuova Croma\". A new grille (Bravo", "Croma Security work takes place on the South Coast, however increasing demand for its services in London and Scotland led to the addition of engineers to the roster in these locations also. Croma Security Systems heavily supports local businesses and communities, including Hampshire County Council and Southampton City Council, and even undertook charitable work for an arson-hit nursery. Croma Security Croma Security Solutions Group PLC (CSS Group PLC or \"Croma Security\") ( previously Access Lock and Key ) is a holding company for a group of four security companies. It is publicly traded on the London Stock Exchange Group AIM market and", "Croma Security large tranche of these are ex-Special Forces. Croma Security Systems is the electronic security division of the group, engaged in the consultation, design, supply, installation, maintenance and servicing of bespoke integrated CCTV, intruder alarm, fire alarm, access control and revenue parking systems. The division operates a rabble of engineers and a fleet of corresponding vehicles to allocate and delegate its works. Croma Security Systems comprises predominantly CSS Total Security Ltd, but includes other companies purchased by CSS Total Security Ltd prior the reverse takeover of Croma Group PLC, including Alarm Bell Ltd and Arlo Parking Ltd. Most of the divisions", "Croma Security Croma Security Croma Security Solutions Group PLC (CSS Group PLC or \"Croma Security\") ( previously Access Lock and Key ) is a holding company for a group of four security companies. It is publicly traded on the London Stock Exchange Group AIM market and is based in the Solent Business Park, Whiteley, Hampshire. It has further offices in London, Dumfries, and Abu Dhabi, with Locksmith outlets along the South Coast. The group is involved in many aspects of security from guarding to locksmithing and many types of electronic security. The group currently employs (through its subsidiaries) over 500 people, with", "Croma Security and Roberto Fiorentino in position of CEO. The companies TIDM changed from \"CMG.L\" to \"CSSG.L\". As of the takeover, Croma Security Solutions Group PLC (CSSG) was born, offering comprehensive and turnkey security solutions to HNWIs, UHNWIs, and large corporate clients. On December 9, 2015, Croma Security Solutions Group PLC formally announced its acquisition of Access Locksmiths Ltd t/a Access Key & Lock. Access Key & Lock was founded and owned by former County Locksmiths employee Mark Whettingsteel, who will now join The Board as an Executive Director, and act as Managing Director for the newly formed 'Croma Locksmiths & Security", "Thor Motor Coach Thor Motor Coach Thor Motor Coach, an American manufacturer of recreation vehicles located in Elkhart, IN, produces nearly one out of every four motorhomes sold each year and is the top retail selling motorhome manufacturer in North America. They make Class A and Class C motorhomes and are a subsidiary of Thor Industries, Inc. Thor Motor Coach was formed in September 2010 as a strategic merger of Thor Industries, Inc. subsidiaries Damon Motor Coach and Four Winds International. Thor Motor Coach produces a large variety of \"A\" class and \"C\" class motorhomes. Class A models traditionally are the larger models", "Croma Security The Division operates from 7 locations along the South Coast: All branches operate an emergency call-out service. Croma Biometrics is the biometric division of the group, focusing much of its efforts on FastVein™, its proprietary software/hardware vein recognition technology which was developed with Hitachi.The biometrics division comprises Photobase Ltd, and some previous CSS Total Security employees. This division is heavily involved in Research & Development. Its services include identity management, Time and attendance solutions, and Access Control. Croma Biometric's Fastvein product was used in the London 2012 Olympic Games, with Chief Superintendent, David Griffith of Dorset Police describing it as", "Royal Purple (lubricant manufacturer) jumps on top of is a Royal Purple delivery van. The driver slams on the brakes and dumps Salt onto the road in front of the stopped van. In the 2013 movie \"Safe Haven\" by Nicholas Sparks, Josh Duhamel wears a Royal Purple motor oil T-shirt. Royal Purple (lubricant manufacturer) Royal Purple is an American manufacturer which produces lubricants for automotive, industrial, marine, motorcycle, and racing use. It is known primarily for its line of synthetic Royal Purple Motor Oil products used in gasoline and diesel engines. They also produce other fluids including gear oil, transmission fluid, power steering fluid", "Model rocket motor classification 1982 to further clarify the motor code by writing the total impulse in Newton-seconds before the code. This allowed the burn duration to be computed from the provided numbers. Additionally, the motor code was followed by a letter designation denoting the type of propellant. The propellant designations are manufacturer specific. This standard is still not fully adopted, with some manufactuers adopting parts or all of the additional nomenclature. In many countries, the sale, possession, and use of model rocket motors is subject to governmental rules and regulations. High-power rockets in the United States are only federally regulated in their flight", "Model rocket motor classification guidelines by the FAA. These regulations are codified in FAA FAR Part 101. Rockets under 125g propellant and 1500g liftoff mass are exempt from most requirements. Beyond that a free \"Waiver\" is required from a FAA field office. However, some of the consumer motor manufacturers and two U.S. national rocketry organizations have established a self-regulating industry and codified it in National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) \"model\" code documents, which are adopted only in specific circumstances and jurisdictions, largely in conjunction with fire and building codes. This self-regulation of industry suggests a user to become certified for use before a manufacturer", "Motor Trend Car of the Year Motor Trend Car of the Year The \"Motor Trend\" Car of the Year (COTY) is an annual award given by \"Motor Trend\" magazine to recognize the best new or significantly refreshed car in a given model year. \"Motor Trend\", which debuted in 1949, was the first publication to name a Car of the Year. The inaugural \"Motor Trend\" Car of the Year award recognized Cadillac's V8 engine in 1949. The earliest awards were given to the manufacturer or division, not for a specific vehicle. The 1958 Ford Thunderbird became the first single model to be selected. In 1970, the Ford", "Croma Security the alarm is triggered. Croma Vigilant is the groups 'manpower', investigations and Asset Protection branch, supplying Manned Guarding, Keyholding, Close protection, private investigation and covert surveillance. Croma Vigilant is a trading style of Vigilant Security Services Ltd and is run by Major Sebastian Morley, the group's executive Chairman who famously ended his military career as a Squadron Commander of 23 SAS amid claims that the military was \"under resourced\" and attributed the deaths of numerous servicemen to this. Given Mr Morley's background, a strong military ethos has been adopted and is emphasised throughout; close to all personnel are ex-forces, a", "Royal Purple (lubricant manufacturer) Royal Purple (lubricant manufacturer) Royal Purple is an American manufacturer which produces lubricants for automotive, industrial, marine, motorcycle, and racing use. It is known primarily for its line of synthetic Royal Purple Motor Oil products used in gasoline and diesel engines. They also produce other fluids including gear oil, transmission fluid, power steering fluid and industrial gear, bearing, engine, and hydraulic oil. Other products include chassis and bearing grease, lubricant aerosol, aerosol chain lubricant, and firearm lubricant. The company was founded in 1986 by John Williams, a synthetic oil developer and later consultant. Due to a customer who said he", "Charles Cooper (motor manufacturer) Charles Cooper (motor manufacturer) Charles Newton \"Charlie\" Cooper (14 October 1893 – 2 October 1964) was a British motorsport mechanic, designer and entrepreneur. With his son John Cooper he founded the Cooper Car Company, which produced a string of successful racing cars through the 1950s and '60s. While John provided the enthusiasm and vigour that drove the Cooper company forward, it was Charles' shrewd business brain that provided the stability – and profitability – that laid the foundation for their sporting success. Regular works driver Jack Brabham won the World Drivers' Championship in both the and 1960 Formula One seasons", "Majorette (toy manufacturer) Majorette (toy manufacturer) Majorette is a French toy manufacturer which mostly produces small die-cast cars and other construction and military vehicles particularly in . This is a normal 2.5 to 3 inch size, thus Majorette has sometimes been called the Matchbox Toys of France. Traditionally, production was centered in the urban area of Lyon, but models are now made in Thailand. The company was founded in 1961 by Emile Véron - of the family that also created Norev (the Véron family name spelled backwards)(Richardson 1999, p. 156). Initially, model railways and accessories were made and the firm was known as", "Thor Motor Coach with the flatter front end resembling more of a \"bus\" look. Class C models are usually smaller with the cab and chassis from a van platform along with a 'cabover' sleeping area. Thor Motor Coach Thor Motor Coach, an American manufacturer of recreation vehicles located in Elkhart, IN, produces nearly one out of every four motorhomes sold each year and is the top retail selling motorhome manufacturer in North America. They make Class A and Class C motorhomes and are a subsidiary of Thor Industries, Inc. Thor Motor Coach was formed in September 2010 as a strategic merger of Thor", "MBK (Scooter manufacturer) scooters became the company's core business. Over the past decade MBK scooters have played a major part in the European scooter sales boom. Market leader in France, MBK is also a best-seller in Italy with significant stakes in the German, Belgian, Swiss, Portugal, Greek, UK, Irish, Austrian, Spanish and Finnish markets. One of the company's more popular model range is the MBK Booster. It is sold with a 50cc or 125cc motor. MBK (Scooter manufacturer) MBK (), a subsidiary of Yamaha Motor Company, is a French Scooter manufacturer, based in Rouvroy, Picardy, France. The company was first established in 1923", "Mabuchi Motor that by June 1971 over 80% of Mabuchi motors were standard products. In March 1971, the company's name was changed from Tokyo Science to Mabuchi Motor Co. Ltd. Then, in July, a new headquarters building was completed and the corporate headquarters was moved to Matsudo. The FA-130 motor was introduced. At the same time, Mabuchi was in talks with a world-class manufacturer of electric shavers which had a demand for a special core motor with the close to the same efficiency as a coreless motor. The Mabuchi brothers developed the motor, model RD-180, and it was smaller and more responsive", "Internal model (motor control) Internal model (motor control) In the subject area of control theory, an internal model is a process that simulates the response of the system in order to estimate the outcome of a system disturbance. The internal model principle was first articulated in 1976 by B. A. Francis and W. M. Wonham as an explicit formulation of the Conant and Ashby good regulator theorem. The internal model theory of motor control argues that the motor system is controlled by the constant interactions of the “plant” and the “controller.” The plant is the body part being controlled, while the internal model itself", "Internal model (motor control) the equilibrium-point hypothesis (motor commands λ are taken as coordinates of the internal space). The input motor command λ is found by minimizing the length of the path traveled in the internal space, either under the acoustical constraint (the first model), or under the both acoustical and mechanical constraints (the second model). The acoustical constraint is related to the quality of the produced speech (measured in terms of formants), while the mechanical one is related to the stiffness of the tongue's body. The first model, in which the stiffness remains uncontrolled, is in agreement with the standard UCM hypothesis. In", "Charles Cooper (motor manufacturer) son John was the Cooper figurehead and works team manager, Charles as managing director provided a steady hand and sound business acumen that kept the Cooper company financially stable. Following a number of years' declining health Charles Cooper died in late 1964, just under two weeks short of his 71st birthday. John found that he was unable to keep the team going by himself and he sold it less than a year later. Charles Cooper (motor manufacturer) Charles Newton \"Charlie\" Cooper (14 October 1893 – 2 October 1964) was a British motorsport mechanic, designer and entrepreneur. With his son John", "Croma Security Solutions' Division. In the financial year prior to the acquisition, Access' turnover was GBP2.4 million, with gross profits of GBP300,000. All 38 staff will join the 500+ strong team already employed by the company. ‘The Group’ now has four operating subsidiaries, most of which operate from different regions and offices due to the geographical diversity and nature of its contracts and customer portfolio. 'Croma Locksmiths' comprises the businesses of CSS Locksmiths Ltd, and as of 9 December 2015, Access Locksmiths Ltd. The division's services include the supply, installation, and maintenance of locks, safes, keys, and other ironmongery and door furniture.", "Croma Security Photobase Ltd. This allowed CSS to offer Close Protection, Keyholding, Manned Guarding, and further biometric security services to its customers. Photobase was responsible for creating the software / hardware system which is FastVein™. After the acquisition of Alarm Bell Ltd & Arlo Parking Ltd, CSS Total Security & County Locksmiths became known as the \"CSS Group\". In June 2012, Croma Group PLC and the \"CSS Group\" went through a merger and flotation on the AIM market, with the intention of becoming the UK's leading \"Total Security Services Provider\", with former Black Watch and Special Forces Officer Sebastian Morley as Chairman,", "Original equipment manufacturer Original equipment manufacturer An original equipment manufacturer (OEM) is a company that produces parts and equipment that may be marketed by another manufacturer. For example, Foxconn, a Taiwanese electronics contract manufacturing company, which produces a variety of parts and equipment for companies such as Apple Inc., Dell, Google, Huawei, Nintendo, Xiaomi, etc., is the largest OEM company in the world by both scale and revenue. The term is also used in several other ways, which causes ambiguity. It sometimes means the maker of a system that includes other companies' subsystems, an end-product producer, an automotive part that is manufactured by", "Internal model (motor control) motor command output from the inverse model can be used as an input to a forward model for further predictions. For example, if, in addition to reaching with the arm, the hand must be controlled to grab an object, an efference copy of the arm motor command can be input into a forward model to estimate the arm's predicted trajectory. With this information, the controller can then generate the appropriate motor command telling the hand to grab the object. It has been proposed that if they exist, this combination of inverse and forward models would allow the CNS to take", "Motor Coach Industries different schemes have been used: 1985–2001 2001–present Motor Coach Industries currently produces three different product lines. All current models are wide, exclusive of mirrors. These models bore the MC-\"number\" designation. Motor Coach Industries Motor Coach Industries (MCI) is a brand of motorcoaches manufactured by New Flyer Industries, a North American bus manufacturer based in Canada. The company was incorporated in 1933 as Fort Garry Motor Body and Paint Works Limited, in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada by Harry Zoltok. In 1948, Greyhound Lines of Canada, at that time MCI's major customer, became a majority shareholder when it purchased 65% of the company.", "Model rocket motor classification per second burning rate (\"ATFE’s own burn rate threshold for deflagration is 1000 millimeters (or one meter) per second.\" Tripoli Rocketry Ass’n, 437 F.3d at 81-82) as the threshold for a material on the BATFE list of explosive materials. The largest vendor of model rocket motors in the world is Estes Industries. The largest vendors of high-power rocket motors in the world are Cesaroni Technology Inc. and RCS Rocket Motor Components, Inc. The very first model rocket motor certified was by Model Missiles Inc. (Orville Carslile). Circa 1958. The very first high-power rocket motor certified was by U.S. Rockets (Jerry", "Washington Motor Company Washington Motor Company The Washington Motor Company was an American automobile manufacturer based in Eaton, Ohio and later Middletown, Ohio, that produced the \"Washington\" automobile between 1921 and 1924. The company was set up by local Eaton businessman Otto M Shipley, who gained the support of other local business people to provide capital for the venture. The prototype Washington used a Falls X9000 6-cylinder engine, but it was found to use too much oil, and was replaced by a 7R Continental engine for the 1921 Model B tourer. In 1922 the Model C was introduced, which featured a larger 8R", "Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky produce, exceeding its yearly goal by 2 million pounds (930 t). The garden also produces a full crop of pumpkins used at the Toyota Child Development Center for carving at Halloween, and corn which enhances the compost pile. Model years: Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky, Inc. (TMMK) is an automobile manufacturing factory in Georgetown, Kentucky, USA. It is part of Toyota Motor Engineering & Manufacturing North America (TEMA), owned by Toyota Motor Corporation of Japan. Originally known as Toyota Motor Manufacturing USA, TMMK was established in 1986 (the first wholly owned Toyota manufacturing plant in the U.S.)", "Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada Inc. (TMMC) is a Canada-based automotive manufacturer. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Toyota Motor Corporation under its Toyota Motor Engineering & Manufacturing North America subsidiary division. TMMC currently operates two plants in Cambridge, Ontario, and another in Woodstock, Ontario. The current President of TMMC is Canadian Fred Volf. The plant currently produces Lexus RX, Toyota Corolla and Toyota RAV4 vehicles. TMMC has been in operation since 1988. TMMC is composed of three different plants — North, West and South, each building a different vehicle. The plants adhere to the Toyota", "Motor control arm dynamics (i.e. torques and forces). This recovery provides evidence that what is motivating movement is a particular motor plan, and the individual is using a forward model to predict how arm dynamics change the movement of the arm to achieve particular task level characteristics. Differences between the expected arm movement and the observed arm movement produces an error signal which is used as the basis for learning. Additional evidence for forward models comes from experiments which require subjects to determine the location of an effector following an unvisualized movement Inverse models predict the necessary movements of motor components to", "Climber Motor Company $1385 to $2400 for the Model K, and from $2250 to $3250 for the Model S. Lack of parts and finance led to the company being sold in mid-1924. The New Climber Company built approximately 200 cars from parts that were available, and then the business was wound up. Part of the Climber Motor Car Factory was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2005. Climber Motor Company The Climber Motor Company was a short lived automobile manufacturer based in Little Rock, Arkansas. Sales were targeted towards the Southern United States such as Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee, as well", "Climber Motor Company Climber Motor Company The Climber Motor Company was a short lived automobile manufacturer based in Little Rock, Arkansas. Sales were targeted towards the Southern United States such as Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee, as well as Arkansas. It is the only car ever produced in the state of Arkansas. The Climber Motor Corporation hired George Schoeneck as their Chief Engineer. Schoeneck had previously been involved with the Owen-Schoeneck and Geneva automobiles. Production started in 1919 with two models - the 4-cylinder Model K and the 6-cylinder Model S. Tourer, roadster and coupe body styles were offered for both models. Prices ranged from", "Internal model (motor control) would transform the current position into the desired one. For example, in an arm reaching task, the desired position (or a trajectory of consecutive positions) of the arm is input into the postulated inverse model, and the inverse model generates the motor commands needed to control the arm and bring it into this desired configuration (Figure 2). Inverse internal models are also in close connection with the uncontrolled manifold hypothesis (UCM), see also here. Theoretical work has shown that in models of motor control, when inverse models are used in combination with a forward model, the efference copy of the", "Taurus Model 689 686. The Model 689 stayed in production for about 10 years and then Taurus stopped producing the revolver. The Model 689 was also seen in various films. Even long after production of the 689 ceased, Taurus to this day still produces revolvers of various calibers, some of which resemble the Model 689. Taurus Model 689 The Taurus Model 689 is a double action/single action .357 magnum revolver produced in Brazil by Taurus (manufacturer). The Taurus 689 was produced from 19881998. It is DA/SA action. The Taurus Model 689 was a 6-round .357 Magnum double action revolver that began production in", "Canadian Motor Vehicle Arbitration Plan resident of Canada. Vehicles owned by businesses may be eligible if they meet certain criteria. CAMVAP is available in every Canadian province and territory. CAMVAP arbitrators can order the manufacturer to: The arbitrator can also clear the manufacturer of liability with respect to issues raised by the consumer. Canadian Motor Vehicle Arbitration Plan The Canadian Motor Vehicle Arbitration Plan (CAMVAP) is a dispute resolution program for consumers in Canada who are experiencing problems with the assembly of their vehicle or with how the manufacturer implements its new-vehicle warranty. CAMVAP covers new, used, owned or leased vehicles from the current model", "Canadian Motor Vehicle Arbitration Plan Canadian Motor Vehicle Arbitration Plan The Canadian Motor Vehicle Arbitration Plan (CAMVAP) is a dispute resolution program for consumers in Canada who are experiencing problems with the assembly of their vehicle or with how the manufacturer implements its new-vehicle warranty. CAMVAP covers new, used, owned or leased vehicles from the current model year and up to an additional four model years old. CAMVAP is an arbitration program, which is free to consumers. Hearings are held in the consumer's home community. The process normally takes less than 70 days from start to finish. Most consumers are able to handle their own", "Internal model (motor control) contrast, the second optimum internal model, in which the stiffness is prescribed, displays the good variability of speech (at least, in the reasonable range of stiffness) and is in agreement with the more recent versions of the uncontrolled manifold hypothesis (UCM). There is also a rich clinical literature on internal models including work from John Krakauer, Pietro Mazzoni, Maurice A. Smith, Kurt Thoroughman, Joern Diedrichsen, and Amy Bastian. Internal model (motor control) In the subject area of control theory, an internal model is a process that simulates the response of the system in order to estimate the outcome of a", "Croma Security 'excellent'. It was also installed in 18 HM Prisons, for bailing and enrolling inmates, as well as providing control over visitors. Croma Biometrics announced on 2 October 2015 the official launch of its Time & Attendance offering, \"Fastvein™ T&A\". The solution features a web based platform accessible from almost any internet enabled device and claims to 'far exceed[s] the benefits of a traditional card or token system'. On the 13 & 14 December 2015, both the Sunday Times and the Daily Mail respectively reported that CSS Group PLC has developed spin off of Fastvein™ for use in educational establishments. Predominantly,", "Croma Security such as iris scanning and fingerprint technology. In 2003, CSS partnered up with Cieffe and began investigating and offering video analytics to clients with high-specification CCTV systems. Revenue parking entered the scene in 2007, bringing many large contracts along with it. CSS's operations extended as far afield as Scotland in 2010 with a new office opening, broadening the companies horizons, and creating greater market opportunities. CSS acquired Alarm Bell Ltd in 2011, adding Fire Alarm and safety systems to CSS's product and service portfolio, along with becoming close business partners with Scotland-based Croma Group PLC, comprising Vigilant Security Services, and", "Daelim Motor Company Daelim Motor Company Daelim Motor Company, a.k.a. DMC, a subsidiary of the Daelim Group, is a South Korean motorcycle (<250cc), motorscooter and ATV manufacturer. Based in Gyeongsangnam-do, with production facilities in Changwon, it produces over 300,000 vehicles a year since production started in 1963. Daelim's products are popular in Germany, Spain, United Kingdom, Australia, France, Italy, Israel and Sudan. The company also manufactures engine and transmission parts for automotive industry. Founded in 1962 as a division of the Daelim Group of industries, Daelim began producing Japanese Honda motorcycle designs under license for the South Korean market in Seoul, South Korea", "Daelim Motor Company in 1963. In 1976, they established their own research and development center in Hamamatsu, Japan, and the next year, they began mass production of their own designs. Daelim Motor Company Daelim Motor Company, a.k.a. DMC, a subsidiary of the Daelim Group, is a South Korean motorcycle (<250cc), motorscooter and ATV manufacturer. Based in Gyeongsangnam-do, with production facilities in Changwon, it produces over 300,000 vehicles a year since production started in 1963. Daelim's products are popular in Germany, Spain, United Kingdom, Australia, France, Italy, Israel and Sudan. The company also manufactures engine and transmission parts for automotive industry. Founded in 1962", "Model rocket motor classification Irvine). Circa 1985. The very first APCP propellant model rocket motor made was by Rocket Development Corporation (Irv Wait). Circa 1970. The largest vendor of professional solid rockets in the world is Orbital ATK. Model rocket motor classification Motors for rockets and high-powered rockets (together, consumer rockets) are classified by total impulse into a set of letter-designated ranges, from ⅛A up to O. The total impulse is the integral of the thrust over burn time. Where formula_2 is the burn time in seconds, formula_3 is the instantaneous thrust in newtons, formula_4 is average thrust in newtons, and formula_5 is the", "Internal model (motor control) able to make adjustments or compensate for errors from its desired output. Two primary types of internal models have been proposed: forward models and inverse models. In simulations, models can be combined together to solve more complex movement tasks. In their simplest form, forward models take the input of a motor command to the “plant” and output a predicted position of the body. The motor command input to the forward model can be an efference copy, as seen in Figure 1. The output from that forward model, the predicted position of the body, is then compared with the actual position", "Arash Motor Company Arash Motor Company The Arash Motor Company is a small sports car manufacturer based in Newmarket, Suffolk, England. It was originally established by Arash Farboud as Farboud Limited in 1999 and changed name in 2006. The company developed the Farboud GTS in 2003 and sold the rights to Farbio, which subsequently became part of Ginetta. The Farboud GT was the company's first model, announced in 2002 at the Autosport International show in Birmingham. It featured a 2.8-litre V6 twin turbo engine producing 620bhp. The Farboud GTS was shown as a concept car at Autosport International in 2003. Three cars were", "Lyons Motor Car model year launch for their LM2 Streamliner, which will be branded Streamliner Super Sport leaving the LM2 (Lyons Motors twin turbo) as a concept car. The Streamliner Super Sport will gain an automatically retracting top similar to T tops of old. The tops will store under the deck lid in the engine bay. The company plans on a total 15 Streamliner Super Sports, with a continued Streamliner series of 6 cars per year with a maximum of 50 there after. Lyons Motor Car Lyons Motor Car is a US based automobile developer/manufacturer focused on creating \"An American hyper performance sports", "Croma Security a mixture of skill-sets including security officers and engineers. Its operations span most of the UK (with some work in the Middle East)and has a diverse client base from domestic customers to FTSE 100 companies and other 'Blue Chip' organisations. The present structure was formed by the \"reverse acquisition\" of the Southampton-based \"CSS Group\" of companies by Dumfries based Croma Group PLC. On February 18, 1970, Fernando Fiorentino founded County Locksmiths Security Ltd, after learning the trade from his father in Tripoli, Libya. The shop, based at 324 Shirley Road, Shirley, Southampton offered basic key-cutting, lock installation and changing, and", "Packard Model G Packard Model G Packard Model G is a two cylinder car built in 1902 by the former American automobile manufacturer Ohio Automobile Company that changed name to Packard Motor Car Company in October, 1902. At that time the company was located in Warren, Ohio; owners were brothers James Ward Packard and William Doud Packard and investor George Lewis Weiss. Model G was a development of the former single-cylinder cars the company had built since 1899 of which the last, Model F, was offered alongside the Model G. Introduction was in late summer 1902. Only four cars were built. The pressed", "Simplex (French automobile manufacturer) Simplex (French automobile manufacturer) Simplex is an automobile manufacturer that existed briefly, in France, between 1919 and 1921. The name Simplex was used during the early years of the twentieth century by a number of automobile manufacturers including one each in and England, and by (at least) two auto-makers in North America. The French Simplex company was not connected with these. Simplex took a stand at the Paris Motor Show in October 1919 and exhibited a light “voiturette” style car featuring a single cylinder horizontal motor of 735cc. The motor was balanced by an imaginatively configured longitudinal counter-weight which was", "The Coventry Motor Company The Coventry Motor Company The Coventry Motor Company or CMC was a Coventry motor vehicle manufacturer established in early 1896 by H J Lawson's secretary Charles McRobie Turrell (1875-1923) as a subsidiary of Lawson's British Motor Syndicate. It operated from the former cotton mills of Coventry Spinning and Weaving Company off Sandy Lane, Radford, which then housed The Daimler Motor Company, The Great Horseless Carriage Company (from 1898 The Motor Manufacturing Company) and The New Beeston Cycle Company. The Coventry Motor Company produced in 1898 the Coventry Motette, a 3½ hp tricar with a single-cylinder engine, a modified version of", "Model rocket large black-powder motor is the upper stage motor of a rocket that exceeds the maximum recommended takeoff weight, or is dropped or exposed to many heating/cooling cycles (e.g., in a closed vehicle exposed to high heat), the propellant charge may develop hairline fractures. These fractures increase the surface area of the propellant, so that when the motor is ignited, the propellant burns much faster and produces greater than normal internal chamber pressure inside the engine. This pressure may exceed the strength of the paper case and cause the motor to burst. A bursting motor can cause damage to the model", "Midland Motor Company Midland Motor Company Midland Motor Company was a pioneering American brass era automobile manufacturer in Moline, Illinois. The company formed from the remnants of the Deere-Clark automobile company after the John Deere company pulled out of the venture. In 1910, Midland produced two models. The Model L was four-seater with a 318in (5213cc) (4½×5-inch, 114×127 mm) four of 40 hp (30 kW). It had a wheelbase of 115 in (2921 mm), 34×4-inch (86×10-cm) spoke wheels, and the choice of partial tonneau or roadster with trunk. The Model K was four-seater with a 390in (6389cc) (4¾×5½-inch, 120×140 mm) four of 50", "Internal model (motor control) a desired action (reach with the arm), accurately control the reach and then accurately control the hand to grip an object. With the assumption that new models can be acquired and pre-existing models can be updated, the efference copy is important for the adaptive control of a movement task. Throughout the duration of a motor task, an efference copy is fed into a forward model known as a dynamics predictor whose output allows prediction of the motor output. When applying adaptive control theory techniques to motor control, efference copy is used in indirect control schemes as the input to the", "Royal Motor Company the offerings of cross-town rival, Peerless. In November 1907, the Royal Motor Company went into receivership. On December 2, 1908, a court judge authorized the sale of the company's assets to a new corporation named the Royal Tourist Car Company headed by Bostonian, George J. Dunham. Royal Motor Company Royal Motor Car Company was a Brass Era manufacturer of automobiles in Cleveland, Ohio, in business from 1904 to 1911. It was the result of a reorganization of the Hoffman Company. The 1904 \"Royal 16-H.P. Tourist\" was a touring car model. Equipped with a tonneau, it could seat five passengers and", "DeLorean Motor Company 20, 2015, the lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum in exchange for DMC having the rights to use the DeLorean Motor Company name, trademarks and logo. The production of the DMC-12 was due to be relaunched in 2017, with 300 new cars produced by DMC. However, as of April 2018, no complete cars have been produced, and a date of January 2019 proposed for the relaunch. DeLorean Motor Company The DeLorean Motor Company (DMC) was an American automobile manufacturer originally formed by automobile industry executive John DeLorean in 1975. It is remembered for the one model", "E.N.V. Motor Syndicate in a replica Short S.27 and part of the Old Rhinebeck museum. Samuel Cody's type C is still in the possession of his family. E.N.V. Motor Syndicate E.N.V. was an early manufacturer of aircraft engines, originally called the London and Parisian Motor Company their first model appearing in 1908. E.N.V. engines were used by several pioneer aircraft builders and were produced in both France and the UK until about 1914. They subsequently specialised in camshafts and bevel gear manufacture until 1968 when the name was lost. The London and Parisian Motor Co. was an Anglo-French venture registered in London in", "E.N.V. Motor Syndicate E.N.V. Motor Syndicate E.N.V. was an early manufacturer of aircraft engines, originally called the London and Parisian Motor Company their first model appearing in 1908. E.N.V. engines were used by several pioneer aircraft builders and were produced in both France and the UK until about 1914. They subsequently specialised in camshafts and bevel gear manufacture until 1968 when the name was lost. The London and Parisian Motor Co. was an Anglo-French venture registered in London in 1908 and largely backed with British capital and expertise. The castings and forgings for its engines were made in Sheffield where the company was", "Ace Motor Corporation Ace Motor Corporation Ace Motor Corporation was a motorcycle manufacturer in continuous operation in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania between 1919 and 1924, and intermittently afterward until 1927. Essentially only one model of the large luxury four-cylinder motorcycle, with slight variations, was made from first to last. Having sold Henderson Motorcycle to Ignaz Schwinn's Excelsior Motor Manufacturing & Supply Company, founder William G. Henderson continued to work there until 1919, when differences of opinion regarding the design direction of Henderson motorcycles led to his resignation from Excelsior. In the fall of 1919, with the support of Max M. Sladkin of Haverford Cycle Co.,", "Vanderhall Motor Works Vanderhall Motor Works Vanderhall Motor Works is an American Vehicle Manufacturer based in Provo, Utah. It manufactures hand-made three-wheeled autocycles designed for sports driving, touring, commuting and city driving. Vanderhall Motor Works was founded in 2010 by Steve Hall. Hall, who had been a CAD designer at Novatek, spent five years prototyping before offering his designs to the public. His initial model was the Laguna: a three-wheel roadster that is federally classified as a motorcycle and passed final testing for NHTSA and EPA certification in 2016. In 2016, Vanderhall officially produced three autocycles models: Laguna, Laguna Sport Premium, and the", "Holley Motor Car Holley Motor Car Holley Motor Car Company was a manufacturer of automobiles in Bradford, Pennsylvania between 1900 and 1904. The company was sold in 1904 to a group of local investors who renamed it the Bradford Motor Works who seem to have sold off unused components to make cars in kit form. The 1904 \"Holley\" was a touring car model. It could seat two passengers and sold for US$650. The vertical-mounted water-cooled single-cylinder engine, situated at the front of the car, produced 5 hp (3.7 kW). The car weighed 850 lb (386 kg).Yearly sell estimated 647000. The Holley brothers later", "Vanderhall Motor Works The 2019 Carmel is Vanderhall’s latest release. This model brings more luxury and convenience to the Vanderhall lineup. With front entry doors, a wider cabin, and provisions to accommodate a removable canvas cap shade, the Carmel offers additional comfort. Powertrain is a 200-horsepower GM 1.5-liter turbocharged four-cylinder engine with 6-speed automatic transmission. Vanderhall Motor Works Vanderhall Motor Works is an American Vehicle Manufacturer based in Provo, Utah. It manufactures hand-made three-wheeled autocycles designed for sports driving, touring, commuting and city driving. Vanderhall Motor Works was founded in 2010 by Steve Hall. Hall, who had been a CAD designer at Novatek,", "Model year the automotive industry the model year is absolutely defined only by the manufacturer, and not by any local vehicle registration practices or marketing opinions. Industry practice varies between markets according both to the level of exports to North America, and to the extent to which US-owned subsidiaries dominate the domestic automarket. In the 1960s and 1970s, many new models were traditionally introduced at the London or Paris motor shows during October, and manufacturers owned by US corporations as well as domestically controlled UK auto-makers tended to follow US auto-industry conventions in respect of model years. The concept was never so", "Gola (manufacturer) Gola (manufacturer) Gola is a sporting goods manufacturer based in England. It was founded on 22 May 1905. It used to be known as the Bozeat Boot Company, and was based in the Northamptonshire village of Bozeat. Gola was purchased by the Jacobson Group and has since expanded its range. The company produces mainly track suits and trainers (American English: Sneakers), of which the models known as \"Harrier\" and \"Chase\" are particularly popular, especially in continental Europe. During the 1970s, Gola's licensing was held under Electronic Rentals Group and its principal Chairman, Maurice Fry and Leisure Group Managing Director Alan", "The Pick Motor Company The Pick Motor Company The Pick Motor Company Limited of Stamford, Lincolnshire was a British motor vehicle manufacturer that flourished between 1899 and 1925. It also traded briefly under the name New Pick Motor Company. Founder John (Jack) Henry Pick (1857–1954) was a blacksmith. He had experience of working with Blackstone & Co, a Stamford farm implement maker which had begun to make oil engines. Jack Pick became a bicycle dealer before he started to make cars in 1898. A factory was built in Blackfriars Street in the centre of Stamford in 1903 but disagreements with investors led to its", "Motor Sich Motor Sich The Motor Sich Public Joint Stock Company () in Zaporizhia is one of the largest engine manufacturers for airplanes and helicopters worldwide. It is also the only enterprise in Ukraine manufacturing engines for airplanes and helicopters as well as industrial gas turbine installations. Motor-Sich currently produces the Ivchenko Progress D-18 turbofan which powers variants of the Antonov An-124 and An-225 freighters, although the Ivchenko Progress D-36/Ivchenko Progress D-436 series remain the highest production-rate engines in the CIS. Motor Sich inherited some of the former Soviet Union's aero engine manufacturing capabilities. It produces turbofan, turboprop and rotary-wing turboshaft engines", "Campbell Motor Car Company Campbell Motor Car Company The Campbell Motor Car Company was an automobile manufacturer, in business for only one year, from 1918 to 1919. The Campbell Motor Car Company was originally called the Emerson Motors Company. But, in 1917, after the company was charged with stock manipulation, Theodore A. Campbell and his brother George renamed the company after themselves. While the car made by the Emerson company was a low $395, the new Campbell, a small, 4-cylinder 22 hp car, cost $835, compared to a Ford Model T Touring Car that cost $360. In May 1919, the company went into receivership.", "Campbell Motor Car Company Less than 600 cars were made. Campbell Motor Car Company The Campbell Motor Car Company was an automobile manufacturer, in business for only one year, from 1918 to 1919. The Campbell Motor Car Company was originally called the Emerson Motors Company. But, in 1917, after the company was charged with stock manipulation, Theodore A. Campbell and his brother George renamed the company after themselves. While the car made by the Emerson company was a low $395, the new Campbell, a small, 4-cylinder 22 hp car, cost $835, compared to a Ford Model T Touring Car that cost $360. In May", "Woods Motor Vehicle Woods Motor Vehicle Woods Motor Vehicle Company was an American manufacturer of electric automobiles in Chicago, Illinois, between 1899 and 1916. In 1915 they produced the Dual Power (U.S. Patent # 1244045) with both electric and internal combustion engines and this continued until 1918. The company was started by Clinton Edgar Woods who \"wrote the first book on electric vehicles.\" The 1904 \"Woods Stanhope\" was a stanhope model. It could seat 2 passengers and sold for US$1800. Twin electric motors, situated at the rear of the car, produced 2.5 hp (1.9 kW) each. The car weighed 2650 lb (1202 kg)", "Woods Motor Vehicle today considered a historic hybrid electric vehicle. Woods Motor Vehicle Woods Motor Vehicle Company was an American manufacturer of electric automobiles in Chicago, Illinois, between 1899 and 1916. In 1915 they produced the Dual Power (U.S. Patent # 1244045) with both electric and internal combustion engines and this continued until 1918. The company was started by Clinton Edgar Woods who \"wrote the first book on electric vehicles.\" The 1904 \"Woods Stanhope\" was a stanhope model. It could seat 2 passengers and sold for US$1800. Twin electric motors, situated at the rear of the car, produced 2.5 hp (1.9 kW) each.", "DeLorean Motor Company DeLorean Motor Company The DeLorean Motor Company (DMC) was an American automobile manufacturer originally formed by automobile industry executive John DeLorean in 1975. It is remembered for the one model it produced — the distinctive stainless steel Northern Ireland-built DeLorean DMC-12 sports car featuring gull-wing doors—and for its brief and turbulent history, ending in receivership and bankruptcy in 1982. Near the end, in a desperate attempt to raise the funds his company needed to survive, John DeLorean was filmed appearing to accept money to take part in drug trafficking, but was subsequently acquitted of charges brought against him on the", "Fischer Motor Company first prototype ultimately supplied in a revised version for Buell 1125-series products. , Fischer had begun shipping units, and in October 2009 announced a production increase for the 2010 model year. Fischer appears to have ceased production in 2012. A \"few dozen\" bikes were produced during the Fischer's three years of operation. In 2015, an Indian motorcycle blog reported that Fischer had plans to make an entry into India with its new 150 cc bikes, likely to be named Fischer MRX 150. Fischer Motor Company Fischer Motor Company is a US-based sport motorcycle manufacturer. Their MRX 650 is a sport", "Packard Model G twin (there also were some two-cylinder trucks), survived by the Model F by another year. One of the customers who bought a Model G was William Rockefeller, younger brother of John D. Rockefeller. Of the four Model G's built, one still exists in a private collection. It is a surrey with a canopy and painted red. Packard Model G Packard Model G is a two cylinder car built in 1902 by the former American automobile manufacturer Ohio Automobile Company that changed name to Packard Motor Car Company in October, 1902. At that time the company was located in Warren, Ohio;", "Royal Motor Company Royal Motor Company Royal Motor Car Company was a Brass Era manufacturer of automobiles in Cleveland, Ohio, in business from 1904 to 1911. It was the result of a reorganization of the Hoffman Company. The 1904 \"Royal 16-H.P. Tourist\" was a touring car model. Equipped with a tonneau, it could seat five passengers and sold for US$ 2300. The vertically mounted water-cooled straight-twin, situated at the front of the car, produced 16 hp (11.9 kW). A three-speed sliding transmission was fitted. The pressed steel-framed car weighed 1700 lb (771 kg). A modern cellular radiator was used, and the car rivaled", "Baker Motor Vehicle Baker Motor Vehicle Baker Motor Vehicle Company was an American manufacturer of Brass Era electric automobiles in Cleveland, Ohio, from 1899 to 1914. The first Baker vehicle was a two seater with a selling price of US$850. One was sold to Thomas Edison as his first car. Edison also designed the nickel-iron batteries used in some Baker electrics. These batteries have extremely long lives with some still in use today. The model range was expanded in 1904 to two vehicles, both two-seaters with armored wood-frames, centrally-located electric motors, and 12-cell batteries. The Runabout had 0.75 hp (0.6 kW) and weighed", "Hyundai Motor Company Hyundai Motor Company The Hyundai Motor Company ( ; , , \"modernity\"; ) is a South Korean multinational automotive manufacturer headquartered in Seoul, South Korea. The company was founded in 1967 and, along with its 32.8% owned subsidiary, Kia Motors, and its 100% owned luxury subsidiary Genesis Motors, altogether comprise the Hyundai Motor Group. It is the third largest vehicle manufacturer in the world. Hyundai operates the world's largest integrated automobile manufacturing facility in Ulsan, South Korea, which has an annual production capacity of 1.6 million units. The company employs about 75,000 people worldwide. Hyundai vehicles are sold in 193", "CRG (kart manufacturer) the factory teams. In 2001 they were replaced by the Maxter brand which produces 100 cc and 125 cc gearbox engines. They also make the Maxter engine range and the Maranello, Vanspeed, and Zanardi chassis ranges. They have also recently signed a deal to produce the new Lewis Hamilton kart. CRG (kart manufacturer) CRG is a kart chassis manufacturer of recent years, with world champions from 2001-2003. Famous alumni include Alex Zanardi, F1 racer Vitantonio Liuzzi, 5 times F1 world champion Lewis Hamilton and F1 GP Winner Max Verstappen. They were founded in the late 1970s by three Italian racers", "Majorette (toy manufacturer) became more visible in the United States with new lines appearing in several retail stores like Toys R Us. With Toys R Us going out of business in 2018, however, much of that Majorette's visibility was eliminated. Majorette (toy manufacturer) Majorette is a French toy manufacturer which mostly produces small die-cast cars and other construction and military vehicles particularly in . This is a normal 2.5 to 3 inch size, thus Majorette has sometimes been called the Matchbox Toys of France. Traditionally, production was centered in the urban area of Lyon, but models are now made in Thailand. The company", "Republic Motor Truck Company Republic Motor Truck Company The Republic Motor Truck Company was a manufacturer of commercial trucks circa 1913 - 1929, in Alma, Michigan. By 1918, it was recognized as the largest exclusive truck manufacturer in the world, and the maker of one out of every nine trucks on the roads in the United States. It was one of the major suppliers of \"Liberty trucks\" used by American troops during World War I. The precursor to Republic Motor Truck Company was the Alma Manufacturing Company, founded by Frank Ruggles, which began producing trucks in 1913 for the Maxwell Motor Company under the", "Contract manufacturer Contract manufacturer A contract manufacturer (\"CM\") is a manufacturer that contracts with a firm for components or products. It is a form of outsourcing. A contract manufacturer performing packaging operations is called copacker or a \"contract packager\". In a contract manufacturing business model, the hiring firm approaches the contract manufacturer with a design or formula. The contract manufacturer will quote the parts based on processes, labor, tooling, and material costs. Typically a hiring firm will request quotes from multiple CMs. After the bidding process is complete, the hiring firm will select a source, and then, for the agreed-upon price, the", "Midland Motor Company hp (37 kW). It had a wheelbase of 118 in (2997 mm), 36×4-inch (91×10-cm) spoke wheels, and the choice of touring or demi-tonneau bodies. Midland Motor Company Midland Motor Company was a pioneering American brass era automobile manufacturer in Moline, Illinois. The company formed from the remnants of the Deere-Clark automobile company after the John Deere company pulled out of the venture. In 1910, Midland produced two models. The Model L was four-seater with a 318in (5213cc) (4½×5-inch, 114×127 mm) four of 40 hp (30 kW). It had a wheelbase of 115 in (2921 mm), 34×4-inch (86×10-cm) spoke wheels, and", "Redpath Motor Vehicle Company 1903 model known to exist on display at Canadian Automotive Museum Redpath Motor Vehicle Company The Redpath Motor Vehicle Company was a small automobile manufacturer in Ontario, Canada in the early 20th century. It was located in Kitchener from 1893 – 1902 by Walter Redpath of Keene ON in a partnership with Andrew Reid of Toronto ON. The Redpath Messenger had a wooden carriage body using a one-cylinder engine with shaft drive and two speed transmission. It was the first vehicle in automotive history with a tilt steering wheel. It weighed approx 650 pounds and sold for between $600 and", "Bethlehem Motor Truck Corporation Bethlehem Motor Truck Corporation The Bethlehem Motors Corporation was a manufacturer of tractors, automobiles and trucks in Allentown, Pennsylvania, between 1917 and 1926. In 1918 and 1919, the Corporation built the Model 18-36 tractor, which weighed three tons, and was powered by a Beaver 4-cylinder engine with two forward speeds. Standard equipment included a Stromberg carburettor, Bosch magneto and Fedders radiator. The tractor was not a success, probably due to the poor financial position of the company, the crowded tractor market in the United States, and the 1920 agricultural depression. In 1920, the Bethlehem Motors Corporation built the 'Ideal' automobile,", "Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK the P10 Primera, the first model to be wholly built at NMUK, replacing the Bluebird and going into production that summer. By 1991, despite the recession, the plant turned its first profit of £18.4 million, and was awarded 'British Manufacturer' status by the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT). Around this time, Nissan ended its relationship with Octav Botnar and the Automotive Financial Group (AFG), which had been its UK import concessionaire since 1970, and brought the import and distribution business in-house, basing it at the Sunderland plant. In August 1992, the plant began to produce two models, with", "Bruder (toy manufacturer) Bruder (toy manufacturer) Bruder Spielwaren is a German toy manufacturer based in Fürth. Founded by Paul Bruder in 1926 as a manufacturer of toy components, the family-owned company is considered one of Europe's leading manufacturers of 1:16 scale model toys. The company was founded in 1926 by Paul Bruder and initially made brass reeds for toy trumpets. Paul's son Heinz Bruder joined the company in 1950 and production of small plastic toys began in 1958. Paul Heinz Bruder (son of Heinz Bruder) then joined in 1987, assuming responsibility for product development and production, after which the company underwent a period", "Synchronous motor self-starting motors. This property is due to the inertia of the rotor; it cannot instantly follow the rotation of the magnetic field of the stator. Since a synchronous motor produces no inherent average torque at standstill, it cannot accelerate to synchronous speed without some supplemental mechanism. Large motors operating on commercial power frequency include a squirrel-cage induction winding which provides sufficient torque for acceleration and which also serves to damp oscillations in motor speed in operation. Once the rotor nears the synchronous speed, the field winding is excited, and the motor pulls into synchronization. Very large motor systems may include", "Piezoelectric motor 1964, Kiev Polytechnic Institute, USSR. Other important patents in the early development of this technology include: Piezoelectric motor A piezoelectric motor or piezo motor is a type of electric motor based on the change in shape of a piezoelectric material when an electric field is applied. Piezoelectric motors use the converse piezoelectric effect of piezoelectric sensors, in which deformation or vibration of the piezoelectric material produces an electric charge. An electrical circuit makes acoustic or ultrasonic vibrations in the piezoelectric material, which produce linear or rotary motion. In one mechanism, the elongation in a single plane makes a series of", "Piezoelectric motor Piezoelectric motor A piezoelectric motor or piezo motor is a type of electric motor based on the change in shape of a piezoelectric material when an electric field is applied. Piezoelectric motors use the converse piezoelectric effect of piezoelectric sensors, in which deformation or vibration of the piezoelectric material produces an electric charge. An electrical circuit makes acoustic or ultrasonic vibrations in the piezoelectric material, which produce linear or rotary motion. In one mechanism, the elongation in a single plane makes a series of stretches and position holds, analogous to the way a caterpillar moves. One drive technique uses piezoelectric", "AC motor by the connection between the main winding and the start circuit. In applications where the motor requires a fixed rotation, one end of the start circuit is permanently connected to the main winding, with the contacts making the connection at the other end. A capacitor start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starting capacitor inserted in series with the startup winding, creating an LC circuit which produces a greater phase shift (and so, a much greater starting torque) than both split-phase and shaded pole motors. A resistance start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starter inserted", "Pink Triangle (audio manufacturer) was in production from 1979 until 1985. The PT1 was superseded by the PT TOO, which was also available as a manufacturer upgrade to the PT1, and featured a synchronous AC motor with an external power supply. A lower-cost version, called the Export, with the power supply moved into the plinth was released in the late 1980s. The PT TOO was replaced by the PT Anniversary, with much higher build quality, and returned to a glass top plate and a DC motor mounted on a new composite subchassis, along with a new external power supply, some of which featured a", "The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters Miller novel \"Pure\", as well as the 2017 album by Swedish metal band Meshuggah, entitled \"The Violent Sleep of Reason.\" Also the names of Finnish occult metal band Sleep of Monsters and their first album, \"Produces Reason\" derive from the name of the title. Occasionally the title phrase is rendered as \"The dream of reason produces monsters\", since the Spanish word \"sueño\" can mean either \"sleep\" or \"dream\". However, Goya's epigraph makes it clear that his intended interpretation is \"the sleep of reason\". The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters __notoc__ The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters () is an etching", "The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters __notoc__ The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters () is an etching by the Spanish painter and printmaker Francisco Goya. Created between 1797 and 1799, it is the 43rd of 80 etchings making up the suite of satires \"Los Caprichos\". Goya imagines himself asleep amidst his drawing tools, his reason dulled by slumber and bedeviled by creatures that prowl in the dark. The work includes owls that may be symbols of folly and bats symbolizing ignorance. The artist's nightmare reflected his view of Spanish society, which he portrayed in the \"Caprichos\" as demented, corrupt, and" ]

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[ "In 1944, Nasser married Tahia Kazem, the 22-year-old daughter of a wealthy Iranian father and an Egyptian mother, both of whom died when she was young. She was introduced to Nasser through her brother, Abdel Hamid Kazim, a merchant friend of Nasser's, in 1943. After their wedding, the couple moved into a house in Manshiyat al-Bakri, a suburb of Cairo, where they would live for the rest of their lives. Nasser's entry into the officer corps in 1937 secured him relatively well-paid employment in a society where most people lived in poverty." ]

[ "In the original city plan, the interstate buses should also stop at the Central Station. Because of the growth of Brasília (and corresponding growth in the bus fleet), today the interstate buses leave from the older interstate station (called Rodoferroviária), located at the western end of the Eixo Monumental. The Central Bus Station also contains a main metro station. A new bus station was opened in July 2010. It is on Saída Sul (South Exit) near Parkshopping Mall and with its metro station, and it's also an inter-state bus station, used only to leave the Federal District.", "Universal could seldom afford its own stable of stars, and often borrowed talent from other studios, or hired freelance actors. In addition to Stewart and Dietrich, Margaret Sullavan, and Bing Crosby were two of the major names that made a couple of pictures for Universal during this period. Some stars came from radio, including Edgar Bergen, W. C. Fields, and the comedy team of Abbott and Costello (Bud Abbott and Lou Costello). Abbott and Costello's military comedy Buck Privates (1941) gave the former burlesque comedians a national and international profile.", "The first ground attack came at the Battle of Umm Qasr on 21 March 2003 when a combined force of British, American and Polish forces seized control of the port city of Umm Qasr. Baghdad, Iraq's capital city, fell to American forces in April 2003 and Saddam Hussein's government quickly dissolved. On 1 May 2003, Bush announced that major combat operations in Iraq had ended. However, an insurgency arose against the U.S.-led coalition and the newly developing Iraqi military and post-Saddam government. The insurgency, which included al-Qaeda affiliated groups, led to far more coalition casualties than the invasion. Other elements of the insurgency were led by fugitive members of President Hussein's Ba'ath regime, which included Iraqi nationalists and pan-Arabists. Many insurgency leaders are Islamists and claim to be fighting a religious war to reestablish the Islamic Caliphate of centuries past. Iraq's former president, Saddam Hussein was captured by U.S. forces in December 2003. He was executed in 2006.", "It authorized the Secretary of the Interior to list endangered domestic fish and wildlife and allowed the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to spend up to $15 million per year to buy habitats for listed species. It also directed federal land agencies to preserve habitat on their lands. The Act also consolidated and even expanded authority for the Secretary of the Interior to manage and administer the National Wildlife Refuge System. Other public agencies were encouraged, but not required, to protect species. The act did not address the commerce in endangered species and parts.", "In testimony before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation on June 3, 2008, former director of the CFTC Division of Trading & Markets (responsible for enforcement) Michael Greenberger specifically named the Atlanta-based IntercontinentalExchange, founded by Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley and BP as playing a key role in speculative run-up of oil futures prices traded off the regulated futures exchanges in London and New York. However, the IntercontinentalExchange (ICE) had been regulated by both European and U.S. authorities since its purchase of the International Petroleum Exchange in 2001. Mr Greenberger was later corrected on this matter.", "Through publicly funded emergency relief programs concentrating on agricultural land-improvement projects and road construction, the \"Erich Koch Plan\" for East Prussia allegedly made the province free of unemployment; on August 16, 1933 Koch reported to Hitler that unemployment had been banished entirely from East Prussia, a feat that gained admiration throughout the Reich. Koch's industrialization plans led him into conflict with R. Walther Darré, who held the office of the Reich Peasant Leader (Reichsbauernführer) and Minister of Agriculture. Darré, a neopaganist rural romantic, wanted to enforce his vision of an agricultural East Prussia. When his \"Land\" representatives challenged Koch's plans, Koch had them arrested.", "Antarctica is the coldest of Earth's continents. The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Soviet (now Russian) Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983. For comparison, this is 10.7 °C (20 °F) colder than subliming dry ice at one atmosphere of partial pressure, but since CO2 only makes up 0.039% of air, temperatures of less than −150 °C (−238 °F) would be needed to produce dry ice snow in Antarctica. Antarctica is a frozen desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 cm (4 in) per year, on average. Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F) and −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C (41 °F) and 15 °C (59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it. Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world." ]

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[ "There is a child pushing their younger sibling." ]

[ "There is a man playing with his young son.", "The warranty on shrubs has been reduced in the past several years.", "There was no defensible point near the town.", "A man is reaching out to a dolphin.", "Tommy, I like to move fast.", "The man is smoking.", "A woman driving in a car towards the city." ]

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[ "NXT TakeOver: Rival NXT TakeOver: Rival, was a professional wrestling event produced by WWE, under their NXT brand and was broadcast live on the WWE Network, available to subscribers. NXT TakeOver took place on February 11, 2015 at NXT's \"home\" arena, Full Sail University in Winter Park, Florida and featured six matches as part of the main broadcast and one match prior to the televised portion of the show. The show was the fourth show in the \"NXT TakeOver\" series of Network exclusive shows. The main event of the show saw Sami Zayn defend the NXT Championship against former friend Kevin Owens in a match that played off their shared history prior to signing with WWE. Also on the show Charlotte defended the NXT Women's Championship against Sasha Banks, Becky Lynch and Bayley in a Fatal 4-Way match as well as Blake and Murphy defending the NXT Tag Team Championship as the former champions The Lucha Dragons (Kalisto and Sin Cara) received their rematch. The show also featured the finals of a #1 Contender to the NXT Championship Tournament and two additional matches.", "Full Sail University Full Sail University is an American private, for-profit university in Winter Park, Florida. The school was founded in 1979 in Dayton, Ohio, as Full Sail Recording Workshop. Full Sail relocated to Florida in 1980, adding video production and film production courses and, with the move in 1989 to its current campus, expanded its curriculum to include other entertainment and media-related areas of study. Full Sail began offering online degrees in 2007. The school is partly owned by TA Associates, a private equity firm." ]

[ "Utah State University Utah State University (also referred to as USU or Utah State) is a public doctorate-granting university in Logan, Utah, United States. The coeducational, space-grant, land-grant, research university is accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities. With nearly 18,000 students living on or near campus, USU is Utah's largest public residential campus. As of Fall 2016, there were 28,118 students enrolled including 24,838 undergraduate students and 3,280 graduate students. The university has the highest percentage of out-of-state students of any public university in Utah totaling 23% of the student body.", "Ishikawa Prefectural University Ishikawa Prefectural University (石川県立大学 , Ishikawa kenritsu daigaku ) is a public university in the city of Nonoichi in Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan. The predecessor of the school was founded in 1971, and it was chartered as a university in 2005.", "Okayama Shoka University Okayama Shoka University (岡山商科大学 , Okayama shōka daigaku ) is a private university in Okayama, Okayama, Japan. The predecessor of the school was founded in 1911, and it was chartered as a university in 1965.", "Chapman University Chapman University is a private, non-profit university located in Orange, California, United States. It is affiliated with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Chapman University encompasses ten schools and colleges: Dodge College of Film and Media Arts, Wilkinson College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Argyros School of Business and Economics, the School of Communication, Schmid College of Science and Technology, College of Performing Arts, Dale E. Fowler School of Law, College of Educational Studies, the School of Pharmacy, and the Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences. Chapman also operates Brandman University as a separate, fully accredited university within the Chapman University System.", "Philippine Christian University The Philippine Christian University or simply referred to as PCU is a private university for both boys and girls along Taft Avenue, Manila. It was founded in 1946 through the initiatives of the Laymen of the Evangelical Association of the Philippines. Originally named as \"Manila Union University\", it was renamed as \"Philippine Christian College\" (PCC). In 1976, the PCC acquired university status.", "Faulkner University Faulkner University is a private Christian university, located in Montgomery, Alabama, US, and affiliated with the Churches of Christ. The University was founded in 1942 as Montgomery Bible School. In 1953 the school's name was changed to Alabama Christian College (ACC). In 1965, the college was moved to its present location on Atlanta Highway. The year 1975 marked the beginning of the school's satellite campuses in Mobile, Huntsville and Birmingham. In 1985, the school was renamed Faulkner University in honor of Dr. James H. Faulkner, Sr., a longtime supporter and chairman of the board.", "National Taipei University The National Taipei University (NTPU; ) is a public university in Taiwan, founded in 1949. Before 2000, the University was named the College of Law and Business, National Chung Hsing University (). The university's main campus is in Sanxia District, New Taipei, Taiwan. Two other campus and education center are in Zhongshan District, Taipei, Taiwan.", "International American University International American University (IAU) is a non-accredited private for-profit university of higher learning offering programs through both distance education and classroom instruction. The University started operations in 2005 in Los Angeles, as the Management Institute of America, Inc. It currently operates from facilities in Palmdale, California and Los Angeles, California.", "List of Drexel University alumni Drexel University is a private university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. The 16th largest private university in the nation, Drexel is made up of nine colleges and four schools, most of which serve both undergraduate and graduate students. It offers 96 undergraduate degree programs, 88 master's programs, and 35 doctoral programs. Drexel was founded as a technical school in 1891 for the \"improvement of industrial education as a means of opening better and wider avenues of employment to young men and women.\" Drexel began awarding undergraduate degrees in 1914, starting with the Bachelor of Science in engineering; before that, Drexel granted certificates or diplomas in the field of enrollment. In 1931, Drexel began offering graduate degrees through the School of Home Economics.", "John Naisbitt University John Naisbitt University (Serbian Cyrillic: Универзитет Џон Незбит) is a private university located in Belgrade, Serbia. Megatrend Business School, which later became Megatrend University, was founded in 1989. In 2015, Council of Megatrend University changed the name of the institution to \"University John Naisbitt\" after controversies arose surrounding Megatrend University.", "University of Denver The University of Denver (DU) is a coeducational, four-year university in Denver, Colorado. Founded in 1864, it is the oldest independent private university in the Rocky Mountain Region of the United States. DU enrolls approximately 5,600 undergraduate students and 6,100 graduate students. The 125 acre main campus is a designated arboretum and is located primarily in the University Neighborhood, about five miles (8 km) south of downtown Denver.", "Kaetsu University Kaetsu University (嘉悦大学 , Kaetsu daigaku ) is a private university in Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan, established in 2001. The predecessor of the school was founded in 1903.", "La Salle University La Salle University is a private, co-educational, Roman Catholic university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Named for St. Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, the university was founded in 1863 by the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. The university offers traditional, online, and hybrid courses and programs. The university is affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church through the Archdiocese of Philadelphia.", "University of Texas at Arlington The University of Texas at Arlington (UTA or UT Arlington) is a public research university located in Arlington, Texas. The campus is in the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area, and is adjacent to downtown Arlington. The university was founded in 1895 and was in the Texas A&M University System for several decades until joining The University of Texas System in 1965.", "University of Baltimore The University of Baltimore (UB), located in midtown Baltimore, Maryland, in the Mt. Vernon neighborhood at 1420 N. Charles Street, is part of the University System of Maryland. The university is a public undergraduate, graduate, and professional university located in the heart of the state's largest city. UB's schools and colleges provide education in business, law, public affairs, and the applied arts and sciences.", "Gyeongju University Gyeongju University (originally Korea Tourism University) is a privately run, 4-year university located in Gyeongju, North Gyeongsang province, South Korea.", "Philadelphia University Philadelphia University (PhilaU), founded in 1884, is a private university in the East Falls neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. The student body has about 3,500 students. Academic programs are divided among the College of Architecture and the Built Environment; the Kanbar College of Design, Engineering and Commerce; the College of Science, Health and the Liberal Arts; and the School of Continuing and Professional Studies; courses are also offered via PhilaU Online. Philadelphia University awards bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and doctoral degrees. In May 2017, the university officially announced that it will be merging with Thomas Jefferson University, therefore changing its name in July of that year.", "Queens University of Charlotte Queens University of Charlotte is a private, co-educational, comprehensive university located in Charlotte, North Carolina, United States. The school has approximately 2,300 undergraduate and graduate students through the College of Arts and Sciences, the McColl School of Business, the Wayland H. Cato, Jr. School of Education, the James L. Knight School of Communication, Hayworth School of Graduate and Continuing Studies and the Andrew Blair College of Health, which features the Presbyterian School of Nursing. Established in 1857, the university offers 34 undergraduate majors and 66 concentrations, and 10 graduate programs.", "Regent's University London Regent's University London is a private non-profit university located in London, United Kingdom. Regent's University is only the second institution in the UK (after the University of Buckingham) that was granted the status of a private university. As such it is one of only six private institutions in the United Kingdom to have been granted taught degree awarding powers.It is now the biggest university among the now five private universities (and one of two non-profit) in the country.", "Ithaca College Ithaca College is a private, nonsectarian, coeducational liberal arts college located on the South Hill of Ithaca, New York, United States. The college was founded by William Egbert in 1892 as a conservatory of music and is set against the backdrop of the city of Ithaca, Cayuga Lake, waterfalls, and gorges. The college is best known for its large list of alumni who have played substantial roles in the media and entertainment industries." ]

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[ "There are superstitions about absorbing power." ]

[ "Everyone chooses what to eat based on preference.", "Nobody has read Kinsey's research.", "Musicians are performing.", "I was spoken to by the old woman.", "Young girl in red dress is kissing another girl on the head", "They are talking.", "Two young men are sitting on the steps outside their work." ]

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[ "A person is going for a walk." ]

[ "A person is walking down to a lake.", "Everyone has complete freedom and self-determination in votes.", "The woman is giving her dog a bath.", "They believe you can capture the mortality of the fine particles.", "Her behavior is commendable anywhere.", "People are gathered together to get their picture taken.", "Only catholic artists were involved in creating the ceiling." ]

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[ "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\nఅధికారికంగా ప్యూమా (PUMA) అనే బ్రాండ్ పేరుతో వ్యాపార కార్యకలాపాలు నిర్వహిస్తున్న ప్యూమా ఏజీ రుడాల్ఫ్ డాస్లెర్ స్పోర్ట్ (Puma AG Rudolf Dassler Sport) జర్మనీకి చెందిన ఒక ప్రధాన బహుళజాతి సంస్థ, ఇది ఉన్నత శ్రేణి అథ్లెటిక్ షూలు, జీవన సరళి పాదరక్షలు మరియు ఇతర క్రీడా సామాగ్రి (దుస్తులు, బూట్లు, ఇతరాలు)ని ఉత్పత్తి చేస్తుంది. 1924లో గెబ్రూడెర్ డాస్లెర్ షూఫ్యాబ్రిక్ అనే పేరుతో అడాల్ఫ్ మరియు రుడాల్ఫ్ డాస్లెర్ ఈ సంస్థను స్థాపించారు, ఈ ఇద్దరు సోదరుల మధ్య సంబంధాలు దెబ్బతినడంతో 1948లో సంస్థ చీలిపోయింది, దీని ఫలితంగా అడిడాస్ (Adidas) మరియు ప్యూమా అనే రెండు సంస్థలు ఏర్పడ్డాయి. ప్యూమా ప్రస్తుతం జర్మనీలోని హెర్జోజెనౌరాచ్ కేంద్రంగా కార్యకలాపాలు సాగిస్తుంది." ]

[ "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\n1952: సూపర్ ఆటమ్ పరిచయం. 1953: ఆటమ్‌<b data-parsoid='{\"dsr\":[19744,19769,3,3]}'>ల తరువాతి ఉత్పాదన: బ్రాసిల్ (BRASIL)' అభివృద్ధి 1958: ప్యూమా సంతకం ఉండే \"ఫార్మ్‌స్ట్రైప్\" పరిచయం, స్వీడన్‌లో ఫిఫా ప్రపంచ కప్ సందర్భంగా వీటిని ఆవిష్కరించారు. 1959: ప్యూమా-స్పోర్ట్స్‌షూఫ్యాబ్రికెన్ రుడాల్ఫ్ డాస్లెర్ కేజీ అనే పేరుతో కంపెనీ ఒక పరిమిత భాగస్వామ్యంగా రూపాంతరం చెందింది. 1960: అధునాతన వల్కనీకరణ ఉత్పాదన పద్ధతిని కంపెనీ పరిచయం చేసింది. 1966: వెంబ్లే (WEMBLEY) ఆవిష్కరణ, ఇది ప్యూమా కింగ్‌</i>కు ముందు వచ్చిన మోడల్. 1968: ప్రసిద్ధ కింగ్ ఆవిష్కరణ. వెల్‌క్రో ఫాస్టెనెర్స్‌తో స్పోర్ట్స్ షూలను తయారు చేసిన మొదటి సంస్థగా ప్యూమా గుర్తింపు పొందింది. 1974: రుడాల్ఫ్ డాస్లెర్ మరణించారు. ఆయన కుమారులు ఆర్మిన్ మరియు జెర్డ్ కంపెనీ యాజమాన్యాన్ని చేపట్టారు. 1976: విప్లవాత్మక S.P.A.-సాంకేతిక పరిజ్ఞానాన్ని పరిచయం చేశారు. 1986: ఒక వాటా కార్పొరేషన్‌గా రూపాంతరం. 1989: ట్రినోమిక్ (TRINOMIC) స్పోర్ట్ షూ వ్యవస్థ ఆవిష్కరణ. 1990: ఇన్‌స్పెక్టర్ (INSPECTOR) పరిచయం, ఇది బాలల షూలకు ఉద్దేశించిన ఒక పెరుగుదల నియంత్రణ వ్యవస్థ. 1991: డిస్క్ సిస్టమ్ స్పోర్ట్స్ షూ ఆవిష్కరణ. 1992: DM 20 మిలియన్లకుపైగా మూలధన పెరుగుదల, వాటా మూలధనం DM 70 మిలియన్‌లకు పెరిగింది. 1993: జోచెన్ జీట్జ్ ఛైర్మన్ మరియు సీఈవోగా నియమించబడ్డారు, ప్రోవెంటస్/ఆరిట్మోస్ బి.వి. ప్రధాన వాటాదారుగా మారింది. 1994: 1986లో కంపెనీ యొక్క ఐపీవో సమయం నుంచి మొట్టమొదటి లాభం నమోదయింది. 1996: జర్మన్ ఎం-డాక్స్ (M-DAX) ఇండెక్స్‌లో ప్యూమా నమోదయింది; సెల్ (CELL) సాంకేతిక పరిజ్ఞానం మొదటి ఫోమ్-ఫ్రీ మిడ్‌సోల్‌ను పరిచయం చేశారు. 1997: సెల్‌ఎరేటర్ (CELLERATOR) ఆవిష్కరణ. 1998: స్పోర్ట్స్ మరియు ఫ్యాషన్‌లను విలీనం చేసిన ప్యూమా. డిజైనర్ జిల్ శాండర్‌తో కంపెనీ ఒక భాగస్వామ్యాన్ని ప్రారంభించింది. 1999: US జాతీయ ఫుట్‌బాల్ లీగ్ (NFL) యొక్క అధికారిక ఆన్‌-ఫీల్డ్ సరఫరాదారుగా మారిన ప్యూమా. 2000: పోర్షి మరియు స్పేర్కోలతో భాగస్వామ్యంతో మంటల నిరోధక పాదరక్షల ఉత్పత్తి. 2001: స్కాండినేవియా ట్రిటోర్న్ గ్రూపు కొనుగోలు. 2002: షుడోహ్ ఆవిష్కరణ. 2003: మోనార్కీ/రెజెన్సీ అనే ప్రధాన వాటాదారు తమ వాటాలను ఒక విస్తృత హోదా గల వ్యవస్థాగత పెట్టుబడిదారులకు విక్రయించింది.. 2004: ప్రపంచ-ప్రసిద్ధ డిజైనర్ ఫిలిప్ స్టార్క్‌తో సంయుక్త భాగస్వామ్యం. 2005: మేఫెయిర్ వెర్మోజెన్స్‌వెర్‌వాల్టుంగ్స్‌జెసెల్‌షాఫ్ట్ ఎంబిహెచ్ మొత్తం 16.91% వాటాలను కొనుగోలు చేసింది. 2006: డౌ జోన్స్ సస్టైనబిలిటీ సూచిలో కంపెనీ నమోదు; ఎస్.ఏ.ఎఫ్.ఈ పరిచయం, ఇది సామాజిక మరియు పర్యావరణ ప్రమాణాలను నిరంతరం మెరుగుపరిచేందుకు అభివృద్ధి చేసిన ఒక నిర్దిష్ట సాధనం. అలెగ్జాండర్ మెక్‌క్వీన్‌తో సహకారంతో షూ సేకరణ. ఇటలీ ప్రపంచ గెలుచుకుంది, ఇటలీ సాకర్ (ఫుట్‌బాల్) జట్టుకు ప్యూమా స్పాన్సర్‌గా ఉండటంతో, జట్టులోని అనేక మంది ఆటగాళ్లు ప్యూమా ఉత్పత్తులను ధరించారు. 2007: పినాల్ట్-ప్రిన్‌టెంప్స్ రెడౌట్ స్వచ్ఛంగా పబ్లిక్ వాటాల కొనుగోలు; జోచెన్ జీట్జ్ యొక్క కాంట్రాక్టును ఐదేళ్లపాటు పొడిగింపు. 2008: మెలోడీ హారిస్-జెన్స్‌బాచ్ డిప్యూటీ సీఈవోగా నియామకం; డిజైనర్ మరియు కళాకారుడు హుస్సేన్ చాలయన్ క్రియేటివ్ డైరెక్టర్‌గా నియమించబడ్డారు, ప్యూమా కంపెనీ చాలయన్ యొక్క వ్యాపారం మరియు హుస్సేన్ చాలయన్‌</i>లో అధిగ భాగం వాటాను కొనుగోలు చేసింది. 2010: న్యూకాజిల్ యునైటెడ్, మథర్‌వెల్, హిబెర్నియాన్, బర్న్‌లే & ప్రెస్టోన్‌లకు 2010-11 సీజన్ నుంచి రెండేళ్లపాటు కిట్‌లు సరఫరా చేసేందుకు ఒప్పందాలపై సంతకాలు.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\n1948లో, ఈ ఇద్దరు సోదరులు వ్యాపారంలో చీలిపోయారు. రుడాల్ఫ్ తరువాత హై హిల్‌ను విడిచిపెట్టి సొంత కంపెనీని ప్రారంభించేందుకు ఆరాచ్ నది రెండో వైపు వెళ్లారు. ఈ చీలిక తరువాత అడాల్ఫ్ సొంతగా స్పోర్ట్స్‌వేర్ కంపెనీని ప్రారంభించారు, ఈ కంపెనీకి తన ముద్దు పేరు \"Adi\" మరియు తన చివరి పేరులోని మొదటి మూడు అక్షరాలు \"Das\"లను కలిపి Adidas అనే పేరు పెట్టారు. రుడాల్ఫ్ తన పేరులో మొదటి రెండు అక్షరాలు \"Ru\" మరియు చివరి పేరు డాస్లెర్‌లో మొదటి రెండు అక్షరాలు \"Da\"లను కలిపి Ruda అనే ఒక కొత్త కంపెనీని స్థాపించారు. రుడాల్ఫ్ తన కంపెనీ పేరును 1948లో ప్యూమా షూఫ్యాబ్రిక్ రుడాల్ఫ్ డాస్లెర్‌ గా మార్చారు.[7]", "పనామా\nఅమెరికా సంయుక్త రాష్ట్రాలకు చెందిన ఆర్మీ ఇంజనీర్లు 1904 మరియు 1914 మధ్య కాలంలో పనామా కాలువ ను నిర్మించారు. 1977 లో కీలకమైన ఈ కాలువను పూర్తిగా పనామా దేశానికి అందజేశారు.[4]పనామా కాలువ ద్వారా లభిస్తున్న పన్ను పనామా జి.డి.పి.లో ప్రధానపాత్ర వహిస్తుంది. మద్య అమెరికాదేశాలలో పనామా 4వ ఆర్ధికశక్తిగా మరియు[5] అభివృద్ధి చెందుతున్న ఆర్ధికరంగాలలో పనామా ఆర్ధికరంగం ఒకటి. మద్య అమెరికాలో అతిపెద్ద కొనొగోలు శక్తిగా పనామా గుర్తించబడుతుంది.[6][7]2010 మానవాభివృద్ధి జాబితాలో పనామా మద్య అమెరికాలో 4వ స్థానంలో మరియు ప్రపంచంలో 54వ స్థానంలో ఉంది.[8] 2010 గణాంకాల ఆధారంగా లాటిన్ అమెరికన్ దేశాలలో పనామా ఆర్ధికరంగం ద్వీతీయస్థానంలో ఉందని గ్లోబల్ కాల్పిటీటివ్ ఇండెక్స్‌ తెలియజేస్తుంది. పనామా అరణ్యాలు పలు ఉష్ణమండల మొక్కలకు, జంతువులకు మరియు పక్షులకు నిలయంగా ఉంది. వీటిలో కొన్ని ప్రపంచంలో మరెక్కడా కనిపించవు. [9]", "బీమా\n14వ శతాబ్దంలో జెనొవాలో భూసంబంధిత ఎస్టేట్‌ల వలన సహాయం పొందే ప్రత్యేకమైన బీమా ఒప్పందాలను (రుణాలతో మరియు ఒప్పందాలతో సంబంధం లేని బీమా పాలసీలు) కనిపెట్టారు. ఈ బీమా ఒప్పందాలు పెట్టుబడిని బీమాతో వేరు చేసాయి, సముద్ర బీమా రంగంలో ఈ విధానం ప్రయోజనకరంమైనదని రుజువైంది. యూరోప్ పునరుద్ధరణ కాలం తరువాత బీమా రంగం అత్యాధునికంగా మారి భిన్నమైన పద్ధతులతో అభివృద్ధి చెందింది.\n17‌వ దశాబ్దం ముగింపులో, వర్తక కేంద్రంగా లండన్‌కు ప్రాముఖ్యత పెరగడం వలన సముద్ర బీమా యొక్క ఆవశ్యకత పెరిగింది.నౌకా యజమానులు, వర్తకులు మరియు నౌకా కెప్టెన్‌లు తరచూ సందర్శించే ఒక కాఫీ హౌస్‌ను 1680లో ఎడ్వర్డ్ లాయ్డ్ తెరిచాడు అందరూ వచ్చేవారు కాబట్టి విశ్వసనీయ నౌకా సమాచారం అక్కడ లభించేది. సరుకులను మరియు నౌకలను బీమా చేసే వారి సమావేశానికి ఆ ప్రదేశం కేంద్రంగా మారింది మరియు ఇలాంటి పూచీకత్తుకు పెట్టుబడి ఇవ్వటానికి అనేక మంది ఆ ప్రదేశానికి వెళ్లేవారు. ఇప్పటికి లాయ్డ్స్ ఆఫ్ లండన్ సముద్ర బీమా మరియు ఇతర బీమాలు చేయడంలో అగ్రస్థాయి మార్కెట్‌గా (అది బీమా సంస్థ కాదు) ఉంది కానీ ఇతర బీమా రకాలు వలె కాకుండా విభిన్నంగా పనిచేస్తుంది.", "పనామా\nఇస్త్మస్ ఆఫ్ పనామా 3 మిలియన్ సంవత్సరాలకు ముందుగా రూపొందింది. దక్షిణ మరియు ఉత్తర అనెరికాల మద్య భూమార్గంలో వంతెన ఏర్పడిన తరువాత రెండు వైపులా నుండి మొక్కలు మరియు జంతువులు క్రమంగా ఒకప్రాంతం నుండి మరొకప్రాంతానికి కదిలివెళ్ళాయి.ఇస్త్మస్ ఉనికి ప్రజలను, వ్యవసాయం మరియు సాంకేతికతలను అమెరికన్ ఖండం అంతటా విస్తరింపజేసింది. ఆరంభకాలంలో వేట మరియు వస్తుసేకరణ ఉపాధిగా కలిగిన ప్రజలచేత గ్రామాలు మరియు నగరాలు రూపుదిద్దుకున్నాయి. [11][12] పనామాలో లభించిన కళావస్తువుల ఆధారంగా ఈప్రాంతంలో ఆరంభకాలంలో నివసించిన పాలియో - ఇండియన్లు నివసించారని భావిస్తున్నారు.తరువాత అమెరికాలో మట్టిపాత్రలు ఉపయోగించిన మొదటి మానవజాతులలో ఒకటి మద్య పనామాలో నివసించింది.ఉదాహరణగా మొనాగ్రిల్లో ప్రాంతంలో వికసించిన నాగరికత క్రీ.పూ 2,500 - 1700 మద్య కాలం నాటిదని భావిస్తున్నారు. ఇక్కడ వికసించిన నాగరికతలు గుర్తించతగినంతగా ప్రజాలసంఖ్య అధికరించడానికి కారణమయ్యాయి.మొనాగ్రిల్లో ప్రాంతంలో లభించిన అందమైన సమాధులు మరియు అందమైన గ్రాంకోక్లె శైలి పాలీక్రోం కుండలు క్రీ.శ 500 - 900 కాలానికి చెందినవని భావిస్తున్నారు. బరిలెస్ ప్రాంతంలో (చిరిక్వి) లభించిన మొనోలితిక్ స్మారక శిల్పాలు ఇక్కడ వికసించిన పురాతన ఇస్తామియన్ నాగరికతకు చిహ్నాలుగా ఉన్నాయి.", "పనామా\n1987 జూన్ 9 రాత్రి క్రుజాడా సివిలిస్టా (సివిక్ క్రుసేడ్) రూపొందించి పౌరుల అవిధేయతను క్రమబద్ధీకరణ చర్యలు చేబట్టింది.క్రుసేడె జనరల్ స్ట్రైక్ కొరకు పిలుపిచ్చారు.ప్రతిస్పందనగా మిలటరీ రాజ్యాంగ హక్కులను రద్దు చేసి దేశంలో అత్యవసర పరిస్థితి ప్రవేశపెట్టింది. జూలై 10న సివిక్ క్రుసేడ్ బృహత్తర ప్రదర్శనకు పిలుపు ఇచ్చింది. మిలటరీ స్పెషల్ రాయిట్ కంట్రోల్ యూనిట్ \" డాబర్మన్‌లు \" దానిని హింసాత్మకం అణచడానికి ప్రయత్నించారు. ఆరోజును తరువాత \" బ్లాక్ ఫ్రైడే \" గా వర్ణించబడింది. అల్లర్లలో 600 మంది మరణించారు. అడ్డగించబడిన 600 మంది హింసలకు మరియు మానభంగాలకు గురైయ్యారు. యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ అధ్యక్షుడు రోనాల్డ్ రీగన్ సైనిక పాలనకు వ్యతిరేకంగా వరుస సహాయం అందించాడు.1987లో యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ పనామాకు ఆర్ధిక మరియు సైనిక సాయం నిలిపి వేసింది.ప్రతిస్పందనగా పనామాలో రాజకీయ సంక్షోభం మరియు యు.ఎస్. దౌత్యకార్యాలయం మీద దాడి జరిగాయి. శాంక్షంస్ నొరియేగాను పడగొట్టడానికి స్వల్పంగా మరియు ఆర్ధికరంగం పతనానికి అధికంగా పనిచేసాయి. ఈ కారణంగా 1987-1989 మద్య జి.డి.పి 25% పతనం అయింది.[23]1988 ఫిబ్రవరి 5న జనరల్ మాన్యుయేల్ అంటానియా నొరియేగా తంపా మరియు మైమీ ఫెడరల్ జ్యూరీలు మాదకద్రవ్యాల రవాణాకు సహకరించారని ఆరోపించాడు.1988 ఏప్రెల్ లో యు.ఎస్ అధ్యక్షుడు రోనాల్డ్ రీగన్ \" ఇంటర్నేషనల్ ఎమర్జెంసీ ఎకనమిక్ పవర్స్ యాక్ట్ \" ను ప్రేరేపించి అన్ని యు.ఎస్ ఆర్గనైజేషంస్‌లో ఉన్న పనామా ఆస్తులను దిగ్బంధం చేసేలా చేసాడు. 1989 మే లో పనామియన్లు నొరియేగాకు వ్యతిరేకంగా అత్యంత ఉత్సాహంగా ఓటు వేసారు. నొరియేగా ప్రభుత్వం చురుకుగా ఎన్నికలను రద్దు చేసి అణిచివేత కార్యక్రమాలు చేపట్టాడు.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\n2010లో ప్యూమా కింగ్ మరోసారి ఒక ఫుట్‌బాల్ దిగ్గజానికి వేడుకలు నిర్వహించింది. ఈసారి డియెగో మారడోనాకు గౌరవసూచకంగా సంబరాలు జరిపిందియ ఈ అర్జెంటీనా ఫుట్‌బాల్ దిగ్గజం 50వ పుట్టినరోజును పురస్కరించుకొని ప్యూమా కింగ్ డియెగో ఫైనల్ ఫుట్‌బాల్ బూట్‌లను విడుదల చేసింది. అర్జెంటీనా జాతీయ ఫుట్‌బాల్ జట్టు యొక్క లా ఆల్బిసెలెస్టీ యొక్క రంగుల్లో ఈ ఎడిషన్‌ను తయారు చేసింది.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\nస్వేచ్ఛా వాణిజ్యాన్ని ప్రోత్సహించే సంస్థలు మరియు కార్మిక హక్కుల సంస్థలు అభివృద్ధి చెందుతున్న ప్రపంచంలోని కర్మాగారాల్లో ప్యూమా యొక్క ఉపాధి పద్ధతులను విమర్శిస్తున్నాయి, చైనా, టర్కీ, ఎల్ సాల్వడార్ మరియు ఇండోనేషియాలోని కర్మాగారాల్లో ప్యూమా పాటిస్తున్న విధానాలు వివాదాస్పదమయ్యాయి.[18][19][20]", "స్వీడన్\n1739 లో రాయల్ స్వీడిష్ అకాడెమీ ఆఫ్ సైన్సెస్ స్థాపించబడింది. కార్ల్ లిన్నేయుస్ మరియు ఆండర్స్ సెల్సియస్ వంటి వ్యక్తులు ప్రారంభ సభ్యులుగా ఉన్నారు. ప్రారంభ పయినీర్లు స్థాపించిన చాలా కంపెనీలు ఇప్పటికీ ప్రధాన అంతర్జాతీయ బ్రాండ్లుగానే ఉన్నాయి. గుస్టాఫ్ డాలెన్ ఎ.జి.ఎ.ని స్థాపించాడు. తన సన్ వాల్వ్ కోసం నోబెల్ బహుమతిని అందుకున్నాడు. ఆల్ఫ్రెడ్ నోబెల్ డైనమైట్ను కనుగొన్నాడు.నోబెల్ బహుమతిని స్థాపించాడు. లార్స్ మాగ్నస్ ఎరిక్సన్ సంస్థ పేరు ఎరిక్సన్ను కంపెనీకి నిర్ణయించబడింది. ఇది ఇప్పటికీ ప్రపంచంలో అతిపెద్ద టెలికం కంపెనీలలో ఒకటిగా ఉంది. జోనాస్ వేన్స్ట్రోమ్ ప్రత్యామ్నాయంలో ఒక ప్రారంభ మార్గదర్శకుడు మరియు సెర్బియా ఆవిష్కర్త నికోలా టెస్లాతో పాటు మూడు-దశ విద్యుత్ వ్యవస్థ సృష్టికర్తల్లో ఒకరిగా పేర్కొన్నాడు.[159]", "పారిశ్రామిక విప్లవం\n1871లో ఇవకురా మిషన్‌గా పిలువబడే జపాన్ రాజకీయ నాయకుల సమూహం పాశ్చాత్య పద్ధతులను నేర్చుకోవడానికి ఐరోపా మరియు USAలలో పర్యటించింది. దీని ఫలితంగా, జపాన్ వెనుకబడి పోకుండా ప్రభుత్వ నాయకత్వంలో పారిశ్రామిక విధానం ఏర్పడింది. 1877లో స్థాపించబడిన బాంక్ ఆఫ్ జపాన్, పన్నులను ఉపయోగించి నమూనా ఉక్కు మరియు నూలు కార్మాగారాలకు నిధులను అందించింది. విద్యారంగం విస్తరించింది మరియు జపాన్ విద్యార్థులు అధ్యయనానికి పశ్చిమ దేశాలకు పంపబడ్డారు.", "ఎం.ఎఫ్. హుసేన్\n1940 ఆఖరులో హుసేన్ ప్రసిద్ధి చెందాడు. ఫ్రాన్సిస్ న్యూటన్ సౌజా స్థాపించిన ప్రోగ్రెసివ్ ఆర్టిస్ట్స్ గ్రూపులో 1947 లో, చేరాడు. 1952 లో, ఇతడి మొదటి ప్రదర్శన జ్యూరిచ్ నగరంలో జరిగినది, మరియు తరువాతి సంవత్సరాలలో యూరప్ మరియు అమెరికాలో పలు ప్రదర్శనలు ఇచ్చాడు. 1955 లో, ఇతనికి పద్మశ్రీ పురస్కారం లభించినది.[4]", "జాకబ్ జుమా\nబ్లోయెంఫోంటైన్‌లోని సుప్రీం కోర్ట్ ఆఫ్ అప్పీల్‌లో జనవరి 12, 2009న పునర్విచారణ పిటిషన్ విచారణకు స్వీకరించబడింది. డిప్యూటీ జడ్జ్ ప్రెసిడెంట్ లూయిస్ హార్మ్ పిటిషన్ రెండు కోణాలపై విచారణ జరిపారు. జుమాపై NPA లంచం మరియు అవినీతి అభియోగాలు నమోదు చేసే ముందు ఆయనకు వివరణ ఇచ్చే అవకాశం ఇచ్చారా లేదా అనేది మొదటి కోణం. ఆ తరువాత అధ్యక్ష బాధ్యతలు చేపట్టిన తాబో బెకీ ద్వారా రాజకీయ ప్రోద్బలంతో జుమాపై అభియోగాలు మోపాలని NPA నిర్ణయం తీసుకుందని న్యాయమూర్తి నికోల్సన్ ఇచ్చిన తీర్పు సరైనదేనా అనేది ఈ విచారణ యొక్క రెండో కోణం.", "శ్రీసాధన పత్రిక\nఈ పత్రిక ప్రారంభించడానికి ముందు 1922లో పప్పూరు రామాచార్యులు, కైప సుబ్రహ్మణ్యశర్మ, అతని తమ్ముడు మహానందయ్య, రామచంద్రశర్మ, ఐతరాజు నరసప్ప, ఆత్మారామప్పలతో కలిసి పినాకిని అనే పత్రికను ప్రారంభించాడు. ఆ పత్రిక 1925వరకు చక్కగా సాగింది. అభిప్రాయభేదాల వల్ల పప్పూరు రామాచార్యులు పినాకిని నుండి బయటకు వచ్చి శ్రీసాధన పత్రికను స్థాపించాడు. పినాకిని కేవలము కాంగ్రెస్ పక్షపాతి అని సాధనపత్రిక అన్ని పక్షములవారి యెడల సానుభూతితో వ్యవహరిస్తుందని తొలి సంచికలో పేర్కొనబడింది. 1932లో సహాయనిరాకరణోద్యమము సందర్భంగా కొంతకాలం ఈ పత్రిక ఆగిపోయింది. తరువాత 1934 ఆగస్టు 18న పునఃప్రారంభమైంది. 1940 మార్చి నెలలో శ్రీసాధన పత్రిక మరియు సాధన ముద్రణాలయాన్ని లిమిటెడ్ కంపెనీగా మార్చారు. డైరెక్టర్లుగా పప్పూరు రామాచార్యులు, కల్లూరు సుబ్బారావు, కె.ఎస్.రాఘవాచార్యులు తదితరులు ఉండేవారు. 1942లో క్విట్ ఇండియా ఉద్యమంలో పప్పూరు రామాచార్యులు జైలు జీవితం గడిపాడు. ఆ సమయంలో పత్రిక కొంతకాలం ఆగి తిరిగి ప్రారంభమైంది. ఈ పత్రిక పప్పూరు రామాచార్యులు మరణించేవరకు అంటే 1972వరకు పైన పేర్కొన్న సందర్భాలలో మినహా నిరాటంకంగా కొనసాగింది. తరువాత దీనిని పప్పూరు రామాచార్యుల కుమారుడు పప్పూరు శేషాచార్యులు 1996 -97 ప్రాంతాలవరకు నడిపాడు. \n12 పేజీల ఈ వారపత్రిక మొదటి పుట ప్రధాన శీర్షిక క్రింది భాగాన భారతంలోని \nఆ||వె|| కార్యగతుల తెఱగు కలరూపు చెప్పిన", "అమూల్\nఈ దోపిడీకి ఎదురుతిరిగిన కైరా జిల్లా రైతులుసర్దార్ వల్లభభాయి పటేల్ ను సంప్రదించగా, స్థానిక రైతు త్రిభువన్‌దాస్ పటేల్ నాయకత్వంలో కో-అపరేటివ్ పాల సంస్థ పెట్టుకోమని సలహా ఇచ్చారు. త్రిభువన్ దాస్ తదితరులు బాంబే మిల్క్ స్కీమ్ పేరుతో పాల కో-ఆపరేటివ్ సంస్థను ప్రారంభించి పోల్సన్ కంపెనీకి బదులు వాళ్ళే బాంబేకు పాలు సరఫరా చేయడం మొదలుపెట్టారు. రైతుల పనులు నిర్వహించేందుకు మొరార్జీ దేశాయ్ ను పంపించారు వల్లభభాయ్. అలా 1946లో పాలను సేకరించి, అమ్మేందుకు అమూల్ సంస్థను స్థాపించారు. రోజుకు 1-2లీటర్ల పాలు మాత్ర్రమే అమ్మే సన్నకారు రైతులకు కూడా లాభం వచ్చే విధంగా పాల సేకరణ చేసేలా ఈ సంస్థను తయారు చేశారు.", "పోలో\nఅర్జెంటైన్ పంపాస్ లో ఉన్న బ్రిటిష్ సైనికులు ఈ ఆటను ఆడడం ప్రారంబించారు. వారిలో ఒకరైన డేవిడ్ శేన్నాన్ 1875లో మొదటి సారిగా దేశములో పోలో ఆటను నిర్వహించాడు. నైపుణ్యం గల గౌచోల మధ్య ఈ ఆట బాగా ప్రాబల్యం చెందింది. తదుపరి సంవత్సరాలలో వెనదో టువర్టో, కెనడా దే గోమేజ్, క్విల్మ్స్, ఫ్లోర్స్ లలో తరువాత (1888) హుర్లిన్ఘం ప్రాంతాలలో పలు క్లబ్బులు తెరవబడ్డాయి. 1892లో రివర్ ప్లేట్ పోలో అసోసియేషన్ స్థాపించబడింది. ఇదే ప్రస్తుతం ఉన్న Asociación Argentina de polo సంస్థకు పునాది. 1924లో పారిస్ లో జరిగిన ఒలింపిక్ క్రీడలలో జువాన్ మైల్స్, ఎన్రిక్ పాడిల్ల, జువాన్ నెల్సన్, అర్టురో కెన్ని, జి. బ్రూక్ నెయ్లర్ y A. పేనా కలిగిన బృందం బంగారు పతకం గెలిచింది; 1936లో బెర్లిన్ లో జరిగిన క్రీడలలోనూ మనువాల్ అండ్రడా, ఆండ్రెస్ గాజ్జొట్టి, రోబెర్టో కవనగ్, లూయిస్ డుగ్గాన్, జువాన్ నెల్సన్, డయగో కవనగ్ మరియు ఎన్రిక్ అల్బెర్డి లతో కూడిన బృందం బంగారు పతకం సాధించింది. ఆ తరువాత ఈ ఆట దేశవ్యాప్తంగా విస్తృతంగా వ్యాపల్యం చెందింది. అర్జంటినా ప్రపంచ పోలో ఆటకు మేక్కా అని పిలవబడుతుంది.\n19వ శతాబ్దములో ఆడబడిన ఈ ఆట మణిపూర్ లో ఆడబడిన వేగవంతమైన ఆటకంటే బిన్నంగా ఉండేది. ఈ ఆట నెమ్మదిగానూ పద్ధతిప్రకారము ఉండేది. ఆటగాళ్ళ మధ్య బంతి పాస్ అవ్వడం చాలా తక్కువగా ఉండేది. బంతి లేకుండా ఆటగాళ్ళు కొన్ని విశేష కదిలికలు చేయవలసి ఉండేది. వేగవంతమైన మరియు విడుపు లేకుండా ఆడడానికి ఆటగాళ్లకు గాని గుర్రాలకు గాని శిక్షణ ఉండేది కాదు. ఈ రకమైన పోలో ఆటలో జోరు, దూకుడు మరియు ఈక్వెస్ట్రియన్ నైపుణ్యత ఉండేది కాదు. 1800ల నుంచి 1910ల వరకు, భారతీయ ప్రిన్సిపాలిటీల యొక్క జట్టులే అంతర్జాతీయ పోలో క్రీడారంగంలో ఆధిపత్యం కలిగి ఉండేవి.\nఅర్జంటినా, బ్రెజిల్, చిలీ, మెక్సికో, పాకిస్తాన్ మరియు యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ అఫ్ అమెరికా దేశాలలో పోలో ప్రాబల్యం చెందింది.", "పనామా\n[20] అరియాస్ మాడ్రిడ్ విజేతగా ప్రకటించబడిన తరువాత మోసపూరితంగా ఎన్నికలు నిర్వహించారని విమర్శలు మరియు హింసాత్మకచర్యలు చోటుచేసుకున్నాయి. 1968 అక్టోబర్ 1న అరియాస్ మాడ్రిడ్ పనామా అధ్యక్షునిగా పదవీస్వీకారం చేసాడు. నేషనల్ యూనియన్ ప్రభుత్వం లంచగొండితనం ఆరోపణల కారణంగా ముగింపుకు వచ్చింది. ఒకవారం తరువాత 1968 అక్టోబర్ 11న నేషనల్ గార్డ్ అరియాస్‌ను పదవీచ్యుతుని చేసింది. ఇది 1989లో యు.ఎస్. దాడికి దారితీసింది.అరియాస్ నేషన్ల్ గార్డ్ అధికారం కొనసాగడానికి హామీ ఇచ్చాడు. నేషనల్ గార్డ్ సైన్యాలను బలపరిచే ఏర్పాట్లు ఆరంభించింది. లెఫ్టినెంటు కల్నల్ \" ఒమర్ టార్రిజోస్ హెర్రెరా \" మరియు \" మేజర్ బొరిస్ మార్టినెజ్ \"పనామా సివిల్ ప్రభుత్వం మీద సైనిక తిరుబాటుకు అదేశించడంతో పనామా రిపబ్లికన్ చరిత్రలో మొదటి సైనిక తిరుగుబాటు మొదలైంది. [20]", "ఇంకా సామ్రాజ్యం\nవారి మొదటి ఒడంబడిక పసిఫిక్ తీరాన ప్రస్తుత ఇక్వేడర్ గువయాక్విల్ సమీపాన ఉన్న పునా యుద్ధం; పిజారో దీని తరువాత జూలై 1532లో పియూరా నగరాన్ని స్థాపించారు. హెర్నందో డె సోటోను అంతర్భాగాలను అన్వేషించటానికి లోతట్టు ప్రాంతాలకు పంపించారు మరియు ఇంకా, అతహువల్పాను కలవటానికి ఆహ్వానంతో తిరిగి వచ్చాడు, ఆ సమయంలో ఇంకా తన సోదరుడిని పొర యుద్ధంలో ఓడించి 80,000 మంది సైనిక బలగాలతో కాజమార్కా వద్ద విశ్రాంతి తీసుకుంటున్నాడు.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\nఇద్దరు సోదరులు నాజీ పార్టీలో చేరారు, అయితే రుడాల్ఫ్ మాత్రమే పార్టీకి బాగా సన్నిహితంగా మెలిగారు. యుద్ధం సందర్భంగా, సోదరుల మధ్య పెరిగిన విభేదాలు 1943లో మిత్రదేశాల బాంబు దాడి సందర్భంగా తారాస్థాయికి చేరుకున్నాయి, ఈ బాంబు దాడి సమయంలో అడి మరియు ఆయన భార్య ఒక బాంబు రక్షణ స్థావరంలోకి వెళ్లే సమయానికే రుడాల్ఫ్ మరియు ఆయన కుటుంబం ఈ స్థావరంలో ఉంది.మిత్రరాజ్యాల యుద్ధ విమానాలను ఉద్దేశించి అడి తీవ్ర అవమానకర పదజాలంతో దూషించాడు, అయితే రుడాల్ఫ్ ఈ దూషణలను తనను మరియు తన కుటుంబాన్ని ఉద్దేశించనవని భావించాడు.[3]:18 తరువాత రుడాల్ఫ్‌ను అమెరికా సైనికులు బంధించినప్పుడు ఆయనను వారు వాఫెన్ ఎస్ఎస్ సభ్యుడిగా అనుమానించారు, అయితే రుడాల్ఫ్ తన సోదరుడి వలన బంధీగా చిక్కినట్లు భావించాడు.[6]", "హోమీ భాభా\nభాభా భారతదేశంలో సెలవలకు వచ్చినప్పుడు ప్రపంచ యుద్ధం II ఆరంభమయ్యింది. యుద్ధం ముగిసే వరకూ భారతదేశంలో ఉండడానికి నిశ్చయించుకున్నాడు. ఈ మధ్యలో, ఆయన ఇండియన్ ఇన్స్టిట్యూట్ ఆఫ్ సైన్స్ బెంగుళూరులో ఒక పదవిని పోషించారు, దీనికి నేతృత్వం నోబెల్ పురస్కార గ్రహీత C. V. రామన్ వహిస్తున్నారు. సంస్థలో అతను కాస్మిక్ రే రిసర్చ్ యూనిట్‌ను స్థాపించారు, మరియు పాయింట్ పార్టికల్స్ యెుక్క కదలిక సిద్ధాంతం మీద పనిచేయటం ఆరంభించారు. 1945లో, అతను బొంబాయిలోని టాటా ఇన్స్టిట్యూట్ ఆఫ్ ఫండమెంటల్ రీసెర్చ్‌ను మరియు అటామిక్ ఎనర్జీ కమిషన్ ఆఫ్ ఇండియాను స్థాపించాడు. 1950లలో, భాభా ఇంటర్నేషనల్ అటామిక్ ఎనర్జీ ఫోరంలలో భారతదేశం తరుపున ప్రాతినిధ్యం వహించారు మరియు 1955లో జెనీవా, స్విట్జంర్లాండ్‌లో అణుశక్తి యెుక్క శాంతియుతమైన ఉపయోగాల మీద జరిగిన ఐక్యరాజ్యసమితి సమావేశంలో అధ్యక్షడిగా ఉన్నారు. భారతదేశ ప్రభుత్వంచే పద్మభూషణ్ పురస్కారాన్ని 1954లో పొందారు. ఆయన భారత మంత్రిమండలి యెుక్క సాంకేతిక సలహాదారు సంఘం యెుక్క సభ్యుడిగా ఉన్నారు మరియు విక్రమ్ సారాభాయితో కలసి ఇండియన్ నేషనల్ కమిటీ ఫర్ స్పేస్ రీసెర్చ్ ఏర్పరచారు. జనవరి 1966లో, ఇంటర్నేషనల్ అటామిక్ ఎనర్జీ ఏజన్సీ యెుక్క సాంకేతిక సలహాదారు సంఘం సమావేశానికి హాజరుకావటానికి వియన్నా, ఆస్ట్రియా వెళుతూ భాభా విమాన ప్రమాదంలో మోంట్ బ్లాంక్ వద్ద మరణించారు.", "ఆరోగ్య విద్య\nఈటా సిగ్మా గామా (ESG) \nఈటా సిగ్మా గామా అనేది బాల్ టాట్ విశ్వవిద్యాలయం నుండి ముగ్గురు ప్రొఫెసర్‌లచే 1967లో స్థాపించబడిన ఒక జాతీయ ఆరోగ్య విద్యా సంస్థ. ESG యొక్క ముఖ్యోద్దేశ్యం ప్రజారోగ్య విద్యా నిపుణుల ప్రమాణాలు, ఆశయాలు, సామర్థ్యాలు మరియు నీతి నియమాలను మెరుగుపర్చడం ద్వారా ప్రజారోగ్య విద్యను ప్రోత్సహించడాన్ని చెప్పవచ్చు. సంస్థ యొక్క మూడు ముఖ్యమైన అంశాలు బోధన, పరిశోధన మరియు ప్రజారోగ్య వృత్తి నిపుణుల సభ్యులకు సేవలను అందించడం చెప్పవచ్చు. ఈటా స్టిగ్మా గామా లక్ష్యాల్లో కొన్ని లక్ష్యాల్లో భావి మరియు ప్రస్తుత ఆరోగ్య విద్యా కార్యక్రమాలకు మద్దతు ప్రణాళిక మరియు విశ్లేషణ, శాస్త్రీయ పరిశోధనకు మద్దతు మరియు ప్రచారం, ఆరోగ్య విద్యా సమస్యలకు సలహదారు సంస్థకు మద్దతు మరియు వృత్తిపరమైన నైతిక విలువలను ప్రోత్సహించడం ఉన్నాయి. \nఅమెరికా కళాశాల ఆరోగ్య సంఘం (ACHA) \nఅమెరికా కళాశాల ఆరోగ్య సంఘం వాస్తవానికి 1920లో ఒక విద్యార్థుల ఆరోగ్య సంఘంగా ప్రారంభమైంది, కాని తర్వాత 1948లో ఈ సంఘం తన పేరును ప్రస్తుతం పిలుస్తున్న పేరుకు మార్చింది. ACHA యొక్క ప్రధాన ఆసక్తి ఏమిటంటే దేశంలోని కళాశాలు మరియు విశ్వవిద్యాలయాల్లో అనుకూల వాదన మరియు నాయకత్వాన్ని ప్రోత్సహించడాన్ని చెప్పవచ్చు. సంఘం యొక్క మరొక లక్ష్యంగా విద్యార్థులు మరియు విద్యా ప్రాంగణ సంఘాల్లో విద్య, సంభాషణ మరియు సేవలను ప్రోత్సహించడాన్ని చెప్పవచ్చు. ఈ సంఘం అనుకూల వాదన మరియు పరిశోధనలను కూడా ప్రోత్సహిస్తుంది. అమెరికా కళాశాల ఆరోగ్య సంఘంలో మూడు రకాలు సభ్యత్వాలు ఉన్నాయి: ఉన్నత విద్యా సంస్థలు, ప్రజారోగ్య వృత్తిలో ఆసక్తి ఉన్న వ్యక్తులు మరియు లాభాపేక్ష మరియు లాభాపేక్షరహిత సంస్థల్లో సభ్యులు. ACHA దేశవ్యాప్తంగా ఆరు ప్రాంతాల్లో ఉన్న 11 సంస్థలతో అనుసంధానించబడింది. ప్రస్తుతం, అమెరికా కళాశాల ఆరోగ్య సంఘం సంయుక్త రాష్ట్రాల్లోని 900 విద్యా సంస్థలకు మరియు సుమారు 2400 మంది సభ్యులకు సేవలను అందిస్తుంది. \nఆరోగ్య ప్రచారం మరియు విద్యా నిర్వాహకులు (DHPE) \n1946లో ఆరోగ్య విద్యా వృత్తిలోని వృత్తిపరమైన సమూహాల్లో ఒకదాని వలె స్థాపించబడింది. HEPE యొక్క ప్రధాన లక్ష్యం ఏదైనా ప్రజారోగ్య ఏజెన్సీలో ఆరోగ్య విద్యా ప్రమాణాలను మెరుగుపర్చడాన్ని చెప్పవచ్చు. అలాగే, ఆరోగ్య కార్యక్రమాలను అమలు కోసం ఆలోచనలను తెలియజేయడానికి ఒక ప్రసారమాధ్యమం వలె అన్ని ప్రజారోగ్య వృత్తి నిపుణుల్లో నెట్‌వర్కింగ్ అవకాశాలను కల్పించడం మరియు తాజా ఆరోగ్య వార్తల గురించి కచ్చితమైన సమాచారాన్ని నిర్వహించడం చెప్పవచ్చు. DHPE అనేది ఆరోగ్య నాణఅయతను మెరుగుపర్చే ప్రస్తుత ఆరోగ్య కార్యక్రమాల పద్ధతులను రూపొందించడం మరియు విస్తరించడం ద్వారా ఆరోగ్య విద్య మరియు ప్రచారంపై ప్రజా జాగృతిని పెంచడంపై దృష్టి సారించింది. ఆరోగ్య ప్రచారం మరియు విద్యా నిర్వాహకులు అనేది \"ఆరోగ్య ప్రచారం మరియు వ్యాధి నివారణపై పని చేయడానికి\" రాష్ట్ర మరియు ప్రాంతీయ ఆరోగ్య అధికారుల సంఘం (ASTHO) తో అనుసంధానించబడింది. ", "పనామా\n1744 లో బిషప్ \" ఫ్రాంసిస్కో జేవియర్ డీ ల్యూనా డికాస్ట్రొ \" కాలేజ్ ఆఫ్ ఇగ్నాషియో డీ లొయొడాను స్థాపించాడు. 1749 జూన్ 3న లా రియల్ వై పొంటిఫిసియా \" యూనివర్శిడాడ్ డీ శాన్ జేవియర్ \" స్థాపించాడు. స్పెయిన్ ఆధికారం యూరప్‌లో ఊగిసలాటలో ఉన్న కారణంగా పనామా ప్రధాన్యత మరియు ప్రభావం తగ్గింది.సముద్రయానంలో సాంకేతికత అభివృద్ధి కొనసాగిన కారణంగా పసిఫిక్ సముద్రతీరం చేరే మార్గం సుగమం అయింది. పనామా మార్గం చిన్నదైనా ఇందుకొరకు శ్రామికుల అవసరం మరియు వ్యయం అధికంగా ఉండేది. సరుకు ఎక్కించడం మరియు దించడం, ఒక తీరం నుండి మరొకతీరం చేరడానికి లేడన్ ట్రెక్ అవసరం ఉండేది.అందువలన చుట్టిరావడం దూరమైనా సులువుగా మారింది.18వ శతాబ్ధం ద్వితీయార్ధం మరియు 19వ శతాబ్ధం ప్రధమార్ధంలో గ్రామాలకు ప్రజలు వలసపోయిన కారణంగా పనామా మరియు ఇస్త్మస్ నగరాల జనసంఖ్య క్షీణించింది. ఆర్ధికరగం ప్రైమరీ సెక్టర్‌కు మారింది.", "బాలసుబ్రహ్మణ్యం ఆర్ట్స్ అండ్ మ్యూజిక్ అకాడమి\nబాలసుబ్రహ్మణ్యం ఆర్ట్స్ అండ్ మ్యూజిక్ అకాడమి 2003 వ సంవత్సరంలో ప్రారంభమైంది. దీనిని సింపుల్ గా బామా అంటారు. బామా వ్యవస్థాపక కార్యదర్శి లేబాకుల సుధాకర్ రెడ్డి. ఈ అకాడమి ప్రధానంగా పాడనా తెలుగు పాట పేర జాతీయ స్థాయి తెలుగు సినిమా పాటల పోటీని ప్రతి సంవత్సరం నెల్లూరుజిల్లా కావలి పట్టణంలో నిర్వహిస్తుంది. శ్రీపతి పండితారాధ్యుల బాలసుబ్రహ్మణ్యం పేరిట స్థాపించిన ఈ సంస్థ యొక్క గొప్పతనం ఈ పేరులోనే ఉంది. సినిమా తెలుగు పాటకు సూర్య చంద్రుల వంటి వారు ఘంటసాల మరియు బాలసుబ్రహ్మణ్యం. అందువలనే తెలుగు పాటల యొక్క గొప్పతనాన్ని, తీయదనాన్ని పంచుతున్న గాయకులలో ఒకరైన బాలసుబ్రహ్మణ్యంగారి పేరును ఈ సంస్థకు పెట్టారు.", "జుంపా లహరి\nనిలంజన సుధేష్ణ \"జుంపా\" లహరి (Bengali: ঝুম্পা লাহিড়ী; జ.1967, జూలై 11) భారతీయ సంతతికి చెందిన అమెరికా రచయిత్రి. 1999 లో ఈమె రచించిన సంక్షిప్త కథల సంపుటి \"ఇంటర్ ప్రిటర్ ఆఫ్ మలాడీస్\" 2000 సంవత్సరానికి గాను ప్రఖ్యాత పులిట్జర్ అవార్డు అందుకుంది.[2] ఆమె మొదటి నవల ది నేమ్‌సేక్ (2003) ప్రసిద్ధ సినిమాగా అదే పేరుతో తీయబడింది. [3] ఆమె బాల్యనామం \"నిలంజన సుధేష్ణ\". కానీ ఆమె \"జుంపా\" అనే కలం పేరుతో రచనలు చేస్తుంది. [1] ఆమె \"ప్రెసిడెంట్స్ కమిటీ ఆన్ ద ఆర్ట్స్ అండ్ హుమానిటీస్\"లో సభ్యురాలిగా అమెరికా సంయుక్త రాష్ట్రాల అధ్యక్షుడు బరాక్ ఒబామా చే నియమింపబడింది. [4] (ఆమె ఆగస్టు 2017 లో ఆ కమిటీ సభ్యత్వానికి రాజీనామా చేసి అప్పటి అమెరికా అధ్యక్షుడు డోనాల్డ్ ట్రంప్కు \"మీ ద్వేషపూరిత వాక్చాతుర్యం గల మీ పదాలు మరియు చర్యల నుండి దూరంగా ఉండేందుకు గాను నేను రాజీనామా చేస్తున్నాను\" అనే సూచనను అందించింది.[5] ఆమె రాసిన పుస్తకం \"ద లోలాండ్\" 2013లో ప్రచురితమయింది. ఈ పుస్తకం మ్యాన్ బుకర్ ప్రైజ్ మరియు నేషనల్ బుక్ అవార్డ్ ఫిక్షన్ లకు నామినేట్ చేయబడింది. ఆమె ప్రస్తుతం \"ప్రిన్స్‌టన్ విశ్వవిద్యాలయం\"లో సృజనాత్మక రచనల యొక్క విభాగంలో ప్రొఫెసర్ గా ఉంది. [6]", "వాక్యూమ్ క్లీనర్\n1876లో, USA, గ్రాండ్ రాపిడ్స్, మిచిగాన్‌లోని మెల్వేల్లే బిసెల్ కార్పెట్‌లోని రంపపుపొట్టును శుభ్రం చేయడానికి తన భార్య అన్నా కోసం ఒక వాక్యూమ్ క్లీనర్‌ను కనిపెట్టాడు. కొద్దికాలం తర్వాత, బిసెల్ కార్పెట్ స్వీపర్‌లు ప్రారంభమయ్యాయి. మిల్వేల్లే ఊహించని విధంగా 1889లో మరణించిన తర్వాత, అన్నా సంస్థ నిర్వహణను కొనసాగించింది మరియు ఆమె నేటికి ఒక శక్తివంతమైన వ్యాపార మహిళల్లో ఒకరిగా పేరు గాంచింది.[2]", "పనామా\n20వ శతాబ్ధంలో కాలువ నిర్మాణం తరువాత పనామా \" ఇంటర్నేషనల్ ఫైనాంషియల్ సెంటర్ \" అయింది.[45] బ్యాంకింగ్ రంగం నుండి 24,000 మందికి నేరుగా ఉపాధి లభించింది. ఫైనాంస్ రంగం జి.డి.పి.లో 9.3 % కి భాగస్వామ్యం వహిస్తుంది.[46] స్థిరత్వం పనామా ఫైనాంషియల్ రంగానికి బలంచేకూరుస్తూ ఉంది. అనుకూలమైన ఆర్ధిక మరియు వాణిజ్య వాతావరణం ఫైనాంస్ రంగం అభివృద్ధికి సహకారం అందిస్తుంది.బ్యాంకులు చక్కని అభివృద్ధి మరియు స్థిరమైన ఆదాయం పొందుతూ ఉంది.[47] అంతర్జాతీయ ఫైనాంషియల్ కేంద్రంగా పనామా మద్య అమెరికా మరియు లాటిన్ అమెరికా దేశాలకు సర్వీసులను ఎగుమతి చేస్తుంది. ప్రపంచం మొత్తం పానామాను \" టక్స్ హెవెన్ \" గా భావిస్తుంది.[46]", "బీమా\nగ్రీకులు మరియు రోమన్‌లు ఆరోగ్య భీమా మరియు జీవిత భీమా విధానాన్ని ప్రవేశ పెట్టారు. 600 AD‌లో, కుటుంబాలను సంరక్షిస్తూ ఎవరైనా చనిపోతే వారి అంత్యక్రియలకు అయ్యే ఖర్చులను భరిస్తూ \"దయ గల సంఘాలు\" అని పిలవబడే సమాజాలను నిర్వహించేవారు. మధ్య యుగంలోని సంఘాలు ఈ విధానాన్నే అవలంబించేవి. వారి ధర్మశాస్త్రం సరుకుల బీమాకు సంబంధించిన అనేక అంశాలను ప్రస్తావిస్తుంది.17వ శతాబ్దం అంతంలో, ఇంగ్లాండ్‌‌లో భీమా వ్యాపారం స్థాపించబడే ముందు, అత్యవసరాలలో ఉపయోగించడానికి కొంత డబ్బును ప్రజలు విరాళాన్ని సేకరించే \"స్నేహపూరిత సంఘాలు\" అవతరించాయి.", "పొపాయ్\nనవంబర్ 1932లో, కింగ్ ఫీచర్స్ ఫ్లీషర్ స్టూడియోస్‌తో ఒక ఒప్పందం సంతకం చేసింది. ఫ్లీషర్ స్టూడియోస్‌ను మాక్స్ ఫ్లీషర్ మరియు అతని సోదరుడు, దర్శకుడు దేవ్ ఫ్లీషర్ నడిపిస్తున్నారు. పొపాయ్ మరియు ఇతర థింబుల్ థియేటర్ పాత్రలు ఆనిమేటెడ్ కార్టూన్ల సీరీస్‌లో కనపడడం కోసం ఒప్పందం జరిగింది. సీరీస్‌లో మొదటి కార్టూన్ 1933లో విడుదల అయ్యింది, ఇంకా పొపాయ్ కార్టూన్లు, పారమౌంట్ పిక్చర్స్ చే విడుదల చేయబడి, తరువాత 25 సంవత్సరాల పాటు పారమౌంట్ విడుదలలో ముఖ్య వ్యాపార వస్తువుగా ఉండింది.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\nకంపెనీ లామైన్ కౌయాట్, ఎమీ గార్బెర్స్ మరియు ఇతరులు రూపకల్పన చేసిన లైన్స్ షూలు మరియు క్రీడా దుస్తులు అందిస్తుంది. 1996 నుంచి ప్యూమా అమెరికా సంయుక్త రాష్ట్రాల్లో తమ కార్యకలాపాలను వేగవంతం చేసింది. అమెరికాకు చెందిన క్రీడా దుస్తులు తయారు చేసే బ్రాండ్ లోగో అథ్లెటిక్‌లో ప్యూమాకు 25% వాటా ఉంది, లోగో అథ్లెటిక్‌కు అమెరికన్ ప్రొఫెషనల్ బాస్కెట్‌బాల్ మరియు అసోసియేషన్ ఫుట్‌బాల్ లీగ్‌ల లైసెన్స్‌లు ఉన్నాయి. 2007 నుంచి ప్యూమా ఏజీ ఫ్రాన్స్‌కు చెందిన విలాసవస్తువుల తయారు చేసే గ్రూపు పిపిఆర్ (PPR)లో భాగంగా ఉంది.", "ఆస్మియం\nఇంగ్లాండు లోని లండను నగరంలో,1803 లో స్మిత్ సన్ టేన్నట్ (Smithson Tennant) మరియు విలియమ్ హైడ్ వోల్లస్టన్ (William Hyde Wollaston) లు ఈ మూలకాన్ని మొదటగా కనుగొన్నారు. ఈ మూలకం యొక్క ఆవిష్కరణ ప్లాటినం సమూహానికి చెందిన మూలకాల ఆవిష్కరణతో ముడివడి యున్నది. ప్లాటినం 17 వ శతాబ్దిలో platina (\"small silver\", పేరుతొయూరోపులో ప్రవేశించి నది. రసాయన వేత్తలు, ప్లాటినం సమ్మేళనాలు తయారుచేయుటకు, ప్లాటినాన్ని అక్వారిజియా (25%నత్రికామ్లం, మరియు 75% హైడ్రోక్లోరిక్ ఆమ్లాల మిశ్రమం) లో కరగించినపుడు, ఆమ్లంలో కరుగని నల్లని పదార్థం, శేష పదార్థంగా/అవశిష్టంగా అడుగున మిగిలి ఉండటం గమనించారు. ఆమ్లంలో కరుగని ఈ నల్లని అవశేష పదార్థాన్ని జోసెఫ్ లూయిస్ ప్రోస్ట్ (Joseph Louis Proust) గ్రాపైట్ గా పొరపాటు పడినాడు.", "సుజుకి\n1909లో, మిచియో సుజుకి (1887-1982), జపాన్‌లోని హమామట్సు అనబడే ఒక చిన్న సముద్రపు కోస్తా గ్రామంలో సుజుకి లూమ్ వర్క్స్ స్థాపించాడు. సుజుకి జపాన్ యొక్క బ్రహ్మాండమైన సిల్కు పరిశ్రమ కోసం నేత మగ్గాలు నిర్మించడంతో వ్యాపారం దిన దిన ప్రవర్ధమానమయ్యింది.[7] 1929లో, మిచియో సుజుకి ఒక కొత్త రకపు నేత మగ్గం కనిపెట్టాడు, దానిని విదేశాలకు ఎగుమతి చేయడం జరిగింది. సుజుకి 120 దాకా పేటెంట్స్ మరియు యుటిలిటి మోడల్ రైట్స్‌ను దాఖలు చేసాడు. సంస్థ మొదటి 30 సంవత్సరాలు ఈ అసాధారణమయిన సంక్లిష్టమయిన యంత్రాల యొక్క అభివృధ్ధి మరియు ఉత్పత్తి పైన దృష్టి కేంద్రీకరించింది.", "ల్యారీ పేజ్\n1998 లో, బ్రిన్ మరియు పేజ్ గూగుల్, ఇంక్ స్థాపించబడింది [20] పేజ్ వారు అద్దె 2001 వరకు బ్రిన్లతోపాటు సహ అధ్యక్షుడిగా Google నడిచింది ఎరిక్ ష్మిత్ గూగుల్ ఛైర్మన్ మరియు సీఈవోగా. జనవరి 2011 లో గూగుల్ పేజ్ అదే సంవత్సరం ఏప్రిల్ లో CEO గా ష్మిత్ స్థానంలో ప్రకటించింది. పేజ్, బ్రిన్ ఇద్దరూ ఏడాదికి సంపాదించడానికి ఒక డాలర్ . ష్మిత్ Google యొక్క ఎగ్జిక్యూటివ్ ఛైర్మన్ మారింది దిగిపోయారు అయితే ఏప్రిల్ 4, 2011 న, పేజ్ అధికారికంగా Google యొక్క చీఫ్ ఎగ్జిక్యూటివ్ మారింది. పేజీ కూడా Google డైరెక్టర్ల వర్గంపై.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\n1970 ఫిఫా ప్రపంచ కప్‌కు కొన్ని నెలల ముందు ఆర్మిన్ డాస్లెర్ మరియు ఆయన బంధువు హోర్స్ డాస్లెర్ \"ది పీలే ప్యాక్ట్\" గా వర్ణించబడిన ఒప్పందాన్ని ఖరారు చేశారు. అడిడాస్ మరియు ప్యూమా రెంటింటికీ దూరంగా ఉండాలని బ్రెజిల్‌కు చెందిన అటాకింగ్ మిడ్‌ఫీల్డర్ పీలేకు ఈ ఒప్పందం సూచించింది. అయితే, ఆర్మిన్ ఈ సూపర్‌స్టార్‌ను స్పాన్సర్ చేయడం వలన కలిగే ఆర్థిక మరియు వ్యాపార ప్రయోజనాలు గణనీయంగా ఉంటాయని గుర్తించారు. జర్మనీకి చెందిన ఈ క్రీడా షూ తయారీ కంపెనీ గురించి అవగాహనను పెంచేందుకు మరియు దానికి ప్రచారం కల్పించడానికి తమ ఉత్పత్తులను ధరిస్తే $120,000 చెల్లిస్తామని ప్యూమా ప్రతినిధి హాన్స్ హెన్నింగ్సెన్ చేసిన విజ్ఞప్తికి పీలే అంగీకరించారు.[5] 1970 ప్రపంచ కప్ ఫైనల్ మ్యాచ్‌లో ప్రారంభ విజిల్ సమయంలో పీలే తన షూలేసులను కట్టుకునేందుకు ఒక చివరి-రెండో విజ్ఞప్తితో రిఫరీని నిలువరించారు, తద్వారా అతను ధరించిన ప్యూమా షూలు కోట్లాది మంది టెలివిజన్ వీక్షకుల కళ్లలో పడేలా చేశారు.[3]:82 ఇది హార్స్ డాస్లెర్‌కు తీవ్ర ఆగ్రహం తెప్పించింది, తద్వారా భవిష్యత్ శాంతి ఒప్పందాలు రద్దు చేయబడ్డాయి.", "ప్రైస్‌వాటర్‌హౌస్‌కూపర్స్\nపంతొమ్మిదవ శతాబ్దం చివరి కాలానికి, ప్రైస్ వాటర్‌హోస్ ఒక అకౌంటింగ్ సంస్థగా మంచి గుర్తింపు సాధించింది. యునైటెడ్ కింగ్‌డమ్ మరియు అమెరికా సంయుక్త రాష్ట్రాల మధ్య వాణిజ్యం ఫలితంగా, ప్రైస్ వాటర్‌హౌస్ 1890లో న్యూయార్క్‌లో ఒక కార్యాలయాన్ని ప్రారంభించింది, అమెరికాలో స్థాపించిన సంస్థ కూడా వేగంగా విస్తరించింది. అసలు బ్రిటీష్ సంస్థ 1904లో లివర్‌పూల్‌లో కార్యాలయాన్ని ప్రారంభించింది, ఆపై యునైటెడ్ కింగ్‌డమ్‌లో మరియు విదేశాల్లో కూడా కార్యాలయాలు స్థాపించింది, ప్రతిసారి ప్రతి దేశంలోనూ ఒక ప్రత్యేక భాగస్వామ్యాన్ని ఏర్పాటు చేసింది; దీని వలన ఒక భాగస్వామ్య సంస్థల సమాఖ్యగా ప్రపంచవ్యాప్తంగా PW కార్యకలాపాలు నిర్వహించబడుతున్నాయి, అంతర్జాతీయ విలీనం ఫలితంగా కాకుండా, అప్పటికే ఈ సంస్థలు అభివృద్ధి చెందివున్నాయి.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\nసోదరుల మధ్య విభేదాలు చివరకు పట్టణంలో చీలికకు దారితీశాయి. 1948 నుంచి, ఈ పట్టణం ఒక చిన్న-బెర్లిన్ మాదిరిగా మారింది. స్థానికుల్లో బ్రాండ్ విధేయత ఉచ్ఛస్థితికి చేరుకుంది; అనేక దుకాణాలు, బేకరీలు మరియు బార్లు అనధికారికంగా రుడాల్ఫ్ ప్యూమా లేదా అడాల్ఫ్ యొక్క అడిడాస్‌కు మద్దతుదారులుగా గుర్తింపు పొందాయి. పట్టణం యొక్క రెండు ఫుట్‌బాల్ క్లబ్‌లు కూడా చీలిపోయాయి; ఏఎస్‌వీ హెర్జోజెనౌరాచ్ క్లబ్ మూడు చారలకు (అడిడాస్) మద్దతు ఇవ్వగా, 1 ఎఫ్‌సి హెర్జోజెనౌరాచ్ రుడాల్ఫ్ యొక్క పాదరక్షలకు మద్దతు ఇచ్చింది.[8] చిన్న పనులు చేసుకునే చేతి వృత్తులవారిని రుడాల్ఫ్ తన ఇంటికి ఆహ్వానించినప్పుడు వారు ఉద్దేశపూర్వకంగా అడిడాస్ పాదరక్షలను ధరించేవారు, అలా అడిడాస్ పాదరక్షలు ధరించినవారిని రుడాల్ఫ్ చూస్తే వారిని తన ఇంటి బేస్‌మెంట్‌కు పంపి ఒక జత ఉచిత పాదరక్షలు ఉచితంగా ఇచ్చేవారు.[6] విడిపోయిన తరువాత ఇద్దరు సోదరుల మధ్య తిరిగి సఖ్యత కుదరలేదు, అయితే ఇద్దరినీ ఒకే స్మశానవాటికలో సమాధి చేశారు, మిగిలిన అన్ని విషయాల్లో వారు ఒకరికొకరు బాగా దూరమయ్యారు.", "పొపాయ్\nఫేమస్/పారమౌంట్ పొపాయ్ సీరీస్‌ను నిర్మించడం 1957 దాకా కొనసాగించింది. అందులో స్పూకి స్వాబ్స్ ఆ సీరీస్‌లోని 125 ఫేమస్ కథలలో చివరిది. పారమౌంట్ అప్పుడు పొపాయ్ ఫిల్మ్ కాటలాగ్‌ను అస్సోసియేటెడ్ ఆర్టిస్ట్స్ ప్రొడక్షన్స్ (a.a.p.)కు అమ్మింది, దానిని 1958లో యునైటెడ్ ఆర్టిస్ట్స్ కొనేసారు, ఆ తర్వాత అది మెట్రో-గోల్డ్‌విన్-మాయర్‌తో విలీనం అయ్యింది. దానిని 1986లో టర్నర్ ఎంటర్‌టైన్మెంట్ కొనేసింది. టర్నర్ కొంత కాలం తరువాత MGM/UA యొక్క ప్రొడక్షన్ ఎండ్‌ను అమ్మేసింది, కానీ ఫిల్మ్ కాటలాగ్‌ను తన వద్దే ఉంచుకుని, దానికి థియేట్రికల్ పొపాయ్ గ్రంథాలయం యొక్క హక్కులను ఇచ్చింది.", "చింతం ప్రవీణ్\n2015లో బి.సి. రైటర్స్ వింగ్ అనే సాహిత్య సంస్థను స్థాపించి, దానికి అధ్యక్షుడిగా వ్యవహరిస్తున్నాడు. ఆ సంస్థ యొక్క మొదటి వార్షికోత్సవం సందర్భంగా 2016లో అతని సంపాదకత్వంలో బిసి అస్తిత్వవాద యువ కవిత్వం సమూహం అనే పుస్తకంగా వెలువడింది. ఈ పుస్తకం సంచలనం సృష్టించింది. 38 మంది యువ కవుల కవితలతో ఈ పుస్తకం రూపొందించాడు ప్రవీణ్. ఈ 38 మంది కవులు \"సమూహం కవులు\"గా పేరుగాంచారు. తెలంగాణ రాష్ట్రంలోని వరంగల్ కాకతీయ విశ్వవిద్యాలయంలోని పూలే దంపతుల విగ్రహాల సమక్షములో వెలువడి స్వేఛ్చా ప్రతిరూపంగా పరిగణింపబడే అమెరికాలోని స్టాచ్యూ ఆఫ్ లిబర్టీ దాకా దాదాపు పదివేల కిలోమీటర్లు వ్యాప్తి చెంది ఖండాతర కీర్తినార్జించింది ఈ పుస్తకం. \"బీసీలకు రాజ్యాధికారం సిద్ధించాలి\" అనే నినాదంతో సమూహంను ఇంతగా వ్యాప్తి చేయడం జరిగింది. ఈ పుస్తకం సంపాదకుడిగా ప్రవీణ్ కు మంచి పేరు ఆపాదించింది.", "ఉస్మానియా విశ్వవిద్యాలయము\nనిజాం పరిపాలన కాలంలో హైదరాబాదులో స్థాపించిన కొన్ని కళాశాలలు రాజ కుటుంబీకులకు, సంపన్న వర్గాలకు మాత్రమే అందుబాటులో వుండేవి. ఉన్నత విద్యను అన్ని సామాజిక వర్గాలకు అందించాలనే ఉద్దేశంతో బ్రిటిష్ ప్రభుత్వం 1913 లో తమ పాలనలో వున్న ప్రాంతాలలోనే గాక సంస్థానాలలో కూడా విశ్వవిద్యాలయాలను స్థాపించాలని తీర్మానించింది. ఆవిధంగా పాట్నా, బనారస్, మైసూరు, ఉస్మానియా విశ్వవిద్యాలయాలు స్థాపించ బడ్డాయి. ఉస్మానియా విశ్వవిద్యాలయం, హైదరాబాద్ 7వ నిజాం ఫత్ జంగ్ మీర్ ఉస్మాన్ అలీ ఖాన్ ఆసఫ్ జా VII చే 1917లో స్థాపించబడింది.దీని స్థాపనకు సంబంధించిన ఫర్మానాను 1917, ఏప్రిల్‌ 26న జారీ చేశారు. ఆబిడ్స్‌ గన్‌ఫౌండ్రి దగ్గర తరగతులు ప్రారంభమయ్యాయి.[2] భారతదేశంలో ఉన్నత విద్యాప్రాప్తిలో ఉస్మానియా విశ్వవిద్యాలయం 7వ ప్రాచీన సంస్థగా, దక్షిణ భారతావనిలో 3వ సంస్థగా పేరుగాంచింది. ఇది హైదారాబాదు సంస్థానంలో స్థాపించబడిన మొట్టమొదటి విద్యాసంస్థ. తన తొమ్మిది దశాబ్దాల చరిత్రలో ఈ విశ్వవిద్యాలయము అన్ని విభాగాలలోనూ మంచి పురోగతి సాధించింది.", "పాట్ బుకానన్\nబుకానన్ 23 ఏళ్ల ప్రాయంలో సెయింట్ లూయిస్ గ్లోబ్-డెమోక్రాట్లో చేరాడు. 1961లో క్యూబాపై యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ ఆర్ధిక దిగ్బంధం విధించిన తొలి సంవత్సరంలో కెనడా- క్యూబాల మధ్య వాణిజ్యం మూడు రెట్లు పెరిగింది. బుకానన్న్ ఈ పత్రికలో పని ప్రారంభించిన ఎనిమిది వారాల తర్వాత ది గ్లోబ్-డెమోక్రాటిక్ పత్రిక బుకానన్ రూపొందించిన కొలంబియా మాస్టర్స్ ప్రాజెక్టును \"\"ఎర్ర క్యూబాకు అమ్మకాలు సాగిస్తున్న కెనడా - మరియు పురోగతి అనే పేరుతో ఎనిమిది కాలమ్‌ల వ్యాసాలను తిరిగి రాసి ప్రచురించింది. బుకానన్ మెమోయిర్ రైట్ ఫ్రం ది బిగినింగ్ ప్రకారం ఈ వ్యాసం అతడి వృత్తిజీవితంలోనే మైలురాయిలా నిలిచింది. అయితే ఆర్ధిక దిగ్బంధనం కమ్యూనిస్టు పాలనను బలోపేతం చేసిందని, అందుకే తాను దానికి వ్యతిరేకంగా నిలబడ్డానని బుకానన్ తర్వాత ఒక సందర్భంలో చెప్పాడు[8] 1964లో అసిస్టెంట్ ఎడిటోరియల్ పేజ్ ఎడిటర్‌గా బుకానన్ పదవీ ఉన్నతి పొందాడు తర్వాత బారీ గోల్డ్‌వాటర్స్ అధ్యక్ష ఎన్నికల ప్రచార కార్యక్రమానికి మద్ధతు పలికాడు. అయితే, గ్లోబ్-డెమోక్రాటిక్ పత్రిక గోల్డ్‌వాటర్‌ను బలపర్చలేదు, పత్రికకు, అప్పటి అధ్యక్షుడు జాన్సన్‌కు మధ్య లోపాయికారీ ఒప్పందం ఉందని బుకానన్ ఊహించాడు. బుకానన్ తర్వాత ఇలా గుర్తు చేసుకున్నాడు: \"మితవాద ఉద్యమం దాని పరాజయాలనుండి ఎల్లప్పుడూ పురోగతి బాటలో నడిచింది... గోల్డ్‌వాటర్ క్యాంపైన్ గురించి చింతించే ఒక్కగానొక్క మితవాదిని కూడా నేను ఊహించలేను\"[6] మితవాది మనస్సాక్షి ఇటీవలి తాజా ప్రచురణలో ముందు మాట (పాట్ బుకానన్ రాశాడు) ప్రకారం బుకానన్ యంగ్ అమెరికన్స్ ఫర్ ఫ్రీడమ్ సభ్యుడు మరియు ఈ సంస్థ కోసం పత్రికా ప్రకటనలను రాసిపెట్టాడు. న్యూయార్క్ నగరంలోని నిక్సన్, ముద్గే, రోస్, గుత్రీయ్, అలెగ్జాండర్, మరియు మిఛెల్ చట్ట కార్యాలయాల్లో బుకానన్ 1965లో కార్యనిర్వాహక సహాయకుడిగా పనిచేశాడు.", "వావిళ్ల రామస్వామి శాస్త్రులు\nవీరు 1854లో \"వావిళ్ల రామస్వామి శాస్త్రులు అండ్ సన్స్\" అనే సంస్థను స్థాపించారు. ఇప్పుడు తెలుగుదేశంలో సర్వే సర్వత్ర వ్యాప్తిలో ఉన్న \"గ్రేట్ ప్రైమర్\" అనే టైపును 1860లో మొదట కనిపెట్టి అక్షరాలు పోత పోయించిన ధీశాలి. ఈ టైపులోనే మన ప్రాచీన గ్రంథాలు ముద్రించారు.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\n2010 మార్చి 10న ప్యూమా కోబ్రా గోల్ఫ్‌లో 100 శాతం వాటాను కొనుగోలు చేయనున్నట్లు ప్రకటించింది, కాలిఫోర్నియాలోని కార్ల్స్‌బాడ్‌లో ఉన్న కోబ్రా గోల్ఫ్‌ను ఫార్చ్యూన్ బ్రాండ్స్ ఇంక్స్ నుంచి కొనుగోలు చేయనున్నట్లు ప్రకటించినప్పటికీ, ఎటువంటి ఆర్థిక వివరాలు తెలియజేయలేదు. నియంత్రణ సంస్థల ఆమోదాన్ని పొందిన ఈ ఒప్పందం ద్వితీయ త్రైమాసికంలో ముగియనుంది.[21]", "చీరాల\n1923 లో ఐరోపా వారు పొగాకు క్యూరింగు కేంద్రాన్ని ప్రారంభించారు. ఈ ప్రాంతంలో ఇది ఎంతో మందికి ఉపాధి కల్పించింది. యాంత్రికీకరణకు ముందు, 6,000 మంది వరకు ఇక్కడ పనిచేసేవారు. చేనేతకు పట్టుగొమ్మైన చీరాల 25,000 నుండి 30,000 వస్త్రకారులకు ఉపాధి కల్పిస్తున్నది. ఈ ప్రాంతంలో ఉత్పత్తి అయ్యే ప్రత్యేక నేత వస్త్రానికి మంచి ఎగుమతి మార్కెట్టు ఉంది. 1959 లో సహకార స్పిన్నింగు మిల్లు కూడా ప్రారంభమైంది.\nస్వాతంత్ర్యోద్యమ కాలంలో ఆంధ్రప్రదేశ్ చరిత్రలోనే కాకుండా భారతదేశ చరిత్రలోనే ప్రముఖంగా పేర్కొనే బ్రిటీష్ వ్యతిరేక ఉద్యమంగా పేరుపడిన చీరాల పేరాల ఉద్యమం ప్రస్తుతం ప్రకాశం జిల్లాలో ఉన్న చీరాలలో దుగ్గిరాల గోపాలకృష్ణయ్య ఆధ్వర్యంలో జరిగింది. బ్రిటీష్ ప్రభుత్వం 1919లో చీరాల-పేరాల గ్రామాలను కలిపి పురపాలక సంఘంగా చేయడంతో ప్రజలపై పన్నుల భారం అధికమై పురపాలక సంఘం రద్దు చేయాలని ఉద్యమించారు.\nప్రస్తుతం ప్రకాశం జిల్లాలో ఉన్న చీరాల, పేరాల గ్రామాల జనాభా ఆ కాలంలో 15000. జాండ్రపేట, వీరరాఘవపేట గ్రామాలను చీరాల, పేరాలతో కలిపి చీరాల యూనియన్ అని వ్యవహరించే వారు. ఈ యూనియన్ నుంచి ఏడాదికి నాలుగు వేల రూపాయలు వసూలయ్యేవి. మద్రాసు ప్రభుత్వం 1919 లో చీరాల-పేరాలను మున్సిపాలిటీగా ప్రకటించింది. పన్ను ఏడాదికి 40,000 రూపాయలయ్యింది. సౌకర్యాలు మాత్రం మెరుగు పడలేదు. ఇక్కడ ఉన్న నేతపని వారు, చిన్నరైతులు పన్ను చెల్లించలేక మున్సిపాలిటీని రద్దు చేయాలని ప్రభుత్వానికి ఎన్నో వినతి పత్రాలు సమర్పించారు. ఫలితం లేదు. దాంతో వారు దుగ్గిరాల గోపాలకృష్ణయ్య నాయకత్వంలో ఆందోళన ప్రారంభించారు. గోపాలకృష్ణయ్య వేయిమంది సభ్యులతో రామదండు అనే వాలంటీర్ సంస్థను ఏర్పాటు చేశారు. విజయవాడ కాంగ్రెస్ సమావేశాల సందర్భంగా గాంధీ వచ్చినపుడు గోపాలకృష్ణయ్య ఆయనకు సమస్య వివరించాడు. గాంధీ చీరాలను సందర్శించి ఊరు ఖాళీ చేసిపోతే మున్సిపాలిటీ దానంతట అదే రద్దవుతుందని ఆలోచన చెప్పాడు. గోపాలకృష్ణయ్య చీరాల, పేరాల ప్రజలను ఊరు ఖాళీచేయించి దాని పొలిమేర అవతల రామ్‌నగర్ పేరుతో కొత్త నివాసాలు ఏర్పర్చాడు. అక్కడ 11 నెలలపాటు కష్ట నష్టాలని అనుభవించారు. ఉద్యమానికి కావలసిన విరాళాలను సేకరించడానికి గోపాలకృష్ణయ్య బరంపురం వెళితే ప్రభుత్వం ఆయన్ను నిర్భందించి ఒక సంవత్సరం పాటు జైలు శిక్ష విధించింది. దీంతో చేసేదేమీ లేక ప్రజలు తమ నివాసాలకు తిరిగి వెళ్ళాల్సి వచ్చింది.\nస్వాతంత్ర్య సమరంలో ప్రత్యేక భూమిక పోషించిన చీరాల 2004, ఏప్రిల్ 27 న (వైశాఖ శుద్ధ సప్తమి) 400 సంవత్సరాలు పూర్తి చేసుకుంది.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\nక్రిస్టోఫ్ వాన్ విల్‌హెల్మ్ డాస్లెర్ ఒక షూ కర్మాగారంలో కార్మికుడిగా పనిచేసేవారు, ఆయన భార్య పాలిన్ న్యూరెంబర్గ్ నగరం నుంచి 20km (12.4mi) దూరంలో ఉన్న హెర్జోజెనౌరాచ్‌లోని బావారియా పట్టణంలో ఒక చిన్న లాండ్రీని (చాకలి కొట్టు) నడిపేవారు. వారి కుమారుడు రుడాల్ఫ్ డాస్లెర్ పాఠశాల నుంచి బయటకు వచ్చిన తరువాత షూ కర్మాగారంలో తండ్రితో కలిసి పని చేయడం మొదలుపెట్టారు, తరువాత వారికి మొదటి ప్రపంచ యుద్ధంలో పాల్గొనేందుకు పిలుపువచ్చింది. యుద్ధం నుంచి తిరిగి వచ్చిన తరువాత, రుడాల్ఫ్ ఒక పార్సెలీన్ కర్మాగారంలో ఒక నిర్వహణాధికారి ఉద్యోగం పొందారు. తరువాత న్యూరెంబర్గ్‌లో ఒక తోలు టోకు వ్యాపారంలో ఉద్యోగం పొందారు.", "పనామా\n1914 లో యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ కాలువ నిర్మాణం పూర్తి చేసింది.1903 నుండి 1968 వరకు పనామా ప్రజాస్వామ్య రాజ్యాంగాన్ని వాణిజ్యరంగ ప్రముఖుల ఆధిఖ్యతలో కొనసాగింది. 1950 లో మిలటరీ వాణిజ్యప్రముఖుల రాజకీయ ఆధిఖ్యతను సవాలు చేయడం ఆరంభించింది. 1960 లో పనామా \" \" హే - బునౌ - వరిల్లా ట్రీటీ \" గురించి పునరాలోచించవలసిన వత్తిడికి గురైంది.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\n1936 వేసవి ఒలింపిక్స్ సమయానికి అడి డాస్లెర్ స్పైక్‌లతో నింపిన ఒక సూట్‌కేస్‌తో బావారియా నుంచి ప్రపంచంలో మొట్టమొదటి మోటారు వాహనమార్గాల్లో ఒకటైన రోడ్డుపై ఒలింపిక్ గ్రామానికి చేరుకున్నాడు, అక్కడ అమెరికా సంయుక్త రాష్ట్రాల పరుగు వీరుడు జెస్సీ ఒవెన్స్ వాటిని ఉపయోగించేలా ఒప్పించగలిగాడు, ఒక ఆఫ్రికన్ అమెరికన్‌కు లభించిన మొదటి స్పాన్సర్‌షిప్ ఇదే కావడం గమనార్హం. ఒవెన్స్ నాలుగు బంగారు పతకాలు గెలుచుకున్న తరువాత, అతని విజయం డాస్లెర్ షూలకు ప్రపంచ ప్రసిద్ధ క్రీడాకారుల్లో మంచి గుర్తింపు తీసుకొచ్చింది. ప్రపంచవ్యాప్తంగా పలు దేశాల నుంచి ఈ సోదరులకు ఉత్తరాలు వచ్చాయి, ఇతర జాతీయ జట్లకు శిక్షణ ఇచ్చేవారు డాస్లెర్ షూలు కావాలని లేఖల ద్వారా ఆసక్తి చూపారు. వ్యాపారం బాగా వృద్ధి చెందడంతో, డాస్లెర్ సోదరులు రెండో ప్రపంచ యుద్ధానికి ముందు ఏడాదికి 200,000 జతల షూలను విక్రయించే స్థాయికి ఎదిగారు.[5]", "భారతదేశంలో బ్రిటిషు పాలన\nపరిపాలన విధానం 1858 జూన్ 28లో బ్రిటీష్ ఈస్టిండియా కంపెనీ పాలన విక్టోరియా రాణి సింహాసనానికి మారినప్పుడు ఏర్పాటయింది. [7] (1876లో అదే విక్టోరియా రాణిని భారతదేశపు చక్రవర్తిగా ప్రకటించారు), బ్రిటీష్ ఇండియా సామ్రాజ్యం యూనియన్ ఆఫ్ ఇండియా (తర్వాతి కాలంలో రిపబ్లిక్ ఆఫ్ ఇండియా), డొమినియన్ ఆఫ్ పాకిస్తాన్ (తదనంతర కాలంలో ఇస్లామిక్ రిపబ్లిక్ ఆఫ్ పాకిస్తాన్, దానిలోని తూర్పుభాగం మరింత తర్వాతి కాలంలో పీపుల్స్ రిపబ్లిక్ ఆఫ్ బంగ్లాదేశ్‌ అయింది), డొమినియన్ ఆఫ్ సిలోన్ (ప్రస్తుతం శ్రీలంక), సిక్కిం (ప్రస్తుతం భారతదేశంలో భాగం)గా ఐదు సార్వభౌమ రాజ్యాలుగా 1947లో విభాజితమయ్యే వరకు కొనసాగింది. 1858లో బ్రిటీష్ రాజ్ ఆరంభమయ్యేనాటికే దిగువ బర్మా బ్రిటీష్ పాలనలో భాగంగా వుంది, 1886లో ఎగువ బర్మా చేర్చారు. దాంతో బర్మాను 1937 వరకూ స్వయంపాలిత విభాగంగా నిర్వహించారు, తర్వాత అదొక ప్రత్యేక బ్రిటీష్ కాలనీగా స్వాతంత్ర్యాన్ని పొందడం ప్రారంభమై చివరకు 1948లో బ్రిటీష్ మయన్మార్ బర్మాగా రూపాంతరం చెందింది.", "అండమాన్ జిల్లా\n1779 లో బెంగాల్ ప్రభుత్వం గ్రేట్ అండమాన్‌కు చెందిన చాతం దీవిలో నావికా స్థావరం మరియు పీనల్ కాలనీని స్థాపించారు. ఈ స్థావరాన్ని స్థాపించిన బాంబే నావికాదళ లెఫ్టినెంట్ ఆర్చిబాల్డ్ బ్లెయర్ తరువాత ఆఉఅన ఙాపకార్ధం ప్రస్తుతం \" పోర్ట్ బ్లెయర్ \" అని పిలుస్తున్నారు. రెండుసంవత్సారాల తరువాత ఈ కాలనీ అండమాన్ దీవిలోని ఈశాన్యభాగంలోకి తరలించబడింది. ఆ అడ్మైరల్ విలియం కార్నివాల్స్ తరువాత ఈ నౌకాశ్రయానికి \" పోర్ట్ కార్నివాల్స్ \" అని నామకరణం చేయబడింది. అయినప్పటిటికీ వ్యాధుల దాడి అధిక మరణాల సమస్యలతో 1776లో ఈ దీవిని నిర్వహణను వదులుకున్నాతు.1824లో మొదటి బర్మాయుద్ధానికి నాయకత్వం వహించిన కార్నివలిస్‌న్ అండమాన్ దీవికి ప్రతినిధ్యం వహిస్తూ పాలనాబాధ్యతలు వహించాడు. 1830-1840 లలో నావలు ధ్వశం అయిన కారణంగా దీవిలో ప్రవేశించిన వారు స్థానికులచేతిలో చంపబడడం బ్రిటిష్ ప్రభుత్వాన్ని హెచ్చరికకు గురిచేసింది. 1855 మరొక నివాసగృహాలను ప్రతిపాదించింది. వాటిలో \" సెల్యులర్ ఖైదు \" కూడా ఒకటి.1857 భారతీయ తిరుగుబాటు కారణంగా నిర్మాణపు పనులలో జాప్యం అధికమైంది. అయినప్పటికీ తిరుగుబాటు కారణంగా బ్రిటిష్ ప్రభుత్వం అత్యధికంగా భారతీయులను ఖైదు చేసింది. అందువలన సరికొత్త నివాసాలు మరియు జైలు అవసరం అధికమైంది. స్థానిక ప్రజల శ్రమతో 1857లో పోర్ట్ బ్లెయిర్ వద్ద నిర్మాణం మొదలైంది. ఉప్పునీటి భుములలో సాగిన నిర్మాణం చాలాసమస్యలను ఎదుర్కొన్నది. 1867లో \" నైన్ వెహ్ \" నావ ఉత్తర అండమాన్ బండలను ఎదుర్కొని ధ్వంసం అయింది. ఆప్రమాదంనుండి బ్రతికి బయటపడిన వారు 86 చిన్న చిన్న పడవలలో దీవిలో ప్రవేశించారు. వారిని దిగంబరులైన అండమాన్ వాసులు ఇనుపబాణాలతో అడ్డుకున్నారు. వారిలో ఒకరు\nమాత్రం పడవలో పారిపోయి తప్పించుకున్న తరువాత మిగిలిన వారిని బ్రిటిష్ రాయల్ నేవీ రక్షించింది. .\nఅదే సమయంలో రోగాలు అధిక మరణాలు అధికం అయ్యాయి. చిత్తడి భూములను నివాసయోగ్యం చేయడం అదనపు అరణ్యాలను తొలగించడం వంటి కార్యక్రమాలు కొనసాగుతూనే ఉన్నాయి. \nమాయో 6వ ప్రభువు వైశ్రాయి \" రిచర్డ్స్ సౌత్ వెల్ బూర్కే\" 1872 ఫిబ్రవరి 8 న అండమానుకు విచ్చేసిన సమయంలో ఆఫ్ఘన్‌ స్థాన్‌కు చెందిన ముస్లింఖైదీ షేర్ అలీ చేతిలో హతుడయ్యాడు. అదే సంవత్సరం పోర్ట్ బ్లెయిర్‌లో నివసిస్తున్న చీఫ్ కమీషనర్ రిచర్డ్స్ సౌత్ వెల్ అండమాన్ మరియు నికోబార్ ప్రజల మధ్య సైఖ్యత సాధించాడు.\n1858లో జేంస్ పాటిసన్ వాల్కర్ చేపట్టిన అభివృద్ధిపనులలో భాగంగా స్వాతంత్ర్యోధ్యమం మరియు తిరుగుబాటు కారణంగా అధికమైన రాజకీయ ఖైదీలకు సెల్యులర్ జైలు నిర్మాణపు పనులు వేగవనతం చేయబడ్డాయి. 1910లో 698 విభాగాలతో జైలు నిర్మాణం పూర్తిచేయబడింది. ఒక్కో విభాగం భూమట్టానికి పైగా గాలి వెలుతురు చొరబాటుకు అనుకూలంగా ఒకేఒక కిటికీ మాత్రం ఏర్పాటుతో చేయబడ్డాయి. ఇందులో బంధుంచబడిన ఖైదీలలో గుర్తించతగిన వ్యక్తి వినాయక్ దామోదర్ సావర్కర్. ఇక్కడ బంధించబడిన భారతీయ ఖైదీలు ఈ ద్వీపం మరియు ఈ జైలును \" కాలా పానీ \" (నల్లని నీరు ) అని పిలిచేవారు.1996లో నిర్మించబడిన ఈ ద్వీపం మీద నిర్మించబడిన చలచిత్ర సీమ సెట్టింగుకు \" కాలాపానీ \" అని నామకరణం చేయబడింది. The number of prisoners who died in this camp is estimated to be in the thousands. జైలులో అనుసరినచబడిన కఠిన శిక్షలకు భరించలేక పలువురు రాజకీయ ఖైదీలి అశువులు కోల్పోయారు. ", "ఎ.జి.కృష్ణమూర్తి\n‘ఓన్లీ విమల్’ అన్నది అందరికీ, ఎప్పటికీ గుర్తు ఉండే సృజనాత్మక ప్రకటన. ఫ్రాంక్ సియాయిస్ సొంత ఏజెన్సీ పెట్టుకున్న తర్వాత, రిలయన్స్ ప్రత్యర్థులు ఆయన క్లయింట్లు అయిన కారణంగా రిలయన్స్ స్వయంగా ఒక అడ్వర్టయిజింగ్ ఏజెన్సీని నెలకొల్పాలనీ, దానికి ‘ముద్ర’ అని పేరు పెట్టాలనీ ఏజీకే చేసిన సూచనను ధీరూభాయ్ అంబానీ ఆమోదించారు. ఆయన రూ. 35 వేల నగదు తోను ఒకే ఒక క్లయింట్‌ తోను వ్యాపార ప్రకటనా సంస్థ స్థాపించారు. కేవలం తొమ్మిదేళ్ళల్లో ముద్రా భారతదేశంలో ఉన్న పెద్ద వ్యాపార ప్రకటనా సంస్థలలో మూడవ స్థానాన్ని, స్వదేశీ వ్యాపార ప్రకటనా సంస్థలలో ప్రథమ స్థానాన్ని చేరుకుంది. 1980లో ముద్ర వెలిసింది. ఒక వెలుగు వెలిగింది. కార్పొరేట్‌రంగంలో అడ్వర్టయింజింగ్ జీనియస్‌గా ఏజీకే గుర్తింపు పొందారు. దేశవ్యాప్తంగా విమల్ షోలు నిర్వహించి విమల్ విజయ పరంపరను కొనసాగిం చడంలో ఏజీకేది అద్వితీయమైన పాత్ర. ‘ఐ లవ్ యూ రస్నా’ కూడా ఆయన సృష్టే.", "గాడ్గే బాబా\nమహారాష్ట్రలోని అమరావతిలో ఆయన పేరుమీదుగా మే 1, 1983న సంత్ గాడ్గే బాబా అమరావతి విశ్వవిద్యాలయాన్ని నెలకొల్పారు.[3] 1977 సంవత్సరంలో దేవకీ నందన్ గోపాలా పేరుతో గాడ్గే బాబా జీవితాన్ని చలనచిత్రంగా ప్రముఖ నిర్మాత డడ్డీ దేశ్‌ముఖ్ నిర్మించారు. ఆ చలనచిత్రానికి పురస్కారాలు, విదేశీ చలన చిత్రాల్లో పాల్గొనే అవకాశాలు కూడా లభించాయి. 1999లో భారత ప్రభుత్వము గాడ్గేబాబా గౌరవార్థం తపాలా స్టాంపును విడుదల చేసింది. 2001లో వాజపేయి నేతృత్వంలోని కేంద్ర ప్రభుత్వం భారతదేశ వ్యాప్తంగా గ్రామస్థాయి పరిశుభ్రతను మెరుగుపరిచేందుకు సంత్ గాడ్గే బాబా అండ్ గ్రామ్ స్వచ్ఛతా అభియాన్ పేరిట పథకాన్ని తయారుచేసి అమలుపరిచింది.[4]", "కేంద్ర నిఘా సంస్థ\nఅల్‌ఖైదా (ప్రధాన స్థావరం)గా వెలుగులోకి వచ్చిన ఆ నెట్‌వర్క్ సోవియట్లు మరియు 1980 దశకాల్లో ఆఫ్గనిస్తాన్‌లోని వారి కీలుబొమ్మ ప్రభుత్వాలపై పోరాడిన అరబ్ వాలంటీర్ల ప్రేరణతో మరింత విస్తరించింది. వాలంటీర్లు బాగా తెలియడంతో 1984లో అబ్దుల్లా అజామ్‌ మరియు ఒసామా బిన్ లాడెన్‌ పాకిస్తాన్‌లోని పెషావర్‌లో ఆఫీస్ ఆఫ్ సర్వీసెస్‌గా పిలిచే ఒక సంస్థను ఏర్పాటు చేశారు. \"ఆఫ్గన్ అరబ్బుల\"కు సహకారం మరియు ఆర్థిక సాయం అందించడం కోసం దీనిని స్థాపించారు.", "పనామా\nస్వతత్రం లభించిన మొదటి 80 సంవత్సరాలు పనామా తనకు తానుగా కొలంబియా తో అనుసంధానమై (1821) కొలంబియా డిపార్టుమెంట్లలో ఒకటిగా ఉంది. ఇస్త్మస్ ప్రజలు పలుమార్లు విడిపోవడానికి ప్రయత్నించి 1831 లో విజయానికి దగ్గరగా వెళ్ళారు. తిరిగి \" తౌసెండ్ డే వార్స్ \" (1899-1902) సమయంలో ప్రయత్నించింది. తౌసెండ్ డే వార్స్‌ను పనామా స్థానిక ప్రజలు \" విక్టోరియానొ లొరెంజొ \" నాయకత్వంలో జరుగుతున్న భూమిహక్కుల కొరకు చేస్తున్న పోరాటంగా అర్ధం చేసుకున్నారు.[16] యు.ఎస్. పనామా కాలువ నిర్మాణం మరియు నియంత్రణ లక్ష్యంగా ఈప్రాంతంపట్ల ఆసక్తి కనబరిచడం కొలంబియా నుండి (1903) విడిపోయి దేశంగా స్థాపించబడడానికి దారితీసింది. 1903 జవవరి 22న \" హే హెర్రన్ ట్రీటీ \" కొలంబియా సెనెట్ నిరాకరించింది. తరువాత యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ పనామా ప్రత్యేకవాదానికి ప్రోత్సాహమిచ్చి మద్దతు ఇవ్వాలని నిశ్చయించుకుంది.[17][18] 1903 నవంబర్‌లో పనామా స్వతంత్రం ప్రకటించింది. [19] తరువాత పనామా మరియు యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ మద్య \" హే - బునౌ - వరిల్లా ట్రీటీ \" జరిగింది. ట్రీటీ యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్‌కు పనామా కాలువ 16km (10mi) వెడల్పు మరియు 80km (50mi) పొడవు. భూభాగంలో స్వర్వహక్కులను ఇచ్చింది. యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ ఆభూభాగంలో కాలువ నిర్మించి, నిర్వహించి, రక్షణ ఏర్పాట్లు చేసి శాశ్వతంగా సంరక్షించే అధికారం పొందింది.", "పెప్సికో\nబర్మాలో పెట్టుబడిని నవంబరు 1991లో లాంచనంగా పెప్సికో ప్రారంబించింది. అప్పటి బర్మా రాజధాని అయిన రంగూన్ లో ఒక బాట్లింగ్ సదుపాయాన్ని స్థాపించింది. అయితే, అప్పటికే బర్మాలో ప్రజాస్వామ్యం పునరుద్దించబడే వరకు బర్మాలో వ్యాపారం చేయవద్దని ఆంగ్ సాన్ సు క్యి మరియు నేషనల్ లీగ్ ఫర్ డెమాక్రసి పిలుపు ఇచ్చి ఉన్నారు. ఆసియాలో ఉన్న బుర్మా రైట్స్ మూవ్మెంట్ ఫర్ ఏక్షన్ పెప్సికు వెతిరేకంగా ఈ ప్రచారాన్ని ప్రారంబించింది. బర్మాలోని మానవ హక్కు సంస్థలు ప్రముఖ చమురు సంస్థలైన టెక్సకో, యునోకాల్, అమోకో, పెట్రో-కెనడా వంటి సంస్థల పై ప్రచారాన్ని ప్రారంబించడంతో పెప్సి పై ప్రచారం ప్రస్చాత్య దేశాలలో ఊపు అందుకుంది.[21]", "పింక్ ఫ్లాయిడ్\nఈ జంట మొట్టమొదటిసారిగా కెయిత్ నోబెల్ మరియు క్లివే మెట్‌క్లాఫేచే స్థాపించిన ఒక బృందంలో నోబెల్ సహోదరి, బృందంలో అరుదుగా పాడే గాయని షెయిలాగ్‌తో సహా పాల్గొన్నారు. తర్వాత వారితో సహవిద్యార్థి రిచర్డ్ రైట్ కలిశాడు (జ. 28జూలై 1943).[4] రైట్ బృందంలో చేరడంతో బృందంలో ఆరుగురు సభ్యులు అయ్యారు మరియు సిగ్మా 6 అనే పేరును ఎంచుకున్నారు.[5] రైట్ యొక్క ప్రేయసి జూలియెట్ గాలే తరచూ అతిథి కళాకారిణిగా కనిపించేది మరియు ప్రారంభంలో వాటర్స్ బాస్‌ను ప్లే చేయడానికి ముందుగా రిథమ్ గిటార్‌ను ప్లే చేశాడు. ప్రారంభ గిగ్‌లు ప్రైవేట్ ఫంక్షన్లు కోసం చేశారు మరియు బృందం రీజెంట్ స్ట్రీట్ పాలిటెక్నిక్ నేలమాళిగలోని టీ తాగే గదిలో సాధన చేసేవారు. సిగ్మా 6 ది సెర్చెర్స్ అలాగే సహవిద్యార్థి కెన్ చాప్మెన్‌లు వ్రాసిన పాటలను ప్లే చేసేవారు, తర్వాత అతను వారి నిర్వాహకుడు మరియు గేయరచయితగా మారాడు.[5] రైట్ 12 సంవత్సరాల వయసులోనే తనకుతానే గిటారు ప్లే చేయడం మరియు ట్రంపెట్ మరియు పియానోలను ప్లే చేయడం కూడా నేర్చుకున్నాడు,[6] కాని అతని భవిష్యత్తు గురించి అనిశ్చితి కారణంగా 1962లో రీజెంట్ స్ట్రీట్ పాలిటెక్నిక్‌లో చేరాడు.[7] అతను ఎరిక్ గ్లిల్డెర్ స్కూల్ ఆఫ్ మ్యూజిక్‌లో సంగీత సిద్ధాంతం మరియు కంపోజిషన్‌లో ప్రైవేట్ అధ్యయనాలను నేర్పేవాడు,[5] మరియు అలాగే మాసన్ మరియు వాటెర్స్‌లు పోటీ పడే విద్యార్థులు అయినప్పటికీ, రైట్ భవన నిర్మాణ సిద్ధాంతంపై ఆసక్తి సన్నగిల్లడంతో ఒక సంవత్సరం విద్య తర్వాత పాలిటెక్నిక్‌ను విడిచిపెట్టి లండన్ కాలేజ్ ఆఫ్ మ్యూజిక్‌కు వెళ్లిపోయాడు.[6]", "భోగరాజు పట్టాభి సీతారామయ్య\nఇతడు 1919లో మచిలీపట్నం నుండి జన్మభూమి అనే ఆంగ్ల వారపత్రికను స్థాపించాడు. ఆ కాలంలో ఆంధ్ర, మద్రాసు రాష్ట్రాలలో ఆంధ్రుల సంపాదకత్వంలో వెలువడే ఆంగ్ల పత్రికలు లేవు. ఆ కొరతను తీర్చడానికి ఇతడు జన్మభూమిని ప్రారంభించాడు. ఈ పత్రిక ఇతని సంపాదకత్వంలో 1930 వరకు వెలువడింది. ఈ పత్రికలోని సంపాదకీయ వ్యాసాలు ఇతని ఆంగ్లభాషా నైపుణ్యాన్ని దేశానికి చాటింది.", "అమ్మెంబాల్‌ సుబ్బారావు పాయ్\n20వ శతాబ్ది మొదట్లో అర్బుత్‌నట్‌ కంపెనీ పతనం వల్ల సుబ్బారావు 1906లో కెనరా హిందూ పర్మెనెంట్‌ ఫండ్‌ లిమిటెడ్‌ (నేటి కెనరా బ్యాంక్‌) ను ప్రారంభించారు. స్వయం సహాయం ద్వారా సమాజం తనకు తానే నిధులు సమకూర్చుకునేలా చేసేందుకు ఆయన ఈ పనిచేశారు. జీఎస్‌బీ సమాజానికి ఆయన చేసిన ప్రధాన సేవల్లో గౌడ సరస్వత్ బ్రాహ్మణ పరిషత్‌ ఆధ్వర్యంలో పూర్‌ బాయ్స్‌ ఎడ్యుకేషన్‌ ఫండ్‌ మొదలు పెట్టడం (దీని వ్యవస్థాపకుల్లో ఆయన కూడా ఒకరు) ను చెప్పాలి. జీవితాంతం ఆయన కీళ్లవాతంతో బాధపడ్డారు. చివరికి 1909, జూలై 25 న ఆ వ్యాధితోనే కన్నుమూశారు.", "మెర్రిల్ లించ్\n1940 లో ఆ సంస్థ E. A. పియర్స్ & Co. తోనూ, కస్సట్ట్ & Co. తోనూ కలసిపోయి, మెర్రిల్ లించ్, E. A. పియర్స్, మరియు కస్సట్ట్ అని కొద్దికాలము పిలువబడింది.[4] ఆ కంపెనీ 1941 లో వార్షిక ఫిస్కల్ నివేదికను ప్రచురించిన వాటిలో వాల్ స్ట్రీట్ లో మొదటిదిగా నమోదు అయింది. అంతే కాక, 1941 లో ఫెంనేర్ & బీన్ ఆ సంస్థలో చేరారు. దానితో అ సంస్థ పేరు మెర్రిల్ లించ్, పియర్స్, ఫెన్నర్ & బీన్</i>గా మార్చబడింది. 1952 లో ఎడ్మండ్ లించ్ మరణం తరువాత ఆ కంపెనీ పేరు మెర్రిల్ లించ్ & కోగా అధికారికంగా మార్పు చేయబడింది. 1957 డిసెంబరు 31న థ న్యూ యార్క్ టైమ్స్ ఇలా వ్రాసింది: ఆ పేరును \"అమెరికా యొక్క నాదము\" అని వర్ణించి, \"పదహారు సంవత్సరాలుగా ప్రాచుర్యంలోకి తెచ్చిన తరువాత మెర్రిల్ లించ్, పియర్స్, ఫెన్నేర్ మరియు బీన్ దానిని మార్చబోతున్నారు-దాని మూలాన ఒక బ్రోకరేజ్ సంస్థను అమెరికాలో ఇంటింటా తెలిసిన పేరుగా మార్చడానికి కారకులైన వ్యక్తిగా గౌరవించింది\" 1940 నుండి సంస్థను నిర్వహిస్తున్న విన్త్రాప్ హెచ్. స్మిత్. ఈ మెర్జర్ అనంతరం ఆ సంస్థ 98 నగరాలలో కార్యాలయాలు, 28 ఎక్స్చేంజ్ లలో సభ్యత్వం కలిగి ఉండి, ప్రపంచములోనే అతిపెద్ద సెక్యూరిటీల సంస్థగా ఏర్పడింది. 1958 మార్చి 1 న సంస్థ యొక్క ఆర్ధిక సంవత్సర ప్రారంభములో సంస్థ పేరు 'మెర్రిల్ లించ్, పియర్స్, ఫెన్నేర్ & స్మిత్' గా మార్చబడి, సంస్థ న్యూ యార్క్ స్టాక్ ఎక్స్చేంజ్లో బిగ్ బోర్డ్ సభ్యత్వం పొందింది.[5]", "గదర్‌ కుట్ర\nఅమెరికాలో భారత జాతీయవాదానికి సంబంధించిన తొలి ప్రయత్నాలు 20వ శతాబ్ది తొలి దశాబ్దిలోనే మొదలయ్యాయి. అప్పట్లో లండన్‌ ఇండియా హౌస్‌ను ఆదర్శంగా తీసుకుని అలాంటివే పలు సంస్థలను రఅమెరికా, జపాన్‌లలో అక్కడి అధిక సంఖ్యలోని భారత విద్యార్థులు మొదలు పెట్టారు. ఇండియా హౌస్‌ వ్యవస్థాపకుడైన శ్యామ్‌జీ కృష్ణవర్మ ఐరిష్‌ రిపబ్లికన్‌ ఉద్యమంతో అతి సన్నిహిత సంబంధాలు కలిగి ఉండేవాడు. ఇలా మొదలైన జాతీయవాద సంస్థల్లో పాన్‌ ఆర్యన్‌ అసోసియేషన్‌ మొదటిది. కృష్ణవర్మ ఇండియన్‌ హోమ్‌రూల్‌ సొసైటీ అడుగుజాడల్లో ఇది పుట్టుకొచ్చింది. హోమ్‌రూల్‌ సొసైటీ మహ్మద్‌ బర్కతుల్లా, ఎస్‌ఎల్‌ జోషీ, జార్డ్‌ ఫ్రీమన్‌ల ఇండో-ఐరిష్‌ ప్రయత్నాల ఫలస్వరూపంగా 1906లో ఏర్పడింది. బర్కతుల్లా తొలుత లండన్‌లో ఉన్న కాలంలో కృష్ణవర్మతో సన్నిహిత సంబంధాలు నెరిపాడు. తర్వాత జపాన్‌లో ఉన్న కాలంలో అక్కడి భారత రాజకీయ కార్యకలాపాల్లో తలమునకలయ్యాడు.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\nఆస్ట్రేలియన్ రూల్స్ ఫుట్‌బాల్‌లో ప్యూమాకు హాథోర్న్ ఫుట్‌బాల్ క్లబ్ మరియు వెస్ట్ కోస్ట్ ఈగిల్స్ జట్లతో సుదీర్ఘ వ్యాపార అనుబంధం ఉంది, వీటితోపాటు బ్రిస్బేన్ లయన్స్‌తో కూడా కంపెనీకి సంబంధాలు ఉన్నాయి. హాథోర్న్‌తో ముఖ్యంగా, ప్యూమా 1980వ దశకం నుంచి క్లబ్ యొక్క దుస్తుల స్పాన్సర్‌గా ఉంది, క్లబ్ యొక్క అత్యంత విజయవంతమైన శకాల్లో కూడా ప్యూమా స్పాన్సర్‌గా వ్యవహరించింది.", "భోగరాజు పట్టాభి సీతారామయ్య\nతెలుగు ప్రజలకు ఒక ప్రత్యేక రాష్ట్రం ఉండాలని దాని కొరకు పట్టాభి ఎంతగానో కృషిచేశాడు. పట్టాభి చొరవతోనే ఆంధ్ర రాష్ట్రోద్యమానికి అంకురార్పణ 1908లో బందరులో జరిగింది. బందరు సమావేశంలో తెలుగు జిల్లాల ప్రముఖులందరూ సమావేశమై ప్రత్యేక ఆంధ్ర రాష్ట్రం గురించి చర్చించారు. ఆ తరువాతనే 1913లో బాపట్లలో తొలి ఆంధ్రమహాసభ జరిగింది. ప్రత్యేక ఆంధ్ర రాష్ట్ర ఆవశ్యకత గురించి పట్టాభి ఆంగ్లంలో ఒక గ్రంథమే రచించాడు. పట్టాభి కృషి వల్లనే 1920లో కాంగ్రెసు పార్టీ ఆంధ్ర రాష్ట్ర ఏర్పాటుకు సూచనప్రాయంగా ఆమోదించింది.\nపట్టాభి సీతారామయ్య ఎన్నో ఆర్థిక సంస్థలను స్థాపించాడు. ఆంధ్రా బ్యాంకు (1923లో స్థాపన), ఆంధ్రా ఇన్స్యూరెన్స్ కంపెనీ, భారత లక్ష్మీ బ్యాంకు, కృష్ణా కో-ఆపరేటివ్ బ్యాంకు మొదలగునవి స్థాపించాడు. ఆంధ్రాబ్యాంకు ద్వారా వ్యవసాయదారులకు రుణాలిచ్చి వ్యవసాయాభివృద్ధికి తోడ్పడినాడు. చిన్న మొత్తంలో డిపాజిట్లు సేకరించి పొదుపును ప్రోత్సహించాడు.\nప్రత్యేక తెలుగు రాష్ట్రం కోసమే కాకుండా తెలుగు జిల్లాలలో తెలుగు వాడకాన్ని పట్టాభి ఎంతగానో ప్రోత్సహించాడు. తాను స్థాపించిన సంస్థలన్నింటిలోనూ తప్పనిసరిగా ఉత్తర ప్రత్యుత్తరాలు, లావాదేవీలు తెలుగులోనే జరగాలని నియమం పెట్టి ఆచరించాడు. ఆయన వేష, భాషల్లో ఎప్పుడూ తెలుగుతనం ఉట్టిపడుతూ ఉండేది. అఖిల భారత కాంగ్రెసు అధ్యక్షుడు అయిననూ, గవర్నర్‌గా మధ్య ప్రదేశ్ వెళ్ళిననూ వేష, భాషల్లో మార్పు రాలేదు.", "అమూల్\n14 డిసెంబర్ 1946న అమూల్ సంస్థ రిజిస్టర్ అయింది. ఆనంద్ జిల్లా, చుట్టుపక్కల ప్రాంతాల పాడిరైతుల నుంచీ పాలు కొని, ఇతర నగరాల్లో అమ్మే పోల్సన్ డైరీ వారికి తక్కువ రేటు ఇచ్చి దోపిడీ చేస్తోందంటూ రైతులు అందరూ కలసి కో-ఆపరేటివ్ పద్ధతిలో అమూల్ ను స్థాపించారు. అప్పట్లో ప్రభుత్వం బాంబే నగరానికి పాలు అమ్మేందుకు పోల్సన్ కంపెనీకి గుత్తాధిపత్యం ఇవ్వడంతో రైతులకు తక్కువ ధర ఇచ్చేవారు. పైగా పాలు పాడైపోయాయంటూ ఒకోసారి వారికి అతి తక్కువ ధరలు ఇవ్వడం లేదా మొత్తానికి మానేయడం చేసేవారు.", "కొలంబియా\nయునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ ఈప్రాంతాన్ని తమ అధీనంలోకి తీసుకోవడానికి ప్రయత్నించడం (ప్రధానంగా పనామా కాలువ నిర్మాణం మరియు ఆధీనం) 1903 నాటికి కొలంబియా నుండి పనామా విడిపోవడానికి మరియు కొలంబియా దేశంగా స్థాపించడానికి దారితీసింది. పనామా నిర్మాణం పూర్తి చేసిన 7 సంవత్సరాల తరువాత 1921లో యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ పనామా రూపొందించడంలో అధ్యక్షుడు రూజ్వెల్ట్ వహించిన పాత్ర కారణంగా జరిగిన నష్టానికి పరిహారంగా కొలంబియాకు 25 మిలియన్ల అమెరికన్ డాలర్లు ఇచ్చింది. \" థాంసన్ - ఉరుటియా ట్రీటీ \" షరతులను అనుసరించి కొలంబియా పనామాను గుర్తించింది. \nఅమెజాన్ డిపార్టుమెంటు దాని రాజధాని లెటిసియా విషయంలో కొలంబియా పెరూ మద్య తలెత్తిన భూవివాదాలు \" వార్ విత్ పెరూ \" యుద్ధానికి దారితీసింది.", "మాక్రోమీడియా\nతమ వెబ్ వ్యూహాన్ని మరింత అభివృద్ధి చేయడానికి, మాక్రోమీడియా 1996లో రెండు కొనుగోళ్ళు చేసింది. మొదటగా మాక్రోమీడియా, ఫ్యూచర్‍స్ప్లాష్ అనిమేటర్ తయారీదారులైన ఫ్యూచర్‍వేవ్ సాఫ్ట్‌వేర్ను కొనుగోలు చేసింది, నిజానికి దీనిని ఫ్యూచర్‍వేవ్ సాఫ్ట్‌వేర్, పెన్-ఆధారిత కంప్యూటింగ్ పరికరాల కొరకు అనిమేషన్ సాధనంగా అభివృద్ధి చేసింది. ఫ్యూచర్‍స్ప్లాష్ వ్యూయర్ అప్లికేషను యొక్క తక్కువ పరిమాణం వలన, అప్పట్లో ఎక్కువ శాతం వినియోగదారులకు, తక్కువ-బ్యాండ్‍విడ్త్ కనెక్షన్లు ఉండడం వలన, అది ప్రత్యేకంగా వెబ్ నుండి డౌన్‍లోడ్ చేసుకోవడానికి అనుకూలంగా ఉండేది. స్ప్లాష్‍ను మాక్రోమీడియా ఫ్లాష్ అని మాక్రోమీడియా తిరిగి నామకరణం చేసింది, మరియు నెట్‍స్కేప్‍ను అనుసరించి, త్వరితంగా మార్కెట్ వాటా పొందడానికి, ఉచితమైన బ్రౌజర్ ప్లగ్‍ఇన్‍గా ఫ్లాష్ ప్లేయర్‍ను పంపిణీ చేసింది. 2005 నాటికి జావా, క్విక్‍టైం, రియల్‍నెట్‍వర్క్స్ మరియు విండోస్ మీడియా ప్లేయర్ వంటి ఎలాంటి ఇతర వెబ్ మీడియా రూపం కన్నా ఎక్కువగా ప్రపంచవ్యాప్తంగా మరిన్ని కంప్యూటర్లలో ఫ్లాష్ ప్లేయర్ ఇన్‍స్టాల్ అయి ఉంది. ఫ్లాష్ మెరుగయ్యే కొద్దీ, మాక్రోమీడియా దానిని గ్రాఫిక్స్ మరియు మీడియా సాధనం నుండి వెబ్ అప్లికేషను వేదికగా మార్కెట్ చేయడంపై దృష్టి పెట్టింది, ఆ ప్లేయర్‍ యొక్క తక్కువ పరిమాణాన్ని అలాగే ఉంచి, స్క్రిప్టింగ్ మరియు డేటా ఆక్సెస్ సామర్థ్యాలను అదనంగా చేర్చింది.", "టాటా గ్రూప్\n1868 లోనే జంసేత్స్జీ నుస్సేర్వంజి టాటా బొంబాయిలో స్థాపించిన ఓపియం సంబంధిత వ్యాపార సంస్థతోనే టాటా గ్రూప్ యొక్క మూలాలు ప్రారంభమయ్యాయి. దీని తరువాత 1877 లో ఏమ్ప్రేస్స్ మిల్స్ నాగపూర్లో స్థాపించబడింది. 1903 లో బొంబాయిలో తాజ్ మహల్ హోటల్ వ్యాపారం ప్రారంభించారు . 1904 లో జంసేత్జి మరణం తరువాత అతని పెద్ద కుమారుడు సర్ దోరాబ్ టాటా ఆ గ్రూప్ కు ఛైర్మన్ అయ్యాడు ఆయన ఆధ్వర్యంలో, ఆ గ్రూప్ ఉక్కు సరఫరా (1905), మరియు నీటి విద్యుత్చక్తి తయారీ (1910) రంగాలలో అడుగుపెట్టింది. 1934 లో దోరాబ్ టాటా మరణం తరువాత 1938 వరకు నౌరోజీ సక్లాత్వాల ఆ గ్రూప్ కు నాయకత్వం వహించారు. ఆయన తర్వాత జేఆర్ డి టాటా నాయకత్వం వహించారు. ఆయన నేతృత్వంలో ఆ గ్రూప్, టాటా కేమికాల్స్ (1939 ),టాటా మోటర్స్మరియు టాటా ఇండస్ట్రీస్ (రెండూ 1945),వోల్టాస్ (1954), టాటా టీ (1962),టాటా కంసల్టన్సీ సేవలు (1968) మరియు టైటాన్ ఇండస్ట్రీస్ (1984) గా విస్తరించింది. 1991 లోజేఆర్ డి టాటా తరువాత రతన్ టాటా ఆ గ్రూప్ కు తప్పనిసరిగా ఛైర్మన్ అయ్యాడు\n== కెమికల్స్ టాటా లోగోను వోల్ఫ్ ఒలిన్స్ అనే సంస్థ తయారు చేసింది. ఈ లోగో ప్రవాహానికి సంకేతం; దానిని జ్ఞాన సంపదగా చెప్పవచ్చు; ప్రజలు ఊరట పొందే ఒక నమ్మకమైన వృక్షంగా కూడా చెప్పవచ్చు.", "భాభా అణు పరిశోధనా కేంద్రం\nభారత ప్రభుత్వం జనవరి 3, 1954 న అణు పరిశోధన కోసం అటామిక్ ఎనర్జీ ఎస్టాబ్లిష్ మెంట్, ట్రాంబే అనే సంస్థను స్థాపించింది. దీని ముఖ్య ఉద్దేశం వివిధ సంస్థల్లో అణు రియాక్టర్లు మరియు వాటి సాంకేతిక పరిజ్ఞానం పైన పనిచేస్తున్న శాస్త్రవేత్తల కృషినంతటినీ ఒకే తాటిపైకి తీసుకురావడం. ఇందులా భాగంగా టాటా ఇన్స్టిట్యూట్ ఆఫ్ ఫండమెంటల్ రీసెర్చ్ (TIFR) లో ఈ రంగంలో పనిచేస్తున్న వారినందరినీ ఈ సంస్థకి మార్చింది. తద్వారా TIFR కేవలం స్వచ్ఛమైన సైన్సు పరిశోధనలు చేసుకునేలా వీలు కల్పించింది. 1966 లో భారతదేశ అణు పితామహుడిగా పేరుగాంచిన హోమీ భాభా మరణించిన తరువాత ఆయన జ్ఞాపకార్థం ఈ సంస్థను భాభా అటామిక్ రీసెర్చ్ సెంటర్</i>గా మార్చింది.", "డేరా బాబా\nడేరాసచ్చాసౌదా చీఫ్‌గా ఉన్న గుర్మీత్ రామ్ రహీమ్ స్వచ్ఛ సౌదాలో మూడో తరం వ్యక్తి….. డేరా స్వచ్ఛ సౌదాను స్థాపించిన బెలూచిస్తాన్‌ ప్రాంతానికి చెందిన మస్తానా బలూచిస్తానీని అనుచరులు పునీత బెపరవాహ్‌ మస్తానా జీ మహరాజ్‌ అని పిలుస్తారు. 1960 ఏప్రిల్‌ 18న ఆ‍యన చనిపోయాక షా సత్నాం స్వచ్ఛ సౌదా బాధ్యతలు స్వీకరించారు. మస్తానా నుంచి 41 ఏళ్ల వయసులో బాధ్యతలు స్వీకరించిన షా సత్నాం 1990 వరకు ఆశ్రమ బాధ్యతలు నిర్వర్తించారు. 1991 డిసెంబరు 13న ఆయన చనిపోయారు. ఆయన బతికుండగానే 1990 సెప్టెంబరు 23న గుర్మీత్‌ రాం రహీమ్ సింగ్ డేరా చీఫ్‌ అయ్యారు[2].", "లిమ్కా బుక్ ఆఫ్ రికార్డ్స్\nభారతీయ సంతతికి చెందిన ఒక రికార్డు పుస్తకం లిమ్కా బుక్ ఆఫ్ రికార్డ్స్. లిమ్కా బ్రాండ్ పార్లే గ్రూప్ యాజమాన్యంలో ఉన్నప్పుడు ఇది మొట్టమొదటగా 1990 లో ప్రచురించబడింది. లిమ్కా బ్రాండ్ ను కోకా కోలా కొనుగోలు చేసినప్పటి నుండి కోకా కోలా ఈ పుస్తక ప్రచురణను కొనసాగిస్తుంది. ఈ పుస్తకం యొక్క 20 వ ఎడిషన్ మార్చి 2009 లో అమితాబ్ బచ్చన్ విడుదల చేశారు . లిమ్కా అనే సాప్ట్ డ్రింక్ ను తయారు చేస్తున్న కోకా కోలా ఇండియా ప్రోత్సాహంతో ఈ \"లిమ్కా రికార్డుల పుస్తకం\" ప్రచురించబడుతుంది. ఇది వాస్తవంగా రమేష్ చౌహాన్ చే ప్రారంభమైంది, అతను దీనిని 1993లో కోకా కోలాకు విక్రయించాడు. దీనికి ప్రస్తుత సంపాదకుడు విజయ ఘోష్ . దీని యొక్క 2006 సంవత్సరం సంచికను కోకాకోలా ఇండియా సీఈఓ అతుల్ సింగ్ న్యూఢిల్లీలో విడుదల చేశారు. భారతదేశానికి స్వాతంత్ర్యం వచ్చి 60 సంవత్సరాలు పూర్తయిన సందర్భంగా 2007 సెప్టెంబరు 25 న ప్రత్యేక సంచికను కోకా కోలా చే విడుదల చేశారు. 2008 మే 30 న, 19 వ ఎడిషన్ న్యూఢిల్లీలో ప్రారంభించబడింది. ఫెడరేషన్ ఆఫ్ ఇండియన్ ఛాంబర్స్ ఆఫ్ కామర్స్ అండ్ ఇండస్ట్రీ (FICCI) సెక్రటరీ జనరల్ అమిత్ మిత్రా ఈ కార్యక్రమంలో హాజరై ప్రసంగించారు. దీని యొక్క 20 వ ఎడిషన్ అమితాబ్ బచ్చన్ విడుదల చేశారు. ఈ కార్యక్రమంలో భారత అంతరిక్ష పరిశోధన సంస్థ (ఇస్రో) చీఫ్ జి.మాధవన్ నాయర్ కూడా పాల్గొన్నారు.", "బాపు\nబాపు దర్శకత్వం వహించిన ముత్యాల ముగ్గు చిత్రానికి ఉత్తమ ప్రాంతీయ చిత్రంగా (1975 వ సంవత్సరం) భారత ప్రభుత్వ పురస్కారంతో పాటు సినిమాటోగ్రాఫర్ ఇషాన్ అర్యాకి ఛాయగ్రాహకుడిగా పురస్కారం. 1986 వ సంవత్సరంలో ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ ప్రభుత్వం వారి ఎ.పి కళా వేదిక ద్వారా రఘుపతి వెంకయ్య స్మారక పురస్కారం మదర్ థెరిస్సా బహూకరించగా తన స్నేహితుడు ముళ్ళపూడి వెంకట రమణతో కలిసి స్వీకారం.[6] చెన్నై (తమిళనాడు) లో స్థాపించిన శ్రీ రాజలక్ష్మి ఫౌండేషన్ వారి ప్రతిష్ఠాత్మకమయిన రాజ్యలక్ష్మి పురస్కారం 1982 వ సంవత్సరంలో ఇవ్వబడింది. 1991 వ సంవత్సరంలో ఆంధ్ర విశ్వవిద్యాలయం వారి గౌరవ డాక్టరేట్ కళాప్రపూర్ణ బహూకరణ. 1992 వ సంవత్సరంలో అమెరికా తెలుగు అసోసియేషన్ (ATA) వారిచే శిరోమణి పురస్కారం అమెరికాలో స్వీకరణ. మిస్టర్ పెళ్ళాం సినిమాకి ఉత్తమ ప్రాంతీయ చిత్రంగా భారత ప్రభుత్వ పురస్కారం. (1993 వ సంవత్సరం). 1995 వ సంవత్సరంలో తెలుగు అసోసియేషన్ అఫ్ నార్త్ అమెరికా (TANA) వారిచే తెలుగు చిత్ర కళా, సాహిత్య, సాంస్కృతిక, సినిమా రంగాలకు తన ఏభై సంవత్సరాల (గోల్డెన్ జూబ్లీ సెలేబ్రషన్) సేవకు గాను ఘన సన్మానం. బాపు మీద ప్రముఖ తెలుగు సినిమా దర్శకుడు వంశీ తీసిన డాక్యుమెంటరీ చిత్రానికి 1996 వ సంవత్సరంలో ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ ప్రభుత్వ నంది అవార్డు.[7] 2001 జూన్ 9 వ సంవత్సరంలో ఇండియన్ ఇన్స్టిట్యూట్ ఆఫ్ కార్టూనిస్ట్స్ (IIC) వారిచే జీవిత సాఫల్య పురస్కారంతో సన్మానం. 2002లో తెలుగు విశ్వవిద్యాలయం నుండి సాంస్కృతిక రంగంలో విశిష్ట పురస్కారం అకాడమీ అఫ్ ఫైన్ ఆర్ట్స్, తిరుపతి వారిచే ప్రెసిడెంట్ అఫ్ ఇండియా అవార్డు బహూకరణ.[8] బాలరాజు కథ (1970), అందాల రాముడు (1973), ముత్యాల ముగ్గు (1975), పెళ్లి పుస్తకం (1991), మిస్టర్ పెళ్ళాం (1993), శ్రీరామరాజ్యం (2011) సినిమాలకు ఆంధ్రప్రదేశ్ ప్రభుత్వం వారి నంది పురస్కారాలు. 2013 కు గానూ ప్రకటించిన పద్మ పురస్కారాలలో కళల విభాగంలో తమిళనాడు రాష్ట్ర విభాగంలో పద్మశ్రీ పురస్కారం.", "విద్యుత్ వ్యాప్తి నిరోధం\nయునైటెడ్ కింగ్‌డమ్‌లో పింగాణీ అవాహకాలను తయారు చేసిన మొట్టమొదటి కంపెనీల్లో స్టిఫ్ అండ్ డౌల్టన్ కంపెనీ ఒకటి. 1840ల మధ్యకాలం నుంచి వీటి తయారీకి సదరు కంపెనీ మరిగను ఉపయోగించింది. మరో కంపెనీ, జోసెఫ్ బోర్న్ (తర్వాత డెన్బీగా పేరుమార్చుకుంది) సుమారు 1860 నుంచి మరియు బుల్లర్స్ కంపెనీ 1868 నుంచి వీటి తయారీని ప్రారంభించాయి. యుటిలిటీ పేటెంట్ నంబరు 48,906ను లూయిస్ A. కావెట్‌కు 25 జూలై 1865న తీగ మాదిరి పిన్‌హోల్‌తో అవాహకాలను తయారు చేసే ప్రక్రియకు ఇవ్వడం జరిగింది. నేటి వరకు, పిన్ రకం అవాహకాలు ఇప్పటికీ తీగ తరహా పిన్‌హోళ్లను కలిగి ఉన్నాయి.", "జిబౌటి\n1000 సంవత్సరాలకు పైగా పొరుగున ఉన్న అరేబియా ద్వీపకల్పంతో సంబంధాల ద్వారా, ఈ ప్రాంతంలోని సోమాలి, అఫార్ జాతి సమూహాలు ఖండంలో ఇస్లాం స్వీకరించిన మొదటి ప్రజలుగా ఉన్నారు.[21] హార్న్ ఆఫ్ ఆఫ్రికాలో ఇనాన్ సుల్తానేట్ ఒక మద్యయుగానికి చెందిన ముస్లిం మధ్యంతర రాజ్యంగా ఉంది. 1285 లో వలాష్మా రాజవంశం స్థాపించబడింది. ఇది జైలాలో కేంద్రీకృతమై ఉంది.[22][23] ఐయాట్ జిబౌటి, ఉత్తర సోమాలియాలో స్థావరాలను స్థాపించింది. తరువాత ఇది అహ్మరు పర్వతాలకు దక్షిణం వైపు విస్తరించింది. దీని సుల్తాన్ ఉమర్ వలాష్మా (మరొక మూలం ఆధారంగా మరో కుమారుడు అలీ). 1285 లో షెవా సుల్తానేటును జయించినట్లు నమోదు చేయబడింది. ముస్లిం భూభాగాలను హార్నులో సమైఖ్యం చేయడానికి సుల్తాన్ ఉమరు సైనిక దండయాత్రను సాగించాడు. అదే కాలంలో చక్రవర్తి యుకునూ అమ్లాక్ పర్వత ప్రాంతాలలో క్రిస్టియన్ భూభాగాలను ఏకం చేయడానికి ప్రయత్నించాడు. ఈ రెండు రాజ్యాల మద్య షెవా, దక్షిణ భూభాగాలపై ఆధిపత్యం కొరకు సంఘర్షణ మొదలై సుదీర్ఘమైన యుద్ధానికి దారితీసింది. కానీ ఆ సమయంలోని ముస్లిం సుల్తానేట్లు బలంగా సమైఖ్యం చేయబడలేదు. 1332 లో ఇథియోపియా చక్రవర్తి అమ్డా సెయోన్ ఇఫాకును ఓడించి షెవా నుండి వెలుపలకు పంపాడు.", "వాయిస్ మెయిల్\n1979లో, ఒక వాయిస్‌మెయిల్ సర్వీస్ సంస్థ అయిన టెలివాయిస్ ఇంటర్నేషనల్, పాల్ ఫిన్నిగాన్, డౌ బ్రియాన్ మరియు పౌలా పైగేలచే కాలిఫోర్నియాలో స్థాపించబడింది. ఈ సంస్థ వెంటనే “వాయిస్‌మెయిల్ ” కొరకు ఒక ట్రేడ్ మార్క్‌ను జారీ చేసింది మరియు దాని పేరును వాయిస్‌మెయిల్ ® ఇంటర్నేషనల్ (విఎమ్‌ఐ) గా మార్చింది.[4] ఫిన్నిగాన్ మరియు బ్రియాన్ వాయిస్‌మెయిల్‌తో తమ మొదటి అనుభవాన్ని1978లో మైక్రోఫార్మ్ మెడికల్ సిస్టమ్స్‌లో పొందారు, ఆ సమయంలో వారు తమ లాబొరేటరీ ఇన్ఫర్మేషన్ సిస్టం ఉపయోగించిన DEC PDP-11తో గాత్ర సాంకేతికను సంఘటిత పరచి, వైద్యులు కేవలం రోగి యొక్క బెడ్ నంబర్, దాని తరువాత పరీక్ష కోడ్, కంప్లీట్ బ్లడ్ కౌంట్ కొరకు \"CBC\" వలె, నొక్కి టచ్ టోన్ టెలిఫోన్‌ను ఉపయోగించడం ద్వారా రోగి యొక్క పరీక్షా ఫలితాలను తెలుసుకొనే వీలు కల్పించారు.", "మెక్సికో\n1910లో అధికారికంగా \" ది నేషనల్ అటానిమస్ యూనివర్శిటీ ఆఫ్ మెక్సికో \" స్థాపించబడింది.[124] మెక్సికోలో ఉన్నత విద్యాభ్యాసానికి ఈ విశ్వవిద్యాలయం అత్యంత ప్రాధాన్యత కలిగి ఉంది.[125] యు.ఎన్.ఎ.ఎం. విద్యార్థులకు సైన్సు, మెడిసిన్ మరియు ఇంజనీరింగ్ లలో అంతర్జాతీయ స్థాయి విద్యను అందిస్తుంది.[126] మెక్సికోలో \" నేషనల్ పాలిటెక్నిక్ ఇంస్టిట్యూట్ \", (1936లో స్థాపించబడింది), [127]మొదలైన విద్యాసంస్థలు 20వ శతాబ్దంలో మొదటి అర్ధభాగంలో స్త్యాపించబడ్డాయి.యు.ఎన్.ఎ.ఎం.లో పలు రీసెర్చి ఇంస్టిట్యూట్లు కొత్తగా స్త్యాపించబడ్డాయి. 1929 మరియు 1973 మద్య యు.ఎన్.ఎ.ఎం.లో 12 ఇంస్టిట్యూట్లు స్థాపించబడ్డాయి. [128]1959లో స్త్యాపించబడిన \" మెక్సికన్ అకాడమీ ఆఫ్ సైంస్ \" అకాడమీలను అనుసంధానించడానికి కృషిచేస్తుంది.1995లో మెక్సికన్ రసాయనశాస్త్ర పరిశోధకుడు \" మారియో జె.మొలినా \" నోబుల్ బహుమతిని \" పౌల్ జె.క్రుట్జెన్ \"తో పంచుకున్నాడు. [129]మొలినా యు.ఎన్.ఎ.ఎం. విద్యార్థికావడం ప్రత్యేకత. ఈ బహుమతి సాధించి మొదటి మెక్సికన్ నోబుల్ బహుమతి విజేతగా మొలినా గుర్తింపు పొందాడు. [130] సమీపకాలంలో మెక్సికోలో అభివృద్ధిచేయబడిన అత్యంత పెద్దదైన సైటిఫిక్ ప్రాజెక్టు \" లార్జ్ మిల్లీమీటర్ టెలిస్కోప్ \" నిర్మించింది. ఇది ఫ్రీక్వెంసీ రేంజిలో ప్రపంచంలోనే అత్యంత పెద్దదిగా మరియు సెంసిటివ్ టెలిస్కోప్‌గా భావించబడుతుంది.[131]", "వాక్యూమ్ క్లీనర్\n1907లో, USA, కాంటన్, ఓహియో నుండి ఒక సంరక్షకుడు జేమ్స్ ముర్రే స్పాంగ్లెర్ మొట్టమొదటి ఆచరణీయ, సౌకర్యవంతమైన వాక్యూమ్ క్లీనర్‌ను రూపొందించాడు.[3] ముఖ్యంగా, దుమ్మును పీల్చడానికి ఒక విద్యుత్ ప్యాన్, ఒక పెట్టె మరియు అతని భార్య యొక్క దిండుతొడుగులతా పాటు, స్పాంగ్లెర్ యంత్రంలో వ్యర్థ పదార్ధాలను తొలగించడానికి ఒక తిరిగే బ్రష్‌ను కూడా జోడించాడు. తన యంత్రాన్ని రూపొందించడానికి తగిన నిధులు లేకపోవడంతో, అతను పేటెంట్‌ను 1908లో విలియం హెన్రీ హోవెర్‌కు విక్రయించాడు, అతను స్పాంగ్లెర్ యొక్క యంత్రాన్ని ఒక ఉక్కు కేసింగ్, చిన్న చక్రాలు మరియు జోడింపులతో పునరుద్ధరించాడు. తదుపరి ఆవిష్కరణల్లో 1920ల్లో మొట్టమొదటి తొలగించగల వడపోత సంచులను జోడించారు మరియు 1926లో మొట్టమొదటి నిటారుగా ఉండే వాక్యూమ్ క్లీనర్‌ను రూపొందించారు.", "నెల్సన్ మండేలా\n1961లో మండేలా ఆ.నే.కా.కు సాయుధ విభాగాన్ని ఏర్పరచి దానికి అధ్యక్షుడు అయ్యాడు. ఈ విభాగం పేరు \"ఉమ్‌ఖోంటో వి సిజ్వె\" (అనగా దేశపు బల్లెం). ఈ విభాగం దళాలు ప్రభుత్వ, మిలిటరీ స్థానాలను లక్ష్యాలుగా చేసుకొని దాడులు నిర్వహించింది. జాతి వివక్షతను అంతం చేయడానికి గెరిల్లా పోరాటం కొరకు ప్రణాళికలు కూడా తయారు చేసుకొన్నారు. 1980 దశకంలో వీరి దళాలు నిర్వహించిన గెరిల్లా పోరాటాలలో అనేకులు మరణించారు. శాంతియుత ప్రతిఘటన వల్ల ప్రయోజనం లేనందునా, ప్రభుత్వం విచక్షణారహితంగా దమన విధానాన్ని అమలు చేస్తున్నందువలనా, తతిమ్మా మార్గాలన్నీ మూసుకుపోవడం వల్లనే తాము సాయుధపోరాటం వైపు మళ్ళవలసివచ్చిందని మండేలా సమర్ధించుకొన్నాడు.[2][6]", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\nఏప్రిల్ 2007 ప్రారంభంలో, ప్యూమా వాటాల్లో ప్రతివాటా విలువ €29.25 మేర పెరిగి లేదా సుమారుగా 10.2% వృద్ధి చెంది €315.24కు చేరుకుంది.[16] ఏప్రిల్ 10, 2007లో ఫ్రెంచ్ రీటైలర్ మరియు గుక్కీ బ్రాండ్ యజమాని పినౌల్ట్-ప్రింటెంప్స్-రెనౌట్ (PPR) తాము ప్యూమాలో 27% వాటా కొనుగోలు చేసినట్లు ప్రకటించింది, తద్వారా PPR పూర్తిస్థాయి కొనుగోలుకు మార్గం సుగమం చేసుకుంది. ప్యూమాకు ఈ ఒప్పందంలో €5.3 బిలియన్ల విలువ కట్టారు. ప్రతి వాటాకు €330 చెల్లించి చిన్న వాటా కొనుగోలు పూర్తికాగానే ప్యూమాను తాము స్నేహపూరితంగా కొనుగోలు చేసేందుకు ప్రయత్నిస్తామని PPR తెలిపింది. ప్యూమా బోర్డు ఈ చర్యను స్వాగతించింది, కంపెనీ యొక్క ఉత్తమ ప్రయోజనాలకు ఇది మంచి చర్య అని అభిప్రాయపడింది.[17] జులై 17, 2007న PPR ప్యూమాలో 62.1 % వాటాను పొందింది.", "తెలుగు సినిమా\nతెలుగు సినిమా లేదా టాలీవుడ్ హైదరాబాదు కేంద్రంగా పనిచేస్తున్న భారతీయ సినిమా లోని ఒక భాగము. [[తెలుగు సినిమా పితామహుడు]]గా సంబోధించబడే రఘుపతి వెంకయ్య నాయుడు 1909 నుండే తెలుగు సినిమాని ప్రోత్సాహానికై ఆసియా లోని వివిధ ప్రదేశాలకి పయనించటం వంటి పలు కార్యక్రమాలని చేపట్టాడు. 1921 లో భీష్మ ప్రతిజ్ఞ అను నిశబ్ద చిత్రాన్ని నిర్మించాడు. దక్షిణ భారతదేశంలో నే ప్రప్రథమమైన ఫిలిం స్టూడియో అయిన దుర్గా సినీటోన్</b>ని నిడమర్తి సూరయ్య రాజమండ్రిలో స్థాపించాడు.", "డోనాల్డ్ ట్రంప్\nఅమెరికాలో స్థిరాస్తి వ్యాపారంలో శిక్షణ కోసం 2005లో ట్రంప్‌ యూనివర్శిటీని ఏర్పాటు చేశారు. కానీ దీనిపై పలు వ్యాజ్యాలు దాఖలవ్వడంతో 2010లోనే దీనిని మూసివేశారు. 1988లో డొనాల్డ్‌ జె ట్రంప్‌ ఫౌండేషన్‌ను నెలకొల్పారు. దీనికి ట్రంప్‌ కంటే బయటవారే ఎక్కువ నిధులు ఇచ్చారు. రెజ్లమేనియా అనే కార్యక్రమంలో పాల్గొన్నందుకు వరల్డ్‌ రెజ్లింగ్‌ ఎంటర్‌టైన్‌మెంట్‌ యజమాని విన్స్‌, లిండా మెక్‌మెన్‌ జంట 5మిలియన్‌ డాలర్లను విరాళం ఇచ్చింది. ఈ ఫౌండేషన్‌ సమర్పించే రిటర్న్‌లో ఆరోగ్యం, క్రీడలకు సంబంధించి దాతృత్వ కార్యక్రమాలను చేస్తున్నట్లు చెబుతున్నారు. కానీ దీనిలో పలు లొసుగులు ఉన్నాయని ది వాషింగ్టన్‌ పోస్టు పత్రిక ఆరోపించింది.", "పెప్సికో\n1991 నుంచి 1997 వరకు పెప్సికో, బర్మా లో ప్రముఖ వ్యాపార సంస్థలలో ఒకటిగా ఉండేది. పెప్సికో యొక్క వ్యాపార బాగస్వామి అయిన తీన్ టున్ బర్మాను పాలిస్తున్న సైన్య ముటాకు వ్యాపార బాగస్వామి. ప్రపంచంలోనే అతి గోరమైన మానవ హాక్కుల ఉల్లంఘనలకు ఆ ముటా పాల్పడిందని ఆరోపణలు ఉన్నాయి.", "లిబర్టీ షూస్ లిమిటెడ్\n1954 లో నెహ్రూ చే స్థాపించబడ్డ సహకార పాదరక్షల తయారీదారు మూసివేసే దశలో ఉన్నప్పుడు హర్యానా లోని కర్నాల్కు చెందిన గుప్తాలు సొంతం చేసుకున్నారు. ఆ సమయంలో కేవలం ఒక విదేశీ సంస్థ (బాటా) యొక్క ఉత్పత్తులపై ఆధారపడిన సగటు భారతీయ వినియోగదారునికి స్వేచ్ఛ ఇవ్వాలన్న ఉద్దేశంతో దీనికి ఈ పేరు నిశ్చయం చేశారు. ఆధునిక సాంకేతికతను ఉపయోగించుకొని నాణ్యమైన పాదరక్షలు అందించే ఉద్దేశంతో 1964 లో హంగరీ దేశంతో కలసి ఒప్పందం కుదుర్చుకొన్నది. చెకొస్లోవకియా నుండి 50,000 వేల పాదరక్షల ఆర్డరును సంపాదించింది. 70 వ దశకంలో హంగరీలో షో రూమును నెలకొల్పి అక్కడి రీటైల్ లోకి ప్రవేశించింది. 90 వ దశకంలో భారతదేశంలో గొలుసుకట్టు ఫ్రాంచైజీ షో రూమ్ లను నెలకొల్పినది. 2010 నాటికి మధ్యప్రాచ్య దేశాలకు కూడా విస్తరించింది.", "పురుషోత్తమ చౌదరి\nశ్రీకాకుళం జిల్లా తెంబూరు (పాతపట్నం) శివారు మదనాపురం (తెంబూరు (పాతపట్నం) లో 1803, సెప్టెంబరు 5 న బెంగాళీ బ్రాహ్మణ కుటుంబానికి చెందిన సుభద్రాదేవి, కూర్మానాథ చౌదరి దంపతులకు జన్మించారు. 1829 లో విశాఖపట్నంలో క్రైస్తవ సాహిత్యాన్ని అధ్యయనం చేశారు. 1833లో 'కులాచార పరీక్ష' అనే పత్రికను రాసి, కులవ్యవస్థను ఖండించారు. 1833 అక్టోబరులో కటక్‌లో 'బాప్తిస్మం' తీసుకొని, క్రైస్తవ మత ప్రచారం ప్రారంభించారు. 18 రోజులు కాలినడకన పాటలు పాడుకుంటూ ప్రచారం చేస్తూ మద్రాసు వెళ్లారు. ఎన్నో కీర్తనలు రచించారు. ఈరోజు చౌదరి రాసిన కీర్తన వినిపించని చర్చి, క్రైస్తవుల ఇళ్లు లేవు. 67 ఏళ్ల వయసు వరకూ ఆంధ్రప్రదేశ్‌లోనే ఉండి, జీవిత చరమాంకాన్ని కటక్‌లోని పిల్లల దగ్గర గడిపారు. 1933లో చౌదరి శతజయంతి ఉత్సవాలు ఆంధ్రా-ఒరిస్సాలో ఘనంగా నిర్వహించారు.పర్లాకిమిడిలో స్మారకమందిరం నిర్మించారు. 1994-95లో పురుషోత్తమ చౌదరి జీవితం రచనలపై డాక్టర్‌ సుధారత్నాంజలి సామ్యూల్‌ ఎం.ఫిల్‌ను మద్రాసు యూనివర్శిటిలో చేశారు. పురుషోత్తమ చౌదరి స్వహస్తాలతో శ్రీకాకుళం చిన్నబజారులోని తెలుగు బాప్తిస్టు చర్చిని దాదాపు 150 ఏళ్ల క్రితం నిర్మించారు. ఆయన భార్య శ్రీకాకుళంలోనే మరణించారు.", "పైలా ప్రసాదరావు\nపైలా ప్రసాదరావు పారిశ్రామికవేత్త, సంఘసేవకులు, తెలుగుదేశం పార్టీకి చెందిన రాజకీయ నాయకుడు. అమెరికాలో సాజిక్స్ సాఫ్ట్ వేర్ సంస్థ స్థాపించారు. విశాఖ జిల్లాలో వివిఫై గ్రూపు కంపెనీలకు ముఖ్య కార్యనిర్వాహణ అధికారిగా బాధ్యతలు వహిస్తున్నారు. 2017లో టీవీ 5 తెలుగు టీవీ చానల్ బిజినెస్ లీడర్ అవార్డుకు ఎంపికయ్యారు. \nవిశాఖపట్నం జిల్లా మాడుగుల తెలుగుదేశం నాయకులు, ఏపీ జన్మభూమి సమన్వయకర్త, పైలా ఫౌండేషన్ ఛైర్మెన్ పైలా ప్రసాదరావు బిజినెస్ లీడర్ అవార్డు – 2017ను మహారాష్ట్ర గవర్నర్ సి.హెచ్.విద్యాసాగరరావు చేతులమీద డిసెంబర్ 2017లో అందుకున్నారు. టీవీ 5 తెలుగు ఛానల్, వివిధ వాణిజ్య సంస్థలు సంయుక్తంగా వాణిజ్య, సేవారంగాల్లో 2017లో అత్యుత్తమ ప్రతిభ కనబరిచిన వాణిజ్య వేత్తలను బిజినెస్ లీడర్ అవార్డుకు ఎంపిక చేసింది.\nసాఫ్ట్ వేర్ ఉద్యోగిగా అమెరికాలో వివిధ కంపెనీల్లో పనిచేసిన పైలా ప్రసాదరావు కాలిఫోర్నియా కేంద్రంగా 2006లో సాజిక్స్ సాఫ్ట్ వేర్ సొల్యూషన్స్ కంపెనీ స్థాపించారు. దానికి అనుబంధంగా విశాఖపట్నంలో సాజిక్స్ సాఫ్ట్ వేర్ కంపెనీ స్థాపించారు. వివిఫై ఆగ్రో, వివిఫై నిర్మాణ, వివిఫై హెల్త్ కేర్ రంగాల్లో వివిఫై గ్రూపు కంపెనీలను స్థాపించి ముఖ్య కార్యనిర్వహణాదికారి ( సిఇఓ ) గా వ్యవహరిస్తున్న పైలా ప్రసాదరావు ఏపీ జన్మభూమి సమన్వయకర్త గా, పైలా ఫౌండేషన్ ద్వారా వివిధ సేవాకార్యక్రమాల్లో చురుగ్గా పాల్గొంటున్నారు. పైలా ప్రసాదరావు మాడుగుల నియోజకవర్గంలో 45 ప్రభుత్వ పాఠశాలల్లో డిజిటల్ తరగతుల ఏర్పాటుకు ఆర్థిక సాయం అందించారు.తన కంపెనీల ద్వారా గ్రామీణ యువతకు ఉపాధి కల్పన, రైతు, మహిళా సాధికారతకు శిక్షణ వంటి కార్యక్రమాలు అమలుచేస్తున్నారు. ", "ఉమర్ ఆలీషా\nవిశ్వవిజ్ఞానా విద్యా ఆధ్యాత్మిక పిఠం (పిఠాపురం), నవమ పీఠాధిపతి ప్రస్తుత ఉమర్ ఆలీషా గురువర్యులు. వీరుమొహిద్దిన్ బాద్షా సత్గురు వర్యుల ప్రథమ పుత్రులు. వీరు 9 -9 -1989 న జన్మిచారు. వీరు హోమియోపతి వైద్యులు సంగీతములో ప్రావీణ్యము కలవారు. వీరు ఉమర్ ఆలీషా రూరల్ డవలప్ మెంట్ ట్రస్ట్ అను ఒకదానిని స్థాపించి దాని ధ్వారా ప్రజలకు తమ శక్తీ కొద్ది సేవ చేస్తున్నారు వీరు ఈ ట్రస్ట్ ద్వారా ఉమర్ ఆలీషా అక్షర జ్యోతి వంటి వాటి ద్వారా ప్రజలలో అక్షరాస్యతను పెంచేందుకు కృషి చేస్తున్నారు. వీరు తమ ఆధ్యాత్మిక శక్తీ ద్వారా తమ శిష్యులకు జ్ఞాన మార్గాన్ని ఈశ్వర తత్త్వాన్ని ప్రభోదిస్తున్నారు. వైద్యశిబిరాలను నిర్వహించి ప్రజలకు ఆవసరమైన హోమియోపతి మందులను అందచేస్తున్నారు .వీరు తమ ఆశ్రమంలో సంగీతమును ఉచితముగా నేర్పిస్తున్నారు.అంతేకాక వీరు ఈ ట్రస్ట్ ద్వారా ఆనెకమైన ప్రజ కర్యక్రమలను అనగా బట్టల పంపిణి .కుట్టు మిషన్ల పంపిణి మొదలైనవి నిర్వహిస్తున్నారు. వీరు నివేదిక, కాస్మిక్ వైస్ డం, మొదలయనటువంటి గ్రంథాలను రచించారు. తత్వజ్ఞానమనే మాస పత్రికను ప్రారంబించి ప్రజలకు అందించారు.వీరికి మన దేశంలోనే కాక విదేశాలలో ఉన్న తమ శిష్యులను జ్ఞాన మర్గన్ని ప్రభొధిస్తున్నారు.", "పనామా\nయునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ ప్రభుత్వం \"ఆపరేషన్ జస్ట్ కాస్ \" ఇది 1989 డిసెంబర్ 20న జరిగింది.టారిజోస్ - కేటర్ ట్రీటీలో పనామాలో నివసిస్తున్న అమెరికన్ పౌరులకు రక్షణ అవసరం మరియు ప్రజాస్వామ్యం మరియు మానవహక్కుల రక్షణ, మాదకద్రవ్యాల రవాణా మీద పోరాటం మరియు పనామా కాలువ రక్షణ కోరబడ్డాయి.అని న్యూయార్క్ టైంస్ పేర్కొన్నది. [24] 23 మంది సర్వీస్మంస్ మరణించారని మరియు 324 మంది గాయపడ్డారని యు.ఎస్. పేర్కొన్నది. పనామా మాద్యమాలు 450 మంది మరణించారని పేర్కొన్నది. యాక్షన్ పౌరుల మరణాలకు దారి తీసింది.రెండు వారాల సైనిక చర్యలో 400 నుండి 4,000 మంది మరణించారని అంచనా వేయబడింది. . వియత్నాం యుద్ధం తరువాత ది సర్జికల్ మాన్యూర్ అతిపెద్ద యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ మిలటరీ ఆపరేషన్ అని భావించబడింది. [25] ఇతర వనరులు పెద్ద సంఖ్యలో పౌరుల మరణాలు సంభవించినట్లు పేర్కొన్నప్పటికీ యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ 500 పౌరుల మరణాలు సంభవించినట్లు పేర్కొన్నది.[26] పనామా కెనాల్‌లో పనిచేసిన అనేక అమెరికన్ పౌరులు వారి కుటుంబ సభ్యులు మరియు యు.ఎస్. సైన్యం పనామియన్ డిఫెంస్ ఫోర్స్ చేతిలో మరణించారు. డిసెంబర్ 29న ఐఖ్యరాజ్యసమితి జనరల్ అసెంబ్లీ పనామా దాడిలో అంతర్జాతీయ చట్టాల ఉల్లంఘన మరియు స్వతత్రం మరియు సార్వభౌమత్వం హాని మరియు దేశాల భౌగోళిక అనుగుణ్యతకు లోపం జరిగిందని నిర్ణయించింది.[27] సెక్యూరిటీ కౌంసిల్ బై ది యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్, ది యునైటెడ్ కింగ్డం మరియు ఫ్రాంస్ కూడా ఇలాంటి తీర్మానానికి ఓటు వేసింది. [28]1989లో యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ జోక్యం కారణంగా నరప్రాంత ప్రజలు, అనేక మంది దారిద్ర్యరేఖకు దిగువన జీవిస్తున్న ప్రజలు అధికంగా బాఢపడ్డారు. 1995లో యు.ఎన్. అసిస్టెంస్ మిషన్ టు పనామా దాడి సమయంలో చేసిన బాంబుదాడి కారణంగా 20,000 మంది నివాసాల నుండి తరలించబడ్డారని సూచించింది. ఎల్.చొల్లిరొ డిస్ట్రిక్ తీవ్రంగా ధ్వంశం అయింది. పలు అపాటుమెంటు బ్లాకులు పూర్తిగా ధ్వంశం అయ్యాయి. యునైటెడ్ స్టేట్స్ దాడిలో పనామా కాలువ నిర్మించబడిన రోజులలో నిర్మించబడిన ఎల్.చొరిల్లొ డిస్ట్రిక్ లోని కొయ్య ప్రహరీలు అంటుకుని పెద్ద ఎత్తున అగ్నిప్రమాదం సంభవించింది.[29][30][31] దాడి కారణంగా 1.5 - 2 బిలియన్ల ఆర్ధిక నష్టం సంభవించింది.[23] చాలా మంది పనామియన్లు దాడికి మద్దతిచ్చారు.[32][33]", "వాక్యూమ్ క్లీనర్\nహ్యూబెర్ట్ సెసిల్ బూత్ సాధారణంగా 1901లో మొట్టమొదటి మోటారు ఆధారిత వాక్యూమ్ క్లీనర్ సృష్టికర్తగా గుర్తించబడ్డాడు, అయితే వాస్తవానికి అతని వాక్యూమ్‌ను కనిపెట్టడానికి రెండు సంవత్సరాల ముందే 1899లో USA, మిసౌరీ, సెయింట్ లూయిస్‌లోని ఒక అమెరికన్ జాన్ తుర్మాన్ రూపొందించాడు.[3] బూత్ రైళ్లల్లోని కుర్చీల నుండి దుమ్మును దులపడానికి ఉపయోగించే ఒక పరికరం యొక్క పనిని పరిశీలించాడు మరియు దుమ్మును పీల్చే యంత్రం మరింత ఉపయోగకరంగా ఉంటుందని భావించాడు. అతను ఒక చేతిరుమాలను ఒక రెస్టారెంట్ కుర్చీలో ఉంచి, చేతిరుమాలపై అతని నోటిని ఉంచిన తర్వాత చేతిరుమాలపై అతను పీల్చకలిగిన దుమ్మును పీల్చడం ద్వారా ఆ ఆలోచనను పరీక్షించాడు. చేతిరుమాల కింద చేరిన దుమ్ము మరియు ధూళిని చూసిన తర్వాత, అతను ఆ ఆలోచన పనిచేస్తుందని గుర్తించాడు. బూత్ పఫ్పింగ్ బెల్లీ అని పిలిచే ఒక పెద్ద పరికరాన్ని రూపొందించాడు, దీనిని అమలు చేయడానికి ముందుగా ఒక ఇంధన ఇంజిన్‌ను మరియు తర్వాత ఒక విద్యుత్ మోటారును ఉపయోగించాడు. ఇది గుర్రాలచే లాగబడుతుంది మరియు శుభ్రపర్చవల్సిన భవనం వెలుపల ఉంచబడుతుంది.", "ఘట్టమనేని కృష్ణ\n1968లో కృష్ణ నటించిన 10 సినిమాలు విడుదలయ్యాయి. 1969లో రికార్డు స్థాయిలో 19 సినిమాలు విడుదలయ్యాయి. 1970లో 16 సినిమాలు, 1971లో 11 సినిమాలు, 1972లో 18 సినిమాలు, 1973లో 15 సినిమాలు, 1974లో 13 సినిమాలు, 1975లో 8 సినిమాలు విడుదలయ్యాయి. ఈ దశలో కృష్ణ రోజుకు మూడు షిఫ్టుల చొప్పున విరామం ఎరుగక సినిమాలు చేయడం ప్రారంభించాడు. సినిమా అవకాశాల మీద అవకాశాలు వస్తున్నా, విజయవంతం అవుతున్నా అప్పటివరకు నటునిగానే ఉన్నానని భావించిన కృష్ణ తనకు స్టార్‌డం తెచ్చిపెట్టే సినిమాలు తీయాలని ఆశించి 1970లో తన స్వంత నిర్మాణ సంస్థ పద్మాలయా పిక్చర్స్ ప్రారంభించాడు.[19] కృష్ణ తమ్ముళ్ళు హనుమంతరావు, ఆదిశేషగిరిరావులు నిర్మాతలుగా వ్యవహరిస్తూ నిర్మాణ వ్యవహారాలు పర్యవేక్షించేవారు. పద్మాలయా వారి మొదటి సినిమాగా అగ్నిపరీక్ష సినిమా నిర్మితమైంది. ఇది పెద్ద విజయం సాధించలేదు. అయితే రెండవ సినిమాగా 1971లో తీసిన మోసగాళ్ళకు మోసగాడు మాత్రం భారీ విజయాన్ని, సాహసిగా కృష్ణకు పేరును తెచ్చిపెట్టింది. మోసగాళ్ళకు మోసగాడు సినమా ఆంగ్లంలోకి ట్రెజర్ హంట్ పేరిట అనువాదమై 123 దేశాల్లో విడుదలైంది, మంచి విజయాన్ని సాధించింది.[20] కృష్ణ ఆశించిన విధంగా అతనికి స్టార్ హోదా సాధించిపెట్టింది. 1972లో నటుడు ప్రభాకర రెడ్డిని భాగస్వామిగా తీసుకుని కుటుంబ కథాచిత్రమైన పండంటి కాపురం నిర్మించాడు. ఇదీ మంచి విజయాన్ని సాధించింది. 1974లో స్వంత బ్యానర్‌పై అల్లూరి సీతారామరాజు సినిమా తీశాడు.[3] 1973లోనే కృష్ణ, విజయనిర్మల కలిసి విజయకృష్ణా నిర్మాణ సంస్థని స్థాపించి విజయనిర్మల దర్శకురాలిగా తొలి సినిమా మలయాళంలోనూ, మలి చిత్రం తెలుగులోనూ తీశారు. విజయనిర్మల తెలుగులో కృష్ణ, తాను ప్రధాన పాత్రలుగా తీసిన తొలి సినిమా నవలా చిత్రం మీనా - మంచి విజయాన్ని సాధించింది.[21] ఈ దశలో కృష్ణకు మంచి విజయాలు సాధించిపెట్టిన మరో జాన్రా - క్రైం సినిమాలు. 1968-1970 మధ్యకాలంలో పలు క్రైం సినిమాలు చేసినా 1970లో వచ్చిన పగ సాధిస్తా సినిమా ఈ జాన్రాలో కృష్ణ దశ మార్చింది.[22] దీని తర్వాత రెండేళ్ళలో కృష్ణ నటించిన ఎనిమిది క్రైం సినిమాలు విడుదలయ్యాయంటే దీని ప్రభావం అర్థం చేసుకోవచ్చు.[23]", "అమెరికన్ ఎక్స్‌ప్రెస్\nఅమెరికన్‌ ఎక్స్‌ప్రెస్‌, అల్బనే, న్యూ యార్క్లో 1850లో ఎక్స్‌ప్రెస్‌ మెయిల్‌ వ్యాపారంగా ప్రారంభమైంది. హెన్రీ వెల్స్‌ ( వేల్స్&కంపెనీ), విలియమ్ ఫార్గో, (లివింగ్‌స్టన్‌, ఫార్గో&కంపెనీ), జాన్‌ వారెన్‌, బటర్ ఫీల్డ్ (వెల్స్‌, బటర్‌ఫీల్డు అండ్‌ కంపెనీ, 1850కు ముందు విజయవంతమైన బటర్‌ఫీల్డు వాసన్‌ అండ్‌ కంపెనీ) హెన్రీవెల్స్‌ ( వెల్స్‌ అండ్‌ కంపెనీ) ఆధ్వర్యంలో ఎక్స్‌ప్రెస్‌ కంపెనీలను కలపి ఉమ్మడి వాటాలతో అమెరికా ఎక్స్‌ప్రెస్‌ కార్పొరేషన్‌గా ఏర్పాటుచేశారు.[7][8] అమెరికన్‌ ఎక్స్‌ప్రెస్‌ యొక్క కార్యకలాపాలను కాలిఫోర్నియా సుదూర ప్రాంతాలకు విస్తరించడాన్ని బటర్‌ఫీల్డ్‌ మరియు ఇతర డైరెక్టర్లు వ్యతిరేకించడంతో అమెరికన్‌ ఎక్స్‌ప్రెస్‌ స్థాపకులే 1852లో వెల్స్‌ ఫార్గో అండ్‌ కంపెనీని ప్రారంభించారు", "పద్మజా నాయుడు\nఇండియన్ కౌన్సిల్ ఆఫ్ సోషల్ వర్క్స్ శాఖను ఏర్పాటు చేసి ఆమె పలు సామాజిక సేవా కార్యక్రమాలను చేపట్టింది. ప్రజారోగ్య పరిరక్షణకై ఆమే ఎంతో మంది ముస్లిం స్త్రీలను సభ్యులుగా చేర్చుకొని ప్లేగు రిలీఫ్ కమిటీని ఏర్పాటుచేసింది. పౌరుల స్వేచ్ఛ కొరకు, జాగిర్ధారీ వ్యవస్థకు వ్యతిరేకంగా స్థాపించబడిన స్వదేశీ లీగ్ అనే సంస్థకు అధ్యక్షురాలిగా పనిచేశారు. ఈ సంస్థ ఆధ్వర్యంలోనే, ఆమె తన సంపాదకత్వంలో వన్ వరల్డ్ అనే పత్రికను నడిపింది.\nరెండవ ప్రపంచ యుద్ధ కాలంలో సామ్యవాద సిద్ధాంతానికి ప్రభావితులైన కొందరు ఉస్మానియా విద్యార్థులు కామ్రేడ్స్ అసోసియేషన్ స్థాపించారు. ఈ సంస్థకు పద్మజానాయుడు సహకారాన్ని అందించారు. 1935లో ప్రపంచ వ్యాప్తంగా ఆర్థిక సంక్షోభం ఏర్పడినప్పుడు, రైతుల దుర్భర పరిస్థితులను ప్రభుత్వం దృష్టికి తీసుకరావడానికి ఏర్పడిన హైదరాబాద్ సహాయక సంఘానికి ఆమె అధ్యక్షురాలుగా వ్యవహరించారు. అనేక ప్రాంతాలు పర్యటించి, భాధితులకు తక్షణ సహాయం అందేలా ఏర్పాట్లు చేశారు.\n1942లో జరిగిన క్విట్ ఇండియా ఉద్యమంలో పాల్గొని జైలుకు వెళ్ళారు. అప్పటికి మహిళలకు ప్రత్యేకమైన జైళ్ళు లేకపోవడం, పలుకుబడి కలిగిన కుటుంబానికి చెందినది కావడం మూలానా ఆమెను హయత్ నగర్ లోని భేగం గారి దేవిడిలో సకల సౌకర్యాలు కలిగిన రాజభవనంలో ఆమెను నిర్బంధించారు. దానికి ఆమె సంతోషించక తనతో పాటు అరెస్ట్ అయిన తక్కిన మహిళలకు ఎందుకు ఈ వసతులు కల్పించలేదని ప్రశ్నించారు. చైనా యుద్ధ సమయంలో ఆమె తనకున్న విలువైన బంగారు ఆభరణాలను నేషనల్ డిఫెన్స్ ఫౌండేషన్ కు సమర్పించింది.", "పనామా\nపనామా (Panama (/ˈpænəmɑː/(listen) PAN-ə-mah; Spanish: Panamá), అధికారికంగా పనామా రిపబ్లిక్ (Spanish: República de Panamá [reˈpuβlika ðe panaˈma]), మధ్య అమెరికాలోని దేశం. ఇది దక్షిణ అమెరికా మరియు ఉత్తర అమెరికా ఖండాలను కలుపుతున్న సన్నని భూభాగం. దీనికి కోస్టారికా, కొలంబియా సరిహద్దు దేశాలు. ఈ దేశపు రాజధాని పనామా నగరం. ఈ ప్రాంతంలో స్పానిష్ 16వ శతాబ్దం నుండి నివసించగా, 1821 సంవత్సరంలో స్పెయిన్ దేశంతో సంబంధాలు త్రెంచుకొని గ్రాన్ కొలంబియా రిపబ్లిక్ సమాజంలో చేరింది.", "పీలే\nపీలేకు దీర్ఘకాల స్నేహితుడు మరియు వ్యాపారవేత్త అయిన జోస్ ఆల్వెస్ డీ అరావ్జో ద్వారా స్థాపితమై ఆయన ద్వారానే నడపబడుతూ వచ్చిన ప్రైమ్ లైసెన్సింగ్ కంపెనీ ప్రస్తుతం పీలే బ్రాండ్‌తో సహా, పుమా AG, పెలెస్టేషన్, QVC, ఫ్రీమెంటల్ మీడియా, పీలే L'ఉమో మరియు పీలే అరేనా కాఫీ హౌస్‌లతో సహా ఇతర వ్యాపారాలకు సంబంధించిన ఒప్పందాలను నిర్వహిస్తోంది.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\n1993 నుంచి సీఈవో మరియు ఛైర్మన్ జోచెన్ జీట్జ్ కంపెనీకి నేతృత్వం వహిస్తున్నారు. అక్టోబరు 2007లో ఆయన కాంట్రాక్టును మరో నాలుగేళ్లపాటు, అంటే 2012 వరకు పొడగించారు.[11]", "కంపెనీ (చట్టం)\nఉత్తర అమెరికాలో, ఏప్రిల్ 10, 1606న జేమ్స్ I, ఇంగ్లండ్ యొక్క రాజ ఆదేశాలపై ఒక ఇంగ్లీష్ ఉమ్మడి వాటా కంపెనీగా లండన్ కంపెనీ (ఛార్టర్ ఆఫ్ ది వర్జీనియా కంపెనీ ఆఫ్ లండన్‌గా కూడా పిలుస్తారు) ఏర్పాటు చేయబడింది, ఉత్తర అమెరికాలో వలసరాజ్య నివాసాలు ఏర్పాటు చేసే ఉద్దేశంతో దీనిని స్థాపించారు, వర్జీనియా కంపెనీలో భాగంగా ఒక ప్రత్యేక నియమావళితో ప్లైమౌత్ కంపెనీ ఏర్పాటు చేయబడింది, ఈ రెండు సంస్థలు ఉత్తర అమెరికాలో స్థాపించబడిన మొట్టమొదటి కంపెనీలుగా గుర్తించబడుతున్నాయి. లండన్ కంపెనీ 1607లో జేమ్స్‌టౌన్ నివాస ప్రాంతాన్ని ఏర్పాటు చేసింది, ఇది ప్రస్తుత అమెరికా సంయుక్త రాష్ట్రాల్లో స్థాపించబడిన మొట్టమొదటి ఇంగ్లీష్ శాశ్వత నివాస ప్రాంతంగా గుర్తించబడుతుంది, ఇదిలా ఉంటే అదనపు సరఫరాలు పంపేందుకు ఉద్దేశరహితంగా సోమెర్స్ ఐస్లెస్, అలియాస్ బెర్ముడాలో అతి పురాతన, ఇప్పటికీ నిలిచివున్న ఇంగ్లీష్ కాలనీని కూడా 1609లో ఈ కంపెనీ ఏర్పాటు చేసింది. ", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\nవర్గం:ప్యూమా ఏజీ వర్గం:జర్మనీలో క్రీడా వస్తువుల తయారీదారులు వర్గం:జర్మనీ షూ కంపెనీలు వర్గం:షూ బ్రాండ్‌లు వర్గం:జర్మనీ బ్రాండ్‌లు వర్గం:క్రీడా వస్తువుల బ్రాండ్‌లు వర్గం:PPR బ్రాండ్‌లు వర్గం:హెర్జోజెనౌరాచ్ వర్గం:1924 స్థాపితాలు", "సన్ మైక్రో సిస్టమ్స్\nసన్ మైక్రో సిస్టమ్స్ ప్రపంచంలో నే ప్రసిద్ధి చెందిన సాఫ్ట్ వేర్ సంస్థ. దీనిని 1982, అక్టోబరు 12 న వినోద్ ఖోస్లా, ఆండి బెచ్తోల్శ్హిమ్ మరితు స్కాట్ మెక్ నీల్ అనే మిత్ర బృందం స్థాపించింది. వీరంతా స్టాన్ ఫోర్డ్ విశ్వవిద్యాలయ విద్యార్థులు. ఈ సంస్థ సుప్రసిద్ద కంప్యూటర్ భాష జావా ను కనుగొంది.", "లీలా పూనావాల\nఆనాటి వరకు నష్టాల్లో ఉన్న తనకంపెనీని లాభాల బాట పట్టించారు. ఉద్యోగ వర్గాలలో ప్రశాంత వాతావరణం నెలకొల్పి కంపెనీని ప్రగతి పథంలో నడిపారు. 50 ఏండ్లు నిండిన సందర్భంగా 1996 లో కంపెనీ ఘనంగా సన్మానించింది. కంపెనీకి అంకిత భావంతో చేసిన సేవలకు గాను ఈమెకు లక్ష స్విస్ ఫ్రాంక్ లు (సుమారు 30 లక్షలు) గౌరవ పురస్కారం లభించింది. కంపెనీ ఈమెకు జీవిత పర్యంతం గుర్తుండిపోయేలా చేసింది. మరి తాను కూదా సమాజానికి గుర్తుండిపోయే పనిచేయాలి కదా అని తలపోసి తన పేరు మీదనే ఒక ఫౌండేషన్ స్థాపించాలనుకున్నారు. పదవీ విరమణ చేసిన ఈమెకు కంపెనీ నాలుగు లక్షల స్విస్ ఫ్రాంక్ లు అందజేసింది.", "వాయిస్ మెయిల్\n1969లో జేనే రిచేసన్, కెన్ ఒష్మన్, వాల్టర్ లోవెన్స్టెర్న్ మరియు రాబర్ట్ మాక్స్ఫీల్డ్‌‌లచే స్థాపించబడిన ఆర్‌ఓల్‌ఎమ్ కార్పోరేషన్ తన రిజిస్టర్డ్ ట్రేడ్ మార్క్ అయిన ఫోన్‌మెయిల్ సిస్టం‌తో సంఘటిత పరచిన వాయిస్ మెయిల్‌ను అందించిన మొదటి పిబిఎక్స్ తయారీ సంస్థ. ఫోన్‌మెయిల్ స్పష్టమైన రికార్డింగ్ నాణ్యతతో తన డిజిటలైజ్డ్ సందేశాలను అందించింది. ఆర్‌ ఒ ఎల్‌ ఎమ్ యొక్క డిజిటల్ పిబిఎక్స్ (కంప్యూటరైజ్డ్ బ్రాంచ్ ఎక్స్చేంజ్‌ను సూచించే విధంగా సిబిఎక్స్ అని పిలువబడింది) ఫోన్‌మెయిల్‌కు సందేశం వెచిఉన్నదని సూచించే లైట్‌లను కలిగిన ఆర్ ఓ ఎల్ ఎమ్ ఫోన్లపై సందేశం వేచిఉన్నట్లు చూపడానికి వీలు కలిగించింది (అనలాగ్ మరియు డిజిటల్ ఫోన్లపై ఒక డయల్ టోన్ కూడా ఉపయోగించబడింది). ఆర్ ఒ ఎల్ ఎమ్, ఐబిఎమ్ కు అమ్మివేయబడింది, తరువాత అది సీమెన్స్‌కు అమ్మివేసింది, ఆ సంస్థ ఫోన్‌మెయిల్‌ను అనేక ఆకారాలు/పరిమాణాలు (సూక్ష్మ-పరిమాణ రూపంతో సహా) మరియు దాని యూనిఫైడ్ మెసేజింగ్ సక్సెసర్, ఎక్స్ప్రెషన్స్ 470ని అందిస్తోంది. 1980ల మధ్య భాగంలో ఆర్ ఒ ఎల్ ఎమ్, ఐబిఎమ్ చే కొనుగోలు చేయబడింది (ఇది లాభదాయకమైన ఆర్ ఒ ఎల్ ఎమ్ కు ఆర్థికంగా వినాశకరమైనది, 70ల మధ్య భాగం మరియు 80ల చివరిలో యుఎస్ లో #2 పిబిఎక్స్ సరఫరాదారు అయిన ఆర్ ఒ ఎల్ ఎమ్ వైఖరి \"థింక్ అవుట్ సైడ్ ది బాక్స్\"ను అది అందుకోలేకపోవడం దీనికి కారణం), తరువాత అది సగభాగాన్ని జర్మన్ సంస్థ అయిన సీమెన్స్‌కు అమ్మివేసింది.[19] 1992లో, సీమెన్స్, ఆర్ ఓ ఎమ్ను పూర్తిగా ఐబిఎమ్ నుండి కొనుగోలు చేసింది మరియు ఫోన్‌మెయిల్ మినహా (సీమెన్స్ నాశనం చేయని ఒకే ఒక ఉత్పత్తి) ఆర్ ఒ ఎల్ ఎమ్ సహజ ఉత్పత్తిశ్రేణి నాశనమైంది. విఎమ్‌ఎక్స్ హీనమైన ఉత్పత్తులు మరియు అసమర్ధమైన నిర్వహణలతో ఇబ్బందిపడింది మరియు ఆప్కాం దానితో విలీనం అయ్యే నాటికి మూసివేతకు సిద్ధంగా ఉంది. మనుగడలో ఉన్న సంస్థ విఎమ్ ఎక్స్ గా పిలువబడింది, కానీ దాని పేరు మరియు పేటెంట్ పోర్ట్ ఫోలియో మినహాయించి విఎమ్ ఎక్స్, ఆప్కాంచే పూర్తిగా తొలగించబడింది.", "గుర్తు తెలియని ఎగిరే వస్తువు\nఇంకొక ముందస్తు యు.ఎస్ . సైన్యం పరిశోధన 1940 లలో స్థాపించబడింది మరియు దాని గురించి కొద్దిగా తెలిసిన దానిని ఇంతర్ప్లానేతరి ఫినామినా యూనిట్ (ఐ.పి.యు ) అని పిలుస్తారు. 1987లో బ్రిటిష్ యు.ఎఫ్.ఒ. పరిశోధకుడు అయిన తిమోతి గుడ్ కౌంటర్ ఇంటలిజెన్స్ యొక్క సైన్యాధ్యక్షుడు దగ్గర నుండిఐ.పి.యు. యొక్క ఉనికి నిజమే అని చెప్పే ఒక లేఖను అందుకున్నాడు, అందులో ఈ విధంగా చెప్పబడింది, \"… పైన పేర్కొన్న సైనిక విభాగం 1950 చివరిలో మూసివేయ్యబడింది మరియు మరలా ప్రారంభించబడలేదు. ఈ విభాగానికి సంబంధించిన అన్ని రికార్డులు కూడా ఆపరేషన్ బ్లూబూక్ తో అనుసంధానం అయ్యి యు.ఎస్ . ప్రత్యేక పరిశోధనల యొక్క వాయుదళ కార్యాలయంనకు అప్పగించబడ్డాయి.\" ఐ.పి.యూ రికార్డ్స్ ఎప్పుడూ విడుదల చెయ్యబడలేదు.[41]", "ప్రతిభా పిక్చర్స్\nప్రతిభా పిక్చర్స్ పాతతరం తెలుగు చలనచిత్ర నిర్మాణ సంస్థ. దీనిని ప్రముఖ నిర్మాత మరియు దర్శకుడైన ఘంటసాల బలరామయ్య 1940 సంవత్సరంలో స్థాపించారు. ఇంతకుముందు శ్రీరామా ఫిలిమ్స్, కుబేరా పిక్చర్స్ పేరుతో కొన్ని చిత్రాలు నిర్మించి ప్రతిభా పిక్చర్స్‌ను స్థాపించారు. ఈ సంస్థ నిర్మించిన అత్యుత్తమ చిత్రం 1948లో విడుదలైన బాలరాజు. 1950లో కేవలం 19 రోజులలో శ్రీ లక్ష్మమ్మ కథ చిత్రాన్ని నిర్మించి విడుదల చేసిన ఘనత ఈ సంస్థకు దక్కింది. 1955లో విడుదలైన రేచుక్క చిత్ర నిర్మాణ సమయంలో ఘంటసాల బలరామయ్య హఠాత్తుగా మరణించడంతో ఆ చిత్రాన్ని పి.పుల్లయ్య పూర్తి చేశారు. బలరామయ్య మరణం తర్వాత ఆయన కుమారుడు ప్రతిభ పిక్చర్స్ పతాకం మీద రెండు చిత్రాలు నిర్మించారు. అవి ఏది నిజం (1956) మరియు దొంగలున్నారు జాగ్రత్త (1958). ఏది నిజం చిత్రాన్ని ప్రముఖ నటుడు మరియు వీణవిద్వాంసుడు ఎస్.బాలచందర్ తీయగా, దొంగలున్నారు జాగ్రత్తను ప్రముఖ సంగీతదర్శకుడు భీమవరపు నరసింహారావు తీయడం విశేషం.", "ప్యూమా ఏజీ\nఫిబ్రవరి 2007లో, 2006 చివరి మూడు నెలల కాలంలో ప్యూమా తమ లాభాలు 26% మేర క్షీణించి €32.8 మిలియన్లకు ($43 మిలియన్లు; £22 మిలియన్లు) పడిపోయాయని ప్రకటించింది. విస్తరణ కారణంగా జరిగిన అధిక వ్యయాలు కారణంగా ఎక్కువగా లాభాలు క్షీణించినట్లు కంపెనీ పేర్కొంది, వాస్తవానికి విక్రయాలు €480.6 మిలియన్లకు పెరిగాయని తెలియజేసింది.[15]", "పొపాయ్\nమే 1941లో, పారమౌంట్ పిక్చర్స్ ఫ్లీషర్ స్టూడియోస్‌ను సొంతం చేసుకుంది. తన కథలు గలివర్'స్ ట్రావెల్స్ మరియు మిస్టర్ బగ్ గోస్ టు టౌన్‌</i>ను ఫీచర్స్‌గా వ్యాప్తి చేయడానికి ఫ్లోరిడా వెళ్ళడం కోసం ఫ్లీషర్ స్టూడియోస్ పారమౌంట్ పిక్చర్స్ నుండి భారీగా ఋణాలు పొందింది.[9] సంవత్సరం పూర్తి అయ్యేసరికి, మాక్స్ మరియు డేవ్ ఫ్లీషర్ మధ్య సంబంధాలు చెడి ఒకరితో ఒకరు మెమొలతో మాత్రమే సంపర్కం కొనసాగించారు.[10] పారమౌంట్ ఫ్లీషర్స్‌ను తొలగించి, స్టూడియోని పునర్నిర్మించడం మొదలు పెట్టింది. దానికి ఫేమస్ స్టూడియోస్ అని పేరు పెట్టింది.", "స్టీము లోకోమోటివ్ చరిత్ర\n1812లో మాథ్యూ ముర్రే జంట స్టీము సిలిండరులున్న సలమన్కా (salamanca) [7] అనే రైలును నడిపాడు.ఆతరువాత పప్పింగు బిల్లీ (Puffing Billy) అనే లోకోమోటివ్ ను 1812-14లో విలియం హెడ్లీ తయారు చేసాడు[8].లండన్‌లో, 1825లో జార్జి స్టేపెన్సన్ [9] లోకోమోసన్ నెం1 పేరుతొ ఈశాన్య ఇంగ్లాండులోని స్టాక్టన్ అండ్ డార్లింగుటన్ రైల్వే కై తయారు చేసాడు. నిజానికి ప్రపంచంలో ఇదే మొదటి పబ్లిక్ స్టీము రైల్వే.1829లో జార్జి స్టేపెన్సన్ కుమారుడు రాబర్ట్ న్యూ క్యాసిల్‌లో ది రాకెట్ (the Rocket) అనే లోకోమోటివ్ తయారు చేసాడు.ఇది రైన్‌హిల్ ట్రైల్ పోటీలో నెగ్గింది[10].ఈ లోకోమోటివ్ విజయవంతంగా నడవడంతో ఇతని సంస్థ తయారు చేసిన లోకోమోటివ్ ఇంజను త్వరలోనే ఇంగ్లాండు, అమెరికా మరియు యూరోప్ దేశాల్లో పట్టాలపై నడవడం మొదలెట్టాయి.ఆ తరువాత లివరుఫూల్ అండ్ మాంచెష్టరు రైల్వే సంస్థ[11]స్టీము లోకోమోటివ్ ఉపయోగించి లతో ప్రయాణీకుల మరియు సరుకుల రవాణా బోగిలను నడపడం మొదలెట్టింది", "లూసియానా\nఒక స్పానిష్ అన్వేషక బృందానికి నేతృత్వం వహించిన పాన్‌ఫిలో డి నార్వేయెజ్‌ను లూసియానాను కనిపెట్టిన మొట్టమొదటి ఐరోపా అన్వేషకుడిగా గుర్తిస్తున్నారు, ఆయన 1528లో మిస్సిసిపీ నది సముద్ర ప్రవేశద్వారాన్ని గుర్తించాడు. 1542లో, హెర్నాండో డి సోటో యొక్క అన్వేషక బృందం ఈ రాష్ట్ర ఉత్తర మరియు పశ్చిమ ప్రాంతాన్ని చుట్టివచ్చింది (ఈ సందర్భంగా వారు కాడో మరియు టునికా సమూహాలను చూశారు) మరియు తరువాత వారు మిస్సిసిపీ నది దిగువ ప్రాంతంలోని మెక్సికో సింధుశాఖకు 1543లో చేరుకున్నారు.\nఅయితే లూసియానాపై స్పానిష్ ఆసక్తి మాత్రం క్రియారహితంగా ఉంది. 17వ శతాబ్దం చివరి కాలంలో, సార్వభౌమ, మత మరియు వ్యాపార లక్ష్యాలతో సాగిన ఫ్రెంచ్ అన్వేషణలు, చివరకు మిస్సిసిపీ నది మరియు సింధుశాఖ తీరంలో స్థావరం ఏర్పాటుకు దారితీశాయి. మొట్టమొదటి స్థిరనివాసులు ఏర్పాటు కావడంతో, ఫ్రాన్స్ ఉత్తర అమెరికాలో ఒక భారీ భూభాగంపై ఆధిపత్యాన్ని ప్రకటించింది, తద్వారా మెక్సికో సింధుశాఖ నుంచి కెనడా వరకు ఒక వ్యాపార సామ్రాజ్యాన్ని మరియు ఫ్రాన్స్ వలస దేశం స్థాపించబడింది.", "పర్డ్యూ విశ్వవిద్యాలయం\n1865లో, ఇండియానా జనరల్ అసెంబ్లీ మొర్రిల్ చట్టం యొక్క ప్రయోజనాన్ని పొంది, ఇంజనీరింగ్‌పై ప్రబల దృష్టితో ఒక సంస్థను స్థాపించడానికి ప్రణాళికలు ప్రారంభించింది. జాన్ పర్డ్యూను, ఒక లఫయేట్ వ్యాపార నాయకుడు మరియు పరోపకారి (పర్డ్యూలో ఖననం చేయబడ్డారు), ఇండియానాలో ఒక \"భూ మంజూరు\" కళాశాల ఏర్పాటుకు సహాయం కొరకు సంప్రదించారు. ఈ ప్రణాళిక కొరకు ఇండియానా రాష్ట్రం, $150,000లను జాన్ పర్డ్యూ నుండి, $50,000లను టిప్పేకానో కౌంటీ నుండి, మరియు 150 ఎకరాల (0.6కిమీ²) భూమిని లఫయేట్ నివాసితులనుండి విరాళంగా పొందింది. 1869 మే 6న కళాశాల లఫయేట్ నగర సమీపంలో స్థాపించాలని నిర్ణయించబడింది మరియు శాసనసభ్యులు ఈ సంస్థను దాని ప్రధాన సహాయకుని పేరు మీదుగా ఈ సంస్థను పర్డ్యూ విశ్వవిద్యాలయంగా స్థాపించారు.[5]" ]

[ 8.3359375 ]

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[ "Nintendo arcade machines be \"Donkey Kong\" (1981) and \"Mario Bros.\" (1983). Many of Nintendo's games were also released for their Japan-only Color TV home console series, which played arcade games on home televisions. Nintendo's first series of home consoles was commercially successful. Computer Othello (June 1978) is a clone of the board game \"Reversi\". It was the first game produced by Nintendo R&D1, the team that later produced the first \"Mario\", \"Donkey Kong\", \"Duck Hunt\", and \"Kid Icarus\" games. R&D1 was led by Gunpei Yokoi, who later created the Game Boy, and included \"Mario\" and \"Legend of Zelda\" creator Shigeru Miyamoto. Block Fever", "Mario (franchise) Mario (franchise) The franchise is a media franchise, published and produced by video game company Nintendo, starring the fictional Italian character Mario. It is primarily a video game franchise, with the franchise's other forms of media including several television series and a feature film. It was originally created by game designer Shigeru Miyamoto with the arcade game \"Donkey Kong\", released on July 9, 1981. The games have been developed by a variety of developers including Nintendo, Hudson Soft, and AlphaDream. Most \"Mario\" games have either been released for the arcade or Nintendo video game consoles and handhelds dating from the", "Mario (franchise) and six million Coleco cartridges, and \"Mario Bros.\" which sold 1.72 million Famicom cartridges. Mario (franchise) The franchise is a media franchise, published and produced by video game company Nintendo, starring the fictional Italian character Mario. It is primarily a video game franchise, with the franchise's other forms of media including several television series and a feature film. It was originally created by game designer Shigeru Miyamoto with the arcade game \"Donkey Kong\", released on July 9, 1981. The games have been developed by a variety of developers including Nintendo, Hudson Soft, and AlphaDream. Most \"Mario\" games have either been", "History of Nintendo The massively popular \"Donkey Kong\" was created in 1981, with Shigeru Miyamoto as its mastermind, and released in the arcades and on the Atari 2600, Intellivision, and ColecoVision video game systems (although Nintendo themselves generally had no involvement with these early console ports). This release method would be used on several later Nintendo arcade games of this same period, including the original \"Mario Bros.\" (not to be confused with the later \"Super Mario Bros.\") In addition to this arcade and dedicated console game activity, Nintendo was testing the consumer handheld video game waters with the Game & Watch. Game &", "Nintendo arcade machines was its innovation on the popular \"Breakout\" formula. The game was not published outside Japan. Sheriff (October 1979) HeliFire (1980) is a clone of \"Space Invaders\" where the player moves a submarine instead of spacecraft. Enemies attack the submarine from the top and bottom of the screen. Space Firebird (1980) Donkey Kong (August 1981) ... It was designed by Miyamoto and introduced Mario (then known as \"Jumpman\"). \"Donkey Kong\" was a progenitor of the platformer genre, among the first games with narrative elements, and Nintendo's most successful arcade game. Sky Skipper (1981) is a game in which the player controls", "Donkey Kong (character) Donkey Kong (character) Donkey Kong is a fictional character who appears in games belonging to the \"Donkey Kong\" and \"Mario\" video game franchises. He is a gorilla and is Mario's former nemesis. A popular character, he has appeared in many video games. He has a nephew named Diddy Kong. Donkey Kong was Mario's first opponent in the game of the same name, Nintendo's popular 1981 arcade game, \"Donkey Kong\". Since then he has starred in his own series of games, starting with 1994's \"Donkey Kong Country\" for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and remains an important character in the \"Mario\"", "Golden age of arcade video games in the golden age with the shooter game \"Space Invaders\" and produced other successful arcade action games such as \"Gun Fight\" and \"Jungle King\"), Namco (the Japanese company that created \"Galaxian\", \"Pac-Man\", \"Pole Position\" and \"Dig Dug\") and Atari (the company that introduced video games into arcades with \"Computer Space\" and \"Pong\", and later produced \"Asteroids\"). Other companies such as Sega (who later entered the home console market against its former arch rival, Nintendo), Nintendo (whose mascot, Mario, was introduced in 1981's \"Donkey Kong\" as \"Jumpman\"), Bally Midway Manufacturing Company (which was later purchased by Williams), Cinematronics, Konami, Centuri, Williams", "Platform game genre, with gameplay centered on climbing ladders between different floors, a common element in many early platform games. A difficult game to learn, \"Space Panic\" remained obscure as an arcade game, but the 1981 unauthorized clone \"Apple Panic\" was a hit for home computers. Another precursor to the genre from 1980 was Nichibutsu's \"Crazy Climber\", which revolved around the concept of climbing vertically-scrolling skyscrapers. \"Donkey Kong\", an arcade game created by Nintendo and released in July 1981, was the first game that allowed players to jump over obstacles and across gaps, making it the first true platformer. It introduced Mario,", "Mario mistreats the ape and Donkey Kong escapes to kidnap Jumpman's girlfriend, originally known as the Lady, but later named Pauline. The player must take the role of Jumpman and rescue the girl. Jumpman was later renamed \"Mario\" in the 1982 arcade game \"Donkey Kong Junior\", the only game in which he has been portrayed as an antagonist. In the 1983 arcade game \"Mario Bros.\", Mario and his younger brother Luigi are portrayed as Italian-American plumbers who have to defeat creatures that have been coming from the sewers below New York City. In \"Super Mario Bros.\" for the Nintendo Entertainment System,", "History of the Nintendo Entertainment System Wii console, which is based on their own emulation technology. Initial titles released included \"Mario Bros.\", \"The Legend of Zelda\" and \"Donkey Kong\", with blockbuster titles such as \"Super Mario Bros.\", \"Punch-Out!!\" and \"Metroid\" appearing in the following months. In 2007, Nintendo Co., Ltd. announced that it would no longer repair Famicom systems, due to an increasing shortage of the necessary parts. History of the Nintendo Entertainment System Nintendo's 8-bit video game console, the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), known in Japan as the or , was introduced after the video game crash of 1983 in North America. It enjoyed a", "Super Punch-Out!! (arcade game) with basically the same looks and attacks. including Bear Hugger, Dragon Chan, and Super Macho Man. As in the original \"Punch-Out!!\" arcade, Mario, Luigi, Donkey Kong, and Donkey Kong Junior all appear in the audience part of the \"Super Punch-Out!!\" arcade. Also, one of the victory tunes heard in the \"Super Punch-Out!!\" arcade was later used in Nintendo's 1985 \"Baseball\" for the NES as the home run theme. Super Punch-Out!! (arcade game) As in the original \"Punch-Out!!\", the player assumes the role of a green-haired boxer (later recast as Little Mac in the 1987 Nintendo Entertainment System version), known by", "Punch-Out!! (arcade game) the first quarter of 1984 when Nintendo was making several coin-operated arcade machines. Nintendo had an excessive number of video monitors after the success of the \"Donkey Kong\" series, basing the purchases on the estimate for the demand for arcade games. They were offered a proposition to make an arcade game that used two monitors. They chose to make a boxing game, which utilized the ability to zoom in and out of an object. This was a feature more commonly found in games that involve flying such as flight simulators, but the developers chose boxing because they thought it would", "Mario Party games and, except where noted, all five handheld instalments: The first four games also add Donkey Kong to this roster. In \"Mario Party 5\", he is relegated to the Super Duel Mode, and he was omitted from subsequent games until \"Mario Party 10\". The default sorting is by first appearance, then by number of appearances. For alphabetical order, click on \"Character\". These games were released for home game consoles, including the GameCube, Wii, Wii U, and Switch. These games were released for portable game consoles, including the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, and Nintendo 3DS. Mario Party was the first", "Mario (franchise) changed to Mario. The success of the game spawned several ports, and a sequel, \"Donkey Kong Jr.\", which is Mario's only appearance as an antagonist. \"Donkey Kong 3\" did not feature Mario. The \"Mario\" branding was used for the first time in a later arcade game, \"Mario Bros.\", which introduced Mario's brother, Luigi. The objective of \"Mario Bros.\" is to defeat all of the enemies in each phase. Each phase is a series of platforms with four pipes at each corner of the screen, and an object called a \"POW\" block in the center. The mechanics of \"Mario Bros.\" involve", "Donkey Kong (Game Boy) that its \"control is styled after the arcade games, not the Super Mario Bros. so it can be confusing at first\". The review gave high marks for the games' play control, challenge and theme & fun. \"Donkey Kong\" was awarded Best Game Boy Game of 1994 by \"Electronic Gaming Monthly\". \"Nintendo Power\" listed it as the eighth best Game Boy/Game Boy Color video game, praising it as the only true followup to the original \"Donkey Kong\" arcade game. \"Official Nintendo Magazine\" ranked \"Donkey Kong\" 89th on their list of the \"100 Greatest Nintendo Games\". \"Game Informer\"s Ben Reeves called it", "Super Paper Mario titles for inspiration, envisioning how the levels would look in 3D. \"Super Paper Mario\" was announced by Nintendo on May 11, 2006 at E3 for the Nintendo GameCube. On May 30, 2006, Nintendo set a release date of October 9, 2006. That summer, the game was \"silently moved\" to the Wii along with \"Donkey Kong Barrel Blast\". Early PAL copies of the game contain a bug if the language is set to English, German, or Spanish. In Chapter 2-2, the game will freeze if Mario speaks to the character Mimi without first picking up a key. Nintendo of Europe has", "Mario vs. Donkey Kong (video game) users, Nintendo currently has no plans to release this game to the general public in paid form on Nintendo 3DS unlike the Wii U version, which later released in 2014. Mario vs. Donkey Kong (video game) The game concept revolves around a combination of platform and puzzle elements, challenging Mario to find keys, reach a locked door, and rescue mini-Marios. In \"Mario vs. Donkey Kong\", the player assumes the role of Mario, who is pursuing Donkey Kong through a toy factory in order to retrieve several stolen Mini-Mario toys. The game, a puzzle platform game, plays similarly to the Game", "Nintendo developed in 1982, by Yokoi for a \"Donkey Kong\" version. Proven to be popular, the design was patented by Nintendo. It later earned a Technology & Engineering Emmy Award. In 1983, Nintendo launched the Family Computer (colloquialised as \"Famicom\") home video game console in Japan, alongside ports of its most popular arcade games. In 1985, a cosmetically reworked version of the system known outside Japan as the Nintendo Entertainment System or NES, launched in North America. The practice of bundling the system along with select games helped to make \"Super Mario Bros.\" one of the best-selling video games in history.", "Mario rent. Following a heated argument in which the Nintendo employees eventually convinced Segale he would be paid, they opted to name the character in the game Mario after him. Miyamoto commented that if he had named Mario \"Mr. Video\", Mario likely would have \"disappeared off the face of the Earth\". By Miyamoto's own account, Mario's profession was chosen to fit with the game design. Since \"Donkey Kong\" was set on a construction site, Mario was made into a carpenter. When he appeared again in \"Mario Bros.\", it was decided he should be a plumber, since a lot of the game", "Mario and Donkey Kong: Minis on the Move Mario and Donkey Kong: Minis on the Move Mario and Donkey Kong: Minis on the Move, known in Japan as , is a puzzle video game for the Nintendo 3DS and is the fifth game in the \"Mario vs. Donkey Kong\" series. It was released exclusively via the Nintendo eShop download service on May 9, 2013 in the PAL region and North America and July 24 in Japan. In the main game, the player must place blocks on a grid with the goal of making a path for a Mini—a small walking robot resembling Mario or another \"Mario\" series character—to" ]

[ "Nintendo Badge Arcade Nintendo Badge Arcade Nintendo Badge Arcade, known in Japan as , is a freemium application developed by Nintendo for the Nintendo 3DS, allowing players to customize the 3DS home menu with badges. The game launched in Japan in December 2014, and worldwide in November 2015. \"Nintendo Badge Arcade\" takes place in an arcade filled with machines known as Badge Catchers, each containing badges based on various Nintendo franchises such as \"Super Mario\", \"Animal Crossing\", \"The Legend of Zelda\", \"Splatoon\", and \"Pokémon\" which are reorganised regularly. The arcade is hosted by a pink, anthropomorphic rabbit character called Arcade Bunny, who always", "Mario Kart Arcade GP Mario Kart Arcade GP The initial game, \"Mario Kart Arcade GP\", is noted for being the first \"Mario Kart\" to feature playable crossover characters: Namco's Pac-Man, Ms. Pac-Man, and Blinky. The game's sequel also features Mametchi, a character from the Tamagotchi games, and the third installment includes Don from the \"Taiko no Tatsujin\" franchise. The \"Mario Kart Arcade GP\" sub-series started in 2005 with the release of \"Mario Kart Arcade GP\". The game has been followed by three sequels: \"Mario Kart Arcade GP 2\" (2007), \"Mario Kart Arcade GP DX\" (2013), and \"Mario Kart Arcade GP VR\" (2017). Mario Kart", "Mario Kart Arcade GP game features all eight playable characters from Mario Kart 64, as well as guest characters Pac-Man, Ms. Pac-Man, and Blinky for a total of eleven. Most of the game's sound effects came from \"\" including the pre-race countdown timer to commence racing. Mario Kart Arcade GP 2 is the second game in the \"Mario Kart Arcade GP\" arcade game series released in 2007. The game was developed by Namco Bandai Games and Nintendo and published by Namco Bandai. The game used the Triforce arcade system board. The game features the \"Nam Cam\" camera features of its predecessor, and 50cc, 100cc,", "Nintendo arcade machines Nintendo arcade machines Nintendo released a series of arcade games in the 1970s and 80s. The company made toys and trading card games prior to their film projection-based light gun games from 1973 to 1978. Nintendo released its first electronic arcade game in 1978, an adaptation of the board game \"Reversi\". Many of Nintendo's first video games were knockoffs, or \"clones\", of existing games with slight variations, including \"Breakout\" clones and clones of \"Space Invaders\" and \"Galaga\". Nintendo also successfully released its first Japanese home consoles, the Color TV series, which brought arcade games to personal televisions. Nintendo primarily made", "Mario (franchise) developed for non-Nintendo hardware. (stylized as \"D℞. Mario\") is a series of arcade-style action puzzle video game originally developed by Nintendo Research & Development 1, and later developed by Arika and produced by Nintendo Software Planning & Development. The first in the series, \"Dr. Mario\", was launched in 1990 on the Nintendo Entertainment System and Game Boy to critical and commercial success. In the \"Dr. Mario\" series, the player character Mario, who assumes the role of a doctor, is tasked with eradicating deadly viruses. The player's objective is to destroy the viruses populating the on-screen playing field by using falling", "Nintendo arcade machines were too difficult to transition to console games, unlike \"Punch-Out!!\" rhythm-based play. Parish recommended purchasing an inexpensive arcade cabinet as a novelty. Nintendo has reused their assets in their \"nostalgia-driven\" projects such as \"WarioWare\" and \"Super Smash Bros.\" Nintendo arcade machines Nintendo released a series of arcade games in the 1970s and 80s. The company made toys and trading card games prior to their film projection-based light gun games from 1973 to 1978. Nintendo released its first electronic arcade game in 1978, an adaptation of the board game \"Reversi\". Many of Nintendo's first video games were knockoffs, or \"clones\", of", "Punch-Out!! (arcade game) Punch-Out!! (arcade game) The arcade game introduced recurring video games characters such as Glass Joe, Piston Hurricane, Bald Bull, and Mr. Sandman. It was the debut project at Nintendo for composer Koji Kondo, who would later go on to write music in the \"Super Mario\" and \"The Legend of Zelda\" series. In the game, the player assumes the role of a green-haired boxer (sometimes claimed to be Little Mac from the NES versions), known by three initials the player chooses when the game begins. During matches, the player's boxer is viewed from behind and above as a wireframe so the", "Mario (franchise) \"Dr. Mario 64\" for the Nintendo 64 introduced new game modes such as a \"Story\" mode, \"Score Attack\" and \"Marathon\", Wario as a playable character and four-player multiplayer. After a seven-year hiatus, in 2008, \"Dr. Mario Express\" for the Nintendo DSi's DSiWare service re-introduced the series to the portable gaming market. Also in 2008, \"Dr. Mario Online Rx\" for the Wii's WiiWare service introduced online multiplayer to the series. In 2013, \"Dr. Luigi\" for the Wii U's Nintendo eShop introduced Luigi as the playable character as well as a \"Operation L\" game mode in which all capsules assume the shape", "Mario Kart Arcade GP in this game and this time, it is voiced by Rica Matsumoto, who also voices Ash Ketchum in the Japanese version of the \"Pokémon\" anime. Mario Kart Arcade GP VR is the fourth \"Mario Kart Arcade GP\" title, which was released in Japanese arcades on July 14, 2017. Unlike prior Mario Kart games, Mario Kart Arcade GP VR is played through use of a virtual reality headset and in first person. The game was developed on a HTC Vive Microsoft Windows arcade system. Similar to the prior arcade Mario Kart games, the game is controlled via a steering wheel and", "Mario Kart Arcade GP acceleration and brake pedals. In addition, items are thrown by making hand movements, which the game registers by an attachment to the player's wrist. For example, to throw a Green Shell, one must make a throwing motion with their open palm. Also, instead of using Item Boxes, the game uses red, yellow, and green balloons to store items. Gliders are also present, and are used similarly to Mario Kart Arcade GP DX. Mario Kart Arcade GP The initial game, \"Mario Kart Arcade GP\", is noted for being the first \"Mario Kart\" to feature playable crossover characters: Namco's Pac-Man, Ms. Pac-Man,", "Punch-Out!! (arcade game) released in 1994. It was far more faithful to the arcade stand-up gameplay; however, it was not a direct port either. On September 13, 2017, Nintendo announced during a Nintendo Direct that they would be re-releasing some of their classic arcade games on the Nintendo Switch, and that \"Punch-Out!!\" would be one of the several games that would be re-released. It was released on March 30, 2018. Punch-Out!! (arcade game) The arcade game introduced recurring video games characters such as Glass Joe, Piston Hurricane, Bald Bull, and Mr. Sandman. It was the debut project at Nintendo for composer Koji Kondo,", "Mario Kart Mario Kart There have been six \"Mario Kart\" games released for home consoles, three portable games, and four Namco co-developed arcade games, for a total of thirteen. The latest game in the main series, \"Mario Kart 8 Deluxe\", was released on Nintendo Switch in April 2017. The series has sold over 100 million copies worldwide to date. The first game in the \"Mario Kart\" series is \"Super Mario Kart\" which was released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1992. The development of the first game was overseen by Shigeru Miyamoto, the Japanese video game designer who created the original", "Nintendo arcade machines toys and trading card games before their arcade games in the mid-1970s. Most of their later releases between 1973 and 1978 were light gun games based on shooting or avoiding things. The cabinets used pre-recorded images and film projection rather than video inside. The company's first electronic video game was an adaptation of the board game \"Reversi\", released in 1978. Many of Nintendo's first coin-operated, electronic arcade games were slight variations on existing games, known as knockoffs or clones. Later in 1978, Nintendo released a \"Breakout\" clone, based on the popular arcade game. The company's most famous arcade games would", "Super Mario Bros. 2 is that of an enhanced \"Super Mario Bros.\", with the same basic game format but adding more complex level designs, character features, and weather features. Some of the advanced level content had been culled from \"Vs. Super Mario Bros\", a coin-operated arcade version of the original \"Super Mario Bros.\" for NES. All of these factors combined to yield an incremental game design with significantly higher difficulty. Also that year, the young subsidiary Nintendo of America was just completing its test marketing of, and beginning its nationwide launch of, the new Nintendo Entertainment System and its flagship game, \"Super Mario Bros.\"", "Rosalina (Mario) until 2011's \"Mario Kart 7\", in which she was voiced by Kerri Kane. Laura Faye Smith has provided the character's voice in all subsequent appearances, with the exception of \"Mario Golf: World Tour\", \"Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U\", \"Mario Kart Arcade GP DX\", part of \"Mario Sports Superstars\" and \"Mario Tennis Aces\", all of which still use Kerri Kane's work with Nintendo for Rosalina. Rosalina has received mostly positive reception. Chris Greenhough of Joystiq claimed that \"Super Mario Galaxy\" was the first \"Mario\" game to have an engaging story, and cited Rosalina as an example, saying", "Mario (franchise) released for home consoles, 3 portable games, and 3 Namco co-developed arcade spin-off games, for a total of 11. As the series has progressed, each new game has introduced new elements in order to keep the gameplay fresh such as new courses, new items, and new playable characters. In 1996 and 1997, \"Mario Kart 64\" for the Nintendo 64 introduced 4-player racing and 3D graphics. In 2001, \"\" for the Game Boy Advance introduced the ability to unlock retro tracks from previous installments. In 2003, \"\" for the GameCube introduced co-operative LAN multiplayer and two-player karts. In 2005, \"Mario Kart", "Dr. Mario was subsequently released in Japan in the compilation game \"Nintendo Puzzle Collection\" on the GameCube. \"Dr. Mario Online Rx\", released in 2008 on WiiWare, offers online multiplayer via Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection. \"Dr. Mario Express\", released in 2009 for the Nintendo DSi, does not support multiplayer gameplay. \"Dr. Luigi\", released in 2013, features Luigi as a playable character and has all the modes in \"Dr. Mario Online Rx\", as well as a new mode with L-shaped capsules. The latest installment, \"\", was released in 2015 and introduced power-ups to the series. The character of Dr. Mario appears as an unlockable playable", "Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels game as a precursor to the franchise's subculture in which fans create and share nearly impossible levels. This sequel gave Luigi his first character traits and introduced the poison mushroom item, which would be used throughout the \"Mario\" franchise. \"The Lost Levels\" was the most popular game on the Disk System, for which it sold about 2.5 million copies. It is remembered among the most difficult games by Nintendo and in the video game medium, and among the least important games in the \"Mario\" series. \"The Lost Levels\" is a side-scrolling platform game similar in style and gameplay to the", "Mario Kart Arcade GP and 150cc difficulty modes, as well as new items. During the races, there is color commentary, which can be toggled on or off at any time prior to starting the race. In the Japanese version of the game, this is done by the prominent Japanese voice actor and on-screen personality Kōichi Yamadera. All eleven characters from \"Mario Kart Arcade GP\" return, alongside new characters Waluigi from the \"Mario\" series and Mametchi from the \"Tamagotchi\" series. Mario Kart Arcade GP DX is the third \"Mario Kart Arcade GP\" title, which was released in Japanese arcades in July 25, 2013, and in", "Super Mario Kart \"Grand Theft Auto IV\". \"Mario Kart 7\" for the Nintendo 3DS was released in 2011, which features racing on land, sea, and air. Also in \"Mario Kart 7\" is the ability to customize your kart and to race in first-person mode. Three \"Mario Kart\" arcade games have also been released, \"Mario Kart Arcade GP\" in 2005, \"Mario Kart Arcade GP 2\" in 2007, and \"Mario Kart Arcade GP DX\" in 2013. All of them were developed jointly by Nintendo and Namco and feature classic Namco characters including Pac-Man and Blinky. The most recent entry in the series is \"Mario Kart", "Mario Golf (video game) saved onto the Game Boy Color version of the game. After playing a round with a GBC character, that character will earn experience points. Transfer Pak functionality is not included in the Virtual Console version. The Nintendo 64 version received \"universal acclaim\", according to review aggregator website Metacritic. In Japan, \"Famitsu\" gave both console versions of the game a score of 30/40. A sequel to this game, \"\", was released for the Nintendo GameCube in 2003. Mario Golf (video game) A portable version of this game for Game Boy Color (known as Mario Golf GB (マリオゴルフＧＢ) in Japan) was also", "Dr. Mario to two Nintendo arcade systems in 1990: the Nintendo Vs. System (under the title \"Vs. Dr. Mario\") and the PlayChoice-10. An enhanced remake of \"Dr. Mario\" was paired with \"Tetris\" in the Super Nintendo Entertainment System compilation game \"Tetris & Dr. Mario\", released on 30 December 1994. This version of \"Dr. Mario\" was re-released in Japan on 30 March 1997, as a downloadable title for the Super Famicom's Satellaview peripheral, under the name . It was re-released again in Japan as a downloadable game for the Super Famicom's and Game Boy's Nintendo Power cartridges. The NES version was ported twice", "Mario Bros. II game. Mario Bros. II Mario Bros. II is a platform game for Commodore 64. It is unrelated to Nintendo and their \"Super Mario Bros. 2\" and \"\" games. It is presented as an amateur fan sequel to the Game & Watch game \"Mario Bros.\" \"Mario Bros. II\" is inspired by the Game & Watch title \"Mario Bros.\", as envisioned for Commodore 64 supposedly as a sequel to the arcade version. Like the arcade \"Mario Bros.\", the game consists of a single screen for gameplay. The player simultaneously controls both Mario and Luigi as they work in a factory creating cakes", "Mario Bros. II Mario Bros. II Mario Bros. II is a platform game for Commodore 64. It is unrelated to Nintendo and their \"Super Mario Bros. 2\" and \"\" games. It is presented as an amateur fan sequel to the Game & Watch game \"Mario Bros.\" \"Mario Bros. II\" is inspired by the Game & Watch title \"Mario Bros.\", as envisioned for Commodore 64 supposedly as a sequel to the arcade version. Like the arcade \"Mario Bros.\", the game consists of a single screen for gameplay. The player simultaneously controls both Mario and Luigi as they work in a factory creating cakes for", "Super Mario Bros. Switch via the Arcade Archives collection on December 22, 2017. Chris Kohler of Kotaku called the game \"The meanest trick Nintendo ever played\", referring to the several level changes as differences which made it difficult for people who had mastered the NES game. A remade version of \"Super Mario Bros.\" was included as a part of \"Super Mario All-Stars\", a compilation game released in 1993 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, alongside remakes of several of the other \"Super Mario\" games released for the NES. The version of \"Super Mario Bros.\" included in this compilation has improved graphics and sound", "Mario Bros. Mario 3D World\" contains Luigi Bros, a version of \"Mario Bros.\" starring Luigi. This game will be unlocked if the Wii U console contains save data from \"New Super Luigi U\" or the player completes all normal worlds. On September 27, 2017 the original arcade version of Mario Bros. was released for the Nintendo Switch as part of the Arcade Archives series of emulated arcade machine games. \"Mario Bros.\" was only modestly successful in Japanese arcades. The arcade cabinets have since become mildly rare. To date in Japan, the NES version of \"Mario Bros.\" has sold more than 1.63 million", "Punch-Out!! (arcade game) games of all time. They also listed it as the best Game of the Year for the year 1984. In \"Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS / Wii U\", series protagonist Little Mac appears as a playable fighter. The character features a set of wireframe alternate costumes based on his appearance from the original arcade games. Little Mac also features a special mechanic based on the KO gauge from the arcade titles, which, once full, can usually let him instantly KO an opponent with a powerful uppercut. During the same year, an arcade sequel to \"Punch-Out!!\" titled \"Super Punch-Out!!\" was", "Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 is a platform game developed by Nintendo for the Game Boy in 1994. It is the first video game to feature Wario as both a playable character and the main character, as well as the first appearance of Captain Syrup and her Brown Sugar Pirates, recurring villains in the \"Wario Land\" series. The game was later released for the Nintendo 3DS, on which it gained positive reviews from critics. \"Wario Land\" features gameplay markedly different from the previous two games in the \"Super Mario Land\" series. The game", "New Super Mario Bros. Wii by players can get coins). After the credits, Bowser Jr. and the Koopalings help Bowser out of his unstable castle, which falls over and traps them. \"New Super Mario Bros. Wii\" was created out of a desire to recreate the \"Super Mario\" series' single-player gameplay experience for multiple players. Shigeru Miyamoto, the head game developer at Nintendo, had been interested in creating a \"Super Mario\" game with multiplayer features since the series' beginnings with the 1983 arcade game, \"Mario Bros.\" Attempts to integrate cooperative multiplayer into \"Super Mario 64\", the first 3D game in the series, ultimately failed due to", "Punch-Out!! (arcade game) becoming a champion. In 1990, when the contract licensing the use of Tyson's name in the console version expired, Nintendo replaced Tyson with an original character named Mr. Dream, re-releasing it as \"Punch-Out!!\" (a.k.a. \"Punch-Out!! featuring Mr. Dream\"). Like \"Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!!\", \"Punch-Out!! featuring Mr. Dream\" bore no further resemblance to the arcade version. During its release, the Game & Watch game called \"Boxing\" was re-released as \"Punch-Out!!\", which used the front box art of the Mr. Dream version as its package art. Sometimes it was released with different cover art. A Super Nintendo Entertainment System title, \"Super Punch-Out!!\" was", "Super Mario Bros. original version of \"Super Mario Bros\", released through Nintendo's NES-based arcade cabinet, the Nintendo Vs. Unisystem (and its variant, Nintendo Vs. Dualsystem). Several of the game's levels are changed, containing narrower platforms, more dangerous enemies, and omitting several hidden secrets such as 1-ups, making the game more difficult than the original \"Super Mario Bros.\" Entirely new stages are also present, several of which went on to be featured in the game's Japanese sequel, \"\" The game was featured in an official contest during the 1986 ACME convention in Chicago. An emulated version of the title was released for the Nintendo", "Mario Golf (video game) a Boo), rain, characters' individual attributes, spin on the ball, and relief of the land. There is a variety of gameplay modes, including speed golf, ring shot, mini golf and skins match. Every character in the game has recorded voice samples which can be used to comment on opponent's shots. This game features Transfer Pak compatibility with the Game Boy Color version of \"Mario Golf\". Players are able to upload characters and data found on the Game Boy version to the Nintendo 64 version. These characters are then playable in full 3D. Additionally, data from the Nintendo 64 version is", "Batman Forever: The Arcade Game single villain. Special weapons, such as Batarangs, can be found throughout the levels. It is sectioned off into stages, and arranged with waves of enemies before ending with a boss. The game has a two-player mode, which allows both players to use the same character if so desired. Acclaim first demonstrated the game at the 1996 American Coin Machine Exposition. \"Batman Forever: The Arcade Game\" was Acclaim Entertainment's first arcade game. It was built on Sega's \"Titan\" technology, the hardware which formed the foundation for the Sega 32X and Sega Saturn. Prior to the release of the arcade and home", "Ninja Gaiden (arcade game) challenge.\" \"C+VG\" highlighted the music and sound effects. \"Ninja Ryukenden\", the Japanese version, being the later version of the game, has the following differences from the other versions: This game has been ported to the Nintendo Wii as a downloadable Virtual Console Arcade game. However this contains several differences. Ninja Gaiden (arcade game) Ninja Gaiden, later released in Europe as Shadow Warriors, is a 1988 side-scrolling beat-'em-up originally released by Tecmo as a coin-operated arcade video game. It was first released in North America, and Europe in and in Japan in . The \"Ninja Gaiden\" arcade game was produced and", "Super Mario Bros. Super Mario Bros. Super Mario Bros. is a platform video game developed and published by Nintendo. The successor to the 1983 arcade game, \"Mario Bros.\", it was released in Japan in 1985 for the Famicom, and in North America and Europe for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in 1985 and 1987 respectively. Players control Mario, or his brother Luigi in the multiplayer mode, as they travel the Mushroom Kingdom to rescue Princess Toadstool from the antagonist, Bowser. They must traverse side-scrolling stages while avoiding hazards such as enemies and pits with the aid of power-ups such as the Super Mushroom,", "Sonic the Hedgehog (1991 video game) In 1990, Sega ordered its in-house development studio to develop a game featuring a mascot for the company. This was a position already held by the character Alex Kidd, but he was considered too similar to Nintendo's mascot Mario and deemed unsatisfactory; Sega president Hayao Nakayama wanted a character as iconic as Mickey Mouse. Sega had competition with Nintendo, who was dominant at the time (particularly after the release of the successful \"Super Mario Bros. 3\"), and Sega wanted a foothold in the industry. Although the company had some limited success with Genesis ports of its arcade games, it knew", "Arcade game arcade games. In 1972, Sega released an electro-mechanical game called \"Killer Shark\", a first-person light-gun shooter known for appearing in the 1975 film \"Jaws\". In 1974, Nintendo released \"Wild Gunman\", a light-gun shooter that used full-motion video-projection from 16 mm film to display live-action cowboy opponents on the screen. One of the last successful electro-mechanical arcade games was \"F-1\", a racing game developed by Namco and distributed by Atari in 1976; this game appeared in the films \"Dawn of the Dead\" (1978) and \"Midnight Madness\" (1980), as did Sega's \"Jet Rocket\" in the latter film. The 1978 video game \"Space", "Ninja Gaiden (arcade game) Ninja Gaiden (arcade game) Ninja Gaiden, later released in Europe as Shadow Warriors, is a 1988 side-scrolling beat-'em-up originally released by Tecmo as a coin-operated arcade video game. It was first released in North America, and Europe in and in Japan in . The \"Ninja Gaiden\" arcade game was produced and released almost simultaneously with its home console counterpart for the Nintendo Entertainment System, although they are different games with only a few similarities. The designer of the arcade game is only credited as \"Strong Shima\", but Masato Kato, who worked on the NES version, identified him as one \"Mr.", "Mario (franchise) games for the \"Game & Watch\" console. Eleven were released between 1982 and 1994. Nintendo also licensed the release of six LCD games for Nelsonic's Game Watch line between 1989 and 1994. Many remakes of Game & Watch games have changed the protagonist from a generic Mr. Game & Watch character to Mario. Mario then became the star of his own side scrolling platform game 1985, titled \"Super Mario Bros.\", which was the pack-in game included with the Nintendo Entertainment System console. It was also later sold in a package with Duck Hunt. In Japan, a game titled \"\" was", "Super Mario Based on existing games, several gameplay mechanics were introduced for the game, with existing ones also available to be used together in new ways. A Nintendo 3DS version of the game called \"Super Mario Maker for Nintendo 3DS\", was released in December 2016. It features a few new pre-installed levels, but no online level sharing. \"Super Mario Run\" is a side-scrolling and auto-scrolling video game released in December 2016 for the iOS platform and March 2017 for Android. It is the first \"Mario\" game to be developed for mobile devices, and features simplified controls playable with only one hand. Released", "History of Nintendo In 1987, \"The Legend of Zelda\" was released to much critical acclaim. In 1988, Nintendo of America unveiled \"Nintendo Power\", a monthly news and strategy magazine from Nintendo that served to advertise new games. The first issue published was the July/August edition, which spotlighted the NES game \"Super Mario Bros. 2\". \"Nintendo Power\" has since ceased publication with its December 2012 edition. In 1989, Nintendo (which had seen a large amount of success from the Game & Watch) released the Game Boy (both created by Gunpei Yokoi), along with the accompanying game \"Tetris\". Due to the price, the game and", "Nintendo video game consoles processor and a custom Zilog Z80 central processing unit. It was made to compete with the WonderSwan Color and the Neo Geo Pocket. Its best selling game was \"Pokémon Gold\" and \"Silver\" series. In 2001, Nintendo introduced the Game Boy Advance, the first major technological upgrade to the Game Boy line. Nintendo later released two revised models of the Game Boy Advance, the Game Boy Advance SP and the Game Boy Micro. The Game Boy Advance SP features a smaller clamshell design, and introduced a built-in screen light and rechargeable battery which became standard features for future Nintendo handhelds. The", "Super Mario World wanted Mario to have a dinosaur companion ever since \"Super Mario Bros.\", but Nintendo engineers could not add such a character into the game due to the limitations of the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). The inspiration for Yoshi can be traced back even further; Miyamoto designed a green dragon for the 1984 game \"Devil World\" which shared many similarities with Yoshi. During the development of \"Super Mario Bros. 3\", Miyamoto had a number of sketches around his desk, including an image of Mario riding a horse. As development of \"Super Mario World\" progressed, the team opted to set the game", "Elvira: The Arcade Game Elvira: The Arcade Game Elvira: The Arcade Game is a platform side-scrolling video game released in 1991 for the Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64 and PC by Flair Software. The game is loosely based upon the film \"Elvira, Mistress of the Dark\", released in 1988, and she features as the playable character. Despite its name, the game was \"not\" based on an arcade game nor ever released in arcades. The game features two worlds: the Underworld of Fire and the Arctic Earth, which must be unlocked in order to reach the third, the Castle of Transylvania. According to the ghost", "Super Mario 64 DS in the original game. Graphical changes include a higher polygon count for character models and the lack of texture filtering. Originally titled \"\"Super Mario 64 ×4\"\", it was first shown as a multiplayer demonstration at the 2004 E3 before the Nintendo DS was released. A few months later, Nintendo announced an actual game—along with many others—was in development. At the Nintendo DS conference on October 7, 2004, the game was on demonstration again and new information was revealed; the name was changed to \"Super Mario 64 DS\" and four different characters (Mario, Luigi, Yoshi, and Wario) would be used in", "Arcade game focus on an individual's performance, rather than the game's content, as the primary form of novelty. Examples of today's popular genres are rhythm games such as \"Dance Dance Revolution\" (1998) and \"DrumMania\" (1999), and rail shooters such as \"Virtua Cop\" (1994), \"Time Crisis\" (1995) and \"House of the Dead\" (1996). In the Western world, the arcade video game industry still exists, but in a greatly reduced form. Video arcade game hardware is often based on home game consoles to reduce development costs; there are video arcade versions of Dreamcast (NAOMI, Atomiswave), PlayStation 2 (System 246), Nintendo GameCube (Triforce), and Microsoft", "Toad (Nintendo) in the Japanese sattellaview game \"Mario Excite Bike\". Toad makes a playable appearance in the Nintendo Wii game \"Mario Sports Mix\", and is classified as a speedy character in this game. Toad appeared in the animated series \"The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!\" produced by DIC Entertainment in 1989. Although he usually tagged along with Mario and Luigi in cases where King Koopa had kidnapped Princess Peach, he sometimes got captured as well. Toad's role in the show was to be the sidekick to the Mario Bros. (as Luigi was a major character rather than a sidekick). He remained on", "Mario Party 5 is a label for Nintendo titles that had sold more than one million copies to be sold at a bargain price. \"Super Mario Fushigi no Korokoro Party\" \"Super Mario: The Mysterious Rolling Party\" is an arcade version of \"Mario Party 5\" released exclusively in Japan in 2004. It was developed by Capcom instead of Hudson Soft. \"Mario Party 5\" received \"average\" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. \"Game Informer\"s Andrew Reiner cited the example of coin redistribution in the game, which meant that \"You could win every minigame and collect the most coins but still end up in", "Nintendo video game consoles including its lower cost and notable early exclusives such as \"Super Mario 3D World\". Sales steadily increased following the release of several notable first-party exclusives, including new entries in the \"Mario Kart\" and \"Super Smash Bros.\" franchises, and the new franchise \"Splatoon\". In January 2017, a Nintendo spokesperson stated that production of the console had ended, with just 13.56 million units sold. The Nintendo Switch was released on March 3, 2017 and is Nintendo's second entry in the eighth generation of home video game consoles. The system was code-named \"Nintendo NX\" prior to its official announcement. It is a hybrid", "Rosalina (Mario) the \"Galaxy\" games, using it as both an attack and a second jump. When asked why Nintendo chose Rosalina over other \"Mario\" characters, \"3D World\" director Kenta Motokura responded, \"I was thinking about what would be pleasing after the ending and wanted to bring in another female character in addition to Princess Peach. Rosalina has a following among the \"Super Mario Galaxy\" fanbase, and she's appeared in \"Mario Kart\" recently, so I think she's well known.\" Rosalina appears in \"Mario Kart Wii\", \"Mario Kart 7\", \"Mario Kart 8\", \"Mario Kart 8 Deluxe\" and \"Mario Kart Arcade GP DX\" as an", "Nintendo video game consoles The Nintendo Switch Pro Controller is a traditional style controller much like the one of the Gamecube. The console's reveal trailer premiered on October 20, 2016 and showcased the hybrid functionality of the system as well as footage from \"\" and from potential new titles in the \"Super Mario\", \"Mario Kart\", and \"Splatoon\" franchises. These unknown games were later announced to be \"Super Mario Odyssey\", \"Mario Kart 8 Deluxe\", and \"Splatoon 2\" respectively. The Nintendo Switch has sold 17.79 million units as of March 31, 2018. The Game & Watch series were handheld electronic games made by Nintendo and created", "Nintendo Badge Arcade Arcade Bunny, can also be unlocked by purchasing enough plays during certain periods. Once per day, players can use the Practice Catcher to practice catching dummy badges. Players earn a free bonus play for every ten dummy badges they collect, plus additional plays should they uncover a bonus badge. Additional plays may also be offered to the player through occasional events. In theory, it is possible to have up to seven free plays in a single day, albeit chances of this happening are very slim. All activities require a constant online connection. Nintendo Badge Arcade Nintendo Badge Arcade, known in", "Toad (Nintendo) Goombas by playing his harmonica. As a character who appears frequently in the series, Toad is considered to be one of the major \"Mario\" franchise characters. He has appeared in much of the \"Mario\" merchandise in products ranging from toys to plushies and keychains, and is featured in Nintendo's board games such as being on the protagonist side in a \"Mario\" themed chess set and being a purchasable character in a Nintendo-themed monopoly game. In \"\", Toad's hat is available after getting 3000 points in Tom Nook's Point Tracking system. The American \"Club Nintendo\" website currently offers a special reward", "Mario Bros. Mario Bros. In the game, Mario is portrayed as an Italian-American plumber who, along with his brother Luigi, has to defeat creatures that have been coming from the sewers. The gameplay focuses on Mario and Luigi exterminating the creatures by flipping them on their backs and kicking them away. The original versions of \"Mario Bros.\"—the arcade version and the Family Computer/Nintendo Entertainment System (FC/NES) version—were received positively by critics. \"Mario Bros.\" features two plumbers, Mario and Luigi, having to investigate the sewers of New York after strange creatures have been appearing down there. The objective of the game is to", "Mario Hoops 3-on-3 copies worldwide. Mario Hoops 3-on-3 Mario Hoops 3-on-3, known in Europe as Mario Slam Basketball and in Japan as , is a sports game developed by Square Enix and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in 2006. The game is the first in which \"Mario\" and \"Final Fantasy\" characters appear together as playable characters, and the second \"Mario\" game developed by Square Enix, the first one being \"Super Mario RPG\". It is the first \"Mario\" basketball game ever to be released, although characters from the series have appeared in the Nintendo GameCube version of \"NBA Street V3\". The game", "Mario Hoops 3-on-3 Mario Hoops 3-on-3 Mario Hoops 3-on-3, known in Europe as Mario Slam Basketball and in Japan as , is a sports game developed by Square Enix and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in 2006. The game is the first in which \"Mario\" and \"Final Fantasy\" characters appear together as playable characters, and the second \"Mario\" game developed by Square Enix, the first one being \"Super Mario RPG\". It is the first \"Mario\" basketball game ever to be released, although characters from the series have appeared in the Nintendo GameCube version of \"NBA Street V3\". The game was released", "Super Mario World by many as a faster and \"cooler\" alternative to Mario. After the game's release, Miyamoto admitted publicly he felt it was incomplete and development was rushed toward the end. \"Super Mario World\" was released on 21 November 1990 in Japan. It was one of two launch games for the SNES in Japan, along with \"F-Zero\". The game was released in North America on August 1991. Nintendo later issued a version of \"Super Mario World\" for arcade cabinets. The game was re-released in a special version of \"Super Mario All-Stars, Super Mario All-Stars + Super Mario World\", as a pack-in game", "Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 transformation appears as a billboard on the Wario Shipyard racetrack. Additionally, the music track of this course is based on the main theme of \"Wario Land\". Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3 is a platform game developed by Nintendo for the Game Boy in 1994. It is the first video game to feature Wario as both a playable character and the main character, as well as the first appearance of Captain Syrup and her Brown Sugar Pirates, recurring villains in the \"Wario Land\" series. The game was later released for the Nintendo 3DS, on", "Mario game appearances, Mario has made guest appearances in non-\"Mario\" games, such as \"Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!!\", where Mario is a referee. Mario appears as a playable character in \"NBA Street V3\" and \"SSX on Tour\". He makes countless cameo appearances in many forms in many games, such as portraits and statues in \"\", \"\", and \"\". The first appearance of Mario in other media than games was \"Saturday Supercade\", an animated television series produced by Ruby-Spears Productions in 1983. Each episode was composed of several shorter segments featuring video game characters from the golden age of video arcade games. Mario (voiced", "Mario (franchise) DS introduced Mario, Luigi and the others inside of Bowser's body. In 2013, \"\" for the 3DS introduced Dreamy Luigi, where Luigi sleeps in the Dream World in celebrating the Year of Luigi. In 2015, \"Paper Jam\" also for the 3DS introduced a crossover game, where Luigi knocks over a book and unleashed the paper characters of the \"Paper Mario\" world. In 1999, the Hudson game \"Mario Party\" was released for the Nintendo 64. Following this, 10 numbered sequels have since been released, along with \"Mario Party Advance\", \"DS\", \"\", \"\" and \"\". \"Mario Party\" is a multiplayer party game", "Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels the franchise and a reminder of imbalanced gameplay in Nintendo's history. Luigi received his first distinctive character traits in \"The Lost Levels\": less ground friction, and the ability to jump farther. \"IGN\" considered this change to be the game's most significant, though the controls remained \"cramped\" and \"crippled\" with either character. The game's poison mushroom item, with its character-impairing effects, became a staple of the \"Mario\" franchise. Some of the \"Lost Levels\" appeared in a 1986 promotional release of \"Super Mario Bros.\", in which Nintendo modified in-game assets to fit themes from the Japanese radio show \"All Night Nippon\". Journalists", "Super Mario Party and Diddy Kong, who had only previously appeared as a playable character in handheld \"Mario Party\" games; Pom Pom, Goomba and Monty Mole, none of whom has previously been a playable character in \"Mario Party\", although this is the former's debut in the series, and the latter two have appeared as NPCs throughout the series. \"Super Mario Party\" was developed by NDcube. Nintendo revealed \"Super Mario Party\" on 12 June 2018 during their Electronic Entertainment Expo 2018 Nintendo Direct presentation, where they also announced that the game would release on 5 October 2018 for the Nintendo Switch. In August 2018,", "Arcade game bonus surfaces on the playing field, and used mechanical instead of electronic scoring-readouts. By around 1977 most pinball machines in production switched to using solid-state electronics both for operation and for scoring. In 1966 Sega introduced an electro-mechanical game called \"Periscope\" - an early submarine simulator and light gun shooter which used lights and plastic waves to simulate sinking ships from a submarine. It became an instant success in Japan, Europe, and North America, where it was the first arcade game to cost a quarter per play, which would remain the standard price for arcade games for many years to", "Nintendo introduced an early iteration of Mario, then known in Japan as Jumpman, the eventual company mascot. In 1979, Gunpei Yokoi conceived the idea of a handheld video game, while observing a fellow bullet train commuter who passed the time by interacting idly with a portable LCD calculator, which gave birth to \"Game & Watch\". In 1980, Nintendo launched \"Game & Watch\"—a handheld video game series developed by Yokoi. These systems do not contain interchangeable cartridges and thus the hardware was tied to the game. The first Game & Watch game, \"Ball\", was distributed worldwide. The modern \"cross\" D-pad design was", "Mario in \"New Super Mario Bros. U\". Mario is one of the playable characters in \"Super Mario 3D World\", where he has average running speed and jump height compared to other characters. Mario is the protagonist of the Nintendo Switch game \"Super Mario Odyssey\", where the character Cappy replaces Mario's traditional hat, allowing Mario to throw it like a long-range weapon, and \"capture\" enemies to gain their abilities. \"Mario\" games of other genres include various \"Game & Watch\" games; \"Mario Pinball Land\", a pinball game for the Game Boy Advance; various educational games; and the \"Dr. Mario\" puzzle video game, (with", "Mario \"Dr. Mario\" itself first released in 1990). In these games, Dr. Mario throws vitamins that the player must align to destroy the viruses that populate the playing field. 1996's \"Super Mario RPG\" is the first \"Mario\" role-playing game; ten games have followed, including five in the \"Paper Mario\" series (\"Paper Mario\" for the Nintendo 64, \"\" for the GameCube, \"Super Paper Mario\" for the Wii, \"\" for the Nintendo 3DS, and \"\" for the Wii U) and six in the \"Mario & Luigi\" series (\"\" for the Game Boy Advance, \"\" and \"\" for the Nintendo DS, \"\", \"\", and", "Nintendo 64 landing computers. Atari had already claimed to have made the first 64-bit game console with their Atari Jaguar, but the Jaguar only uses a general 64-bit architecture in conjunction with two 32-bit RISC processors and a 16/32-bit Motorola 68000. Later in Q2 1994, Nintendo signed a licensing agreement with Midway's parent company which enabled Midway to develop and market arcade games and formed a joint venture company called \"Williams/Nintendo\" to market Nintendo-exclusive home conversions of these games. The result is two arcade games, \"Killer Instinct\" and \"Cruis'n USA\", which boasted their upcoming debut on the arcade branch of the Nintendo", "Mario Tennis Wii Virtual Console in 2010 and on the Wii U Virtual Console in 2015. The game's success led to four sequels: \"Mario Power Tennis\" released for the GameCube in 2004, \"Mario Tennis Open\" released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2012, \"\" released for the Wii U in 2015 and \"Mario Tennis Aces\" which was released for the Nintendo Switch in 2018. Marking the sixth \"Mario\" game for the Nintendo 64, \"Mario Tennis\" brings eleven new characters to the \"Mario Tennis\" franchise, including Waluigi (who made his first appearance in the \"Mario\" series overall in this game), Princess Daisy, Wario, Shy", "Mario Kart: Double Dash game placed 63rd in Official Nintendo Magazine's 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time. Mario Kart: Double Dash Similar to previous titles, \"Double Dash!!\" challenges \"Mario\" series player characters to race against each other on \"Mario\"-themed tracks. The game introduced a number of new gameplay features, such as supporting co-op gameplay with two riders per kart. One player drives the kart, and the other uses items. Players can switch at any time. \"Double Dash!!\" is the only game in the Mario Kart series to allow cooperative gameplay so far. \"Double Dash!!\" supports LAN play using the Nintendo GameCube Broadband Adapter,", "Ninja Gaiden (arcade game) Iijima\". Home versions of the \"Ninja Gaiden\" arcade game were released in Europe under the \"Shadow Warriors\" title in by Ocean Software for five different computer platforms (Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, and Amstrad CPC) and in North America for IBM PC by Hi-Tech Expressions. An Atari Lynx version was also released. The arcade version of \"Ninja Gaiden\" is also included as a hidden bonus game in \"Ninja Gaiden Black\" for the Xbox in . The arcade game was published as a Virtual Console game for the Nintendo Wii in 2009. The arcade version of \"Ninja Gaiden\" is", "Pac-Man (character) which was created without Namco's consent. Pac-Man appears in \"Street Fighter X Tekken\" as a playable guest fighter, riding a giant Mokujin robot, and in \"Everybody's Golf 6\" as a playable guest golfer (through DLC). Pac-Man has also appeared in all three \"Mario Kart Arcade GP\" installments as a playable racer along with Ms. Pac-Man. Pac-Man is also a playable character in \"Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS\" and \"Wii U\", co-developed by Sora Ltd. and Bandai Namco Games. Sporting his classic design used in artwork for the original game and in the \"Pac-Man World\" trilogy, Pac-Man's moveset is based", "Mario Party and collecting minigames and \"Gaddgets\" to play in other modes. \"Mario Party DS\" was released in 2007 for the Nintendo DS. It was the first and only \"Mario Party\" game for the Nintendo DS. It was also the last game in the series overall to be developed by Hudson Soft. It featured 73 minigames, many of which took use of the Nintendo DS's touchscreen, microphone, and unique dual screen capabilities, in addition to traditional-style minigames using the D-pad and buttons. The game features Mario, Luigi, Peach, Daisy, Wario, Waluigi, Yoshi, and Toad as playable characters. \"Mario Party DS\" has a", "Super Mario World Super Mario World Super Mario World is a 1990 side-scrolling platform game developed and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES). The story follows Mario's quest to save Princess Toadstool and Dinosaur Land from the series antagonist Bowser and his children, the Koopalings. The gameplay is similar to that of earlier \"Super Mario\" games: Players control Mario or his brother Luigi through a series of levels in which the goal is to reach the flagpole at the end. \"Super Mario World\" introduced Yoshi, a dinosaur who can eat enemies and gain abilities by eating the shells of", "Mario Games\" while the latter was released for the Nintendo 3DS in February 2012, which is based on the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. The fourth edition of the \"Mario & Sonic\" series for the Wii U is called \"Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games\", which is based on the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. A fifth title, \"Mario & Sonic at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games\", which is based on the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, was released in 2016 for the Nintendo 3DS, Wii U and Arcade. Apart from his platformer and spin-off", "Midway's Greatest Arcade Hits the Nintendo 64 version, and a 54.50% of the Game Boy Advance version from video game aggregator GameRankings. The first volume of the Dreamcast version, the Game Boy Advance version, and the Nintendo 64 was criticized for poor sound and visual emulation, especially the Game Boy Advance version, which has been developed by Pocket Games, rather than Digital Eclipse (the developer for the console titles), which has missing voice samples and \"shrunk\" visuals in \"Sinistar\", glitchy collision detection in \"Joust\" and intense slowdown in \"Defender\". Midway's Greatest Arcade Hits Midway's Greatest Arcade Hits is an arcade game compilation released for", "Nintendo 64 Game Pak Nintendo 64 Game Pak Nintendo 64 Game Paks (NUS-006) are ROM cartridges that store game data for the Nintendo 64. Their sizes vary from 4 MiB (32 Mbit, such as \"Automobili Lamborghini\" and \"Dr. Mario 64\") to 64 MiB (512 Mbit, such as \"Resident Evil 2\" and \"Conker's Bad Fur Day\"). The Game Pak's design tradeoffs were intended to achieve maximal system speed and minimal system cost, with a lesser storage space and a higher unit cost per game. Launched in 1996, the Nintendo 64 was the latest major home console to use a cartridge as its primary storage format", "Nintendo Selects to Game Boy Advance games, which sell for $19.99 in the United States. The Player's Choice label was renamed Nintendo Selects on May 15, 2011. The first Wii games added were \"\", \"\", \"Mario Super Sluggers\" and \"Wii Sports\". The New Play Control! version of \"Pikmin 2\" debuted in North America as a Nintendo Selects title, alongside New Play Control! \"Mario Power Tennis\". On February 28, 2013, Nintendo announced that the UK would receive two new Nintendo Selects games: Mario Party 8 and Wii Sports Resort. These launches coincided with the Wii Mini launch, on March 22, 2013. On October", "Nintendo 64 Game Pak Jones and the Infernal Machine\" for personal computers equipped with hard drives, Eggebrecht significantly attributed the technologically and aesthetically superior nature of Factor 5's Nintendo 64 port, to his programmers' aggressive utilization of the cartridge format. Nintendo 64 Game Pak Nintendo 64 Game Paks (NUS-006) are ROM cartridges that store game data for the Nintendo 64. Their sizes vary from 4 MiB (32 Mbit, such as \"Automobili Lamborghini\" and \"Dr. Mario 64\") to 64 MiB (512 Mbit, such as \"Resident Evil 2\" and \"Conker's Bad Fur Day\"). The Game Pak's design tradeoffs were intended to achieve maximal system speed and", "Super Mario World Tezuka, while Shigeru Miyamoto, the creator of both \"Super Mario\" and \"The Legend of Zelda\", served as producer. Shigefumi Hino took the role of graphics designer. Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development handled development with a team of ten people including three main programmers and a character designer, most of whom had worked on \"Super Mario Bros\". In a retrospective interview, the core team said that Miyamoto wielded the most authority during development. \"Super Mario World\" was the first \"Mario\" game series developed for the then-upcoming Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES). As such, the team anticipated some difficulty in working with", "Mario Party (video game) scores of 8.5, 8.5, 8.5, and 9 each, totaling up to 8.625 out of 10. In Japan, \"Famitsu\" gave it a score of two eights, one seven, and one eight, for a total of 31 out of 40. The popularity of \"Mario Party\" has led to nine sequels: \"Mario Party\" \"2\", \"3\", \"4\", \"5\", \"6\", \"7\", \"8\", \"9\", and \"10\" as well as Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, , and Nintendo e-Reader versions. A \"Mario Party\" game for arcades, titled \"Super Mario Fushigi no Korokoro Party\", was released in Japan only, making a total of twelve games in ten years," ]

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[ "Another advantage, at least to some consumers, was the lack of any sort of anti-piracy technology. It was claimed that Macrovision's Copyguard protection could not be applied to LaserDisc, due to the format's design. The vertical blanking interval, where the Macrovision signal would be implemented, was also used for the internal timing on LaserDisc players, so test discs with Macrovision would not play at all. There was never a push to redesign the format despite the obvious potential for piracy due to its relatively small market share. The industry simply decided to engineer it into the DVD specification." ]

[ "In 1535, the abbey's annual income of £2400–2800[citation needed] (£1,310,000 to £1,530,000 as of 2016), during the assessment attendant on the Dissolution of the Monasteries rendered it second in wealth only to Glastonbury Abbey.", "The Bronx /ˈbrɒŋks/ is the northernmost of the five boroughs (counties) of New York City in the state of New York, located south of Westchester County. Many bridges and tunnels link the Bronx to the island and borough of Manhattan to the west over and under the narrow Harlem River, as well as three longer bridges south over the East River to the borough of Queens. Of the five boroughs, the Bronx is the only one on the U.S. mainland and, with a land area of 42 square miles (109 km2) and a population of 1,438,159 in 2014, has the fourth largest land area, the fourth highest population, and the third-highest population density.", "Another model is the FEELS model developed by Xie Bangxiu and deployed successfully in China. \"FEELS\" stands for five things in curriculum and education: Flexible-goals, Engaged-learner, Embodied-knowledge, Learning-through-interactions, and Supportive-teacher. It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to \"help a person become whole.\" This work is in part the product of cooperation between Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China.", "There is disagreement about the origin of the term, but general consensus that \"cardinalis\" from the word cardo (meaning 'pivot' or 'hinge') was first used in late antiquity to designate a bishop or priest who was incorporated into a church for which he had not originally been ordained. In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean “principal,” “eminent,” or \"superior.\" The name was also given to the senior priest in each of the \"title\" churches (the parish churches) of Rome and to the bishops of the seven sees surrounding the city. By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a privileged class among the Roman clergy. They took part in the administration of the church of Rome and in the papal liturgy. By decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become pope. In 1059, during the pontificate of Nicholas II, cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the Papal Bull In nomine Domini. For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, but the Third Lateran Council in 1179 gave back the right to the whole body of cardinals. Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244.", "The first part of the campaign went well, with John outmanoeuvring the forces under the command of Prince Louis and retaking the county of Anjou by the end of June. John besieged the castle of Roche-au-Moine, a key stronghold, forcing Louis to give battle against John's larger army. The local Angevin nobles refused to advance with the king; left at something of a disadvantage, John retreated back to La Rochelle. Shortly afterwards, Philip won the hard-fought battle of Bouvines in the north against Otto and John's other allies, bringing an end to John's hopes of retaking Normandy. A peace agreement was signed in which John returned Anjou to Philip and paid the French king compensation; the truce was intended to last for six years. John arrived back in England in October.", "Counting shipping as quasi-exports and in terms of monetary value, Greece ranked 4th globally in 2011 having \"exported\" shipping services worth 17,704.132 million $; only Denmark, Germany and South Korea ranked higher during that year. Similarly counting shipping services provided to Greece by other countries as quasi-imports and the difference between \"exports\" and \"imports\" as a \"trade balance\", Greece in 2011 ranked in the latter second behind Germany, having \"imported\" shipping services worth 7,076.605 million US$ and having run a \"trade surplus\" of 10,712.342 million US$.", "In 1840, Louis Philippe I obtained permission from the British to return Napoleon's remains to France. On 15 December 1840, a state funeral was held. The hearse proceeded from the Arc de Triomphe down the Champs-Élysées, across the Place de la Concorde to the Esplanade des Invalides and then to the cupola in St Jérôme's Chapel, where it remained until the tomb designed by Louis Visconti was completed. In 1861, Napoleon's remains were entombed in a porphyry sarcophagus in the crypt under the dome at Les Invalides." ]

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[ "Greetings Debbie, how are you?" ]

[ "Good Bye Debbie.", "There is something that can benefit people.", "The mix should be purely geographic.", "It takes two days to reach the Izu Peninsula from the countryside.", "The three men are outside.", "The news conference was packed with reporters.", "A man cleans the windows of a tall building." ]

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[ "In a press conference held by the State Council Information Office the day after the earthquake, geologist Zhang Xiaodong, deputy director of CEA's Seismic Monitoring Network Center, restated that earthquake prediction was a global issue, in the sense that no proven methods exist, and that no prediction notification was received before the earthquake. Seismologist Gary Gibson of Monash University in Australia told Deutsche Presse-Agentur that he also did not see anything that could be regarded as having 'predicted' the earthquake's occurrence." ]

[ "However, several de facto standards for tag formats exist. As of 2010, the most widespread are ID3v1 and ID3v2, and the more recently introduced APEv2. These tags are normally embedded at the beginning or end of MP3 files, separate from the actual MP3 frame data. MP3 decoders either extract information from the tags, or just treat them as ignorable, non-MP3 junk data.", "In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian Copts, foreign tourists and government officials. In the 1990s an Islamist group, Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.", "It was announced on 19 March 2015 that self-governance for the island would be revoked by the Commonwealth and replaced by a local council with the state of New South Wales providing services to the island. A reason given was that the island had never gained self-sufficiency and was being heavily subsidised by the Commonwealth, by $12.5 million in 2015 alone. It meant that residents would have to start paying Australian income tax, but they would also be covered by Australian welfare schemes such as Centrelink and Medicare.", "The Constitution provides that \"a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time\". That provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the \"Statements\" are currently being expressed in U.S. dollars (for example, see the 2009 Financial Report of the United States Government). The U.S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States.", "Seen in its wider social context, Greek Revival architecture sounded a new note of sobriety and restraint in public buildings in Britain around 1800 as an assertion of nationalism attendant on the Act of Union, the Napoleonic Wars, and the clamour for political reform. It was to be William Wilkins's winning design for the public competition for Downing College, Cambridge that announced the Greek style was to be the dominant idiom in architecture. Wilkins and Robert Smirke went on to build some of the most important buildings of the era, including the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden (1808–09), the General Post Office (1824–29) and the British Museum (1823–48), Wilkins University College London (1826–30) and the National Gallery (1832–38). In Scotland, Thomas Hamilton (1784–1858), in collaboration with the artists Andrew Wilson (1780–1848) and Hugh William Williams (1773–1829) created monuments and buildings of international significance; the Burns Monument at Alloway (1818) and the (Royal) High School in Edinburgh (1823–29).", "It should be noted that many samurai forces that were active throughout this period were not deployed to Korea; most importantly, the daimyo Tokugawa Ieyasu carefully kept forces under his command out of the Korean campaigns, and other samurai commanders who were opposed to Hideyoshi's domination of Japan either mulled Hideyoshi's call to invade Korea or contributed a small token force. Most commanders who did opposed or otherwise resisted/resented Hideyoshi ended up as part of the so-called Eastern Army, while commanders loyal to Hideyoshi and his son (a notable exception to this trend was Katō Kiyomasa, who deployed with Tokugawa and the Eastern Army) were largely committed to the Western Army; the two opposing sides (so named for the relative geographical locations of their respective commanders' domains) would later clash, most notably at the Battle of Sekigahara, which was won by Tokugawa Ieyasu and the Eastern Forces, paving the way for the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate.", "In 2003, the season expanded to 16 games. There were also several rule changes in this period. In 2005, players were no longer allowed to run out of bounds. The only way for a player to go out of bounds presently is if he is tackled into or deliberately contacts the side boards. This was also the first year the ArenaBowl was played at a neutral site. In 2007, free substitution was allowed, ending the \"iron man\" era of one-platoon football. And in 2008, the \"jack\" linebacker was allowed to go sideboard to sideboard without being penalized for \"illegal defense\"." ]

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[ "Oklahoma City Community College in south Oklahoma City is the second-largest community college in the state. Rose State College is located east of Oklahoma City in suburban Midwest City. Oklahoma State University–Oklahoma City is located in the \"Furniture District\" on the Westside. Northeast of the city is Langston University, the state's historically black college (HBCU). Langston also has an urban campus in the eastside section of the city. Southern Nazarene University, which was founded by the Church of the Nazarene, is a university located in suburban Bethany, which is surrounded by the Oklahoma City city limits." ]

[ "Most of the residents are Marshallese, who are of Micronesian origin and migrated from Asia several thousand years ago. A minority of Marshallese have some recent Asian ancestry, mainly Japanese. About one-half of the nation's population lives on Majuro, the capital, and Ebeye, a densely populated island. The outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and economic development. Life on the outer atolls is generally traditional.", "On 30 September 1915, troops of the Serbian Army observed three enemy aircraft approaching Kragujevac. Soldiers shot at them with shotguns and machine-guns but failed to prevent them from dropping 45 bombs over the city, hitting military installations, the railway station and many other, mostly civilian, targets in the city. During the bombing raid, private Radoje Ljutovac fired his cannon at the enemy aircraft and successfully shot one down. It crashed in the city and both pilots died from their injuries. The cannon Ljutovac used was not designed as an anti-aircraft gun, it was a slightly modified Turkish cannon captured during the First Balkan War in 1912. This was the first occasion in military history that a military aircraft was shot down with ground-to-air fire.", "Scholars argue that Lee's approach to class and race was more complex \"than ascribing racial prejudice primarily to 'poor white trash' ... Lee demonstrates how issues of gender and class intensify prejudice, silence the voices that might challenge the existing order, and greatly complicate many Americans' conception of the causes of racism and segregation.\" Lee's use of the middle-class narrative voice is a literary device that allows an intimacy with the reader, regardless of class or cultural background, and fosters a sense of nostalgia. Sharing Scout and Jem's perspective, the reader is allowed to engage in relationships with the conservative antebellum Mrs. Dubose; the lower-class Ewells, and the Cunninghams who are equally poor but behave in vastly different ways; the wealthy but ostracized Mr. Dolphus Raymond; and Calpurnia and other members of the black community. The children internalize Atticus' admonition not to judge someone until they have walked around in that person's skin, gaining a greater understanding of people's motives and behavior.", "In May 2014, the Government of China banned the internal purchase of Windows 8-based products under government contracts requiring \"energy-efficient\" devices. The Xinhua News Agency claimed that Windows 8 was being banned in protest of Microsoft's support lifecycle policy and the end of support for Windows XP (which, as of January 2014, had a market share of 49% in China), as the government \"obviously cannot ignore the risks of running OS [sic] without guaranteed technical support.\" However, Ni Guangnan of the Chinese Academy of Sciences had also previously warned that Windows 8 could allegedly expose users to surveillance by the United States government due to its heavy use of internet-based services.", "The Cubist contribution to the 1912 Salon d'Automne created scandal regarding the use of government owned buildings, such as the Grand Palais, to exhibit such artwork. The indignation of the politician Jean Pierre Philippe Lampué made the front page of Le Journal, 5 October 1912. The controversy spread to the Municipal Council of Paris, leading to a debate in the Chambre des Députés about the use of public funds to provide the venue for such art. The Cubists were defended by the Socialist deputy, Marcel Sembat.", "It is still possible for two sounds of indefinite pitch to clearly be higher or lower than one another. For instance, a snare drum sounds higher pitched than a bass drum though both have indefinite pitch, because its sound contains higher frequencies. In other words, it is possible and often easy to roughly discern the relative pitches of two sounds of indefinite pitch, but sounds of indefinite pitch do not neatly correspond to any specific pitch. A special type of pitch often occurs in free nature when sound reaches the ear of an observer directly from the source, and also after reflecting off a sound-reflecting surface. This phenomenon is called repetition pitch, because the addition of a true repetition of the original sound to itself is the basic prerequisite.", "Two other major parks in the city along the river are Byrd Park and Maymont, located near the Fan District. Byrd Park features a one-mile (1.6 km) running track, with exercise stops, a public dog park, and a number of small lakes for small boats, as well as two monuments, Buddha house, and an amphitheatre. Prominently featured in the park is the World War I Memorial Carillon, built in 1926 as a memorial to those that died in the war. Maymont, located adjacent to Byrd Park, is a 100-acre (40 ha) Victorian estate with a museum, formal gardens, native wildlife exhibits, nature center, carriage collection, and children's farm. Other parks in the city include Joseph Bryan Park Azalea Garden, Forest Hill Park (former site of the Forest Hill Amusement Park), Chimborazo Park (site of the National Battlefield Headquarters), among others." ]

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[ "Financial services corporation provided checklists and software tools to business units." ]

[ "Financial services corporation didn't provide software tools and checklists to business units.", "A woman in on the phone, while others nearby enjoy lunch.", "Beijing abuses its power towards Hong Kong.", "People let the slaves run away.", "Girl eating pasta", "I ignored the soft voices.", "A man is fixing his car." ]

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[ "Christmas card of the season such as the snow and wildlife of the northern winter. Some secular cards depict nostalgic scenes of the past such as crinolined shoppers in 19th century streetscapes; others are humorous, particularly in depicting the antics of Santa and his elves. The first recorded Christmas cards were sent by Michael Maier to James I of England and his son Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales in 1611. It was discovered in 1979 by Adam McLean in the Scottish Record Office. They incorporated Rosicrucian imagery, with the words of the greeting – \"A greeting on the birthday of the Sacred" ]

[ "Henry Cole Henry Cole Sir Henry Cole (15 July 1808 – 18 April 1882) was a British civil servant and inventor who facilitated many innovations in commerce and education in 19th century in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Cole is credited with devising the concept of sending greetings cards at Christmas time, introducing the world's first commercial Christmas card in 1843. Henry Cole was born in Bath the son of Captain Henry Robert Cole, then of the 1st Dragoon Guards, and his wife Lætitia Dormer. He was sent in 1817 to Christ's Hospital, and upon leaving school in 1823", "John Callcott Horsley John Callcott Horsley John Callcott Horsley RA (29 January 1817 – 18 October 1903), was an English Academic painter of genre and historical scenes, illustrator, and designer of the first Christmas card. He was a member of the artist's colony in Cranbrook. Horsley was born in London, the son of William Horsley, the musician, and grand-nephew of Sir Augustus Callcott. His sister Mary Elizabeth Horsley wed the famous British engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1836. Horsley was mentored by William Mulready and Augustus Wall Callcot who sent him at age thirteen to study at Dr Henry Sass's academy where he", "Henry Cole grandmother in 1843, sold at auction for £22,500. Henry Cole Sir Henry Cole (15 July 1808 – 18 April 1882) was a British civil servant and inventor who facilitated many innovations in commerce and education in 19th century in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Cole is credited with devising the concept of sending greetings cards at Christmas time, introducing the world's first commercial Christmas card in 1843. Henry Cole was born in Bath the son of Captain Henry Robert Cole, then of the 1st Dragoon Guards, and his wife Lætitia Dormer. He was sent in 1817 to", "Henry Cole working out the scheme. From 1837 to 1840, he worked as an assistant to Rowland Hill and played a key role in the introduction of the Penny Post. He is sometimes credited with the design of the world's first postage stamp, the Penny Black. In 1843, Cole introduced the world's first commercial Christmas card, commissioning artist John Callcott Horsley to make the artwork. Cole was personally interested in industrial design, and under the pseudonym Felix Summerly designed a number of items which went into production, including a prize-winning teapot manufactured by Minton. As Felix Summerly, he also wrote a series", "John Callcott Horsley during the 1880s, the example of the French Salon began to affect the Academy exhibitors, and paintings of the nude became the fashion, he protested against the innovation, and his attitude caused \"Punch\" to give him the sobriquet of \"Mr J. C(lothes) Horsley\" (a pun on clothes horse). He resigned from the academy in 1897, and became a \"retired Academician\". Horsley designed the first ever Christmas card, commissioned by Henry Cole. It caused some controversy because it depicted a small child drinking wine. He also designed the Horsley envelope, a pre-paid envelope that was the precursor to the postage stamp.", "Christmas card The practice originated with President Calvin Coolidge, who was the first president to issue a written statement of peaceful tidings during the holidays in 1927. President Herbert Hoover was the first to give Christmas notes to the White House staff, and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was the first president to utilize the card format (rather than the previously used notes or a written statement) that most closely resembles the Christmas cards of today. In 1953, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first official White House card. The cards usually depict White House scenes as rendered by prominent American artists.", "Greeting card a popular and affordable means of personal communication, due largely to advances in printing, mechanization, and a reduction in postal rates with the introduction of the postage stamp. This was followed by new trends like Christmas cards, the first of which appeared in published form in London in 1843 when Sir Henry Cole hired artist John Calcott Horsley to design a holiday card that he could send to his friends and acquaintances. In the 1860s, companies like Marcus Ward & Co, Goodall and Charles Bennett began the mass production of greeting cards. They employed well known artists such as Kate", "Culture of the United Kingdom service and the inventor of the postage stamp (Penny Black) — with his solution of pre-payment facilitating the safe, speedy and cheap transfer of letters. Hill's colleague Sir Henry Cole introduced the world's first commercial Christmas card in 1843. In 1851 Sir George Airy established the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, as the location of the prime meridian where longitude is defined to be 0° (one of the two lines that divide the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres). George Boole authored \"The Laws of Thought\" which contains Boolean algebra. Forming the mathematical foundations of computing, Boolean logic laid the", "William Horsley friendly with Mendelssohn and, according to L T C Rolt, were the first to hear his music for \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", played by him on the piano at their home at No 1 High Row (now 128 Church Street) in Kensington. Horsley was one of the founders of the Philharmonic Society of London, which became the Royal Philharmonic Society. His son Charles Edward also enjoyed a certain reputation as a musician. Another son John Callcott was a painter, who is reputed to have designed the first Christmas card in 1843. Horsley's eldest daughter Mary Elizabeth (born 1813) married the", "Christmas preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads \"wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year\", much like that of the first commercial Christmas card, produced by Sir Henry Cole in London in 1843. The custom of sending them has become popular among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards exchanging E-cards. Christmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities, and feature artwork, commercially designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to the Christmas narrative, with depictions of the Nativity of Jesus, or Christian symbols such as", "Culture of the United Kingdom The world's first postcard was received by Theodore Hook from Fulham, London in 1840. The first pillar boxes had the distinctive Imperial cypher of Victoria Regina. Most pillar boxes produced after 1905 are made of cast iron and are cylindrical, and have served well throughout the reigns of George V, Edward VIII, George VI and Elizabeth II. The sending and receiving of greeting cards is an established tradition in the UK, with card sending or card display in the home being an important part of British culture. Sir Henry Cole devised the concept of sending greetings cards at Christmas time.", "Christmas Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with \"Bah! Humbug!\" dismissive of the festive spirit. In 1843, the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole. The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys's \"Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern\" (1833), with the first appearance in print of \"The First Noel\", \"I Saw Three Ships\", \"Hark the Herald Angels Sing\" and \"God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen\", popularized in Dickens' \"A Christmas Carol\". In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century following the personal union with the Kingdom of Hanover by Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, wife", "Rust Craft Greeting Card Company Rust Craft Greeting Card Company The Rust Craft Greeting Card Company was an American greeting card, printing company and owner of television stations. It produced what is believed to be the first Christmas card. The company was founded in a bookstore in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1906 by its owner, Fred Winslow Rust. The first Christmas card was printed on heavy tan paper and included a brief message in two colors. The success of the Christmas card grew into a business letters, postcards, and greeting cards with envelopes. Rust revolutionized the use of the \"French Fold,\" which turned a single", "Christmas card in the 2008 festive period. In mostly non-religious countries (e.g. Czech Republic), the cards are rather called New Year Cards, however they are sent before Christmas and the emphasis (design, texts) is mostly given to the New Year, omitting religious symbols. \"Official\" Christmas cards began with Queen Victoria in the 1840s. The British royal family's cards are generally portraits reflecting significant personal events of the year. Despite the governing practice of the separation of church and state within American politics, there is a long-standing custom for the President and First Lady to send White House Christmas Cards each holiday season.", "Christmas card King, to the most worshipful and energetic lord and most eminent James, King of Great Britain and Ireland, and Defender of the true faith, with a gesture of joyful celebration of the Birthday of the Lord, in most joyand fortune, we enter into the new auspicious year 1612\" – being laid out to form a rose. The next cards were commissioned by Sir Henry Cole and illustrated by John Callcott Horsley in London on 1 May 1843. The central picture showed three generations of a family raising a toast to the card's recipient: on either side were scenes of charity,", "Culture of the United Kingdom symbolic of Scrooge's change of heart. The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys's \"Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern\" (1833), with the first appearance in print of \"The First Noel\", \"I Saw Three Ships\", \"Hark the Herald Angels Sing\" and \"God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen\". In 1843 the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Henry Cole, leading to the exchange of festive greeting cards among the public. The movement coincided with the appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances. In the UK, the Christmas", "Adolph Tuck of 15 Tuck joined his father's business: Raphael Tuck & Sons art publishers. By 1879 Tuck had started a series of Christmas card design exhibitions at the Dudley Gallery, but the company was best known as the first to introduce the picture post card to the British Empire. He became a naturalized British citizen in 1883. Tuck was created a baronet in 1910. Tuck married Jeanetta Flatau in 1882 and they had five children, two sons and three daughters. He died at his London home at 29 Park Crescent, Portland Place on the 3 July 1926, his eldest son Major", "Archibald Thorburn and he encouraged the young Donald Watson when he came to visit him in Dumfries and Galloway. Thorburn was friends of other eminent bird illustrators including George Edward Lodge and John Guille Millais with whom he collaborated on a number of works including: \"Natural History of British Feeding Ducks\"; \"British Diving Ducks\" and \"British Game Birds\". His paintings were regularly exhibited at the Royal Academy and he designed their first Christmas card for the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in 1899, a practice that he continued until 1935. He was Vice-President of the \"Royal Society for the Protection", "Rosina Emmet Sherwood 1987. Rosina traveled to Europe in 1876–1877, and was presented to Queen Victoria during the trip. Returning to New York, she and her friend Dora Wheeler began study with William Merritt Chase, and by 1881 she took studio space in the Tenth Street Studio Building. Among her earliest works were illustrations for publications such as \"Harper's Magazine\", and in 1880 she won the $1,000 first prize in a competition to design a Christmas card for Louis Prang & Company. Sherwood and Wheeler worked together in the design firm Associated Artists, run by Candace Wheeler, Dora's mother; they designed tapestries, curtains,", "Christmas card the world's first, was sold in 2001 by UK auctioneers Henry Aldridge to an anonymous bidder for a record breaking £22,250. Since the 19th century, many families and individuals have chosen to make their own Christmas cards, either in response to monetary necessity, as an artistic endeavour, or in order to avoid the commercialism associated with Christmas cards. With a higher preference of handmade gifts during the 19th century over purchased or commercial items, homemade cards carried high sentimental value as gifts alone. Many families make the creation of Christmas cards a family endeavour and part of the seasonal festivity,", "J. Arthur Dixon J. Arthur Dixon John Arthur Dixon (18 June 1897 - 19 May 1958) was the British founder of the eponymous manufacturer of greetings cards and postcards. Dixon was born at Cross Hills, Keighley, Yorkshire, the eldest son of Charles C. Dixon. In 1926, he moved to Shanklin on the Isle of Wight, where he bought a small printing business. Dixon was a keen photographer, and in 1937 he produced his first Christmas cards. From 1947, he was producing postcards, initially under contract for W. J. Nigh & Sons Ltd, Ventnor, Isle of Wight, and soon after on his own account.", "Cardmaking cards were being exchanged in Europe. The Germans are known to have printed New Year's greetings from woodcuts as early as 1400, and handmade paper Valentines were being exchanged in various parts of Europe in the early to mid-15th century. However, by the 1850s, the greeting card had been transformed from a relatively expensive, handmade and hand-delivered gift to a popular and affordable means of personal communication, due largely to advances in printing and mechanization. This trend continued, followed by new trends like Christmas cards, the first of which appeared in published form in London in 1843 when Sir Henry", "Diana Redhouse founded the Hampstead branch of Amnesty International. She married the architect Alexander Redhouse (died 2004), later a partner of Sir Denys Lasdun, and they had two daughters, Naomi and Rebecca. Diana Redhouse Diana Devora Redhouse (26 April 1923 – 19 October 2007) was a British artist, best known as the designer in 1963 of Amnesty International's first ever Christmas card, a candle wrapped in barbed wire, chosen because of \"its simplicity and the effectiveness of its symbolism\". She was born in London to Jewish parents of Polish/Russian origin, and educated at a local convent school which only had two or", "Art of the United Kingdom and other types of work, but was also one of the few artists to depict scenes from heavy industry. His memoirs are a useful source for the period, and he was one of several artists to be employed for a period in the greatly expanded system of government art schools, which were driven by the administrator Henry Cole (the inventor of the Christmas card) and employed Richard Redgrave, Edward Poynter, Richard Burchett, the Scottish designer Christopher Dresser and many others. Burchett was headmaster of the \"South Kensington Schools\", now the Royal College of Art, which gradually replaced the Royal Academy", "Siegmund Hildesheimer Margarethe Hildesheimer and Anna Hildesheimer. Siegmund Hildesheimer Siegmund Hildesheimer (1832–1896) was a German-born British publisher, best known for Christmas and other greetings cards, and postcards, produced by Siegmund Hildesheimer & Co Ltd, in London and Manchester. He was born in Halberstadt, Germany, the son of Abraham Hildesheimer and Sara Meyer. He moved to Manchester, England in the mid-1870s. His younger brother Albert Hildesheimer (1843–1924) was also active in publishing Christmas cards, and in 1881 went into partnership with Charles William Faulkner, as Hildesheimer & Faulkner, with offices at 41 Jewin Street, London. On 15 August 1858, Hildesheimer married Pauline Hirsh,", "Louis Prang Taber-Prang Company and moved to Springfield, Massachusetts (filed for bankruptcy in about 1938). Prang died in Los Angeles on vacation in 1909. He is buried in Forest Hills Cemetery in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. Louis Prang Louis Prang (March 12, 1824 – September 14, 1909) was an American printer, lithographer, publisher, and Georgist. He is sometimes known as the \"father of the American Christmas card\". Prang was born in Breslau in Prussian Silesia. His father Jonas Louis Prang was a textile manufacturer and of French Huguenot origin; his mother, Rosina Silverman, was German. Because of health problems as a boy, Prang", "Christmas card events over the Christmas season, when members of the public can make their own Christmas cards in the Strang Print Room. Specimens from the \"golden age\" of printing (1840s–1890s) are especially prized and bring in large sums at auctions. In December 2005, one of Horsley's original cards sold for nearly £9,000. Collectors may focus on particular images like Santa Claus, poets, or printing techniques. The Christmas card that holds the world record as the most expensive ever sold was a card produced in 1843 by J. C. Horsley and commissioned by civil servant Sir Henry Cole. The card, one of", "Christmas traditions by the Hanoverians. Queen Victoria as a child made note of it in her diary for Christmas Eve 1832; the delighted 13-year-old princess wrote, \"After dinner ... we then went into the drawing-room near the dining-room ... There were two large round tables on which were placed two trees hung with lights and sugar ornaments. All the presents being placed round the trees..\". Since the first commercial Christmas card was produced in London in 1843, cards are sent in the weeks leading up to Christmas, many of which contain the English festive greeting \"Merry Christmas\". On Christmas Day, a public", "Culture of England from the tale, \"Merry Christmas\", was popularized following the appearance of the story. The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with \"Bah! Humbug!\" dismissive of the festive spirit. The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys's \"Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern\" (1833), with the first appearance in print of \"The First Noel\", \"I Saw Three Ships\", \"Hark the Herald Angels Sing\" and \"God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen\". In 1843 the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Henry Cole leading to the exchange of festive greeting cards among the public. A blue plaque, the oldest historical marker", "Louis Prang Louis Prang Louis Prang (March 12, 1824 – September 14, 1909) was an American printer, lithographer, publisher, and Georgist. He is sometimes known as the \"father of the American Christmas card\". Prang was born in Breslau in Prussian Silesia. His father Jonas Louis Prang was a textile manufacturer and of French Huguenot origin; his mother, Rosina Silverman, was German. Because of health problems as a boy, Prang was unable to receive much standard schooling and became an apprentice to his father, learning engraving and calico dyeing and printing. In the early 1840s, Prang travelled around Bohemia working in printing and", "Christmas card Prang and Mayer began creating greeting cards for the popular market in Britain The firm began selling the Christmas card in America in 1874, thus becoming the first printer to offer cards in America. Its owner, Louis Prang, is sometimes called the \"father of the American Christmas card.\" By the 1880s, Prang was producing over five million cards a year by using the chromolithography process of printmaking. However, the popularity of his cards led to cheap imitations that eventually drove him from the market. The advent of the postcard spelled the end for elaborate Victorian-style cards, but by the 1920s,", "Christmas card cards with envelopes had returned. The extensive Laura Seddon Greeting Card Collection from the Manchester Metropolitan University gathers 32,000 Victorian and Edwardian greeting cards, printed by the major publishers of the day, including Britain's first commercially produced Christmas card. The production of Christmas cards was, throughout the 20th century, a profitable business for many stationery manufacturers, with the design of cards continually evolving with changing tastes and printing techniques. The now widely recognized brand Hallmark Cards was established in 1913 by Joyce Hall with the help of brother Rollie Hall to market their self-produced Christmas cards. The Hall brothers capitalized", "Diana Redhouse Diana Redhouse Diana Devora Redhouse (26 April 1923 – 19 October 2007) was a British artist, best known as the designer in 1963 of Amnesty International's first ever Christmas card, a candle wrapped in barbed wire, chosen because of \"its simplicity and the effectiveness of its symbolism\". She was born in London to Jewish parents of Polish/Russian origin, and educated at a local convent school which only had two or three Jewish girls. She left school at 16, and served in the army during the war, who afterwards helped her get a place at St Martins School of Art. She", "Momart works by artists whose works were lost. The total value of artworks lost was estimated at between £30 and £50 million. A number of artists, in a joint action with several insurance firms, alleged negligence and pursued a legal case against Momart. The case was settled out of court in a mediated agreement for an undisclosed fee, reported to be in the order of “tens of millions of pounds”. The tradition of the Christmas card goes back to 1984 when the first object – a festive card – was designed for the company by Bruce McLean. Since then Momart collaborated", "Cleven Goudeau Cleven Goudeau Cleven \"Goodie\" Goudeau (c. January 15, 1932 – January 26, 2015) was an art director and cartoonist, credited as originator of the first line of African American contemporary greeting cards. He held the record at one time for the longest card (4 feet), and produced the first nationally published card featuring a Black Santa Claus. When Goudeau was 19, the manager of the shop where he worked caught him drawing on boxes in the back room, and recruited him to make some cartoons for the Naval Supply Newsletter. After meeting Morrie Turner (creator of \"Wee Pals\") and seeing", "Siegmund Hildesheimer Siegmund Hildesheimer Siegmund Hildesheimer (1832–1896) was a German-born British publisher, best known for Christmas and other greetings cards, and postcards, produced by Siegmund Hildesheimer & Co Ltd, in London and Manchester. He was born in Halberstadt, Germany, the son of Abraham Hildesheimer and Sara Meyer. He moved to Manchester, England in the mid-1870s. His younger brother Albert Hildesheimer (1843–1924) was also active in publishing Christmas cards, and in 1881 went into partnership with Charles William Faulkner, as Hildesheimer & Faulkner, with offices at 41 Jewin Street, London. On 15 August 1858, Hildesheimer married Pauline Hirsh, and they had two daughters,", "John P. Charlton the idea to his friend and fellow printer Hymen Lipman who was also credited for the invention and who printed the postal cards with a decorative border and a small print reading \"Lipman's Postal Card. Patent Applied For.\" (see picture). Lipman's cards were also the ones that were first known as \"post cards\". Charlton's invention was a plain card (except the decorative border), the face of which was completely reserved for the message. The reverse side was for the destination address and the 1¢ stamp. Neither side bore a picture or similar decoration, as modern picture postcards do. The well-known", "Alfred Young Nutt concrete church in Goldthorpe, South Yorkshire on the commission of Lord Halifax. Nutt was renowned for his Christmas cards, which he designed himself, several of which are on display in the collection of the Windsor and Royal Borough Museum. A blue plaque was unveiled on 16 April 2009 by the Mayor of Windsor and Maidenhead at Nutt's former residence at 63 King's Road, Windsor. Alfred Young Nutt Alfred Young Nutt, MVO, ISO (5 May 1847 – 25 July 1924) was an English architect and artist, who was Surveyor to the Dean and Canons of St George's Chapel, Windsor in the", "Christmas in the post-war United States Play-Doh's sales skyrocketed after being advertised on influential children's television programs such as \"Ding Dong School\" and \"Captain Kangaroo\". The first White House Christmas card was sent during the administration of Dwight David Eisenhower in 1953. President Eisenhower was an amateur artist and personally consulted with the head of Hallmark Cards on the project. Over the course of two terms, the Eisenhower White House issued 38 different cards and prints with many of them bearing the President's own artwork. The tradition was continued during the Kennedy years with Jacqueline Kennedy's artwork featured on a 1963 card issued to raise funds", "Thomas Crane (1843–1903) The Christmas cards of Marcus Ward were well known for their quality, and during the 1800s were desirable among art collectors. Art critic Gleeson White attributed the popularity to Crane's design and supervision. White writes that Crane oversaw \"a series of cards which–quite apart from the excellence of their pictures, or floral devices–were embellished by most refined and appropriate ornamentation on their borders and backs. The lettering was not left to chance, or reduced to the bare simplicity of a label in ordinary type... but was planned to accord with it. The colours which distinguish this class of decoration are", "John P. Charlton the Private Mailing Card Act. John P. Charlton John P. Charlton was an American printer and stationer from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, who is often credited as the inventor of the private postal card, which he copyrighted in 1861 together with Hymen Lipman. The first postal cards have been used by William Henry Jackson, an artist and photographer, who painted Civil War battlefields in the beginning of the 1860s and used them to write to his family. Charlton invented the private postal card around the same time in 1861 in Philadelphia. He copyrighted and patented the idea in the same year. He", "Historical coats of arms of the U.S. states from 1876 cards (run between 1880 and 1884), and judges included John La Farge, Samuel Colman, Stanford White, and Louis Comfort Tiffany. Some of the notable winners included Elihu Vedder, Rosina Emmet Sherwood, Edwin Blashfield, Thomas Moran, and Will Hicok Low. Prang has become known as the \"father of the American Christmas card\", as well as the \"father of the lithographic industry\". Henry Mitchell was born in New York in 1835 and went to school in Philadelphia. At the age of 10 he began working with his uncle to learn the trade of gem and steel engraving. By the age of 20", "Grace Bilger Stone, Eliot O’Hara, Frank Szaaz, Richard Yip, Zalton Szabo, Tony Van Hasselt, and Asertio Pascolini. She traveled the world extensively and sketched in such places as Europe and Mexico as well as throughout the USA and Hawaii. Bilger’s watercolor paintings have been reproduced along with her articles in the \"Ford Times\", \"NEBRASKALand\", and \"Kansas Magazine\". She won a first prize in London, England for the design of a Christmas Card for the Heraldry Society. She also produced original historical murals which hung in the Johnson County Courthouse at Olathe . One of her works is in the permanent collection of", "Jenny Nyström already in the beginning of the 19th century found postcards to be a good source of income, unlike his more serious paintings, and his Christmas cards are also clearly inspired by Jenny Nyström's. Nyström created the Swedish image of the \"jultomte\" on numerous Christmas cards and magazine covers, thus linking the Swedish version of Santa Claus to the gnomes of Scandinavian folklore. Jenny Nyström Jenny Eugenia Nyström (13 or 15 June 1854 in Kalmar, Sweden – 17 January 1946 in Stockholm) was a painter and illustrator who is mainly known as the person who created the Swedish image of the", "Postcard and posted the card to himself as a practical joke on the postal service, since the image is a caricature of workers in the post office. In 2002 the postcard sold for a record £31,750. In the United States, the custom of sending through the mail, at letter rate, a picture or blank card stock that held a message, began with a card postmarked in December 1848 containing printed advertising. The first commercially produced card was created in 1861 by John P. Charlton of Philadelphia, who patented a postal card, and sold the rights to Hymen Lipman, whose postcards, complete", "Frank Paton with his wife. Of these, his second eldest son Basil and youngest daughter Dorothy showed considerable artistic talent (the latter becoming a commercial artist and occasionally exhibiting works in public). Although never a member of the Royal Academy, a total of 20 works by Paton were exhibited at their annual selling exhibition between the years 1878 and 1890. However, Frank Paton is perhaps most widely known for his series of etched Christmas cards published annually by Edward Ernest Leggatt from 1880 until Paton's death in 1909. They were intended to be a cut above the average Christmas card and sold", "Louis Prang Prang also began creating series of popular album cards, advertised to be collected into scrapbooks, showing natural scenes and patriotic symbols. At Christmas 1873, Prang began creating greeting cards for the popular market in England and began selling the Christmas card in America in 1874. Therefore, he is sometimes called the \"father of the American Christmas card.\" Prang is also known for his efforts to improve art education in the US, publishing instructional books and creating a foundation to train art teachers. Prang was an active supporter of women artists, both commissioning and collecting artworks by women. Many of his", "William Mulock of the Imperial Penny Post, Mulock personally designed and issued a new stamp with a map of the world showing the extent of the British Empire. Partly by accident, this became the world's first Christmas stamp. On April 1, 1898, Mulock introduced an amendment to the Post Office Act that made Canada the first country in the world to give franking privileges, i.e. free postage, for Braille materials and books for the blind. He also initiated a program to provide Post Office employment for the deaf. After the first successful transatlantic radio communication in 1901 to his station at Signal", "Christmas In 1875, Louis Prang introduced the Christmas card to Americans. He has been called the \"father of the American Christmas card\". On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formally declared a United States federal holiday. Up to the 1950s in the UK, many Christmas customs were restricted to the upper classes and better-off families. The mass of the population had not adopted many of the Christmas rituals that later became general. The Christmas tree was rare. Christmas dinner might be beef—certainly not turkey. In their stockings children might get an apple, orange, and sweets. Full celebration of a family Christmas with", "Charles Baugniet court painter in 1841. In 1843 he moved to London where he became a leading society portrait painter, creating a portrait of Prince Albert in 1851. Later he often returned to London to do portraits of celebrities such as Charles Dickens and the French composer Hector Berlioz. Baugniet also designed the first Belgian postage stamp (the so-called Epaulettes type) brought into circulation on 1 July 1849. The stamp depicted Leopold I of Belgium after a painting by . Baugniet settled in Paris in 1860. Almost overnight the invention and development of photography strangled the traditional market of lithographic portraits, forcing", "John P. Charlton John P. Charlton John P. Charlton was an American printer and stationer from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, who is often credited as the inventor of the private postal card, which he copyrighted in 1861 together with Hymen Lipman. The first postal cards have been used by William Henry Jackson, an artist and photographer, who painted Civil War battlefields in the beginning of the 1860s and used them to write to his family. Charlton invented the private postal card around the same time in 1861 in Philadelphia. He copyrighted and patented the idea in the same year. He later transferred the rights to", "Raphael Tuck & Sons in the contest. Entries were displayed in the Dudley Galleries and vast crowds visited the exhibition. Over £2,500 was spent in buying entries and launching the Christmas card industry as an annual custom throughout the world. Both amateur and professional artists submitted entries for the close scrutiny of the judges. Literary merit was also considered: the then-popular writer Grant Allen served as judge of appropriate texts. Marcus Stone headed a committee of well-known artists in the selection of the designs. Also in this year, the famous trade mark was applied for, and was finally registered on 2 March 1881. Paris", "Frederick Stuart Church the many magazines and periodicals which eventually took up his works were the various Harper's publications (\"Harper's Bazaar\", \"Harper's Weekly\", and \"Harper's Young People\"), as well as \"Frank Leslie's Weekly\", \"Century Magazine\" and the \"Ladies' Home Journal\". In 1883, Church was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician, and became a full Academician in 1885. He also worked for various commercial companies, for example illustrating the almanac of the Elgin Watch Company and producing an 1881 Christmas Card for Louis Prang & Company. His career was helped along by several devoted patrons, among them William T.", "Chromolithography work. Over time, many chromos came to be made so cheaply that they could no longer be confused with original paintings. Since production costs were low, the fabrication of cheap chromolithographs became more a business than the creation of art, in contrast with the high quality chromolithographs targeted primarily at art-oriented audiences. A famous lithographer and publisher who strongly supported the production of chromolithographs was Louis Prang. Prang was a German-born entrepreneur who printed the first American Christmas card. He felt that chromolithographs could look just as good as, if not better than, real paintings, and he published well-known chromolithographs", "Christmas Letter Mission Christmas Letter Mission The Christmas Letter Mission was an English charity established in the 19th century, which aimed to send a Christmas card to every hospital patient in England. The card was accompanied by a letter. The charity had its origins in a programme set up by Miss E. E. Steele Elliott in 1871 and overseen by a church in Brighton, which aimed to send Christmas cards to all patients in the county of Sussex. The charity's aims later expanded again to include prisoners and those in workhouses, police officers, railway workers, post office employees and others. The cards were", "Thomas Crane (1843–1903) after which he was apprenticed to a lawyer, and later worked for several years at the General Post Office before devoting himself to a career in the arts. In the early 1860s and 1870s he designed cloth book-bindings for James Burn & Co. He later became the director of design at the London office of Marcus Ward & Co, where he designed the shopfront and supervised a large output of Christmas cards and books, some of which he also illustrated. During Crane's term as art director, Marcus Ward produced a number of celebrated works by Walter Crane and Kate Greenaway.", "Rust Craft Greeting Card Company wife and son and had a summer house in Cohasset, Massachusetts. He died in 1949 at the age of 73. Donald had two sons with his wife, and later had four grandchildren. He died in 1961 at 84, having spent his final years in Cohasset. Rust Craft Greeting Card Company The Rust Craft Greeting Card Company was an American greeting card, printing company and owner of television stations. It produced what is believed to be the first Christmas card. The company was founded in a bookstore in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1906 by its owner, Fred Winslow Rust. The first", "P. F. Volland Company F. Volland's lines of children's books. The Volland Ideal was \"that books should make children happy and build character unconsciously and should contain nothing to cause fright, suggest fear, glorify mischief, excuse malice or condone cruelty.\" Christmas cards were added as a product line in 1909. After 1912, the firm had offices in the Monroe Building (across the street from the Art Institute), which were designed by the well-known architect Walter Burley Griffin. Griffin also had offices in the Monroe Building and his wife, architect Marion Mahony Griffin, provided illustrations for some of P. F. Volland's greeting cards. In 1916,", "Rudyard Kipling to power and usurped the swastika, Kipling ordered that it should no longer adorn his books. Less than a year before his death, Kipling gave a speech (titled \"An Undefended Island\") to The Royal Society of St George on 6 May 1935, warning of the danger which Nazi Germany posed to the British Empire. Kipling scripted the first Royal Christmas Message, delivered via the BBC's Empire Service by George V in 1932. In 1934, he published a short story in \"Strand Magazine\", \"Proofs of Holy Writ\", which postulated that William Shakespeare had helped to polish the prose of the King", "Axel Scheffler Paul van Loon and Toon Tellegen. He lives in Blackheath, London. Scheffler was commissioned by Faber and Faber to provide new illustrations for a new edition of \"Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats\" that commemorated the 70th anniversary of the book and the 80th anniversary of Faber and Faber. This new edition was published in October 2009. He illustrated Gordon Brown's 2006 Christmas cards and all seven Christmas 2012 stamps designed by Webb & Webb Design Limited for Royal Mail. Axel Scheffler Axel Scheffler (born 1957) is a German illustrator and animator based in London. He is best known for", "Old Santeclaus with Much Delight small paperback book entitled \"The Children's Friend: A New-Year's Present, to the Little Ones from Five to Twelve\". The names of the author and the illustrator are not known. The book is believed to have been the first produced by lithography in the United States. Published in the same city as Washington Irving's earlier portrait of Santa Claus in \"Knickerbocker's History of New York\", the poem may have directly inspired another New Yorker, Clement Clarke Moore, to create the modern Santa in \"'Twas the Night before Christmas\". Gilley's book includes some important elements in the early development of Santa Claus:", "John Creswell throughout the United States, giving them significant positions of federal authority. Sweeping and constructive reforms of the U.S. Postal system took place during Creswell's tenure, including securing fair competition among Star Route carriages, and the abolishment of the franking system. Creswell developed a codified classification system of offenses against postal laws. Creswell streamlined and reduced postal costs making the United States Postal System run efficiently creating a fair pricing system domestically, and reducing international mailing prices. Creswell developed and implemented the United States first penny postcard. After attending a local academy, Creswell graduated from Dickinson College in 1848 and passed", "Kate Greenaway Kate Greenaway Catherine Greenaway (17 March 18466 November 1901) was a Victorian artist and writer, known for her children's book illustrations. She received her education in graphic design and art between 1858 and 1871 from South Kensington School of Art and the Royal Female School of Art, and the Slade School of Fine Art. She began her career designing for the burgeoning holiday card market, producing Christmas and Valentine’s cards. In 1879 wood-block engraver and printer, Edmund Evans, printed \"Under the Window\", an instant best-selller, which established her reputation. Her collaboration with Evans continued throughout the 1880s and 1890s. The", "Christmas in the post-war United States well as contemporary cultural images such as elves sporting Beatle haircuts and psychedelic Christmas trees in Warholesque colors. \"Happy Christmas\" replaced \"Merry Christmas\" here and there after clergymen decided the traditional greeting was associated with inebriation. In 1961, 50 billion Christmas cards were mailed by Americans, and, in 1962, America's first Christmas postage stamp was issued—causing a mild firestorm by those who felt the stamp violated separation of church and state. Mamie Eisenhower's Million-Dollar Fudge Recipe was a favorite holiday treat of the Eisenhower White House years. and first appeared in \"Who Says We Can't Cook?\", a spiral-bound collection of", "Cicely Mary Barker \"Groundsel\". Barker was a devout Christian, and produced religious-themed works throughout her life. She published eight postcards and five guardian angel birthday cards for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 1916 and in 1923 respectively. Christmas cards were designed for The Girls' Friendly Society over a 20-year period, and the first three designs sold out a combined printing of 46,500 in 1923. An original design for the society called \"The Darling of the World Has Come\" was purchased by Queen Mary for ₤5.5.0 in 1926. The Croydon Art Society hung Barker's booklet cover design for the Society for the", "Christmas and holiday season English \"myrige\", originally meant merely \"pleasant, agreeable\" rather than joyous or jolly (as in the phrase \"merry month of May\"). Christmas has been celebrated since the 4th century AD, the first known usage of any Christmas greeting dates was in 1534. \"\"Merry Christmas and a happy new year\"\" (thus incorporating two greetings) was in an informal letter written by an English admiral in 1699. The same phrase is contained in the title of the English carol \"We Wish You a Merry Christmas,\" and also appears in the first commercial Christmas card, produced by Henry Cole in England in 1843. Also", "Alejandro Rangel Hidalgo design is still used to symbolize Guadalajara to this day. His best known work involved the designing of Christmas cards for UNICEF and the New York Graphic Society, which gave him international recognition. The cards were designed starting in 1963 and achieved record sales for the United Nations’ children’s agency. One series was named “Christmas through the Ages” with historical scenes from the fifth to nineteenth centuries such as Spain under Philip II, the Renaissance, French Gothic, Mexican colonial, Victorian England, Puritan America as well as scenes from Germany, Norway and Russia. Another was titled “Angels of this World” featuring", "Love (Indianapolis) original 1965 Christmas card design for MoMA, in which the majuscule letters of the word “love” are arranged in a 2×2 square, LO atop VE, and the O tilted to align with the diagonal of the square. MoMA's commission for the card came one year after Indiana had designed similar Christmas cards for close friends. After pirated versions of the design began to appear in excess during the late 1960s, Indiana attempted to copyright his work, but this was rejected on the grounds that a single word cannot be protected. Some art critics believed his switch to the large-scale, three-dimensional", "Frank Wesley Wesley made art based on both biblical and secular themes. Wesley used various techniques: water colours, oil paintings, miniatures and wooden carvings. His painting \"Blue Madonna\" was used for the first UNICEF Christmas card, while five of his paintings were exhibited at the 1950 Holy Year Exhibition in the Vatican. He is also known for designing the urn for Mahatma Gandhi's ashes. Frank Wesley Frank Wesley (1923-2002) was an internationally recognised artist. Frank Wesley studied painting at the Lucknow School of Arts in Delhi. He spent five years at the College of Fine Arts in Kyoto, Japan. After two years", "Christmas Letter Mission distributed on Christmas Eve by local volunteers organised by a county secretary. Christmas Letter Mission The Christmas Letter Mission was an English charity established in the 19th century, which aimed to send a Christmas card to every hospital patient in England. The card was accompanied by a letter. The charity had its origins in a programme set up by Miss E. E. Steele Elliott in 1871 and overseen by a church in Brighton, which aimed to send Christmas cards to all patients in the county of Sussex. The charity's aims later expanded again to include prisoners and those in workhouses,", "Prince Consort Essay was it an un-adopted design. It is more accurately described as a printer's sample stamp, or \"dummy stamp\". The first essay depicted Queen Victoria, but Edwin Hill cautioned Reynolds not to make any essays with the Queen's portrait. Therefore, Prince Albert's portrait was used instead. It is noted that the essays have the check letters \"F\" and \"J\" and it is believed by some scholars that they are the initials of Ferdinand Joubert, who designed Britain's first surface printed postage stamp, the 1855 Four Pence stamp printed by De La Rue, and who may have played a role in the", "George Eve the Ex Libris Society (formed 1891, disbanded 1908) and he designed the royal bookplates for the library at Windsor Castle. He also designed a large number of bookplates for private clients. As a bookplate designer, Eve was a natural choice to design the frame of a number of British stamps. He did so for the first British postage due stamp, in around 1912-13, which he did in a style similar to that of a bookplate with the central area blank. He also designed the frame for the British Post Office Savings Bank receipt stamp and the low value definitive stamps", "Dora Wheeler Keith the only major tapestry by Associated Artists known to survive. Dora Wheeler's first artwork published under her own name was a Christmas card design that won first prize in the Prang competition in 1881. During the 1880s Wheeler enjoyed success as a book and magazine illustrator, and published chromolithographs in Art Amateur. She designed the title page and the illustrations for her mother’s books, and for New York publishers such as the Harper and Brothers 1884 edition of Edgar Allen Poe's collected works. During the 1880s, Dora Wheeler also embarked on a series of portraits of the leading literary lights", "Coutts 2006 Stella McCartney was commissioned to design the Coutts Visa debit card. The card included a translucent Coutts logo which could only be seen if held up to the light. In 2013 Coutts replaced its purple 'World' charge card, which had been designed by Boateng, with the new ‘Silk’ Charge card. The silk design was inspired by the traditional Chinese wallpaper brought back by Britain’s first ambassador to China, Earl Macartney in 1794, and presented to Thomas Coutts, which lines the walls of the boardroom at the Strand headquarters. Coutts sponsorship focuses on causes and organisations that share the Coutts", "E-card The user can then embed it onto an animation so as to achieve a much higher level of personalization. Some E-cards include interactive games. The games usually contain animation and music much like other animated E-cards and have the same functionality allowing the sender to add a personal message. The greeting card metaphor was employed early in the life of the World Wide Web. The first postcard site, \"The Electric Postcard\" was created in late 1994 by Judith Donath at the MIT Media Lab. It started slowly: 10-20 cards a day were sent in the first weeks, 1000-2000 a day", "Sockl and Nathan Sockl and Nathan Sockl and Nathan were a 19th-century British greeting card and publishing company with headquarters in London. It was created and managed by Victor Sockl and Saul Nathan. The company was as a partnership between Victor Franz Thedor Sockl, a son of the painters Theodor Sockl and Clara Adelheid Sockl, née Soterius von Sachsenheim, and Saul Nathan. Victor Sockl, his brother Carl Sockl, and Carl's family had emigrated from the Austrian Empire to Britain in the second half of the 19th century, most likely seeking to avoid conscription and escape the unrest in Central Europe after the Revolutions", "Father Christmas promising baby asleep in a cradle\". The figure of Santa Claus had originated in the US, drawing at least partly upon Dutch St Nicolas traditions. A New York publication of 1821, \"A New-Year’s Present\", contained an illustrated poem \"Old Santeclaus with Much Delight\" in which a Santa figure on a reindeer sleigh brings presents for good children and a \"long, black birchen rod\" for use on the bad ones. In 1823 came the famous poem \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\", usually attributed to the New York writer Clement Clarke Moore, which developed the character further. Moore's poem became immensely popular", "Sandringham House Prince of Wales, later Edward VII, as a country home for him and his fiancée, Princess Alexandra of Denmark. Between 1870 and 1900, the house was almost completely rebuilt in a style described by Pevsner as \"frenetic Jacobean\". Edward also developed the estate, creating one of the finest shoots in England. Following his death in 1910, the estate passed to Edward's son and heir, George V, who described the house as \"dear old Sandringham, the place I love better than anywhere else in the world\". It was the setting for the first Christmas broadcast in 1932. George died at the", "Christmas elf cover illustration for its 1873 Christmas Issue showing Santa surrounded by toys and elves with the caption, \"Here we have an idea of the preparations that are made to supply the young folks with toys at Christmas time.\" During this time Godey's was immensely influential to the birth of Christmas traditions, having shown the first widely circulated picture of a modern Christmas tree on the front cover of its 1850 Christmas issue. Additional recognition was given in Austin Thompson's 1876 work \"The House of Santa Claus, a Christmas Fairy Show for Sunday Schools\". In Clement Clarke Moore's 1823 poem \"A", "Ernest Nister of Father Christmas by Nister are now sold on Etsy, Amazon, AbeBooks and eBay. Ernest Nister Ernest Nister (1841–1906) was a publisher and printer of movable books for children and paper ephemera such as greeting cards, post cards, and calendars. He was born in Darmstadt, Germany and later had an office in London. He refined the techniques used in the design of \"magic windows,\" \"dissolving picture,\" and pop-up books, publishing them from his firm based in Nuremberg, a toy-making center of the nineteenth century. Although not the first to invent pop-up books, he was the first to invent \"automatic\" pop-up", "Charles Heath George Heath (financial backer) contracted for paper money and postage stamps with several governments. The Penny Black was designed by William Wyon, Corbould and Heath. Among Heath's pupils were George Thomas Doo (1800–1886), William Henry Mote (1803–1871), and James Henry Watt (1799–1867). Heath received training in engraving from his father James, and his first known etching dates from when he was six years old. It was from his father that he learnt how to produce small plates suitable for book illustration. He was a noted if self-regarding illustrator of the Waverley Novels, and engraved \"Christ healing the Sick in the", "UNICEF UK Tom Hiddleston and Robbie Williams. UNICEF is supported entirely by voluntary contributions and the support from corporate partners makes a significant contribution to its work. Companies that currently have a corporate partnership with UNICEF UK include Barclays, easyJet, Marks & Spencer, IKEA, Manchester United, EE, Pampers and Vodafone. UNICEF was the first charity to produce and sell cards for the purpose of raising funds. The very first UNICEF card was a Christmas card created in 1949. The card was a reproduction of a painting, sent as a thank you to UNICEF in 1947, by seven-year-old Jitka Samkova. Jitka’s village in", "Christmas stamp For many years these were not included in the Stanley Gibbons catalogues, as they classified them as a “seal” rather than a postage stamp, but they have been properly included since the mid-1960s as they prepaid postage and so, despite the inscription \"Letter stamp\", are normal stamps, and should therefore be counted as the first stamp issued expressly to mark Christmas. Like the slightly earlier Silver Jubilee overprints on the “sphinx” stamp, the Christmas stamps were issued in booklet form in panes of 20. In 1937, Austria issued two \"Christmas greeting stamps\" featuring a rose and zodiac signs. In 1939,", "Laura Seddon Greeting Card Collection a period of twenty years initially using George Buday's book \"History of the Christmas Card\". The collection became so important that she was able to donate it to the Manchester Metropolitan University. Seddon became an Honorary Fellow of the University in 1992 in recognition of her donation and achievement. Together with the Sir Harry Page collection (which was purchased by this University), these makes up the two Victorian Ephemera collections of the MMU Special Collections. Laura Seddon Greeting Card Collection Laura Seddon Greeting Card Collection is a collection of greeting cards now in the Manchester Metropolitan University, in the Sir", "Neil Papworth Corporation. He is now an Oracle employee and is working on 4G related technologies. In 1992, Neil Papworth was working as a developer and test engineer at Sema Group Telecoms, in a team developing a Short Message Service Centre (SMSC) for their customer, Vodafone UK in Newbury, Berkshire. As part of this project, he sent the world's first text message, on 3 December 1992, at the age of 22. It was sent from a computer. The message was \"Merry Christmas\", and was sent to Richard Jarvis, a director at Vodafone, who was enjoying his office Christmas party. Richard Jarvis received", "Chetham's Library 'S'-shaped hand-holds (which are still in use) were provided as seats for readers. In 1718 the feoffees offered the Manchester poet and inventor of a system of shorthand, John Byrom, the post of Library Keeper. Byrom, who was an avid collector of books, declined the offer but after his good friend, Robert Thyer, became Librarian in 1732, frequently acted as an agent for the library, purchasing books at London auctions. Byrom's library, which included the manuscript of his poem \"Christmas Day\" (which became the Christmas carol, \"Christians Awake\") and some 2,800 printed books, was presented to the library by his", "Old Santeclaus with Much Delight Old Santeclaus with Much Delight \"Old Santeclaus with Much Delight\" is an anonymous illustrated children's poem published in New York in 1821, predating by two years the first publication of \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\" (\"Twas the Night before Christmas\"). It is the first publication to mention (and illustrate) Santa's reindeer and sleigh, as well as being the first to describe his arrival on Christmas Eve. The accompanying illustrations are the earliest published artistic depictions of a Santa Claus figure. The poem, with eight colored lithographic illustrations, was published in New York by William B. Gilley in 1821 as a", "John Sturt poor, in August 1730. Sturt executed the illustrations to many of the religious and artistic publications of the time, including: He also engraved the \"Genealogy of George I\", in two sheets, 1714; \"Chronological Tables of Europe\", 1726; and a plate of the \"Seven Bishops\", from a calligraphic drawing by Thomas Rodway. Sturt was the inventor of the class of prints known as \"medleys\", the first of which he published in 1706. His last employment was upon the plates to James Anderson's \"Selectus Diplomatum et Numismatum Thesaurus\". In association with John Ayres, Sturt engraved the writing-master's books on calligraphy. He engraved", "Beatrix Potter artist Sir John Everett Millais, who recognised Beatrix's talent of observation. Although Potter was aware of art and artistic trends, her drawing and her prose style were uniquely her own. As a way to earn money in the 1890s, Beatrix and her brother began to print Christmas cards of their own design, as well as cards for special occasions. Mice and rabbits were the most frequent subject of her fantasy paintings. In 1890, the firm of Hildesheimer and Faulkner bought several of her drawings of her rabbit Benjamin Bunny to illustrate verses by Frederic Weatherly titled \"A Happy Pair\". In", "George Goodwin Kilburne Normandy and Switzerland, besides visiting many parts of England and Wales for the same purpose. Shortly after the death of the Emperor Napoleon III, the Empress Eugenie commissioned Kilburne to paint several pictures for her. For this purpose he paid many visits to her at Chislehurst, Kent to paint pictures of the rooms used by the late Emperor, which had been kept, just as they were, during his lifetime. Towards the end of the 19th century he designed and executed a great number of greetings and Christmas cards for the firms of Raphael Tuck & Sons and De La Rue,", "Isaac Newton in popular culture skeptics, and others have referred to 25 December as \"Newtonmas\", a tongue-in-cheek reference to Christmas. Celebrants send cards with \"Reason's Greetings!\" printed inside, and exchange boxes of apples and science-related items as gifts. The celebration may have had its origin in a meeting of the Newton Association at Christmas 1890 to talk, distribute gifts, and share laughter and good cheer. The name \"Newtonmas\" can be attributed to The Skeptics Society, which needed an alternative name for its Christmas party. Another name for this holiday is Gravmas (also spelt Gravmass or Grav-mass) which is an abbreviation of \"gravitational mass\" due to", "Clara Johnson Scroggins By 1998, 11 million American households collected Hallmark ornaments, and 250,000 people were members of the Keepsake Ornament Collector's Club. There were as many as 400 local Keepsake Ornament Collector's Club chapters in the US. Scroggins was instrumental in influencing Hallmark Cards to introduce African American-themed ornaments, including its first Black Christmas ornament, \"Cheerful Santa\" in 1992. She also wrote an ornament column for Collector's Mart - The Magazine of Art Collectibles. Clara Johnson Scroggins Clara Johnson Scroggins is recognized as one of the world’s foremost authorities on collecting Christmas ornaments and acknowledged to have the most extensive collection of", "Elizabeth Blackadder detail. Her work can be seen at the Tate Gallery, the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, and the Museum of Modern Art in New York, and has appeared on a series of Royal Mail stamps. In 2012, Blackadder was chosen to paint Scottish First Minister Alex Salmond's official Christmas card. Blackadder was born and raised at 7 Weir Street, the third child of Thomas and Violet Isabella Blackadder. Violet Blackadder ensured Elizabeth benefited from a series of promising educational opportunities and, determined to spare her daughter the struggles she had been through, convinced her own father to support Elizabeth's", "Father Christmas Santa Claus, who with a right good will / Comes down the chimney with a footstep airy ...\" \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\" was published in England in December 1853 in \"Notes and Queries\". An explanatory note states that the St Nicholas figure is known as Santa Claus in New York State and as Krishkinkle in Pennsylvania. 1854 marked the first English publication of \"Carl Krinkin; or, The Christmas Stocking\" by the popular American author Susan Warner. The novel was published three times in London in 1854-5, and there were several later editions. Characters in the book include both Santa", "Henry Cole work on the Great Exhibition and was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1875. Often referred to in the press as \"Old King\" Cole, he was known to have the closest personal backing of the Queen and especially of the Prince Consort, who when he needed a facilitator for one of his pet projects, was heard to remark: \"We must have steam, get Cole\". An English heritage blue plaque commemorates where Cole lived and worked at 33 Thurloe Square, South Kensington, London, opposite the Victoria and Albert Museum. In 2001, one of Cole's first Christmas cards, which was sent to his", "Philip Van Doren Stern and was then unable to find a publisher. He sent 200 printed copies to friends as Christmas cards in December 1943. His daughter, Marguerite Stern Robinson, recalled \"I was in the third grade and remember delivering a few of these cards to my teachers and my friends... My father, who was himself from a mixed religious background, explained to me that while this story takes place at Christmas time, and that we were sending it as a Christmas card to our friends, it is a universal story for all people in all times.\" The story was published as a book", "Postage stamp postage stamp. In 1680, William Dockwra, an English merchant in London, and his partner Robert Murray established the London Penny Post, a mail system that delivered letters and small parcels inside the city of London for the sum of one penny. Confirmation of paid postage was indicated by the use of a hand \"stamp\" to frank the mailed item. Though this 'stamp' was applied to the letter or parcel itself, rather than to a separate piece of paper, it is considered by many historians to be the world's first postage stamp. In 1835, the Slovene civil servant Lovrenc Košir from", "Christmas line: \"Twas the Night Before Christmas\"). The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance. This also started the cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associated commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book \"The First Christmas in New England\", Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree. While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected \"a transition state about Christmas", "Punch (magazine) he severed his connection in 1845. The magazine initially struggled for readers, except for an 1842 \"Almanack\" issue which shocked its creators by selling 90,000 copies. In December 1842 due to financial difficulties the magazine was sold to Bradbury and Evans, both printers and publishers. Bradbury and Evans capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies and also were the publishers for Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray. The term \"cartoon\" to refer to comic drawings was first used in \"Punch\" in 1843, when the Houses of Parliament were to be decorated with murals, and \"cartoons\" for the mural were displayed", "Postcard a postcard is usually printed by a private company, individual or organization, a postal card is issued by the relevant postal authority. The world's oldest postcard was sent in 1840 to the writer Theodore Hook from Fulham in London, England. The study and collecting of postcards is termed \"deltiology\". Cards with messages had been sporadically created and posted by individuals since the beginning of postal services. The earliest known picture postcard was a hand-painted design on card, posted in Fulham in London by the writer Theodore Hook to himself in 1840, and bearing a penny black stamp. He probably created" ]

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[ "All by Myself All by Myself \"All by Myself\" is a song by American artist Eric Carmen released in 1975. The verse is based on the second movement (\"Adagio sostenuto\") of Sergei Rachmaninoff's \"Piano Concerto No. 2 in C minor\", Opus 18. The chorus is borrowed from the song \"Let's Pretend\", which Carmen wrote and recorded with the Raspberries in 1972. The power ballad was the first single from Carmen's first solo LP after leaving the power pop group the Raspberries and was released in December 1975, to great acclaim. It reached #2 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, both Love Machine by The" ]

[ "All by Myself (Bee Gees song) record. The song features a hard distorted electric guitar. The horns were played by Geoff Grant. The track was recorded around June to July 1966 in Saint Clair Studios in Hurstville. All by Myself (Bee Gees song) \"All by Myself\" is a song recorded by the English rock group Bee Gees in 1966 and was not released until 1970 when it was included on \"Inception/Nostalgia\". It was written by Maurice Gibb, who also sings lead vocals on this track. According to Allmusic's Steve Leggett, the song was influenced by Beatles along with three other songs by the Bee Gees, \"How", "All by Myself (Bee Gees song) All by Myself (Bee Gees song) \"All by Myself\" is a song recorded by the English rock group Bee Gees in 1966 and was not released until 1970 when it was included on \"Inception/Nostalgia\". It was written by Maurice Gibb, who also sings lead vocals on this track. According to Allmusic's Steve Leggett, the song was influenced by Beatles along with three other songs by the Bee Gees, \"How Many Birds\", \"Exit, Stage Right\" and \"Coalman\". It was the first song written and credited to Maurice Gibb alone, and was also his first solo lead vocal on a Bee Gees", "Shakin' Stevens and the Sunsets to London. Their replacements were bass player George Chick, who offered an exciting visual element with his wild stage performance, and Bristolian rock and roll pianist Mike 'Ace' Skudder, who was also no slouch when it came to entertaining an audience. With the new line-up the band recorded a cover of Fats Domino's \"All By Myself\" for a compilation album called \"Battle Of The Bands\". The producer on the session was Donny Marchand, an American now resident in the UK. Marchand promised the Sunsets that, with his connections in the music business, he could get them a contract with CBS", "All by Myself (Irving Berlin song) alongside Al Jolson. This performance was broadcast live on Crosby's radio show on May 7, 1947. All by Myself (Irving Berlin song) \"All by Myself\" is a popular song written by Irving Berlin, published in 1921. It was introduced in \"The Music Box Revue of 1922\". Popular recordings in 1921 were by Ted Lewis, Frank Crumit, Aileen Stanley, Benny Krueger's Orchestra, Vaughn De Leath and by Ben Selvin (vocal by Ernest Hare). Part of the song is sung by Betty Boop (Mae Questel) in the 1933 animated short film \"Is My Palm Read\" It was performed by Bing Crosby and", "All by Myself (Irving Berlin song) All by Myself (Irving Berlin song) \"All by Myself\" is a popular song written by Irving Berlin, published in 1921. It was introduced in \"The Music Box Revue of 1922\". Popular recordings in 1921 were by Ted Lewis, Frank Crumit, Aileen Stanley, Benny Krueger's Orchestra, Vaughn De Leath and by Ben Selvin (vocal by Ernest Hare). Part of the song is sung by Betty Boop (Mae Questel) in the 1933 animated short film \"Is My Palm Read\" It was performed by Bing Crosby and Joan Caulfield (dubbed by Betty Russell) in the 1946 film \"Blue Skies\". Crosby also performed it", "Karel Gott the \"Český slavík\" (Czech Nightingale), and has won the accolade every year since, with the exception of 1998 and 2012. He remains popular in a number of countries, and has performed widely outside the Czech Republic. On 29 September 2000 he played a concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City. Karel Gott recorded a cover version of the song \"All by Myself\" called \"Kam tenkrát šel můj bratr Jan\" (Where Did My Brother Jan Go This Time), dedicated to Jan Palach, the student activist who killed himself by self-immolation as a protest against the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia in", "Rachelle Ann Go where young aspirants belt out vocally challenging songs. She sang Céline Dion's version of \"All By Myself\". She lost to Musica Cristobal in this competition thus getting the 1st runner up position. In 2003, Go auditioned for a talent search on GMA-7, Search for a Star. She passed the auditions and made it as one of the twelve finalists. On March 13, 2004, Go was announced as the grand champion, as she sung her rendition of Mariah Carey's \"Through the Rain\". After the contest, she transferred to ABS-CBN. Several weeks after winning, she collaborated with Philippine rap group Salbakuta for", "All by Myself this song. The melody was taken from his previous hit with the Raspberries, \"Let's Pretend\", as noted above. Carmen's original version has spawned numerous cover versions by such artists as Rico J. Puno in 1976, Sheryl Crow in 1993, Celine Dion in 1996, Frank Sinatra, Igudesman & Joo, Il Divo, and Only Men Aloud!. The slide guitar solo was performed by famed studio guitarist Hugh McCracken. Carmen performed \"All By Myself\" and his follow-up hit, \"Never Gonna Fall in Love Again,\" on \"The Midnight Special\" television program on July 23, 1976 (season 4, episode 37). The show was hosted by", "Dalton and Dubarri included the hit song \"I can Dance all by Myself.\" The value of Dalton and Dubarri Lp's and 45 's can be found in The Official price guide to records, published by Goldmine. Dalton and Dubarri Dalton and Dubarri were a rock band from the 1970s. The leads were Gary Dalton, and Kent Dubarri who released four albums. Two of them were on Columbia records. Gary Dalton's real name was Gary Dalton Stovall and Kent DuBarri's real name was Kent Sprague or Kent DuBarri Sprague, but he also went by the name of Butch DuBarri. They were previously in a", "Maurice Gibb was the lead vocalist on some Bee Gees tracks including \"On Time\", \"Lay It on Me\", \"Closer Than Close\", and his last song \"Man in the Middle\". His first composition is \"All by Myself\" recorded in 1966 but not released until 1970 on \"Inception/Nostalgia\". On the Bee Gees' performances of \"Nights on Broadway\", Gibb sang falsetto on it, rather than Barry who originally sang falsetto on the studio recording. He also showcases his singing career on his unreleased LP \"The Loner\". As a songwriter, Gibb contributed primarily to melody, with his brothers writing the lyrics that they would sing on", "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again song from Snow Patrol's second album, \"When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up\". Carmen performed \"Never Gonna Fall in Love Again\" and his prior hit, \"All By Myself\" on \"The Midnight Special\" television program on July 23, 1976 (season 4, episode 37). The show was hosted by The Spinners. Australian singer songwriter Mark Holden recorded and released a version May 1976 as his debut single. The song was a commercial success, peaking at number 13 on the Kent Music Report. Mark Holden released his debut studio album \"Dawn in Darkness\" in 1975. Consisting entirely of original songs,", "Out Here on My Own Out Here on My Own \"Out Here on My Own\" is a ballad from the 1980 musical film \"Fame\", performed by Irene Cara. It was written by sibling songwriting duo Lesley Gore (lyricist) and Michael Gore (composer). The song was produced by Michael Gore, and published by MGM BMI/Variety ASCAP. Cara performed the song at the 1981 Academy Awards, where it was nominated for Best Original Song. The song was released on the soundtrack to the 1980 film \"Fame\", which also contains an instrumental version of the track. In its original review of the song in August 1980, \"Billboard\" described", "Without You (Peabo Bryson and Regina Belle song) in the lead role. That same year, Regina Belle released her first album, \"All by Myself\", but \"Without You\" was not included on the album. In 2012, \"All by Myself\" was remastered on CD and \"Without You\" was included at the end of the album as a bonus track, however, it was not the original 1987 version, but a \"single mix\" of the song. \"Without You\" was not included in any of Belle's other albums, nor in her compilations. Unlike her, Bryson included the song on his album \"Positive\", released in 1988, the only album that contains the original version", "Elizabeth Wolfgramm It All\" when she was only 12 years old. The song hit number 1 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary Charts and #3 on the Pop Charts. She remained in the group throughout four albums during the latter half of the 1980s, featuring as the lead vocalist on, in addition to \"You Got It All,\" such major hit songs as \"Crush on You,\" \"Cross My Broken Heart,\" and \"Make It Real.\" Wolfgramm left the group in the early 1990s to pursue other projects. In 1990, she recorded the song entitled \"Yourself Myself\" featured in \"Tatsuro Song from L.A.\" (1990), Universal Music.", "Friends (Dionne Warwick album) #1 on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Hot 100. A second single, \"Whisper in the Dark\", was released in 1986. \"On My Own\", a song recorded by Patti LaBelle and Michael McDonald, was originally written for Warwick by Burt Bacharach and Carole Bayer Sager. Warwick recorded the song to be released on this album but it wasn't included in the final track list. The version recorded by LaBelle and McDonald was released in 1986 and became a hit. Warwick has performed the song live on several occasions. Friends (Dionne Warwick album) Friends is a 1985 album recorded by Dionne Warwick, her seventh", "All by Myself The Spinners. One of the most notable cover versions of \"All by Myself\" was recorded by Celine Dion in 1996. It was the fourth (or third, depending on the country) hit single from her album \"Falling into You\". Produced by David Foster at Compass Point Studios in The Bahamas, it was released on October 7, 1996 in Europe, January 13, 1997 in Australia, and March 11, 1997 in North America. There were three music videos made. The first one was released in October 1996. It contains fragments from Dion's photo session for the \"Falling into You\" album cover and some", "Alisah Bonaobra tears and as Scherzinger went to the stage to comfort her, begged for second chance and she sang again in front of Scherzinger. Eventually, the other three judges decided to send her through to the second bootcamp round as well. In the second bootcamp round, she performed \"Defying Gravity\" as her solo performance, which resulted in getting through to the six chair challenge. In the six chair challenge, she performed Celine Dion's \"All By Myself\" and was given a seat by her mentor Osbourne, taking seat number 2 from Taliah Dalorto. Osbourne later decided to give her seat to Grace", "Paul Boutin (sound engineer) of confirmed engineers Humberto Gatica and Brad Gilderman. At Record Plant, Paul Boutin was involved in recording/mixing sessions for Liza Minnelli then Celine Dion and Babyface, more specifically for the album \"Falling Into You\" (including contributions to singles \"All By Myself\" and \"Because You Loved Me\"), the \"Waiting to Exhale\" soundtrack and Babyface’s solo record \"The Day\". In 1996, Kenneth \"Babyface\" Edmonds opened his own private studio “Brandon’s Way Recording” in Los Angeles where Paul Boutin joined him. At Brandon’s Way, Paul Boutin worked on major projects that earned multiple RIAA certifications and Grammy nominations. Among those certified/nominated projects, here", "On My Own (Patti LaBelle and Michael McDonald song) On My Own (Patti LaBelle and Michael McDonald song) \"On My Own\" was a \"Billboard\" #1 hit duet by singers Patti LaBelle and Michael McDonald when it was released as a single in 1986. It was released from LaBelle's first platinum album, \"Winner in You\" and was written and produced by Burt Bacharach and his former wife Carole Bayer Sager. The song was originally recorded by singer Dionne Warwick for inclusion on her album \"Friends\". It is unclear why the song was not included on the final track list. The song was based on a relationship that had reached its", "B.A.R.S. The Barry Adrian Reese Story the project were Neo Da Matrix, Don Cannon, Kanye West, Bink, Hi-Tek, and others. Swizz Beatz confirmed before the album's release that Sean Garrett would have production credits on this album: Cassidy himself produced the track \"All By Myself\" which sampled \"Me, Myself & I\" by The Dramatics. Three promotional mixtapes called \"The Hustlas Home\", \"The Hustlas Home Pt.2\", and \"07-07-07\" were released before the CD. Guest appearances include Swizz Beatz, Bone Thugs-N-Harmony, Eve, Angie Stone, Larsiny, Mashonda, Mark Morrison, Rell and John Legend. \"Celebrate\" featuring John Legend samples jazz singer Nina Simone's version of the song \"Strange Fruit.\" B.A.R.S.", "Regina Belle became the first female vocalist with the school's jazz ensemble. Belle's musical influences include Phyllis Hyman, Billie Holiday, Shirley Caesar, Patti LaBelle, and Nancy Wilson. She was introduced to the Manhattans by New York radio DJ Vaughn Harper and began working as their opening act. She recorded the duet \"Where Did We Go Wrong\" with the group which helped to attract the attention of Columbia Records. They eventually signed her to a record deal. In 1987, she released her debut album \"All by Myself.\" It includes her first hits \"So Many Tears\" and \"Show Me the Way\". In the same", "Make It Easy on Yourself Make It Easy on Yourself \"Make It Easy on Yourself\" is a popular song written by Burt Bacharach and Hal David which was first a hit for Jerry Butler in 1962. The best known version is the 1965 recording by the Walker Brothers for whom it was a #1 UK hit. Dionne Warwick, who made a demo of this song in early 1962, later had a hit with the song in 1970. Chicago-based Vee-Jay Records head A&R man Calvin Carter brought back \"Make It Easy on Yourself\" from a trip to New York City scouting song publishers. Carter played the", "Only You (And You Alone) 1974, Ringo Starr covered this song for his album \"Goodnight Vienna\" at the suggestion of John Lennon. This version was released as a single (b/w \"Call Me\") on 11 November in the US, and it became a number six hit on the US Billboard Hot 100 and reached number one on the easy listening chart in early 1975. It was released in the UK on 15 November. Lennon plays acoustic guitar on the track, and recorded a guide vocal which was kept by producer Richard Perry. Harry Nilsson sings harmony vocals and appears with Starr in the amusing music video", "Bonnie Raitt Jon Cleary, she sang a medley of \"I'm in Love Again\" and \"All by Myself\" by Fats Domino. Raitt appeared on the June 7, 2008, broadcast of Garrison Keillor's radio program \"A Prairie Home Companion\". She performed two blues songs with Kevin \"Keb' Mo'\" Moore: \"No Getting Over You\" and \"There Ain't Nothin' in Ramblin'\". Raitt also sang \"Dimming of the Day\" with Richard Thompson. This show, along with another one with Raitt and her band in October 2006, is archived on the \"Prairie Home Companion\" website. In April 2011, the \"Bonnie Raitt and Friends\" DVD officially became RIAA certified", "All by Myself (Rikk Agnew album) All by Myself (Rikk Agnew album) All by Myself is the debut solo studio album by the American multi-instrumentalist Rikk Agnew. It was originally released in October 1982, on the label Frontier. It was produced by Agnew, and co-produced by the then-Adolescents producer Thom Wilson. Agnew played all the instruments on the album. The band D.I., which Agnew joined in 1983, included cover versions of the songs \"O.C. Life\", and \"Falling Out\" from this album for their debut album, \"Ancient Artifacts\", which was released in 1985. In a retrospective review for AllMusic, critic Ned Raggett gave the album three and", "Don Costa started working with Mike Curb at MGM Records, producing and arranging material for the Osmond Brothers hits, as well as having a hand in Sammy Davis, Jr.'s \"The Candy Man\", \"We Can Make it Together\" by Steve & Eydie featuring the Osmonds, and Petula Clark's cover of \"My Guy.\" In the early 1980s, Costa scored again as an artist with a hit with his 10-year-old daughter Nikka entitled \"Out Here on My Own\". The two were planning a follow-up when Costa died of a heart attack on January 19, 1983 in New York. Don Costa Dominick P. \"Don\" Costa (June", "The Walker Brothers first single, \"Pretty Girls Everywhere,\" had little success, but radio stations picked up on the follow-up \"Love Her\" with Engel's baritone vocals, and it made the Top 20 in the UK Singles Chart in June 1965. The song had originally been recorded by The Everly Brothers and released as B-side to their single \"The Girl Who Sang The Blues\" in 1963. Philips then recorded and released the group's version of \"Make It Easy on Yourself,\" a Burt Bacharach and Hal David ballad previously recorded by Jerry Butler. It was sung by Engel (by now called Scott Walker), arranged by Ivor", "You Alone (Solo Tu) single (catalog number B-10624) in January, 1954 (with the flip side \"Surprisin'\"). The later recording, made May 17, 1961, was issued as a track on the 1961 album \"Sing to Me Mr. C\". (RCA Victor catalog number LSP-2390 ) You Alone (Solo Tu) \"You Alone (Solo Tu)\" is a popular song. The music was written by Robert Allen, the lyrics by Al Stillman. The song was published in 1953. The best-known recordings were made by Perry Como, who recorded the song twice, in 1953 and in 1961. The first recording, made on August 19, 1953, was released in the United", "Is My Palm Read Is My Palm Read Is My Palm Read is a 1933 Pre-Code Fleischer Studios animated short film starring Betty Boop, and featuring Koko the Clown and Bimbo. Betty visits Bimbo the fortune teller for some advice, but Bimbo is only interested in making time with Betty. Bimbo's crystal ball predicts that Betty will be shipwrecked on a desert isle (during which time she sings part of the Irving Berlin song \"All by Myself\"), and attacked by evil spirits resembling poltergeists, but rescued by Bimbo. When Bimbo reveals himself by removing his fake beard, a happy Betty embraces him. Unfortunately, a", "Patti LaBelle career-defining song, \"You Are My Friend\". LaBelle became a mainstream solo star in 1984 following the success of the singles, \"If Only You Knew\", \"New Attitude\" and \"Stir It Up\", with the latter two crossing over to pop audiences and becoming radio staples. Less than two years later, in 1986, LaBelle scored with the number-one album, \"Winner in You\" and the number-one duet single, \"On My Own\", with Michael McDonald. LaBelle eventually won a 1992 Grammy for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance for her 1991 album, \"Burnin'\", followed by a second Grammy win for the live album, \"Live! One Night", "Alisah Bonaobra \"Go the Distance\" while her duet song with her coach was a medley of \"Hero\" and \"You Can Do Anything\". She advanced to the second round along with Jason Dy. In the second round of the grand finals, Bonaobra performed Celine Dion's \"All By Myself\" but ended up as the runner-up after getting 47.06% of the votes, losing to Jason Dy. In July 2016, Bonaobra competed for WCOPA (World Championship of Performing Arts) held in Long Beach, California. She was part of senior II female 18-24 category. She performed \"I Surrender\" for open entry and \"All By Myself\" for pop", "Linda Perry performance of \"Hurt\" at the MTV Video Music Awards. Perry has signed with the independent label Kill Rock Stars Records, who re-released her solo album \"In Flight\" in October 2005. Featuring new artwork, the re-release includes original videos for \"Fill Me Up\" and \"Freeway\". In 2008, Perry played guitar in the video for Christina Aguilera's \"Save Me From Myself.\" Perry made a live appearance at \"Hope For Haiti Now\" playing piano while Aguilera premiered a stripped-down version of their song \"Lift Me Up.\" She also made guest appearances on Hole's \"Nobody's Daughter\" tour and on a concert of the Perry-signed", "Manos Hatzidakis direction. The score was also used later by Maurice Béjart's 20th Century Ballets. He also wrote the music for a song which Arthur Altman added English lyrics to and gave to Brenda Lee. The song was \"All Alone Am I\". In 1964 he released the album \"15 Vespers\" (\"Δεκαπέντε Εσπερινοί\") with the famous song \"Mr Antonis (\"Ο Κυρ Αντώνης\"). In 1965, his LP \"Gioconda's Smile\" (\"Το Χαμόγελο της Τζιοκόντας\") was released on Minos-EMI. In 2004, it was re-released, digitally remastered as an audiophile LP and a CD in the EMI Classics collection. In 1966 he travelled to New York City", "John Miles (musician) and Sweden. The concerts consist of a combination of pop music and popular classical music (often combined) and various well-known musicians and groups usually participate. Miles always performs \"Music\", and also sings other songs. In 2009, an album \"The Best of John Miles at the Night of the Proms\" was released, which included \"Music\" and cover versions including \"All by Myself\", \"Bohemian Rhapsody\" and \"It Was a Very Good Year\". Miles has also toured with Tina Turner since 1987, playing keyboards, guitar and supporting vocals on every one of her tours, and played on several of her albums. He also", "Jimmy Rogers and recording engineer for Blue Heaven Studios and APO Records. Jimmy Rogers Jimmy Rogers (June 3, 1924 – December 19, 1997) was a Chicago blues singer, guitarist and harmonica player, best known for his work as a member of Muddy Waters's band in the early 1950s. He also had solo hits on the R&B chart with \"That's All Right\" in 1950 and \"Walking by Myself\" in 1954. He withdrew from the music industry at the end of the 1950s but returned to recording and touring in the 1970s. He is not to be confused with the country music singer Jimmie", "Ralph Butler Ralph Butler Ralph Thomas Butler (12 October 1886 – 8 April 1969) was a British songwriter, responsible for the lyrics of many popular songs of the 1930s and later, mostly with comic or novelty elements. He was active as a songwriter from the late 1920s until the mid-1950s. Among his most famous songs were \"All By Yourself In The Moonlight\" (1929), published under the pseudonym Jay Wallis, which reportedly sold over a million copies; \"Let’s Sing The Cuddly Song\" (written with Julian Wright, 1929); \"The Sun Has Got His Hat On\" (1932), \"Run Rabbit Run\" (1939), and \"Hey! Little Hen\"", "Mark Elliott (musician) loves. The album will also be a jumping off point for the band to begin turning their music into action, protecting what is near and dear - nature. The band is actively touring. Mark Elliott and Runaway Home are endorsed by Elixir Strings and Taylor Guitars. He owns and manages the Cub Creek recording studio. Mark Elliott (musician) Mark Elliott is a songwriter, author and guitarist whose career started in Washington, D.C. and later took him to Nashville. As a songwriter Elliott has penned hits which reached the Billboard Top Forty charts, notably \"Every Man for Himself\" for Neal McCoy.", "Michelle Nicastro the Varese Sarabande label. Two albums, \"Toonful\" and \"Toonful Too\", feature songs from animated musicals, \"Reel Imagination\" features songs from family musicals, and \"On My Own\" features songs from contemporary Broadway musicals, including her version of \"On My Own\". They feature Paul Goldberg on drums and percussion, Walt Fowler on trumpet, Jimmy Hoff on bass, and Lanny Meyers piano/arranger. Nicastro died of breast and brain cancer on November 4, 2010, at home with her family. She was 50 years old. \"For the Good of Our Country\", an episode of \"The Event\" that originally aired November 15, 2010, is dedicated to", "Himself (Gilbert O'Sullivan album) word play, the usage of the latter being influenced by Spike Milligan. Upon release, \"Himself\" was a commercial success in the UK, reaching No. 5 on the UK Albums Chart. It received a warm reception from critics, and O'Sullivan became noted for his satirical lyrics and eye-catching, atypical dress style, which included a cloth cap and short trousers. The album was released with a revised track list in the United States in 1972, this time boasting the hit single \"Alone Again (Naturally)\". It reached No. 9 on the US \"Billboard 200\". The original version of \"Himself\" was remastered and re-released", "Barbra Streisand After releasing the live album \"One Voice\" in 1986, Streisand was set to release another album of Broadway songs in 1988. She recorded several cuts for the album under the direction of Rupert Holmes, including \"On My Own\" (from \"Les Misérables\"), a medley of \"How Are Things in Glocca Morra?\" and \"Heather on the Hill\" (from \"Finian's Rainbow\" and \"Brigadoon\", respectively), \"All I Ask of You\" (from \"The Phantom of the Opera\"), \"Warm All Over\" (from \"The Most Happy Fella\") and an unusual solo version of \"Make Our Garden Grow\" (from \"Candide\"). Streisand was not happy with the direction of", "Ray Miller (bandleader) Calvin Coolidge. They also recorded with Jolson, notably on Irving Berlin's song \"All Alone\" in late 1924. After Mole and Trumbauer left, Miller moved his base to the Hotel Gibson in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1927, and performed regularly for the powerful radio station WLW. He left Cincinnati and formed a new band in Chicago in 1928, which for a few months included trumpeter Muggsy Spanier and clarinetist Volly De Faut. Miller and his orchestra recorded regularly for Brunswick in Chicago until 1930. Miller left the music business sometime after 1930. His later life is not publicly recorded, but it has", "Mark Elliott (musician) the super-group Alabama) as well as Sony Music Publishing. Elliott's songs have been recorded by independent and major artists, receiving airplay on radio and TV in the United States and abroad. His songs have hit the \"Billboard\" Top Forty charts, notably the hit single by Neal McCoy, \"Every Man for Himself\" which \"Billboard\" magazine called \"a song with rare lyrical and musical edge and the best cut on the album.\" The late Rodeo and Recording star Chris LeDoux also recorded one of Mark's songs \"\"Making Ends Meet\"\" on his Capitol Records \"\"Whatcha Gonna Do With A Cowboy\"\" release. Buoyed by", "All Alone Am I which is also on her album \"Superstar Nora Aunor\". American singer Alison Krauss recorded a version on her 2017 album \"Windy City\". All Alone Am I \"All Alone Am I\" is a song from 1962 popularized by the American singer Brenda Lee. The song was originally composed by the Greek composer Manos Hadjidakis and recorded in Greek by Tzeni Karezi for the soundtrack of the film \"To nisi ton genneon\" (\"The Island of the Brave\"); the original song in Greek is titled \"Μην τον ρωτάς τον ουρανό\" (\"Min ton rotas ton ourano\", translation: \"Don't ask the heaven\"). Later, a new", "Jamie O'Neal was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. Two additional singles followed: \"Shiver\" (the title track) and \"Frantic\", which reached No. 21 and No. 41 on the charts, respectively. Also in 2001, the motion picture Bridget Jones's Diary featured a cover version of All by Myself performed by Jamie O'Neal showing actress Renée Zellweger singing to it in the famous pajamas scene. In 2002, she and the country singer Mark Wills recorded a duet together, titled \"I'm Not Gonna Do Anything Without You\". It was released as the second single from Wills' album \"Loving Every Minute\". The song", "Jimmy Rogers Jimmy Rogers Jimmy Rogers (June 3, 1924 – December 19, 1997) was a Chicago blues singer, guitarist and harmonica player, best known for his work as a member of Muddy Waters's band in the early 1950s. He also had solo hits on the R&B chart with \"That's All Right\" in 1950 and \"Walking by Myself\" in 1954. He withdrew from the music industry at the end of the 1950s but returned to recording and touring in the 1970s. He is not to be confused with the country music singer Jimmie Rodgers or the pop singer Jimmie Rodgers. Rogers was born", "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again solo LP, \"Boats Against the Current\", Carmen had a subsequent Top 40 hit entitled \"She Did It\", which was the antithesis of \"Never Gonna Fall in Love Again.\" It is a happy answer to the loneliness and lovelessness described in this song and its equally melancholy predecessor, \"All By Myself\". It should not be confused with a song of the same title, sometimes written as \"Never Gonna Fall in Love (Again)\" composed by Elton John and Tom Robinson, which Robinson issued as a single in 1979 and John included on his album \"21 at 33\" in 1980, or with the", "Michael McDonald (musician) boost with the release of the single \"Sweet Freedom\", which appeared on the soundtrack to the Billy Crystal and Gregory Hines film \"Running Scared\", and was McDonald's last top-10 hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart. The \"No Lookin' Back\" album was then re-released in some markets with the new hit single included, as well as a few songs remixed. The single \"On My Own\", a duet with Patti LaBelle, reached number one on the U.S. charts in 1986. Mid that year, he performed as a backing vocalist on Toto's album \"Fahrenheit\", appearing on the hit single \"I'll Be Over", "Hedley (band) later recorded by the current Hedley). The original band bet Jacob Hoggard $150 that he wouldn't make it past auditions for Canadian Idol. Hoggard proved them wrong making it to the top three before being eliminated from the competition. However, shortly after the members decided to go their separate ways, but the band re-formed not long after, with Hoggard as the only original member. Their debut single \"On My Own\" reached number 1 on the Canadian Singles Chart and the follow-up \"Trip\" peaked at number 11. The singles \"On My Own\", \"321\", \"Trip\", and \"Gunnin\" topped the MuchMusic Countdown. Their", "Dancing with Myself Dancing with Myself \"Dancing with Myself\" is a song written by singer Billy Idol and bassist Tony James, first recorded by their band Generation X in 1979. The song was re-recorded and commercially released by the band newly re-branded as Gen X as a 7\" single and a 12\" in October 1980, but was a sales failure, reaching only #62 in the UK Singles Chart. It was then included on the band's subsequent album \"Kiss Me Deadly\" (1981). In late 1981, Idol, now a solo artist after Gen X's break-up, remixed and re-released \"Dancing with Myself\" as a single in", "Try It on My Own her high-profile firing by Burt Bacharach from the 2000 Academy Awards ceremony for not singing \"Rainbow\" during rehearsals for the show. But she continues to sing \"On My Own\" as the insiders leave there in frustration due to Houston not following their prescribed formula. The video then cuts to Houston performing with a gospel choir in front of her adoring fans, giving their cheers through. The song entered the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 on the week dated April 26, 2003 at number 99. In its fourth week it peaked at number 84, which was its peak position and stayed there for", "Thu Minh of 30, she had never taken officially any professional music school. Thu Minh became famous winning first prize as the youngest contestant in the live singing competition \"Broadcast of Ho Chi Minh\" at the age of 16. She then became well known for the success of many Viet classic songs, pre-war music, love songs in 1954–1975, pop ballad, pop in both English and Vietnamese. She also covered some famous ballads of Whitney Houston, Celine Dion, including \"I Will Always Love You\" and \"All by Myself\" The biggest turning point in her musical career came with the success of the songs", "Living on My Own making \"Living On My Own\" a perfect balance tune for your playlist.\" The videos for both the original 1985 and the 1993 remix versions of \"Living on My Own\" featured footage of Mercury's 39th birthday celebration in 1985 in Munich. Living on My Own \"Living on My Own\" is a song by Freddie Mercury, originally included in his first solo album \"Mr. Bad Guy\". It was released as a single (backed with \"My Love Is Dangerous\") in September 1985 in the United Kingdom where it peaked at number 50. The July 1985 release in the United States had \"She Blows", "Julio Iglesias a duet with Willie Nelson, hit #1 on the Country charts and went Top Five in the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. It also featured \"All of You,\" in vocal duet with Diana Ross, a Top Twenty Pop hit, that climbed to #2 on the Adult Contemporary Chart with the help of a popular video. In 1984, he had recorded and released the previously mentioned duets with Diana Ross and Willie Nelson. Iglesias won a Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Album in the 1988 Grammy Awards for the album \"Un hombre solo\" (\"A Man Alone\"). He recorded a duet with Stevie", "All Alone Am I (album) All Alone Am I (album) All Alone Am I is the eighth studio album by American pop and country artist Brenda Lee. The album was released February 18, 1963 on Decca Records and was produced by Owen Bradley. The album was the first of two studio albums released in 1963 and the album's title track became a Top 10 hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. \"All Alone Am I\" is a song from 1962 popularized by the American singer Brenda Lee. The song was originally composed by the Greek composer Manos Hadjidakis and recorded in Greek by Tzeni Karezi for", "B. W. Stevenson one Contemporary Christian album, \"Lifeline\", produced by his Beverly Hills, California, next-door neighbor, Chris Christian, that had success on Christian radio with the hit \"Heading Home\". His album, \"Rainbow Down The Road\" was completed posthumously and included a duet with Willie Nelson on \"Heart of the Country\". Author Jan Reid devotes a chapter to Stevenson in his book \"The Improbable Rise of Redneck Rock\", dubbing him \"The Voice\". In 2012, musician Shawn Colvin covered B.W. Stevenson's song \"On My Own\". Stevenson died following heart valve surgery after developing a staph infection at the age of 38. Since his death, Poor", "On My Own (Patti LaBelle and Michael McDonald song) the song into a duet, as she stated: \"The song was sent to me and I did a version of it but somehow it just didn't quite work. We were going over things I'd done and we talked about turning it into a duet. Someone asked, 'If you could do it with anyone, who would you sing it with?', and Michael was my first choice.\" In September 1995, country entertainer Reba McEntire released the song as the first single from her album \"Starting Over\". Her version, featuring guest vocals from Martina McBride, Linda Davis, and Trisha Yearwood peaked at #20", "Celine Dion Live 2018 the Australian classic \"You're the Voice\" made the Sydney show. He also praised the performance of \"All by Myself\", calling it a raw emotion. According to Jade Kops from BroadwayWorld.com, a decade since Dion's last Sydney visit, she did not disappoint. He praised her voice and wrote that she delivered a stadium concert that was surprisingly intimate, sharing songs and stories from her 30+ year career. Kops also noted that Dion's cover of Janis Ian's \"At Seventeen\", supported by an intimate string quartet, was given a wonderful restraint in her phrasing expressing an honesty and connection to the work. In", "Gladys Knight 2016 and 2017. In 1976, Knight made her acting debut as the lead in the film \"Pipe Dreams\" for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actress. In 2003, she had a short role in the movie \"Hollywood Homicide,\" which starred Harrison Ford and Josh Hartnett. In 2009, Knight was featured in Tyler Perry's \"I Can Do Bad All By Myself,\" the film version of a play he had dramatized, and performed her song \"The Need To Be\" from the 1974 album \"I Feel a Song.\" Knight starred in her own", "All by Myself It peaked at number 4 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 (number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay and number 5 on the Hot 100 Singles Sales). It was also a top 10 hit in France, United Kingdom, Wallonia in Belgium and the Republic of Ireland. In Canada, \"All by Myself\" was released as a promotional single only, hitting number 1 on the Adult Contemporary Chart. \"All by Myself\" was certified gold in the US (500,000), and silver in the UK (200,000) and France (165,000). The track was included on some editions of Dion's greatest hits \"All the Way... A", "All by Myself (Regina Belle album) was not included on the 1987's release of \"All by Myself\" album. In 2012, the album was remastered on CD and \"Without You\" was included at the end of the disc as a bonus track, however, was not the original song, but a \"single mix\". The original 1987 version of \"Without You\" was recorded only for Peabo Bryson album \"Positive\", released in 1988. All by Myself (Regina Belle album) All by Myself is the 1987 debut album by American singer–songwriter Regina Belle. Released on June 1, 1987 by Columbia Records, The album features the hit singles \"Show Me the Way\",", "Goodnight Vienna Alone)\" and \"(It's All Down to) Goodnight Vienna\" were recorded at a session produced by Lennon. Elton John also contributed a track, \"Snookeroo\", co-written with Bernie Taupin. Harry Nilsson gave Starr the track \"Easy for Me\", which he later recorded his own version of for his \"Duit on Mon Dei\" album. \"Only You (And You Alone)\", backed with \"Call Me\", was issued as an advance single from the album in the US on 11 November 1974, before the album was released. In the US the song reached number 8 on the US charts. \"Goodnight Vienna\" was released on the same", "All by Myself (Shirley Bassey album) All by Myself (Shirley Bassey album) All by Myself is a 1982 album by Shirley Bassey. Having ended her contract with United Artists around 1980 (around the time that label was sold to Bassey's former home EMI), Bassey took a break from recording, and then began releasing albums on various labels. \"All by Myself\" was the first of these, issued on the Applause label. 1982 was the dawn of the CD era, and this was her first-ever album to be issued on CD. The album was also issued on LP and cassette. In the UK and some other countries, the", "Only You (And You Alone) filmed on top of the Capitol Records building in Los Angeles. Lennon's vocal version appears on his \"Anthology\" box set, in 1998. Only You (And You Alone) \"Only You (And You Alone)\" (often shortened to \"Only You\") is a pop song composed by Buck Ram. It was originally recorded by The Platters with lead vocals by Tony Williams in 1955. The Platters first recorded the song for Federal Records on May 20, 1954, but the recording was not released. In 1955, after moving to Mercury Records, the band re-recorded the song (on April 26) and it scored a major hit", "Buck Griffin Additionally, he did well as a songwriter; his \"Goin' Home All Alone\" was recorded by Wade Ray, and Janis Martin did a version of his failed single \"Let's Elope, Baby\". He appeared on ABC-TV's \"Talent Varieties\" on August 2, 1955, singing \"Next to Mine\". In 1956, Griffin contracted with the Dallas radio show \"Big D Jamboree\", and MGM Records picked up his previous Lin Records releases for national distribution. Though MGM released 45s from Griffin into the early 1960s, he never scored a hit; later releases on Holiday Inn Records fared no better. In 1963 Griffin started Rotary Records and", "Concert for Linda shows since his wife died. However, he attended the event with his four children. After he took to the stage to thank the audience, at the urging of Chrissie Hynde, he sang one of his and Linda's favorite 1950s songs, Ricky Nelson's \"Lonesome Town.\" He was backed by members of the Pretenders, along with Costello. The song was Paul's first recorded song since Linda died. He followed that with his 1963 hit, \"All My Loving,\" originally performed by The Beatles. Most of the night's performers joined him on stage to provide the chorus. Costello said that for this particular event,", "Living on My Own Living on My Own \"Living on My Own\" is a song by Freddie Mercury, originally included in his first solo album \"Mr. Bad Guy\". It was released as a single (backed with \"My Love Is Dangerous\") in September 1985 in the United Kingdom where it peaked at number 50. The July 1985 release in the United States had \"She Blows Hot & Cold\" as its B-side. In 1993, two years after Mercury's death, the No More Brothers Mix of the song was released and reached number 1 in the UK, Ireland and France, becoming Mercury's first solo number 1 hit;", "The Braxtons \"Rise\", written by Salt from Salt-n-Pepa and Christopher \"Play\" Martin from the rap group Kid 'n Play and starred in an off-Broadway production of \"Dreamgirls\" as Deena Jones. In 2004, Trina Braxton appeared in \"The Walk\" with Eva Pigford and Vanessa Bell. Additionally, she co-starred in two independent films, including \"Jail Party\", and was host for the unbroadcast \"Urban Idol\" for UPN. She also made a cameo in Tyler Perry's \"I Can Do Bad All By Myself\" as a member of a band performing with singer Mary J. Blige's character. In 2009, Trina joined the wedding band \"Simply Irresistible\" as", "Masterpiece Theatre (Marianas Trench album) chart two weeks later. On the issue of January 31 it made a re-entry on the chart at No. 42 and was the \"\"Best Comeback\"\" and climbed to No. 16, and was the \"\"Sales Gainer\"\" on the issue of February 14, since then it has peaked at #15. \"All to Myself\" is the fifth single released by Marianas Trench and the second single released off of their second album Masterpiece Theatre. It was the Greatest Gainer for the week of June 13, 2009 on the Canadian Hot 100. \"Beside You\" is the third single (second in the United States) of", "Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves \"Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves\" is a 1985 song recorded as a duet by the British pop duo Eurythmics and American singer Aretha Franklin. A modern feminist anthem, it was written by Eurythmics members Annie Lennox and David A. Stewart and featured on both Eurythmics' \"Be Yourself Tonight\" (1985) and Franklin's \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\" (1985) albums. The duo had originally intended to duet with Tina Turner, who was unavailable at the time and so the duo approached Franklin instead. The track also features three of Tom Petty's Heartbreakers; Stan Lynch on drums, Benmont", "Make It Easy on Yourself recording of the song on her second studio album \"Cilla Sings a Rainbow\" which was a Top 5 hit on the UK album chart. \"Make It Easy on Yourself\" served as the title cut of a 1969 album by Burt Bacharach with the track featuring Bacharach's vocals as well as his piano playing. The Carpenters included \"Make It Easy on Yourself\" in a medley of Bacharach/David songs featured on their May 1971 album release \"Carpenters\". The 1972 Johnny Mathis album \"Song Sung Blue\" - produced by Jerry Fuller - featured a version of \"Make It Easy on Yourself\"; issued as", "June Millington California), and percussionist Padi Macheta. This incarnation of Fanny played none of the older Fanny songs. This group ultimately morphed into a new all-women band called the L.A. All-Stars, which, by 1976,had generated some interest from record labels (including Arista), but with the stipulation that the band tour as Fanny and play only old Fanny songs, which Millington opposed. In 1976, Millington and the members of the L.A. All-Stars provided backing vocals on Lee Garrett's song \"You're My Everything\" that reached number 15 in the UK. In 1976, Millington was part of Cris Williamson's national tour, and toured with Williamson", "Trina Braxton \"Simply Irresistible\" as a lead vocalist. She also made a cameo in Tyler Perry's \"I Can Do Bad All By Myself\" as a member of a band performing with singer Mary J. Blige's character. In 2011, Braxton reunited with her sisters for the WE tv reality show, \"Braxton Family Values\". Trina and Towanda, her sister, are backup dancers for older sister Toni In 2012, Braxton began her solo career, after signing with Soltri Entertainment. Her solo debut single, \"Party or Go Home\", was released on March 22, 2012. The music video accompanying the song was directed by Derek Blanks. Trina", "Pascal Gabriel Claudia Brücken (formerly of Propaganda), Wire, and Debbie Harry from Blondie. In the 1990s, he moved into indie and pop music, collaborating with EMF, Inspiral Carpets, Kitchens of Distinction, Billy Mackenzie and The Creatures. From 1996 to 1998 he wrote, produced and performed with the Mute Records-signed band Peach (known as \"Peach Union\" in the U.S.). Their song \"On My Own\" was featured prominently in the film \"Sliding Doors\". Gabriel subsequently wrote and produced with a host of popular artists, including the then unsigned singer Dido (with whom he wrote several songs: \"I'm No Angel\" and \"Here with Me\" from", "All Alone (Frank Sinatra album) All Alone (Frank Sinatra album) All Alone is an album by Frank Sinatra, released in 1962. Originally, \"All Alone\" was going to be called \"Come Waltz with Me\". Although the title and the accompanying specially written title song were dropped before the album's release, the record remained a stately collection of waltzes, arranged and conducted by Gordon Jenkins. The original title track is included as a bonus track on the 1999 compact disc release of the album. This was the first studio album from Sinatra to not make the U.S. Top Twenty since 1950. All of the tracks on the", "Kathy Kelly (musician) doing vocals on \"Dance to the Rock 'n Roll\". In 2000, Kathy Kelly officially left the band to pursue a solo career. Her last song sung for the band was \"By Myself but Not Alone\" with her brother John in 1999. She is part of some of the band's most famous songs, for example: \"Peces en el Rio\" (1977, 1979, 1994), Amazing Grace (1981, 1990), \"Hiroshima, I'm Sorry\" (1985, 1988), \"When the Last Tree...\" (1993), \"Ares Qui\" (1994), \"Quisiera ser un Ángel\" (1995), \"Come Back to Me\" (1996), \"You're Losing Me\" (1998) and \"Children of Kosovo\" (1999). She later returned", "All by Myself (Regina Belle album) All by Myself (Regina Belle album) All by Myself is the 1987 debut album by American singer–songwriter Regina Belle. Released on June 1, 1987 by Columbia Records, The album features the hit singles \"Show Me the Way\", \"So Many Tears\", \"How Could You Do It to Me\", \"Please Be Mine\" and \"You Got the Love\". The album peaked at number 85 on the \"Billboard\" 200 and number 14 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. In 1987, Regina Belle recorded a duet with Peabo Bryson the song \"Without You\", the love theme from the film \"Leonard Part 6\", however, \"Without You\"", "Only You (And You Alone) Only You (And You Alone) \"Only You (And You Alone)\" (often shortened to \"Only You\") is a pop song composed by Buck Ram. It was originally recorded by The Platters with lead vocals by Tony Williams in 1955. The Platters first recorded the song for Federal Records on May 20, 1954, but the recording was not released. In 1955, after moving to Mercury Records, the band re-recorded the song (on April 26) and it scored a major hit when it was released in May. In November that year, Federal Records released the original recording as a single (B-side - \"You", "Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves single version of the song, as opposed to the album version. 7\" 12\" Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves \"Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves\" is a 1985 song recorded as a duet by the British pop duo Eurythmics and American singer Aretha Franklin. A modern feminist anthem, it was written by Eurythmics members Annie Lennox and David A. Stewart and featured on both Eurythmics' \"Be Yourself Tonight\" (1985) and Franklin's \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\" (1985) albums. The duo had originally intended to duet with Tina Turner, who was unavailable at the time and so the duo approached Franklin instead. The", "All Alone (Frank Sinatra album) album are torch songs, hence the lonely name of the album. Almost half of the tracks are written by Irving Berlin. The cover is a trimmed portion of a painting that hung in Sinatra's Palm Springs home. All Alone (Frank Sinatra album) All Alone is an album by Frank Sinatra, released in 1962. Originally, \"All Alone\" was going to be called \"Come Waltz with Me\". Although the title and the accompanying specially written title song were dropped before the album's release, the record remained a stately collection of waltzes, arranged and conducted by Gordon Jenkins. The original title track is", "The Tidal Waves The Tidal Waves raised the $200 required to record at the United Sound Systems Studios on January 7, 1966, cutting a cover version of Don and Dewey's tune, \"Farmer John\", and the original song by Witkowski, \"She Left Me All Alone\", on a Scully 4-track for their debut single. The records were co-produced by Chekaway and Richard Cioffari. Originally, 1,000 copies of \"Farmer John\" were pressed, and charted in several Michigan radio station charts, including number five on WXYZ, number six on WKNR, and number one on WTRX. Chekaway could not afford to keep issuing more copies of the single,", "Peach (pop band) Moment On\" and \"Sorrow Town\". Peach (pop band) Peach (known as Peach Union in the United States) was a British pop/dance/electronic trio formed in London in 1995. The band had several singles in the mid to late 1990s. They are best known for the 1997 hit \"On My Own\". The trio was composed of the London-based singer-songwriter Lisa Lamb with the songwriter Paul Statham and the record producer Pascal Gabriel. Before Peach, Lamb had a solo career as a singer-songwriter in London, releasing a drum and bass record, \"Summer Breeze\", in 1995 and working as a jazz singer. Statham had", "I Alone yourself chained to fate,\" by saying that a profound lesson he derived from studying spiritual teachings was that religion and truth must be found for oneself and practiced, rather than just accepting the word of others. Live performed \"I Alone\" at the Woodstock '99 festival on July 23, 1999 in Rome, New York. The song was featured in the TV shows \"\", \"Beavis and Butt-head\", \"Hindsight\", \"My So-Called Life, and \"Silicon Valley\". \"I Alone\" is written in the key of G major (recorded a half step lower in G♭ major). Kowalczyk's vocal range spans from C#3-G4. The song reached #20", "Greg London by Las Vegas Mayor Oscar Goodman. He was then moved to the Las Vegas Hilton in early 2011. Greg London's success as a pop music artist began during the 2008 holiday season, when his rendition of \"Have Yourself A Merry Little Christmas\" debuted as the #2 most added track on FMQB's AC40 Chart and Radio & Records (Billboard) Adult Contemporary chart during the same week. It peaked at #40 on FMQB. London followed up with a cover of the David Gates song \"Everything I Own\" (originally a hit for the soft rock group Bread in 1972). It stayed in the", "Nikka Costa (album) predictions came true. Instead, by September 1982, the album had sold over 200,000 copies in Italy alone, and about 1.5 million copies worldwide. Nikka Costa (album) Nikka Costa is the debut studio album by Nikka Costa. It was released in 1981 by CBS Records when Costa was nine years old, fifteen years before her first album for older audiences was released, and twenty years before her breakthrough album \"Everybody Got Their Something\". Costa's cover of \"(Out Here) On My Own\", originally from the musical \"Fame\", was released as a single from the album. The single topped the charts in Europe.", "Nikka Costa Danny B. Besquet and Tony Renis were working with her father on the album \"Don Costa Plays the Beatles\" when they had a brainstorm to produce an album with Nikka singing while her father played acoustic guitar. The album was well received in Europe and Costa became known as a child star. At age 9 Costa sang with Frank Sinatra in an appearance on the lawn of the White House. Costa's career as a recording artist under her own name started in 1981, when she recorded the song \"(Out Here) On My Own\" (from the movie \"Fame\"). The single reached", "Gilbert O'Sullivan reached No. 1 in the Netherlands), \"We Will\" and \"No Matter How I Try\", the latter being named \"Best Ballad or Romantic Song\" at the 17th Ivor Novello Awards in 1972. O'Sullivan released his debut album, \"Himself\", in 1971. In 1972 O'Sullivan reached international stardom with \"Alone Again (Naturally)\", which reached No. 3 in UK; No. 1 in the US, spending six non-consecutive weeks at No. 1 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart and selling nearly two million copies; No. 2 in New Zealand (11 weeks on the charts in total); No. 1 in Canada for 2 weeks (13 weeks", "Falling into You \"The Power of the Dream\" at the opening ceremony of the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, United States. In December 1996, she performed her third US single, \"All by Myself\" at the Billboard Music Awards and on \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\". Dion also sang it at the 39th Annual Grammy Awards on 26 February 1997. Additionally, she performed \"Seduces Me\" on \"The Rosie O'Donnell Show\" in January 1997 and \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\" on the \"Late Show with David Letterman\" the next month. In March 1997, Dion sang \"Because You Loved Me\" and \"Fly\"", "All Alone Am I All Alone Am I \"All Alone Am I\" is a song from 1962 popularized by the American singer Brenda Lee. The song was originally composed by the Greek composer Manos Hadjidakis and recorded in Greek by Tzeni Karezi for the soundtrack of the film \"To nisi ton genneon\" (\"The Island of the Brave\"); the original song in Greek is titled \"Μην τον ρωτάς τον ουρανό\" (\"Min ton rotas ton ourano\", translation: \"Don't ask the heaven\"). Later, a new version of the song with English lyrics was produced by Owen Bradley and appeared as the title track on one of Lee's", "All Alone (Irving Berlin song) All Alone (Irving Berlin song) \"All Alone\" is a popular waltz ballad composed by Irving Berlin in 1924. It was interpolated into the Broadway show \"The Music Box Revue of 1924\" where it was sung by Grace Moore and Oscar Shaw. Moore sat at one end of the stage under a tightly focused spotlight, singing it into a telephone, while Oscar Shaw sat at the other, doing the same. There were many successful recordings of it in 1925 including those by Al Jolson, John McCormack, Paul Whiteman, Cliff Edwards, Abe Lyman, Ben Selvin and Lewis James. The song became a", "On My Own (Patti LaBelle and Michael McDonald song) on Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart, although only McEntire received chart credit for it. Its music video was directed by Dominic Orlando and was filmed on the Chaplin Stage. The four artists performed the song on the 1995 Country Music Association Awards, and again on the 1996 Academy of Country Music Awards. On My Own (Patti LaBelle and Michael McDonald song) \"On My Own\" was a \"Billboard\" #1 hit duet by singers Patti LaBelle and Michael McDonald when it was released as a single in 1986. It was released from LaBelle's first platinum album, \"Winner in You\" and was", "Al Lerner (composer) on Lerner's street, and payoffs to the local police. Abe Lerner was eventually arrested and the still business was shut down, after which the family went broke. As a child, Lerner helped to bring in money by climbing onto tables in local saloons and singing songs such as \"All Alone by the Telephone\", and then collecting coins thrown by the patrons. He then took piano lessons at a convent next to St. Anne's Hospital, but quit because he thought it was too difficult. When he saw a performance by Bill Robinson at The Palace, he decided he wanted to learn", "Vanessa Olivarez nominated for a Dora Award. Olivarez's friends talked her into auditioning in 2002 for the second season of \"American Idol\". She performed Irene Cara's \"Out Here On My Own\" in the semi-finals. During a following round where contestants write their own numbers, Olivarez impressed the judges with her song \"The Only Thing Special About You Is Me\". She moved into the top 32 contestants of the season. When she reached the top judges she switched to Queen's \"Bohemian Rhapsody\". They compared her to singer and actress Bette Midler. She was in the final twelve and she performed The Supremes' \"You", "Bill Pinkney proposed they create a new group to record for Atlantic Records. On their first record, \"Money Honey\", Pinkney, a natural bass-baritone with a multi-octave range, actually sang first tenor. After Ferbie left, Pinkney switched to the bass part, in which he was heard on \"Honey Love,\" \"White Christmas\", \"Adorable\", \"Ruby Baby\", and many other early Drifters recordings. In 1954, the Drifters recorded their version of \"White Christmas\" by Irving Berlin. That version was featured in the 1990 movie \"Home Alone\" , as well as the 1994 movie \"The Santa Clause.\" Pinkney can also be heard singing lead on the 1956", "Arthur Altman albums recorded by more than 150 artists including Count Basie, John Coltrane, Bing Crosby, Bobby Darin, Ella Fitzgerald, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Harry James, Oscar Peterson, Frank Sinatra, and Sarah Vaughan. He died of a heart ailment. Arthur Altman Arthur Altman (1910, Brooklyn – January 18, 1994, Lake Worth, Florida) was an American songwriter whose credits include \"All or Nothing at All\", with lyrics by Jack Lawrence, and the lyrics for \"All Alone Am I\", \"I Will Follow Him\", and \"Truly, Truly True\". Altman studied violin and began his professional career as a violinist with the CBS Radio Orchestra. His", "The Purple Gang (American band) with \"Talk Talk, and whose members would each wear one black glove. Bass player Tryon claims to have originally come up with the idea: In early 1966 they issued their debut single, \"Answer the Phone,\" on the Jerden label. The group were then signed to MGM records and would release their second and best-known single, \"Bring Your Own Self Down,\" which was composed by Tandyn Almer, who later achieved success with \"Along Comes Mary.\" In 1967 they recorded their final MGM single, a rendition of Laura Nyro's \"Poverty Train.\" They also recorded two songs Love tunes \"Can't Explain\" and \"No", "Sean Kinney The Man guitarist Eric Howk. In 2013, Rolling Stone named The Crocodile as one of the best clubs in America, ranked at #7. Soundgarden lead vocalist Chris Cornell personally asked Kinney to join him, Pearl Jam guitarist Mike McCready, Soungarden drummer Matt Cameron, Screaming Trees drummer Barrett Martin and Guns N' Roses bassist Duff McKagan in the tribute show to the band Mad Season at Seattle's Benaroya Hall on January 30, 2015. Kinney played bongo for the song \"All Alone\" while a track with Layne Staley's original vocals were played. The performance was released as a live album in August", "E Street Band its entire run. When O'Brien moved to \"The Tonight Show\" in 2009, Weinberg reprised his role as bandleader, and the show's house band – formerly called the Max Weinberg 7 – was redubbed Max Weinberg and the Tonight Show Band. In 1992, the E Street Band and the Miami Horns backed Darlene Love on the single \"All Alone on Christmas\" written by Little Steven and featured on the soundtrack for \"\". Springsteen made guest appearances on solo albums by both Nils Lofgren and Clarence Clemons and he joined Max Weinberg, Garry Tallent and Little Steven when they reprised their role", "All by Myself Myself Again\"). It was added to the \"Falling into You\" Latin American/Spanish edition, and as a B-side to other singles from that album. This version became available worldwide on Dion's later compilation \"The Collector's Series, Volume One\". The CD single was released in 1996 in Brazil only. Dion's \"Sola otra vez\" was selected the number one Spanish language cover of an English pop song by TheSpanishVersion.Org. The \"All by Myself\" single became one of Dion's biggest hits in the United States, reaching number 1 on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks (for three weeks) and the Latin Pop Airplay (two weeks).", "Celine Dion Live 2018 another review, Jane Armistead from \"The Sunday Times\" wrote that Dion raised the roof rolling out hit after hit at the Brisbane Entertainment Centre. Armistead also noted that it wasn't without its emotion as Dion sang \"Recovering\", a track written for her by Pink after the death of her husband and manager René Angélil in 2016. Ross McRae from \"The West Australian\" gave the concert in Perth four stars and highlighted \"Think Twice\" (rocked out by Dion and her guitarist), \"All by Myself\" (Dion's signature power ballad complete with its goosebump-inducing vocal finale) and a poignant medley of \"At Seventeen\",", "Peggy Scott-Adams these singles were released by SSS International Records. Not long after that, out of the music industry since the late 1960s, she was working as a lounge singer in Pensacola, Florida, until she moved to California and married Robert L. Adams Sr., a Compton, California City Commissioner, in 1988, and took a hiatus from her musical career. She was then persuaded to return to the studio by singer/songwriter/producer Jimmy Lewis. With his guidance, they recorded her solo debut album, \"Help Yourself\", released on October 22, 1996. One of the Jimmy Lewis songs was a track about a woman complaining that" ]

[ 12.0390625 ]

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[ "There are two children" ]

[ "There are no children", "A young boy eats his pizza.", "There were errors found in the grantee case reporting.", "The man is alone and asleep in his bedroom on the moon.", "A man is sitting against a building playing cards.", "A woman is brushing her hair while looking in the mirror.", "The gear wheels intersect." ]

[]

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[ "Kesultanan Mughal\nKekaisaran Mughal (Persian: شاهان مغول‎ Shāhān-e Moġul; sebutan diri: گوركانى - Gūrkānī) adalah sebuah negara yang pada masa jayanya memerintah Afganistan, Balochistan, dan sebagian besar anak benua India antara 1526 dan 1857. Kekaisaran ini didirikan oleh pemimpin Mongol, Barbur, pada tahun 1526, ketika dia mengalahkan Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan Delhi terakhir dalam Pertempuran Panipat I. Kata mughal adalah versi Indo-Aryan dari Mongol. Agama rakyat Mughal adalah Islam." ]

[ "Arsitektur Mughal\nHal Ini merupakan contoh matang dari jenis single-aisled kecil. Fasad masjid ini menunjukkan satu atau lebih fitur berikut yang tidak terlihat di masjid-masjid di Delhi sejak era Khalji, namun penting untuk perkembangan selanjutnya dari banyak arsitektur masjid Mughal: batu-batu berwarna-warni masjid Uamali masjid kaligrafi (Sikandar Lodi) dan sebuah portal sentral yang tinggi ('pishtaq' ') di semua masjid ini, menunjukkan minat baru pada tampilan monumental fasad.[2]:12 Di dinding benteng Sultan Suri, yang dikenal saat ini sebagai Purana Qal'a di Delhi, adalah masjid megah yang bisa menjadi masjid jami dari Sultan Suri ini. Benteng tersebut dimulai oleh Mughal kedua, Humayun, namun mungkin baru saja selesai oleh Sultan Suri (1538-45), perampok Afghanistan, setelah dia mengusir Mughal dari Hindustan pada tahun 1540. Meskipun masjid ini, yang sekarang dikenal sebagai Qal ' Masjid a-i Kuhna, sebagian disebabkan oleh Humayun, mengikuti bentuk dan memanfaatkan motif yang terlihat di setidaknya satu bangunan Sultan Suri lainnya, makam yang didirikannya untuk kakeknya di Narnaul. Selain itu, ia berbagi sedikit kesamaan dengan bangunan Humayun yang masih ada. Penggunaan kaligrafi dan batu berwarna kontras pada eksterior yang kaya tekstur membangkitkan kemunculan \"Ala al-Din Khalji's 'Alai Darwaza. Secara signifikan, pemerintahan Sultan Suri menghidupkan kembali banyak fitur administratif pemerintahan Alauddin sendiri. Sultan Suri menghubungkan fitur-fitur ini dengan kebangkitan prestise Kesultanan Delhi. Abu al-Fazl, penulis kronik resmi Akbar, dengan senang hati memuji fitur administrasi yang dihidupkan kembali ini. Penghinaan Mughal untuk pemula Afghanistan ini. Tidak hanya penampilan keseluruhan fasad m0sque ini penting untuk pengembangan arsitektur Mughal di masa depan, namun juga banyak rincian yang ditemukan di sana mempengaruhi bangunan selanjutnya. Di masjid, banyak fitur disajikan dengan cara yang sedikit kurang canggih daripada arsitektur Akbar sendiri. Mereka ada di sini lebih berkembang daripada pada prototipe apapun, sehingga dalam arti berfungsi sebagai jembatan untuk ornamen Mughal berikutnya.[2]:12", "Kerajaan Mysore\nPada masa kekuasaan Chikka Dewaraja, terjadi beberapa reformasi. Administrasi internal disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan kerajaan dan dibuat menjadi lebih efisien. Sistem pos diadakan, sementara reformasi finansial juga digalakkan. Sejumlah pajak kecil-kecilan ditetapkan sebagai pengganti pajak langsung, sehingga petani harus membayar lebih banyak melalui pajak tanah. Konon sang raja secara pribadi tertarik dengan pengumpulan pajak sehingga kas negara menumpuk hingga mencapai angka 90.000.000 \"Pagoda\" (satuan mata uang) – penghasilan yang membuatnya dijuluki \"Sembilan crore Narayana\" (\"Nawakoti Narayana\"). Pada tahun 1700, Chikka mengirim duta besar ke istana Aurangazeb di Kemaharajaan Mughal; Aurangazeb kemudian menganugerahi gelar \"Jug Deo Raja\" kepada Chikka dan memberinya izin untuk singgah di tahta gading. Setelah itu, berdasarkan apa yang dilihat utusannya di istana Mughal, Chikka mendirikan kantor distrik (\"Attara Kacheri\"), atau sekretariat pusat yang terdiri dari delapan belas departemen.", "Asal mula arsitektur Taj Mahal\nTaj Mahal, (English: Crown of Palaces), adalah makam putih yang berada di di Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Kaisar Mughal Shah Jahan membangunnya untuk mengenang istri ketiganya, yaitu Mumtaz Mahal. Taj Mahal adalah contoh arsitektur Mughal yang terkenal, yang menggabungkan unsur-unsur gaya arsitektur Islam dan India.[7][8] Mausoleum merupakan salah satu komponen kompleks bangunan yang cukup besar, yang terdiri dari bangunan dan taman, termasuk makam anak-anak, infrastruktur saluran air, kota kecil Taj Ganji dan Taman Bulan Rabit, di sebelah utara terdapat Sungai Yamuna. Pembangunannya dimulai pada tahun 1632 M dan selesai sekitar tahun 1653 Masehi. Sebuah dewan arsitek di bawah pengawasan kekaisaran yang bekerja di Taj Mahal, dan mereka ada di sana Abd Abd-Kari, Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, dan Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.[9] Lahauri umumnya dianggap sebagai perancang utama kompleks bangunan tersebut.[9]", "Kerajaan Ahom\nKerajaan Ahom (1228–1826, dijuluki \"Kerajaan Assam\" pada abad pertengahan) adalah kerajaan di lembah Brahmaputra di Assam yang berhasil mempertahankan kemerdekaannya selama hampir 600 tahun dan berhasil melawan ekspansi Mughal di India Timur Laut. Kerajaan ini didirikan oleh Sukaphaa.", "Arsitektur Mughal\nRumus geometris yang kompleks yang digunakan untuk denah bangunan Timurid dan sistem dinding yang dibidik memungkinkan ruang lantai yang proporsional besar untuk ditutupi oleh suprastruktur yang lebih sempit. Sistem kubah baru yang terdiri dari jaring lengkung di squinches diciptakan untuk menutupi sudut yang terbentuk oleh lengkungan yang berpotongan. Bentuk bintang, sering didasarkan pada proporsi geometris struktur, kubah interior yang dihiasi dan kubah. Ini ditemukan pertama di Timurid dan kemudian di kubah arsitektur Mughal.[2]:16 Setelah tradisi lama Iran, taman, simbol surga, dikembangkan oleh orang-orang Timur dan kemudian oleh Mughal. taman berdinding ditanam secara informal dengan sungai, kolam dan sering kali[2]:16 paviliun adalah bagian inheren dari kota-kota besar Timurid. Babur, kaisar Mughal pertama, mencantumkan dalam memoarnya berbagai taman yang membuatnya senang di Timurid Herat, sebuah kota yang istana dan tamannya indah berkembang dalam mempengaruhi skema bangunan Babur di India. taman ini disebut charbagh (secara harfiah: empat taman), meskipun tata letak sebenarnya terbuka untuk dipermasalahkan karena tidak ada yang tersisa sampai sekarang. Sementara beberapa orang percaya bahwa jenis taman ini terbagi menjadi empat bagian seperti di makam Mughal, mereka percaya bahwa istilah tersebut berasal dari praktik penanaman di empat tempat tidur dan seperempat taman di tepi perairan merupakan inovasi Mughal.[2]:17 Jenis Jami 'atau masjid kongregasi besar yang dikembangkan di bawah kerajaan Mughal berasal dari masjid-masjid Timurid besar. Ini adalah struktur empat aiwan yang pusatnya merupakan halaman terbuka. Ruang doa masjid ini masuk melalui portal berkubah besar. Sayap samping adalah koridor berpilar. Masjid Timurid jenis ini, misalnya Bibi Khanum di Samarqand (1398-1405), atau masjid Kalan (kelima belas abad keenambelas) di Bukhara, menganut model Seljuk yang sebelumnya juga merupakan prototip untuk masjid (Pelat Saya dan 1) didirikan oleh penguasa Ghorid yang telah menaklukkan Delhi pada akhir abad ke-12. Ini akan mengapa masjid Mughal awal idealnya model tipe Timurid sering tampak menyerupai denah banyak masjid Kesultanan sebelumnya di India.[2]:17", "Kekaisaran Mongol\nKekaisaran Mongolia adalah kekaisaran kedua terbesar dalam sejarah dunia, hanya dikalahkan oleh Imperium Britania, menguasai sekitar 33 juta km² pada puncak kejayaannya, dengan perkiraan penduduk sebanyak di atas 100 juta orang dan menjadi yang paling kuat di antara semua kekaisaran abad pertengahan.", "Asal mula arsitektur Taj Mahal\nDi bawah kekaisaran Mughal, minar fungsional kembali ke India Utara; hal ini terinspirasi dari contoh Gujarat, karena ciri khas Gujarat lainnya diperkenalkan ke arsitektur Mughal mengubah penaklukan wilayah tersebut pada 980/1573. Contoh pertama adalah bahwa dari empat minar yang berada di sudut gerbang makam Akbar di Sikandra, yang selesai pada tahun-tahun awal abad ke-17: meruncing, marmer putih (tahap terendah), dua balkon perantara yang didukung pada kurung tahan lama, diatapi oleh chhatri terbuka dengan kolom yang ramping. Beberapa variasi dalam pola balkon, dan bagian, material dan hiasan poros, jenis ini adalah model untuk mayor kemudian minar di makam Jahangir di Lahore; Masjid jami' (Shahjahanabid) Delhi; Taj Mahal di Agra (tapi bukan Masjid Jami '); masjid Wazir Khan di Lahore; Masjid Bidshahi di Lahore, yang juga memiliki menara sudut seperti moor ta'r; makam Rabi'a Daurani Bibi ka Maqbara) di Aurangabad; Masjid Aurangzib di Banaras (Varanasi), Mathura, eta; Petugas jarak pendek juga mondar-mandir di makam I'timéd ad-Daula di Agra, sedikit lebih dari menara, tampaknya menjadi model bagunan menara bertema di makam Safdar Jang di Delhi, dan masjid Mughal di Bengal ag . Dhaka, Murshidabad, dan sebagainya. Karena tidak ada keharusan bagi Win di kuburan, banyak dari minimanan Mughal ini juga pada prinsipnya dekoratif.[14]", "Moghulistan\nKekhanan ini didirikan pada pertengahan abad ke-14 di wilayah Sungai Ili dan merupakan konfederasi suku nomaden yang dkepalau oleh anggota keluarga Chagatai. Maka dari itu, kekhanan ini kadang-kadang dianggap sebagai penerus Kekhanan Chagatai, tetapi juga dijuluki Kekhanan Moghul karena anggota sukunya dianggap sebagai \"Monghul\" (Mongol) sejati (berbeda dengan Kekhanan Chagatai Barat yang sebagian besar dihuni oleh orang-orang Turkik dan orang-orang Mongol yang mengalami turkikisasi.", "Arsitektur Mughal\nNamun, kemungkinan besar, fitur ini pertama kali digunakan oleh pengrajin Hindu setempat dikontrak untuk mengerjakan arsitektur Islam daerah tersebut, dan bentuknya, tapi bukan makna asli mereka, menjadi berasimilasi ke dalam standar repertoar arsitektur Jadi ketika banyak dari ide yang sama ini muncul di Arsitektur Akbar, tidak ada alasan untuk mengaitkannya dengan siapapun tradisi sektarian tertentu.[2]:10 Fitur seperti itu tidak terbatas pada Gujarat. Mereka juga fitur arsitektur di Mandu, yang berhubungan secara politis dan geografis dengan Gujarat, dan di Chanderi. Misalnya, kurung kurawal, terlihat pada pertengahan lima belas masjid abad pertengahan di Sarkhej, Gujarat, juga muncul di masjid Jami di Chanderi dan di makam I-Ioshang Shah di Mandu. Begitu pula hias marmer putih merupakan bahan bangunan yang dominan di Gujarat dan Mandu. Penggunaan bersamaan fitur seperti di seluruh barat dan bagian dari India utara-tengah memiliki arti penting bagi arsitektur Mughal, di mana ini fitur yang umum. Hal ini umumnya diasumsikan bahwa pengrajin untuk istana Akbar datang dari Gujarat, namun meluasnya penggunaan motif semacam itu membuka kemungkinan bahwa mereka berasal dari daerah yang lebih luas.[2]:10 Yang lebih penting daripada meminjam motif individu dari Gujarat adalah pengaruh keseluruhan dargah abad ke-15 dari Shaikh Ahmad Khattu dari Sarkhej pada desain makam Mughal. Makam ini, terletak Di luar Ahmadabad, ada kuil marmer putih yang fasadnya dihiasi dengan layar ukiran yang ditindik (jalis). Baik materi dan layar menjadi fitur utama arsitektur Mughal. Selain itu, denah makam tersebut dan juga batu-batu berwarna yang disandingkan yang digunakan di lantai memiliki dampak besar pada mausolea Mughal.[2]:10 Struktur awal yang didirikan oleh penguasa independen di Deccan, seperti di utara, berpegang erat pada model Tughluq. Namun, tidak seperti monumen Arsitektur Gujarat dan Bengal, Arsitektur Deccani tunduk pada pengaruh bentuk Seljuk dan Timurid Iran dalam pengembangannya gaya daerah sendiri Meski pengaruh Seljuk ini tidak berpengaruh Seni Mughal, pengaruh Timurid menjadi perhatian di sini, karena Deccan merasakannya dampak tradisi Timurim Iran sebelum India utara. Sebagai contoh, berpotongan[2]:10 pendampingan, perangkat Timurid, muncul di Bidar di makam Sultan Kalim Allah (wafat 1527), tak lama sebelum mereka digunakan di India utara. Demikianlah Mungkin saja Mughal, yang berasal dari nenek moyang Timurid, tidak melakukannya langsung mengimpor tradisi warisan mereka saat mereka datang ke India tapi mengadopsi bentuk Timurid dari Deccan. Namun, tidak ada bukti nyata untuk pergerakan gaya artistik dari selatan ke utara.[2]:11", "Arsitektur Mughal\nTerlepas dari warisan Islam lama di India, penguasa Mughal menganggap diri mereka sebagai ahli waris yang sah dari tradisi Timurim Iran, yang mereka rasakan[2]:15 lebih unggul dari budaya Indo-Islam. Penting di antara radion artistik Timurid yang diadopsi oleh Mughal adalah yang telah dipelihara dan disempurnakan lagi oleh negara penerus Timurid, orang Shaibanis dari Bukhara. Aturan mereka kontemporer dengan permulaan dominasi Mughal di India. Jadi, terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa peraturan Safavid dan ekspresi artistik mendominasi sebagian besar dunia Iran, Shaibanis menyediakan saluran untuk transmisi bentuk arsitektur Timurid.[14][15][2]:16 Arsitektur mughal yang diadopsi dari pendahulunya Timurid memiliki rasa keagungan dan realisasi proporsi geometris yang dramatis. Para arsitek Timurid telah mengembangkan pemahaman tentang bagaimana lengkungan transversal interkoneksi dan susun dapat digunakan sebagai pengganti dinding padat untuk menciptakan organisasi ruang baru. Hal ini mengakibatkan struktur dengan ruang tengah besar dikelilingi oleh ruang yang lebih kecil dan melengkung entranceways berbagai ukuran. denah seperti itu terlihat di Timurid Clshrat Khana, sebuah makam dinasti di Samarqand; itu dibangun untuk wanita di rumah Timurid dan selesai sekitar tahun 1464. Mughal kekaisaran yang sering makam dirancang dengan denah serupa, yang khusus terdiri dari sembilan teluk. Artinya, ruang tengah dikelilingi oleh delapan ruangan kecil yang penempatan, ukuran dan bentuknya bergantung pada pembagian geometrik keseluruhan. Makam Ak-serai di Samarqand berasal dari jenis ini, begitu juga beberapa paviliun taman yang dikenal dari deskripsi tertulis. Contoh Timurid lainnya dari jenis ini meliputi / elaanqah Qasim Shaikh di Kirman pada tanggal 1558-59 dan makam Uleg Beg Miranshah di Ghazni (wafat tahun 1506). Sejak arsitek makam I-Iumayun, makam terinspirasi Timur pertama di Mughal India, berasal dari Bukhara, di mana ia telah merancang berbagai bangunan. Jenis, inspirasi Timurid untuk ini dan kemudian makam Mughal tidak mengherankan. Pada fase matang arsitektur Timurid, ruang-ruang di sekitarnya menjadi simbol dari delapan tingkat surga, sebuah konsep yang diadopsi untuk mausolea Mughal juga.[2]:16", "Kerajaan Mysore\nChikka Dewaraja (berkuasa 1672–1704), salah satu raja Mysore yang terkenal, tidak hanya berhasil bertahan dari berbagai masalah, tetapi juga mampu memperluas wilayah. Ia melakukannya dengan bersekutu dengan Maratha dan Mughal. Wilayah kerajaan pun meluas hingga mencapai Salem dan Bangalore di timur, Hassan di barat, Chikkamagaluru dan Tumkur di utara, dan Coimbatore di selatan. Walaupun wilayah kerajaan telah meluas dan terbentang dari Ghat Barat hingga pedalaman Coromandel, Mysore tetap tidak memiliki akses langsung ke laut. Upaya Chikka Dewaraja untuk memperoleh wilayah pesisir mengakibatkan meletusnya konflik dengan \"Nayaka\" Ikkeri (yang menguasai wilayah pesisir Kanara) dan raja-raja Kodagu (yang menguasai wilayah perbukitan di antara Mysore dan pesisir Kanara). Mysore berhasil menguasai Periyapatna, namun mengalami kegagalan di Palupare.", "Kesultanan Mughal\nTimurids-Mongolian dynasty of Turkish origin", "Akbar II\nAkbar II (1760–1837 Masehi), dikenal juga sebagai \"Akbar Shah II\", adalah kaisar Mughal dari India. Ia menjabat dari 1806 sampai 1837. Ia adalah putra kedua dari Shah Alam II dan ayah dari Bahadur Shah II.", "Sejarah Asia\nWilayah Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah yang sedikit demi sedikit terpecah-belah kelak dihadapkan pada tantangan-tantangan baru di awal abad ke-13, ketika Asia Tengah diterjang suku-suku pengembara, bangsa Monggol; di bawah pimpinan Jenghis Khan yang terkenal bengis, bangsa Monggol menjarah-rayah sebagian besar wilayah imperium timur. Pada 1258, cucu Jenghis Khan, Hulagu Khan, merampungkan usaha kakeknya dengan menjarah kota Baghdad dan menewaskan khalifah. Bangsa Monggol pada akhirnya mundur, akan tetapi kekacauan yang terjadi di seluruh kekaisaran membuat wangsa Seljuk kehilangan kekuasaan. Pada 1401, kondisi kekhalifahan yang sudah lemah dan lumpuh itu semakin diperparah oleh tokoh berdarah campuran Turki-Monggol, Timūr-i Leng, dengan serbuan-serbuannya yang keji. Kala itu telah muncul segolongan bangsa Turki lain, yakni kaum Osmanli. Dari pangkalannya di Anatolia, kelak menjelang 1566 mereka maju menaklukkan Mesopotamia, Balkan, Yunani, Bizantium, sebagian besar Mesir, sebagian besar Afrika Utara, dan wilayah-wilayah tertentu di Arabia, serta mempersatukan semuanya di bawah pemerintahan Kekaisaran Osmanli. Masa pemerintahan sultan-sultan Osmanli menandai akhir dari zaman pascakuno di Timur Tengah, dan akhir dari zaman kekhalifahan.", "Taj Mahal\nTaj Mahal (Urdu: تاج محل‎, Hindi: ताज महल) adalah sebuah monumen yang terletak di Agra, India. Dibangun atas keinginan Kaisar Mughal Shāh Jahān, anak Jahangir, sebagai sebuah musoleum untuk istri Persianya, Arjumand Banu Begum, juga dikenal sebagai Mumtaz-ul-Zamani atau Mumtaz Mahal. Taj Mahal merupakan sebuah adi karya dari arsitektur Mughal.", "Moghulistan\nMoghulistan (Mughalistan, Kekhanan Moghul) (dari ), juga disebut Kekhanan Chagatai Timur (), adalah kekhanan Mongol yang melepaskan diri dari Kekhanan Chagatai. Kekhanan ini mencakup wilayah di sebelah utara pegunungan Tian Shan di perbatasan antara Asia Tengah dan Asia Timur. Wilayah tersebut kini merupakan bagian dari Kazakhstan, Kirgizstan, dan Tiongkok barat laut (Xinjiang). Kekhanan ini menguasai wilayah tersebut dari pertengahan abad ke-14 hingga akhir abad ke-17, walaupun saat ini sejarawan masih memperdebatkan apakah kekhanan ini merupakan penerus Kekhanan Chagatai, kekhanan yang terpisah, atau merupakan negara pembayar upeti kepada Dinasti Ming di Tiongkok.", "Negara Bagian Bhopal\nNegara tersebut didirikan oleh Dost Mohammad Khan, seorang prajurit Pashtun dalam tentara Mughal, yang meraih pengaruh setelah Kaisar Aurangzeb dan meninggal dan menganeksasi beberapa teritorial ke teritorial federalnya. Negara tersebut berada di bawah kedaulatan Nizam dari Hyderabad pada 1723 tak lama setelah didirikan pada 1707. Pada 1737, Maratha mengalahkan Mughal dan Nawab dari Bhopal dalam Pertempuran Bhopal, dan mulai mengumpulkan upeti dari negara bagian tersebut. Setelah kekalahan Maratha dalam Perang Inggris-Maratha Ketiga, Bhopal menjadi negara kepangeranan Inggris pada 1818. Negara Bagian Bhopal menjadi negara terbesar kedua sebelum India merdekan, dengan kepemimpinan Muslim, yang pertama adalah Negara Bagian Hyderabad. Negara bagian tersebut digabung dalam Uni India pada 1949 sebagai Bhopal.", "Kesultanan Delhi\nKesultanan Delhi merujuk pada pemerintahan berdinasti dari Turki dan Afghan yang berpusat di Delhi, termasuk dinasti Mamluk (1206–90), dinasti Khilji (1290–1320), dinasti Tughlaq (1320–1413), dinasti Sayyid (1414–51) dan dinasti Lodi (1451–1526). Pada tahun 1526, Kesultanan Delhi dilebur dengan kemunculan Kesultanan Mughal.", "Humayun\nNasir ud-din Muhammad Humayun (; Gaya Lama 7 Maret 1508 M – Gaya Lama 17 Januari 1556 M) adalah Kaisar Mughal kedua yang menguasai wilayah besar yang mencangkup yang saat ini merupakan bagian dari Afghanistan, Pakistan, dan bagian utara India dari 1530–1540 dan memerintah kembali pada 1555–1556.", "Shah Jahan\nShahab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (lengkap: \"Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad, Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani, Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi Zillu'llah [Firdaus-Ashiyani]\") (dilafalkan: Shah Jehan, Shahjehan. Urdu: شاه ‌جہاں) () adalah seorang raja ke-5 dari Dinasti Mogul di India. Syah Jehan memerintah antara tahun 1627-1658. Atas perintahnya dibangunlah mausoleoum Taj Mahal yang merupakan salah satu dari tujuh keajaiban dunia di Agra demi mengenang permaisurinya yang bernama Arjuman Banu Begum atau Mumtaz Mahal. Nama kecil Syah Jehan adalah Khurram.\n2. Syah Jihan (1628¬-1658) tampil meggantikan Jihangir. Bibit-bibit disintegrasi mulai tumbuh pada pemerintahannya[16]. Hal ini sekaligus menjadi ujian terhadap politik toleransi Mughal. Dalam masa pemerintahannya terjadi dua kali pemberontakan. Tahun pertama masa pemerintahannya, Raja Jujhar Singh Bundela berupaya memberontak dan mengacau keamanan, namun berhasil dipadamkan. Raja Jujhar Singh Bundela kemudian diusir. Pemberontakan yang paling hebat datang dari Afghan Pir Lodi atau Khan Jahan, seorang gubernur dari provinsi bagian Selatan. Pemberontakan ini cukup menyulitkan. Namun pada tahun 1631 pemberontakan inipun dipatahkan dan Khan Jahan dihukum mati.", "Akbar yang Agung\nAkbar (Urdu: جلال الدین محمد اکبر ‎, Hindi: जलालुद्दीन मुहम्मद अकबर, Hunteria: Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar), juga dikenal sebagai Shahanshah Akbar-e-Azam atau Akbar yang Agung ()[2][3] adalah Sultan Mogul ke-3. Ia adalah keturunan Dinasti Timurid, putra dari Sultan Humayun dan cucu dari Sultan Mogul Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur, penguasa yang mendirikan dinasti Mugol di India. Pada akhir pemerintahannya pada tahun 1605, kesultanan Mugol mencakup sebagian besar bagian utara dan tengah India. Ia paling dihargai karena memiliki pandangan liberal untuk semua agama dan kepercayaan, selama pemerintahannya seni dan budaya mencapai puncak dibandingkan dengan pendahulunya.", "Daftar Kaisar Mughal\nMughal memiliki darah Persia dan Rajput India melalui aliansi pernikahan, karena para kaisar lahir dari putri-putri raja Persia dan Rajput. Hanya dua kaisar Mughal pertama, Babur dan Humayun, yang sepenuhnya merupakan orang Asia Tengah, sementara Akbar adalah orang setengah Persia, Jahangir adalah orang setengah Rajput dan seperempat Persia, dan Shah Jahan adalah orang tiga per empat Rajput.", "Benteng Lalbagh\nBenteng Lalbagh (dikenal pula sebagai Benteng Aurangabad) adalah kompleks benteng Kekaisaran Mughal abad ke-17 yang belum selesai, yang berdiri di depan Sungai Buriganga di bagian barat daya Dhaka, Bangladesh. Konstruksi dimulai pada 1678 M oleh subahdar Mughal Muhammad Azam Shah yang merupakan putra Kaisar Aurangzeb dan kemudian kaisar sendiri. Penggantinya, Shaista Khan, tidak melanjutkan pekerjaan pembangunan benteng ini, meskipun ia tinggal di Dhaka hingga 1688.", "Asal mula arsitektur Taj Mahal\nLandasan pembangunan Taj Mahal sebagai salah satu monumen dunia untuk sebuah \"kisah cinta\" yang hebat memiliki dasar yang kuat.[18][19] Kepemimpinan Mughal juga ditegaskan melalui bangunan tersebut di mana, merupakan bagian dari Propaganda tentang yang menggambarkan tentang \"kesempurnaan\", namun hal ini masih dalam perdebatan. Bangunan ini juga merupakan sintesis antara arsitektur Islam dengan bangunan asli pribumi; selain itu terdapat campuran pengaruh antara Timurid dan Persia yang menggambarkan tentang proporsi dengan permukaan yang tidak rumit.[20]", "Daftar Kaisar Mughal\nPutra sulung Shah Jahan, Dara Shikoh yang liberal, menjadi pemangku raja pada tahun 1658, karena ayahnya sakit. Namun, adiknya, Aurangzeb, bersekutu dengan kalangan Islam ortodoks melawan kakaknya, yang menentang agama dan budaya Hindu-Muslim sinkretis, dan naik tahta. Aurangzeb mengalahkan Dara pada tahun 1659 dan dieksekusi. Meskipun Shah Jahan sepenuhnya pulih dari penyakitnya, Aurangzeb mendeklarasikannya tak kompeten untuk memerintah dan memenjarakannya. Pada masa pemerintahan Aurangzeb, kekaisaran tersebut meraih lebih banyak kekuatan politik, namun konservatisme dan intoleransi keagamaannya menjatuhkan stabilitas masyarakat Mughal. Aurangzeb meluaskan kekaisaran tersebut untuk melingkupi hampir seluruh Asia Selatan, namun di kematiannya pada tahun 1707, beberapa bagian kekaisaran terjerumus dalam pemberontakan terbuka. Usaha-usaha Aurangzeb untuk menaklukkan kembali tanah-tanah leluhur keluarganya di Asia Tengah tak berhasil sementara penaklukan suksesnya di kawasan Deccan berujung pada kemenangan Pyrrhic yang sangat menghabiskan biaya kekaisaran dalam hal darah dan harta benda. Masalah lanjutan bagi Aurangzeb adalah ketentaraan yang selalu berbasis pada aristokrasi kepemilikan tanah India utara yang mengerahkan kavaleri untuk kampanye-kampanye, dan kekaisaran tersebut tak memiliki pasukan yang setara dengan pasukan Janisari dari Kekaisaran Utsmaniyah. Penaklukan yang lama dan menghabiskan biaya dari Deccan telah sangat memeloroti \"aura sukses\" yang mengelilingi Aurangzeb, dan dari akhir abad ke-17 dan seterusnya, kalangan aristokrasi menjadi makin tak berkehendak untuk menyediakan pasukan bagi peperangan kekaisaran tersebut karena menganggap wilayah hasil dari perang sukses tampak makin lama makin berkurang. Selain itu, fakta bahwa akibat dari penaklukan Deccan, yang sangat selektif memberikan beberapa keluarga bangsawan dengan tanah rampasan di Deccan telah membuat mengabaikan para aristokrat yang tak meraih tanah rampasan sebagai pemberian dan karena penaklukan Deccan benar-benar menghabiskan biaya, dirasa makin mengurungkan dan tak mengkehendaki keikutsertaan dalam kampanye-kampanye lanjutan. Putra Aurangzeb, Shah Alam, mengulang kebijakan-kebijakan keagamaan dari ayahnya, dan berupaya untuk mereformasi pemerintahan. Namun, setelah ia meninggal pada 1712, dinasi Mughal jatuh dalam pertikaian dan kekerasan. Pada tahun 1719 sendiri, empat kaisar secara bergantian memegang tahta.", "Kesultanan Bengal\nPemerintahan Ilyas terputus selama lebih dari 20 tahun karena berkuasanya Raja Ganesa, seorang tuan tanah Hindu Bhaturya. Ia merebut kekuasaan untuk diberikan kepada anaknya Jadu yang masuk Islam dan memerintah dengan nama Jalaludin Muhammad. Meskipun berasal dari bangsa Hindu, Ganesa dapat memerintah dengan dukungan Muslim. Pemimpin Afghan Syir Syah Sur mengambil alih Bengal dan menjadikannya pangkalan untuk mengusir penguasa Mughal, Humayun, dari India. Akan tetapi, Mughal berkuasa di Lahore dan Bengal akhirnya menjadi bagian dari kekaisaran Mughal pada tahun 1576.", "Maham Anga\nMaham Anga (meninggal 1562) adalah ibu susu dari Kaisar Mughal, Akbar, dan sering disebut sebagai ibu angkatnya sambil mengurus Akbar muda, karena ibunya sendiri, Hamida Banu Begum pada saat itu sebagian besar waktunya, dengan ayahnya, Humayun berada di pengasingan, pada masa pertumbuhan Akbar . Dia adalah wali de facto negara Mughal setelah pengecualian oleh Bairam Khan pada tahun 1560 untuk asumsi Akbar meraih kekuasaan penuh pada tahun 1562, tak lama sebelum kematiannya.", "Ahmad Shah Bahadur\nAhmed Shah Bahadur mewarisi sebagian besar negara Mughal. Ia menjadi kaisar bergelar selama enam tahun, namun meninggalkan seluruh urusan negara untuk faksi-faksi yang bersaing. Ia dilengserkan oleh Wali Raja Feroze Jung III dan kemudian dibutakan bersama dengan ibunya. Ia menjalani sisa hidupnya di penjara dan meninggal akibat sebab alami pada Januari 1775.", "Sejarah dunia\nTahun 1258, pasukan Mongol di bawah pimpinan Genghis Khan menghancurkan Kekhalifanan Abbasiyah, ditandai dengan keberhasilan mereka dalam pengepungan Baghdad (1258). Sekitar seabad kemudian, Timur Leng, seorang kesatria Turk-Mongol, berusaha mengulang kembali kejayaan Genghis Khan. Setelah menaklukkan Damaskus, ia beralih agama ke Islam, mengawali era ekspansi muslim Turk dan Mongol ke Eropa Timur, Asia Tengah, dan India. Selama masa pemerintahannya, Timur menjadi penguasa di dunia muslim setelah mengalahkan kaum mamluk di Mesir dan Suriah, Kesultanan Utsmaniyah, dan Kesultanan Delhi. Kesultanan Utsmaniyah meraih kembali kekuasaannya dengan menguasai sebagian besar Timur Tengah. Dinasti Safawiyah menguasai Persia dan Asia Tengah, sedangkan keturunan Timur menginvasi Kabul. Dari sana, suatu kesultanan terbentang, dibatasi oleh Persia di sebelah barat dan teluk Benggala di sebelah timur; kesultanan ini disebut sebagai Kesultanan Mughal. Dinasti Safawiyah berakhir dengan kematian pemimpin terakhirnya, Ismail III, pada tahun 1760. Kesultanan muslim terakhir, Utsmani, runtuh pada tahun 1918 setelah Perang Dunia I.", "Asal mula arsitektur Taj Mahal\nTaj Mahal merupakan salah satu contoh arsitektur Mughal yang terbaik dan paling canggih. Asal-usulnya terletak pada keadaan yang beradaskan budaya dan sejarah pemerintahan kerajaan Mughal Islam di sebagian besar India. Kaisar Mughal Shah Jahan, memerintahkan untuk membangun mausoleum tersebut pada saat kematian istri kesayangannya Mumtaz Mahal.[1]", "Bahadur Shah II\nMirza Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar ( , 24 October 1775 – 7 November 1862), juga dikenal sebagai \"Bahadur Shah Zafar\" (), adalah kaisar Mughal terakhir dan anggota Dinasti Timuriyah. Ia adalah putra dari Akbar Shah II dan Lal Bai, seorang Hindu Rajput. Ia menjadi kaisar Mughal ketika ayahnya meninggal pada 28 September 1837.", "Pembagian Kekaisaran Mongol\nPersaingan panjang antara Moghulistan dengan Oirat untuk memperebutkan rute perdagangan berakhir dengan kekalahan oleh Oirat pada tahun 1530. Babur, penguasa Kabul dari dinasti Timuriyah, menaklukkan sebagian besar India pada tahun 1526 dan mendirikan Kesultanan Mughal. Kesultanan Mughal pecah menjadi beberapa negara kecil pada abad ke-18 dan ditaklukkan oleh Kekaisaran Britania pada tahun 1858.", "Arsitektur Mughal\nPada tahun 1526 keturunan kerajaan Iran Timur, Zahir al-Din Muhammad Babur, mengalahkan penguasa terakhir dinasti Lodi dalam pertempuran di Panipat, sekitar 90 km utara Delhi. Lodis adalah salah satu dari banyak rumah Islam berumur pendek yang menguasai sebagian besar benua India sejak penaklukan Islam di daerah ini pada tahun 1192. Babur dan penerusnya, yang terus memerintah India utara sampai tahun 1858, dikenal sebagai Mughal, sebuah istilah yang tidak disukai Babur, karena memiliki konotasi yang buruk. Pandangan umum, tentang kemenangan Babur terhadap Ibrahim Lodi tidak lebih penting daripada kampanye yang sering terjadi yang membawa perubahan dalam kekuasaan. Namun, jauh sebelum tahun 1600, pada masa pemerintahan cucu Babur, Akbar, jelas bahwa peraturan Mughal memberi dampak yang besar pada perkembangan budaya, ekonomi, dan politik dari tanah yang dikuasainya, yaitu wilayah yang kemudian disebut Hindustan. Di ranah arsitektur, Mughal mencapai status master-builder, yang menghasilkan monumen seperti Taj Mahal, yang bahkan saat ini dianggap sebagai salah satu bangunan paling megah di dunia.[2]", "Arsitektur Mughal\nDenah single-aisled ini digunakan secara eksklusif untuk masjid periode Lodi dan Suri Jami 'dan juga untuk banyak masjid yang lebih rendah pada periode tersebut. Mesjid multi-bayed yang sederhana, sering dijebak dan beratap rata, terus dibangun di seluruh India. Contohnya termasuk masjid Sangi di Phulwari Sharif, Bihar, tertanggal 1549-50, dan Masjid Chowk-ki, tertanggal 1553, di Nagaur, Rajasthan. Struktur yang dikeringkan dan dilipat dengan atap terus mengikuti tradisi India yang sudah berlangsung lama. Mereka sama sekali tidak mewakili gaya yang dapat diklasifikasikan sebagai non-Islam.[2]:13 Sebelum Lodis, makam yang rumit dibangun hanya untuk raja, anggota keluarga kerajaan dan orang-orang kudus yang sangat dihormati. Meskipun hanya ada tiga raja Lodi, lebih dari seratus makam besar yang dibangun di bawah naungan Lodi tetap tinggal di Delhi saja, berkali-kali jumlah makam dibangun di bawah rezim sebelumnya. Karena pastilah tidak ada seratus orang suci yang layak untuk membuat makam yang rumit selama periode singkat ini, penjelasannya tampaknya terletak pada sikap terhadap kerajaan di bawah Lodis.[11] Sultan di bawah dinasti Indo-Islam sebelumnya dianggap otokratis, penguasa yang kekuatannya mutlak. Lodis, bagaimanapun, adalah seorang suku dari Afghanistan. Meskipun mereka sudah lama menetap di India, anggota suku Afghanistan lainnya membentuk dukungan mereka.[2]:13", "Arsitektur Mughal\nBerbeda dengan penguasa Islam Iran dan Turki, Safawiyyah dan Utsmaniyyah yang berkuasa di dunia kontemporer, Mughal menguasai sebuah tanah yang didominasi oleh orang-orang non-Muslim, dan kebanyakan dari mereka beragama Hindu. Sama seperti agama dan tradisi asli yang telah ditoleransi dan dalam banyak kasus bahkan dihormati oleh penguasa Mughal, demikian juga, mereka memasukkan nilai-nilanya dalam bentuk patronasi seni, sastra dan musik dan banyak elemen-elemen asli. Selama patronasi yang lebih dari 300 tahun; sikap Mughal terhadap penduduk asli India yaiu Hindu dan Muslim sangat bervariasi; Begitu pula adaptasi Mughal terhadap bentuk seni India sebelumnya. Selama masa awal patronasi Mughal, sedikit sekali perhatian yang diberikan pada tradisi arsitektur non-Islam India; Namun, pada masa pemerintahan penguasa Mughal ketiga, Akbar (1556-1605), elemen asli India, baik Hindu maupun Muslim, digabungkan dengan sengaja ke dalam struktur Mughal. Dalam arsitektur Mughal berikutnya, para penguasa sering meninggalkan penggunaan lapisan tanah adat, mencari pengganti bentuk dan simbol yang bisa menegaskan karakter Islam rumah Mughal. Arsitektur mughal adalah produk jenius inovatif yang dipinjam dari sumber India, Timurid dan bahkan Eropa. Para seniman Mughal menafsirkan bentuk pinjaman ini, baik dari segi simbolisme maupun gaya, dengan tujuan mereka sendiri. Namun, untuk membayangkan, sebanyak yang dilakukan, arsitektur Mughal adalah yang pertama memanfaatkan secara ekstensif motif asli beserta bentuk standar Islam - misalnya kubah dan lengkungan - yang merupakan warisan yang diwariskan kepada mereka oleh dinasti Indo-Islam sebelumnya.[2]", "Benteng Lalbagh\nSetelah Shaista Khan meninggalkan Dhaka, ia kehilangan popularitasnya. Penyebab utamanya adalah bahwa ibukota dipindahkan dari Dhaka ke Murshidabad. Setelah berakhirnya periode Kekaisaran Mughal, benteng tersebut ditinggalkan. Pada tahun 1844, daerah tersebut memperoleh namanya sebagai Lalbagh menggantikan Aurangabad, dan benteng ini kemudian dinamai sebagai Benteng Lalbagh.", "Himachal Pradesh\nHimachal Pradesh adalah sebuah negara bagian India yang terdiri dari daerah pegunungan di Utara India. Himachal Pradesh berbatasan dengan Tibet di sebelah timur, Jammu dan Kashmir di utara, Punjab di tenggara, Haryana dan Uttar Pradesh di selatan serta Uttaranchal di timur laut. Himachal Pradesh memiliki luas wilayah 55.658 km² menjadikannya salah satu negara bagian terkecil di India (berada di urutan ke-17).", "Negara Nawanagar\nNawanagar adalah negara bagian kepangeranan India dalam wilayah historis Halar yang terletak di tepi selatan Teluk Kutch. Nawanagar dikuasai oleh dinasti Jadeja dari pembentukannya pada 1540 hingga tahun 1948 ketika Nawanagar menjadi bagian dari India yang saat itu baru terbentuk. Wilayah ini sekarang dikenal sebagai Jamnagar. Wilayah ini memiliki luas sebesar 9.820 km2 dan jumlah penduduk sebesar 336,779 jiwa pada tahun 1901. Penguasa Nawanagar yang bergelar \"Jam Saheb\" atau \"Raja Pemilik\" adalah keturunan kerajaan Hindu (Hindu Rajput) dari klan yang sama dengan Rao dari Cutch. Mereka berhak atas penghormatan 13 meriam (13-gun salute).Pada masa Kemaharajaan Inggris, Nawanagar adalah bagian dari Badan Kathiawar, di bawah Divisi Gujarat dari Kepresidenan Bombay .", "Akbar Khan\nAkbar Khan adalah raja terbesar (1556-1605) kerajaan Islam Moghul di India. Dia lahir di Umarkot, Sind pada tanggal 15 Oktober 1542 dan meninggal di Agra saat 16 Oktober pada tahun 1605. Nama aslinya adalah Jalaluddin. Gelar Akbar diberikan karena kebesarannya. Dia berhasil mengembalikan daerah-daerah kerajaan yang pada masa pemerintahan ayahnya, Humayun, yang direbut Syir Khan. Kerajaan dapat diperluas hingga meliputi Afghanistan, Balikhistan dan sebagian daerah utara tengah India. Melakukan berbagai perbaikan administrasi dan keuangan. Mempunyai perhatian terhadap pembahasan bidang agama. Toleransi agama dijamin luas. Istananya sellau dikunjungi para ulama, sastrawann dan seniman. 1592, memproklamasikan agama baru, diberi nama:Ad-Din al-Ilahy (agama ketuhanan). Agama ini segera hilang setelah Akbar meninggal.", "Kerajaan Mysore\nNamun, pada tahun 1704, ketika tampuk kekuasaan diwariskan kepada Kanthirawa Narasaraja II, keberlangsungan dan perluasan wilayah kerajaan dicapai melalui aliansi, negosiasi, penundukan, dan pencaplokan wilayah. Menurut sejarawan Sanjay Subrahmanyam dan Sethu Madhawa Rao, Mysore saat itu secara resmi membayar upeti kepada Mughal. Catatan sejarah Mughal mengklaim bahwa upeti tetap (\"peshkash\") dibayar oleh Mysore. Namun, sejarawan Suryanath Kamath merasa bahwa Mughal mungkin menganggap Mysore sebagai sekutu mereka, yang disebabkan oleh persaingan antara Mughal dan Maratha di India Selatan. Pada tahun 1720-an, saat Mughal mengalami kemunduran, muncul kesulitan karena penduduk Mughal di Arcot dan Sira menuntut upeti. Pada tahun-tahun berikutnya, Krishnaraja Wodeyar I mencoba menanggapi secara hati-hati, sementara menahan kepala-kepala suku Kodagu dan Maratha. Ia kemudian digantikan oleh Chamaraja Wodeyar VI; pasa masanya, kekuasaan jatuh ke tangan perdana menteri (\"Dalwai\" atau \"Dalavoy\") Nanjarajiah (atau Nanjaraja) dan kepala menteri (\"Sarwadhikari\") Dewarajiah (atau Dewaraja), dua bersaudara yang berpengaruh dari kota Kalale (dekat Nanjangud) yang akan berkuasa selama tiga dasawarsa dan membatasi peranan Chamaraja Wodeyar VI menjadi peranan yang berkenaan dengan gelar saja. Kemudian, pada masa pemerintahan Krishnaraja II, Kesultanan-Kesultanan Dekkan telah dikalahkan oleh Mughal, dan selama kekacauan berlangsung, Haidar Ali (yang merupakan seorang kapten dalam angkatan bersenjata) mulai menonjol. Kemenangannya dalam pertempuran melawan Maratha di Bangalore pada tahun 1758 menjadikannya tokoh yang ikonik. Untuk menghormati pencapaiannya, raja memberinya gelar \"Nawab Haidar Ali Khan Bahadur\".", "Arsitektur Mughal\nMeski masa Kesultanan pada umumnya diyakini sebagai salah satu toleransi kecil bagi arsitektur non-Muslim, Hindu dan Jain terus dibangun di India utara selama masa ini. Misalnya, setidaknya tiga kuil di Bihar diberi tanggal atau datable sampai ke masa Kesultanan. Salah satu dari mereka, di kota ziarah Hindu di Gaya, bahkan memiliki sebuah prasasti yang memuji tuan Muslim, Firuz Shah Tughluq, seorang penguasa yang secara tradisional dianggap anti-Hindu yang berperang.[12] Beberapa kuil pada periode ini berkubah, seperti ditunjukkan oleh lukisan yang menggambarkan 'Aryanyakaparvan 1516'.[13] Dengan demikian arsitektur kubah tidak bisa dianggap eksklusif bagi kaum muslimin.[2]:15 Arsitektur sekuler yang didirikan saat ini di bawah para pengunjung Hindu memiliki dampak besar pada bangunan sekuler berikutnya, terutama bangunan Mughal. Salah satu contohnya, yang megah, adalah istana Man Mandir yang dibangun di Gwalior sekitar 1500 oleh Raja Man Singh Tomar. Di antara beberapa bangunan yang dikagumi oleh Babur di India, istana ini dianggap telah mempengaruhi Akbar dalam desain istana sendiri. Terletak di atas dataran tinggi dataran tinggi benteng Gwalior kuno, eksterior istana ditandai dengan serangkaian penopang melingkar yang masing-masing diatasi dengan chattri kubah tinggi, dan fasadnya dihiasi dengan ubin yang mengkilap terutama biru atau kuning..[2]:15 Sementara eksterior istana Gwalior memengaruhi fasad mosaik bertatahkan gerbang Delhi di benteng Agra Akbar, bagian dalam istana ini memiliki dampak yang lebih besar lagi pada arsitektur Akbar. Bagian utama istana terdiri dari serangkaian halaman kecil yang menghubungkan sekelilingnya yang merupakan galeri yang berisi kamar. Kamar-kamar ini tidak pernah diarsir, namun pada dasarnya memiliki atap datar, sebuah tipe yang muncul kembali di istana Agra dan Fatchpur Sikri di Akbar. Seperti istana Mughal berikutnya, istana Gwalior memanfaatkan kurung hewan yang menopang atap galeri ( chajjas ), mungkin pada akhirnya memodelkan motif toramz, yang digunakan baik sebagai ornamen dinding maupun perangkat fungsional. Sementara istana Man Singh tidak jauh dari Agra dan Fatchpur Sikri, memiliki dampak nyata pada arsitektur Akbari, adalah salah untuk menganggap istana Gwalior secara unik Hindu. Sebaliknya, itu termasuk dalam jenis arsitektur domestik yang pada akhir masa Kesultanan dimanfaatkan oleh Hindu dan non-Hindu.[2]:15", "Kesultanan Dekan\nMeskipun secara umum bersaing, namun mereka bersekutu melawan Kerajaan Wijayanagara pada tahun 1565, secara permanen melemahkan Kerajaan Wijayanagara dalam Pertempuran Talikota. Pada tahun 1574, setelah terjadi kudeta di Berar, Ahmadnagar menyerbu dan menaklukkan Kesultanan Berar. Pada tahun 1619, Bidar dianeksasi oleh Bijapur. Kesultanan-kesultanan tersebut kemudian ditaklukkan oleh Kesultanan Mughal; Berar direbut dari Ahmadnagar pada tahun 1596, Ahmadnagar benar-benar diambil alih antara tahun 1616 dan 1636, dan Golkonda dan Bijapur ditaklukkan oleh kampanye Aurangzeb pada tahun 1686-87.", "Asal mula arsitektur Taj Mahal\nPada Pertempuran Panipat pertama pada tahun 1526, Babur menang dan tinggal di benteng Istana Ibrahim Lodi; kemudian membangun sebuah baoli di dalamnya. Lalu digantikan oleh Humayun yang dinobatkan di benteng pada tahun 1530. Dia kemudian dikalahkan di Bilgram pada tahun 1540 oleh Sheh Shah Suri. Benteng tersebut tetap berada bersama Surihingga tahun 1555. Kemudian Humayun melakukan pengepungan pada benteng ini dan Jenderal Adil Shah Suri yaitu Hemu mengepung Agra pada tahun 1556, dan mengejar gubernur yang melarikan diri ke Delhi di mana dia bertemu di Mughal pada Pertempuran Tughlaqabad.[3] Karena menyadari pentingnya situasi genting ini; Akbar membuat ibu kotanya dan sampai di Agra pada tahun 1558. Abu Fazl, sejarawan India mencatata bahwa ini merupakan benteng bata yang dikenal juga dengan Badalgarch yang dalam kondisi rusak. Kemudian pada masa pemerintahan Akbar dibangun kembali yang dibuat dari batu pasir merah dari Rajashtan. Fondasi diletakkan dan dibangun kembali pada permukaan luar. Telah diketahui bahwa pengerjaannya dilakukan selama delapan tahun dengan perkiraan 4.000 tukang.[3]", "Daftar Kaisar Mughal\nKekaisaran Mughal didirikan oleh Babur, seorang penguasa Asia Tengah yang merupakan keturunan dari penakluk Turki-Mongol Timur Lenk dari pihak ayahnya dan dari Chagatai, putra kedua penguasa Mongol Genghis Khan, dari pihak ibunya. Diusir dari wilayah leluhurnya di Asia Tengah olehy Uzbek Khan, Pangeran Babur pada usia 14 tahun datang ke India untuk mewujudkan ambisi-ambisinya. Ia mengangkat dirinya sendiri di Kabul dan kemudian secara cepat menekan ke kawasan selatan India dari Afghanistan melalui Perlintasan Khyber. Pasukan Babur menduduki sebagian besar utara India setelah kemenangannya di Panipat pada 1526. Namun, pra-pendudukan dengan perang dan kampanye militer tak membuat kaisar baru tersebut mengkonsolidasikan raihan yang ia dapat di India. Ketidakstabilan kekaisaran menjadi bukti di bawah putranya, Humayun, yang ditekan dari India dan ke Persia oleh para pemberontak. Pengasingan Humayun di Persia mendirikan hubungan diplomatik antara Safawiyah dan Mughal, dan berujung pada meningkatnya pengaruh budaya Asia Barat di pemerintahan Mughal. Restorasi pemerintahan Mughal dimulai setelah Humayun kembali dari Persia pada 1555, namun ia wafata akibat kecelakaan fatal tak lama setelahnya. Putra Humayun, Akbar, meneruskan tahta tersebut di bawah seorang wali raja, Bairam Khan, yang membantu mengkonsolidasikan Kekaisaran Mughal di India.", "Piha kaetta\nSelama masa keemasan Kekaisaran Mughal di India antara abad-16 sampai awal abad ke-18, pedang-pedang untuk alat perang mulai diproduksi secara meluas. Belati ini dikenal dengan kualitasnya yang tinggi, hiasannya yang halus dan rumit, dan bentuknya yang elegan. Bentuk-bentuk elegan pada senjata perang Kekaisaran Mughal ditemukan pada banyak belati dan pisau selama periode tersebut. Bentuk-bentuk ini menunjukkan pengaruh dari dunia Islam yang kuat. Banyak dari belati-belati ini bersifat royal dan hanya dipakai oleh para pangeran atau bangsawan untuk membela diri, untuk berburu, atau untuk sekedar dipamerkan. Dalam pertempuran, mereka adalah senjata penting di pertempuran jarak dekat, dan mampu menusuk baju besi prajurit India.", "Imperium Britania\nSelama abad pertama pengoperasiannnya, British East India Company (EIC) cuma terfokus pada perdagangan di India, sama sekali tidak terpikir untuk menantang Kesultanan Mughal, yang memberi izin berdagang pada tahun 1617 karena posisi serta kekuasaannya di India lebih kuat dari Inggris.[50] Namun hal ini berubah pada abad ke-18. Ketika Kesultanan Mughal membatasi hak-hak EIC, Inggris dengan EIC nya berjuang menjatuhkan Kekaisaran Mughal - yang dibantu oleh Perancis - dalam Perang Carnatic pada periode 1740-an dan 1750-an. Dalam Pertempuran Plassey tahun 1757, Inggris yang dipimpin oleh Robert Clive berhasil menaklukkan Mughal beserta sekutu Perancisnya. Kemenangan ini menjadikan Inggris sebagai penguasa serta kekuatan militer dan politik terbesar di India.[51] Selama dekade berikutnya, Inggris secara bertahap sukses memperluas wilayah teritori yang berada di bawah kekuasaannya di India, baik dengan menguasainya secara langsung ataupun melalui penguasa lokal yang berada di bawah ancaman kekuatan tentara Inggris di India.[52] Kemaharajaan Britania (sebutan untuk Inggris-India) akhirnya tumbuh menjadi harta yang paling berharga bagi Imperium Britania, dijuluki \"permata dalam mahkota\", mencakup wilayah yang lebih besar dari Kekaisaran Romawi, India menjadi koloni yang paling penting bagi kekuatan Inggris, sekaligus membantu mendefinisikan statusnya sebagai imperium terbesar di dunia.[53]", "Daftar negara jajahan Imperium Britania\nPeriode Keemasan Imperium Britania terjadi pada tahun 1815 - 1914, pada saat masa kekuasaan Raja George III sampai dengan Raja George V. Dimana lebih dari 10.000.000 mil² (26,000,000 km²) luas wilayah dan sekitar 400 juta penduduk menjadi bagian dari Imperium Britania.Kekalahan Napoleon pada tahun 1815 membuat Inggris tidak memiliki saingan yang berarti, kecuali Rusia di Asia Tengah. Menjadi yang tak terkalahkan di lautan, Inggris kemudian menobatkan dirinya sebagai polisi dunia, yang selanjutnya dikenal sebagai Pax Britannica.Bersamaan dengan hak kontrol tidak resmi yang dimilikinya, posisi Inggris yang dominan dalam perdagangan dunia berarti bahwa secara efektif Inggris bisa mengendalikan perekonomian dari banyak negara, seperti Cina, Argentina dan Siam (Thailand). Kondisi ini oleh para sejarawan disebut sebagai \"imperium informal\".", "Mumbai\nKekaisaran Mughal, yang dibentuk pada 1526, merupakan kekuatan dominan di anak benua India pada pertengahan abad ke-16. Tumbuhnya kekhawatiran terhadap kekuasaan Mughal Humayun membuat Sultan Bahadur Shah dari Kesultanan Gujarat memutuskan untuk menandatangani Traktat Bassein dengan Kekaisaran Portugus pada 23 Desember 1534. Menurut traktata tersebut, tujuh pulau di Bombay, kota strategis terdekat Bassein dan depedensi-depedensinya diberikan kepada Portugis. Teritorial tersebut kemudian disebarkan pada 25 Oktober 1535.", "Kota Malang\nSetelah kerajaan Kanjuruhan, pada masa emas kerajaan Singhasari (1000 tahun setelah Masehi) di daerah Malang masih ditemukan satu kerajaan yang makmur, banyak penduduknya serta tanah-tanah pertanian yang amat subur.[25] Ketika Islam menaklukkan Kerajaan Majapahit sekitar tahun 1400, Patih Majapahit melarikan diri ke daerah Malang. Sultan Mataram dari Jawa Tengahlah yang akhirnya datang dan berhasil menaklukkan daerah ini pada tahun 1614 setelah mendapat perlawanan yang tangguh dari penduduk daerah ini.", "Serbuan Yuan-Mongol ke Jawa\nKegagalan ini sekaligus merupakan ekspedisi militer terakhir Kubilai Khan. Sebaliknya, Majapahit kemudian menjadi negara paling kuat pada masanya di Nusantara.[12] Kublai khan merencanakan invasi lain ke Jawa dengan kekuatan 100.000 tentara, tetapi rencana ini dibatalkan setelah kematian Kublai Khan.[5] Akan tetapi, tokoh lain yang melewati Nusantara, yaitu Ibn Battuta dan Odoric dari Pordenone, melaporkan bahwa Jawa diserang beberapa kali oleh Mongol, tetapi selalu berhasil digagalkan.[13][14]", "Arsitektur Mughal\nTelah disarankan agar desain seperti benteng makam tersebut mencerminkan Ketidakstabilan politik di waktu itu dan dibangun pada masa Ghiyath al-Din yang memiliki hidup sehingga bisa menggunakannya untuk melindungi dirinya dari musuh. Namun demikian, sebuah struktur tidak dapat memberikan perlindungan jangka pendek; Sebaliknya, pengaturannya di genangan air membangkitkan banyak referensi di dalam Al-Quran ke perairan surga yang melimpah, sebuah citra yang sangat berharga bagi penduduk padang pasir di Arabia, tempat kelahiran lslam. Kolam ini mengacu pada tangki tempat orang beriman yang memuaskan dahaga mereka saat memasuki surga. Asosiasi air dengan struktur funereal yang menunjukkan surga akan berlanjut sebagai motif utama dalam arsitektur Mughal.[2]:8 Sementara kuburan Iltutmish adalah gudang virtual dari ayat Alquran dan makam Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq adalah visi pribadi surga; di mana lokasinya di tengah Sekolah Teologi Islam; yang juga di dasar madrasah ini, di dekat makam Firuz Shah, adalah kios kecil - seperti bangunan yang dikenal sebagai chattris. Mereka memiliki kobah suprastruktur yang didukung oleh enam atau delapan pilar. chattris ini menandai makam orang-orang kudus yang telah meninggal. Makam terdekat Firuz Shah menghadap sebuah tangki besar, lokasi yang tepat untuk sebuah makam. Dinding luarnya memiliki veneer semen tebal yang tidak berkilau. Interiornya juga merupakan tempelan, yang umumnya polos, meski bagian dalam kubah ditoreh dan dirombak untuk membangkitkan bayangan langit.[2]:8 Selain berbentuk medali dan desain alam, kubahnya bertuliskan ayat-ayat dari Al-Quran dan ucapan yang dikaitkan dengan Nabi Muhammad (SAW). Harapan surga adalah tema utama dari ayat-ayat ini, sebuah tema yang akan mendominasi ikonografi makam Mughal.[2]:9", "Dinasti Koch\nParikesit Narayana diserang oleh Mughal ditempatkan di Dhaka dalam aliansi dengan Lakshmi Narayan Koch Bihar pada tahun 1612. Kerajaan-nya Koch Hajo, dibatasi oleh Sungai Sankosh di barat dan Sungai Barnadi di timur, diduduki oleh akhir tahun itu. Parikesit Narayan dikirim ke Delhi untuk penonton dengan Kaisar Mughal, tapi saudaranya Balinarayan melarikan diri dan berlindung di Ahom raya. Wilayah di sebelah timur Barnadi dan sampai Sungai Bharali berada di bawah kendali beberapa kepala sukuBaro-Bhuyan, tapi mereka segera dimusnahkan oleh Mughal. Pada tahun 1615 Mughal, di bawah Syed Hakim dan Syed Aba Bakr, menyerang Ahoms tetapi dipukul mundur kembali ke Sungai Barnadi. Raja Ahom, Prataap Singha, kemudian mendirikan Balinarayan sebagai pengikut di wilayah yang baru diperoleh antara Barnadi dan Bharali sungai, dan menyebutnya Darrang. Balinarayan keturunan terus memerintah wilayah tersebut sampai dianeksasi oleh Inggris pada tahun 1826.", "Pemberontakan di India 1857\nSetelah memberontak, para sepoy mendapat dukungan dari raja-raja wilayah di India yang sebelumnya terampas kekuasaannya oleh EIC. Kemudian secara bersama-sama mengangkat Maharaja Mughal (penguasa India sebelum EIC) sebagai lambang perlawanan. EIC berhasil memadamkan pemberontakan setelah mendatangkan pasukan dari Eropa dan koloninya yang lain terutama Burma, dengan dibantu para sepoy yang masih setia dari kaum Sikh.", "Arsitektur Mughal\nPada masa pemerintahan Aurangzib, seni bangunan mulai kehilangan vitalitasnya, meskipun Magi (mutiara) Magiid yang ditambahkannya ke benteng Shihjahinahad, sebuah 1070/1660, mempertahankan kelezatan keahlian sebelumnya (kubah bulat yang terlalu besar kemudian Selain itu, keunikan mulai terlihat di Masjid BadshahI yang hebat pada tahun 1085/1674 ditambahkan ke barat Benteng Lahore, dengan empat orang jangkung di sudut halaman, empat yang pendek di sudut-sudut Ewan, tiga kubahnya sedikit over-bulbous, dan fasad 5 menit menyajikan terlalu banyak ruang kosong. Beberapa tahun kemudian makam istri Aurangzib, Rabi'a Daurani dibangun di Aurangabad, berdiri di sebuah taman berdinding, yang adalah fitur terbaiknya, karena ini adalah salinan setengah bit dari Taj Mahall, dengan lengkungan tengah cngmilcd tipis, kubah bulat, minim yang tidak proporsional, cakrawala sempit dengan ruang yang tidak mencukupi untuk sudut chhatris dilemahkan galdaslus , yang menggabungkannya untuk memberikannya udara biasa-biasa saja Masjid Urangzb di Banaras (Varanasi) dan Mathura, di sisi lain, ortodoks dan \"proporsional, jadi harus diasumsikan bahwa dia tidak memainkan bagian pribadi dalam konstruksi mereka. Bangunan makam yang jauh lebih baik adalah bangunan terakhir dari maumlea persegi besar, makam Safdar Jang di Delhi (nomor 1166/1753), dengan proporsi yang bagus, bahkan jika kubahnya agak terlalu bulat, di batu pasir fawn yang dikerjakan dengan baik , dan di taman charbagh yang terakhir.[3]:32", "Taj Mahal Hitam\nTaj Mahal Hitam (\"Taj Hitam\", \"Kaala Taj\", juga \"Taj ke-2\") adalah sebuah mausoleum marmer hitam legendaris yang dikatakan direncanakan untuk dibangun di pinggiran Sungai Yamuna berseberangan dengan Taj Mahal di Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Kaisar Mughal Shah Jahan dikatakan merencanakan sebuah mausoleum untuk dirinya sendiri yang mirip dengan bangunan yang ia bangun untuk mengenang istri ketiganya, Mumtaz Mahal.", "Kekaisaran Mali\nKekaisaran Mali mencapai luasnya yang terbesar di bawah mansa Laye. Selama periode ini, Mali terdiri dari hampir seluruh wilayah antara Gurun Sahara dan hutan pantai. Kekaisaran ini terbentang dari Samudera Atlantik sampai Niamey modern di Niger. Pada tahun 1350, kekaisaran ini memiliki luas kira-kira 439.400 kilometer persegi. Kekaisaran ini juga mencapai populasi terbesarnya selama periode Laye dengan menguasai 400 kota,[29] dan desa dari berbagai region dan etnis. Ulama pada era itu mengklaim perlu tidak kurang dari satu tahun untuk melintasi kekaisaran dari barat ke timur. Selama periode ini, hanya kekaisaran Mongolia yang wilayahnya lebih besar.", "Makam Akbar\nMakam Akbar adalah sebuah karya arsitektur yang penting dari Kekaisaran Mughal. Kuburan Akbar dibangun antara tahun 1605 sampai 1618. kuburan Akbar memiliki keunikan yang membedakan kuburan ini dengan makam raja - raja Muslim terkenal di seluruh dunia, Makam Akbar menghadap ke arah matahari, bukannya Mekkah.", "Arsitektur Mughal\nKepentingan Jahangir lebih dalam lukisan miniatur daripada arsitektur dan hanya ada sedikit contoh bangunan pada masa pemerintahan ini; Meskipun diketahui bahwa ia memperluas bangunan Akbar di Benteng Agra dan Lahore, yang pada awalnya merupakan \"dinding gambar\" di ubin mosaik yang menunjukkan adegan berburu, polo dan menyelesaikan pembangunan makam Akbar: sebuah bangunan piramida bertingkat empat, dihias dengan chhatris , dengan sebuah lengkungan setengah kubah besar di setiap wajah, ornamen sekte opus, dan alun-alun terbuka dengan cenotaph, semuanya di marmer, di atas, berdiri di taman charbagh yang luas. Pintu gerbang masuk mengesankan, dengan menara marmer putih tinggi di setiap sudut - tampilan pertama dari fitur ini di utara. Dua bangunan paling penting dari pemerintahan Jahangir adalah makam di Agra, yang dimulai pada 1031/1622, dari ayah mertuanya Mirza Ghiyath Beg yang berjudul I'timad ad-Daula, dalam marmer bertatahkan motif persia (cemara, tanaman merambat, bunga, vas bunga, gelas anggur) di dome pietra sejati, dengan empat menara sudut pendek, dan layar tracery marmer halus, dan makam Abd al-Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, mirip dengan makam Humayun tapi tanpa ruang sudut. Mantan makam tersebut menandai teknik dekoratif Taj Mahal; Yang terakhir adalah prototipe imvediate dari desainnya.[3]:30", "Kesultanan Mughal\nSetelah kematian Aurangzeb pada tahun 1707, kekaisaran ini mulai mengalami kemunduran, meskipun tetap berkuasa selama 150 tahun berikutnya. Pada 1739 dia dikalahkan oleh pasukan dari Persia dipimpin oleh Nadir Shah. Pada 1756 pasukan Ahmad Shah merampok Delhi lagi. Kerajaan Britania akhirnya membubarkannya pada 1857.", "Asal mula arsitektur Taj Mahal\nArsitektur mughal adalah produk jenius inovatif yang bersumber dari India, Timurid dan bahkan Eropa. Para seniman Mughal menafsirkan bentuk penemuan ini, baik dari segi simbolisme maupun gaya, dengan latar belakang mereka sendiri. Namun, untuk membayangkan, sebanyak yang dilakukan, arsitektur Mughal adalah bangunan pertama yang memanfaatkan secara ekstensif motif asli beserta bentuk standar Islam; misalnya kubah dan lengkungan yang merupakan warisan Indo-Islam sebelumnya.[2]", "Arsitektur Mughal\nDi antara keprihatinan pertama penakluk adalah pembangunan jemaat (jami'), yang diperlukan untuk kekuasaan sultan di wilayah yang baru diakuisisi ini serta pendirian dan penyebaran Islam. Masjid pertama oleh Aibek, yang secara signifikan disebut Quwwat al-Islam atau Might of Islam, didirikan di Delhi, ibu kota penguasa Muslim baru. Dibangun dari para anggota kuil arsitektur, yaitu masjid dalam fase pertamanya yang tampak dimodelkan secara longgar dengan bentuk umum masjid era Ghorid. Masjid semacam itu, yang mengikuti mode umum Iran, memiliki sebuah halaman terbuka yang dikelilingi oleh aula tertutup di tiga sisi; dan ruang doa berada di sisi keempat.[6] Masing-masing sisi memiliki pintu masuk berkubah sentral atau aiwan. Oleh sebab itu, masjid semacam ini dikenal sebagai \"tipe empat aiwan\". Di India penampilannya sedikit dimodifikasi, dan pada masa Mughal; istilah \"aiwan\" mengasumsikan arti yang berbeda. Selama masa awal ini, pintu masuk tidak berkubah. Ruang doa terletak di sebelah barat, sisi yang di India menghadap ke Mekah, di mana semua masjid di India berorientasi. Variasi denah empat-aiwan Iran ini terus dibangun bahkan melalui periode Mughal.[2]:2 Namun, di ketinggian, masjid Quiltat al-Islam awalnya mengikuti teknik bangunan tradisional India. Artinya, bangunan pada tahap awalnya benar-benar dijejali, dibangun di dalam sistem post-dan-lintel. Hal ini kontras dengan jenis bangunan berkubah yang ditemukan di sebagian besar wilayah yang didominasi Muslim. Namun, dalam arsitektur Indo-Islam, bangunan yang seringkali digunakan, bahkan sampai periode Mughal; sebagai salah satu mode konstruksi utama; dengan semua struktur yang terberkati, terutama dalam kasus bentuk Fatehpur Sikri yang merupakan adaptasi dari bentuk-bentuk Hindu yang keliru.[2]:4", "Penghukuman mati oleh gajah\nPada era Mughal, \"ini adalah cara penghukuman mati umum selama beberapa hari yang ditujukan kepada para tahanan dengan cara dilemparkan menggunakan kaki oleh seekor gajah.\" Kapten Alexander Hamilton, yang menulis pada 1727, mengisahkan bagaimana penguasa Mughal Shah Jahan memerintahkan seorang komandan militer yang dihukum untuk dibawakan \"ke Taman Gajah, dan disana dihukum mati oleh seekor Gajah, yang memberikannya rasa malu dan kematian yang buruk\". Kaisar Mughal Humayun memerintahkan seorang imam agar diremukkan oleh gajah yang ia anggap mengkritik pemerintahannya. Beberapa raja juga mengadopsi bentuk penghukuman mati tersebut untuk hiburan mereka sendiri. Penguasa Mughal lainnya, kaisar Jahangir, berkata untuk memerintahkan sejumlah besar penjahat agar diremukkan atas kejahatan mereka. Penjelajah Perancis François Bernier, yang menyaksikan penghukuman mati semacam itu, mencatast pengalamannya saat kaisar memberikan hukuman mematikan tersebut. Diremukkan adalah satu-satunya metode yang digunakan gajah penghukum mati di Mughal; di kesultanan Mughal dari Delhi, para gajah dilatih untuk memotong para tahanan menjadi beberapa bagian \"dengan cara ditarik-tarik oleh belalai mereka\". Penjelajah Muslim Ibnu Battuta, yang datang ke Delhi pada 1330an, meninggalkan catatan saksi mata tentang jenis penghukuman mati oleh gajah tersebut.", "Kerajaan Galuh\nSementara di wilayah Galuh lain yaitu Galuh Pangauban (Ciamis Selatan). Nama Galuh muncul lagi yang ingin menjadi Ratu Galuh yang menguasai kerajaan kecil (semacam kandaga lante) tempat Pangauban (perlindungan). Terletak antara Cipamali dan Cisanggarung lalu ke daearah aliran Sungai Citanduy. Kerajaan Galuh yang dirancang oleh Pucuk Umum (Pangauban) dibangun oleh Kamalarang dibantu oleh masyarakat Pakidulan yang tempatnya di tengah hutan berjarak dari laut sepenyirihan (kurang lebih 5 km) luasnya kurang lebih 100 depa persegi (sekitar 1,2 m).", "Khalifah\nWangsa Umayyah melanjutkan perluasan wilayah kekhalifahan, meliputi kawasan Transoxiana, Sindh, Arab Maghrib, dan Al-Andalusia, menjadikan kekhalifahan saat itu sebagai salah satu kekaisaran terbesar di dunia yang pernah ada, baik dari segi luas wilayah maupun populasi, dengan luas mencakup 11,100,000 km2 dengan penduduk sekitar 33 juta jiwa.[14]", "Mumtaz Mahal\nArjumand Banu adalah anak dari Abdul Hasan Asaf Khan dan ketika menikah dengan Pangeran Khuram dalam usia 14 tahun, Kota Agra bersuka cita atas kisah tentang kecantikannya. Ia sendiri adalah istri ke-3 dari Pangeran Khuram, yang kemudian menjadi Syah Jehan, dan merupakan istri terkasih. Arjumand Banu diberi nama Mumtaz Mahal pada tahun 1612 setelah pernikahannya dan sampai kematiannya tak terpisah dari suaminya. Sebagai lambang kepercayaan dan cinta, Mumtaz Mahal melahirkan 14 anak dan meninggal ketika melahirkan anak terakhir. Untuk cinta-kasih yang dipersembahkannya bagi suaminya, Mumtaz Mahal menerima penghormatan tertinggi tanah itu - lambang kerajaan - Mehr Uzaz dari Syah Jehan. Menurut legenda, cerita kebajikannya tersebar ke seantero Kesultanan Mughal.", "Bahadur Shah I\nBahadur Shah (—) (14 Oktober 1643 – 27 Februari 1712) adalah Maharaja Mughal ketujuh yang berkuasa dari tahun 1707 hingga kematian pada tahun 1712. Ia adalah putra ketiga Aurangzeb dari istri Rajput Muslimnya Nawab Bai. Ia juga merupakan cucu dari Shah Jahan. Pada masa mudanya, Bahadur Shah mencoba menjatuhkan ayahnya sepuluh kali, tetapi semua upayanya digagalkan oleh maharaja yang memenjarakannya beberapa kali. Dari tahun 1696 hingga 1707, ia menjabat sebagai gubernur Akbarabad, Kabul, dan Lahore.", "Zamindar\nZamindar atau zemindar ( \"zamīndār\", \"zamīndār\", Nagari Timur: জমিদার \"jomidar\"), adalah pegawai yang dipekerjakan oleh Kekaisaran Mughal untuk mengumpulkan pajak dari Ryot (petani). Sistem Zamindar mempergunakan struktur \"bhuiyan\" dari masa sebelum Mughal. Praktik ini diteruskan pada masa pemerintahan Britania. Setelah merdeka, sistem ini dihilangkan di India dan Pakistan Timur (Bangladesh modern), sedangkan di Pakistan modern, sistem ini masih diterapkan.", "Kerajaan Mysore\nDi bawah pemerintahan Haidar Ali, Kerajaan Mysore terbagi menjadi lima provinsi (\"Asofi\"), yang terdiri dari 171 taluk (\"Paragana\"). Saat Tipu Sultan menjadi penguasa \"de facto\", Mysore, yang luasnya mencapai (62.000 mi²), terbagi menjadi 37 provinsi dan 124 taluk (\"Amil\"). Setiap provinsi dipimpin oleh seorang gubernur (\"Asof\") dan seorang wakil gubernur. Masing-masing taluk dikepalai oleh \"Amildar\", sementara sekelompok desa berkuasa atas \"Patel\". Pemerintahan pusat terdiri dari enam departemen yang dikepalai oleh menteri, yang dibantu oleh dewan penasihat yang terdiri dari hingga empat anggota.", "Kesultanan Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat\nDalam perjalanan waktu wilayah tersebut berkurang akibat perampasan oleh Daendels dan Raffles. Setelah Perang Diponegoro selesai pada 1830, pemerintah Hindia Belanda akhirnya merampas seluruh wilayah Manca Nagara. Pada tahun itu pula ditandatangani Perjanjian Klaten pada 27 September 1830 yang menegaskan wilayah dan batas-batas Kasultanan Yogyakarta dengan Kasunanan Surakarta. Wilayah Kasultanan Yogyakarta hanya meliputi Mataram dan Gunungkidul dengan luas 2.902,54km persegi. Di wilayah tersebut terdapat enklave Surakarta (Kotagede dan Imogiri), Mangkunegaran (Ngawen), dan Pakualaman (Kabupaten Kota Paku Alaman).", "Arsitektur Mughal\nInilah puncak sempurna dari tipe makam yang dimulai dengan makam Humayun seabad sebelumnya, melalui makam Abd al-Rahnn Khan-i Khanan, dengan hiasan jenis yang dimulai di makam I'timad ad-Daula dan disempurnakan di benteng Agra, Lahore dan Shahjahanabad.[3]:31-32 Di Delhi, rencana untuk kota itu selesai dengan Masjid jami, 1057-9 / 1648-50; liwan, yang terdapat pada batu pasir merah, dengan kelereng putih, memiliki lengkungan kubah setengah pusat yang besar, dengan lima lengkungan flame kecil di setiap sisinya, semuanya terjulur; dua minar di halaman ujung liwan; dan tiga kubah marmer bulat. Sebuah masjid serupa, jauh lebih kecil, dibangun di Agra pada waktu yang hampir bersamaan. Untuk putrinya Jahan Ara; Di sini lengkungan kembali ke dataran rendah yang berpusat pada tur. Bangunan penting lain dari pemerintahan Shahjahan, dengan tipe yang berbeda, adalah masjid Wazir Khan di Lahore, dari 1044/1634; Di sini ornamennya lebih mirip dengan seni yang dikembangkan di Persia, yang terdiri dari hiasan ubin mosaik asli pada permukaan luar, floral, kaligrafi, dan geometri, terutama bentuk pohon cemara dan pesawat (chunar); permukaan dalamnya dilukis pada tempera dengan memotong plester. Bangunan Shahjahan lainnya ada di Ajmer (dua paviliun yang berada di tepi danau marmer) dan Kashmir (teras di Taman Shalimar, yang ditata oleh Jahangir).[3]:32", "Daftar Kaisar Mughal\nKaisar Mughal, dari awal abad ke-16 sampai awal abad ke-18, membangun dan memerintah Kekaisaran Mughal di anak benua India, utamanya meliputi negara-negara modern Bangladesh, India dan Pakistan. Mughal adalah cabang dari dinasti Timuriyah. Kekuasaan mereka makin meredup pada abad ke-18 dan kaisar terakhir dilengserkan pada 1857, dengan pendirian Kemaharajaan Britania. Dinasti tersebut memiliki darah Turko-Mongol dari kawasan Asia Tengah yang sekarang bagian dari negara modern Uzbekistan, dan para kaisar diklaim keturunan langsung dari Timur Lenk (umumnya dikenal di dunia Barat dengan sebutan Tamerlane Agung) dan Genghis Khan, melalui putranya Chagatai Khan.", "Bugel, Godong, Grobogan\nBugel merupakan kependekan dari kata “mlebu setugel” (dalam bahasa Jawa) yang artinya “masuk sebagian / separo”. Awal kisahnya pada jaman dahulu berdirilah kerajaan Demak yang didirikan oleh Raden Patah. Pada masa dahulu Desa Bugel (sekarang) masuk dalam kekuasaan wilayah kerajaan Demak. Oleh Prabu Brawijaya, Raden Patah diijinkan dan bahkan diangkat menjadi Bupati di Bintoro Demak pada tahun 1503. Kemajuan Bintoro sangat pesat dan pengaruhnya sampai menyusup ke daerah kekuasaan kerajaan Majapahit. Beberapa bangsawan Majapahit sudah mulai masuk agama Islam. Pada tahun 1509, Raden Patah diangkat sebagai Sultan Demak dengan Gelarnya “Sultan Jimbun Ngalam Akbar atau Panembahan Jimbun”. Dengan keruntuhan Majapahit tahun 1525, maka kerajaan Demak sebagai kerajaan Islam di Jawa menjadi penguasa tunggal. Karena merasa sudah terdesak oleh kekuasaan kerajaan Islam Demak maka pasukan sisa – sisa penguasa Majapahit yang tidak mau tunduk kepada kekuasaan kerajaan Islam Demak masuk dan berkumpul secara bergantian di suatu tempat di tepian wilayah kerajaan Demak yang (sekarang) dikenal menjadi Desa Bugel Godong untuk melarikan diri dan menyingkir ke Ponorogo dan ke lereng Gunung Lawu. Bugel kependekan dari kata “mlebu setugel / separo” (dalam bahasa Jawa) yang artinya masuk sebagian atau separo yang bermakna dari masuknya separo pasukan sisa – sisa penguasa yang akan lari ke daerah Ponorogo dan separo lagi sisa – sisa pasukan penguasa Majapahit yang akan melarikan diri ke lereng Gunung Lawu.", "Benteng Agra\nBenteng Agra adalah sebuah benteng paling penting di India. Penguasa Mughal terkenal seperti Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jehangir, Shah Jahan dan Aurangzeb tinggal di sini, dan memerintah negara dari sini. Pada masa itu, Di dalam benteng ini disimpan kekayaan negara. Benteng ini juga pernah dikunjungi oleh duta negara asing, pelancong, dan orang-orang penting.", "Arsitektur Mughal\nPada suatu titik, Sur sultan Sher Shah Suri mengikuti Humayun meskipun bangunannya merupakan kelanjutan gaya pra-Mughal. Memang, terdapat karakteristik arsitektur kecil yang tersisa dari bagian humayun pertama dari mana perbandingan bisa dibuat, karena Sher Shah Suri secara sistematis telah menghancurkan kota Delhi Humayun yang juga disebut Dinpanah. Di makamnya di Sasaram di Bihar, Sher Shah Suri menyempurnakan pola segi delapan, dan telah medenahkan bangunan ini pada dasawarsa sebelum dia berkuasa. Yang paling awal (sekitar 941/1535) ini, makam ayahnya Hasan Khan, dibangun: tanpa alas, dan drumnya adalah dinding kosong tanpa jendela atau chattris Berbeda dengan Lodi, makam Sasaram memiliki bentuk vertikal, tanpa dinding yang berulang. Makam berikutnya, Sher Sher sendiri, tidak seperti ini tapi juga dari model Delhi: dalam lima tahap, naik sampai 50 m, yang terletak di tengah danau buatan yang terhubung ke pantai dengan jalan setapak yang aksesnya diberikan oleh ruang penjaga berkubah.[3]:27", "Arsitektur Mughal\nTughluq adalah penyedia arsitektur yang sangat produktif, terutama di bawah penguasa ketiga, Firuz Shah. Secara umum, arsitektur di bawah Tughluq menjadi semakin ketat memasuki abad ke-14. Misalnya, fasad dan interior batu berukir yang kaya digantikan dengan veneer plesteran polos, dan prasasti Al-Quran jarang menghiasi struktur apapun. Sementara bangunan Tughluq mungkin telah dilukis, banyak batu berwarna di permukaannya jarang ditemukan. Dengan pengecualian jenis masjid empat aiwan, beberapa bentuk arsitektural dan sedikit ornamen yang dikembangkan pada masa pemerintahan mereka tampaknya memiliki pengaruh langsung pada bangunan Mughal. Meskipun demikian, karya Tughluq memperdebatkan aspek arsitektur Mughal.[2]:7 Firuz Shah Tughluq membangun tanah liat yang luas, masjid, sekolah untuk instruksi agama (madrasah), serta bangunan lainnya yang ditujukan untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan agama dan ekonomi rakyatnya. Sementara itu Proyek juga sesuai dengan tugas teoretis seorang mukim Islam yang baik, di India Tidak ada sultan sampai sekarang telah membangun karya publik dengan sangat luas.[2]:7 Mughal kemudian melakukannya, dan seperti pendahulunya: Tughluq, mereka juga menyediakan dukungan untuk kepentingan semua mata pelajaran. Misalnya, sultan Tughluq dan bangsawan berkah kuil Hindu.[9] Begitu juga di bawah dinasti Mughal patronasi disediakan untuk monumen Hindu. Bahkan Mughal Aurangzeb, yang secara tradisional dianggap sebagai ikonoklas dan perusak kuil,[10] memberi perintah untuk melindungi orang-orang Hindu dan kuil mereka. 'Dan beberapa bangsawan Hindu di bawah Mughal menyediakan dana untuk bangunan-bangunan Islam.[2]:8 Makam penguasa Tughluq pertama, Ghiyath al-Din, mencerminkan lebih jauh pengembangan dalam citra yang terlihat surgawi. Meskipun tidak unik di India, citra ini dikembangkan sepenuhnya dalam arsitektur makam selama periode Mughal. Makam Ghiyath al-Din terletak sedikit di sebelah barat benteng besar Delhi ini, Tughluqabad. Awalnya dihubungkan dengan jembatan yang melengkung panjang, makam ini terletak di dinding pentagonal yang mencerminkan benteng yang berada di dekatnya. Kini denah makam persegi berada di tengah ladang gandum, namun awalnya dikelilingi oleh sebidang air yang luas, membuat makam, yang sudah terlindungi oleh dinding benteng yang miring, bahkan lebih tidak dapat diakses.[2]:8", "Daftar Kaisar Mughal\nDi puncak kejayaan kekaisaran mereka pada akhir abad ke-17 dan awal abad ke-18, mereka menguasai sebagian besar anak benua India, yang terbentang dari Bengal di timur sampai Kabul dan Sindh di barat, Kashmir di utara sampai cekungan Kaveri di selatan. Populasinya pada masa ikut diperkirakan antara 110 an 150 juta (seperempat populasi dunia), pada wilayah lebih dari 3.2 juta kilometer persegi (1.2 juta mil persegi).", "Arsitektur Mughal\nBangunan besar pertama yang didirikan selama pemerintahan Mughal adalah mausoleum Humayun, tidak dimulai sampai tahun 976 / 1368-9 pada tahun-tahun awal masa pemerintahan Akbar, dan didirikan, dengan diteruskan oleh istrinya. Ruang cenotaph, yang berdiri di atas alas lantai yang luas, pada dasarnya berbentuk persegi dalam denah, dengan setiap sudut alun-alun dihias; di mana 21 teluk tengah tersembunyi di setiap sisinya. Masing-masing teluk berisi lengkungan yang dalam, setinggi dinding di kedua sisi, yang dibangun sebagai kubah setengah, dan lengkungan yang lebih kecil dengan tinggi dan tingkat yang bervariasi memenuhi fasad pada masing-masing dinding. Ruang tengah dikelilingi oleh sebuah drum tinggi, yang membawa kubah double tinggi, dengan tipe Carries, terbuka dan di pilar yang ramping, di setiap sudut, dan dua chhatris yang lebih kecil di setiap lengkungan pusat. Kubahnya sedikit melengkung di dasarnya, namun bentuknya yang umum menggemakan lengkungan pada bagian bawahnya; lengkungan memperkenalkan bentuk baru ke India Utara, karena lekukan mereka dipukul dari empat pusat.[3]:28", "Kesultanan Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat\nMengikuti kerajaan Mataram, wilayah Kesultanan Yogyakarta pada mulanya dibagi menjadi beberapa lapisan yaitu Nagari Ngayogyakarta (wilayah ibukota), Nagara Agung (wilayah utama), dan Manca Nagara (wilayah luar). Keseluruhan wilayah Nagari Ngayogyakarta dan wilayah Nagara Agung memiliki luas 53.000 karya (sekitar 309,864500km persegi), dan keseluruhan wilayah Manca Nagara memiliki luas 33.950 karya (sekitar 198,488675km persegi). Selain itu, masih terdapat tambahan wilayah dari Danurejo I di Banyumas, seluas 1.600 karya (sekitar 9,3544km persegi).", "Daftar Kaisar Mughal\nPada masa pemerintahan Muhammad Shah, kekaisaran tersebut mulai terpecah, dan sebagian besar wilayah India tengah diserahkan dari Mughal ke Maratha. Perang Mughal selalu berbasis pada artileri berat untuk pengepungan, kavaleri berat untuk operasi ofensif dan kavaleri ringan untuk penyerbuan dan peredaman. Untuk mengendalikan sebuah wilayah, Mughal selalu berusaha untuk menduduki benteng strategis di beberapa kawasan, yang akan dijadikan sebagai titik penting dimana tentara Mughal akan ditempatkan saat musuh manapun menantang kekaisaran tersebut. Sistem ini tak hanya menghabiskan biaya, namun juvga membuat tentara menjadi tak fleksibel karena asumsi selalu membuat musuh akan menarik diri ke dalam benteng untuk dikepung atau akan mengadakan pertempuran desisif dari pengosongan medan terbuka. Hindu Maratha militan adalah pakar pasukan kuda yang menolak ikut serta dalam pertempuran, namun lebih sering ikut serta dalam kampanye-kampanye perang gerilya, perang penyerbuan, penyergapan dan serangan terhadap garis-garis suplai Mughal. Maratha tak dapat mengambil alih benteng Mughal melalui penyerbuan atau pengepungan formal karena mereka kekurangan artileri, namun melalui secara diam-diam memeriksa kolom-kolom suplai, mereka dapat menyerang benteng-benteng Mughal melalui cara tersebut. Para komandan Mughal suksesif menolak untuk membeberkan taktik-taktik mereka dan mengembangkan strategi kontra-pemerontakan yang disahkan, yang berujung pada kekalahan Mughal terhadap Maratha. Kampanye India oleh Nader Shah dari Persia berpuncak dengan Kejatuhan Delhi dan memusnahkan sisa-sisa kekuatan dan ketonjolan Mughal, serta secara drastis mengakselerasikan penurunannya dan memperingatkan para penginvasi jauh lainnya, termasuk kemudian Inggris. Beberapa kalangan elit kekaisaran sekarang memegang kontrol urusan mereka sendir, dan terpecah untuk membentuk kerajaan-kerajaan independen. Namun, Kaisar Mughal masih menjadi manifestasi tertinggi dari kedaulatan. Tak hanya priyayi Muslim, namun para pemimpin Maratha, Hindu, dan Sikh ikut serta dalam pagelaran seremonial kaisar sebagai penguasa India.", "Majapahit\nKerajaan Majapahit adalah kerajaan Hindu-Buddha terakhir yang menguasai Nusantara dan dianggap sebagai kerajaan terbesar dalam sejarah Indonesia.[3] Menurut Negarakertagama, kekuasaannya terbentang dari Jawa, Sumatera, Semenanjung Malaya, Kalimantan, hingga Indonesia timur, meskipun wilayah kekuasaannya masih diperdebatkan.[4]", "Miniatur (naskah beriluminasi)\nLukisan Mughal berkembang pada masa kekuasaan Kemaharajaan Mughal (abad ke-16 sampai abad ke-18), dan pada umumnya terbatas dalam bentuk miniatur, baik sebagai ilustrasi buku maupun sebagai lembaran lukisan untuk disimpan dalam album. Seni lukis Mughal bersumber dari tradisi seni lukis miniatur Persia yang diperkenalkan ke India oleh Mir Sayyid Ali dan Abd al-Samad pada pertengahan abad ke-16. Seni lukis Mughal segera tumbuh mandiri dan terbedakan dari sumbernya, seni rupa Safawi; berkat pengaruh para seniman Hindu, warna-warna lukisan lambat laun tampak semakin cerah dan gambar-gambar dalam lukisan pun tampak semakin alami. Subyek lukisan lebih banyak bersifat sekular, sebagian besar berupa ilustrasi pada karya-karya sastra atau tulisan sejarah, potret-potret warga istana, dan kajian-kajian tentang alam. Pada puncak kejayaannya, lukisan-lukisan ala Mughal menampilkan suatu perpaduan yang elok dari seni rupa Persia, Eropa, dan Hindustan.", "India abad pertengahan\nAwal periode biasanya dianggap sebagai runtuhnya perlahan Kemaharajaan Gupta dari sekitar tahun 480 hingga 550, mengakhiri periode \"klasik\" , serta \"India kuno\", meskipun kedua istilah ini mungkin digunakan untuk periode dengan tanggal yang sangat berbeda, terutama di bidang khusus seperti sejarah seni atau agama. Setidaknya di India utara, tidak ada negara yang lebih besar sampai mungkin Kesultanan Delhi, atau tentu saja Kekaisaran Mughal, tetapi ada beberapa dinasti yang berbeda yang memerintah wilayah yang luas untuk waktu yang lama, serta banyak dinasti lainnya yang memerintah daerah yang lebih kecil, sering membayar beberapa bentuk penghargaan kepada negara-negara yang lebih besar. John Keay menempatkan jumlah dinasti yang khas di benua itu pada suatu waktu antara 20 dan 40, tidak termasuk raja setempat.\nMulai dari Kerajaan Mughal pada tahun 1526 menandai awal periode modern awal dari sejarah India, yang sering disebut sebagai era Mughal. Kadang-kadang, era Mughal juga disebut sebagai 'abad pertengahan' periode.", "Sejarah dunia\nKekaisaran Mongolia hanya bertahan selama kurang lebih satu abad. Setelah kejayaannya, wilayah taklukan mereka melepaskan diri. Setelah wafatnya Genghis Khan pada tahun 1227, sebagian besar kawasan Asia Tengah dikuasai oleh Khanat Chagatai. Tahun 1369, Timur alias Timur Leng, seorang pemimpin militer berkebangsaan Turk, menaklukkan sebagian besar wilayah kekuasaan para khan Mongol. Akan tetapi kekaisaran yang dibentuk olehnya runtuh tak lama setelah kematiannya. Kemudian kawasan tersebut dibagi-bagi menjadi sejumlah khanat (daerah yang dikuasai khan), meliputi Khanat Khiva, Khanat Bukhara, Khanat Kokand, dan Khanat Kashgar.", "Sejarah Asia\nKekaisaran Monggol menaklukkan sebagian besar Asia pada abad ke-13, yakni wilayah yang membentang dari Tiongkok hingga Eropa. Asia di zaman pertengahan adalah kerajaan para Khan. Sebelum Jenghis Khan, tak seorangpun pernah menguasai wilayah yang sebegitu luasnya. Ia memperkokoh kekuasaannya dengan cara mempersatukan suku-suku Monggol yang yang terpecah-belah sebelum memperluas jangkauan kekuasaannya ke selatan dan barat. Ia dan cucunya, Kubilai Khan, menguasai daerah-daerah di Tiongkok, Birma, Asia Tengah, Rusia, Iran, Timur Tengah, dan Eropa Timur. Diperkirakan bala tentara Monggol membinasakan hampir sepertiga populasi Tiongkok. Jenghis Khan adalah seorang penyembah berhala yang toleran terhadap hampir semua agama, meskipun budaya orang-orang yang beragama itu kerap mendapat perlakuan kejam dari bala tentara Monggol. Bala tentara Khan maju mendesak ke arah barat sampai ke Yerusalem sebelum akhirnya dikalahkan pada 1260.", "Perang Inggris-Nepal\nPerang Inggris-Nepal (1814–16), juga dikenal dengan nama Perang Gurkha, adalah perang yang berlangsung antara Kerajaan Nepal melawan East India Company. Perang ini meletus akibat sengketa perbatasan dan upaya kedua belah pihak untuk memperluas wilayah mereka. Perang ini diakhiri oleh Traktat Sugauli pada tahun 1816, yang menyerahkan sekitar sepertiga wilayah Nepal kepada Imperium Britania.", "Kekaisaran Mali\nKankoro-Sigui Mari Djata, yang tidak berhubungan dengan klan Keita, menjalankan kekaisaran di bawah kaidah Musa II. Ia memadamkan pemberontakan Taureg di Takedda dan berkampanye di Gao. Sementara ia berhasil di Tahkedda, ia tidak pernah menang di Gao. Pemukiman Songhai dengan efektif mengguncang kekuasaan Mali tahun 1375. Pada saat kematian Mansa Musa II tahun 1387, Mali secara finansial mampu membayar hutang dan memegang semua penaklukan Gao dan Dyolof sebelumnya. Empat puluh tahun setelah kekuasaan Mansa Musa I, kekaisaran Mali masih menguasai 1.1 juta meter wilayah di sepanjang Afrika Barat.[34]", "Meghalaya\nMeghalaya (Devanagari: मेघालय), adalah sebuah negara bagian kecil di wilayah timur laut India. Kata \"Meghalaya\" berasal dari bahasa Hindi dan Sanskerta yang berarti \"Rumah Awan\". Meghalaya adalah wilayah perbukitan di bagian timur laut India, dengan panjang ±300 kilometer, membujur dari barat ke timur dan lebar ± 100 kilometer, dengan luas wilayah 22.429 km². Jumlah penduduk Meghalaya sebesar 2.175.000 jiwa (sensus tahun 2000). Meghalaya dikelilingi oleh Assam disebelah utara, dan berbatasan langsung dengan Bangladesh di bagian selatan. Meghalaya ber-ibu kota Shilong yang dihuni sekitar 260.000 jiwa.", "Gandhara\nKerajaan Gandhara berlangsung sejak Periode Weda (sekitar 1500-500 SM) hingga abad ke-11 M. Kerajaan ini menjadi pusat seni rupa Buddha, yang mencapai puncaknya pada kurun abad pertama masehi sampai abad ke-5 M pada masa pemerintahan raja-raja Kushan. Sejarawan Al-Biruni menyebut kerajaan ini dalam nama Persianya \"Shahi\" untuk menyebutkan wangsa penguasa dari \"Kabul Shahi\" yang menguasai wilayah ini sebelum penaklukan Muslim pada abad ke-10 dan ke-11 M. Setelah ditaklukan oleh Mahmud dari Ghazni pada 1021 M, nama Gandhara lenyap. Pada masa pemerintahan Muslim, kawasan ini diperintah dari Lahore atau Kabul. Pada masa Mughal kawasan ini termasuk dalam provinsi Kabul.", "Invasi Kekaisaran Mughal oleh Nader Shah\nKemenangan Nader Shah melawan Kekaisaran Mughal di Timur Jauh menandakan bahwa ia memukul mundur dan meneruskan peran melawan musuh bebuyutan Persia, tetangga Kekaisaran Ustmaniyah, selain juga kampanye-kampanye lanjutan di Kaukasus Utara dan Asia Tengah.", "Aurangzeb\nIa merupakan salah seorang putra dari pasangan Shah Jahan dan Mumtaz Mahal yang terkenal pada masa raja Shah Jahan dibangun mausoleum Taj Mahal. Saudara kandungnya yang lain adalah Murad, Shuja dan Dara Syikoh. Setelah wafatnya Shah Jahan akibat sakit dan penderitaan, Aurangzeb yang memiliki nama lengkap Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir akhirnya menggantikan posisi ayahnya itu pada tahun 1653. Karena berbagai kebijakan baru pada masa pemerintahan tegasnya yang memang dipenuhi berbagai tanggapan pro serta kontra, akhirnya Aurangzeb dikenal dunia sebagai raja Mughal terbesar yang bahkan malebihi kekuasaan raja Akbar Khan.", "Kubilai Khan\nKerajaan Mongol diakhiri oleh perebutan kekuasaan dan pemberontakan diseluruh jajaran wilayah Mongolia. Setelah kehancuran Dinasti Yuan di China, Kaisar Zhu Yuanzhang dari China mendirikan kerajaan Ming dan memerintahkan untuk mengadakan operasi balas dendam terhadap Mongolia. Ibukota Mongolia diratakan dengan tanah berserta seluruh harta karunnya. Setelah kerajaan Mongolia hancur, sejarah mencatat bahwa hanya dalam 1-2 generasi, rakyat China dan Eropa hilang hubungan dan tidak mengetahui sesamanya. Setelah itu Eropa tidak pernah tahu keberadaan negeri China, dan sebaliknya. Marco Polo yang pulang ke Italia dan memberitakan ekspedisi yang ia alami selama di China, di mana ia melihat vihara yang beratapkan emas, kerajaan yang berlimpah akan makanan dan harta itu, tidak dipercayai oleh orang Eropa. Namun ada seseorang yang percaya akan legenda yang diceritakan oleh Marco Polo. Ia adalah Columbus, yang mengadakan pelayaran untuk mencari dunia yang diceritakan oleh Marco Polo, dan akhirnya mendarat di benua baru yang dinamakan benua Amerika.", "Pahang, Malaysia\nNegeri Pahang Darul Makmur ialah sebuah negeri yang terbesar di Semenanjung Tanah Melayu dengan luas 35.515 kilometer persegi. Kemasyhuran dan kehebatan namanya pada masa lalu menjadi rebutan kerajaan yang ada di sekelilingnya. Pada masa ini Pahang adalah negeri di Semenanjung yang terbagi atas sebelas daerah yaitu Kuantan, Pekan, Rompin, Maran, Temerloh, Jerantut, Bentong, Raub, Lipis, Cameron Highlands dan Bera. Sedangkan penduduknya pula terdiri dari berbagai kaum dan bangsa.", "Arsitektur Mughal\njmpl|Alai Darwaza Masjid Quwwat al-Islam, Delhi. Tidak ada struktur Islam utama yang tersisa di India pada tanggal antara kematian Iltutmish pada tahun 1235 dan awal abad ke-14. Namun, di bawah Sultan Khalji ala al-Din (memerintah 1296-1316), arsitektur dianggap penting diperbaharui. Berfokus pada monumen yang tetap secara simbolis, Ala al-Din memperluas Masjid Quwwat al-Islam menjadi tiga kali ukuran aslinya. Meskipun proyek ini tidak pernah selesai, skala luasnya mencerminkan ambisi seorang pangeran yang ingin menjadi Alexander Agung kedua. Dia berusaha untuk memasukkan tidak hanya India selatan ke dalam wilayahnya, tapi juga China.[2]:5 Sebenarnya, satu-satunya bagian yang tersisa dari penambahan Khalji ke kompleks Masjid Quwwat al-Islam adalah menara besar yang belum selesai, dan galeri berpilar dan portal masuk di selatan, yang dikenal sebagai Alai Darwaza. Tanggal 1311, banyak epigraf di gerbang ini bukanlah Al-Quran, tapi hiperbola yang mengangkat pemimpinnya, yaitu Sultan 'Ala al-Din Khalji. Meski bukan struktur monumental, hal ini merupakan salah satu yang kemudian menjadi struktur, di mana pada pemerintahan Mughal awal dipandang sebagai sumber inspirasi.[2]:6", "Matematika dan arsitektur\nArsitektur Mughal, yang dikenal sebagai peninggalan kota kekaisaran Fatehpur Sikri dan juga kompleks Taj Mahal, memiliki tatanan matematis dan estetika tinggi yang didasarkan pada simetri dan harmoni.", "Pargana\nPada abad ke-16 Kaisar Mughal, Akbar, membagi kekaisarannya menjadi \"subah\", yang kemudian dibagi kembali menjadi \"sarkar \"(kasarnya merupakan distrik), yang kemudian dibagi kembali menjadi pargana. Dalam sistem Mughal, pargana merupakan pembagian lanjutan dari sebuah sarkar. Tiap pargana harus mematuhi hukum bersama tentang hak dan kewajiban atas tanah, yang dikenal sebagai \"pargana dastur\"; dan setiap pargana punya aturannya sendiri mengenai sewa, biaya, gaji, berat dan ukuran, yang dikenal sebagai \"pargana nirikh.\"", "Arsitektur India\nPada abad ke-11, pengaruh arsitektur Islam mulai melebar ke India yang ikut memperkenalkan seni arsitektur dan dekorasi Islam. Salah satu karya agung tersebut adalah Taj Mahal yang didirikan pada masa Kesultanan Mughal (abad ke-16 sampai 18). Masa selanjutnya, dengan kedatangan bangsa Inggris, seni arsitektur Eropa diperkenalkan ke India.", "Sejarah dunia\nGeografi berpengaruh terhadap perbedaan geopolitik. Dalam sebagian besar sejarahnya, Tiongkok, India, dan Timur Tengah disatukan di bawah kekuatan dominan yang memperluas teritorinya hingga mencapai batas pegunungan dan gurun di sekelilingnya. Tahun 1600-an, Kesultanan Utsmaniyah menguasai hampir seluruh kawasan Timur Tengah, sementara Dinasti Ming memerintah Tiongkok, dan Kemaharajaan Mughal berkuasa atas India. Sebaliknya, Eropa kerap terpecah-belah menjadi sejumlah negara yang saling berperang. Imperium-imperium pemersatu Eropa, kecuali Kekaisaran Romawi, cenderung runtuh tak lama setelah berdiri. Faktor geografis penting lainnya yang berperan dalam kebangkitan Eropa adalah Laut Tengah, yang selama ribuan tahun telah berfungsi sebagai jalur maritim yang membantu pertukaran komoditas, bangsa, pemikiran, dan invensi.", "Babur\nZāhir ud-Dīn Muḥammad bin ʿOmar Sheikh (ﻇﻬﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ محمد بابر), atau lebih dikenali sebagai Babur () ialah seorang penakluk Muslim dari Asia Tengah yang mendirikan wangsa Mughal di India. Baginda merupakan keturunan langsung Timur melalui keluarga bapaknya, dan juga keturunan Genghis Khan melalui keluarga ibunya.", "Kekhanan Yarkent\nPada paruh pertama abad ke-14 Kekhanan Chagatai runtuh; bagian timurnya menjadi Moghulistan, yang dibentuk oleh Tughluk Timur Khan pada 1347 dengan ibu kota di Ghulja di Lembah Sungai Ili. Dinasti yang berkuasa di Kekhanan Yarkent berasal dan datang dari Chagatai, yang berdiri selama lebih dari 100 tahun dan terputus pada tahun 1462 menjadi dua bagian: Tian Shan yang berpenduduk bangsa Moghul yang nomaden dan negara independen dengan ibu kota di Aksu selatan dari Tian Shan, di bawah pemerintahan Dust Muhammad (putra Isan Bugha Khan II dan keturunan ke-6 dari Tughluk Timur Khan), yang berpenduduk masyarakat menetap di daerah Kashgaria Timur, juga daerah Turpan dan Kumul, yang juga pernah dikenal sebagai Uyghurstan (menurut sumber-sumber dari Balkh dan India dari abad 16 dan 17).", "Ulugh Khan\nPada musim dingin tahun 1297, orang-orang Mongol yang dipimpin oleh seorang noyan dari Kekhanan Chagatai menyerbu Punjab, maju sejauh Kasur. Alauddin mengirim Ulugh Khan (mungkin didukung oleh Zafar Khan) untuk memeriksa kemajuan Mongol. Menurut punggawa Delhi, Amir Khusrau, Ulugh Khan menempuh jarak dua pawai dalam satu hari untuk menghadapi Mongol, dan mencapai tepi Sungai Sutlej pada tanggal 6 Februari 1298. Di sana, ia memerintahkan prajuritnya untuk menyeberangi Sungai Sutlej tanpa kapal-kapal itu, dan menyebabkan kekalahan yang menghancurkan pada bangsa Mongol. Khusrau menyatakan bahwa 20.000 orang Mongol tewas dalam pertempuran, dan banyak lagi yang tewas di Delhi setelah dibawa ke sana sebagai tawanan. Kemenangan itu meningkatkan prestise Alauddin, dan menstabilkan posisinya di atas takhta Delhi." ]

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[ "God Friended Me God Friended Me God Friended Me is an American comedy-drama series. It was ordered to series on May 11, 2018, and stars Brandon Micheal Hall, Violett Beane, Javicia Leslie, Suraj Sharma, and Joe Morton. The series premiered on September 30, 2018, on CBS. On October 19, 2018, it was announced that the series had received a full season order from CBS. The series chronicles the life of Miles (Hall), an outspoken atheist, who is sent a friend request on Facebook by someone calling themself \"God\". This account sends Miles suggestions for new friends, people in Miles' hometown of New York" ]

[ "God Friended Me City, that will require assistance. Initially skeptical, Miles decides to follow these suggestions to help people. During his first such request, he meets and befriends Cara (Beane), a struggling writer. Together with Cara and his hacker friend Rakesh (Sharma), Miles also tries to find out who is behind the \"God\" account. \"God Friended Me\" uses Facebook frequently as a narrative device. The \"Friended\" in the title \"God Friended Me\" refers to the act of friending someone on social media, granting that person special privileges (on the service in question) with respect to oneself. On Facebook, for example, one's friends have", "Dawn-Lyen Gardner drama series, \"Queen Sugar\" created and produced by Ava DuVernay and Oprah Winfrey. On October 7, 2018 she guest starred in the CBS new series God Friended Me. Dawn-Lyen Gardner Dawn-Lyen Gardner (born August 30, 1981) is an American actress. She is best known for her leading role in the Oprah Winfrey Network drama series, \"Queen Sugar\". Gardner was born in Los Angeles, California. Gardner is of mixed-racial heritage and has a black father and a Chinese mother. After graduating from Los Angeles County High School for the Arts in 1999, Gardner later moved to New York City and attended", "God Help the Girl sung in the project by Brittany Stallings, with Dina Bankole performing some of the other pieces. In 2008 and 2009, some other vocalists joined the project, including Asya from the Seattle-based group Smoosh, Linnea Jönsson from the Swedish band Those Dancing Days; there was also one man in this group: Neil Hannon from The Divine Comedy. The main discovery of the project turned out to be Catherine Ireton, with whom Murdoch had established contact by chance in 2005. Catherine Ireton comes from Limerick in Ireland, she was studying Drama and Theatre Studies at University College Cork between 2002 and 2005.", "God Friended Me the privilege of viewing and posting to one's timeline. In \"God Friended Me\", this allows for God to contact Miles. While the majority of Facebook's revenue is advertisement-derived, show creator Steven Lilien says that their conversations with Facebook have been limited to discussing \"how much we can portray it\". According to executive producer Bryan Wynbrandt, the \"God\" of the show will be active on Facebook outside the show, with liking pages and changing their profile picture given as examples of their possible online activities. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 60% based", "Sonseed every track of the album over a several week period, the last song being aired on September 17, 2009. In 2010, the internet video makers Smosh made a parody of the song \"Jesus Is a Friend of Mine\" called \"Vader is my Friend\" in their video \"Vader and Me\". In 2011, Fox Television's hit show \"Glee\" also did a cover of the song \"Jesus Is a Friend of Mine\". During the Regional competition, the group \"Aural Intensity\" sang the song. Nina Hagen made a German cover of \"Jesus Is a Friend of Mine\" (\"Jesus Ist Ein Freund Von Mir\") for", "Samantha Urbani tracks by Twin Shadow and Doldrums, and Felicita, Danny L Harle and Sophie. In 2014, Urbani hosted a show on Motherboard called \"Soundbuilders\". Additionally she has either directed or co-directed the Friends videos for \"I'm His Girl\", \"Va Fan Gor Du\". In 2016 she released a concept video for her solo song \"U Know I Know\" in collaboration with MILK Studios. The video was featured as part of an accompanying make-up campaign. Urbani wrote, co-directed, cast, and designed the video. Urbani acted in and contributed to the soundtrack of Yony Leyser's 2016 German/American feature film \"Desire Will Set You Free\".", "God Help Me (film) of fourteen days. Brett Hunt of the \"Seattle Post-Intelligencer\" gave the film a mixed review, saying, \"I think to a Christian audience this might be an ok movie...\" The film won the \"Best Film Under $25,000\" award at the Creation Arts Festival. God Help Me (film) God Help Me is a 2006 American Christian direct-to-video romantic comedy film written and produced by Dan Olds. It was directed by Reece Tedford, and stars Tom Miner, George Moss, Jim Anderson, Candace Orrino and Shelley Findley. The film was produced by Dust Storm Productions, and distributed on July 13, 2006 by CustomFlix. Trudy", "Hayley Orrantia series creator Adam F. Goldberg has written several episodes where Erica sings and plans to continue to highlight her singing talent in future episodes. Orrantia had a leading role in the drama film \"God's Not Dead 2\", released on April 1, 2016. In 2016, she released a single called \"Strong, Sweet and Southern.\" Its music video has had over 200,000 views on YouTube, as of May 2018. Orrantia wrote the song \"Who I Am\" for the National Eating Disorders Association and the song \"Power of a Girl\" for the Girl Scouts of America. She also supports the cancer charity, Lungevity,", "Unfriended Unfriended Unfriended is a 2014 American supernatural horror film directed by Levan Gabriadze, written by Nelson Greaves, executive produced by Jason Blum, co-produced by Adam Sidman, and produced by Greaves and Timur Bekmambetov. The film is shot as a computer screen film. The film stars Shelley Hennig, Moses Jacob Storm, Renee Olstead, Will Peltz, Jacob Wysocki, and Courtney Halverson as high school students in a Skype conversation that is haunted by a student, played by Heather Sossaman, who was bullied and committed suicide. The film premiered at the Fantasia Festival on July 20, 2014, and at SXSW on March 13,", "Christian Mingle The Movie She confesses to her co-worker Pam (Saidah Arrika Ekulona) that she hasn't been to church in years despite having been brought up a Christian, and before going on a date with Paul (Jonathan Patrick Moore) she buys The Bible for Dummies and Christianity for Dummies. After a couple of successful dates, Paul takes Gwyneth to a Bible study group at his friend's house. She meets Jessy (Sascha Alexander) and Jimmy (Tony D. Czech), a couple who also met through the site, Gabby (Jessa French) and Tommy (Justin Dray), who are expecting their first child, and Kelly (Jill Saunders), a childhood", "God Friended Me on 25 reviews, with an average rating of 6.38 out of 10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"A sincere and thoughtful handling of spiritual themes helps \"God Friended Me\" overcome -- and even benefit from -- its earnest approach to a potentially off-putting premise.\" Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 57 out of 100 based on 14 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". \"God Friended Me\" premiered in the United States and Canada on September 30, 2018. The series premiered in Australia on November 5, 2018. God Friended Me God Friended Me is an American comedy-drama", "Somebody Help Me (film) on October 29, 2010. Somebody Help Me (film) Somebody Help Me is a 2007 American horror television film starring Marques Houston and Omarion, written and directed by their music producer, Chris Stokes. The film premiered on BET on October 31, 2007, and was released on DVD in United States on November 13, 2007. \"Somebody Help Me\" is the story of Brendan Young (Marques Houston) and Darryl Jennings (Omarion Grandberry) as they head off with their girlfriends, respectively Serena (Brooklyn Sudano) and Kimmy (Alexis Fields), and friends for a weekend's stay at a remote cabin in the woods. After the couples", "Park Seo-joon \"Dream High 2\" (2012), \"Pots of Gold\" (2013), \"One Warm Word\" (2013), and \"A Witch's Love\" (2014). From October 2013 to April 2015, he was the host of \"Music Bank\". His breakout roles came in 2015 with two hit dramas \"Kill Me, Heal Me\" and \"She Was Pretty\". The same year, Park featured in thriller film \"The Chronicles of Evil\". In 2016, Park starred in youth historical drama \"\" alongside Go Ara. In 2017, Park starred in youth romance drama, \"Fight for My Way\" alongside Kim Ji-won. The television series was a hit and topped ratings in its time slot.", "God Gave Me You waitress returning home to her daughter after a tough and rainy work day, a student (portrayed by Stirling Everly, the grandson of Don Everly of The Everly Brothers) on his first day of high school meeting a female classmate in class for the first time, and an ambulance driver saving a woman’s life after an accident. Before the song begins and at the end of the video, footage of Blake’s then-fiance Miranda Lambert is shown, and she goes on to say how proud she is to be his wife and best friend. Blake said at the time, “That footage made", "God Help Me made for the song and shows Rebecca performing live. The video also features clips of a man (played by her brother Joel Smallbone) running to a church. God Help Me \"God Help Me\" is a single by Christian pop and rock artist Rebecca St. James. Its release was announced on Rebecca St. James' official MySpace profile and opened up the \"Music Patrol\" challenge. The challenge encouraged those in St. James' Friend Space to add the song \"God Help Me\" to their profiles and to encourage others to do the same. The \"Music Patrol\" would then look through the profiles and", "Tiffani Thiessen Guys and a Girl\" (2000), \"Just Shoot Me!\" (2001) and \"Good Morning, Miami\" (2003–04). In 2000, she was featured in the music video for \"You're a God\" by Vertical Horizon, portraying a beauty pageant contestant, in her first music video appearance. That year she also dropped her middle name which she had been including professionally for many years and is now credited as simply Tiffani Thiessen. Thiessen was Spelling's first choice to replace Doherty in the popular series \"Charmed\" in 2001, but she refused his offer because she was hoping the NBC pilot for \"Everything But the Girl\" would be", "Frenemies (Glee) guest star Peter Facinelli returns as Rupert Campion, the \"Funny Girl\" director. Other recurring characters in this episode include McKinley football coach Shannon Beiste (Dot-Marie Jones), janitor and former principal Figgins (Iqbal Theba) and cheerleader Becky Jackson (Lauren Potter), and NYU student and Pamela Lansbury bandmember Elliott \"Starchild\" Gilbert (Lambert). Seven songs from the episode are being released as singles: Kelly Clarkson's \"Breakaway\" featuring Darren Criss, McHale, and Ushkowitz; \"Whenever I Call You Friend\" by Kenny Loggins and Stevie Nicks and \"My Lovin' (You're Never Gonna Get It)\" by En Vogue, both performed by McHale and Ushkowitz; \"Don't Rain on", "God Help Me (film) God Help Me (film) God Help Me is a 2006 American Christian direct-to-video romantic comedy film written and produced by Dan Olds. It was directed by Reece Tedford, and stars Tom Miner, George Moss, Jim Anderson, Candace Orrino and Shelley Findley. The film was produced by Dust Storm Productions, and distributed on July 13, 2006 by CustomFlix. Trudy is the girl of Ryan's dreams, but Trudy is waiting for God to tell her who she should marry; Ryan is not what she had in mind. When Ryan's friends discover this they create a plan behind Ryan's back to convince Trudy", "Emily Browning English actress Ophelia Lovibond as the female lead in the film \"Summer in February\". The film is based on the book of the same title, by Jonathan Smith. In July 2012, Browning was cast in \"God Help the Girl\", a musical film by Belle and Sebastian front-man Stuart Murdoch. Browning played Eve, and the role required live singing. Filming on the production began on 8 July 2012 and wrapped on 12 August 2012. Browning was cast in Catherine Hardwicke's \"Plush\" alongside Cam Gigandet, replacing Evan Rachel Wood (who was originally attached to the project) due to scheduling conflicts. Browning also", "Todd Gallagher events. In 2009 Gallagher enrolled in a Pittsburgh high school as a student for a feature film. He took classes and trained with the school's soccer team. The film about his experience entitled \"God Only Knows\" is slated for release in 2017, and features Taylor Swift. Todd Gallagher Todd Gallagher is an Australian comedy writer, performance artist, and director. He has worked with ESPN and is known for his book \"Andy Roddick Beat Me With a Frying Pan: Taking the Field with Pro Athletes and Olympic Legends to Answer Sports' Fans Burning Questions\". Gallagher was raised in Jeanette, Pennsylvania. At", "Plumb (singer) festivals throughout 2012 and 2013, embarking on her first and largely sold-out headlining tour in the fall of 2013, and joining the massive Winterjam arena tour for November 2013-14. Plumb released her seventh studio album, \"Exhale\", on May 4, 2015. Plumb left Curb Records in early 2017 to form her own label, Plumb Music, and released her first single \"God Help Me\" in July 2017. The song was one of six tracks included on the EP \"God Help Me\" in late 2017. She followed it up with the album \"Beautifully Broken\" in June 2018 on Centricity Music. Following the No.", "Oh My God (Kaiser Chiefs song) studio album \"Version\" (2007), and then went on to become the second single release from the album that same year. The single was a success, reaching the UK Top 10. It was released as the album's first single in Brazil, due to Lily Allen's success in that country. The music video was directed by Nima Nourizadeh, and features a cartoon version of Allen (a reference to Jessica Rabbit in the film \"Who Framed Roger Rabbit\") performing the song and flirting in the Ink and Paint Club. The Kaiser Chiefs themselves make a cameo. Of notice is that, in the video,", "CeCe Winans was the best friend of Whitney Houston and godmother to her daughter, Bobbi Kristina Brown. On February 18, 2012, she performed \"Don't Cry for Me\" and \"Jesus Loves Me\" at Houston's funeral, at New Hope Baptist Church in Newark, New Jersey. Winans is also a good friend of Bridget E. Hilliard, co-pastor of New Light Christian Center (Houston, Austin, Beaumont, Texas). CeCe has authored three books: \"On A Positive Note\", a collection of her memoirs released August 1, 2000; and \"Throne Room: Ushered Into the Presence of God\", a devotional released January 1, 2004 and co-authored with Claire Cloninger. \"Always", "God in Me Flex Alexander, Kanye West, Amber Rose, Common, Heavy D, and Fonzworth Bentley. America's Next Top Model, Cycle 11 runner-up Samantha Potter also made an appearance in the video. It ranked at #60 on BET's \"Notarized: Top 100 Videos of 2009\" countdown. The song has been a major success, and became the first song since their debut single \"Shackles (Praise You)\" to chart on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 peaking at #68. So far the song has also spent 76 weeks on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, and has currently peaked at #5. It reached the Top 10 of the chart in", "Miley Cyrus Christopher, who grew up with his mother, Kristin Luckey, in South Carolina. Four of her siblings eventually entered the entertainment business: Trace as a vocalist and guitarist for the electronic pop band Metro Station, Noah as an actress and singer, Braison as a fashion model, and Brandi as a journalist. Cyrus's godmother is entertainer Dolly Parton. Cyrus attended Heritage Elementary School. While working on \"Hannah Montana\", she enrolled at Options for Youth Charter Schools and studied with a private tutor on set. Raised a Christian, she was baptized in a Southern Baptist church before moving to Hollywood in 2005. She", "Danny Gokey joined Natalie Grant's \"Burn Bright tour\" as a special guest, followed by \"The Bible Tour 2015\" with Steven Curtis Chapman, Brandon Heath and Francesca Battistelli. \"Hope in Front of Me\" was nominated for Song of the Year at K-LOVE Fan Awards 2015, held on May 31 and one of award-winning songs at 2015 BMI Christian Awards, held on June 23. In July, \"More Than You Think I Am\" peaked at No. 6 on the \"Billboard\" Christian Airplay chart. In August, Gokey earned nominations for New Artist of the Year and Song of the Year for \"Hope in Front of Me\"", "Teyana Taylor the starlet's musical mayhem.\" \"Google Me\" reached at number 90 on the US \"Billboard\" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. On August 16, 2009, Taylor released her debut mixtape, \"From a Planet Called Harlem\". The tape was also released for free download, billed as \"the mixtape before her debut album\". In August 2010, Taylor ventured her career into acting, appearing in the sequel of \"Stomp the Yard\", titled \"\". She also appeared on the debut episode of \"House of Glam\" on Oxygen, which aired in October 2010. In 2010, just hours before Kanye West's fifth album \"My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy\", had to", "Trippie Redd and went on to release a diss track toward 6ix9ine, \"I Kill People\", featuring Tadoe and Chief Keef. 6ix9ine also accused White of having sexual relations with fellow rapper Danielle Bregoli, also known as Bhad Bhabie, who is a minor. White denied the charge. Bregoli denied it too, but admitted the two had kissed in the past: \"We kissed but it wasn't that serious and he was 17 at the time.\" In October 2017, a preview of Drake's song \"God's Plan\" was shown on social media. The song originally featured Trippie Redd singing the hook and giving an additional verse.", "Ida Maria Grey's Anatomy The song \"Oh My God\" was one of the first songs announced to be used in \"Rock Band 3\". Maria's song \"Keep Me Warm\" was used in the season 4 finale of the ABC drama \"Grey's Anatomy\" and during some Nivea commercials during fall 2009. It has also been used in the UK drama show \"Skins\", in series 4, episode 1. Maria's song \"Oh My God\" was in the trailer for \"It's Kind of a Funny Story\" and \"The Virginity Hit\". Maria was one of the co-headliners of the 2009 \"Perez Hilton Presents\" tour. On 17 September 2009,", "The High Road (album) off JoJo's vocals on the track. \"How to Touch a Girl\" is the 11th song on the album, as well as the album's second single. JoJo has called the song her favorite on the album. Lyrically, the song speaks of how to treat a woman, and how to touch her heart, according to JoJo. The final song, \"Note to God\" is the most religious on the album. The song was covered and released in 2010 by pop singer Charice, as her debut US single. The song had minor success on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, peaking at number 44. \"The High", "Beatrice Eli nice Church girl they wanted me to be.\" As for her songwriting, she says, \"I've always written about my feelings.\" She says \"Die Another Day\" \"is about sex, drugs and girls.\" She is a lesbian and prefers that term over gay, as she told a journalist in 2015. Beatrice has been in a relationship with Swedish rapper Silvana Imam since 2014. She features on the track \"Shhh\" on Imam's second album \"Naturkraft\", released in 2016. Beatrice's single \"Careful\" from the Careful EP was nominated for \"Song of The Year\" at the Gaffa Awards 2018. Eli was featured on the song", "B Howard Emily King’s “Never be Lonely” from \"East Side Story\" released in 2006. Omarion and Bow Wow released a collaborative album, \"Face Off\", in 2007 which debuted at number 11 on the Billboard 200 and included Howard as a songwriter for the song “Can’t Get Tired of Me.” Howard worked with Marques Houston again in 2007 as producer for the song “Favorite Girl” on Houston’s album \"Veteran\". Vanessa Hudgens released the album \"Identified\" in 2008 which included the song “Gone With The Wind,” which Howard co-wrote. In 2011, Howard was a vocalist, producer and songwriter for Koda Kumi’s song “Passing By”", "Georgia Ruth interpreted by the company's dancers. Williams made a guest appearance on \"Divine Youth\", a track on the Manic Street Preachers album \"Futurology\" in 2014. She was also involved in the Ghazalaw project with Gwyneth Glyn and Tauseef Akhtar, whose debut album was released in 2015 on Cerys Matthews's label Marvels of the Universe. Williams features on numerous tracks on British folk artist :Jinnwoo's debut record :Strangers Bring Me No Light, released 2 September 2016. Williams's second full-length album, \"Fossil Scale\", was released by Navigator on 7 October 2016. Williams provided cover for Bethan Elfyn on her BBC Radio Wales show", "Mercy (Duffy song) shows. Robin Skouteris made a mashup of Amy Winehouse's Rehab and Duffy's Mercy called \"Rehab Mercy\". As of September 2015, it had over 290,000 views on YouTube. \"100 Things to Do Before High School's\" Isabela Moner covered the song and uploaded it to her YouTube channel, also including it on her first studio album, \"Stopping Time\" as the sixth track on her album, and performed it at Fanlala Studios. The song is used in film \"My Best Friend's Girl\" and the television series \"Criminal Minds\", \"Smallville\", \"ER\", \"Grey's Anatomy\", \"Entourage\", \"Knight Rider\", \"Being Human\" and \"90210\", and Brazilian telenovela, \"Beleza", "Friderika Bayer time as Newcomer of the Year. In addition to this she was given the Golden Giraffe prize, created by Mahasz, in the same category. In August 1995 she won second place at the 32nd Sopot Festival in Poland, and performed on the same stage with Annie Lennox and Chuck Berry in the Grand Finale. She became a member of the Faith Church in 1996, along with her husband, and since then they have regularly been attending the services of the Church in Budapest. In 1998, the first single \"Feltárcsáztad a szívemet\" (\"You dialled my heart\") of her third album became", "Leah Randi Show\" and \"The Ellen DeGeneres Show\" as part of Pink's band, playing bass on songs such as \"God Is a DJ\". She can also be seen in music videos \"The Remedy\" and \"Monster\" by Abandoned Pools, and \"Last To Know\" and \"Try This Live\" by Pink. Her vocal work on Front Line Assembly's 2004 album \"Civilization\" has been singled out for praise. In May 2010, she joined fellow musicians Slash, Ace Frehley and Charlotte Caffey and Kathy Valentine of The Go-Go's, among other artists, for a performance benefiting the MusiCares Musicians Assistance Program. Leah Randi Leah Rose Randi is an", "Hulog Ka Ng Langit 2013 taking place in different malls around the metro followed by provincial tour schedules. The album was initially available only in the mall shows and was made officially available nationwide on November 28, 2013. The album is officially launched in Velasquez's hosted musical-variety show \"Sunday All Stars\" on December 1, 2013. She performed the carrier single \"Hulog Ka Ng Langit\" live and the songs \"Amazing\" with Rachelle Ann Go and \"God Gave Me You\" with Frencheska Farr. Without the promotional blitz and the album not being available nationwide just yet, \"Hulog Ka Ng Langit\" debuted at the number-one spot in", "Somebody Help Me (film) Somebody Help Me (film) Somebody Help Me is a 2007 American horror television film starring Marques Houston and Omarion, written and directed by their music producer, Chris Stokes. The film premiered on BET on October 31, 2007, and was released on DVD in United States on November 13, 2007. \"Somebody Help Me\" is the story of Brendan Young (Marques Houston) and Darryl Jennings (Omarion Grandberry) as they head off with their girlfriends, respectively Serena (Brooklyn Sudano) and Kimmy (Alexis Fields), and friends for a weekend's stay at a remote cabin in the woods. After the couples settle in, things take", "Taylor Kinney star Jesse Spencer. Also in 2012, Kinney appeared on the big screen in Kathryn Bigelow's acclaimed war drama \"Zero Dark Thirty\". In 2012, he guest starred on \"Shameless\" as Craig, the former high school crush of the lead character Fiona (played by Emmy Rossum). Kinney began dating singer-songwriter Lady Gaga in July 2011. They first met in Nebraska while working on the music video for her song \"You and I\", and started dating soon afterwards. They became engaged in February 2015, but ended up calling off their engagement in July 2016. Taylor Kinney Taylor Jacks Kinney (born July 15, 1981)", "Robyn of her songs at the May 2016 Boston Calling Music Festival, with plans for more dates during the year. Robyn released \"Trust Me\", a collaboration EP with Mr. Tophat, in November 2016. She appeared on \"That Could Have Been Me\", a track from Todd Rundgren's album \"White Knight\", the following year. In March 2017, a new Robyn song called \"Honey\" was used in the soundtrack of the final season of HBO TV series, \"Girls\". The creator of the show, Lena Dunham selected it from a collection of her in-progress tracks. Robyn finalized it specially for the series. In February 2018,", "Paris Hilton's My New BFF in an attempt to become her new best friend. Four of the female contestants were eliminated, almost straight away, in the first episode and hence did not feature in promotional material (photo shoots, TV spots or even the opening credits) for the show at all. Guest stars included Benji Madden, Kyle Richards, Richie Rich, Traver Rains, Kathy Hilton, Fergie, Simple Plan, Chris Applebaum, Perez Hilton, Dirt Nasty, Allison Melnick, Ryan Seacrest, Nicky Hilton, Keyshia Cole, Hanna Beth Merjos and Nick Swardson. Though Hilton was forbidden from revealing the winner before the show had fully aired, she had on two separate", "Kristen Vigard her eponymous debut album in 1988. She recorded and toured as a backup singer with the Red Hot Chili Peppers and Fishbone in the late 1980s and early 1990s, appearing on RHCP's \"Mother's Milk\" (1989) and \"One Hot Minute\" (1995) and Fishbone's \"The Reality of My Surroundings\" (1991) and \"Give a Monkey a Brain\" (1993). Vigard sang the lead vocals for Illeana Douglas for the 1996 film \"Grace of My Heart\", including \"God Give Me Strength\", which was nominated for Best Original Song at the 1st Golden Satellite Awards. She released her second album, \"God, Loves and Angels\" in 2004.", "Sinéad Harnett album \"Chill Out Zone\". In 2012, she was featured on the Disclosure track \"Boiling\" from their EP \"The Face\". She released her debut single, \"Got Me\", in 2013 via Black Butter Records, and contributed songwriting and guest vocals to Rudimental's debut album, \"Home\". She was also featured on Ryan Hemsworth's solo album \"Guilt Trips\", on the opening track \"Small + Lost\", and provided uncredited vocals for Kidnap Kid's single \"So Close\". Her debut EP, \"N.O.W.\", was released in August 2014 through 333 Records; it includes the single \"No Other Way\", which \"The Guardian\" named track of the week. Another track", "God Help Me God Help Me \"God Help Me\" is a single by Christian pop and rock artist Rebecca St. James. Its release was announced on Rebecca St. James' official MySpace profile and opened up the \"Music Patrol\" challenge. The challenge encouraged those in St. James' Friend Space to add the song \"God Help Me\" to their profiles and to encourage others to do the same. The \"Music Patrol\" would then look through the profiles and choose about six of the profiles to receive a mini-brick of Rebecca St. James merchandise. The song never appeared on any Billboard charts. A music video was", "Mckenna Grace Disney XD series \"Crash & Bernstein\". She had a recurring role, as Faith Newman, on \"The Young and the Restless\" between 2013 and 2015. In 2015, she had a recurring role on the CBS series \"\". Grace played the role of Daisy in the science fiction thriller \"\"; the film, directed by Roland Emmerich, was released on June 24, 2016. In 2017, Grace played a lead role in the Marc Webb drama film \"Gifted\", starring alongside Chris Evans. She learned ice-skating to portray the younger version of Tonya Harding in the biopic \"I, Tonya\" and also played the significant role", "Chantal Kreviazuk before being released in the US June 1997 to critical praise. The album sold over 150,000 copies in Canada according to SoundScan, fueled mostly by the singles \"Surrounded\" and \"God Made Me\". Three videos from the album received modest play on the video channel MuchMusic and radio (\"God Made Me\", \"Believer\" and \"Wayne\"), but it was a fourth, \"Surrounded\", that became her first major Canadian airplay hit in 1997. That year, Kreviazuk received her first Juno Award nomination as Best New Artist. She also took part in the 1998 Lilith Fair music festival; \"Surrounded\" was included in the live compilation", "June Whitfield Wallon in a BBC One adaptation of Laurie Lee's classic novel \"Cider with Rosie\". In May 2015, Whitfield made a guest appearance in the BBC soap \"EastEnders\" as a nun called Sister Ruth and returned to the show in January 2016 to complete a storyline. In October 2015 it was confirmed that she would reprise her role of Mother/Gran in \"\" which was released in July 2016. Whitfield also made a guest appearance as God in the Sky 1 series \"You, Me and the Apocalypse\", which was broadcast in November 2015. Whitfield was appointed DBE in the 2017 Birthday Honours.", "Farrah Abraham addition to Maci Bookout, Catelynn Lowell and Amber Portwood, who also appeared on episodes of \"16 and Pregnant\", during their first years of motherhood. The series premiere was broadcast on December 8, 2009. In 2011 she began attending the Art Institute of Fort Lauderdale in Florida, where she got an associate degree in culinary arts and management. She later launched the \"Mom & Me\" pasta sauce line. On August 1, 2012, Abraham ventured into the music industry with the release of her debut studio album \"My Teenage Dream Ended\". It received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics. Abraham released a", "Abigail Duhon of No. 3, while her second, \"Praying for You\", charting at a peak of No. 7. The subsequent release, an extended play, \"More Than Gold\", was released independently, on August 14, 2015. Duhon appeared in \"God's Not Dead\" in 2014, \"God's Not Dead 2\" and \"I'm Not Ashamed\" in 2016, and \"\" in 2018. She will appear in the upcoming drama-biographical film, The Pastor (film) in December 2018. Abigail Duhon Abigail Cheramie Duhon (born April 20, 2000) is an American Christian musician and actress. She released a studio album, \"Right Now\", with IShine Records and Infinity Music Group, in 2014.", "I Am Cait stylist Courtney Nanson has also appeared since season 1. Jenner's best friend and personal assistant Ronda Kamihira appeared in Season 1 only. Since Season 2, an 18 year old member of the transgender community named Ella Giselle has appeared. The first episode of \"I Am Cait\" has been met with generally positive reviews from television critics, who were given an advance screening of the series premiere. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the docuseries received an average score of 67, based on seventeen reviews. Brian Lowry from \"Variety\" magazine appreciated", "Katie Cook \"Me & My Bus\" with comedian Jessie McNamara and her other guest stars Kelly Clarkson, Lance Bass and Melissa Peterman. She also filmed \"Love Don't Let Me Down\" with Gwyneth Paltrow and Tim McGraw. She appeared twice, playing herself, in the hit show \"Nashville\" starring Hayden Panettiere and Connie Britton. Katie is also the author of the young readers' trilogy \"Little Big Benny.\" Cook was married to actor Marc Pisapia and has one daughter, Daisy Rocket, who was born in 2006. The couple has since split. On December 17, Cook wed musician and producer Adam Shoenfeld at a ceremony in", "Candycoatedwaterdrops one which includes a girl with balloons and another with mannequins. \"Here With Me\" and \"Stranded\" were covered by Jennifer Paige on her second album \"Positively Somewhere\" in 2001. Candycoatedwaterdrops candycoatedwaterdrops is the second album of Christian singer Plumb which features the hit songs \"Stranded\", \"God-Shaped Hole\", \"Late Great Planet Earth\", \"Here With Me\" and \"Damaged\". The album has been critically acclaimed, and singles have appeared on major motion picture soundtracks such as \"Bruce Almighty\" and \"Drive Me Crazy\". The songs \"Stranded\" and \"Here With Me\" were covered by Jennifer Paige on her second album Positively Somewhere, with the former", "Dannielle Gaha on ABC-TV comedy show \"Club Buggery\" from 1995, which was hosted by Roy and HG. The Nissan Cedrics released \"Going for a Song\" in 1997. Her debut solo album, \"You Don't Know Me\", containing jazz covers, was issued in 2002. She is the sister of reality television producer Eden Gaha. In 2007, she married Kyle DeAndrea and they live in Los Angeles. DeAndrea was a backing vocalist for Glenn Shorrock (ex-Little River Band) during his solo tours in the late 1980s and together they released a duet single, \"One Million Minutes of Peace\" for the International Year of Peace (1986).", "Gigi (singer) Angelina Jolie portrays an aid worker during the 1984 - 1985 famine in Ethiopia. She released her sixth album, \"Gold and Wax\" on Palm Pictures, in 2006. She has also appeared in \"Running From the Light\" in Buckethead's \"Enter the Chicken\" (2005). In 2010, she recorded \"Mesgana Ethiopia\" with Material, released on the M.O.D. Technologies label. Her 2001 song \"Guramayle\" appears in the 2006 documentary \"God Grew Tired of Us\". It plays over opening and closing credits. Gigi is married to her producer Bill Laswell. she had a younger sister, singer Tigist Shibabaw, who died under unknown circumstances in 2008.", "Megan Park continue when her sitcom \"Ground Floor\" was renewed for a second season. The part was recast with Park, however when Heelan's schedule was adjusted to allow her to appear on both shows, Heelan took back the role. In 2014, Park portrayed Tanisha in the horror-thriller film \"Demonic\", directed by Will Canon. Park created a band with singer Codi Caraco called Frank and Derol, in which she formerly sang and played bass guitar. The girl band also includes pop star Miley Cyrus's older sister, Brandi Cyrus. As of 2010, Park has left the band to focus on her acting career in", "Kalyeserye The concert tour happened on April 9 at Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Pasadena, California and will set on April 12 at Kings Theatre in Brooklyn, New York. Kalyeserye utilizes a number of songs while Alden and Yaya Dub communicate through split-screen. The most used songs for their lip-synch interaction include \"God Gave Me You\" by Bryan White, \"Thinking Out Loud\" by Ed Sheeran, \"Twerk It Like Miley\" by Brandon Beal, and \"Fantastic Baby\" by BIGBANG. Alden even sang \"God Gave Me You\" live before going to Lola Nidora's mansion to visit Yaya Dub for their second date. Yaya Dub and", "Josiah Leming self-proclaimed \"biggest fan\" of Lena Dunham's HBO series \"Girls\". In 2007 Leming self-released \"The Paperplain\" EP and \"Her\" EP on his MySpace page for digital download—neither EP is available now. Leming signed a record deal with Warner Bros. in 2008 and began work on his debut album \"Come on Kid\". To promote the album, Warner Bros. released \"Angels Undercover\" EP in 2008 and \"Punk Ass Rain\" EP in 2009. Meanwhile, Leming recorded \"Come on Kid\" in London and Los Angeles, with the help of producers Jesse Owen Astin, Martin Terefe, Warren Huart and David Kosten. Two songs from \"Angels Undercover\"", "Thank U, Next (song) actress Jennifer Coolidge, who starred in the latter film. On November 22, Grande posted a photo of herself in a cheerleader's outfit, alongside a quote from the movie \"Bring It On\". On November 27, Grande released a teaser video featuring cameos from singer-songwriter Troye Sivan, YouTube stars Colleen Ballinger and Gabriella DeMartino, \"Mean Girls\" actors Jonathan Bennett and Stefanie Drummond, and Grande's former \"Victorious\" co-stars Elizabeth Gillies, Daniella Monet and Matt Bennett. The video made its official premiere on YouTube on November 30 through a new feature called \"YouTube Premiere\". \"Thank U, Next\" became the first music video to premiere", "G.G. (Gossip Girl) Shawn), Princess Sophie (Joanne Whalley), and Father Cavalia (Marc Menard). Blair's minions, Penelope Shafai (Amanda Setton), Kati Farkas (Nan Zhang) and Jessica (Alice Callahan) were also present as bridesmaids. Featured music included Peter Bjorn and John's \"Young Folks\" performed by The Kooks, Marilyn Monroe's \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\" performed by Serena, Jon Hastings' \"Endless Summer\", Grouplove's \"Slow\", Ludwig van Beethoven's \"Rondo in C Major, Op 51\", INXS' \"Never Tear Us Apart\" performed by the Vitamin String Quartet, Pat Benatar's \"We Belong\" also performed by the Vitamin String Quartet and Wolf Gang's \"Suego Faults\". \"G.G.\" was first broadcast on", "Yuju (singer) of the animated movie \"Chicken Hero\", which was released on February 18, 2016. In March 2016, she collaborated with Sunyoul of UP10TION for a song called \"Cherish\". On October 2017, she collaborated with Jihoo of IZ for a song titled \"Heart Signal\". Yuju (singer) Choi Yu-na (born October 4, 1997), better known by her stage name Yuju, is a South Korean singer. She is best known as the main vocalist of the South Korean girl group GFriend. In 2011, she competed in the first season of \"K-pop Star 1\", where she was eliminated in the first round. In January 2015,", "Ciara the straight-to-DVD film, \"Mama, I Want to Sing!\". She played Amara Winter, a preacher's daughter who was discovered by a well-established musician. She appeared as Brie in the 2012 comedy film, \"That's My Boy\". Ciara made an appearance as herself playing Lauren London's best friend on the Season 6 premiere of BET's \"The Game\" which aired on March 26, 2013, she continued to be a recurring cast member throughout the season. In September 2013, producer Mike WiLL Made It revealed that Ciara had begun work on her sixth studio album. In December 2013, Ciara confirmed she was in the process", "Christian Mingle The Movie friend of Paul's. Paul asks Gwyneth to go to church and meet his parents, Lacie (Morgan Fairchild) and Bill (David Keith). After Gwyneth meets with Jessy, Jimmy, Gabby, Tommy and Kelly, Paul reveals that he will be travelling to Mexico with his father's construction company to repair a church in Mexico. Gwyneth is annoyed that she wasn't told but is persuaded to join everyone in Mexico. She takes time off from her job but while there her copy of \"Christianity for Dummies\" is discovered and she confesses to Paul that she wasn't a practicing Christian when she signed up to", "Jessica Lee Rose June 16, 2016, on the tenth anniversary of the series debut, Lonelygirl15 reappeared. The video has Bree reassuring an unnamed 15 year old subject about being selected, as Bree had been. After her departure from \"lonelygirl15\", Rose was signed by United Talent Agency and was cast in the ABC Family series \"Greek\" in the role of \"Jen K\" and the 2007 Chris Sivertson film \"I Know Who Killed Me\", which starred Lindsay Lohan. She then played \"Tina\", an aspiring wrestler, in the award-winning sports drama \"Perfect Sport\". In January 2009, Rose appeared in the music video for The White Tie", "Deitrick Haddon and his brother Gerald also produced the comeback album \"Brand New Day\" for veteran gospel vocalist Vanessa Bell Armstrong. Deitrick Haddon & Voices of Unity's \"Live the Life\" won Gospel Music Workshop of America Excellence Awards for \"New Artist of the Year—Urban Contemporary\" and \"Album of the Year—Urban Contemporary\". On September 2, 2008, Haddon released an album called \"Revealed\". This album includes the popular single, \"Love Him Like I Do\" (featuring Mary Mary and Ruben Studdard). On July 27, 2010 Haddon made his film debut in a movie released directly to DVD called \"Blessed and Cursed\". On January 25, 2012,", "Maine Mendoza GMA, she is not a member of the GMA Artist Center and her career is being managed by Triple A, the talent management arm of Antonio P. Tuviera who is the executive producer of \"Eat Bulaga!.\" Mendoza participated in the Lenten season drama specials of \"Eat Bulaga!\" in March 2016. She reprised her role as Divina/Yaya Dub in \"Kaputol ng Buhay\" and starred as Dani in \"God Gave Me You\" where she won the Darling of the Screen award and was nominated for Most Dramatic Performance by a Lead Star in \"Eat Bulaga!\"'s 3rd EB Dabarkads Awards held on April", "Amber Liu (singer) lyrics for some of the group's songs such as \"Goodbye Summer\" which was a track in their second studio album, \"Pink Tape\", and \"Summer Lover\" from their third studio album, \"Red Light\". Aside from featured songs, Amber also worked with fellow group mates Luna and Krystal for the soundtrack of KBS drama \"God of Study\", in a song called \"Spread its Wings\". She frequently collaborated with other SM Entertainment artists. Label mate Yuri of Girls' Generation performed a cover of Ciara's song \"1, 2 Step\" at their first concert, Into the New World, held on December 19 and 20, 2009", "Afro Candy United States with whom she had two children. After 2 years living there together, the couple separated. Mazagwu has also starred in films such as \"Destructive Instinct\", \"How Did I Get Here\", \"Ordeal in Paradise\", \"The Goose That Lays The Golden Eggs\" and has played small roles in various Hollywood movies. As a musical artist, her first single \"Somebody Help Me\" was released in 2009 followed by her debut studio album which produced the popular hit \"Ikebe Na Moni\". Also in 2011, she released the single \"Voodoo-Juju Woman\". Besides acting and singing, Mazagwu works as a practicing medical billing and", "I Am God Dick gets paired with Angie Dahl (Kayla Ewell). Logan and Wallace perform their experiment half-heartedly, and afterwards, they decide to continue working with each other. In the end, they receive a passing grade. \"I Am God\" was written by Diane Ruggiero and Cathy Belben and directed by Martha Mitchell, marking Ruggiero's eleventh writing credit for the series, Belben's third and final writing credit (after \"Blast from the Past\" and \"Ahoy, Mateys!\") and Mitchell's first and only directing credit for the show. Despite being credited, Duncan (Teddy Dunn), Weevil (Francis Capra), and Jackie (Tessa Thompson) do not appear in the episode.", "I Am God I Am God \"I Am God\" is the eighteenth episode of the second season of the American mystery television series \"Veronica Mars\", and the fortieth episode overall. Written by Diane Ruggiero and Cathy Belben and directed by Martha Mitchell, the episode premiered on UPN on April 11, 2006. The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars (Kristen Bell) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective. In this episode, Veronica experiences persistent and vivid nightmares of the students who died in the bus crash, and she attempts to piece together the clues", "IMx both starring in the dance film, \"You Got Served\" (2004). Houston co-starred on \"Fat Albert\" (2004) and starred in UPN's comedy \"Cuts\". He also starred in the horror film \"Somebody Help Me\". He appeared as Roger on the show \"Sister, Sister\" (1994–1998). Santos recently got married In 1992, Immature released their debut album, \"On Our Worst Behavior\", on September 22. The album featured singles \"Da Munchies\", \"I Wanna Know U That Way\" and \"Tear It Up (On Our Worst Behavior)\" (which also appeared on the soundtrack for the animated film \"Bébé's Kids\", in which Houston provided his voice for the", "I Killed My BFF I Killed My BFF I Killed My BFF (originally titled The Neighbor) is a Lifetime television film starring Katrina Bowden, Chris Zylka and Olivia Crocicchia. It was written by Blake Berris and Danny Abel, and directed by Seth Jarrett. \"I Killed My BFF\" is inspired by a true story, the murder of Anne Marie Camp by Jamie Dennis and her husband, Michael Gianakos, in Minnesota in 1997. Shane Riley (Katrina Bowden) and Heather Thomas (Olivia Crocicchia) become friends after they both give birth in a shared hospital room. Chase (Blake Michael), the father of Heather's new baby, confronts her, prompting", "Stephanie Benson this, she released a gospel single titled “My Prayer” from her pending album as a way of showing appreciation and gratitude to God for saving her from the accident. Since moving back to Ghana, Benson has released a number of albums, including \"Different Kind of Heaven\", \"What are you doing with your life\" and \"Friend\" in 2015, as well as \"Dear Lord\" and \"I am worth it\" in 2016. Stephanie Benson Stephanie Benson, also known as Princess Akua Ohenewaa Asieanem of Kokobin, is a UK-based Ghanaian international singer and performer who is heavily rooted in jazz music. In Ghana, she", "The Gospel Road on varying tracks include The Carter Family, The Statler Brothers, June Carter Cash (who in the film and on the album portrays Mary Magdalene), Kris Kristofferson and Rita Coolidge. Songs performed included several that Cash had previously recorded for records such as \"The Holy Land\" and \"Hello, I'm Johnny Cash\" (\"He Turned the Water Into Wine\" and \"Jesus Was a Carpenter\", respectively), along with cover versions of the Larry Gatlin song \"Help Me\" (which is titled simply \"Help\" on this release) and \"Follow Me\" by John Denver. Cash later recorded a full version of \"Help Me\" which was included on", "Vivica A. Fox guestarring Robert Ri'chard, Michael Jai White, Mekhi Phifer, Ginuwine and Melanie Brown. The movie is available since August 12, 2017 on netflix. Also, Fox appeared as Cheer Goddess in the film \"\" Vivica's \"Every Day I'm Hustling\" (St. Martin's Press, 2018) is a \"part memoir, part inspirational\" book that focuses on her career and relationships. In December 1998, Fox married singer Christopher \"Sixx-Nine\" Harvest. The couple divorced in 2002. Fox later dated rapper 50 Cent in 2003. In November 2011, Fox and club promoter Omar \"Slim\" White broke off their ten-month engagement. Vivica A. Fox Vivica Anjanetta Fox (born July", "Unfriended anonymous user uploads a video of her passing out and defecating at an unsupervised party, and the video goes viral. One year later, her former childhood best friend Blaire Lily (Shelley Hennig) is chatting with her boyfriend Mitch Roussel on Skype, during which they agree to lose their virginities to each other on prom night. Soon after, they are joined by their friends and classmates Jess Felton, Ken Smith, and Adam Sewell, and an unknown user known as \"billie227\". The gang tries various ways to get rid of the intruder but are unsuccessful each time. Blaire looks up the account", "Michael Gungor Gungor for a solo album. In 2003, he released \"Bigger Than My Imagination\" under Integrity Media. The album included the single \"Friend of God\", a Dove Award-nominated song that Gungor wrote with Gospel artist Israel Houghton. The album also enjoyed some radio play. In 2005, Gungor toured with Teen Mania's Acquire the Fire traveling youth rally event. That same year, he and his wife Lisa released a live album titled \"Battle Cry: Worship from the Frontlines\", through Integrity Media. Gungor would later retire most of the songs on this album, tweeting a link to his blog that can no longer", "Kim Burrell Phone Call\" playing the part of Price's \"prayer partner\" in the soap opera-like song. She appeared in George Clinton's original song \"Mathematics of Love\" on Clinton's 2008 album of covers, \"George Clinton and Some Gangsters of Love\". Burrell released her first studio album in 11 years, \"No Ways Tired\", on April 7, 2009 through Shanachie Records. The album features covers of classic gospel songs like \"My Faith Looks Up To Thee,\" \"What A Friend We Have In Jesus,\" \"O Lamb Of God\" and \"I Surrender All,\" as well as the classic James Cleveland song after which the album is named.", "Dottie Rambo on six of the Gaither Homecoming video series (see her discography). Her last appearance was \"Nashville Homecoming\" (2009), in which she performed \"I Just Came To Talk With You Lord.\" Dottie Rambo has been the subject of many biographic television specials: TBN's \"Portrait of Grace\", INSP's \"Inspirational Groundbreakers\", BBC's \"White Gospel\", and GMC's \"Faith and Fame\" (her last interview aired on television). In 1987, Rambo suffered a ruptured disk which led to paralysis in her left leg. She underwent a series of surgeries that eventually reinstated limited mobility. In 1992, Dottie and Buck separated after he engaged in an extramarital", "Diora Baird 29, 2017, Baird announced that she and Viola are engaged. Diora Baird Diora Lynn Baird (born April 6, 1983) is an American actress and former model for Guess? who has appeared in films such as \"Wedding Crashers\" (2005), \"Accepted\" (2006), \"\" (2006), \"Young People Fucking\" (2007), \"My Best Friend's Girl\" (2008), \"Stan Helsing\" (2009), and \"Transit\" (2012). Baird was born in Miami, Florida. Her mother was also a model. She got into acting when her mother enrolled her in an acting class to help her overcome introversion. Later, she became vice president of her school's Thespian Society. At the age", "Briga Heelan read somewhere, is some pagan Celtic goddess, which sounds great, so I really like saying that. But I was named after my grandmother's best friend, who was Irish and came from Dublin.\" Heelan dated singer Martin Johnson in 2009. They both attended Andover High School. On October 16, 2014, Heelan became engaged to her \"Ground Floor\" co-star Rene Gube. They were married on May 8, 2015. On October 31, 2016, it was announced they were expecting their first child, a daughter, due in March 2017. Heelan gave birth to their daughter Bennet Alejandra Gube on March 23, 2017. Briga Heelan", "God Help the Girl Scotland, who responded to the advertisement placed in the magazine, and Alex Klobouk from Germany, who met Stuart Murdoch on the \"Dear Catastrophe Waitress\" tour. Stuart Murdoch also held an open audition on the imeem community portal – the candidates who wanted to work with the group were to send in their demos of two Belle and Sebastian songs: \"Funny Little Frog\" and \"The Psychiatrist Is In\". Brittany Stallings and Dina Bankole from the US were chosen out of about 400 applications; in February 2008 they were invited to a trial recording session in Glasgow. Eventually \"Funny Little Frog\" was", "D. Woods \"One More Drink\". She has recently appeared in Lil Wayne's new video \"Prom Queen\" and Young Money video \"Every Girl\". She also is working on film/television projects. She is currently filming a music video for her upcoming single \"Legalize Me.\" It was later revealed that \"On My Side\" is the lead single with her filming the video in Los Angeles in June. However, \"Legalize Me\" is released as a digital single, along with a music video, under Woods' own label Woodgrane Entertainment on iTunes. Woods was a featuring artist for Canadian rapper DY (Die Young) for his second single \"That's", "Toks Olagundoye regular in the ABC comedy series \"The Neighbors\", playing the part of Jackie Joyner-Kersee until the series was canceled after two seasons in 2014. She later had starring roles in the two television pilots: \"Feed Me\", opposite Mary-Louise Parker for NBC; and Amazon's \"Salem Rogers\", co-starring with Leslie Bibb. Olagundoye joined the cast of ABC comedy-drama \"Castle\" in 2015 as a series regular in the role of Hayley Shipton. On May 16, 2015, Olagundoye married Sean Quinn, whom she met on Twitter, after several years of dating. Toks Olagundoye Olatokunbo Susan Olasobunmi Abeke \"Toks\" Olagundoye (born September 16, 1975) is", "Ida Maria after a Boston show, she pulled out of the tour, citing exhaustion. Her song \"Bad Karma\" from Katla was used in the 2011 film \"Scream 4\" and episodes of \"Gossip Girl\", \"Teen Wolf\", \"Royal Pains\" and \"Being Human\" together with the song \"Quite Nice People\", both from the album \"Katla\". Ida Maria's song \"Oh My God\" was used in a Finnish film, \"Sisko tahtoisin jäädä\" (Sister, I wanted to stay), released in 2010. Ida Maria's song \"Oh My God\" was also used in American Netflix Show, Big Mouth Season 2 Episode 2, released in 2018. The song \"Cold Blooded\" has", "Til the Casket Drops (Clipse album) for the album was \"Kinda Like a Big Deal\" which features Kanye West. Three official singles were released: \"I'm Good\" featuring Pharrell of The Neptunes, followed by \"All Eyes on Me\" featuring Keri Hilson and \"Popular Demand (Popeyes)\" featuring the New York rapper Cam'ron. Despite some mixed criticism of its more upbeat musical direction than their previous album, \"Hell Hath No Fury\" (2006), \"Til the Casket Drops\" received generally positive reviews from music critics, based on an aggregate score of 64/100 from Metacritic. The album sold 62,000 copies within the first month of being released. The album entered the US", "Kristen Vigard experience merging different forms of music as Paul Simon.\" In 1996, she sang the lead vocals for Illeana Douglas for the film \"Grace of My Heart\". Vigard's second album, \"God, Loves and Angels\", released in 2004, includes Vigard's performance of \"God Give Me Strength\", which was not included on the soundtrack CD. From 2009 through 2013, Vigard was a member of the band New White Trash, a downtempo acoustic rock band. Vigard was a founding member, along with Michael C. Ruppert, drummer Andy Kravitz, and guitarist Doug Lewis. The band released two albums, \"Doublewide\" (2011) and \"Age of Authority\" (2013).", "Shelley Hennig then appeared in the MTV series \"Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous\" as Christy. On June 26, 2013, it was announced that the show was also canceled after one season. Hennig also had a role on the MTV series \"Teen Wolf\" as the character Malia Tate. She was promoted to a series regular for Season 4. In 2014 she appeared in the films \"Ouija\" and \"Unfriended\". She also appeared on The Band Perry's music video for \"Gentle on My Mind\" alongside \"The Hunger Games\" actor Alexander Ludwig. In 2017, she starred in country music artist Maren Morris' music video for", "Remi Nicole and released her first single, \"Fed Up\", in May 2007. This was followed by the single \"Go Mr Sunshine\", which was released for download on 13 August 2007, and was officially released on 20 August. It reached number 57 in the UK Singles Chart. The album \"My Conscience and I\" was released on 3 December 2007. Also in December, her cover of the song \"Teenage Kicks\" was featured in the film \"St Trinian's\" and on . Nicole's second album, \"Cupid Shoot Me\", was released on 31 August 2009. Nicole has called the album her \"real debut\", saying of \"My Conscience", "IDK About You with previous videos titled \"Switch Seeks Friend\" and \"A New Friend\" and later the music videos for \"To the Moon and Back\" and \"Wanna Sip\". In the video, a large group of costumes descend upon Fever Ray's character in a dirty and colored room filled with posters of Justin Bieber, glowing orbs, scrawled messages and a vaginal doorway rimmed with teeth. In a press release, Dreijer stated that the video also serves as an introduction for her touring band, which consists of Liliana Zavala, Mikaela Hansson, Maryam Nikandish, Diva Cruz, and Helena Gutarra. Digital download Bunny Michael Remix IDK About", "Suraj Sharma Suraj Sharma Suraj Sharma (born 21 March 1993) is an Indian actor, who made his debut with 2012 film \"Life of Pi\". Directed by Ang Lee, \"Life of Pi\" was adapted from the novel of the same name, and earned him critical acclaim as well as a BAFTA Rising Star Award nomination. In 2014, he portrayed Aayan Ibrahim in season 4 of the Showtime series \"Homeland\". He currently stars as Rakesh Sehgal in the CBS comedy-drama series \"God Friended Me\". Suraj Sharma Churai was born and brought up in a Malayali family in New Delhi, India. His father, Gokul Churai,", "The Weeknd appeared on \"Saturday Night Live\" alongside actress Amy Schumer, performing as the show's musical guest on 10 October. This was his first performance on the show as a solo artist, after appearing with Ariana Grande to perform \"Love Me Harder\". Tesfaye was featured on \"FML\", a track on Kanye West's \"The Life of Pablo\". It marked the second collaboration between the pair, with West providing production and writing on \"Tell Your Friends\" from \"Beauty Behind the Madness\". Tesfaye appeared on \"6 Inch\", the fifth song on Beyoncé's \"Lemonade\". He was announced by Spotify as being among the top five most", "Life Is Killing Me Mary Anne, Mrs. Howell, Samantha Stephens, Lieutenant Uhura, Judy Jetson, Olive Oyl, Ethel Mertz, Edith Bunker, Marilyn Munster, Rhoda, Penny Robinson, Chrissy Snow, Catwoman, Creepella, Weezie Jefferson, Betty Rubble, Little Cindy Who, Penelope Pitstop, Lois Lane, Vanna White, Wonder Woman, Elly May, Maude and Witchiepoo. The inside spine under the CD tray bears the message \"Type O Negative is a non-prophet organization\". The album was leaked onto the Internet before release, upsetting keyboard player Josh Silver to the point that he released a message online complaining that the leak essentially took revenue from the band. Vocalist and bassist Peter Steele", "Me and Earl and the Dying Girl have been friends since childhood. The two spend most of their time making films together. Greg and Earl keep their filming ventures a secret from their peers, fearing ridicule for their mediocre projects. One day, Greg's mother tells him that his childhood friend, Rachel Kushner, is diagnosed with acute myelogenous leukemia. Greg's mother wants him to rekindle their friendship and make her feel better. Although Greg had only befriended Rachel to try to get closer to her more attractive friend, Leah Katzenberg, he realizes that he cannot argue with his mother and calls her. This leads to an awkward conversation", "Mariko Tamaki in the performance group Pretty Porky & Pissed Off with Joanne Huffa, Allyson Mitchell, Abi Slone, Tracy Tidgwell and Zoe Whittall. Tamaki published the novel \"Cover Me\" in 2000. It is a \"poignant story about an adolescent coping with depression\". Told in a series of flashbacks, it is about a teenager dealing with cutting and feeling like an outsider in school. \"Skim\", a collaboration with her cousin Jillian Tamaki, published in 2008 by Groundwood Books, is a graphic novel about a teenage girl and her romantic feelings towards her female teacher; the reciprocity of those feelings remains unclear in the", "Natalie Sims touch when Azalea moved to Los Angeles in 2010. In 2009, Sims, under the moniker Suzy Rock, released a mixtape entitled \"So What\". She also featured on the song \"Runaway Train\" by Rachel, from the album \"Nothing W/O You\". In 2010, Sims collaborated on the Lecrae album \"Rehab\", featuring on the song \"High\", also featuring Sho Baraka, and co-wrote and provided backing vocals to the song \"Killa.\" That same year, she designed the cover to Deitrick Haddon's soundtrack album \"Blessed & Cursed\" \"- Voices of Unity\", which included her song \"So What\". Sims also provided art direction for Juanita Bynum's", "Jenny Schecter evil. In season five, while filming \"Lez Girls\", she is promoted to director. Jenny hires Adele Channing (Malaya Rivera Drew) as her personal assistant. Jenny then has a relationship with the film's closeted star, Niki Stevens (Kate French), whom she had initially been wary of casting. While on a camping trip, Jenny and Niki make a private sex tape, but for some reason do not hide it. Adele then steals the tape and makes numerous copies. Jenny is shocked when Adele reveals her plans to send the tapes to the media if the studio doesn't hand the director's job to", "Hwang Jung-eum \"Incarnation of Money\", followed by hit melodrama \"Secret Love\". This was followed in 2014 by 1980-1990s set period drama, \"Endless Love\". In 2015, she reunited with some of her former costars, namely Ji Sung from \"Secret Love\" for the romantic comedy series \"Kill Me, Heal Me\"; then with Park Seo-joon from \"Kill Me, Heal Me\" and Go Joon-hee from \"Listen to My Heart\" for another romantic comedy, \"She Was Pretty\", which also further solidifies her popularity in China. \"Ize\" magazine named her as one of the 10 Persons of the Year and Hwang achieved 1st place in the survey to", "Diora Baird Diora Baird Diora Lynn Baird (born April 6, 1983) is an American actress and former model for Guess? who has appeared in films such as \"Wedding Crashers\" (2005), \"Accepted\" (2006), \"\" (2006), \"Young People Fucking\" (2007), \"My Best Friend's Girl\" (2008), \"Stan Helsing\" (2009), and \"Transit\" (2012). Baird was born in Miami, Florida. Her mother was also a model. She got into acting when her mother enrolled her in an acting class to help her overcome introversion. Later, she became vice president of her school's Thespian Society. At the age of 17, she moved to Los Angeles in hope of", "Wannabe female characters dancing as a group to the song. It was also used in the trailer for the film \"Excess Baggage\" (1997). On 3 October 2012, Geri Halliwell performed the song as a solo during a breast-cancer care show. (She had resigned from Spice Girls as a result of a breast-cancer scare, as noted above.) Her solo version was an acoustic ballad with several lyrics changed, such as \"you've gotta get with my friends\" being changed to \"you've gotta be my best friend\". In 2016, American actress Eva Longoria performed a comedic dramatic reading of \"Wannabe\" in honour of the", "Santana Lopez Quinn reveals that she had breast implants over the summer, leading to a physical fight between the two. While making out, Brittany suggests to Santana that the two of them should sing Melissa Etheridge's \"Come To My Window\" for a glee club duet competition. Alarmed, Santana claims that she was only sleeping with Brittany because Puck was temporarily unavailable. Brittany begins to date club member Artie Abrams (Kevin McHale), which piques Santana's jealousy. She briefly quits the glee club with Brittany and Quinn when Sue demands that they choose between being in glee club and being cheerleaders, but Finn convinces" ]

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[ "Stachyurus Stachyurus is the only genus in the flowering plant family Stachyuraceae, native to the Himalayas and eastern Asia. They are deciduous shrubs or small trees with pendent racemes of 4-petalled flowers which appear on the bare branches before the leaves. The plants have leaves with serrate margins. Stachyuraceae contains a single genus with eight species.", "Buckinghamia Buckinghamia is a genus of only two known species of trees, belonging to the plant family Proteaceae. They grow naturally only (endemic) in the rainforests of the wet tropics region of north eastern Queensland, Australia. The ivory curl flower, \"B. celsissima\", is the well known, popular and widely cultivated species in gardens and parks, in eastern and southern mainland Australia, and additionally as street trees north from about Brisbane. The second species, \"B. ferruginiflora\", was only recently described in 1988." ]

[ "Cabombaceae The Cabombaceae are a family of aquatic, herbaceous flowering plants. The family is recognised as distinct in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV system (2016). The family consists of two genera of aquatic plants, \"Brasenia\" and \"Cabomba\", totalling six species.", "Goldia Goldia is a genus of Palearctic butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. The genus is monotypic containing the single species Goldia pacifica found in Primorye", "Burdachia Burdachia is a genus in the Malpighiaceae, a family of about 75 genera of flowering plants in the order Malpighiales. \"Burdachia\" comprises 3 species of trees and shrubs occurring in lowland forests near rivers or in low, periodically flooded places in Guyana and Amazonian Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, and Peru.", "Gerbillus Gerbillus is a genus that contains most common gerbils. Traditionally the genera \"Dipodillus\" and \"Microdillus\" have been included in this genus by some authorities. In 2010, after morphological and molecular studies \"Dipodillus\" was ranged as a subgenus of \"Gerbillus\".", "Banksiamyces Banksiamyces is a genus of fungi in the order Helotiales, with a tentative placement in the family Helotiaceae. The genus contains four species, which grow on the seed follicles of the dead infructescences or \"cones\" of various species of \"Banksia\", a genus in the plant family Proteaceae endemic to Australia. Fruit bodies of the fungus appear as small (typically less than 10 mm diameter), shallow dark cups on the follicles of the \"Banksia\" fruit. The edges of dry fruit bodies fold inwards, appearing like narrow slits. The first specimens of \"Banksiamyces\", known then as \"Tympanis toomansis\", were described in 1887. Specimens continued to be collected occasionally for almost 100 years before becoming examined more critically in the early 1980s, leading to the creation of a new genus to contain what was determined to be three distinct species, \"B. katerinae\", \"B. macrocarpus\", and \"B. toomansis\". A fourth species, \"B. maccannii\", was added in 1984.", "Hongshuia Hongshuia is a genus of cyprinid fish that consists of three species, all endemic to China.", "Stylurus Stylurus is a genus of dragonflies in the family Gomphidae. They are commonly known as Hanging Clubtails from their habit of hanging nearly vertically when they perch.", "Sthenias (genus) Sthenias is a genus of longhorn beetles of the subfamily Lamiinae, containing the following species:", "Brugmansia Brugmansia is a genus of seven species of flowering plants in the family Solanaceae. They are woody trees or shrubs, with pendulous flowers, and have no spines on their fruit. Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common name of angel's trumpets, a name sometimes used for the closely related genus \"Datura\". (Datura differs from Brugmansia in that they are herbaceous bushes, with erect rather than pendulous flowers - and most have spines on their fruit).", "Stachyris Stachyris is a genus of passerine birds in the Timaliidae family.", "Nomascus Nomascus is the second-most speciose genus of gibbons (family Hylobatidae). Originally, this genus was a subgenus of \"Hylobates\", and all individuals were considered one species, \"Hylobates concolor\". Species within \"Nomascus\" are characterized by 52 chromosomes. Some species are all black, some are light with a distinct black tuft of crown fur, and some have distinct, light-colored cheek patches. \"Nomascus\" is found from southern China (Yunnan) to southern Vietnam, and also on Hainan Island. One species, \"Nomascus nasutus,\" has been deemed \"the most critically endangered ape species in the world\". All species in this genus are endangered or critically endangered.", "Straneotia Straneotia is a genus of beetles in the family Carabidae, containing the following species:", "Strepsigonia Strepsigonia is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily Drepaninae.", "Stromatinia Stromatinia is a genus of fungi in the family Sclerotiniaceae.", "Bergmania Bergmania is a genus of butterflies in the family Lycaenidae.", "Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Is a species of plant in the Verbenaceae family, native throughout the Caribbean. It has many common names including blue porterweed, blue snake weed, bastard vervain, Brazilian tea, Jamaica vervain, and light-blue snakeweed. It is unclear whether \"S. indica\" is a separate species. It is usually found along country roadsides and it grows also well as a ruderal plant on disturbed terrain. It is an invasive species in some places.", "Ukamenia Ukamenia is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily Olethreutinae of the family Tortricidae.", "Stethomyia Stethomyia is a subgenus of the mosquito genus \"Anopheles\". The type species is \"Anopheles nimbus\". There are five species in this subgenus.", "Microsyagrus variabilis Microsyagrus variabilis is a species of leaf beetle of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, observed by Selman in 1972.", "Blaberus Blaberus is a genus of cockroaches generally found in South America. About 10 species are in the \"Blaberus\" genus, and they are popular among hobbyists as feed for other arthropods (\"Blaberus discoidalis\" in particular serves this function) or as pets. Unlike several genera of cockroaches considered to be pests, this genus keeps its ootheca in its abdomen until the time it hatches. They generally require a relative humidity of 60% or higher to thrive and temperatures above 25°C (28-30°C is best) to reproduce." ]

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[ "Over two-thirds of Melburnians speak only English at home (68.1%). Chinese (mainly Cantonese and Mandarin) is the second-most-common language spoken at home (3.6%), with Greek third, Italian fourth and Vietnamese fifth, each with more than 100,000 speakers. Although Victoria's net interstate migration has fluctuated, the population of the Melbourne statistical division has grown by about 70,000 people a year since 2005. Melbourne has now attracted the largest proportion of international overseas immigrants (48,000) finding it outpacing Sydney's international migrant intake on percentage, along with having strong interstate migration from Sydney and other capitals due to more affordable housing and cost of living." ]

[ "The Israel Defense Forces is the sole military wing of the Israeli security forces, and is headed by its Chief of General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Cabinet. The IDF consist of the army, air force and navy. It was founded during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War by consolidating paramilitary organizations—chiefly the Haganah—that preceded the establishment of the state. The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman), which works with Mossad and Shabak. The Israel Defense Forces have been involved in several major wars and border conflicts in its short history, making it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.", "In the Low Middle Ages, Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness. Examples include the work of Majorcan polymath Ramon Llull (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating in Ausiàs March (1397–1459). By the 15th century, the city of Valencia had become the sociocultural center of the Crown of Aragon, and Catalan was present all over the Mediterranean world. During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language. Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th. During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms \"one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe\".", "Hazards to aircraft include debris, nesting birds, and reduced friction levels due to environmental conditions such as ice, snow, or rain. Part of runway maintenance is airfield rubber removal which helps maintain friction levels. The fields must be kept clear of debris using cleaning equipment so that loose material does not become a projectile and enter an engine duct (see foreign object damage). In adverse weather conditions, ice and snow clearing equipment can be used to improve traction on the landing strip. For waiting aircraft, equipment is used to spray special deicing fluids on the wings.", "Starting in 1982, dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years' payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one-time $1,200 \"Resource Rebate\"). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings, puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences, and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment.", "New Delhi is a major junction in the Indian railway network and is the headquarters of the Northern Railway. The five main railway stations are New Delhi railway station, Old Delhi, Nizamuddin Railway Station, Anand Vihar Railway Terminal and Sarai Rohilla. The Delhi Metro, a mass rapid transit system built and operated by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC), serves many parts of Delhi and the neighbouring cities Faridabad, Gurgaon, Noida and Ghaziabad. As of August 2011, the metro consists of six operational lines with a total length of 189 km (117 mi) and 146 stations, and several other lines are under construction. It carries millions of passengers every day. In addition to the Delhi Metro, a suburban railway, the Delhi Suburban Railway exists.", "Differences in pain perception and tolerance thresholds are associated with, among other factors, ethnicity, genetics, and sex. People of Mediterranean origin report as painful some radiant heat intensities that northern Europeans describe as nonpainful. And Italian women tolerate less intense electric shock than Jewish or Native American women. Some individuals in all cultures have significantly higher than normal pain perception and tolerance thresholds. For instance, patients who experience painless heart attacks have higher pain thresholds for electric shock, muscle cramp and heat.", "Research seems to favor the hypothesis that adolescents and adults think about risk in similar ways, but hold different values and thus come to different conclusions. Some have argued that there may be evolutionary benefits to an increased propensity for risk-taking in adolescence. For example, without a willingness to take risks, teenagers would not have the motivation or confidence necessary to leave their family of origin. In addition, from a population perspective, there is an advantage to having a group of individuals willing to take more risks and try new methods, counterbalancing the more conservative elements more typical of the received knowledge held by older adults. Risktaking may also have reproductive advantages: adolescents have a newfound priority in sexual attraction and dating, and risk-taking is required to impress potential mates. Research also indicates that baseline sensation seeking may affect risk-taking behavior throughout the lifespan." ]

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[ "Tax\nThe first known system of taxation was in Ancient Egypt around 3000–2800 BC in the First Dynasty of Egypt of the Old Kingdom of Egypt.[28] The earliest and most widespread form of taxation was the corvée and tithe. The corvée was forced labour provided to the state by peasants too poor to pay other forms of taxation (labour in ancient Egyptian is a synonym for taxes).[29] Records from the time document that the Pharaoh would conduct a biennial tour of the kingdom, collecting tithes from the people. Other records are granary receipts on limestone flakes and papyrus.[30] Early taxation is also described in the Bible. In Genesis (chapter 47, verse 24 – the New International Version), it states \"But when the crop comes in, give a fifth of it to Pharaoh. The other four-fifths you may keep as seed for the fields and as food for yourselves and your households and your children\". Joseph was telling the people of Egypt how to divide their crop, providing a portion to the Pharaoh. A share (20%) of the crop was the tax (in this case, a special rather than an ordinary tax, as it was gathered against an expected famine).[31]" ]

[ "Geography of toll roads\nToll roads in Europe have a long history. The first turnpike road in England was authorised in the seventeenth century. The term \"turnpike\" refers to a gate on which sharp pikes would be fixed as a defence against cavalry. Early references include the (mythical) Greek ferryman Charon charging a toll to ferry (dead) people across the river Acheron. Germanic tribes charged tolls to travellers across mountain passes. Tolls were used in the Holy Roman Empire in the 14th century and 15th century.", "Value-added tax\nGermany and France were the first countries to implement VAT, doing so in the form of a general consumption tax during World War I. The modern variation of VAT was first implemented by France in 1954 in Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) colony. Recognizing the experiment as successful, the French introduced it in 1958. Maurice Lauré, Joint Director of the France Tax Authority, the Direction Générale des Impôts implemented the VAT on 10 April 1954, although German industrialist Dr. Wilhelm von Siemens proposed the concept in 1918. Initially directed at large businesses, it was extended over time to include all business sectors. In France, it is the most important source of state finance, accounting for nearly 50% of state revenues.", "Hat tax\nThe hat tax was not the only duty raised by the government on household items. The best known such tax was the window tax, which was implemented in 1697, and was not repealed until 1851. Other similar taxes were the dice duty (1711–1862), almanac tax (1711–1834), wallpaper tax (1712–1836), brick tax (1784–1850), glove tax (1785–94), hair-powder tax (1786–1869) and perfume tax (1786–1800).", "Economic history of Vietnam\nIn an early modern history book, \"Việt Nam Sử Lược\", one could see clearly that throughout the history, Vietnam's economic activities had been rarely mentioned and clearly poorly documented. However, it did mention that gold had been used as money, with unit being a tael. Each tael could be exchanged for 70 quan–the formal coin minted and circulated by the Trần Dynasty in the first half of the 13th century (from 1225–1253). The currency was then used to pay personal tax, one quan per head each year. Nonetheless, the most important tax should arguably come from farming production, mostly levied paddy rice fields, and was actually paid in rice. There existed many other type of taxes, such as for production of salt, fish, vegetable, and many other consumers goods alike. Being engaged in series of border wars with its southern neighbor, Champa, Trần Dynasty at times showed its military strength, supported by economic wealth, and gradually implemented a southward expansion. Given the economic prosperity in some substantial periods under the reign of Trần, substantial cultural progress also emerged. Nôm scripts were invented and used in the first place in the 13th century under Trần Nhân Tông (1258–1308). The first history work which was ever written in Vietnam was finished in 1272, \"Dai Viet Su Ky Toan Thu\" by the historian Lê Văn Hưu. In this period, economic development served as the main propeller for overall development of the society, as well as the country's territorial expansion.", "History of taxation in the United States\nThe history of taxation in the United States begins with the colonial protest against British taxation policy in the 1760s, leading to the American Revolution. The independent nation collected taxes on imports (\"tariffs\"), whiskey, and (for a while) on glass windows. States and localities collected poll taxes on voters and property taxes on land and commercial buildings. There are state and federal excise taxes. State and federal inheritance taxes began after 1900, while the states (but not the federal government) began collecting sales taxes in the 1930s. The United States imposed income taxes briefly during the Civil War and the 1890s. In 1913, the 16th Amendment was ratified, permanently legalizing an income tax.", "History of coins\nHowever, as with all fables, there is a problem with the dates. A real King Mita of Phrygia lived in the 8th century BC but coins were not invented until well after the Phrygian kingdom collapsed. There were some pre-coin types, with no recognisable image, used in the Ionian city of Miletus and the island of Samos but it is noteworthy that the coins from Cyme, when first circulated around 600-550 BC, utilised the symbol of the horse - tying them to the house of Agamemnon and the glory of the Greek victory over Troy. Cyme, being geographically and politically close to Lydia, took their invention of 'nobleman's tax-token' to the citizens - thus making Cyme's rough incuse horse head silver fractions, Hemiobols, a candidate for the title of the Second Oldest coins - and the first used for retailing on a large-scale basis by the Ionian Greeks, quickly spreading Market Economics through the rest of the world. For an excellent timeline graphic showing the progression from pre-coin, to lion, to horsehead imagery on the earliest coins, see Basic Electrum Types.\nAncient India in circa 6th century BCE, was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world.", "Jean-Baptiste Colbert\nColbert's earliest recorded attempt at tax reform came in the form of a \"mémoire\" to Mazarin, showing that of the taxes paid by the people, not one-half reached the King. The paper also contained an attack upon the Superintendent Fouquet. The postmaster of Paris, a spy of Fouquet's, read the letter, leading to a dispute which Mazarin attempted to suppress.", "Revenue stamp\nThe tax on documents, also commonly known as stamp duty, is one of the oldest uses of revenue stamps, probably being invented in Spain, and introduced (or re-invented) in the Netherlands in the 1620s, then reaching France in 1651 and England in 1694. Governments enforce the payment of the tax by making unstamped documents unenforcable in court. The tax has been applied to contracts, tenancy agreements, wills etc. A pre-printed revenue stamp appeared on many hundis of India.", "Hat tax\nThe hat tax, or hat duty, was a tax levied by the British Government from 1784 to 1811 on men's hats. The tax was introduced during the first ministry of Pitt the Younger and was designed to be a simple way of raising revenue for the government in a rough accordance with each person's relative wealth. It was supposed that the rich would have a large number of expensive hats, whereas the poor might have one cheap hat or none at all.", "Farm (revenue leasing)\nTax farming was originally a Roman practice whereby the burden of tax collection was reassigned by the Roman State to private individuals or groups. In essence, these individuals or groups paid the taxes for a certain area and for a certain period of time and then attempted to cover their outlay by collecting money or saleable goods from the people within that area. The system was set up by Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC primarily to increase the efficiency of tax collection within Rome itself but the system quickly spread to the Provinces. Within the Roman Empire, these private individuals and groups which collected taxes in lieu of the bid (i.e. rent) they had paid to the state were known as \"publicani\", of whom the best known is the disciple Matthew, a \"publicanus\" in the village of Capernaum in the province of Galilee. The system was widely abused, and reforms were enacted by Augustus and Diocletian. Tax farming practices are believed to have contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in Western Europe.", "History of money\nThe Code of Hammurabi, the best-preserved ancient law code, was created c. 1760 BC (middle chronology) in ancient Babylon. It was enacted by the sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi. Earlier collections of laws include the code of Ur-Nammu, king of Ur (c. 2050 BC), the Code of Eshnunna (c. 1930 BC) and the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (c. 1870 BC). These law codes formalized the role of money in civil society. They set amounts of interest on debt, fines for \"wrongdoing\", and compensation in money for various infractions of formalized law.", "History of accounting\nBetween the 4th millennium BC and the 3rd millennium BC, the ruling leaders and priests in ancient Iran had people oversee financial matters. In Godin Tepe (گدین تپه) and Tepe Yahya (تپه يحيی), cylindrical tokens that were used for bookkeeping on clay scripts were found in buildings that had large rooms for storage of crops. In Godin Tepe's findings, the scripts only contained tables with figures, while in Tepe Yahya's findings, the scripts also contained graphical representations. The invention of a form of bookkeeping using clay tokens represented a huge cognitive leap for mankind.", "Sales tax\nA tax imposed on the sale of goods is depicted on the walls of ancient Egyptian tombs, which have been dated as far back as 2000 BC. These paintings describe the collection of tax for specific commodities, such as cooking oil.", "History of the British salt tax in India\nSalt taxation originated in ancient China. \"Guanzi\", a book written in around 300 BC recommends taxation of salt and propounds different methods for this purpose. The recommendations of \"Guanzi\" became the official salt policy of early Chinese Emperors. At one point of time, salt taxes constituted over one half of China's revenues and contributed to the construction of the Great Wall of China.", "Tax protester history in the United States\nIn the colonial era, Americans insisted on their rights as Englishmen to have their own legislature raise all taxes. Beginning in 1765 the British Parliament asserted its supreme authority to lay taxes, and a series of American protests began that led directly to the American Revolution. The first wave of protests attacked the Stamp Act of 1765, and marked the first time Americans from each of the 13 colonies met together and planned a common front against taxes the colonists considered illegal. At The Boston Tea Party, colonists threw British tea into Boston Harbor because it contained a hidden tax Americans refused to pay. The British responded by trying to crush traditional liberties in Massachusetts, leading to war in 1775.", "History of money\nIn the 12th century, the English monarchy introduced an early version of the bill of exchange in the form of a notched piece of wood known as a tally stick. Tallies originally came into use at a time when paper was rare and costly, but their use persisted until the early 19th century, even after paper money had become prevalent. The notches denoted various amounts of taxes payable to the Crown. Initially tallies were simply a form of receipt to the taxpayer at the time of rendering his dues. As the revenue department became more efficient, they began issuing tallies to denote a promise of the tax assessee to make future tax payments at specified times during the year. Each tally consisted of a matching pair – one stick was given to the assessee at the time of assessment representing the amount of taxes to be paid later, and the other held by the Treasury representing the amount of taxes to be collected at a future date.", "Taxation in France\nHistorically, most taxes have been paid either or in shares of harvest (dime and champart) or work (corvée, military service). Gradually, each of these taxes has been replaced by a cash contribution for being more convenient for both the beneficiary and the taxpayer. The taille, created in the 14th century, was one of the oldest taxes levied by the French monarchy. It was replaced by the fouage.\nUnder the Old Regime, the collection of taxes was leased, i.e. that the state entrusted the task to entrepreneurs, big farmers, who paid the amount of the tax to be levied, then levied the tax for themselves. The system was convenient for both the state (the revenue was anticipated and it was disposed of the unpopularity of tax collectors) and for big farmers (the bargain was very profitable).\nHowever, the people considered the collection mainly a source of injustice and excesses.", "Butlerage\nA butlerage was a duty of two shillings on every ton of wine imported into England by merchant strangers; so called because it was paid to the king's butler for the king. The tax was first implemented in 1302 and stopped being levied in 1809.", "Papal income tax\nFourteenth and fifteenth century popes leveled similar taxes for personal uses as well as for wars against the Ottoman Turks and others. Taxes could be imposed either on the universal church, the clergy of a single country, or even on a group of provinces. Whereas the first crusading taxes were paid directly to crusaders, by the middle of the thirteenth century it became customary to pay the tax directly to kings, princes, or nobles who promised to join the crusade; if the crusade never took place, the money was to be returned to the Apostolic Camera. ", "History of taxation in the United Kingdom\nIncome tax was first implemented in Great Britain by William Pitt the Younger in his budget of December 1798 to pay for weapons and equipment in preparation for the Napoleonic Wars. Pitt's new graduated (progressive) income tax began at a levy of 2 old pence in the pound (1/120) on incomes over £60 (£ as of ), and increased up to a maximum of 2 shillings (10%) on incomes of over £200. Pitt hoped that the new income tax would raise £10 million, but actual receipts for 1799 totalled just over £6 million.", "Lucy Stone\nIn January 1858, Stone staged a highly publicized protest that took the issue of taxation without representation across the nation. The previous summer she and Blackwell had purchased a house in Orange, New Jersey, and when the first tax bill came, Stone returned it unpaid with the explanation that taxing women while denying them the right to vote was a violation of America's founding principles. On January 22, 1858, the city auctioned some of her household goods to pay the tax and attendant court costs. The following month, Stone and Blackwell spoke on taxation without representation before two large meetings in Orange, and circulated petitions asking the New Jersey legislature for woman suffrage. Stone's protest inspired other tax-paying women to action: some followed her example and refused to pay taxes, with one case reaching the Massachusetts Supreme Court in 1863, while others went to the polls to demand their right as tax-payers to vote.", "Cleobury North\nHearth Tax\nThe Hearth Tax was introduced in England in 1662. Records of the Hearth Tax in Cleobury North date back to 1672 which was calculated on the number of fireplaces in a family unit. The records show that 26 households paid in Cleobury North (e.g. Hercules Hide, David Jones and Richard Hudson) and 3 were illegible (Nicholas Millichopp, Thomas Kindsley Esq. and Robert Grove).", "Taxation in the United States\nIncome taxes in the form of \"faculty\" taxes were imposed by the colonies. These combined income and property tax characteristics, and the income element persisted after 1776 in a few states. Several states adopted income taxes in 1837. Wisconsin adopted a corporate and individual income tax in 1911, and was the first to administer the tax with a state tax administration.", "Taxatio Ecclesiastica\nThis taxation is a most important record, because all the taxes of the Church, as well to the kings of England as to the pope, were afterwards regulated by it until the survey made by Henry VIII; and because the statutes of colleges which were founded before the Reformation are also interpreted by this criterion, according to which their benefices, under a certain value, are exempted from the restriction in the statute 21 Henry VIII concerning pluralities. In 1295, Edward, notwithstanding the Pope's grant, and numerous exactions from the clergy in the meantime, being still in great need of money to carry on his wars, summoned deputies from the inferior clergy for the first time to vote him supplies from their own body. In the preceding year he had, by threats and violence, exacted a tax of half the revenues of the clergy; but now he thought it prudent to obtain their consent to his demands in a more regular manner. The clergy, however, would not obey the king's writ of summons, lest they should appear to acknowledge the temporal power; and in order to overcome this objection, the king issued his writ to the archbishop, who, as their spiritual superior, summoned the clergy to meet in convocation.", "Gabelle\nThe gabelle, and other salt taxes, have existed outside France before and after the French Revolution in 1790. The most notable instances are the salt tax in China and the salt tax in India including that under the British.", "Freemen's pennies\nThe distribution of different types of royal revenues in the Kingdom of Hungary during the reign of the Árpádian kings is unknown, but taxes-in-kind and obligatory labour service generated significant income for the monarchs. Although the origin of direct taxation is uncertain, historians assume that a direct tax payable by all freemen was introduced by the first king of Hungary, Stephen I, who died in 1038. The Byzantine \"kapnikon\" may have influenced the new tax, which was known as freemen's pennies, because both taxes yielded the same revenue in silver. Each freemen were to pay 8 denars to the king when the tax was first mentioned in the laws of Coloman the Learned around 1100.", "Tax\nNumerous records of government tax collection in Europe since at least the 17th century are still available today. But taxation levels are hard to compare to the size and flow of the economy since production numbers are not as readily available. Government expenditures and revenue in France during the 17th century went from about 24.30 million livres in 1600–10 to about 126.86 million livres in 1650–59 to about 117.99 million livres in 1700–10 when government debt had reached 1.6 billion livres. In 1780–89, it reached 421.50 million livres.[36] Taxation as a percentage of production of final goods may have reached 15–20% during the 17th century in places such as France, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. During the war-filled years of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, tax rates in Europe increased dramatically as war became more expensive and governments became more centralized and adept at gathering taxes. This increase was greatest in England, Peter Mathias and Patrick O'Brien found that the tax burden increased by 85% over this period. Another study confirmed this number, finding that per capita tax revenues had grown almost sixfold over the eighteenth century, but that steady economic growth had made the real burden on each individual only double over this period before the industrial revolution. Effective tax rates were higher in Britain than France the years before the French Revolution, twice in per capita income comparison, but they were mostly placed on international trade. In France, taxes were lower but the burden was mainly on landowners, individuals, and internal trade and thus created far more resentment.[37]", "Likin (taxation)\nThe likin or lijin was a form of internal tariff in the Chinese Empire and Republic, which was first introduced as a means of financing the largely locally recruited armies to suppress the Taiping Rebellion.\nThe lijin tax was first introduced in 1853 by censor Lei Yixian\nin the area around Yangzhou as a way of raising funds in the campaigns against local rebels. As the central government was short of revenue, the imperial court sanctioned the tax and it quickly became an important source of funds for the campaign against the Taiping and Nian rebellions.", "Danegeld\nThe first danegeld ever raised was collected in Frisia in 810. In that year a Danish fleet of some two hundred vessels landed in Frisia, harassing first all the coastal islands and then the mainland before defeating the Frisians in three battles. The victorious Danes then demanded a large tribute from the conquered. Soon after, a report was sent to Charlemagne, then at Aachen contemplating a campaign against the Danish king, Godfred, stating that the Frisians had already collected through taxation and paid a sum of one hundred pounds of silver. These events are recorded in the \"Annales regni Francorum\" and the \"Vita Karoli Magni\", both works of Charlemagne's court historian, Einhard, and in the separate \"Reichsannalen\" called the \"Annales Mettenses\" and the \"Annales Maximiniani\", as well as the work of the so-called \"Poeta Saxo\". The total sum paid out is unknown, but it was without doubt raised through taxes, as Einhard in his \"Vita\" explicitly says: \"And the victorious Danes imposed a tribute on the vanquished, by means of taxes one hundred pounds of silver from the Frisians is already released\" (\"Danosque victores tributum victis inposuisse, et vectigalis nomine centum libras argenti a Frisionibus iam esse solutas\").", "Financial transaction tax\nThe year 1694 saw an early implementation of a financial transaction tax in the form of a stamp duty at the London Stock Exchange. The tax was payable by the buyer of shares for the official stamp on the legal document needed to formalize the purchase. , it is the oldest tax still in existence in Great Britain.", "Fiscalization\nFiscalization which together with VAT was introduced in order to fight against the grey economy. The first country which introduced fiscal law in regards to the use of specific fiscal devices was Italy, and second one was Greece. Italy introduced this fiscal law in 1983. Introducing fiscal law—particularly about cash registers—came from the need to avoid retailer's frauds. According to fiscal law, an appropriate fiscal receipt has to be printed and given to the customer.", "No taxation without representation\nThe firm belief that a government should not tax a populace unless that populace is somehow represented in the government developed in the English Civil War following the refusal of parliamentarian John Hampden to pay ship money tax. \"No taxation without representation,\" in the context of British American Colonial taxation, appeared for the first time in the February 1768 \"London Magazine\" headline, on page 89, in the printing of Lord Camden's \"Speech on the Declaratory Bill of the Sovereignty of Great Britain over the Colonies.\"", "Tax protester history in the United States\nIn 1975, the term \"tax protester\" began to appear in reported court decisions. The first two reported federal cases may have been \"Gilbert v. Miriami\" and \"United States v. Scott\", coincidentally decided only two days apart. In \"Gilbert v. Miriami\", the taxpayer (Walter Gilbert) sued the District Director of Internal Revenue (Charles Miriami) asking for injunctive and declaratory relief from enforcement of the internal revenue laws, including a request for a judgment that the statute prohibiting most suits to restrain the assessment or collection of Federal taxes was unconstitutional. The court rejected the taxpayer's claims.", "Window tax\nThe tax was introduced in England and Wales in 1696 under King William III and was designed to impose tax relative to the prosperity of the taxpayer, but without the controversy that then surrounded the idea of income tax.", "List of towns and cities in England by historical population\nIn 1377 the first true poll tax was levied in which everyone over the age of 14 who was not exempt was required to pay a groat to the Crown. The records taken listed the name and location of everyone who paid the tax and so give an excellent measure of the population at the time, although assumptions need to be made about the proportion of the population who were under 14, generally taken to be around a third.", "Somerset House\nFrom the beginning of the new Somerset House there was a fiscal presence in the shape of the Stamp Office and the Tax Office, the former occupying the eastern part of the South Wing from 1789 and the latter occupying part of the East Wing. The Stamp Office had the task of applying an impressed duty stamp to various specific items to show that the required duty had been paid. For example, up until 1855 (when the relevant duty was abolished) every newspaper produced in the country had to be brought to Somerset House to be stamped. The Tax Office administered and collected various taxes, including income tax (first levied in 1799). Introduced as a means of raising revenue in wartime, it was collected during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars; though repealed in 1816, it was reintroduced in peacetime (in 1842) and has been collected ever since.", "Keidelheim\nSometime between 1330 and 1335, Keidelheim (then \"Kudelnheim\") was first mentioned in a document in the taxation register kept by the Count of Sponheim. The register listed a whole series of taxes and other comital levies, among which were the soul tax, the head tax and tithes.", "Taxation in medieval England\nThe first unequivocal mention of taxation in Anglo-Saxon England comes from the Law of Æthelberht, the law code of King Æthelberht of Kent, which specifies that fines from judicial cases were to be paid to the king. No other forms of taxes are mentioned in Æthelberht's law code, but other forms of taxation are implied by the grant of an exemption from taxation given by another king, Wihtred of Kent, to a church. Other mentions of taxes are contained in the law code of King Ine of Wessex. Although other early Anglo-Saxon kings are not mentioned as collecting taxes, the medieval writer Bede does mention that land in Anglesey and the Isle of Man were divided up in hides, defined in Ine's law as a unit of land that could be used for collecting food and other goods from the king's subjects. A document from the 7th or 8th century, the Tribal Hidage, shows that much of the Anglo-Saxon lands had been divided into hides by that time. Charters from the time of King Offa of Mercia show that tolls were collected on trade, and it was during Offa's reign that coinage in silver pennies was first introduced into Anglo-Saxon England. Coinage became a royal right, and was probably introduced to make payment of taxes easier.", "Hearth\nIn the Byzantine Empire a tax on hearths known as \"kapnikon\" was first explicitly mentioned for the reign of Nikephorus I (802–811) although its context implies that it was already then old and established and perhaps it should be taken back to the 7th century AD. Kapnikon was a tax raised on households without exceptions for the poor.", "Vicesima hereditatium\nNo inheritance tax was recorded for the Roman Republic, despite abundant evidence for testamentary law. The \"vicesima hereditatium\" (\"twentieth of inheritance\") was levied by Rome's first emperor, Augustus, in the last decade of his reign. The 5% tax applied only to inheritances received through a will, and close relatives were exempt from paying it, including the deceased's grandparents, parents, children, grandchildren, and siblings. The question of whether a spouse was exempt was complicated—from the late Republic on, husbands and wives kept their own property scrupulously separate, since a Roman woman remained part of her birth family and not under the legal control of her husband. Roman social values on marital devotion probably exempted a spouse. Estates below a certain value were also exempt from the tax, according to one source, but other evidence indicates that this was only the case in the early years of Trajan's reign.", "Wallpaper tax\nThe wallpaper tax was a property tax introduced in Great Britain in 1712, during the reign of Queen Anne. Patterned, printed, or painted wallpaper was initially taxed at 1d per square yard, rising to 1s (equivalent to £ as of ), by 1809. The tax was bypassed by purchasing untaxed plain paper and having it hand stenciled. The tax was abolished in 1836.", "Income tax\nOne of the first recorded taxes on income was the Saladin tithe introduced by Henry II in 1188 to raise money for the Third Crusade. The tithe demanded that each layperson in England and Wales be taxed one tenth of their personal income and moveable property.", "Income tax\nFor most of the history of civilization, these preconditions did not exist, and taxes were based on other factors. Taxes on wealth, social position, and ownership of the means of production (typically land and slaves) were all common. Practices such as tithing, or an offering of first fruits, existed from ancient times, and can be regarded as a precursor of the income tax, but they lacked precision and certainly were not based on a concept of net increase.", "Tariff in United States history\nResponding to an urgent need for revenue and a trade imbalance with England that was fast destroying the infant American industries and draining the nation of its currency, the First United States Congress passed, and President George Washington signed, the Hamilton Tariff of 1789, which authorized the collection of duties on imported goods. Customs duties as set by tariff rates up to 1860 were usually about 80–95% of all federal revenue. Having just fought a war over taxation (among other things) the U.S. Congress wanted a reliable source of income that was relatively unobtrusive and easy to collect. It also sought to protect the infant industries that had developed during the war but which were now threatened by cheaper imports, especially from England. Tariffs and excise taxes were authorized by the United States Constitution and recommended by the first United States Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton in 1789 to tax foreign imports and set up low excise taxes on whiskey and a few other products to provide the Federal Government with enough money to pay its operating expenses and to redeem at full value U.S. Federal debts and the debts the states had accumulated during the Revolutionary War. The Congress set low excise taxes on only a few goods, such as, whiskey, rum, tobacco, snuff and refined sugar. The tax on whiskey was highly controversial and set of massive protests by Western Farmers in the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794, which was suppressed by General Washington at the head of an army. The whiskey excise tax collected so little and was so despised it was abolished by President Thomas Jefferson in 1802.", "List of historical acts of tax resistance\nIn Qingpu, China, numerous uprisings and organized tax resistance took place around 1853, some led by Zhou Lichun. Zhou had been a precinct land tax collector, but rebelled when the local magistrate began trying to extort taxes that were unjustified by law. He organized landowners in twenty precincts to boycott taxes, and successfully resisted government reprisals. In other actions that year, thousands of Nanjui County taxpayers attacked government offices and made attempts on the life of the magistrate, three granary clerks were boiled alive by enraged taxpayers, and Huating County residents burned the boats of mercenaries who were helping a magistrate collect taxes.", "OneTax\nThe OneTax and plans like it were first created in the 1990s by policy wonks outside the Beltway, seeking to put forward a tax simplification plan that wasn't regressive. At the time, the major tax reform proposals were the FairTax and flat tax, both of which are regressive with regards to income. The first recorded mention of this reform by a political candidate for national office was at a \"Town Hall\" campaign event held in Smithfield, Rhode Island in 2002. In 2011, the Republican Presidential Primary race brought tax reform proposals to the fore. In addition, discussion of the plan as a way to eliminate the income tax for \"the 99%\" was a topic of the Occupy Movement.", "State income tax\nDuring the American Civil War and Reconstruction Era, when both the United States of America (1861-1871) and the Confederate States of America (1863-1865) instituted income taxes, so did several states.As with the national taxes, these were made in various ways to produce substantial revenue, for the first time in the history of American income taxation. On the other hand, as soon as the war ended, a wave of abolitions began: Missouri in 1865, Georgia in 1866, South Carolina in 1868, Pennsylvania and Texas in 1871, and Kentucky in 1872.", "Builder's Old Measurement\nKing Edward I levied the first tax on the hire of ships in England in 1303 based on tons burthen. Later, King Edward III levied a tax of 3 shillings on each \"tun\" of imported wine, equal to £ today (using the last year of Edward III's reign, 1377, as the base year). At that time a \"tun\" was a wine container of 252 gallons weighing about , a weight known today as a long ton or imperial ton. In order to estimate the capacity of a ship in terms of 'tun' for tax purposes, an early formula used in England was:", "Tax resistance in the United States\nIn 1967, President Lyndon Johnson proposed an income tax surtax explicitly to pay for war expenses. This was the first tax in the modern United States that was explicitly a \"war tax\" and helped to boost the prominence of war tax resistance as a protest tactic.", "Accounting\nThe history of accounting is thousands of years old and can be traced to ancient civilizations. The early development of accounting dates back to ancient Mesopotamia, and is closely related to developments in writing, counting and money; there is also evidence of early forms of bookkeeping in ancient Iran, and early auditing systems by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. By the time of Emperor Augustus, the Roman government had access to detailed financial information.", "Inheritance tax\nNo inheritance tax was recorded for the Roman Republic, despite abundant evidence for testamentary law. The \"vicesima hereditatium\" (\"twentieth of inheritance\") was levied by Rome's first emperor, Augustus, in the last decade of his reign. The 5% tax applied only to inheritances received through a will, and close relatives were exempt from paying it, including the deceased's grandparents, parents, children, grandchildren, and siblings. The question of whether a spouse was exempt was complicated—from the late Republic on, husbands and wives kept their own property scrupulously separate, since a Roman woman remained part of her birth family and not under the legal control of her husband. Roman social values on marital devotion probably exempted a spouse. Estates below a certain value were also exempt from the tax, according to one source, but other evidence indicates that this was only the case in the early years of Trajan's reign.", "Tax\nA poll tax, also called a per capita tax, or capitation tax, is a tax that levies a set amount per individual. It is an example of the concept of fixed tax. One of the earliest taxes mentioned in the Bible of a half-shekel per annum from each adult Jew (Ex. 30:11–16) was a form of poll tax. Poll taxes are administratively cheap because they are easy to compute and collect and difficult to cheat. Economists have considered poll taxes economically efficient because people are presumed to be in fixed supply and poll taxes therefore do not lead to economic distortions. However, poll taxes are very unpopular because poorer people pay a higher proportion of their income than richer people.[5] In addition, the supply of people is in fact not fixed over time: on average, couples will choose to have fewer children if a poll tax is imposed.[19] The introduction of a poll tax in medieval England was the primary cause of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt. Scotland was the first to be used to test the new poll tax in 1989 with England and Wales in 1990. The change from a progressive local taxation based on property values to a single-rate form of taxation regardless of ability to pay (the Community Charge, but more popularly referred to as the Poll Tax), led to widespread refusal to pay and to incidents of civil unrest, known colloquially as the 'Poll Tax Riots'.", "Farm (revenue leasing)\nTax farming was an important step in the history of economic development by providing a method for collecting taxes across a large area without the need for a tax-collecting bureaucracy, or during periods when such a bureaucracy is unworkable or impossible to maintain. Systems of tax farming similar to the Roman model were used in Ptolemaic Egypt, various medieval Western European countries, the Ottoman and Mughal empires, and in Qing Dynasty China. As states become stronger, buoyed up by revenues brought in by tax farming, the practice was discontinued in favour of centralized tax collection systems. In part this was because tax farming systems tended to rely on wealthy individuals outside the state machinery, gangs, and secret societies.", "History of Islamic economics\nAmong the earliest Muslim economic thinkers was Abu Yusuf (731-798), a student of the founder of the Hanafi Sunni School of Islamic thought, Abu Hanifah. Abu Yusuf was chief jurist for Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, for whom he wrote the \"Book of Taxation\" (\"Kitab al-Kharaj\"). This book outlined Abu Yusuf's ideas on taxation, public finance, and agricultural production. He discussed proportional tax on produce instead of fixed taxes on property as being superior as an incentive to bring more land into cultivation. He also advocated forgiving tax policies which favor the producer and a centralized tax administration to reduce corruption. Abu Yusuf favored the use of tax revenues for socioeconomic infrastructure, and included discussion of various types of taxes, including sales tax, death taxes, and import tariffs.", "Sales taxes in the United States\nThe use of sales taxes by U.S. states dates back at least to the Pennsylvania mercantile license tax that was initially introduced in 1821, though this and other early taxes were not broad-based. Buehler attributes development of modern state sales taxes to the depression era. He credits Kentucky with the first tax levied exclusively on retailers. The initial tax, passed in 1930, was progressive, but was replaced in 1934 with a 3 percent flat rate tax and then was eliminated in 1936. The current Kentucky sales tax was adopted in 1960. Commerce ClearingHouse credits Mississippi with the first sales tax, in 1930. Forty-five states and the District of Columbia currently impose sales taxes (see Table 1). Twenty-four of the states first levied the tax during the 1930s, six in the 1940s, five in the 1950s, and eleven in the 1960s. Vermont was the most recent state to impose a sales tax, in 1969. Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon do not levy general sales taxes.State taxation:", "War tax stamp\nThe first war tax stamps were produced in 1874 in Spain, during the Third Carlist War. A decree of October 2, 1873 imposed a war tax on letters and stamped documents. The stamps were issued on January 1, 1874 in two denominations, 5 centimos and 10 centimos, and depicted the Spanish coat of arms along with the inscription \"Impuesto de Guerra\" or \"Impto de Guerra\". The 5 centimo value was intended for use on letters, and the 10 centimo for use on stamped documents. A similar set, using different colors, was issued on January 1, 1875. On June 1, 1876, after the Third Carlist War had ended, a further set of five depicting King Alfonso XII was issued. Intended to help pay off war debts, this set bore denominations of 5, 10 and 25 centimos, 1 peseta and 5 pesetas. On September 1, 1877, additional denominations of 15 and 50 centimos were added to this set. A new issue, also bearing King Alfonso's likeness, was prepared and printed for use in 1879. This issue, a set of seven with denominations of 5, 10, 15, 25 and 50 centimos and 1 and 5 pesetas, was never placed in use as a decree of February 4, 1879 lifted the war tax.", "History of the English fiscal system\nOther modes of direct taxation were used without parliamentary sanction. The collection of antiquated feudal dues was enforced through the special courts (particularly the Star Chamber) with a rigour long unknown. James had tried the French device of a tariff of honours and he and his son both employed the benevolence until the Petition of Right made such a levy illegal. But by far the most serious innovation was the collection of Ship Money, a course forced on Charles by his determination to rule without Parliament. These writs embodied the ultimate expression of the ingenuity of the King's advisers in the invention of means to enable him to do so. The first writs secured over £100,000, and were followed by five further issues (1634–1639) bringing in an average return of £200,000 or about three lay subsidies. Like the benevolence, Ship Money was declared to be illegal (1641).", "Taxation in medieval England\nTaxation in medieval England was the system of raising money for royal and governmental expenses. During the Anglo-Saxon period, the main forms of taxation were land taxes, although custom duties and fees to mint coins were also imposed. The most important tax of the late Anglo-Saxon period was the geld, a land tax first regularly collected in 1012 to pay for mercenaries. After the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, the geld continued to be collected until 1162, but it was eventually replaced with taxes on personal property and income.", "Consumption tax\nConsumption taxes, specifically excise taxes, have featured in several notable historic events. In the United States, the stamp tax, the tax on tea, and whiskey taxes produced revolts, the first two against the British government and the latter against the new federal government. In India, an excise tax on salt led to Mohandas Gandhi's famous Salt March, a major event in the Indian Independence Movement.", "Taxation of the Jews in Europe\nThe Fiscus Judaicus (Latin: \"Jewish tax\") or \"Temple Tax\" was a tax collecting agency instituted to collect the tax imposed on Jews in the Roman Empire after the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 CE in favor of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in Rome.", "Brancacci Chapel\nThe most famous painting in the chapel is \"Tribute Money\", on the upper right wall, with figures of Jesus and Peter shown in a three part narrative. The painting, largely attributed to Masaccio, represents the story of Peter and the tax collector from . The left side shows Peter getting a coin from the mouth of a fish and the right side shows Peter paying his taxes. The whole appears to be related to the establishment of the Catasto, the first income tax in Florence, in the time the painting was being executed.", "Millones\nThe Millones were an indirect tax on food in Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries. They were first imposed by Philip II and were approved by the Cortes de Castilla 4 April 1590. The tax was initially intended in 1590 as a temporary measure to replace the Spanish Armada lost in attacking England. The \"millones\" was voted by the Cortes of Castille in 1590 as a 6-year grant for 8 million ducats. It was originally levied on the \"cuatro especies\" of wine, meat, olive oil, and vinegar. The tax was renewed by the Cortes in 1596, and used as well by Philip's successors Philip III, Philip IV and Charles II. Under Philip III the tax brought in 3 million ducats a year, although that fell back to 2 million ducats a year due to population loss and recession at the end of his reign. In 1626, Philip IV and his Cortes doubled the tax to the level of 4 million ducats by also levying it on salt, paper and ship anchorage in lieu of proposed taxes on offices, grants and property; in the Cortes of 1632, the tax raised an additional 2.5 million ducats a year because it was levied on chocolate, sugar, fish, tobacco and other commodities. From 1655, renewal of the tax was practically automatic, and from 1668 it was renewed by the \"Junta de asistentes\" that the king called together in lieu of bringing together the full Cortes.", "Direct tax\nThe distinction between direct and indirect taxation was first extensively discussed by Adam Smith in his \"Wealth of Nations\", as in the following passage:", "Taxation of the Jews in Europe\nThe Opferfennig (originally Guldenpfennig) tax was introduced in 1342 by Emperor Louis IV the Bavarian, who ordered all Jews above the age of 12 and possessing 20 gulden to pay one gulden annually for protection. This taxation was 1 florin for every Jew and included assets worth more than 20 florins. Widows were not exempted. King Wenceslas removed the taxable minimum but an exemption for Jews dependent on alms was made later by Sigsmund, who himself levied heavy taxation. Sigsmund taxed a third of the value of Jewish properties. It was represented as a coronation tax as part of Sigsmund's attempts to ascend the throne. Isenmann disagrees and believes it was an innovation sprouted by Archchamberlain Konrad von Weinsberg. By 1433-4 the tax collectors were collecting tax worth a half of Jewish properties. ", "Lex Hieronica\nThere are several sources which suggest that the Romans taxed their Sicilian subjects prior to 210 BCE. Polybius suggests that in 251 BC the Romans were cooperating with their Sicilian allies in the extraction of an agricultural tithe in Panormos. This was not a regular tithe implemented across the whole of Sicily per the \"Lex Hieronica\". However, this shows that the Romans were at least familiar with local practices of taxation prior as early as 251 BCE. Furthermore, Rome conquered Panormos in 254 BCE. Hence, it is possible that Rome was at least familiar with local practises as early as 254 BCE. Appian claims that after the first Punic war, the Sicilians under Roman rule were subjected to an agricultural tithe. In the same passage, Appian states that Rome also sent a praetor to Sicily in 241 BCE. However, other sources contradict this claiming that the first Sicilian praetor arrived in 227 BCE. This does not necessarily invalidate Appian's claims about the implementation of the tithe. Further evidence for 241 BCE from Cicero. Cicero reports that the Sicilian city Segesta was declared to be free from tax because of their claimed kinship to Aeneas. In 241 BCE the Segetians began minting coins depicting Aeneas. If these two events coincide, then, there must have been a tax to be exempted from in 241 BCE. Similarly, in 213 BCE, the Sicilian city Tauromenium was made a \"civitas foederata\". Hence, it was declared to be free from paying an agricultural tithe. Therefore, there must have been an agricultural tax to be exempted from in Sicily prior to 213 BCE. Finally, Livy claims that all the Sicilians had paid tax to Rome in kind prior to 218 BC, the outbreak of the second Punic war. These sources suggest that Rome imposed an agricultural tithe on some of its Sicilian subjects prior to the second Punic war. However, it remains impossible to determine when the Romans appropriated Hiero's taxation system or when it was applied to all of Sicily.", "Tithe\nWe cannot precisely ascertain the time when tithes were first introduced into this country. Possibly they were contemporary with the planting of Christianity among the Saxons, by Augustin the monk, about the end of the fifth century. But the first mention of them, which I have met with in any written English law, is in a constitutional decree, made in a synod held A.D. 786, wherein the payment of tithes in general is strongly enjoined. This canon, or decree, which at first bound not the laity, was effectually confirmed by two kingdoms of the heptarchy, in their parliamentary conventions of estates, respectively consisting of the kings of Mercia and Northumberland, the bishops, dukes, senators, and people. Which was a few years later than the time that Charlemagne established the payment of them in France, and made that famous division of them into four parts ; one to maintain the edifice of the church, the second to support the poor, the third the bishop, and the fourth the parochial clergy.", "Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988\nThe Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988, also known as ICTA, was the foremost United Kingdom Act of Parliament concerned with taxation until the Income Tax Act 2007 and the Corporation Tax Act 2010. ICTA was enacted in order to consolidate a number of earlier legislative provisions covering taxation. Originally, ICTA primarily covered income tax (paid principally by individuals) and corporation tax (paid principally by companies).", "Teloneum\nThe term \"teloneum\" first appeared in the fifth century. It came to cover numerous more specific tolls, such as the \"portaticum\", \"rotaticum\" and \"pulveraticum\". In the Merovingian period, the \"teloneum\" was a major source of royal revenues. The kings did sometimes give exemptions to abbeys, but rarely to anybody else. The \"teleonarii\" frequently farmed the taxes, often to Jews. A document issued by King Philip I of France around 1090 defined a teloneum as a tax on the \"transitum a vendentibus vel ementibus vel transeuntibus\" (transfer between seller and buyer).", "Income tax\nThe inception date of the modern income tax is typically accepted as 1799, at the suggestion of Henry Beeke, the future Dean of Bristol.\nThis income tax was introduced into Great Britain by Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger in his budget of December 1798, to pay for weapons and equipment for the French Revolutionary War. Pitt's new graduated (progressive) income tax began at a levy of 2 old pence in the pound (1/120) on incomes over £60 (equivalent to £ in ), and increased up to a maximum of 2 shillings in the pound (10%) on incomes of over £200. Pitt hoped that the new income tax would raise £10 million a year, but actual receipts for 1799 totalled only a little over £6 million.", "United States one-dollar bill\n1862: The first one-dollar bill was issued as a Legal Tender Note (United States Note) with a portrait of Salmon P. Chase, the Secretary of the Treasury under President Abraham Lincoln.[7][8] 1869: The $1 United States Note was redesigned with a portrait of George Washington in the center and a vignette of Christopher Columbus sighting land to the left. The obverse of the note also featured green and blue tinting. Although this note is technically a United States Note, TREASURY NOTE appeared on it instead of UNITED STATES NOTE.[9] 1874: The Series of 1869 United States Note was revised. Changes on the obverse included removing the green and blue tinting, adding a red floral design around the word WASHINGTON D.C., and changing the term TREASURY NOTE to UNITED STATES NOTE. The reverse was completely redesigned. This note was also issued as Series of 1875 and 1878.[10] 1880: The red floral design around the words ONE DOLLAR and WASHINGTON D.C. on the United States Note was removed and replaced with a large red seal. Later versions also had blue serial numbers and a small seal moved to the left side of the note.[10] 1886: The first woman to appear on U.S. currency, Martha Washington, was featured on the $1 silver certificate. The reverse of the note featured an ornate design that occupied the entire note, excluding the borders.[11] 1890: One-dollar Treasury or \"Coin Notes\" were issued for government purchases of silver bullion from the silver mining industry. The reverse featured the large word ONE in the center surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note.[12] 1891: The reverse of the Series of 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too \"busy,\" which would make it too easy to counterfeit. More open space was incorporated into the new design. The obverse was largely unchanged.[13] 1896: The famous \"Educational Series\" Silver Certificate was issued. The entire obverse was covered with artwork of allegorical figures representing \"history instructing youth\" in front of Washington D.C. The reverse featured portraits of George and Martha Washington surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note.[14] 1899: The $1 Silver Certificate was again redesigned. The obverse featured a vignette of the United States Capitol behind a bald eagle perched on an American flag. Below that were small portraits of Abraham Lincoln to the left and Ulysses S. Grant to the right.[15] 1917: The obverse of the $1 United States Note was changed slightly with the removal of ornamental frames that surrounded the serial numbers.[16] 1918: The only large-sized, Federal Reserve Note-like $1 bill was issued as a Federal Reserve Bank Note (not to be confused with Federal Reserve Notes). Each note was an obligation of the issuing Federal Reserve Bank and could only be redeemed at that corresponding bank. The obverse of the note featured a borderless portrait of George Washington to the left and wording in the entire center. The reverse featured a bald eagle in flight clutching an American flag.[17] 1923: Both the one-dollar United States Note and Silver Certificate were redesigned. Both notes featured the same reverse and an almost identical obverse with the same border design and portrait of George Washington. The only difference between the two notes was the color of ink used for the numeral 1 crossed by the word DOLLAR, Treasury seal, and serial numbers along with the wording of the obligations. These dollar bills were the first and only large-size notes with a standardized design for different types of notes of the same denomination; this same concept would later be used on small-size notes.[18]", "Taxation in the United States\nBefore 1776, the American Colonies were subject to taxation by the United Kingdom, and also imposed local taxes. Property taxes were imposed in the Colonies as early as 1634. In 1673, the English Parliament imposed a tax on exports from the American Colonies, and with it created the first tax administration in what would become the United States. Other tariffs and taxes were imposed by Parliament. Most of the colonies and many localities adopted property taxes.", "Tax haven\nThe use of differing tax laws between two or more countries to try to mitigate tax liability is probably as old as taxation itself. In Ancient Greece, some of the Greek Islands were used as depositories by the sea traders of the era to place their foreign goods to thus avoid the two-percent tax imposed by the city-state of Athens on imported goods. The practice may have first reached prominence through the avoidance of the Cinque Ports and later the staple ports in the twelfth and fourteenth centuries respectively. In 1721, American colonies traded from Latin America to avoid British taxes.", "History of taxation in the United States\nThe Townshend Revenue Act were two tax laws passed by Parliament in 1767; they were proposed by Charles Townshend, Chancellor of the Exchequer. They placed a tax on common products imported into the American Colonies, such as lead, paper, paint, glass, and tea. In contrast to the Stamp Act of 1765, the laws were not a direct tax that people paid daily, but a tax on imports that was collected from the ship's captain when he unloaded the cargo. The Townshend Acts also created three new admiralty courts to try Americans who ignored the laws.", "History of money\nRegarding \"money of account\", the tally stick can reasonably be described as a very primitive ledger – the oldest of which dates to the Aurignacian, about 30,000 years ago. While it may not be reasonable to conclude the most ancient tally sticks were used to keep \"accounting records\" in the \"monetary system\" sense of the term, their existence does show that \"accounting\" – keeping a written record of things counted – is far more ancient than many people assume. David Graeber proposes that money as a unit of account was invented when the unquantifiable obligation \"I owe you one\" transformed into the quantifiable notion of \"I owe you one unit of something\". In this view, money emerged first as credit and only later took the form of a \"medium of exchange\".", "Yasak\nThe earliest mention of the tax is found in a letter sent by Ismail (a ruler of the Nogai Horde and ancestor of the Yusupov family) to Tsar Ivan IV in 1559, three years after Ivan's conquest of the Volga Delta and Astrakhan. The border between the two polities was not yet established, and Ismail complained that Ivan's governor of Astrakhan demanded yasak from those inhabitants of the delta that Ismail considered his subjects, \"in grain from those who farm and in fish from those who fish\".", "History of women in the United States\nTax-supported schooling for girls began as early as 1767 in New England. It was optional and some towns proved reluctant. Northampton, Massachusetts, for example, was a late adopter because it had many rich families who dominated the political and social structures and they did not want to pay taxes to aid poor families. Northampton assessed taxes on all households, rather than only on those with children, and used the funds to support a grammar school to prepare boys for college. Not until after 1800 did Northampton educate girls with public money. In contrast, the town of Sutton, Massachusetts, was diverse in terms of social leadership and religion at an early point in its history. Sutton paid for its schools by means of taxes on households with children only, thereby creating an active constituency in favor of universal education for both boys and girls.", "Church tax\nThe church tax is historically rooted in the pre-Christian Germanic custom where the chief of the tribe was directly responsible for the maintenance of priests and religious groups. During the Christianization of Western Europe, this custom was adopted by the Christian churches (Arian and Catholic) in the concept of \"Eigenkirchen\" (churches owned by the landlord) which stood in strong contrast to the central church organization of the Roman Catholic Church. Despite the resulting medieval conflict between emperor and pope, the concept of church maintenance by the ruler remained the accepted custom in most Western European countries. In Reformation times, the local princes in Germany became officially heads of the church in Protestant areas and were legally responsible for the maintenance of churches. Not until the 19th century, were the finances of churches and state regulated to a point where the churches became financially independent. At this point, the church tax was introduced to replace the state benefits the churches had obtained previously.", "Legal history of income tax in the United States\nTaxation of income in the United States has been practised since colonial times. Some southern states imposed their own taxes on income from property, both before and after Independence. The Constitution empowered the federal government to raise taxes at a uniform rate throughout the nation, and required that \"direct taxes\" be imposed only in proportion to the Census population of each state. Federal income tax was first introduced under the Revenue Act of 1861 to help pay for the Civil War. It was renewed in later years and reformed in 1894 in the form of the Wilson-Gorman tariff.", "Indian Revenue Service\nDirect tax in the form an income tax were introduced by the British in India in 1860 to overcome the difficulties created by the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The organisational history of the Income-tax Department, however, starts in the year 1922, when the \"Income-tax Act, 1922\" gave, for the first time, a specific nomenclature to various Income-tax authorities. In 1924, the Central Board of Revenue Act constituted a Central Board of Revenue - the statutory body with functional responsibilities for the administration of the Income-Tax Act. ", "Tax\nThe Rosetta Stone, a tax concession issued by Ptolemy V in 196 BC and written in three languages \"led to the most famous decipherment in history—the cracking of hieroglyphics\".[35]", "Sales tax\nSales tax amounts, measured in drachmas at a rate of one percent, were recorded in a separate column of a record prepared for the auction of 16 slaves in Piraeus, Greece in 415 BC. Nearby Athens collected duties on the import and export of commodities, recorded at a rate of two percent in 399 BC. At that period of time, Athens did not rely on government agencies to collect its taxes; the responsibility was delegated to the highest bidder, a practice known as tax farming.", "Legal history of income tax in the United States\nIn order to help pay for its war effort in the American Civil War, the United States government imposed its first personal income tax, on August 5, 1861, as part of the Revenue Act of 1861. Tax rates were 3% on income exceeding $600 and less than $10,000, and 5% on income exceeding $10,000. This tax was repealed and replaced by another income tax in the Revenue Act of 1862.", "Taxation in France\nSome notable indirect taxes under the Old Regime were the aides (indirect taxes collected by the state, applying to beverages), the banalités (tax imposed by the lords for the use of mills, ovens and wine presses), the casuel (collected by the Church at baptisms, marriages and funerals), the cens (tax collected by the lords, for the use of their land), the champart (collected by the lords, paid by an amount of the crops of grains), the dîme (collected by the church, applying to all the lands), the gabelle (collected by the king, for the consumption of salt), the minage (collected by the king or the lords, for the sales of grains at fairs and markets). There were three direct taxes, created between the 15th and the 18th centuries: the taille, the capitation and the dixième. The taille, created in the 15th century and used for more than three centuries, applied to incomes from non-privileged people from ownership, housing, farm land and breeding. The capitation, created in 1695, was a tax on social status that taxed everyone, however, for those subject to the taille the capitation was an addition to the taille. The dixième, created in 1710, applied to all the income from any ownership (land, real estate, annuities), at a rate of 10% (\"dixieme\" meaning \"tenth\"). In 1749, it was replaced by the vingtième (\"twentieth\", i.e. a tax with a rate of 5%).", "History of taxation in the United States\nIn order to help pay for its war effort in the American Civil War, Congress imposed its first personal income tax in 1861. It was part of the Revenue Act of 1861 (3% of all incomes over US $800; rescinded in 1872). Congress also enacted the Revenue Act of 1862, which levied a 3% tax on incomes above $600, rising to 5% for incomes above $10,000. Rates were raised in 1864. This income tax was repealed in 1872.", "History of banking\nIn the 12th century, the need to transfer large sums of money to finance the Crusades stimulated the re-emergence of banking in western Europe. In 1162, Henry II of England levied a tax to support the crusades—the first of a series of taxes levied by Henry over the years with the same objective. The Templars and Hospitallers acted as Henry's bankers in the Holy Land. The Templars' wide flung, large land holdings across Europe also emerged in the 1100–1300 time frame as the beginning of Europe-wide banking, as their practice was to take in local currency, for which a demand note would be given that would be good at any of their castles across Europe, allowing movement of money without the usual risk of robbery while traveling.", "Economy of England in the Middle Ages\nRoyal revenue streams still proved insufficient and from the middle of the 13th century there was a shift away from the earlier land-based tax system towards one based on a mixture of indirect and direct taxation. At the same time, Henry III had introduced the practice of consulting with leading nobles on tax issues, leading to the system whereby the Parliament of England agreed on new taxes when required. In 1275, the \"Great and Ancient Custom\" began to tax woollen products and hides, with the Great Charter of 1303 imposing additional levies on foreign merchants in England, with the poundage tax introduced in 1347. In 1340, the discredited tallage tax system was finally abolished by Edward III. Assessing the total impact of changes to royal revenues between 1086 and 1290 is difficult. At best, Edward I was struggling in 1300 to match in real terms the revenues that Henry II had enjoyed in 1100, and considering the growth in the size of the English economy, the king's share of the national income had dropped considerably.", "Revenue Act of 1862\nCongress passed the Revenue Act of 1861 as an initial attempt to raise much-needed funds for the war. This act levied the first ever income tax on American citizens. The income tax placed a 3% tax on all individuals whose annual incomes were above $800 per year. This would have resulted in the exemption of many citizens due to lower average income. However, by 1862, the United States government realized that the war would not end quickly, and that revenue gained by this income tax would not be sufficient. As a result, the Revenue Act of 1862 was passed in July 1862, before any income tax was collected under the first system.", "Carucage\nThe last carucage was imposed in 1224, after which most of the medieval government's revenue was raised by levying taxes on moveable or personal property, instead of on land; taxes on moveable property were first assessed in 1207. A probable reason for the abandonment of land taxes was the greater revenues raised by taxes on property and income.", "Thirtieth (tax)\nA charter that Andrew II of Hungary issued for the Benedictine Lébény Abbey in 1208 preserved the earliest reference to the thirtieth. According to the charter, wine and foodstuffs delivered for the monks and their guests were exempt from all tolls and the thirtieth at Győr and on the bridges of the rivers Rába and Rábca. Royal revenue from the thirtieth amounted at 1,500 marks when Andrew II granted it to his daughter, Yolanda in 1235.", "History of taxation in the United Kingdom\nWhen the United Kingdom of Great Britain came into being on May 1, 1707, the window tax, which had been introduced across England and Wales under the Act of Making Good the Deficiency of the Clipped Money in 1696, continued. It had been designed to impose tax relative to the prosperity of the taxpayer, but without the controversy that then surrounded the idea of income tax. At that time, many people opposed income tax on principle because they believed that the disclosure of personal income represented an unacceptable governmental intrusion into private matters, and a potential threat to personal liberty. In fact the first permanent British income tax was not introduced until 1842, and the issue remained intensely controversial well into the 20th century.", "Aljama\nIn 1219 and 1284 in Toledo, in 1273 in Barcelona, in 1290 at Huete, and on more than one occasion during those years in Portugal, councils were held of Spanish officials and Jewish representatives for the purpose of establishing a just rate of taxation for Jewish communities, and of devising adequate means for tax-collection. This first official recognition by the government of the Jewish communities as separate bodies led to a still further change in the treatment of the Jewish congregations and in the legislation, both local and national, regarding them. ", "Poll tax\nThe poll tax was essentially a lay subsidy (a tax on the movable property of most of the population) to help fund war. It had first been levied in 1275 and continued, under different names, until the 17th century. People were taxed a percentage of the assessed value of their movable goods. That percentage varied from year to year and place to place, and which goods could be taxed differed between urban and rural locations. Churchmen were exempt, as were the poor, workers in the Royal Mint, inhabitants of the Cinque Ports, tin workers in Cornwall and Devon, and those who lived in the Palatinate counties of Cheshire and Durham.", "Inland Revenue\nTaxes administered by the Board of Taxes included the Land Tax, first levied in 1692, along with the Window Tax and House Tax, both of which dated from 1696. In 1785 a number of other miscellaneous taxes, administered by the Stamp Office and the Excise Office, were transferred to the Tax Office; these included taxes on carriages (dating from 1747), on waggons and carts, on male servants (1777) and on horses (1784). Together with the House Tax and the Window Tax, they came to be known as the 'assessed taxes' and were intended as a progressive form of taxation on the wealthy. ", "Exchequer\nThe earliest surviving record of the Exchequer is from 1130, in the reign of King Henry I, in the first surviving Pipe Roll for that year, which also shows continuity from previous years. Pipe Rolls form a mostly continuous record of royal revenues and taxation; however, not all revenue went into the Exchequer, and some taxes and levies were never recorded in the Pipe Rolls.", "Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\nUntil 1913, customs duties (tariffs) and excise taxes were the primary sources of federal revenue.[3] During the War of 1812, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander J. Dallas made the first public proposal for an income tax, but it was never implemented.[4] The Congress did introduce an income tax to fund the Civil War through the Revenue Act of 1861.[5] It levied a flat tax of three percent on annual income above $800. This act was replaced the following year with the Revenue Act of 1862, which levied a graduated tax of three to five percent on income above $600 and specified a termination of income taxation in 1866. The Civil War income taxes, which expired in 1872, proved to be both highly lucrative and drawing mostly from the more industrialized states, with New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts generating about 60 percent of the total revenue that was collected.[6] During the two decades following the expiration of the Civil War income tax, the Greenback movement, the Labor Reform Party, the Populist Party, the Democratic Party and many others called for a graduated income tax.[6]", "Taxation in South Africa\nDuring 1914, General Jan Smuts, in his capacity as Minister of Finance, tabled legislation in the Parliament of the Union of South Africa, introducing income tax in the country, with the Income Tax Act of 1914. Taxpayers in the Union of South Africa became liable to pay income tax, with effect from 20 July 1914. In 2014, 20 years since South Africa became a full democracy, the University of Cape Town marked that milestone, of the introduction of income tax in South Africa, with the \"INCOME TAX IN SOUTH AFRICA: THE FIRST 100 YEARS 1914 – 2014\" conference and later, a publication of papers presented.", "History of the English fiscal system\nIt may fairly be said that one of the greatest struggles between the Stuart kings and Parliament centred round financial policy. It is beyond dispute that taxation was one sphere of conflict and, from the accession of James I (1603) to the start of the Civil War (1642), the legal basis of indirect taxation was tested for port duties in the Case of Impositions (the John Bates case), whilst that of direct taxation was considered in the even more famous Ship Money case, forever associated with John Hampden. Similarly, Parliament also debated impositions, monopolies, votes of subsidies and the proper application of funds therefrom as well as other related matters. Despite this, however, the overall system showed signs of expanding and adapting to the growing needs of the state.", "Income Tax Act 1842\nThe Income Tax Act 1842 (citation 5 & 6 Vict c. 35) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, passed under the government of Robert Peel, which re-introduced an income tax in Britain, at the rate of 7 pence (2.9%, there then being 240 pence in the pound) in the pound on all annual incomes greater than £150. It was the first imposition of income tax in Britain outside of wartime. Although promoted as a temporary measure, income tax has been levied continually in Britain ever since. In its detail, the Act of 1842 was substantially similar to the Income Tax Act 1803 introduced by Henry Addington during the Napoleonic Wars.", "List of historical acts of tax resistance\nPerhaps the most famous American example of a tax resister, Henry David Thoreau, was briefly jailed in 1846 for refusing to pay taxes in protest against the Fugitive Slave Act and the Mexican–American War. In his essay on civil disobedience, he wrote:", "Census in the United Kingdom\nTax assessments (known in the later Empire as the indiction) were made in Britain in Roman times, but detailed records have not survived. In the 7th century AD, Dál Riata (parts of what is now Scotland and Northern Ireland) conducted a census, called the \"Tradition of the Men of Alba\" (). England conducted its first formal census when the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086 under William the Conqueror for tax purposes." ]

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[ "A group of boys carry paddle ball racquets" ]

[ "A group of boys play paddle ball at the beach", "A man is performing martial arts.", "There is little doubt about the pro-choice media's unquestioning acceptance of the faulty pro-choice statistics.", "He is watching tv.", "Jon thought he knew the name of the town.", "The LSC Performance Criteria are obsolete and no longer observed.", "The outer grid has a horizontal resolution of less than 1 km." ]

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[ "Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect." ]

[ "However, the classification of madaris as \"universities\" is disputed on the question of understanding of each institution on its own terms. In madaris, the ijāzahs were only issued in one field, the Islamic religious law of sharīʻah, and in no other field of learning. Other academic subjects, including the natural sciences, philosophy and literary studies, were only treated \"ancillary\" to the study of the Sharia. For example, a natural science like astronomy was only studied (if at all) to supply religious needs, like the time for prayer. This is why Ptolemaic astronomy was considered adequate, and is still taught in some modern day madaris. The Islamic law undergraduate degree from al-Azhar, the most prestigious madrasa, was traditionally granted without final examinations, but on the basis of the students' attentive attendance to courses. In contrast to the medieval doctorate which was granted by the collective authority of the faculty, the Islamic degree was not granted by the teacher to the pupil based on any formal criteria, but remained a \"personal matter, the sole prerogative of the person bestowing it; no one could force him to give one\".", "Beer ranges from less than 3% alcohol by volume (abv) to around 14% abv, though this strength can be increased to around 20% by re-pitching with champagne yeast, and to 55% abv by the freeze-distilling process. The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice or beer style. The pale lagers that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4–6%, with a typical abv of 5%. The customary strength of British ales is quite low, with many session beers being around 4% abv. Some beers, such as table beer are of such low alcohol content (1%–4%) that they are served instead of soft drinks in some schools.", "In simple terms the structure of the Alps consists of layers of rock of European, African and oceanic (Tethyan) origin. The bottom nappe structure is of continental European origin, above which are stacked marine sediment nappes, topped off by nappes derived from the African plate. The Matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding. The tip of the mountain consists of gneisses from the African plate; the base of the peak, below the glaciated area, consists of European basement rock. The sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the African and European plates.", "The university is affiliated with the Congregation of Holy Cross (Latin: Congregatio a Sancta Cruce, abbreviated postnominals: \"CSC\"). While religious affiliation is not a criterion for admission, more than 93% of students identify as Christian, with over 80% of the total being Catholic. Collectively, Catholic Mass is celebrated over 100 times per week on campus, and a large campus ministry program provides for the faith needs of the community. There are multitudes of religious statues and artwork around campus, most prominent of which are the statue of Mary on the Main Building, the Notre Dame Grotto, and the Word of Life mural on Hesburgh Library depicting Christ as a teacher. Additionally, every classroom displays a crucifix. There are many religious clubs (catholic and non-Catholic) at the school, including Council #1477 of the Knights of Columbus (KOC), Baptist Collegiate Ministry (BCM), Jewish Club, Muslim Student Association, Orthodox Christian Fellowship, The Mormon Club, and many more. The Notre Dame KofC are known for being the first collegiate council of KofC, operating a charitable concession stand during every home football game and owning their own building on campus which can be used as a cigar lounge. Fifty-seven chapels are located throughout the campus.", "Later, during the Koine Greek period, the aspirated and voiceless stops /tʰ d/ of Attic Greek lenited to voiceless and voiced fricatives, yielding /θ ð/ in Medieval and Modern Greek.", "Prodigies were transgressions in the natural, predictable order of the cosmos – signs of divine anger that portended conflict and misfortune. The Senate decided whether a reported prodigy was false, or genuine and in the public interest, in which case it was referred to the public priests, augurs and haruspices for ritual expiation. In 207 BC, during one of the Punic Wars' worst crises, the Senate dealt with an unprecedented number of confirmed prodigies whose expiation would have involved \"at least twenty days\" of dedicated rites.", "Education in Eritrea is officially compulsory between seven and 13 years of age. However, the education infrastructure is inadequate to meet current needs. Statistics vary at the elementary level, suggesting that between 65 and 70% of school-aged children attend primary school; Approximately 61% attend secondary school. Student-teacher ratios are high: 45 to 1 at the elementary level and 54 to 1 at the secondary level. There are an average 63 students per classroom at the elementary level and 97 per classroom at the secondary level. Learning hours at school are often less than six hours per day. Skill shortages are present at all levels of the education system, and funding for and access to education vary significantly by gender and location. Illiteracy estimates for Eritrea range from around 40% to as high as 70%." ]

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[ "Around the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the Meiji era was marked by the reign of the Meiji Emperor. During this time, Japan started its modernization and rose to world power status. This era name means \"Enlightened Rule\". In Japan, the Meiji Restoration started in the 1860s, marking the rapid modernization by the Japanese themselves along European lines. Much research has focused on the issues of discontinuity versus continuity with the previous Tokugawa Period. In the 1960s younger Japanese scholars led by Irokawa Daikichi, reacted against the bureaucratic superstate, and began searching for the historic role of the common people . They avoided the elite, and focused not on political events but on social forces and attitudes. They rejected both Marxism and modernization theory as alien and confining. They stressed the importance of popular energies in the development of modern Japan. They enlarged history by using the methods of social history. It was not until the beginning of the Meiji Era that the Japanese government began taking modernization seriously. Japan expanded its military production base by opening arsenals in various locations. The hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years." ]

[ "One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is how information and mental experiences are coded and represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much knowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies of plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on simple learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in more complex examples of memory, particularly declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events (Byrne 2007). Convergence-divergence zones might be the neural networks where memories are stored and retrieved.", "New York City traces its roots to its 1624 founding as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664. New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the country's largest city since 1790. The Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a globally recognized symbol of the United States and its democracy.", " ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to connect users to their network. Available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable (CATV), wireless Ethernet (wi-fi), and fiber optics.", "Later, during the Koine Greek period, the aspirated and voiceless stops /tʰ d/ of Attic Greek lenited to voiceless and voiced fricatives, yielding /θ ð/ in Medieval and Modern Greek.", "The U.S. War Department created the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force in 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual separation 40 years later. In World War II, almost 68,000 U.S airmen died helping to win the war; only the infantry suffered more enlisted casualties. In practice, the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) was virtually independent of the Army during World War II, but officials wanted formal independence. The National Security Act of 1947 was signed on on 26 July 1947 by President Harry S Truman, which established the Department of the Air Force, but it was not not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force, W. Stuart Symington was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed.", "So that the maximum number of colors can be accurately reproduced on your computer screen, each color has been given a code number, or sRGB, which tells your computer the intensity of the red, green and blue components of that color. The intensity of each component is measured on a scale of zero to 255, which means the complete list includes 16,777,216 distinct colors and shades. The sRGB number of pure red, for example, is 255, 00, 00, which means the red component is at its maximum intensity, and there is no green or blue. The sRGB number for crimson is 220, 20, 60, which means that the red is slightly less intense and therefore darker, there is some green, which leans it toward orange; and there is a larger amount of blue,which makes it slightly blue-violet.", "The band, now revitalised by the response to Live Aid – a \"shot in the arm\" Roger Taylor called it, — and the ensuing increase in record sales, ended 1985 by releasing the single \"One Vision\", which was the third time after \"Stone Cold Crazy\" and \"Under Pressure (with David Bowie)\" that all four bandmembers received a writing credit for the one song. Also, a limited-edition boxed set containing all Queen albums to date was released under the title of The Complete Works. The package included previously unreleased material, most notably Queen's non-album single of Christmas 1984, titled \"Thank God It's Christmas\"." ]

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[ "Senior executives received appraisals for their strategies." ]

[ "No work has been accomplished by the management executives.", "A group of men are standing outdoors.", "The industry of dehydrated food is experiencing growth.", "Let's ignore it.", "All grantees and stakeholders were given equal treatment from the beginning.", "There is complacency.", "The gymnast is performing their routine." ]

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[ "The girl on skates is outside." ]

[ "The girl with the face paint is afraid to try to skate.", "The person is walking around at night.", "A man waits to get a tattoo completed.", "Diagnoses and prescriptions DO NOT appear in later inaugurals.", "Virginia is where I live.", "When an attorney withdraws the client may not find a new counsel.", "one dog runs" ]

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[ "He snapped, suppose you ask those high-binders of yours!" ]

[ "It's good that you listen to us instead of those high-binders of yours.", "Two young boys are asleep.", "girl getting out of coaster", "Viewers do not expect the film to end that way.", "Some postal service users subsidize other mail in cases.", "Are those words from you?", "The Gentings rise to 4,000m high." ]

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[ "The ruins of a Roman style synagogue are located in Capernaum." ]

[ "The synagogue is in good condition.", "A black boy is giving another one a hair cut.", "The program does not do any sort of evaluations.", "A dog is carrying a toy", "A woman is in the bathroom.", "There has been a decline of personal consumption.", "The library." ]

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[ "A restaurant on the street." ]

[ "A restaurant in the mall.", "the dog is grey", "Three men wearing different shirts are having a conversation.", "You told me that you were staying, and not considering Argentina anymore.", "A guy is using a hammer.", "the carnival was in the park", "Bob Dole is not a part time lobbyist." ]

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[ "Computers contain both hardware and software components together." ]

[ "Computers only have a software component, not hardware.", "The five young people are looking the same way.", "I looked over at him.", "Nobody is skiing", "I wonder if all we need is a capable President.", "The staff doesn't take questions.", "the kids are having a snack" ]

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[ "Temple of the Night Hawk Temple of the Night Hawk is an enclosed roller coaster located at Phantasialand. Founded in 1988 after 18 months of construction, the ride was originally called ‘'Space Center'’. The ride led passengers past models of rockets and emulated asteroids and the darkened hall was dimly lit with thousands of tiny spots of light to resemble stars. Due to the construction of the neighbouring Wurze Town in 2001, the roller coaster was redeveloped with a fantasy jungle theme and was renamed as the \"Temple of the Night Hawk\". The roller coaster is now completely dark. Until 2006 there were some green moving lights and strobe lights in the first lifthill, still present today, but not operational. In 2008 the Lights on the coaster trains were turned off or broke down and have never been repaired since then. Till 2010 there was a green laser projection with the outlines of a flying hawk and until June 2012, there were some red strobe-lights at the final brakerun. In 2011, the park installed new strobe lights in the first lifthill, which broke down after about two months, and were never repaired since then. The ride has four trains and one spare train for repairs each with seven cars. Each car has two rows of seats each holding two people. During the four-minute ride time the trains are lifted by three lift hill chains, 1.174 metres of track. The roller coaster is therefore one of the longest indoor roller coasters in the World, slightly beaten by \"Mindbender\" in Galaxyland Amusement Park, Canada. The hall in which the track is located is around 120,000m³ in size and rests on 180 concrete pillars which are 12 metres deep in the ground. In the basement of the hall is the ‘'Hollywood Tour’' darkride. The total investment for the ride was around 15 million DM.", "Phantasialand Phantasialand is a theme park in Brühl, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany that attracts approximately 1.75 million visitors annually. The park was opened in 1967 by Gottlieb Löffelhardt and Richard Schmidt. Although starting as a family-oriented park, Phantasialand has also added thrill rides, especially during recent years. Furthermore, following the example of Europa-Park, they have decided to attract business customers beside the regular ones, calling it \"Business der neuen Dimension\" (\"business of a new dimension\")." ]

[ "Judge Roy Scream Judge Roy Scream is a wooden roller coaster located at Six Flags Over Texas in Arlington, Texas.", "Space Shuttle (roller coaster) The Space Shuttle is a steel roller coaster situated at Enchanted Kingdom in Santa Rosa, Laguna in the Philippines. Space Shuttle Max is a Vekoma Boomerang coaster. It has a single train with seven cars, with 2 rows per car and 2 seats per row. The train is capable of carrying a maximum of 28 passengers. It is inspired by sci-fi films and the NASA space program of the 60's. This 11-story roller coaster inverts riders six times - three times forward and three times backward. This is the first coaster ride of its kind in the country.", "Phaethon (roller coaster) Phaethon is a steel inverted roller coaster at Gyeongju World in South Korea, which opened in 2007. It is South Korea's first inverted roller coaster. It named after the character in Greek mythology.", "Raging Spirits Raging Spirits is a roller coaster attraction in Tokyo DisneySea, began operation on July 21, 2005. Created by Walt Disney Imagineering, manufactured by Intamin and built by Sansei Technologies, the attraction takes guests on a thrilling, high-speed ride through the ruins of an ancient ceremonial site and its depictions of Incan buildings in the mountainous region of Peru. The attraction is located in Tokyo DisneySea's Lost River Delta section.", "Indiana Jones et le Temple du Péril Indiana Jones et le Temple du Péril (French for \"Indiana Jones and the Temple of Peril\") is a roller coaster attraction at Disneyland Park at Disneyland Paris. It opened on July 30, 1993. Based on the \"Indiana Jones\" films, guests are taken on an adventure riding in a mining train through a lost temple. The attraction was sponsored by Esso.", "Temple Street, Hong Kong Temple Street () is a street located in the areas of Jordan and Yau Ma Tei in Kowloon, Hong Kong. It is known for its night market and as one of the busiest flea markets at night in the territory. The night market lies in the Yau Ma Tei, Jordan part of the street. Popular with tourists and locals alike in the evening, it is also common to see the place crowded at dusk. It sells cheap merchandise and food items. The place is sometimes known as \"Men's Street\".", "Scenic Railway (roller coaster) The Scenic Railway is a wooden roller coaster located at the Dreamland Amusement Park in Margate, UK. It first opened in 1920 and is the oldest roller coaster in the UK. The ride is unique compared to modern-day roller coasters, as a brakeman is still required to travel with the train to control its speed, manually applying brakes when needed. It is also one of only eight scenic railways in the world, and the UK's English Heritage granted the roller coaster Grade II listed status in 2002 and Grade II* listed status in 2011. The Scenic Railway was non-operational from 2006 until 2015 amid park closure and restoration following an arson attack.", "Wild Eagle Wild Eagle is a steel Wing Coaster built by Bolliger & Mabillard at the Dollywood amusement park in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee. It is the first of its kind in the United States and opened to the media on March 23, 2012 before opening to the public on March 24, 2012. The roller coaster reaches a height of 210 ft and reaches speeds of 61 mph . In September 2012, the ride was voted as the best new ride of 2012 in Amusement Today's Golden Ticket Awards.", "Demon (roller coaster) Demon is a multi-looping roller coaster at Six Flags Great America in Gurnee, Illinois in the Chicago area and California's Great America in Santa Clara, California. Both coasters opened in 1976 as Turn of the Century and were heavily rethemed and renamed as Demon in 1980.", "Titan (Space World) Titan V is a steel roller coaster at Space World in Yahata Higashi ward, Kitakyushu, Japan.", "Cobra (Tivoli Friheden) Cobra is a steel inverted roller coaster at the Tivoli Friheden amusement park in Denmark.", "10 Inversion Roller Coaster 10 Inversion Roller Coaster is a steel roller coaster at Chimelong Paradise amusement park in Guangzhou, Guangdong China. Completed in 2006, Tenth Ring is the second roller coaster in the world with 10 inversions, after Colossus in England's Thorpe Park, which is an exact replica and has the same length and height statistics. A third 10 Inversion Roller Coaster will be located at Hopi Hari, São Paulo, Brazil soon.", "Corkscrew (Cedar Point) Corkscrew is a steel roller coaster built by Arrow Development at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, United States. When built in 1976, it was the first roller coaster in the world with 3 inversions. The coaster, which features Arrow's first vertical loop, was built during the same time period as The Great American Revolution at Magic Mountain. However, Revolution opened seven days prior and is therefore credited as the first modern-day coaster to feature a vertical loop.", "Roller Coaster (Suoi Tien Park) Roller Coaster (Vietnamese: \"Tàu Lượn Siêu Tốc\") is a steel roller coaster located at Suoi Tien Amusement Park in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. With a length of 1200 m , it is currently the longest roller coaster in Vietnam. The coaster has a rectangular track layout, covering a pond known as \"Đại Cung Lạc Cảnh Hồ\".", "Great Coasters International Great Coasters International, Inc. (GCI or GCII) is a Sunbury, Pennsylvania-based roller coaster manufacturer which has created several award-winning rides since its formation in 1994. Starting in 2006 with Thunderbird in Finland, the company expanded beyond the United States and began building coasters in Europe and Asia. Günter Engelhardt GmbH handles the company's marketing rights in Europe. In addition to designing and building new roller coasters, GCI also refurbishes and re-tracks existing roller coasters, regardless of manufacturer.", "Jet Rescue Jet Rescue is a steel launched jet ski roller coaster made by Intamin that opened on 26 December 2008 at Sea World on the Gold Coast, Australia. The ride has a very twisted and banked layout with several fast directional changes. Unlike other family launch roller coasters, Jet Rescue features two launches. The ride features a unique jet ski style of seating with lap bar restraints. The ride is based upon Sea World's Research and Rescue Foundation performing the rescue of a sea lion.", "Phoenix (roller coaster) The Phoenix is a wooden roller coaster located at the Knoebels Amusement Resort in Elysburg, Pennsylvania. Prior to its purchase by Knoebels and its subsequent relocation in the mid-1980s, it was operated under the name \"The Rocket\" at Playland Park in San Antonio, TX.", "Dauling Dragon Dauling Dragon (Chinese: 木翼双龙) is a wooden roller coaster located at Happy Valley in Wuhan, Hubei, China. It is China's third wooden roller coaster and its first racing roller coaster. Although billed as a racing coaster, it contains elements that make it similar to dueling coasters, such as racing portions, head-on collision turn-arounds, and sections where the tracks weave around each other. This is much like Lightning Racer at Hersheypark (however, Lightning Racer was manufactured by Great Coasters International).", "The Bush Beast The Bush Beast was a wooden roller coaster located at Wonderland Sydney in Australia. The ride opened with the park on 7 December 1985 and closed with the park on 26 April 2004. The ride features a mirrored layout to that of other wooden roller coasters located at California's Great America, Canada's Wonderland, and Kings Dominion. \"The Bush Beast\" was manufactured by Taft Broadcasting.", "Roller Coaster (Dam Sen Park) Roller Coaster (Vietnamese: Tàu Lượn Siêu Tốc) is a steel roller coaster located at Dam Sen Cultural Park in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Built in 1998, it is the first roller coaster in Vietnam. Until the opening of a similar roller coaster at Đại Nam Văn Hiến which has 4 inversions, the Dam Sen roller coaster had the most inversions in Vietnam." ]

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[ "A man in green scrubs is eating a sandwich.", "The people are at a athletic game.", "The contract specified a $1,300 down payment.", "Hitler successfully persuaded the Spanish to join World War II.", "More effort can be given in aspects of the postal service.", "I was alone in a changing room.", "A girl, wearing a hat and boots, jumping above ice." ]

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[ "कोंकणी भाषा\nकोंकणी गोवा, महाराष्ट्र के दक्षिणी भाग, कर्नाटक के उत्तरी भाग, केरल के कुछ क्षेत्रों में बोली जाती है। भाषायी तौर पर यह 'आर्य' भाषा परिवार से संबंधित है और मराठी से इसका काफी निकट का संबंध है। राजनैतिक तौर पर इस भाषा को अपनी पहचान के लिये मराठी भाषा से काफी संघर्ष करना पड़ा है। अब भारतीय संविधान के तहत कोंकणी को आठवीं अनुसूची में स्थान प्राप्त है।\n\n१९८७ में गोवा में कोंकणी को मराठी के बराबर राजभाषा का दर्जा दिया गया किन्तु लिपि पर असहमति के कारण आजतक इस पर अमल नहीं किया जा सका।\n\nकोंकणी अनेक लिपियों में लिखी जाती रही है; जैसे - देवनागरी, कन्नड, मलयालम और रोमन। गोवा को राज्य का दर्जा मिलने के बाद दवनागरी लिपि में कोंकणी को वहाँ की राजभाषा घोषित किया गया है।\n\nपरिचय \nभारत के पश्चिमी तट स्थित कोंकण प्रदेश में प्रचलित बोलियों को सामान्यत: कोंकणी कहते है। ऐतिहासिक और सांस्कृतिक संबंधों के परिणामस्वरूव इस प्रदेश में बोली जानेवाली भाषा के तीन रूप हैं-\n\n (1) मराठीभाषी क्षेत्र से संलग्न मालवण-रत्नगिरि क्षेत्र की भाषा;\n\n (2) मंगलूर से संलग्न दक्षिण कोंकणी क्षेत्र की भाषा जिसका कन्नड़ से संपर्क है तथा\n\n (3) मध्य कोंकण अथवा गोमांतक (गोवा) कारवार में प्रचलित भाषा। \n500px|thumb|कोंकण भाषा-परिवार का वेन-आरेख\n\nगोवावाला प्रदेश अनेक शती तक पुर्तगाल के अधीन था। वहाँ पुर्तगालियों ने जोर जबर्दस्ती के बल पर लोगें से धर्मपरिवर्तन कराया और उनके मूल सांस्कृतिक रूप को छिन्न-भिन्न करने का प्रयास किया। इन सब के बावजूद लोगों ने अपनी मातृभाषा का परित्याग नहीं किया। उल्टे अपने धर्मोपदेश के निमित्त ईसाई पादरियों ने वहाँ की बोली में अपने गंथ रचे। धर्मांतरित हुए नए ईसाई प्राय: अशिक्षित लोग थे। उन्हें ईसाई धर्म का तत्व समझाने के लिये पुर्तगाली पादरियों ने कोंकणी का आश्रय लिया।\n\nप्राचीन काल में गोवा से साष्टी तक के भूभाग में जो बोली बोली जाती थी उसे ही लोग विशुद्ध कोंकणी मानते थे और उसे गोमांतकी नाम से पुकारते थे तथापि सोलहवीं शती तक उसके लिये कोई विशिष्ट नाम रूढ़ नहीं था। पुर्तगालियों को जैसा समझ में आया, वैसा ही नाम उसे दिया और पुकारा। 1553 ई. के जेसुइट पादरियों के आलेखों में उसे कानारी नाम दिया गया है। 17वीं शती में पादरी स्टीफेंस ने दौत्रीन क्रिश्तां नामक पुस्तक लिखी। उसमें उनका कहना था कि उसे उन्होंने कानारी में लिखा है और गोमांतकी बोली का जो व्याकरण उन्होंने तैयार किया उसे उन्होंने ‘कानारी भाषा का व्याकरण’ नाम दिया। इस कानारी शब्द का संबंध कन्नड़ से तनिक भी नहीं है। वरन् समझा जाता है कि समुद्र के किनारे की भाषा होने के कारण ही उसे कानारी कहा गया।\n\nटॉम पीरिश नामक यात्री ने अपनी पुस्तक ‘सूम ऑरिएंताल’ में, जो 1515 ई. में लिखी गई थी, गोवा की बोली का नाम कोंकोनी दिया है। 1658 में जेसुइट पादरी मिगलेद आल्मैद ने भी गोमंतकी के लिये 'कोंकणी' शब्द का प्रयोग किया है। अब यह शब्द प्राय: पूरे कोंकण प्रदेश की भाषा के लिये प्रयुक्त होता है। कुछ लोग इसे मराठी की उपभाषा मानते हैं तो कुछ कन्नड़ की। कुछ अन्य भाषावैज्ञानिक इसे आर्यवंश से उद्भूत स्वतंत्र समृद्ध भाषा बताते है।\n\nसाहित्य \nसत्रहवीं शती से पूर्व इस भाषा का कोई लिखित साहित्य उपलब्ध नहीं है। इस भाषा के साहित्यिक प्रयोग का श्रेय ईसाई मिशनरियों को है। पादरी स्टिफेस की पुस्तक दौत्रीन क्रिश्तां इस भाषा की प्रथम पुस्तक है जो 1622 ई. में लिखी गई थी। उसके बाद 1640 ई. में उन्होंने पुर्तगाली भाषा में इसका व्याकरण 'आर्ति द लिंग्व कानारी’ नाम से लिखा। इससे पूर्व 1563 ई. के आसपास किसी स्थानीय धर्मांतरित निवासी द्वारा इस भाषा का कोश तैयार हुआ और ईसाई धर्म के अनेक ग्रंथ लिखे गए। पुर्तगाली शासन के परिणामस्वरूप साहित्य निर्माण की गति अत्यंत मंद रही किंतु अब इस भाषा ने एक समृद्ध साहित्य की भाषा का रूप धारण कर लिया है। लोककथा, लोकगीत, लोकनाट्य तो संगृहित हुए ही हैं, आधुनिक नाटक (सामाजिक, ऐतिहासिक, पौराणिक) और एकांकी की रचना भी हुई है। अन्य विधाओं में भी रचनाएँ की जाने लगी है।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n कोंकन्वर्टर : कोंकणी की विभिन्न लिपियों में परस्पर लिप्यंतरण का उपकरण\n गोवा_न्यूज\n कोंकणी विश्वकोश\n\nश्रेणी:हिन्द-आर्य भाषाएँ\nश्रेणी:भारत की भाषाएँ\nश्रेणी:गोवा की भाषाएँ\nश्रेणी:गोवा की संस्कृति" ]

[ "वैदा लोग\nthumb|230px|तीर्थयात्रा कर रही एक वैदा महिला\nthumb|230px|एक वैदा परिवार\nवैदा (सिंहली: වැද්දා, तमिल: வேடுவர், अंग्रेज़ी: Vedda) या वैद्दा श्रीलंका की एक आदिवासी जनजाति है। इतिहासकारों का मानना है कि वे श्रीलंका के सबसे पहले मानव निवासी थे। पारम्परिक तौर से वैदा श्रीलंका के जंगलों के भीतर रहा करते थे। उनकी अपनी अलग वैदा भाषा थी, जिसकी मूल जड़ें अज्ञात हैं और जो अब विलुप्त हो चुकी है। सिंहली भाषा में वैदाओं को वन्नियल ऐत्तो (වන්නියලෑත්තන්, Wanniyala Aetto) भी कहते हैं, जिसका मतलब 'वन के लोग' है।\n\nजातीय जड़ें \nवैदाओं का आनुवंशिकी अध्ययन करने से पता चला है कि वे श्रीलंका के सिंहली लोगों लगभग ३०,००० वर्षों से भिन्न हैं, यानि वे उनसे एक बिलकुल ही अलग जाति हैं। बहुत से इतिहासकार मानते हैं कि वैदाओं के पूर्वज लगभग २०,००० साल पहले हिमयुग के दौरान भारत से चलकर श्रीलंका पहुँचे थे। हिमयुगों में भारत को श्रीलंका से जोड़ने वाला रामसेतु पूरी तरह समुद्र-तल के ऊपर उभरा हुआ एक ज़मीनी पुल होता था जिसपर चलकर जानवर, मनुष्य और वृक्ष-पौधे एक क्षेत्र से दूसरे क्षेत्र में आराम से फैल सकते थे। आधुनिक युग में भारत और श्रीलंका के बीच ४० मील का खुला समुद्र है।\n\n५वीं सदी ईसवी में लिखी श्रीलंका के महावंश इतिहास-काव्य में एक पुलिंद जाति का ज़िक्र है जो इतिहासकारों के अनुसार श्रीलंका के सन्दर्भ में वैदा जाति के बारे में है। यह कहता है कि जब राजकुमार विजय (जो सिंहलों के सबसे पहले राजा बने) छठी शताब्दी ईसापूर्व में बंगाल से श्रीलंका आए तो उन्होंने कुवेनी नामक एक यक्ख (यक्ष) स्त्री से विवाह किया और बच्चे पैदा किये। बाद में उन्होंने एक क्षत्रीय स्त्री से शादी करके कुवेनी को दुत्कार दिया। उसके बच्चे आधुनिक रत्नपुर ज़िले के सुमनकूट क्षेत्र चले गए और वहाँ उन्होंने अपना वंश बढ़ाया। यही आगे चलकर वैदा बने।\n\nसंस्कृति\n\nधर्म \nवैदाओं का मूल धर्म सर्वात्मवाद (ऐनिमिज़्म​) है। श्रीलंका के भीतरी हिस्सों में बसने वाले वैदा लोगों ने सिंहल लोगों की सोहबत से अपने सर्वात्मवाद में कुछ बौद्ध धर्म को भी मिश्रित कर लिया है जबकि पूर्वी तट पर तमिलों के पास रहने वाले वैदाओं ने सर्वात्मवाद में हिन्दू धर्म मिला लिया है। वैदा अपने पूर्वजों को पूजते हैं जिन्हें सिंहली-भाषी वैदा 'नाए याकु' कहते हैं। वैदाओं के कुछ अपने अलग देवी-देवता भी हैं, जिनमें से 'कंडे यक्का' और 'बिलिंद यक्का' नामक पूर्वज-देवता प्रमुख हैं। इन पूर्वजों को प्रसन्न करने के लिए इनकी पूजा करने के बाद 'किरी कोराहा' (Kiri Koraha) नमक नाच समारोह आयोजित किया जाता है। श्रीलंका के दक्षिण में कतरगाम (Kataragama) नामक तीर्थस्थल में स्कन्द (हिन्दू देवता और शिव के दूसरे पुत्र, जिन्हें तमिल में 'मुरुगन' कहते हैं और जो कार्तिकेय के नाम से भी जाने जाते हैं) पूजे जाते हैं। कतरगाम स्कन्द के बारे में धारणा है कि यहाँ उन्होंने एक वल्ली नामक वैदा मृग-देवी से विवाह किया था। कतरगाम के मंदिर की इज़्ज़त श्रीलंका के सभी सम्प्रदाय करते हैं और यहाँ बौद्ध, हिन्दू, मुस्लिम और ईसाई सभी तीर्थ करते हैं।\n\nविवाह और स्त्री-पुरुषों के सम्बन्ध \nवैदाओं में विवाह की रीति बहुत सरल होती है। वधु एक वृक्ष-छाल की रस्सी बनाती है (जिसे 'दिया लनूवा' कहते हैं) और उसे वर की कमर में बाँध देती है। इसके द्वारा वह यह संकेत देती है कि उसने वर को अपना जीवन-साथ स्वीकार लिया है और विवाह सम्पन्न हो जाता है। वैदा समाज में स्त्रिओं और पुरुषों को कई पहलुओं में बराबारी का दर्जा दिया जाता है। बेटियों को अपने परिवार की सम्पत्ति में बारबार का हक़ मिलता है। वैदा समाज में एक पति की एक ही पत्नी होने का रिवाज है, हालांकि अगर कोई औरत विधवा हो जाए तो अक्सर उसके पति का भाई उस से विवाह कर लेता है।\n\nअंतिम संस्कार \nवैदाओं में मृतों को दफ़ना देने का रिवाज है और किसी की मृत्यु होते ही उसे जल्द-से-जल्द दफ़ना देने का प्रयास किया जाता है। ४ से ५ फ़ुट की क़ब्र खोदी जाती है और उसमें शव को कपड़े में लपेटकर लिटा दिया जाता है। ऊपर से उसे पत्तों और मिटटी से ढककर बंद कर दिया जाता है। शव के साथ-साथ मृतक का कुछ निजी सामान भी दफ़ना दिया जाता है, जैसे कि उसके धनुष-बाण और पान-सुपारी की थैली। क़ब्र के सिरे पर तीन खुले नारियल और एक छोटा लकड़ियों का ढेर और पाऊँ की तरफ़ एक खुला और एक बंद नारियल भी रखा जाता है। कुछ वैदा समुदायों में दफ़नाने से पहले शव को कुछ विशेष जंगली पत्तों या नीम्बू के रस से सुगन्धित किया जाता है। कुछ समुदायों में क़ब्र के सिर, पैर या बीच में 'पथोक' नामक एक प्रकार के कैक्टस को बोया जाता है।\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n श्रीलंका\n पुलिंद\n महावंश\n ज़मीनी पुल\n\nसन्दर्भ \n\nश्रेणी:श्रीलंका\nश्रेणी:एशिया की मानव जातियाँ", "कुजुल कडफिसेस\nकुजुल कड़फिसेस का वास्तविक नाम ‘गुजुर कपिशिया’ हैं|\n\n135 ईसा पूर्व में कुषाण हिन्दू कुश पर्वत क्षेत्र में वक्षु नदी (आधुनिक आमू दरिया) के उत्तरी और दक्षिणी हिन्दू कुश पर्वत क्षेत्रो पर काबिज़ थे| 327 ई.पू में सिकंदर के भारत आक्रमण के पश्चात यहाँ यूनानी बस गए थे तथा वे इस क्षेत्र को बैक्ट्रिया के नाम से पुकारते थे| महाभारत (अंतिम संपादन गुप्त काल) के अनुसार यह क्षेत्र बाह्लीक कहलाता था| बाह्लीक राज्य की राजसत्ता कुषाणों ने इन यूनानियो को पराजित कर छीनी थी| अतः प्राचीन भारत में यूनानियो की सत्ता का अंत करने का श्रेय कुषाणों को जाता हैं| चीन के ऐतिहासिक ग्रन्थ होऊ हंशु (Hou Hanshu) के अनुसार कुषाणों के सरदार कुजुल कड़फिस ने बाह्लीक प्रदेश के दक्षिण में स्थित कपिशा और गंधार राज्यों को जीत लिया| कपिशा एक प्रतिष्ठित राज्य था| कपिशा राज्य का नाम उसके प्रसिद्ध नगर और राजधानी ‘कपिशा’ के नाम पर पडा था| यह नगर काबुल से 50 मील दूर उत्तर में स्थित था| कपिशा की विजय से कुषाणों की प्रतिष्ठा भी अभूतपूर्व वृद्धि हुई| कुजुल कड़फिस ने ‘कपिशा’ को अपने नवनिर्मित साम्राज्य की राजधानी बनाया तथा कुषाण शासक के रूप में यही से उसने अपना पहला सिक्का जारी किया| \n\nपुरातत्वेताओ ने घोरबंद और पंजशीर नदी के मिलन स्थल पर स्थित ‘बेग्राम’ नामक स्थान पर प्राचीन कपिशा नगर के अवशेषों को खोज निकाला हैं| यह आधुनिक काबुल और बामियान के बीच रेशम मार्ग पर काबुल के 50 मील उत्तर में स्थित था| यहाँ कुषाण शासको का गर्मी ऋतु का महल तथा एक सुसज्जित बाज़ार था| कपिशा ईंटो से बनी ऊँची दीवारों से सुरक्षित किया गया था| कनिष्क (78-101 ई.) द्वारा पेशावर को कुषाण साम्राज्य की राजधानी बनाने से पूर्व कपिशा कुषाणों की मुख्य राजधानी थी तथा उसके बाद भी यह उनकी ग्रीष्म ऋतु की राजधानी बनी रही| हेन सांग के ग्रन्थ सी यू की के अनुसार कनिष्क ने यहाँ पर अपने शत्रु देश चीन को पराजित कर उसके राजकुमारों को कपिशा के महल में बंधक बना कर रखा था| यहाँ से कुषाण कालीन ‘बेग्राम ट्रेजर’ बेग्राम खज़ाना की प्राप्ति हुई हैं| \n\nकुजुल कडफिस तथा तथा उसके पौत्र विम कडफिस के नाम में कडफिस एक उपाधि हैं| कडफिस को भिन्न-भिन्न रूप से लिखा गया हैं, जैसे- कुजुल कडफिस के सिक्को पर खरोष्ठी लिपि और प्राकृत भाषा में कप्शा, कप्सा, कफ्सा, कफसा आदि| प्रथम शताब्दी के रोमन विद्वान प्लिनी की पुस्तक नेचुरल हिस्ट्री की नक़ल तैयार करने वाले विद्वान सोलिनुस (Solinus) ने ‘कपिशा’ को काफुसा (Caphusa) लिखा हैं| कडफिस का खरोष्ठी रूप कप्शा इनकी राजधानी के नाम कपिशा के अत्यधिक नज़दीक हैं| \n\nकुजुल को कपिशा का शासक होने का बड़ा गर्व था| अतः उसने कपिशा पर अपना शासन प्रदर्शित करने वाली एक उपाधि धारण की| लेवी के अनुसार ‘कड़फिसेस’ का अर्थ ‘कपिशा मैन’ (Kapisha man) हैं| कुजुल और विम के नाम में कडफिस कपिशा से सम्बंधित शब्द हैं, जिसका अर्थ ‘कपिशा का शासक’ हैं| यही कारण कि जब कनिष्क ने पुरुषपुर (पेशावर) को अपनी राजधानी बनाया तो उसने और उसके उत्तराधिकारियो ने परम्परगत कडफिस’ शब्द अपने नाम के साथ प्रयोग करना बंद कर दिया|\n\nकुजुल कड़फिस कुषाण शासक के नाम का सही रूप नहीं, बल्कि यह उसके वास्तविक नाम का अपभ्रंश प्राकृत रूपान्तरण हैं, जिसे सिक्को पर कुशानी लिपि में लिखा गया हैं| ऍफ़ डब्ल्यू थॉमस के अनुसार कुजुल वास्तव में गुशुर हैं| कुषाण काल में कुषाणों के राजसी वर्ग के लिए गुशुर शब्द के प्रयोग के उदहारण मौजूद हैं| कुजुल कड़फिसेस के काल में ही उसके अधीनस्थ क्षेत्रीय शासक सेनवर्मन के स्वात घाटी अभिलेख में गुशुर शब्द का प्रयोग सेना के अधिकारियो के लिए किया गया हैं| ऍफ़ डब्ल्यू थॉमस के मत का समर्थन टी. बरो नामक विद्वान ने किया हैं| भारत में कुषाण अध्ययन के विशेषज्ञ माने जाने वाले बी एन मुख़र्जी ने भी इस बात का समर्थन किया हैं कि कुजुल को वास्तव में गुशुर ही पढ़ा जाना चाहिए| इसी क्रम में सुशील भाटी ने अपने लेख गुर्जरों की कुषाण उत्पत्ति का सिधांत में कहा था कि क्योकि कुषाण ‘श’ वर्ण को ‘ज’ बोलते थे अतः वे गुशुर को गुजुर पुकारते थे तथा उनके अनुसार कुजुल वास्तव में ‘गुजुर’ शब्द का प्राकृत रूप हैं| निष्कर्षतः कुजुल गुजुर हैं और कड़फिसेस कपिशा’ अथवा कपिशिया हैं, अतः कुजुल कड़फिसेस का वास्तविक नाम ‘गुजुर कपिशिया’ हैं| \n\nकुजुल कड़फिसेस के ‘गुजुर कपिशिया’ के रूप में पहचान के समर्थन में यह भी सूच्य हैं कि कुषाण कालीन अबोटाबाद अभिलेख का विश्लेषण करते हुए डी. सी. सरकार ने गुर्जर शब्द को गुशुर का परिवर्तित रूप बताया हैं| उनके इस मत का समर्थन आर. एस शर्मा अपने प्रसिद्ध ग्रन्थ भारतीय सामंतवाद में किया हैं| गुर्जर कबीले का आज भी अफगानिस्तान में गुजुर पुकारा जाता हैं| \n\nएक संस्कृत -चीनी शब्दकोष में कपिशा को कपिशिया कहा गया हैं| पाणिनि ने संस्कृत व्याकरण पर अपनी पुस्तक अष्टाध्यायी में कपिशा में निर्मित शराब को स्थान सम्बन्ध के कारण ‘कापिशायां मधु’ अर्थात कपिशा की शराब कहा हैं| इसी प्रकार गुर्जर जाति का एक प्रमुख गोत्र का नाम कपासिया हैं| सभवतः कपासिया गुर्जरों का स्थान सम्बन्ध कुषाण सम्राट कुजुल कड़फिसेस अर्थात ‘गुजुर कपिशिया’ की राजधानी कपिशा से हैं| \n\nसन्दर्भ-\n\n1. सुशील भाटी, गुर्जरों की कुषाण उत्पत्ति का सिधांत, जनइतिहास ब्लॉग, 2016 \n2. Samual Beal, Buddhist record of the western words, https://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=1136376577\n3. T. Burrow, Iranian Words in the Kharosthi Documents from ChineseTurkestanII. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 7, 1935, Page 779-790\n4. T Burrow, The Language of the Kharoṣṭhi Documents from Chinese Turkestan, Cambridge, 1937\n 5. B N Mukherjee, Kushana studies: new perspective, 2004\n6. D. C. Sircar, Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India, 1971, Page 108- 109, https://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=8120827902 \n7. R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism, p.106-107\n8. P. C. Bagchi, India And Central Asia, Calcutta, 1955, p. 17, 138-39\n9. H. C. Raychaudhary, Political History of Ancient India,\n10. The legend on the obverse in Greek characters refers to OOEMO KADPHISES and the Kharoshthi inscription on the reverse refers to VIMA KAPISA.- Satya Shrava, The Kushana Numismatics, 1985, p 59\n11. Harry Falk, Names and Titles from Kusana Times to the Hunas, Coins, Art and Chronology II, 2010, Page 75\nM. Sylvain Levi, JA, ciii, 1923, p. 52 is right in explaining the name Kadphises as ‘the Kapisa man’, one might even infer, that Kushana hi-hou was considered by his people as entitled to the throne of Kapisa. i.e. in this connection perhaps Ki-pin. - Sten Konow, Corpvs Inscriptionvm indicarvm Vol.2, part 1, Kharosthi Inscriptions, p footnote lxvi\n12. The name is spelt, in Kharoshthi, Kaphasa or Kapasa on coins of his found at Taxila,1 and LeVi interpreted the name Kadphises to mean 'the Kapisa man' – William Woodthorpe Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and India, 1951, p 505\n13. Yen-kao-chen of this statement of the Hoi* Han-shu has been identified with Ooemo Kad- phises or V'ima Kapphisa or Kapisa mentioned in the legends of a great number- B N Mukherjee, The rise and fall of the Kushana Empire, 1988, p 43\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n कुषाण\n विम कडफिसेस\n कनिष्क\n युएझ़ी लोग\n रबातक शिलालेख\n\nसन्दर्भ \n\nश्रेणी:80 में निधन\nश्रेणी:भारत का इतिहास\nश्रेणी:मध्य एशिया का इतिहास\nश्रेणी:कुषाण", "सिन्ध का इतिहास\nसिन्ध का इतिहास, भारतीय उपमहाद्वीप और आसपास के क्षेत्रों के इतिहास के साथ जुड़ा हुआ है। सिन्ध, सिन्धु घाटी की सभ्यता के केन्द्र में था और वर्तमान में आधुनिक पाकिस्तान का एक प्रान्त है। \n\nतबि अकुल जे अन्धनि लाइ सेठि नाऊंमलु सिन्धु जो गदारु आ \n\nकराचीअ खे अॾींदड़ु -- दानवीरु सेठि नाऊंमल होतचन्द भोॼवाणी परीवारु\n\nमहाराजा ॾाहर खां पो सभखां वॾे ऐं नामियारे सिन्धी सेठि नाऊंमल होतचन्द जे भाेॼवाणी परीवार जे सेठि भाेॼूमल जूं 16 सदीअ खां पोंइनि चइनि-पन्जनि पीढ़िनि जो देश-दुनियां में वापारु हलंदो हो . सिन्धु जे शाह-बन्दर, लाहोरी ऐं खड़क-बन्दर तां भाेॼवाणी परीवार जो सराफे (सोनु, चांदी ऐं हीरा-जंव्हार) ऐं वणिज (अनु ऐं कपिड़ा वगेरह) जो वापारु हलंदो हो . हिन्दुस्तान में बम्बईअ जी कोठीअ (ब्रान्च) खां बंगाल ऐं उतां सूरत,पोरबन्दर, कश्मीर ताईं वापारु हलंदो हो . चीन ऐं मलाबार में बि उन्हंनि जूं वापारी कोठियूं हुयूं . शिकारपुर खां ओमान जे मस्तक ऐं मस्तक खां ईराक जे बसरा, ईरान जे नामियारे शहर बुशहर ऐं शीराज में मालु मोकिलियो वेंदो हो . दुनियां भरि में मोतिनि जे वापार लाइ मशहूरु बहरीन ऐं अफगानिस्तान जे काबुल, कन्धार, हरात ऐं कलात खां सिवा बलोचिस्तान ऐं ईरान जे ग्वादर ऐं लस-ॿेले साणु बुखारा, समरकन्द, रूस जे मास्को, पीटरोग्राद, काहिरा ऐं लंदन में बि भाेॼवाणी परीवार जूं वापारी कोठियूं हुयूं . हिन परीवार जूं दुनियां में 40 कोठियूं हुयूं, जितां 400 मुन्शिनि-गुमाश्तनि जे वसीले, कुलु 500 शहरनि में वापारु हलंदो हो . हिन परीवार जूं हुन्डियूं जां 'रुका' अॼोके दौर जा चेक ऐं बैंक-ड्राफ्ट चया वञनि था .\n\nलुटेरे नादिरशाह द्वारा गुलामु बणायल ब्राह्मण मड़िदनि ऐं जालुनि खे छॾिरायो सिन्धिनि\n\n1723 में ईरानी हमलावर ऐं लुटेरे नादिरशाह ऐं कलात - अफगानिस्तान जे नसीरखान मिली करे, हिन्दुस्तान में हचा ऐं लुट-फुर करिण खां पो यूपी जे ब्रज ऐं मथुरा जे सवें ब्राह्मण मड़िदनि ऐं जालुनि खे बन्दी बणाए वरितो . काबुल जे रसिते ईरान वेंदे महिल हू लाहौर ऐं मुल्तान खां शिकारपुर पहुता . ईहाे पतो मिलण ते सिन्धु जे नामियारे सेठि नाऊंमल होतचन्द भोॼवाणीअं जे परॾाॾे सेठि केवलराम ऐं संदसि जाल तखतॿाईअ कैद खां छॾिराइण लाइ नादिरशाह खे, हरि हिक ब्राह्मण मड़िद ऐं जाल जे पोयां, 100 खां 250 रुपिया ॾिना ऐं उन्हंजे सिपाहिनि लाइ ढेर सारो अनु बि ॾिनो . इन्हं में शिकारपुर सिन्धी पन्चाइत बि अन ऐं धन जो सहकारु ॾिनो . जहिंखां पो सेठि केवलराम, ब्राह्मण मड़िदनि ऐं जालुनि खे बि रसिते लाइ धनु ऐं अनु ॾई, पंहिंजे मुन्शिनि ऐं मजूरनि द्वारा वापसि ब्रज ऐं मथुरा पहुचायो . \n\n1729 में कराची शहरु ऐं किलो \n\nशाह बन्दर जो मुंहुं वारीअ सां ढकिजी वयो, जहिंकरे वापारु बन्दि थी वयो . सिन्धू सागर जे किनारे, मुंहाणनि जो कलाची नाले हिकु नन्ढिड़ो ॻोठु हो . पंहिंजो वापारु हलाइण लाइ इन्हं कलाची ॻोठ में, सेठि भाेॼूमल, सेठि आसूदेमल ऐं ॿियनि सिन्धी वापारिनि गॾिजी कलाची ॻोठ खे कराची नालो ॾई, हिकु नओं शहरु वसायो . हिकु वॾो ऐं पको किलो (कोटु) बि ठाहिरायो . हिन जा ॿ दरवाजा हुआ . हिकु सम्ड्र जे पासे 'खारो दरु' ऐं ॿियो लियारी नन्दी जे पासे 'मिठो दरु' .\n सभई वापारी पंहिंजे कुड़ुम ऐं नन्ढनि-वॾनि कर्मचारिनि जा कुड़ुम बि उन किले में रहंदा हुआ . धाड़ेलनि-डाकुनि खां रखिया लाइ, किले जे मथां मस्तक मां तोपूं घुराए रखियूं वयूं . जितां देश-दुनियां में वापारु हलाइणु शुरू कयाऊं . जहिंखां पो कराची 'सिन्धु जी राणी' नाले सां मशहरु थी . \n\nॾुकर जे समुह में सांदहि हिकु सालु अन जो दानु\n\n1811 में सिन्धु, कच्छ, काठियावाड़ (गुजरात) ऐं मारवाड़ (राजस्थान) में मींहुं न पवण करे ॾुकरु आयो . ईहो ॾुकरु एढ़ो मौतमारि हो जो वॾनि - वॾनि सेठिनि वटि बि सोनु त हो पर खाइण लाइ अनु न हो . एढ़े ॾुखे समुह में सेठि नाऊंमल जे ॾाॾे दरियानेमल ऐं भाणसि लालणदास पारां सिन्धु ऐं कच्छ, मारवाड़ में अनु-दानु करिण जो होको-ढिंढोरो ॾियारियो वयो . जहिंखां पो अनु विरिहायो वयो . जेके ॿुढा ऐं लाचार हुआ, उन्हंनि जे घरनि में ॿोरियूं भरे, हरि महीने अनु पहुचायो वयो . सेठिनि-शाहूकारनि जे घरां लॼ जे करे को बि अनु वठण न अायाे . ईहो ॿुधी सन्झा खां राति जो एढ़ो बन्दोबस्तु कयो वयो, जहिंसां अनु वठी वञण वारे जे मुंहं ते सोझिरो न पई सघे . कच्छ, काठियावाड़ ऐं मारवाड़ जा माण्हूं बि अन जा भरियल ॿोरा वठी वया . ईहो अनं-दानु सांदहि हिकु सालु हलंदो रहियो . \n\nइन्हं दौर में सिन्धु में टालपुर जे मीरनि जो राॼु हो, जेके छड़ो पाण में विढ़ण ऐं अयाशीअ में पूरा हा . इस्लाम जा कलंक मुला-मौलवी हिन्दुनि खे दहशतगर्दीअ जरिए मुसलमानु बणाइण खे ई इस्लाम जी वॾे में वॾी सेवा मञींदा हुआ . जेका सॼी सिन्धु सोनु हुई, उते कल्होड़नि ऐं मीरनि जे राॼ में सुञ-भींग थी वई . एढ़नि अयाशनि, जाहिलनि ऐं दहशतगर्दनि जे राॼ खां छुटिकारे लाइ सेठि नाऊंमल अंग्रेजनि खे मदद ॾई, सिन्धु ऐं सिन्धिनि खे आजादी ॾियारी . जहिंखां पो सिन्धु में हर तरह जी तरकी थी . \n\nसेठि नाऊंमल होतचन्द भोॼवाणी परीवार जेढ़नि वापारिनि जे करे सिन्धु जे हजारें हारिनि खे उन्हंनि जी पैदावार जो वाजिबु मुल्हु ऐं लखें मजूरनि खे रोजी-रोटी मिलंदी हुई . पर तहिंखां पो बि के हिन्दू-मुसलमान में भेदु रखण वारा मज़हबी अन्धा चवनि था त सेठि नाऊंमलु सिन्धु जो गदारु हो . जॾहिं त हू पाण इन्सानियत जा वेरी ऐं सिन्धु जा गदार आहिनि . हू विसारे वेठा आहिनि त हिन्दू-सिन्धी उन्हंनि जा अबा-ॾाॾा आहिनि, छो त मुसलमान थियण खां अॻु, हू बि सिन्धी हुआ, न कि मुसलमान .\n\nप्रेम तनवाणी - 9685943880 \nसाभार :\nडॉ लाल थदानी पूर्व अध्यक्ष राजस्थान सिन्धी अकादमी जयपुर ।\n\nइन्हें भी देखें\nसिन्ध की संस्कृति\nसिन्धु घाटी की सभ्यता\nसिन्धी भाषा\n\nश्रेणी:सिन्ध", "कर्नाटक का इतिहास\n\n\nइतिहास \nकर्नाटक के आदिम निवासी लौह धातु का प्रयोग उत्तर भारतीयों की अपेक्षा पहले से जानते थे, और ईसापूर्व १२०० इस्वी के औजार धारवाड़ जिले के हल्लूर में मिले हैं। ज्ञात इतिहास के आरंभ में इस प्रदेश पर उत्तर भारतीयों का शासन था। पहले यहाँ नन्दों तथा मौर्यों का शासन था। सातवाहनों का राज्य (ईसापूर्व ३० - २३० इस्वी) उत्तरी कर्नाटक में फैला था जिसके बाद कांची के पल्लवों का शासन आया। पल्लवों के प्रभुत्व को स्थानीय कदम्बों (बनवासी के) तथा कोलार के गंगा राजवंश ने खत्म किया।\n\nकदम्ब राजवंश की स्थापना सन् ३४५ में मयूरशर्मन नामक ब्राह्मण ने की थी। पल्लवों की राजधानी में अपमान सहने के बाद उसने पल्लवों के खिलाफ विद्रोह कर दिया था। उसके परवर्तियों में से एक ककुस्थ वर्मन (४३५-५५) तो इतना शक्तिशाली हो गया था कि वकट तथा गुप्तों ने भी उनके साथ वैवाहिक सम्बन्ध स्थापिक किया था। माना जाता है कि महाकवि कालिदास ने उसके दरबार की यात्रा की थी।\n\nगंगा राजवंश ने सन् ३५० के आसपास कोलार से शासन आरंभ किया था और बाद में उन्होंने अपनी राजधानी मैसूर के पास तालकडु में स्थापित की। बदामी चालुक्यों के आने से पहले तक वे दक्षिणी कर्नाटक में एकक्षत्र राज्य करते रहे।\n\nचालुक्य \nबदामी के चालुक्यों के अन्दर ही सम्पूर्ण कर्नाटक एक शासन सूत्र में बंध पाया था। वे अपने शासनकाल में बनाई गई कलाकृतियों के लिए भी जाने जाते हैं। इसी कुल के पुलकेशिन द्वितीय (609-42) ने हर्षवर्धन को हराया था। पल्लवों के साथ युद्ध में वे धीरे-धीरे क्षीण होते गए।\n\nबदामी के चालुक्यों की शक्ति क्षीण होने के बाद राष्ट्रकूटों का शासन आया पर वे अधिक दिन प्रभुत्व मे नहीं रह पाए। कल्याण के चालुक्यों ने सन् 973 में उन्हें सत्ता से बाहर कर दिया। सोमेश्वर प्रथम ने चोलों के आक्रमण से बचने की सफलतापूर्वक कोशिश की। उसने कल्याण में अपनी राजधानी स्थापित की और चोल राजा राजाधिराज की कोप्पर में सन् 1054 में हत्या कर दी। उसका बेटा विक्रमादित्य षष्टम तो इतना प्रसिद्ध हुआ कि कश्मीर के कवि दिल्हण ने अपनी संस्कृत रचना के लिए उसके नायक चुना और विक्रमदेव चरितम की रचना की। वो एक प्रसिद्ध कानूनविद विज्ञानेश्वर का भी संरक्षक था। उसने चोल राजधानी कांची को 1085 में जीत लिया।\n\nthumb|left|360px|चालुक्य साम्राज्य अपने महत्तम विस्तार पर - सातवीं सदी \n\nयादवों (या सेवुना) ने देवगिरि (आधुनिक दौलताबाद, जो बाद में मुहम्मद बिन तुगलक की राजधानी बना) से शासन करना आरंभ किया। पर यादवों को दिल्ली सल्तनत की सेनाओं ने 1296 में हरा दिया। यादवों के समय भास्कराचार्य जैसे गणितज्ञों ने अपनी अमर रचनाए कीं। हेमाद्रि की रचनाए भी इसी काल में हुईं। चालुक्यों की एक शाखा इसी बीच शकितशाली हो रही थी - होयसल। उन्होंने बेलुरु, हेलेबिदु और सोमनाथपुरा में मन्दिरों की रचना करवाई। जब तमिल प्रदेश में चोलों और पाण्ड्यों में संघर्ष चल रहा था तब होयसलों ने पाण्ड्यों को पीछे की ओर खदेड़ दिया। बल्लाल तृतीय (मृत्यु 1343) को दिल्ली तथा मदुरै दोनों के शासकों से युद्ध कना पड़ा। उसके सैनिक हरिहर तथा बुक्का ने विजयनगर साम्राज्य की नींव रखी। होयसलों के शासनकाल में कन्नड़ भाषा का विकास हुआ।\n\nविजयनगर साम्राज्य की स्थापना के समय वो दक्षिण में एक हिन्दू शक्ति के रूप में देखा गया जो दिल्ली और उत्तरी भारत पर सत्तारूढ़ मुस्लिम शासकों के विरूद्ध एक लोकप्रिय शासक बना। हरिहर तथा बुक्का ने न केवल दिल्ली सल्तनत का सामना किया बल्कि मदुरै के सुल्तान को भी हराया। कृष्णदेव राय इस काल का सबसे महान शासक हुआ। विजयनगर के पतन (1565) के बाद बहमनी सल्तनत के परवर्ती राज्यों का छिटपुत शासन हुआ। इन राज्यों को मुगलों ने हरा दिया और इसी बीच बीजापुर के सूबेदार शाहजी के पुत्र शिवाजी के नेतृत्व में मराठों की शक्ति का उदय हुआ। मराठों की शक्ति अठारहवीं सदी के अन्त तक क्षीण होने लगी थी। दक्षिण में हैदर अली ने मैसूर के वोड्यार राजाओं की शक्ति हथिया ली। चौथे आंग्ल-मैसूर युद्ध में हैदर अली के पुत्र टीपू सुल्तान को मात देकर अंग्रेजों ने मैसूर का शासन अपने हाथों में ले लिया। सन् 1818 में पेशवाओं को हरा दिया गया और लगभग सम्पूर्ण राज्य पर अंग्रेजों का अधिकार हो गया। सन् 1956 में कर्नाटक राज्य बना।\n\nश्रेणी:कर्नाटक का इतिहास", "सोहन कादरी\nसोहन कादरी (2 नवम्बर 1932 - 1 मार्च 2011) भारत के एक योगी, कवि चित्रकार हैं, जो अपनी जिंदगी के आखरी 30 साल कोपेनहेगन में रहे। उनकी चित्रकारी गहरे ध्यान की विभिन्न अवस्थाओं के परिणाम हैं, जिनमें भारत के रंगों: चमकदार, रंगों से सराबोर कार्यों को सावधानी से बनाये गये दांतेदार कागज पर उकेरा गया है। अपने लंबे करियर के दौरान, कादरी ने सुरियिलस्ट (कला और साहित्य के क्षेत्र में चला 22 वीं सदी का एक आंदोलन) चित्रकार रेने मैग्रीटी, नोबेल पुरस्कार विजेता हेनरिक बॉल और वास्तुकार ले कुरबिजियर सहित व्यापक दायरे की सांस्कृतिक हस्तियों वैचारिक आदान-प्रदान किया। बॉल ने एक समय कहा था, \"अपने चित्र के साथ सोहन कादरी ध्यान शब्द को उसकी फैशनेबल रुचि से मुक्त करते हैं और इसे इसके उचित मूल तक वापस लाते हैं।\" संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका, यूरोप, एशिया और अफ्रीका में उनकी 70 से भी अधिक प्रदर्शनियां लगीं.\n\nभारत में प्रारंभिक वर्ष \nthumb|left|जालंदर में दीक्षा के बाद सोहन कादरी, 1953.\n\nthumb|सोहन कादरी, पीला हरा युगल, 1969.कैनवास पर तेल, 26 x 26\"\n\nthumb|सोहन कादरी, लीला, इट्स प्ले, 1974.कैनवास पर तेल, 48 x 48\"\n\nthumb|सोहन कादरी, स्प्रिटेड ड्रॉप III, 1974.कैनवास पर तेल, 48 x 48\"\n\nthumb|अनाम, एनडी, कैनवास पर तेल, 27 x 35\"\n\nसोहन कादरी का जन्म 1932 में, ब्रिटिश भारत में चाचोकी गांव में हुआ था। चाचोकी पंजाब के कपूरथला जिले में औद्योगिक शहर फगवाड़ा के पास है। उनका पालन-पोषण एक धनी खेतिहर परिवार में हुआ-उनकी मां हिंदू थीं और पिता सिख थे। बिजली, नल का पानी, सड़क या कारों से रहित चाचोरी अधिक कास्मोपॉलिटन (सर्वदेशीय) शहर कपूरथला से केवल कुछ मील की दूरी पर है, जहां फ्रांसीसी नव शास्त्रीय शैली के कई महल और सरकारी भवन हैं, जो एक फ्रैंकोफिली महाराज द्वारा निर्मित किये गये थे।\n\nसात साल के एक लड़के के रूप में उनकी परिवारिक फर्म में रह रहे दो अध्यात्मवादियों ने उन्हें सम्मोहित कर लिया। इनमें से पहले एक बंगाली तांत्रिक-वज्रयान योगी विक्रम गिरी थे। दूसरे थे एक सूफी अहमद अली शाह कादरी, जो गिरी से दो कदम की दूरी पर रहते थे। दोनों गुरुओं ने उन्हें ध्यान, नृत्य और संगीत के माध्यम से आध्यात्मिक आदर्शों को सिखाया. हालांकि इनमें से कोई न तो पारंपरिक अर्थों में शिक्षक था और न ही वे धर्म या विश्वास बदलने में रुचि रखते थे, पर उनका प्रभाव गहरा था। कादरी से उनके सहयोग ने अध्यात्म और कला के प्रति उनकी आजीवन प्रतिबद्धता की शुरुआत की.\n\nकादरी की कलात्मक प्रतिभा पहली बार गांव के तालाब में व्यक्त की गई थी। स्नान से पहले, वे मिट्टी की लोइयों के साथ खेलते थे और उन्हें छ‍िड़यों और पत्थरों से विभिन्न खिलौने का आकार दते थे। वे अंगूठे से दबाकर, खरोंचकर और निशान लगाकर आंखों और नाक जैसे रूपों को परिभाषित करते थे, जो तकनीकें अब भी उनके कार्यों में प्रबल रूप से चिह्नित हैं। उसके दृश्य प्रभाव ग्रामीण जीवन से आये, जहां प्रकृति व्यापक है। कादरी कांगड़ा पहाड़ों, आकर्षक वनों, झर-झार झरते झरनों और कपास व गेहूं के खेतों के पैबंदकारी से घिरे महौल में पले-बढ़े.\n\nकादरी ने आठवीं कक्षा तक अपनी स्कूली शिक्षा जारी रखी और वे अपनी मैट्रिक परीक्षा में बैठे. उनकी मां चाहती थी कि वे परिवार की फर्म का कामकाज देखें. प्रारंभ में, उन्होंने इस पर कोई नाखुशी नहीं जाहिर की, लेकिन इसकी चिंता ने अंततः उन्हें हिमालय की ओर पलायन करने के लिए प्रेरित किया। वे वहां से करनौल गये और फिर तिब्बत, जहां वे कई महीनों तक बोद्ध मठों में रहे, अध्यात्मवादियों व वनवासियों के बीच जीवन बिताया. इस बीच, उनकी मां ने एक चचेरे भाई व पहलवान को उन्हें घर लाने के लिए भेजा. उन्होंने दो बार भागने की कोशिश की, लेकिन वे लौटने के लिए मजबूर हुए. आखिरकार, कादरी अपने रुख पर अड़े रहे. खेत का काम देखे से इनकार ने उनकी मां को परिवार को और आगे बढ़ाने की उम्मीदों को धराशायी कर दिया. कादरी मैट्रिक पास करने वाले अपने गांव के पहले लड़के थे, पर रामगढ़िया कालेज से तीन साल की अंडरग्रेजुएट की डिग्री पूरी करने के बदले उन्होंने पंजाब में जालंधर के एक स्टूडियो में फोटोग्राफर प्यारा सिंह से कला का प्रशिक्षण लिया।\n\n1952 में प्यारा सिंह के इंग्लैंड में आकर बसने के बाद, सोहन जालंधर छोड़कर मुंबई गये। आधुनिकता एक शहरी अवधारणा थी और कला के क्षेत्र में अपनी रुचि को आगे बढ़ाने के क्रम में उन्होंने महसूस किया कि उन्हें गांव के जीवन को पीछे छोड़ना पड़ेगा. कादरी परेल में बसे और मुंबई के अंधेरी में एक प्रारंभिक बॉलीवुड स्टूडियो में एक अचल (स्टिल) फोटोग्राफर के रूप में काम किया। अपनी इच्छित कलात्मक भूख को मिटाने में असमर्थ महसूस कर केवल दो फिल्में करने के बाद उन्होंने इस्तीफा दे दिया. बंबई में रहने के दौरान उन्होंने कला के प्रसिद्ध जे जे स्कूल और आधुनिकतावादी कलाकारों कृष्णा आरा, के.के. हेब्बेर और शांति दवे का पता लगाया.\n\nआरा, हेब्बेर और दवे के माध्यम से सोहन ने ललित कला महाविद्यालयों के अस्तित्व को जाना, जहां विशेष प्रशिक्षण प्राप्त कर सकते थे और 1955 में शिमला के शिमला कॉलेज ऑफ आर्ट में दाखिला लिया। एक प्रख्यात आधुनिक चित्रकार सतीश गुजराल मैक्सिको में डिएगो रिवेरा, फग्रीडा काहलो और डेविड अल्फ्रो सिकोरस के साथ रहने के बाद कॉलेज में अध्यापन करते थे। इसका पाठ्यक्रम लंदन में रॉयल कॉलेज ऑफ आर्ट के आधार पर तैयार किया गया था और वह चित्रकला की राजपूत और मुगल शैली में विशिष्टीकृत था।\n\nएक छात्र के रूप में कादरी ने दिल्ली की कला दीर्घाओं का दौरा किया। उन्होंने प्रसिद्ध कलाकारों सैलोज मुखर्जी और जे स्वामीनाथन से मिले, जो अननोन समूह शुरू करने की प्रक्रिया में थे। वे अग्रणी भारतीय आधुनिकतावादियों एम.एफ. हुसैन, सैयद हैदर रजा, जे स्वामीनाथन और राम कुमार के कलात्मक परिवेश में पूरी तरह डूब गये। युद्ध के बाद की अवधि कादरी जैसे कलाकारों के उभरने के लिए काफी उत्पादक समय बन गया, जिन्होंने पूरी तरह खिली आधुनिकता का सामना किया। कैलकटा ग्रुप (1942) और प्रोग्रेसिव आर्टिस्ट्स ग्रुप सहित उनके पूर्ववर्तियों ने अभिव्यक्ति के कुछ खास भारतीय रूपों और पश्चिमी आधुनिकतावादी सिन्टेक्स के पर आधारित आधुनिकता की शब्दावली को पहले से विकसित कर दिया था। कादरी और उनके समकालीन इस शब्दावली पर अपनी कला को निखारने में समर्थ हुए और यहां तक कि पूर्ववर्तियों के अलंकरण पर निर्भर रहने के विचार को भी खारिज कर दिया, जिसे माना जाता है कि ये प्रारंभिक कलाकार उन्हें सही तौर पर भारतीय के रूप में परिभाषित करने के लिए करते थे।\n\nअपनी डिग्री पूरी करने के बाद, कादरी फगवाड़ा अपने घर लौट आए और तीन साल के लिए फगवाड़ा टीचर्स ट्रेनिंग कॉलेज के संकाय में शामिल हुए. 1961 में, संस्थापक और कला पत्रिका मार्ग के संपादक और लंदन ब्लूम्सबरी समूह के सहयोगी डॉ॰ मुल्कराज आनंद ने कादरी की प्रतिभा को मान्यता दी. एक संकाय प्रदर्शनी में उनके काम को देखने के बाद उन्होंने कादरी को चुना और उनके गांव की यात्रा का वादा किया। आनंद पूरे भारत की युवा प्रतिभा का अनायास समर्थन करते रहे और वे कादरी के पहले बड़े संरक्षक बने. आनंद 1963 में एक वास्तुकार और वास्तुकार ले कोरबिजियर के चचेरे भाई पियरे जिन्नेरेट के साथ फगवाड़ा पहुंचे, जिन्होंने अपने संग्रह के लिए एक चित्रकारी ली.\n\nआनंद और जिन्नेरेट ने कादरी को उनके कार्यों को पंजाब और हरियाणा के नए-नए बने राजधानी नगर चंडीगढ़, जिसकी ले कोरबिजियर ने डिजाइन की, लाने के लिए आमंत्रित किया। कादरी की पहली प्रदर्शनी दूसरे जिन्नेरेट द्वारा डिजाइन की पंजाब विश्वविद्यालय पुस्तकालय कला गैलरी, गांधी भवन में आयोजित होने वाली दूसरी प्रदर्शनी (पहली एम.एफ. हुसैन की थी) थी। इस दौरान सोहन ने सूफी शिक्षक के प्रति भक्ति की निशानी के रूप अपने अंतिम नाम सिंह को हटाकर कादरी रख लिया।\n\nआलोचकों की प्रशंसा प्राप्त करने के बाद, कादरी गंभीरतापूर्वक चित्रकारी करने लगे और जालंधर जैसे छोटे से शहर में खुद को पेरिस के स्कूल के बारे में शि‍क्षा देने लगे. जैसा कि अक्सर यूरोपीय कलात्मक केंद्रों के बाहर रहने वाले कलाकारों के साथ होता है, आधुनिकता को माध्यमिक सामग्री के रूप में देखा गया - विशेष रूप से प्रिंट मीडिया की नजर में. सोहन ने खुद को स्टूडियो इंटरनेशनल, इलस्ट्रेटेड वीकली ऑफ इंडिया और माडर्न रिव्यू साथ ही साथ व्याख्यानों और किताबों को पढ़कर शिक्षित किया। भारतीय कला के विवादास्पद चितेरे फ्रांसिस न्यूटन सूजा और उनके पेरिस में किये गये एडवेंचर के बारे पढ़ने के साथ-साथ कादरी ने आधुनिकता की राजधानी की यात्रा का सपना देखा. इस बीच, उन्होंने मिट्टी और भूसे की गांठों से चाचोकी गांव में एक स्टूडियो का निर्माण किया और खुद को भारतीय और अंतरराष्ट्रीय कला परिदृश्य के बारे में शिक्षा देने लगे.\n\nकादरी ने आलंकारिक काम करना शुरू कर दिया और धीरे-धीरे अमूर्त की ओर बढ़ने लगे और अंततः अनुभवातीत की तलाश के लिए चित्रण को छोड़ दिया. वे कहते हैं, \"जब मैं एक कैनवास पर (चित्रण) प्रारंभ करता हूं, पहले दिमाग को सभी छवियों से खाली कर लेता हूं.\" वे एक आदिकालीन रिक्तता में बिखर जाते हैं। मैं महसूस करता हूं कि केवल खालीपन को ही कैनवास के शून्य के साथ संवाद स्थापित करना चाहिए.\" अपने कई समकालीनों की तरह असन्तुष्ट, कंकरीली शहरी दुनिया से विषय सामग्री लेने के बदले उन्होंने ऐसी विषय सामग्री की तलाश शुरू की, जो आध्यात्मिक भावनाओं को प्रेरित करती हो और भाव या मन:स्थिति से भरी पूर्वी मोड की अभिव्यक्ति की तरफ मोड़ती हो. वे कहते हैं, \"मैं अलंकरण से विमुख हुए बिना पूरी तरह से रंग और रूप पर ध्यान केंद्रित करता था।\"\n\nइस अवधि के दौरान कादरी ने चित्रकला की पद्धति विकसित की, जिसका वह अभी भी उपयोग करते हैं। उन्होंने शुद्ध रंग को तीन श्रेणियों या भागों: काला या गहरा भूरा, गर्म या ठंडा और हल्का, में विभाजित किया। काले रंग से पृथ्वी के तत्व या निचले स्तर का रूप मिलता है। गर्म या ठंडे रंग ऊर्जा निरूपित करते हैं, जिनमें से प्रत्येक एक अलग कंपन (गर्म रहने के समय ऊर्जावान और ठंडे रहने के समय सौम्य) धारण किये हुए होता है और इससे मध्यम स्तर तैयार होता है और हल्के रंग ऊपरी स्तर पर तैयार करते हैं। इससे एक त्रिपक्षीय व्यवस्था की अनुमति मिलती है, जो अवरोही या आरोही क्रम में व्यवस्थित किया जा सकता है।\n\n1962 में कादरी की नई दिल्ली के श्रीधरणी गैलरी में दूसरी प्रदर्शनी लगी. श्रीधरणी प्रदर्शनी के बाद और दिल्ली में रंधावा और डॉ॰ आनंद (तब वे ललित कला अकादमी के अध्यक्ष थे) की मदद से कई दीर्घाओं ने उनके काम में दिलचस्पी ली. उस समय, भारतीय कलाकारों को मोटे तौर पर आधुनिक कला में रुचि रखने वाले कुछ भारतीयों के साथ-साथ राजनयिकों या प्रवासी समुदाय के बीच संरक्षक मिल जाते थे। कादरी की शुरुआती कला के संग्रहकर्ताओं में भारत में बेल्जियम कौंसुल और कनाडा और फ्रांस के राजदूत थे।\n\nअफ्रीका की यात्रा \n\nthumb|left|पा या पा गैलरी में श्री एलिमो जाओ, एच.ई. प्रेम भाटिया और सोहन कादरी, नैरोबी, 1966.\n\nthumb|अनाम, एनडी, कैनवास पर तेल, 45 x 33\"\n\nआनंद के प्रोत्साहन पर कादरी ने भारत के बाहर यात्रा का फैसला लिया और खुद को पूर्णकालिक चित्रकारी में लीन कर लिया। अफ्रीका में उनकी कला का पहला अंतरराष्ट्रीय प्रदर्शन हुआ। कादरी नैरोबी में शादी का एक काल्पनिक निमंत्रण पाने में कामयाब रहे, जिससे उन्हें पासपोर्ट हासिल करने में मदद मिली, जो कि उस समय कठिन काम था। जब यह पता चला कि उन्हें एक यात्री जहाज के सामान रखने की जगह में बंकर क्लास में गरीब मजदूरों के साथ यात्रा करने के लिए नैरोबी रवाना होने के लिए तीन से छह माह तक का इंतजार करना पड़ेगा, तो उन्होंने व उनके एक कवि मित्र ने तुरंत केन्या के मोंबासा की यात्रा के लिए टिकट बुक कराया. आठ दिन की यात्रा पर समय बिताने के लिए उन्होंने अपने सह-यात्रियों के रेखाचित्र बनाने लगे और एक दिन उन्होंने ऊपरी डेक के एक यात्री का रेखाचित्र बनाया. जल्दी ही वहां भीड़ लग गई और हर कोई एक यथार्थवादी शैली में रेखाचित्र चाहने लगा, ‍जिसमें उन्होंने शिमला में महारत हासिल की थी। यात्रा के बाकी समय में उन्होंने भोजन और व्हिस्की के लिए अपने चित्रों का कारोबार किया।\n\nकादरी अपने सभी बड़े चित्र लाये, जो मूल रूप से मुंबई के ताज आर्ट गैलरी में एक प्रदर्शनी के लिए चाकोकी में चित्रित किये गये थे। उन्होंने केन्या में उनकी प्रदर्शनी की आशा व्यक्त की. जब वे मोंबासा में उतरे, तो बंदरगाह के अधिकारियों ने कादरी के चित्रों का टोकरा फुटपाथ पर फेंक दिया है, क्योंकि वे एक कुली का खर्च नहीं उठा सकते थे। कादरी और उनके यात्रा के साथी तीन दिन और रात तक उस टोकरे पर तब तक बैठे रहे, जब तक एक परिचित पहुंचा और उन्हें नैरोबी से 300 मील दूर ले जाने के लिए तैयार हुआ।\n\nनैरोबी में एक बार उन्होंने एलिमो नजाउ से संपर्क किया, एक केन्याई सांस्कृतिक हस्ती थे और अक्सर दिल्ली आते रहते थे। नाजू तंजानिया में पैदा हुए थे और यूगांडा के मैकेरे यूनिवर्सिटी कॉलेज में ललित कला का अध्ययन किया था। समकालीन संस्कृति के एक उत्प्रेरक नजाउ ने दो गैर-लाभकारी दीर्घाओं, नैरोबी में पा-या-पा नाम से और तंजानिया के मारांगू के किबो में, जहां नियमित रूप से अफ्रीकी और अंतरराष्ट्रीय दोनों कलाकारों की नियमित रूप से प्रदर्शनी लगती थी, की स्थापना की. नजाउ ने तुरंत कादरी के कार्य को मान्यता दी, जो उन्होंने दिल्ली की कुनिका आर्ट गैलरी में देखा था। कादरी की प्रदर्शनी को और लोकप्रिय बनाने के लिए उन्होंने एक और शो आयोजित करने की पेशकश की. तब कादरी मुल्क राज आनंद का लिखे एक परिचयात्मक पत्र के साथ केन्या में तत्कालीन भारतीय राजदूत प्रेम भाटिया के पास गये। भाटिया शो का प्रायोजक बनने और प्रदर्शनी को बढ़ावा देने के लिए दूतावास की मशीनरी का उपयोग करने पर सहमत हुए. भाटिया ने 75 पाउंड कीमत देकर पहली पेंटिंग खरीदी. शो में सारे चित्र बिक गये और पूरे नैरोबी में इसकी चर्चा हुई. इस शो के बाद अमेरिकी स्वामित्व वाले और पुन:जीर्णोद्धार किये गये स्टेनली होटल की स्टेनली गैलरी में दूसरी प्रदर्शनी आयोजित की गई, जो समान रूप से सफल रही.\n\nयूरोपीय प्रवास \n\nthumb|left|गैलरी ला फोर्मिय्रे पर सोहन कादरी, ज्यूरिख, 1967.\n\nthumb|अनाम, एनडी, कैनवास पर तेल, 45 x 33\"\n\nthumb|सोहन कादरी, श्रुति द्वितीय, 2008, कागज पर स्याही और रंग, 55 x 39\"\n\nअफ्रीका में अपने प्रवास के बाद कादरी ज्यूरिख चले गये। एक पूर्व प्रेमिका ने अपने वास्तुकार मित्र जार्ज प्लैंग के घर में उनके बैठने की व्यवस्था की. कादरी और प्लैंग के मन मिल गये और प्लैंग ने उन्हें किसी सहयोगी के तिलजेनकैंप कहा जाने वाले विशाल विला की चाबियां दे दी. तिलजेनकैंप में, कादरी ने अपनी पहली यूरोपीय प्रदर्शनी की तैयारी की, जो नवंबर 1966 में ब्रुसेल्स की रोमेन लुइस गैलरी में लगी. यह प्रदर्शनी सम्मा‍नित स्विस कला समीक्षक मार्क कुहन की मदद से आयोतिज की गई थी, हालांकि इसमें तेईस चित्रों का प्रदर्शन किया गया था, पर केवल एक बिकी.\n\nहालांकि उनके पास काफी कम पैसा था, कादरी ने पेंट करना जारी रखा. एक दिन, कुहन ने सुरियिलस्ट रेने मैग्रीटी का कलाकार के स्टुडियो में ही साक्षात्कार लिया तो कादरी को उसमें शामिल होने के लिए कहा. परिचय के बाद, जब वे बात कर रहे थे, कादरी चुपचाप बैठे-बैठे कलाकार के चित्रफलक पर मैग्रीटी के बीजगर्भित कैनवास सेसी ने'स्ट पैस उने पाइप (Ceci n’est pas une pipe) देखते रहे. कुछ ही घंटों के बाद, मैग्रीटी ने घोषणा की कि अब उनके शतरंज खेलने का समय हो गया और कुहन को वापस अगले दिन आकर अपना साक्षात्कार पूरा करना चाहिए. जब कादरी ने उनसे कहा कि वह शिमला में शतरंज चैंपियन रह चुके हैं तो मैग्रीटी ने उन्हें एक गेम के लिए चुनौती दी है और फिर जल्दी ही उन्हें हरा दिया.\n\nकादरी पहले संरक्षक, मुल्क राज आनंद और भारतीय चित्रकार सैयद हैदर रजा से मिलने कुहन के साथ ब्रुसेल्स से पेरिस तक की सड़क यात्रा करने से पहले कादरी ने मॉन्ट्रियल के एक जोड़े को अपने पाँच चित्र बेचे, जो अपनी एक गैलरी खोलने के लिए कनाडा लौटने के रास्ते में थे। पेरिस में एक बार दिसम्बर 1966 में अमंड गैलरी में उन्हें पियरे सुलेज, जॉर्ज माइचक्स, जीन पॉल और लुइस फैटॉक्स सहित प्रमुख यूरोपीय कलाकारों के साथ एक महत्वपूर्ण प्रदर्शनी मिली. सात साल बाद वे मॉन्ट्रियल में एमंड की बहन की गैलरी में अपने कार्य को दिखाने में सक्षम हुए.\n\nजब वे ज्यूरिख लौटे, कादरी को पोलैंड के खुशलीन में एक अंतरराष्ट्रीय कलाकारों के शिविर के लिए एक निमंत्रण मिला, जहां उन्हें दो महीने के लिए अस्थायी आवास, भोजन और चित्र सामग्री दी गई। खुशलीन में द सोउक्स म्युजियम ऑफ माडर्न आर्ट ने उस अवधि के दौरान बनी एक चित्रकारी ले ली. उनके स्टूडियो के बाद दो डेनिश कलाकारों चित्रकारबेंट कॉक और प्रिंटमेकर हेले थोरबोर्ग थे, जो कादरी के काम से प्रभावित थे। 1969 में थोरबोर्ग ने डेनिश सांस्कृतिक मंत्रालय के माध्यम से उन्हें कोपेनहेगन की यात्रा की व्यवस्था की.\n\nकोपेनहेगन जाने से पहले, कादरी ने वियना में गैलरी यूनी जेनरेशन और डी'ओरचाई कहे जाने वाले सरकारी प्रिंटिंग प्रेस में अपने कार्यों को प्रदर्शित किया। उन्होंने म्यूनिख में स्टेनजेल गैलरी में भी अपने चित्र दिखाये और पेरिस में 1968 में कुछ समय तक रहे, जहां उन्होंने अमेरिकी कलाकार मिमी वाज के स्टूडियो को किराए पर लिया। वहां वे भारतीय कलाकार सैयद हैदर रजा, अंजलि इला मेनन, एन विश्वनाथन और निकिता नारायण के साथ पियरे सोलेज और जेम्स माइकोक्स से घुले-मिले, जिनसे वे एमंड गैलरी में मिल चुके थे। उन्होंने प्रसिद्ध प्रिंटमेकर कृष्णा रेड्डी से भी मुलाकात की, जो अपनी पत्नी जुडी रेड्डी और ब्रिटिश पेंटर स्टेनली विलियम हेटर के साथ काम कर रहे थे।\n\nइस समय के दौरान, कादरी ने कैनवास पर इंपैस्टो ऑयल से पेंटिंग बंद कर दी और कागज के साथ प्रयोग किया। हालांकि तेल से बने चित्र बेहतर बिके, कागज वाले चित्र नरम रहे और अधिक स्त्रीवादी लगे तथा उन कार्यों के अधिक अनुकूल लगे जो ध्यान की अवस्था से बाहर विकसित होते हैं। वे कहते हैं, \"जीवों की गहरी अवस्थाओं को प्रयासों से बाहर नहीं निकाला जा सकता\". \"जब मैं स्याही और रंगों के साथ काम करता हूं, मैं कैनवास के साथ लड़ता नहीं हूं. कोई ब्रश स्ट्रोक के बिना कोई चित्रकार नहीं होता. इस फार्म की आभा ही चित्र है।\"\n\nपेरिस में रहने के दौरान डेनिश संस्कृति मंत्रालय ने कादरी को यात्रा व्यय और एक वजीफा के साथ एक प्रदर्शनी की पेशकश की. मंत्रालय के गैलरी निदेशक ने एक पेंटिंग खरीदी, जैसा कि न्यूयार्क की कोर्ट गैलरी के सैम केन्नर ने किया। डेनमार्क के लुइसियाना संग्रहालय के ग्राफिक विभाग के क्रिस्चियन ओबेर्ग ने कई चित्रों को खरीदा और डेनमार्क में कादरी के लिए पांच प्रदर्शनियों की व्यवस्था की.\n\nकोपेनहेगन में जीवन \n\nthumb|left|अपने हेलेरूप स्टूडियो में सोहन कादरी, कोपेनहेगन, 1973\n\nthumb|सोहन कादरी, विघटन III, 2008.कागज पर स्याही और रंग, 55 x 39\"\n\nपेरिस या न्यूयॉर्क जैसे बड़े शहरों की तुलना में शांत कोपेनहेगन उनके लिए एक आदर्श जगह थी, जिसमें वे शांत, ध्यानापरक कला रूप गढ़ सकते थे। कादरी शुरू में डेनिश आर्ट सोसायटी के चेयरमैन डॉ॰ काज बोर्क के साथ रहते थे, लेकिन, क्योंकि उन्होंने एक बार कई प्रदर्शनियों की व्यवस्था की थी, उन्हें एक स्टूडियो की जरूरत थी। बोर्क की बेटी ने कादरी का डॉ॰ फ्रिट्ज स्कीमिट्टो से परिचय कराया, जो एक सनकी रईस थे और खुद एक बड़े विला में रहते थे। स्कीमिट्टो डेनिश मंत्रालय में एक अर्थशास्त्री थे, जिन्होंने उसी कार्यालय में उसी कुर्सी पर डेनमार्क के प्रति व्यक्ति आय की गणना करते हुए पैंतीस वर्ष तक काम किया था। दो साल पहले अपनी माँ की मौत के बाद से वह असामान्य रूप से अंतर्मुखी हो गये थे और किसी के साथ बहुत कम संपर्क रखते थे।\n\nभारतीय दूतावास के पास कोपेनहेगन के हेलेरप क्षेत्र में स्थत वह विला मुक्त आकाश में उड़ते पंछियों, मछलियों, कुत्तों और कछुओं से भरा हुआ था। धूल से ढंके कई ऊपरी कमरों में से एक में विशाल खिलौना रेलगाड़ी थी और दूसरे में स्कीमिट्टो की माँ के कपड़े ठीक उसी तरह रखे हुए थे, जिस दिन वह मरी थीं। स्कीमिट्टो ने केवल यही पूछा कि कहां के हैं, उनका पेशा क्या है और क्या वे विला के विषम वातावरण में पेंट कर सकते हैं। जब कादरी ने कहा कि वे ऐसा कर सकते हैं, तो स्कीमिट्टो ने उन्हें रहने के लिए आमंत्रित किया और कादरी एक संक्षिप्त अवधि को छोड़कर वहां अठारह वर्षों तक रहे.\n\nकोपेनहेगन में बसने के कुछ वर्षों बाद 1973 में कादरी अपने सबसे महत्वपूर्ण दूसरे संरक्षक व नोबेल पुरस्कार विजेता हेनरिक बॉल से मिले. जर्मनी के कोलोन में बोडो गालुआब गैलरी में एक शो के दौरान एक सम्मानित लेखक से उनका परिचय कराया गया. बॉल ने कई चित्रों को खरीदा और कादरी के काम के बारे में लिखा. इसके अलावा इस अवधि के दौरान कादरी ने अमेरिकी ड्रग के नशे के आदी चित्रकार लिंडा वुड और पेरे बाचो के साथ एक पुराने बंदूक कारखाने दायित्व संभाला और क्रिश्चियाना नाम के एक मुक्त शहर से परिचित होने में मदद मिली, जो अभी भी कोपेनहेगन में मौजूद है। समय के साथ क्रिश्चियाना में सब कुछ सबके लिए उपलब्ध था। यहां कोई गोपनीयता नहीं थी और हशीस खुले में बाजार में उपलब्ध थी। हालांकि उन्होंने इस खुलेपन का मज़ा लिया, लेकिन यह काम करने के लिए एक असंभव वातावरण था। छह महीने बाद, कादरी हेलेरप लौट आये, जहां वे 1986 में डॉ॰ शिमिट्टो की मृत्यु तक बने रहे. अंततः वह सरकार द्वारा प्रायोजित कलाकारों के आवास में चले आये, जहां वह आज भी रह रहे हैं।\n\nहालांकि वे कैनवास पर काम करते रहे, पर 1970 के मध्य से कागज कादरी का पसंदीदा माध्यम बन गया. वे कहते हैं, \"मुझे सदा एक माध्यम की तलाश थी, जहां प्रयास अनावश्यक हो. जीवन की गहरी अवस्थाएं प्रयास से बाहर नहीं लायी जातीं.\" वे कहते हैं। वे कहते हैं कि उनका काम दार्शनिक किस्म का नहीं है, यह सोच की प्रक्रिया को उत्तेजित करने के लिए नहीं होना चाहिये. इसके विपरीत, उनका उद्देश्य विचार प्रक्रिया को कैद करना है, जैसा कि ध्यानावस्था में होता है, जिसका कादरी हर रोज अभ्यास करते थे और सिखाते भी थे।\n\nमोटे तौर पर कादरी एक रंग वाली सतहों पर काम करते है, जिसमें वे छेद और दानेदार बिंदुओं के साथ प्रवेश करते हैं। बौद्ध विद्वान रॉबर्ट थुरमैन ने उनके बिंदुओं और दानेदार आकृतियों को \"ऊर्जा के उज्ज्वल बुलबुलों\" के रूप में वर्णित किया है। कादरी कागज को इन चिह्नों एक तीन आयामी सतह में बदल देते हैं। इस तथ्य के बावजूद कि वे उत्तरी यूरोप में रहते है, भारतीय लोकाचार की भावना उनकी कला में पूरी तरह मौजूद है। उनके रंग चमकदार- सिंदूरी लाल, मयूरी नीले, गहरा संतरा रंग और यहां तक कि गहरा काला और भूरा हैं और साफ़ तौर पर भारतीय हैं। रंग फीके है और लगता है कि कागज से रिस रहे हैं। रंगों द्वारा पैदा किया गया कंपन अनंत हैं और छवि के भीतर के स्थान और दर्शक के बाह्य स्थान के बीच की सीमा को तोड़ता है।\n\n1980 के दशक और 1990 के दशक के दौरान कादरी की कलात्मक उत्पादकता बढ़ी है और उन्हें लॉस एंजिल्स, कोपेनहेगन, नैरोबी, नई दिल्ली, मुंबई, सिंगापुर और न्यूयॉर्क में प्रदर्शनियों के लिए आमंत्रित किया गया था। हालांकि उन्होंने कभी शादी नही की, पर दो पार्टनरों, एक केरल की ईसाई और दूसरे एक अन्य फिन से अपने तीन बच्चे को पालने में मदद की. यह वही समय था, जब उन्होंने भारत के पंजाब में एक प्राचीन व्यापार मार्ग पर एक आध्यात्मिक मृतिका कला परियोजना, एक ज्ञान स्तंभ या ज्ञान स्तूप बनाने की योजना बनानी शुरू की. ये संरचनाएं अंततः देश की कई एकड़ जमीन पर बनेंगी और इन्हें ज्ञान और शांति के लिए समर्पित किया जाएगा. स्तूप का निर्माण प्रगति पर है। अपनी कला गढ़ने के साथ-साथ, कादरी ने स्कैडिनेविया में उन्नत स्तर के छात्रों को ध्यानावस्था का पाठ पढ़ाना जारी रखा है।\n\nकादरी ने अपने पूरे करियर के दौरान सफलतापूर्वक अलग-अलग संस्कृतियों में जीवन जिया. वह कहते हैं, \"मैं अपने आप को एक जगह, राष्ट्र या समुदाय तक सीमित नहीं करना चाहता था।\" \"मेरा जीवन के प्रति दृष्टिकोण सार्वभौमिक है और ऐसी ही मेरी कला है।\"\n\nउद्धरण \n\nthumb|सोहन कादरी, अगामास, 2008.कागज पर स्याही और रंग, 55 x 39\"\n\nthumb|सोहन कादरी, तृप्ति सातवीं, 2008.कागज पर स्याही और रंग, 55 x 39\"\n\nयह सोहन कादरी के ज्ञान और कला का परिचय कराने का विशेषाधिकार है, यहां तक कि इस जैसे छोटे रूप में. ऐसी कला का लक्ष्य सिर्फ सिद्धांत पैदा करना नहीं होता. इसका किसी तरह का उद्देश्य नहीं हो सकता है। यह अपने भागीदार को वह जीवंत आयाम खोलने के लिए आमंत्रित करता है, जहां से यह पैदा होता है। यह कलाकार के वास्तविकता के अनुभव के खेत में फलता-फूलता है। वह भ्रम के माध्यम से देखने के बाद शुद्ध सौंदर्य के रूप में विखंडित हो जाता है और मुक्त उड़ान भरता है। वास्तविक स्वतंत्रता खुद को जाल में नहीं फंसाती, यह एक साथ ही खुद से मुक्त है और इसलिए दूसरों के लिए खुशी और प्यार से भ्रम को बाहर में संलग्न होती है। धोखा दे रहा भ्रम मुक्ति प्रदान करने के जादू में तब्दील हो जाता है। ज्ञान कलाकार को आनंद सागर में छोड़ता है। आनंद अनायास दूसरों को प्यार भरी आंखों से देखता है, आगे उनमें भी आनंद की चाह तैयार करता है। कलाकार सौंदर्य के स्थान की कल्पना करता है, जहां उसका अनुभव दूसरे के अनुभव छू सके है।\n\nडॉ॰ रॉबर्ट थुरमैन\n\nकलाकार होते हैं। तांत्रिक कलाकार होते हैं। जहाँ तक मुझे पता है, ऐसे तांत्रिक योगी नहीं होते, जो साथ-साथ कलाकार भी हों. सोहन कादरी एक अपवाद है। वह एक असाधारण कलाकार है। वे योग की कला में निपुण मास्टर (गुरु) है। वह पेंटिंग की कला में निपुण गुरु है। वह अभ्यास करने वाले एक तांत्रिक योगी हैं, जो समय-समय पर वर्जित खाद्य पदार्थ खाने, शराब पीने और व्यभिचार में लिप्त अनुष्ठान (पंच-मकार) करते हैं। इस मामले में कानून तोड़ कर वह एक तरह से विधायक बन जाते हैं।\n\nएक मूर्तिवादी बनने के लिए किसी को छवियों का निर्माण करने के बारे में पता होना चाहिए. कानून तोड़ने के लिए किसी को \nएक विद्वान वकील होना चाहिए.'कादरी एक विद्वान आदमी है। वह एक पुण्यात्मा हैं, जिनसे एक प्रभामंडल उत्पन्न होता है। उन्हें एक जाली संत के रूप में बताने की कोशिश करो या बेनकाब करो और वह एक महान कलाकार के रूप में उभरेगा. उनकी कला को छल घोषित करने की कोशिश करो और वे एक महान विद्वान के रूप में उभरेंगे. उनके ज्ञान को झूठा साबित करने की कोशिश करें और यह साबित हो जायेगा कि उनमें ये सभी तीन-साधुता, सौंदर्यशास्त्र और ज्ञान मौजूद हैं।\n\nमेरे मन में कोई शक नहीं है कि सोहन कादरी एक दुर्लभ और मौलिक भागीदार के रूप में उभर रहा है। आप उनकी चित्रकारी को यंत्रों या मंडलों के रूप में देख सकते हैं और उन्हें मंत्रों जैसे शब्दों के रूप में वर्णित सकते हैं। आप उनकी चित्रकारी में कुंडलिनी नाम की 'भुजंग-सत्ता' या शक्ति का प्रतीकात्मक प्रतिनिधित्व देख सकते हैं, जिसे मेरूदंड के अंतिम छोर पर घुमावदार आकृति में स्थित बताया जाता है। आप उनकी चित्रकारी को सिर्फ रूप या रंग के रूप में देख सकते हैं और उनका एक शुद्ध कला के रूप में आनंद उठा सकते हैं। इससे कोई अंतर नहीं पड़ता कि आप किस कोण से देख रहे हैं, पर यह एक महान दृष्टिकोण का खुलासा करता है, जो रहस्यवाद है। इसके सौंदर्यशास्त्र में, भावना के साथ सखा का मिलन चरमोत्कर्ष तक पहुंचता है।\n\nसोहन कादरी एक गुरु हो सकते हैं। वह एक तांत्रिक बाबा हो सकते है। वह कला से असंबद्ध कुछ भी हो सकते हैं। मेरे लिए वह एक विलक्षण कलाकार है। अजित मुखर्जी की पुस्तक तंत्र कला (जिसकी मैंने स्टूडियो इंटरनेशनल में समीक्षा की थी, दिसंबर 1996) में कहा, गया है \"यह आश्चर्यजनक है कि कई महान भारतीय कलाकार अंतत: संत बन गये।\" लेकिन सोहन कादरी के साथ मुझे लगता है कि उल्टा हुआ, लेकिन शायद फिर से वापस लौटने के लिए.-एफ. एन. सूजा (चित्रकार और लेखक), \nन्यूयॉर्क, जून 1976\n\nकादरी की कला का संपूर्ण कार्य शून्यता के सिद्धांत को इस सौंदर्यात्मक प्रत्यक्षीकरण के रूप में प्राप्त करना है। चाहे उनके प्रतीक खालीपन पर जोर देते हों, जैसा कि नयन और अंकुर के उदास कर रहे अंधेरे, साथ ही शून्यता चतुर्थ के अंधेरे से घिरे प्रकाश का खालीपन या बीज, जैसे कि बीज के उत्तेजनात्मक रूप से जीवंत रंग, आस्था और धर्म क्यों न हो. मैं मानता हूं कि वे शून्य और बीज के द्वंद्वात्मकता के साथ तनावग्रस्त रहते हैं, जो रचनात्मकता का द्वंद्व है।-डोनाल्ड कुस्पिटअतिक्रमण का संदेश देने के लिए अमूर्त का उपयोग कर वे आधुनिकता के पूर्व प्रख्यात सौंदर्यवादी रहस्य हैं।-डोनाल्ड कुस्पिट'''\n\nचयनित बिब्लियोग्राफी (ग्रन्थ सूची) \n\n2009 वंडरस्टैंड: द पोएम्स \"एफोरिज्म्स\" एंड \"द डौट एंड द डौट्स\", बिंदु प्रकाशक, स्टॉकहोम, स्वीडन. ISBN 978-91-977894-0-0.\n\n2007 सोहन कादरी: प्रेसेंस ऑफ़ बीइंग, सुंदरम टैगोर इंक, न्यूयॉर्क, संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका. ISBN 81-88204-35-8.\n\n2005 सीकर: द आर्ट ऑफ़ सोहन कादरी, मैपिन प्रकाशन, न्यूयॉर्क, संयुक्त राज्य अमरीका\n\n1999 साक्षी, द्रष्टा, आर्ट और डील, नई दिल्ली, भारत\n\n1995 अंतरजोती, पंजाबी सूत्र, नव युग, नई दिल्ली, भारत\n\n1995 अफोरिसमर, अंग्रेजी सूत्र के डेनिश अनुवाद,\n ओमेंस फॉरलैंग, डेनमार्क\n\n1990 बूंद समुन्दर, पंजाबी सूत्र, अमृतसर, नई दिल्ली, भारत\n द डॉट एंड द डॉट्स, अंग्रेजी सूत्र, राइटर्स\n कार्यशाला, कोलकाता, भारत\n \n1987 मिट्टी मिट्टी, पंजाबी सूत्र, नव युग, नई दिल्ली, भारत\n\n1978 द डॉट एंड द डॉट्स कविता एवं चित्र, स्टॉकहोम, स्वीडन. ISBN 91-85778-00-1.\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n सोहन कादरी वेबसाइट\n सुंदरम टैगोर गैलरी\n sohanqadri.com\n Beliefnet.com पर साक्षात्कार बिलिफनेट Beliefnet\n बिंदु मैगज़ीन पर साक्षात्कार\n बिंदु मैगज़ीन पर सोहन कादरी द्वारा योगिनी : अनुच्छेद\n\nश्रेणी:1932 में जन्मे लोग\nश्रेणी:जीवित लोग\nश्रेणी:भारतीय चित्रकार\nश्रेणी:डेनिश चित्रकार\nश्रेणी:कपूरथला के लोग\nश्रेणी:भारतीय मूल के डेनिश लोग", "किला\nright|thumb|300px|राजस्थान के कुम्भलगढ़ का क़िला - यह एशिया के सबसे बड़े क़िलों में से एक है।\nशत्रु से सुरक्षा के लिए बनाए जानेवाले वास्तु का नाम क़िला या दुर्ग है। इन्हें 'गढ़' और 'कोट' भी कहते हैं। दुर्ग, पत्थर आदि की चौड़ी दीवालों से घिरा हुआ वह स्थान है जिसके भीतर राजा, सरदार और सेना के सिपाही आदि रहते है। नगरों, सैनिक छावनियों और राजप्रासादों सुरक्षा के लिये क़िलों के निर्माण की परंपरा अति प्राचीन काल से चली आ रही है। आधुनिक युग में युद्ध के साधनों और रण-कौशल में वृद्धि तथा परिवर्तन हो जाने के कारण क़िलों का महत्व समाप्त हो गया है और इनकी कोई आवशकता नहीं रही।\n\nपरिचय एवं इतिहास \nवैदिककालीन साहित्य में पुरों का जिस रूप में उल्लेख है उससे ज्ञात होता है कि उन दिनों दुर्ग से घिरी बस्तियाँ हुआ करती थीं। ऋग्वेद तक में दुर्ग का उल्लेख है। दस्युओं के ९६ दुर्गों को इंद्र ने ध्वस्त किया था। \n\nमनु ने छह प्रकार के दुर्ग लिखे हैं- \n\n धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गम् अब्दुर्गं वार्क्षम् एव वा। \n नृदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं वा समाश्रित्य वसेत् पुरम् ॥\n सर्वेण तु प्रयत्नेन गिरिदुर्गं समाश्रयेत्। \n एषां हि बाहुगुण्येन गिरिदुर्गं विशिष्यते ॥ (मनुस्मृति ७.७०–७१)\n\n (१) धनुदुर्ग, जिसके चारों ओर निर्जल प्रदेश हो, \n (२) महीदुर्ग, जिसके चारो ओर टेढ़ी मेढ़ी जमीन हो, \n (३) जलदुर्ग (अब्दुर्ग), जिसके चारों ओर जल हो, \n (४) वृक्षदुर्ग, जिसके चारो ओर घने वृक्ष हों, \n (५) नरदुर्ग जिसके चारों ओर सेना हो, और \n (६) गिरिदुर्ग, जिसके चारों ओर पहाड़ हो या जो पहाड़ पर हो।\n\nमहाभारत में युधिष्ठिर ने जब भीष्म से पूछा है कि राजा को कैसे पुर में रहना चाहिए तब भीष्म जी ने ये ही छह प्रकार के दुर्ग गिनाए हैं और कहा है कि पुर ऐसे ही दुर्गों के बीच में होना चाहिए। मनुस्मृति और महाभारत दोनों में कोष, सेना, अस्त्र, शिल्पी, ब्राह्मण, वाहन, तृण, जलाशय अन्न इत्यादि का दुर्ग के भीतर रहना आवश्यक कहा गया है। अग्निपुराण, कल्किपुराण आदि में भी दुर्गों के उपर्युक्त छह भेद बतलाए गए हैं।\n\nपुरातात्विक उत्खनन से मोहनजोदड़ो, हड़प्पा, रूपड़ आदि पुरा-ऐतिहासिक नगरों के जो अवशेष प्रकाश में आए हैं उनसे ज्ञात होता हैं कि उन दिनों नगरों के दो खंड होते थे; एक खंड ऊँचे प्राचीरों से घिरा होता था। ऐतिहासिक काल के क़िले के प्राचीनतम अवशेष राजगृह में पत्थरों से बने प्राचीर के रूप में प्राप्त हुए हैं। पाटलिपुत्र के क़िले के जो कुछ थोड़े से चिह्न मिले हैं, उनसे ऐसा जान पड़ता हैं कि प्राचीरों के निर्माण में लकड़ी का प्रयोग किया गया था। मौर्यकाल में मेगास्थनीज नामक जो यवन राजदूत आया था उसने इस क़िले का विशद वर्णन किया हैं। उसने लिखा है कि पाटलिपुत्र नगर नौ मील लंबा और लगभग दो मील चौड़ा है जो चारों ओर 600 हाथ चौड़ी और 30 हाथ गहरी खाँईं से घिरा है। इसके चारों ओर काठ की सुदृढ़ दीवार बनाई गई है जिसमें 500 बुर्ज हैं और 64 मजबूत फाटक लगे हैं। कौशांबी के उत्खनन में क़िले की दीवार के जो अंशप्रकाश में आए हैं, वे पक्की ईटों से जड़े हुए हैं। राजघाट (वाराणसी) के उत्खनन में गंगा के किनारे कच्ची मिट्टी के ठोस प्राचीर के अंश प्रकाश में आए थे। किंतु इन सबसे प्राचीन क़िलों का पूर्ण स्वरूप सामने नहीं आता। एरण (जिला सागर, मध्य प्रदेश) में, जो गुप्त काल में एक प्रसिद्ध नगर था, काफी दूर तक दुर्ग के अवशेष मिले हैं। उनके अध्ययन से ज्ञात होता है कि उस नगर को इस प्रकार बसाया गया था कि नदियाँ खाईं का काम दें। तीन ओर से वह वीणा नदी से घिरा हुआ था, चौथी ओर दो अन्य छोटी नदियाँ थीं, जो नगर के पश्चिमी भाग में बहती थीं और चौथी ओर वीणा नदी में गिरती थीं। नदियों द्वारा बने इस प्राकृतिक खाई के भीतर दुर्ग का प्राचीर था जो कदाचित्‌ एकदम खड़ी दीवारों से बना था और उनमें ऊँची गोल बुर्जियाँ रही होगी।\n\nकौटिल्य के अर्थशास्त्र के अनुसार छोटे क़िलों को संग्रहण, उनसे बड़े को द्रोणमुख और सबसे बड़े क़िलों के दो रूप बताए गए हैं-\n\n(1) अकृत्रिम, अर्थात्‌ जल, पर्वत, वन आदि से सुरक्षित और \n(2) कृत्रिम, ईंट पत्थर आदि से बने। \n\nसोमेश्वररचित मानसोल्लास में दुर्गों के निम्नलिखित ८ प्रकार बताये गये हैं- \n जलदुर्ग (water-fort), गिरिदुर्ग (mountain-fort), पाषाणदुर्ग (stone-fort), इष्टिकादुर्ग (brick-fort), मृत्तिकादुर्ग (earthen-fort), वनदुर्ग (forest-fort), मरुदुर्ग (desert -fort), दारुदुर्ग (wooden-fort), नरदुर्ग (man-fort)।\n\nसाम्रज्यलक्ष्मीपीठिका में नौ प्रकार के दुर्गों की विशेषताएँ (लक्षणम्) दिये गये हैं।\n ''गिरिदुर्गलक्षणम्, वनदुर्गलक्षणम्, गह्वरदुर्गलक्षणम्, जलदुर्गलक्षणम्, पंकदुर्गलक्षणम्, मिश्रदुर्गलक्षणम्, नृदुर्गलक्षणम्, कोष्ठदुर्गलक्षणम् (अध्याय ३३ में)\n\nशिल्पशास्त्र के अन्य ग्रंथों में इनका विस्तृत रूप में निम्नलिखित समूहों में विभाजन किया गया है-\n\n1. पर्वतीय दुर्ग \n नगरदुर्ग (क) प्रातंर (ख) गिरिसमीपक तथा (ग) गुहादुर्ग\n\n2. जलदुर्ग \n(क) अंतर्द्वीपीय (ख) स्थलदुर्ग\n\n3. धान्वनदुर्ग \n(क) निरूदक (ख) ऐरण\n\n4. वनदुर्ग \n(क) खाजन (ख) स्तंब गहन\n\n5. महीदुर्ग \n(क) पारिध (ख) पंक तथा (ग) मृद्दुर्ग\n\n6. नृदुर्ग \n(क) सैन्यदुर्ग (ख) सहायदुर्ग\n\n7. मिश्रदुर्ग - (पर्वतवन्य)\n\n8. दैवदुर्ग\n\nमध्यकाल \nभारत के मध्यकालीन क़िलों के संबंध में बातें कुछ अधिक विस्तार से ज्ञात होती हैं। सामान्यत: क़िलों की दीवारें बड़ी चौड़ी तथा ऊँची बनाई जाती थीं जिनमें बीच में ऊँची बुर्जे तथा विशाल फाटक होते थे। इस काल के छोटी-छोटी पहाड़ियों पर बनाए गए क़िले बहुत बड़ी संख्या में पाए जाते हैं। राजस्थान तथा दक्षिणी भारत के क़िले प्राय: पहाड़ियों पर ही बनाए गए हैं और कुछ क़िले मीलों की परिधि में बने हैं, जो क़िले पहाड़ियों पर बने हैं उनमें दोहरी-तीहरी चहारदीवारियाँ हैं। सबसे ऊँची चहारदीवारी के भीतर मुख्य दुर्ग होता था। प्राय: क़िलों की परिधि में नगर तथा मुख्य दुर्ग दोनों ही रहते थे। मुख्य दुर्ग के एक ओर ऊँची पहाड़ी या नदी का किनारा होता था। दुर्गनिर्माण कराते समय उन मार्गों की रक्षा पर विशेष ध्यान दिया जाता था जिनसे होकर शत्रु क़िले में आ सकते थे या आक्रमण कर सकते थे। सामान्य रूप से क़िले के निर्माण के लिये किसी ऊँची पहाड़ी को चुना जाता था जिसकी ढालू चट्टानों पर पहुँचना कठिन होता था। जिस ओर से शत्रु के चढ़ आने की आशंका होती थी उस ओर की चट्टानों को काटकर ऐसा ढलवाँ मार्ग बना दिया जाता था जिससे एक ही दीवार द्वारा उसकी रक्षा हो जाती थी और दूसरी पहाड़ी बिल्कुल सीधी और खड़ी होती थी। कहीं-कहीं इन ढलवाँ मार्गों में चार से लेकर सात तक दृढ़ द्वार बने होते थे। क़िलों की बाहरी दीवार समतल भूमि पर बनाई जाती थीं, जिसको चौड़ी और गहरी दीवार की रक्षा खाइयों द्वारा सुरक्षित किया जाता था। यदि क़िला नदी के किनारे स्थित होता तो एक ओर से नदी उसके रक्षा करती थीं और शेष और खाइयाँ। खाइयाँ उठवाँ पुल द्वारा पार की जाती थी, जैसा आगरे के क़िले में है। यदि क़िला पहाड़ी पर होता था तो उसकी बाहरी दीवारों की रक्षा भी इसी प्रकार होती थी, जैसी जिंजी तथा गोलकुंडा में हैं। दौलताबाद के मुख्य क़िले के प्रवेश द्वार की रक्षा गहरी खाइयों द्वारा की जाती थी जिनमें सदैव पानी भरा रहता था। बीदर में नगर के चारों ओर खाइयों के अतिरिक्त क़िलों के रक्षार्थ तेहरी जलदार खाइयाँ बनाई गई थीं। कुछ क़िलों की दीवारों की मोटाई 31 से 35 फीट तक है, विशेषकर उन दीवारों की जो समतल भूमि पर बनाई गई हैं। पहाड़ी क़िलों में पहाड़ी को ढलवाँ बना दिया जाता था। ये दीवारें अंदर तथा बाहर की ओर पत्थर के बड़े-बड़े टुकड़ों से बनाई जाती थी और इन दोनों के बीच मार्ग प्राय: मिट्टी से भर दिया जाता था। कुछ क़िलों में दोहरी दीवारें रखी गई थीं जिनके बीच बहुत कम दूरी है और अंदरवाली दीवार से काफी ऊँची है, जैसा गोलकुंडा तथा तुगलकाबाद और आगरा के क़िलों में है। दीवार को गरगजों या बुर्जों द्वारा और भी दृढ़ बना दिया जाता था।\n\nक़िले की रक्षा मोर्चा बंदीवाली दीवारों से होती थी। इनमें प्राय: आकार में साढे तीन इंच चौड़े तीन फुट ऊँचे समानांतर झरोखे होते थे। चित्तौड़ के कि़ले में ये झरोखे 3.5 इंच चौड़े तथा 3 फुट ऊँचे और तुगलकाबाद के क़िले में 6 इंच चौड़े तथा 6 फुट ऊँचे हैं। दिल्ली के पुराने क़िले में झरोखों की तीन और तुगलकाबाद में चार पंक्तियाँ हैं। प्राय: क़िलों में छाती तक ऊँचे परकोटे ईटं द्वारा पुन: निर्मित हुए हैं जिनमें से बहुत से ऊपर की ओर वर्गाकार है जिन्हें संभवत: गोली बरसाने के उद्देश्य से बनाया गया होगा। बीजापुर, फतहपुर सीकरी तथा आगरा जैसे कुछ क़िलों में झरोखों के बाहरी भाग में गोली चलाने के लिए सैनिकों रक्षा के हेतु पत्थर की छतरियाँ बनी हुई हैं।\n\nदृढ़ता की दृष्टि से क़िले के फाटकों में भी विभिन्नता दिखाई देती हैं, यद्यपि ये प्राय: बड़े, भारी भरकम एवं दृढ बनाए जाते थे। कुछ क़िलों में तीन-तीन फाटकों की व्यवस्था की गई है जिनके मध्य आँगन भी हैं, जैसे जिंजी तथा दौलताबाद में। दौलताबाद के क़िले में तीनों द्वारों में से सबसे बाहरी द्वार में दो दरवाजे हैं, एक तो प्रवेश के स्थान पर और दूसरा आँगन में खुलता है और इन दोनों के बीच का स्थान मेहराबदार मार्ग बन जाता है।\n\nक़िलों के दरवाजे भारी तथा दृढ़ लकड़ी के बनाए जाते थे जो 6 इंच तक मोटे होते थे। पीछे की ओर लकड़ी के मजबूत बेलनों द्वारा दरवाजे को और भी दृढ़ बना दिया जाता था। बाहर की ओर इन लकड़ी के द्वारों पर प्राय: धातु की नुकीली मेखें, जो विभिन्न आकार की तथा 3 इंच से 13 इंच तक लंबी होती थीं, लगाई जाती थीं, ताकि हाथी टक्कर मार मारकर द्वार तोड़ न डालें। दरवाजे के एक पट पर एक खिड़की भी लगा दी जाती थीं जो आकार में 3 फुट चौड़ी तथा 4 फुट ऊँची होती थीं। इस खिड़की में भी नुकीली मेखें ठोंक दी जाती थीं। दरवाजा बंद करने के बाद एक भारी मूसली इस ओर से उस ओर तक हन दी जाती थीं जिससे द्वार बिल्कुल न हिल सकें। बीजापुर के क़िले के शाहपुर द्वार में तथा अहमदनगर के क़िले में भी यही व्यवस्था थी। क़िले के अवरोध के समय दरवाजे के समक्ष एक भारी जंजीर इस सिरे से उस सिरे तक डाल दी जाती थी। दुर्गों में जल तथा खाद्य सामग्री का पर्याप्त प्रबंध होता था। ठोस चट्टानों का काटकर बड़े बड़े जलकुंड भी बना दिए जाते थे ताकि वर्षाकाल में पानी एकत्र हो जाए और आक्रमण के समय क़िले के निवासियों को पानी की कोई कमी न हो। जीवन की सभी सुविधाएँ इन क़िलों में उपलब्ध रहती थीं और से क़िले छोटे-मोटे सुंदर नगर का रूप धारण किए रहते थे।\n\nईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी ने यूरोपीय और भारतीय क़िलों के मिश्रित रूप के क़िले मद्रास और कलकत्ता में बनवाए थे।\n\nअन्य देशों में \nriht|thumb|300px|वारविकशायर का केनिलवर्थ दुर्ग\nभारत के बाहर अन्यत्र क़िले का इतिहास अधिक प्राचीन नहीं है। वहाँ क़िले का प्राचीनतम और विशाल रूप चीन की दीवार के रूप में देखने में आता है। ईसा से लगभग ढाई सौ वर्ष पूर्व चिन वंश के सम्राट् शिह-हांग-त्सी ने चीन देश की सीमा पर चारों ओर एक अत्यंत विशाल, लंबी, चौड़ी और मजबूत प्राचीर का निर्माण आरम्भ कराया था। प्राचीन यूनान और रोम में भी क़िलों का निर्माण हुआ था और उनका अपना महत्व था किंतु यूरोप में क़िलों का इतिहास मध्य युग से ही आरम्भ होता है। प्राचीनकाल क़िले नगरों की प्रतिरक्षा के उद्देश्य से बनते थे किन्तु मध्यकालीन क़िले टापुओं, पहाड़ियों, दलदल के मध्य सूखी भूमि एवं अन्य दुर्गम स्थानों पर बनाए जाने लगे। जहाँ कहीं प्राकृतिक प्रतिरक्षा के स्थान प्राप्त नहीं थे, खाई खोद ली जाया करती थी। पूर्व के देशों के क़िलों ने भी क्रूसेड़ों (धर्मयुद्धों) के सैनिकों को अत्यधिक प्रभावित किया जिसके फलस्वरूप उन्होनें अपने क़िलों की निर्माणविधि में उचित उन्नति की। बारूद के आविष्कार ने यूरोप में क़िलों के निर्माण की आवश्यकताओं में और भी परिवर्तन कर दिए।\n\nयूरोप की सामंती प्रथा में क़िलों को विशेष स्थान प्राप्त हुआ। ऐंगलो-सैक्सन युग के क़िलों में वास्तुकला संबंधी कोई विशेषता नहीं थीं। किंतु 11वीं सदी ईस्वी में नार्मेनयुग के क़िलों में खास तौर पर वास्तुकला की ओर ध्यान दिया जाने लगा। श्रॉपशायर के स्टोकसे कैसिल और वारविकशायर के केनिलवर्थ कैसिल उस समय की वास्तुकला के बड़े ही सुंदर उदाहरण हैं। इन क़िलों की विशेष इनकी खाइयाँ एवं इनके कई कई खंडों के भवन हैं।\n\nभारत के प्रमुख दुर्ग \n\n दिल्ली का लाल क़िला\n आगरा का लाल क़िला\n ग्वालियर का क़िला\n मांडू का क़िला\n चित्तौड़गढ़ दुर्ग\n कोट का क़िला (राजस्थान)\n जोधपुर का क़िला (राजस्थान)\n अम्बेर का क़िला (राजस्थान)\n बीकानेर क़िला\n किशनगढ़ का क़िला\n बीजापुर का क़िला\n गोलकुंडा का क़िला (आंध्रपदेश)\n वारंगल का क़िला (आंध्रपदेश)\n फोर्ट विलियम (पश्चिमी बंगाल)\n फोर्ट सेंट विलियम (मद्रास)\n दमन और दीव का क़िला\n दौलताबाद का क़िला\n रोहतास गढ़ का क़िला\n भानगढ़ का क़िला\n\n पद्मदुर्ग क़िला\n नमक्कल क़िला\n मेहरानगढ़ क़िला\n मुरुद जंजीरा क़िला\n क़िला राय पिथौरा\n चौरागढ़ क़िला\n खिमसर का क़िला\n लूनी क़िला\n रोहट क़िला\n सबलगढ़ क़िला\n समरथगढ़\n कोट कांगड़ा (कांगड़ा का क़िला)\n नरवर दुर्ग\n\nसंदर्भ ग्रंथ \n सर सैयद अहमद खाँ : आसारूस्सनादीद;\n शुक्ल, द्विजेंद्रनाथ : भारतीय वास्तुशास्त्र\n रिजवी : खिलजीकालीन भारत;\n तुगलककालीन भारत, भाग 1;\n दि कैंब्रिज हिस्ट्री ऑव इंडिया, भाग 3, 4;\n ब्राउन पर्सी : इंडियन आर्किटेक्चर;\n फर्ग्युसन, जेम्स : ए शार्ट हिस्ट्री ऑव इंडियन ऐंड ईस्टर्न आर्किटेक्चर;\n फ़ेशर, सर बैनिस्टर : ए हिस्ट्री ऑव आर्किटेक्चर आन द कं पैरेटिव मेथड;\n सिडनी टाय: दि कैसिल्स ऑच ग्रेट ब्रिटेन ;\n ए हिस्ट्री ऑव फोर्टिफ़िकेशन, दि स्ट्रागहोल्ड्स ऑव इंडिया।\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n क़िलाबंदी\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n दुर्गों का राजस्थान के परिप्रेक्ष्य में एक परिचय\n आओ किला फतह करें\n Top 100 of Medieval Castles\n कांगड़ा का किला\nमंजराबाद का किला \n\n*\nश्रेणी:सुरक्षा\nश्रेणी:युद्ध\nश्रेणी:रणनीति\nश्रेणी:सैन्यविज्ञान", "काला चौना\nकाला चौना एक गॉंव है। यह रामगंगा नदी के पूर्वी किनारे पर चौखुटिया तहसील के तल्ला गेवाड़ नामक पट्टी में, भारतवर्ष के उत्तराखण्ड राज्य के अन्तर्गत कुमाऊँ मण्डल के अल्मोड़ा जिले में स्थित है। यह गॉंव मूलरूप से कनौंणियॉं नामक उपनाम से विख्यात कुमांऊॅंनी हिन्दू राजपूतों का प्राचीन और पुश्तैनी चार गाँवों में से एक है। दक्षिणी हिमालय की तलहटी में बसा यह काला चौना अपनी ऐतिहासिक व सॉंस्कृतिक विरासत, ठेठ कुमांऊॅंनी सभ्यता व संस्कृति, पर्वतीय जीवन शैली, प्रकृति संरक्षण, अलौकिक प्राकृतिक छटा तथा समतल-उपजाऊ भूमि के लिए पहचाना जाता है।\n\nऐतिहासिक पृष्टभूमि\nप्राचीन इतिहास के अनुसार, जैसा कि अब भी उत्तराखण्ड के इतिहासकार तथा कुमांऊॅं के अधिकॉंश अनुभववेत्ता इस यथार्थता से भली भॉंति सहमत हैं। तल्ला गेवाड़ के प्राचीन सामंत मेलदेव कनौंणियॉं ने स्वेच्छा से अपने राज्य को कई हिस्सों में विभाजित किया था। जिनमें से कुछों के साक्ष्य सर्वविदित हैं। जैसा कि अपने चार पुत्रों और एक पुत्री में। यानि पॉंच भागों में विभाजन। पहला विभाजन शीर्ष पुत्र को, यह है रामगंगा नदी के पश्चिम की ओर का दक्षिणी भ-भाग (कनौंणी), दूसरा विभाजन दूसरे पुत्र को यह है रामगंगा के पश्चिमी ओर का उत्तरी क्षेत्र (डॉंग), तीसरा विभाजन तीसरे पुत्र को यह है रामगंगा के पूर्व में राज्य का दक्षिणी भू भाग (काला चौना), चौथा विभाजन चौथे पुत्र को रामगंगा के पश्चिम की ओर आदीग्राम बंंगारी और आदीग्राम फुलोरिया के बीच का पठार (आदीग्राम कनौणियॉं) और पॉंचवांं विभाजन यह है रामगंगा के पूर्वी छोर से लगा उत्तर में आदीग्राम कनौणियॉं के सामने से लेकर काला चौना की सीमा रेखा तक का भू भाग, यह दिया अपनी पुत्री को। जो आज मॉंसी के नाम से प्रसिद्ध है। \n\nइस प्रकार काला चौना नामक यह गॉंव तीसरे पुत्र को आबंटित भू भाग है। यहाॅं के अधिकाॅंश निवासी जिन्हें अब कनौंणियॉं अथवा कनौंणियॉं बिष्ट नामक उपनाम से जानते है, ये सब सूर्यवंशी ठाकुर मेलदेव कनौंणियॉं (जिन्हें कत्यूरी राजवंश के लड़देव की वंशावली का माना जाता है) के तीसरे पुत्र कालदेव के वंशज कहलाते हैं। कालान्तर में कालदेव नामक शब्द का अपभ्रंश हो जाने से कालदेव को काला कनौंणियॉं कहकर पुकारा जाने लगा था। जिस कारण काला नामक शब्द के मिश्रण से इस गॉंव का नाम काला चौना पड़ा था।\n\nकाला चौना मूलत: कनौंणियॉं नामक उपनाम के कुमांऊॅंनी हिन्दू राजपूतों का गॉंव है। इसी कारण यहॉं की तकरीबन पचासी फीसदी आबादी कनौंणियॉं अथवा कनौंणियॉं बिष्ट नामक उपनाम के निवासियों की है।\n\nभौगोलिक संरचना\nकाला चौना मौजूदा भिकियासैंण से मॉंसी तथा मॉंसी से जालली मोटर मार्ग के ठीक बीचों-बीच स्थित है। जिसे कुमांऊॅं मण्डल के परगना पाली अर्थात पाली पछांऊॅं कहे जाने वाले इलाके के अन्तर्गत कह सकते हैं। इस गॉंव का क्षेत्रफल तकरीबन पॉंच वर्ग किलोमीटर है। जिसका 65 फीसदी भू भाग खेतीहर उपजाऊ पठार तथा शेष परती भूमि, चराहगाह, तथा वन संरक्षण में विभक्त है। पूर्व दिशा में कबडोली, सरकारी पाली (पाली पछांऊॅं), नाईखोला तथा धोबीखोला नामक गॉंव, पश्चिम की ओर रामगंगा के पार कनौंणी और गोगता (मोहणा), उत्तर में मॉंसी, डोबरी और ऊॅंचावाहन तथा दक्षिणी छोर पर थापला और परथोला नामक गॉंवों की सीमा रेखाऐं काला चौना को विभक्त करती हैं। \n\nकाला चौना का भूभाग दो भागों में विभाजित है। पहला चक चौना दूसरा चक बैकू।\n\nसभ्यता एवम् संस्कृति\nकाला चौना की सभ्यता एवं संस्कृति पूर्ण रूप से कुमांऊॅंनी और हिन्दू है। घरों की बनावट व सजावट में ही सर्वप्रथम पर्वतीय लोक कला व संस्कृति दृष्टिगोचर होती है। दशहरा, दीपावली, नामकरण, जनेऊ आदि शुभ अवसरों पर महिलाएँ घर में ऐंपण (अर्पण) बनाती हैं। इसके लिए घर, ऑंगन तथा सीढ़ियों को गेरू से लीपा जाता है। चावलों को भिगोकर पीसा जाता है तथा उसके लेप से आकर्षक चित्र बनाए जाते हैं। विभिन्न अवसरों पर नामकरण-चौकी, सूर्य-चौकी, स्नान-चौकी, जन्मदिन-चौकी, यज्ञोपवीत-चौकी, विवाह-चौकी, धूमिलअर्ध्य-चौकी, वर-चौकी, आचार्य-चौकी, अष्टदल-कमल, स्वास्तिक-पीठ, विष्णु-पीठ, शिव-पीठ, सरस्वती-पीठ तथा विभिन्न प्रकार की परम्परागत कलाकृतियॉं बनाई जाती हैं। इन्हेें तकरीबन महिलाऐं व बालिकाऐं ही बनाती हैं।\n\nकाला चौना में बोलचाल की भाषा अर्थात बोली को पाली पछांऊॅं की कुमांऊॅंनी कहा जाता है। सरकारी कामकाज में बोलने व लिखने की भाषा हिन्दी है। अध्ययन व अध्यापन हिन्दी और अंग्रेजी दोनों भाषाओं में पाया जाता है।\n\nपहले ठंड की अधिकता के कारण घर छोटे लेकिन पक्के हुआ करते थे। जो लकड़ी व पत्थर के नक्काशीयुक्त होते हैं। घरों के ऊपर यानि छतों पर पत्थर बिछाने का प्रचलन है। प्रत्येक घर के आगे खुली जगह और खुला आॅगन होता है, जिनमें कलाकारी के साथ पत्थर बिछे होते हैं। आॅगन के तीनों छोर खोई भिड़ नामक चारदिवारीयुक्त होता है। समयानुसार इमारती लकड़ियों व उचित पत्थरों की कमी और बदलते सामाजिक परिवेश के अनुरूप घरों की बनावट में परिवर्तन होने लगा है। लोग सीमेण्ट व ईंट के घरों का उपयोग करने लगे हैं।\n\nवेश-भूषा तथा पहनावा\nपारम्परिक रूप से यहॉं की महिलायें घाघरा, आँगड़ी, पिछोड़ी, कुर्ती पहनतीं थीं। अब पेटीकोट, ब्लाउज व साड़ी पहननेे लगीं हैं। पुरूष मर्दानी धोती, कुर्ता, चूड़ीदार पजामा,अंगरखोई, फतोई, भोटुवा, साफा, टोपी पहनते थे। जाड़ों (सर्दियों) में ऊनी कपड़ों का उपयोग होता है। विवाह आदि शुभ कार्यो के अवसर पर कई क्षेत्रों में अभी भी सनील का घाघरा और पिछोड़ी पहनने की परम्परा है। सिर में शीषफूल। गले में गुलोबन्द, चर्‌यो, माला, सुत, जजीर, हॅसुली। नाक में नथ, बुलॉग, फूली। कानों में कर्णफूल, कुण्डल। हाथों में सोने या चाँदी के पौंजी, धागुले। पैरों में बिछुए पजेब, पौंटा इत्यादि प्रकार के आभूषण पहनने की परम्परा प्राचीनकाल से रही है। विवाहित औरत की पहचान गले में चरेऊ पहनने से होती है। विवाह इत्यादि शुभ अवसरों पर पिछौड़ा पहनने का भी यहाँ प्रचलन है।\n\nआवागमन के स्रोत\nकाला चौना के लिए प्राचीन काल से ही आवागमन का अभाव लगभग ना के बराबर ही रहा है। कत्यूरी राजवंश, चन्द राजवंश, गोरखा राज तथा ब्रिटिश शासनकाल के मार्गों के अवशेष आज भी जीवित हैं और कुछेक प्रयोग में भी हैं। गढ़वाल से पाली पछांऊॅं होकर रानीखेत को जाता तत्कालीन राजमार्ग काला चौना के बीचों-बीच से गुजरता है। तराई से भिकियासैंण होकर आता और उत्तर की ओर बद्रीनाथ धाम, केदारनाथ धाम इत्यादि इलाकों का तत्कालीन मार्ग यहीं होकर निकलता था। बाद में ब्रिटिशकाल के दौरान जिसके समानान्तर मौजूदा मोटर मार्ग बना जो अाज यातायात की मुख्य सड़क है। दूसरा रानीखेत से जालली होते हुए मॉंसी तक जाता मोटर मार्ग भी आधा किलोमीटर पहले काला चौना को छूकर ही पहुंचता है। इस मार्ग का निर्माण लगभग 1970-75 के दौरान हुआ था।\n\nवायु मार्ग\nनिकटतम हवाई अड्डा रुद्रपुर व हल्द्वानी के मध्य में स्थित पंतनगर विमानक्षेत्र है। यह सड़क द्वारा लगभग 175 से 200 किलोमीटर की दूरी पर पंतनगर में ही है। जहॉ से सुविधानुसार टैक्सी अथवा कार से पहुंचा जाता है।\n\nरेल मार्ग\nरेलवे जंक्‍शन काठगोदाम जो कि लगभग 161 किलोमीटर की दूरी पर तथा दूसरा रेलवे जंक्शन 115 किलोमीटर पर रामनगर में है। दोनों स्थानों से सुविधानुसार उत्तराखंड परिवहन की बस अथवा टैक्सी कार द्वारा आसानी से काला चौना पहुंचा जा सकता है।\n\nसड़क मार्ग\nदिल्‍ली के आनन्द विहार आईएसबीटी से यहॉ के लिए उत्तराखण्ड परिवहन की बसें नियमित रूप से उपलब्ध होती हैं। जिनके द्वारा 10-12 घंटों में यहॉ पहुंचा जाता है। प्रदेश के अन्‍य स्थानों से भी बसों की सुविधाऐं उपलब्ध हैं।\nदिल्‍ली से रूट: राष्‍ट्रीय राजमार्ग ९ से हापुड़, गजरौला, मुरादाबाद, रामनगर, भतरोंजखान या घट्टी से भिकियसैण होते हुए काला चौना, मॉसी।\n\nधार्मिक व प्राकृतिक स्थल\n कोटेश्वर महादेव \nकोटेश्वर महादेव चौना गॉंव की रिहायश से चन्द कदमों की दूरी पर दक्षिणी छोर में स्थित लगभग दो-तीन एकड़ में फैला प्राचीन और एकमात्र शिवालय है। यह सोमनाथेश्वर महादेव नामक शिवालय (जो रामगंगा के पश्चिमी तट पर कनौंणी व आदीग्राम फुलोरिया के मध्य में है) का अंग है। कोटेश्वर महादेव की स्थापना ग्रामोदय काल की है। चारों तरफ लहलहाते खेतों की हरियाली तथा फल फूलों से लदी डालियों के बीच स्थापित है यह शिवालय। मान्यता है कि यहॉ पर साध्वी साध्वियॉं ही शिवालय की सफल पुजारिन होती हैं, यही कालों से परम्परा रही है। यह काला चौना निवासियों का देवों के देव महादेव की पूजा आराधना करने का उत्कृष्ट एवम् साफ स्वच्छ शिवालय है। देवादिदेव शिव की पूजा अर्चना तो यहॉं निरंतर होती रहती है, परन्तु विशेष अवसरों पर महाशिवपुराण कथा, शिवार्चन तथा विभिन्न प्रकार के धार्मिक अनुष्ठान इत्यादि भी दिखाई देते है। कोटेश्वर महादेव में महाशिवरात्रि का विशेष महत्व होता है, कथन है, यहॉं पर जलाभिशेख के बाद ही सोमनाथेश्वर महादेव को प्रस्थान किया जाता है। हर चौना वासी फसल कटने पर शुरू के कुछ ही अर्पित-चुनिन्दा हिस्सों में से एक भाग (जिसे स्थानीय लोग अङन्याव कहते हैं ) यहॉ अर्पित कर महाकाल का भोग लगाते हैं, बाद में इससे साध्वियों का गुजारा तथा इससे प्राप्त राशि शिवालय के रखरखाव व विकास कार्यों में लगायी जाती है। यहॉ समीपवर्ती गॉवों से भी श्रधालु पूजा अर्चना तथा कथाश्रवण करने समय-समय पर आते रहते हैं। \n\nकोटेश्वर महादेव के ठीक नीचे की ओर रिघाड़ गधेरे के समीप तत्कालीन जलाशय, चश्मा यानि बावड़ी (जिसे कुमांऊॅंनी भाषा में नौला कहते हैं ) है। यह तत्कालीन वास्तुकला की धरोहरों में से एक है। जिसे देखना, काला चौना आने वाला प्रत्येक आगन्तुक आज भी नहीं चूकता है।\n\n धूॅंणी थान यानि भगवती माता मन्दिर\nकाला चौना गॉंव के ठीक उत्तर-पूर्व में स्थित धूॅंणी थान नाम से प्रख्यात मॉं भगवती का अाराध्य मंदिर है। इसकी स्थापना गॉंव की स्थापना के शुरुआत में ही मानी जाती है। यह गॉंव के उत्तर पूर्व दिशा में गॉंव से कुछ ऊँचाई पर स्थित है। यह ग्रामवासियों का मॉं भगवती की पूजा आराधना करने का उत्तम हिन्दू मन्दिर है। यहॉं समय समय पर पूर्ण रूप से कुमांऊॅंनी संस्कृति के अनुसार मॉं भगवती की पूजा अर्चना जातरा व बैसी (बाइस बार यानि लगातार ग्यारह दिन तक होने वाली कुमांऊँनीं संस्कृति से आराधना) के रूप में की जाती है। जो रात के बारह एक बजे के बाद तक चलती है। इसे देखने सुनने श्रधालु लोग सुदूर गॉंवों से भी आते हैं। बैसी के ग्यारहवें दिन सभी गॉंववासी सुदूर से पधारे श्रधालुओं समेत सभी देवी देवताओं के अवतारियों को पारम्परिक वेश भूषा, साज-सज्जा, वाद्य यंत्रों, पताका ध्वजों, प्राचीन अस्त्र सस्त्रों, पारम्परिक नृत्य कलाओं के साथ रणभेरी बजाते हुये गंगा स्नान करने व कराने रामगंगा नदी में जाते हैं। यह गंगा स्नान काला चौना के पैत्रिक धाम रामगंगा के पूर्वी तट सोमनाथेश्वर महादेव पर ही किया जाता है। समापन दिवस पर शुद्ध वैष्णवी महाभोज का आयोजन होता है। जिसमें दर्जन भर से अधिक गॉंवों को आमंत्रित किया जाता है। वे पारम्परिक वाद्य यंत्रों व ध्वज पताकाओं समेत अपने-अपने गॉंव के समूह के साथ इस समापन दिवस व महाभोज में पहुंचते हैं। इस अाराध्य स्थल में प्राचीन काल से ही किसी भी प्रकार की बलि प्रथा का प्रचलन नहीं है।\n\n कत्यूर थान यानि कत्यूरों का मन्दिर\nयह गॉंव के पूर्वी छोर पर कत्यूर थान के नाम से प्रसिद्ध कत्यूरों यानि कत्यूरी राजवंश की पूजा अाराधना का एकमात्र प्राचीन मन्दिर है। कत्यूरी राजवंश भारत के उत्तराखण्ड राज्य का एक मध्ययुगीन (लगभग छठीं से ग्यारहवीं सदीं के मध्य का) राजवंश था, जिनके बारे में में माना जाता है कि वे अयोध्या के शालिवाहन शासक के वंशज थे। कत्यूरी राजा गिरीराज चक्रचूड़ामणि की उपाधि से विभूषित थे। समूचे उत्तराखण्ड में भूतों (यानि स्वर्गवासी महा-पूर्वजों) की पूजा आराधना वैदिक काल से सर्वमान्य है। स्पष्ट है कि मेलदेव कनौणियॉं के तीसरे पुत्र (काला चौना के सूत्रपात) ने ग्रामोदय काल के दौरान इस थान (मन्दिर) की स्थापना की थी। कहा जाता है कि काला चौना की बसावट के दौरान गॉंव के दक्षिण पूर्व की पहाड़ियों (धनाड़ गधेरे का पूर्वी भू भाग ) में ऐंड़ी (कुमांऊॅं के एक देवता) का आतंक था, इसलिए कि इस भू भाग पर उसके गणों का आना-जाना लगा रहता था। इसी दौरान गेवाड़ घाटी के समस्त नुमाइन्दों की मौजूदगी में ऐड़ी से निजात पाने के लिए ही इस कत्यूर थान को स्थापित किया गया था। क्योंकि इससे पूर्व समूची घाटी कत्यूरों की है। तदोपरान्त ऐड़ी देवता व चारों गॉंवों के कनौंणियॉं नामक लोगों के बीच सहमति बनी। \n\n ग्वेलू थान यानि ग्वेल या गोलू देवता का मन्दिर\nकत्यूर थान से पूर्व की ओर चन्द कदमों की दूरी पर स्थित यह मन्दिर ग्वेल देवता की पूजा अर्चना का शीर्ष शक्ति पीठ है। जिसे उत्तराखण्ड राज्य में ग्वेल, गोलजू, बाला गोरिया, गौर भैरव, गोलू इत्यादि नामों से पुकारा जाता है। यहॉं पर संसारी ग्वेल के नाम से भी पुकारते है। समूचे उत्तराखण्ड में ग्वेल (गोलू) देवता को न्यायकारी देव के रूप में पूजा जाता है।\n\n दीपादेवी थान अथवा मन्दिर\nदीपादेवी थान (मन्दिर का अविकसित छोटा रूप) को दीपा, दीपक, प्रकाश अर्थात सरस्वती माता का मन्दिर माना जाता रहा है। यह गॉंव के दक्षिणी छोर पर नौधरुवा नामक स्थान पर हैं। पूर्वजों द्वारा स्थापित यह गॉंव के विद्याध्ययन करने वाले विद्यार्थियों का एकमात्र आस्था का स्थान माना जाता रहा है।\n\n ग्वेलदेरानी का थान\nयह गॉंव के पूर्वी छोर से हटकर धनाड़ गधेरेे के पार सौंगराड़ी नामक स्थान से कुछ ऊंचाई पर है। अब कुछ अवशेष ही बचे रह गये हैं। यह बात किसी से छिपी नहीं है कि प्राचीन काल में जिन्हें अब दैवीय शक्तियॉ कहते है। मानव भी उनका कुछ ज्ञाता था। इसी बात का प्रमाण देता है ग्वेलदेरानी का थान। बरषों पहले कृषि पर ही जीवन यापन निर्भर रहता था और खेती समुचित प्रकृति व बारिष पर। समय पर बारिष न होने व लगातार बारिष की अधिकता से निजात पाने के लिए ग्वेलदेरानी की पूजा अर्चना की जाती थी। समय बदला, लोग बदले, लोगों का व्यवसाय व सामाजिक स्वरूप बदलने से ग्वेलदेरानी के प्रति आस्था भी विलुप्त होती चली गयी। अन्तत: उन्नीसवीं सदी की समाप्ति से पूर्व ही ग्वेदेरानी अपनी कृपा सहित हमेशा के लिए यहॉ से अन्तर्ध्यान हो गयी। परन्तु थान (मन्दिर का अविकसित छोटा रूप) के कुछ ही अवशेष उन विस्मित कृपाओं को कहने की अन्तिम सॉसें गिन रहे हैं, लेकिन सुनने वाला कोई नहीं होता।\n\n नङारधण का थान अथवा मन्दिर\nदेवभूमि के तैंतीस करोड़ देवी देवताओं में एक नायाब हीरा छुपा है। यह है नङारधण देवता। यानि हमारे दुधारु पशुओं का कृपानिधान। नङारधण देवता की पूजा उत्तराखण्ड का प्रत्येक घर करता है और हर गॉंव में इनका मन्दिर स्थापित है। इसी प्रकार काला चौना के निकट ठीक उत्तर पूर्व में यह नङारधण देवता का थान यानि मन्दिर स्थापित है। जिस प्रकार हिन्दू धर्म में मातृ प्रसव के कुछ पन्चांगानुसार दिनों बाद मातृ तथा शिशु संस्कार की विधि है ठीक उसी प्रकार कुमांऊॅंनी सभ्यतानुसार पालतू व दुधारु पशुओं पर भी यह रस्म लागू होते आ रही है। तो यहॉं पर दुधारु पशुओं यानि गाय भैंस के प्रसव बाद निर्धारित तिथिनुसार संस्कार किये जाते हैं। शुद्ध दुग्ध तथा दुग्ध के पकवानों का पहला भोग नङारधण देवता को लगाया जाता है। हॉं यह भी बतादें, दुधारु पशुओं के गर्भाधान न हो सकने पर नङारधण देवता से मनौती भी मॉंगी जाती है। पूर्ण हो जाने पर प्रतिज्ञानुसार पूजा अर्चना की जाती है। उत्तराखण्ड बनने से पूर्व यहॉं बलि प्रथा का प्रचलन भी था।\n\n नौधरुआ यानि नौ प्राकृतिक जलधाराऐं\nबीसवीं सदी के मध्य तक वेग से निकलतीं प्राकृतिक स्रोतों की क्रमश: नौ जलधाराओं के स्थान को नौधरुआ कहते है। यह काला चौना के चक बैकू भू भाग की दक्षिणी तलहटी पर है।\n\nप्राचीन भग्नावशेष\nकाला चौना की सीमा के भीतर इस गॉव के प्राचीन इतिहास के विलुप्त हो रहे साक्ष्य गवाह के रूप यदा कदा बिखरे मिल ही जाते हैं।\n\nकोटेश्वर महादेव शिवालय के ठीक नीचे की ओर रिघाड़ गधेरे के समीप तत्कालीन बावड़ी यानि जलाशय (जिसे स्थानीय लोग नौला कहते हैं ) है। यह तत्कालीन वास्तुकला की धरोहरों में से एक है। इसका निर्माण ग्रामोदय के दौरान ही हुआ था। बाद में जीर्णोद्धार हुआ। कई वर्षों तक ग्रामवासियों को यही एकमात्र पेय जल द्योतक रहा है। इसमें प्राकृतिक स्रोतों के द्वारा पृथ्वी के गर्भ से छन-छन कर निकलता शीतल व स्वच्छ जल बारहों महीने उपलब्ध रहता है। यह सत्य है, आज भी यहॉं पर पानी पीने से जुकाम के शिकार हो जाते हैं, अर्थात कहने का अभिप्राय यह है कि कोटेश्वर नौला के पानी को पचा पाना सभी के वस में सम्भव नहीं है।\nइसे देखना, काला चौना पहुंचने वाले आगन्तुक आज भी नहीं चूकते।\n\nभुणकिले का नौला गॉंव के उत्तर पूर्व के मेहोधार से कुछ कदमों की दूरी पर है। यह नौला भी तत्कालीन वास्तुकला की पहचान में से एक है। 1980 तक यहॉ पर प्राकृतिक स्रोत से पृथ्वी के गर्भ से छन-छन कर निकलता शीतल व स्वच्छ जल उपलब्ध था। प्रकृति के बदलते स्वरूप व उचित रखरखाव न हो पाने के कारण 1990 के बाद सूखे की भेंट चढ़ गया। अवशेष के रूप में आज भी तत्कालीन यादों कों बयां करते नहीं चूकता।\n\nमेले एवम् त्यौहार\nकुमांऊॅं के सभी तीज-त्यौहार तथा उत्सव मनाऐ जाते हैं और पूर्ण रूप से पाली पछांऊॅं इलाके की कुमांऊॅंनी हिन्दू संस्कृति का समावेश बिखरा पड़ा रहता है।\nऐतिहासिक सोमनाथ मेला\nसोमनाथ मेला, सोमनाथ, सल्डिया सोमनाथ यानि वर्तमान ऐतिहासिक सोमनाथ कहा जाने वाला मेला कनौंणियॉं बिष्ट व मॉंसीवाल नामक उपनाम के लोगों से सम्बन्धित है। इस तल्ला गेवाड़ में माॅंसी के समीप परन्तु अब मॉंसी में प्रतिवर्ष होने वाले ऐतिहासिक सोमनाथ मेले की आराध्य भूमि को सोमनाथेश्वर कहते हैं। जो आज भी तत्समय के इतिहास के सुनहरे पन्नों और पाली पछांऊॅं इलाके की कुमांऊॅंनी सॉस्कृतिक विरासत को समेटे है। यहीं से मेले के इतिहास का पदार्पण हुआ था और इसी सोमनाथेश्वर महादेव नामक शिवालय से शुरू होता था, सोमनाथ। वक्त बदला, लोग बदले और मेले का स्वरूप भी अछूता न रह सका और बीसवीं सदी के अन्त तक मेला मॉंसी के बाजार में होने लग गया और इतिहास भी काफी कुछ बदल गया और इक्कीसवीं सदी के पूर्वार्ध में राजनीतिक रंग का समावेश भी दृष्टगोचर होने लगा है।\n\nउल्लेखनीय है, सोमनाथेश्वर महादेव नामक शिवालय पर सैकड़ों वर्ष पूर्व कत्यूरी राजवंशावली के लड़देव के वंशजों में से मेलदेव कनौंणियॉं का षड़यंत्रों द्वारा वध कर दिया था। तबसे इस मेले की शुरुआत हुई है। यहॉं पर एक प्राचीन नौला (बावड़ी) है। इसी नौले में उनका कत्ल कर दिया था। तब से इस नौले का स्वच्छ साफ व शीतल जल सभी लोग पीते है। मात्र कनौंणियॉ नामक उपनाम के चारों गॉंवों (कनौंणी, डॉंग, काला चौना व आदीग्राम कनौणियॉं) के सूर्यवंशी मेलदेव कनौंणियॉं के वंशज इस पानी को आज भी ग्रहण नहीं करते।\n\nनिकटवर्ती धार्मिक, ऐतिहासिक व प्राकृतिक स्थल\nयहॉं पर तकरीबन साल भर प्राकृतिक सौन्दर्य की विरासतता चारों ओर बिखरी रहती है।\n सोमनाथेश्वर महादेव\nयह सोमनाथेश्वर महादेव नामक शिवालय तल्ला गेवाड़ के वर्तमान मॉंसी में प्रतिवर्ष होने वाले ऐतिहासिक सोमनाथ मेले की ऐतिहासिक आराध्य भूमि पर स्थित है। इसकी स्थापना कत्यूरी शासनकाल की मानी जाती है। \n\n पौराणिक बृद्धकेदार\nयह पौराणिक बृद्धकेदार नामक शिवालय यहॉंं सेे चार किलोमीटर दक्षिण की ओर रामगंगा नदी के पश्चिमी तट पर विराजमान है। इस वैदिक काल के शिवालय को नेपाल स्थित पशुपतिनाथ मन्दिर का अंग माना जाता है। यहॉं पर महाशिव का धड़ स्थापित है। इसकी स्थापना का अनुमान पन्द्रहवीं सोलहवीं शताब्दी के मध्य का माना जाता है। यहॉं प्रतिवर्ष कार्तिक मास की पूर्णिमा की रात दूर दूर से भक्तगण आकर पूरी रात रामगंगा नदी में खड़े होकर तथा हाथों दीप प्रज्वलित कर श्रधासुमनों के साथ शिव भक्ति में लीन रहते हैं। भोर होने पर गंगा में विसर्जित कर अपनी-अपनी मनोकामनाओं को साकार करने की मनोकामना करते हैं। सदियों से मेला लगता है। महाशिवरात्रि के पर्व का विशेष महत्व होता है।\n\n नैथनादेवी\nयह नैथनादेवी नाम शिखर जिसे कभी नागार्जुन कहा जाता था, उत्तर दिशा में काला चौना के शीर्ष की ओर विराजमान है। यहॉं गोरखाराज के किले के अवशेष भी मौजूद हैं, जहॉं से उस समय पाली पछांऊॅं इलाके की गतिविधियॉं संचालित थीं। बरषों से देखरेख के अभावों के बाद अवशेष खंडहरों के नामो निशान भी मिटने लगे हैं। \n\n मॉं मानिलादेवी\nकाला चौना में भोर होते ही घर से बाहर सुदूर-सामने झॉकने पर मॉं मानिलादेवी के दर्शन स्वयमेव हो जाते हैं। यह पर्वत शिखर काला चौना के ठीक दक्षिण में विराजमान है। जहॉं मॉं मानिला देवी के तल्ला व मल्ला मानिला में भव्य मन्दिर हैं।\n\n दूनागिरी, पांण्डवखोली व द्वाराहाट\nकाला चौना के उत्तर की ओर लगभग 20-25 किलोमीटर की दूरी पर स्थित हैं।\n\nक्रय-विक्रय केन्द्र यानि बाजार\nकाला चौना में अब कुछ दुकानें उपलब्ध है, जहॉं पर रोजमर्रा की वस्तुवें मिल जाती हैं। निकटस्थ बाजार आधा किलोमीटर की दूरी पर मॉंसी है। जहॉं पर बैंक, डाकखाना, एटीएम, स्वास्थ्य सम्बन्धी सेवाऐं तथा तकरीबन सभी प्रकार की सुविधाऐं उपलब्ध हो जाती हैं।\n\nशिक्षण सुविधाऐं\n\n राजकीय प्राथमिक पाठशाला, मेहोधार, काला चौना\n राजकीय इन्टरमीडिएट कालेज, मॉंसी\n राजकीय कन्या इन्टरमीडिएट कालेज, कनौंणी\n राजकीय स्नात्कोत्तर महाविद्यालय, मॉंसी\n सरस्वती शिशु मन्दिर, मॉंसी\n शेरसिंह हीत बिष्ट मैमोरियल स्कूल, मॉंसी\n रामगंगा वैली पब्लिक स्कूल, मॉंसी\n औद्योगिक तकनीकी संस्थान, मॉंसी\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nइन्हें भी देखें\n\n उत्तराखण्ड के जिले\n उत्तराखण्ड के नगर\n कुमाऊँ मण्डल\n कुमाऊँनी लोग\n कुमांऊँ\n\nबाहरी कड़ियॉं\n\nश्रेणी:उत्तराखण्ड में हिल स्टेशन\nश्रेणी:अल्मोड़ा\nश्रेणी:उत्तराखण्ड की संस्कृति\nश्रेणी:उत्तराखण्ड के नगर, कस्बे और ग्राम\nश्रेणी:उत्तराखण्ड में पर्यटन", "कल्हण\nकल्हण कश्मीरी इतिहासकार तथा विश्वविख्यात ग्रंथ राजतरंगिनी (1148-50 ई.) के रचयिता थे।\n\nपरिचय \nकल्हण (1150 ई.) कश्मीर के महाराज हर्षदेव (1068-1101) के महामात्य चंपक के पुत्र और संगीतमर्मज्ञ कनक के अग्रज थे। मंखक ने श्रीकंठचरित (1128-44) (सर्ग 25, श्लो. 78-20) में कल्याण नाम के इसी कवि की प्रौढ़ता को सराहा है और इसे महामंत्री अलकदत्त के प्रश्रय में \"बहुकथाकेलिपरिश्रमनिरंकुश' घोषित किया है।\n\nवास्तव में कल्हण एक विलक्षण महाकवि था। उसकी \"सरस्वती' रागद्वेष से अलेप रहकर \"भूतार्थचित्रण' के साथ ही साथ \"रम्यनिर्माण' में भी निपुण थी; तभी तो बीते हुए काल को \"प्रत्यक्ष' बनाने में उसे सरस सफलता मिली है। \"दुष्ट वैदुष्य' से बचने का उसने सुरुचिपूर्ण प्रयत्न किया है और \"कविकर्म' के सहज गौरव को प्रणाम करते हुए उसने अपनी प्रतिभा का सचेत उपयोग किया है। इतिहास और काव्य के संगम पर उसने अपने \"प्रबंध' को शांत रस का \"मूर्धाभिषेक' दिया है और अपने पाठाकों को राजतरंगिणी की अमंद रसधारा का आस्वादन करने को आमंत्रित किया है।\n\nसच तो यह है कि कल्हण ने \"इतिहास' (इति+ह+आस) को काव्य की विषयवस्तु बनाकर भारतीय साहित्य को एक नई विधा प्रदान की है और राष्ट्रजीवन के व्यापक विस्तार के साथ-साथ मानव प्रकृति की गहराइयों को भी छू लिया है। शांत रस के असीम पारावार में श्रृंगार, वीर, रौद्र, अद्भुत, वीभत्स और करुण आदि सभी रस हिलोरें लेते दिखाए गए हैं; और बीच-बीच में हास्य और व्यंग के जो छीटे उड़ते रहते हैं वे भी बहुत महत्वपूर्ण हैं। क्षेमेंद्र के बाद कल्हण ने ही तो सामयिक समाज पर व्यंग कसकर संस्कृत साहित्य की एक भारी कमी को पूरा करने में योग दिया है।\n\nइतिहासकार के नाते नि:संदेह कल्हण की अपनी सीमाएँ हैं, विशेषकर प्रारंभिक वंशावलियों और कालगणना के बारे में। उसके साधन भी तो सीमित थे। पर खेद की बात है कि अपनी विवशता से सतर्क रहने के बजाए उसने कुछ लोकप्रचलित अंधविश्वासों को अत्युक्तियुक्त मान्यता दी, जैसे रणादित्य के 300 वर्ष लंबे शासन की उपहास्य अनुश्रुति को। किंतु यह भी कम सराहनीय नहीं कि चौथे तरंग के अंतिम भाग से अपने समय तक अर्थात 3886 लौकिक शक (813-14 ई.) से 4225 लौ॰ शक (1146-50 ई.) तक उसकी कालगणना और इतिहास सामग्री विस्तृत और विश्वसनीय है। अपने पूर्ववर्ती \"सूरियों' के 11 ग्रंथों और \"नीलमत' (पुराण) के अतिरिक्त उसने प्राचीन राजाओं के \"प्रतिष्ठाशासन', \"वास्तुशासन', \"प्रशस्तिपट्ट', \"शास्त्र' (लेख आदि), भग्नावशेष, सिक्के और लोकश्रुति आदि पुरातात्विक साधनों से यथेष्ट लाभ उठाने का गवेषणात्मक प्रयास किया है; और सबसे बड़ी बात यह कि अपने युग की अवस्थाओं और व्यवस्थाओं का निकट से अध्ययन करते हुए भी वह अपनी टीका टिप्पणी में बेलाग है। और तो और, अपने आश्रयदाता महाराज जयसिंह के गुण-दोष-चित्रण (तरंग 8, श्लो. 1550–) में भी उसने अनुपम तटस्थता का परिचय दिया है। उसी के शब्दों में \"पूर्वापरानुसंधान' और \"अनीर्ष्य (अर्थात् ईर्ष्याशून्य) विवेक' के बिना गुणदोष का निर्णय समीचीन नहीं हो सकता।\n\nसंभवत: इसीलिए कल्हण ने केवल राजनीतिक रूपरेखा न खींचकर सामाजिक एवं सांस्कृतिक परिवेश की झलकियाँ भी प्रस्तुत की हैं; और चरित्रचित्रण में सरस विवेक से काम लिया है। मातृगुप्त और प्रवरसेन, नरेन्द्रप्रभा और प्रतापादित्य तथा अनंगलेखा, खंख और दुर्लभवर्धन (तरंग 3) अथवा चंद्रापीड और चमार (तरंग 4) के प्रसंगों में मानव मनोविज्ञान के मनोरम चित्र झिलमिलाते हैं। इसके अतिरिक्त बाढ़, आग, अकाल और महामारी आदि विभीषिकाओं तथा धार्मिक, सामाजिक और सांस्कृतिक उपद्रवों में मानव स्वभाव की उज्वल प्रगतियों और कुत्सित प्रवृत्तियों के साभिप्राय संकेत भी मिलते हैं।\n\nकल्हण का दृष्ठिकोण बहुत उदार था; माहेश्वर (ब्राह्मण) होते हुए भी उसने बौद्ध दर्शन की उदात्त परंपराओं को सराहा है और पाखंडी (शैव) तांत्रिकों को आड़े हाथों लिया है। सच्चे देशभक्त की तरह उसने अपने देशवासियों की बुराइयों पर से पर्दा सरका दिया है और एक सच्चे सहृदय की तरह देशकाल की सीमाओं से ऊपर उठकर, सत्य, शिव और सुंदर का अभिनंदन तथा प्रतिपादन किया है।\n\nसमूचे प्राचीन भारतीय इतिहास में जो एक मात्र वैज्ञानिक इतिहास प्रस्तुत करने का प्रयत्न हुआ है वह है कल्हण की राजतरंगिणी। अपनी कुछ कमजोरियों के बावजूद कल्हण का दृष्टिकोण प्राय: आज के इतिहासकार जैसा है। स्वयं तो वह समसामयिक स्थानीय पूर्वाग्रहों के ऊपर उठ ही गया है, साथ ही घटनाओं के वर्णन में अत्यंत समीचीन अनुपात रखा है। विवरण की संक्षिप्तता सराहनीय है।\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n राजतरंगिणी\n जोनराज - ये भी कश्मीर के इतिहासकार थे। इनकी रचना को 'द्वितीय राजतरंगिणी' कहा जाता है।\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n राजतरंगिणी - भारत के डिजिटल पुस्तकालय पर राजतंगिणी का संस्कृत पाठ (स्कैन कापी)\n राजतरंगिणी, भाग-१ - भारत के डिजिटल पुस्तकालय पर राजतंगिणी का संस्कृत पाठ (स्कैन कापी)\n Rajatarangini of Kalhana - English - Jogesh Chunder Dutt Volumes 1 & 2\nकल्हण\nश्रेणी:कश्मीर के लोग\nश्रेणी:भारतीय इतिहासकार\nश्रेणी:कश्मीर का इतिहास\nश्रेणी:संस्कृत विद्वान", "कान्हा राष्ट्रीय उद्यान\nकान्हा राष्ट्रीय उद्यान भारत का एक प्रमुख राष्ट्रीय उद्यान हैं। मध्य प्रदेश अपने राष्ट्रीय पार्को और जंगलों के लिए प्रसिद्ध है। यहां की प्राकृतिक सुन्दरता और वास्तुकला के लिए विख्यात कान्हा पर्यटकों के बीच हमेशा ही आकर्षण का केन्द्र रहा है। कान्हा शब्द कनहार से बना है जिसका स्थानीय भाषा में अर्थ चिकनी मिट्टी है। यहां पाई जाने वाली मिट्टी के नाम से ही इस स्थान का नाम कान्हा पड़ा। इसके अलावा एक स्थानीय मान्यता यह रही है कि जंगल के समीप गांव में एक सिद्ध पुरुष रहते थे। जिनका नाम कान्वा था। कहा जाता है कि उन्‍हीं के नाम पर कान्हा नाम पड़ा।\n\nकान्हा जीव जन्तुओं के संरक्षण के लिए विख्यात है। यह अलग-अलग प्रजातियों के पशुओं का घर है। जीव जन्तुओं का यह पार्क 940वर्ग किलोमीटर के क्षेत्र में फैला हुआ है। रूडयार्ड किपलिंग की प्रसिद्ध किताब और धारावाहिक जंगल बुक की भी प्रेरणा इसी स्‍थान से ली गई थी। सन् १९६८ में प्रोजेक्ट टाइगर के तहत इस उद्यान का ९१७.४३ वर्ग कि. मी. का क्षेत्र कान्हा व्याघ्र संरक्षित क्षेत्र घोषित कर दिया गया।\n\nयहाँ के वन्य प्राणियों को देखने और कुछ अच्छा समय व्यतीत करने के लिए सोनाक्षी सिन्हा और महेंद्र सिंह धोनी जैसे बड़े सितारे भी आ चुके हैं।\n\nस्थिति \nright|250px|thumb|हरिण कुंज\nयह राष्ट्रीय पार्क 940 वर्ग किलोमीटर में फैला हुआ है। यह क्षेत्र घोड़े के पैरों के आकार का है और यह हरित क्षेत्र सतपुड़ा की पहाड़ियों से घिरा हुआ है। इन पहाड़ियों की ऊंचाई 450 से 900 मीटर तक है। इसके अन्तर्गत बंजर और हेलन की घाटियां आती हैं जिन्हें पहले मध्य भारत का प्रिन्सेस क्षेत्र कहा जाता था। 1879-1910 ईसवी तक यह क्षेत्र अंग्रजों के शिकार का स्थल था। कान्हा को 1933 में अभयारण्य के तौर पर स्थापित कर दिया गया और इसे 1955 में राष्ट्रीय उद्यान् घोषित कर दिया गया। यहां अनेक पशु पक्षियों को संरक्षित किया गया है। लगभग विलुप्‍त हो चुकी बारहसिंहा की प्रजातियां यहां के वातावरण में देखने को मिल जाती है।\n \nकान्हा एशिया के सबसे सुरम्य और खूबसूरत वन्यजीव रिजर्वो में एक है। बाघ का यह देश परभक्षी और शिकार दोनों के लिए आदर्श जगह है। यहां की सबसे बड़ी विशेषता खुले घास के मैदान हैं जहां काला हिरन, बारहसिंहा, सांभर और चीतल को एक साथ देखा जा सकता है। इस उद्यान मे बन्दर और चीतल का साथ मे दिखना बहुत आम बात है। बांस और टीक के वृक्ष इसकी सुन्दरता को और बढा देते हैं।\n\nआकर्षण\n\nबारहसिंगा \nleft|thumb|250px|बाराहसिंगे अपनी प्राकृतिक स्वच्छंदता में\nयह प्रजाति कान्हा का प्रतिनिधित्व करती है और यहां बहुत प्रसिद्ध है। कठिन ज़मीनी परिस्थितियों में रहने वाला यह अद्वितीय जानवर टीक और बांसों से घिरे हुए विशाल घास के मैदानों के बीच बसे हुए हैं। बीस साल पहल से बारहसिंगा विलुप्त होने की कगार पर थे। लेकिन कुछ उपायों को अपनाकर उन्हें विलुप्त होने से बचा लिया गया। दिसम्बर माह के अंत से जनवरी के मध्य तक बारहसिंगों का प्रजनन काल रहता है। इस अवधि में इन्हें बेहतर और नज़दीक से देखा जा सकता है। बारहसिंगा पाए जाने वाला यह भारत का एकमात्र स्थान है।\n\nजीप सफारी \nजीप सफारी सुबह और दोपहर को प्रदान की जाती है। जीप मध्य प्रदेश पर्यटन विकास कार्यालय से किराए पर ली जा सकती है। कैम्प में रूकने वालों को अपना वाहन और गाइड ले जाने की अनुमति है। सफारी का समय सुबह ६ बजे से दोपहर के १२ बजने तक और दोपहर मे ही ३ बजे से शाम के ५:३० बजने तक निर्धारित किया गया है।\n\nबाघ दृश्य \nthumb|300px|एक बाघिन अपने दो शावकों के संग\nबाघों को नजदीक से देखने के लिए पर्यटकों को हाथी की सवारी की सुविधा दी गई है। इसके लिए सीट की बुकिंग करनी होती है। इनकी सेवाएं सुबह के समय प्राप्त की जा सकती हैं। इसके लिए भारतीयों से 100 रूपये और विदेशियों से 600 रूपये का शुल्क लिया जाता है।\n\nपक्षी \nयहां पर पक्षि‍यों के मिलन स्‍थल का विहंगम दुश्‍य भी देख सकते है। यहां लगभग 300 पक्षियों की प्रजातियां हैं। पक्षियों की इन प्रजातियों में स्थानीय पक्षियों के अतिरिक्त सर्दियों में आने प्रवासी पक्षी भी शामिल हैं। यहां पाए जाने वाले प्रमुख पक्षियों में सारस, छोटी बत्तख, पिन्टेल, तालाबी बगुला, मोर-मोरनी, मुर्गा-मुर्गी, तीतर, बटेर, हर कबूतर, पहाड़ी कबूतर, पपीहा, उल्लू, पीलक, किंगफिशर, कठफोडवा, धब्बेदार पेराकीट्स आदि हैं।\n\nकान्हा संग्रहालय \nइस संग्रहालय में कान्हा का प्राकृतिक इतिहास संचित है। यह संग्रहालय यहां के शानदार टाइगर रिजर्व का दृश्य प्रस्तुत करता है। इसके अलावा यह संग्रहालय कान्हा की रूपरेखा, क्षेत्र का वर्णन और यहां के वन्यजीवों में पाई जाने वाली विविधताओं के विषय में जानकारी प्रदान करता है।\n\nबामनी दादर \nयह पार्क का सबसे खूबसूरत स्थान है। यहां का मनमोहक सूर्यास्त पर्यटकों को बरबस अपनी ओर खींच लेता है। घने और चारों तरफ फैले कान्हा के जंगल का विहंगम नजारा यहां से देखा जा सकता है। इस स्थान के चारों ओर हिरण, गौर, सांभर और चौसिंहा को देखा जा सकता है।\n\nदुर्लभ जन्तु \nकान्हा में ऐसे अनेक जीव जन्तु मिल जाएंगे जो दुर्लभ हैं। उद्यान् के पूर्व कोने में पाए जाने वाला भेड़िया, चिन्कारा, भारतीय पेंगोलिन, समतल मैदानों में रहने वाला भारतीय ऊदबिलाव और भारत में पाई जाने वाली लघु बिल्ली जैसी दुर्लभ पशुओं की प्रजातियों को यहां देखा जा सकता है।\n\nराजा और रानी \nआगन्तुकों के केन्द्र के नजदीक साल के पेड़ों के दो विशाल ठूठों को देखा जा सकता है। इन ठूठों की प्रतिदिन जंगल में पूजा की जाती है। इन्हें राजा-रानी नाम से जाना जाता है। राजा रानी नाम का यह पेड़ 2000 के बाद ठूठ में तब्दील हो गया Bahoran\n\nमौसम \n\nपार्क 1 अक्टूबर से 30 जून तक खुला रहता है। मॉनसून के दौरान यह पार्क बन्द रहता है। यहां का अधिकतम तापमान लगभग 39 डिग्री सेल्सियस और न्यूनतम 2 डिग्री सेल्सियस तक हो जाता है। सर्दियों में यह इलाका बेहद ठंडा रहता है। सर्दियों में गर्म और ऊनी कपड़ों की आवश्यकता होगी। नवम्बर से मार्च की अवधि सबसे सुविधाजनक मानी जाती है। दिसम्बर और जनवरी में बारहसिंहा को नजदीक से देखा जा सकता है।\n\nआवागमन \nकान्हा राष्ट्रीय पार्क वायु, रेल और सड़क मार्ग से जुड़ा हुआ है। अपनी सुविधा के अनुसार आप कान्हा पहुंचने के लिए इन मार्गो का प्रयोग कर सकते है।\n\nवायु मार्ग\nकान्हा से 266 किलोमीटर दूर स्थित नागपुर में निकटतम एयरपोर्ट है। यह इंडियन एयरलाइन्स की नियमित उड़ानों से जुड़ा हुआ है। यहां से बस या टैक्सी के माध्यम से कान्हा पहुंचा जा सकता है।\n\nरेल मार्ग\nजबलपुर रेलवे स्टेशन कान्हा पहुंचने के लिए सबसे नजदीकी स्‍टेशन है। जबलपुर कान्हा से 175 किलोमीटर की दूरी पर स्थित है। यहां से राज्य परिवहन निगम की बसों या टैक्सी से कान्हा पहुंचा जा सकता है।\nयदि जबलपुर पहुँचने के बाद पुनः आप रेल द्वारा यात्रा करना चाहें तो नैनपुर या चिरईडोंगरी तक आना एक अच्छा विकल्प होगा नैनपुर से कान्हा 55 व चिरईडोंगरी से मात्र 35 किलोमीटर दूर है जहाँ से लोकल बस के द्वारा असानी से पहुँच सकते हैं ।\n\nसड़क मार्ग\nकान्हा राष्ट्रीय पार्क जबलपुर, खजुराहो, नागपुर, मुक्की और रायपुर से सड़क के माध्यम से सीधा जुड़ा हुआ है। दिल्ली से राष्ट्रीय राजमार्ग 2 से आगरा, राष्ट्रीय राजमार्ग 3 से बियवरा, राष्ट्रीय राजमार्ग 12 से भोपाल के रास्ते जबलपुर पहुंचा जा सकता है। राष्ट्रीय राजमार्ग 12 से मांडला जिला रोड़ से कान्हा पहुंचा जा सकता है।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nसामान्य संदर्भ \n K. K. Gurung & Raj Singh: Field Guide to the Mammals of the Indian Subcontinent, Academic Press, San Diego, ISBN 0-12-309350-3\n A. P. Dwivendi: Protected Areas of Madhya Pradesh,Government printing Press, Bhopal 2003\n\nबाहरी कडियाँ\n\nचित्र \n Kanha National Park Photo Gallery\n Kanha National Park Photos on Flickr\nhttp://picasaweb.google.com/purvimistry/KanhaNPMAY2008?feat=directlink\n\nकान्हा राष्ट्रीय उद्यान पर जानकारी \n Kanha National Park - Madhya Pradesh\n Wildlife Times: The Central Indian Tiger Pilgrimage - A trip report\n Kanha National Park\n Images from Kanha National Park\n UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre\n Madhya Pradesh State Tourism\n Kanha National Park\n Photos and travel tips for Kanha national park\n Travel Gallery from 2003 Trip\n Kanha Tiger Reserve\n \n\nश्रेणी:राष्ट्रीय उद्यान, भारत\nश्रेणी:भारत के राष्ट्रीय उद्यान\nश्रेणी:भारत के वन्य अभयारण्य\nश्रेणी:भारत के बाघ अभयारण्य\nश्रेणी:मध्य प्रदेश में राष्ट्रीय उद्यान\nश्रेणी:मंडला ज़िला\nश्रेणी:बालाघाट ज़िला", "भाषाविज्ञान का इतिहास\nप्राचीन काल में भाषावैज्ञानिक अध्ययन मूलत: भाषा के सही व्याख्या करने की कोशिश के रूप में था। सबसे पहले चौथी शदी ईसा पूर्व में पाणिनि ने संस्कृत का व्याकरण लिखा।\n\nसंसार के प्रायः सभी देशों में भाषा-चिन्तन होता रहा है। भारत के अतिरिक्त चीन, यूनान, रोंम, फ्रांस, इंग्लैंड, अमरीका, रूस, चेकोस्लाविया, डेनमार्क आदि देशों में भाषाध्ययन के प्रति अत्यधिक सचेष्टता बरती गई है। अध्ययन की सुविधा की दृष्टि से भाषाध्ययन के इतिहास को मुख्यतः दो वर्गों में विभक्त किया जा सकता\nहै :\n\n(१) पौरस्त्य \n(२) पाश्चात्य\n\nपौरस्त्य अथवा भारतीय भाषा-चिन्तन \nभारत में भाषाध्ययन की सुदीर्घ परम्परा रही है। यहाँ भाषा के सभी अंगों एवं तत्त्वो पर सूक्ष्मातिसूक्ष्म रूप से विचार किया गया है। संक्षेप में भारतीय भाषाशास्त्रीय चिन्तन को निम्नांकित रूपों में प्रस्तुत किया जा सकता है:\n\n(अ) प्राचीन भाषा-चिन्तन\n\n(आ) आधुनिक भाषाशास्त्रीय अध्ययन\n\nप्राचीन भाषा-चिन्तन \nभारत के प्राचीन भाषा-चिन्तन पर निम्नलिखित रूपों में विचार करना अधिक युक्तिसंगत प्रतीत होता है :\n\n(क) पाणिनिपूर्व भाषा-चिन्तन\n\n(ख) पाणिनि और पाणिनिकालीन भाषाशास्त्रीय चिन्तन\n\n(ग) पाणिनि-पश्चात् भाषाध्ययन।\n\nपाणिनिपूर्व भाषा-चिन्तन \nप्राचीनतम ग्रन्थ ऋग्वेद में अनेक बार 'वाक्' के महत्त्व पर प्रकाश डाला गया है। भाषाशास्त्र में वाक (स्पीच)-विवेचन एक अत्यंत जटिल विषय है। 'वाक्' वह मूल शक्ति है, जिसे हम सामाजिक सन्दर्भो के माध्यम से भाषा के रूप में ग्रहण करते हैं। वेद में इसी वाक्-शक्ति की अधिष्ठात्री देवी के रूप में सरस्वती का आह्वान किया गया है, जिसमें इस बात की कामना की गई है कि वे वाक्-शक्ति का पान कराकर विश्व को पुष्ट करें। अर्थात् मनुष्यों को सम्यरूपेण वाणी-प्रयोग के योग्य बनाए। 'उच्चारण भाषा का प्राणतत्त्व होता है', इसे सभी भाषाविज्ञानी स्वीकार करते हैं। वेद में शुद्ध उच्चारण को अत्यन्त महत्त्वपूर्ण माना गया है। चूँकि वेद 'अपौरुषेय' है, इसलिए उसका समय निश्चित नहीं है।\n\nवेदो के बाद ब्राह्मणग्रन्थों का समय आता है। ऐतरेय ब्राह्मण में भाषाविज्ञान के दो मुख्य विषयों - भाषा-वर्गीकरण एवं शब्द-अर्थ का विवेचन किया गया है। वेद-पाठ थोड़ा कठिन है। उसके अध्ययन को सरल बनाने के लिए पदपाठ की रचनाकर 'वेद-वाक्य' को पदों में विभक्त किया गया और इस क्रम में सन्धि, समास, स्वराघात जैसे विषयों का विश्लेषण भी हुआ। यह निश्चय ही भाषा का वैज्ञानिक अध्ययन था। 'पदपाठ' के पश्चात् प्रातिशाख्यों एवं शिक्षाग्रन्थों का निर्माण कर ध्वनियों का वर्गीकरण, उच्चारण, स्वराघात, मात्रा आदि अत्यन्त महत्त्वपूर्ण भाषावैज्ञानिक विषयों पर विस्तारपूर्वक प्रकाश डाला गया। विभिन्न संहिताओं के उच्चारण-भेदों को सुरक्षित रखने एवं ध्वनि की सूक्ष्मताओ का विवेचन करने में क्रमशः प्रातिशाख्यों और शिक्षाग्रन्थों का अपना विशिष्ट स्थान है।\n\nप्रातिशाख्यों में ऋप्रातिशाख्य (शौनक), शुक्लयजुः प्रातिशाख्य (कात्यायन), मैत्रायणी प्रातिशाख्य आदि प्रमुख हैं और शिक्षाग्रन्थों (ध्वनिशास्त्रों) के निर्माताओं में याज्ञवल्क्य, व्यास, वसिष्ठ आदि विख्यात हैं। इसी क्रम में उपनिषदों की चर्चा भी अपेक्षित है - विशेषकर तैत्तिरीय उपनिषद् की। इसमें अक्षर, अथवा वर्ण, स्वर, मात्रा, बल आदि भाषीय तत्त्वों पर भी चिन्तन किया गया है।\n\nवैदिक शब्दों का जो कोश तैयार किया गया, उसे 'निघंटु' की संज्ञा दी गई। इसका निर्माण-काल ८०० ई. पू. के आसपास माना जाता है। 'निघंटु' में संगृहीत वैदिक शब्दों का अर्थ-विवेचन किया गया 'निरुक्त' में। निरुक्तकार यास्क ने अर्थ के साथ-शाथ शब्द-भेद, शब्द-अर्थ का सम्बन्ध जैसे विषयों पर भी विचार किया।\n\nपाणिनि और पाणिनिकालीन भाषाशास्त्रीय चिन्तन \nपाणिनि और उनकी अष्टाध्यायी \nसंसार के भाषाविज्ञानियों में पाणिनि (४५० ईपू) का स्थान सर्वोपरि है। न केवल पौरस्त्य विद्वानों ने, अपितु पाश्चात्य विद्वानों ने भी पाणिनि की श्रेष्टता मुक्तकण्ठ से स्वीकार कर ली है। ईसा के लगभग पांच सौ वर्ष पूर्व ऐसा विलक्ष्ण\nभाषाविज्ञानी उत्पन्न हुआ था, यह प्रसंग विश्व को प्रेरित करने के साथ ही चकित करने वाला भी रहा है।\n\nपाणिनि का अप्रतिम भाषावैज्ञानिक ग्रन्थ, आठ अध्यायों में विभक्त रहने के कारण, अष्टाध्यायी कहलाता है। आठों अध्यायों में चार-चार पाद हैं। सम्पूर्ण ग्रन्थ सूत्र रूप में रचित है और कुल सूत्रों की संख्या लगभग चार सहस्र (३९९७) है। प्रसिद्ध चौदह माहेश्वर सूत्र ही अष्टाध्यायी के मूलाधार माने गए हैं। अष्टाध्यायी के आठ अध्यायों में संज्ञा (सुबन्त), क्रिया (तिङन्त), समास, कारक, सन्धि, कृत् और तद्धित प्रत्यय, स्वर-ध्वनि-विकार और पद का विवेचन किया गया है। परिशिष्ट में गणपाठ एवं धातुपाठ देकर ग्रन्थ की उपादेयता और बढ़ा दी गई है।\n\n'अष्टाध्यायी'की प्रमुख विशेषताएँ हैं :\n\n(१) वाक्य को भाषा की मूल इकाई मानना।\n\n(२) ध्वनि-उत्पादन-प्रक्रिया का वर्णन एवं ध्वनियों का वर्गीकरण।\n\n(३) सुबन्त एवं तिङन्त के रूप में सरल और सटीक पद-विभाग।\n\n(४) व्युत्पत्ति - प्रकृति और प्रत्यय के आधार पर शब्दों का विवेचन।\n\nपाणिनि के अन्य ग्रन्थ हैं - उणादिसूत्र, लिंगानुशासन और पाणिनीय शिक्षा। पाणिनिकालीन (कुछ विद्वानों के अनुसार उत्तरकालीन) में कात्यायन एवं पतंजलि विशेष उल्लेखनीय हैं। कात्यायन ने कार्तिक में पाणिनि के सूत्रों का विश्लेषण तो किया ही, अनेक दोषों की ओर भी संकेत किया। भाषावैज्ञानिक दृष्टि से उन संकेतों का भी बड़ा महत्त्व है, क्योंकि समय-परिवर्त्तन तथा भाषा-विकास के साथ भाषा-सम्बन्धी नियमों में भी परिवर्त्तन की अपेक्षा हुआ करती है।\n\nपतंजलि और उनका महाभाष्य \nअबतक सम्पूर्ण संसार में महाभाष्यकार के रूप में प्रतिष्ठित होने का श्रेय केवल पतंजलि को है। पतंजलि (१५० ईपू) कात्यायन के समकालीन थे अथवा नहीं, यह अभी भी विवाद का विषय बना हुआ है। परन्तु इतना निश्चित है कि महाभाष्य लिखने के मूल में कात्यनीय वार्तिको की प्रेरणा काम करती रही है। कारण यह कि महाभाष्य का अधिकांश भाग कात्यायन द्वारा उठायी गई शंकाओं के समाधान से सम्बद्ध हैं। पतंजलि का मुख्य उद्देश्य उन पाणिनीय सूत्रों को दोषमुक्त सिद्ध करने का रहा है, जो कात्यायन की दृष्टि में या तो दोषमुक्त थे अथवा बहुत उपादेय नहीं थे। इसके अतिरिक्त, उन्होने अष्टाध्यायी के कठिन सूत्रों का भाष्य भी प्रस्तुत किया है, जो अत्यन्त स्पष्ट और विस्तृत है। महाभाष्य में कुल १६८९ सूत्रों की व्याख्या की गई है। यद्यपि महाभाष्य का आधार अष्टाध्यायी ही रही है, तथापि इसमें पतंजलि ने जनभाषा का जैसा विस्तृत विवेचन किया है, वैसा अन्यत्र दुर्लभ है। उनका भाषाविषयक अध्ययन तो गहन एवं व्यापक था ही, भाषा-विश्लेषण की क्षमता भी उनमें विलक्षण थी। संस्कृत, प्राकृत और अपभ्रंश इन तीनों प्रकार की भाषाओं को ध्यान में रखते हुए उन्होंने भाषा को एक व्यवस्थित स्वरूप प्रदान किया। भाषा-चिन्तन के क्षेत्र में उनका यह विशिष्ट अवदान माना जाता है।\n\nपाणिनि, कात्यायन एवं पतंजलि को 'मुनित्रय' के रूप में सादर स्मरण किया जाता है। इन तीनों महान भाषाचिन्तको को कभी भी भुलाया नहीं जा सकता। ये तीनों भाषाशास्त्री विश्व-विश्रुत हो चुके हैं और जबतक भाषा-विश्लेषण होता रहेगा, उनका उल्लेख अपेक्षित समझा जाएगा\n\nपाणिनि-पश्चात् का भाषाध्ययन \nअष्टाध्यायी की टीका एवं उसकी मौलिक व्याख्या की दृष्टि से क्रमशः काशिका एवं कौमुदी ग्रन्थों का विशिष्ट महत्त्व है। कौमुदी ग्रन्थों में सिद्धान्तकौमुदी (भट्टोजिदीक्षित) एवं लघुकौमुदी प्रसिद्ध हैं।\n\nमण्डन मिश्र प्रसिद्ध भाषाचिन्तक थे। इन्होंने 'स्फोटसिद्धि' नामक ग्रन्थ की रचना की। आप आदिगुरु शंकराचार्य के समकालीन थे। पर, कुछ लोग शंकराचार्य का समय ७८२-८२० ई. मानते हैं। ऐसा मानना उचित नहीं प्रतीत होता। मण्डन मिश्र ओर शंकराचार्य इससे पहले हुए थे।\n\nभाषाविज्ञान को भर्तृहरि की देन : वाक्यपदीय का महत्त्व\nपाणिनि-पतंजलि-पश्चात् के भाषाशास्त्रियो में वाक्यपदीयकार भर्तृहरि (सातवीं शताब्दी) का स्थान अत्युच्च है। न केवल प्राचीन भाषाशास्त्र की दृष्टि से भर्तृहरि महान है, अपितु आधुनिक भाषाविज्ञानी भी उनके चिन्तन से अत्यधिक प्रभावित हैं। तीन काण्डो - ब्रह्मकाण्ड, वाक्यकाण्ड और पदकाण्ड में विभक्त वाक्यपदीय भाषाविज्ञान का एक उत्कृष्ट ग्रन्थ है। अत्यन्त संक्षेप में इस ग्रंथ की विशेषताओ पर निम्नांकित रूपों में प्रकाश डाला जा सकता है :\n\n(१) भाषा की इकाई वाक्य ही होता है, चाहे उसका अस्तित्व एक वर्ण के रूप में क्यों न हो।\n\n(२) वाक्शक्ति विश्व-व्यवहार का सर्वप्रमुख आधार है।\n\n(३) वाक्-प्रयोग एक मनोवैज्ञानिक क्रिया होता है, जिसमें वक्ता और श्रोता दोनों का होना आवश्यक है। ज्ञातव्य है कि गार्डीनर, जेस्पर्सन एवं चॉम्सकी प्रभृति अधिक चर्चित आधुनिक भाषाविज्ञानी भी इसका पूर्ण समर्थन करते हैं।\n\n(४) हर वर्ण में उस के अतिरिक्त भी किंचित वर्णांश सम्मिलित रहता है। अमरीकी भाषाविज्ञान ने भी प्रयोग द्वारा इसे सिद्ध करने का सफल प्रयास किया है। भौतिक विज्ञान भी यही बतलाता है।\n\n(५) ध्वनि उत्पादन, उच्चारण, ध्वनि-ग्रहण, स्फोट आदि का विस्तृत विवेचन भर्तृहरि ने किया है। भाषाविज्ञान के ये प्रमुख विषय हैं।\n\n(६) भर्तृहरि अर्थग्रहण में लोक प्रसिद्ध को ही महत्त्व देते हैं। पतंजलि के बाद इन्होंने ही इस पर विशद रूप से विचार किया है।\n\n(७) भर्तृहरि ने शिष्ट भाषा के साथ-साथ लोक भाषा के अध्ययन पर भी बहुत बल दिया है। यही प्रवृति आज सम्पूर्ण विश्व में दिखाई पड़ती है। इस प्रकार, भर्तृहरि के भाषा सिद्धांत अत्यन्त व्यापक अथच पूर्ण वैज्ञानिक हैं।\n\nकौण्ड भट्ट एवं नागेश भट्ट \nभर्तृहरि के बाद के भाषाचिन्तकों में कौण्डभट्ट (१५००ई) और नागेश भट्ट (१६७०ई) प्रमुख हैं। नागेश ने अपने 'शब्देन्दुशेखर', 'परिभाषेन्दुशेखर', 'स्फोटवाद' एवं 'वैयाकरण सिद्धांत-मंजूषा' ग्रन्थों का बड़ा ही सूक्ष्म विवेचन किया है।\n\nप्राचीन एवं मध्यकाल में पाश्चात्य भाषाविज्ञान \nभारत की तुलना में यूरोप में भाषाविषयक अध्ययन बहुत देर से प्रारंभ हुआ और उसमें वह पूर्णता और गंभीरता न थी जो भारतीय शिक्षाग्रंथों, प्रातिशाख्यों और पाणिनीय व्याकरण में थी। पश्चिमी दुनिया के लिये भाषाविषयक प्राचीनतम उल्लेख ओल्ड टेस्टामेंट (Old Testament) में बुक ऑफ़ जेनिसिस (Book of Genesis) के दूसरे अध्याय में पशुओं के नामकरण के संबंध में मिलता है।\n\nयूनानी इतिहासकार हेरोडोटस (पाँचवी शताब्दी ई0 पू0) ने मिस्र के राजा संमेतिकॉस (Psammetichos) द्वारा संसार की भाषा ज्ञात करने के लिये दो नवजात शिशुओं पर प्रयोग करने का उल्लेख किया है। यूनान में प्राचीनतम भाषावैज्ञानिक विवेचन प्लेटो (425-348 47 ई0 पू0) के संवाद में मिलता है, जो मुख्यतया ऊहापोहात्मक है। \n\nअरस्तू (384-322, 21 ई0 पू0) पाश्चात्य भाषाविज्ञान के पिता कहे जाते हैं। उन्होंने भाषा की उतपत्ति और प्रकृति के संबंध में अपने गुरू प्लेटो से भिन्न विचार व्यक्त किए। उनके अनुसार भाषा समझौते (thesis) और परंपरा (Synthesis) का परिणाम है। उन्होंने भाषा को यादृच्छिक कहा है। अरस्तू का यह मत आज भी सर्वमान्य है। गाय को \"गाय\" इसलिये नहीं कहा जाता है कि इस शब्द से इस विशेष चौपाए जानवर का बोध होना अनिवार्य है, बल्कि इसलिये कहा जाता है कि कभी उक्त पशु का बोध कराने के लिये इस शब्द का यादृच्छिक प्रयोग कर लिया गया था, जिसे मान्यता मिल गई और जो परंपरा से चला आ रहा है उन्होंने शब्दों के तीन भेद \"संज्ञा\", \"क्रिया\", \"निपात\" किया।\n\nयूनान में भाषा का अध्ययन केवल दार्शनिकों तक ही सीमित रहा। उन्होंने अपनी भाषा के अतिरिक्त दूसरी भाषाओं में कोई रुचि नहीं दिखाई। सिकंदर की सेनाओं ने यूनान से लेकर भारत की उत्तरी सीमा तक के विस्तृत प्रदेश को पदाक्रांत किया, किंतु उनके विवरणों में उन प्रदेशों की बोलियों का कहीं उल्लेख नहीं मिलता है। यूनान में भाषा विषयक कुछ उल्लेखनिय कार्य भी हुए। \n\n अरिस्तार्कस (Aristarchus) ने होमर की कविता की भाषा का विश्लेषण किया।\n अपोलोनिअस डिस्कोलस (Appollonios Dyskolos) ने ग्रीक वाक्यप्रक्रिया पर प्रकाश डाला।\n डिओनिसओस थ्रैक्स (Dionysios Thrax) ने एक प्रभावशाली व्याकरण लिखा।\n\nइसके साथ ही कुछ शब्दकोश ऐसे भी मिलते है जिनमें ग्रीक और लैटिन के अतिरिक्त एशिया माइनर में बोली जानेवाली भाषाओं के अनेक शब्दों का समावेश किया गया है। यूनानियों ने भाषा को तत्वमीमांसा की दृष्टि से परखा है। उनके द्वारा प्रस्तुत भाषाविश्लेषण को दार्शनिक व्याकरण की संज्ञा दी गई है। यूनानियों की तरह रोमणों ने भी व्याकरण और कोश बनाए। \n\n वारो (116-27 ई0 पू0) ने 26 खंडों में लैटिन व्याकरण रचा।\n प्रिस्किअन (512-60) ने 20 खंडो में लैटिन व्याकरण रचा।\n\nमध्ययुग में ईसाई मिशनरियों को औरों की भाषाएँ सीखनी पड़ी। जनता को जनता की भाषा में उपदेश देना प्रचार के लिये अनिवार्य था। फलस्वरूप परभाषा सीखने की व्यावहारिक पद्धतियाँ निकलीं। मिशनरियों ने अनेक भाषाओं के व्याकरण तथा कोश बनाए। पर ग्रीक लैटिन व्याकरण के ढाँचों में रचे जाने के कारण ये अपूर्ण तथा अनुपयुक्त थे। उसी युग में सैनिकों और उपनिवेशों ने शासकीय वर्ग के लोगों ने स्थानीय भाषाओं का विश्लेषण शुरू किया। साथ ही व्यापार विस्तार के कारण अनेकानेक भाषाओं से यूरोपीयों का परिचय बढ़ा। 17वीं शताब्दी में (1647 ई) फ्रैंसिस लोडविक (Francis Lodwick) तथा रेवरेंड केव डेक (Rev. Cave Deck) जैसे विद्वानों ने \"ए कॉमन राइटिंग\" तथा \"यूनिवर्सल कैरेक्टर\" जैसे ग्रंथ लिखे थे, जिससे उनके 'स्वनविज्ञान' के ज्ञान का परिचय मिलता है। लोडविक ने एक आशुलिपि का आविष्कार किया था, जो अंग्रेजी और डच दोनो के लिये 1650 ई0 के लगभग व्यवहृत की गई थी। मध्यकाल में सभी ज्ञात भाषाओं के सर्वेक्षण का प्रयत्न हुआ। अतएव अनेक बहुभाषी कोश तथा बहुभाषी संग्रह निकले। 18वीं शताब्दी में पल्लास (P.S. Pallas) की विश्वभाषाओं की तुलनात्मक शब्दावली में 285 शब्द ऐसे हैं जो 272 भाषाओं में मिलते हैं। एडेलुंग (Adelung) की माइथ्रेडेटीज (Mithridates) में 500 भाषाओं में \"ईश प्रार्थना\" है।\n\nइस प्रकार 18वीं शती के पूर्व भाषाविषयक प्रचुर सामग्री एकत्र हो चुकी थी। किंतु विश्लेषण तथा प्रस्तुतीकरण क पद्धतियाँ वही पुरानी थीं। इनमें सर्वप्रथम जर्मन विद्वान् लाइबनित्स (Leibnitz) ने परिष्कार किया। इन्होंने ही संभवत: सर्वप्रथम यह बताया कि \"यूरेशियाई\" भाषाओं का एक ही प्रागैतिहासिक उत्स है। इस प्रकार 18वीं शती में तुलात्मक ऐतिहासिक भाषाविज्ञान की भूमिका बनी, जो 19वीं शती में जाकर विकसित हुई।\n\nसंक्षेप में, 19वीं शताब्दी से पूर्व यूरोपीय भाषाओं का जो अध्ययन किया गया, वह भाषावैज्ञानिक की अपेक्षा तार्किक अधिक, रूपात्मक (Formal) की अपेक्षा संकल्पनात्मक अधिक और वर्णनात्मक की अपेक्षा विध्यात्मा (Prescriptive) अधिक था।\n\n19वीं शती (ऐतिहासिक तुलनात्मक भाषाविज्ञान) \nउन्नीसवीं शती ऐतिहासिक तुलनात्मक भाषाविज्ञान का युग था| इसके प्रारंभ का श्रेय संस्कृत भाषा से पाश्चात्यों के परिचय को है। तुलनात्मक भाषा विज्ञान का सूत्रपात एक प्रकार से उस समय हुआ जब 2 फ़रवरी 1786 को सर विलियम जोंस ने कलकत्ते में यह घोषणा की कि संस्कृत भाषा की संरचना अद्भुत है, वह ग्रीक से अधिक पूर्ण, लैटिन से अधिक समृद्ध और दोनों से ही अधिक परिष्कृत है। फिर भी इसका दोनों से घनिष्ठ संबंध है। उन्होंने देखा कि संस्कृत की एक ओर ग्रीक और लैटिन तथा दूसरी और गॉथीक, केल्टी से इतनी अधिक समानता है कि निश्चय ही इन सब का एक ही स्रोत रहा होगा। यह पारिवारिक धारणा इस नए विज्ञान के मूल में है।\n\nइस दिशा में पहला सुव्यवस्थित कार्य डेनमार्क वासी रास्क (1787-1832) का है। रास्क ने भाषाओं की समग्र संरचना की तुलना पर अधिक बल दिया और कहा कि केवल शब्दावली का साम्य आगत शब्दों के कारण भी हो सकता है। इन्होंने स्वनों के साम्य को भी पारिवारिक संबंध निर्धारण का महत्वपूर्ण अंग माना। इस धारणा को सुव्यवस्थित पुष्टि दी याकोव ग्रीम (1785-1863) ने, जिनके स्वन नियम भाषा विज्ञान में प्रसिद्ध हैं। इन स्वन नियमों में भारत-यूरोपीय भाषा से प्राग्जर्मनीय में, तदनंतर उच्चजर्मनीय में होनेवाले व्यवस्थित व्यंजन स्वन परिवर्तनों की व्याख्या है। इसी बीच संस्कृत के अधिकाधिक परिचय से पारिवारिक तुलना का क्रम अधिकाधिक गहरा होता गया। बॉप (1791-1867) ने संस्कृत, अवेस्ता ग्रीक, लैटिन, लिथुएनी, गॉथिक, जर्मन, प्राचीन स्लाव केल्टी और अल्बानी भाषाओं का तुलनात्मक व्याकरण प्रकाशित किया। रास्क और ग्रिम ने स्वन परिवर्तनों पर प्रकाश डाला, बॉप ने मुख्यत: रूपप्रक्रिया का आधार ग्रहण किया।\n\nरास्क, ग्रिम और बॉप के पश्चात् मैक्समूलर (1823-1900) और श्लाइखर (1823-68) के नाम विशेष रूप से उल्लेखनीय हैं। मैक्सूमूलर की महत्वपूर्ण कृति \"लेसंस इन दि सायंस ऑव लैंग्वेज\" (1861) है। श्लाइखर ने भारत-यूरोपीय परिवार की भाषाओं का एक सुव्यवस्थित सर्वागीण तुलनात्मक व्याकरण प्रस्तुत किया| श्लाइखर ने तुलनात्मक भाषा विज्ञान के सैद्धांतिक पक्ष पर भी विशेष कार्य किया। इनके अनुसार यदि दो भाषाओं में समान परिवर्तन पाए जाते हैं, तो ये दोनों भाषाएँ किसी काल में एक साथ रही होंगी। इस प्रकार उन्होंने तुलनात्मक आधार पर आदिभाषा (Ursprache) की पुनर्रचना (Reconstruction) के लिये मार्ग प्रशस्त किया। पुनर्रचना के अतिरिक्त भाषाविज्ञान को इनकी एक और मुख्य देन भाषाओं का प्ररूपसूचक वर्गीकरण है। इन दिनों भाषाविज्ञान के क्षेत्र में आनेवाली अमेरिकी विद्वानों में हिवटनी (1827-1894) अग्रणी हैं। इन्होंने भाषा के विकास और भाषा के अध्ययन पर पुस्तकें लिखीं। 1876 में प्रकाशित इनक संस्कृत व्याकरण अपने क्षेत्र का अद्वितीय ग्रंथ है। श्लाइखर के तुरंत बाद फिक (1833-1916) ने 1868 में सर्वप्रथम भारत-यूरोपीय भाषाओं का तुलनात्मक शब्दकोश प्रकाशित किया, जिसमें आदि भाषा के पुनर्रचित रूप भी दिए गए थे।\n\nकुछ समय बाद विद्वानों का ध्यान ग्रिम नियम की कुछ अंसगतियों पर गया। डेनमार्क वासी वार्नर ने 1875 में एक ऐसी असंगति को नियमबद्ध अपवाद के रूप में स्थापित किया। यह असंगति थी भारत-यूरोपीय प्, त्, क् का जर्मनीय में सघोष बन जाना। वार्नर ने ग्रीक और संस्कृत की तुलना से इसका अपवाद ढूँढ़ निकाला जो वार्नर नियम के नाम से प्रचलित है। ऐसे अपवादों की स्थापना से विद्वानों के एक संप्रदाय को उनके अपने विश्वासों में पुष्टि मिली। ये नव्य वैयाकरण (Jung grammatiker) कहलाते हैं। इनके मत से स्वन नियमों का कोई अपवाद नहीं होता। स्वन परिवर्तन आकस्मिक और अव्यवस्थित नहीं है, प्रत्युत नियत और सुव्यवस्थित हैं। असंगति इस कारण मिलती है कि हम उनकी प्रक्रिया को पूरी तरह समझ नहीं पाए हैं, क्योकि भाषा के नमूनों की कमी है। कुछ असंगतियों के मूल में सादृश्य है, जिसकी पूर्वाचार्यो ने उपेक्षा की थी। इस प्रकार ये नव्य वैयाकरण बड़े व्यवस्थावादी थे।\n\nऐतिहासिक तुलनात्मक भाषाविज्ञान पर 20वीं सदी में भी कार्य हुआ है। भारत यूरोपीय परिवार पर ब्रुगमैन और डेलब्रुक एवं हर्मन हर्ट (Hermann Hirt) के तुलनात्मक व्याकरण महत्वपूर्ण ग्रंथ हैं। मेइए (Meillet) का भारत-यूरोपीय भाषाओं के तुलनात्मक अध्ययन की भूमिका नामक ग्रंथ सनातन महत्व का कहा जा सकता है। हिटाइट नामक प्राचीन भाषा का पता लगने के बाद भारत-यूरोपीय भाषा विज्ञान पर नये सिरे से कार्य प्रारंभ हुआ। भारत यूरोपीयेतर परिवारों पर ऐतिहासिक तुलनात्मक कार्य हो रहा है। ग्रीनबर्ग का अफ्रीकी भाषाओं का वर्गीकरण अनुकरणीय है। इसकी अधुनातन शाखा भाषा कालक्रम विज्ञान (Giotto chronology या Lixico statistics) है, जिसके अंतर्गत तुलनात्मक पद्धति से उस समय के निरूपण का प्रयास किया जाता है जब किसी भाषापरिवार के दो सदस्य पृथक् पृथक् हुए थे। अमरीकी मानव विज्ञानी मॉरिस स्वेडिश इस प्रक्रिया के जन्मदाता हैं। यह पद्धति रेडियो रसायन द्वारा ली गई है।\n\nबीसवीं शती (वर्णनात्मक भाषाविज्ञान) \nबीसवीं शती का भाषाविज्ञान मुख्यत: वर्णनात्मक अथवा संरचनात्मक भाषाविज्ञान कहा जा सकता है। इसे आधुनिक रूप देनेवालों में प्रमुख बॉदें (Baudouin de courtenay), हेनरी स्वीट और सोसुर (Saussure) हैं। स्विस भाषावैज्ञानिक सोसुर (1857-1913) द्वारा प्रतिपादित सिद्धांतों से भी पूर्व हंबोल्ट (Humboldt) ने प्रतिपादित किया था कि भाषाविशेष का अध्ययन किसी अन्य भाषा से तुलना किए बिना उसी भाषा के आंतरिक अवयवों के आधार पर होना चाहिए। सोसुर ने सर्वप्रथम भाषा की प्रवृति पर प्रकाश डालते हुए संकेतित (Signified) और संकेतन (Signifier) के संबंध को वस्तु न मानकर प्रकार्य माना और उसे भाषाई चिह्न (Linguistic Sign) से अभिहित किया। चिह्न यादृच्छिक है अर्थात ‘संकेतित’ का ‘संकेतक’ से कोई तर्कसंगत संबंध नहीं है। वृक्ष के लिये ‘पेड़’ कहने में कोई तर्क नहीं है; ‘प’, ‘ए’, ‘ड’, स्वनों में कुछ ऐसा नही है कि वह वृक्ष का ही संकेतक हो, यह केवल परंपरा के कारण है। इसके अतिरिक्त चिह्न का मूल्य भाषा में प्रयुक्त पूरी शब्दावली (अन्य सभी चिह्नों) के परिप्रेक्ष्य में होता है, अर्थात् उनके विरोध से होता है। भाषा का इन्हीं विरोधों की प्रकार्यता पर निर्भर रहना वर्णनात्मक भाषा विज्ञान का आधारस्तंभ है। इन (स्वनिम, रूपिम, अर्थिम आदि) की सत्ता विरोध के सिद्धांत पर ही आश्रित है।\n\nसोसूर ने भाषा के दो प्रयोगों पैरोल (वाक) और लांग (भाषा) में भी भेद किया। प्रथम भाषा का जीवित रूप है, हमारा भाषणउच्चार पैरोल है। किंतु द्वितीय भावानयन (Abstraction) की प्रक्रिया से उद्भूत एक अमूर्त भावना है। आपकी हिंदी, हमारी हिंदी, सभी की हिंदी व्यक्तिगत स्तर पर उच्चारण, शब्दप्रयोगादि के भेद से भिन्न है: फिर भी हिंदी भाषा जैसी अमूर्त धारणा लांग है जो भावानयन प्रक्रिया का परिणाम है और जो इन अनेक वैयक्तिक भेदों से परे और सामान्यकृत हैं। यह साकालिक है (Synchronic) है।\n\nसोसुर का महत्व संरचनत्मक भाषाविज्ञान में क्रांतिकारी माना जा सकता है। बाद में यूरोप के अनेक स्कूल कोपेनहेगेन, प्राहा (प्राग), लंदन तथा अमेरिका के भाषावैज्ञानिक संप्रदाय इनके कुछ मूल सिद्धांतो को लेकर विकसित हुए हैं।\n\nप्राहा सम्प्रदाय (स्कूल) \nयूरोप में सोसुर की प्रेरणा से विकसित एक संप्रदाय प्राह स्कूल के नाम से प्रसिद्ध है। इसके प्रवर्तक रूसी विद्वान त्रुबेजकोय (Trubetzkoy, 1890-1938) थे। बद में इसके मुख्य प्रचारक रोमन यॉकोबसन (1896-1982) बने। इस स्कूल की सिद्धांत प्रदर्शिका पुस्तक त्रबेजकोआ लिखित (Grundzige der Phonologie), स्वनप्रक्रिया के सिद्धांत (1936) है| इस स्कूल में स्वनप्रक्रिया (Phonology) पर विशेष बल दिया जाता है। इनके यहाँ यह शब्द एक विशेष विस्तृत अर्थ में प्रयुक्त होता है। इसके अंतर्गत भाषण स्वनों के प्रकार्य का सर्वांगीण अध्ययन आ जाता है और इसी कारण ये लोग प्रकार्यवादी (Functionalists) कहलाते हैं। इस संप्रदाय की महत्ता भाषासंरचना की निर्धारक पद्धति में है जिसमें विचार किया जाता है कि स्वन इकाइयाँ विशिष्ट भाषा संबंधी व्यवस्थाओं में किस प्रकार संघटित होती है। यह पद्धति विरोध पर आश्रित है। स्वनात्मक अंतर जब अर्थात्मक अंतर को भी प्रकट करते हैं, विरोधात्मक अर्थात स्वनिमात्मक (Phonematic) माने जाते हैं। उदाहरण के लिये हिंदी 'काल' और 'गाल' शब्दों को लें। इनमें स्वनात्मक अंतर स्वनिमात्मक है। परिणामस्वरूप ‘क’ और ‘ग’ दो पृथक पृथक् स्वनिम हैं। यहाँ यह ध्यान देना चाहिए कि क और ग स्वत: स्वनिम नही है, ये स्वनिम केवल इस कारण हैं कि अर्थ के अनुसार ये विरोधात्मक हैं। स्वन स्वत: स्वनिम को निर्धारित नहीं करते| स्वनिमत्व की निर्धारक है इन स्वनों की विरोधात्मक प्रकार्यता। इस प्रकार, स्वनिम ‘क, ग’ (क, ग) स्वनों के समान वास्तविक नहीं है। ये केवल अमूर्त भाव या विरोधात्मक प्रकार्यों के योग हैं।\n\nयह विरोध इस संप्रदाय में बड़े विस्तार के साथ वर्णित हुआ है। इसके अनेक प्रतिरूप युग्म, जैसे द्विपाश्र्विक, बहुपार्श्विक आनुपातिक, विलगति आदि परिभाषित किए गए हैं। निवैषम्यीकरण (Neutralization), आर्कीस्वनिम (Archiphoneme), सहसंबध (Correlation), आदि टेकनिकल शब्द इसी स्कूल के हैं। फ्रांस के आंद्रे मार्तिने (Andres Martinet) ने इस विरोध की महत्ता का ऐतिहासिक स्वनविकास में भी प्रयोग किया और कालक्रमिक स्वनप्रक्रिया की नींव डाली। कालक्रम से उत्पन्न अनेक स्वनपरिवर्तन भाषा की स्वनसंघटना में भी अंतर उपस्थित करते हैं। ये प्रकार्यात्मक परिवर्तन कहलाते हैं। ये प्रकार्यात्मक परिवर्तन भी व्यवस्था से आते हैं और सामंजस्य (harmony) अथवा लाघव (economy) की दिशा में होते हैं। इस प्रकार प्राहा स्कूल ऐतिहासिक विकासों की भी तर्कसंगत व्याख्या में सफल हुआ है।\n\nकोपेनहेगेन सम्प्रदाय (स्कूल) \nइन्हीं दिनों यूरोप में एक अन्य संप्रदाय चल निकला। यह ‘कोपेनहेगेन स्कूल’, ‘डेनिश स्कूल’, अथवा ‘ग्लासेमेटिक्स’ कै नाम से प्रसिद्ध है। इसके प्रर्वतक हेल्मस्लेव (Hjelmslev) (सन् 1899) हैं और इनकी सिद्धांत दर्शिका है Omkring Sprogteorienx Grundloeggelse, 1943 अंग्रेजी अनुवाद ह्विटफील्ड द्वारा Prolegomena to a Theory of Language, 1953। यह संप्रदाय अधिकतर सिद्धांतों के विवेचन में सीमित रहा। पर अभी इन सिद्धांतों का भाषाविशेष पर प्रयोग अत्यल्प मात्रा में हुआ है| इस संप्रदाय की महत्ता इसमें है कि यह शुद्ध रूपवादी है। भाषा को यह भी सोसुर की भाँति मूल्यों की व्यवस्था मानता है, किंतु भाषाविश्लेषण में भावेतर तत्वों का तथा भाषाविज्ञानेतर विज्ञानों का, जैसे भौतिकी, शरीरप्रक्रियाविज्ञान, समाजशास्त्र आदि का आश्रय नही लेना चाहता। विश्लेषण पद्धति शुद्ध भाषापरक होनी चाहिए स्वयं में समर्थ और स्वयं में पूर्ण। इस संप्रदाय में अभिव्यक्ति और आशय प्रत्येक के दो दो भेद किए गए रूप और सार भाषेतर तत्व है। रूप शुद्ध भाषापरक तत्व है जो सार तत्वों की संघटना व्यवस्था के रूप में है। इस प्रकार अभिव्यक्ति बनती है और अभिव्यक्ति के रूप में संरचना व्यवस्था, जैसे, स्वनिम, रूपिम आदि है। इसी प्रकार आशय के सार के अंतर्गत शब्दार्थ हैं और रूप में अर्थसंघटना है|\n\nलंदन सम्प्रदाय (स्कूल) \nहेनरी स्वीट इसके आधारस्तंभ कहे जा सकते है। इसका विशेष परिवर्धन लंदन विश्वविद्यालय के भाषा विज्ञान तथा स्वनविज्ञान के विद्वान प्रोफेसर फर्थ द्वारा हुआ है। यह स्कूल अर्थ को भी मान्यता देता है। इसके अनुसार भाषा एक सार्थक क्रिया है और अर्थप्रसंग के महत्व को भी स्वीकार किया गया है। इस स्कूल में ध्वन्यात्मक विवेचन के साथ ही साथ रागात्मक (prosodic) तत्वों की चर्चा होती है। रागात्मक विश्लेषण अमेरिकी स्वनिम वैज्ञानिक विश्लेषण से भिन्न है और इसका क्षेत्र कहीं अधिक विस्तृत है। रागात्मक विश्लेषण बहुव्यवस्थाजनित है, जब कि स्वनिम विज्ञान एकव्यवस्थाजनित है। फर्थ ने जिस रागात्मक स्वनप्रक्रिया का प्रवर्तन किया उसे आगे बढ़ानेवालों में मुख्य हें रॉबिंस, लायंस (Lyons), हेलिडे और डिक्शन। जहाँ तक स्वनविज्ञान का संबंध है, लंदन स्कूल के अंतर्गत स्वीट के बाद डेनियल जोन्स का कार्य विशेष रूप से उल्लेखनीय है।\n\nअमरीकी सम्प्रदाय (स्कूल) \nयद्यपि ‘प्राहास्कूल’ और ‘कोपेनहेगन स्कूल’ जैसे शब्दों के वजन पर अमरीकी स्कूल नामकरण उचित नहीं होगा, क्योंकि यहाँ केवल एक पद्धति पर काम नहीं हुआ; फिर भी सुविधा के लिये अमेरिकी स्कूल कहा गया है।\n\nअमरीका में संरचनात्मक भाषाविज्ञान के प्रवर्तकों में बोआज (1858-1942), सैपीर (1884-1939) तथा ब्लूमफील्ड (1887-1949) के नाम आते हैं। इनमें पहले दो मूलत: मानवविज्ञानी थे तथा भाषाविश्लेषण उनके लिये व्यावहारिक आवश्यकता थी। उन्होंने अमरीकी जंगली जातियों की भाषाओं के वर्णन का प्रयास किया है। ब्लूमफील्ड निस्संदेह ऐतिहासिक तुलनात्मक भाषाविज्ञान के अच्छे ज्ञाता थे और जर्मनीय भाषाओं पर उनका पूर्ण अधिकार था। ब्लूमफील्ड अमरीकी भाषाविज्ञान के प्रेरणास्त्रोत रहे हैं और आप की पुस्तक भाषा (लैंग्वेज) बड़े आदर के साथ पढ़ी-पढ़ाई जाती है।\n\nब्लूमफील्ड की महत्ता इसमें है कि इन्होंने भाषाविज्ञान को विज्ञान की कोटि में स्थापित किया और व्याकरण तथा भाषाई विवेचन को सही अर्थो में विज्ञान का रूप दिया। इनका आग्रह रहा है कि भाषा का विश्लेषण वर्गीकरण तथा प्रस्तुतीकरण वैज्ञानिक रीति से होना चाहिए। अर्थ का भाषाविश्लेषण से कोई प्रत्यक्ष संबंध नहीं है। मनोविज्ञान दर्शन आदि का आश्रय नहीं लेना चाहिए, न अटकलें लगानी चाहिए और न शिथिल, अस्पष्ट शब्दावली में तथ्यों को प्रकट करना चाहिए। स्वन नियमों की अटूटता में इनका विश्वास था।\n\nकिंतु ब्लूमफील्ड ने विश्लेषण पद्धति पर कोई विशेष प्रकाश नहीं डाला। यह कमी उनकी अगली पीढ़ी के विद्वानों ने पूरी की। पाइक ने \"स्वनिविज्ञान\" में और नाइडा ने रूपप्रक्रिया (Morphology) में विश्लेषण पद्धति का विस्तार से विवेचन किया है। पाइक ने टैग्मेमिक पद्धति निकाली जो कि रूपप्रक्रिया और वाक्यप्रक्रिया दोनों में एक समान प्रयुक्त होने से स्पृहणीय हो गई है। इस पद्धति पर अनेकानेक भाषाओं के विश्लेषण और विवरण प्रस्तुत किए गए हैं और सर्वत्र यह सफल रही है। इन्हीं के समकालीन जैलिग हैरिस (Zellig Harris) ने भी संरचनात्मक पद्धति पर अपनी पुस्तक लिखी। इसी समय वेल्स ने अव्यवहित अवयव (Ic. Immediate constituent) की पद्धति से वाक्यों का विश्लेषण करना शुरू किया, जिसे अनेक भाषाविदों ने अपनाया। फिर हैरिस के शिष्य चौमस्की (Chomsky) ने एक नितांत गणितीय एवं तर्कसंगत पद्धति निकाली। यह है रूपांतरण-जनन (ट्रांसफॉर्मेशन जैनरेटिव) पद्धति| यह अधुनातन पद्धति है और भाषावैज्ञानिकों को सर्वाधिक प्रिय हो चली है। अब हैरिस ने अव्यवहित अवयव पद्धति और रूपांतरण विश्लेषण पद्धति की कमियों को देखते हुए सूत्र अवयव (S. C-String constituent) का सिद्धांत प्रस्तुत् किया है| यह विश्लेषण पद्धति और रूपांतरण पद्धति के बीच का रास्ता है। यह प्रत्येक वाक्य में से एक ‘मौलिक वाक्य’ (elementary sentence) पृथक कर देती है| अव्यवहित अवयव विश्लेषण पद्धति में इस तरह ‘मौलिक वाक्य’ का पृथक्करण नहीं होता जब कि रूपांतरण विश्लेषण पद्धति में पूरे वाक्य को अलग अलग ‘मौलिक वाक्यों’ और उनके ‘अनुलग्नक शब्दों’ (Adjuncts) में पृथक कर दिया जाता है।\n\nस्वनिमिक, रूपिमिक और वाक्य स्तर पर भाषा का विश्लेषण प्रस्तुत करने का महत्वपूर्ण कार्य जितना पुस्तकें लिखकर किया गया है, उससे कहीं अधिक भाषाविज्ञान से संबंधित अमरीकी पत्रपत्रिकाओं में प्रकाशित लेखों से हुआ है। इनके लेखकों में से कुछ हैं : ब्लॉक, हैरिस, हॉकेट, स्मिथ, ट्रेगर, वेल्स आदि।\n\nभारतीय भाषावैज्ञानिक\n पाणिनि -- अष्टाध्यायी\n कात्यायन -- वार्तिक\n पतंजलि -- महाभाष्य\n हेमचन्द्राचार्य -- सिद्धहेमशब्दानुशासन\n सुनीति कुमार चटर्जी -- भारतीय आर्यभाषा और हिन्दी\n कामताप्रसाद गुरु -- हिन्दी व्याकरण\n धीरेन्द्र वर्मा -- हिन्दी भाषा का इतिहास (१९३३)\n बाबूराम सक्सेना -- सामान्य भाषाविज्ञान (१९७१), अवधी का विकास (१९७८)\n किशोरीदास वाजपेयी -- हिन्दी शब्दानुशासन (१९५७) , भारतीय भाषाविज्ञान (१९५९), हिन्दी निरुक्त\n उदयनारायण तिवारी -- हिन्दी का उद्गम और विकास (१९५५), भारत भाषा का सर्वेक्षण\n भोलानाथ तिवारी -- भाषाविज्ञान (१९५१) तथा अनेकों अन्य ग्रन्थ\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n संस्कृत व्याकरण का इतिहास\n हिन्दी व्याकरण का इतिहास\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \nHistory of Language Sciences\n\nश्रेणी:भाषाविज्ञान का इतिहास\nश्रेणी:इतिहास", "आधुनिक संस्कृत लेखक\nदुनिया की सबसे प्राचीन भाषा संस्कृत का प्राचीन साहित्य तो विपुल रूप से समृद्ध है ही, किन्तु आधुनिक काल में भी संस्कृत कवियों और लेखकों की संख्या कम नहीं है। जहाँ एक ओर संस्कृत पत्र-पत्रिकाएँ, यहाँ तक कि दैनिक समाचार पत्र तक संस्कृत में प्रकाशित हो रहे हैं, वहीं दूसरी ओर अनेकानेक कवि-लेखक इस भाषा में निरन्तर कविता, नाटक, कहानी, उपन्यास आदि लिख कर संस्कृत को 'मृतभाषा' कहने वालों को रचनात्मक पर चुनौती दे रहे हैं।\n\nसंस्कृत लेखन की अजस्र परम्परा \nआसाम और दक्षिण भारत के कुछ गांवों में तो संस्कृत ही आम-बोलचाल की भाषा है।</span> === Sanskrit: the constant tradition of writing in Sanskrit === Assam and villages of South India is the common spoken language.</span> अनेक स्वयंसेवी संस्थाओं और व्यक्तियों के प्रयासों से सुव्यवस्थित संस्कृत संभाषण प्रशिक्षण के बाद अनेक गाँवों में लोगों की आपसी बोलचाल की भाषा संस्कृत बन चुकी है। Several NGOs and individuals organized efforts Sanskrit conversation between people in several villages after training has become a colloquial Sanskrit. ऐसे गाँव यकीनन कम हैं पर इन अपवाद गाँवों में दैनिक जीवन का सम्पूर्ण वार्तालाप सिर्फ संस्कृत में ही किया जा रहा है। Such villages are arguably less of daily life in these villages the whole conversation only exception being in Sanskrit. ऐसे ही ग्रामों में सबसे महत्वपूर्ण नाम है कर्नाटक के मुत्तुर व होसहल्ली और मध्यप्रदेश के झिरी गाँव का, जहाँ सही अर्थों में संस्कृत जन-जन की भाषा बन चुकी है। The most important of these is named villages in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh rifled Muthur and Hoshlli village, where truly has become the language of Sanskrit masses. इन ग्रामों में लगभग 95 प्रतिशत लोग संस्कृत में ही वार्तालाप करते हैं। About 95 percent of people in these villages are the same conversation in Sanskrit. मुतरु, होसहल्ली व झिरी के अलावा मध्यप्रदेश के मोहद और बधुवार तथा राजस्थान के गनोडा भी ऐसे ग्राम हैं, जहाँ दैनिक जीवन का अधिकांश वार्तालाप संस्कृत में ही किया जाता है। Mutru, and Bdhuwar Mohd Hoshlli and Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, besides rifled Gnoda such village where most of the daily life conversation is in Sanskrit.\n\nसंस्कृत साहित्य : वर्तमान परिदृश्य \nवर्तमान समय में भारत के सभी प्रदेशों में समान रूप से संस्कृत के ग्रन्थ लिखे और पढ़े जा रहे हैं। राष्ट्रीय संस्कृत संस्थान, नई दिल्ली ने जो सूची प्रकाशित की है, अकेले उसमें १६८० से ज्यादा आधुनिक संस्कृत कृतियाँ उल्लेखित हैं |\n\nसंस्कृत की कुछ नई /पुरानी पुस्तकें\nसंस्कृत के आधुनिक साहित्यकारों द्वारा लिखित सभी पुस्तकों का परिचय यहां देना संभव नहीं है पर कुछ बहुचर्चित कृतियों की जानकारी निम्नानुसार है:\n\n{|\n|-\n! क्रमांक !! साहित्यकार का नाम !! कृति का नाम\n|-\n| १ || श्री के०एल० रंगीलादास || व्यंगात्मक काँग्रेस गीता\n|-\n| २ || श्री के० कल्याणी || भारती विलाप\n|-\n| ३ || श्री एम०के०ताताचार्य || भारती मनोरथम्\n|-\n| ४ || श्री जी०वी पद्मनाभाचार्य || पवनदूतम्\n|-\n| ५ || श्री गणपति शास्त्री || ध्रुव चरितम्, ताटका परिणयम्, तिरगशतकम्\n|-\n| ६ || श्री विजयराघव || सुरभिसंदेशम्\n|-\n| ७ || श्री त्रिशूरनारायण मूष || कपोत संदेशम्\n|-\n| ८ || श्री रंगाचारी || पिकसंदेशम्\n|-\n| ९ || श्री सी० सुगन्नि नायर || सीताहरणम्\n|-\n| १० || श्री रवि वर्मा तम्बूरान || पद्मपेटिका\n|-\n| ११ || श्री सुन्दर राजन || सुरश्मिकाशमीरम्, अभाणभारम्\n|-\n| १२ || श्री सूर्यमणि रथ || समस्यापूर्ति शतकम्\n|-\n| १३ || श्री केशवचन्द्रदास || ईशा\n|-\n| १४ || श्री के० रामावतार शर्मा || मुद्गर दूतम्\n|-\n| १५ || श्री तापेश्वर सिंह तपस्वी || पुनर्मिलनम्, हरप्रिया\n|-\n| १६ || श्री वनेश्वर पाठक || प्लवंगदूतम्, हीरोचरितम्\n|-\n| १७ || श्री रामाशीष पाण्डेय || मयूखदूतम्, काव्यकादम्बकम्\n|-\n| १८ || श्री अभिराज राजेन्द्र || आर्यान्योक्तिशतकम्, नवाष्टकमल्लिका, चौरशतकम्\n|-\n| १९ || श्री पी०के०नारायण पिल्लई || मयूरदूतम्\n|-\n| २० || श्री कृष्णमूर्ति || मत्कुणाष्टकम्\n|-\n| २१ || श्री राजगोपाल चक्रवर्ति || मधुकरदूतम्\n|-\n| २२ || श्री के०एस०राजगोपालाचार्य || शुकसंदेशम्\n|-\n| २३ || श्री आसुरि अनन्ताचार्य || सम्मार्जनीशतकम्\n|-\n| २४ || श्री श्री निवासाचार्य जालिहाल || श्री तीर्थक्षेत्र विलसकाव्यम्\n|-\n| २५ || श्री प्रमथनाथ तर्क भूषण || कोकिलदूतम्\n|-\n| २६ || श्री विधुशेखर भट्टाचार्य || यौवन विलास\n|-\n| २७ || श्री म०क०कोच नरसिंहाचार्य || पिकसंदेशम्, गरुडसंदेशम्\n|-\n| २८ || श्री बी०सुब्बाराव || दक्षिणात्य मेघसंदेशम्\n|-\n| २९ || श्री जगन्नाथ पाठक || कपिशायिनी, पिपासा\n|-\n| ३० || श्री रामकृष्ण || ताराचरितम्, चण्डदेवचरितम्,\n|-\n| ३१ || श्री शुकदेव शास्त्री || जितमल चरितम्, स्वच्छन्दत्रिवेणी\n|-\n| ३२ || सुश्री वेदकुमारी || उर्मिः\n|-\n| ३३ || श्री पुष्करनाथ शास्त्री || वासन्ती\n|-\n| ३४ || श्री श्रीकृष्णराम व्यास || स्मरणशतकम्\n|-\n| ३५ || श्री नित्यानन्द शास्त्री || हनुमद्दूतम् , \nश्रीरामचरिताब्धिरत्नम् {संस्कृत महाकाव्य, हिन्दी अनुवादक पं. मोहनलाल शर्मा पाण्डेय}\n|-\n| ३६ || श्री अभिनवभर्तृहरि || वैराग्यशतकम्, नीतिशतकम्\n|-\n| ३७ || श्री शिवराम शास्त्री || हर्याणीयम्\n|-\n| ३८ || श्री सत्यदेव वशिष्ठ || सत्याग्रहनीतिशतकम्\n|-\n| ३९ || श्री मूलशंकर याज्ञिक || विजय लहरी\n|-\n| ४० || श्री हर्षदेव माथुर || रथ्यासु, जम्बूवर्णानां शिराणाम्\n|-\n| ४१ || श्री अप्पाशास्त्री राशिवडेकर || मल्लिका कुसुमम्, पंजरबद्धः शुकः\n|-\n| ४२ || श्री रमानाथ भट्ट || सुमनो मनोरंजनम्\n|-\n| ४३ || श्री प्रज्ञाचक्षु गुलाबराय || प्रियप्रेमोन्मादः\n|-\n| ४४ || श्री पण्डित क्षमाराव || सत्याग्रह गीता, मीरालहरी\n|-\n| ४५ || श्री रामचन्द्र शाण्डिल्य || कामदूतम्\n|-\n| ४६ || श्री बलभद्र शर्मा || लीलारविन्द काव्यम्\n|-\n| ४७ || श्री शालिग्राम शास्त्री || सुरभारती संदेशः\n|-\n| ४८ || श्री नारायण शास्त्री || खिस्ते दक्षाध्वरध्वंसम्\n|-\n| ४९ || श्री वटुकनाथ शर्मा || बल्लदूतम्\n|-\n| ५० || श्री मधुसूदन मिश्र || प्रबुद्ध राष्ट्रम्\n|-\n| ५१ || श्री रामकृष्ण शर्मा || पाथेय शतकम्\n|-\n| ५२ || श्री रमाकान्त शुक्ल || भाति मे भारतम्\n|-\n| ५३ || श्री हरिदत्त शर्मा || गीतकन्दलिकर, उत्कलिका\n|-\n| ५४ || श्री चन्द्रभानु त्रिपाठी || गीताली, मंगल्या\n|-\n| ५५ || श्री शिवकुमार मिश्र || दयानन्दसूक्तिसप्तशती\n|-\n| ५६ || श्री उमाकान्त शुक्ल || कूहा\n|-\n| ५७ || श्री वागीश शास्त्री || नर्मसप्तशती, आतंकवादशतकम्, संस्कृतवांग्मयमंथनम्, कथासंवर्तिका, कृषकाणां नागपाशः (रेडियो रूपक)\n|-\n| ५८ || श्री इच्छाराम द्विवेदी || मित्रदूतम्\n|-\n| ५९ || श्री प्रशस्यमित्र शास्त्री || कोमलकण्टकावलिः\n|-\n| ६० || श्री वनमाली विश्वाल || संगमनेनाभिरामः\n|-\n| ६१ || श्री रघुपति शास्त्री || सहायमाधवः, कौमुदीकुसुमम्\n|-\n| ६२ || श्री रामचन्द्र राय || गानाचार्यमाला\n|-\n| ६३ || श्री प्रीतमलाल कच्छी || आराधनाशतकम्\n|-\n| ६४ || श्री गजानन करमलकार || लोमान्यालंकार\n|-\n| ६५ || श्री बच्चूलाल अवस्थी 'ज्ञान' || अगतिकगतिकम्, प्रतानिनी\n|-\n| ६६ || श्री श्यामगोपाल रावले || मुग्धा, कालिदासाष्टकम्\n|-\n| ६७ || श्री मूंगाराम त्रिपाठी || संस्कृतिः संस्कृतम्\n|-\n| ६८ || श्री प्रेमनारायण द्विवेदी || सौन्दर्य सप्तशती\n|-\n| ६९ || श्री रुद्रदेव त्रिपाठी || पत्रदूतम् पादत्राणदूतम्\n|-\n| ७० || श्री शिवचरण शर्मा || जागरणम्\n|-\n| ७१ || श्री प्रभाकर नारायण कवठेकर || राजयोगिनी, धन्यो ग्रामः\n|-\n| ७२ || श्री कृष्णकान्त चतुर्वेदी || श्रृंगार गर्भ मुक्तक संग्रहः\n|-\n| ७३ || श्री भास्कराचार्य त्रिपाठी || मृत्कूटम्, लघु-रघु\n|-\n| ७४ || श्रीमती पुष्पा दीक्षित || अग्निशिखा\n|-\n| ७५ || श्री भगवतीलाल राजप्रोहित || भग्ना सभा\n|-\n| ७६ || श्री रहसविहारी द्विवेदी || श्रीकृष्णस्य स्वस्ति संदेशः\n|-\n| ७७ || श्री कामता प्रसाद त्रिपाठी || गाण्डिवम्, सर्वगन्धा\n|-\n| ७८ || श्री राधावल्लभ त्रिपाठी || लहरीदशकम् गीतधीवरम्\n|-\n| ७९ || श्री केदारनारायण जोशी || अर्वाचीन संस्कृतम्\n|-\n| ८० || श्री शान्तप्रकाश सत्यदास || अशआर-रसधारः\n|-\n| ८१ || श्री शास्त्री नित्यगोपाल कटारे || पंचगव्यम्, नेतामहाभारतम्\n|-\n| ८२ || श्री विन्ध्येश्वरी प्रसाद मिश्र || सारस्वतसनुन्मेषः\n|-\n| ८३ || श्री बालकृष्ण शर्मा || संस्कृत मुक्तकम्\n|-\n| ८४ || श्री सुधाकर शुक्ल || देवदूतम्\n|-\n| ८५ || श्री काले अक्षर सनातन || शतपत्रम्, श्रीरेवाभद्रपीठम्\n|-\n| ८६ || श्री रेवाप्रसाद द्विवेदी || खण्डकाव्यम्\n|-\n| ८७ || श्री श्रीनिवास रथ || तदेवगमनं सैव धरा\n|-\n| ८८ || श्री प्रभुदयाल अग्निहोत्री || विहरति शिवा भवानी\n|-\n| ८९ || श्री आर०के० सराफ || रक्षणीयाऽस्माकं संस्कृतिः\n|-\n| ९० || श्री गणपति शंकर शुक्ल || भूदान यज्ञ गाथा\n|-\n| ९१ || श्री श्रीनिवास चक्रवर्ति || श्रीनिवास सहस्रनाम\n|-\n| ९२ || श्री सदाशिव मुसलगाँवकर || शिन्दे विलासवम्पू\n|-\n| ९३ || श्री ब्रजनन्दन त्रिपाठी || श्रीरामस्तोत्रम्\n|-\n| ९४ || श्री सूर्यनारायण व्यास || भव्य विभूतयः\n|-\n| ९५ || श्री तारानाथव्यास || श्रीमत्प्रतिज्ञात्म नीराजनम्\n|-\n| ९६ || श्री श्रीधर भास्कर वर्णेकर || मातृभूलहरी\n|-\n| ९७ || श्री भगवान दत्त शास्त्री || कृष्णमंगलस्वः\n|-\n| ९८ || श्री लोकनाथ शास्त्री || गणेशाष्टकम्\n|-\n| ९९ || श्री रामस्वरूप शास्त्री || भावमाला शतकम्\n|-\n| १०० || श्री कलानाथ शास्त्री || ‘जीवनस्य पृष्ठद्वयम्’ (उपन्यास), ‘आख्यानवल्लरी’ (कथा-संग्रह) ‘नाट्यवल्लरी’(नाटक), ‘सुधीजनवृत्तम्’, ‘कवितावल्लरी’, ‘कथानकवल्ली’, 'अर्वाचीनं संस्कृत-साहित्यम्’, ‘विद्वज्जनचरितामृतम्’, 'श्री रामचरिताविधरत्नम्' ('महाचरित्रकाव्यम्), 'नवरत्न-नीति-रचनावली', 'जीवनस्य-पाथेयम'\n|-\n| १०१ || श्री भट्ट मथुरानाथ शास्त्री || साहित्य वैभवम्, जयपुर वैभवम्, भारत वैभवम्, आदर्श रमणी आदि\n|-\n| १०२ || श्री देवर्षि रमानाथ शास्त्री || दुःखिनी बाला, अनुग्रह मार्ग आदि\n|-\n| १०३ || श्री श्रेयांश द्विवेदी || शब्दतत्वविमर्शः\n|-\n| १०४ || श्री हरिकृष्ण शास्त्री || दिव्यादर्श\n|-\n| १०५ || डॉ॰ धर्मेन्द्र कुमार शर्मा || अभिनवरसमीमांसाया समीक्षात्मक अध्ययनम्\n|-\n|-१०६ || डॉ॰ जीतराम भट्ट || अनुभूतिशतकम्,भक्तिवल्लरी, वैचित्र्यम्आदि \n\n|-१०७ || डॉ.हिमांशु गौड (संस्कृत कवि) ||\n भावश्री:, वन्द्यश्री:,काव्यश्री:, सूर्यशतकम्, पितृशतकम्, मित्रशतकम्, श्रीबाबागुरुशतकम्,दिव्यन्धरशतकम्, कल्पनाकारशतकम् , नरवरभूमि:,।\n।-\n\n।- 108 ।। पं. मोहनलाल शर्मा पाण्डेय, \nपद्मिनी { पुरस्कृत संस्कृत उपन्यास}, रसकपूरम् {अनूदित संस्कृत उपन्यास},\nपत्रदूतम् { पुरस्कृत संस्कृत खण्डकाव्य}\nनतितति {संस्कृत खण्डकाव्य}\nसंस्कृतकाव्यकौमुदी {संस्कृत काव्य}\nसमस्यासौहित्यम् {संस्कृतकाव्य},\n।-\n\n।- 109. ।। पं. प्यारेमोहन शर्मा , भारती-वैभवम् {संस्कृत खण्डकाव्य, सम्पादक- प्रो. ताराशंकर शर्मा पाण्डेय},\n।-\n\n। -110. ।। पं. सत्यनारायण शास्त्री\nचन्द्रशेखरम् {संस्कृत महाकाव्य}\n\n।-\n\n।- 111. ।। प्रो. ताराशंकर शर्मा पाण्डेय , अहमेव राधा अहमेव कृष्ण: { साहित्य अकादेमी पुरस्कृतअनूदित संस्कृत छन्दोमुक्त महाकाव्य}\nसारस्वतसौरभम् { संस्कृत काव्य }\nहंसरक्षणम् { पुरस्कृत संस्कृत नाटक}\nवृक्षरक्षणम् { पुरस्कृत संस्कृत नाटक} \nसंस्कृतनाट्यप्रणेता : पं.हरिजीवनमिश्र: {समीक्षात्मक}\nसंस्कृतपुरोधा: देवर्षिकलानाथशास्त्री {समीक्षात्मक},\nराजमणीयम् :डॉ.विमल ढौंडियाल (खण्ड काव्य)\n\n।-\n\nश्रेणी:संस्कृत साहित्य\nश्रेणी:संस्कृत कवि\nश्रेणी:संस्कृत साहित्य\nश्रेणी:संस्कृत खंडकाव्य\nश्रेणी:संस्कृत ग्रन्थ\nश्रेणी:संस्कृत साहित्यकार\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nइन्हें भी देखें\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140221181514/http://samskritabharati.in/archives/2535\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160308083933/http://astitva.satishankar.com/2012/11/blog-post.html#sthash.t9PK8gjG.dpuf\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130502131813/http://sanskrit.nic.in/biblofinal.pdf\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140813151932/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mattur\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151115015143/http://globalvarnasramamission.blogspot.com/2012/01/five-indian-villages-where-sanskrit-is.html\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120208195726/http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140226112633/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/tale-of-two-villages/article4581221.ece\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305115250/http://undiscoveredindiantreasures.blogspot.com/2012/05/mattur-village-where-people-converse-in.html\n\nसन्दर्भ\n<div class=\"reflist \" style=\" list-style-type: decimal;\">\n\nइन्हें भी देखें\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140221181514/http://samskritabharati.in/archives/2535\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160308083933/http://astitva.satishankar.com/2012/11/blog-post.html#sthash.t9PK8gjG.dpuf\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130502131813/http://sanskrit.nic.in/biblofinal.pdf\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140813151932/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mattur\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151115015143/http://globalvarnasramamission.blogspot.com/2012/01/five-indian-villages-where-sanskrit-is.html\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120208195726/http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140226112633/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/tale-of-two-villages/article4581221.ece\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305115250/http://undiscoveredindiantreasures.blogspot.com/2012/05/mattur-village-where-people-converse-in.html\n{|\n|-\n! क्रमांक !! साहित्यकार का नाम !! कृति का नाम\n|-\n| १ || श्री के०एल० रंगीलादास|| व्यंगात्मक काँग्रेस गीता\n|-\n| २ || श्री के० कल्याणी|| भारती विलाप\n|-\n| ३ || श्री एम०के०ताताचार्य|| भारती मनोरथम्\n|-\n| ४ || श्री जी०वी पद्मनाभाचार्य|| पवनदूतम्\n|-\n| ५ || श्री गणपति शास्त्री|| ध्रुव चरितम्, ताटका परिणयम्, तिरगशतकम्\n|-\n| ६ || श्री विजयराघव|| सुरभिसंदेशम्\n|-\n| ७ || श्री त्रिशूरनारायण मूष|| कपोत संदेशम्\n|-\n| ८ || श्री रंगाचारी|| पिकसंदेशम्\n|-\n| ९ || श्री सी० सुगन्नि नायर|| सीताहरणम्\n|-\n| १० || श्री रवि वर्मा तम्बूरान|| पद्मपेटिका\n|-\n| ११ || श्री सुन्दर राजन|| सुरश्मिकाशमीरम्, अभाणभारम्\n|-\n| १२ || श्री सूर्यमणि रथ|| समस्यापूर्ति शतकम्\n|-\n| १३ || श्री केशवचन्द्रदास|| ईशा\n|-\n| १४ || श्री के० रामावतार शर्मा|| मुद्गर दूतम्\n|-\n| १५ || श्री तापेश्वर सिंह तपस्वी|| पुनर्मिलनम्, हरप्रिया\n|-\n| १६ || श्री वनेश्वर पाठक|| प्लवंगदूतम्, हीरोचरितम्\n|-\n| १७ || श्री रामाशीष पाण्डेय|| मयूखदूतम्, काव्यकादम्बकम्\n|-\n| १८ || श्री अभिराज राजेन्द्र|| आर्यान्योक्तिशतकम्, नवाष्टकमल्लिका, चौरशतकम्\n|-\n| १९ || श्री पी०के०नारायण पिल्लई|| मयूरदूतम्\n|-\n| २० || श्री कृष्णमूर्ति|| मत्कुणाष्टकम्\n|-\n| २१ || श्री राजगोपाल चक्रवर्ति|| मधुकरदूतम्\n|-\n| २२ || श्री के०एस०राजगोपालाचार्य|| शुकसंदेशम्\n|-\n| २३ || श्री आसुरि अनन्ताचार्य|| सम्मार्जनीशतकम्\n|-\n| २४ || श्री श्री निवासाचार्य जालिहाल|| श्री तीर्थक्षेत्र विलसकाव्यम्\n|-\n| २५ || श्री प्रमथनाथ तर्क भूषण|| कोकिलदूतम्\n|-\n| २६ || श्री विधुशेखर भट्टाचार्य || यौवन विलास\n|-\n| २७ || श्री म०क०कोच नरसिंहाचार्य || पिकसंदेशम्, गरुडसंदेशम्\n|-\n| २८ || श्री बी०सुब्बाराव || दक्षिणात्य मेघसंदेशम्\n|-\n| २९ || श्री जगन्नाथ पाठक || कपिशायिनी, पिपासा\n|-\n| ३० || श्री रामकृष्ण || ताराचरितम्, चण्डदेवचरितम्,\n|-\n| ३१ || श्री शुकदेव शास्त्री || जितमल चरितम्, स्वच्छन्दत्रिवेणी\n|-\n| ३२ || सुश्री वेदकुमारी || उर्मिः\n|-\n| ३३ || श्री पुष्करनाथ शास्त्री || वासन्ती\n|-\n| ३४ || श्री श्रीकृष्णराम व्यास || स्मरणशतकम्\n|-\n| ३५ || श्री नित्यानन्द शास्त्री || हनुमद्दूतम् , \nश्रीरामचरिताब्धिरत्नम् {संस्कृत महाकाव्य, हिन्दी अनुवादक पं. मोहनलाल शर्मा पाण्डेय}\n|-\n| ३६ || श्री अभिनवभर्तृहरि || वैराग्यशतकम्, नीतिशतकम्\n|-\n| ३७ || श्री शिवराम शास्त्री || हर्याणीयम्\n|-\n| ३८ || श्री सत्यदेव वशिष्ठ || सत्याग्रहनीतिशतकम्\n|-\n| ३९ || श्री मूलशंकर याज्ञिक || विजय लहरी\n|-\n| ४० || श्री हर्षदेव माथुर || रथ्यासु, जम्बूवर्णानां शिराणाम्\n|-\n| ४१ || श्री अप्पाशास्त्री राशिवडेकर || मल्लिका कुसुमम्, पंजरबद्धः शुकः\n|-\n| ४२ || श्री रमानाथ भट्ट || सुमनो मनोरंजनम्\n|-\n| ४३ || श्री प्रज्ञाचक्षु गुलाबराय || प्रियप्रेमोन्मादः\n|-\n| ४४ || श्री पण्डित क्षमाराव || सत्याग्रह गीता, मीरालहरी\n|-\n| ४५ || श्री रामचन्द्र शाण्डिल्य || कामदूतम्\n|-\n| ४६ || श्री बलभद्र शर्मा || लीलारविन्द काव्यम्\n|-\n| ४७ || श्री शालिग्राम शास्त्री || सुरभारती संदेशः\n|-\n| ४८ || श्री नारायण शास्त्री || खिस्ते दक्षाध्वरध्वंसम्\n|-\n| ४९ || श्री वटुकनाथ शर्मा || बल्लदूतम्\n|-\n| ५० || श्री मधुसूदन मिश्र || प्रबुद्ध राष्ट्रम्\n|-\n| ५१ || श्री रामकृष्ण शर्मा || पाथेय शतकम्\n|-\n| ५२ || श्री रमाकान्त शुक्ल || भाति मे भारतम्\n|-\n| ५३ || श्री हरिदत्त शर्मा || गीतकन्दलिकर, उत्कलिका\n|-\n| ५४ || श्री चन्द्रभानु त्रिपाठी || गीताली, मंगल्या\n|-\n| ५५ || श्री शिवकुमार मिश्र || दयानन्दसूक्तिसप्तशती\n|-\n| ५६ || श्री उमाकान्त शुक्ल || कूहा\n|-\n| ५७ || श्री वागीश शास्त्री || नर्मसप्तशती, आतंकवादशतकम्, संस्कृतवांग्मयमंथनम्, कथासंवर्तिका, कृषकाणां नागपाशः (रेडियो रूपक)\n|-\n| ५८ || श्री इच्छाराम द्विवेदी || मित्रदूतम्\n|-\n| ५९ || श्री प्रशस्यमित्र शास्त्री || कोमलकण्टकावलिः\n|-\n| ६० || श्री वनमाली विश्वाल || संगमनेनाभिरामः\n|-\n| ६१ || श्री रघुपति शास्त्री || सहायमाधवः, कौमुदीकुसुमम्\n|-\n| ६२ || श्री रामचन्द्र राय || गानाचार्यमाला\n|-\n| ६३ || श्री प्रीतमलाल कच्छी || आराधनाशतकम्\n|-\n| ६४ || श्री गजानन करमलकार || लोमान्यालंकार\n|-\n| ६५ || श्री बच्चूलाल अवस्थी 'ज्ञान' || अगतिकगतिकम्, प्रतानिनी\n|-\n| ६६ || श्री श्यामगोपाल रावले || मुग्धा, कालिदासाष्टकम्\n|-\n| ६७ || श्री मूंगाराम त्रिपाठी || संस्कृतिः संस्कृतम्\n|-\n| ६८ || श्री प्रेमनारायण द्विवेदी || सौन्दर्य सप्तशती\n|-\n| ६९ || श्री रुद्रदेव त्रिपाठी || पत्रदूतम् पादत्राणदूतम्\n|-\n| ७० || श्री शिवचरण शर्मा || जागरणम्\n|-\n| ७१ || श्री प्रभाकर नारायण कवठेकर || राजयोगिनी, धन्यो ग्रामः\n|-\n| ७२ || श्री कृष्णकान्त चतुर्वेदी || श्रृंगार गर्भ मुक्तक संग्रहः\n|-\n| ७३ || श्री भास्कराचार्य त्रिपाठी || मृत्कूटम्, लघु-रघु\n|-\n| ७४ || श्रीमती पुष्पा दीक्षित || अग्निशिखा\n|-\n| ७५ || श्री भगवतीलाल राजप्रोहित || भग्ना सभा\n|-\n| ७६ || श्री रहसविहारी द्विवेदी || श्रीकृष्णस्य स्वस्ति संदेशः\n|-\n| ७७ || श्री कामता प्रसाद त्रिपाठी || गाण्डिवम्, सर्वगन्धा\n|-\n| ७८ || श्री राधावल्लभ त्रिपाठी || लहरीदशकम् गीतधीवरम्\n|-\n| ७९ || श्री केदारनारायण जोशी || अर्वाचीन संस्कृतम्\n|-\n| ८० || श्री शान्तप्रकाश सत्यदास || अशआर-रसधारः\n|-\n| ८१ || श्री शास्त्री नित्यगोपाल कटारे || पंचगव्यम्, नेतामहाभारतम्\n|-\n| ८२ || श्री विन्ध्येश्वरी प्रसाद मिश्र || सारस्वतसनुन्मेषः\n|-\n| ८३ || श्री बालकृष्ण शर्मा || संस्कृत मुक्तकम्\n|-\n| ८४ || श्री सुधाकर शुक्ल || देवदूतम्\n|-\n| ८५ || श्री काले अक्षर सनातन || शतपत्रम्, श्रीरेवाभद्रपीठम्\n|-\n| ८६ || श्री रेवाप्रसाद द्विवेदी || खण्डकाव्यम्\n|-\n| ८७ || श्री श्रीनिवास रथ || तदेवगमनं सैव धरा\n|-\n| ८८ || श्री प्रभुदयाल अग्निहोत्री || विहरति शिवा भवानी\n|-\n| ८९ || श्री आर०के० सराफ || रक्षणीयाऽस्माकं संस्कृतिः\n|-\n| ९० || श्री गणपति शंकर शुक्ल || भूदान यज्ञ गाथा\n|-\n| ९१ || श्री श्रीनिवास चक्रवर्ति || श्रीनिवास सहस्रनाम\n|-\n| ९२ || श्री सदाशिव मुसलगाँवकर || शिन्दे विलासवम्पू\n|-\n| ९३ || श्री ब्रजनन्दन त्रिपाठी || श्रीरामस्तोत्रम्\n|-\n| ९४ || श्री सूर्यनारायण व्यास || भव्य विभूतयः\n|-\n| ९५ || श्री तारानाथव्यास || श्रीमत्प्रतिज्ञात्म नीराजनम्\n|-\n| ९६ || श्री श्रीधर भास्कर वर्णेकर || मातृभूलहरी\n|-\n| ९७ || श्री भगवान दत्त शास्त्री || कृष्णमंगलस्वः\n|-\n| ९८ || श्री लोकनाथ शास्त्री || गणेशाष्टकम्\n|-\n| ९९ || श्री रामस्वरूप शास्त्री || भावमाला शतकम्\n|-\n| १०० || श्री कलानाथ शास्त्री|| ‘जीवनस्य पृष्ठद्वयम्’ (उपन्यास), ‘आख्यानवल्लरी’ (कथा-संग्रह) ‘नाट्यवल्लरी’(नाटक), ‘सुधीजनवृत्तम्’, ‘कवितावल्लरी’, ‘कथानकवल्ली’, 'अर्वाचीनं संस्कृत-साहित्यम्’, ‘विद्वज्जनचरितामृतम्’, 'श्री रामचरिताविधरत्नम्' ('महाचरित्रकाव्यम्), 'नवरत्न-नीति-रचनावली', 'जीवनस्य-पाथेयम'\n|-\n| १०१ || श्री भट्ट मथुरानाथ शास्त्री|| साहित्य वैभवम्, जयपुर वैभवम्, भारत वैभवम्, आदर्श रमणी आदि\n|-\n| १०२ || श्री देवर्षि रमानाथ शास्त्री|| दुःखिनी बाला, अनुग्रह मार्ग आदि\n|-\n| १०३ || श्री श्रेयांश द्विवेदी || शब्दतत्वविमर्शः\n|-\n| १०४ || श्री हरिकृष्ण शास्त्री || दिव्यादर्श\n|-\n| १०५ || डॉ॰ धर्मेन्द्र कुमार शर्मा || अभिनवरसमीमांसाया समीक्षात्मक अध्ययनम्\n|-\n|- १०६ || डॉ॰ जीतराम भट्ट अनुभूतिशतकम्,भक्तिवल्लरी, वैचित्र्यम्आदि \n\n|- १०७ || आचार्य हिमांशु गौड नरवरगाथा (महाकाव्य), भावश्री: पत्रकाव्यसंग्रह ,वन्द्यश्री: , सूर्यशतकम्,पितृशतकम्,मित्रशतकम्, चल चायपाने ( लघुकाव्य ), श्रीबाबागुरुशतकम्\n\n। - १०८ ।। डॉ.विमल किशोर ढौंडियाल राजमणीयम् (खण्डकाव्य)", "फ़िलीपीन्स\nright|thumb|300px|फिलीपींस के प्रमुख नगर\n\nफ़िलीपीन्स दक्षिण-पूर्व एशिया में स्थित एक देश है। इसका आधिकारिक नाम 'फ़िलीपीन्स गणतंत्र' है और राजधानी मनीला है। पश्चिमी प्रशांत महासागर में स्थित ७१०७ द्वीपों से मिलकर यह देश बना है। फ़िलीपीन द्वीप-समूह पूर्व में फ़िलीपीन्स महासागर से, पश्चिम में दक्षिण चीन सागर से और दक्षिण में सेलेबस सागर से घिरा हुआ है। इस द्वीप-समूह से दक्षिण पश्चिम में देश बोर्नियो द्वीप के करीबन सौ क़िलोमीटर की दूरी पर बोर्नियो द्वीप और सीधे उत्तर की ओर ताइवान है। फ़िलीपीन्स महासागर के पूर्वी हिस्से पर पलाऊ है। \n\nपूर्वी एशिया में दक्षिण कोरिया और पूर्वी तिमोर के बाद फ़िलीपीन्स ही ऐसा देश है, जहां ज्यादातर लोग बौद्ध धर्म के अनुयायी हैं। ९ करोड़ से अधिक की आबादी वाला यह विश्व की 12 वीं सबसे अधिक जनसंख्या वाला देश है। यह देश स्पेन (१५२१ - १८९८) और संयुक्त राज्य अमरीका (१८९८ - १९४६) का उपनिवेश रहा और फ़िलीपीन्स एशिया में 13th सबसे बड़ी अर्थव्यवस्था है।\n\nइतिहास \nमानव जीवाश्म का मिलना यह बताता है कि फ़िलीपीन्स में हजारों साल पूर्व इंसान बसते थे। ८वीं शताब्दी में चीनी व्यापारियों का आगमन हुआ। शक्तिशाली बौद्ध साम्राज्यों के उदय के कारण इण्डोनेशिया द्वीप समूह, भारत, जापान और दक्षिण-पूर्व एशिया के साथ व्यापार शुरू हुआ।\n\n१६वीं शताब्दी में स्पैनिश लोगों ने इस द्वीप पर दावा किया और इसे बसाया। उन्होंने इसका नाम राजा फिलिपे द्वितीय के नाम पर 'फ़िलिपिनस' रखा। रोमन कैथोलिक धर्म का भी तुरंत प्रचार किया जाने लगा। फ़िलीपीन्स पर नये स्पेन (मैक्सिको) से शासन किया जाने लगा। १९वीं शताब्दी में फ़िलीपीन्स के बंदरगाहों को विश्व व्यापार के लिए खोल दिया गया। महत्वाकांक्षी और ज्यादा राष्ट्रवादी, फिलिपीन मध्यम वर्ग और चीनी मेस्तिजो समुदाय के उदय ने स्पैनिश साम्राज्य के खिलाफ विद्रोह की शुरुवात की। प्रोपगैंडा आन्दोलन के कारण, स्पैनिश साम्राज्यवादी सरकार के अन्याय के बारे में ये जागरूक हो गये और स्वतंत्रता की माँग करने लगे। १८९६ में फिलीपीन क्रांति की शुरुवात हो गयी। १८९८ तक क्रांतिकारी स्पैनिश सरकार को बाहर करने में लगभग सफल हो गये थे।\n\nउसी वर्ष, १८९८ में, स्पैनिश-अमेरिकन युद्ध छिड़ गया, जिसमें स्पेन ने संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका को फ़िलीपीन्स २ करोड़ यू.एस.डॉलर में दे दिया| हालाँकि, फ़िलीपीन्स ने उसी वर्ष अपनी स्वतंत्रता घोषित कर दी, पर संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका अपना दावा जताता रहा, इस कारण फिलिपीन-अमेरिकन युद्ध छिड़ा| यह औपचारिक रूप से १९०१ में समाप्त हो गया था, लड़ाई १९१३ तक चलती रही| १९१४ में, भविष्य में स्वतंत्रता देने के वादे के बाद हालत कुछ ठीक हुए| १९३५ में, फ़िलीपीन्स को अमेरिकी राष्ट्रमंडल का दर्जा दे दिया गया, जिससे इसे अधिक स्वायत्तता मिल गयी।\n\n४ जुलाई १९४६ में द्वितीय विश्वयुद्ध के बाद इसे पूर्ण स्वतंत्रता मिल गयी।\n\nभूगोल \nफ़िलीपीन्स एक द्वीपसमूह है, जिसमें ७,१०७ द्वीप हैं। इसका कुल भू क्षेत्रफल, अंतर्देशीय जल निकाय मिलाकर, लगभग ३,००,००० वर्ग किलोमीटर है। इसकी ३६,२८९ कि॰मी॰ लंबी तटरेखा के कारण, यह विश्व का पांचवां सबसे लंबी तट रेखा वाला देश है। अधिकतर पहाड़ी द्वीप ज्वालामुखीय मूल के हैं और उष्णकटिबंधीय वर्षावनों से ढंकें हुए हैं। सबसे ऊँची चोटी माउंट आपो है। यह समुद्र तल से २,९५४ मी.(९,६९२ फीट) ऊपर है। कैगयान नदी फ़िलीपीन्स की सबसे बड़ी नदी है।\n\nज्वालामुखीय प्रकृति के कारण यहाँ खनिज भंडार बहुतायत में हैं| एक अनुमान के अनुसार फ़िलीपीन्स में दक्षिण अफ्रीका के बाद दूसरा सबसे बड़ा सोने का भंडार और विश्व का सबसे बड़ा तांबे का भंडार है| इसके आलवा निकल, क्रोमाइट और जस्ता में भी समृद्ध है| भू-तापीय ऊर्जा, जो ज्वालामुखीय गतिविधियों का एक अन्य उत्पाद है, इसे फ़िलीपीन्स ने अच्छी तरह उपयोग किया है| फ़िलीपीन्स, संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका के बाद, विश्व का दूसरा सबसे बड़ा भू-तापीय ऊर्जा उत्पादक है|\n\nअर्थव्यवस्था \nफ़िलीपीन्स की राष्ट्रीय अर्थव्यवस्था दुनिया की 29वीं सबसे बड़ी अर्थव्यवस्था है। 2018 में \nफ़िलीपीन्स का सकल घरेलू उत्पाद $354 Billion है। फ़िलीपीन्स के प्राथमिक निर्यात हैं: सूचालक पदार्थ, इलेक्ट्रोनिक उत्पाद, कपड़े, तांबे के उत्पाद, पेट्रोलियम पदार्थ, नारियल तेल, फल एवं मोबाइल कम्पयुटर और मोबाइल कम्पयुटर में लगने वाली चिप है। फिलीपींस के नागरिक हार्ड डिस्क बनाने में भी माहिर हैं। और फिलीपींस से इन चीजों का संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका, जापान, चीन, सिंगापुर, नीदरलैंड, दक्षिण कोरिया, हांगकांग, जर्मनी, ताईवान आदि देशों में आयात निर्यात होता है। फिलीपींस दुनिया की सबसे तेजी से बढ़ने वाली अर्थव्यवस्था है और फिलीपींस का ग्रोथ रेट 8.8% है । \n\nफ़िलीपीन्स एक नये औद्योगिक राष्ट्र के रूप में उभर रहा है| फिलिपीन अर्थव्यवस्था, खेती पर आधारित अर्थव्यवस्था से सेवा और विनिर्माण पर आधारित अर्थव्यवस्था में परिवर्तित हो रही है और मोबाइल कम्प्यूटर और चिप इस अर्थव्यवस्था के मूल हैं | देश की कुल ३.८१ करोड़ श्रम शक्ति में से, 65% लोग खेती में, औद्योगिक में 22 % सेवा क्षेत्र में 5% लोग कार्यरत हैं और अन्य सभी कार्य में 8 % लोग कार्यरत हैं | \n\nफ़िलीपीन्स, विश्व बैंक, विश्व व्यापार संगठन, अंतर्राष्ट्रीय मुद्रा कोष, जी-७७ जैसे संगठन और संस्थाओं का सदस्य है| एशियाई विकास बैंक का मुख्यालय फ़िलीपीन्स के मंडालुयोंग शहर में है|\n\nभाषा \nऍथनोलॉग के अनुसार फ़िलीपीन्स में १७५ भाषाएँ हैं, जिनमें से १७१ भाषाएँ जीवित हैं और अन्य ४ भाषाओं को बोलने वाले लोग नहीं बचे| ये भाषाएँ ऑस्ट्रोनेशियाई भाषा परिवार की सदस्य हैं।\n\n१९८७ के, फिलिपिनो संविधान के अनुसार फ़िलिपीनो और इंग्लिश राजभाषा हैं। फ़िलिपीनो टागालोग भाषा का प्रचलित रूप है, जो मुख्यतः मेट्रो मनीला एवं अन्य शहरी क्षेत्रों में बोली जाती है। फ़िलिपीनो और इंग्लिश दोनों ही शासकीय कार्यों, समाचार पत्रों, शिक्षा, सूचना प्रसारण एवं व्यापार में प्रयोग की जाती हैं। संविधान ने, क्षेत्रीय भाषाएँ जैसे सेबुआनो, इलोकानो, हिलिगेनॉन, टागालोग आदि को सहायक राजभाषा के रूप में निर्दिष्ट किया है।\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n मनीला\n फ़िलिपीनो भाषा\n फ़िलीपीन्स का ध्वज\n फिलीपींस का इतिहास\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \nआधिकारिक जालस्थल \n\nश्रेणी:फ़िलिपीन्ज़\nश्रेणी:दक्षिण-पूर्व एशियाई देश\nश्रेणी:दक्षिण पूर्वी एशियाई राष्ट्रों का संगठन के सदस्य राष्ट्र", "संस्कृत भाषा का इतिहास\nजिस प्रकार देवता अमर हैं उसी प्रकार संस्कृत भाषा भी अपने विशाल-साहित्य, लोक हित की भावना, विभिन्न प्रयासों तथा उपसर्गो के द्वारा नवीन-नवीन शब्दों के निर्माण की क्षमता आदि के द्वारा अमर है। आधुनिक विद्वानों के अनुसार संस्कृत भाषा का अखण्ड प्रवाह पाँच सहस्र वर्षों से बहता चला आ रहा है। भारत में यह आर्यभाषा का सर्वाधिक महत्वशाली, व्यापक और सम्पन्न स्वरूप है। इसके माध्यम से भारत की उत्कृष्टतम मनीषा, प्रतिभा, अमूल्य चिन्तन, मनन, विवेक, रचनात्मक, सर्जना और वैचारिक प्रज्ञा का अभिव्यंजन हुआ है। आज भी सभी क्षेत्रों में इस भाषा के द्वारा ग्रन्थनिर्माण की क्षीण धारा अविच्छिन्न रूप से वह रही है। आज भी यह भाषा, अत्यन्त सीमित क्षेत्र में ही सही, बोली जाती है। इसमें व्याख्यान होते हैं और भारत के विभिन्न प्रादेशिक भाषाभाषी पण्डितजन इसका परस्पर वार्तालाप में प्रयोग करते हैं। हिंदुओं के सांस्कारिक कार्यों में आज भी यह प्रयुक्त होती है। इसी कारण ग्रीक और लैटिन आदि प्राचीन मृत भाषाओं से संस्कृत की स्थिति भिन्न है। यह मृतभाषा नहीं, अमरभाषा है।\n\nनामकरण एवं विकासयात्रा \n\nऋक्संहिता की भाषा को संस्कृत का आद्यतम उपलब्ध रूप कहा जा सकता है। यह भी माना जाता है कि ऋक्संहिता के प्रथम और दशम मंडलों की भाषा प्राचीनतर है। कुछ विद्वान् प्राचीन वैदिक भाषा को परवर्ती पाणिनीय (लौकिक) संस्कृत से भिन्न मानते हैं। पर यह पक्ष भ्रमपूर्ण है। वैदिक भाषा अभ्रान्त रूप से संस्कृत भाषा का आद्य उपलब्ध रूप है। पाणिनि ने जिस संस्कृत भाषा का व्याकरण लिखा है उसके दो अंश हैं - \n\n(1) जिसे अष्टाध्यायी में \"छंदप्\" कहा गया है, और \n(2) भाषा (जिसे लोकभाषा या लौकिक भाषा के रूप में माना जाता है)। \n\nआचार्य पतंजलि के \"व्याकरण महाभाष्य\" नामक प्रसिद्ध शब्दानुशासन के आरम्भ में भी वैदिक भाषा और लौकिक भाषा के शब्दों का उल्लेख हुआ है। \"संस्कृत नाम दैंवी वागन्वाख्याता महर्षिभि:\" वाक्य में जिसे देवभाषा या 'संस्कृत' कहा गया है वह संभवतः यास्क, पाणिनि, कात्यायन और पतंजलि के समय तक \"छन्दोभाषा\" (वैदिक भाषा) एवं \"लोकभाषा\" के दो नामों, स्तरों व रूपों में व्यक्त थी।\n\nबहुत से विद्वानों का मत है कि भाषा के लिए \"संस्कृत\" शब्द का प्रयोग सर्वप्रथ वाल्मीकि रामायण के सुंदरकांड (30 सर्ग) में हनुमन् द्वारा विशेषणरूप में (संस्कृता वाक्) किया गया है।\n\nभारतीय परम्परा की किंवदंति के अनुसार संस्कृत भाषा पहले अव्याकृत थी, अर्थात् उसकी प्रकृति एवं प्रत्ययादि का विश्लिष्ट विवेचन नहीं हुआ था। देवों द्वारा प्रार्थना करने पर देवराज इंद्र ने प्रकृति, प्रत्यय आदि के विश्लेषण विवेचन का उपायात्मक विधान प्रस्तुत किया। इसी \"संस्कार\" विधान के कारण भारत की प्राचीनतम आर्यभाषा का नाम \"संस्कृत\" पड़ा। ऋक्संहिताकालीन \"साधुभाषा\" तथा 'ब्राह्मण', 'आरण्यक' और 'दशोपनिषद्' नामक ग्रंथों की साहित्यिक \"वैदिक भाषा\" का अनंतर विकसित स्वरूप ही \"लौकिक संस्कृत\" या \"पाणिनीय संस्कृत\" कहलाया। इसी भाषा को \"संस्कृत\",\"संस्कृत भाषा\" या \"साहित्यिक संस्कृत\" नामों से जाना जाता है।\n\nदेश-काल की दृष्टि से संस्कृत के सभी स्वरुपों का मूलाधार पूर्वतर काल में उदीच्य, मध्यदेशीय एवं आर्यावर्तीय विभाषाएं हैं। पाणिनिसूत्रों में \"विभाषा\" या \"उदीचाम्\" शब्दों से इन विभाषाओं का उल्लेख किया गया है। इनके अतिरिक्त कुछ क्षेत्रों में \"प्राच्य\" आदि बोलियाँ भी बोली जाती थीं। किन्तु पाणिनि ने नियमित व्याकरण के द्वारा भाषा को एक परिष्कृत एवं सर्वग्य प्रयोग में आने योग्य रूप प्रदान् किया। धीरे-धीरे पाणिनिसंमत भाषा का प्रयोगरूप और विकास प्राय: स्थायी हो गया। पतंजलि के समय तक आर्यावर्त (आर्यनिवास) के शिष्ट जनों में संस्कृत प्राय: बोलचाल की भाषा बन गई। \"गादर्शात्प्रत्यक्कालकवनाद्दक्षिणेन हिमवंतमुत्तरेण वारियात्रमेतस्मिन्नार्यावर्तें आर्यानिवासे..... (व्याकरण महाभाष्य, 6.3.109)\" उल्लेख के अनुसार शीघ्र ही संस्कृत समग्र भारत के द्विजातिवर्ग और विद्वत्समाज की सांस्कृतिक, विचाराकार एवं विचारादान्प्रदान् की भाषा बन गई।\n\nकाल विभाजन \nसंस्कृत भाषा के विकासस्तरों की दृष्टि से अनेक विद्वानों ने अनेक रूप से इसका ऐतिहासि कालविभाजन किया है। सामान्य सुविधा की दृष्टि से अधिक मान्य निम्नांकित कालविभाजन दिया जा रहा है - \n\n(1) आदिकाल (वेदसंहिताओं और वाङ्मय का काल - ई. पू. 450 से 10 ई. पू. तक)\n\n(2) मध्यकाल (ई. पू. 10 से 450 ई. तक जिसमें शास्त्रों, दर्शनसूत्रों, वेदांग ग्रंथों, काव्यों तथा कुछ प्रमुख साहित्यशास्त्रीय ग्रंथों का निर्माण हुआ)\n\n(3) परवर्तीकाल (450 ई. से लेकर 1400 ई. या अब तक का आधुनिक काल)\n\nइस युग में काव्य, नाटक, साहित्यशास्त्र, तंत्रशास्त्र, शिल्पशास्त्र आदि के ग्रंथों की रचना के साथ-साथ मूल ग्रंथों की व्याख्यात्मक, कृतियों की महत्वपूर्ण सर्जना हुई। भाष्य, टीका, विवरण, व्याख्यान आदि के रूप में जिन सहस्रों ग्रंथों का निर्माण हुआ उनमें अनेक भाष्य और टीकाओं की प्रतिष्ठा, मान्यता और प्रसिद्धि मूलग्रंथों से भी कहीं-कहीं अधिक हुई। \n\nप्रामाणिकता के विचार से इस भाषा का सर्वप्राचीन उपलब्ध व्याकरण पाणिनि की अष्टाध्यायी है। कम से कम 600 ई. पू. का यह ग्रंथ आज भी समस्त विश्व में अतुलनीय व्याकरण है। विश्व के और मुख्यत: अमरीका के भाषाशास्त्री संघटनात्मक भाषाविज्ञान की दृष्टि से अष्टाध्यायी को आज भी विश्व का सर्वोत्तम ग्रंथ मानते हैं। \"ब्रूमफील्ड\" ने अपने \"लैंग्वेज\" तथा अन्य कृतियों में इस तथ्य की पुष्ट स्थापना की है। पाणिनि के पूर्व संस्कृत भाषा निश्चय ही शिष्ट एवं वैदिक जनों की व्यवहारभाषा थी। असंस्कृत जनों में भी बहुत सी बोलियाँ उस समय प्रचलित रही होंगी। पर यह मत आधुनिक भाषाविज्ञों को मान्य नहीं है। वे कहते हैं कि संस्कृत कभी भी व्यवहारभाषा नहीं थी। जनता की भाषाओं को तत्कालीन प्राकृत कहा जा सकता है। देवभाषा तत्वत: कृत्रिम या संस्कार द्वारा निर्मित ब्राह्मणपंडितों की भाषा थी, लोकभाषा नहीं। परंतु यह मत सर्वमान्य नहीं है। पाणिनि से लेकर पतंजलि तक सभी ने संस्कृत का लोक की भाषा कहा है, लौकिक भाषा बताया है। अन्य सैकड़ों प्रमाण सिद्ध करते हैं कि \"संस्कृत\" वैदिक और वैदिकोत्तर पूर्वपाणिनिकाल में लोकभाषा और व्यवहारभाषा (स्पीकेन लैग्वेज) थी। यह अवश्य रहा होगा कि देश, काल और समाज के सन्दर्भ में उसकी अपनी सीमा रही होगी। बाद में चलकर वह पठित समाज की साहित्यिक और सांस्कृतिक भाषा बन गई। तदनंतर यह समस्त भारत में सभी पंडितों की, चाहे वे आर्य रहें हों या आर्येतर जाति के - सभी की, सर्वमान्य सांस्कृतिक भाषा हो गई और आसेतुहिमाचल इसका प्रसार, समादर और प्रचार रहा एवं आज भी बना हुआ है। लगभग सत्रहवीं शताब्दी के पूर्वार्ध से योरप और पश्चिमी देशों के मिशनरी एवं अन्य विद्याप्रेमियों को संस्कृत का परिचय प्राप्त हुआ। धीरे-धीरे पश्चिम में ही नहीं, समस्त विश्व में संस्कृत का प्रचार हुआ। जर्मन, अंग्रेज, फ्रांसीसी, अमरीकी तथा योरप के अनेक छोटे बड़े देश के निवासी विद्वानों ने विशेष रूप से संस्कृत के अध्ययन अनुशीलन को आधुनिक विद्वानों में प्रजाप्रिय बनाया। आधुनिक विद्वानों और अनुशीलकों के मत से विश्व की पुराभाषाओं में संस्कृत सर्वाधिक व्यवस्थित, वैज्ञानिक और संपन्न भाषा है। वह आज केवल भारतीय भाषा ही नहीं, एक रूप से विश्वभाषा भी है। यह कहा जा सकता है कि भूमंडल के प्रयत्न-भाषा-साहित्यों में कदाचित् संस्कृत का वाङ्मय सर्वाधिक विशाल, व्यापक, चतुर्मुखी और संपन्न है। संसार के प्राय: सभी विकसित और संसार के प्राय: सभी विकासमान देशों में संस्कृत भाषा और साहित्य का आज अध्ययन-अध्यापन हो रहा है।\n\nबताया जा चुका है कि इस भाषा का परिचय होने से ही आर्य जाति, उसकी संस्कृति, जीवन और तथाकथित मूल आद्य आर्यभाषा से संबद्ध विषयों के अध्ययन का पश्चिमी विद्वानों को ठोस आधार प्राप्त हुआ। प्राचीन ग्रीक, लातिन, अवस्ता और ऋक्संस्कृत आदि के आधार पर मूल आद्य आर्यभाषा की ध्वनि, व्याकरण और स्वरूप की परिकल्पना की जा सकी जिसें ऋक्संस्कृत का अवदान सबसे अधिक महत्त्व का है। ग्रीक, लातिन प्रत्नगाथिक आदि भाषाओं के साथ संस्कृत का पारिवारिक और निकट संबंध है। पर भारत-इरानी-वर्ग की भाषाओं के साथ (जिनमें अवस्ता, पहलवी, फारसी, ईरानी, पश्तो आदि बहुत सी प्राचीन नवीन भाषाएँ हैं) संस्कृत की सर्वाधिक निकटता है। भारत की सभी आद्य, मध्यकालीन एवं आधुनिक आर्यभाषाओं के विकास में मूलत: ऋग्वेद-एवं तदुत्तरकालीन संस्कृत का आधारिक एवं औपादानिक योगदान रहा है। आधुनिक भाषावैज्ञानिक मानते हैं कि ऋग्वेदकाल से ही जनसामान्य में बोलचाल की तथाभूत प्राकृत भाषाएँ अवश्य प्रचलित रही होंगी। उन्हीं से पालि, प्राकृत, अपभ्रंश तथा तदुत्तरकालीन आर्यभाषाओं का विकास हुआ। परंतु इस विकास में संस्कृत भाषा का सर्वाधिक और सर्वविध योगदान रहा है। यहीं पर यह भी याद रखना चाहिए कि संस्कृत भाषा ने भारत के विभिन्न प्रदेशों और अंचलों की आर्येतर भाषाओं को भी काफी प्रभावित किया तथा स्वयं उनसे प्रभावित हुई; उन भाषाओं और उनके भाषणकर्ताओं की संस्कृति और साहित्य को तो प्रभावित किया ही, उनकी भाषाओं शब्दकोश उनक ध्वनिमाला और लिपिकला को भी अपने योगदान से लाभान्वित किया। भारत की दो प्राचीन लिपियाँ- (1) ब्राह्मी (बाएँ से लिखी जानेवाली) और (2) खरोष्टी (दाएँ से लेख्य) थीं। इनमें ब्राह्मी को संस्कृत ने मुख्यत: अपनाया।\n\nभाषा की दृष्टि से संस्कृत की ध्वनिमाला पर्याप्त संपन्न है। स्वरों की दृष्टि से यद्यपि ग्रीक, लातिन आदि का विशिष्ट स्थान है, तथापि अपने क्षेत्र के विचार से संस्कृत की स्वरमाला पर्याप्त और भाषानुरूप है। व्यंजनमाला अत्यंत संपन्न है। सहस्रों वर्षों तक भारतीय आर्यों के आद्यषुतिसाहित्य का अध्यनाध्यापन गुरु शिष्यों द्वारा मौखिक परंपरा के रूप में प्रवर्तमान रहा क्योंकि कदाचित् उस युग में (जैसा आधुनिक इतिहासज्ञ लिपिशास्त्री मानते हैं), लिपिकला का उद्भव और विकास नहीं हो पाया था। संभवत: पाणिनि के कुछ पूर्व या कुछ बाद से लिपि का भारत में प्रयोग चल पड़ा और मुख्यत: \"ब्राह्मी\" को संस्कृत भाषा का वाहन बनाया गया। इसी ब्राह्मी ने आर्य और आर्यतर अधिकांश लिपियों की वर्णमला और वर्णक्रम को भी प्रभावित किया। यदि मध्यकालीन नाना भारतीय द्रविड़ भाषाओं तथा तमिल, तेलगु आदि की वर्णमाला पर भी संस्कृत भाषा और ब्राह्मी लिपि का पर्याप्त प्रभाव है। ध्वनिमाला और ध्वनिक्रम की दृष्टि से पाणिनिकाल से प्रचलित संस्कृत वर्णमाला आज भी कदाचित् विश्व की सर्वाधिक वैज्ञानिक एवं शास्त्रीय वर्णमाला है। संस्कृत भाषा के साथ-साथ समस्त विश्व में प्रत्यक्ष या रोमन अकारांतक के रूप में आज समस्त संसार में इसका प्रचार हो गया है।\n\nभाषावैज्ञानिक वर्गीकरण \nऐतिहासिक भाषाविज्ञान की दृष्टि से संस्कृत भाषा आर्यभाषा परिवार के अंतर्गत रखी गई है। आर्यजाति भारत में बाहर से आई या यहाँ इसका निवास था - इत्यादि विचार अनावश्यक होने से यहाँ नहीं किया जा रहा है। पर आधुनिक भाषाविज्ञान के पंडितों की मान्यता के अनुसार भारत यूरोपीय भाषाभाषियों की जो नाना प्राचीन भाषाएँ, (वैदिक संस्कृत, अवस्ता अर्थात् प्राचीनतम पारसी ग्रीक, प्राचीन गॉथिक तथा प्राचीनतम जर्मन, लैटिन, प्राचीनतम आइरिश तथा नाना वेल्ट बोलियाँ, प्राचीनतम स्लाव एवं बाल्टिक भाषाएँ, अरमीनियन, हित्ती, बुखारी आदि) थी, वे वस्तुत: एक मूलभाषा की (जिसे मूल आर्यभाषा, आद्य आर्यभाषा, इंडोजर्मनिक भाषा, आद्य-भारत-यूरोपीय भाषा, फादरलैंग्वेज आदि) देशकालानुसारी विभिन्न शाखाएँ थी। उन सबकी उद्गमभाषा या मूलभाषा का आद्यआर्यभाषा कहते हैं। कुछ विद्वानों के मत में-वीरा-मूलनिवासस्थान के वासी सुसंगठित आर्यों को ही \"वीरोस\" या वीरास् (वीरा:) कहते थे।\n\nवीरोस् (वीरो) शब्द द्वारा जिन पूर्वोक्त प्राचीन आर्यभाषा समूह भाषियों का द्योतन होता है उन विविध प्राचीन भाषाभाषियों को विरास (संवीरा:) कहा गया है। अर्थात् समस्त भाषाएँ पारिवारिक दृष्टि से आर्यपरिवार की भाषाएँ हैं। संस्कृत का इनमें अन्यतम स्थान है। उक्त परिवार की \"केंतुम्\" और \"शतम्\" (दोनों ही शतवात्तक शब्द) दो प्रमुख शाखाएँ हैं। प्रथम के अंतर्गत ग्रीक, लातिन आदि आती हैं। संस्कृत का स्थान \"शतम्\" के अंतर्गत भारत-ईरानी शाखा में माना गया है। आर्यपरिवार में कौन प्राचीन, प्राचीनतर और प्राचीनतम है यह पूर्णत: निश्चित नहीं है। फिर भी आधुनिक अधिकांश भाषाविद् ग्रीक, लातिन आदि को आद्य आर्यभाषा की ज्येष्ठ संतति और संस्कृत को उनकी छोटी बहिन मानते हैं। इतना ही नहीं भारत-ईरानी-शाखा की प्राचीनतम अवस्ता को भी संस्कृत से प्राचीन मानते हैं। परंतु अनेक भारतीय विद्वान् समझते हैं कि \"जिन्द-अवस्ता\" की अवस्ता का स्वरूप ऋक्भाषा की अपेक्षा नव्य है। जो भी हो, इतना निश्चित है कि ग्रंथरूप में स्मृतिरूप से अवशिष्ट वाङ्मय में ऋक्संहिता प्राचीनतम है और इसी कारण वह भाषा भी अपनी उपलब्धि में प्राचीनतम है। उसकी वैदिक संहिताओं की बड़ी विशेषता यह है कि हजारों वर्षों तक जब लिपि कला का भी प्रादुर्भाव नहीं था, वैदिक संहिताएँ मौखिक और श्रुतिपरंपरा द्वारा गुरुशिष्यों के समाज में अखंड रूप से प्रवहमान थीं। उच्चारण की शुद्धता को इतना सुरक्षित रखा गया कि ध्वनि ओर मात्राएँ, ही नहीं, सहस्रों वर्षों पूर्व से आज तक वैदिक मंत्रों में कहीं पाठभेद नहीं हुआ। उदात्त अनुदात्तादि स्वरों का उच्चारण शुद्ध रूप में पूर्णत: अविकृत रहा। आधुनिक भाषावैज्ञानिक यह मानते हैं कि स्वरों की दृष्टि से ग्रीक, लातिन आदि के \"केंतुम्\" वर्ग की भाषाएँ अधिक संपन्न भी हैं और मूल या आद्य आर्यभाषा के अधिक समीप भी। उनमें उक्त भाषा की स्वरसंपत्ति अधिक सुरक्षित हैं। संस्कृत में व्यंजनसंपत्ति अधिक सुरक्षित है। भाषा के संघटनात्मक अथवा रूपात्मक विचार की दृष्टि से संस्कृत भाषा को विभक्तिप्रधान अथवा \"श्लिष्टभाषा\" (एग्लुटिनेटिव लैंग्वेज) कहा जाता है।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n आदिम-हिन्द-यूरोपीय भाषा\n वैदिक संस्कृत\n संस्कृत ग्रन्थों की सूची\n संस्कृत साहित्य\n संस्कृत व्याकरण का इतिहास\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \nसंस्कृत ग्रन्थ एवं ग्रन्थकार\nThe Wonder That Is Sanskrit\n\nश्रेणी:संस्कृत", "सफेद पुट्ठे वाली मुनिया\n__NOTOC__\n\nसफ़ेद पुट्ठे वाली मुनिया या सफ़ेद पुट्ठे वाली मैन्निकिन (लोन्चुरा स्ट्रिआटा ), जिसे एविकल्चर (पक्षियों को रखने और पालने का कार्य) में कभी-कभी स्ट्रिएटेड फिंच भी कहते हैं, एक छोटी पासेराइन पक्षी है जो वैक्सबिल \"फिन्चेस\" (एस्ट्रिलडीडे) परिवार से है। यह वास्तविक फिन्चेस (फ्रिन्जिल्लिडे) और वास्तविक गौरेया (पासेरिडे) के नजदीकी रिश्तेदार हैं। \n\nयह उष्णकटिबंधीय एशिया और इसके कुछ आसपास के द्वीपों की मूलवासी है और जापान के स्पोम भागों में इसे अनुकूलित किया गया है। इसके घरेलू संकर वंशज, सोसाइटी फिंच या बेंगालीज़ फिंच, विश्व भर में एक घरेलू पक्षी और जैविक आदर्श जीवधारी के रूप में पाए जाते हैं।\n\nविवरण \nthumb|left|स्नान के बाद वयस्क एल. एस. अक्युटीकौडा प्रिनिंग, कोलकाता के पास नरेन्द्रपुर (पश्चिम बंगाल, भारत)\nसफ़ेद पुट्ठे वाली मुनिया लगभग 10 से 11 सेमी लम्बी होती है, इसकी चोंच ग्रे रंग की छोटी व मोटी होती है और इसकी पूंछ नुकीली तथा काले रंग की होती है। इस प्रजाति के वयस्क पक्षी ऊपर और छाती के हिस्से पर भूरे होते हैं और नीचे की ओर हल्के रंग के होते हैं; इनके पुट्ठे का रंग सफ़ेद होता है। इनकी उप-प्रजातियों के मध्य कुछ अंतर पाया जाता है, लेकिन सभी उप-प्रजातियों में लिंग का निर्धारण कर पाना लगभग असंभव होता है; नर पक्षियों का सिर और चोंच मादा की तुलना में अधिक भारी होता है।\n\nउप-प्रजातियों में निम्न शामिल होते हैं:\n लॉनचुरा स्ट्रिएटा एक्युटिकायुडा - उत्तरपश्चिमी सफ़ेद पुट्ठे वाली मुनिया . उत्तर भारतीय मुख्यक्षेत्र, सी. 1,500 मीटर नीचे एएसएल (ASL), भूटान और नेपाल की हिमालयीय लघुपर्वत श्रृंखलाओं से उत्तर में उत्तराखंड (भारत) के देहरादून क्षेत्र की ओर पायी जाती है।\nयह पक्षी, चेहरे और पंख की कलम को छोड़कर, ऊपर की ओर से मध्यम भूरे रंग के, नीचे की ओर बादामी रंग के होते हैं।\n लॉनचुरा (स्ट्रिएटा) डोमेस्टिका - सोसाइटी फिंच . घरेलू पक्षी, जापान में अनुकूलित.\nइसकी कई नस्लें विकसित की गयी हैं, सफ़ेद से लेकर हल्के पीले, ग्रे, लालपन लिए हुए और भूरे से लेकर लगभग पूर्ण काले रंग तक, लगभग सभी में पेट का हिस्सा हल्के रंग का होता है, इस प्रजाति में चितकबरे पक्षियों का मिलना अत्यंत सामान्य है और इनकी अन्य कलगीयुक्त या घुमावदार पंखों वाली और विलक्षण प्रजातियां भी मौजूद हैं।\n लॉनचुरा स्ट्रिएटा सेमिस्ट्रीएटा (ह्यूम 1874) - निकोबार सफ़ेद पुट्ठे वाली मुनिया . कार निकोबार और केन्द्रीय (नैनकाउरी) समूह, निकोबार द्वीपसमूह\n लॉनचुरा स्ट्रिएटा स्कवामिकोल्लिस - चीनी सफ़ेद पुट्ठे वाली मुनिया . दक्षिणपश्चिमी चीन और उसके आसपास के क्षेत्रों में पाई जाती है।\n लॉनचुरा स्ट्रिएटा स्ट्रिएटा (लिन्नेकस, 1766) - दक्षिणपश्चिमी सफ़ेद-पुट्ठे वाली मुनिया . दक्षिण भारत के मुख्य क्षेत्रों में.\nऊपर से गहरे चॉकलेट के रंग की, नीचे से सफ़ेद.\n\nपारिस्थितिकी \nthumb|left|अज्ञात प्रजाति का वयस्क स्नान ले रहा है\n\nसफ़ेद-पुट्ठे वाली मुनिया एक सामान्य आवासी नस्ल है जो दक्षिण एशिया से लेकर ताइवान के पूर्व में दक्षिणी चीन तक और दक्षिणपूर्वी एशिया के दक्षिण से सुमात्रा तक पाई जाती है; यह खुले वन्य प्रदेशों, हरे घास के मैदानों और झाड़ियों में दिखती है तथा कृषिक भूमि के उपभोग में पूर्णतया कुशल होती है। यह एक मिलनसार पक्षी है जो भोजन के लिए मुख्यतः बीजों पर निर्भर करता है, यह पेड़ों के नीचे उगी झाड़ झंखाड़ में समूह के रूप में या कभी-कभी अन्य पक्षियों, जैसे बड़े गले वाली बैबलर (पेलोर्नियम रयुफ़ीसेप्स), के साथ विचरण करते हैं। इनका घोंसला पेड़, झाडी या घास में स्थित एक बड़ा गुम्बदनुमा घास का ढांचा होता है जिसमें यह 3-8 सफ़ेद अंडे देती है।\n\nयह अपनी विशाल श्रंखला के अंतर्गत एक सामान्य और प्रसिद्ध पक्षी है और इसलिए इसे आईयूसीएन (IUCN) द्वारा लुप्तप्राय प्रजाति के पक्षियों की श्रेणी में नहीं रखा गया है। वास्तव में, स्थानीय स्तर पर यह जुआर और इसके जैसे अन्य अनाजों के लिए विनाशकारी जंतु सिद्ध हो सकते हैं। यहां तक कि निकोबार द्वीपसमूह में पाई जाने वाली इनकी उप-प्रजाति भी अपने सीमित दायरे के अन्दर मानव सभ्यता के साथ ठीक से सामंजस्य स्थापित कर पाने में सक्षम होती है। फीके रंग की होने के कारण और पेड़ के नीचे उगी घनी झाड़ियों में रहने वाली एक अपेक्षाकृत एकांतप्रिय पक्षी होने के कारण, सफ़ेद-पुट्ठे वाली मुनिया उन स्थानों पर भी अनिवार्य रूप से अधिक विख्यात या दृष्टिगत नहीं होती जहां इनकी संख्या अधिक होती है।\n\nफुटनोट्स\n\nसन्दर्भ \n\n बैंग्स, आउटरैम (1932): केली-रूज़वेल्ट्स अभियान द्वारा पश्चिमी चीन के पक्षी मिले. फिल्ड मस. नैट. हिस. ज़ूल. सर्विस 18 (11): 343-379. इंटरनेट अभिलेखागार में पूर्ण टेक्स्ट\n \n ग्रिमेट, रिचर्ड; इंस्किप, कैरल, इंस्किप, टिम & ब्येर्स, क्लाइव (1999): भारत, पाकिस्तान, नेपाल, बांग्लादेश, भूटान, श्रीलंका और मालदीव के पक्षी . प्रिंसटन यूनिवर्सिटी प्रेस, प्रिंसटन, एन.जे. (N.J.). ISBN 0-691-04910-6\n इंस्किप, कैरल; इंस्किप, टिम और शेरब (2000): थ्रमशिंगला नैशनल पार्क, भूटान के ऑर्निथोलॉजिकल महत्व. फोर्कटेल 14 : 147-162. पीडीएफ (PDF) का सम्पूर्ण टेक्स्ट\n शंकरन, आर. (1991): निकोबार द्वीप के स्थानिक अविफौना का एक एनोटेटेड सूची. फोर्कटेल 13 : 17-22. पीडीएफ (PDF) का सम्पूर्ण टेक्स्ट\n सिंह, ए.पी. (2002): देहरादून घाटी, निम्न गढ़वाल हिमालय, भारत से नया और महत्वपूर्ण रिकॉर्ड. फोर्कटेल 18 : 151-153. पीडीएफ (PDF) का सम्पूर्ण टेक्स्ट\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n बर्डलाइफ प्रजाति फक्टशीट \n\nश्रेणी:लोंच्युरा\nश्रेणी:वैक्सबिल्स\nश्रेणी:एशिया के पंछी\nश्रेणी:बांग्लादेश के पंछी\nश्रेणी:भूटान के पंछी\nश्रेणी:कंबोडिया के पंछी\nश्रेणी:चीन के पंछी\nश्रेणी:भारत के पंछी\nश्रेणी:इंडोनेशिया के पंछी\nश्रेणी:लाओस के पंछी\nश्रेणी:मलेशिया के पंछी\nश्रेणी:बर्मा के पंछी\nश्रेणी:नेपाल के पंछी\nश्रेणी:सिंगापुर के पंछी\nश्रेणी:श्रीलंका के पंछी\nश्रेणी:ताइवान के पंछी\nश्रेणी:थाईलैंड के पंछी\nश्रेणी:वियतनाम के पंछी", "काशी\nright|thumb|200px|काशी विश्वनाथ मंदिर (१९१५)\nकाशी नगरी वर्तमान वाराणसी शहर में स्थित पौराणिक नगरी है। इसे संसार के सबसे पुरानी नगरों में माना जाता है। भारत की यह जगत्प्रसिद्ध प्राचीन नगरी गंगा के वाम (उत्तर) तट पर उत्तर प्रदेश के दक्षिण-पूर्वी कोने में वरुणा और असी नदियों के गंगासंगमों के बीच बसी हुई है। इस स्थान पर गंगा ने प्राय: चार मील का दक्षिण से उत्तर की ओर घुमाव लिया है और इसी घुमाव के ऊपर इस नगरी की स्थिति है। इस नगर का प्राचीन 'वाराणसी' नाम लोकोच्चारण से 'बनारस' हो गया था जिसे उत्तर प्रदेश सरकार ने शासकीय रूप से पूर्ववत् 'वाराणसी' कर दिया है।\n\nविश्व के सर्वाधिक प्राचीन ग्रंथ ऋग्वेद में काशी का उल्लेख मिलता है - 'काशिरित्ते.. आप इवकाशिनासंगृभीता:'। पुराणों के अनुसार यह आद्य वैष्णव स्थान है। पहले यह भगवान विष्णु (माधव) की पुरी थी। जहां श्रीहरिके आनंदाश्रु गिरे थे, वहां बिंदुसरोवर बन गया और प्रभु यहां बिंधुमाधव के नाम से प्रतिष्ठित हुए। ऐसी एक कथा है कि जब भगवान शंकर ने क्रुद्ध होकर ब्रह्माजी का पांचवां सिर काट दिया, तो वह उनके करतल से चिपक गया। बारह वर्षों तक अनेक तीर्थों में भ्रमण करने पर भी वह सिर उन से अलग नहीं हुआ। किंतु जैसे ही उन्होंने काशी की सीमा में प्रवेश किया, ब्रह्महत्या ने उनका पीछा छोड़ दिया और वह कपाल भी अलग हो गया। जहां यह घटना घटी, वह स्थान कपालमोचन-तीर्थ कहलाया। महादेव को काशी इतनी अच्छी लगी कि उन्होंने इस पावन पुरी को विष्णुजी से अपने नित्य आवास के लिए मांग लिया। तब से काशी उनका निवास-स्थान बन गया।\n\nकाशी विश्वनाथ का इतिहास \nहरिवंशपुराण के अनुसार काशी को बसानेवाले भरतवंशी राजा 'काश' थे। कुछ विद्वानों के मत में काशी वैदिक काल से भी पूर्व की नगरी है। शिव की उपासना का प्राचीनतम केंद्र होने के कारण ही इस धारणा का जन्म हुआ जान पड़ता है; क्योंकि सामान्य रूप से शिवोपासना को पूर्ववैदिककालीन माना जाता है। वैसे, काशी जनपद के निवासियों का सर्वप्रथम उल्लेख हमें अर्थर्ववेद की पैप्पलादसंहिता में (५, २२, १४) मिलता है। शुक्लयजुर्वेद के शतपथ ब्राह्मण में (१३५, ४, १९) काशिराज धृतराष्ट्र का उल्लेख है जिसे शतानीक सत्राजित् ने पराजित किया था। बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् में (२, १, १, ३, ८, २) काशिराज अजातशत्रु का भी उल्लेख है। कौषीतकी उपनिषद् (४, १) और बौधायन श्रौतसूत्र में काशी और विदेह तथा गोपथ ब्राह्मण में काशी और कोसल जनपदों का साथ-साथ वर्णन है। इसी प्रकार काशी, कोसल और विदेह के सामान्य पुरोहित जलजातूकर्ण्य का नाम शांखायन श्रौतसूत्र में प्राप्य है। काशी जनपद की प्राचीनता तथा इसकी स्थिति इन उपर्युक्त उल्लेखों से स्पष्ट हो जाती है। वाल्मीकि रामायण में (किष्किंधा कांड ४०, २२) सुग्रीव द्वारा वानरसेना को पूर्वदिशा की ओर भेजे जाने के संदर्भ में काशी और कोसल जनपद के निवासियों का एक साथ उल्लेख किया गया है– \n महीं कालमहीं चापि शैलकानन शोभिंता। ब्रह्ममालन्विदेहांश्च मालवान्काशिक सलान्।\nमहाभारत में काशी जनपद के अनेक उल्लेख हैं और काशिराज की कन्याओं के भीष्म द्वारा अपहरण की कथा तो सर्वविदित ही है (आदि पूर्व, अध्याय १०२)। महाभारत के युद्ध में काशिराज ने पांडवों का साथ दिया था।\n\nबौद्ध काल में, गौतम बुद्ध के जन्म के पूर्व तथा उनके समय में काशी को बहुत प्रसिद्धि प्राप्त हो चुकी थी। अंगुत्तरनिकाय में काशी की भारत के १६ महाजनपदों में गणना की गई है। जातक कथाओं में काशी जनपद का अनेक बार उल्लेख आया है, जिससे ज्ञात होता है कि काशी उस समय विद्या तथा व्यापार दोनों का ही केंद्र थी। अक्तिजातक में बोधिसत्व के १६ वर्ष की आयु में वहाँ जाकर विद्या ग्रहण करने का उल्लेख है। खंडहालजातक में काशी के सुंदर और मूल्यवान रेशमी कपड़ों का वर्णन है। भीमसेनजातक में यहाँ के उत्तम सुगंधित द्रव्यों का भी उल्लेख है। जातककथाओं से स्पष्ट है कि बुद्धपूर्वकाल में काशी देश पर ब्रह्मदत्त नाम के राजकुल का बहुत दिनों तक राज्य रहा। इन कहानियों से यह भी प्रकट है कि 'काशी' नगरनाम के अतिरिक्त एक देश या जनपद का नाम भी था। उसका दूसरा नगरनाम 'वाराणसी' था। इस प्रकार काशी जनपद की राजधानी के रूप में वाराणसी का नाम धीरे-धीरे प्रसिद्ध हो गया और कालांतर में काशी और वाराणसी ये दोनों अभिधान समानार्थक हो गए।\n\nकाशी और वहाँ प्रचलित शिवोपासना का उल्लेख महाभारत में भी है– ततो वाराणसीं गत्वा अर्चयित्वा वषध्वजम (वनपर्व, ८४, ७८)। कहा जाता है 'वाराणसी' नाम वरुणा और असी नदियों पर इस नगरी की स्थिति होने से पड़ा है। कीथ के अनुसार वरुणा नदी का उल्लेख अर्थर्ववेद के इस मंत्र में है– वारिद वारयातै वरुणावत्यामधि। तत्रामृतस्यासिक्तं तेना ते वारये विषम् (४, ७, १)। युवजयजातक में वाराणसी के ब्रह्मवद्धन (उब्रह्मवर्धन), सुरूंधन, सुदस्सन (उसुदर्शन), पुप्फवती (उपुष्पवती) और रम्म (उरम्या?) एवं संखजातक में मालिनी आदि नाम मिलते हैं। लोसकजातक में वाराणसी के चारों ओर की खाई या परिखा, का वर्णन है। \n\nगौतम बुद्ध के समय में काशी राज्य कोसल जनपद के अंतर्गत था। कोसल की राजकुमारी का मगधराज बिंबिसार के साथ विवाह होने के समय काशी को दहेज में दे दिया गया था। बुद्ध ने अपना सर्वप्रथम उपदेश वाराणसी के संनिकट सारनाथ में दिया था जिससे उसके तत्कालीन धार्मिक तथा सांस्कृतिक महत्व का पता चलता है। बिंबिसार के पुत्र अजातशत्रु ने काशी को मगध राज्य का अभिन्न भाग बना लिया और तत्पश्चात् मगध के उत्कर्षकाल में इसकी यही स्थिति बनी रही। बौद्ध धर्म की अवनति तथा हिंदू धर्म के पुनर्जागरण काल में काशी का महत्व संस्कृत भाषा तथा हिंदू संस्कृति के केंद्र के रूप में निरंतर बढ़ता ही गया, जिसका प्रमाण उस काल में लिखे गए या पुन: संपादित पुराणों द्वारा प्राप्त होता है। स्कंदपुराण में तो स्वतंत्र रूप से काशी के माहात्म्य पर 'काशीखंड' नामक अध्याय लिखा गया। पुराणों में काशी को मोक्षदायिनी पुरियों में स्थान दिया गया है। चीनी यात्री फ़ाह्यान (चौथी शती ई.) और युवानच्वांग अपनी यात्रा के दौरान काशी आए थे। युवानच्यांग ने सातवीं शताब्दी ई. के पूर्वार्ध में यहाँ लगभग ३० बौद्ध बिहार और १०० हिंदू मंदिर देखे थे। नवीं शताब्दी ई. में जगद्गुरु शंकराचार्य ने अपने विद्याप्रचार से काशी को भारतीय संस्कृति तथा नवोदित आर्य धर्म का सर्वाधिक महत्वपूर्ण केंद्र बना दिया। काशी की यह सांस्कृतिक परंपरा आज तक अविच्छिन्न रूप से चली आ रही है।\n\nभारतीय इतिहास के मध्य युग में मुसलमानों के आक्रमण के पश्चात् उस समय के अन्य सांस्कृतिक केंद्रों की भाँति काशी को भी दुर्दिन देखना पड़ा। ११९३ ई में मुहम्मद गोरी ने कन्नौज को जीत लिया, जिससे काशी का प्रदेश भी, जो इस समय कन्नौज के राठौड़ राजाओं के अधीन था, मुसलमानों के अधिकार में आ गया। दिल्ली के सुल्तानों के आधिपत्यकाल में भारत की प्राचीन सांस्कृतिक परंपराओं को काशी के ही अंक में शरण मिली। कबीर और रामानंद के धार्मिक और लोकमानस के प्रेरक विचारों ने उसे जीता-जागता रखने में पर्याप्त सहायता दी। मुगल सम्राट् अकबर ने हिंदू धर्म की प्राचीन परंपराओं के प्रति जो उदारता और अनुराग दिखाया, उसकी प्रेरणा पाकर भारतीय संस्कृति की धारा, जो बीच के काल में कुछ क्षीण हो चली थी, पुन: वेगवती हो गई और उसने तुलसीदास, मधुसूदन सरस्वती और पंडितराज जगन्नाथ जैसे महाकवियों और पंडितों को जन्म दिया एवं काशी पुन: अपने प्राचीन गौरव की अधिकारिणी बन गई। किंतु शीघ्र ही इतिहास के अनेक उलटफेरों के देखनेवाली इस नगरी को औरंगजेब की धर्मांधता का शिकार बनना पड़ा। उसने हिंदू धर्म के अन्य पवित्र स्थानों की भाँति काशी के भी प्राचीन मंदिरों को विध्वस्त करा दिया। मूल विश्वनाथ के मंदिर को तुड़वाकर उसके स्थान पर एक बड़ी मसजिद बनवाई जो आज भी वर्तमान है। मुगल साम्राज्य की अवनति होने पर अवध के नवाब सफ़दरजंग ने काशी पर अधिकार कर लिया; किंतु उसके पौत्र ने उसे ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी को दे डाला। वर्तमान काशीनरेश के पूर्वज बलवंतसिंह ने अवध के नवाब से अपना संबंधविच्छेद कर लिया था। इस प्रकार काशी की रियासत का जन्म हुआ। चेतसिंह, जिन्होंने वारेन हेस्टिंग्ज़ से लोहा लिया था, इन्हीं के पुत्र थे। स्वतंत्रता मिलने के पश्चात् काशी की रियासत भारत राज्य का अविच्छिन्न अंग बन गई।पूरा लेख\n\nकाशी के मंदिर और घाट \nकाशी में इस समय लगभग १, ५०० मंदिर हैं, जिनमें से बहुतों की परंपरा इतिहास के विविध कालों से जुड़ी हुई है। इनमें विश्वनाथ, संकटमोचन और दुर्गा के मंदिर भारत भर में प्रसिद्ध हैं। विश्वनाथ के मूल मंदिर की परंपरा अतीत के इतिहास के अज्ञात युगों तक चली गई है। वर्तमान मंदिर अधिक प्राचीन नहीं है। इसके शिखर पर महाराजा रणजीत सिंह ने सोने के पत्तर चढ़वा दिए थे। संकटमोचन मंदिर की स्थापना गोस्वामी तुलसीदास ने की थी। दुर्गा के मंदिर को १७वीं शती में मराठों ने बनवाया था। घाटों के तट पर भी अनेक मंदिर बने हुए हैं। इनमें सबसे प्राचीन गहड़वालों का बनवाया राजघाट का 'आदिकेशव' मंदिर है। \n\nप्रसिद्ध घाटों में दशाश्वमेध, मणिकार्णिंका, हरिश्चंद्र और तुलसीघाट की गिनती की जा सकती है। दशाश्वमेध घाट पर ही जयपुर नरेश जयसिंह द्वितीय का बनवाया हुआ मानमंदिर या वेधशाला है। दशाश्वमेध घाट तीसरी सदी के भारशिव नागों के पराक्रम का स्मारक है। उन्होंने जब-जब अपने शत्रुओं को पराजित किया तब-तब यहीं अपने यज्ञ का अवभृथ स्नान किया। इस प्रकार के दस विजय यज्ञों से संबंधित काशी का यह घाट दशाश्वमेध नाम से विख्यात हुआ। नवीन मंदिरों में भारतमाता का मंदिर तथा तुलसीमानस मंदिर प्रसिद्ध हैं। आधुनिक शिक्षा के केंद्र काशी विश्वविद्यालय की स्थापना महामना मदनमोहन मालवीय ने १९१६ ई. में की। वैसे, प्राचीन परंपरा की संस्कृत पाठशालाएँ तो यहाँ सैकड़ों ही हैं जो संपूर्णानंद संस्कृत विश्वविद्यालय, काशी (संस्थापित १९५८ ई.) से संबद्ध है। इसके अतिरिक्त यहाँ काशी विद्यापीठ (संस्थापित १९२१) नामक विश्वविद्यालय भी है जिसमें व्यावहारिक समाजशास्त्र की शिक्षा की भी व्यवस्था है। भारत की सांस्कृतिक राजधानी होने का गौरव इस प्राचीन नगरी को आज भी प्राप्त है। दूसरे शब्दों में यह भी कहा जा सकता है कि काशी ने भारत की सांस्कृतिक एकता के निर्माण तथा संरक्षण में भारी योग दिया है। भारतेंदु आदि साहित्यकारों तथा नागरीप्रचारिणी सभा जैसी संस्थाओं को जन्म देकर काशी ने आधुनिक हिंदी साहित्य को समृद्ध बनाया है।\n\nवाराणसी के घाटों का दृश्य बड़ा ही मनोरम है। भागीरथी के धनुषाकार तट पर इन घाटों की पंक्तियाँ दूर तक चली गई हैं। प्रात: काल तो इनकी छटा अपूर्व ही होती है। पुरानी कहावत के अनुसार शामे अवध अर्थात् लखनऊ की शाम और सुबहे बनारस यानी वाराणसी का प्रात:काल देखने योग्य होता है। यहाँ की छोटी-छोटी और असाधारण रूप से सँकरी गलियाँ तथा उनमें स्वच्छंद विचरनेवाले साँड़ अपरिचितों के लिए कुतूहल की वस्तु हैं।\n\nमान्यता \nएक अन्य कथा के अनुसार महाराज सुदेव के पुत्र राजा दिवोदासने गंगा-तट पर वाराणसी नगर बसाया था। एक बार भगवान शंकर ने देखा कि पार्वती जी को अपने मायके (हिमालय-क्षेत्र) में रहने में संकोच होता है, तो उन्होंने किसी दूसरे सिद्धक्षेत्रमें रहने का विचार बनाया। उन्हें काशी अतिप्रिय लगी। वे यहां आ गए। भगवान शिव के सान्निध्य में रहने की इच्छा से देवता भी काशी में आ कर रहने लगे। राजा दिवोदास अपनी राजधानी काशी का आधिपत्य खो जाने से बडे दु:खी हुए। उन्होंने कठोर तपस्या करके ब्रह्माजी से वरदान मांगा- देवता देवलोक में रहें, भूलोक (पृथ्वी) मनुष्यों के लिए रहे। सृष्टिकर्ता ने एवमस्तु कह दिया। इसके फलस्वरूप भगवान शंकर और देवगणों को काशी छोड़ने के लिए विवश होना पडा। शिवजी मन्दराचलपर्वत पर चले तो गए परंतु काशी से उनका मोह कम नहीं हुआ। महादेव को उनकी प्रिय काशी में पुन: बसाने के उद्देश्य से चौसठ योगनियों, सूर्यदेव, ब्रह्माजी और नारायण ने बड़ा प्रयास किया। गणेशजी के सहयोग से अन्ततोगत्वा यह अभियान सफल हुआ। ज्ञानोपदेश पाकर राजा दिवोदासविरक्त हो गए। उन्होंने स्वयं एक शिवलिंग की स्थापना करके उस की अर्चना की और बाद में वे दिव्य विमान पर बैठकर शिवलोक चले गए। महादेव काशी वापस आ गए।\n\nकाशी का इतना माहात्म्य है कि सबसे बड़े पुराण स्कन्दमहापुराण में काशीखण्ड के नाम से एक विस्तृत पृथक विभाग ही है। इस पुरी के बारह प्रसिद्ध नाम- काशी, वाराणसी, अविमुक्त क्षेत्र, आनन्दकानन, महाश्मशान, रुद्रावास, काशिका, तप:स्थली, मुक्तिभूमि, शिवपुरी, त्रिपुरारिराजनगरीऔर विश्वनाथनगरी हैं।\n\nस्कन्दपुराण काशी की महिमा का गुण-गान करते हुए कहता है-\n\nभूमिष्ठापिन यात्र भूस्त्रिदिवतोऽप्युच्चैरध:स्थापिया\nया बद्धाभुविमुक्तिदास्युरमृतंयस्यांमृताजन्तव:।\nया नित्यंत्रिजगत्पवित्रतटिनीतीरेसुरै:सेव्यते\nसा काशी त्रिपुरारिराजनगरीपायादपायाज्जगत्॥\n\nजो भूतल पर होने पर भी पृथ्वी से संबद्ध नहीं है, जो जगत की सीमाओं से बंधी होने पर भी सभी का बन्धन काटनेवाली (मोक्षदायिनी) है, जो महात्रिलोकपावनी गंगा के तट पर सुशोभित तथा देवताओं से सुसेवित है, त्रिपुरारि भगवान विश्वनाथ की राजधानी वह काशी संपूर्ण जगत् की रक्षा करे।\nसनातन धर्म के ग्रंथों के अध्ययन से काशी का लोकोत्तर स्वरूप विदित होता है। कहा जाता है कि यह पुरी भगवान शंकर के त्रिशूल पर बसी है। अत: प्रलय होने पर भी इसका नाश नहीं होता है। वरुणा और असि नामक नदियों के बीच पांच कोस में बसी होने के कारण इसे वाराणसी भी कहते हैं। काशी नाम का अर्थ भी यही है-जहां ब्रह्म प्रकाशित हो। भगवान शिव काशी को कभी नहीं छोडते। जहां देह त्यागने मात्र से प्राणी मुक्त हो जाय, वह अविमुक्त क्षेत्र यही है। सनातन धर्मावलंबियों का दृढ विश्वास है कि काशी में देहावसान के समय भगवान शंकर मरणोन्मुख प्राणी को तारकमन्त्र सुनाते हैं। इससे जीव को तत्वज्ञान हो जाता है और उसके सामने अपना ब्रह्मस्वरूप प्रकाशित हो जाता है। शास्त्रों का उद्घोष है- \nयत्र कुत्रापिवाकाश्यांमरणेसमहेश्वर:।\nजन्तोर्दक्षिणकर्णेतुमत्तारंसमुपादिशेत्॥\n\nकाशी में कहीं पर भी मृत्यु के समय भगवान विश्वेश्वर (विश्वनाथजी) प्राणियों के दाहिने कान में तारक मन्त्र का उपदेश देते हैं। तारकमन्त्र सुन कर जीव भव-बन्धन से मुक्त हो जाता है।\nयह मान्यता है कि केवल काशी ही सीधे मुक्ति देती है, जबकि अन्य तीर्थस्थान काशी की प्राप्ति कराके मोक्ष प्रदान करते हैं। इस संदर्भ में काशीखण्ड में लिखा भी है-\nअन्यानिमुक्तिक्षेत्राणिकाशीप्राप्तिकराणिच।\nकाशींप्राप्य विमुच्येतनान्यथातीर्थकोटिभि:।।\n\nऐसा इसलिए है कि पांच कोस की संपूर्ण काशी ही विश्व के अधिपति भगवान विश्वनाथ का आधिभौतिक स्वरूप है। काशीखण्ड पूरी काशी को ही ज्योतिर्लिंग का स्वरूप मानता है-\nअविमुक्तंमहत्क्षेत्रं पंचक्रोशपरीमितम्।\"\nज्योतिलंगम्तदेकंहि ज्ञेयंविश्वेश्वराभिधम्॥\n\nपांच कोस परिमाण के अविमुक्त (काशी) नामक क्षेत्र को विश्वेश्वर (विश्वनाथ) संज्ञक ज्योतिर्लिंग-स्वरूप मानना चाहिए।\n\nअनेक प्रकाण्ड विद्वानों ने काशी मरणान्मुक्ति:के सिद्धांत का समर्थन करते हुए बहुत कुछ लिखा और कहा है। रामकृष्ण मिशन के स्वामी शारदानंदजी द्वारा लिखित श्रीरामकृष्ण-लीलाप्रसंग नामक पुस्तक में श्रीरामकृष्ण परमहंस देव का इस विषय में प्रत्यक्ष अनुभव वर्णित है। वह दृष्टांत बाबा विश्वनाथ द्वारा काशी में मृतक को तारकमन्त्र प्रदान करने का सत्य उजागर करता है। लेकिन यहां यह भी बात ध्यान रहे कि काशी में पाप करने वाले को मरणोपरांत मुक्ति मिलने से पहले अतिभयंकर भैरवी यातना भी भोगनी पडती है। सहस्रों वर्षो तक रुद्र पिशाच बन कर कुकर्मो का प्रायश्चित्त करने के उपरांत ही उसे मुक्ति मिलती है। किंतु काशी में प्राण त्यागने वाले का पुनर्जन्म नहीं होता।\n\nफाल्गुन शुक्ल-एकादशी को काशी में रंगभरी एकादशी कहा जाता है। इस दिन बाबा विश्वनाथ का विशेष श्रृंगार होता है और काशी में होली का पर्वकाल प्रारंभ हो जाता है। \n\nमुक्तिदायिनीकाशी की यात्रा, यहां निवास और मरण तथा दाह-संस्कार का सौभाग्य पूर्वजन्मों के पुण्यों के प्रताप तथा बाबा विश्वनाथ की कृपा से ही प्राप्त होता है। तभी तो काशी की स्तुति में कहा गया है-\nयत्र देहपतनेऽपिदेहिनांमुक्तिरेवभवतीतिनिश्चितम्।\nपूर्वपुण्यनिचयेनलभ्यतेविश्वनाथनगरीगरीयसी॥\n\nविश्वनाथजी की अति-श्रेष्ठ नगरी काशी पूर्वजन्मों के पुण्यों के प्रताप से ही प्राप्त होती है। यहां शरीर छोडने पर प्राणियों को मुक्ति अवश्य मिलती है। \nकाशी बाबा विश्वनाथ की नगरी है। काशी के अधिपति भगवान विश्वनाथ कहते हैं- इदं मम प्रियंक्षेत्रं पंचक्रोशीपरीमितम्। पांच कोस तक विस्तृत यह क्षेत्र (काशी) मुझे अत्यंत प्रिय है। पतित-पावनी काशी में स्थित विश्वेश्वर (विश्वनाथ) ज्योतिर्लिंग सनातनकाल से हिंदुओं के लिए परम आराध्य है, किंतु जनसाधारण इस तथ्य से प्राय: अनभिज्ञ ही है कि यह ज्योतिर्लिंग पांच कोस तक विस्तार लिए हुए है- पंचक्रोशात्मकं लिंगंज्योतिरूपंसनातनम्। ज्ञानरूपा पंचक्रोशात्मक | यह पुण्यक्षेत्र काशी के नाम से भी जाना जाता है-ज्ञानरूपा तुकाशीयं पंचक्रोशपरिमिता। पद्मपुराण में लिखा है कि सृष्टि के प्रारंभ में जिस ज्योतिर्लिगका ब्रह्मा और विष्णुजी ने दर्शन किया, उसे ही वेद और संसार में काशी नाम से पुकारा गया-\nयल्लिंगंदृष्टवन्तौहि नारायणपितामहौ।\nतदेवलोकेवेदेचकाशीतिपरिगीयते॥\n\nपांच कोस की काशी चैतन्यरूप है। इसलिए यह प्रलय के समय भी नष्ट नहीं होती। प्राचीन ब्रह्मवैक्‌र्त्तपुराणमें इस संदर्भ में स्पष्ट उल्लेख है कि अमर ऋषिगण प्रलयकाल में श्री सनातन महाविष्णुसे पूछते हैं- हे भगवन्!वह छत्र के आकार की ज्योति जल के ऊपर कैसे प्रकाशित है, जो प्रलय के समय पृथ्वी के डूबने पर भी नहीं डूबती? महाविष्णुजी बोले-हे ऋषियो! लिंगरूपधारीसदाशिवमहादेव का हमने (सृष्टि के आरम्भ में) तीनों लोकों के कल्याण के लिए जब स्मरण किया, तब वे शम्भु एक बित्ता परिमाण के लिंग-रूप में हमारे हृदय से बाहर आए और फिर वे बढ़ते हुए अतिशय वृद्धि के साथ पांच कोस के हो गए-\nलिंगरूपधर:शम्भुहर्दयाद्बहिरागत:।\nमहतींवृद्धिमासाद्य पंचक्रोशात्मकोऽभवत्॥ \nयह काशी वही पंचक्रोशात्मकज्योतिर्लिगहै। काशीरहस्य के दूसरे अध्याय में यह कथानक मिलता है।\nस्कन्दपुराणके काशीखण्डमें स्वयं भगवान शिव यह घोषणा करते हैं-\nअविमुक्तं महत्क्षेत्रं पंचक्रोशपरिमितम्। \nज्योतिर्लिंगम्तदेकंहि ज्ञेयंविश्वेश्वराऽभिधम्।।\n\nपांच कोस परिमाण का अविमुक्त (काशी) नामक जो महाक्षेत्र है, उस सम्पूर्ण पंचक्रोशात्मकक्षेत्र को विश्वेश्वर नामक एक ज्योतिर्लिंग ही मानें। इसी कारण काशी प्रलय होने पर भी नष्ट नहीं होती। काशीखण्डमें भगवान शंकर पांच कोस की पूरी काशी में बाबा विश्वनाथ का वास बताते हैं-\nएकदेशस्थितमपियथा मार्तण्डमण्डलम्।\nदृश्यतेसवर्गसर्वै:काश्यांविश्वेश्वरस्तथा॥\n\nजैसे सूर्यदेव एक जगह स्थित होने पर भी सब को दिखाई देते हैं, वैसे ही संपूर्ण काशी में सर्वत्र बाबा विश्वनाथ का ही दर्शन होता है।\n\nस्वयं विश्वेश्वर (विश्वनाथ) भी पांच कोस की अपनी पुरी (काशी) को अपना ही रूप कहते हैं- पंचक्रोश्या परिमितातनुरेषापुरी मम। काशी की सीमा के विषय में शास्त्रों का कथन है-असी- वरणयोर्मध्ये पंचक्रोशमहत्तरम। असी और वरुणा नदियों के मध्य स्थित पांच कोस के क्षेत्र (काशी) की बड़ी महिमा है। महादेव माता पार्वती से काशी का इस प्रकार गुणगान करते हैं-\nसर्वक्षेत्रेषु भूपृष्ठेकाशीक्षेत्रंचमेवपु:।\nभूलोक के समस्त क्षेत्रों में काशी साक्षात् मेरा शरीर है।\n\nपंचक्रोशात् मकज्योतिर्लिग-स्वरूपाकाशी सम्पूर्ण विश्व के स्वामी श्री विश्वनाथ का निवास-स्थान होने से भव-बंधन से मुक्तिदायिनी है। धर्मग्रन्थों में कहा भी गया है-काशी मरणान्मुक्ति:। काशी की परिक्रमा करने से सम्पूर्ण पृथ्वी की प्रदक्षिणा का पुण्यफल प्राप्त होता है। भक्त सब पापों से मुक्त होकर पवित्र हो जाता है। तीन पंचक्रोशी-परिक्रमा करने वाले के जन्म-जन्मान्तर के सभी पाप नष्ट हो जाते हैं। काशीवासियोंको कम से कम वर्ष में एक बार पंचकोसी-परिक्रमाअवश्य करनी चाहिए क्योंकि अन्य स्थानों पर किए गए पाप तो काशी की तीर्थयात्रा से उत्पन्न पुण्याग्नि में भस्म हो जाते हैं, परन्तु काशी में हुए पाप का नाश केवल पंचकोसी-प्रदक्षिणा से ही संभव है। काशी में सदाचार-संयम के साथ धर्म का पालन करना चाहिए। यह पर्यटन की नहीं वरन् तीर्थाटन की पावन स्थली है।\n\nवस्तुत:काशी और विश्वेश्वर ज्योतिर्लिगमें तत्त्‍‌वत:कोई भेद नहीं है। नि:संदेह सम्पूर्ण काशी ही बाबा विश्वनाथ का स्वरूप है। काशी-महात्म्य में ऋषियों का उद्घोष है-काशी सर्वाऽपिविश्वेशरूपिणीनात्रसंशय:। अतएव काशी को विश्वनाथजी का रूप मानने में कोई संशय न करें और भक्ति-भाव से नित्य जप करें- शिव: काशी शिव: काशी, काशी काशी शिव: शिव:। ज्येष्ठ मास के शुक्लपक्ष की एकादशी तिथि (निर्जला एकादशी) के दिन श्री काशीविश्वनाथ की वार्षिक कलश-यात्रा वाराणसी में बडी धूमधाम एवं श्रद्धा के साथ आयोजित होती है, जिसमें बाबा का पंचमहानदियोंके जल से अभिषेक होता है।\n\nकाशी की महिमा विभिन्न धर्मग्रन्थों में गायी गयी है। काशी शब्द का अर्थ है, प्रकाश देने वाली नगरी। जिस स्थान से ज्ञान का प्रकाश चारों ओर फैलता है, उसे काशी कहते हैं। ऐसी मान्यता है कि काशी-क्षेत्र में देहान्त होने पर जीव को मोक्ष की प्राप्ति होती है, काश्यांमरणान्मुक्ति:। \nकाशी-क्षेत्र की सीमा निर्धारित करने के लिए पुराकालमें पंचक्रोशीमार्ग का निर्माण किया गया। जिस वर्ष अधिमास (अधिक मास) लगता है, उस वर्ष इस महीने में पंचक्रोशीयात्रा की जाती है। पंचक्रोशी (पंचकोसी) यात्रा करके भक्तगण भगवान शिव और उनकी नगरी काशी के प्रति अपना सम्मान प्रकट करते हैं। लोक में ऐसी मान्यता है कि पंचक्रोशीयात्रा से लौकिक और पारलौकिक अभीष्टिकी सिद्धि होती है। अधिमास को पुरुषोत्तम मास भी कहा जाता है। लोक-भाषा में इसे मलमास कहा जाता है। इस वर्ष मलमास प्रथम-ज्येष्ठ शुक्ल (अधिक) प्रतिपदा से प्रारम्भ होकर द्वितीय-ज्येष्ठ कृष्णपक्ष (अधिक) अमावस्या तिथि को समाप्त होगा। \n\nपंचक्रोशीयात्रा के कुछ नियम है, जिनका पालन यात्रियों को करना पड़ता है। परिक्रमा नंगे पांव की जाती है। वाहन से परिक्रमा करने पर पंचक्रोशी-यात्राका पुण्य नहीं मिलता। शौचादिक्रिया काशी-क्षेत्र से बाहर करने का विधान है। परिक्रमा करते समय शिव-विषयक भजन-कीर्तन करने का विधान है। कुछ ऐसे भी यात्री होते हैं, जो सम्पूर्ण परिक्रमा दण्डवत करते हैं। यात्री हर-हर महादेव शम्भो, काशी विश्वनाथ गंगे, काशी विश्वनाथ गंगे, माता पार्वती संगेका मधुर गान करते हुए परिक्रमा करते हैं। साधु, महात्मा एवं संस्कृतज्ञयात्री महिम्नस्त्रोत, शिवताण्डव एवं रुद्राष्टकका सस्वर गायन करते हुए परिक्रमा करते हैं। महिलाएं सामूहिक रूप से शिव-विषयक लोक गीतों का गायन करती हैं। परिक्रमा अवधि में शाकाहारी भोजन करने का विधान है। पंचक्रोशीयात्रा मणिकर्णिकाघाट से प्रारम्भ होती है। सर्वप्रथम यात्रीगणमणिकर्णिकाकुण्ड एवं गंगा जी में स्नान करते हैं। इसके बाद परिक्रमा-संकल्प लेने के लिए ज्ञानवापी जाते हैं। यहां पर पंडे यात्रियों को संकल्प दिलाते हैं। संकल्प लेने के उपरांत यात्री श्रृंगार गौरी, बाबा विश्वनाथ एवं अन्नपूर्णा जी का दर्शन करके पुन:मणिकर्णिकाघाट लौट आते हैं। यहां वे मणिकर्णिकेश्वरमहादेव एवं सिद्धि विनायक का दर्शन-पूजन करके पंचक्रोशीयात्रा का प्रारम्भ करते हैं। गंगा के किनारे-किनारे चलकर यात्री अस्सी घाट आते है। यहां से वे नगर में प्रवेश करते है। लंका, नरिया, करौंदी, आदित्यनगर, चितईपुरहोते हुए यात्री प्रथम पडाव कन्दवा पर पहुंचते हैं। यहां वे कर्दमेश्वरमहादेव का दर्शन-पूजन करके रात्रि-विश्राम करते हैं। रास्ते में पडने वाले सभी मंदिरों में यात्री देव-पूजन करते हैं। अक्षत और द्रव्य दान करते हैं। रास्ते में स्थान-स्थान पर भिक्षार्थी यात्रियों को नंदी के प्रतीक के रूप में सजे हुए वृषभ का दर्शन कराते हैं और यात्री उन्हें दान-दक्षिणा देते हैं। कुछ भिक्षार्थी शिव की सर्पमालाके प्रतीक रूप में यात्रियों को सर्प-दर्शन कराते हैं और बदले में अक्षत और द्रव्य-दान प्राप्त करते हैं। कुछ सड़क पर चद्दर बिछाए बैठे रहते हैं। यात्रीगण उन्हें भी निराश नहीं करते। अधिकांश यात्री अपनी गठरी अपने सिर पर रखकर पंचक्रोशीयात्रा करते हैं। परिक्रमा-अवधि में यात्री अपनी पारिवारिक और व्यक्तिगत चिन्ताओं से मुक्त होकर पांच दिनों के लिए शिवमय, काशीमय हो जाते हैं। दूसरे दिन भोर में यात्री कन्दवा से अगले पड़ाव के लिए चलते हैं। अगला पड़ाव है भीमचण्डी। यहां यात्री दुर्गामंदिर में दुर्गा जी की पूजा करते हैं और पहले पड़ाव के सारे कर्मकाण्ड को दुहराते हैं। पंचक्रोशीयात्रा का तीसरा पडाव रामेश्वर है। यहां शिव-मंदिर में यात्रीगणशिव-पूजा करते हैं। चौथा पड़ाव पांचों-पण्डवा है। यह पड़ाव शिवपुर क्षेत्र में पडता है। यहां पांचों पाण्डव (युधिष्ठिर, अर्जुन, भीम, नकुल तथा सहदेव) की मूर्तियां हैं। द्रौपदीकुण्ड में स्नान करके यात्रीगणपांचों पाण्डवों का दर्शन करते हैं। रात्रि-विश्राम के उपरांत यात्री पांचवें दिन अंतिम पड़ाव के लिए प्रस्थान करते हैं। अंतिम पड़ाव कपिलधारा है। यात्रीगणयहां कपिलेश्वर महादेव की पूजा करते हैं। काशी परिक्रमा में पांच की प्रधानता है। यात्री प्रतिदिन पांच कोस की यात्रा करते हैं। पड़ाव संख्या भी पांच है। परिक्रमा पांच दिनों तक चलती है। कपिलधारा से यात्रीगण मणिकर्णिका घाट आते हैं। यहां वे साक्षी विनायक (गणेश जी) का दर्शन करते हैं। ऐसी मान्यता है कि गणेश जी भगवान शंकर के सम्मुख इस बात का साक्ष्य देते हैं कि अमुक यात्री ने पंचक्रोशीयात्रा कर काशी की परिक्रमा की है। इसके उपरांत यात्री काशी विश्वनाथ एवं काल-भैरव का दर्शन कर यात्रा-संकल्प पूर्ण करते हैं।\n\nयहां के मन्दिर \n विश्वनाथ मन्दिर\n अन्नपूर्णा मन्दिर\n काल भैरव मन्दिर\n तुलसी मानस मन्दिर\n संकटमोचन मन्दिर \n दुर्गा मन्दिर, दुर्गाकुण्ड\n भारत माता मन्दिर\n (पाप मोचनेश्वर महादेव)नउवा पेखरा तेलियाना\n\nकाशी में काशी खंडोकत मन्दिर भी है जिनके दर्शन यात्रा से मोक्ष की प्राप्ति होती है -\n● [[काशी खंडोकत छप्पन विनायक मन्दिर\n● काशी खंडोकत बारह सूर्यदेव मन्दिर\n● काशी खंडोकत एक सौ बावन शिव मन्दिर\n● काशी खंडोकत सेत्तीस देवी मन्दिर\n● काशी खंडोकत अट्ठाइस विष्णु मन्दिर\n● काशी खंडोकत नों भैरव मन्दिर]]\n\nइनके दर्शन से ही काशी यात्रा पूर्ण होती है जिनका वर्णन काशी खण्ड में उल्लेखनीय है। इसी यात्रा को पंचकोशी यात्रा भी कहा जाता है।\n\nकाशी के घाट \n\n असीसंगम घाट \n दशाश्वमेघ घाट \n मणिकर्णिका घाट\n पंचगंगा घाट\n वरुणासंगम घाट\n तुलसी घाट\n शिवाला घाट\n दंडी घाट\n हनुमान घाट\n हरिश्चंद्र घाट\n राज घाट\n केदार घाट\n सोमेश्वर घाट\n\n मानसरोवर घाट\n रानामहल घाट\n मुनशी घाट\n अहिल्याबाई घाट\n मानमन्दिर घाट\n त्रिपुर-भैरवी घाट\n मीर घाट\n दत्तात्रेय घाट\n सिंधिया घाट\n ग्वालियर घाट\n पंचगंगा घाट\n प्रह्लाद घाट\n\nसराय मोहना घाट\n\nकाशी-मथुरा मंदिर\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n काशी विश्वनाथ का इतिहास\n मथुरा मंदिर का इतिहास\n काशी-मथुरा मंदिर विवाद \n काशी महाजनपद\n काशी की महिमा\n काशीखण्ड\n काशी का इतिहास\n बनारस रियासत\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ\nकाशीकथा\n\nकाशी के प्रमुख मिठाइयाँ और उनकी दुकाने.\n-रसगुल्ला -बंगाल स्वीट हॉउस -सुन्दरपुर \n-जलेबी- भारत मिठाई घर राजापुर \n-मलइयो- मलइयो घर चौक\n-बर्फी -श्रीराम भंडार -गोदौलिया \n-गुलाब जामुन- रम्मन भंडार -पांडेयपुर\n\nश्रेणी:उत्तर प्रदेश के नगर\nश्रेणी:भारत के ऐतिहासिक स्थान", "ग्राम पंचायत झोंपड़ा, सवाई माधोपुर\nझोंपड़ा गाँव राजस्थान राज्य के सवाई माधोपुर जिले की चौथ का बरवाड़ा तहसील में आने वाली प्रमुख ग्राम पंचायत है ! ग्राम पंचायत का सबसे बड़ा गाँव झोंपड़ा है जिसमें मीणा जनजाति का नारेड़ा गोत्र मुख्य रूप से निवास करता हैं। ग्राम पंचायत में झोंपड़ा, बगीना, सिरोही, नाहीखुर्द एवं झड़कुंड गाँव शामिल है। झोंपड़ा ग्राम पंचायत की कुल जनसंख्या 2011 की जनगणना के अनुसार 5184 है और ग्राम पंचायत में कुल घरों की संख्या 1080 है। ग्राम पंचायत की सबसे बड़ी नदी बनास नदी है वहीं पंचायत की सबसे लम्बी घाटी चढ़ाई बगीना गाँव में बनास नदी पर पड़ती है। ग्राम पंचायत का सबसे विशाल एवं प्राचीन वृक्ष धंड की पीपली है जो झोंपड़ा, बगीना एवं जगमोंदा गाँवों से लगभग बराबर दूरी पर पड़ती है।\n\nग्राम पंचायत के खर्चे का विवरण देखिये घर बैठे ऑनलाइन\n\nग्राम पंचायत\n\nझोंपड़ा गाँव \nराजस्थान राज्य में बनास नदी के तट पर बसा हुआ झोंपड़ा गाँव जिला मुख्यालय सवाई माधोपुर से ३२ कि मी व तहसील मुख्यालय चौथ का बरवाड़ा से १२ कि मी की दूरी पर स्थित है। इस गाँव को नानका पटेल की कर्म भूमि के लिए आज भी याद किया जाता है, कहाँ जाता है कि नानका पटेल गरीबों के हमेशा सहायक बनकर रहे एवं अमीरों के अत्याचारों के हमेशा खिलाफ रहे थे। उसी नानका पटेल का वंश वर्तमान में टापरीवाला थोग कहलाता है,जिसके मुख्य व्यक्तियों में श्री भागचन्द जी मीना जो कि प्रधानाध्यापक है. वर्तमान में इसी टापरीवाला थोग से गाँव में सबसे अधिक सरकारी कर्मचारी है। गाँव में राजकीय माध्यमिक विद्यालय, ग्राम पंचायत, हनुमानजी जी का मंदिर एवं राजकीय उपस्वास्थ्य केन्द्र आदि इसी एरिया में स्थित है। झोंपड़ा गाँव मीणा बाहुल्य क्षेत्र होते हुए भी यहाँ पर सभी जाति के लोग प्रेम व्यवहार से रहते है वहीं गाँव की एकता अखंडता को बनाए रखते है। इस गाँव से ८ किलोमीटर दूर भगवतगढ़ नामक शहर पड़ता है जहाँ हर जरूरत संबंधित सामान गाँव को उपलब्ध होता है और देखा जाए तो यह गाँव भगवतगढ़ शहर की रीढ़ की हड्डी कहाँ जा सकता है क्योंकि सालाना भगवतगढ़ से झोंपड़ा गाँव लगभग ४० लाख रूपये की खरीददारी करता है जो आस पास के गाँवों से कहीं ज्यादा है वहीं द्वितीय स्थान पर लोरवाड़ा ग्राम पंचायत का बंधा गाँव आता है जो करीब २५ लाख का इस शहर से टर्नओवर करता है। झोंपड़ा गाँव की बसावट विषमबाहु आकार की है मगर गाँव की एकता को देखने के बाद पता चलता है कि यहाँ पर विविधता में भी एकता अलग से ही दिखाई पड़ती है गाँव का पोस्ट मुख्यालय भगवतगढ़ लगता है वही डाक पोस्ट ऑफिस गाँव में स्थित है। बनास नदी के आँचल में बसा हुआ यह गाँव वास्तव में मीणा समाज की संस्कृति में रचा हुआ सामाजिक गतिविधियों वाला गाँव है। झोंपड़ा गाँव की सामान्य जानकारी :-\n\nझोंपड़ा गांव के प्रमुख कर्मचारी \n1. भागचन्द जी मीना, प्रधानाध्यापक \n2. रामधन जी मीना, इन्ट्रक्टर आईटीआई संस्थान,सवाई माधोपुर\n3. मोतीलाल जी मीना भूतपूर्व अध्यापक\n4. भजनलाल जी मीना भूतपूर्व अध्यापक\n5. रमेशचन्द जी मीना एलआईसी प्रबंधक\n6. घनश्याम मीना आयुर्वेदिक वेद\n7. हनुमान मीना भूतपूर्व एफसीआई\n8. हनुमान मीना मैनेजर\n9. रामप्रसाद मीना राज. पुलिस\n10. मुरारीलाल मीना राज. पुलिस\n11. भीमराज मीना रेलवे चालक\n12. हरिमोहन मीना रेलवे चालक\n13. कमलेश मीना आईटीआई इंस्ट्रक्टर \n14. रामहेत मीना प्रधानाध्यापक \n15. चिरंजीलाल मीना प्रोफेसर\n16. प्रेमराज मीना यूडीसी\n17. मटरूलाल मीना ग्राम सेवक \n18. झबरू लाल मीना ग्राम सेवक \n19. विक्रम मीना बैंक कैशियर\n20. राजेन्द्र मीना अध्यापक \n21. रामावतार मीना बैंक कैशियर\n22. प्रहलाद मीना भूतपूर्व मैनेजर\n23. जगदीश मीना मैनेजर\n24. गणपत लाल मीना डॉक्टर\n25. श्रीदास मीना स्टेशन प्रबंधक रेलवे\n26. रामराज मीना राज. पुलिस\n27. रतनलाल मीना आरटीओ\n28. कालूराम मीना रेलवे गार्ड\n29. हनुमान मीना रेलवे गार्ड\n30. भरतलाल मीना अध्यापक\n31. हनुमान मीना प्रधानाध्यापक \n32. ओमप्रकाश शर्मा अध्यापक\n33. किशन गोपाल मीना केवीएस\n34. रतन लाल मीना अध्यापक\n35. बाबूलाल मीना जेईन\n36. रामकिशन मीना प्रधानाध्यापक \n37. इन्द्रराज मीना अध्यापक\n38. रामधन मीना अध्यापक\n39. विकास कुमार जागिंड़ \n40. रवि कुमार मीना एलआईसी\n41. जयसिंह मीना कैशियर\n42. मीठालाल मीना अध्यापक\n43. मीठालाल मीना अध्यापक द्वितीय \n44. रामराज मीना गैंगमेन\n45. मुकेश कुमार मीना गैंगमेन\n46. ओमप्रकाश मीना अध्यापक\n47. चिरंजीलाल मीना अध्यापक\n48. महेन्द्र मीना अध्यापक\n49. मस्तराम मीना प्रधानाध्यापक \n50. रामस्वरूप मीना अध्यापक\n51. कमलेश मीना रेलवे चालक\n52. मुकेश मीना अध्यापक\n53. देवलीराम मीना गैंगमेन\n54. जगदीश मीना सी.आई. \n55. जगराम मीना वनगार्ड\n56. नरसी मीना रेलवे चालक\n57. रूपचन्द मीना अध्यापक\n\nबगीना गाँव \nबगीना गाँव में कुल घरों की संख्या 254 है वहीं कुल जनसंख्या 1348 है जिसमें से 742 पुरुष एवं 606 महिलाएँ है। यह गाँव ग्राम पंचायत झोंपड़ा के अंतर्गत पड़ता है। यह गाँव झोंपड़ा ग्राम पंचायत का दूसरा सबसे बड़ा गाँव है जो ग्राम पंचायत मुख्यालय से 3.5 किलोमीटर दूर है। बनास नदी के तट पर बसा हुआ। बगीना गाँव में मीणा नारेड़ा एवं झूरवाल गोत्र की बहुलता है। वर्तमान में झोंपड़ा पंचायत के सरपंच बगीना गाँव के ही है। झोंपड़ा पंचायत में इस गाँव के श्री रामनिवास जी मीणा ने लम्बे समय तक सरपंच पद पर कार्य किया था। यह गाँव चौथ का बरवाड़ा तहसील से एवं शिवाड़ कस्बे से पक्के सड़क मार्ग से जुड़ा हुआ है।\n\nसिरोही गाँव \nसिरोही गाँव में कुल घरों की संख्या 160 है वहीं कुल जनसंख्या 723 है जिसमें से 390 पुरुष एवं 333 महिलाएँ है। यह गाँव ग्राम पंचायत झोंपड़ा के अंतर्गत पड़ता है। यह गाँव झोंपड़ा-भगवतगढ़ सड़क मार्ग के बीच में पड़ता है। गलवा नदी के तट पर बसा हुआ यह गाँव झोंपड़ा गाँव से 2.7 किलोमीटर एवं भगवतगढ़ से 5.3 किलोमीटर की दूरी पर स्थित है। इस गाँव में मीणा जाति का ताजी गोत्र निवास करता है। गाँव में शिक्षा हेतु पाँचवीं तक का सरकारी विद्यालय कार्यरत है।\n\nनाहरीखुर्द एवं झड़कुंड गाँव \nयह दोनों छोटे छोटे गाँव है इन दोनों गाँवों में कुल घर 138 है और कुल जनसंख्या 630 है जिसमें से 344 पुरुष और 286 महिलाएँ शामिल हैं। यह दोनों गाँव ग्राम पंचायत झोंपड़ा के अंतर्गत पड़ते है।\n\nकला एवं संस्कृति\n\nठाकुर जी का मंदिर\n\n[1]- यह मंदिर गाँव के हथाई मोहल्ला के पास में स्थित है वही गाँव का सबसे प्राचीन मंदिर भी यही है ! इस मंदिर में भगवान विष्णु व माता लक्ष्मी की एक पत्थर से बनी हुई सम्मिलित प्रतिमा है जो बहुत ही चमत्कारिक है ! मंदिर प्रांगण में भगवान शिव पंचायत रूप में विराजमान हैं वहीं पीपली का पेड़ भी विद्यमान है, इस मंदिर में प्राचीन समय में नानका पटेल मीणा का सबसे बड़ा योगदान रहा है ! वर्तमान में यह मंदिर सभी भगतों के लिए सार्वजनिक पूज्य स्थल है ! इस मंदिर में झोंपड़ा गाँव के प्रमुख थोगो ( क्षेत्रों ) का योगदान रहा है जिसमें टापरीवाला थोग , दांगड़ावाला, बड़ी गुवाड़ी वाला, खेड़ली वाला, बनोटा वाला, गुर्जर एरिया , बैरवा एरिया, हथाई मोहल्ला, छतरीनीम पाड़ा एवं नाथ मोहल्ला भी शामिल हैं। \n[2] - द्वितीय ठाकुर जी का नवनिर्मित लक्ष्मी नारायण जी का मंदिर है। इस मंदिर को रूंडीवाला थोग द्वारा बनाया गया है जिसमें रूंडीवाला और बारवाल एरिया का विशेष योगदान रहा है ! इस मंदिर का गुंबज काफी ऊँचा होने के कारण दूर से मंदिर दिखाई पड़ता है। \n\nवीर तेजाजी महाराज का मंदिर\n\nयह मंदिर गाँव के बीच में स्थित है जो कि राजकीय माध्यमिक विद्यालय के जस्ट पीछे है पास में ग्राम पंचायत स्थित है ! गाँव का सबसे लोकप्रिय मेला वीर तेजाजी के स्थान पर भरता है ! इस मंदिर के लिए पूरे गाँव का विशेष योगदान रहा है यह मंदिर टापरीवाला थोग के पास पड़ता है ! यहाँ पर नागदंश एवं जहरीले कीड़े के काटने पर उनका इलाज किया जाता है ! वीर तेजाजी महाराज किसी मुख्य व्यक्ति को भाव भरकर आता है जिस व्यक्ति को भाव आता है उसे राजस्थानी भाषा में गोठियाँ कहते है ! वर्तमान में वीर तेजाजी महाराज का गोठियाँ श्री ममताराम मीणा है जो नवयुवक है, इससे पहले का भूतपूर्व गोठियाँ श्री श्योजी राम मीणा था ! हाल ही में यहाँ पर पंचमुखी हनुमान मंदिर की गाँव द्वारा विधि विधान से स्थापना की गई है। वीर तेजाजी महाराज के प्रांगण मे बगीचीवाला, धूणीवाला, पंचमुखी हनुमान, पीपलीवाला, बाड़ेलीवाला एवं ऊत बाबा आदि देवी देवता विद्यमान है। \n\nकालामाल जी का थड़ा\n\nयह स्थान गाँव का सबसे चमत्कारी स्थान है जो कालमालजी ( Kalamal Ji ) के रूप में जाना जाता है। यह स्थान टापरीवाला क्षेत्र में पड़ता है इस स्थान पर चमत्कारिक देव कालमाल जी को मदिरा का भोग लगाया जाता है। कालमाल जी देव का विशेष दिन रविवार को माना जाता है। कहाँ जाता है कि सच्चे दिल जो भी व्यक्ति यहाँ पर माँगता है उसकी हर तमन्ना यहाँ पर पूरी होती है। यह ग्राम झोंपड़ा के बस स्टैंड के पास स्थित है। कालामाल जी देव की सवारी काले कुत्तें की मानी जाती है। यह देव शुरू से लेकर आज तक किसी भी व्यक्ति को भाव के रूप में नहीं आता और न ही इस देव का कोई गोठियाँ रहता। प्राचीन समय में चमत्कारों की वजह से इस जगह देवभूमि की स्थापना टापरीवाला वंश द्वारा की गई थी। आज भी रविवार के दिन टापरीवाला वंश में जन्मे बच्चों के जड़ूलें इसी जगह पर उतारे जाते है। जडूले को हिन्दी भाषा में मूंडन संस्कार कहते है। \n\nहनुमान जी का मंदिर\n\nइस मंदिर का द्वार दक्षिण दिशा की तरफ है। मंदिर के भीतर हनुमान जी की विशाल प्रतिमा स्थित है। यह मंदिर गाँव के बीच में ग्राम पंचायत व राजकीय माध्यमिक विद्यालय के पास में टापरीवाला थोग में पड़ता है ! यहाँ पर हनुमान जी की भव्य प्रतिमा है ! प्रतिमा पर हर मंगलवार एवं शनिवार के दिन चोला चढ़ाया जाता है। इस मंदिर में सुबह शाम हनुमान जी की आरती होती है वही हर रोज शाम को रामधुन का गायन होता है। इस मंदिर के अलावा हनुमान जी के दो मंदिर है ओर है- आडीबाट का बालाजी एवं पंचमुखी हनुमान मंदिर (वीर तेजाजी के पास)\n\nगरीब नाथ योगी पीठ\n\nशमशान घाट एवं नाथ मोहल्ले के पास स्थित गरीब नाथ योगी पीठ गाँव का बहुत प्रमुख स्थान है, कहाँ जाता है कि प्राचीन समय में सिद्ध पुरुषों ने इस जगह पर जीवत समाधि ली थी। प्राचीन समय में योगी, साधु, महात्मा इसी जगह पर निवास करते थे। यह स्थान भी बनास नदी के तट पर स्थित है, बनास नदी की तरफ से गाँव की शुरूआत यही से होती है। बाबा गरीब नाथ योगी पीठ के प्रांगण में भगवान शिव पंचायत के रूप मे विराजमान है वहीं प्रांगण के मुख्य द्वार के पास में मतवाला भैरू बाबा का छोटा सा स्थान है जहाँ पर भैरू बाबा को मदिरा का भोग लगाया जाता है। गरीब नाथ योगी पीठ के चारों तरफ गाँव द्वारा दीवार करवाई गई है, पास में पानी की टंकी की सुविधा भी उपलब्ध है। बाबा गरीब नाथ की सुबह शाम आरती गाई जाती है एवं शंख ध्वनि बजाई जाती है। गरीब नाथ का अखंड धूणा हमेशा प्रज्वलित रहता है। \n\nहीरामन बाबा का स्थान\n\nपशुओं एवं दुधारों जानवरों के रूप में प्रसिद्ध हीरामन बाबा का स्थान टापरीवाला थोग के पास पड़ता है। हर छोटे मोटे त्योहार पर बाबा को बस्ती द्वारा भोग लगाया जाता है। गाँव में जानवरों के दूध एवं घी से बाबा को ही सबसे पहले पूजा जाता है क्योंकि पशुओं के देवताओं के रूप मे हीरामन बाबा को विशेष स्थान प्राप्त है। हीरामन बाबा की कृपा से पशु दुध अच्छा देते है और सभी रोगों से मुक्त रहते है। जानवरों के खुशहाल एवं अच्छे दुधारों रहने के लिए गाँव के लोग बाबा हीरामन से कहीं रखते है और मनौतियाँ पूरी होने पर बाबा को पूजा जाता है और घी चढ़ाया जाता है। विशेषकर गाय एवं भैंसे बाबा की कृपा से अच्छी तरह से दूध देती है और धीना की घर में बरकत बनी रहती है। \n\nअन्य प्रमुख मंदिर\n\nअन्य प्रमुख मंदिरों में शीतला माता जी गुर्जर मोहल्ला, भैरू बाबा का मंदिर गुर्जर मोहल्ला, पार्वती स्थान बनास नदी, चीला वाला बाबा बनास नदी, घास भैरूजी टापरीवाला थोग, खेतरपाल जी महाराज टापरीवाला थोग, ऊँधी-सूँधी माता स्थान नाथ मोहल्ला की तरफ, माता जी का मंदिर बैरवा मोहल्ला, पीर बाबा टापरीवाला थोग के सामने, ठाकुरजी का मंदिर श्मशान रास्ता, शिव पंचायत स्थान बडीगवाडी थोग, ऊत बाबा स्थान बस स्टैंड आदि मंदिर गाँव झोंपड़ा गाँव में स्थित है।\n\nहस्थकला \nकुम्हारों द्वारा निर्मित मिट्टी के बर्तन यहां पर बनाए जाते हैं एवं बनास नदी की काली मिट्टी बर्तनों के लिए सर्वाधिक उपयुक्त है ! बढ़ई द्वारा लकड़ी के पलंग, खाँट, मचलें आदि वस्तुएँ बनाई जाती है। गाँव में सबसे बेहतरीन बढ़इयों में लड्डूलाल एवं बाबू लाल बढ़ई प्रमुख है।\n\nमेले व उत्सव \nग्राम झोंपड़ा में वीर तेजाजी की बिंदोरी व मेला का आयोजन हर वर्ष किया जाता है ! चौथ का बरवाड़ा स्थित चौथ भवानी के मेले का उत्साह भी यहाँ देखने को मिलता है व इस दिन चूरमा -बाटी की विशेष रसोई बनाई जाती है और माता के आने वाले भक्तों के लिए निशुल्क भंडारे लगाएं जाते हैं ! गाँव में होली, दीपावली, मकर संक्रांति, गुडीपड़वा, अक्षय तृतीया, रक्षा बंधन ,गंगा दशमी, विजयदशमी, महाशिवरात्री, हरियाली, जन्माष्टमी, करवा चौथ, माघ चौथ, गणेश चतुर्थी, नवरात्रि उत्सव, राजस्थान स्थापना दिवस, सवाई माधोपुर स्थापना दिवस, झलझुलनी एकादशी, श्रावण माह शिव पूजा, ईद आदि पर्व हर्षोल्लास के साथ मनाएँ जाते हैं।\n\nखेल रंगमंच \nग्राम पंचायत में विभिन्न प्रकार की खेल प्रतियोगिताएँ चलती रहती है। झोंपड़ा में हर वर्ष क्रिकेट प्रतियोगिता का आयोजन करवाया जाता है जिसमें पंचायत के बाहरी गाँवों से विभिन्न क्रिकेट टीमों को आमंत्रित किया जाता है।\n\nसंगीत \nग्राम पंचायत झोंपड़ा में सर्वाधिक मीणा गीतों का प्रभाव देखने को मिलता है। समय समय पर यहाँ कन्हैया दंगल भरवाये जाते रहते है। विवाह आदि समारोह पर मीणा समाज की महिलाएँ गीत गाते हुए देखना यहाँ की आम बात है। मीणा गीतों के अलावा ग्राम झोंपड़ा के मुख्य गायक कलाकारों में रामस्वरूप जोगी का नाम सर्वाधिक लोकप्रिय रहा है।\n\nरामस्वरूप जोगी \nइस गाँव के गायक कलाकार रामस्वरूप जोगी ने राजस्थान स्तर पर काफी प्रसिद्धि प्राप्त की है। रामस्वरूप जोगी ने शंकर पार्वती विवाह, राजा भृतहरी की कथा, बाबा रामदेव की कथा, नृसी जी रो माहिरो सहित बहुत सी कैसेट निकाली है। सबसे अधिक प्रसिद्धि इस गायक कलाकार ने शंकर पार्वती विवाह एवं राजा भृतहरी की कथा नामक कैसेट से मिली है। इस गायक कलाकार ने सवाई माधोपुर ही नहीं बल्कि उज्जैन से लेकर अलवर तक की जनता के दिलों पर राज किया, शंकर विवाह के लिए तो रामस्वरूप जोगी को मध्यप्रदेश एवं राजस्थान में काफी प्रसिद्धि मिली है। रामस्वरूप जोगी ने बाबा रामदेव की कथा पर गुजरात और राजस्थान में काफी लोकप्रियता बनाई है।\n\nमीणा गीत \nपंचायत में मीणा गीतों का सर्वाधिक प्रचलन पाया जाता है। मीणा समाज की महिला विशेष समारोह में गीतों पर नाँचती एवं गाती है। झोंपड़ा पंचायत में मीणा उच्छाटा, मीणा लाम्बा आदि गीतों के साथ कन्हैया दंगल भी समय समय पर भरवाए जाते हैं। गाँव स्तर पर कैलाश व्यास, भरतलाल जोगी, श्योजीनाथ आदि कई कलाकार भजन व शिव विवाह पर गाते रहते है। भरतलाल जोगी द्वारा वीर तेजाजी गीत बहुत अच्छा गाया जाता है। वही बगीना गाँव से दिलकुश मीणा ने मीणा गीतों पर बहुत अच्छी अच्छी कैसेट निकाली है।\n\nभौगोलिकता\n(१) कृषि एवं फसलें - सामान्य तौर पर ग्राम पंचायत में गेहूँ सरसों, ज्वार-बाजरा, मूँगफली, ऊड़द, मूंग, तिल, चना, अलसी, ग्वार आदि पैदा किए जाते है। \n\n(२) पहाड़ एवं नदियाँ - झोंपड़ा गाँव में एक भी पर्वत नहीं है गाँव के समीप छोटा सा गाँव सिरोही में पर्वत देखने को मिलते हैं, यहाँ कि भाषा मे इन को डूंगर कहते हैं। ग्राम पंचायत में सबसे बड़ी प्रवाहित होने वाली बनास नदी है जो हमेशा बहती रहती है। बनास नदी के तट पर झोंपड़ा एवं बगीना गाँव बसे हुए है। बनास नदी के अलावा गलवा नदी बरसाती नदी है इस नदी के तट पर ग्राम पंचायत के नाहरीखुर्द, झड़कुंड एवं सिरोही गाँव बसे हुए है। बगीना गाँव में बनास नदी पर एनीकट बनने से बगीना गाँव का जलस्तर काफी बढ़ गया है जो किसानों के लिए अच्छी बात है। इनके अलावा पंचायत में गुल्या नामक नला भी बरसात के समय बहता है। \n\n(३) खनिज संसाधन - ग्राम पंचायत में वैसे तो कोई खनिज उत्पादन नहीं किया जाता है मगर बनास नदी की बजरी का खनन किया जाता है, यहाँ से आस पास के गाँवों बजरी की सप्लाई की जाती है लेकिन वर्तमान में झोंपड़ा ग्राम ने बजरी खनन पर पूर्ण रोक लगा दी है, बजरी गाँव के कार्य हेतु बनास नदी से निकाली जाती है मगर दूसरे गाँवों में बजरी ले जाने पर प्रतिबंध है। \n\n(४) पशुधन सम्पदा - सामान्य तौर पर ग्राम पंचायत में सभी पशु धन पाया जाता है, लेकिन महत्वता के आधार पर गाँव में बडवारी नस्ल की बकरियाँ, भैडो़ में मालपुरी नस्ल की भेडे़, गायों में देशी भारतीय गाय और भैंसो मे मुर्राह, हरियाणवी एवं दैसी भैंसे पाई जाती है ! राजस्थान के जहाज के रूप में प्रसिद्ध ऊँट भी यहाँ पर देखने को आसानी पूर्वक मिल जाता है ! वही बैलों द्वारा खेतों की जुताई हकाई की जाती है लेकिन वर्तमान में आधुनिक मशीनों की वजह से बैल एवं ऊँट कम होते जा रहे है।\n\nजल संसाधन \n कुआँ - ग्राम पंचायत झोंपड़ा में सिंचाई के प्रमुख साधन कुएँ है, गाँव की 90% सिंचाई कुओं द्वारा ही की जाती है। बनास नदी के कारण हमेशा कुओं में जल की मात्रा अच्छी बनी रहती है। झोंपड़ा गांव का सबसे अच्छा पानी का कुआँ 'बड़ी कोठी' के नाम से जाना जाता है जो कि 'टापरी वाला थोग' के पास स्थित है। इस कुऐं का जल सर्दी में काफी गर्म और गर्मी में बहुत ठंडा रहता है। \n बोर - आधुनिक तौर में ग्राम पंचायत में बोरिंग की व्यवस्था बढ़ती जा रही है, अकेल झोंपड़ा गांव में सरकारी बोरिंगों की संख्या १० के करीब हो चुकी है, वहीं निजी बोरिंगो का औसतन ज्यादा है। झोंपड़ा गांव में करीब सरकारी हेंडपम्पों की संख्या ६० के करीब है। \n नलकूप - वर्तमान में गांव में नलकूपों की व्यवस्था नहीं है लेकिन आगामी समय में यह व्यवस्था गांव बन जाऐगी। \n पुलिया - ग्राम पंचायत में सबसे बड़ी व लम्बी पुलिया बगीना गांव में बनास नदी पर बनी हुई है। इस पुलिया के बाद सिरोही गांव में गलवा नदी पर पुलिया बनी हुई है। \n तालाब - ग्राम पंचायत में एकमात्र तालाब सिरोही गांव में पड़ता है, जो जानवरों के लिए उपयोगी होता है।\n\nजातिगत विवरण\n\nमीणा/मीना जनजाति \nग्राम पंचायत झोंपड़ा में मीणा जनजाति का सर्वाधिक वर्चस्व है, मीणा जनजाति में साधारण जीवन एवं उच्च विचार वाली प्रवृत्ति पंचायत में देखने को मिलती है। ग्राम पंचायत में मीणा जनजाति के तीन गौत्र मुख्य है, नारेड़ा, ताजी एवं झूरवाल। इनके अलावा बारवाल गौत्र भी पंचायत में देखने को मिलता है। 'मीणा का शाब्दिक अर्थ मत्स्य या मछली होता है। पौराणिक मान्यताओं के अनुसार मीणा जनजाति का संबंध भगवान मत्स्यावतार से है ! सम्पूर्ण पंचायत में जमीदार मीणा निवास करते है। मीणा जनजाति को 24 खापों में विभाजित किया गया है। ग्राम पंचायत में मीणा जनजाति के बहिभाट को जागा कहते हैं और जागा के अनुसार मीणा जनजाति 32 तड़ तथा 5200 गौत्रों में विभाजित है। मीणा जाति में संयुक्त परिवार प्रणाली पायी जाती है। यहाँ स्त्री और पुरुष सभी मिलकर काम करते है वहीं मीणा स्त्रियाँ बहुत परिश्रमी, साहसी एवं धैर्यशील होती है। झोंपड़ा पंचायत में मीणा समाज में पटेल का बड़ा महत्व होता है और गाँव का पटेल पंच-पटेल कहलाता है। मीणा जाति में बहन के पति का विशेष सत्कार किया जाता है इसके अलावा अन्य संबंधों का भी आदरपूर्वक निर्वाह किया जाता है। गोद लेने के संबंध में निकटतम संबंधी को वरीयता दी जाती है। मीणा जनजाति में पितृवंशीय परम्परा पायी जाती है। मीणा जनजाति के लोग हिन्दू धर्मावलंबी होते है, ये लोग दुर्गा एवं शिव जी की विशेष पूजा करते है। ये लोग पित्तरो को जलतर्पण भी करते है। झोंपड़ा पंचायत के मीणों का मुख्य व्यवसाय कृषि एवं पशु पालन है। आरक्षण नीति का झोंपड़ा पंचायत के मीणों ने अच्छा लाभ उठाया है और वे कई पदों पर कार्यरत है।\n\nअन्य जातियाँ \nगुर्जर - जाति भी पंचायत की मुख्य जाति है। इस जाति का आराध्य देव भगवान देवनाराण है, जिन्होंने शाडू माता की कोख से जन्म लिया था। भगवान देव नारायण का चौथ का बरवाड़ा में भव्य मंदिर स्थित है। इस जाति के लोग सर्वाधिक पूजा कृष्ण भगवान की करते है। यह जाति शुरू से सम्पन्न एवं विकसित जाति है। ग्राम पंचायत झोंपड़ा में इस जाति का प्रतिशत भी बहुत कम है। गुर्जर जाति में भाई चारे के साथ रहने की परम्परा है वहीं इस जाति में गोठे नामक गीतों का शुरू से प्रचलन चलता आया जो वर्तमान में भी जारी है। \n\nयोगी - यह जाति झोंपड़ा गाँव में निवास करती है जो योगी समाज में आती है। इस जाति के रामस्वरूप जोगी ने झोंपड़ा पंचायत का गायन कला में राजस्थान स्तर पर काफी नाम चमकाया है, रामस्वरूप की प्रमुख कैसेट्स में शंकर पार्वती विवाह , राजा भृतहरी की कथा , बाबा रामदेव की कथा एवं नृसी जी रो माहिरो आज सम्पूर्ण राजस्थान में काफी लोकप्रिय है। इस जाति के लोग भगवान शिव माता पार्वती और गोरक्षनाथ के उपासक होते है। \n\nप्रजापत - पंचायत में प्रजापतों की संख्या बहुत कम है। इस जाति के लोगों का व्यवसाय मिट्टी के बर्तन बनना है। ये लोग हिन्दू धर्म सभी देवी देवताओं को मानने वाले होते है। \n\nकेवट - इस जाति के लोग नौका चलाकर जीवन यापन करते थे लेकिन वर्तमान में पंचायत में इस जाति की संख्या 5 घर तक ही सीमित है। इस जाति के लोग पंचायत में सब्जी बेचकर एवं दूसरे व्यवसाय करके जीवन यापन कर रहे है। \n\nबैरवा - ग्राम पंचायत में बैरवा समाज भी बहुत कम संख्या में मिलते है वर्तमान में जो भी बैरवा है वो गाँव में मेहनत से पैसे कमाकर अपना निर्वाह कर रहे है। बैरवा समाज माता दुर्गा का उपासक होता है ! इस जाति के लोग बड़े ही ईमानदार एवं भोलेभाले लोग होते है। \n\nनाई - ग्राम पंचायत में नाई जाति के लोग भी रहते है जो गाँव के लोगों की दाढ़ी एवं बाल की कटाई करते है और जजमानी का कार्य भी करते है, यह लोग पंचायत में मीणा समाज के विवाह एवं महत्वपूर्ण कार्य में जजमानी का कार्य करते है और उनकी दी हुई दक्षिणा पर निर्भर रहकर जीवन का निर्वाह करते है। इस जाति के लोग भगवान विश्वकर्मा के उपासक होते है। \n\nब्राह्मण - ब्राह्मण जाति के लोग भी पंचायत में मीणा समाज के महत्वपूर्ण कार्यों में जजमानी का कार्य करते है और दान दक्षिणा लेकर अपना जीवन यापन कर रहे है। इस जाति के लोग वर्तमान में पंचायत में बहुत गरीब स्तर के लोग हैं। यह जाति शुरूआत में बहुत सम्पन्न जाति थी। इस जाति के लोग भगवान विष्णु एवं शिव को सर्वाधिक मानते है। \n\nराव - इस जाति के लोगों का जीवन भी जजमानी कार्य करता है एवं महत्वपूर्ण कार्यों में ढ़ोल बजाने का काम भी राव जाति के लोग ही करते है। पंचायत में इस जाति के लोग नगण्य के बराबर है। \n\nहरिजन - पंचायत में इस जाति की संख्या भी बहुत कम है ये लोग बस्ती की दी हुई दान दक्षिणा पर निर्भर रहते है एवं बस्ती के हित में ही हमेशा कार्य करते है। इस जाति के लोग हिन्दू धर्म के सभी देवी देवताओं की पूजा करते है। \n\nराजपूत - पंचायत में इस जाति की संख्या झड़कुंड गाँव में पाई जाती है ये लोग भी वर्तमान में मेहनत मजदूरी करके अपना जीवन निर्वाह कर रहे है। इस जाति के लोग भगवान राम को सर्वाधिक मानते है वहीं सभी देवी देवताओं को भी पूजते है।\n\nशैक्षणिक एवं प्रशासनिक सुविधा\nशिक्षा के क्षेत्र में झोंपड़ा पंचायत धीरे धीरे प्रगतिशील है। वर्तमान में इस पंचायत का शिक्षा स्तर 60.34 प्रतिशत के लगभग है। पंचायत का सबसे बड़ा विद्यालय झोंपड़ा गाँव में स्थित है जो 12वीं तक है। झोंपड़ा पंचायत में 12 वीं तक का विद्यालय है। 12वीं कक्षा के बाद विद्यार्थी सवाई माधोपुर, चौथ का बरवाड़ा में पढ़ने के लिए जाते हैं। गाँव में शिक्षा के क्षेत्र में सबसे पिछड़ा हुआ गाँव नाहरीखुर्द एवं झड़कुंड है। गांव में सबसे पहले मेथ मेटिक्स विषय में पढ़ाई करने वाले व्यक्ति श्री रामधन मीना आई.टी.आई.इन्स्ट्रक्टर हैं. गाँव के सबसे पहले सरकारी कर्मचारियों में मोतीलाल जी मीणा एवं भजनलाल जी मीणा का नाम मिलता है। सिरोही गाँव में पाँचवीं कक्षा के बाद विद्यार्थी झोंपड़ा गाँव में अध्ययन हेतु आते है। ग्राम पंचायत झोंपड़ा में निम्न विद्यालय कार्यरत है :-\n\n राजकीय उच्च माध्यमिक विद्यालय , झोंपड़ा\n\n राजकीय उच्च प्राथमिक विद्यालय, बगीना\n\n राजकीय प्राथमिक विद्यालय, सिरोही\n\n राजकीय प्राथमिक विद्यालय, नाहरी खुर्द&झड़कुंड\n\n राजकीय प्राथमिक संस्कृत विद्यालय , झोंपड़ा\n\n[१] - ग्राम पंचायत में दो उपस्वास्थ्य केन्द्र है जो पंचायत के झोंपड़ा एवं बगीना गाँव में स्थित है। \n[२] - झोंपड़ा ग्राम पंचायत के झोंपड़ा, बगीना, नाहरीखुर्द एवं झड़कुंड गाँव चौथ का बरवाड़ा पुलिस स्टेशन के अंतर्गत आते है वहीं पंचायत का सिरोही गाँव नवनिर्मित सूरवाल पुलिस स्टेशन के अंतर्गत आता है। वैसे देखा जाए तो चौथ का बरवाड़ा पुलिस स्टेशन ही गाँव का सबसे नजदीकी थाना है और सिरोही गाँव के लिए सूरवाल थाना का सफर दुगना है। \n[३] - ग्राम पंचायत झोंपड़ा में तीन आँगनबाड़ी केन्द्र कार्यरत है इनमें से दो आँगनबाड़ी केन्द्र झोंपड़ा गाँव में और एक आँगनबाड़ी केन्द्र बगीना गाँव में स्थित है। \n[४] - झोंपड़ा पंचायत के सरपंच चुनावों की मतगणना झोंपड़ा गाँव में ही की जाती है एवं बगीना,नाहरीखुर्द, सिरोही एवं झड़कुंड गाँवों की वोटिंग भी झोंपड़ा गाँव में ही की जाती है। चारों गाँवों का पोलिंग बूथ झोंपड़ा गाँव में स्थित है। \n[५] - ग्राम पंचायत की सभी विद्यालयों का नोडल केन्द्र झोंपड़ा गाँव की राजकीय उच्च माध्यमिक विद्यालय को बनाया गया है। \n[६] - ग्राम पंचायत में पाँच सामुदायिक भवन बने हुए है इन में तीन सामुदायिक भवन झोंपड़ा गाँव में, एक बगीना गाँव में और एक सामुदायिक भवन सिरोही गाँव में स्थित है।\n\nयातायात\nग्राम झोंपड़ा जिला मुख्यालय सवाई माधोपुर से 32 किलोमीटर पश्चिम दिशा की ओर पड़ता है ग्राम झोंपड़ा के लिए सवाई माधोपुर जिले से पोस्ट ऑफिस के सामने से सीधे बस सुविधा उपलब्ध है जिला मुख्यालय सवाई माधोपुर से बस निम्न गाँवों में होती हुई जाती है सवाई माधोपुर, चकचैनपुरा, करमोंदा, सूरवाल , सिणोली, बंधा, भगवतगढ़ , सिरोही एवं झोंपड़ा। सवाई माधोपुर से सूरवाल तक बस मेगा हाईवे पर चलती है बाद में सूरवाल से झोंपड़ा के लिए ग्रामीण रोड़ जा रहा है !\nग्राम झोंपड़ा तहसील मुख्यालय चौथ का बरवाड़ा से 12 किलोमीटर उत्तर दिशा की ओर पड़ता है ! चौथ का बरवाड़ा से भैडोला गाँव होते हुए जगमोंदा होकर पक्के सड़क मार्ग से झोंपड़ा गाँव पहुँचा जा सकता है। \nजयपुर से झोंपड़ा गाँव की दूरी 103 किलोमीटर है।\n\nनिकटतम गाँव\n भगवतगढ़ - भगवतगढ़ नामक कस्बा झोंपड़ा गांव से ८ किलोमीटर दूर स्थित है जो पक्के सड़क मार्ग से जुड़ा हुआ है। भगवतगढ़ में अरणेश्वर महादेव के सप्त कुंड यहाँ के प्रमुख पर्यटन स्थलों में से एक है। \n चौथ का बरवाड़ा - यह शहर झोंपड़ा गांव से १२ किलोमीटर की दूरी पर स्थित है, जो झोंपड़ा गांव से पक्के सड़क मार्ग से जुड़ा हुआ है। चौथ का बरवाड़ा में राजस्थान प्रसिद्ध एवं भारत का सबसे प्राचीन और सबसे बड़ा चौथ माता का भव्य मंदिर है। चौथ माता झोंपड़ा गांव के नारेड़ा गौत्र के मीणों की कुलदेवी के रूप में जानी जाती है। चौथ माता मंदिर के अलावा बरवाड़ा में भगवान मत्स्यावतार अर्थात मीन भगवान का मंदिर, भगवान देवनारायण का मंदिर, राजराजेश्वर शिव मंदिर, चौथ का बरवाड़ा का किला आदि प्रमुख पर्यटन स्थल है। \n शिवाड़ - झोंपड़ा गांव से १४ किलोमीटर दूर भारत का विवादित १२वाँ ज्योतिर्लिंग स्थित है। घुश्मेश्वर नाम से प्रसिद्ध यह ज्योतिर्लिंग यहाँ का प्रमुख पर्यटन स्थल है। महाशिवरात्री के दिन यहाँ पर विशाल मेले का आयोजन किया जाता है। \n पीपलवाड़ा - यह गांव झोंपड़ा से महज ८.४ किलोमीटर की दूरी पर स्थित है जो कि बौंली तहसील का प्रमुख गांव है। झोंपड़ा गांव से पीपलवाड़ा के लिए पक्का सड़क बना हुआ है लेकिन बनास नदी में कोई ब्रिज नहीं बनने के कारण बरसात के दिनों में यह रास्ता बंद रहता है। \n मांगरोल - ग्राम झोंपड़ा से मांगरोल गांव की दूरी ९.६ किलोमीटर है। मांगरोल गांव एक छोटा सा गांव है, यहाँ का हनुमान मंदिर काफी प्रसिद्ध एवं पुराना मंदिर है। \n राठोद - झोंपड़ा एवं राठोद गांव पड़ोसी गांव है यह गांव गुर्जर जाति का प्रमुख गांव है। झोंपड़ा एवं राठोद गांव के बीच में से बनास नदी गुजरती है। भगवतगढ़ या सवाई माधोपुर जाने के लिए राठोद गांव के लोग झोंपड़ा गांव होते हुए जाते हैं। यहाँ का तेजाजी महाराज का मंदिर बहुत चमत्कारी मंदिर है। \n भैडोला - झोंपड़ा एवं चौथ का बरवाड़ा सड़क मार्ग पर भैडोला गांव पड़ता है। झोंपड़ा गांव से भैडोला गांव की दूरी ९ किलोमीटर के लगभग है। \n बंधा - यह गांव झोंपड़ा से १२.८ किलोमीटर की दूरी पर स्थित है। इस गांव के नाम से ही यहाँ पर बंधा नामक झील बनी हुई है जो मछली उत्पादन के लिए यहाँ की सबसे मशहूर झील है। बंधा गांव मीणा एवं योगी समाज का यहाँ का प्रमुख गांव है। राजनीतिक व्यक्ति के रूप में यहाँ के जमनालाल जी मीणा व रामफूल मीणा काफी लोकप्रिय है। \n ईसरदा - यह ऐतिहासिक गाँव झोंपड़ा गांव से 14 किलोमीटर की दूरी पर स्थित है। इस गांव के चारों तरफ ऐतिहासिक परकोटा बना हुआ है। जयपुर के अधिकतर राजा यही से गए हुए थे। यहाँ पर शिवमहापुराण में वर्णित 'ईश्वरेश्वर शिव लिंग' आज भी मौजूद है। \n अन्य गाँव - अन्य गाँवों में सारसोप, बगीना, जौंला, क्यावड़, लोरवाड़ा, अभयपुर, टापूर, ऐचेर, सिरोही, आदलवाड़ा, डेकवा, निमोद, कराड़ी, जगमोंदा, शेरसिंहपुरा, बागड़ोली, सहरावता, बहनोली, गुड़लाचंदन, नाहरीखुर्द, झड़कुंड आदि गाँव झोंपड़ा गांव के पड़ोसी गांव है। जौंला व लोरवाड़ा का तेजाजी मंदिर, ईटावा व दोबड़ा का बालाजी मंदिर, सारसोप का भैरूजी मंदिर यहाँ के प्रमुख सराहनीय आस्था के केंद्र है।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nश्रेणी:राजस्थान के गाँव", "वामन श्रीनिवास कुडवा\nवामन श्रीनिवास कुडवा (कोंकणी में: ವಾಮನ್ ಶ್ರೀನಿವಾಸ್ ಕುಡ್ವ (9 जून 1899 - 30 जून 1967), जो वी.एस. कुडवा के नाम से भी लोकप्रिय थे, सिंडीकेट बैंक के संस्थापक निदेशक थे।\n\nप्रारंभिक जीवन और शिक्षा \n1899 में, कुडवा मुल्की के एक रूढ़िवादी और पारंपरिक गौड़ा सारस्वत ब्राह्मण (जीएसबी/GSB) परिवार (परिवार को मुल्की कुडवा के नाम से जाना जाता था) में पैदा हुए थे। उनके पिता श्रीनिवास रामचंद्र कुडवा एक छोटी सी हथकरघा इकाई के मालिक थे और उस समय साइकिल का प्रयोग काम पर जाने के लिए करते थे, जब मुल्की में कोई कारों के विषय में नहीं जानता था। सरल परिवेश में पले बढ़े कुडवा ने अपनी प्राथमिक स्कूली शिक्षा मुल्की तथा हाई स्कूल की शिक्षा उडुपी से ग्रहण की। उन्होनें स्कूल में होने वाली बहस प्रतियोगिताओं में सक्रिय रूप से भाग लिया और वे अंग्रेजी और कन्नड दोनों भाषाओँ के एक अच्छे लेखक थे। \n\n1908 में उनके पिता उडुपी चले गए और वहां एक हार्डवेयर की दुकान खोली, जहां कुडवा ने अपना खाली समय बिताया. 1918 में उन्होनें गवर्नमेंट कॉलेज, मैंगलोर से इंटरमीडिएट परीक्षा उत्तीर्ण की और मुंबई चले गए तथा विक्टोरिया जुबली तकनीकी संस्थान (वीजेटीआई (VJTI)), बम्बई में मैकेनिकल इंजीनियरिंग पाठ्यक्रम में दाखिला ले लिया। 3 वर्षों तक शीर्ष क्रम के छात्र के रूप में रहने के पश्चात्, महात्मा गांधी के असहयोग आन्दोलन के परिणामस्वरूप, उन्होनें पढ़ाई छोड़ दी और उडुपी लौट गए। अंग्रेजी सहायता प्राप्त स्कूलों का स्थान लेने के गांधी जी के आन्दोलन के तहत कांग्रेस पार्टी द्वारा शुरू किए गए एक राष्ट्रीय स्कूल में उन्होनें स्वयंसेवक शिक्षक के रूप में काम किया।\n\nसीपीसी कंपनी लिमिटेड में नियुक्ति \n1922 से 1926 तक उन्होनें इंजीनियरिंग की एक कार्यशाला चलाई, तथा 1926 में केनरा पब्लिक कन्वेयंस कम्पनी लिमिटेड के तत्कालीन प्रबंध निदेशक वी.एस. कामथ के बुलावे के जवाब में वे मैंगलोर चले गए (सीपीसी कम्पनी लिमिटेड) और इसके निर्माण प्रबंधक का पदभार संभाला. 1928 में उन्होंने कामथ की बेटी से शादी की। 1932 में कामथ की मृत्यु के पश्चात् वे इसके महाप्रबंधक बने। 1938 में वे कंपनी के प्रबंध निदेशक चुने गए और 1966 तक इस पद पर बने रहे। उनके कार्यकाल के दौरान, सीपीसी (CPC) कंपनी लिमिटेड ने उन्नति व समृद्धि हासिल की और देश में बड़ा नाम कमाया.\n\nनए उद्योगों की शुरुआत \nकुडवा जानते थे कि रोजगार प्रदान करने के लिए और लोगों की उद्यमी भावना को बनाए रखने के लिए अधिक से अधिक उद्योगों की स्थापना की जानी चाहिए। 1938 में केनरा सेल्स कॉर्पोरेशन लिमिटेड तथा 1941 में केनरा मोटर एंड जनरल इंश्योरेंस कंपनी लिमिटेड की स्थापना द्वारा उन्होनें अपनी धारणा को व्यवहारिक रूप दिया। \n\n1943 में उन्होनें द केनरा वर्कशॉप्स लिमिटेड की स्थापना की और 1950 में उन्होनें केनरा स्प्रिंग्स ब्रांड नाम से ऑटोमोबाइल लीफ स्प्रिंग का निर्माण शुरू किया। उत्तरी भारत में बढ़ती हुई मांग को देखते हुए उन्होनें नागपुर में एक और कारखाना खोला. 60 के दशक में विभिन्न समस्याओं के चलते यह इकाई बंद हो गई थी। \n\nइससे पहले देश में लीफ स्प्रिंग के कच्चे माल, स्प्रिंग स्टील फ़्लैट का आयात किया जाता था। 60 के दशक के अंत में कुडवा ने देश के भीतर आवश्यक स्प्रिंग स्टील के निर्माण के लिए एक मिनी इस्पात संयंत्र लगाने की आवश्यकता महसूस की। इसे ध्यान में रखते हुए 5 मीट्रिक टन इलेक्ट्रिक आर्क भठ्ठी, स्टील बिलेट की ढलाई के लिए एक ऊर्ध्वाधर निरंतर ढलाई मशीन और एक रोलिंग मिल सहित एक मिनी इस्पात संयत्र की संकल्पना की गई।\n\n1963 में मंगलौर में यह इस्पात संयंत्र लगाया गया था और प्रारंभिक उत्पादन संबंधित समस्याओं को सुलझाने के एक वर्ष बाद इस्पात का उत्पादन शुरू किया गया। अपने लगाए जाने के समय यह निरंतर ढलाई मशीन भारत में अपने तरह की पहली मशीन थी। \n\n1947 में उन्होनें केनरा टायर एंड रबर वर्क्स लिमिटेड की शुरुआत की। उन्होंने कई अन्य परिवहन इकाइयों को शुरू किया और उसका प्रबंधन भी किया। कानून द्वारा अनिवार्य बनने से पहले से ही उनकी कंपनियों में कर्मचारियों को बोनस, ग्रेच्युटी, पेंशन लाभ दिए गए थे।\n\nपत्रकारिता के क्षेत्र में रूचि \nअपने छात्र जीवन के दौरान ही कुडवा की पत्रकारिता के क्षेत्र में दिलचस्पी थी। 1922 में उन्होनें कन्नड़ साप्ताहिक \"सत्याग्रही\" का संपादन किया। 1923 से 1934 तक उन्होनें कन्नड़ साप्ताहिक \"स्वदेशाभिमानी' के संपादक के रूप में काम किया। \n\nवह राज्य पत्रकार सलाहकार समिति के सदस्य थे। 1941 में उन्होंने द न्यूज़पेपर पब्लिशर्स प्राइवेट लिमिटेड की शुरुआत की, जिसने उस समय कन्नड़ भाषा के दैनिक अख़बार \"नवभारत\" का प्रकाशन किया। इसके संपादक के रूप में उन्होंने कन्नड़ पत्रकारों का सम्मान अर्जित किया और मैंगलोर में अखिल कर्नाटक पत्रकार सम्मेलन का भी आयोजन किया।\n\nसामाजिक नेता \nमणिपाल के टी.एम.ए. पाई और उपेन्द्र अनंत पाई के साथ कुडवा सिंडिकेट बैंक के संस्थापक निदेशकों में से एक थे, जो उस समय केनरा इंडस्ट्रियल एंड बैंकिंग सिंडिकेट लिमिटेड के नाम से जाना जाता था।\n\n1948 में वे केनरा चैंबर ऑफ़ कॉमर्स एंड इंडस्ट्रीज़, दक्षिण केनरा के अध्यक्ष चुने गए और अगले 3 वर्षों तक अध्यक्ष रहे। अपने अभिन्न मित्र यू. श्रीनिवास माल्या के साथ उन्होनें मैंगलोर में बंदरगाह के साथ-साथ हवाई अड्डा बनवाने में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाई.\n\nजब उन्होनें जिले के आर्थिक कल्याण के लिए काम किया, तब भी उन्होनें इसकी शैक्षिक प्रगति में काफी योगदान दिया। 1955 में उच्च तकनीकी शिक्षा के लिए विदेश जाने वाले छात्रों को ऋण छात्रवृत्ति देने के लिए उन्होंने केनरा फाउंडेशन की शुरुआत की। एक बार फिर सूरतकल में कर्नाटका रीजनल कॉलेज ऑफ इंजीनियरिंग, जो अब राष्ट्रीय तकनीकी संस्थान, कर्नाटक (एनआईटीके (NITK)) के नाम से जाना जाता है, को बनवाने में यू. श्रीनिवास माल्या के साथ वे भी सहभागी थे और वे कई वर्षों तक इसके कार्यकारी संगठन में बने रहे।\n\nरोटरी क्लब \nमैंगलोर में पहला रोटरी क्लब शुरू करने के लिए वे जिम्मेदार थे, जिसके वह चार्टर अध्यक्ष थे। वे एस. के। विकास और कल्याण बोर्ड, लघु उद्योग एसोसिएशन और एस. के। ग्रामोद्योग संघ के अध्यक्ष थे।\n\nउन्होंने भारत और विदेशों में व्यापक रूप से यात्रायें की। ऐसा उस समय किया गया था जब भारत से बाहर की यात्रा दुरूह और दुर्लभ थी। उन्होनें मध्य पूर्व, यूरोप और 1951 में संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका की यात्रा की। 1960 और 1963 में उन्होनें एक बार फिर यूरोप, संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका और जापान की यात्रा की।\n\nमृत्यु \n1967 में कुडवा की मृत्यु हो गई और मैंगलोर तथा दक्षिण कन्नड़ में उन्हें याद रखने वाले लोग अभी भी उन्हें प्यार से \"कर्मयोगी\" कहते हैं।\n\nसन्दर्भ \n\n स्वर्गीय वी.एस. कुडवा की संपत्ति द्वारा सूचना और छवि.\n वी.एस. कुडवा की जन्म शताब्दी के नोट\n\nश्रेणी:1899 में जन्में लोग\nश्रेणी:1967 में लोगों की मृत्यु\nश्रेणी:भारतीय व्यवसायी\nश्रेणी:भारतीय बैंकर\nश्रेणी:भारतीय इंजीनियर\nश्रेणी:मंगलौर के लोग\nश्रेणी:मंगलौर निवासी", "पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ता\nअमेरिकी केनेल क्लब द्वारा कामकाजी कुत्ते की नस्ल को पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ता के रूप में वर्गीकृत किया गया है। पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते मूल रूप से पुर्तगाल के अल्गार्वे क्षेत्र के हैं, जहां से उनकी नस्ल पुर्तगाल के समुद्र तटीय इलाकों के आसपास फैलती चली गयी, यहां उन्हें मछुआरों के जाल में मछलियों को एकत्रित करना सिखाया गया; साथ ही जाल से निकल गयी मछलियों को फिर से प्राप्त करना और एक जहाज से दूसरे जहाज में या जहाज से किनारे तक कुरियर के रूप में काम करना भी सिखाया गया। पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते मछली पकड़ने वाले ट्रॉलर पर सवार होकर पुर्तगाल के अटलांटिक महासागर के गर्म पानी से आइसलैंड के बहुत अधिक ठंडे पानी में जाकर मछली पकड़ने के काम में मदद करने का काम किया करते हैं, जहां कॉड मछलियां पकड़ी जाती हैं।\nपुर्तगाली खोजों के दौरान पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों को नाविकों के साथ अक्सर ही ले जाया जाता था।\n\nपुर्तगाल में, इस नस्ल को काओ डि अगुआ (Cão de Água) (कोव-डी-अह-ग्वा (Kow-dee-Ah-gwa) उच्चारण किया जाता है; जिसका शाब्दिक अर्थ है \"जल कुत्ता\") कहा जाता है। इसकी स्थानीय भूमि में इसे अल्गार्वियन समुद्री कुत्ता (\"काओ डि अगुआ अल्गार्वियो\" (Cão de Água Algarvio)), या पुर्तगाली मच्छीमार कुत्ता (काओ पेस्काडोर पोर्तुगुएस (Cão Pescador Português)) के नाम से भी जाना जाता है। लहराते बालों की किस्म के लिए काओ डि अगुआ डि पेलो ओंडूलाडो (Cão de Água de Pêlo Ondulado) और घुंघराले बालों के किस्म के लिए काओ डि अगुआ डि पेलो एन्काराकोलाडो (Cão de Água de Pêlo Encaracolado) नाम दिये गये।\n\nपुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ता एक बहुत ही दुर्लभ नस्ल है; 2002 में इंग्लैंड की क्रफ्ट्स (Crufts) प्रतिस्पर्धा में पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों के केवल 15 प्रतियोगियों ने हिस्सा लिया था। कुछ प्रजनकों का दावा है कि वे हाइपोअलेर्जेनिक (hypoallergenic) नस्ल के कुत्ते हैं, हालांकि हाइपोअलेर्जेनिक नस्ल के कुत्तों के अस्तित्व के दावों के समर्थन में कोई वैज्ञानिक सबूत नहीं हैं। हालांकि, बाल नहीं झड़ने के उनके गुण ने उन्हें हाल के वर्षों में अधिक लोकप्रिय बना दिया है।\n\nविवरण \nबार्बिट (Barbet) और स्टैन्डर्ड पूडल (Standard Poodle) को व्यापक रूप से पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ता या पोर्तुगीज वाटर डॉग (पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD)) के निकटतम रिश्तेदारों में माना जाता है। पूडल और अन्य अनेक जल कुत्ता नस्लों की तरह, पीडब्लूडी (PWD) बहुत ही बुद्धिमान होते हैं, उनके बाल हो सकते हैं, तैरने के लिए उनके पंजे झिल्लीदार होते हैं और उनके बाल नहीं झड़ते. हालांकि, बड़े पैरों के साथ पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते कहीं अधिक मजबूती से बने होते हैं और कसे हुए घुंघराले बालों के बजाय उनके बाल लहराते हुए भी हो सकते हैं। अगर किसी पूडल की बनावट से तुलना की जाय तो दोनों नस्लों में महत्वपूर्ण अंतर हैं। पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ता काफी मजबूत हड्डी का बना होता है; बहुत अच्छी तरह से विकसित होता है, न तो शिष्ट होता है न ही असभ्य होता है और मजबूत, हृष्ट-पुष्ट होता है। उरोस्थि से नितंबों के एकदम पिछले हिस्से तक और स्कंध से भूमि तक नापने से पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ता समकोण में ऊंचा होने के बजाय थोड़ा अधिक लंबा होता है। पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते की आंखें काली या विभिन्न प्रकार के भूरे रंग की विभिन्न आभाओं वाली होती हैं और उनके बाल काले, भूरे, काले-सफ़ेद या भूरे और सफ़ेद हो सकते हैं।\n\nनर पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते आमतौर पर लगभग 20 से 23 इंच (51 सेमी से 58 सेमी) तक लंबे हो जाया करते हैं और उनका वजन 40 से 60 पाउंड (18 किग्रा से 27 किग्रा) के बीच हुआ करता है; जबकि मादाएं 17 से 21 इंच (43 सेमी से 53 सेमी) तक लंबी होती हैं और उनका वजन 35 से 50 पाउंड के बीच होता है।\n\nपीडब्लूडी के एकल-परत बाल होते हैं जो झड़ते नहीं (देखें मॉल्ट (Moult)) और इसीलिए कुत्तों की एलर्जी से पीड़ित अनेक लोगों द्वारा उन्हें बहुत अच्छी तरह से बर्दाश्त किया जाता है। कुछ लोग पीडब्लूडी को हाइपोएलर्जिक (hypoallergenic) कुत्ते कहा करते हैं, लेकिन कुत्ते एलर्जी से पीड़ित किसी व्यक्ति को ऐसे गुणों वाले कुत्ते पसंद हों तो ऐसे कुत्ते खरीदने से पहले उनके परीक्षण में उन्हें कुछ समय बिताना जरुरी है कि सचमुच वे गैर-एलर्जिक हैं या नहीं.\n\nखासकर अनुपालन प्रदर्शनियों में दिखाए जाने वाले अधिकांश पीडब्लूडी पूरी तरह से काले, काले-सफ़ेद, भूरे, या चांदी-जैसे होते हैं; काले या भूरे कुत्तों के सीने पर सफ़ेद धब्बे और उनके सफ़ेद पंजे या पैर आम तौर पर देखे जाते हैं। अनियमित सफेद और काले धब्बों के साथ \"पार्टी\" (Parti) (रंग-बिरंगे) या \"आयरिश चिह्नित\" रंग दुर्लभ लेकिन दिखने में चित्ताकर्षक हैं। \"पार्टी\" कुत्ते संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका में अधिक आम होते जा रहे हैं। हालांकि, पुर्तगाल में नस्ल मानक 30% से अधिक सफेद निशान की अनुमति नहीं देता है। कुल मिलाकर, पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते में सफेद रंग सबसे कम आम है, जबकि ठुड्डी (मिल्क चिन) और छाती पर सफ़ेद के साथ काला रंग सबसे आम रंग संयोजन है।\n\nबाल के प्रकार \nइस नस्ल के कुत्तों के बाल नहीं झडा करते. बाल या तो लहरदार या घुंघराले हुआ करते हैं। कई कुत्तों के बालों के मिश्रित पैटर्न होते हैं: पूरे शरीर पर घुंघराले बाल, लेकिन पूंछ और कान पर लहराते बाल होते हैं।\n\nपुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों के लिए पोर्तुगीज वाटर डॉग क्लब ऑफ़ अमेरिका (Portuguese Water Dog Club of America) के संशोधित मानक से इन दो प्रकार के बालों के विवरण आये हैं:\n\n घुंघराले बाल: \"घने, बेलनाकार घुंघराले, कुछ हद तक चमकविहीन. कान के बाल कभी-कभी लहराते हुए होते हैं।\"\n लहराते बाल: \"हलके-से लहराते हुए, घुंघराले नहीं होते, लेकिन थोड़े चमकदार होते हैं।\"\nthumb|पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWDs) में सफेद सबसे कम साधारण रंग है।\nthumb|काले और सफेद वेवी.\n\nअगर इन्हें उपेक्षित छोड़ दिया जाय तो पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) के बाल लगातार बढ़ते चले जाएंगे. इसके साथ जुड़ी समस्याएं हैं, आंखों के आसपास के बाल इतने लंबे हो जाया करते हैं कि दृष्टि बाधित होने लगती है और शरीर के बाल जमीन छूने लगते हैं, जिससे त्वचा पर कुप्रभाव पड़ने लगता है। इस कारण, पीडब्लूडी (PWD) के बालों की हर दो माह में एक बार छंटाई और हर दूसरे दिन उसकी सफाई होनी जरुरी है। चूंकि लोग कम रखरखाव वाली नस्ल चाहते हैं, यह उन नस्लों में से नहीं है। देखरेख के अलावा, जिसमें एक सत्र में 75-100 डॉलर के बीच खर्च आता है, इस नस्ल को दैनिक व्यायाम और सकारात्मक प्रशिक्षण तकनीकों के साथ लगातार मजबूत बनाने की जरूरत होती है। हालांकि उनकी देखरेख घर में भी संभव है, फिर भी अनेक मालिक किसी पेशेवर देखभाल करने वाले को भुगतान करना कहीं आसान समझते हैं। और देखभाल के दौरान जमीन चाटने से बचाने के लिए नियमित रूप से बालों की सफाई किया करते हैं।\n\nअनुपयुक्त बाल \nजिसे \"अनुपयुक्त\" बाल कहा जाता है, कभी-कभार किसी कुत्ते को हो जा सकता है। इस आनुवंशिक स्थिति के कारण कुत्ते के बाल कम होते हैं। अनुपयुक्त बाल वाले पीडब्लूडी (PWD) चूंकि नस्ल मानक में खरे नहीं उतरते, इसलिए उन्हें अनुपालन प्रतियोगिता में प्रस्तुत नहीं भी किया जा सकता है। अन्यथा वे पूरी तरह स्वस्थ हैं और नस्ल के सभी उत्कृष्ट लक्षण उनमे मौजूद होते हैं। प्रजनन कार्यक्रमों में उनका उपयोग नहीं किया जाना चाहिए, क्योंकि अनुपयुक्त बाल एक वंशगत स्थिति है।\n\nदेखभाल के तरीके \nपीडब्लूडी (PWD) के बाल लगातार बढ़ते जाते हैं और उनकी नियमित सफाई तथा कटाई-छंटाई की जरूरत पड़ा करती है। आम तौर पर \"रिट्रीवर कट\" (शिकारी कुत्ता कट) या \"लॉयन कट\" (सिंह कट) में बालों की कटाई-छंटाई होती है।\n\nलॉयन कट \nलॉयन कट में, पुट्ठे, थूथन और पूंछ के निचले भाग के बालों की छंटाई होती है और बाक़ी शरीर के बाल पूरी लंबाई में छोड़ दिए जाते हैं। पुर्तगाल के मछुआरे कुत्तों के लिए इस कट की शुरुआत हुई. यह परंपरागत कट है और शायद सबसे व्यावहारिक भी, जो इस नस्ल को मछुआरे के साथी के रूप में मुख्य ऐतिहासिक महत्व प्रदान करता है। जब इस नल का कुत्ता नौका से छलांग लगाता है तब ठंडे पानी के प्रारंभिक प्रभाव और झटके को लॉयन कट कम कर देता है, साथ ही साथ जीवन के लिए आवश्यक अंगों को गर्मी प्रदान करता है। पुट्ठे और पूंछ के बालों की छंटाई से पिछले पैरों तथा शक्तिशाली पतवार-जैसी पूंछ के संचालन में आसानी होती है।\n\nरिट्रीवर कट \nरिट्रीवर कट में शरीर पर समान रूप से 1 इंच (2.5 सेमी) लंबे बाल छोड़ दिए जाते हैं (हालांकि कुछ मालिक थूथन या पूंछ के निचले भाग के बालों को और भी छोटा करवाना पसंद करते हैं). यह कट अभी हाल की शैली है और चूंकि प्रजननकर्ता चाहते हैं कि खरीदारों के लिए यह अधिक आकर्षक और देखने में कम असामान्य लगे, इसलिए इसकी शुरुआत हुई.\n\nकभी-कभी मालिक रूपांतरित रिट्रीवर कट में अपने कुत्तों के बालों को बहुत छोटे करवा दिया करते हैं, खासकर गर्मियों के महीनों में.\n\nस्वरोच्चारण \nपुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों की आवाज बहु-अष्टपदी (multi-octave) होती है। वे शांत कुत्ते हुआ करते हैं, हालांकि जब घर करीब होता है तब वे सावधान किया करते हैं और वे अपनी आवाज तथा व्यवहार से इच्छाओं को प्रकट किया करते हैं। उनकी भौंक तेज और विशिष्ट होती है। \"हा-हा-हा-हा\" की ख़ास आवाज के साथ उनका \"हांफना अर्थपूर्ण\" हो सकता है, यह खेल के लिए आमंत्रण हो सकता है या करीब रखा भोजन प्राप्त करने की इच्छा का संकेत भी हो सकता है। वे कभी-कभी कराहते भी हैं।\n\nपीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) आज्ञाकारी, उच्च बुद्धिसंपन्न और शब्दोच्चार प्रवृत्ति संपन्न होता है और जब उसे कोई ख़ास आवाज दी जाती है तब वह अपने मालिक को खोज निकालता है, इस तरह सुनने के मामले में या बहरों की मदद करने वाले कुत्ते में यह आदर्श बन जाता है। टेलीफोन बजने पर पीडब्लूडी (PWD) को तुरंत जोरों से भूंकने के लिए प्रशिक्षित किया जाता है ताकि वह कम सुनायी देने वाले या बहरे मालिक को खोजकर उसे इसकी सूचना दे दे.\n\nस्वभाव \nthumb|पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते सक्रिय और बहुत से कुत्तों के खेल के लिए उपयुक्त हैं।\nपुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते उत्कृष्ट साथी होते हैं। वे प्यारे, स्वतंत्र और बुद्धिमान होते हैं और उन्हें आसानी से आज्ञाकारिता और दक्षता कौशल में प्रशिक्षित किया जा सकता है। एक बार परिचय हो जाने के बाद वे आम तौर पर अजनबियों के साथ मैत्रीपूर्ण व्यवहार करते हैं और सहलाया जाना पसंद करते हैं; उनके नर्म-मुलायम, रोएंदार बालों के कारण मनुष्य स्वेच्छा से उन्हें लाड़-दुलार किया करते हैं।\n\nचूंकि वे श्रमिक कुत्ते हैं, इसलिए पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) आम तौर पर आदेश की प्रतीक्षा में मालिक के पास ही बैठे रहते हैं; और अगर वे प्रशिक्षित हैं तो वे जटिल आदेशों का पालन करने के योग्य और तत्पर होते हैं। वे बहुत जल्दी सीख जाया करते हैं, मानो प्रशिक्षण में उन्हें मजा आता हो और वे वस्तुओं के नाम लंबे समय तक याद रख सकते हैं। ये लक्षण और उनके बाल नहीं झड़ने के गुण की वजह से विभिन्न सर्विस डॉग (Service Dog) की भूमिका बढ़ जाती है, जैसे कि सुननेवाले कुत्तों की सेवा (बहरों के लिए कुत्तों द्वारा की जाने वाली सहायता), गतिशील कुत्ता सेवा और जब्ती प्रतिसाद सेवा. वे असामान्य रूप से अच्छे रोगोपचार कुत्ते हैं।\n\nपीडब्लूडी (PWD) आमतौर पर अपने मालिक के आसपास ही रहा करता है, मकान के अंदर या बाहर. यह इस नस्ल की खासियत है। हालांकि अनेक मिलनसार पशु होते हैं, लेकिन ये कुत्ते विशिष्ट रूप से परिवार के एक प्राथमिक या सबसे पहले सदस्य की तरह जुड़े होते हैं। कुछ लोगों का अनुमान है कि यह तीव्र संबंध इस नस्ल में पैदा हुआ, क्योंकि अपने काम करने के लिए इधर-उधर आने-जाने वाले पशुचारण कुत्ते या जल कुत्ते जैसे दूसरे श्रमिक कुत्तों से अलग छोटी मच्छीमार नौकाओं में अपने मालिकों के करीब इन्हें सीमित रहना पड़ता है। हर हाल में, चाहे नाव पर कार्यरत हो या एक पालतू पशु की तरह हो या एक कामकाजी कुत्ते के रूप में रखा गया हो, आधुनिक पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) को पानी से प्यार होता है, सावधान रहता है और मनुष्य की निगरानी में होनेवाली गतिविधि उसे पसंद है। इस नस्ल को अधिक समय तक घर के अंदर या बाहर अकेला नहीं छोड़ा जा सकता.\n\nएक समुद्री या जल कुत्ते के रूप में पीडब्लूडी (PWD) की वापस लाने की प्रवृत्ति मजबूत है, जिससे कुछ कुत्तों में खींचने और चबाने की प्रवृतियां आ जाया करती हैं।\n\nपीडब्लूडी (PWD) सामान्यतः अभिवादन के लिए उछला करता है। मालिक इस व्यवहार की सीमा निर्धारित कर सकते हैं। कुछ पीडब्लूडी (PWD) अभिवादन के लिए या अन्य किसी उत्साहजनक मामले पर चल सकते हैं, उछल-कूद सकते हैं या अपने पिछले पैरों के बल पर \"नृत्य\" कर सकते हैं। खासकर भोजन की सुगंध पाकर कुछ पीडब्लूडी (PWD) रसोई काउंटर और टेबल पर सीधा खड़े हो जाते हैं। इस आदत को \"काउंटर सर्फिंग\" के रूप में जाना जाता है और यह इस नस्ल की विशेषता है। यद्यपि यह एक प्रकार का उत्पात हो सकता है, किंतु अनेक पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) मालिक अपने कुत्तों को चलता, उछलता-कूदता, खडा या \"काउंटरिंग\" करता देख आनंद उठाया करते हैं और उनकी गतिविधियों को गंभीरतापूर्वक हतोत्साहित नहीं करते हैं।\n\nहालांकि वे लोगों के बहुत अच्छे साथी होते हैं क्योंकि वे उनकी जरूरतों को समझा करते हैं, लेकिन पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते हर किसी के लिए नहीं होते. उनकी बुद्धि और काम की प्रेरणा की वजह से उन्हें नियमित रूप से गहन व्यायाम व मानसिक चुनौतियों की आवश्यकता होती है। वे सुशील और धैर्यवान होते हैं, लेकिन वे \"आलसी\" नहीं होते और बोरियत उन्हें विध्वंसक भी बना सकती है.\n\nइतिहास\n\nप्राचीन काल में \nअंगूठा|बायां|180px|घर में पानी के अंदर\n\nएक सिद्धांत यह है कि बर्बर जाति के लोगों (उत्तरी अफ्रीका की खानाबदोश जनजाति) द्वारा कुछ तेज एशियाई पशुचारण कुत्तों पर कब्जा कर लिया गया था; बर्बर जाति के लोग धीरे-धीरे उत्तरी अफ्रीका से मोरक्को की ओर फैलते चले गये थे। उनके वंशज, मूर्स (Moors), 8वीं सदी में पुर्तगाल पहुंचे, वे अपने साथ समुद्री कुत्ते लेते गये।\n\nएक अन्य सिद्धांत का अभिप्राय यह है कि कुछ कुत्ते जर्मन जनजाति परिसंघ के गोथ के साथ एशियाई घास के मैदानों को छोड़ दिया. कुछ, (ओस्ट्रोगोथ्स (the Ostrogoths)), पश्चिम की ओर गये और उनके कुत्ते जर्मन पूडल बन गये, जिन्हें जर्मन भाषा में पूडल-हंड (poodle-hund) या पुडल-डॉग (puddle-dog) कहा जाता है, जिसका अर्थ हुआ जल कुत्ता या पानी का कुत्ता. अन्य, (विसीगोथ्स (the Visigoths)), रोमनों से लड़ने के लिए दक्षिण की ओर गये और उनके कुत्ते लॉयन डॉग बन गये, उनकी देखभाल पारंपरिक लॉयन कट में होने लगी. ई.सं. 400 में, विसीगोथ्स ने आइबेरिया पर आक्रमण किया (आधुनिक स्पेन और पुर्तगाल, जिन्हें तब हिस्पानिया के रूप में जाना जाता था) और इन कुत्तों को अपनी मातृभूमि मिल गयी।\n\nसबसे पहले 1297 में एक भिक्षु के वृतांत में पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते का वर्णन मिलता है, जिसमें एक कुत्ते द्वारा एक डूबते नाविक को खींचकर बचाने का वाकया दर्ज है, उस कुत्ते के \"बाल काले, लंबे और रूखे थे, पहली पसली के बाल कटे हुए थे और उसकी पूंछ में गुच्छा था।\" \n \n\"हिस्ट्री ऑफ़ द पोर्तुगीज वाटर डॉग\" (History of the Portuguese Water Dog), कैथरिन ब्रौंड और डेयाने फरेल मिलर, द कम्प्लीट पोर्तुगीज वाटर डॉग (The Complete Portuguese Water Dog), 1986, वेबपेज: DeLeao\n\nये सिद्धांत व्याख्या करते हैं कि पूडल और पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों का एक ही प्राचीन आनुवंशिक समूह से कैसे विकास हुआ हो सकता है। एक समय पूडल अधिक लंबे बालों वाले हुआ करते थे, जो कि पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते की एक किस्म है। इसकी संभावना है कि कुछ लंबे बालों वाले कुत्ते प्राचीन आइबेरियनों के साथ फैलते गये। पुराने जमाने में, सेल्टीबेरियन उस भूमि से चले गए थे जो अब दक्षिण-पश्चिम जर्मनी में है। पायरेनीस पर्वत श्रृंखला पर झुंड बनाकर घूमते हुए वे पूरे पश्चिमी यूरोप में फैलते चले गये, उन्होंने आयरलैंड, वेल्स और ब्रिटानी सहित आइबेरिया में अपने आधारों की स्थापना की. कुछ लोग आयरिश वाटर स्पेनियल (Irish Water Spaniel) और केरी ब्लू टेरियर (Kerry Blue Terrier) को पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते का वंशज मानते हैं।\n\nआधुनिक काल \nthumb|right|कोलोराडो में चैटफिल्ड स्टेट पार्क पर वॉटर ट्रायल के दौरान प्रतिस्पर्धा करते हुए एक पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ता.\n1930 के दशक में पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) नस्ल जब विलुप्ति के कगार पर थी, एक धनी पुर्तगाली शिपिंग रईस वास्को बेन्सौदे ने मछुआरों के कुत्तों की तलाश शुरू की और उनका उपयोग इस नस्ल को पुनर्स्थापित करने के लिए प्रजनन कार्यक्रम के लिए किया। बेन्सौदे के कुत्ता घर (kennel) का नामकरण एलगरबायोरम (Algarbiorum) किया गया था और उनका सबसे प्रसिद्ध कुत्ता लेआओ (Leão) (1931-1942) एक \"टाइप-वाई\" मछुआरों का प्रजनक कुत्ता था, जिसने बहुत सारी अलग-अलग मादाओं से अपने बच्चे पैदा किए, इस हद तक कि मौजूदा अच्छी नस्ल के पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों में से आधे की वंशावली उससे जुड़ी हो सकती है। बेन्सौदे को डॉ॰ फ्रांसिस्को पिंटो सोरेस और डॉ॰ मैनुअल फर्नांडीस मार्कुअस नामक दो पुर्तगाली पशु चिकित्सकों द्वारा मदद मिली. उनके काम को कोनचिटा सिनट्रॉन कैसटेलो ब्रांको द्वारा आगे बढ़ाया था, जिन्हें उन्होंने अपने अंतिम 17 पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) और अपना पूरा अभिलेखागार दे दिया था।\n\nडॉ॰ एंटोनियो कैबरल पुर्तगाल में अवलाड़े केनेल्स (Avalade kennels) के संस्थापक थे। इनके बहुत सारे प्रसिद्ध पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) में से दो च. चार्ली डी अवलाड़े (चार्ली), एक भूरे बालोंवाला कुत्ता और सी. बी. बालुआर्टे डी अवलाड़े (बालू) थे। 1954 में उन्होंने अपने पहले पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) को पंजीकृत कराया, इसके के बाद पुर्तगाल में बेन्सौदे ने इस नस्ल को पुनर्स्थापित करने का का बीड़ा उठाया. यूएस (US) में कार्ला मोलिनरी, डेयाने मिलर, सोनिया सैंटोस और अन्य के साथ कैबरल ने पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) की स्थापना के लिए काम किया। \"द मार्क ऑफ कैबरल\" (Mark of Cabral) अलग-अलग रंगों/बनावटवाले बालों का एक त्रिकोणीय आकार है, आमतौर पर पूंछ के नीचे से कुछ इंच पर होता है। तुरंत हुई लॉयन कट छंटाई में आप इसे कहीं आसानी से देख सकते हैं—यह बहुत करीब से हुई छंटाई लग सकती है।\n\nडेयाने मिलर एक अकेले शख्स हैं जिन्हें अमेरिका में पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) के विकास का श्रेय दिया जाता है। 1972 में, 14 अन्य लोगों के साथ मिलर्स ने गठित किया एक पोर्तुगीज वाटर हॉग क्लब ऑफ अमेरिका, इंक (पीडब्ल्यूडीसीए (PWDCA). उन्होंने अमेरिका में अपने फर्मियोन कैनेल में पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) के स्थिर अनुवांशिक समूह की स्थापना के लिए सिनट्रॉन और कैबरल दोनों ही प्रजातियों पर काम किया। पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) के अन्य अमेरिकी प्रजनक अभिनेता रेमॉन्ड बर थे।\n\nआनुवांशिक बीमारियां \nजैसा कि सभी विशुद्ध प्रजनित के कुत्तों के साथ होता है, पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) में कुछ अनुवांशिक दोष का जोखिम होता है। इस नस्ल के लिए सीमित जीन समूह के कारण अनुवांशिक बीमारी और अनुपयुक्त बालों के खतरे को कम करने के लिए कर्तव्यनिष्ठ प्रजनक सावधानीपूर्वक वंशावली का अध्ययन कर कुत्ते का चयन करते हैं। बहुत नस्लों की तरह, दुर्भाग्यवश बढ़ती लोकप्रियता के कारण ऐसे लोग प्रजनन के लिए प्रोत्साहित होते हैं, जिन्हें नस्ल की जानकारी नहीं होती.\n\nनितंब डिसप्लैसिया (dysplasia) \nपूडल की तरह पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) में भी नितंब डिसप्लैसिया (hip dysplasia) का जोखिम रहता है। हालांकि, प्रजनक और अपने कुत्ते दोनों के ही नस्ल की अच्छी तरह से जांच तथा सेहत संबंधी मंजूरी लेकर पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) में नितंब डिसप्लैसिया के विकसित होने के जोखिम को कम किया जा सकता है। नितंब डिसप्लैसिया नितंब के जोड़ों के साथ जन्मजात और बाद में विकसित होनेवाली एक समस्या है।\n\nमोतियाबिंद, पीआरए (PRA) और डिस्टिचियासिस (distichiasis) \nमोतियाबिंद, पीआरए (PRA) (प्रोग्रेसिव रेटिनल एट्रॉफी) दो तरह की आंखों की बीमारी पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) में पायी जाती है। नितंब डिसप्लैसिया की तरह अन्य की तुलना में यह दोष कुछ नस्ल में अक्सर कहीं अधिक पाया जाता है। पीआरए (PRA) जो कि रात के अंधेपन का कारण होता है, पूरी तरह से अंधा बना सकता है। सौभाग्य से यह एक सामान्य अप्रभावी जीन होता है। डीएनए (DNA) जांच अब उपलब्ध है जो पीआरए (PRA) जीन के वाहक कुत्ता की पहचान कर सकता है। \"ऑटिजेन जांच\" (Optigen Testing) के रूप में जाना जाता है जिसमें एक \"सामान्य\" या \"ए\" (A) कुत्ते पीआरए (PRA) जीन के वाहक नहीं होते हैं, एक \"वाहक\" या \"बी\" (B) कुत्ता पीआरए (PRA) जीन की एक प्रति का वाहक होता है पर कुत्ते में यह प्रकट नहीं होता है, लेकिन यह अपने शावकों में इस जीन को पास कर सकता है और नहीं भी कर सकता है। एक \"प्रभावित\" या \"सी\" (C) कुत्ता में जीन के पीआरए (PRA) संस्करण की दो प्रतियां होती हैं और शायद इनमें बीमारी के रूप में प्रोग्रेसिव रेटिनल ऑट्रोफी का हमला देर से व्यक्त होना शुरू होगा. यह सुनिश्चित करने के लिए कि किसी शावक में यह बीमारी न हों एक \"बी\" (B) या \"सी\" (C) कुत्ता का प्रजनन केवल \"ए\" (A) कुत्ता से होना चाहिए.\n\nपलकों में असामान्य रूप से अंतर्वृद्धि की बीमारी (डिस्टिचियासिस (distichiasis)) कुछ घुंघराले बालों वाले नस्ल में होती है, लेकिन विशेष रूप से पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) में यह आम नहीं है। असामान्य पलकों से आंखों में रगड़ होती है जो कोर्निया में फोड़े के विस्तार कारण बनती है। अगर इसकी उपेक्षा न की जाए तो स्थिति मामूली होती है और यदि आवश्यक हो तो शल्य चिकित्सा द्वारा इलाज किया जा सकता है।\nthumb|166px|घुंघराले कोट के प्रकार पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD): इस प्रकार के कोट के साथ कुत्ता डिस्टिचियासिस के प्रति भावुक हो सकते हैं।\n\nजीएम1 (GM1) संचयन बीमारी \nजीएम1 गैंग्लियोसीडोजेज (GM1 gangliosidoses) नामक हालात के परिवार में से एक, जीएम1 संचयन बीमारी (GM1 Storage Disease), एक प्रतिसारी, आनुवंशिक विकार है जो अनिवार्य रूप से घातक होता है। यह बीटा-गैलेक्टोसीडेज (beta-galactosidase) की कमी से होता है, जिसके परिणामस्वरूप केंद्रीय और परिधीय तंत्रिका प्रणाली की कोशिकाओं में, लेकिन खासकर स्नायु कोशिकाओं में अम्लीय वसा पदार्थों का असामान्य संचयन या भंडारण होने लगता है। चूंकि सभी पीडब्लूडी (PWD) एक-दूसरे से घनिष्ठ रूप से संबंधित होते हैं और उनके जीन निकाय सीमित हुआ करते हैं, इसलिए जो पीडब्लूडी (PWD) जीएम1 (GM1) संचयन रोग के वाहक होते थे उनकी पहचान आनुवंशिक रूप से कर ली गयी थी; और अब इस नस्ल से इस हालात को लगभग पूरी तरह से समाप्त किया जा चुका है। जन्म लिए सभी कुत्ते की जीएम1 (GM1) संचयन रोग या जीएम1 गैंग्लियोसीडोजेज (GM1 gangliosidoses) का परीक्षण करना चाहिए, जो कि एक घातक स्नायु रोग है और जो आम तौर पर पिल्ले के छह माह के होने पर प्रकट होता है। प्रभावित पिल्ले में गतिविभ्रम, कंपन, आंशिक पक्षाघात और दौरे सहित अनुमस्तिष्कीय दुष्क्रिया के नैदानिक लक्षण दिखेंगे. पिल्ले के स्वभाव में भी बदलाव दिख सकता है। रेटिना के जख्म और कॉर्निया का धुंधलापन प्रकट हो सकते हैं। जीएम1 (GM-1) संचयन रोग बीटागैलेक्टोसीडेज (betagalactosidase) का एक प्रतिसारी दोष है। हालात की पहचान आनुवंशिक रूप से कर ली गयी है और अब यह आम नहीं रहा.\n\nअल्पायु में कार्डियोमायोपैथी (Cardiomyopathy) का फैलना \nअल्पायु में कार्डियोमायोपैथी ऑटोसोमल (autosomal) प्रतिसारी जीन के कारण होनेवाली विरल़ घातक स्थिति है। यह युवा कुत्तों को प्रभावित करता है, जो वयस्क होने से पहले ही हृदय की गति रुक जाने से दम तोड़ देते हैं। एक सामान्य प्रतिसारी जीन, जिसकी पहचान कर पाना मुश्किल ही होता है और विशेष रूप से यह बहुत ही मर्मभेदी होता है, जब दत्तक लिये जानेवाले परिवार में शामिल हो जाने के कुछ ही कम समय में स्वस्थ-से दिखनेवाले कुत्ते अचानक ही मर जाते हैं। चूकि एक प्रतिसारी जीन इसके लिए जिम्मेवार होता है, इसका मतलब यह है कि अगर एक माता-पिता में से कम से कम एक सामान्य हैं (यानि जीन के कार्डियो संस्करण की प्रति उसमें नहीं है) तो उनके शावक में यह बीमारी नह‍ीं हो सकती.\n\n2007 में एक आनुवंशिक श्रृंखला की जांच उपलब्ध हो गयी थी जो आशाजनक दिखाई पड़ता है। यह ऐसी जाँच नहीं जो इस बात की पुष्टि करे कि कुत्ता में बीमारी है या नहीं है; और न ही यह निश्चित तौर पर इस बीमारी की भविष्यवाणी करता है, यहां ‍तक कि अगर कोई कुत्ता जेडीसी (JDC) वाहक है तो उसके शावक इस बीमारी से पीडि़त नहीं होंगे - इसकी भी गारंटी नहीं देता है। जाडीसी (JDC) वाहक के रूप में डीएनए (DNA) की केवल जांच से इसका संबंध है। इसमें यह महत्वपूर्ण है कि प्रजनन प्रक्रिया के लिए इनका चुनाव नहीं करने के लिए इसे अब बड़े पैमाने पर हो सकता है, क्योंकि जीएम1 भंडारण बीमारी में बहुत ही सफल रहा है। (ऊपर देखें) प्रत्येक रक्त-संबंध के जांच के लिए यह अभी उत्कृष्ट नहीं है और पहचाने उपभेदों को लागू क्यों किया जाता है अभी तक अज्ञात है और संक्षेप में इस परिस्थिति के कारण का समाधान एक रहस्य ही रह जाता है।\n\nप्रसिद्ध पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते \nthumb|बो ओबामा, पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ता और बैरेक ओबामा के अध्यक्षीय पालतू और उसका परिवार का आधिकारिक चित्र.लेट सीनेटर टेड केनेडी के द्वारा ओबामा परिवार को बो दिया गया। व्हाइट हॉउस के साउथ लॉन पर तस्वीर लिया गया था।\n\n यू.एस. (U.S.) सीनेटर टेड कैनेडी तीनों पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों के मालिक थे: स्पलैश, सनी और कैपी. कैनेडी के बच्चों की किताब कॉल्ड (called) में स्लैपश कहानी का सूत्रधार के रूप में है।My Senator and Me: A Dog's-Eye View of Washington, D.C.\n बार्क (BARK) टीम के सदस्यों ने पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों को पेश करते हुए दिखाया कि वे कैसे दौड़कर एटीएंडटी पार्क (AT&T Park) के करीब के जलाशय मैककोवे कोव से गेंद को वापस घर ले आते हैं। सैन फ्रांसिस्को जाइंट्स होम गेम के दौरान हर रविवार को ये प्रतिभाशाली कुत्ते नाव से काम करेंगे और बल्लेबाजी और खेल के अभ्यास के दौरान बेसबॉल के पानी में गिरने के बाद वे पानी में डुबकी लगाएंगे.\n 11 अप्रैल 2009 को इस बात पता चला कि फर्स्ट पप्पी, जो कि यू.एस. (U.S.) के राष्ट्रपति बराक ओबामा की दो बेटियों साशा और मालिया को सीनेटर टेड कैनेडी द्वारा दिया गया था, पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ता था। लड़कियों ने कुत्ते का नाम बो रखा, क्योंकि इसी नाम से उनके एक चचेरे भाई एक बिल्ली है और क्योंकि श्रीमती ओबामा के पिता का उपनाम डिडली दिया गया था, जो कि स्वर्गीय संगीतकार बो डिडली के नाम पर दिया गया था। ओबामा परिवार ने इस नस्ल को इसलिए चुना, क्योंकि बताया जाता है कि इसमें एलर्जी की प्रतिक्रिया की संभावना कम है।\n\nसन्दर्भ \n\n \"पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते\", एनीमल प्लैनेट, \"ब्रिड ऑल अबाउट इट\" टेलिविज़न सिरीज़.\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ\n\n \n समुद्र में चलने योग्य पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ते\n कनाडा के पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों का क्लब\n पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्ता: पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों के संबंध में स्वास्थ्य मुद्दे\n ग्रेट ब्रिटेन के पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों का क्लब\n अमेरिका के पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों का क्लब\n पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों का फाउंडेशन\n नार्वेजियन पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों का क्लब\n पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) स्टड कुत्ते और पीडब्ल्यूडी (PWD) पेडिग्री अध्ययन ग्रुप\n पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों की सूचना\n पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों का ऍफ़सीआई (FCI) मानक\n पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों के नस्लों के प्रोफाइल\n पुर्तगाली समुद्री कुत्तों की तस्वीरें\n\nश्रेणी:कुत्तों की नस्लें\nश्रेणी:यूरोप में पैदा हुए कुत्तों की नस्लें\nश्रेणी:पुर्तगाल में पैदा हुए कुत्तों की नस्लें\nश्रेणी:पुर्तगाल में पैदा हुए जानवरों की नस्लें\nश्रेणी:मछली पकड़ने के तकनीक और तरीके\nश्रेणी:गूगल परियोजना", "चोल राजवंश\nचोल (तमिल - சோழர்) प्राचीन भारत का एक राजवंश था। दक्षिण भारत में और पास के अन्य देशों में तमिल चोल शासकों ने 9 वीं शताब्दी से 13 वीं शताब्दी के बीच एक अत्यंत शक्तिशाली हिन्दू साम्राज्य का निर्माण किया।\n\n'चोल' शब्द की व्युत्पत्ति विभिन्न प्रकार से की जाती रही है। कर्नल जेरिनो ने चोल शब्द को संस्कृत \"काल\" एवं \"कोल\" से संबद्ध करते हुए इसे दक्षिण भारत के कृष्णवर्ण आर्य समुदाय का सूचक माना है। चोल शब्द को संस्कृत \"चोर\" तथा तमिल \"चोलम्\" से भी संबद्ध किया गया है किंतु इनमें से कोई मत ठीक नहीं है। आरंभिक काल से ही चोल शब्द का प्रयोग इसी नाम के राजवंश द्वारा शासित प्रजा और भूभाग के लिए व्यवहृत होता रहा है। संगमयुगीन मणिमेक्लै में चोलों को सूर्यवंशी कहा है। चोलों के अनेक प्रचलित नामों में शेंबियन् भी है। शेंबियन् के आधार पर उन्हें शिबि से उद्भूत सिद्ध करते हैं। 12वीं सदी के अनेक स्थानीय राजवंश अपने को करिकाल से उद्भत कश्यप गोत्रीय बताते हैं। \n\nचोलों के उल्लेख अत्यंत प्राचीन काल से ही प्राप्त होने लगते हैं। कात्यायन ने चोडों का उल्लेख किया है। अशोक के अभिलेखों में भी इसका उल्लेख उपलब्ध है। किंतु इन्होंने संगमयुग में ही दक्षिण भारतीय इतिहास को संभवत: प्रथम बार प्रभावित किया। संगमकाल के अनेक महत्वपूर्ण चोल सम्राटों में करिकाल अत्यधिक प्रसिद्ध हुए संगमयुग के पश्चात् का चोल इतिहास अज्ञात है। फिर भी चोल-वंश-परंपरा एकदम समाप्त नहीं हुई थी क्योंकि रेनंडु (जिला कुडाया) प्रदेश में चोल पल्लवों, चालुक्यों तथा राष्ट्रकूटों के अधीन शासन करते रहे।\n\nचोलों का उदय \nउपर्युक्त दीर्घकालिक प्रभुत्वहीनता के पश्चात् नवीं सदी के मध्य से चोलों का पुनरुत्थन हुआ। इस चोल वंश का संस्थापक विजयालय (850-870-71 ई.) पल्लव अधीनता में उरैयुर प्रदेश का शासक था। विजयालय की वंशपरंपरा में लगभग 20 राजा हुए, जिन्होंने कुल मिलाकर चार सौ से अधिक वर्षों तक शासन किया। विजयालय के पश्चात् आदित्य प्रथम (871-907), परातंक प्रथम (907-955) ने क्रमश: शासन किया। परांतक प्रथम ने पांड्य-सिंहल नरेशों की सम्मिलित शक्ति को, पल्लवों, बाणों, बैडुंबों के अतिरिक्त राष्ट्रकूट कृष्ण द्वितीय को भी पराजित किया। चोल शक्ति एवं साम्राज्य का वास्तविक संस्थापक परांतक ही था। उसने लंकापति उदय (945-53) के समय सिंहल पर भी एक असफल आक्रमण किया। परांतक अपने अंतिम दिनों में राष्ट्रकूट सम्राट् कृष्ण तृतीय द्वारा 949 ई. में बड़ी बुरी तरह पराजित हुआ। इस पराजय के फलस्वरूप चोल साम्राज्य की नींव हिल गई। परांतक प्रथम के बाद के 32 वर्षों में अनेक चोल राजाओं ने शासन किया। इनमें गंडरादित्य, अरिंजय और सुंदर चोल या परातक दि्वतीय प्रमुख थे। \n[[चित्र:Raraja detail.png|अंगूठाकार|तंजावुर के बृहदेश्वर मंदिर में राजराज चोल की प्रतिमा]]\nइसके पश्चात् राजराज प्रथम (985-1014) ने चोल वंश की प्रसारनीति को आगे बढ़ाते हुए अपनी अनेक विजयों द्वारा अपने वंश की मर्यादा को पुन: प्रतिष्ठित किया। उसने सर्वप्रथम पश्चिमी गंगों को पराजित कर उनका प्रदेश छीन लिया। तदनंतर पश्चिमी चालुक्यों से उनका दीर्घकालिक परिणामहीन युद्ध आरंभ हुआ। इसके विपरीत राजराज को सुदूर दक्षिण में आशातीत सफलता मिली। उन्होंने केरल नरेश को पराजित किया। पांड्यों को पराजित कर मदुरा और कुर्ग में स्थित उद्गै अधिकृत कर लिया। यही नहीं, राजराज ने सिंहल पर आक्रमण करके उसके उत्तरी प्रदेशों को अपने राज्य में मिला लिया।\n\nराजराज ने पूर्वी चालुक्यों पर आक्रमण कर वेंगी को जीत लिया। किंतु इसके बाद पूर्वी चालुक्य सिंहासन पर उन्होंने शक्तिवर्मन् को प्रतिष्ठित किया और अपनी पुत्री कुंदवा का विवाह शक्तविर्मन् के लघु भ्राता विमलादित्य से किया। इस समय कलिंग के गंग राजा भी वेंगी पर दृष्टि गड़ाए थे, राजराज ने उन्हें भी पराजित किया।\n\nराजराज के पश्चात् उनके पुत्र राजेंद्र प्रथम (1012-1044) सिंहासनारूढ़ हुए। राजेंद्र प्रथम भी अत्यंत शक्तिशाली सम्राट् थे। राजेंद्र ने चेर, पांड्य एवं सिंहल जीता तथा उन्हें अपने राज्य में मिला लिया। उन्होंने पश्चिमी चालुक्यों को कई युद्धों में पराजित किया, उनकी राजधानी को ध्वस्त किया किंतु उनपर पूर्ण विजय न प्राप्त कर सके। राजेंद्र के दो अन्य सैनिक अभियान अत्यंत उल्लेखनीय हैं। उनका प्रथम सैनिक अभियान पूर्वी समुद्रतट से कलिंग, उड़ीसा, दक्षिण कोशल आदि के राजाओं को पराजित करता हुआ बंगाल के विरुद्ध हुआ। उन्होंने पश्चिम एवं दक्षिण बंगाल के तीन छोटे राजाओं को पराजित करने के साथ साथ शक्तिशाली पाल राजा महीपाल को भी पराजित किया। इस अभियान का कारण अभिलेखों के अनुसार गंगाजल प्राप्त करना था। यह भी ज्ञात होता है कि पराजित राजाओं को यह जल अपने सिरों पर ढोना पड़ा था। किंतु यह मात्र आक्रमण था, इससे चोल साम्राज्य की सीमाओं पर कोई असर नहीं पड़ा।\n\nराजेंद्र का दूसरा महत्वपूर्ण आक्रमण मलयद्वीप, जावा और सुमात्रा के शैलेंद्र शासन के विरुद्ध हुआ। यह पूर्ण रूप से नौसैनिक आक्रमण था। शैलेंद्र सम्राटों का राजराज से मैत्रीपूर्ण व्यवहार था किन्तु राजेंद्र के साथ उनकी शत्रुता का कारण अज्ञात है। राजेंद्र को इसमें सफलता मिली। राजराज की भाँति राजेंद्र ने भी एक राजदूत चीन भेजा।\n\nराजाधिराज प्रथम (1018-1054) राजेंद्र का उत्तराधिकारी था। उसका अधिकांश समय विद्रोहों के शमन में लगा। आरंभ में उसने अनेक छोटे छोटे राज्यों, तथा चेर, पांड्य एवं सिंहल के विद्रोहों का दमन किया। अनंतर इसके चालुक्य सोमेश्वर से हुए कोप्पम् के युद्ध में उसकी मृत्यु हुई। युद्धक्षेत्र में ही राजेंद्र द्वितीय (1052-1064) अभिषिक्त हुए। चालुक्यों के विरुद्ध हुए इस युद्ध में उनकी विजय हुई। चालुक्यों के साथ युद्ध दीर्घकालिक था। राजेंद्र द्वितीय के उत्तराधिकारी वीर राजेंद्र (1063-1069) ने अनेक युद्धों में विजय प्राप्त की और प्राय: संपूर्ण चोल साम्राज्य पर पूर्ववत् शासन किया। अधिराजेंद्र (1067-1070) वीर राजेंद्र का उत्तराधिकारी था किंतु कुछ महीनों के शासन के बाद कुलोत्तुंग प्रथम ने उससे चोल राज्यश्री छीन ली।\n\nकुलोत्तुंग प्रथम (1070-1120) पूर्वी चालुक्य सम्राट् राजराज का पुत्र था। कुलोत्तुंग की माँ एवं मातामही क्रमश: राजेंद्र (प्रथम) चोल तथा राजराज प्रथम की पुत्रियाँ थीं। कुलोत्तंुग प्रथम स्वयं राजेंद्र द्वितीय की पुत्री से विवाहित था। कुलोत्तुंग ने अपने विपक्ष एवं अधिराजेंद्र के पक्ष से हुए समस्त विद्रोहों का दमन करके अपनी स्थिति सुदृढ़ कर ली। अपने विस्तृत शासनकाल में उसने अधिराजेंद्र के हिमायती एवं बहनोई चालुक्य सम्राट् विक्रमादित्य के अनेक आक्रमणों एवं विद्रोहों का सफलतापूर्वक सामना किया। सिंहल फिर भी स्वतंत्र हो ही गया। युवराज विक्रम चोल के प्रयास स कलिंग का दक्षिणी प्रदेश कुलोत्तुंग के राज्य में मिला लिया गया। कुलोत्तुंग ने अपने अंतिम दिनों तक सिंहल के अतिरिक्त प्राय: संपूर्ण चोल साम्राज्य तथा दक्षिणी कलिंग प्रदेश पर शासन किया। उसने एक राजदूत भी चीन भेजा।\n\nविक्रम चोल (1118-1133) कुलोत्तुंग का उत्तराधिकारी हुआ। लगभग 1118 में विक्रमादित्य छठे ने वेंगी चोलों से छीन ली। होयसलों ने भी चोलों को कावेरी के पार भगा दिया और मैसूर प्रदेश को अधिकृत कर लिया।\n\nकुलोत्तुंग प्रथम के बाद का लगभग सौ वर्ष का चोल इतिहास अधिक महत्वपूर्ण नहीं है। इस अवधि में विक्रम चोल, कुलोत्तुंग द्वितीय (1133-1150), राजराज द्वितीय (1146-1173), राजाधिराज द्वितीय (1163-1179), कुलोत्तुंग तृतीय (1178-1218) ने शासन किया। इन राजाओं के समय चोलों का उत्तरोत्तर अवसान होता रहा। राजराज तृतीय (1216-1246) को पांड्यों ने बुरी तरह पराजित किया और उसकी राजधानी छीन ली। चोल सम्राट् अपने आक्रामकों एवं विद्रोहियों के विरुद्ध शक्तिशाली होयसलों से सहायता लेते थे और इसी कारण धीरे-धीरे वे उनके साथ की कठपुतली बन गए। राजराज को एकबार पांड्यों से पराजित होकर भागते समय कोप्पेरुंजिग ने आक्रमण कर बंदी बना लिया, पर छोड़ दिया।\n\nचोल वंश का अंतिम राजा राजेंद्र तृतीय (1246-1279) हुआ। आरंभ में राजेंद्र को पांड्यों के विरुद्ध आंशिक सफलता मिली, किंतु ऐसा प्रतीत होता है कि तेलुगु-चोड साम्राज्य पर गंडगोपाल तिक्क राजराज तृतीय की नाममात्र की अधीनता में शासन कर रहा था। गणपति काकतीय के कांची आक्रमण के पश्चात् तिक्क ने उसी की अधीनता स्वीकार की। अंतत: जटावर्मन् सुंदर पांड्य ने उत्तर पर आक्रमण किया और चोलों को पराजित किया। इसके बाद से चोल शासक पांड्यों के अधीन रहे और उनकी यह स्थिति भी 1310 में मलिक काफूर के आक्रमण से समाप्त हो गई। (चोल सम्राट् साधारणतया अपने राज्य का आरंभ अपने यौवराज्याभिषेक से मानते थे और इसीलिए उनके काल के कुछ आरंभिक वर्ष एवं उनके तत्काल पूर्ववर्ती सम्राट् के कुछ अंतिम वर्षों में समानता प्राप्त होती है)।\n\nशासन व्यवस्था \nचोलो के अभिलेखों आदि से ज्ञात होता है कि उनका शासन सुसंगठित था। राज्य का सबसे बड़ा अधिकारी राजा मंत्रियों एवं राज्याधिकारियों की सलाह से शासन करता था। शासनसुविधा की दृष्टि से सारा राज्य अनेक मंडलों में विभक्त था। मंडल कोट्टम् या बलनाडुओं में बँटे होते थे। इनके बाद की शासकीय परंपरा में नाडु (जिला), कुर्रम् (ग्रामसमूह) एवं ग्रामम् थे। चोल राज्यकाल में इनका शासन जनसभाओं द्वारा होता था। चोल ग्रामसभाएँ \"उर\" या \"सभा\" कही जाती थीं। इनके सदस्य सभी ग्रामनिवासी होते थे। सभा की कार्यकारिणी परिषद् (आडुगणम्) का चुनाव ये लोग अपने में से करते थे। उत्तरमेरूर से प्राप्त अभिलेख से उस ग्रामसभा के कार्यों आदि का विस्तृत ज्ञान प्राप्त होता है। उत्तरमेरूर ग्रामशासन सभा की पाँच उपसमितियों द्वारा होता था। इनके सदस्य अवैतनिक थे एवं उनका कार्यकाल केवल वर्ष भर का होता था। ये अपने शासन के लिए स्वतंत्र थीं एवं सम्राटादि भी उनकी कार्यवाही में हस्तक्षेप नहीं कर सकते थे।\n[[चित्र:NatarajaMET.JPG|अंगूठाकार|नटराज की कांस्य प्रतिमा]]\nचोल शासक प्रसिद्ध भवननिर्माता थे। सिंचाई की व्यवस्था, राजमार्गों के निर्माण आदि के अतिरिक्त उन्होंने नगरों एवं विशाल मंदिर तंजौर में बनवाया। यह प्राचीन भारतीय मंदिरों में सबसे अधिक ऊँचा एवं बड़ा है। तंजौर के मंदिर की दीवारों पर अंकित चित्र उल्लेखनीय एवं बड़े महत्वपूर्ण हैं। राजेंद्र प्रथम ने अपने द्वारा निर्मित नगर गंगैकोंडपुरम् (त्रिचनापल्ली) में इस प्रकार के एक अन्य विशाल मंदिर का निर्माण कराया। चोलों के राज्यकाल में मूर्तिकला का भी प्रभूत विकास हुआ। इस काल की पाषाण एवं धातुमूर्तियाँ अत्यंत सजीव एवं कलात्मक हैं।\n\nचोल शासन के अंतर्गत साहित्य की भी बड़ी उन्नति हुई। इनके शाक्तिशाली विजेताओं की विजयों आदि को लक्ष्य कर अनेकानेक प्रशस्ति पूर्ण ग्रंथ लिखे गए। इस प्रकार के ग्रंथों में जयंगोंडार का \"कलिगंत्तुपर्णि\" अत्यंत महत्वपूर्ण है। इसके अतिरिक्त तिरुत्तक्कदेव लिखित \"जीवक चिंतामणि\" तमिल महाकाव्यों में अन्यतम माना जाता है। इस काल के सबसे बड़े कवि कंबन थे। इन्होंने तमिल \"रामायण\" की रचना कुलोत्तुंग तृतीय के शासनकाल में की। इसके अतिरिक्त व्याकरण, कोष, काव्यशास्त्र तथा छंद आदि विषयों पर बहुत से महत्वपूर्ण ग्रंथों की रचना भी इस समय हुई।\n\nसांस्कृतिक स्थिति \nचोल साम्राज्य की शक्ति बढ़ने के साथ ही सम्राट् के गौरव ओर ऐश्वर्य के भव्य प्रदर्शन के कार्य बढ़ गए थे। राजभवन, उसमें सेवकों का प्रबंध ओर दरबार में उत्सवों और अनुष्ठानों में यह प्रवृत्ति परिलक्षित होती है। सम्राट् अपने जीवनकाल ही में युवराज को शासनप्रबन्ध में अपने साथ संबंधित कर लेता था। सम्राट के पास उसकी मौखिक आज्ञा के लिए भी विषय एक सुनिश्चित प्रणाली के द्वारा आता था, एक सुनिश्चित विधि में ही वह कार्य रूप में परिणत होता था। राजा को परामर्श देने के लिए विभिन्न प्रमुख विभागों के कर्मचारियों का एक दल, जिसे 'उडनकूट्टम्' कहते थे। सम्राट् के निरंतर संपर्क में रहता था। सम्राट् के निकट संपर्क में अधिकारियों का एक संगठित विभाग था जिसे ओलै कहते थे1 चोल साम्राज्य में नौकरशाही सुसंगठित और विकसित थी जिसमें अधिकारियों के उच्च (पेरुंदनम्) और निम्न (शिरुदनम्) दो वर्ग थे। केंद्रीय विभाग की ओर से स्थानीय अधिकारियों का निरीक्षण और नियंत्रण करने के लिए कणकाणि नाम के अधिकारी होते थेे। शासन के लिए राज्य वलनाडु अथवा मंडलम्, नाडु और कूर्रम् में विभाजित था। संपूर्ण भूमि नापी हुई थी और करदायी तथा करमुक्त भूमि में बँटी थी। करदायी भूमि के भी स्वाभाविक उत्पादनशक्ति और फसल के अनुसार, कई स्तर थे। कर के लिए संपूर्ण ग्राम उत्तरदायी था। कभी-कभी कर एकत्रित करने में कठोरता की जाती थी। भूमिकर के अतिरिक्त चुंगी, व्यवसायों और मकानों तथा विशेष अवसरों और उत्सवों पर भी कर थे। सेना अनेक सैन्य दलों में बँटी थी जिनमें से कई के विशिष्ट नामों का उल्लेख अभिलेखों में मिलता है। सेना राज्य के विभिन्न भागों में शिविर (कडगम) के रूप में फैली थी। दक्षिण-पूर्वी एशिया में चोलों की विजय उनके जहाजी बेड़े के संगठन और शक्ति का स्पष्ट प्रमाण है। न्याय के लिए गाँव और जाति की सभाओं के अतिरिक्त राज्य द्वारा स्थापित न्यायालय भी थे। निर्णय सामाजिक व्यवस्थाओं, लेखपत्र और साक्षी के प्रमाण के आधार पर होते थे। मानवीय साक्ष्यों के अभाव में दिव्यों का भी सहारा लिया जाता था।\n\nचोल शासन की प्रमुख विशेषता सुसंगठित नौकरशाही के साथ उच्च कोटि की कुशलतावली स्थानीय स्वायत्त संस्थाओं का सुंदर और सफल सामंजस्य है। स्थानीय जीवन के विभिन्न अंगों के लिए विविध सामूहिक संस्थाएँ थीं जो परस्पर सहयोग से कार्य करती थीं। नगरम् उन स्थानों की सभाएँ थीं जहाँ व्यापारी वर्ग प्रमुख था। ऊर गँव के उन सभी व्यक्तियों की सभा थी जिनके पास भूमि थी। 'सभा ब्रह्मदेय' गाँवों के ब्राह्मणों की सामूहिक संस्था का विशिष्ट नाम था। राज्य की ओर से साधारण नियंत्रण और समय पर आयव्यय के निरीक्षण के अतिरिक्त इन सभाओं को पूर्ण स्वतंत्रता थी। इनके कार्यों के संचालन के लिए अत्यंत कुशल और संविधान के नियमों की दृष्टि से संगठित और विकसित समितियों की व्यवस्था थी जिन्हें वारियम् कहते थे। उत्तरमेरूर की सभा ने परांतक प्रथम के शासनकाल में अल्प समय के अंतर पर ही दो बार अपने संविधान में परिवर्तन किए जो इस बात का प्रमाण है कि ये सभाएँ अनुभव के अनुसार अधिक कुशल व्यवस्था को अपनाने के लिये तत्पर रहती थीं। इन सभाओं के कर्तव्यों का क्षेत्र व्यापक और विस्तृत था।\n\nचोल नरेशों ने सिंचाई की सुविधा के लिए कुएँ और तालाब खुदवाए और नदियों के प्रवाह को रोककर पत्थर के बाँध से घिरे जलाशय (डैम) बनवाए। करिकाल चोल ने कावेरी नदी पर बाँध बनवाया था। राजेंद्र प्रथम ने गंगैकोंड-चोलपुरम् के समीप एक झील खुदवाई जिसका बाँध 16 मील लंबा था। इसको दो नदियों के जल से भरने की व्यवस्था की गई और सिंचाई के लिए इसका उपयोग करने के लिए पत्थर की प्रणालियाँ और नहरें बनाई गईं। आवागमन की सुविधा के लिए प्रशस्त राजपथ और नदियों पर घाट भी निर्मित हुए।\n\nसामाजिक जीवन में यद्यपि ब्राह्मणों को अधिक अधिकार प्राप्त थे और अन्य वर्गों से अपना पार्थक्य दिखलाने के लिए उन्होंने अपनी अलग बस्तियाँ बसानी शुरू कर दी थीं, फिर भी विभिन्न वर्गों के परस्पर संबंध कटु नहीं थे। सामाजिक व्यवस्था को धर्मशास्त्रों के आदेशों और आदर्शों के अनुकूल रखने का प्रयन्त होता था। कुलोत्तुंग प्रथम के शासनकाल में एक गाँव के भट्टों ने शास्त्रों का अध्ययन कर रथकार नाम की अनुलोम जाति के लिए सम्मत जीविकाओं का निर्देश किया। उद्योग और व्यवसाय में लगे सामाजिक वर्ग दो भागों में विभक्त थे- वलंगै और इडंगै। स्त्रियाँ पर सामाजिक जीवन में किसी भी प्रकार का प्रतिबंध नहीं था। वे संपत्ति की स्वामिनी होती थीं। उच्च वर्ग के पुरुष बहुविवाह करते थे। सती का प्रचार था। मंदिरों में गुणशीला देवदासियाँ रहा करती थीं। समाज में दासप्रथा प्रचलित थी। दासों की कई कोटियाँ होती थीं।\n\nआर्थिक जीवन का आधार कृषि थी। भूमिका स्वामित्व समाज में सम्मान की बात थी। कृषि के साथ ही पशुपालन का व्यवसाय भी समुन्नत था। स्वर्णकार, धातुकार और जुलाहों की कला उन्नत दशा में थी। व्यापारियों की अनेक श्रेणियाँ थीं जिनका संगठन विस्तृत क्षेत्र में कार्य करता था। नानादेश-तिशैयायिरत्तु ऐज्जूरुंवर व्यापारियों की एक विशाल श्रेणी थी जो वर्मा और सुमात्रा तक व्यापार करती थी।\n[[चित्र:Gopuram Corner View of Thanjavur Brihadeeswara Temple..JPG|अंगूठाकार|तंजावुर के बृहदेश्वर मंदिर के गोपुरम के कोने का दृष्य]]\nचोल सम्राट शिव के उपासक थे लेकिन उनकी नीति धार्मिक सहिष्णुता की थी। उन्होंने बौद्धों को भी दान दिया। जैन भी शांतिपूर्वक अपने धर्म का पालन और प्रचार करते थे। पूर्वयुग के तमिल धार्मिक पद वेदों जैसे पूजित होने लगे और उनके रचयिता देवता स्वरूप माने जाने लगे। नंबि आंडार नंबि ने सर्वप्रथम राजराज प्रथम के राज्यकाल में शैव धर्मग्रंथों को संकलित किया। वैष्णव धर्म के लिए यही कार्य नाथमुनि ने किया। उन्होंने भक्ति के मार्ग का दार्शनिक समर्थन प्रस्तुत किया। उनके पौत्र आलवंदार अथवा यमुनाचार्य का वैष्णव आचार्यों में महत्वपूर्ण स्थान है। रामानुज ने विशिष्टाद्वैत दर्शन का प्रतिपादन किया मंदिरों की पूजा विधि में सुधार किया और कुछ मंदिरों में वर्ष में एक दिन अंत्यजों के प्रवेश की भी व्यवस्था की। शैवों में भक्तिमार्ग के अतिरिक्त बीभत्स आचारोंवाले कुछ संप्रदाय, पाशुपत, कापालिक और कालामुख जैसे थे, जिनमें से कुछ स्त्रीत्व की आराधना करते थे, जो प्राय: विकृत रूप ले लेती थी। देवी के उपासकों में अपना सिर काटकर चढ़ाने की भी प्रथा थी। इस युग के धार्मिक जीवन में मंदिरों का विशेष महत्व था। छोटे या बड़े मंदिर, चोल राज्य के प्राय: सभी नगरों और गाँवों में इस युग में बने। ये मंदिर, शिक्षा के केंद्र भी थे। त्योहारों और उत्सवों पर इनमें गान, नृत्य, नाट्य और मनोरंजन के आयोजन भी होते थे। मंदिरों के स्वामित्व में भूमि भी होती थी और कई कर्मचारी इनकी अधीनता में होते थे। ये बैंक का कार्य थे। कई उद्योगों और शिल्पों के व्यक्तियों को मंदिरों के कारण जीविका मिलती थी।\n\n[[चित्र:Temple Tangore 1.jpg|अंगूठाकार|चिदम्बरम का नटराज मंदिर]]\nचोलों के मंदिरों की विशेषता उनके विमानों और प्रांगणों में दिखलाई पड़ती है। इनके शिखरस्तंभ छोटे होते हैं, किंतु गोपुरम् पर अत्यधिक अलंकरण होता है। प्रारंभिक चोल मंदिर साधारण योजना की कृतियाँ हैं लेकिन साम्राज्य की शक्ति और साधनों की वृद्धि के साथ मंदिरों के आकार और प्रभाव में भी परिवर्तन हुआ। इन मंदिरों में सबसे अधिक प्रसिद्ध और प्रभावोत्पादक राजराज प्रथम द्वारा तंजोर में निर्मित राजराजेश्वर मंदिर, राजेंद्र प्रथम द्वारा गंगैकोंडचोलपुरम् में निर्मित गंगैकोंडचोलेश्वर मंदिर है। चोल युग अपनी कांस्य प्रतिमाओं की सुंदरता के लिए भी प्रसिद्ध है। इनमें नटराज की मूर्तियाँ सर्वात्कृष्ट हैं। इसके अतिरिक्त शिव के दूसरे कई रूप, ब्रह्मा, सप्तमातृका, लक्ष्मी तथा भूदेवी के साथ विष्णु, अपने अनुचरों के साथ राम और सीता, शैव संत और कालियदमन करते हुए कृष्ण की मूर्तियाँ भी उल्लेखनीय हैं।\n\nतमिल साहित्य के इतिहास में चोल शासनकाल को 'स्वर्ण युग' की संज्ञा दी जाती है। प्रबंध साहित्यरचना का प्रमुख रूप था। दर्शन में शैव सिद्धांत के शास्त्रीय विवेचन का आरंभ हुआ। शेक्किलार का तिरुत्तोंडर् पुराणम् या पेरियपुराणम् युगांतरकारी रचना है। वैष्णव भक्ति-साहित्य और टीकाओं की भी रचना हुई। आश्चर्य है कि वैष्णव आचार्य नाथमुनि, यामुनाचार्य और रामानुज ने प्राय: संस्कृत में ही रचनाएँ की हैं। टीकाकारों ने भी संस्कृत शब्दों में आक्रांत मणिप्रवाल शैली अपनाई। रामानुज की प्रशंसा में सौ पदों की रचना रामानुजनूर्रदादि इस दृष्टि से प्रमुख अपवाद है। जैन और बौद्ध साहित्य की प्रगति भी उल्लेखनीय थी। जैन कवि तिरुत्तक्कदेवर् ने प्रसिद्ध तमिल महाकाव्य जीवकचिंतामणि की रचना 10वीं शताब्दी में की थी। तोलामोलि रचित सूलामणि की गणना तमिल के पाँच लघु काव्यों में होती है। कल्लाडनार के कल्लाडम् में प्रेम की विभिन्न मनोदशाओं पर सौ पद हैं। राजकवि जयन्गोंडा ने कलिंगत्तुप्परणि में कुलोत्तुंग प्रथम के कलिंगयुद्ध का वर्णन किया है। ओट्टकूत्तन भी राजकवि था जिसकी अनेक कृतियों में कुलोत्तुंग द्वितीय के बाल्यकाल पर एक पिल्लैत्तामिल और तीन चोल राजाओं पर उला उल्लेखनीय हैं। प्रसिद्ध तमिल रामायणम् अथवा रामावतारम् की रचना कंबन् ने कुलोत्तुंग तृतीय के राज्यकाल में की थी। किसी अज्ञात कवि की सुंदर कृति कुलोत्तुंगन्कोवै में कुलोत्तुंग द्वितीय के प्रारंभिक कृत्यों का वर्णन है। जैन विद्वान् अमितसागर ने छंदशास्त्र पर याप्परुंगलम् नाम के एक ग्रंथ और उसके एक संक्षिप्त रूप (कारिगै) की रचना की। बौद्ध बुद्धमित्र ने तमिल व्याकरण पर वीरशोलियम् नाम का ग्रंथ लिखा। दंडियलंगारम् का लेखक अज्ञात है; यह ग्रंथ दंडिन के काव्यादर्श के आदर्श पर रचा गया है। इस काल के कुछ अन्य व्याकरण ग्रंथ हैं- गुणवीर पंडित का नेमिनादम् और वच्चणंदिमालै, पवणंदि का नन्नूल तथा ऐयनारिदनार का पुरप्पोरलवेण्बामालै। पिंगलम् नाम का कोश भी इसी काल की कृति है।\n\nचोलवंश के अभिलेखों से ज्ञात होता है कि चोल नरेशों ने संस्कृत साहित्य और भाषा के अध्ययन के लिए विद्यालय (ब्रह्मपुरी, घटिका) स्थापित किए और उनकी व्यवस्था के लिए समुचित दान दिए। किंतु संस्कृत साहित्य में, सृजन की दृष्टि से, चोलों का शासनकाल अत्यल्प महत्व का है। उनके कुछ अभिलेख, जो संस्कृत में हैं, शैली में तमिल अभिलेखों से नीचे हैं। फिर भी वेंकट माधव का ऋग्वेद पर प्रसिद्ध भाष्य परांतक प्रथम के राज्यकाल की रचना है। केशवस्वामिन् ने नानार्थार्णवसंक्षेप नामक कोश को राजराज द्वितीय की आज्ञा पर ही बनाया था।\n\nवंशावली \n विजयालय चोल 848-871(?)\n आदित्य १ 871-907 -\n परन्तक चोल १ 907-950\n गंधरादित्य 950-957\n अरिंजय चोल 956-957\n सुन्दर चोल 957-970\n उत्तम चोल 970-985\n राजाराज चोल १ 985-1014\n राजेन्द्र चोल १ 1012-1044\n राजाधिराज चोल १ 1044-1054\n राजेन्द्र चोल २ 1054-1063\n वीरराजेन्द्र चोल 1063-1070\n अधिराजेन्द्र चोल 1067-1070\n\n चालुक्य चोल\n कुलोतुंग चोल १ 1070-1120\n कुलोतुंग चोल २ 1133-1150\n राजाराज चोल २ 1146-1163\n राजाधिराज चोल २ 1163-1178\n कुलोतुंग चोल ३ 1178-1218\n राजाराज चोल ३ 1216-1256\n राजेन्द्र चोल ३ 1246-1279\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n पल्लव वंश\n चालुक्य वंश\n विजयनगर साम्राज्य\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ\n\nश्रेणी:भारत के राजवंश\nश्रेणी:तमिलनाडु का इतिहास\nश्रेणी:चोल शासक", "आग्नेय भाषापरिवार\nऑस्ट्रो-एशियाई भाषाएँ​ (Austro-Asiatic languages) या मोन-ख्मेर भाषाएँ या आग्नेय भाषाएँ दक्षिण-पूर्वी एशिया में विस्तृत एक भाषा परिवार है भाषाएँ भारत और बंगलादेश में जहाँ-तहाँ और चीन की कुछ दक्षिणी सीमावर्ती क्षेत्रों में भी बोलीं जाती हैं। इनमें केवल ख्मेर, वियतनामी और मोन का लम्बा लिखित इतिहास है और केवल ख्मेर और वियतनामी को अपने क्षेत्रों में सरकारी भाषा होने का दर्जा प्राप्त है। अन्य सभी भाषाएँ अल्पसंख्यक समुदायों द्वारा बोली जाती हैं। कुल मिलाकर ऍथनोलॉग भाषा सूची में इस परिवार की १६८ सदस्य भाषाएँ गिनी गई हैं। भारत में खासी और मुण्डा भाषाएँ इस परिवार में आती हैं।\n\nविवरण \nआग्नेय का अर्थ है अग्निदिशा (पूर्व एवं दक्षिण दिशा के मध्य) से संबंधित अथवा अग्निदिशा में स्थित। अत: आग्नेय भाषापरिवार से तात्पर्य ऐसे भाषापरिवार से है जिसकी भाषाएँ मुख्य रूप से पूर्व एवं दक्षिण के मध्य बोली जाती हैं। इस परिवार का प्रसिद्ध नाम \"आस्ट्रोएशियाटिक\" है। पेटर श्मिट ने \"आस्ट्रोनेशियन\" अथवा \"मलय--पालीनेशन\" परिवार को आस्ट्रो--एशियाटिक परिवार से जोड़कर एक बृहत् भाषापरिवार की कल्पना की जिसे उन्होंने आस्ट्रिक परिवार का नाम दिया। क्षेत्र की दृष्टि से आस्ट्रिक परिवार संसार का सबसे विस्तृत भाषापरिवार है। पश्चिम में मैडागास्कर से लेकर पूर्व में पूर्वी द्वीपसमूह तक तथा उत्तर पश्चिम में पंजाब के उत्तरी भाग से लेकर दक्षिण पूर्व में न्यूज़ीलैंड तक इस भाषापरिवार का फैलाव है।\n\nइस प्रकार आस्ट्रिक परिवार के मुख्य दो वर्ग हैं- \n\n(1) आस्ट्रोनेशियन, (2) आस्ट्रो-एशियाटिक। \n\nआस्ट्रोनेशियन अथवा मलय-पोली-नेशियन वर्ग की भाषाएँ प्रशांत महासागर के द्वीपों में फैली हुई हैं। इन भाषाओं के भी कई समूह हैं, : इंडोनेशियन, मलेनेशियन, मैक्रोनेशियन एवं पोलीनेशियन। आस्ट्रोनेशियन वर्ग के विवेचन में न्यूगिनी एवं आस्ट्रेलिया की कुछ मूल भाषाओं का भी उल्लेख किया जाता है क्योंकि इन भाषाओं में कुछ विशेषताएँ आस्ट्रोनेशियन वर्ग की हैं।\n\nआस्ट्रो-एशियाटिक वर्ग की भाषाएँ मध्यभारत के छोटा नागपुर प्रदेश से लेकर अनाम तक फैली हुई हैं। इसकी मुख्य तीन शाखाएँ हैं :\n\n(1) मुंडा, (2) मानख्मेर, (3) अनामी।\n\nमुंडा (जिले \"कोल\" भी कहा जाता है) भाषाओं का क्षेत्र मुख्य रूप से भारत है। इसके दो भाग हैं। एक तो हिमालय की तराईवाला भाग जिसकी सीमा शिमला की पहाड़ियों तक है तथा दूसरा मध्यभारत का छोटा नागपुरवाला भाग। इस शाखा की मुख्य उपभाषाएँ हैं : संथाली, मुंडारी, कनावरी, खड़िया, हो एवं शवर। मुंडा भाषाओं का भारतीय भाषाओं पर पर्याप्त प्रभाव है।\n\nमानख्मेर शाखा की भाषाएँ, वर्तमान समय में मुख्य रूप से स्याम, बर्मा और भारत में बोली जाती हैं। इस शाखा की दो मुख्य भाषाएँ हैं-मान एवं ख्मेर। मान का क्षेत्र बर्मा की मरतबान खाड़ी का तटवर्ती भाग है। यह किसी समय बड़ी समृद्धि साहित्यिक भाषा थी। मान के शिलालेख 11वीं शताब्दी के आसपास के हैं। ख्मेर का क्षेत्र बर्मा एवं स्याम है। ख्मेर भाषा के शिलालेख 7वीं शताब्दी के आसपास के हैं। भारत के आसाम प्रदेश की खासी पहाड़ियों पर बोली जानेवाली \"खासी\" अथवा \"खसिया\" (कई बातों में भिन्न होने पर भी) इसी शाखा से संबंध रखती है। निकोबार की \"निकोबारी\" एवं बर्मा के वनों में बोली जानेवाली \"पलौंग\" आदि भाषाओं का संबंध भी इस शाखा से है।\n\nअनामी अनाम प्रदेश की भाषा है जो मुख्य रूप से हिंदचीन के पूर्वी किराने के भागों में बोली जाती है। यह एक प्रकार से मिश्रित भाषा है, जिसमें कुछ विशेषताएँ मानख्मेर शाखा की एवं कुछ विशेषताएँ चीनी भाषा की हैं। इसलिए कुछ लोग इसकी गणना इस परिवार में न कर चीनी परिवार में करते हैं।\n\nएक ही परिवार की होने पर भी इस परिवार की भाषाओं में पर्याप्त भिन्नता है। यों मुख्य रूप से भाषाएँ श्लिष्ट योगात्मक भाषाएँ हैं किंतु साथ ही कुछ भाषाओं में अयोगात्मक (एकाक्षरी) भाषाओं के लक्षण भी दिखाई पड़ते हैं।\n\nप्रोटो-भाषा\nहैरी एल शॉर्टो ने मोन-खमेर तुलनात्मक शब्दकोश में प्रोटो-मोन-खमेर के पुनर्निर्माण पर बहुत काम किया गया है। मुंडा भाषाओं पर बहुत कम काम किया गया है, जो अच्छी तरह से प्रलेखित नहीं हैं।\n\nजॉर्ज वैन ड्रेम (2011) का प्रस्ताव है कि ऑस्ट्रोआयटिक की मातृभूमि दक्षिणी चीन में कहीं है। उनका सुझाव है कि पर्ल नदी (चीन) का क्षेत्र ऑस्ट्रोसीटिक भाषाओं और लोगों की संभावित मातृभूमि है। उन्होंने आगे कहा, आनुवंशिक अध्ययनों के आधार पर, कि ताइवान से क्रै-दाई लोगों के प्रवासन ने मूल ऑस्ट्रोआयसटिक भाषा को बदल दिया लेकिन लोगों पर प्रभाव केवल मामूली था। स्थानीय ऑस्ट्रोसिएटिक वक्ताओं ने क्रै-दाई भाषाओं को अपनाया और आंशिक रूप से उनकी संस्कृति।\n\nभाषाविद् सागरार्ट (2011) और बेलवुड (2013) के अनुसार दक्षिणी चीन में यांग्त्ज़ी नदी के किनारे ऑस्ट्रोसीएटिक की उत्पत्ति हुई है।\n\nपूर्वी एशिया में प्राचीन लोगों के बारे में 2015 के एक आनुवांशिक और भाषाई शोध में आज के दक्षिणी चीन या इससे भी आगे उत्तर में ऑस्ट्रोआटिक भाषा की उत्पत्ति और मातृभूमि का सुझाव दिया गया है।\n\nऑस्ट्रोएस्टैटिक प्रवास\nमित्सुरू सकितानी सुझाव के अनुसार हापलोग्रुप O1b1 , जो कि ऑस्ट्रोअस्टैटिक लोगों और दक्षिणी चीन में कुछ अन्य जातीय समूहों में आम है, और हापलोग्रुप O1b2, जो कि आज के कोरियाई, जापानी और कुछ मांचू में आम है, यांग्त्ज़ी सभ्यता ( बाययू ) के वाहक हैं। एक अन्य अध्ययन से पता चलता है कि हापलोग्रुप O1b1 प्रमुख ऑस्ट्रोआसिस्टिक पैतृक वंश है।\n\nभारत में प्रवास\nचौबे एट अल के अनुसार, \"भारत में ऑस्ट्रो-एशियाटिक व्यक्ता आज दक्षिण पूर्व एशिया से फैलाव से निकले हैं, इसके बाद स्थानीय भारतीय आबादी के साथ ईनका समिस्रण हूआ।\n\nझांग एट अल। के अनुसार, भारत में दक्षिण-पूर्व एशिया से ऑस्ट्रोएस्टैटिक का पलायन 10,000 साल पहले अंतिम अर्घ हिमनद अधिकतम, के बाद हुआ था। अरुणकुमार एट अल का सुझाव है कि दक्षिण-पूर्व एशिया से ऑस्ट्रोएस्टैटिक का पलायन पूर्वोत्तर भारत में 5.2± 0.6 हजार बर्ष पूर्व और पूर्वी भारत में 4.3±0.2 हजार बर्ष पूर्व हुआ है।\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n खसिक भाषाएँ, भारत में बोली जाने वाली ऑस्ट्रो-एशियाई भाषाओं की एक शाखा\n निकोबारी भाषाएँ, भारत में बोली जाने वाली ऑस्ट्रो-एशियाई भाषाओं की एक अन्य शाखा\n वियतनामी भाषा, विश्व की सर्वाधिक बोली जाने वाली ऑस्ट्रो-एशियाई भाषा\n ख्मेर भाषा, विश्व की दूसरी सबसे अधिक बोली जाने वाली ऑस्ट्रो-एशियाई भाषा\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n\n Comparative Austro-Asiatic Swadesh vocabulary lists (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)\n The LINGUIST List MultiTree Project: Austro-Asiatic Family Tree\n Mon-Khmer.com: Lectures by Paul Sidwell\n Ethnologue classification\n Mon-Khmer languages at SEAlang\n\nश्रेणी:आदिवासी\nश्रेणी:आदिवासी (भारतीय)\nश्रेणी:विश्व की भाषाएँ\nश्रेणी:भारत की भाषाएँ\nश्रेणी:भाषा-विज्ञान\n \nश्रेणी:आदिवासी भाषाएँ\nश्रेणी:ऑस्ट्रो-एशियाई भाषाएँ" ]

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[ "A Confederacy of Dunces A Confederacy of Dunces A Confederacy of Dunces is a picaresque novel by American novelist John Kennedy Toole which reached publication in 1980, eleven years after Toole's suicide. Published through the efforts of writer Walker Percy (who also contributed a foreword) and Toole's mother, the book became first a cult classic, then a mainstream success; it earned Toole a posthumous Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1981, and is now considered a canonical work of modern literature of the Southern United States. The book's title refers to an epigram from Jonathan Swift's essay, \"Thoughts on Various Subjects, Moral and Diverting\": \"When", "The Neon Bible I sent it off a couple of times anyway.\" It failed to attract interest from publishers and was not released until after Toole's death, after \"Confederacy\"'s great success. Like \"A Confederacy of Dunces\", the novel had a long and difficult road to publication. \"The Neon Bible\" was written in 1954, but after initial attempts at securing publisher proved fruitless, the novel was put aside and Toole eventually began work on \"A Confederacy of Dunces\". Toole committed suicide in 1969, leaving the unpublished manuscripts of \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" and \"The Neon Bible\" in the possession of Thelma Toole, his mother.", "Boonville (novel) Boonville (novel) Boonville is a novel by Robert Mailer Anderson. It was published by Creative Arts Book Company (in association with \"Zyzzyva\" magazine, as a \"\"Zyzzyva\" First Novel\") in 2001, then reprinted by HarperCollins in 2003. It is a San Francisco Chronicle Best Seller and was called one of the \"Top 10 Literary Events of 2001\" \"It's the funniest first novel by an American writer to come my way since John Kennedy Toole's \"A Confederacy of Dunces.\" -Jonathan Yardley, \"Washington Post\" \"A sardonic and beautifully imagined first novel...pages of well-tuned humor...[with] an exemplary eye for emotional detail.\" -\"San Francisco Weekly\"", "The Neon Bible The Neon Bible The Neon Bible is John Kennedy Toole's first novel, written at the age of 16. Its main appeal is as an early look at the writer who would later write \"A Confederacy of Dunces\". Toole, describing the novel during correspondence with an editor, wrote \"In 1954, when I was 16, I wrote a book called \"The Neon Bible\", a grim, adolescent, sociological attack upon the hatreds caused by the various Calvinist religions in the South—and the fundamentalist mentality is one of the roots of what was happening in Alabama, etc. The book, of course, was bad, but", "John Kennedy Toole John Kennedy Toole John Kennedy Toole (; December 17, 1937 – March 26, 1969) was an American novelist from New Orleans, Louisiana, whose posthumously published novel \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. He also wrote \"The Neon Bible\". Although several people in the literary world felt his writing skills were praiseworthy, Toole's novels were rejected during his lifetime. After suffering from paranoia and depression due in part to these failures, he committed suicide at the age of 31. Toole was born to a middle-class family in New Orleans. From a young age, his mother taught him", "New Orleans Review Henry Prize Stories. In 1978 the journal published an excerpt from \"Confederacy of Dunces\" by John Kennedy Toole with a foreword by Walker Percy, who was a contributing editor to the magazine. The novel was subsequently published in 1980 by LSU Press and was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1981. \"New Orleans Review\" published a critically acclaimed special issue on New Orleans by New Orleans writers and photographers in 2006 in the wake of Hurricane Katrina, which Tony D'Souza wrote in \"Salon\" is \"a post-Katrina issue that avoids easy responses to the disaster, withholds simple prognoses for the future, and", "North American English regional phonology today. One of the most detailed phonetic depictions of an extreme \"yat\" accent of the early 20th century is found in the speech of the character Krazy Kat in the comic strip of the same name by George Herriman. Such extreme accents still be found in parts of Mid-City and the 9th ward, Jefferson Parish, as well as in St. Bernard Parish, just east of New Orleans. The novel \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" by John Kennedy Toole often employs the Yat accent. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, according to the ANAE's research, is not quite a member of the Midland dialect region.", "Idiots in the Machine Savio was inspired to write \"Idiots\" after stumbling upon John Kennedy Toole's \"A Confederacy of Dunces\". As Savio noted in his acknowledgement, the first two paragraphs of \"Idiots\" are an homage to Toole's opening. \"Idiots in the Machine\" was actually sold as a movie before it was sold as a novel. Although it is common for film rights to be purchased before publication, Sony Pictures purchased the film rights for Academy Award-winning producer Wendy Finerman six years before the novel was published. Savio has said in interviews that after writing several screenplay versions, he went back and rewrote the novel.", "Cassian of Imola two references in modern literature to Cassian. In the novel \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" by John Kennedy Toole, protagonist Ignatius Reilly informs one of his professors that \"St. Cassian of Imola was stabbed to death by his students with their styli.\" (Grove Press edition, p. 128). Annie Dillard also makes a reference to him in her 1992 novel \"The Living.\" Bethel College had a \"Cassianus Lounge\" in the faculty offices area. Saint Cassian is also mentioned in Frederick Buechener's novel \"The Storm.\" Cassian of Imola Cassian, or Saint Cassian of Imola, or Cassius was a Christian saint of the 4th", "Dril like \"a spambot equivalent to the kind of crazy that Clint Eastwood portrays.\" At \"Kotaku\", Gita Jackson called dril a \"joke account that also inadvertently catalogues ... every way to be mad online.\" In a lecture given at the University of Pennsylvania, American poet Patricia Lockwood described dril as a literary alter ego of Twitter users and the Internet in general. Comparing the account's persona to Ignatius J. Reilly, the protagonist of John Kennedy Toole's novel \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" (1980), Lockwood cited dril as an example of new possibilities in first-person narrative that could be explored online. Lockwood said", "Boethius as a saint was confirmed in 1883, and in the Church of Santa Maria in Portico in Rome. His feast day is 23 October. Pope Benedict XVI explained the relevance of Boethius to modern day Christians by linking his teachings to an understanding of Providence. He is also venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church. In the American novel \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" by John Kennedy Toole, Boethius is the favorite philosopher of main character Ignatius J. Reilly. \"The Boethian Wheel\" is a theme throughout the book, which won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1981. Boethius Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius,", "Steve Toltz \"the most beloved man in all of Australia\". The novel spans the entirety of Martin's life and several years after (a range never specified in the text, but starting after World War II and ending in the early 2000s), and is set in Australia, Paris, and Thailand. The novel has repeatedly been compared favourably to John Kennedy Toole's Pulitzer Prize winning novel \"A Confederacy of Dunces\". \"A Fraction of the Whole\" was shortlisted for the 2008 Man Booker Prize and the 2008 Guardian First Book Award. His second novel, \"Quicksand\", published in 2015, won the Russell Prize. Toltz attended Killara", "12th Ward of New Orleans Uptown New Orleans, part of the Broadmoor neighborhood, and the neighborhoods of Milan and Touro. Landmarks include Touro Infirmary, Saint Charles General Hospital. Down from Napoleon Avenue is a series of streets perpendicular to the River named after the victories of Napoleon I. Other streets in this series are named after cities Napoleon dreamed of conquering but never reached (Constantinople) or at which his armies were defeated (Cadiz). Constantinople Street was the home of the fictitious New Orleans character Ignatius J. Reilly in John Kennedy Toole's novel \"A Confederacy of Dunces\". Multi-platinum selling and Grammy-nominated recording artist Mystikal grew up" ]

[ "A Confederacy of Dunces a true genius appears in the world, you may know him by this sign, that the dunces are all in confederacy against him.\" Its central character, Ignatius J. Reilly, is an educated but slothful 30-year-old man living with his mother in the Uptown neighborhood of early-1960s New Orleans who, in his quest for employment, has various adventures with colorful French Quarter characters. Toole wrote the novel in 1963 during his last few months in Puerto Rico. Ignatius Jacques Reilly is something of a modern Don Quixote—eccentric, idealistic, and creative, sometimes to the point of delusion. In his foreword to the", "A Confederacy of Dunces In 2012, there was a version in negotiation with director James Bobin and potentially starring Zach Galifianakis. In a 2013 interview, Steven Soderbergh remarked \"I think it's cursed. I'm not prone to superstition, but that project has got bad mojo on it.\" In November 2015, Huntington Theatre Company debuted the world premiere of a stage version of \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" written by Jeffrey Hatcher in their Avenue of the Arts/BU Theatre location in Boston, starring Nick Offerman as Ignatius J. Reilly. It set a record as the company's highest-grossing production. A Confederacy of Dunces A Confederacy of Dunces is", "A Confederacy of Dunces to D. H. Holmes, including Werlein's Music Store and local cinemas such as the Prytania Theater. Some readers from elsewhere assume Ignatius's favorite soft drink, Dr. Nut, to be fictitious, but it was an actual local soft drink brand of the era. The \"Paradise Hot Dogs\" vending carts are an easily recognized satire of those actually branded \"Lucky Dogs\". The structure of \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" reflects the structure of Ignatius's favorite book, Boethius' \"Consolation of Philosophy\". Like Boethius' book, \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" is divided into chapters that are further divided into a varying number of subchapters. Key parts", "Picaresque novel society. Miguel de Cervantes wrote several works \"in the picaresque manner, notably \"Rinconete y Cortadillo\" (1613) and \"El coloquio de los perros\" (1613; “Colloquy of the Dogs”)\". \"Cervantes also incorporated elements of the picaresque into his greatest novel, \"Don Quixote\" (1605, 1615)\", the \"single most important progenitor of the modern novel\", that M. H. Abrams has described as a \"quasi-picaresque narrative\". Here the hero is not a rogue but a foolish knight. In order to understand the historical context that led to the development of these paradigmatic picaresque novels in Spain during the 16th and 17th centuries, it is essential", "Picaresque novel of the form in his \"The Good Companions\" (1929) which won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Fiction. Picaresque novel The picaresque novel (Spanish: \"picaresca\", from \"pícaro\", for \"rogue\" or \"rascal\") is a genre of prose fiction that depicts the adventures of a roguish, but \"appealing hero\", of low social class, who lives by his or her wits in a corrupt society. Picaresque novels typically adopt a realistic style, with elements of comedy and satire. This style of novel originated in Spain in 1554 and flourished throughout Europe for more than 200 years, though the term \"picaresque novel\" was", "Picaresque novel Picaresque novel The picaresque novel (Spanish: \"picaresca\", from \"pícaro\", for \"rogue\" or \"rascal\") is a genre of prose fiction that depicts the adventures of a roguish, but \"appealing hero\", of low social class, who lives by his or her wits in a corrupt society. Picaresque novels typically adopt a realistic style, with elements of comedy and satire. This style of novel originated in Spain in 1554 and flourished throughout Europe for more than 200 years, though the term \"picaresque novel\" was only coined in 1810. It continues to influence modern literature. The term is also sometimes used to describe works,", "Picaresque novel Vladimir Voinovich's \"The Life and Extraordinary Adventures of Private Ivan Chonkin\" (1969), Angela Carter's \"Nights at the Circus\" (1984), Umberto Eco's \"Baudolino\" (2000), and Aravind Adiga's \"The White Tiger\" (Booker Prize 2008). William S. Burroughs was a devoted fan of picaresque novels, and gave a series of lectures involving the topic in 1979 at Naropa University in Colorado. In these he says it is impossible to separate the anti-hero from the Picaresque novel, that most of these are funny, and they all have protagonist who are outsiders by their nature. His list of picaresque novels includes Petronius' novel \"Satyricon\" (54-68", "Picaresque novel can simply refer to an episodic recounting of the adventures of an anti-hero on the road. Laurence Sterne's \"The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman\" (1761-1767) and \"A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy\" (1768) each have strong picaresque elements. Voltaire's French novel \"Candide\" (1759) contains elements of the picaresque. An interesting variation on the tradition of the picaresque is \"The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan\" (1824), a satirical view on early 19th-century Persia, written by a British diplomat, James Morier. Elements of the picaresque novel are found in Charles Dickens’s \"The Pickwick Papers\" (1836–37). Gogol occasionally used", "Picaresque novel contemporaries was Mateo Alemán's \"Guzmán de Alfarache\" (1599), which to them was the \"Libro del pícaro\" (The Book of the Pícaro). While elements of Chaucer and Boccaccio have a picaresque feel and may have contributed to the style, the modern picaresque begins with \"Lazarillo de Tormes\", which was published anonymously in 1554 in Burgos, Medina del Campo, and Alcalá de Henares in Spain, and also in Antwerp, which at the time was under Spanish rule as a major city in the Spanish Netherlands. It is variously considered either the first picaresque novel or at least the antecedent of the genre.", "Picaresque novel it had no association with literature. The word \"pícaro\" does not appear in \"Lazarillo de Tormes\" (1554), the novella credited by modern scholars with founding the genre. The expression \"picaresque novel\" was coined in 1810. Whether it has any validity at all as a generic label in the Spanish sixteenth and seventeenth centuries—and Cervantes certainly used \"picaresque\" with a different meaning than it has today—has been called into question. There is unresolved debate within Hispanic studies about what the term means, or meant, and which works were, or should be, so called. The only work clearly called \"picaresque\" by its", "Picaresque novel master of the 19th Century English picaresque. Like Moll Flanders, Thackeray's best-known work, \"Vanity Fair A Novel Without a Hero\" (1847-1848) (a title ironically derived from John Bunyan's Puritan allegory of redemption \"The Pilgrim's Progress\" (1678)) follows the career of fortune-hunting adventuress Becky Sharp. His earlier novel \"The Luck of Barry Lyndon\" (1844) recounts the rise and fall of an Irish arriviste conniving his way into the 18th century English aristocracy. In the English-speaking world, the term \"picaresque\" has referred more to a literary technique or model than to the precise genre that the Spanish call \"picaresco\". The English-language term", "John Kennedy Toole academic he was valued on the faculty party circuit for his wit and gift for mimicry. His studies were interrupted when he was drafted into the army, where he taught English to Spanish-speaking recruits in San Juan, Puerto Rico. After receiving a promotion, he used his private office to begin writing \"A Confederacy of Dunces\", which he finished at his parents' home after his discharge. \"Dunces\" is a picaresque novel featuring the misadventures of protagonist Ignatius J. Reilly, a lazy, obese, misanthropic, self-styled scholar who lives at home with his mother. It is hailed for its accurate depictions of New", "Picaresque novel A. Parker, because of his baroque style and the study of the delinquent psychology. However, a more recent school of thought, led by Francisco Rico, rejects Parker's view, contending instead that the protagonist, Pablos, is a highly unrealistic character, simply a means for Quevedo to launch classist, racist and sexist attacks. Moreover, argues Rico, the structure of the novel is radically different from previous works of the picaresque genre: Quevedo uses the conventions of the picaresque as a mere vehicle to show off his abilities with conceit and rhetoric, rather than to construct a satirical critique of Spanish Golden Age", "Picaresque novel also has much in common with the picaresque. The classic Chinese novel \"Journey to the West\" is considered to have considerable picaresque elements. Having been written in 1590, it is contemporary with much of the above—but is unlikely to have been directly influenced by the European genre. Henry Fielding proved his mastery of the form in \"Joseph Andrews\" (1742), \"The Life and Death of Jonathan Wild, the Great\" (1743) and \"The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling\" (1749), though Fielding attributed his style to an \"imitation of the manner of Cervantes, author of \"Don Quixote\"\". William Makepeace Thackeray is the", "Picaresque novel like Cervantes' \"Don Quixote\" and Charles Dickens' \"Pickwick Papers\", which only contain some of the genre's elements. According to the traditional view of Thrall and Hibbard (first published in 1936), seven qualities distinguish the picaresque novel or narrative form, all or some of which an author may employ for effect: In the English-speaking world, the term \"picaresque\" is often used loosely to refer to novels that contain some elements of this genre; e.g. an episodic recounting of adventures on the road. The word \"pícaro\" first starts to appear in Spain with the current meaning in 1545, though at the time", "Tinkers (novel) the Pulitzer Prize announcement, noting that it was the first novel since \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" in 1981 to come from a small publisher and win that award. Tinkers (novel) Tinkers (2009) is the first novel by American author, Paul Harding. The novel tells the stories of George Washington Crosby, an elderly clock repairman, and of his father, Howard. On his deathbed, George remembers his father, who was a tinker selling household goods from a donkey-drawn cart and who struggled with epilepsy. The novel was published by Bellevue Literary Press, a sister organization of the Bellevue Literary Review. \"Tinkers\" won", "Picaresque novel which was read widely in Spain in the time of Al-Andalus and possessed a literary tradition with similar themes, is thus another possible influence on the picaresque style. Al-Hamadhani (d.1008) of Hamadhan (Iran) is credited with inventing the literary genre of \"maqamat\" in which a wandering vagabond makes his living on the gifts his listeners give him following his extemporaneous displays of rhetoric, erudition, or verse, often done with a trickster's touch. Ibn al-Astarkuwi or al-Ashtarkuni (d.1134) also wrote in the genre \"maqamat\", comparable to later European picaresque. The curious presence of Russian loan-words in the text of the \"Lazarillo\"", "Picaresque novel the technique, as in \"Dead Souls\" (1842–52). Mark Twain's \"Adventures of Huckleberry Finn\" (1884) also has some elements of the picaresque novel. \"Kvachi Kvachantiradze\" is a novel written by Mikheil Javakhishvili in 1924.This is, in brief, the story of a swindler, a Georgian Felix Krull, or perhaps a cynical Don Quixote, named Kvachi Kvachantiradze: womanizer, cheat, perpetrator of insurance fraud, bank-robber, associate of Rasputin, filmmaker, revolutionary, and pimp. \"The Twelve Chairs\" (1928) and its sequel, \"The Little Golden Calf\" (1931), by Ilya Ilf and Yevgeni Petrov became classics of the 20th century Russian satire and basis for numerous film adaptations.", "A Confederacy of Dunces of some chapters are outside of the main narrative. In \"Consolation\", sections of narrative prose alternate with metrical verse. In \"Confederacy,\" such narrative interludes vary more widely in form and include light verse, journal entries by Ignatius, and also letters between himself and Myrna. A copy of the \"Consolation of Philosophy\" within the narrative itself also becomes an explicit plot device in several ways. As outlined in the introduction to a later revised edition, the book would never have been published if Toole's mother had not found a smeared carbon copy of the manuscript left in the house following Toole's", "A Confederacy of Dunces the novel, she decides she will marry Claude. But first, she agrees with Santa Battaglia (who has not only recently become Mrs. Reilly's new best friend, but also harbors an intense dislike for Ignatius) that Ignatius is insane and arranges to have him sent to a mental hospital. Toole provides comical descriptions of two of the films Ignatius watches without naming them; they can be recognized as \"Billy Rose's Jumbo\" and \"That Touch of Mink\", both Doris Day features released in 1962. In another passage, Ignatius declines to see another film, a \"widely praised Swedish drama about a man who", "Picaresque novel Camilo José Cela's \"La familia de Pascual Duarte\" (1942). The Adventures of Augie March by Saul Bellow (1953). John A. Lee's \"Shining with the Shiner\" (1944) tells amusing tales about New Zealand folk hero Ned Slattery (1840–1927) surviving by his wits and beating the Protestant work ethic', So too is Thomas Mann's \"Confessions of Felix Krull\" (1954), which like many novels emphasizes the theme of a charmingly roguish ascent in the social order. Günter Grass's \"The Tin Drum\" (1959) is a German picaresque novel. Recent examples include \"Under the Net\" (1954) by Iris Murdoch, Jerzy Kosinski's \"The Painted Bird\" (1965),", "A Confederacy of Dunces clock on the down-river side of the 800 block of Canal Street, New Orleans, the former site of the D. H. Holmes Department Store, now the Hyatt French Quarter Hotel. The statue mimics the opening scene: Ignatius waits for his mother under the D.H. Holmes clock, clutching a Werlein's shopping bag, dressed in a hunting cap, flannel shirt, baggy pants and scarf, 'studying the crowd of people for signs of bad taste.' The statue is modeled on New Orleans actor John \"Spud\" McConnell, who portrayed Ignatius in a stage version of the novel. Various local businesses are mentioned in addition", "North American Confederacy \"Tom Paine Maru\", \"The Gallatin Divergence\", and \"The American Zone\" were all Prometheus Award finalists. North American Confederacy North American Confederacy is an alternate history series of novels created by L. Neil Smith. The series includes the novel \"The Probability Broach\" and its sequels, and takes place in a country of the same name. The ostensible point of divergence leading to the North American Confederacy (NAC) is the addition of a single word in the preamble to the United States Declaration of Independence, where in it states that governments \"derive their just power from the \"unanimous\" consent of the governed.\"", "North American Confederacy North American Confederacy North American Confederacy is an alternate history series of novels created by L. Neil Smith. The series includes the novel \"The Probability Broach\" and its sequels, and takes place in a country of the same name. The ostensible point of divergence leading to the North American Confederacy (NAC) is the addition of a single word in the preamble to the United States Declaration of Independence, where in it states that governments \"derive their just power from the \"unanimous\" consent of the governed.\" Inspired by this wording, Albert Gallatin intercedes in the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794 to the", "A Confederacy of Dunces personal orientations could hardly be more different, Myrna and Ignatius fascinate one another. The novel repeatedly refers to Myrna and Ignatius having engaged in tag-team attacks on the teachings of their college professors. For most of the novel, she is seen only in the regular correspondence which the two sustain since her return to New York, a correspondence heavily weighted with sexual analysis on the part of Myrna and contempt for her apparent sacrilegious activity by Ignatius. Officially, they both deplore everything the other stands for. Though neither of them will admit it, their correspondence indicates that, separated though they", "Picaresque novel to take into consideration the circumstances surrounding the lives of \"conversos,\" whose ancestors had been Jewish, and whose New Christian faith was subjected to close scrutiny and mistrust. In other European countries, these Spanish novels were read and imitated. In Germany, Grimmelshausen wrote \"Simplicius Simplicissimus\" (1669), the most important of non-Spanish picaresque novels. It describes the devastation caused by the Thirty Years' War. Le Sage's \"Gil Blas\" (1715) is a classic example of the genre, which in France had declined into an aristocratic adventure. In Britain, the first example is Thomas Nashe's \"The Unfortunate Traveller\" (1594) in which a court", "A Confederacy of Dunces are by half a continent, many of their actions are meant to impress one another. Mrs. Irene Reilly is the mother of Ignatius. She has been widowed for 21 years. At first, she allows Ignatius his space and drives him where he needs to go, but throughout the course of the novel she learns to stand up for herself. She also has a drinking problem, most frequently indulging in muscatel, although Ignatius exaggerates that she is a raving, abusive drunk. She falls for Claude Robichaux, a fairly well-off man with a railroad pension and rental properties. At the end of", "A Confederacy of Dunces was losing his soul\". This is most likely Ingmar Bergman's \"Winter Light\", also released in 1962. In another passage, Irene Reilly recalls the night Ignatius was conceived: after she and her husband viewed \"Red Dust\", released in October 1932. The book is famous for its rich depiction of New Orleans and the city's dialects, including Yat. Many locals and writers think that it is the best and most accurate depiction of the city in a work of fiction. The city described in the novel differs in some ways from the actual New Orleans. The first chapter mentions the sun setting", "A Confederacy of Dunces 1969 suicide, at 31. She was persistent and tried several different publishers, to no avail. Thelma repeatedly called Walker Percy, an author and college instructor at Loyola University New Orleans, to demand for him to read it. He initially resisted; however, as he recounts in the book's foreword: The book was published by LSU Press in 1980. It won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1981. In 2005, Blackstone Audio released an unabridged audiobook of the novel, read by Barrett Whitener. While Tulane University in New Orleans retains a collection of Toole's papers, and some early drafts have been found,", "Picaresque novel also suggests the influence of medieval Slavic tales of tricksters, thieves, itinerant prostitutes, and brigands, who were common figures in the impoverished areas bordering on Germany to the west. When diplomatic ties to Germany and Spain were established under the emperor Charles V, these tales began to be read in Italian translations in the Iberian Peninsula. As narrator of his own adventures, Lázaro seeks to portray himself as the victim of both his ancestry and his circumstance. This means of appealing to the compassion of the reader would be directly challenged by later picaresque novels such as \"Guzmán de Alfarache\"", "Overture to a Picaresque Comedy Overture to a Picaresque Comedy The Overture to a Picaresque Comedy is a concert overture composed by Arnold Bax in 1930. It was premiered by the Hallé Orchestra conducted by the dedicatee, Sir Hamilton Harty, in November 1931. The work is untypical of its composer, who was not usually associated with comedy in music. Bax was generally associated with music that the 1955 reference work \"The Record Guide\" called \"intrinsically noble, humane, and capable of a certain melancholy grandeur\". In his youth, Bax had been greatly taken with the works of Richard Strauss, before his enthusiasm was diverted to a", "The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein Hunt, as well as the \"nature of the manuscript evidence\", showed that the work was \"conceived and mainly written by Mary Shelley\". The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein is a 2007 book written and published by John Lauritsen, in which the author argues that the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, not his wife Mary Shelley, is the real author of \"Frankenstein\" (1818), that the novel \"has consistently been underrated and misinterpreted\", and that its dominant theme is \"male love\". Lauritsen maintains that handwriting cannot be used to determine the actual author of \"Frankenstein\". His work received positive", "The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein is a 2007 book written and published by John Lauritsen, in which the author argues that the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, not his wife Mary Shelley, is the real author of \"Frankenstein\" (1818), that the novel \"has consistently been underrated and misinterpreted\", and that its dominant theme is \"male love\". Lauritsen maintains that handwriting cannot be used to determine the actual author of \"Frankenstein\". His work received positive reviews in gay publications. However, some commentators in other publications rejected Lauritsen's views and supported the conventional view that \"Frankenstein\" was written", "Overture to a Picaresque Comedy is a waltz in the promised Straussian pastiche, in which, Cardus commented, Strauss's characters Octavian, the Marschallin and Till Eulenspiegel play hide and seek. Harty recorded the work for Columbia in 1935, conducting the London Philharmonic Orchestra. Subsequent recordings have been conducted by Dmitri Mitropoulos, Igor Buketoff, Bryden Thomson and David Lloyd-Jones. Overture to a Picaresque Comedy The Overture to a Picaresque Comedy is a concert overture composed by Arnold Bax in 1930. It was premiered by the Hallé Orchestra conducted by the dedicatee, Sir Hamilton Harty, in November 1931. The work is untypical of its composer, who was not", "Picaresque novel AD), \"The Unfortunate Traveller\" (1594) by Thomas Nashe, (1911), both \"A Maiden Voyage\" (1943) and \"A Voice Through a Cloud\" (1950) by Denton Welch, \"Two Serious Ladies\" (1943) by Jane Bowles, \"Death on Credit\" (1936) by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, and even himself. He also relates a series of real life newspaper stories that Burroughs himself had collected, in which people abandoned their jobs in order to save their own skin, leaving numbers of people to die. Jaroslav Hašek's \"The Good Soldier Švejk\" (1923) is an example of a work from Central Europe, that has picaresque elements. J. B. Priestley made use", "Dunces and Dragons Dunces and Dragons \"Dunces and Dragons\", also known as \"Lost in Time\", is the sixth episode of the fourth season and the 66th overall episode of the American animated television series \"SpongeBob SquarePants\". It was written by Zeus Cervas, Erik Wiese and Tim Hill, and the animation was directed by supervising director, Alan Smart and Tom Yasumi. Cervas and Wiese also functioned as storyboard directors. The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on February 20, 2006 as a half-hour special. The series follows the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the", "Dunces and Dragons it would have been better as an 11 minute, rather than 22.\" Dunces and Dragons \"Dunces and Dragons\", also known as \"Lost in Time\", is the sixth episode of the fourth season and the 66th overall episode of the American animated television series \"SpongeBob SquarePants\". It was written by Zeus Cervas, Erik Wiese and Tim Hill, and the animation was directed by supervising director, Alan Smart and Tom Yasumi. Cervas and Wiese also functioned as storyboard directors. The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on February 20, 2006 as a half-hour special. The series follows the adventures", "Picaresque novel page, Jack Wilson, exposes the underclass life in a string of European cities through lively, often brutal descriptions. The body of Tobias Smollett's work, and Daniel Defoe's \"Moll Flanders\" (1722) are considered picaresque, but they lack the sense of religious redemption of delinquency that was very important in Spanish and German novels. The triumph of Moll Flanders is more economic than moral. While the morés of the early 18th Century wouldn't permit Moll to be a heroine per se, Defoe hardly disguises his admiration for her resilience and resourcefulness. The autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini, written in Florence beginning in 1558,", "A Confederacy of Dunces prevented this. Later, John Candy and Chris Farley were touted for the lead, but both of them, like Belushi, also died at an early age, leading many to ascribe a curse to the role. Director John Waters was interested in directing an adaptation that would have starred Divine, who also died at an early age, as Ignatius. British performer and writer Stephen Fry was at one point commissioned to adapt Toole's book for the screen. He was sent to New Orleans by Paramount Studios in 1997 to get background for a screenplay adaptation. John Goodman, a longtime resident of New", "A Confederacy of Dunces over the Mississippi River at the foot of Canal Street. As this direction is to the south-east, this is clearly impossible in reality. Possibly this is a joke by Toole related to the fact that the area across the river is known as the \"West Bank\", despite the fact that because of the twists of the river it is actually to the south or east from parts of central New Orleans. Such details are not likely to be noticed by people who are not familiar with New Orleans. A bronze statue of Ignatius J. Reilly can be found under the", "Lost Cause of the Confederacy With the Wind\" ... Southerners were portrayed as noble, heroic figures, living in a doomed romantic society, who rejected the realistic advice offered by the Rhett Butler character and never understood the risk they were taking in going to war. The 2003 Civil War film \"Gods and Generals\", based on Jeff Shaara's 1998 novel of the same name, is widely viewed as championing the Lost Cause ideology by creating a presentation that was favorable to the Confederacy. Writing in the Journal of American History, historian Steven E. Woodworth derided the movie as a modern day telling of Lost Cause mythology.", "A Dream of Kings (novel) A Dream of Kings (novel) A Dream of Kings is a novel written by American author Davis Grubb. The novel describes the life of Tom Christopher during the American Civil War in Virginia. The novel is set in Virginia, which then becomes West Virginia, and on American Civil War battlefields between 1855 and 1864. Tom Christopher lives with his Aunt Sarah, and another girl his aunt has taken in, Catherine Ellen Hornbrook, or just Cathi as she is called. Her father Abijah Hornbrook, never appears in the novel, but his presence is felt. The \"dream of kings\" is the Confederacy.", "Picaresque (album) Heatseekers chart, and number 128 on the \"Billboard\" 200. \"Pitchfork\" placed \"Picaresque\" at number 143 on their list of top 200 albums of the 2000s. All songs written by Colin Meloy. The \"Mad Men\" episode \"\" opened with a montage set to a segment of the song \"The Infanta\". Picaresque (album) Picaresque is the third studio album from The Decemberists. It was released in 2005 on the Kill Rock Stars record label. The word \"picaresque\" refers to a form of satirical prose originating in Spain, depicting realistically and often humorously the adventures of a low-born, roguish hero living by his", "Overture to a Picaresque Comedy fascination with Celtic culture. When Sir Hamilton Harty approached him in 1930 to write a short overture for the Hallé Orchestra , Bax promised him \"Straussian pastiche\", and produced what the composer's biographer, Lewis Foreman calls \"this memorable and high-spirited score complete with lapses into waltz time.\" The word \"picaresque\" is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as designating \"a genre of narrative fiction which deals episodically with the adventures of an individual, usually a roguish and dishonest but attractive hero\". Bax wrote, \"This overture does not pretend to be the prelude to any particular play. It is simply a", "The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein that while he argues that Mary Shelley was not well educated enough to have written \"Frankenstein\", his argument fails because \"it is not a good, let alone a great novel and hardly merits the attention it has been given.\" Lauritsen replied that \"Frankenstein\" \"is a radical and disturbing work, containing some of the most beautiful prose in the English language ... a profound and moving masterpiece, fully worthy of its author, Percy Bysshe Shelley.\" \"The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein\" received positive reviews from Jim Herrick in \"Gay Humanist Quarterly\", Hubert Kennedy in \"The Guide\", and Douglas Sadownick in \"The Gay", "Picaresque (album) Picaresque (album) Picaresque is the third studio album from The Decemberists. It was released in 2005 on the Kill Rock Stars record label. The word \"picaresque\" refers to a form of satirical prose originating in Spain, depicting realistically and often humorously the adventures of a low-born, roguish hero living by his or her wits in a corrupt society. The album was recorded at the Prescott Church in northeast Portland, which the band rented for one month in the summer of 2004. To facilitate the creative process and avoid creative block, band members filled a used bike helmet with slips of", "A Confederacy of Dunces hide their titillating effect on him. Although considering himself to have an expansive and learned worldview, Ignatius has an aversion to ever leaving the town of his birth, and frequently bores friends and strangers with the story of his sole, abortive journey out of New Orleans, a trip to Baton Rouge on a Greyhound Scenicruiser bus, which Ignatius recounts as a traumatic ordeal of extreme horror. Myrna Minkoff, referred to by Ignatius as \"that minx\", is a Jewish beatnik from New York City, whom Ignatius met while she was in college in New Orleans. Though their political, social, religious, and", "A Confederacy of Dunces book, Walker Percy describes Ignatius as a \"slob extraordinary, a mad Oliver Hardy, a fat Don Quixote, a perverse Thomas Aquinas rolled into one\". He disdains modernity, particularly pop culture. The disdain becomes his obsession: he goes to movies in order to mock their perversity and express his outrage with the contemporary world's lack of \"theology and geometry\". He prefers the scholastic philosophy of the Middle Ages, and the Early Medieval philosopher Boethius in particular. However, he also enjoys many modern comforts and conveniences and is given to claiming that the rednecks of rural Louisiana hate all modern technology which", "A Confederacy of Dunces the location of the original manuscript is unknown. In March 1984, LSU staged a musical comedy production of the book, with actor Scott Harlan playing Ignatius. Kerry Shale read the book for BBC Radio 4's \"Book at Bedtime\" in 1982, and later adapted the book into a one-man show which he performed at the Adelaide Festival in 1990, at the Gate Theatre in London, and for BBC Radio. There have been repeated attempts to turn the book into a film. In 1982, Harold Ramis was to write and direct an adaptation, starring John Belushi and Richard Pryor, but Belushi's death", "A Confederacy of Dunces they associate with progress. The workings of his pyloric valve play an important role in his life, reacting strongly to incidents in a fashion that he likens to Cassandra in terms of prophetic significance. Ignatius is of the mindset that he does not belong in the world and that his numerous failings are the work of some higher power. He continually refers to the goddess Fortuna as having spun him downwards on her wheel of fortune. Ignatius loves to eat, and his masturbatory fantasies lead in strange directions. His mockery of obscene images is portrayed as a defensive posture to", "A Confederacy of Dunces Orleans, was slated to play Ignatius at one point. A version adapted by Steven Soderbergh and Scott Kramer, and slated to be directed by David Gordon Green, was scheduled for release in 2005. The film was to star Will Ferrell as Ignatius and Lily Tomlin as Irene. A staged reading of the script took place at the 8th Nantucket Film Festival, with Ferrell as Ignatius, Anne Meara as Irene, Paul Rudd as Officer Mancuso, Kristen Johnston as Lana Lee, Mos Def as Burma Jones, Rosie Perez as Darlene, Olympia Dukakis as Santa Battaglia and Miss Trixie, Natasha Lyonne as Myrna,", "North American Confederacy coordinator of actions in national emergencies. Along the way, the libertarian philosophies of the Gallatin Party in the NAC remain in conflict with the remnants of Federalist Party (sometimes referred to as \"Hamiltonians\", after the man considered the real villain in the old United States, Alexander Hamilton), which continues to promote strong central government. \"The Probability Broach\" includes a timeline for the History of the United States, which includes a listing of those who followed Washington and Gallatin as the American Presidents. In this history, the US merged with several other North American nations to form the North American Confederacy", "A Confederacy of Dunces Alan Cumming as Dorian Greene, John Shea as Gonzales, Jesse Eisenberg as George, John Conlon as Claude Robichaux, Jace Alexander as Bartender Ben, Celia Weston as Miss Annie, Miss Inez & Mrs. Levy, and Dan Hedaya as Mr. Levy. Various reasons are cited as to why the Soderbergh version has yet to be filmed. They include disorganization and lack of interest at Paramount Pictures, the head of the Louisiana State Film Commission being murdered, and the devastating effects of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans. When asked why the film was never made, Will Ferrell has said it is a \"mystery\".", "Lost Cause of the Confederacy the importance of slavery) are based on historical truths (p. 46). Confederate soldiers were often outnumbered, ragged, and hungry; southern civilians did endure much material deprivation and a disproportionate amount of bereavement; U.S. forces did wreck \"\" havoc on southern infrastructure and private property and the like, yet whenever these points appear in films Gallagher considers them motifs \"celebratory\" of the Confederacy (p. 81). Lost Cause of the Confederacy The Lost Cause of the Confederacy, or simply the Lost Cause, is an American historical negationist ideology that holds that, despite losing the American Civil War, the cause of the Confederacy", "The Iowa Baseball Confederacy The Iowa Baseball Confederacy This article is about the 1986 novel \"The Iowa Baseball Confederacy,\" written by Canadian author W.P. Kinsella. It is less well known than his novel \"Shoeless Joe\", which came to prominence when it was made into the film \"Field of Dreams.\" Like Shoeless Joe, baseball is at the heart of the novel, which uses \"magic realism\" to blend events and individuals past and present with the author's love of the game. However, it covers more themes than Shoeless Joe and it explores a greater number of plot lines. Gideon Clarke has two obsessions, baseball and playing", "Wizard of the Crow a tale of eternal, essential, human folly, hilarious and endlessly inventive, like a cross between a Pynchon novel and 'A Confederacy of Dunces,' reincarnated on African soil.\" However, John Updike in \"The New Yorker\" points out that English-language readers \"do well to remember that it is a translation from a language whose narrative traditions are mostly oral and heavy on performance; the tale is fantastic and didactic, told in broad strokes of caricature ... seven hundred and sixty-six pages of fiction too aggrieved and grim to be called satire\", and ultimately concludes: \"The narrative, then, is a journey without a", "Dunces and Dragons In her review for the \"Sunday Gazette-Mail\", Jacqueline Cutler wrote that \"The yellow invertebrate, in his brown shorts and white shirt, is not going to corrupt children.\" She was positive on the episode and said, \"Nothing offensive or suggestive. But a point of logic irks: How can a crab father a whale? 'Adoption,' explains my son, the fan.\" She rated the episode for three categories—Grade C for the \"Mom\" category, A for Sis, and A- for Bro. In his review for the DVD Talk, Paul Mavis positively reacted to the episode. He said \"'Dunces & Dragons' puts a new spin", "Ocean Sea (novel) Ocean Sea (novel) Ocean Sea () is a 1993 novel by the Italian writer Alessandro Baricco. Its narrative revolves around the lives of a group of people gathered at a remote seaside hotel. The novel won the Viareggio Prize. Richard Bernstein reviewed the book for \"The New York Times\", and wrote: \"\"Ocean Sea\" unfolds in its poetically elliptical way. Mr. Baricco is a literary cubist, a stylist who looks simultaneously at the several sides of things. He switches from one rhetorical mode to another, from a kind of symbolist poetry to grand adventure narrative to picaresque comedy.\" Bernstein continued: \"This", "First White House of the Confederacy criticism from various groups and individuals including Alabama State Senator Hank Sanders, who took issue with the history of Alabama and the ideology of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy which they say was perpetuated by the displays and materials in the house, and the fact that slavery as an issue leading to the American Civil War seems to play no part in the historical presentation in the house. First White House of the Confederacy The First White House of the Confederacy was the executive residence of President Jefferson Davis and family while the capital of the Confederate States of", "Lost Cause of the Confederacy Lost Cause of the Confederacy The Lost Cause of the Confederacy, or simply the Lost Cause, is an American historical negationist ideology that holds that, despite losing the American Civil War, the cause of the Confederacy was a just and heroic one. The ideology endorses the supposed virtues of the antebellum South, viewing the war as a struggle primarily for the Southern way of life or \"states' rights\" in the face of overwhelming \"Northern aggression\". At the same time, the Lost Cause minimizes or denies outright the central role of slavery in the outbreak of the war. Lost Cause ideology", "Dunces and Dragons were discontinued later that same year. It was also included in the \"SpongeBob SquarePants: Season 4, Vol. 1\" DVD on September 12, 2006. On September 22, 2009, \"Dunces and Dragons\" was released in the \"SpongeBob SquarePants: The First 100 Episodes\" DVD, alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five. \"Dunces and Dragons\" drew 8.6 million total viewers and 5.2 million kids 2-11, making it the biggest audience of the year to date among children, behind the Super Bowl. The episode was also the highest-rated program on Nickelodeon in about five years. The episode received positive reviews from media critics.", "The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein Shelley as shown by several letters. \"The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein\" includes a favorable review of \"Shelley's Fiction\" (1998) by Phyllis Zimmerman, a book in which Zimmerman argues for Percy Bysshe Shelley's authorship of \"Frankenstein\", and a short bibliography of books and articles about Percy Bysshe Shelley and \"Frankenstein\". Lauritsen praises poet Edmund Blunden's \"\" (1946), calling it the best short biography about Percy Bysshe Shelley. \"The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein\" was first published in 2007 by Pagan Press. \"The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein\" was praised by the critic Camille Paglia, who wrote in \"Salon\" that \"Lauritsen assembles an overwhelming", "The Iowa Baseball Confederacy obsession and the influence of dreams in shaping our destiny. Added to which, we have glimpses of small town life in the USA in the early 20th Century, shadows from the culture of the Native Americans, the role of family and the tragedy of love and loss, The Iowa Baseball Confederacy This article is about the 1986 novel \"The Iowa Baseball Confederacy,\" written by Canadian author W.P. Kinsella. It is less well known than his novel \"Shoeless Joe\", which came to prominence when it was made into the film \"Field of Dreams.\" Like Shoeless Joe, baseball is at the heart", "United Daughters of the Confederacy United Daughters of the Confederacy The United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC) is an American hereditary association of Southern women established in 1894 in Nashville, Tennessee. The stated purposes of the organization includes the commemoration of Confederate soldiers and the funding of the erection of memorials to these men. The organization's treatment of the Confederacy, along with its promotion of the Lost Cause movement, is viewed by historians as advocacy of white supremacy. The group was founded on September 10, 1894, by Caroline Meriwether Goodlett and Anna Davenport Raines as \"the National Association of the Daughters of the Confederacy\". The", "Bellevue Literary Press it failed to review the novel when it was first published, noting that \"Tinkers\" was the first novel from a small press to win a Pulitzer since \"A Confederacy of Dunces\" in 1981. BLP gained more attention in 2011 when \"The Sojourn\" by Andrew Krivak became a finalist for the National Book Award for Fiction. BLP has published books written by the likes of Eduardo Halfon, Jonathan D. Moreno, Jerome Charyn, Paul Lockhart, and Melissa Pritchard, among others. Bellevue Literary Press Bellevue Literary Press (BLP) is an American publisher. It was founded in 2007 as a sister organization of Bellevue", "White House of the Confederacy White House of the Confederacy The White House of the Confederacy is a historic house located in the Court End neighborhood of Richmond, Virginia. Built in 1818, it was the main executive residence of the sole President of the Confederate States of America, Jefferson Davis, from August 1861 until April 1865. It was viewed as the Confederate States counterpart to the White House in Washington, D.C. Since the late 19th century, it has been a house museum operated by the American Civil War Museum and is known as the White House and Museum of the Confederacy. It was designated a", "White House of the Confederacy of the mansion, which ultimately returned the exterior and the first and second floor interiors to their wartime appearance. Critically acclaimed for the extensive attention to detail during restoration, for its full complement of period furnishings, and for its fair quantity of relevant pieces from its original furnishings, the historic house reopened for public tours in June 1988. The White House of the Confederacy remains open for daily, public tours as part of the visitor experience at the American Civil War Museum. White House of the Confederacy The White House of the Confederacy is a historic house located in the", "The Albino Album of Mya's character, Lambda calling her \"impossible not to fall in love with.\" The Albino Album The Albino Album is a 2013 novel by the American writer Chavisa Woods published by Seven Stories Press. Termed \"a queer epic\" by the publisher and author, it is a picaresque coming-of-age novel following the adolescence of a young girl in the rural United States. Woods wrote the novel over the course of five years, drawing on her own experiences to form the plot and setting. She wrote it more removed from her own life, however, keeping the book \"a bit lighter,\" and focusing", "The Albino Album The Albino Album The Albino Album is a 2013 novel by the American writer Chavisa Woods published by Seven Stories Press. Termed \"a queer epic\" by the publisher and author, it is a picaresque coming-of-age novel following the adolescence of a young girl in the rural United States. Woods wrote the novel over the course of five years, drawing on her own experiences to form the plot and setting. She wrote it more removed from her own life, however, keeping the book \"a bit lighter,\" and focusing on the characters and plot rather than poetry and language like she had", "Ports of Call (Vance novel) Ports of Call (Vance novel) Ports of Call is a science fiction adventure novel by American writer Jack Vance. Followed by the novel \"Lurulu\", it tells the story of a young man named Myron Tany on a picaresque journey through the Gaean Reach. Myron's family intended for Myron to follow a staid and respectable career in economics; however, when his wealthy and eccentric great-aunt Dame Hester came into possession of a space yacht, Myron suddenly found his long suppressed dreams of adventure within reach. Serving as Dame Hester's nominal captain on her journey to find a clinic reputed to restore", "Steve Masakowski Steve Masakowski co-wrote three songs that were based on the novel \"A Confederacy of Dunces\". Steve Masakowski Steve Masakowski (born September 2, 1954) is jazz guitarist, educator, and inventor. He invented the guitar-based keytar and the switch pick and has designed three, custom-built seven-string guitars. He developed an approach to playing the guitar by using his pick design, allowing him to switch from fingerpicking to flatpicking. He has released solo albums and has worked with Johnny Adams, Mose Allison, Dave Liebman, Ellis Marsalis, Jr., Carl Fontana, Rick Margitza, Bobby McFerrin, Nicholas Payton, Dianne Reeves, Sam Rivers, Woody Shaw, Alvin Tyler,", "Western Confederacy Western Confederacy The Western Confederacy, or Western Indian Confederacy, was a loose confederacy of Native Americans in the Great Lakes region of the United States following the American Revolutionary War. The confederacy was also sometimes known as the \"Miami Confederacy\", as many federal officials at the time overestimated the influence and numerical strength of the Miami tribe within the confederation. The confederacy, which had its roots in pan-tribal movements dating to the 1740s, came together in an attempt to resist the expansion of the United States, and the encrochment of American settlers, into the Northwest Territory after Great Britain ceded", "A Girl of the Limberlost (novel) of the book is available online in many places, such as at ClassicReader.com. \"The New York Times\" called the novel \"eminent.\" Patricia Raub, in a survey of women in novels during that decade, said, Another reviewer wrote that In an essay, Joan Aiken mentioned the description of Elnora's lunchbox as a good example of detail in writing. The novel was adapted several times for film, with versions released in 1924, 1934 and 1945. A 1990 made-for-TV version differed most from the original plot. Movie versions: A Girl of the Limberlost (novel) A Girl of the Limberlost, a novel by American", "Spirit of the Confederacy Spirit of the Confederacy Spirit of the Confederacy, also known as the Confederacy Monument, is an outdoor bronze sculpture depicting an angel holding a sword and palm branch by Louis Amateis, installed in Houston's Sam Houston Park, in the U.S. state of Texas. It was erected in 1908 by a local chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy. The memorial was installed by the Robert E. Lee Chapter #186 of the United Daughters of the Confederacy and unveiled on his birthday in January 1908. It had taken the Daughters nine years to collect the necessary $7,500. The statue sits", "Miami Confederacy Miami Confederacy The Miami Confederacy refers to a collection of closely related Native American tribes in 18th-century North America. The tribes included the Miami centered in Kekionga (modern-day Fort Wayne, Indiana) and their nearby Eel River band, the Piankeshaw centered near modern-day Vincennes, Indiana, the Kickapoo near modern Terre Haute, Indiana, and the Wea centered near modern-day Lafayette, Indiana. The term Miami Confederacy is also used to refer to the Western Confederacy, an alliance of North American Indians in the Great Lakes region following the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). This confederacy, which had its roots in pan-tribal movements dating to", "Dunces and Dragons underwater city of Bikini Bottom. In this episode, SpongeBob and Patrick go back in time. There, they find that Mr. Krabs' ancestor is the ruler of the kingdom, which is being attacked by Planktonimor, Plankton's ancestor and an evil wizard. SpongeBob and Patrick, assisted by Squidly, a jester and ancestor of Squidward, and the Dark Knight, Sandy's ancestor, have to rescue Princess Pearl, ancestor of Pearl and King Krabs' daughter, who has been captured by Planktonimor the wizard. Tie-in promotions were made with Burger King, which released a series of toys based on the episode. \"Dunces and Dragons\" was the", "Fishing Creek Confederacy the Fishing Creek Confederacy. The confederacy has been the subject of satirical works. The Fishing Creek Confederacy has also been the subject of a number of academic writings. In 1941 William Itter devoted a paragraph to the event in his doctoral dissertation, and in 1956 the historian William W. Hummel wrote an article on the Fishing Creek Confederacy. In 2009 the book \"Deserter Country: Civil War Opposition in the Pennsylvania Appalachians\" was written by Robert M. Sandlow as an extension of his doctoral dissertation. Fishing Creek Confederacy The Fishing Creek Confederacy was an alleged military uprising in northern Columbia County,", "Wabash Confederacy In the 1780s, headmen of the Wabash Confederacy allied themselves with a larger, loose confederacy of Native American leaders in the Ohio Country and Illinois Country, in order to collectively resist U.S. expansion after the American Revolutionary War. In 1786, a Wyandot chief named Half-King warned Congress that the Wabash, Twightwee, and Miami nations would disrupt U.S. surveyors, and Congress promised reprisals if that occurred. This resistance movement culminated with the Northwest Indian War. Wabash Confederacy The Wabash Confederacy, also referred to as the Wabash Indians or the Wabash tribes, was a number of 18th century Native American villagers in", "United Daughters of the Confederacy the Confederacy\". It comprises children from birth through the time of the Children of the Confederacy Annual General Convention following their 18th birthday. All Children of the Confederacy chapters are sponsored by UDC chapters. Children are taught the \"Catechism on the History of the Confederate States of America, 1861-1865\", which claims that Northerners did away with slavery because the climate was unsuitable, that they had no intention of ever paying the South for its slaves after abolition, that slaves in the South were faithful to their owners, who were caring and gentle people: cruel slave owners existed only in the", "A Walk to Remember (novel) A Walk to Remember (novel) A Walk to Remember is a novel by American writer Nicholas Sparks, released in October 1999. The novel, set in 1958–1959 in Beaufort, North Carolina, is a story of two teenagers who fall in love with each other despite the disparity of their personalities. \"A Walk to Remember\" is adapted in the film of the same name. Sparks wrote the manuscripts for \"A Walk to Remember\", his third novel, in the summer of 1999. He wrote it in North Carolina, which is the setting of the novel. Like his first published novel \"The Notebook\", the", "The Adventures of Roderick Random The Adventures of Roderick Random The Adventures of Roderick Random is a picaresque novel by Tobias Smollett, first published in 1748. It is partially based on Smollett's experience as a naval-surgeon’s mate in the Royal Navy, especially during the Battle of Cartagena de Indias in 1741. In the preface, Smollett acknowledges the connections of his novel to the two satirical picaresque works he translated into English: Cervantes’ \"Don Quixote\" (1605–15) and Alain-René Lesage’s \"Gil Blas\" (1715–47) The novel is set in the 1730s and 1740s and tells the life story (in the first person) of Roderick \"Rory\" Random, who was", "Middlesex (novel) by Eugenides' declaration that \"Middlesex\" was not conceived as a historical novel; he said the novel satisfied much of the criterion for the genre. Cal, narrating his story in 2002, describes events from the early 1920s to the mid-1970s. According to Cohen, the difference in timeframes, at least 25 years apart, \"establishes that the novel is set safely in the past\". According to Stewart O'Nan of \"The Atlantic\", Cal's narration evokes the style of the picaresque novel, retelling events that have already occurred and foreshadowing the future through \"portentous glimpses\". Francisco Collado-Rodríguez, a professor of American literature, classified the beginning", "United Daughters of the Confederacy Klan. That is not true. The UDC during Jim Crow venerated the Klan and elevated it to a nearly mythical status. It dealt in and preserved Klan artifacts and symbology. It even served as a sort of public relations agency for the terrorist group\". UDC funded a now-vanished memorial to the Klan near Concord, North Carolina. United Daughters of the Confederacy The United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC) is an American hereditary association of Southern women established in 1894 in Nashville, Tennessee. The stated purposes of the organization includes the commemoration of Confederate soldiers and the funding of the erection", "Spirit of the Confederacy by it?\" Protesters said the statue celebrated slavery and racism, while others argued that removing the monument meant removing history. The controversy was reignited in 2017 after the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville. The monument is one of two monuments in Houston dedicated to the Confederacy; the other is the sculpture for Richard W. Dowling. Spirit of the Confederacy Spirit of the Confederacy, also known as the Confederacy Monument, is an outdoor bronze sculpture depicting an angel holding a sword and palm branch by Louis Amateis, installed in Houston's Sam Houston Park, in the U.S. state of Texas. It", "The Spy Who Loved Me (novel) The Spy Who Loved Me (novel) The Spy Who Loved Me is the ninth novel in Ian Fleming's James Bond series, first published by Jonathan Cape on 16 April 1962. It is the shortest and most sexually explicit of Fleming's novels, as well as a clear departure from previous Bond novels in that the story is told in the first person by a young Canadian woman, Vivienne Michel. Bond himself does not appear until two-thirds of the way through the book. Fleming wrote a prologue to the novel giving Michel credit as a co-author. Fleming was not happy with the", "Frederick Douglass: The Lion Who Wrote History Lion Who Wrote History\" has also been reviewed by \"Kirkus Reviews\", \"Publishers Weekly\", \"The New York Times\", and Common Sense Media. Frederick Douglass: The Lion Who Wrote History Frederick Douglass: The Lion Who Wrote History is a 2017 picture book biography by Walter Dean Myers about the life of Frederick Douglass. \"BookList\", in a starred review, wrote \"Focused, informative writing and strong, effective illustrations combine to make this the go-to Frederick Douglass biography for younger students.\" and the \"School Library Journal\" wrote \"Although this title is similar in scope to Doreen Rappaport's \"Frederick's Journey\", the two books complement each other.", "Central Confederacy of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Virginia, Missouri, and Ohio. As the southern Confederacy peacefully formed, sentiment among the newspapers and people of Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New York were at its highest for the formation of a Central Confederacy. However, this rhetoric reversed following the southern attack on Fort Sumter. Central Confederacy The Central Confederacy was a proposed nation made up of American states in the mid-Atlantic region of the country. The plan was discussed in the border and middle states prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861. In 1861, states located in" ]

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[ "A boy skatesboards and jumps over another skateboard outside." ]

[ "A boy is riding a moped and jumps over a fence.", "A dog and a person are close to each other", "The people are sitting", "The federal government has to work on a comprehensive review.", "A couple skiers huddle near a fireplace with cups of cocoa.", "Two young nurses are drawing blood from a patient.", "The man is smoking inside." ]

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[ "Two bald men are sitting in a bedroom." ]

[ "A man is showing something on the computer to a woman.", "The construction site was abandoned.", "Two construction workers are working on a project outside.", "There are no historical monuments around Nikko.", "The blood in his body seemed to get cold and freeze over.", "The man is drinking.", "There are two bike riders outdoors." ]

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[ "Let It Shine (2017 TV series) Let It Shine is a British reality television music competition to find young men to star in \"The Band\", a new stage musical featuring the songs of Take That. It aired in January and February 2017 on BBC One. The show is presented by Graham Norton and Mel Giedroyc, with Gary Barlow, Dannii Minogue and Martin Kemp serving as judges throughout the series. Amber Riley was the guest judge for the auditions, followed by Lulu for the group round. Ricki Lake was the guest judge for the first live show, Ashley Roberts for the semi-final and Peter Kay for the final.", "Amber Riley Amber Patrice Riley (born February 15, 1986) is an American actress, singer and author. She is best known for her portrayal of Mercedes Jones on the Fox comedy-drama series \"Glee\" (2009–2015). For her performance on the series, she won a Screen Actors Guild Award, and has been nominated for three Teen Choice Awards, three NAACP Image Awards, and three Grammy Awards." ]

[ "Jenni Barber Jenni Barber (July 22, 1983) is an American actress and singer best known for her performances in musical theatre.", "List of Nashville cast members \"Nashville\" is an American musical drama television series. It was created by Academy Award winner Callie Khouri and produced by R.J. Cutler, Khouri, Dee Johnson, Steve Buchanan, and Connie Britton. The series stars Connie Britton as Rayna Jaymes, a legendary country music superstar, whose stardom begins fading, and Hayden Panettiere as rising younger star Juliette Barnes. This is a list of current and former regular cast members, as well as recurring and guest-stars. A number of country musicians and celebrities have also appeared, including Brad Paisley, Katie Couric, Kelly Clarkson, Conan O'Brien, Luke Bryan, and Michelle Obama.", "Kimberly Caldwell Kimberly Ann Caldwell (born February 25, 1982) is an American singer, actress and television hostess, from Katy, Texas who was the seventh place finalist on the second season of \"American Idol\". She used to work as an entertainment correspondent and hosted various shows on the TV Guide Network. She released her debut album \"Without Regret\" on April 19, 2011.", "Lacey Brown Lacey Elizabeth Brown (born August 13, 1985) is an American singer-songwriter and artist from Amarillo, Texas, who was the twelfth place finalist on the ninth season of \"American Idol\". Brown released her debut EP \"Let It Go\" on May 31, 2011.", "Shawnee Smith Shawnee Rebecca Smith (born July 3, 1969) is an American film and television actress and singer. Smith is best known for her roles as Meg Penny in \"The Blob\" (1988), Amanda Young in the \"Saw\" films, and as Linda in the CBS sitcom \"Becker\". Smith once fronted the metal band Fydolla Ho, with which she toured the US and the UK. She was half of Smith & Pyle, a desert country-rock band, with actress Missi Pyle. She starred as Jennifer Goodson, the ex-wife of Charlie Goodson (Charlie Sheen), on the FX sitcom \"Anger Management\", which ended in 2014 after 100 episodes; Smith appeared in 94 of the episodes.", "Quentin Alexander Quentin Alexander ( years old) is an American singer and artist from New Orleans, Louisiana. In 2015 he came to national attention competing on 14th season of singing talent reality show \"American Idol\" both for his soulful vocals and \"his original fashion sense - head scarves, furry jackets and all.\" After finishing in sixth place he plans to continue film and fashion projects that were in process before he was chosen for the show as well as performing.", "Jordin Sparks Jordin Brianna Sparks (born December 22, 1989) is an American singer, songwriter, and actress. She rose to fame in 2007 after winning the sixth season of \"American Idol\"; at age 17, she became the youngest winner in the series' history. Her self-titled debut studio album, released later that year, was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and has sold over two million copies worldwide. The album spawned the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 top-ten singles \"Tattoo\" and \"No Air\"; the latter, a collaboration with Chris Brown, is currently the third highest-selling single by any \"American Idol\" contestant, selling over three million digital copies in the United States. The song earned Sparks her first Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals.", "Blake Jenner Blake Alexander Jenner (born August 27, 1992) is an American actor and singer. He is best known for winning the second season of the Oxygen reality competition series \"The Glee Project\" and his portrayal of Ryder Lynn in the Fox musical comedy-drama series \"Glee\". In 2016, he had the lead role in the Richard Linklater film \"Everybody Wants Some!!\" and appeared in the coming-of-age \"The Edge of Seventeen\".", "Mandy Musgrave Amanda Marie \"Mandy\" Musgrave (born September 19, 1986) is an American actress and singer. Best known for her portrayal of Ashley Davies on the television series \"South of Nowhere\", as well as portraying Misty Monroe in the web series \"Girltrash!\" and the prequel film \"\". She has also appeared on a number of shows as a guest star.", "Jessie Mueller Jessica Ruth \"Jessie\" Mueller pronounced MEW-ler (born February 20, 1983) is an American actress and singer. She started her career in Chicago and won a Joseph Jefferson Award in 2008 for her role as Carrie Pipperidge in \"Carousel\". In 2011, she moved to New York City to star in the Broadway revival of \"On a Clear Day You Can See Forever\". She won the 2014 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her performance in the lead role of Carole King in \",\" and originated the lead role of Jenna in the musical \"Waitress\" on Broadway.", "Jenna Ushkowitz Jenna Noelle Ushkowitz ( ; born April 28, 1986) is a South Korean-born American actress, singer, and podcast host. She is known for her performances in Broadway musicals such as \"The King and I\" and \"Waitress\", and Tina Cohen-Chang on the Fox comedy-drama series \"Glee\".", "Amanda Ayala Amanda Ayala is an American singer from New York who made her first appearance on the national scene on NBC's Emmy Award-winning show \"The Voice.\" Her first performance on the show was a rendition of Mississippi Queen by Mountain (band). Three out of the four judges on the panel turned their chairs for Amanda, including Pharrell Williams, Blake Shelton and Adam Levine. Ayala chose to join Team Adam where she was mentored by John Fogerty. Amanda also performed a rendition of Edge of Seventeen by Stevie Nicks. Both of Ayala's singles charted on the iTunes Rock Charts. Her performances garnered attention from stars like Brad Paisley and Leslie West via Twitter. Her audition video has over 1.2 million views and counting.", "Qaasim Middleton Qaasim Asani Malik Seawright-Middleton is an American actor, singer and musician best known for his role on \"The Naked Brothers Band\". Qaasim is also known for his role on the HBO documentary movie \"The Music in Me\". In 2015, he became a finalist in season 14 of \"American Idol\".", "Anthony Neely Anthony Neely (born May 20, 1986) is an American-Taiwanese singer and actor. His father is of Euro-American descent and his mother is Taiwanese. In 2009, Neely participated in popular singing competition, \"One Million Star\" (Season 5) as a PK (Player Kill) challenger. His performances created huge sensations after receiving full marks of 25 points on three occasions, and also being the first in the reality show's history to score a record 33 out of 25 points.", "Kelly Osbourne Kelly Lee Osbourne (born 27 October 1984) is a British singer-songwriter, actress, television presenter and fashion designer. The daughter of Ozzy and Sharon Osbourne, she is known for her appearances on \"The Osbournes\" with her family, for which they won a 2002 Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program, as well as on E!'s \"Fashion Police\", where she was a presenter from 2010 to 2015. She has also appeared on \"Dancing with the Stars\", in which she and her professional dance partner Louis van Amstel took third place. She is the voice of Hildy Gloom in the Disney XD animated series \"The 7D\". She is also a judge on both \"Australia's Got Talent\" and \"Project Runway Junior\".", "Ruby Rose Ruby Rose Langenheim (born 20 March 1986), better known as Ruby Rose, is an Australian model, DJ, recording artist, actress, television presenter, and former MTV VJ. Rose emerged in the media spotlight as a presenter on MTV Australia, followed by several high-profile modelling gigs, notably as the face of Maybelline New York in Australia. In addition to her modelling career, she has co-hosted various television shows, namely \"Australia's Next Top Model\" and \"The Project\" on Network Ten.", "Nikki Bohne Nicole \"Nikki\" Christine Bohne (pronounced Bonnie, born 1987) is an American singer, actress, and dancer.", "Rock Star (TV series) Rock Star is a television series produced by Mark Burnett, David Goffin, and Lisa Hennessy in which aspiring singers from all around the world competed to become the lead singer of a featured group. It debuted on CBS on July 11, 2005, to mediocre ratings. The show was hosted by television personality and commercial spokeswoman Brooke Burke and Jane's Addiction & Red Hot Chili Peppers lead guitarist Dave Navarro. In Australian band INXS chose J.D. Fortune as their new lead singer. For , the band Rock Star Supernova chose Lukas Rossi as the lead singer of their new supergroup.", "Megan Alatini Megan Bronwinne Alatini (born 29 September 1976) is a South African born New Zealand pop singer, actress and television personality. She rose to fame in New Zealand on the reality television series \"Popstars\". She went on to become a member in the girl group TrueBliss. She is also known for portraying the part of Java in the popular sci-fi series \"The Tribe\". Later she gained more exposure appearing as a judge on \"New Zealand Idol\".", "De'Adre Aziza De'Adre Danielle Aziza ( ; born June 14, 1977) is an American actress and singer." ]

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[ "The British under auspices of the East India Company were starting to explore into North Borneo." ]

[ "The British East India Company decided it was unprofitable to poke around in North Borneo.", "A girl smiles at points at something; a man looks to the side.", "3 cats on the beach", "Legal service corp doesn't want to give federal any aid", "A woman smoking a cigar near a restaurant.", "that is great, i've thought many times that it would be cool to have one at home", "A woman in a white top are eating a meal." ]

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[ "A young boy wears sneakers." ]

[ "A young boy prepares a sandwich.", "To let a horse bred in the east loose is dangerous.", "A man is attracted to a woman.", "She was going to Finland to work as a nurse.", "She didn't observe that this was now how it was.", "Several people sit in line on their motorcycles", "Some people on a hillside." ]

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[ "Rebel in the Rye Rebel in the Rye Rebel in the Rye is a 2017 American biographical drama film directed and written by Danny Strong. It is based on the book \"J. D. Salinger: A Life\" by Kenneth Slawenski, about the life of writer J. D. Salinger during and after World War II. The film stars Nicholas Hoult, Zoey Deutch, Kevin Spacey, Sarah Paulson, Brian d'Arcy James, Victor Garber, Hope Davis, and Lucy Boynton. The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 24, 2017, and was released by IFC Films on September 8, 2017. The life of author J." ]

[ "Kristine Froseth mall fashion show. She has modelled for brands such as Armani, Juicy Couture, Miu Miu and H&M. Her acting career began when a casting director found her photos and encouraged her to audition for the film adaptation of John Green's novel \"Looking for Alaska\". This film adaptation was never made. Froseth began her acting career with the 2017 film \"Rebel in the Rye\". In 2018 she starred in two Netflix movies, \"Sierra Burgess Is a Loser\" and \"Apostle\". On May 9, 2018 it was announced that Hulu would be adapting the John Green novel \"Looking for Alaska\" into an 8-episode", "Rebel in the Rye Luckinbill would produce the film along with Bruce Cohen, Jason Shuman, and Strong. On August 31, 2015, Nicholas Hoult was cast in the biopic to play Salinger, and the film was re-titled as \"Rebel in the Rye\". On January 19, 2016, Kevin Spacey joined the film to play Whit Burnett, a lecturer at Columbia University, editor of the \"Story\" magazine, and a mentor of the young Salinger. On February 12, 2016, Laura Dern, Brian d'Arcy James, and Hope Davis signed on to star in the film for unspecified roles. On March 9, 2016, Zoey Deutch joined the film to play", "Ian Bohen Villeneuve. The film premiered on June 29, 2018. Starting in June 2018, Bohen has portrayed recurring character Ryan, a Cowboy wrangler, in the television series \"Yellowstone\". Bohen appears in \"Little Women\", a modern adaption of Louisa May Alcott's novel of the same name, portraying Freddy Bhaer, a German professor who strikes up a friendship with Jo March. The film was released on September 28, 2018, to coincide with the book's 150th anniversary publishing date. Ian Bohen Ian Stuart Bohen (born September 24, 1976) is an American actor best known for his recurring role as Peter Hale in MTV's \"Teen Wolf\".", "Zoey Deutch Fall\", an adaptation of Lauren Oliver's best-selling young adult novel of the same name, also starring Jennifer Beals and Kian Lawley. Andrea Mandell of USA Today described \"Before I Fall\" as a milestone in Deutch's rising career. The scripts of \"Good Kids\", \"Dirty Grandpa\" and \"Before I Fall\" were on the 2011 Black List. A second film featuring Deutch premiered at Sundance Film Festival in 2017, Danny Strong's \"Rebel in the Rye\". The biopic of author J.D. Salinger saw Deutch as Oona O'Neill opposite Nicholas Hoult, Kevin Spacey, and Laura Dern. Deutch starred in \"Flower\" directed by Max Winkler, with", "Tobias Iaconis principal photography in May 2018 and has a release date of March 22, 2019. A novel based upon the screenplay, written by Rachael Lippincott, was published by Simon & Schuster on November 20, 2018, and became a New York Times Best Seller. In November 2017, Iaconis and Daughtry were included in The Young and Hungry List 2017 (a list of Hollywood's top 100 new writers). Tobias was born on a U.S. Army Base in Landstuhl, Germany; he is a dual citizen of both the United States and Germany. He resides in Los Angeles with his wife and son. on IMDb.", "Arash Amel Heineman. Amel was first announced on the project on April 13, 2013, adapting the 2012 article \"Marie Colvin’s Private War\" in \"Vanity Fair\" by Marie Brenner. The film had its world premiere at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 2018, as well as screen at the Mill Valley Film Festival on October 4, 2018, and the Woodstock Film Festival on October 14th, 2018. The film was released on November 2, 2018, in limited release, before expanding wide on November 16, 2018. It has an approval rating of 87% based on 53 reviews, and the average score is", "BlacKkKlansman Peele. Redick purchased the film rights to the book in 2015, and Lee signed on as director in September 2017. Much of the cast joined the following month, and filming began in New York State. \"BlacKkKlansman\" premiered on May 14, 2018, at the Cannes Film Festival, where it won the Grand Prix. It was theatrically released in the United States on August 10, 2018, coinciding with the one-year anniversary of the white supremacist Unite the Right rally. The film received acclaim from critics, with critics praising the performances (particularly of Washington and Driver) and timely themes, as well as noting", "John Bellairs of Bellairs' novel, \"The House with a Clock in Its Walls\", stars Jack Black as Uncle Jonathan, Cate Blanchett as Mrs. Zimmerman, and Owen Vaccaro as Lewis Barnavelt, and was directed by Eli Roth. It was released on September 21, 2018. John Bellairs John Anthony Bellairs (January 17, 1938 – March 8, 1991) was an American author, best known for his fantasy novel \"The Face in the Frost\" and many gothic mystery novels for young adults featuring the characters Lewis Barnavelt, Rose Rita Pottinger, Anthony Monday, and Johnny Dixon. Bellairs was born in Marshall, Michigan, the son of Virginia (Monk)", "Molly's Game Production concluded on February 9, 2017. \"Molly's Game\" premiered on September 8, 2017, at the Toronto International Film Festival. It was also the closing film at AFI Fest on November 16, 2017, replacing \"All the Money in the World\". It began a limited release in North America on December 25, 2017, before expanding wide on January 5, 2018. The film was previously slated to be released on November 22, 2017, before being moved to the Christmas date in October 2017. \"Molly's Game\" grossed $28.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $30.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide", "The Carter Effect James voices out that he respects how the fans support their team. The film ends with Drake asking \"What if?\" Carter was never with the Raptors. The film was initially released on September 9, 2017 in Canada at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival. It was also released in the United States on April April 13, 2018 at the Cleveland International Film Festival and on April 23, 2018 at the RiverRun International Film Festival. It was made available through Netflix on May 1, 2018. The film received mostly unfavorable reviews from critics, Radheyan Simonpillai of NOW, wrote \"To fill out", "Manifesto (2015 film) Hanover showed it from June 5, 2016, to January 29, 2017. A 94-minute linear version of the film had its world premiere at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2017. Shortly after, FilmRise acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film, with plans for a release in mid-2017. It is scheduled to be released in the United States on May 10, 2017. It will premiere on Bayerischer Rundfunk channel in 2018. Dan Rule of \"The Sydney Morning Herald\" said, \"The work, and Blanchett's role in it, is a remarkable exploration of cultural and cinematic tropes and expectations, as well", "Candy Jar at worst, make you think of a good half-dozen other great movies like it.\" Candy Jar Candy Jar is a 2018 American comedy film about a dueling high school debate champion duo who are trying to realize their plans to get into the colleges of their dreams. The film was released on April 27, 2018 on Netflix. In the principal's office of Hemlock Prep Academy, Lona Skinner internally monologues about her hate towards Bennet Russell, her fellow debate club member. They both want to president of their two-person club as it would look good on their college applications; Lona wants", "The Paper Store Creative's feature debut. Filming took place in New York City and Syracuse, NY. Exclusive video-on-demand rights in the U.S. and U.K. were licensed by Flix Premiere. The film was released on June 9, 2017 (US) and June 17, 2017 (UK). On July 24, 2018 the movie became widely available via Amazon and iTunes on V.O.D., with DVD release to follow on October 9, 2018. The Paper Store The Paper Store is a 2016 drama film directed by Nicholas Gray, and written by Gray and Katharine Clark Gray, adapted from the latter's play \"516\". The film is produced by Jonathan Gray,", "Danny Strong for which he has written and directed multiple episodes. Strong co-wrote the two-part \"Mockingjay\", the finale of \"The Hunger Games\" series. \"\" was released on November 21, 2014, and \"\" was released on November 20, 2015. Strong made his directorial debut with the biographical film on the life of author J. D. Salinger, \"Rebel in the Rye\". Danny Strong Daniel W. Strong (born June 6, 1974) is an American actor, screenwriter, television director, film director, and producer. As an actor, Strong is best known for his roles as Jonathan Levinson in \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" and Doyle McMaster in \"Gilmore", "Sweetbitter (TV series) Sweetbitter (TV series) Sweetbitter is an American drama television series, based on the novel of the same name by Stephanie Danler, that premiered on May 6, 2018 on Starz. On July 13, 2018, it was announced that Starz had renewed the series for a second season. \"Sweetbitter\" follows \"Tess, who shortly after arriving in New York City, lands a job at a celebrated downtown restaurant. Swiftly introduced to the world of drugs, drinking, love, lust, dive bars and fine dining, she learns to navigate the chaotically alluring, yet punishing life she has stumbled upon.\" In July 2017, it was reported", "Candy Jar Candy Jar Candy Jar is a 2018 American comedy film about a dueling high school debate champion duo who are trying to realize their plans to get into the colleges of their dreams. The film was released on April 27, 2018 on Netflix. In the principal's office of Hemlock Prep Academy, Lona Skinner internally monologues about her hate towards Bennet Russell, her fellow debate club member. They both want to president of their two-person club as it would look good on their college applications; Lona wants to go to Harvard and Bennet to Yale. Ultimately, the principal declares them both", "The Land of Steady Habits March 17, 2017, \"The Land of Steady Habits\" had begun filming in Tarrytown. \"The Land of Steady Habits\" had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 12, 2018. It was released exclusively to Netflix on September 14, 2018. The Land of Steady Habits The Land of Steady Habits is a 2018 American film directed and co-produced by Nicole Holofcener with a screenplay by Holofcener based on the novel of the same name by Ted Thompson. It had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 12, 2018 and was released on September 14,", "Blindspotting pair's schedules finally allowed them to make the film, with principal photography beginning in June 2017. \"Blindspotting\" had its world premiere on January 18, 2018 in the U.S. Dramatic Competition section at the 2018 Sundance Film Festival and was released in the United States on July 20, 2018, by Lionsgate. The film received positive reviews from critics. At the 34th Independent Spirit Awards, it was nominated for Best Male Lead for Diggs' performance. Collin (Daveed Diggs), a convicted felon, is struggling to finish the last three days of his probation. Collin, along with his short-tempered best friend Miles (Rafael Casal),", "What They Had December 2017, it was reported that Danny Mulhern would compose the film's score. In May 2017, Bleecker Street acquired domestic distribution rights to the film. It had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 2018. \"What They Had\" was initially scheduled for release on March 16, 2018, but was pushed back to October 19, 2018. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88% based on 81 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"\"What They Had\" finds laughter and tears in its portrait of a", "Alex Strangelove Nicholas Weinstock producing the film, under their Red Hour Films banner. STX Entertainment would distribute the film. In April 2017, Netflix acquired the film, with STX Entertainment still producing the film. That same month, Daniel Doheny joined the cast of the film. In June 2017, Nik Dodani and Antonio Marziale joined the cast of the film. Principal photography began in May 2017. The film had its world premiere at the San Francisco International Film Festival on April 14, 2018. It was released on June 8, 2018 on Netflix. Alex Strangelove Alex Strangelove is a 2018 American comedy-drama film, written and", "Oona O'Neill writings be destroyed, and never published. In film, O'Neill has been portrayed by Moira Kelly in Richard Attenborough's biographical film of Charlie Chaplin's life, \"Chaplin\" (1992), and by Zoey Deutch in the film \"Rebel in the Rye\" (2017), based on the young life of J. D. Salinger. On stage, she has been portrayed by Ashley Brown in \"\" at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010, and by Erin Mackey in the production's Broadway version, \"Chaplin – The Musical\", in 2012. She is also one of the main characters in French author Frédéric Beigbeder's novel \"Oona & Salinger\"", "Rachel Dolezal turned her down before she found a smaller publishing company willing to print it. In the book, Doležal compares her own experiences to slavery. \"The Rachel Divide\" is a documentary chronicling the 2015 racial controversy surrounding Doležal. The film was directed by Laura Brownson and distributed by Netflix. It first aired on April 28, 2018. The documentary explores what led up to Doležal's fall from grace, the circumstances surrounding it, and the aftermath of the scandal and follows her life with her two children. In the course of the film, she talks of how she is forced to stay at", "Griffin Newman season were released on August 25, 2017. The remaining six episodes of the first season were released on February 23, 2018. On January 17, 2018, Amazon ordered a second season of 10 episodes, expected to premiere in 2019. Newman has received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Everest. Newman has a small role in Woody Allen’s film \"A Rainy Day In New York\", set for release in 2018. In October 2017, Newman made a statement via his Twitter expressing his regret at taking the role in the film, due to the allegations of sexual misconduct against Allen. He announced he", "All About Nina Angelique Cabral had joined the cast of the film, with Eva Vives writing and directing from a screenplay she wrote. The film had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 22, 2018. Shortly after, The Orchard acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film. It was released on September 28, 2018. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval score of 87%, based on 54 reviews, with a weighted average of 7/10. The critical consensus reads \"Led by an outstanding central performance from Mary Elizabeth Winstead and brilliantly held together by writer-director Eva Vives, \"All About Nina\" is a", "Jonathan Ames name, directed by Lynne Ramsay and starring Joaquin Phoenix. It premiered at the 70th Cannes Film Festival in 2017, and was released on April 6, 2018 in the US. Raised in Oakland, New Jersey, Ames attended Indian Hills High School. Ames graduated with an English degree in 1987 from Princeton University, and where he authored his senior thesis entitled \"Eye Pity Eye: (The Collected Writings of Alexander Vine)\". He also holds a Master of Fine Arts degree in fiction from Columbia University. He has been an infrequent faculty member at Columbia, The New School, and the Iowa Writers' Workshop. Ames's", "Kirby Dick to \"a production, producer or other individual whose achievement or contribution illuminates and raises public awareness of important social issues.\"\"The Hunting Ground\" was also one of the five movies nominated in the Documentary category of 2016 MTV Movie Awards. The Bleeding Edge premiered at the 2018 Tribeca Film Festival to rave reviews and received further critical acclaim after its worldwide release on Netflix on July 27, 2018. Currently at 100% on Rotten Tomatoes and named the New York Times' Critic's Pick of the Week, the documentary, written and directed by Dick and produced by Amy Ziering and Amy Herdy, is", "The Boy Downstairs at the hospital and at her home reminds Diana of Ben's kindness and character, but when she goes to his new home to confess her love, Meg is there. Her romantic difficulties help Diana finish her novel, however. The film ends with Ben awaiting her at her home, and possibly a tentative resumption of their relationship. The film premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 23, 2017. On June 14, 2017, FilmRise acquired distribution rights to the film. The film was released on February 16, 2018, by FilmRise. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval", "Brigsby Bear by McCary, Mooney, and Costello's middle school experiences making short films together, over a two to three-year period, with a story stemming from Mooney's fascination with 1980s children's shows. Principal photography took place in Utah during Mooney and McCary's break from working on \"Saturday Night Live\". The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2017, and was released on July 28, 2017, by Sony Pictures Classics. \"Brigsby Bear\" received positive reviews from critics, who praised the script, direction, cast and art design; critics also commended the film's sentimental tone. James (Kyle Mooney) lives in an underground home", "Wes Anderson Harvey Keitel, Akira Ito, Akira Takayama, Koyu Rankin, Courtney B. Vance, Yoko Ono, and Edward Norton. Production on the film started in the United Kingdom in October 2016, and it was released in select theaters on March 23, 2018, and wide on April 6, 2018. In August 2018, it was reported that Anderson was working on his next film, set in post-war France, and was set to begin filming at Angoulême, beginning in November 2018. Anderson has also created several notable short films. In addition to the original \"Bottle Rocket\" short, he made the Paris-set \"Hotel Chevalier\" (2007), which was", "Rebel in the Rye $154,326. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 28% based on 75 reviews, and an average rating of 5.2/10. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score 46 out of 100, based on reviews from 29 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian gave three stars out of five, saying, \"J. D. Salinger drama catches attention but sinks into cliche\". Rebel in the Rye Rebel in the Rye is a 2017 American biographical drama film directed and written by Danny Strong. It", "Michael C. Hall and doctor, in an eight-part Netflix original crime drama called \"Safe\", which premiered on 10 May 2018. Hall's film credits include the thriller \"Paycheck\" (2003), the science fiction thriller \"Gamer\" (2009), the 2011 drama \"The Trouble with Bliss\" (2011), the comedy \"Peep World\" (2012), and \"Kill Your Darlings\" (2013). Hall performed in a film adaptation of Joe R. Lansdale's cult novel \"Cold in July\", directed by Jim Mickle. The film premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah. In the next year, Hall voiced Batman in \"\". Hall portrayed Abraham Lincoln's advisor, Leonard Swett, in the 2017", "Rebel Rebel (Homeland) Rebel Rebel (Homeland) \"Rebel Rebel\" is the second episode of the seventh season of the American television drama series \"Homeland\", and the 74th episode overall. It premiered on Showtime on February 18, 2018. Carrie (Claire Danes) sees an unknown woman (Sandrine Holt) enter Wellington's house while watching her surveillance camera feeds. Desperate to identify her, she posts a screen capture of the woman on the 4chan political board, asking if anyone can identify her. A hacker responds to the post, and lures Carrie into downloading a file which infects her laptop with ransomware. Her files are encrypted with a demand", "Flarsky Andy Serkis, Alexander Skarsgard, and Randall Park joined the cast as filming commenced in Montreal. Scenes were filmed in Plaza de la Trinidad in Cartagena, Colombia in the end of January 2018. Originally slated to be released on February 8, 2019, \"Flarsky\", following highly positive test screenings, was pushed back and will be released on June 7, 2019, now positioned as a summer tentpole. Flarsky Flarsky is an upcoming American comedy film directed by Jonathan Levine. It stars Seth Rogen and Charlize Theron. It is set to be released on June 7, 2019 by Lionsgate. Fred Flarsky, an unemployed journalist,", "Non-Fiction (film) been having an affair with Léonard for years. Léonard's wife Valérie is a left-wing political consultant. She does not have much interest in her husband's circumstances. The film had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on August 31, 2018. Prior to, Sundance Selects acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film. It will also screen at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2018. and the New York Film Festival on October 2, 2018. It is scheduled to be released in France on 16 January 2019. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating", "Joaquin Phoenix Patrick deWitt's historical novel, \"The Sisters Brothers\". The film was released on September 21, 2018, In July 2018, Phoenix officially signed on as the Joker in the film \"Joker\". On July 18, 2018, Warner Bros. announced the name of the film is \"Joker\" and the release date is October 4, 2019. He has directed music videos for Ringside, She Wants Revenge, People in Planes, Arckid, Albert Hammond Jr. and Silversun Pickups. Phoenix served as one of the executive producers of a television show called \"4Real\", a half-hour series which showcase celebrity guests on global adventures \"in order to connect with", "Blake Jenner 2017 Sundance Film Festival and was released on 2018. In February 2017, he was announced to have joined the cast of Bart Layton's crime drama film \"American Animals\". It premiered at the 2018 Sundance Film Festival on January 19, 2018 and was released on June 1, 2018, by The Orchard and MoviePass Ventures. On June 27, 2018, it was announced that Jenner will be playing Christian de Neuvillette in the Goodspeed Musical production's \"Cyrano\" at the Norma Terris Theatre from August 3 through September 9, 2018. In August 2018, it was announced that Jenner had been cast as the male", "Andover (film) Andover (film) Andover is a 2017 American science fiction romantic comedy written and directed by Scott Perlman, and starring Jonathan Silverman, Jennifer Finnigan, and Scout Taylor-Compton. The film had a limited theatrical release on May 4th in Los Angeles, Phoenix, and Chicago and was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and video-on-demand in the United States on July 17, 2018. A genetics professor's wife dies in a fire at her glass blowing studio, but he finds her brush with a few of her hairs in it. He and his grad student assistant make a clone of her, but there are problems. He", "C. J. Redwine the series, \"The Traitor Prince\", was published on February 13, 2018. The fourth book in the series, \"The Blood Spell\", is expected on February 12, 2019. The novels are all stand-alone companion novels, and each retells a fantasy fairy tale set in adjoining kingdoms. C. J. Redwine C. J. Redwine is an American writer of science fiction and fantasy, mainly for young adults. She is the New York Times bestselling author of the \"Defiance Trilogy\" (also known as the \"Courier’s Daughter Trilogy\") and the \"Ravenspire\" series. Redwine was born in California, United States. She attended Pepperdine University (in Malibu, California),", "Rebel in the Rye D. Salinger from his youth to the World War II era, including his romantic life and the publication of his debut novel \"The Catcher in the Rye\". On April 29, 2014, it was announced that screenwriter-actor Danny Strong would make his directorial debut with biographical film \"Salinger's War\", based on the non-fiction book \"J. D. Salinger: A Life\" by Kenneth Slawenski, about the life of young author J. D. Salinger during the early 1940s. Strong bought the book with his own money and adapted the film's script, which Black Label Media would finance, while Molly Smith, Trent Luckinbill, and Thad", "Unbroken: Path to Redemption heart. Louie’s quest for revenge drives him deeper into despair, putting the couple on the brink of divorce until Cynthia experiences Billy Graham’s 1949 Los Angeles Crusade, where both find faith in Jesus Christ, a renewed commitment to their marriage; and, Louie finds forgiveness for his wartime captors. The film was originally going to be released on October 5, 2018, but was moved up from its original release to September 14, 2018. In the United States and Canada, \"Unbroken: Path to Redemption\" was released alongside \"White Boy Rick\", \"A Simple Favor\" and \"The Predator\", and was projected to gross $2–6", "The Alienist (TV series) average score of 61 out of 100, based on 26 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". The Alienist (TV series) The Alienist is an American period drama television series based on the novel of the same name by Caleb Carr. The ten-episode limited series first aired on TNT as a sneak peek on January 21, 2018, before its official premiere on January 22, 2018, and ended on March 26, 2018. The series stars Daniel Brühl, Luke Evans, and Dakota Fanning as an ad hoc team assembled in mid-1890s New York City to investigate a serial killer who is murdering street children.", "Natsume's Book of Friends 2016. A sixth season began airing on April 11, 2017. \"\" was released in theaters on September 29, 2018. For as long as he can remember, Takashi Natsume has had the ability to see spirits, inheriting the power from his grandmother Reiko Natsume. This ability resulted in his having a lonely childhood because children his age considered him strange. He had also been passed from one relative to another. Upon her death, Reiko bequeathed to her grandson her Book of Friends, a book containing the names of spirits she had bullied into servitude. The Book of Friends is considered a", "Nicola Yoon finalist, included in \"The New York Times Book Review\" list of Notable Children's Books of 2016, and listed in the top 10 books of 2016 by \"Entertainment Weekly\" and the \"Los Angeles Times\". In December 2016, it was announced that the film rights to the book had been acquired by Warner Brothers and MGM. The movie, directed by Ry Russo-Young, and starring Yara Shahidi and Charles Melton, is due for release on May 17, 2019. Yoon is associated with the \"We Need Diverse Books\" organization, with a mission to increase diversity and promote the representation of diversity in literature. \"The", "Lords of Chaos (film) Chaos\" was held during 2018 Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2018 in Park City, Utah. In October 2018, a first-quarter 2019 release window for the United States was announced, with Arrow Films securing the rights for distribution in the United Kingdom. It is scheduled to be released for the United States on February 8, 2019 by Gunpowder and Sky. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, \"Lords of Chaos\" holds an approval rating of 91%, based on 11 reviews, and an average rating of 7.3/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 62 out of 100, based on", "Flower (film) was set to begin that summer. Filming was completed in just 17 days in San Fernando Valley. \"Flower\" premiered at the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival on April 20, 2017. Shortly after, The Orchard acquired distribution rights to the film. First trailer/teaser was released on December 1, 2017. It was released on March 16, 2018. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 52% based on 54 reviews, and an average rating of 5.5/10. The site's consensus states, \"\"Flower\" proves Zoey Deutch can bring even the most preposterously written characters vividly to life -- and that", "Life of the Party (2018 film) and New Line Cinema, the film was released on May 11, 2018, by Warner Bros. Pictures. It received mixed reviews from critics, who called it \"a frustratingly middling comedy that never really figures out what to do with all that talent and fails to produce consistent laughs.\" After dropping off their daughter Maddie to her senior year at Decatur University in Atlanta, Dan tells Deanna that he wants a divorce because he has fallen in love with another woman, a realtor Marcie, and he also wants to sell their house under his name. Heartbroken, Deanna visits her parents Mike and", "Assassination Nation sequence where the girls are attacked in Nance's home was shot in a single take using a crane. The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 2018. It was released on September 21, 2018 by Neon, AGBO and Refinery29. In the United States and Canada, \"Assassination Nation\" was released alongside \"The House with a Clock in Its Walls\", \"Life Itself\" and \"Fahrenheit 11/9\", and was projected to gross around $4 million in its opening weekend from 1,403 theaters. However it ended up debuting to just $1 million, finishing 15th at the box office. On", "Issa Rae nominations for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy in 2017 and 2018, as well as a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series in 2018. On November 14, 2016, HBO renewed the show for a second season. The second season premiered on July 23, 2017. On August 8, 2017, it was announced that the show was renewed for a third season, which premiered on August 12, 2018. Rae's first book, a memoir titled \"The Misadventures of Awkward Black Girl\", was released in 2015 and became a \"New York Times\" best-seller. In the book,", "The Land of Steady Habits The Land of Steady Habits The Land of Steady Habits is a 2018 American film directed and co-produced by Nicole Holofcener with a screenplay by Holofcener based on the novel of the same name by Ted Thompson. It had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 12, 2018 and was released on September 14, 2018, by Netflix. Anders Hill has recently divorced his wife Helene and quit his job in finance for an early retirement, and is having a difficult time coping. Anders’ adult-son Preston is a recovering addict who still lives with Helene in the", "Jason Reynolds structures. This was the first book Reynolds had written with a female point of view. Reynolds wanted to write about the special burdens some teen girls assume in their families. In his \"New York Times\" review, Tom Rinaldi called the novel \"excellent\". The book was also well received by other reviewers, earning a starred review in \"Kirkus Reviews\", School Library Journal, Horn Book Magazine, and Booklist. The third installment in the series, called \"Sunny\", was released on April 10, 2018. \"Paste\" magazine named the audiobook, narrated by Guy Lockard, one of the 13 best of 2018 to date, saying, \"The", "On Chesil Beach (film) its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 7 September 2017. Bleecker Street acquired the U.S. distribution rights in October 2017. \"On Chesil Beach\" was released in the UK on 18 May 2018. Originally scheduled for theatrical release in the United States on 15 June 2018, the date was pushed up to 18 May 2018. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 68% based on 134 reviews, and an average rating of 6.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"\"On Chesil Beach\" presents a well-acted and solidly crafted adaptation of a small yet", "Booksmart (film) the film, under their Annapurna Pictures and Gloria Sanchez Productions, respectively. In May 2018, Billie Lourd and Skyler Gisondo joined the cast of the film. That same month, Jason Sudeikis, Lisa Kudrow, Jessica Williams, Will Forte, Mike O'Brien, Mason Gooding, Noah Galvin, Diana Silvers, Austin Crute, Eduardo Franco, Molly Gordon, and Nico Hiraga joined the cast of the film. Principal photography began in May 2018. It is scheduled to be released on May 24, 2019. Booksmart (film) Booksmart is an upcoming American comedy film, directed by Olivia Wilde, from a screenplay by Emily Halpern, Sarah Haskins, Katie Silberman, and Susanna", "Ideal Home (film) Ideal Home (film) Ideal Home is a 2018 American comedy-drama film, written and directed by Andrew Fleming and starring Steve Coogan, Paul Rudd, Alison Pill, Jake McDorman, and Jack Gore. It premiered at at the Mardi Gras Film Festival on February 15, 2018 and was released in the United States on June 29, 2018. Erasmus (Coogan) and Paul (Rudd) are a gay couple whose life is turned inside out when a ten-year-old boy shows up at their door claiming to be Erasmus's grandson. Neither Paul, nor Erasmus, are ready to give up their extravagant lifestyles to be parents, but maybe", "Shatter Me released. \"Unite Me\" contains the two novellas, \"Fracture Me\" and \"Destroy Me\", combined into print for the first time ever, and it also features an exclusive look into Juliette's journal. In April 2017 it was announced that Mafi will be releasing three more books in the \"Shatter Me\" series starting with \"Restore Me\", which was published on March 6, 2018. Book 5 in the series, Defy Me, will be released on April 2, 2019. Paramount Pictures announced that they will distribute the film rights of the books. Shatter Me Shatter Me is a young adult dystopian thriller written by Tahereh", "Blindspotting had to delay the film for an extended period of time. Principal photography finally began in June 2017 and lasted for 22 days, filming around Oakland. \"Blindspotting\" premiered at Sundance Film Festival on January 18, 2018, and was limited released in the United States on July 20, 2018, with a nation-wide release date of July 27, 2018. \"Blindspotting\" grossed $332,500 in its opening weekend from 14 locations, including in Los Angeles, New York City, San Francisco, and Oakland, for a $23,750 average per theater. It expanded to 513 theaters in its second weekend and made $1.3 million. On review aggregation", "Meg Murry to the novel version in behavior and intelligence. However, the television Meg does not wear glasses, and has a troublesome encounter with a teacher that does not appear in the book. A theatrical adaptation of \"A Wrinkle in Time\" was released on March 9, 2018, by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It stars Storm Reid as Meg. Her ethnicity is changed to biracial and she is picked on by her neighbor and classmate, Veronica. Near the end of the film, she learns to appreciate her own worth. Meg Murry Margaret \"Meg\" Murry O'Keefe is the main character in Madeleine L'Engle's", "Borderliner Borderliner Borderliner () is a Norwegian noir crime drama series that involves a police officer visiting his hometown where he investigates a local man's apparent suicide. The series initially aired on November 2, 2017 in Norway on TV 2 and was released to Netflix on March 6, 2018. Nikolai, a police officer, investigates the suicide of a local man named Tommy; his co-investigator, Anniken, suspects foul play. Nikolai plants evidence to protect his brother but later discovers the truth behind Tommy's death. Erik Adams of the \"AV Club\" considers it a top pick. Meghan O'Keefe of \"Decider\" called the series", "Rebel Rebel (Homeland) was watched by 1.12 million viewers. Rebel Rebel (Homeland) \"Rebel Rebel\" is the second episode of the seventh season of the American television drama series \"Homeland\", and the 74th episode overall. It premiered on Showtime on February 18, 2018. Carrie (Claire Danes) sees an unknown woman (Sandrine Holt) enter Wellington's house while watching her surveillance camera feeds. Desperate to identify her, she posts a screen capture of the woman on the 4chan political board, asking if anyone can identify her. A hacker responds to the post, and lures Carrie into downloading a file which infects her laptop with ransomware. Her", "Molly's Game film premiered on September 8, 2017, at the Toronto International Film Festival, and began a limited theatrical release in the United States on December 25, 2017, by STXfilms, before expanding wide on January 5, 2018 and grossed $59 million worldwide. \"Molly's Game\" received positive reviews, with particular praise for Sorkin's screenplay, as well as Chastain and Elba's performances, with the former being considered one of the best of her career by some critics. The film earned Chastain a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress – Drama, while Sorkin earned nominations for his screenplay at the Academy Awards, Golden Globes, Writers", "Newness fall 2016. The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2017. Shortly after, Netflix acquired worldwide SVOD distribution rights for the film. It was released on November 3, 2017. \"Newness\" received mixed to positive reviews from film critics. It holds a 69% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 13 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.6/10. On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 49 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Newness Newness is a 2017 American drama romance film directed by Drake Doremus", "BlacKkKlansman the day of filming Belafonte's scene to dress to the occasion in suits and dresses to honor Belafonte. On April 12, 2018, the film was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival, where it premiered on May 14. It opened in the United States on August 10, 2018, which was chosen to coincide with the one-year anniversary of the Charlottesville rally. Although based on a true story, the plot of the film is considerably more dramatic than the events of the book, and the time period has been shifted. Notably: \"BlacKkKlansman\" grossed $48.3 million", "The Kindergarten Teacher (2018 film) Sundance Film Festival on January 19, 2018. It was screened in the U.S. Dramatic Competition section at the 2018 Sundance Film Festival. Shortly after, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film in the United States and Canada. It was released on October 12, 2018. It was screened at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 6, 2018. The films international distribution is handled by Protagonist Pictures and Thunderbird Releasing in the United Kingdom. The Kindergarten Teacher (2018 film) The Kindergarten Teacher is a 2018 American drama film directed by Sara Colangelo. It is based on the 2014 Israeli film of", "Flarsky Flarsky Flarsky is an upcoming American comedy film directed by Jonathan Levine. It stars Seth Rogen and Charlize Theron. It is set to be released on June 7, 2019 by Lionsgate. Fred Flarsky, an unemployed journalist, battered by his own misfortune and self-destructive ways, courts his childhood crush and babysitter - who is now one of the most powerful and unattainable women on earth. In February 2017, the project was announced with Seth Rogen and Charlize Theron attached to star while Jonathan Levine directs. In October 2017, O'Shea Jackson Jr. was cast. In November 2017, June Diane Raphael, Ravi Patel,", "Mark Bailey (writer) film was released on February 16, 2018. Bailey is the author of three books that were illustrated by Edward Hemingway, the grandson of Ernest Hemingway. \"Of All the Gin Joints: Stumbling Through Hollywood History\" (2014) is a \"collection of 70 anecdotes about renowned Hollywooders with 40 cocktail recipes to accompany\" the stories. \"Hemingway & Bailey's Bartending Guide to Great American Writers\" (2006) \"brings together classic cocktail recipes, literary history, and . . . anecdotes about famous American literati.\" \"Tiny Pie\" (2013), which Bailey coauthored with Michael Oatman, is a picture book for children ages three to six to which Alice", "Brigsby Bear noting that they wanted no edits made to the film and were on the same page regarding keeping the film's plot line a secret in marketing. The film's formal premiere was in New York on July 26, 2017 and was started its theatrical run on July 28, 2017. The film was released on DVD, Blu-Ray and Digital Download on November 14, 2017. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 140 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Audiences attuned to \"Brigsby Bear\"s strange frequency will be moved by its", "Outside In (film) 2017. The Orchard acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film, with Netflix set to release the film shortly after. It also screened at South by Southwest on March 10, 2018. It was released in a limited release on March 30, 2018, before being released through video on demand on April 3, 2018. \"Outside In\" received positive reviews from film critics. It currently holds a 95% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 39 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.3/10. On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 76 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating", "Love, Simon at the Mardi Gras Film Festival on February 27, 2018, and was released in the United States on March 16, 2018, by 20th Century Fox. Critics praised the film for its \"big heart, diverse and talented cast, and revolutionary normalcy\", describing it as \"tender, sweet, and affecting\" and a \"hugely charming crowd-pleaser\" that is \"funny, warm-hearted and life-affirming\", with reviews comparing it to the romantic comedy-drama films of John Hughes. Notable as the first film by a major Hollywood studio to focus on a gay teenage romance, it grossed $66million worldwide. Simon Spier is a closeted gay high school boy", "Fall in Line teared up when I first heared her vocal on it. I sent her flowers and I was just like, 'Oh my God, you took it to the next level'\". \"Fall in Line\" premiered on May 16, 2018, at 8 a.m. EST, and was released commercially for digital download worldwide at the same time. Aguilera stated in a tweet: \"To anyone who's ever felt silenced and repressed, the truth seekers and bold thinkers...may you liberate your voice and break the mold, never back down, and never fall in line.\" Aguilera co-wrote \"Fall in Line\" alongside Johnny Simpson, Mark Williams, Audra Mae,", "Owl City Young announced via his social media accounts that he would be releasing an 18-song album, \"Cinematic\", with a release date of June 1, 2018. He revealed that during the eight months from October to June, three EPs, which he has called \"Reels\", would be released with three songs each. He stated that the inspiration for this album is from \"the amazing people [he's] met and the places that [he's] seen.\" The album's first single, \"All My Friends\", was released on November 3, 2017. On December 1, 2017, Owl City released the first, \"Reel 1\". On January 12, 2018, a song", "A Wrinkle in Time (2018 film) million domestically. \"A Wrinkle in Time\" premiered at the El Capitan Theatre on February 26, 2018, with a theatrical release on March 9, 2018. With a total production and advertisement budget of around $150 million, the film was a box office bomb, grossing $132 million worldwide. The film received mixed reviews, with critics taking issue \"with the film's heavy use of CGI and numerous plot holes\" while some \"celebrated its message of female empowerment and diversity\". Thirteen-year-old middle school student Meg Murry struggles to adjust to both her school and home life ever since her father Alex, a renowned scientist,", "Game Over, Man! Scott Rudin Productions. Also producing are Adam DeVine, Anders Holm, Blake Anderson, and Kyle Newacheck, who collectively form the comedy group Mail Order Comedy, as well as Isaac Horne of Avalon Management. On May 8, 2017, Netflix released the teaser trailer for the film and announced the release date as April 20, 2018. On January 4, 2018, Netflix released the first full-length trailer and announced that the release date had been moved up to March 23, 2018. The film held its official premiere on March 21, 2018 at the Regency Village Theater in Los Angeles, California. \"Game Over, Man!\" has", "Stuber (film) Stuber (film) Stuber is an upcoming American action-comedy written by Tripper Clancy and directed by Michael Dowse. The film is set for release on May 24, 2019. A mild-mannered Uber driver named Stu picks up a grizzled detective who is hot on the trail of a sadistic, bloodthirsty terrorist & finds himself thrust into a harrowing ordeal where he has to keep his wits, himself unharmed, & work with his passenger while maintaining his high-class rating. In April 2016, 20th Century Fox bought the spec script \"Stuber\" from Tripper Clancy for a mid-six figure deal, with Jonathan Goldstein and John", "Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In season on January 9, 2018, and the third season on March 6, 2018. The fourth season was released on May 8, 2018. Season 5 was released on July 10, 2018. Finally, Season 6 was released on September 4, 2018. TV season, ranking, average viewers per episode In 1977, Schlatter and NBC briefly revived the property as a series of specials – titled simply \"Laugh-In\" – with a new cast, including former child evangelist Marjoe Gortner. The standout was a then-unknown Robin Williams, whose starring role on ABC's \"Mork & Mindy\" one year later prompted NBC to rerun the specials as", "Eighth Grade (film) summer 2017. Fisher was cast after Burnham noticed her on YouTube; she led a cast including Josh Hamilton and Emily Robinson. Themes include heavy use of social media, mental health in Generation Z and sexuality and consent. The film premiered on January 19, as part of the U.S. Dramatic Competition section of the 2018 Sundance Film Festival. After other festival screenings, it was released theatrically in the United States by A24 on July 13, 2018. Its R rating from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) inspired criticism, as its decision blocked many eighth-grade viewers from seeing the film in", "Amateur (2018 film) of the film was changed to its release title \"Amateur\". In January 2016, it was announced that Netflix had picked up the rights to \"Amateur\" to finance and distribute the film. Amateur (2018 film) Amateur is a 2018 American sports drama about a young basketball future star struggling with his personal life in pursuit of his dream. The film was released in the United States on April 6, 2018 on Netflix. 14-year-old basketball phenom Terron Forte has to navigate the under-the-table world of amateur basketball when he is recruited to an elite NCAA prep school. A crowd-funding project for the", "Duck Butter from a screenplay by him and Shawkat. Mark Duplass and Jay Duplass will serve as producers under their Duplass Brothers Productions banner. Principal photography began in September 2016, over the course of nine days, with majority of the film being shot over the course of 24 hours. The Orchard and Netflix will distribute the film. It had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 20, 2018. It was released on April 27, 2018. \"Duck Butter\" received mixed reviews from film critics. It holds a 52% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 27 reviews,", "Andover (film) on July 17, 2018. All the songs were performed by The Pouts featuring Nadia Lanfranconi. Andover (film) Andover is a 2017 American science fiction romantic comedy written and directed by Scott Perlman, and starring Jonathan Silverman, Jennifer Finnigan, and Scout Taylor-Compton. The film had a limited theatrical release on May 4th in Los Angeles, Phoenix, and Chicago and was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and video-on-demand in the United States on July 17, 2018. A genetics professor's wife dies in a fire at her glass blowing studio, but he finds her brush with a few of her hairs in it. He", "Burning Sands (2017 film) Reginald Hudlin and Mel Jones will serve as producers on the film alongside Netflix. In January 2017, Common boarded the film as an executive producer and will contribute an original song to the film. The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 24, 2017. It was released on March 10, 2017, by Netflix. \"Burning Sands\" received positive reviews from film critics. It currently holds an 87% approval rating on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average rating of 63 out", "Dumplin' (film) on August 21, 2017, in Covington, Georgia and ended in October. In September 2018, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released on December 7, 2018. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, \"Dumplin\" holds an approval rating of 81% based on 48 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"Elevated by a solid soundtrack and a terrific cast, \"Dumplin\" offers sweetly uplifting drama that adds just enough new ingredients to a reliably comforting formula.\" On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating \"mixed", "The Catcher in the Rye Democracy includes a song called Catcher in the Rye in which the narrator debates a violent fantasy. \"The Catcher in the Rye\" deeply influenced the 2017 biographical drama film, \"\"Rebel in the Rye\"\", which is about J.D. Salinger. It is a visual about his life, before and after World War II, and gives more about the author's life than the readers of \"The Catcher in the Rye\" learned from the novel. The Catcher in the Rye The Catcher in the Rye is a story by J. D. Salinger, partially published in serial form in 1945–1946 and as a novel in", "In a Relationship he wrote. Boyd will also produce the film, alongside Jorge Garcia Castro, David Hunter and Ross Putman, Sergio Cortez Gomez, Andres Icaza Ballesteros, Roberts, Kariah Press who will serve as producers and executive producers respectively, under their 2 Friends Media banner. Production concluded that month. The film had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 20, 2018. Shortly after, Vertical Entertainment acquired distribution rights to the film. It is scheduled to be released on November 9, 2018. In a Relationship In a Relationship is an 2018 American romantic drama film, written and directed by Sam Boyd in", "In Dubious Battle (film) You On?. \"In Dubious Battle\" had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on September 3, 2016. The film was released in theaters in the United States on February 17, 2017. A full trailer was released on January 28, 2017. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 29% approval rating, based on reviews from 8 critics, with an average score of 5.2/10. The film gained mixed reviews at its world premiere, with Owen Gleiberman of \"Variety\" noting that Franco \"has acquired skills that are beginning to fuse with the best of his instincts.\" Gleiberman also says that \"\"In", "Fyre Festival time, Fyre informed ticketholders that the event would be \"cashless (and cardless),\" and encouraged attendees to put up to $1,500 in advance on a digital Fyre Band to cover incidentals, according to one lawsuit. McFarland, who signed the email, suggested that they upload $300–500 for every day they planned to attend. According to a lawsuit later filed by Birnbaum, 40% of this money was to be used to pay off the short-term loan. The Netflix Original Documentary \"Fyre\" will be released globally January 18, 2019 via the streaming service. Wisconsin-born director Chris Smith is known for independent films that reveal", "Truth or Dare (2018 film) began on June 7, 2017, and wrapped on July 12, 2017, in Los Angeles. The film was initially set for release on April 27, 2018. But in January 2018, the date was moved up two weeks on April 13, 2018 (Friday the 13th). The official trailer for the film was released on January 3, 2018. \"Truth or Dare\" grossed $41.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $53.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $94.8 million, against a production budget of $3.5 million. In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside \"Rampage\" and", "Daveed Diggs character Dos. Alongside his lifelong friend Rafael Casal, Diggs co-wrote, co-produced, and co-starred in the 2018 film \"Blindspotting\", which premiered at Sundance in January 2018. The film was released in the U.S. on July 27, 2018. Diggs plays Collin, a felon living in Oakland, as he tries to get through the last four days of his year-long probation without incident. Diggs and Casal wrote the film over nine years to tell a story about their quickly gentrifying hometown as they knew it. Diggs received critical praise for his performance in the film. On May 28, 2017, an honorary Doctor of", "Matt Bomer watchful quality as one of those deferential souls who is content to observe others.\" Bomer's first film in 2018 was Bill Oliver's science fiction film \"Jonathan\". His role was that of a detective who appears in only one scene of the film. \"Jonathan\" had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 21, 2018. Two of Bomer's films in 2018 premiered at the 43rd Toronto International Film Festivalthe comedy drama \"Papi Chulo\" and the drama \"Viper Club\". In the former, Bomer plays Sean, a local network television weather forecaster. A reviewer for \"Screen Daily\" argued that Bomer is", "13th (film) directed \"Selma\" (2015), and Spencer Averick. Averick also edited the film. Produced and filmed in secrecy, \"13th\" was revealed only after it was announced as the opening film for the 2016 New York Film Festival, the first documentary ever to open the festival. The film was released on October 7, 2016 on Netflix. The companion piece \"13th: A Conversation with Oprah Winfrey & Ava DuVernay\" was released on January 26, 2017 in the United States and on January 31, 2017 worldwide on the service. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 96% based on 79 reviews, with", "Jonathan (2018 film) favorable reviews\". Jonathan (2018 film) Jonathan is a 2018 American drama science fiction film directed by Bill Oliver and written by Gregory Davis, Peter Nickowitz and Oliver, starring Ansel Elgort. It had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 21, 2018. It is scheduled to be released on November 16, 2018, by Well Go USA. In August 2016, it was announced Ansel Elgort had been cast in the film, with Bill Oliver directing from a screenplay he wrote, alongside Gregory Davis and Peter Nickowitz. Randy Manis and Ricky Tollman will serve as producers on the film, while", "Red Sparrow use of kompromat, filming took place in Hungary, Slovakia and Austria. Jennifer Lawrence studied with the New York City Ballet to prepare for her performance. \"Red Sparrow\" premiered at Newseum in Washington, D.C. on February 15, 2018, and was released in the United States on March 2, 2018. The film grossed $151 million worldwide, becoming a modest box-office success, and received mixed reviews from critics, who described it as having \"more style than substance\", and criticized the film's length and over-reliance on graphic violence and sex, while praising Jennifer Lawrence's performance. In modern-day Russia, Dominika Egorova is a famed Russian", "An Evening with Beverly Luff Linn Festival. In May 2018, Universal Pictures acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released in the United States on October 19, 2018. It is scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom on October 23, 2018, by Picturehouse Entertainment. \"An Evening with Beverly Luff Linn\" received mixed reviews from film critics. It holds a 48% approval rating on review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 31 reviews, with a weighted average score of 5.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"An Evening with Beverly Luff Linn unites an intriguing array of comedic talents for a thoroughly unusual outing that proves", "Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events premiered on January 13, 2017. The first season consisted of eight episodes, and adapts the first four books of the series. \"A Series of Unfortunate Events\" season two was released on March 30, 2018, which contains 10 episodes, adapting books five through nine of the novel series. The third and final season is set to be released on January 1, 2019 and will adapt the four remaining books in seven episodes. A video game based on the books and film (more so the film, as the name and many plot elements seen in the movie but not the book are", "Maroon 5 working on their sixth studio album. According to Levine, the album will be released \"soonish\", and will be R&B-influenced. On August 13, 2017, Levine announced at the 2017 Teen Choice Awards, that the album will be released in November. On October 4, 2017, Maroon 5 revealed their sixth album, \"Red Pill Blues\", the name was inspired by the 1999 science fiction film, \"The Matrix\". The album was released on November 3, 2017 and like the band's previous two albums, \"Red Pill Blues\" received mixed reviews due to the band's overwhelming pop direction. This album includes three singles: \"What Lovers Do\",", "Greenhouse Academy Aviv and at other locations in Israel. The first season was released on Netflix on September 8, 2017. On January 18, 2018, the official Greenhouse Academy Instagram account announced that season 2 would be released on Netflix on February 14, 2018. The series was \"quietly\" renewed for a third season in March 2018. In September 2018, the role of Brooke Osmond was recast with Danika Yarosh, after Grace Van Dien was cast in \"The Village\" which was picked up to series by NBC for the 2018–19 U.S. television season. Greenhouse Academy Greenhouse Academy is a tween drama television series released", "Erika Henningsen musical, \"Mean Girls\", written by Tina Fey with music and lyrics by Jeff Richmond and Nell Benjamin, respectively. The show had its world premiere as an out-of-town tryout at the National Theatre in Washington, D.C. from October 31, 2017 to December 3, 2017 in which Henningsen originated the role of Cady Heron. She was later nominated for an Outer Critics Circle Award for this role. The musical, which is based on the film of the same name, began previews on March 12, 2018, and officially opened on Broadway on April 8, 2018 at the August Wilson Theatre in New York", "The Clapper (film) The film had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 23, 2017. Shortly after, Momentum Pictures and Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released in a limited release and through video on demand on January 26, 2018. It was released through Netflix on May 1, 2018. \"The Clapper\" received negative reviews from film critics. It holds a 30% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 20 reviews, with a weighted average of 4.4/10. On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 21 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating \"generally", "Wildlife (film) to the film. It screened at the Cannes Film Festival on May 9, 2018. It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 6, 2018, the New York Film Festival on September 30, 2018, the Woodstock Film Festival on October 13, 2018, and the New Orleans Film Festival on October 18, 2018. \"Wildlife\" was released in the United States on October 19, 2018. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 94% based on 108 reviews, and an average rating of 7.8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"\"Wildlife\"'s portrait of a family in", "American Fable prisoner in the family's old abandoned grain silo at the edge of the farm. Gitty begins spending time with the man, ultimately finding herself torn between loyalty to what she thinks is right, and loyalty to her own family. All is not as it may seem, though, as the family finds itself involved with individuals who are like something out of a fairy tale. The film premiered at South by Southwest on March 13, 2016. On August 16, 2016, IFC Midnight acquired distribution rights to the film. The film was released on February 17, 2017, by IFC Midnight. American Fable", "I Do... Until I Don't 2016, and ended on April 29, 2016. The film was released on September 1, 2017, by The Film Arcade. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 30% based on 46 reviews, and an average rating of 5.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"\"I Do... Until I Don't\" misses opportunities for fresh observations, settling instead for a middle of the road romantic comedy lacking memorable characters or real emotional stakes.\" On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score 42 out of 100, based 15 critics, indicating \"mixed", "Disobedience (2017 film) Weisz, Ed Guiney and Frida Torresblanco. \"Disobedience\" had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 10 September 2017. It was released in the United States on 27 April 2018 by Bleecker Street, and is scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom on 30 November 2018 by Curzon Artificial Eye. The film received positive reviews, with critics praising the performances of Weisz, McAdams and Nivola, Lelio's direction and the screenplay. The old Rav Krushka succumbs to illness while delivering a sermon on free will to his Orthodox Jewish congregation in London. Informed that her father has passed,", "Mid90s original score by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, as well as recordings by The Pixies, The Smiths, Herbie Hancock, ESG, the Mamas and the Papas, and some 1990s hip-hop. \"Mid90s\" had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2018. It was also screened at the New York Film Festival on October 7, 2018. It was released in the United States on October 19, 2018. \"Mid90s\" grossed $249,500 from four theaters in its opening weekend for an average of $62,375 per venue, good for the third best of 2018. It expanded to 1,206 theaters the following" ]

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[ "รถโดยสารด่วนพิเศษ สายสาทร–ราชพฤกษ์\nโครงการนี้เริ่มขึ้นเมื่อปี พ.ศ. 2548 ในสมัยของอภิรักษ์ โกษะโยธิน ผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร ด้วยงบประมาณ 1,400 ล้านบาท หลังจากได้รับความเห็นชอบจากคณะรัฐมนตรีเมื่อวันที่ 3 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2550 เริ่มก่อสร้างจริงเมื่อปี พ.ศ. 2550 และมีกำหนดเปิดให้บริการในช่วงปี พ.ศ. 2551–2552 แต่ได้เกิดความล่าช้ามาอย่างต่อเนื่อง แม้การก่อสร้างสถานีเสร็จสมบูรณ์ไปก่อนหน้านั้นแล้ว เนื่องจากการจัดหาตัวรถหยุดชะงักไปถึง 9 เดือนภายใต้กระบวนการตรวจสอบความโปร่งใสของกรมสอบสวนคดีพิเศษ (ดีเอสไอ) รวมไปถึงความล่าช้าในกระบวนการจัดซื้อพร้อมติดตั้งระบบขนส่งอัจฉริยะ, การก่อสร้างทางเดินเชื่อมสถานีสาทรกับสถานีรถไฟฟ้าบีทีเอส ช่องนนทรีที่แยกสาทร–นราธิวาส และการก่อสร้างช่องทางเดินรถเฉพาะสำหรับบีอาร์ที แต่ในภายหลังสามารถเปิดให้บริการได้เป็นครั้งแรกเมื่อวันที่ 29 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2553[1]" ]

[ "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nหมอชิต-สถานีราชเทวี (สะพานควาย-สถานีรถไฟสามเสน-ตึกชัย-อุรุพงษ์-สี่แยกราชเทวี): 8 กิโลเมตร ถนนวงแหวน-แยกเกษตร (ถนนนครอินทร์-ติวานนท์-แคราย-เกษตรศาสตร์): 20 กิโลเมตร ถนนวงแหวนรอบนอก (บางใหญ่-ตลิ่งชัน-บางแค-พระรามที่ 2): 25 กิโลเมตร ท่าพระ-สะพานพระราม 7 (บางซ่อน-ถนนจรัญสนิทวงศ์-ราชพฤกษ์): 13 กิโลเมตร ถนนวงแหวน-ถนนกัลปพฤกษ์: 7 กิโลเมตร ตากสิน-รัตนาธิเบศร์ (สะพานตากสิน-ถนนกรุงธนบุรี-ราชพฤกษ์): 24 กิโลเมตร รามอินทรา-ถนนพระราม 9 (ถนนประดิษฐ์มนูธรรม): 12 กิโลเมตร รัตนาธิเบศร์-สะพานนนทบุรี (แคราย-ปากเกร็ด-สี่แยกสวนสมเด็จพระศรีนครินทร์-บางคูวัด): 12 กิโลเมตร อ่อนนุช-ลาดกระบัง-สุวรรณภูมิ: 20 กิโลเมตร บางนา-รามคำแหง 2 (ถนนบางนา-บางปะกง): 8 กิโลเมตร", "การทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทย\nการทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทย ( ชื่อย่อ: กทพ.; EXAT) เป็นรัฐวิสาหกิจสังกัดกระทรวงคมนาคม ก่อตั้งขึ้นตามประกาศคณะปฏิวัติ ฉบับที่ 290 ลงวันที่ 27 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2515 โดยมีวัตถุประสงค์ที่จะสร้าง หรือจัดให้มีทางพิเศษด้วยวิธีการใดๆ ตลอดจนบำรุงรักษาทางพิเศษและดำเนินงานต่างๆ ที่เกี่ยวกับทางพิเศษ โดยเฉพาะในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล", "ทางด่วน\nทางหลวงที่เป็นทางคู่สายแรกเปิดใช้ในประเทศอิตาลีเมื่อปี ค.ศ. 1924 ระหว่างเมืองมิลานกับเมืองวาเรเซ และในปัจจุบันก็ได้กำหนดให้เป็นส่วนหนึ่งของเอาโตสตราดาเอ 8 และเอาโตสตราดาเอ 9 ทางหลวงสายนี้ ประกอยด้วยช่องจราจรเดียวต่อทิศทางไม่มีทางแยกต่างระดับ หลังจากนั้นไม่นาน นครนิวยอร์กได้เปิดใช้บรองซ์ริเวอร์พาร์กเวย์ (Bronx River Parkway) ในปี ค.ศ. 1924 บรองซ์ริเวอร์พาร์กเวย์เป็นถนนสายแรกในอเมริกาเหนือที่ใช้เกาะกลางแยกการจราจรของทั้งสองทิศทาง ถูกก่อสร้างให้มีเส้นทางผ่านสวนสาธารณะและผ่านทางแยกต่างระดับ เซาเทิร์นสเตตพาร์กเวย์เปิดใช้ในปี ค.ศ. 1927 ขณะที่ลองไอแลนด์มอเตอร์พาร์กเวย์ได้ถูกปิดไปเมื่อปี ค.ศ. 1937 และแทนที่โดยนอร์ทเทิร์นสเตตพาร์กเวย์ (เปิดใช้ในปี ค.ศ. 1931) และเชื่อมต่อกับแกรนด์เซนทรัลพาร์กเวย์ (เปิดใช้ในปี ค.ศ. 1936) ส่วนในประเทศเยอรมนี ได้เริ่มก่อสร้างเอาโทบานสายบอนน์-โคโลญในปี ค.ศ. 1929 และเปิดใช้โดยนายกเทศมนตรีเมืองโคโลญในปี ค.ศ. 1932", "องค์การขนส่งมวลชนมหานครแอตแลนตา\nองค์การขนส่งมวลชนมหานครแอตแลนตา เป็นระบบขนส่งมวลชนหลักในเมืองแอตแลนตา ก่อตั้งในปี ค.ศ. 1971 ประกอบด้วยระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ และ รถไฟใต้ดิน (รถไฟใต้ดิน มีระยะทาง 38 สถานี) สถิติผู้โดยสารต่อวันทั้งหมด คือ 422,400 คน", "ทางพิเศษฉลองรัช\nการทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทยเปิดให้บริการทางพิเศษฉลองรัชช่วง รามอินทรา–อาจณรงค์ เป็นช่วงแรก เป็นทางยกระดับขนาด 6 ช่องจราจร ระยะทาง 18.7 กิโลเมตร เปิดให้บริการเมื่อวันที่ 6 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2539 โดยมีเส้นทางเริ่มจากถนนรามอินทรา จากนั้นเส้นทางมุ่งไปทางทิศใต้ ข้ามถนนลาดพร้าว ถนนประชาอุทิศ ถนนพระราม 9 แล้วไปทางทิศตะวันออกเฉียงใต้ ตัดกับทางพิเศษศรีรัช ส่วน D พร้อมกับข้ามถนนรามคำแหง และถนนพัฒนาการ แล้วเลียบแนวคลองตันข้ามถนนสุขุมวิททางด้านตะวันออกของสะพานพระโขนง ไปบรรจบกับทางพิเศษเฉลิมมหานคร สายบางนา–ท่าเรือ ที่บริเวณอาจณรงค์ (ปลายซอยสุขุมวิท 50) มีด่านเก็บค่าผ่านทางรวมจำนวน 10 ด่าน ", "รถไฟใต้ดินดูไบ\nเส้นทางรถไฟฟ้าสายสีแดง ได้ทำพิธีเปิดการเดินรถอย่างเป็นทางการ เมื่อเวลา 9 นาฬิกา 9 นาที 9 วินาที วันที่ 9 กันยายน ค.ศ. 2009 โดยผู้ปกครองเมืองดูไบ และเปิดเดินรถแบบขนส่งสาธารณะในเวลา 6 นาฬิกา วันถัดมา รถไฟใต้ดินดูไบเป็นระบบขนส่งมวลชนความเร็วสูงแห่งแรกในคาบสมุทรอาหรับ มีผู้โดยสารใช้บริการถึง 110,000 คนในช่วงเวลา 2 วันแรกที่เปิด คิดเป็น 10 เปอร์เซ็นต์ ของประชากรทั้งเมือง และในช่วง 3 เดือนแรก มีผู้โดยสารมาใช้บริการถึง 10 ล้านคน เส้นทางรถไฟฟ้ามีโรงซ่อมบำรุงอยู่ 2 แห่ง", "การทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทย\nกระทั่งวันที่ 27 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2515 จอมพลถนอมในฐานะประธาน สภาบริหารคณะปฏิวัติ จึงได้ลงนามในประกาศของคณะปฏิวัติฉบับที่ 290 เรื่องจัดตั้งการทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทยซึ่งได้ลงประกาศใน ราชกิจจานุเบกษา เมื่อวันที่ 30 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2515 แต่ทางการทางพิเศษได้ถือเอาวันที่ 27 พฤศจิกายน เป็นวันก่อตั้งองค์กรโดยในวันที่ 27 มีนาคม พ.ศ. 2516 คณะรัฐมนตรี ได้มีมติแต่งตั้งนายประสิทธิ์ อุไรรัตน์ เป็นผู้ว่าการการทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทยคนแรก", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nจนถึงปัจจุบัน เส้นทางของ สนข. ทั้งหมดยังคงเป็นเพียงข้อเสนอแนะที่ไม่มีการพิจารณาให้สร้างขึ้นแต่อย่างใด", "องค์การขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ\nดังนั้น ในสมัยรัฐบาลของ ม.ร.ว.เสนีย์ ปราโมช จึงได้ออกพระราชกฤษฎีกาจัดตั้งเป็นองค์การของรัฐ ให้ชื่อว่า \"องค์การขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ\" เมื่อวันที่ 1 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2519 โดยควบรวมกิจการรถโดยสารประจำทางทั้งหมด จากบริษัท มหานครขนส่ง จำกัด มาขึ้นอยู่กับองค์การฯ ซึ่งเป็นรัฐวิสาหกิจ ประเภทกิจการสาธารณูปโภค สังกัดกระทรวงคมนาคม มีภารกิจ และขอบเขตความรับผิดชอบ ในการจัดบริการรถโดยสารประจำทาง รับ-ส่งผู้โดยสารในเขตกรุงเทพมหานคร และจังหวัดปริมณฑล 5 จังหวัดคือ สมุทรปราการ, นนทบุรี, ปทุมธานี, นครปฐมและสมุทรสาครตามพระราชกฤษฎีกาฉบับที่ 2 ที่มีผลบังคับใช้ในปีเดียวกันโดยมีผู้ใช้บริการประมาณ 3 ล้านคนต่อวัน นอกจากนี้ ยังมีหน้าที่ประกอบการอื่นๆ ที่เกี่ยวกับ หรือต่อเนื่องกับการประกอบการขนส่งบุคคล", "รถดีเซลราง\nรถดีเซลราง (diesel railcar) เป็นรถโดยสารที่มีเครื่องยนต์ดีเซลขับเครื่องด้วยตนเอง เดิมทีการรถไฟได้นำรถชนิดนี้มาใช้งานในประเทศไทยเมื่อ พ.ศ. 2470 ซึ่งเป็นเครื่องกลไอน้ำ สร้างโดย บริษัทบอลด์วิน สหรัฐอเมริกา รถดีเซลรางรุ่นแรก ๆ ที่นำมาใช้บริการรับส่งผู้โดยสารชานเมืองในปี พ.ศ. 2475 นั้น มีหมายเลข 11 ถึง 16 เป็นรถที่ประกอบด้วยรถกำลัง 1 คัน และรถพ่วงสำหรับผู้โดยสารล้วนอีก 1 คัน", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nกรุงเทพมหานคร โดยสำนักการจราจรและขนส่ง ได้จัดทำแผนการพัฒนาระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษเช่นเดียวกันกับ สนข. ตามนโยบายของนายอภิรักษ์ โกษะโยธิน ผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานครในขณะนั้น ในชื่อโครงการ บางกอกบีอาร์ที (English: Bangkok BRT)", "ทางพิเศษบูรพาวิถี\nทางพิเศษบูรพาวิถีเป็นทางพิเศษสายแรกที่ใช้ระบบปิดหรือระบบเก็บเงินตามระยะทาง กล่าวคือ เวลารถที่จะขึ้นทางออกต้องรับบัตรที่ด่านทางเข้า และเวลารถที่จะลงทางด่วนต้องคืนบัตรและจ่ายเงินที่ด่านทางออก ในปัจจุบัน ทางพิเศษกาญจนาภิเษกและทางหลวงพิเศษหมายเลข 7 ก็ใช้ระบบนี้เช่นเดียวกัน", "รถด่วนพิเศษทักษิณ\nรถด่วนพิเศษทักษิณ (; \"ทักษิณ\" แปลว่าภาคใต้; รหัสขบวน: 37/38) เป็นขบวนรถด่วนพิเศษของการรถไฟแห่งประเทศไทย ให้บริการผู้โดยสารระหว่างสถานีรถไฟกรุงเทพ เขตปทุมวัน กรุงเทพมหานคร กับสถานีรถไฟสุไหงโก-ลก อำเภอสุไหงโก-ลก จังหวัดนราธิวาส เป็นขบวนรถด่วนพิเศษที่มีระยะทางทำการไกลที่สุดในประเทศไทย (ไม่นับรถด่วนพิเศษระหว่างประเทศ ซึ่งเข้าไปในประเทศมาเลเซีย) ชนิดรถที่ให้บริการได้แก่ รถนั่งและนอนปรับอากาศชั้นหนึ่งและชั้นสอง (บนอ.ป. และ บนท.ป.) รถนั่งชั้นสองและชั้นสาม (บชท. และ บชส.) และรถเสบียง (บกข. หรือ บสข.) ปัจจุบันพ่วงการโดยสารร่วมกับรถด่วนพิเศษระหว่างประเทศขบวนที่ 45/46 เดิมทีขบวนนี้เปิดเดินในนามของขบวน 19/20 และมีจุดหมายปลายทางที่สถานียะลา ก่อนที่จะมีการเปลี่ยนแปลงกำหนดเวลาเดินรถใหม่ในวันที่ 17 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2529 ขยายปลายทางขบวนรถไปจนถึงสถานีสุไหงโกลก และให้ขบวน 11/15 12/16 ปลายทางบัตเตอร์เวอร์ธและสุไหงโกลกเดิมที่วิ่งวันเว้นวัน ให้กลายเป็นขบวน 11/12 ปลายทางบัตเตอร์เวอร์ธและมีเดินทุกวัน", "ทางด่วนกรุงเทพ\nบริษัท ทางด่วนกรุงเทพ จำกัด (มหาชน) เริ่มก่อตั้งขึ้นในปีพ.ศ. 2530 และเริ่มโครงการสัญญาระบบทางด่วนขั้นที่ 2 ในปี พ.ศ. 2531 ก่อนที่จะเริ่มดำเนินแปรสภาพเป็นบริษัทมหาชนในภายหลัง โดยจดทะเบียนในตลาดหลักทรัพย์ช่วงปี พ.ศ. 2538 และจัดตั้งบริษัท ทางด่วนกรุงเทพเหนือ จำกัด (NECL) ขึ้นเพื่อดำเนินการในส่วนของทางด่วนสายบางปะอิน-ปากเกร็ด", "การขนส่งระบบรางในประเทศไทย\nขบวนรถด่วนพิเศษ (Special Express) เป็นขบวนรถที่จัดเดินระยะทางไกล หยุดสถานีที่สำคัญ ๆ เท่านั้น ปัจจุบันมีชนิดรถให้บริการ ดังนี้", "รถไฟฟ้ามหานคร สายสีส้ม\nเป็นเส้นทางที่เกิดขึ้นครั้งแรกในแผนแม่บทระบบขนส่งมวลชนทางราง พ.ศ. 2538 โดยเป็นส่วนหนึ่งของเส้นทางบางกะปิ - ราษฎร์บูรณะของสายสีส้มเดิม เส้นทางนี้เป็นเส้นทางที่มีความสำคัญมากเพราะเป็นเส้นทางเข้าสู่พื้นที่ศูนย์ซ่อมบำรุงการรถไฟฟ้าขนส่งมวลชนแห่งประเทศไทยที่ใช้ร่วมกับสายเฉลิมรัชมงคล และยังเป็นเส้นทางหลักที่เชื่อมต่อการคมนาคมจากแหล่งที่พักอาศัยขนาดใหญ่ย่านบางกะปิเข้ากับสายเฉลิมรัชมงคล ที่กำหนดให้เป็นเส้นทางรถไฟฟ้าวงแหวนรอบกรุงเทพฯ", "รถยนต์ประจำตำแหน่งประธานาธิบดีแห่งสหรัฐอเมริกา\nซันไชน์ สเปเชียล เป็นชื่อเรียกรถลินคอร์นที่เป็นรถประจำตำแหน่งของประธานาธิบดีแฟรงกลิน ดี. โรสเวลต์ โดยเป็นรถคันแรกที่สร้างพิเศษสำหรับประธานาธิบดีโดยเฉพาะ รถคันนี้ใช้เครื่องยนต์ วี 12 ผลิตโดยบริษัทบรุนในสหรัฐอเมริกา กำลัง 414 แรงม้า มีการติดไซเรนบนตัวรถเป็นครั้งแรก ติดตั้งไฟส่องแสงบนตัวรถ มีห้องโดยสารกว้างเป็นพิเศษ มีวิทยุรับส่ง มือจับสำหรับหน่วยอารักขาขณะที่รถกำลังแล่นช้าๆ และเป็นรถที่สามารถเปิดประทุนได้ จนเป็นที่มาของชื่อเรียกรถยนต์นี้ ", "นครเซบู\nการขนส่งภายในตัวนคร ได้แก่ รถจี๊ปนีย์ รถโดยสารประจำทาง รถแท็กซี่ และมีโครงการรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษตั้งแต่ปี ค.ศ. 2012 โครงการนี้คาดว่าจะมีผู้โดยสาร 330,000 คนต่อวัน และจะมีรถโดยสารให้บริการ 176 คัน จำนวนสถานีทั้งหมด 33 สถานี โครงการนี้มีชื่อว่า ทรานส์เซบู และถูกตั้งเป้าให้เปิดใช้งานภายในปี ค.ศ. 2017 แต่ปัจจุบันโครงการนี้ล่าช้ากว่ากำหนดประมาณสองปี และค่าใช้จ่ายโครงการเพิ่มสูงถึง 180 ล้านดอลลาร์สหรัฐ", "ทางพิเศษโฮจิมินห์ซิตี–ล็องทัญ–เดาซาย\nทางพิเศษโฮจิมินห์ซิตี–ล็องทัญ–เดาซาย เป็นทางด่วนในประเทศเวียดนาม ระยะทาง 55 กิโลเมตร จำนวน 6 ช่องจราจร เปิดใช้งานในเดือนกุมภาพันธ์ ค.ศ. 2015 เชื่อมต่อระหว่างนครโฮจิมินห์กับอำเภอ Thống Nhất ในจังหวัดด่งนาย ทางด่วนนี้ใช้เงินลงทุนประมาณ 18,000 พันล้านด่อง (เทียบได้กับเงิน 1.2 พันล้านดอลลาร์สหรัฐ) จุดเริ่มต้นอยู่ที่แยก An Phu ในเขต 2 ของนครโฮจิมินห์ และสิ้นสุดที่แยก Dau Giay ในอำเภอ Thống Nhất จังหวัดด่งนาย ทางด่วนมีทางเข้าทั้งหมด 5 แห่ง ความเร็วสูงสุดที่อนุญาตให้ใช้คือ 120 กิโลเมตรต่อชั่วโมง ต่ำสุดคือ 60 กิโลเมตรต่อชั่วโมง", "การขนส่งระบบรางในกรุงเทพมหานคร\nการขนส่งระบบรางในกรุงเทพมหานคร เริ่มตั้งแต่ พ.ศ. 2436 โดยเปิดเดินเส้นทางรถไฟสายปากน้ำ จากกรุงเทพ ไปยังสมุทรปราการ ซึ่งต่อมาได้พัฒนาเป็นรถไฟหลวง และเริ่มดำเนินการเมื่อ พ.ศ. 2439 โดยเปิดเดินรถจากกรุงเทพ-นครราชสีมา เป็นสายแรก และเส้นทางต่อขยายไปยังเชียงใหม่ หนองคาย อุบลราชธานี สุไหงโก-ลก ส่วนระบบขนส่งทางรางสายแรก คือ รถไฟฟ้าบีทีเอส ได้เปิดใช้งานในปี พ.ศ. 2542 ตามด้วยรถไฟฟ้ามหานคร สายเฉลิมรัชมงคล ซึ่งเปิดใช้งานในปี พ.ศ. 2547 และรถไฟฟ้าเชื่อมท่าอากาศยานสุวรรณภูมิ ซึ่งเปิดใช้งานในปี พ.ศ. 2553", "เหตุการณ์รถตู้สาธารณะถูกชนบนทางยกระดับอุตราภิมุข พ.ศ. 2553\nเวลา 21:41 นาฬิกา พันตำรวจโท ฉัตรชัย เอี่ยมอ่อง สารวัตรสืบสวนสอบสวน สถานีตำรวจนครบาลวิภาวดีรังสิต รับรายงานเหตุ จึงนำกำลังไปตรวจสอบ และสั่งปิดการจราจรบนทางยกระดับอุตราภิมุข ตลอดจนบริเวณทางคู่ขนานขาเข้าทางหลวงแผ่นดินหมายเลข 31 ตั้งแต่หน้าบริษัทยาคูลท์ ไปจนถึงสี่แยกบางเขน[8][11] บนทางยกระดับอุตราภิมุข เขาพบรถรรถยนต์นั่งส่วนบุคคลของอรชร เทพหัสดิน ณ อยุธยา จอดอยู่กลางถนน หน้ารถพังยับเยิน และล้อหลุด ส่วนอรชร เทพหัสดิน ณ อยุธยา พิงขอบทางยกระดับอุตราภิมุข ใช้แบล็กเบอร์รีอยู่ข้าง ๆ[12] และพบรถตู้ที่ประสบเหตุ กำลังพลิกคว่ำ สภาพท้ายรถพังยับเยิน[2] นอกจากนี้ เขายังพบศพกระจายเกลื่อนอยู่บนทางคู่ขนาน ตั้งแต่หน้าหน้าสำนักงานปรมาณูเพื่อสันติ มาถึงประตูทางเข้ามหาวิทยาลัยเกษตรศาสตร์ นับได้ทั้งหมด 8 ศพ ส่วนผู้บาดเจ็บมี 7 คน รวมอรชร เทพหัสดิน ณ อยุธยา ด้วยแล้ว เจ้าหน้าที่และพลเมืองดีได้ช่วยกันนำส่งโรงพยาบาลวิภาวดีที่อยู่ใกล้เคียง[10] ต่อมา จันจิรา ซิมกระโทก ผู้บาดเจ็บ ตายลงอีก 1 จำนวนผู้ประสบเหตุจึงเปลี่ยนแปลงเป็น เสียชีวิต 9 คน บาดเจ็บ 6 คน[5]", "รถด่วนพิเศษทักษิณารัถย์\nรถด่วนพิเศษทักษิณารัถย์ (\"ทักษิณารัถย์\" แปลว่า ทางเดินสู่ภาคใต้; รหัสขบวน: 31/32) เป็นขบวนรถด่วนพิเศษของการรถไฟแห่งประเทศไทย ให้บริการผู้โดยสารระหว่างสถานีรถไฟกรุงเทพ เขตปทุมวัน กรุงเทพมหานคร กับสถานีรถไฟชุมทางหาดใหญ่ อำเภอหาดใหญ่ จังหวัดสงขลา เป็นขบวนรถด่วนพิเศษในสายใต้ ชนิดรถที่ให้บริการได้แก่ รถนอนปรับอากาศชั้น 1 รถนอนปรับอากาศชั้น 2 รถเสบียงปรับอากาศ ", "การขนส่งสาธารณะในหุบเขากลัง\nโครงการรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ (BRT) โดยคณะกรรมการขนส่งมวลชนทางบก (SPAD) มีสายที่กำลังก่อสร้างในปัจจุบัน คือ สายซันเวย์ (เปิดใช้งานในปี ค.ศ. 2016) และสายที่ยังเป็นโครงการอยู่ คือ สายเคแอล-กลัง", "วิศวกรรมทางหลวง\nการวิจัยครั้งแรกที่ทุ่มเทให้กับการวิศวกรรมทางหลวงเริ่มต้นในสหราชอาณาจักรด้วยการแนะนำของห้องปฏิบัติการวิจัยการขนส่ง (TRL) ในปี 1930. ในสหรัฐอเมริกา, วิศวกรรมทางหลวงกลายเป็นสาขาที่สำคัญที่มีการผ่านกฏหมาย Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944, ซึ่งมีวัตถุประสงค์เพื่อเชื่อมต่อ 90% ของเมืองที่มีประชากร 50,000 คนหรือมากกว่า. ด้วยความเครียดคงที่จากยานพาหนะที่มากขึ้นเมื่อเวลาผ่านไป, การปรับปรุงผ้วการจราจรเป็นสิ่งที่จำเป็น. ด้วยเทคโนโลยีที่ล้าสมัย, ในปี 1958 การก่อสร้างทางด่วนเป็นครั้งแรกในสหราชอาณาจักร (ถนนบายพาสเพรสตัน) ได้มีบทบาทสำคัญในการพัฒนาของเทคโนโลยีการสร้างผิวการจราจรใหม่. ", "รถโดยสารด่วนพิเศษ สายสาทร–ราชพฤกษ์\nจนกระทั่งเมื่อวันที่ 6 กุมภาพันธ์ พ.ศ. 2560 กรุงเทพมหานครได้ออกแถลงการณ์ที่จะยกเลิกโครงการรถโดยสารด่วนพิเศษ ในวันที่ 1 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2560 ด้วยเหตุผลหลักคือขาดทุนสะสมปีละกว่า 200 ล้านบาท พ่วงด้วยปัญหาด้านการจราจรที่หนักยิ่งกว่าเดิม อาทิ ระบบไม่สามารถทำเวลาได้เนื่องจากประชาชนลักลอบใช้เส้นทาง และเพิ่มปัญหาการจราจรบนถนนทั้งถนนนราธิวาสราชนครินทร์ และถนนพระรามที่ 3 โดยโครงสร้างของสถานีทั้งหมดจะถูกรื้อทิ้ง และทำเป็นรถไฟฟ้าสายสีเทาส่วนใต้ พระโขนง–ช่องนนทรี–ท่าพระ โดยให้รถที่มาจากแยกวิทยุเลี้ยวเข้าถนนสาทร และหักเลี้ยวเข้าถนนนราธิวาสราชนครินทร์ ก่อนวิ่งตามเส้นทางเดิมของรถโดยสารบีอาร์ทีต่อไป แต่หลังจากการแถลงกลับเกิดเสียงคัดค้านอย่างหนักเนื่องจากประชาชนยังคงมีความต้องการในการใช้เส้นทาง และบางส่วนมองว่าการยกเลิกโครงการจะทำให้ภาษีที่ถูกนำมาสร้างกลายเป็นเงินก้อนที่เปล่าประโยชน์ไป กรุงเทพมหานครจึงตัดสินใจเลื่อนแผนการยกเลิกโครงการฯ ออกไปก่อน และปรับอัตราค่าโดยสารจากเดิม 5 บาท เป็น 15 บาทตลอดสาย จนกว่าจะได้ความแน่นอนเรื่องการก่อสร้างรถไฟฟ้าสายสีเทา", "ระบบขนส่งมวลชนนครราชสีมา\nระบบขนส่งมวลชนนครราชสีมา เป็นโครงการรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษแบบยกระดับหรือสกายบัส ในเขตเทศบาลนครนครราชสีมา เพื่อบรรเทาปัญหาการจราจรในเขตเทศบาล ซึ่งโครงการนี้จะใช้งบประมาณ 4,000 ล้านบาท โดยโครงการนี้ จะทำให้นครราชสีมาเป็นเมืองแรกที่มีระบบสกายบัส", "การขนส่งระบบรางในประเทศไทย\nขบวนรถด่วน (Express) เป็นขบวนรถที่จัดเดินระยะทางไกล หยุดสถานีที่สำคัญ ๆ เท่านั้น แต่มีการให้บริการของชนิดรถพ่วงมากกว่าขบวนรถด่วนพิเศษ แบ่งชนิดรถที่ให้บริการ ดังนี้", "รถโดยสารด่วนพิเศษ สายสาทร–ราชพฤกษ์\nวันที่ 3 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2550 มีมติคณะรัฐมนตรี (ครม.) ยกเว้นมติ ครม. เดิมเมื่อวันที่ 11 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2526 ที่อนุญาตให้องค์การขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ (ขสมก.) และบริษัทบางกอกไมโครบัสเท่านั้น ที่สามารถเดินรถในกรุงเทพมหานครได้ ทำให้ กทม. ได้รับใบอนุญาตประกอบการเดินรถประจำทางด่วนพิเศษชิดเกาะกลางหรือบีอาร์ที ในเส้นทางนำร่อง ช่องนนทรี (สาทร) -ราชพฤกษ์ วันที่ 4 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2550 สำนักการจราจรและขนส่ง (สจส.) กรุงเทพมหานคร ลงนามในสัญญาว่าจ้างบริษัท ยูนิค เอ็นจิเนียริ่ง แอนด์ คอนสตรัคชั่น จำกัด (มหาชน) ที่ชนะการประกวดราคาก่อสร้างทางวิ่งและสถานี มูลค่า 661.21 ล้านบาท และว่าจ้างบริษัทเอเชี่ยน เอ็นจิเนียริ่ง คอนซัลแตนท์ เป็นที่ปรึกษาควบคุมงานโยธามูลค่า 7.5 ล้านบาท คาดว่าใช้เวลาก่อสร้าง 8 เดือน วันที่ 22 มีนาคม พ.ศ. 2550 บริษัทผู้รับเหมาก่อสร้างงานโยธาเริ่มลงพื้นที่ก่อสร้าง โดยเปิดหน้าดินความยาว 50-70 เมตร บริเวณทางเท้าถนนพระรามที่ 3 ด้านขาออกหน้าวัดปริวาส และถนนนราธิวาสฯ หน้า มทร. กรุงเทพ เพื่อสำรวจระบบสาธารณูปโภคและเตรียมพื้นที่ในการรื้อย้ายก่อนการก่อสร้างสะพานเดินเชื่อมเข้าสู่สถานี โดยปิดช่องจราจรด้านชิดทางเท้าครึ่งช่องทาง ควบคู่กับการเปิดหน้าดินบริเวณเกาะกลางอีกครึ่งช่องทาง แต่ยังคงจัดช่องจราจรแต่ละด้านให้ได้ 3 ช่องทางเช่นเดิม จากนั้นจึงทยอยทำงานเพื่อก่อสร้างจนครบทั้ง 12 สถานี วันที่ 22 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2550 นายอภิรักษ์ โกษะโยธิน ผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร เป็นประธานในพิธีวางศิลาฤกษ์โครงการก่อสร้าง ณ สถานที่ก่อสร้างสถานีต้นทางช่องนนทรี (สาทร) วันที่ 9 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2550 การประกวดราคาด้วยระบบอิเล็กทรอนิกส์ (อีออกชั่น) เพื่อจัดซื้อรถโดยสารบีอาร์ทีจำนวน 45 คัน วงเงิน 388,777,410 บาทไม่มีผู้สนใจเข้าร่วม แม้จะมีเอกชนยื่นซื้อซองประกวดราคาไปแล้ว 18 ราย โดยอ้างว่าติดขัดเงื่อนไข เช่นหากรถเสีย เอกชนต้องหารถมาเปลี่ยนและจ่ายค่าปรับคันแรก 20,000 บาท คันที่ 2 40,000 บาท ต้องมีพนักงานซ่อมบำรุงตลอดระยะเวลาที่เดินรถ รวมทั้งต้องมีอุปกรณ์ซ่อมแซมครบครัน ค่าปรับกรณีส่งมอบรถช้าวันละ 777,554 บาท เป็นต้น ขณะที่เอกชนบางรายอ้างว่ากำหนดราคากลางต่ำเกินไป หรือระยะเวลาในการจัดทำเอกสารน้อยเกินไป วันที่ 20 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2550 การประกวดราคาเพื่อจัดซื้อรถบีอาร์ทีอีกครั้งหนึ่งที่มีนายวินัย ลิ่มสกุล รองผู้อำนวยการ สจส. กทม. เป็นประธานคณะกรรมการในการจัดซื้อ มีผู้มายื่นซองเพียง 4 ราย ผู้ชนะการประกวดราคาคือบริษัท เบสท์ริน กรุ๊ป จำกัด เสนอราคา 387 ล้านบาทซึ่งต่ำกว่าราคากลางประมาณ 1 ล้านบาท[4] วันที่ 10 มีนาคม พ.ศ. 2551 กทม. ลงนามในสัญญาจัดซื้อรถกับบริษัท เบสท์ริน กรุ๊ป จำกัด จำนวน 45 คัน กำหนดให้จัดส่ง 3 คันแรกภายใน 5 เดือน เดือนที่ 6 จัดส่งอีก 20 คัน และเดือนที่ 7 จัดส่งที่เหลือทั้งหมด คาดว่าเมื่อรถโดยสารทั้ง 3 คันแรกส่งมาถึง กทม. แล้วก็จะปิดช่องจราจร 1 ช่องทางเพื่อจัดเตรียมสำหรับทดลองเดินรถในช่วงปลายเดือนกรกฎาคม หรือต้นเดือนสิงหาคม พ.ศ. 2551 เป็นต้นไป เพื่อส่งสัญญาณให้ประชาชนตื่นตัวมาใช้บริการ พร้อมทั้งปรับแผนการเปิดให้บริการเป็นวันที่ 12 สิงหาคม ให้ใช้บริการฟรี 6 เดือนไปจนถึงเดือนมกราคม พ.ศ. 2552[5] วันที่ 31 มีนาคม พ.ศ. 2551 คุณหญิงณัฐนนท ทวีสิน อดีตปลัด กทม. เข้ายื่นเอกสารหลักฐานแก่ พ.ต.อ.ทวี สอดส่อง รักษาการอธิบดีกรมสอบสวนคดีพิเศษ (ดีเอสไอ) ให้ตรวจสอบความไม่โปร่งใสในการประกวดราคาจัดซื้อรถบีอาร์ทีของ กทม. เนื่องจากเชื่อว่ามีการฮั้วประมูล จากข้อกำหนดเดิมให้รถมี 37 ที่นั่ง แต่เมื่อมีการส่งมอบรถกลับเหลือเพียง 34 ที่นั่ง และเชื่อว่าราคาที่จัดซื้อสูงเกินความเป็นจริง เนื่องจากได้ประมูลซื้อในราคาคันละ 7 ล้านบาทจากราคาขายในท้องตลาดเพียง 4 ล้านบาท จึงต้องการให้มีการตรวจสอบหากเข้าข่ายความผิดตามพระราชบัญญัติว่าด้วยความผิดเกี่ยวกับการเสนอราคาต่อหน่วยงานของรัฐ พ.ศ. 2542 หรือ พ.ร.บ. ฮั้วประมูล[6] ส่วนทางด้าน กทม. ได้มีคำสั่งให้บริษัท เบสท์ริน กรุ๊ป จำกัด ชะลอการผลิตตัวรถตั้งแต่เดือนเมษายน พ.ศ. 2551 เป็นต้นไป และจัดตั้งคณะกรรมการตรวจสอบข้อเท็จจริงขึ้น มีนางวรรณวิไล พรหมลักขโณ รองปลัด กทม. เป็นประธาน ซึ่งหากทุกฝ่ายสรุปผลสอบว่าการจัดซื้อรถไม่เข้าข่ายฮั้วประมูลก็สามารถให้บริษัทที่ชนะการประมูลดำเนินการประกอบรถต่อทันที เพื่อนำมาให้บริการได้ตามกำหนด วันที่ 31 มีนาคม พ.ศ. 2551 เปิดใช้สะพานเดินข้ามถนนของสถานีนำร่อง ได้แก่<b data-parsoid='{\"dsr\":[17040,17059,3,3]}'>สถานีนราราม 3 และ<b data-parsoid='{\"dsr\":[17063,17085,3,3]}'>สถานีเจริญราษฎร์ ซึ่งก่อสร้างเสร็จสมบูรณ์เป็นกลุ่มแรก วันที่ 8 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2551 มีการประกวดราคาด้วยระบบอิเล็กทรอนิกส์เพื่อจัดซื้อพร้อมติดตั้งระบบขนส่งอัจฉริยะ (Intelligent Transportation Systems หรือ ITS) วงเงิน 389 ล้านบาท จากกำหนดการเดิมประมาณเดือนมกราคม พ.ศ. 2551 ที่เลื่อนครั้งแรกมาเป็นวันที่ 24 มีนาคม ก่อนที่จะเลื่อนอีกครั้งในวันดังกล่าว เนื่องจากผู้รับเหมาจัดทำข้อเสนอไม่ทัน ผู้ที่ได้รับการคัดเลือกจะมีเวลาติดตั้งและทดสอบ 420 วันหรือ 14 เดือน และต้องติดตั้งระบบให้แล้วเสร็จภายใน 240 วัน ทดสอบระบบอีก 180 วัน ดังนั้นคาดว่าระหว่างการทดลองเดินรถในเดือนกรกฎาคม พ.ศ. 2551 อาจยังต้องใช้ระบบแมนนวลหรือระบบสัมผัสควบคู่ไปกับระบบอัจฉริยะ[7] แต่ภายหลังมีผู้ยื่นเอกสารประกวดราคาเพียง 1 ราย คือ บริษัทจัสมิน เทเลคอมซิสเต็ม จำกัด (มหาชน) ทำให้ กทม. ต้องเปิดการประกวดราคารอบใหม่ในวันที่ 30 มิถุนายน พ.ศ. 2551 และต้องเลื่อนกำหนดการเปิดเดินรถเป็นภายในต้นปี พ.ศ. 2552[8] แต่สุดท้ายก็ไม่มีการประกวดราคาเกิดขึ้น วันที่ 23 มิถุนายน พ.ศ. 2551 นายพงศ์ศักติฐ์ เสมสันต์ ปลัด กทม. ได้ส่งสำนวนผลการตรวจสอบของคณะกรรมการตรวจสอบข้อเท็จจริงของ กทม. ให้กับสำนักงานกฎหมายและคดี สำนักปลัด กทม. เพื่อสรุปแนวทางดำเนินโครงการอีกครั้ง คณะกรรมการฯ สรุปว่าคุณสมบัติของผู้เสนอราคาทั้ง 2 รายคือบริษัท เบสท์ริน กรุ๊ป จำกัด ผู้ชนะการประมูลกับ บริษัท ปรินทร์ อิมพอร์ต เอ็กพอร์ต จำกัด ในวันที่ยื่นเอกสารไม่มีผลประโยชน์ร่วมกัน มีคุณสมบัติครบตามที่เงื่อนไขการประกวดราคา (ทีโออาร์) กำหนดและไม่ผิดระเบียบพัสดุ กทม. แต่อย่างใด แม้จะพบความผิดปกติที่ผู้ถือหุ้นของทั้ง 2 บริษัทมีชื่อเป็นผู้ถือหุ้นร่วมกันในบริษัทที่ 3 คือบริษัท ซันลอง มอเตอร์ (ประเทศไทย) จำกัด แต่คณะกรรมการฯ ไม่สามารถพิสูจน์ได้ว่าความผิดปกติที่เกิดขึ้นเข้าข่ายตาม พ.ร.บ. ฮั้วประมูล ดังนั้นสำนวนดังกล่าวจึงไม่ได้เสนอแนวทางใด ๆ แก่ผู้บริหาร กทม. ว่าจะต้องยกเลิกการประกวดราคาหรือไม่[9]ภายหลัง สำนักงานกฎหมายและคดีของ กทม. ก็ไม่สามารถสรุปความเห็นต่อแนวทางการดำเนินโครงการได้เช่นกัน ส่วนการหารือกับสำนักงานอัยการสูงสุด (อสส.) ก็ไม่ได้วินิจฉัยแนวทางเช่นกัน เนื่องจากข้อร้องเรียนยังอยู่ระหว่างการตรวจสอบของกรมสอบสวนคดีพิเศษ จึงระบุให้เป็นดุลพินิจของผู้บริหาร กทม.[10] ทางด้านบริษัท เบสท์ริน กรุ๊ปฯ ได้ทำหนังสือถึง กทม. หลายฉบับ เพื่อเรียกร้องให้สั่งเดินหน้ากระบวนการผลิตรถต่อ หลังจากที่คำสั่งชะลอการผลิตรถได้ส่งผลให้เกิดความเสียหายต่อบริษัท ซึ่งอาจเป็นมูลค่าสูงกว่าวงเงินที่ว่าจ้าง[11] วันที่ 16 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2552 หม่อมราชวงศ์สุขุมพันธุ์ บริพัตร เข้าทำงานวันแรกในตำแหน่งผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร แทนนายอภิรักษ์ โกษะโยธิน ที่ลาออกไปก่อนหน้านี้ โดยได้ประกาศแผนพัฒนากรุงเทพมหานคร ซึ่งมีนโยบายหลักด้านการจราจรที่รวมถึงการเร่งรัดเปิดให้บริการเส้นทางรถบีอาร์ทีด้วย[12] วันที่ 26 กุมภาพันธ์ พ.ศ. 2552 การประกวดราคาจัดซื้อพร้อมติดตั้งระบบขนส่งอัจฉริยะครั้งที่ 2 ได้ผู้ชนะคือบริษัท ไทยทรานสมิชชั่น อินดัสทรี จำกัด ที่เสนอราคาต่ำสุด 397,500,000 บาท จากวงเงินที่กำหนดไว้ 405 ล้านบาท[13] และมีการลงนามสัญญาในเดือนพฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2552 ซึ่งใช้เวลานานถึง 1 ปีจากกำหนดการยื่นเอกสารของ สจส. ในครั้งแรกเมื่อวันที่ 14 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2551 ที่ภายหลังได้เลื่อนออกไปเป็นวันที่ 25 พฤศจิกายน เนื่องจากเอกชนหลายรายมีข้อสงสัยเรื่องการยื่นเอกสาร มีการประกาศรายชื่อผู้ผ่านการคัดเลือกเข้าเสนอราคาในวันที่ 2 ธันวาคม และกำหนดเคาะราคาเมื่อวันที่ 11 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2551[14] เดือนกรกฎาคม พ.ศ. 2552 หลังจากที่โครงการบีอาร์ทีทั้งหมดของ กทม. ได้หยุดชะงักไประหว่างการตรวจสอบความโปร่งใสจากกรมสอบสวนคดีพิเศษในทุกกระบวนการที่อาจมีการฮั้วประมูลเกิดขึ้น ต่อมากรมสอบสวนคดีพิเศษได้สรุปผลการตรวจสอบการจัดซื้อรถบีอาร์ทีว่าเข้าข่ายความผิดฐานฮั้วประมูล โดยบริษัทที่เข้าเสนอราคามีชื่อร่วมกันในบริษัทที่ 3 ทางกรมฯ จึงส่งสำนวนให้คณะกรรมการป้องกันและปราบปรามการทุจริตแห่งชาติ (ป.ป.ช.) ดำเนินการชี้มูลความผิดต่อไป แต่ไม่กระทบกับการดำเนินโครงการอีกต่อไป เนื่องจากทาง กทม. ได้เตรียมลงนามในสัญญาว่าจ้างบริษัท กรุงเทพธนาคม จำกัด รัฐวิสาหกิจของ กทม. ให้เข้าบริหารโครงการและจัดหารถแทนแล้ว ส่วนแนวโน้มการยกเลิกสัญญาการจัดซื้อรถกับผู้ชนะการประมูลเพื่อความโปร่งใสนั้น แม้ กทม. อาจจะถูกฟ้องศาลเรียกค่าเสียหาย แต่เนื่องจากได้ดำเนินการตรวจสอบตามระเบียบพัสดุอย่างเคร่งครัดแล้วว่าบริษัทที่เข้ายื่นประมูลไม่มีผลประโยชน์ร่วมกัน และการที่มีชื่อร่วมในบริษัทที่ 3 เป็นเรื่องยากที่ กทม. จะตรวจสอบได้ ทาง สจส. จึงยืนยันว่ากรณีความผิดนี้ไม่เกี่ยวข้องกับ กทม. อีกต่อไป[15] แต่หาก ป.ป.ช. ระบุในภายหลังว่าไม่มีความผิด กทม. อาจให้บริษัท เบสท์รินฯ ผลิตรถสำหรับเส้นทางบีอาร์ทีสายหมอชิต-ศูนย์ราชการแจ้งวัฒนะแทน โดยเป็นเส้นทางที่ กทม. กำลังเร่งรัดให้มีการก่อสร้างเช่นกันในระหว่างที่โครงการสายช่องนนทรีหยุดชะงักไป แต่รัฐบาลยังไม่ได้อนุมัติเส้นทาง[16] วันที่ 22 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2552 หม่อมราชวงศ์สุขุมพันธุ์ บริพัตร ผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานครได้อนุมัติให้มีการแก้ไขสัญญาการก่อสร้างสถานีกับบริษัทยูนิคฯ หลังจากที่มีการตรวจสอบจากกรมสอบสวนคดีพิเศษ โดยปรับลดเนื้องานและงบประมาณจาก 661 ล้านบาท เหลือ 650 ล้านบาท แต่ความล่าช้าของทาง กทม. ในการพิจารณาเอกสาร ทำให้การเบิกจ่ายงบประมาณเพื่อดำเนินงานก่อสร้างสถานีที่ยังไม่แล้วเสร็จต้องหยุดชะงักไปจนถึงช่วงเดือนพฤศจิกายน[17] วันที่ 6 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2552 นายธีระชน มโนมัยพิบูลย์ รองผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร, รองผู้บังคับการตำรวจจราจร และเจ้าหน้าที่สถานีตำรวจ 5 แห่งในเส้นทางเดินรถบีอาร์ที ลงพื้นที่ตรวจสอบเส้นทางและทดลองนั่งรถโดยสารเสมือนรถบีอาร์ที[18] วันที่ 12 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2552 หลังจาก กทม. มีความชัดเจนว่าจะใช้วิธีเช่ารถเพื่อดำเนินโครงการ จึงได้ว่าจ้างให้บริษัท กรุงเทพธนาคม จำกัด บริหารโครงการทั้งหมด วงเงิน 1,996 ล้านบาท ระยะเวลา 7 ปี มีเงื่อนไขต้องจัดหาผู้เดินรถและอุปกรณ์ต่าง ๆ ให้ทันเปิดให้บริการในวันที่ 15 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2553[19] วันที่ 6 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2553 จากการประกวดราคาด้วยระบบอิเล็กทรอนิกส์โดย สจส. เพื่อสนับสนุนการเดินรถบีอาร์ที ปรากฏว่าบริษัท ยูนิค เอ็นจิเนียริ่ง แอนด์ คอนสตรัคชั่น จำกัด (มหาชน) ชนะการประกวดราคางานปรับปรุงผิวจราจรและทางแยก ส่วนบริษัท อิตาเลี่ยนไทย จำกัด (มหาชน) ชนะการประกวดราคางานก่อสร้างอู่จอดรถและซ่อมบำรุง และในวันถัดมา บริษัท ยูนิคฯ ชนะการประกวดราคาก่อสร้างจุดเชื่อมต่อการเดินทางระหว่างสถานีบีอาร์ทีและสถานีรถไฟฟ้าบีทีเอสที่แยกสาทร-นราธิวาส ต่ำกว่าราคากลางที่ตั้งไว้ 196 ล้านบาท จำนวน 300,000 บาท[20] วันที่ 12 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2553 บริษัท ระบบขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ จำกัด (มหาชน) หรือบีทีเอสซี ชนะการประกวดราคาผู้รับจ้างเดินรถและจัดหารถบีอาร์ที 25 คัน หลังจากเป็นผู้ยื่นซองเพียงรายเดียวเมื่อวันที่ 5 มกราคม แต่ทางคณะกรรมการบริหารกรุงเทพธนาคมมีมติไม่ยกเลิกการประมูลดังกล่าว[21] โดยทางกรุงเทพธนาคมในฐานะผู้บริหารโครงการได้ต่อรองราคาลดลง 2.6 ล้านบาท เหลือ 535 ล้านบาท จากวงเงินที่กำหนดไว้ 550 ล้านบาท ระยะเวลาสัญญา 7 ปี[22] ต่อมาได้ลงนามสัญญาในวันที่ 10 กุมภาพันธ์ พ.ศ. 2553[23] วันที่ 1 กุมภาพันธ์ พ.ศ. 2553 กทม. เริ่มปรับผิวจราจรและก่อสร้างช่องทางเดินรถบีอาร์ทีบนถนนนราธิวาสราชนครินทร์และถนนพระรามที่ 3 วันที่ 23 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2553 บีทีเอสซีได้ส่งมอบรถบีอาร์ที 2 คันจากประเทศจีนแก่บริษัท กรุงเทพธนาคม จำกัด ส่วนที่เหลือจะจัดส่งมาอีกจนครบ 25 คัน ก่อนนำมาติดตั้งระบบอาณัติสัญญาณ เพื่อให้สามารถเปิดเดินรถได้ทันในวันที่ 15 พฤษภาคม รถดังกล่าวเป็นรถยี่ห้อซันลอง (Sunlong) จากนครเซี่ยงไฮ้ ประเทศจีน ใช้เครื่องยนต์จากสหรัฐอเมริกา และระบบเบรกแบบดิสก์เบรกจากประเทศเยอรมนี ก่อนหน้านั้นรถได้ทดลองวิ่งที่ประเทศจีนมาแล้ว ทำให้สามารถประหยัดระยะเวลาดำเนินการทดลองเดินรถได้ถึง 2 เดือน[24] วันที่ 28 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2553 ผู้บริหาร กทม. แถลงข่าวประชาสัมพันธ์โครงการที่[[ศาลาว่าการกรุงเทพมหานคร โดยนำรถบีอาร์ทีต้นแบบ 1 คันทดลองวิ่งให้สื่อมวลชนชม[25] วันที่ 3-4 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2553 ระหว่างเวลา 23.00-5.00 น. เริ่มติดตั้งสะพานทางเดินข้ามแยกสาทร-นราธิวาส วันที่ 9 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2553 เริ่มการเดินรถเพื่อทดสอบระบบขนส่งอัจฉริยะ วันที่ 29 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2553 เปิดให้บริการทดลองเดินรถบีอาร์ทีครั้งแรก โดยไม่คิดค่าโดยสารเป็นเวลา 3 เดือน จากนั้นเก็บค่าโดยสาร 10 บาทตลอดสาย และจะเปิดให้บริการเต็มรูปแบบในวันที่ 2 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2554 โดยจัดเก็บค่าโดยสารตามระยะทาง เริ่มต้นที่ 12 บาท สูงสุด 20 บาท วันที่ 28 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2553 ประกาศขยายเวลาเก็บค่าโดยสาร 10 บาทตลอดสายออกไปอีก 6 เดือน ตั้งแต่วันที่ 1 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2554 วันที่ 26 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2554 ประกาศขยายเวลาเก็บค่าโดยสาร 10 บาทตลอดสายออกไปอีก 1 ปี เพื่อแบ่งเบาภาระประชาชนหลังวิกฤตน้ำท่วม วันที่ 17 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2556 ประกาศขยายเวลาเก็บค่าโดยสาร 10 บาทตลอดสายออกไปอีก 1 ปี เพื่อลดภาะค่าใช้จ่ายในยุคที่ค่าครองชีพสูงขึ้น วันที่ 15 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2556 ประกาศเก็บค่าโดยสาร 5 บาทตลอดสาย และไม่เก็บค่าโดยสารกับผู้สูงอายุ คนพิการ และพระสงฆ์ ตามนโยบายของ ม.ร.ว.สุขุมพันธุ์ บริพัตร ผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร วันที่ 29 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2560 พล.ต.อ.อัศวิน ขวัญเมือง ผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร ประกาศปรับค่าโดยสาร 15 บาทตลอดสาย[26]", "รายชื่อเส้นทางเดินรถโดยสารประจำทางขององค์การขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ\nหมายเหตุ + ตัวเลข* หมายถึงจำนวนรถสำรองวิ่ง (รถสแปร์) ในรุ่นนั้น ๆ เก็บค่าโดยสารตามระยะทาง ราคา11 13 15 17 19 21 23 บาท เช่นเดียวกับรถโดยสารประจำทางปรับอากาศ สีขาว-เขียว-น้ำเงิน (ใช้ก๊าซธรรมชาติ) , รถโดยสารยูโรทูยี่ห้อ HINO RU1JSSL ได้รับการเปลี่ยนเครื่องยนต์และเชื้อเพลิงให้เป็นก๊าซธรรมชาติ (NGV) โดยได้รับการสนับสนุนจากกองทุนเพื่อส่งเสริมการอนุรักษ์พลังงาน,HINO RU1JSSL สาย 23/3-44009 และสาย 511/3-44043 ถูกปลดระวางเนื่องจากถูกเผาในเหตุการณ์วันสงกรานต์ พ.ศ. 2552 ,ISUZU LV423R สาย 79/6-56032 ถูกปลดระวางเนื่องจากเปลี่ยนเครื่องยนต์เป็นเครื่องยนต์ที่รองรับก๊าซ NGV แต่ประสบปัญหาเครื่องยนต์ขัดข้อง จึงปลดระวาง ส่วน ISUZU LV423R สาย 80/6-56060 ถูกปลดระวางเนื่องจากประสบอุบัติเหตุชนเสาไฟฟ้าเมื่อ พ.ศ. 2557 ส่วน DAEWOO BH115 และ BH115H จำนวน 198 คัน ถูกปลดระวางเนื่องจากปัญหาการซ่อมบำรุง", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nดูบทความหลักที่ รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ สายหมอชิต-ปากเกร็ด", "การขนส่งสาธารณะในหุบเขากลัง\nในช่วงคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 19-20 ชาวกัวลาลัมเปอร์ส่วนมากยังคงใช้รถลาก หรือช้าง เป็นยานพาหนะในการเดินทาง ต่อมาช่วง ค.ศ. 1960-1990 ได้เริ่มมีการใช้รถโดยสารขนาดเล็ก (มินิบัส) เป็นครั้งแรก", "รถด่วนพิเศษนครพิงค์\nรถด่วนพิเศษนครพิงค์ ในอดีตคือรถด่วนนครพิงค์ เป็นรถโดยสารปรับอากาศล้วน เปิดเดินรถครั้งแรกในวันที่ 13 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2530 และเป็นขบวนรถด่วนที่วิ่งคู่กับรถด่วนขบวนที่ 13/14 ซึ่งเปิดทำการมาตั้งแต่วันที่ 1 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2465 โดยใช้รถนั่งและนอนปรับอากาศชั้นที่ 1 รุ่นฮุนได 24 ที่นั่งและนอน ที่นำเข้าจากประเทศเกาหลีใต้ เมือปี พ.ศ. 2539 และรถนั่งและนอนปรับอากาศชั้นที่ 2 รุ่นแดวู 40 ที่นั่งและนอน ที่นำเข้าจากประเทศเกาหลีใต้ เมือปี พ.ศ. 2539 เช่นเดียวกับรถนั่งและนอนปรับอากาศชั้นที่ 1 และมีรถนั่งปรับอากาศชั้นที่ 2 ที่รองรับผู้โดยสารที่เป็นคนพิการ มีสิ่งอำนวยความสะดวกเพื่อผู้พิการ รวมทั้งห้องน้ำกว้างกว่ารถโดยสารปกติ โดยดัดแปลงมาจากรถนั่งปรับอากาศชั้น 3 เดิมจาก JR-west ประเทศญี่ปุ่น และมีตู้สำหรับสุภาพสตรีและเด็กอยู่ที่คันที่ 11 ในเที่ยวไป และคันที่ 3 ในเที่ยวกลับ ", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nจากการประชุมคณะกรรมการจัดระบบการจราจรทางบก เมื่อวันที่ 24 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2546 ได้มีมติให้สำนักงานนโยบายและแผนการขนส่งและจราจร (สนข.) เป็นผู้ออกแบบรายละเอียดของระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ ซึ่ง สนข. ได้ลงนามว่าจ้างกลุ่มบริษัทที่ปรึกษาให้ดำเนินการศึกษาออกแบบเมื่อวันที่ 31 สิงหาคม พ.ศ. 2547 มีจุดประสงค์เพื่อพัฒนาระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางให้มีประสิทธิภาพมากขึ้น และส่งเสริมให้ประชนหันมาใช้ระบบขนส่งสาธารณะโดยเฉพาะรถโดยสารประจำทาง", "การขนส่งระบบรางในประเทศไทย\nการสำรองรถไฟฟ้าในที่นี้กล่าวคือ เมื่อเกิดเหตุการณ์ที่รถไฟฟ้าไม่สามารถวิ่งได้ตามปกติ จะมีการส่งรถสำรองจากศูนย์ซ่อมบำรุงออกไปยังจุดที่เกิดปัญหา เพื่อรับผู้โดยสารไปส่งยังสถานีปลายทาง\nรถไฟฟ้าในกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล เป็นระบบขนส่งมวลชนแบบรางในกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล เริ่มเปิดให้บริการเป็นครั้งแรกเมื่อปี พ.ศ. 2542 ในเส้นทางหมอชิต - อ่อนนุชและสนามกีฬาแห่งชาติ - สะพานตากสิน โดยในปัจจุบันมีรถไฟฟ้าที่เปิดให้บริการแล้วทั้งสิ้น 5 สาย 85 สถานี ครอบคลุมระยะทางกว่า 125.09 กิโลเมตร", "ทางพิเศษสาย S1\nทางพิเศษสาย S1 หรือ ทางด่วนขั้นที่ 3 สายใต้ ตอน S1 เป็นเส้นทางของการทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทย เป็นทางพิเศษยกระดับขนาด 6 ช่องจราจร มีจุดเริ่มต้นจากปลายทางพิเศษฉลองรัช ซ้อนทับไปตามแนวทางพิเศษเฉลิมมหานครเดิม (ราบโรงกลั่น) เชื่อมต่อกับทางพิเศษบูรพาวิถี ระยะทาง 4.7 กิโลเมตรรู้จักในนาม ทางพิเศษสายบางนา-อาจณรงค์ ก่อสร้างแล้วเสร็จและเปิดใช้เมื่อวันที่ 15 มิถุนายน พ.ศ. 2548 ซึ่งมีพิธีเปิดบริเวณ ด่านบางนา กม.6 ขาเข้า โดยพ.ต.ท.ทักษิณ ชินวัตร นายกรัฐมนตรีในขณะนั้นเป็นประธานในพิธี มีด่านเก็บค่าผ่านทางพิเศษจำนวน 1 ด่านคือ ด่านบางจาก ซึ่งเป็นด่านของทางพิเศษเฉลิมมหานคร", "รถไฟฟ้ามหานคร สายเฉลิมรัชมงคล\nรถไฟฟ้ามหานคร สายเฉลิมรัชมงคล (พุทธมณฑลสาย 4-หลักสอง-หัวลำโพง-บางซื่อ-เตาปูน-ท่าพระ) (Metropolitan Rapid Transit Chaloem Ratchamongkhon Line, MRT Blue Line) หรือ รถไฟฟ้ามหานคร สายสีน้ำเงิน ซึ่งเรียกตามสีที่กำหนดในแผนแม่บท โครงการระบบขนส่งมวลชนทางราง ใน กรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล ประชาชนนิยมเรียกว่า \"รถไฟฟ้าใต้ดิน\" เนื่องมาจากช่วงเริ่มแรกให้บริการรถไฟฟ้าเส้นนี้ เส้นทางเป็นระบบใต้ดินแห่งแรกของประเทศไทย ดำเนินการโดย บริษัท ทางด่วนและรถไฟฟ้ากรุงเทพ จำกัด (มหาชน) (BEM) โดยได้รับสัมปทานจาก การรถไฟฟ้าขนส่งมวลชนแห่งประเทศไทย (รฟม. หรือ MRTA) เริ่มก่อสร้างในปี พ.ศ. 2542 และหลังจากที่เกิดความล่าช้าขึ้นหลายครั้ง ในที่สุดได้เปิดให้สาธารณชนทดลองใช้งานในวงจำกัดเมื่อวันที่ 13 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2547 และมีพิธีเปิดอย่างเป็นทางการในวันที่ 3 กรกฎาคม ปีเดียวกัน ", "จังหวัดนครราชสีมา\nรถโดยสารประจำทางหมวด 1 และหมวด 4 (รถสองแถว) วิ่งบริการภายในเขตเทศบาล และ บริเวณใกล้เคียง รถโดยสารหมวด 1 แบ่งออกเป็น 21 สาย วิ่งบริการภายในเขตเทศบาลและพื้นที่ใกล้เคียงไปตามเส้นทางต่าง ๆ รถจักรยานยนต์รับจ้าง, รถสามล้อเครื่อง และรถสามล้อ วิ่งให้บริการผู้โดยสารภายในเขตตัวเมือง รถแท็กซี่มิเตอร์ (Taxi Meter) เปิดให้บริการในช่วงการแข่งขันกีฬาซีเกมส์ครั้งที่ 24 เมื่อเดือนธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2550 เป็นจังหวัดแรกในภาคตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือ มีจุดจอดรถแท็กซี่อยู่ที่สถานีขนส่งผู้โดยสารแห่งที่ 2 สถานีรถไฟนครราชสีมา สถานีรถไฟชุมทางจิระ ศูนย์การค้าเดอะมอลล์ นครราชสีมา เซ็นทรัลพลาซา นครราชสีมา เทอร์มินอล 21 โคราช และสถานบันเทิง นอกจากนี้ยังสามารถเรียกใช้บริการโดยโทรศัพท์เลขหมายด่วนหริอเรียกผ่านแอปพลิเคชัน ปัจจุบันมีรถให้บริการทั้งสิ้นจำนวนมากกว่า 70 คัน", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ สายหมอชิต-ปากเกร็ด\nรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ สายหมอชิต-ปากเกร็ด หรือ รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ สายหมอชิต-ศูนย์ราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร เป็นโครงการก่อสร้างระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ (BRT) ของกรุงเทพมหานคร จำนวน 7 สถานี เกิดแนวคิดขึ้นเมื่อปี พ.ศ. 2551 ในสมัยของนายอภิรักษ์ โกษะโยธิน ผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร มุ่งหวังรองรับบริการข้าราชการกว่า 30,000 คนที่ทำงานภายในศูนย์ราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร และเมืองทองธานี คาดว่าจะมีปริมาณผู้โดยสาร 56,000 คนต่อวัน และใช้เงินลงทุนประมาณ 2,000 ล้านบาท", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nเมืองทองธานี-มีนบุรี: 26 กิโลเมตร บางกะปิ-สมุทรปราการ: 20 กิโลเมตร ตลิ่งชัน-สะพานสมเด็จพระปิ่นเกล้า: 10 กิโลเมตร ดอนเมือง-หมอชิต: 17 กิโลเมตร", "องค์การขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ\nรถยนต์ที่ใช้เป็นรถโดยสารประจำทางครั้งแรก มี 3 ล้อ ขนาดประมาณ 1 ใน 3 ของรถโดยสารประจำทางในปัจจุบัน มีที่นั่ง 2 แถว ทาสีขาว มีรูปกากบาทสีแดงอยู่ตอนกลางรถ นั่งได้ประมาณ 10 คน ชาวพระนครสมัยนั้นเรียกว่า \"อ้ายโกร่ง\" เพราะจะมีเสียงดังโกร่งกร่าง เมื่อวิ่งไปตามท้องถนน ประชาชนได้รับความสะดวกรวดเร็วในการเดินทาง จึงเป็นที่นิยมอย่างแพร่หลาย การเดินรถเมล์ก็ขยายตัวอย่างกว้างขวางออกไปทั่วกรุงเทพฯ ในนามของ \"บริษัท นายเลิศ จำกัด\" (บริษัทรถเมล์ขาว) การประกอบกิจการเดินรถเมล์เริ่มขยายตัวขึ้น เมื่อพระบาทสมเด็จพระปกเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว โปรดเกล้าฯ ให้จัด\"งานสมโภชกรุงรัตนโกสินทร์ 150 ปี พุทธศักราช 2475\" พร้อมทั้งจัดสร้างสะพานพระพุทธยอดฟ้า เพื่อเชื่อมการคมนาคมระหว่างฝั่งพระนคร และธนบุรี ไวเป็นอนุสรณ์ของงานสมโภชครั้งนี้", "รถไฟความเร็วสูงในประเทศไทย\nประเทศสยามถือเป็นประเทศแรก ๆ ของทวีปเอเชียที่มีรถไฟ เพราะว่าในปี พ.ศ. 2398 เมื่อสยามได้ลงนามในสนธิสัญญาเบาว์ริงกับประเทศอังกฤษเป็นที่เรียบร้อยแล้ว คณะทูตอังกฤษจึงได้ถวายเครื่องราชบรรณาการที่พระราชทานโดยสมเด็จพระบรมราชินีนาถวิกตอเรียแด่พระบาทสมเด็จพระจอมเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว โดยหนึ่งในนั้นคือรถไฟจำลองในรูปแบบหัวรถจักรไอน้ำที่สามารถขับเคลื่อนได้ จำนวน 1 ชุด ทำให้พระองค์ทรงสนพระราชหฤทัยและเป็นแรงบันดาลพระราชหฤทัยสำคัญที่ต้องการให้ประเทศสยามควรจะมีการจัดตั้งกิจการรถไฟเป็นของตัวเอง แต่ก็ไม่สามารถจัดตั้งขึ้นมาได้ในรัชสมัยของพระองค์ เนื่องจากงบประมาณและประชากรของประเทศสยามในขณะนั้นยังมีอยู่จำนวนน้อย[5]ทั้งนี้ ในเวลาหลายปีต่อมา เมื่อเข้าสู่รัชกาลของพระบาทสมเด็จพระจุลจอมเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัวแล้ว จึงได้มีการตั้งกรมรถไฟ ในปี พ.ศ. 2433 หลังจากนั้นก็มีการพัฒนาระบบรถไฟไทยอย่างเรื่อยมา แต่การพัฒนาถือว่าเป็นไปอย่างช้ามาก และเริ่มที่จะล้าหลัง อีกทั้งอะไหล่หัวรถจักรนั้นหาซื้อได้ยาก จึงได้มีแนวคิด ที่จะพัฒนาระบบรถไฟในประเทศ เป็นระบบรถไฟความเร็วสูง โดยเริ่มมีการศึกษาตั้งแต่ปี พ.ศ. 2535[6] ในรัฐบาลนายชวน หลีกภัย เป็นต้นมา ในปี พ.ศ. 2537 มีการศึกษาโครงการรถไฟความเร็วสูง สายกรุงเทพ - สนามบินหนองงูเห่า - ระยอง และคณะรัฐมนตรีได้มีมติอนุมัติโครงการดังกล่าว เมื่อวันที่ 30 สิงหาคม พ.ศ. 2537[6] ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2551 พรรคประชาธิปัตย์ สามารถจัดตั้งรัฐบาลได้สำเร็จ ก็ได้สานต่อโครงการฯ มีการเปิดทางให้ต่างประเทศได้ศึกษาแนวเส้นทาง โดยสองประเทศที่สนใจเข้ามาลงทุน คือ ประเทศจีน และ ประเทศญี่ปุ่น ซึ่งญี่ปุ่นสนใจที่จะลงทุนในเส้นทาง กรุงเทพฯ-เชียงใหม่ ส่วนจีน มีความสนใจในเส้นทาง กรุงเทพฯ-หนองคาย ซึ่งขณะนั้น จีนก็ได้กำลังเจรจากับรัฐบาลลาว เพื่อสร้างทางรถไฟฟ้าความเร็วสูง ซึ่งในอนาคตนั้นสามารถเชื่อมต่อเข้ากับเส้นทางกรุงเทพ-หนองคายได้เลย เนื่องจากจีนมีแผนวางเส้นทางรถไฟความเร็วสูง ไปถึงสิงคโปร์ แต่ภายหลังการเจรจาระหว่างรัฐบาลจีนและลาวมีปัญหา เนื่องจากรัฐบาลลาวเห็นว่า เงื่อนไงที่รัฐบาลจีนได้เสนอมานั้นเกินกว่าที่ลาวจะสามารถยอมรับได้ และเป็นภัยคุกคามต่อความมั่นคงของประเทศ ส่งผลให้โครงการรถไฟความเร็วสูงในภาคตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือของไทยต้องสะดุดลง", "รถบรรทุก\nพ.ศ. 2495 รถยนต์โดยสารฮีโน่คันแรกปรากฏโฉมในเมืองไทย", "รถโดยสารด่วนพิเศษ สายสาทร–ราชพฤกษ์\nเริ่มต้นจาก ถนนนราธิวาสราชนครินทร์ ที่แยกสาทร–นราธิวาสด้านทิศใต้ ผ่านแยกจันทน์–นราธิวาส แยกรัชดา–นราธิวาส เลี้ยวขวาที่แยกพระรามที่ 3–นราธิวาสเข้าสู่ถนนพระรามที่ 3 ขึ้นสะพานข้ามแยกพระรามที่ 3–วงแหวนอุตสาหกรรม, แยกสาธุประดิษฐ์, แยกพระรามที่ 3–รัชดา (ใต้สะพานพระราม 9) และแยกเจริญราษฎร์ ก่อนขึ้นสะพานพระราม 3 ข้ามแยกถนนตก แม่น้ำเจ้าพระยา ข้ามแยกบุคคโลและแยกมไหสวรรย์เข้าสู่ถนนรัชดาภิเษก–ท่าพระ แล้วเลี้ยวขวาไปสิ้นสุดที่ถนนราชพฤกษ์ บริเวณใต้สะพานข้ามแยกรัชดา–ตลาดพลู ฝั่งห้างสรรพสินค้าเดอะมอลล์ ท่าพระ", "รถด่วนพิเศษนครพิงค์\nรถด่วนพิเศษนครพิงค์ (; เลขขบวน: 1/2) เป็นรถด่วนพิเศษในอดีตขบวนหนึ่งของการรถไฟแห่งประเทศไทย ให้บริการระหว่างสถานีรถไฟกรุงเทพ เขตปทุมวัน กรุงเทพมหานคร และสถานีรถไฟเชียงใหม่ อำเภอเมือง จังหวัดเชียงใหม่ ด้วยรถนั่งและนอนปรับอากาศชั้นหนึ่งและชั้นสอง (บนอ.ป. และ บนท.ป.) รถนั่งปรับอากาศชั้นที่2สำหรับผู้พิการ และรถเสบียงปรับอากาศ (บกข.ป) ปัจจุบันยุติการให้บริการและทดแทนด้วยรถด่วนพิเศษอุตราวิถีขบวนที่ 9/10 เดินรถเที่ยวสุดท้ายเมื่อวันที่ 11 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2559 (ถึงสถานีรถไฟกรุงเทพวันที่ 12 พฤศจิกายน พ.ศ. 2559) รวมระยะเวลาการใช้งานทั้งสิ้น 29 ปี 10 เดือน 30 วัน", "ทางพิเศษฉลองรัช\nทางพิเศษฉลองรัช เป็นทางพิเศษในกรุงเทพมหานคร ก่อสร้างและเปิดให้บริการตลอดสาย เมื่อวันที่ 6 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2539 ดำเนินการโดยการทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทย มีระยะทางทั้งสิ้น 28.2 กิโลเมตร ทางพิเศษสายนี้เป็นการแบ่งเบาการจราจรบนถนนรามอินทรา และทางพิเศษเฉลิมมหานคร มีด่านเก็บค่าผ่านทางรวมทั้งสิ้น 14 ด่าน", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ สายช่องนนทรี-ราชพฤกษ์", "กรุงเทพมหานคร\nทางเชื่อมทางพิเศษ สายบางพลี-สุขสวัสดิ์ กับ ทางพิเศษบูรพาวิถี[68] เปิดบริการ 31 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2552 ทางเชื่อมต่อทางพิเศษสายบางพลี-สุขสวัสดิ์กับถนนวงแหวนอุตสาหรรม 2 กิโลเมตร[69] เปิดใช้ 23 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2554", "ทางพิเศษเฉลิมมหานคร\n\"ทางพิเศษสายดาวคะนอง–ท่าเรือ\" เปิดให้บริการ 5 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2530 ระยะทาง 10.3 กิโลเมตร แนวสายทางเริ่มจากทางแยกต่างระดับท่าเรือ ผ่านทางแยกต่างระดับบางโคล่ ข้ามแม่น้ำเจ้าพระยาที่สะพานพระราม 9 ช่วงนี้เป็นทางยกระดับขนาด 6 ช่องจราจร และลดช่องจราจรเหลือ 4 ช่อง ตั้งแต่สะพานพระราม 9 และสิ้นสุดที่ถนนพระรามที่ 2 ทางพิเศษสายนี้ประกอบด้วยด่านเก็บค่าผ่านทางจำนวน 5 ด่านคือ ด่านสาธุประดิษฐ์ 1, ด่านสาธุประดิษฐ์ 2, ด่านพระราม 3, ด่านสุขสวัสดิ์ และด่านดาวคะนอง", "เรือโดยสารคลองในประเทศไทย\nเรือโดยสารคลองในประเทศไทย เป็นบริการเรือด่วนในคลองแสนแสบ และคลองมหานาค มีเส้นทางระหว่าง ท่าน้ำวัดศรีบุญเรือง ในเขตบางกะปิ จนถึง ท่าสะพานผ่านฟ้าลีลาศ เขตป้อมปราบศัตรูพ่าย โดยมีจุดต่อเรือที่ ท่าประตูน้ำ รวม 28 ท่าเรือ ดำเนินงานโดยกลุ่มเรือหางยาวที่รวมตัวกันในนาม ห้างหุ้นส่วนจำกัด ครอบครัวขนส่ง เปิดให้บริการครั้งแรกในวันที่ 1 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2533 จากการชักชวนของ พล.ต.จำลอง ศรีเมือง ผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานครในสมัยนั้น", "ทางพิเศษศรีรัช\nทางพิเศษศรีรัช หรือ ระบบทางด่วนขั้นที่ 2 (ส่วนในเมือง) เป็นทางพิเศษในกรุงเทพมหานคร ก่อสร้างและเปิดให้บริการเป็นครั้งแรกเมื่อวันที่ 2 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2536 ดำเนินการโดยการทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทย มีระยะทางรวม 38.4 กิโลเมตร เป็นทางพิเศษที่แบ่งเบาการจราจรบนทางพิเศษเฉลิมมหานคร และเพิ่มประสิทธิภาพของทางพิเศษในกรุงเทพมหานครให้เป็นโครงข่ายที่สมบูรณ์มากยิ่งขึ้น", "ประเทศไทยใน พ.ศ. 2524\n1 เมษายน–3 เมษายน – เกิดเหตุการณ์กบฏเมษาฮาวายหรือกบฏยังเติร์ก เมื่อมีความพยายามก่อการรัฐประหารรัฐบาล พล.อ.เปรม ติณสูลานนท์ โดย กลุ่มทหาร จปร.7 หรือกลุ่มยังเติร์ก โดยมี พล.อ.สัณห์ จิตรปฏิมา เป็นหัวหน้า 29 ตุลาคม – ทางพิเศษเฉลิมมหานคร ทางพิเศษสายแรกของประเทศไทย (สายดินแดง-ท่าเรือ )เปิดให้บริการแก่ประชาชนครั้งแรก", "สถานีขนส่งผู้โดยสารกรุงเทพ (ถนนบรมราชชนนี)\nสถานีขนส่งผู้โดยสารกรุงเทพ (ถนนบรมราชชนนี) หรือ สายใต้ใหม่ (ตลิ่งชัน) เป็นสถานีขนส่ง สำหรับรถโดยสารทางไกล สายใต้ และสายตะวันตกบางส่วน เป็นสถานีขนส่งเอกชน สร้างและบริหารโดย บริษัท สิริโปรเจกต์ คอนสทรัคชั่น จำกัด โดยได้รับสัมปทานจาก บริษัท ขนส่ง จำกัด กระทรวงคมนาคม เป็นระยะเวลา 20 ปี ปัจจุบันก่อสร้างเรียบร้อยและเปิดให้บริการเดินรถสายใต้ทั้งหมด ตั้งแต่จังหวัดชุมพรลงไปเปิดเดินรถในวันที่ 1 พฤศจิกายน 2550 และมีกำหนดเริ่มการเดินรถสายตะวันตกในวันที่ 15 พฤศจิกายน 2550 ส่วนพิธีเปิดอย่างเป็นทางการ จะดำเนินการในภายหลัง เนื่องจากขั้นต้นยังเป็นการเดินรถทดลองระบบ นอกจากนี้สถานีขนส่งแห่งนี้ ยังเป็นสถานีขนส่งที่มีมาตรฐานความปลอดภัยในระดับสูง มีระบบการจัดการคล้ายท่าอากาศยาน กล่าวคือ ผู้ที่ไม่มีตั๋วโดยสาร จะไม่สามารถเข้าสู่เขตชานชาลาได้", "ทางหลวงพิเศษหมายเลข 7\nทางหลวงพิเศษหมายเลข 7 ออกแบบและก่อสร้างเป็นทางหลวงพิเศษไม่มีทางเชื่อมควบคุมการเข้า-ออก เริ่มก่อสร้างเมื่อปี พ.ศ. 2537 ก่อสร้างแล้วเสร็จและเปิดการจราจรตลอดสายเมื่อวันที่ 1 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2541 ก่อสร้างเป็นถนนขนาด 4 ช่องจราจร ต่อมา ได้มีการรวมแนวเส้นทางเก่าของทางหลวงแผ่นดินหมายเลข 36 มาเป็นส่วนหนึ่งในช่วงชลบุรี–พัทยา และก่อสร้างเพิ่มเติมจากเดิมสิ้นสุดบนทางหลวงแผ่นดินหมายเลข 36 เป็นสิ้นสุดที่ถนนสุขุมวิท บริเวณพัทยากลาง เปิดการจราจรเมื่อวันที่ 28 มีนาคม 2553 ซึ่งเป็นการเปิดการจราจรตลอดสาย", "รายชื่อระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ\nhttp://www.lamata-ng.com/newsreader79.html\nThis is from the Lagos operator site. Careful planning is needed", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วน\nรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วน (express bus service) เป็นระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางที่มีเป้าหมายในการบริการให้เดินทางระหว่างจุดสองจุดเร็วขึ้นกว่ารถโดยสารประจำทางทั่วไป โดยจำกัดเส้นทางเดินรถและจุดจอดรถระหว่างกลาง นิยมใช้ในช่วงชั่วโมงเร่งด่วน เช่นในเวลาก่อนเข้างานตอนเช้า หรือหลังเลิกงานตอนเย็น เพื่อให้ผู้โดยสารที่เดินทางระหว่างในตัวเมือง สามารถออกไปสู่บริเวณต่อรถภายนอกเมืองได้อย่างรวดเร็ว การจัดการรถโดยสารประเภทนี้ จะมีการไม่หยุดจอดในหลายสถานีเพื่อบริการให้เร็วขึ้น ซึ่งในบางครั้งจะมีการเพิ่มค่าโดยสารสำหรับระบบประเภทนี้", "รถโดยสารด่วนพิเศษ สายสาทร–ราชพฤกษ์\nแขวงทุ่งมหาเมฆ แขวงทุ่งวัดดอน เขตสาทร, แขวงช่องนนทรี แขวงบางโพงพาง เขตยานนาวา, แขวงบางโคล่ เขตบางคอแหลม และแขวงบุคคโล เขตธนบุรี กรุงเทพมหานคร", "ทางหลวงตริภูวัน\nการก่อสร้างเสร็จสิ้นในปี ค.ศ. 1956 เป็นถนนสายแรกที่เชื่อมกับอินเดีย ในปี ค.ศ. 1959 เปิดให้บริการรถโดยสารประจำทางบนทางหลวง ดำเนินการโดยการบริการการขนส่งเนปาล เส้นทางรถโดยสารสิ้นสุดที่เมือง Amlekhganj ซึ่งสามารถต่อรถไฟไปยังเมือง Birgunj และ Raxaul ได้", "ชิงกันเซ็ง 0 ซีรีส์\nในระยะแรกไม่ได้มีการจัดรถไฟฟ้าความเร็วสูงรุ่นนี้เป็นซีรีส์ 0 เนื่องจากขณะนั้นรถไฟฟ้าความเร็วสูงยังมีเพียงรุ่นเดียว ไม่จำเป็นต้องจำแนกหรือตั้งชื่อเป็นซีรีส์ ชิงกันเซ็ง ซีรีส์ 0 เปิดให้บริการบนสายโทไกโด ชิงกันเซ็ง ในปี ค.ศ. 1964 (1 ตุลาตม ค.ศ.1964) รถไฟฟ้าความเร็วสูงรุ่นนี้จะมีแถบสีน้ำเงินคาดตั้งแต่คันรถหัวขบวนผ่านหน้าต่างและส่วนล่างไปตลอดขบวนรถ ", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nแผนแม่บท เส้นทางบีอาร์ที ในครั้งแรก ประกอบด้วยเส้นทางนำร่อง เดิมมีกำหนดเปิดใช้ปลายปี พ.ศ. 2548 ได้แก่", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ สายช่องนนทรี-ราชพฤกษ์ รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ สายหมอชิต-ปากเกร็ด รถโดยสารประจำทาง โครงข่ายระบบรถไฟฟ้าขนส่งมวลชนในกรุงเทพมหานครและพื้นที่ต่อเนื่อง", "เทศบาลนครเชียงใหม่\nส่วนระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษนครเชียงใหม่ () จะเปิดให้บริการในอนาคต แต่ยังติดปัญหาเรื่องงบประมาณและการพิจารณาอนุมัติของสำนักงานนโยบายและแผนการขนส่งและจราจร (สนข.)", "สถานีรถไฟพหลโยธิน\nในระยะแรกการรถไฟฯ ได้จัดให้มีขบวนรถออก-เข้าที่สถานีพหลโยธินแห่งนี้เฉพาะในช่วงเทศกาลวันหยุดหลายวัน เพื่อให้ผู้โดยสารที่ไม่สามารถขึ้นรถโดยสารประจำทางมาขึ้นรถไฟ โดยไม่ต้องขึ้นรถเมล์ ในปลายปี พ.ศ. 2545 การรถไฟฯ มีนโยบายที่จะปรับปรุงงานด้านบริการ เพื่อให้ผู้โดยสารได้รับความสะดวก รวดเร็ว ในการเดินทาง และช่วยแก้ปัญหาการจราจรติดขัดในเขตกรุงเทพมหานคร กับปัญหารถแน่นย่านสถานีรถไฟกรุงเทพ (ช่วงแยกยมราช-อุภัยเจษฎุทิศ) จึงจัดเที่ยวรถประจำที่สถานีพหลโยธินจำนวน 6 ขบวน คือ ขบวนรถธรรมดาที่ 201/202 (พหลโยธิน-พิษณุโลก-พหลโยธิน), ขบวนรถธรรมดาที่ 211/212 (พหลโยธิน-ตะพานหิน-พหลโยธิน) และขบวนรถเร็วที่ 115/116 (พหลโยธิน-พิษณุโลก-พหลโยธิน) และประกาศเปิดใช้เป็นทางการถาวร ตามคำสั่งฝ่ายการเดินรถที่ พ.2/ดร.3/121 ลงวันที่ 8 กรกฎาคม พ.ศ. 2547 แต่ยังไม่กำหนดอัตรากำลัง และชั้นสถานีอย่างเป็นทางการ", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nดูบทความหลักที่ รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ สายช่องนนทรี-ราชพฤกษ์", "รถด่วนพิเศษระหว่างประเทศ\nปัจจุบันชนิดรถที่ให้บริการมีเพียงรถนั่งและนอนปรับอากาศชั้นสอง (บนท.ป.) ในขณะที่หัวรถจักรส่วนมากใช้จีอีเอหรือฮิตะชิทำการ", "ทางพิเศษอุดรรัถยา\nทางพิเศษอุดรรัถยา หรือ ทางด่วนสายบางปะอิน–ปากเกร็ด เป็นทางด่วนของการทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทย ระยะทางรวม 32 กิโลเมตร มีปลายทางทิศใต้ที่ปลายทางทิศเหนือของทางพิเศษศรีรัชส่วน C บริเวณจุดตัดกับถนนแจ้งวัฒนะ ในอำเภอปากเกร็ด จังหวัดนนทบุรี และมีปลายทางทิศเหนือบนถนนกาญจนาภิเษกด้านตะวันตก ในอำเภอบางไทร จังหวัดพระนครศรีอยุธยา เปิดให้บริการครั้งแรกเมื่อวันที่ 2 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2541 ทางพิเศษอุดรรัถยามีวัตถุประสงค์การก่อสร้างเพื่อรองรับการแข่งขันเอเชียนเกมส์ครั้งที่ 13 และเพื่อให้ระบบทางพิเศษในตอนบนของกรุงเทพมหานครสมบูรณ์ขึ้น", "รายชื่อระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ\nรายชื่อระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษทั่วโลกไฮไลท์สีฟ้า คือ ยังไม่เปิดให้บริการ\nหมายเหตุ", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ\nความเร็วของระบบขนส่งรูปแบบนี้จะอยู่ประมาณ 30 - 45 กิโลเมตรต่อชั่วโมง ซึ่งใกล้เคียงกับระบบรถไฟฟ้าขนาดเบา", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nกรุงเทพมหานครได้เปิดให้บริการ รถโดยสารด่วนพิเศษ สายสาทร-ราชพฤกษ์ ตั้งแต่วันที่ 29 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2553 (จากกำหนดเดิมในวันที่ 15 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2553[1]) โดยโครงการสายอื่นนั้นยังอยู่ในขั้นตอนการวางแผน", "ทางหลวงแผ่นดินหมายเลข 32\nทางหลวงแผ่นดินหมายเลข 32 เปิดใช้ครั้งแรกเมื่อวันที่ 23 มิถุนายน พ.ศ. 2516 ในสมัยรัฐบาลจอมพลถนอม กิตติขจร มีวัตถุประสงค์เพื่อเป็นส่วนหนึ่งในโครงข่ายทางหลวงสายเอเชีย โดยทางหลวงสายนี้เป็นทางหลวงเอเชียสาย 1 (แม่สอด-ตาก-พยุหะคีรี-บางปะอิน-หินกอง-นครนายก-ปราจีนบุรี-อรัญประเทศ) และทางหลวงเอเชียสาย 2 (แม่สาย-เชียงราย-พิษณุโลก-นครสวรรค์-บางปะอิน-กรุงเทพฯ-นครปฐม-เพชรเกษม-หาดใหญ่-สะเดา) ตามลำดับ แต่เดิมเป็นเพียงทางหลวงขนาด 2 ช่องจราจรสวนทาง และมีด่านเก็บค่าผ่านทางที่บางปะอิน บางปะหัน พรหมบุรี และสรรพยา (คล้ายกับทางหลวงพิเศษ) เพื่อนำมาเป็นเงินทุนสำรองค่าธรรมเนียมผ่านทาง สำหรับนำไปชดใช้ดอกเบี้ยเงินกู้ และบูรณะทางหลวง เช่นเดียวกับถนนมิตรภาพ (ช่วงสระบุรี-นครราชสีมา) ถนนบางนา-บางปะกง และถนนพระรามที่ 2 ในสมัยนั้น แต่เมื่อพันเอกวินัย สมพงษ์ รัฐมนตรีว่าการกระทรวงคมนาคมในขณะนั้น ประกาศยกเลิกเก็บค่าผ่านทางช่วงปี 2537 ทำให้ด่านต่างๆ กลายสภาพเป็นด่านร้างในที่สุด บ้างก็ถูกดัดแปลงเป็นสำนักงานแขวงการทาง, หมวดการทาง และด่านชั่งน้ำหนักรถบรรทุก", "รถไฟชานเมืองเคทีเอ็ม\nเนื่องจากจำนวนผู้โดยสารที่หนาแน่นในช่วงชั่วโมงเร่งด่วน เคทีเอ็มจึงได้หาวิธีการบรรเทาความหนาแน่น โดยใช้ระบบต่อคิวแบบใหม่เพื่อให้ผู้โดยสารทราบเวลารถไฟมาถึง สีประจำสายจะถูกลงสีไว้บริเวณพื้น หรือตัวขบวน ระบบนี้เริ่มใช้ครั้งแรกวันที่ 17 ตุลาคม ค.ศ. 2008 โดยเริ่มใช้ที่เคแอลเซ็นทรัลเป็นที่แรก นอกจากนี้ยังได้เพิ่มบริการรถไฟด่วนระหว่างสถานีสุไหงบูโลห์-กาจัง และกัวลาลัมเปอร์-ชาห์อลัมอีกด้วย", "รถด่วนพิเศษระหว่างประเทศ\nรถด่วนพิเศษระหว่างประเทศหรือชื่อเดิม \"รถด่วนสายใต้\" เปิดเดินรถครั้งแรกในวันที่ 2 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2465 วิ่งทุกวันจันทร์ วันพุธ และวันเสาร์ ต้นทางในขณะนั้นคือสถานีรถไฟบางกอกน้อย และได้ย้ายต้นทางมาที่สถานีรถไฟกรุงเทพ ในวันที่ 1 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2470 ต่อมาได้หยุดทำการเดินรถชั่วคราวระหว่างวันที่ 15 มีนาคม พ.ศ. 2493 จนถึง 2 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2497 เนื่องจากสะพานพระราม 6 ถูกทำลาย", "ทางพิเศษบูรพาวิถี\nการก่อสร้างตลอดสายแล้วเสร็จตามสัญญาตั้งแต่เดือนมกราคม พ.ศ. 2543 (ระยะเวลาก่อสร้างที่ขยายจากแผนงานเดิม 11 เดือน ตามมติคณะรัฐมนตรีเมื่อวันที่ 15 กรกฎาคม พ.ศ. 2540) โดยได้เปิดให้บริการเป็นช่วงต่าง ๆ ดังนี้ทางยกระดับด้านทิศใต้สนามบินสุวรรณภูมิเชื่อมทางพิเศษบูรพาวิถี เปิดให้บริการเมื่อวันที่ 23 มีนาคม พ.ศ. 2552 และทางเชื่อมทางพิเศษสายบางพลี-สุขสวัสดิ์ กับทางพิเศษบูรพาวิถี เปิดให้บริการเมื่อวันที่ 31 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2552", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nหมวดหมู่:ระบบขนส่งสาธารณะในประเทศไทย หมวดหมู่:ระบบรถประจำทางในกรุงเทพมหานคร หมวดหมู่:รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในประเทศไทย", "ระบบขนส่งทางราง\nในอดีตประเทศไทยก็เคยมีการใช้รถรางครั้งแรกเมื่อ 22 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2431 เมื่อเริ่มแรกใช้กำลังม้าลากรถไปตามราง ภายหลังเปลี่ยนมาใช้กำลังไฟฟ้าเมื่อ เดือนพฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2437 และจนถึงปี พ.ศ. 2511 ได้ยกเลิกการเดินรถทุกเส้นทางอย่างถาวร", "การขนส่งในประเทศไทย\nชื่อทางการคือ รถไฟฟ้าเฉลิมพระเกียรติ 6 รอบพระชนมพรรษา ดำเนินการโดย บริษัท ระบบขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ จำกัด (มหาชน) หรือบีทีเอสซี (BTSC) และบริษัท กรุงเทพธนาคม จำกัด หรือ เคที (KT) เริ่มเปิดให้บริการครั้งแรกเมื่อวันที่ 5 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2542 เปิดบริการตั้งแต่เวลา 6 นาฬิกาถึง 24 นาฬิกา", "กรุงเทพมหานคร\nรถปรับอากาศพิเศษ (metrobus) เป็นรถของบริษัท พรีเมียร์ เมโทรบัส จำกัด[72] บริการเดินรถในกรุงเทพมหานคร", "การทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทย\nในปี พ.ศ. 2535 มีการจัดตั้ง องค์การรถไฟฟ้ามหานคร เพื่อเป็นหน่วยงานที่ดูแลรถไฟฟ้าขนส่งมวลชนโดยเฉพาะอันเนื่องมาจากการจราจรที่ติดขัดอย่างหนักในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล และเพื่อความคล่องตัวในการจัดการการก่อสร้างและการบริการรถไฟฟ้าขนส่งมวลชน ", "การขนส่งในประเทศเกาหลีใต้\nรถไฟด่วนเกาหลี (รถไฟความเร็วสูงขบวนแรกของเกาหลีใต้) เริ่มต้นการให้บริการในเดือนเมษายน ค.ศ. 2004 รถไฟระหว่างเมือง แบ่งเป็นสองประเภทคือ รถไฟเซมวล กับรถไฟมูกุงฮวา โดยรถไฟเซมวลจะจอดสถานีน้อยและมีความสะดวกสบายมากกว่ารถไฟมูกุงฮวา รถไฟท็องกึน ซึ่งเป็นรถไฟชานเมือง จะให้บริการเฉพาะสาย โดยจะหยุดทุก ๆ สถานี และไม่มีการสำรองที่นั่ง", "รถโดยสารประจำทาง\nขอนแก่นซิตี้บัส (Khon Kaen City Bus) เริ่มให้บริการครั้งแรกเมื่อวันที่ 1 กุมภาพันธ์ 2559 ล่าสุดมีทั้งสิ้น 3 สาย ประกอบด้วย สายสีเขียว (ท่าอากาศยานขอนแก่น - รอบเมือง -สถานีขนส่ง บขส.3) สายสีแดง และสายสีน้ำเงิน อัตราค่าโดยสาร ผู้ใหญ่ 15 บาท เด็ก/นักเรียน 10 บาท ตลอดสาย", "รถโดยสารด่วนพิเศษ สายสาทร–ราชพฤกษ์\nงานโยธาทางกรุงเทพมหานครเป็นผู้ลงทุนทั้งหมด และให้ บริษัท กรุงเทพธนาคม จำกัด ดำเนินการหาเอกชนขึ้นมาบริหารจัดการ จัดซื้อรถ และจัดหาพนักงานมาปฏิบัติการ แต่ไม่มีส่วนเข้ามาลงทุน และไม่มีส่วนในการแบ่งผลกำไร จึงไม่ขัดต่อพระราชบัญญัติว่าด้วยการให้เอกชนเข้าร่วมงานหรือดำเนินการในกิจการของรัฐ พ.ศ. 2535 (พ.ร.บ.ร่วมทุน) ซึ่งกรุงเทพธนาคมใช้วิธีการว่าจ้าง บริษัท ระบบขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ จำกัด (มหาชน) หรือบีทีเอสซี เป็นผู้ดำเนินการติดตั้งระบบการเดินรถ และจัดหาพนักงานปฏิบัติการ โดยจ่ายในส่วนของค่าจ้างดำเนินการเป็นรายปี ในขณะที่ค่าโดยสารก็ส่งเข้ากรุงเทพมหานครทั้งหมด", "เคแอลไอเอ เอ็กซ์เพรส\nรถไฟฟ้าเคแอลไอเอ เอ็กซ์เพรส เปิดให้บริการอย่างเป็นทางการในวันที่ 14 เมษายน ค.ศ. 2002 โดยเชื่อมต่อระหว่างกัวลาลัมเปอร์ กับท่าอากาศยานนานาชาติกัวลาลัมเปอร์ วิ่งในระยะทาง 57 กิโลเมตร (ไม่หยุดสถานีรายทางใด ๆ) ใช้เวลาในการเดินทาง 28 นาที ความถี่ขบวนรถทุก ๆ 15-20 นาทีเมื่อวันที่ 19 กันยายน ค.ศ. 2005 มีการแสดงความยินดีกับผู้โดยสารคนที่สิบล้าน ที่มาใช้บริการรถไฟฟ้าด่วนนี้ ผู้โดยสารคนนั้นมีชื่อว่า เอมีเลีย โรสไนดา เป็นนักธุรกิจที่กำลังเดินทางจากกัวลาลัมเปอร์ ไปยังนครนิวยอร์ก ต่อมาได้มีการแสดงความยินดีกับผู้โดยสารคนที่ยี่สิบล้าน ในวันที่ 12 ธันวาคม ค.ศ. 2007 ผู้โดยสารคนนั้นคือ นายซอกกาลินกัม ซึ่กถูกรางวัลตั๋วเครื่องบินไปนครดูไบ", "รถบ้าน\nในยุโรป รถเกวียน (wagon) ที่สร้างสำหรับเป็นที่อยู่อาศัยที่มิใช่เป็นแต่เพียงเพื่อการบรรทุกผู้โดยสารหรือสินค้า วิวัฒนาการขึ้นในฝรั่งเศสราวปี ค.ศ. 1810 รถประเภทนี้นำมาใช้ในอังกฤษสำหรับคณะละครสัตว์มาตั้งแต่คริสต์ทศวรรษ 1820 แต่ยิบซีเพิ่งเริ่มมาใช้คาราวานเป็นที่อยู่อาศัยมาตั้งแต่ราวคริสต์ทศวรรษ 1850", "ทางด่วนในประเทศไทย\nทางหลวงพิเศษระหว่างเมือง () หรือเรียกสั้น ๆ ว่า ทางหลวงพิเศษ คือ ทางหลวงที่จัดหรือทำไว้เพื่อให้การจราจรผ่านได้ตลอดรวดเร็วเป็นพิเศษเป็นโครงข่ายทั่วประเทศ ตามที่รัฐมนตรีประกาศกำหนดและได้ลงทะเบียนไว้เป็นทางหลวงพิเศษโดยกรมทางหลวง เป็นผู้ดำเนินการก่อสร้าง, ขยาย, บูรณะ และบำรุงรักษา รวมทั้งควบคุมให้มีการเข้าออกได้เฉพาะ โดยทางเสริมที่เป็นส่วนหนึ่งของทางหลวงพิเศษตามที่กรมทางหลวงจัดทำขึ้นไว้เท่านั้น อธิบดีกรมทางหลวงเป็นผู้จัดให้ลงทะเบียนไว้ ณ กรมทางหลวง", "องค์การขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ\nองค์การขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ (ชื่อย่อ: ขสมก; ) เป็นหน่วยงานรัฐวิสาหกิจประเภทสาธารณูปโภค สังกัดกระทรวงคมนาคม จัดตั้งขึ้นตามพระราชกฤษฎีกาจัดตั้งองค์การขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพ พุทธศักราช 2519 (ประกาศใช้เมื่อวันที่ 19 ตุลาคม) มีหน้าที่จัดบริการรถโดยสารประจำทางเพื่อรับส่งประชาชนในเขตกรุงเทพมหานคร จังหวัดนนทบุรี จังหวัดปทุมธานี จังหวัดนครปฐม จังหวัดสมุทรสาคร และจังหวัดสมุทรปราการ รวม 108 เส้นทาง มีจำนวนรถประจำทาง (bus) ทั้งสิ้น 3,509 คัน (สถิติเมื่อเดือนกันยายน พ.ศ. 2554) แบ่งเป็นรถธรรมดา 1,659 คัน รถปรับอากาศ 1,850 คัน และมีรถร่วมบริการโดยบริษัทเอกชน ทั้งรถธรรมดาและรถปรับอากาศ จำนวน 4,016 คัน, รถประจำทางขนาดเล็ก (mini bus) แบ่งเป็นส่วนที่ให้บริการบนถนนสายหลัก จำนวน 844 คัน และที่ให้บริการภายในซอยย่อย จำนวน 2,312 คัน, รถตู้โดยสารปรับอากาศ แบ่งเป็นส่วนที่ใช้น้ำมันเชื้อเพลิงหรือแก๊สปิโตรเลียมเหลว จำนวน 5,315 คัน และที่ใช้แก๊สธรรมชาติอัด จำนวน 213 คัน รวมทั้งสิ้น 16,209 คัน 495 เส้นทาง นอกจากนี้ ยังเป็นรัฐวิสาหกิจไทย ซึ่งมีผลการดำเนินงาน ขาดทุนมากเป็นลำดับที่ 2 รองจากการรถไฟแห่งประเทศไทย คือขาดทุนเป็นเงิน 4,990 ล้านบาท", "โอะดะกีว 3000 ซีรีส์\nโอะดะเกียว 3000 ซีรีส์ เอสอี (SE ย่อมาจาก ซูเปอร์ เอ็กซ์เพรสส์) () เป็นรถไฟฟ้าของบริษัทรถไฟฟ้าโอะดะเกียว รุ่นแรกของขบวนรถไฟด่วนพิเศษ \"โรมานซ์คาร์\" เริ่มให้บริการครั้งแรกในปี ค.ศ. 1957 จนถึงปี ค.ศ. 1968 และสามารถสร้างสถิติโลกสำหรับรถไฟรางแคบที่ความเร็ว 145 กิโลเมตร/ชั่วโมง ซึ่งถือเป็นต้นแบบในการพัฒนารถไฟหัวกระสุนชิงกันเซ็ง ซีรีส์ 0", "ทางรถไฟสายอรัญประเทศ–ปอยเปต\nหลังกัมพูชาได้รับเอกราชเมื่อปี พ.ศ. 2493 กรมรถไฟของไทยได้เจรจากับคณะผู้แทนรถไฟกรุงกัมพูชาเรื่องการเชื่อมทางรถไฟกัมพูชากับรถไฟไทยเมื่อปี พ.ศ. 2496 และเปิดเดินรถไฟระหว่างประเทศครั้งแรกเมื่อวันที่ 22 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2498 ขบวนรถอรัญประเทศ–ปอยเปต–พระตะบอง โดยช่วงแรกได้ใช้รถดีเซลรางของกัมพูชาเดินรถทุกวันจันทร์ถึงศุกร์ ช่วงเวลาเช้า-เย็น ภายหลังได้เพิ่มรถจักรไอน้ำของไทย อันประกอบไปด้วยรถชั้นสองและสาม มีพ่วงตู้สินค้า เดินรถทุกเช้าวันอังคารและเสาร์[2]", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nจากเส้นทางในแผนแม่บทของกรุงเทพมหานครทั้งหมด มีเพียงสายช่องนนทรี-ราชพฤกษ์ เส้นทางเดียวที่สามารถก่อสร้างเป็นเส้นทางนำร่องได้สำเร็จในปี พ.ศ. 2552 นอกจากนี้ยังมีโครงการสายหมอชิต-ศูนย์ราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร ได้มีการศึกษาเพิ่มเติมเพื่อรองรับการเปิดใช้ศูนย์ราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร บนถนนแจ้งวัฒนะ และจะก่อสร้างเป็นสายที่ 2 ต่อไป", "อุทกภัยในประเทศไทย พ.ศ. 2554\nองค์การขนส่งมวลชนกรุงเทพเปลี่ยนเส้นทางรถโดยสารประจำทางในกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล ส่งผลให้ผู้โดยสารไม่ได้รับความสะดวกในการเดินทาง[230] นอกจากนี้ยังมีบริการรถสาธารณะบนทางด่วน[231] ขณะที่การทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทยขอความร่วมมือไม่ให้ใช้ทางด่วนเป็นที่จอดรถ[232] แต่ประชาชนยังจอดรถบนทางด่วน ซึ่งทำให้เกิดอุบัติเหตุ[233] และเสี่ยงต่อการถูกโจรกรรม รวมทั้งทำให้ทางด่วนยกระดับหลายเส้นทางมีการจราจรแออัด เพราะรถจอดซ้อนคันหรือจอดบริเวณทางขึ้นและลงทางด่วน[234]", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nโครงการระยะที่ 2 มีแนวเส้นทางที่มีความเหมาะสมทั้งหมด 9 เส้นทาง รวมระยะทาง 379.72 กิโลเมตร จัดลำดับความสำคัญตามผลตอบแทนทางการเงิน[2] ดังนี้", "อินเตอร์ซิตี-เอ็กซ์เพรส\nอีเซเอ 1 เป็นรถไฟความเร็วสูงรุ่นแรกของประเทศเยอรมนี และเป็นหนึ่งในตระกูลอีเซเอ ความเร็วสูงสุด โดยเปิดให้บริการตั้งแต่ ค.ศ. 1991 และเพิ่มขึ้นเป็น ในปี ค.ศ. 1995 และลดเหลือเพียง อีกครั้ง โดยมีเพียงสายเนือร์นแบร์ก-มิวนิก สายเดียว ที่ใช้ความเร็ว .", "ทางพิเศษบูรพาวิถี\nทางพิเศษบูรพาวิถี หรือ ทางด่วน 4 เป็นทางพิเศษที่ดำเนินการการทางพิเศษแห่งประเทศไทย เปิดให้บริการครั้งแรกเมื่อวันที่ 9 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2541 และเปิดให้บริการตลอดสายเมื่อวันที่ 7 กุมภาพันธ์ พ.ศ. 2543 มีจุดเริ่มต้นที่เขตบางนา กรุงเทพมหานคร สิ้นสุดที่จังหวัดชลบุรี ระยะทางทั้งสิ้น 55 กิโลเมตร เป็นทางยกระดับขนาด 6 ช่องจราจรซ้อนอยู่บนถนนเทพรัตน (หรือทางหลวงแผ่นดินหมายเลข 34) เป็นทางพิเศษที่เชื่อมการคมนาคมขนส่งระหว่างกรุงเทพมหานครกับพื้นที่ชายฝั่งทะเลภาคตะวันออกของประเทศ ช่วยลดปริมาณการจราจรบนถนนเทพรัตน และยังคงเป็นอันและเป็นทางพิเศษสายเดียว ที่มีการยกเว้นค่าผ่านทางในช่วงเทศกาลวันหยุดยาว ได้แก่ เทศกาลปีใหม่ และเทศกาลสงกรานต์", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nและอีก 10 เส้นทางที่เดิมคาดว่าจะเปิดใช้ได้ในปี พ.ศ. 2551[2] ได้แก่", "ทางพิเศษโฮจิมินห์ซิตี–ตรังล็อง\nทางพิเศษโฮจิมินห์ซิตี–ตรังล็อง เป็นทางด่วนในประเทศเวียดนาม มีระยะทาง 61.9 กิโลเมตร และมี 6 ช่องจราจร เปิดใช้งานวันที่ 3 กุมภาพันธ์ ค.ศ. 2010 เชื่อมต่อระหว่างนครโฮจิมินห์กับจังหวัดเกียนซาง จุดเริ่มต้นอยู่ที่แยก Tan Tao ในนครโฮจิมินห์ และสิ้นสุดที่แยก Than Cuu Nghia ในจังหวัดเกียนซาง ทางด่วนนี้มีทางเข้า-ออกทั้งหมด 4 แห่งด้วยกัน ความเร็วสูงสุดที่อนุญาตให้ใช้ได้คือ 120 กิโลเมตรต่อชั่วโมง ช้าสุดคือ 60 กิโลเมตรต่อชั่วโมง", "ท่าอากาศยานสุวรรณภูมิ\nรถไฟฟ้าทั้งสองสาย วิ่งอยู่บนทางยกระดับคู่เส้นเดียวกัน โดยมีการสับหลีกและควบคุมการเดินรถด้วยระบบคอมพิวเตอร์ เพื่อให้ระบบรถด่วนสามารถวิ่งได้ต่อเนื่องด้วยความเร็วสูงตรงสู่ท่าอากาศยานสุวรรณภูมิ โดยเมื่อวันที่ 1 มิถุนายน พ.ศ. 2553 ได้เริ่มทดสอบการให้บริการ และเปิดให้บริการเชิงพาณิชย์ในวันที่ 23 สิงหาคม พ.ศ. 2553", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nแนวทางหนึ่งของการพัฒนาระบบรถประจำทางที่เหมาะสม คือการสร้างระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษ ที่มีคุณภาพเทียบเท่าระบบราง มีลักษณะเฉพาะได้แก่ ใช้มาตรการการให้สิทธิพิเศษแก่รถโดยสารประจำทาง โดยออกแบบช่องทางพิเศษเฉพาะในรูปแบบชิดเกาะกลางถนน เพื่อแยกการเดินรถออกจากระบบจราจรอื่น ๆ มีสถานีเฉพาะที่อำนวยความสะดวก มีศูนย์ควบคุมและบริหารจัดการการเดินรถ โดยใช้ระบบขนส่งอัจฉริยะ (English: intilligent transport system หรือ ITS) ที่มีตารางเวลาการเดินรถค่อนข้างแน่นอน เพื่อความตรงต่อเวลาและความปลอดภัย ขณะที่เส้นทางการเดินรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษมีความยืดหยุ่นมากกว่าระบบราง และใช้ค่าก่อสร้างเพียง 80-120 ล้านบาทต่อกิโลเมตร หรือประมาณ 8% ของต้นทุนระบบรถไฟฟ้าบีทีเอส ที่ใช้เงินลงทุนถึง 1,400 ล้านบาทต่อกิโลเมตร และถูกกว่ารถไฟฟ้าใต้ดิน ที่ใช้เงินลงทุนสูงถึง 3,000 ล้านบาทต่อกิโลเมตร ทั้งยังสามารถก่อสร้างได้รวดเร็วไม่เกิน 1 ปีต่อเส้นทาง หรือเร็วกว่ารถไฟฟ้าถึง 3 เท่า[3]", "อีสเทิร์นแอนด์โอเรียนทัลเอ็กซ์เพรส\nตัวรถไฟสร้างเมื่อปี พ.ศ. 2515 ที่ประเทศญี่ปุ่น โดยบริษัทฮิตาชิ และได้ให้บริการครั้งแรกในฐานะของรถด่วนซิลเวอร์สตาร์ในนิวซีแลนด์ เส้นทาง อ๊อกแลนด์ไปกรุงเวลลิงตัน ต่อมาตู้โดยสารทั้ง 24 คัน ได้ถูกย้ายจากนิวซีแลนด์มายังไทย โดยปรับเปลี่ยนขนาดความกว้างรางรถไฟจาก มาเป็น มีย่านจอดพักรถที่ย่านรถไฟบางซื่อ, ย่านรถไฟเคทีเอ็ม และย่านรถไฟสิงคโปร์ ตัวรถออกแบบโดยเกอราด กอลเล็ด ผลิตภัณฑ์บนรถไฟใช้ของเบลมอนด์", "รถโดยสารประจำทางนครพนมเปญ\nรถโดยสารประจำทางนครพนมเปญ เป็นระบบขนส่งมวลชน ให้บริการในพนมเปญ เมืองหลวงของประเทศกัมพูชา เปิดให้บริการเมื่อเดือนกันยายน ค.ศ. 2014 ครอบคลุมพื้นที่ตาเขมา และ Chbar Ampov นับเป็นระบบขนส่งมวลชนแรกของเมือง ปัจจุบันมี 3 เส้นทาง", "รถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล\nสำหรับในพื้นที่กรุงเทพมหานครและปริมณฑล มีการศึกษาแผนการพัฒนาระบบรถโดยสารประจำทางด่วนพิเศษจากหน่วยงาน 2 แห่งในเวลาเดียวกัน ได้แก่ กรุงเทพมหานคร และ สำนักงานนโยบายและแผนการขนส่งและจราจร (สนข.) กระทรวงคมนาคม ซึ่งเคยมีข้อเสนอแนะให้รวมแผนการพัฒนาของทั้ง 2 องค์กรเป็นหนึ่งเดียวกัน เพื่อให้การพัฒนาระบบเป็นไปอย่างมีประสิทธิภาพยิ่งขึ้น[2]", "รถราง\nในอดีตประเทศไทยก็เคยมีการใช้รถรางครั้งแรกเมื่อวันที่ 22 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2431 โดยเปิดสายบางคอแหลมเป็นสายแรกเมื่อเริ่มแรกใช้กำลังม้าลากรถไปตามราง ทำให้ใช้เวลาการเดินทางมาก จึงไม่เป็นที่นิยม ภายหลังเปลี่ยนมาใช้กำลังไฟฟ้าเมื่อ เดือนพฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2437 และจนถึงวันที่ 1 ตุลาคม ปี พ.ศ. 2511 ได้ยกเลิกการเดินรถทุกเส้นทางอย่างถาวร", "รถโดยสารประจำทาง\nบริษัท อุบลรวมใจพัฒนาเมือง จำกัด ได้วางแผนและพัฒนาระบบการขนส่งมวลชนเมืองอุบลราชธานี Ubon Smart Bus (รถบัสโดยประจำทางสายที่ 15) เพื่อพัฒนาสู่การเป็น Smart Mobility ของจังหวัดอุบลราชธานี ในเส้นทางท่าอากาศยานนานาชาติอุบลราชธานี - ทุ่งศรีเมือง - สถานีขนส่งผู้โดยสารเฉลิมพระเกียรติฯ (จำนวน 1 เส้นทาง)\nโดยนำระบบเทคโนโลยีเข้ามาใช้ในการบริหารจัดการและบริการ เช่น Free Wifi, GPS, Wheelchair, CCTV, USB Charger และ E-wallet โดยจะเริ่มให้บริการภายในปี 2562" ]

[ 8.6875 ]

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[ "Airlift is \"operations to transport and deliver forces and materiel through the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives\" (AFDD 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis." ]

[ "LaserDisc was a composite video format: the luminance (black and white) and chrominance (color) information were transmitted in one signal, separated by the receiver. While good comb filters can do so adequately, these two signals cannot be completely separated. On DVDs, data is stored in the form of digital blocks which make up each independent frame. The signal produced is dependent on the equipment used to master the disc. Signals range from composite and split, to YUV and RGB. Depending upon which format is used, this can result in far higher fidelity, particularly at strong color borders or regions of high detail (especially if there is moderate movement in the picture) and low-contrast details like skin tones, where comb filters almost inevitably smudge some detail.", "In 1933, von Neumann was offered a lifetime professorship on the faculty of the Institute for Advanced Study when the institute's plan to appoint Hermann Weyl fell through. He remained a mathematics professor there until his death, although he announced that shortly before his intention to resign and become a professor at large at the University of California. His mother, brothers and in-laws followed John to the United States in 1939. Von Neumann anglicized his first name to John, keeping the German-aristocratic surname of von Neumann. His brothers changed theirs to \"Neumann\" and \"Vonneumann\". Von Neumann became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1937, and immediately tried to become a lieutenant in the United States Army's Officers Reserve Corps. He passed the exams easily, but was ultimately rejected because of his age. His prewar analysis is often quoted. Asked about how France would stand up to Germany he said \"Oh, France won't matter.\"", "Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): \"One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.\". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.", "A few lines of the Paris Métro in France operate on a four-rail power scheme because they run on rubber tyres which run on a pair of narrow roadways made of steel and, in some places, concrete. Since the tyres do not conduct the return current, the two guide rails provided outside the running 'roadways' double up as conductor rails, so at least electrically it is a four-rail scheme. One of the guide rails is bonded to the return conventional running rails situated inside the roadway so a single polarity supply is required. The trains are designed to operate from either polarity of supply, because some lines use reversing loops at one end, causing the train to be reversed during every complete journey. The loop was originally provided to save the original steam locomotives having to 'run around' the rest of the train saving much time. Today, the driver does not have to change ends at termini provided with such a loop, but the time saving is not so significant as it takes almost as long to drive round the loop as it does to change ends. Many of the original loops have been lost as lines were extended.", "Simultaneous with Israel's February raid, the Baghdad Pact was formed between some regional allies of the UK. Nasser considered the Baghdad Pact a threat to his efforts to eliminate British military influence in the Middle East, and a mechanism to undermine the Arab League and \"perpetuate [Arab] subservience to Zionism and [Western] imperialism\". Nasser felt that if he was to maintain Egypt's regional leadership position he needed to acquire modern weaponry to arm his military. When it became apparent to him that Western countries would not supply Egypt under acceptable financial and military terms, Nasser turned to the Eastern Bloc and concluded a US$320,000,000 armaments agreement with Czechoslovakia on 27 September. Through the Czechoslovakian arms deal, the balance of power between Egypt and Israel was more or less equalized and Nasser's role as the Arab leader defying the West was enhanced.", "In 2005, seventeen countries produced concentrated uranium oxides, with Canada (27.9% of world production) and Australia (22.8%) being the largest producers and Kazakhstan (10.5%), Russia (8.0%), Namibia (7.5%), Niger (7.4%), Uzbekistan (5.5%), the United States (2.5%), Argentina (2.1%), Ukraine (1.9%) and China (1.7%) also producing significant amounts. Kazakhstan continues to increase production and may have become the world's largest producer of uranium by 2009 with an expected production of 12,826 tonnes, compared to Canada with 11,100 t and Australia with 9,430 t. In the late 1960s, UN geologists also discovered major uranium deposits and other rare mineral reserves in Somalia. The find was the largest of its kind, with industry experts estimating the deposits at over 25% of the world's then known uranium reserves of 800,000 tons.", "In Britain and some other armies, the single artillery branch has been responsible for both home and overseas ground-based air defence, although there was divided responsibility with the Royal Navy for air defence of the British Isles in World War I. However, during the Second World War the RAF Regiment was formed to protect airfields everywhere, and this included light air defences. In the later decades of the Cold War this included the United States Air Force's operating bases in UK. However, all ground-based air defence was removed from Royal Air Force (RAF) jurisdiction in 2004. The British Army's Anti-Aircraft Command was disbanded in March 1955, but during the 1960s and 1970s the RAF's Fighter Command operated long-range air -defence missiles to protect key areas in the UK. During World War II the Royal Marines also provided air defence units; formally part of the mobile naval base defence organisation, they were handled as an integral part of the army-commanded ground based air defences." ]

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[ "The man in the glasses is near the paintings." ]

[ "The man is standing outside on the street corner alone.", "I don't know, what did he do?", "A pedestrian walking.", "Children poke a jellyfish on the beach.", "a cat sits around", "Person throws banana", "An old man holds a paintbrush." ]

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[ "I might like to see them standardize comp time for extra hours worked." ]

[ "I don't like the idea of standardized compensatory time for overtime.", "We have never been called to testify at all.", "A man is wearing a shirt.", "Three people are typing on keyboards.", "If Professor Wachter is correct with the wage premium amount, it'll be hard for the postal service to be defended.", "The North of Udaipur is a mountain road that takes you past green terraced fields and mango groves to a temple in Ranakpur.", "The EPA is not interested in water conservation." ]

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[ "A small, landlocked kingdom, Swaziland is bordered in the North, West and South by the Republic of South Africa and by Mozambique in the East. Swaziland has a land area of 17,364 km2. Swaziland has four separate geographical regions. These run from North to South and are determined by altitude. Swaziland is located at approximately 26°30'S, 31°30'E. Swaziland has a wide variety of landscapes, from the mountains along the Mozambican border to savannas in the east and rain forest in the northwest. Several rivers flow through the country, such as the Great Usutu River." ]

[ "CBC's sports coverage has also attained high viewership in border markets, including its coverage of the NHL's Stanley Cup Playoffs, which was generally considered to be more complete and consistent than coverage by other networks such as NBC. Its coverage of the Olympic Games also found a significant audience in border regions, primarily due to the fact that CBC aired more events live than NBC's coverage, which had been criticized in recent years for tape delaying events to air in primetime, even if the event is being held in a market in the Pacific Time Zone during primetime hours on the East (where it would still be delayed for West coast primetime).", "The past century had seen the Greek world dominated by the three primary successor kingdoms of Alexander the Great's empire: Ptolemaic Egypt, Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire. In 202 BC, internal problems led to a weakening of Egypt's position, thereby disrupting the power balance among the successor states. Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire agreed to an alliance to conquer and divide Egypt. Fearing this increasingly unstable situation, several small Greek kingdoms sent delegations to Rome to seek an alliance. The delegation succeeded, even though prior Greek attempts to involve Rome in Greek affairs had been met with Roman apathy. Our primary source about these events, the surviving works of Polybius, do not state Rome's reason for getting involved. Rome gave Philip an ultimatum to cease his campaigns against Rome's new Greek allies. Doubting Rome's strength (a reasonable doubt, given Rome's performance in the First Macedonian War) Philip ignored the request, and Rome sent an army of Romans and Greek allies, beginning the Second Macedonian War. Despite his recent successes against the Greeks and earlier successes against Rome, Philip's army buckled under the pressure from the Roman-Greek army. In 197 BC, the Romans decisively defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae, and Philip was forced to give up his recent Greek conquests. The Romans declared the \"Peace of the Greeks\", believing that Philip's defeat now meant that Greece would be stable. They pulled out of Greece entirely, maintaining minimal contacts with their Greek allies.", "In the past, the Malays used to call the Portuguese Serani from the Arabic Nasrani, but the term now refers to the modern Kristang creoles of Malaysia.", "Towns such as Castle Cary and Frome grew around the medieval weaving industry. Street developed as a centre for the production of woollen slippers and, later, boots and shoes, with C. & J. Clark establishing its headquarters in the town. C&J Clark's shoes are no longer manufactured there as the work was transferred to lower-wage areas, such as China and Asia. Instead, in 1993, redundant factory buildings were converted to form Clarks Village, the first purpose-built factory outlet in the UK. C&J Clark also had shoe factories, at one time at Bridgwater, Minehead, Westfield and Weston super Mare to provide employment outside the main summer tourist season, but those satellite sites were closed in the late 1980s, before the main site at Street. Dr. Martens shoes were also made in Somerset, by the Northampton-based R. Griggs Group, using redundant skilled shoemakers from C&J Clark; that work has also been transferred to Asia.", "Also in 2005, Spielberg directed a modern adaptation of War of the Worlds (a co-production of Paramount and DreamWorks), based on the H. G. Wells book of the same name (Spielberg had been a huge fan of the book and the original 1953 film). It starred Tom Cruise and Dakota Fanning, and, as with past Spielberg films, Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) provided the visual effects. Unlike E.T. and Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which depicted friendly alien visitors, War of the Worlds featured violent invaders. The film was another huge box office smash, grossing over $591 million worldwide.", "The Hot 100 and Easy Listening charts became more similar again toward the end of the 1960s and into the early and mid-1970s, when the texture of much of the music played on Top 40 radio once more began to soften. The adult contemporary format began evolving into the sound that later defined it, with rock-oriented acts as Chicago, The Eagles, and Elton John becoming associated with the format.", "Chopin's tombstone, featuring the muse of music, Euterpe, weeping over a broken lyre, was designed and sculpted by Clésinger. The expenses of the funeral and monument, amounting to 5,000 francs, were covered by Jane Stirling, who also paid for the return of the composer's sister Ludwika to Warsaw. Ludwika took Chopin's heart in an urn, preserved in alcohol, back to Poland in 1850.[n 9] She also took a collection of two hundred letters from Sand to Chopin; after 1851 these were returned to Sand, who seems to have destroyed them." ]

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[ "General aviation is not a hobby." ]

[ "General aviation is a hobby", "People are packing food.", "Someone in blue is climbing a tall building", "Clothing stores can be found throughout the city.", "A man in a black suit is in a wedding.", "People are sleeping inside.", "there is a boy running by" ]

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[ "Synthetic magnesium silicate Synthetic magnesium silicate Synthetic magnesium silicates are white, odorless, finely divided powders formed by the precipitation reaction of water-soluble sodium silicate (water glass) and a water-soluble magnesium salt such as magnesium chloride, magnesium nitrate or magnesium sulfate. The composition of the precipitate depends on the ratio of the components in the reaction medium, the addition of the correcting substances, and the way in which they are precipitated. The molecular formula is typically written as MgO:XSiO, where X denotes the average mole ratio of SiO to MgO. The product is hydrated and the formula is sometimes written MgO:XSiO•HO to show the", "Synthetic magnesium silicate of silica and the other metal alkali silicates. The SCF noted that “the available data, including a number of short-term studies in two species, appear to substantiate the biological inertness of those compounds”. The SCF established a group Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) not specified for silicon dioxide and the alkali metal silicates. Synthetic magnesium silicate Synthetic magnesium silicates are white, odorless, finely divided powders formed by the precipitation reaction of water-soluble sodium silicate (water glass) and a water-soluble magnesium salt such as magnesium chloride, magnesium nitrate or magnesium sulfate. The composition of the precipitate depends on the ratio of the", "Magnesium the water's bitter taste, but the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and rashes. The substance became known as Epsom salts and its fame spread. It was eventually recognized as hydrated magnesium sulfate, ·7. The metal itself was first isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in England in 1808. He used electrolysis on a mixture of magnesia and mercuric oxide. Antoine Bussy prepared it in coherent form in 1831. Davy's first suggestion for a name was magnium, but the name magnesium is now used. Magnesium is the third-most-commonly-used structural metal, following iron and aluminium. The main applications of", "Magnesium sulfate magnesium sulfate are also nearly neutral, compared with alkaline salts of magnesium as found in limestone; therefore, the use of magnesium sulfate as a magnesium source for soil does not significantly change the soil pH. Magnesium sulfate is used as a brewing salt in beer. It may also be used as a coagulant for making tofu. Anhydrous magnesium sulfate is commonly used as a desiccant in organic synthesis due to its affinity for water. During work-up, an organic phase is treated with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The hydrated solid is then removed with filtration or decantation. Other inorganic sulfate salts such", "Magnesium deficiency mild symptoms, while intravenous replacement is recommended for people with severe effects. Numerous oral magnesium preparations are available. In two trials of magnesium oxide, one of the most common forms in magnesium dietary supplements because of its high magnesium content per weight, was less bioavailable than magnesium citrate, chloride, lactate or aspartate. Magnesium citrate has been reported as more bioavailable than oxide or amino-acid chelate forms. Intravenous magnesium sulfate (MgSO) can be given in response to heart arrhythmias to correct for hypokalemia, preventing pre-eclampsia, and has been suggested as having a potential use in asthma. Food sources of magnesium include", "Magnesium injected amount indicates deficiency. No biomarker has been established for magnesium. Magnesium concentrations in plasma or serum may be monitored for efficacy and safety in those receiving the drug therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims, or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdose. The newborn children of mothers who received parenteral magnesium sulfate during labor may exhibit toxicity with normal serum magnesium levels. Low plasma magnesium (hypomagnesemia) is common: it is found in 2.5–15% of the general population. From 2005 to 2006, 48 percent of the United States population consumed less magnesium", "Magnesium sulfate sanderite are rare. Kieserite is a monohydrate and is common among evaporitic deposits. Anhydrous magnesium sulfate was reported from some burning coal dumps. Double salts containing magnesium sulfate exist, for example there are several known sodium magnesium sulfates and potassium magnesium sulfates. An abnormally elevated plasma concentration of magnesium is called hypermagnesemia. Magnesium sulfate Magnesium sulfate is an inorganic salt with the formula MgSO(HO) where 0≤x≤7. It is often encountered as the heptahydrate sulfate mineral epsomite (MgSO·7HO), commonly called Epsom salt. The overall global annual usage in the mid-1970s of the monohydrate was 2.3 million tons, of which the majority", "Magnesium deficiency A number of medications may also result in low magnesium including proton pump inhibitors and furosemide. The diagnosis is typically based on finding low blood magnesium levels (hypomagnesemia). Normal magnesium levels are between 0.6-1.1 mmol/L (1.46–2.68 mg/dL) with levels less than 0.6 mmol/L (1.46 mg/dL) defining hypomagnesemia. Specific electrocardiogram (ECG) changes may be seen. Treatment is with magnesium either by mouth or intravenously. For those with severe symptoms intravenous magnesium sulfate may be used. Associated low potassium or low calcium should also be treated. The condition is relatively common among people in hospital. Deficiency of magnesium can cause tiredness, generalized", "Magnesium sulfate decomposes into magnesium oxide (MgO) and sulfur trioxide (SO). The heptahydrate can be prepared by neutralizing sulfuric acid with magnesium carbonate or oxide, but it is usually obtained directly from natural sources. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system. Magnesium sulfate is a common mineral pharmaceutical preparation of magnesium, commonly known as Epsom salt, used both externally and internally. Magnesium sulfate is highly water-soluble and solubility is inhibited with lipids typically used in lotions. Lotions often employ the use of emulsions or suspensions to include both oil", "Magnesium sulfate as sodium sulfate and calcium sulfate may be used in the same way. Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate is also used to maintain the magnesium concentration in marine aquaria which contain large amounts of stony corals, as it is slowly depleted in their calcification process. In a magnesium-deficient marine aquarium, calcium and alkalinity concentrations are very difficult to control because not enough magnesium is present to stabilize these ions in the saltwater and prevent their spontaneous precipitation into calcium carbonate. Magnesium sulfates are common minerals in geological environments. Their occurrence is mostly connected with supergene processes. Some of them are also important" ]

[ "Synthetic magnesium silicate other monographs for Food Grade synthetic magnesium silicate specify a mole ratio of 2MgO:5SiO. The most common use for Food Grade synthetic magnesium silicate is as an active filter aid for adsorption of color, free fatty acids and other polar compounds from used frying oils. Various national and international regulations allow use of this material as an anti-caking agent in a wide variety of powdered foods. When used as a food additive, it is safe to ingest synthetic magnesium silicate. In 1990, the safety of synthetic magnesium silicate was reviewed by the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) together with that", "Synthetic magnesium silicate water of hydration. Unlike natural magnesium silicates like talc and forsterite olivine which are crystalline, synthetic magnesium silicates are amorphous. Synthetic magnesium silicates are insoluble in water or alcohol. The particles are usually porous, and the BET surface area can range from less than 100 m/g to several hundred m/g. The very large active surface makes synthetic magnesium silicate useful for a wide variety of applications: purifying adsorbent (polyols, animal and vegetable oils, chromatography, dry cleaning, sugar, resins, odors); filler (rubber, ceramics, paper, glass, refractories); anti-caking agent (salt); catalyst; catalyst carrier; filter medium. The U.S. Food Chemicals Codex, JECFA, and", "Magnesium carbonate concentrations. Magnesium carbonate is also used in taxidermy for whitening skulls. It can be mixed with hydrogen peroxide to create a paste, which is then spread on the skull to give it a white finish. As a matte white coating for projection screens. Magnesium carbonate is non-toxic. Magnesium carbonate Magnesium carbonate, MgCO (archaic name magnesia alba), is an inorganic salt that is a white solid. Several hydrated and basic forms of magnesium carbonate also exist as minerals. The most common magnesium carbonate forms are the anhydrous salt called \"magnesite\" (MgCO) and the di, tri, and pentahydrates known as \"barringtonite\" (MgCO·2", "Magnesium carbonate Magnesium carbonate Magnesium carbonate, MgCO (archaic name magnesia alba), is an inorganic salt that is a white solid. Several hydrated and basic forms of magnesium carbonate also exist as minerals. The most common magnesium carbonate forms are the anhydrous salt called \"magnesite\" (MgCO) and the di, tri, and pentahydrates known as \"barringtonite\" (MgCO·2 HO), \"nesquehonite\" (MgCO·3 HO), and \"lansfordite\" (MgCO·5 HO), respectively. Some basic forms such as \"artinite\" (MgCO·Mg(OH)·3 HO), \"hydromagnesite\" (4 MgCO·Mg(OH)·4 HO), and \"dypingite\" (4 MgCO· Mg(OH)·5 HO) also occur as minerals. Magnesite consists of white trigonal crystals. The anhydrous salt is practically insoluble in water, acetone, and", "Aluminium silicate Aluminium silicate Aluminium silicate (or aluminum silicate) is a name commonly applied to chemical compounds which are derived from aluminium oxide, AlO and silicon dioxide, SiO which may be anhydrous or hydrated, naturally occurring as minerals or synthetic. Their chemical formulae are often expressed as xAlO.ySiO.zHO. It is known as E number E559. Aluminium silicate is a type of fibrous material made of aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide, (such materials are also called aluminosilicate fibres). These are glassy solid solutions rather than chemical compounds. The compositions are often described in terms of % weight of alumina, AlO and silica, SiO.", "Aluminium silicate Temperature resistance increases as the % alumina increases. These fibrous materials can be encountered as loose wool, blanket, felt, paper or boards. Aluminium silicate Aluminium silicate (or aluminum silicate) is a name commonly applied to chemical compounds which are derived from aluminium oxide, AlO and silicon dioxide, SiO which may be anhydrous or hydrated, naturally occurring as minerals or synthetic. Their chemical formulae are often expressed as xAlO.ySiO.zHO. It is known as E number E559. Aluminium silicate is a type of fibrous material made of aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide, (such materials are also called aluminosilicate fibres). These are glassy", "Hydrated silica an odourless, tasteless, white, gelatinous substance, which is chemically inert. Chemical Formula: SiO · HO Diatomaceous earth, originally mined as \"tooth powder\" is a naturally occurring hydrated silica. As a fine gel abrasive, frequently combined with softer calcium carbonate (from chalk) it helps to remove plaque. Milled to a slightly larger size, the grains are more aggressive and are used in tooth bleaching formulations. It also has synergetic effects when compounded with traditional flame retardants such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminium hydroxide. Hydrated silica is listed by the US Food and Drug Administration as \"Generally Recognized as Safe\". Toothpaste: Chemistry:", "Sodium silicate periods. Evidence of this can be seen in the many DIBt approvals for plastic pipe firestop devices using Palusol (a product of BASF), which use waterproofed sodium silicate sheets. Sodium silicate is used, along with magnesium silicate, in muffler repair and fitting paste. When dissolved in water, both sodium silicate and magnesium silicate form a thick paste that is easy to apply. When the exhaust system of an internal combustion engine heats up to its operating temperature, the heat drives out all of the excess water from the paste. The silicate compounds that are left over have glass-like properties, making", "Magnesium carbonate sulfate) is treated with aqueous sodium carbonate, a precipitate of basic magnesium carbonate—a hydrated complex of magnesium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide—rather than magnesium carbonate itself is formed: High purity industrial routes include a path through magnesium bicarbonate, which can be formed by combining a slurry of magnesium hydroxide and carbon dioxide at high pressure and moderate temperature. The bicarbonate is then vacuum dried, causing it to lose carbon dioxide and a molecule of water: Like many common group 2 metal carbonates, magnesium carbonate reacts with aqueous acids to release carbon dioxide and water: At high temperatures MgCO decomposes to magnesium", "Magnesium chloride Magnesium chloride Magnesium chloride is the name for the chemical compound with the formula MgCl and its various hydrates MgCl(HO). These salts are typical ionic halides, being highly soluble in water. The hydrated magnesium chloride can be extracted from brine or sea water. In North America, magnesium chloride is produced primarily from Great Salt Lake brine. It is extracted in a similar process from the Dead Sea in the Jordan Valley. Magnesium chloride, as the natural mineral bischofite, is also extracted (by solution mining) out of ancient seabeds, for example, the Zechstein seabed in northwest Europe. Some magnesium chloride is", "Magnesium chloride line's operator, Commonwealth Railways, was an early adopter of the diesel-electric locomotive. Magnesium Chloride Manufacturer Magnesium chloride Magnesium chloride is the name for the chemical compound with the formula MgCl and its various hydrates MgCl(HO). These salts are typical ionic halides, being highly soluble in water. The hydrated magnesium chloride can be extracted from brine or sea water. In North America, magnesium chloride is produced primarily from Great Salt Lake brine. It is extracted in a similar process from the Dead Sea in the Jordan Valley. Magnesium chloride, as the natural mineral bischofite, is also extracted (by solution mining) out", "Potassium silicate becomes more tolerant to drought and resists wilting, and the plant gets larger leaves and fruit (because the stem can support more weight). The thicker cell walls of the plant also provides an added mechanical resistance to sap sucking insects (e.g. spider mite) and various pathogenic fungi (e.g. powdery mildew). Some metal cleaning formulations use potassium silicate, which also serves as a corrosion inhibitor. It also finds various uses in the fabrication of welding rods or even of cosmetics. Potassium silicate is strongly alkaline. Potassium silicate Potassium silicate is the name for a family of inorganic compounds. The most common", "Magnesium monohydride where the temperature is high enough. The reaction that produces it is either 2Mg + H → 2MgH or Mg + H → MgH. Decomposition is by the reverse process. Formation requires the presence of magnesium gas. The amount of magnesium gas is greatly reduced in cool stars by its extraction in clouds of enstatite, a magnesium silicate. Otherwise in these stars, below any magnesium silicate clouds where the temperature is hotter, the concentration of MgH is proportional to the square root of the pressure, and concentration of magnesium, and 10. MgH is the second most abundant magnesium containing gas", "Silicate minerals sheet silicates, form parallel sheets of silicate tetrahedra with SiO or a 2:5 ratio. The Nickel–Strunz classification is 09.E. All phyllosilicate minerals are hydrated, with either water or hydroxyl groups attached. Examples include: Tectosilicates, or \"framework silicates,\" have a three-dimensional framework of silicate tetrahedra with SiO or a 1:2 ratio. This group comprises nearly 75% of the crust of the Earth. Tectosilicates, with the exception of the quartz group, are aluminosilicates. The Nickel–Strunz classifications are 09.F and 09.G, 04.DA (Quartz/ silica family). Examples include: Silicate minerals Silicate minerals are rock-forming minerals with predominantly silicate anions. They are the largest and", "Magnesium oxychloride It can be prepared by calcination of magnesium hydroxycarbonate ·4 at about 600 °C. (Higher temperatures increase particle size leading to lower reaction rate.) It is believed that, during the reaction, the magnesium oxide is continuously hydrated and dissolved, helped by the slightly acidic character of the magnesium chloride solution. The acidity is attributed to hydrolysis of the magnesium hexahydrate cations: The protons (which are actually hydrated, e.g. as ) make the solution acidic; the pH varies from 6.5 to 4.7 as the concentration of increases from 30% to 70% (weight basis). The protons then react with and dissolve the", "Silicate perovskite represented a change from spinel structure minerals with an olivine composition to silicate perovskite with ferropericlase. Natural silicate perovskite was discovered in a heavily shocked meteorite. In 2014, the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC) of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) approved the name bridgmanite for perovskite-structured (Mg,Fe)SiO, in honor of physicist Percy Bridgman, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1946 for his high-pressure research. The perovskite structure (first identified in the mineral perovskite) occurs in substances with the general formula ABX, where A is a metal that forms large cations, typically magnesium, ferrous iron,", "Magnesium acetate Magnesium acetate Anhydrous magnesium acetate has the chemical formula Mg(CHO) and in its hydrated form, magnesium acetate tetrahydrate, it has the chemical formula Mg(CHCOO) • 4HO. In this compound magnesium has an oxidation state of 2. Magnesium acetate is the magnesium salt of acetic acid. It is deliquescent and upon heating, it decomposes to form magnesium oxide. Magnesium acetate is commonly used as a source of magnesium in biological reactions. Magnesium acetate appears as white hygroscopic crystals. It smells like acetic acid and is soluble in water. When it is in an aqueous solution its pH will be on the", "Magnesium acetate However, it should always be handled with gloves and safety goggles. If it gets in the eyes, the skin, ingested, or inhaled it will cause irritation in the respective areas: eyes, skin, gastrointestinal system, and lungs. Magnesium acetate Anhydrous magnesium acetate has the chemical formula Mg(CHO) and in its hydrated form, magnesium acetate tetrahydrate, it has the chemical formula Mg(CHCOO) • 4HO. In this compound magnesium has an oxidation state of 2. Magnesium acetate is the magnesium salt of acetic acid. It is deliquescent and upon heating, it decomposes to form magnesium oxide. Magnesium acetate is commonly used as a", "Potassium silicate Potassium silicate Potassium silicate is the name for a family of inorganic compounds. The most common potassium silicate has the formula KSiO, samples of which contain varying amounts of water. These are white solids or colorless solutions. Potassium silicate can be synthesized in the laboratory by treating silica with potassium hydroxide, according to this idealized equation: These solutions are highly alkaline. Addition of acids causes the reformation of silica. KSiO adopts a chain or cyclic structures with interlinked SiO monomers. Each Si is tetrahedral. Impregnation of wood with a potassium silicate solution is an easy and low cost way for", "Sodium silicate Sodium silicate Sodium silicate is a generic name for chemical compounds with the formula or ·, such as sodium metasilicate , sodium orthosilicate , and sodium pyrosilicate . The anions are often polymeric. These compounds are generally colorless transparent solids or white powders, and soluble in water in various amounts. Sodium silicate is also the technical and common name for a mixture of such compounds, chiefly the metasilicate, also called waterglass, water glass, or liquid glass. The product has a wide variety of uses, including the formulation of cements, passive fire protection, textile and lumber processing, manufacture of refractory ceramics,", "Magnesium monohydride Magnesium monohydride Magnesium monohydride is a molecular gas with formula MgH that exists at high temperatures, such as the atmospheres of the Sun and stars. It was originally known as magnesium hydride, although that name is now more commonly used when referring to the similar chemical magnesium dihydride. George Downing Liveing and James Dewar are claimed to be the first to make and observe a spectral line from MgH in 1878. However they did not realise what the substance was. A laser can evaporate magnesium metal to form atoms that react with molecular hydrogen gas to form MgH and other", "Magnesium citrate prolonged usage (i.e., over five days) and to follow the manufacturer's instructions strictly. For children between three and twelve years of age, the typical dose is roughly half that, based on physician recommendation. Magnesium citrate is not recommended for use in children and infants two years of age or less. Although less common, as a magnesium supplement the citrate form is sometimes used because it is believed to be more bioavailable than other common pill forms, such as magnesium oxide. However, according to one study, magnesium gluconate is marginally more bioavailable than magnesium citrate. Magnesium citrate, as a supplement in", "Magnesium chloride made from solar evaporation of seawater. Anhydrous magnesium chloride is the principal precursor to magnesium metal, which is produced on a large scale. Hydrated magnesium chloride is the form most readily available. MgCl crystallizes in the cadmium chloride motif, which features octahedral Mg centers. Several hydrates are known with the formula MgCl(HO), and each loses water at higher temperatures: x = 12 (−16.4 °C), 8 (−3.4 °C), 6 (116.7 °C), 4 (181 °C), 2 (about 300 °C). In the hexahydrate, the Mg is also octahedral, but is coordinated to six water ligands. The thermal dehydration of the hydrates MgCl(HO) (x", "Magnesium chromate Magnesium chromate Magnesium chromate is a chemical compound, with the formula MgCrO. It is a white or brownish, odorless, water-soluble solid with several important industrial uses. This chromate can be manufactured as a powder. Before 1940, the literature about Magnesium chromate and its hydrates was sparse, but studies starting in that year looked at its properties and solubility. It is available commercially in a variety of powders, from nanoscale to micron-sized, either as an anhydrous or hydrated form. As a hydrate, it is useful as a corrosion inhibitor and pigment, or as an ingredient in cosmetics. In 2011, an undecahydrate", "Syrtis Major quadrangle was warmer and had more atmospheric carbon dioxide and ancient seas. Because the carbonates were near silicate minerals and clays hydrothermal systems like the deep sea vents on Earth may have been present. Other minerals found by MRO are aluminum smectite, iron/magnesium smecite, hydrated silica, kaolinite group minerals, iron oxides, and talc. NASA scientists discovered that Nili Fossae is the source of plumes of methane, raising the question of whether this source originates from biological sources. Research, published in the fall of 2010, describes the discovery of hydrated silica on the flanks of a volcanic cone. The deposit was from", "Magnesium oxychloride at about 23 °C, the completely liquid region has vertices at the following triple equilibrium points (as mass fractions, not molar fractions): The other vertices are pure water, magnesium chloride hexahydrate, and the saturated solution (0.0044 MgO + 0.9956 by mass). The anhydrous forms decompose when heated above 450-500 °C by decomposition of the hydroxide and chloride anions, releasing water and hydrogen chloride and leaving a magnesium oxide residue, by the reactions: Extended exposure of magnesium oxychlorides to water leaches out the soluble , leaving hydrated brucite . On exposure to the atmosphere, the oxychlorides will slowly react with carbon", "Sodium silicate signs and murals. Sodium silicates are colorless glassy or crystalline solids, or white powders. Except for the most silicon-rich ones, they are readily soluble in water, producing alkaline solutions. Sodium silicates are stable in neutral and alkaline solutions. In acidic solutions, the silicate ions react with hydrogen ions to form silicic acids, which tend to decompose into hydrated silicon dioxide gel. Heated to drive off the water, the result is a hard translucent substance called silica gel, widely used as a desiccant. Solutions of sodium silicates can be produced by treating a mixture of silica (usually as quartz sand), caustic", "Magnesium malate characteristic of having two elemental magnesium molecules, whereas magnesium malate has a single elemental magnesium molecule. Magnesium malate Magnesium malate, the magnesium salt of malic acid, is a mineral supplement often used for nutritional concerns. It is represented by the chemical formula C4H4MgO5 and has a molecular weight of 156.376 g/mol. Magnesium malate is discussed as being a more bioavailable form of magnesium, along with other forms such as citrate and glycinate. Dimagnesium malate is another common form of this compound seen in the dietary supplement market, produced by such dimetalhydroxy malate-yielding processes as the one described by a 1997", "Magnesium oxychloride dioxide from the air to form magnesium chlorocarbonates. Anhydrous and partially hydrated forms also absorb water, turning into phase 5 and then phase 3 on the way to the chlorocarbonate. The exceptions are the dihydrate and hexahydrate of phase 9, that remain unchanged for many months. The crystal structure of phase 3 is triclinic with space group formula_1 and \"z\" = 2. The solid consists polymeric aquohydroxo cations, in the form of double chains of magnesium atoms surrounded and bridged by the oxygen atoms in hydroxy groups and complexed water molecules. These linear cations are interleaved and neutralized by chloride", "Tobacco pipe of its superior graining. Meerschaum (hydrated magnesium silicate), a mineral found in small shallow deposits mainly around the city of Eskişehir in central Turkey, is prized for the properties which allow it to be carved into finely detailed decorative and figural shapes. It has been used since the 17th century and, with clay pipes, represented the most common medium for pipes before the introduction of briar as the material of choice in the 19th century. The word \"meerschaum\" means \"sea foam\" in German, alluding to its natural white color and its surprisingly low weight. Meerschaum is a very porous mineral", "Magnesium malate Magnesium malate Magnesium malate, the magnesium salt of malic acid, is a mineral supplement often used for nutritional concerns. It is represented by the chemical formula C4H4MgO5 and has a molecular weight of 156.376 g/mol. Magnesium malate is discussed as being a more bioavailable form of magnesium, along with other forms such as citrate and glycinate. Dimagnesium malate is another common form of this compound seen in the dietary supplement market, produced by such dimetalhydroxy malate-yielding processes as the one described by a 1997 patent awarded to Albion Minerals. The primary difference in this compound can be seen by its", "Magnesium (medical use) Magnesium (medical use) Magnesium salts are available as a medication in a number of formulations. They are used to treat magnesium deficiency, low blood magnesium, eclampsia, and several other conditions. Magnesium is important to health. Usually in lower dosages, magnesium is commonly included in dietary mineral preparations, including many multivitamin preparations. More common side effects from magnesium include upset stomach and diarrhea, and calcium deficiency if calcium levels are already low. Overdose of magnesium (hypermagnesemia) is only possible in special circumstances. It can cause nausea, vomiting, severely lowered blood pressure, confusion, slowed heart rate, respiratory paralysis. In very severe cases,", "Silicate reaction is not observed with suspensions of colloidal silica. The nature of soluble silicates is relevant to understanding biomineralization and the synthesis of aluminosilicates, such as the industrially important catalysts called zeolites. Silicate In chemistry, a silicate is any member of a family of anions consisting of silicon and oxygen, usually with the general formula , where . The family includes orthosilicate (), metasilicate (), and pyrosilicate (, ). The name is also used for any salt of such anions, such as sodium metasilicate; or any ester containing the corresponding chemical group, such as tetramethyl orthosilicate. Silicate anions are often", "Calcium silicate bonded with sodium silicate. Although it is popularly considered an asbestos substitute, early uses of calcium silicate for insulation still made use of asbestos fibers. It is used in passive fire protection and fireproofing as calcium silicate brick or in roof tiles. It is one of the most successful materials in fireproofing in Europe because of regulations and fire safety guidelines for commercial and residential building codes (see Calcium Silicate use in Europe). Where North Americans use spray fireproofing plasters, Europeans are more likely to use cladding made of calcium silicate. High-performance calcium-silicate boards retain their excellent dimensional stability even", "Montmorillonite content of montmorillonite is variable and it increases greatly in volume when it absorbs water. Chemically, it is hydrated sodium calcium aluminium magnesium silicate hydroxide (Na,Ca)(Al,Mg)(SiO)(OH)·\"n\"HO. Potassium, iron, and other cations are common substitutes, and the exact ratio of cations varies with source. It often occurs intermixed with chlorite, muscovite, illite, cookeite, and kaolinite. Montmorillonite can be concentrated and transformed within cave environments. The natural weathering of the cave can leave behind concentrations of aluminosilicates which were contained within the bedrock. Montmorillonite can form slowly in solutions of aluminosilicates. High HCO concentrations and long periods of time can aid in", "Silicate mineral paint paint allows use on non-mineral plaster. For these the bonding occurs chemically and physically. The sol-silicate paint has revolutionized the field of application of silicate paints. These paints can be applied easily and safely to nearly all common substrates. Silicate mineral paint Silicate mineral paints or mineral colors are paint coats with mineral binding agents. Two relevant mineral binders play a role in the field of colors: Lime and silicate. Under influence of carbon dioxide, lime-based binders carbonate and water silicate-based binders solidify. Together they form calcium silicate hydrates. Lime paints (aside of Fresco-technique) are only moderately weather resistant, so", "Silicate Silicate In chemistry, a silicate is any member of a family of anions consisting of silicon and oxygen, usually with the general formula , where . The family includes orthosilicate (), metasilicate (), and pyrosilicate (, ). The name is also used for any salt of such anions, such as sodium metasilicate; or any ester containing the corresponding chemical group, such as tetramethyl orthosilicate. Silicate anions are often large polymeric molecules with an extense variety of structures, including chains and rings (as in polymeric metasilicate ), double chains (as in , and sheets (as in . In geology and astronomy,", "Calcium silicate calcium silicate hydrate, sealing micropores with a relatively impermeable material. It also occurs in cements, where it is known as belite or in cement chemist notation CS. Calcium silicate Calcium silicate is the chemical compound CaSiO, also known as calcium orthosilicate and is sometimes formulated as 2CaO·SiO. It is also referred to by the shortened trade name Cal-Sil or Calsil. Calcium silicate is a white free-flowing powder. It can be derived from naturally occurring limestone and diatomaceous earth, a siliceous sedimentary rock. It is one of a group of compounds that can be produced by reacting calcium oxide and silica", "Calcium silicate Calcium silicate Calcium silicate is the chemical compound CaSiO, also known as calcium orthosilicate and is sometimes formulated as 2CaO·SiO. It is also referred to by the shortened trade name Cal-Sil or Calsil. Calcium silicate is a white free-flowing powder. It can be derived from naturally occurring limestone and diatomaceous earth, a siliceous sedimentary rock. It is one of a group of compounds that can be produced by reacting calcium oxide and silica in various ratios e.g. 3CaO·SiO, CaSiO; 2CaO·SiO, CaSiO; 3CaO·2SiO, CaSiO and CaO·SiO, CaSiO. It has a low bulk density and high physical water absorption. Calcium silicate is", "Sodium silicate clearing agent, though, sodium silicate is sometimes confused with isinglass which is prepared from collagen extracted from the dried swim bladders of sturgeon and other fishes. Eggs preserved in a bucket of waterglass gel, and their shells are sometimes also used (baked and crushed) to clear wine. Sodium silicate gel is also used as a substrate for algal growth in aquaculture hatcheries. Sodium silicate Sodium silicate is a generic name for chemical compounds with the formula or ·, such as sodium metasilicate , sodium orthosilicate , and sodium pyrosilicate . The anions are often polymeric. These compounds are generally colorless", "Magnesium hydroxide Magnesium hydroxide Magnesium hydroxide is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH). It occurs in nature as the mineral brucite. It is a white solid with low solubility in water (). Magnesium hydroxide is a common component of antacids, such as milk of magnesia, as well as laxatives. Combining a solution of many magnesium salts with alkaline water induces precipitation of solid Mg(OH): On a commercial scale, Mg(OH) is produced by treating seawater with lime (Ca(OH)). 600m of seawater gives about one ton of Mg(OH). Ca(OH) is far more soluble than Mg(OH), so the latter precipitates as a solid:", "Magnesium alloy the reactivity of magnesium with sand and water in sheet, bar, extruded or cast form; however, magnesium alloys present no real fire hazard. Magnesium casting proof stress is typically 75-200 MPa, tensile strength 135-285 MPa and elongation 2-10%. Typical density is 1.8 g/cm and Young's modulus is 42 GPa. Most common cast alloys are: Magnesium wrought alloy proof stress is typically 160-240 MPa, tensile strength is 180-440 MPa and elongation is 7-40%. The most common wrought alloys are: Wrought magnesium alloys have a special feature. Their compressive proof strength is smaller than tensile proof strength. After forming, wrought magnesium alloys", "Magnesium monohydride and twice as intense as P and R branch lines. These lines that are more polarizable are also less subject to magnetic field effects. Magnesium monohydride Magnesium monohydride is a molecular gas with formula MgH that exists at high temperatures, such as the atmospheres of the Sun and stars. It was originally known as magnesium hydride, although that name is now more commonly used when referring to the similar chemical magnesium dihydride. George Downing Liveing and James Dewar are claimed to be the first to make and observe a spectral line from MgH in 1878. However they did not realise", "Illite to undergo a transformation into muscovite. Illite Illite is a group of closely related non-expanding clay minerals. Illite is a secondary mineral precipitate, and an example of a phyllosilicate, or layered alumino-silicate. Its structure is a 2:1 sandwich of silica tetrahedron (T) – alumina octahedron (O) – silica tetrahedron (T) layers. The space between this T-O-T sequence of layers is occupied by poorly hydrated potassium cations which are responsible for the absence of swelling. Structurally, illite is quite similar to muscovite with slightly more silicon, magnesium, iron, and water and slightly less tetrahedral aluminium and interlayer potassium. The chemical formula", "Magnesium pharmaceutical preparations of magnesium and dietary supplements are available. In two human trials magnesium oxide, one of the most common forms in magnesium dietary supplements because of its high magnesium content per weight, was less bioavailable than magnesium citrate, chloride, lactate or aspartate. An adult has 22–26 grams of magnesium, with 60% in the skeleton, 39% intracellular (20% in skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular. Serum levels are typically 0.7–1.0 mmol/L or 1.8–2.4 mEq/L. Serum magnesium levels may be normal even when intracellular magnesium is deficient. The mechanisms for maintaining the magnesium level in the serum are varying gastrointestinal absorption and", "Talc compensatory damages) against J&J, concluding that the company had suppressed evidence of asbestos in its products for more than four decades. Talc Talc or talcum is a clay mineral composed of hydrated magnesium silicate with the chemical formula HMg(SiO) or MgSiO(OH). In loose form, it is (in ratio with or without corn starch) one of the most widely used substances known as baby powder. It occurs as foliated to fibrous masses, and in an exceptionally rare crystal form. It has a perfect basal cleavage, and the folia are not elastic, although slightly flexible. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness, based", "Silicate mineral paint construction. Commonly three types of silicate paints are distinguished: Pure silicate paint consisting of two components, a color powder in dry or water-paste form and the liquid binder water glass. (DIN 18363 \"Painting and coating work\" Section 2.4.1). The processing of pure silicate paints require great experience and know-how. These are especially common for the historic area. Around the middle of the 20th century the first single-component silicate paint was developed. The addition of up to 5 mass percent of organic additives (e.g. acrylate dispersion, hydrophobisers, thickeners or similar) makes ready-to-use paint in containers possible. These are also called \"dispersion", "Hydrated silica Hydrated silica Hydrated silica is a form of silicon dioxide, which has a variable amount of water in the formula. When dissolved in water it is usually known as silicic acid. It is found in nature, as opal (which has been mined as a gemstone for centuries), and in the cell walls of diatoms. It is also manufactured for use in toothpaste. Once dehydrated the gel is used as a desiccant known as silica gel. It is also used in various paints and varnishes and in the production of beer. In its pure form, as manufactured for toothpaste, it is", "Hydrated silica Opal: Paint/Varnish: Beer: Hydrated silica Hydrated silica is a form of silicon dioxide, which has a variable amount of water in the formula. When dissolved in water it is usually known as silicic acid. It is found in nature, as opal (which has been mined as a gemstone for centuries), and in the cell walls of diatoms. It is also manufactured for use in toothpaste. Once dehydrated the gel is used as a desiccant known as silica gel. It is also used in various paints and varnishes and in the production of beer. In its pure form, as manufactured for", "Magnesium renal excretion. Intracellular magnesium is correlated with intracellular potassium. Increased magnesium lowers calcium and can either prevent hypercalcemia or cause hypocalcemia depending on the initial level. Both low and high protein intake conditions inhibit magnesium absorption, as does the amount of phosphate, phytate, and fat in the gut. Unabsorbed dietary magnesium is excreted in feces; absorbed magnesium is excreted in urine and sweat. Magnesium status may be assessed by measuring serum and erythrocyte magnesium concentrations coupled with urinary and fecal magnesium content, but intravenous magnesium loading tests are more accurate and practical. A retention of 20% or more of the", "Magnesium ions interact with polyphosphate compounds such as ATP, DNA, and RNA. Hundreds of enzymes require magnesium ions to function. Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as common laxatives, antacids (e.g., milk of magnesia), and to stabilize abnormal nerve excitation or blood vessel spasm in such conditions as eclampsia. Elemental magnesium is a gray-white lightweight metal, two-thirds the density of aluminium. It tarnishes slightly when exposed to air, although, unlike the heavier alkaline earth metals, an oxygen-free environment is unnecessary for storage because magnesium is protected by a thin layer of oxide that is fairly impermeable and difficult to remove. Magnesium has", "Magnesium argide of copper or zinc isotopes when using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, particularly when using a desolvated plasma. When analysing mineral specimens, magnesium is a common element found in rock matrix. It can react with the argon ions present in the plasma. In analysis of soil, MgAr interferes with detection of Cu, though common isotopomer has a molecular weight of 64.95 compared to 64.93 for the copper 65 isotope. This is called isobaric interference. Magnesium argide The magnesium argide ion, MgAr is an ion composed of one ionised magnesium atom, Mg and an argon atom. It is important in inductively", "Moss Island muscovite (common, white or potash mica), biotitic (black mica, an iron rich version of muscovite), and hornblende (a black to dark green crystal mixture of calcium-iron-magnesium silicate, aluminum-iron-magnesium silicate and iron-magnesium silicate). The prefix \"meta-\" indicates that metasyenite is a metamorphic rock. After forming as an igneous rock, the syenite was subject to massive heat and pressure, which caused the minerals to rearrange, but not melt. The first locks around the waterfall were created in 1793. A dry 19th century Erie Canal lock (Enlarged Erie Canal Lock #36) is located next to the southeastern service road. The current Lock 17", "Illite Illite Illite is a group of closely related non-expanding clay minerals. Illite is a secondary mineral precipitate, and an example of a phyllosilicate, or layered alumino-silicate. Its structure is a 2:1 sandwich of silica tetrahedron (T) – alumina octahedron (O) – silica tetrahedron (T) layers. The space between this T-O-T sequence of layers is occupied by poorly hydrated potassium cations which are responsible for the absence of swelling. Structurally, illite is quite similar to muscovite with slightly more silicon, magnesium, iron, and water and slightly less tetrahedral aluminium and interlayer potassium. The chemical formula is given as (K,HO)(Al,Mg,Fe)(Si,Al)O[(OH),(HO)], but there", "Magnesium oxalate as a catalyst, refractory materials, adsorbents, superconductors, and ferroelectric materials. Nano sized particles of magnesium oxide are optimal for some of these uses because of the larger surface area to volume ratio as compared with larger particles. Most common syntheses of magnesium oxide produce fairly large particles, however, the sol-gel synthesis using magnesium oxalate produces highly stable nano sized particles of magnesium oxide. The sol-gel synthesis involves combining a magnesium salt, or in this case magnesium oxalate, with a gelating agent. This process effectively produces nano sized particles of magnesium oxide. Magnesium oxalate is a skin and eye irritant. If", "Magnesium chelatase this enzyme class is Mg-protoporphyrin IX magnesium-lyase. Other names in common use include protoporphyrin IX magnesium-chelatase, protoporphyrin IX Mg-chelatase, magnesium-protoporphyrin IX chelatase, magnesium-protoporphyrin chelatase, magnesium-chelatase, Mg-chelatase, and Mg-protoporphyrin IX magnesio-lyase. This enzyme participates in porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism. Magnesium chelatase Magnesium-chelatase is a three-component enzyme that catalyses the insertion of Mg into protoporphyrin IX. This is the first unique step in the synthesis of chlorophyll and bacteriochlorophyll. As a result, it is thought that Mg-chelatase has an important role in channeling intermediates into the (bacterio)chlorophyll branch in response to conditions suitable for photosynthetic growth: The 4 substrates of this enzyme", "Naproxen/esomeprazole magnesium Aleve and Nexium, the two common medications\" that became the specialty drug Vimovo, was $40 a month. Horizon Pharma bills insurance companies $3,252 a month for Vimovo. According to \"The Atlantic\", \"since 2014, Horizon Pharma’s net sales have been more than $455 million\". Naproxen/esomeprazole magnesium Naproxen/esomeprazole magnesium (Vimovo) is a pain reliever in the form of a tablet for oral consumption, with delayed release of esomeprazole magnesium, \"a stomach acid–reducing proton pump inhibitor (PPI)\" and naproxen, produced by AstraZeneca. Vimovo is FDA approved for use for osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis. It is intended to decrease the risk of", "Magnesium battery and cathode materials. As of 2015 the barriers to producing a commercially useful magnesium battery were the lack of demonstrated practical electrolytes and high energy density cathode cathode materials for magnesium ions. A key drawback to using a metallic magnesium anode is the tendency to form a passivating (non conducting) layer when recharging, blocking further charging (in contrast to lithium's behaviour); The passivating layers were thought to originate from decomposition of the electrolyte during magnesium ion reduction. Common counter ions such as perchlorate and tetrafluoroborate were found to contribute to passivation, as were some common polar aprotic solvents such as", "Silicate garnet) and artificial (such as Portland cement, ceramics, glass, and waterglass), for all sorts of technological and artistic activities. The name \"silicate\" is sometimes extended to any anions containing silicon, even if they do not fit the general formula or contain other atoms besides oxygen; such as the hexahydroxysilicate or hexafluorosilicate . In most commonly encountered silicates, including almost all silicate minerals found in the Earth's crust, each silicon atom occupies the center of an idealized [tetrahedron] whose corners are four oxygen atoms, connected to it by single covalent bonds according to the octet rule. These tetrahedra may occur as", "Magnesium in biology living cells on earth alive and maintains baseline levels of CO and O in our atmosphere. Inadequate magnesium intake frequently causes muscle spasms, and has been associated with cardiovascular disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, anxiety disorders, migraines, osteoporosis, and cerebral infarction. Acute deficiency (see hypomagnesemia) is rare, and is more common as a drug side-effect (such as chronic alcohol or diuretic use) than from low food intake per se, but it can occur in people fed intravenously for extended periods of time. The most common symptom of excess oral magnesium intake is diarrhea. Supplements based on amino acid chelates (such", "Magnesium peroxide been experimentally confirmed via synthesis in a laser-heated diamond anvil cell. MgO can be produced by mixing MgO with hydrogen peroxide to create magnesium peroxide and water. This being an exothermic reaction should be cooled and kept around 30–40 degrees Celsius. It is also important to remove as much iron from the reaction environment as possible due to iron's ability to catalyze the degradation of the peroxide. The addition of oxygen stabilizers such as sodium silicate can also be used to help prevent the premature degradation of the peroxide. Regardless, a good yield from this reaction is only about 35%.", "Magnesium deficiency leafy green vegetables, soybeans, nuts, and fruits and egg. The condition is relatively common among people in hospital. Magnesium deficiency in humans was first described in the medical literature in 1934. Magnesium deficiency is a detrimental plant disorder that occurs most often in strongly acidic, light, sandy soils, where magnesium can be easily leached away. Magnesium is an essential macronutrient constituting 0.2-0.4% of plants' dry matter and is necessary for normal plant growth. Excess potassium, generally due to fertilizers, further aggravates the stress from magnesium deficiency, as does aluminium toxicity. Magnesium has an important role in photosynthesis because it forms", "Magnesium gives a Grignard reagent, which is a very useful tool for preparing alcohols. Magnesium salts are included in various foods, fertilizers (magnesium is a component of chlorophyll), and microbe culture media. Magnesium sulfite is used in the manufacture of paper (sulfite process). Magnesium phosphate is used to fireproof wood used in construction. Magnesium hexafluorosilicate is used for moth-proofing textiles. The important interaction between phosphate and magnesium ions makes magnesium essential to the basic nucleic acid chemistry of all cells of all known living organisms. More than 300 enzymes require magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes using or", "Magnesium stearate processes. In the creation of pressed candies, magnesium stearate acts as a release agent and it is used to bind sugar in hard candies such as mints. Magnesium stearate is a common ingredient in baby formulas. Magnesium stearate is a major component of \"bathtub rings.\" When produced by soap and hard water, magnesium stearate and calcium stearate both form a white solid insoluble in water, and are collectively known as \"soap scum.\" Magnesium stearate is generally considered safe for human consumption at levels below 2500 mg/kg per day and is classified in the United States as generally recognized as safe", "Magnesium oxide negra\", a black mineral containing what is now known as manganese. While \"magnesium oxide\" normally refers to MgO, magnesium peroxide MgO is also known as a compound. According to evolutionary crystal structure prediction, MgO is thermodynamically stable at pressures above 116 GPa (gigapascals), and a semiconducting suboxide MgO is thermodynamically stable above 500 GPa. Because of its stability, MgO is used as a model system for investigating vibrational properties of crystals. Magnesium oxide is produced by the calcination of magnesium carbonate or magnesium hydroxide. The latter is obtained by the treatment of magnesium chloride solutions, typically seawater, with lime. Calcining", "Silicate when silica is dissolved in an excess of sodium oxide at pH 12 or more. In higher concentrations or low pH, polymeric anions predominate. In the limit, the silicate anions merge into a tridimensional network of silicon tetrahedra, with most oxygen atoms occurring as covalent bridges; which is some form of silica, such as silica gel, mixed with water. Silicate anions in solution react with molybdate anions yielding yellow silicomolybdate complexes. In a typical preparation, monomeric orthosilicate was found to react completely in 75 seconds; dimeric pyrosilicate in 10 minutes; and higher oligomers in considerably longer time. In particular, the", "Silicate mineral paint silicate paints\" (DIN 18363 \"Painting and coating work\" Section 2.4.1). The range of application for such silicate paints is significantly higher than for pure silicate paints as the dispersion allows coats for less solid substrates and/or organic composition. Above that handling and processing is simpler than pure silicate paint. Since 2002 a third category of silicate paints is known: sol-silicate paint. The binder is a combination of silica sol and water glass. The organic fraction is limited to 5 mass percent similar to dispersion silicate paint allowing for chemical setting and retaining of the silicate specific advantages. The sol silicate", "Magnesium iodide Magnesium iodide Magnesium iodide is the name for the chemical compounds with the formulas MgI and its various hydrates MgI(HO). These salts are typical ionic halides, being highly soluble in water. Magnesium iodide has few commercial uses, but can be used to prepare compounds for organic synthesis. Magnesium iodide can be prepared from magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide, and magnesium carbonate by treatment with hydroiodic acid: Magnesium iodide is stable at high heat under a hydrogen atmosphere, but decomposes in air at normal temperatures, turning brown from the release of elemental iodine. When heated in air, it decomposes completely to magnesium", "Potassium silicate rendering the woodwork of houses secure against catching fire. The woodwork is first saturated with a diluted and nearly neutral solution of potash silicate. After drying, one or two coats of a more concentrated solution are usually applied. In horticulture, potassium silicate is used as a soluble source of potassium and silicon. It makes the growing medium more alkaline. It is also used as a supplement (in conjunction with normal fertilizer) for the numerous benefits that increasing the availability of silicon compounds has. Silicon-containing compounds are valuable to a plant, and serve to support the plant. Stems thicken, the plant", "Hornblende Hornblende Hornblende is a complex inosilicate series of minerals (ferrohornblende – magnesiohornblende). It is not a recognized mineral in its own right, but the name is used as a general or field term, to refer to a dark amphibole. Hornblende is an isomorphous mixture of three molecules; a calcium-iron-magnesium silicate, an aluminium-iron-magnesium silicate, and an iron-magnesium silicate. The general formula can be given as (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si)O(OH,F). Some metals vary in their occurrence and magnitude: Hornblende has a hardness of 5–6, a specific gravity of 2.9–3.4 and is typically an opaque green, greenish-brown, brown or black color. Its cleavage angles are at", "Sodium silicate a temporary, brittle repair. Sodium silicate is also used currently as an exhaust system joint and crack sealer for repairing mufflers, resonators, tailpipes, and other exhaust components, with and without fiberglass reinforcing tapes. In this application, the sodium silicate (60–70%) is typically mixed with kaolin (40-30%), an aluminium silicate mineral, to make the sodium silicate \"glued\" joint opaque. The sodium silicate, however, is the high-temperature adhesive; the kaolin serves simply as a compatible high-temperature coloring agent. Some of these repair compounds also contain glass fibres to enhance their gap-filling abilities and reduce brittleness. Sodium silicate can be used to fill", "Magnesium alloy is elevated by 200–300 K. An oxygen-free atmosphere is not necessary for machining operations. Magnesium alloy Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium with other metals (called an alloy), often aluminum, zinc, manganese, silicon, copper, rare earths and zirconium. Magnesium is the lightest structural metal. Magnesium alloys have a hexagonal lattice structure, which affects the fundamental properties of these alloys. Plastic deformation of the hexagonal lattice is more complicated than in cubic latticed metals like aluminium, copper and steel; therefore, magnesium alloys are typically used as cast alloys, but research of wrought alloys has been more extensive since 2003. Cast magnesium", "Classification of non-silicate minerals Classification of non-silicate minerals This list gives an overview of the classification of non-silicate minerals and includes mostly IMA recognized minerals and its groupings. This list complements the alphabetical list on List of minerals (complete) and List of minerals. Rocks, ores, mineral mixtures, not IMA approved minerals, not named minerals are mostly excluded. Mostly major groups only, or groupings used by \"New Dana Classification\" and \"Mindat\". The grouping of the New Dana Classification and of the mindat.org is similar only, and so this classification is an overview only. Consistency is missing too on the group name endings (group, subgroup, series)", "Magnesium alloy zinc, zirconium, and thorium promote precipitation hardening: manganese improves corrosion resistance; and tin improves castability. Aluminium is the most common alloying element. The numerals correspond to the rounded-off percentage of the two main alloy elements, proceeding alphabetically as compositions become standard. Temper designation is much the same as in the case of aluminium. Using –F, -O, -H1, -T4, -T5, and –T6. Sand permanent-mold, and die casting are all well developed for magnesium alloys, die casting being the most popular. Although magnesium is about twice as expensive as aluminium, its hot-chamber die-casting process is easier, more economical, and 40% to 50%", "Silicate minerals Silicate minerals Silicate minerals are rock-forming minerals with predominantly silicate anions. They are the largest and most important class of rock-forming minerals and make up approximately 90 percent of the Earth's crust. In mineralogy, silica, or silicon dioxide SiO, which corresponds to \"x\"=2 in the general formula, is usually considered a silicate mineral—even though its silicate \"anion\" has no negative charge and it has no cations. Silica is found in nature as the mineral quartz, and its polymorphs. On Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as a result of the processes", "Magnesium citrate Magnesium citrate Magnesium citrate is a magnesium preparation in salt form with citric acid in a 1:1 ratio (1 magnesium atom per citrate molecule). The name \"magnesium citrate\" is ambiguous and sometimes may refer to other salts such as trimagnesium citrate which has a magnesium:citrate ratio of 3:2. Magnesium citrate is used medicinally as a saline laxative and to completely empty the bowel prior to a major surgery or colonoscopy. It is available without a prescription, both as a generic and under various brand names. It is also used in the pill form as a magnesium dietary supplement. It contains", "Magnesium the magnesium is expelled into the interstellar medium where it may recycle into new star systems. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and the fourth most common element in the Earth (after iron, oxygen and silicon), making up 13% of the planet's mass and a large fraction of the planet's mantle. It is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater, after sodium and chlorine. Magnesium occurs naturally only in combination with other elements, where it invariably has a +2 oxidation state. The free element (metal) can be produced artificially, and is highly reactive (though", "Chalcanthite Chalcanthite Chalcanthite, whose name derives from the Greek, \"chalkos\" and \"anthos\", meaning copper flower, is a richly colored blue/green water-soluble sulfate mineral CuSO·5HO. It is commonly found in the late-stage oxidation zones of copper deposits. Due to its ready solubility, chalcanthite is more common in arid regions. Chalcanthite is a pentahydrate and the most common member of a group of similar hydrated sulfates, the chalcanthite group. These other sulfates are identical in chemical composition to chalcanthite, with the exception of replacement of the copper ion by either manganese as jokokuite, iron as siderotil, or magnesium as pentahydrite. Other names include", "Magnesium peroxide complete state, or to bio-accumulate. The natural degradation of MgO leads to Magnesium hydroxide, O, and HO. If spilled, MgO should be contained and isolated from any waterways, sewer drains, and it should be isolated from combustible materials or chemicals including paper, cloth, and wood. Magnesium exists in the upper atmosphere in a variety of different molecular forms. Due to its ability to react with common oxygen and simple carbon-oxygen compounds the magnesium may exist in oxidized compounds including MgO, OMgO, MgO, and OMgO. In contact with water it decomposes by the reactions: Magnesium peroxide Magnesium peroxide (MgO) is an", "Magnesium chloride = 6, 12) does not occur straightforwardly. Anhydrous MgCl is produced industrially by heating the hexammine complex [Mg(NH)]Cl. As suggested by the existence of some hydrates, anhydrous MgCl is a Lewis acid, although a weak one. In the Dow process, magnesium chloride is regenerated from magnesium hydroxide using hydrochloric acid: It can also be prepared from magnesium carbonate by a similar reaction. Derivatives with tetrahedral Mg are less common. Examples include salts of (tetraethylammonium)MgCl and adducts such as MgCl(TMEDA). MgCl is the main precursor to metallic magnesium. The conversion is effected by electrolysis: This process is practiced on a substantial", "Magnesium alloy Magnesium alloy Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium with other metals (called an alloy), often aluminum, zinc, manganese, silicon, copper, rare earths and zirconium. Magnesium is the lightest structural metal. Magnesium alloys have a hexagonal lattice structure, which affects the fundamental properties of these alloys. Plastic deformation of the hexagonal lattice is more complicated than in cubic latticed metals like aluminium, copper and steel; therefore, magnesium alloys are typically used as cast alloys, but research of wrought alloys has been more extensive since 2003. Cast magnesium alloys are used for many components of modern automobiles have been used in some", "Common name Common name In biology, a common name of a taxon or organism (also known as a vernacular name, English name, colloquial name, trivial name, trivial epithet, country name, popular name, or farmer's name) is a name that is based on the normal language of everyday life; this kind of name is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism, which is Latinized. A common name is sometimes frequently used, but that is by no means always the case. Sometimes common names are created by authorities on one particular subject, in an attempt to make it possible for members", "Lime (material) lime is grey in color. Magnesium lime contains more than 5% magnesium oxide (BS 6100) or 5-35% magnesium carbonate (ASTM C 59-91). Dolomitic lime has a high magnesium content of 35-46% magnesium carbonate (ASTM C 59-91) Dolomitic lime is named for the Dolomite Mountains in the Italian and Austrian Alps. In the United States the most commonly used masonry lime is Type S hydrated lime which is intended to be added to Portland cement to improve plasticity, water retention and other qualities. The S in type S stands for special which distinguishes it from Type N hydrated lime where the", "Zirconium(IV) silicate Zirconium(IV) silicate Zirconium silicate, also zirconium orthosilicate, ZrSiO, is a chemical compound, a silicate of zirconium. It occurs in nature as zircon, a silicate mineral. Powdered zirconium silicate is also known as zircon flour. Zirconium silicate is usually colorless, but impurities induce various colorations. It is insoluble in water, acids, alkali and aqua regia. Hardness is 7.5 on the Mohs scale. Zirconium silicate occurs in nature as mineral zircon. Ore is mined from natural deposits and concentrated by various techniques. It is separated from sand by electrostatic and electromagnetic methods. Also, the compound can be made by fusion of SiO", "Magnesium hydroxide formation of expansive brucite. This reaction, one of the two main alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) is also known as alkali-carbonate reaction. Magnesium hydroxide Magnesium hydroxide is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH). It occurs in nature as the mineral brucite. It is a white solid with low solubility in water (). Magnesium hydroxide is a common component of antacids, such as milk of magnesia, as well as laxatives. Combining a solution of many magnesium salts with alkaline water induces precipitation of solid Mg(OH): On a commercial scale, Mg(OH) is produced by treating seawater with lime (Ca(OH)). 600m of seawater", "Zirconium(IV) silicate known adverse effects for normal, incidental ingestion. Zirconium(IV) silicate Zirconium silicate, also zirconium orthosilicate, ZrSiO, is a chemical compound, a silicate of zirconium. It occurs in nature as zircon, a silicate mineral. Powdered zirconium silicate is also known as zircon flour. Zirconium silicate is usually colorless, but impurities induce various colorations. It is insoluble in water, acids, alkali and aqua regia. Hardness is 7.5 on the Mohs scale. Zirconium silicate occurs in nature as mineral zircon. Ore is mined from natural deposits and concentrated by various techniques. It is separated from sand by electrostatic and electromagnetic methods. Also, the compound", "Magnesium citrate a bowel movement after use could be signs of a serious condition. Magnesium citrate Magnesium citrate is a magnesium preparation in salt form with citric acid in a 1:1 ratio (1 magnesium atom per citrate molecule). The name \"magnesium citrate\" is ambiguous and sometimes may refer to other salts such as trimagnesium citrate which has a magnesium:citrate ratio of 3:2. Magnesium citrate is used medicinally as a saline laxative and to completely empty the bowel prior to a major surgery or colonoscopy. It is available without a prescription, both as a generic and under various brand names. It is also", "Magnesium salicylate Magnesium salicylate Magnesium salicylate is a common analgesic and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to treat mild to moderate muscular pain. It is also used to treat headaches, general back pain, and certain joint pains like arthritis. It is found in a variety of over-the-counter (OTC) medications, most notably the brand of such medication called \"Doan's Pills,\" as an anti-inflammatory, primarily for back-pain relief. Magnesium salicylate can be an effective OTC alternative to prescription NSAIDs, with both anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving effects. While magnesium salicylate is an alternative for pain relief, it still is an NSAID like others in its category", "Silicate perovskite Silicate perovskite Silicate perovskite is either (Mg,Fe)SiO (the magnesian end-member is called bridgmanite) or CaSiO (calcium silicate) when arranged in a perovskite structure. Silicate perovskites are not stable at Earth's surface, and are mainly found in the lower part of Earth's mantle, between about depth. They are thought to form the main mineral phases, together with ferropericlase. The existence of silicate perovskite in the mantle was first suggested in 1962, and both MgSiO and CaSiO had been synthesized experimentally before 1975. By the late 1970s, it had been proposed that the seismic discontinuity at about 660 km in the mantle", "Magnesium magnesium are, in order: aluminium alloys, die-casting (alloyed with zinc), removing sulfur in the production of iron and steel, and the production of titanium in the Kroll process. Magnesium is used in super-strong, lightweight materials and alloys. For example, when infused with silicon carbide nanoparticles, it has extremely high specific strength. Historically, magnesium was one of the main aerospace construction metals and was used for German military aircraft as early as World War I and extensively for German aircraft in World War II. The Germans coined the name \"Elektron\" for magnesium alloy, a term which is still used today. In" ]

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[ "The Governor (The Walking Dead) Greene, and takes them hostage, intending to use them as leverage over Rick. The Governor then rallies the camp to take over the prison. Upon arriving at the prison with his army and tank, the Governor tells Rick that he is going to give their group a chance to leave without anyone getting killed. Rick says that they can co-exist peacefully, but the Governor calls him a liar and beheads Hershel. During the ensuing gunfight, Lilly arrives in time to see him murder Hershel. She is carrying Meghan, who has been bitten by a walker. He dispassionately shoots Meghan to" ]

[ "Caesar Martinez (The Walking Dead) Woodbury and the prison will be\". Asked about how he can relate to the competitiveness shown in this scene, Cantillo gave some insight into his childhood: \"I have two older brothers, and you're just as competitive playing football as you are eating pickled eggs, or trying to kill zombies. As long as you don't take it too far, I think it's a good way for people to relate.\" The episode \"Dead Weight\" marks the last appearance of Martinez, who was killed by The Governor (David Morrissey) in the episode. On The Governor's reasoning for killing Martinez, Morrissey explained: I think", "Dead Weight (The Walking Dead) the last appearance of recurring actor Jose Pablo Cantillo (Martinez), whom The Governor (David Morrissey) kills in the episode. On The Governor's reasoning for killing Martinez, Morrissey explains: I think Martinez makes the mistake of admitting weakness. He says to the Governor, “I’m not sure I can keep this place safe.” Had he turned around to the Governor on that day where he was playing golf and said, “There is no way this camp is not going to be safe. I’m going to make it safe. I’m going to do everything I can to make it safe,” then the Governor", "Rick Grimes would-be traitors to abandon the safety of the group. In the season premiere, \"Seed\", eight months have passed and Rick and Lori's relationship has deteriorated. The group finds an overrun prison facility and decide to settle there. When exploring the building's interior, they encounter some prisoners, who try to assassinate Rick and then unleash walkers into the facility, causing Lori's death. Rick falls into a downward spiral and begins hallucinating, imagining a series of phone calls and seeing visions of Lori in the prison courtyard. He comes into conflict with The Governor (David Morrissey), the leader of a small town", "The Walking Dead: The Fall of the Governor lot of Woodbury soldiers are killed. After they retreat they are attacked by two prison group residents: Michonne and Tyreese. While Michonne manages to escape, Tyreese is captured and Michonne's katana is confiscated. The next morning the Governor goes to the prison gate and tells Rick to leave the prison. Otherwise he will kill Tyreese. The prison group do not respond and the Governor decapitates Tyreese using Michonne's katana. Back at camp the Governor tells the Woodbury soldiers that the prison people killed their own man so the Governor could not use him to take over the prison. Michonne returns", "This Sorrowful Life the meeting spot, Daryl arrives and clears out a few remaining walkers before coming across a reanimated Merle. Daryl cries at his loss, and as the walker approaches him, Daryl slams it to the ground and stabs Merle in the face several times before becoming visibly upset. The episode was directed by Greg Nicotero and written by Scott M. Gimple and shares its name with the sixth volume of the comics. This episode marks the last appearance of Michael Rooker (Merle), who was killed off in the episode, when he is shot in the chest by The Governor (David Morrissey)", "Beth Greene In the episode \"Isolation\", Beth continues to attempt to repress her sadness to Maggie when the deadly virus at the prison spreads, infecting Glenn (Steven Yeun) and endangering Hershel, who goes to the sick ward to help. During the Governor's (David Morrissey) attack on the prison in the episode \"Too Far Gone\", Beth and Maggie watch in horror as Hershel is decapitated during the battle, then the sisters are separated and Beth flees with Daryl. In the episodes \"Inmates\" and \"Still\", Beth and Daryl travel alone together, where the two come into conflict over the likelihood of other survivors. Beth", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) their camp. Among the camp are brothers Pete and Mitch Dolgen, who have a working tank. When it becomes clear that Martinez may not be able to keep them safe, the Governor kills him by throwing him into a pit of walkers. Pete takes command, but the Governor later kills him as well after he displays an inability to kill a group of other survivors to take their belongings. The Governor plans to rally the camp and use the tank in a second attack on the prison. In the mid-season finale \"Too Far Gone\", the Governor encounters Michonne and Hershel", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) in terror. The Governor stops the fast-fleeing convoy, and, in response to their protests against returning to the prison, he opens fire and slaughters them all, sparing only Martinez and Shumpert, his two primary henchmen. Only Karen escapes his rampage (by playing dead under a corpse). The Governor, Martinez, and Shumpert are last seen driving off as Rick and Tyreese bring everyone from Woodbury to the prison, and leave Woodbury to be overrun. \"Live Bait\" reveals that, just after massacring his own people, the Governor sets up camp with Martinez and Shumpert. Martinez and Shumpert abandon him after he does", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) Governor and Andrea begin a sexual relationship. He sends Merle to find and kill Michonne, and although Merle fails to kill her, he returns with two captives, Glenn Rhee and Maggie Greene. In the episode \"When the Dead Come Knocking\", the Governor interrogates Maggie and eventually sexually assaults her, and leaves Glenn to be brutalized by Merle. When he threatens to shoot Glenn, Maggie gives The Governor the information about the prison and their group. In the mid-season finale \"Made to Suffer\", during Rick Grimes' foray into Woodbury to rescue Glenn and Maggie, Michonne kills Penny. Enraged, the Governor attacks", "This Sorrowful Life This Sorrowful Life \"This Sorrowful Life\" is the fifteenth and penultimate episode of the third season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series \"The Walking Dead\", which first aired on AMC in the United States on March 24, 2013. In the episode, Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln), unaware of The Governor (David Morrissey)'s plan to ambush the prison and kill whomever delivers Michonne (Danai Gurira), ponders whether or not he should hand over Michonne to The Governor. Meanwhile, Merle Dixon (Michael Rooker) takes matters into his own hand(s) in an attempt to protect his brother. This episode featured the death of Merle,", "Hounded (The Walking Dead) rules and called to The Governor (David Morrissey). Andrea says that seeing the fight between Merle (Michael Rooker) and Martinez (Jose Pablo Cantillo) the night before had envigorated her. Andrea spends the night with The Governor and they have sex. Meanwhile, Merle and three others from Woodbury have been tasked by The Governor to locate Michonne (Danai Gurira), who had left the town. She ambushes them, killing two of Merle's men. Merle shoots Michonne in the leg, she then runs off. Merle is left with the inexperienced Gargulio (Dave Davis) to track her. Merle continues the pursuit, and eventually the", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) he sees as a threat to his authority; for him, torture and mass murder are a means to an end. One example of this is when he and his men massacre a group of National Guardsmen, take their supplies. Later, he is proven to be completely cruel, heartless, and aggressive, willingly decapitating Hershel Greene with not even a single shred of remorse or mercy, even when Rick offers to make peace between the two factions, and ordering his men to kill Rick and his survivor group after mercilessly killing a little girl when she was bitten by a walker and", "Internment (The Walking Dead) machine gun action, but ultimately served as a moment to demonstrate the importance of a balanced approach to both leadership and parenting.\" Internment (The Walking Dead) \"Internment\" is the fifth episode of the fourth season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series \"The Walking Dead\", which aired on AMC on November 10, 2013. The episode was written by Channing Powell and directed by David Boyd. Multiple threats pressure the prison inhabitants: the increase of walkers outside the prison gates, and the deteriorating conditions of the people infected by the deadly virus. It marks the return of The Governor (David Morrissey), who", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) feeding her severed body parts of those who displeased him. Following Woodbury's capture and the murder of stranded refugees from Atlanta, The Governor is met by Rick Grimes, when Grimes' band of survivors explores the town. After initially acting hospitable, The Governor turns on the group. Attempting to find the location of Rick's prison refuge in order to collect supplies for Woodbury, The Governor proceeds to cut off Rick's hand, torture Glenn, and rape and torture Michonne. To learn the location of the prison, the Governor allows the survivors to escape the premises with the help of one of his", "Michonne as their presence and scent fools other walkers into thinking those accompanying them are also walkers. Michonne later decapitates the walkers shortly before she and Andrea are discovered by Merle. In the episode \"Walk with Me\", Michonne and Andrea are taken by a group led by Merle Dixon (Michael Rooker) from a nearby town called Woodbury, run by the Governor (David Morrissey). Andrea, having been severely ill after spending eight months on the road, embraces the town's sense of community which Michonne resists, suspicious of The Governor and his leadership. In the episode \"Say the Word\", Michonne ultimately decides to", "Welcome to the Tombs an estimated 12.4 million viewers, an increase from the previous episode, to become the most-watched episode of the series, until it was surpassed again by season four premiere with 16.1 million viewers. Welcome to the Tombs \"Welcome to the Tombs\" is the sixteenth and final episode of the third season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series \"The Walking Dead\", which aired on AMC on March 31, 2013. In the episode, The Governor (David Morrissey) and Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) prepare for the upcoming assault on the prison. Tyreese (Chad L. Coleman) and Sasha (Sonequa Martin-Green) decide to not participate in", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) The Governor (The Walking Dead) The Governor (real name Philip Blake in the TV series, and Brian Blake in the comics and novels) is a fictional character and a primary antagonist from \"The Walking Dead\" comic book and television series. On television, he is portrayed by David Morrissey. Created by Robert Kirkman and artists Charlie Adlard and Cliff Rathburn, the character made his comics debut in \"The Walking Dead\" #27 on April 2006 and his television debut in season 3. In both series, The Governor is the ruthless, charismatic leader of the town of Woodbury, Georgia, who comes into conflict", "Glenn Rhee the wall, and meet up with Michonne. In the mid-season premiere \"The Suicide King,\" while Glenn remains behind, Rick and Maggie set off smoke grenades, killing several Woodbury residents and rescuing Merle and Daryl in the process. Glenn shows great frustration (at one point bludgeoning a walker pulled from a nearby vehicle) when he finds out that not only is Merle going with them, but Rick had not taken the opportunity to kill the Governor as well (still believing that he raped Maggie when they were held captive). They return to the prison without Merle and Daryl, but Glenn's relationship", "The Suicide King (The Walking Dead) Holden)'s protests to The Governor (David Morrissey). As they wrestle, Merle discreetly tells Daryl to follow his lead as walkers are herded into the arena. Suddenly, Rick (Andrew Lincoln) and Maggie (Lauren Cohan) appear, throw a smoke bomb into the arena and help Daryl and Merle to escape through a breach in Woodbury's fence. On rejoining Glenn (Steven Yeun) and Michonne (Danai Gurira) nearby, Merle's past interactions antagonize the group, particularly when he reveals that he had brought Michonne and Andrea there. Rick forbids Merle from returning with them to the prison, and Daryl refuses to leave his brother's side,", "Live Bait (The Walking Dead) Live Bait (The Walking Dead) \"Live Bait\" (previously titled \"Rise\") is the sixth episode of the fourth season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series \"The Walking Dead\", which aired on AMC on November 17, 2013. The episode was written by Nichole Beattie and directed by Michael Uppendahl. The episode centers on The Governor (David Morrissey), who has isolated himself from society after killing his entire army. He has become an aimless wanderer until he meets a small family of survivors. This episode marks the first appearance of Alanna Masterson (Tara Chambler). In a flashback, The Governor (David Morrissey) becomes indifferent", "Caesar Martinez (The Walking Dead) Governor to a meeting spot to speak with Rick. Martinez waits outside and meets with Daryl and Hershel. As the two of them kill a small group of walkers, he reveals to Daryl that his wife and children were killed by walkers when the apocalypse began. When the Governor and his people return to Woodbury, he tells Martinez to set an ambush so they can bring Michonne back alive and kill the rest of Rick's people when they show up to the next meeting. In the episode \"Prey\", Martinez confiscates Andrea's gun, because the Governor wants to keep her separate", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) back to Woodbury and strapping her in the dentist's chair that he meant to use on Michonne. In the episode \"This Sorrowful Life\", Merle kidnaps Michonne at Rick's suggestion to turn her over to the Governor, but lets her go and instead lures walkers to the Governor's meeting place to ambush the Woodbury army. Then, the Governor maims, shoots, and kills Merle, leaving his body to reanimate as a walker, which Daryl later kills, out of pure anger, remorse, and pain. In the season finale \"Welcome to the Tombs\", the Governor brutally beats Milton up after learning that he burned", "Michonne the car he has second thoughts and releases her; he instead ambushes the Governor's group alone and kills a number of them before the Governor finds him and kills him. In the season finale \"Welcome to the Tombs\", following another attack on the prison Rick, accompanied by Michonne and Daryl, sets out to locate the Governor. However, they come across the scene where the Governor slaughtered his own troops. One survivor (Karen) (Melissa Ponzio) leads the group back to Woodbury to locate Andrea, as they fear the worst for her safety after learning she had fled Woodbury for the prison,", "Internment (The Walking Dead) Internment (The Walking Dead) \"Internment\" is the fifth episode of the fourth season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series \"The Walking Dead\", which aired on AMC on November 10, 2013. The episode was written by Channing Powell and directed by David Boyd. Multiple threats pressure the prison inhabitants: the increase of walkers outside the prison gates, and the deteriorating conditions of the people infected by the deadly virus. It marks the return of The Governor (David Morrissey), who has been absent since the season three finale, \"Welcome to the Tombs\". Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) returns to the prison and informs", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) with protagonist Rick Grimes and is responsible for the deaths of several primary characters. The Governor's origins are explored in the novel \"\", written by Kirkman and Jay Bonansinga. In the television series, The Governor's disturbing motives are reflected in his authoritarian ways in dealing with threats to his community, primarily by executing most large groups and only accepting lone survivors into his community. His dark nature escalates when he comes into conflict with Rick Grimes and the latter's group, who are occupying the nearby prison. The Governor vows to eliminate the prison group, and in that pursuit, he leaves", "Too Far Gone (The Walking Dead) at the prison face imminent danger as The Governor (David Morrissey) and his forces suddenly close in. Hershel Greene and Michonne are held captive, as The Governor demands to take hold of the prison, despite the urges of the group to stay. This episode marks the conclusion to the prison story arc in the television series, as well as the conflict with The Governor, which had begun in the third season. It features the most character deaths and final appearances (detailed below). Commentators lauded the episode, while many particularly praised the climactic ending, deaths, the demolition of the prison and", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) dying. The Governor first appears in \"Walk with Me\", season 3, episode 3, having forcibly taken Andrea and Michonne from the woods after Merle discovers them near a downed military helicopter. Woodbury, under The Governor's rule, is a functioning community that even bears some resemblance to the world before the virus struck. The townspeople are unaware that the Governor and his men massacred a platoon of National Guardsmen to get their supplies. In the episode \"Killer Within\", The Governor befriends Andrea, and he reveals some of his past to her, including his real name. In the episode \"Say the Word\",", "The Walking Dead (season 4) survive in a post-apocalyptic world invaded by flesh-eating zombies, dubbed \"walkers\". Set several months after the attempted attack on the prison by The Governor (David Morrissey) and his army, Rick has renounced his leadership in order to live a quiet and more peaceful life in contrast to his cold-hearted nature in the previous season. Striving to hold onto humanity, Rick and his fellow survivors struggle to maintain their close to an ideal life at the prison as problems arise in the face of new evil, and threats within and outside the premises, including a deadly flu strain and the return", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) bullet hole in his head. In the mid-season premiere \"What Happened and What's Going On\", the Governor appears, along with Beth Greene, Bob Stookey, Martin, and Lizzie and Mika Samuels, during Tyreese's hallucinations after Tyreese is bitten by a walker. While Beth, Bob, and the girls comfort Tyreese, the Governor taunts him about his past actions and inability to do what is \"necessary\". The Governor, especially, criticizes Tyreese's choices, particularly in forgiving Carol for murdering Karen. The Governor reminds Tyreese that he promised to do what it took to earn his keep, but he failed to adapt. However, Tyreese stands", "The Walking Dead: The Fall of the Governor and attacks again. While failing to kill the Governor she steals her sword back. The Woodbury soldiers attack again, but are repelled by grenades. Gabe is killed by a prison resident who attacks them from outside. The Governor uses his tank to destroy the prison fences and the Woodbury soldiers invade the prison, searching for survivors to kill. They see three people trying to flee and kill two of them, while the third one surrenders. Then another group of survivors, led by Rick tries to escape and Alice is with them. Alice is shot in the leg and the Governor", "Merle Dixon talk about personal matters, he lets her go and returns her katana, telling her he has something to do alone. He starts drinking whiskey before using loud music to lure a group of walkers to the exchange site where the Governor is waiting to ambush whoever will show up. The music also distracts the Governor's henchmen while Merle secretly takes cover, intent on killing the Governor both for revenge and to prevent him from killing anyone else at the prison, mainly Daryl. After shooting several of the henchmen, Merle is caught and beaten by Martinez and two other men and", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) the walkers that the Governor had been corralling; he then orders him to kill Andrea. Milton tries in vain to kill the Governor, but the Governor stabs him and locks him in with Andrea, so that Milton will reanimate and kill Andrea. The Governor then leads his army into the prison to kill Rick's entire group, but Tyreese and Sasha wants nothing to do with it, and stay behind at Woodbury. Rick and the others have set a trap at the prison, expecting the Woodbury army's arrival. Ambushed and outgunned by Maggie and Glenn, the Governor's army flees the prison", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) the first and second season The Governor encounters a dying Merle Dixon, whom The Governor enlisted, along with Caesar Martinez and Milton Mamet, as his lieutenant and advisers. He also tasks Milton, a scientist, with researching a means to reverse the virus in the hopes of saving Penny. The Governor was also known to have had affairs with many of the Woodbury women. The Governor is charming and charismatic, but also murderous, violent, sociopathic, power-hungry, completely sadistic, and horrifically ruthless. He sees himself as the community's only hope for survival, and is thus willing to imprison, abuse and/or kill anyone", "Caesar Martinez (The Walking Dead) was going to bring the good people in Woodbury back which doesn't include The Governor, aware of the monster he is, but Rick doesn't believe him and he strangles him to death and leaves him to reanimate. Caesar's reanimated body is discovered by a Woodbury scouting party, and his head is brought back to Woodbury, to manipulate people to turn them against the people of the prison. Martinez is a sharpshooter, and one of The Governor's enforcers in Woodbury. In the episode \"Walk with Me\", he is at the scene of the helicopter crash, wielding a baseball bat. He is", "After (The Walking Dead) on the episode's pace. Following The Governor's (David Morrissey) deadly assault on the prison, the survivors are forced to scatter and try to regroup. Michonne (Danai Gurira) reconnoiters the prison for survivors. She discovers the reanimated head of her friend, Hershel (Scott Wilson), and stabs it to put him out of his torment. She discovers a trail of footprints leading away from the prison. To protect herself, she slices off the arms and jaws of two walkers, leading them pet-like to help mask her presence from other walkers, however this appears to draw more walkers towards her. While taking shelter", "Glenn Rhee \"When the Dead Come Knocking,\" Merle brutally beats Glenn while trying to find the whereabouts of their camp. Despite this, as well as being forced to fight a walker while strapped to a chair and having the Governor threaten to shoot Maggie, Glenn remains unbroken. But when the Governor threatens to shoot Glenn, Maggie tells her about the prison and their group. In the mid-season finale \"Made to Suffer,\" when Glenn and Maggie attempt to escape, the Governor orders Merle to execute them; they fight back and Merle's group is overwhelmed by Rick's group. Rick, Glenn, and Maggie escape over", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) escape. The Governor withdraws to his apartment, and the town is in a state of unrest after the attack. Andrea confronts him about her friends' presence in town, and then goes out to calm and inspire the townspeople. In the episode \"Home\", The Governor asks Milton Mamet where his loyalties lie, and asks him to keep tabs on Andrea. The Governor and his men then attack the prison; Rick Grimes' group runs for cover, and gunfire erupts on both sides. When a herd of walkers charge through town, the Governor gleefully sprays machine gun fire in the air and then", "Caesar Martinez (The Walking Dead) from Martinez's operations. Allen and Tyreese later accompany Martinez to the Biter Pits. In the episode \"This Sorrowful Life\", Merle makes a surprise attack on the Woodbury army, but Martinez and the Governor attack him when he is distracted, beating Merle so that the Governor can kill him. In the third-season finale, \"Welcome to the Tombs\", Martinez accompanies the Governor when he leads his army against the prison. After the assault fails, Martinez is shocked when The Governor massacres his army for refusing to resume the attack. Because Martinez and Shumpert allied themselves with him, The Governor spares them, and", "When the Dead Come Knocking he is still tied to a chair. Glenn manages to fend off and kill the walker while breaking free of his restraints. Separately The Governor (David Morrissey) interrogates Maggie (Lauren Cohan) and when she refuses to talk, he makes her take off her shirt and bra, threatening to rape her. Maggie remains silent and refuses to cooperate, even as The Governor threatens to harm Glenn, forcing him to leave her alone. The Governor then brings the two of them together, and threatens to kill Glenn in front of Maggie. Maggie finally relents, revealing that they come from a small group", "Hershel Greene where Carol is. Hershel, however, reassured him that she is fine, but directs him to Rick, as Hershel is aware of Carol's exile over the death of Karen, an infected survivor. He then rides with Michonne to burn and bury the corpses from the previous day. In \"Dead Weight\", Hershel and Michonne are discovered by The Governor, who has returned with people from Caesar Martinez's camp, to successfully take over the prison after the massacre from the previous season, which caused him to be fail and start over. In the mid-season finale \"Too Far Gone\", The Governor ambushes Hershel and", "Merle Dixon the location of the group, including beating Glenn and leaving him locked in a room with a walker and tied to a chair. In the episode \"Made to Suffer\", Rick's group infiltrates Woodbury and rescues Glenn and Maggie, Michonne attacks the Governor; furious at losing an eye and his reanimated daughter to a woman Merle reported as dead, he publicly accuses Merle of treason and reveals that he has captured Daryl. In the episode \"The Suicide King\", the Governor orders Merle and Daryl to fight to the death, but they are saved by Rick and Maggie, who attack Woodbury. When", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) guards, Caesar Martinez. However, Michonne stays behind and finds her way to The Governor's apartment, where she brutally tortures him, severing his right arm, fingernails, penis, and left eye. When Michonne rejoins the group and they ask her if The Governor is still alive, Michonne is uncertain. The Governor survives with the help of Bob Stookey, a citizen who had medical experience, and is eventually able to find the prison. The Governor uses Rick's murder of Martinez to rally Woodbury's townspeople against the prison's inhabitants. Things do not go according to plan, however, as Rick's group puts up a tenacious", "Michonne the prison, the Governor takes a well-armed caravan with a tank and demands that Rick order his group to leave the prison, using Hershel and Michonne as leverage. Rick tries to reason with the Governor with the offer of living together peacefully but The Governor declares him a liar and decapitates Hershel with Michonne's katana. Rick's group opens fire, and Michonne rolls away and unties herself. The Governor orders his group to kill everyone at the prison, and they attack, breaking down the fences with their vehicles. When the Governor is punching Rick in the face, Michonne impales him through", "Too Far Gone (The Walking Dead) Gone was a breath-taking mid-season finale, the violent culmination of a season and half's worth of bubbling tension between Rick (Andrew Lincoln) and the Governor (David Morrissey). Like the previous episodes, some moments were far too pronounced (the chess piece on the ground), but in providing us with a heart-breaking farewell to Hershel (Scott Wilson), and a cathartic ending for the Governor, it succeeded on many levels.\" He also commented on the effectiveness of Hershel's death, saying: \"Poor Hershel served as the Ned Stark of the episode (for those who have seen \"Game of Thrones\"), the level-headed voice of reason", "Andrea (The Walking Dead) them safe. He realizes what that means -- that our group is now becoming isolated and will be picked off, that his own son is on the road to becoming the Governor (David Morrissey), so he has to open up the gates and let other people in and be compassionate. At the end of the finale, he brings in these women, children and elderly people and the group is going to transform. There needed to be a blood sacrifice for that, and there had to be a price that was paid. Andrea paying that price was important. She is unable", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) defense that forces Woodbury's humiliating retreat. After a failed attempt to gain his way into the prison, by using Tyreese as a hostage and subsequently decapitating him with Michonne's katana, The Governor crushes the fences with a tank. A bloody massacre ensues, leading to a high death toll and ultimately making the prison less secure and less habitable. Tensions steadily rise within The Governor's group, as their remaining ammunition is limited, and a handful of Woodbury residents' moral consciences come into play, especially regarding the killing of defenseless or young members of the prison group. Both factors lead to the", "This Sorrowful Life the meeting point, Merle uses the car's alarm and radio to slowly parade a line of walkers behind the car. He rigs the car to roll forward to the meeting site while he sneaks out. The Governor's men, including Martinez (Jose Pablo Cantillo), have been waiting to ambush Rick's arrival, and are distracted by the empty car and the walkers. Merle sneaks behind them and kills several, but soon is assaulted by the Governor. The Governor bites off two of his fingers, but Merle refuses to beg for mercy. The Governor shoots and kills him. At the prison, Glenn receives", "Carol Peletier she is no longer afraid of anything. To prove the latter, she sternly admonishes Merle to \"pick a side,\" regarding his previous loyalty to The Governor. In the season finale \"Welcome to the Tombs\", following Merle's death at the hands of The Governor, Carol praises him for his sacrifice, that he gave them a chance though Daryl remarked that Merle had never performed an altruistic deed in his life. Carol then helps defend the gate against walkers as Rick, Daryl, and Michonne drive out to carry the fight to Woodbury. She is seen beginning to cry upon realizing that Andrea", "Governor James Devlin discover Johnson's involvement. When Devlin and Loftus are informed of what's happening, the governor has the detective replaced to draw suspicion away from himself. Glynn ultimately learns the truth, causing Devlin and Loftus to order Johnson to arrange for Glynn's death. Johnson pays an inmate to kill Glynn, whose death angers Oz's staff. After McManus ties the governor's office to the murders, Devlin orders Querns to fire him. When Oz is evacuated during an anthrax attack, Devlin realizes that McManus is on the verge of ending his political career. During the final episode, several clues indicate that Devlin remains in", "Caesar Martinez (The Walking Dead) When the Governor brands Merle a traitor, Martinez puts a gun to Merle's back. In the episode \"The Suicide King\", Rick's group helps Merle and Daryl escape, and Martinez helps to keep the people in line after the attack. In the episode \"Home\", Martinez assists The Governor in his attack against the prison, firing at Rick to keep him pinned down. In the episode \"I Ain't a Judas\", Martinez becomes The Governor's most trusted enforcer and the Governor puts him in charge of recruiting the townspeople to form an army. In the episode \"Arrow on the Doorpost\", Martinez accompanies the", "Caesar Martinez (The Walking Dead) Caesar Martinez (The Walking Dead) Caesar Ramón Martínez is a recurring fictional character from the comic book series \"The Walking Dead\" and is portrayed by Jose Pablo Cantillo in the third and fourth seasons of the television show of the same name. Martínez is introduced in the 27th issue of the comic book series in April 2006 as the loyal second-in-command to The Governor. He is responsible for bringing Rick Grimes and two of his fellow survivors, Michonne and Glenn into Woodbury to be questioned and later tortured. In the television series, he is introduced in the third season's third", "Milton Mamet and his eye). In the episode \"Prey\", Milton commands Andrea to escape to the Prison to warn her old team about the Governor's plans and for the first time, takes a direct stand against the Governor by burning the captured walkers the Governor planned to use against the Prison group. Andrea made the escape to the Prison but was chased and captured by the Governor himself. The Governor realizes Milton revealed his plans to Andrea; this creates a final rift between Milton and the Governor. At the beginning of the Third Season finale, \"Welcome to the Tombs\", the Governor viciously", "Too Far Gone (The Walking Dead) Just keep walking.\" This episode marked the last regular appearances of Scott Wilson (Hershel) and David Morrissey (The Governor), whose characters were killed off during the prison assault in the episode. On the decision to kill Hershel, Robert Kirkman explained: He was the moral compass of the group and it’s always good to lose the moral compass. It will all become clear when we finally show you the back half of season 4. It wasn’t enough for these characters to lose the prison. They also had to feel some kind of loss over something important and Hershel was that thing", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) Michonne, and in self-defense she stabs him in the hand and the right eye with a glass shard. The Governor calls a town meeting, where he claims the town has been attacked by terrorists brought by Merle, and he brings forth Merle's brother Daryl Dixon in chains. The Governor orders them to fight to the death, and the town calls for their blood as a way to force the two brothers to fight each other. In the mid-season premiere \"The Suicide King\", the fight between Merle and Daryl is broken up when the prison group attacks, allowing the brothers to", "The Walking Dead: The Fall of the Governor katana, which upsets the audience. The Governor discovers that Rick, Glenn and Michonne live in a prison and he wants to find out where the prison is. He enlists Martinez to gain Rick's trust and help them escape, so he can find the prison. Martinez succeeds to convince Rick that they are on the same side. He helps him escape and frees Glenn and Michonne. When they flee Dr. Stevens and his assistant Alice join them. Outside Woodbury Stevens is bitten and killed by a zombie. Meanwhile, Michonne goes back to The Governor's apartment for revenge. She knocks him out", "Tara Chambler a member of Rick Grimes's group after he forgives her for being part of The Governor's militia. She remains an active part of the group when they reach the Alexandria Safe-Zone where she sparks up romance with Dr. Denise Cloyd, and becomes one of Alexandria's primary supply runners. Tara Chalmers lives in Atlanta with her sister April and her father David in an apartment building that they have secured. April saves a group of people, including the man later known as the Governor, from a large herd of undead. The elderly David later dies and turns into a walker without", "Merle Dixon to find his brother, Daryl, since his own separation from the group. While investigating an incident involving a crashed helicopter, Merle and a group of survivors from Woodbury encounter Michonne and fellow Atlanta survivor Andrea, and bring them back to Woodbury, along with the sole survivor of the helicopter crash. In the episode \"Killer Within\", Andrea gives Merle directions to the last location where she had seen Daryl. Merle is noticeably kept in line by the Governor, a sharp contrast to his nature in the Atlanta group. In the episode \"Hounded\", Merle allows Michonne to leave Woodbury at the Governor's", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time. David Morrissey has been well received for his performance as the Governor, and was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at the 39th Saturn Awards. The Governor (The Walking Dead) The Governor (real name Philip Blake in the TV series, and Brian Blake in the comics and novels) is a fictional character and a primary antagonist from \"The Walking Dead\" comic book and television series. On television, he is portrayed by David Morrissey. Created by Robert Kirkman and artists Charlie Adlard and Cliff Rathburn, the character made his comics debut in \"The", "Hershel Greene Life\", Rick confides to Hershel that the Governor claims he will let the rest of the prison group live if they surrender Michonne, but Hershel refuses to be a part of it. Glenn asks for Hershel's permission to marry Maggie, and Hershel gives his blessing. In the season finale \"Welcome to the Tombs\", Hershel is with Carl when Carl coldly guns down a Woodbury boy who was handing over his weapon. After the attack by Woodbury is over, Hershel is disgusted and tells Rick about the incident. Approximately six months after the end of the previous season, Hershel appears in", "Tara Chambler Alisha, at Martinez's camp. In the mid-season finale \"Too Far Gone\", Tara joins the Governor in attacking the prison, using Hershel and Michonne as leverage, and believing the prison occupants to be bad people, as Brian tells them. However, when Rick Grimes tries to reason with the Governor for the sake of his people. Tara begins to question Brian's plan, especially when Brian holds a sword to Hershel's neck, despite Rick offering to welcome them in. Rick, seeing that Tara doesn't want to be there, tries to personally reason with Tara but she is too conflicted to answer. When the", "Prey (The Walking Dead) Prey (The Walking Dead) \"Prey\" is the fourteenth episode of the third season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series \"The Walking Dead\", which originally aired on AMC in the United States on March 17, 2013. In this episode, The Governor (David Morrissey) hunts down Andrea (Laurie Holden) when she flees Woodbury, and tensions arise within Tyreese (Chad L. Coleman)'s group. Meanwhile, a traitor attempts to sabotage the upcoming meeting between Rick (Andrew Lincoln) and The Governor. The episode was met with generally positive reviews, and was watched by 10.84 million viewers upon its original airing. The episode cold opens with", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) to Woodbury and warily resumes her place at the Governor's side. In the episode \"Arrow on the Doorpost\", encouraged by Andrea, the Governor meets with Rick in a secluded grain silo to offer him peace in exchange for turning over Michonne, giving him two days to think about it. The Governor returns to Woodbury and secretly orders Martinez to set an ambush at the barn, to kill all of Rick's group and bring Michonne to Woodbury so The Governor can torture her. In the episode \"Prey\", Andrea flees for the prison, and the Governor hunts her down personally, bringing her", "Carl Grimes Rick and the others, carrying the child but without Lori, Rick becomes shellshocked, and spends numerous days mourning over Lori's loss and unable to provide leadership. Carl helps to see to his sister, whom he named Judith, while Daryl, Hershell, and Glenn take up leadership roles. The prison community becomes the target of the nearby Woodbury community, led by the vengeful Governor, who seeks revenge on Michonne, whom the prison group has taken in cautiously. Glenn and Maggie are captured, and Rick leads a group to recover them, leaving Carl in charge. While Rick is gone, Carl encounters a group", "Daryl Dixon the Governor, and cries as he is forced to put his brother down. Rick's group fends off a major attack by the Governor, driving him away, and bring the survivors of Woodbury to the prison. Rick has recovered from Lori's death, and he, Daryl, and Hershel lead the growing population. A flu-like epidemic strikes the prison, killing many before a cure is found. Carol takes initiative to kill two who have shown signs of the flu in secret, and when Rick discovers this, evicts her from the group, upsetting Daryl. The Governor, having obtained more men, launch a fatal assault", "Sasha Williams (The Walking Dead) and his group of survivors in the prison but are quickly thrown out by an emotionally unstable Rick. Sasha and Tyreese then encounter The Governor (David Morrissey) and Woodbury, but after learning of the monster The Governor truly is, Sasha returns to the prison with the other newcomers, becoming a council member to the community. Sasha forms a romantic attraction with fellow survivor Bob Stookey (Lawrence Gilliard, Jr.) and is one of the victims of the illness that affects the prison. Of those so infected, only she and Glenn (Steven Yeun) survive. Following the destruction of the prison in The", "Rick Grimes any possibility that the possible virus continues to exist. At the same time, he returns Carl's weapon and takes out his Colt Python for protection. In the episode \"Isolation\", Carol admits that she killed two infected people to spare others from getting infected; Rick exiles her, Rick then burns his shirt in the fire in the following episode, \"Indifference\". In the episode \"Internment\", he resolves problems with walkers carving through the fences as the illness dies out with Hershel's medical assistance. In the mid-season finale, \"Too Far Gone\", The Governor returns with a militia to take over the prison and", "Welcome to the Tombs Welcome to the Tombs \"Welcome to the Tombs\" is the sixteenth and final episode of the third season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series \"The Walking Dead\", which aired on AMC on March 31, 2013. In the episode, The Governor (David Morrissey) and Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) prepare for the upcoming assault on the prison. Tyreese (Chad L. Coleman) and Sasha (Sonequa Martin-Green) decide to not participate in the assault and stay on guard duty before preparing to leave, as the citizens of Woodbury become increasingly alarmed at The Governor's erratic behaviour. Meanwhile, Andrea (Laurie Holden) struggles to escape The", "Andrea (The Walking Dead) that Dale has been bitten on the calf by a zombie. She hurries him to the infirmary, where Rick Grimes, the groups' leader, cuts off his leg to save his life. Dale becomes jealous when Andrea begins spending increased amounts of time with group member Tyreese, until she reveals that Tyreese was helping her make a wooden leg and crutches for Dale. In \"Made to Suffer\", the eighth volume and conclusion to the first compendium, the Governor launches an attack on the prison. Andrea serves as a sniper and kills many of their attackers, though she is grazed by a", "Caesar Martinez (The Walking Dead) later one of the Governor's men who ambushes and kills a military detachment for their supplies. In the episode \"Say the Word\", he is seen wearing a baseball jersey bearing the number 23. Merle referred to him both as \"Brownie\" (which is derogatory) and as \"Bro\" in the same conversation. Martinez and Merle act as sparring partners in Woodbury's gladiator-style tournaments. In the episode \"When the Dead Come Knocking\", he helps the Governor interrogate Glenn and Maggie. In the episode \"Made to Suffer\", Rick and his group come to Woodbury to rescue Glenn and Maggie, and Martinez helps fight them.", "Merle Dixon orders, but in the next episode, \"Say the Word\", the Governor sends Merle to lead a posse to hunt down Michonne. He wounds her and she kills members of the posse, but when Michonne escapes into the red zone, Merle calls off the hunt, reporting to the Governor that he killed her. Later on, Merle runs into Glenn and Maggie from the Atlanta group. He asks them to take him to Daryl. They refuse, so he holds Maggie hostage and demands Glenn drive them to Woodbury. In the episode \"When the Dead Come Knocking\", Merle unsuccessfully tortures Glenn to obtain", "Bill Compton (The Southern Vampire Mysteries) the sun. Using this power, he is able to kill Governor Truman Burrell and his guards in an effort to save Jessica. By the end of the series in Season 7, Bill has been infected with the Hep V virus. Instead of taking a cure, he is resigned to die, and eventually convinces Sookie to stake him as he lies in his Civil War grave, giving him the \"true death\". Bill Compton (The Southern Vampire Mysteries) William Erasmus \"Bill\" Compton is a fictional character from \"The Southern Vampire Mysteries/Sookie Stackhouse\" series by author Charlaine Harris. He is a vampire and", "Rick Grimes meet a man called The Governor, who leads Woodbury by extreme manipulation, cunningness, and ruthlessness. Fooled by The Governor's pseudo-hospitality, like most Woodbury inhabitants, Rick ultimately has his right hand severed in an attempt to get him to reveal the location of the prison. When the Governor sees Rick will never give up his family, he decides to torture both Glenn and Michonne instead, but yet again fails to find the location of the prison. Rick escapes the town with his group and new Woodbury ally, Alice Warren, after Michonne exacts her revenge on The Governor, as she tortures and", "Too Far Gone (The Walking Dead) extent didn’t even see why he was doing it because she didn’t know that burning vengeance that was in the Governor or that desire to control and to have the prison. I think the Governor ultimately hated that there was this group out there that was existing without him and was possibly doing better than him, and it was eating away at him. So I definitely think in that moment when she shot him, she despised him quite a bit. I do think there was a lot of hatred behind that bullet. Upon its original airing, \"Too Far Gone\" garnered", "Andrea (The Walking Dead) that they can find it themselves, planning on launching an attack in revenge. She makes it to the prison, but refuses to help Rick's group sneak back into Woodbury, and Carol instead suggests she assassinate the Governor. When she returns to Woodbury, she has the opportunity to kill a sleeping Governor but she is unable to strike the blow. Instead, Andrea arranges for the two sides to negotiate at a neutral location, but both Rick and the Governor refuse to allow her to join in their discussion. She discovers the Governor's plans to launch an attack at the prison, and", "Rick Grimes decapitates his hostage, Hershel, calling Rick a liar for proposing they can live together in the community. The Governor's men drive a tank through the fences, destroying Rick's home and causing a battle between the two sides. The Governor tries to strangle a badly wounded Rick to death, but Michonne stabs him through the chest. Rick discovers Judith's empty cradle and believes that she has been killed by walkers; heartbroken, he escapes with Carl. After reuniting with Michonne in the episode \"Claimed\", Rick escapes from a dangerous group called the Claimers, before travelling towards Terminus, a supposed sanctuary, in \"Us\"", "After (The Walking Dead) if survival alone is enough. However, after his vicious fight with The Governor (David Morrissey), Rick also deals with old wounds as he is in desperate need to rest and heal. Concurrently, Michonne (Danai Gurira) finds herself once again alone and haunted by memories of the past as she tries to come to grips with how she wants to spend her life. The episode was watched by 15.76 million viewers, a significant rise in ratings from the previous episode two months prior. However, commentators had varied reactions to it, with many noting positively to the character development, but commenting negatively", "Home (The Walking Dead) Home (The Walking Dead) \"Home\" is the tenth episode of the third season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series \"The Walking Dead\". It was written by Nichole Beattie and directed by Seith Mann, and aired on AMC in the United States on February 17, 2013. In the episode, Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) begins to see visions of his deceased wife and asks Hershel (Scott Wilson) for help. Meanwhile, The Governor (David Morrissey) plans an assault on the prison while Daryl (Norman Reedus) and Merle Dixon (Michael Rooker) fend for themselves out in the forest. This episode marks the final appearance", "Home (The Walking Dead) Home (The Walking Dead) \"Home\" is the tenth episode of the third season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series \"The Walking Dead\". It was written by Nichole Beattie and directed by Seith Mann, and aired on AMC in the United States on February 17, 2013. In the episode, Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) begins to see visions of his deceased wife and asks Hershel (Scott Wilson) for help. Meanwhile, The Governor (David Morrissey) plans an assault on the prison while Daryl (Norman Reedus) and Merle Dixon (Michael Rooker) fend for themselves out in the forest. This episode marks the final appearance", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) several key characters dead both in Rick's group and his own. The Governor has a romantic relationship with Andrea, who unsuccessfully seeks to broker a truce between the two groups. In season 4, The Governor attempts to redeem himself upon meeting a new family, to whom he introduces himself as Brian Heriot. However, he commits several brutal acts to ensure the family's survival. This leads to more characters' deaths and forces Rick and his group to abandon the prison. In 2009, the Governor was ranked as IGN's 86th Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time and was ranked #28 on", "Hershel Greene virtues of peace and that nobody is \"too far gone\", and that \"we can all come back,\" leading Hershel to smile vaguely. The Governor begins to put down the sword, but then stops, muttering \"liar\". The Governor then swings the sword into Hershel's neck, partially decapitating him. This leads to the beginning of a massive gunfight, as Maggie and Beth watch their father's murder in horror from the prison gates, as they participate and then help the others escape as well as themselves. As Hershel bleeds out and desperately attempts to crawl away in the ensuing gunfight, The Governor catches", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) up and confronts him. However The Governor \"pushes\" Tyreese to the ground while still pressing his point. Tyreese ultimately dies in peace, and the vision of the Governor fades away. On television, the character is portrayed by British actor David Morrissey. Glen Mazzara, when asked about the character's direction for season 3 of the show, described The Governor as a narcissist, who sees himself as the future savior of civilization and is willing to resort to the most extreme of measures to achieve his ultimate goal. Despite making few appearances, The Governor's daughter, Penny, plays a key role in his", "Caesar Martinez (The Walking Dead) Caesar Martinez is a former gym teacher from Augusta, Georgia. Martinez's backstory is told in \"The Walking Dead\" novels, \"\", and \"\". In the comics, it was Martinez who conducted Rick, Glenn, and Michonne's entry to Woodbury. He later helped Rick's party escape and fight their way back to the prison. After assisting Rick's party in escaping, Martinez betrays them by sneaking out of the prison to go tell The Governor its location so that he may capture and kill everyone inside. During his run back to Woodbury, Rick runs him down in the RV. However Martinez claims that he", "Sasha Williams (The Walking Dead) the disease. In the episode \"Internment\", she is one of the people infected but still assists Hershel and Glenn in treating the other sick patients. In the mid-season finale episode \"Too Far Gone\" she along with Maggie and Bob are separated from the main group after an attack by The Governor and his followers on the prison. In the mid-season premiere \"Inmates\", Sasha, Maggie and Bob find the prison bus, hoping to find Glenn inside; instead it is filled with undead prison residents which they kill. In the episode \"Alone\", Sasha disagrees with Bob and Maggie about going to Terminus.", "Maggie Greene Glenn must be quarantined. Maggie and Rick try to talk Hershel out of going to treat the sick, but he insists that he needs to help them. In the episode \"Internment\", she tends to the fence along with Rick to keep the walkers from tearing it down, until Rick tells her to help Hershel when they hear gunshots. She finds Glenn unconscious and helps Hershel revive him, and soon Bob (Lawrence Gilliard, Jr.) arrives with antibiotics and administers them to Glenn. In the mid-season finale \"Too Far Gone\", Maggie witnesses the Governor kill her father, and fights back when The", "Caesar Martinez (The Walking Dead) to Martinez's confusion. Martinez is revealed to be the leader of a small community, which considers him their \"mayor\". Mitch initially tells Martinez to abandon The Governor and the Chamblers but Martinez allows him to stay for his new family's sake but makes it clear that Martinez is in charge. Martinez then takes the Governor on a supply run with Mitch and Pete, and they find a decapitated corpse that leads them to a cabin deep within the woods, where they find another headless corpse and at the front door of the cabin they find another corpse, this one dead", "The Walking Dead: The Fall of the Governor group. Rick's people kill all of them, except for Bruce, who is barely alive. When the Governor arrives he shoots Bruce in the head to prevent reanimation and tells his people to follow the tracks to find the prison. They find the prison, but the Governor orders them not to attack yet. They have to wait until the guard of the prison group is down. After a few weeks the Governor and a group of Woodbury soldiers march towards the prison. Among the vehicles is a tank. They attack first, but the prison group fends off the attack and a", "Bob Stookey this point was nearly always too drunk to understand. Bob manages to have a one-night stand with Megan, but the next morning she kills herself and Bob has to kill her zombified form, this causes Bob to drink even more as he grows depressed. In \"The Fall of the Governor\", Bob's role is that of his in the comics - after the Governor has been tortured near to death by Michonne. He is found by Gabe and Bruce Cooper who tell him to save The Governor's life, which Bob somehow manages to do. Bob successfully saves The Governor's life, much", "Tara Chambler from the prison but says nothing on the subject. In the episode \"No Sanctuary\", Tara crafts a makeshift weapon to use in the escape attempt, but it fails and she is left inside. She encourages the group and is confident that they will be able to survive their break-out. When Rick opens the boxcar for everyone to escape, Tara helps kill walkers on their way out and aids in protecting the group. In the episode \"Strangers\", Tara speaks to Rick about her involvement with the Governor; he tells her that he was aware of her hesitation to be there and", "The Walking Dead (TV series) to make their new home. Lori dies in childbirth, and Rick becomes withdrawn. Meanwhile, Andrea is rescued by Michonne and the two discover Woodbury, a fortified town led by a man known as the Governor. He learns of Rick's group at the prison, leading to conflict between them. Rick's group eventually raids and destroys Woodbury, but the Governor has Andrea ultimately killed and escapes. Woodbury's citizens live with Rick's group at the prison. Several months after the Governor's attack, a deadly flu kills many of the people at the prison. The Governor finds his former right-hand men and kills them,", "Tyreese it seemed to him like \"black guys in \"The Walking Dead\" do not have an easy time staying alive\". Eric Goldman at IGN enjoyed the return of Tyreese in the episode \"I Ain't a Judas\". Zack Handlen felt that it was hard to blame Tyreese and his group for declaring their allegiance to the Governor over Rick, who seemed insane. Eric Goldman enjoyed the fact that Tyreese was fleshed out more in the episode \"Prey\". Zack Handlen felt that most of the storyline for Tyreese in this episode was \"on the clunky side, forcing conflicts that will most likely pay", "Michonne at the prison with Maggie and Glenn's basket of infant supplies. In the episode \"When the Dead Come Knocking\", Michonne is brought into the prison, albeit cautiously, by Carl (Chandler Riggs) and Rick (Andrew Lincoln), who directs Hershel (Scott Wilson) to tend to her wounds. Michonne informs them of Glenn and Maggie's abduction by Merle, of the Governor, and of Woodbury. In the mid-season finale \"Made to Suffer\", she accompanies Rick, Daryl (Norman Reedus), unaware he is Merle's brother, and Oscar (Vincent M. Ward) to rescue Glenn and Maggie from Woodbury. In the process, Daryl is kidnapped. After Glenn and", "Arrow on the Doorpost with The Governor (David Morrissey) in a barn, who shows himself to be unarmed but secretly has a pistol taped underneath their table. Both men have brought their respective support, as outside Daryl (Norman Reedus) and Hershel (Scott Wilson) meet with Martinez (Jose Pablo Cantillo) and Milton (Dallas Roberts). The initially hostile groups begin to socialize with each other, as Daryl and Martinez kill walkers together and Milton examines Hershel's leg. Having apparently brokered the summit, Andrea (Laurie Holden) enters the barn to join the discussion. Rick reveals his plan of a clear territorial division with a river as a", "Merle Dixon shift a bit to justify whatever the story needs him to do. But that's probably intentional; for all the Governor's calm planning, Merle is a hothead, an asshole who thinks he's a leader, and so he's going to keep making impulse decisions until one of those decisions gets him killed.\" Erik Kain, for \"Forbes\" magazine, described the Governor's betrayal of Merle in the mid-season finale \"Made to Suffer\" as a surprise he didn't see coming, while Zack Handlen's review of the episode called the betrayal \"almost too perfectly designed [...] It's not completely unbelievable; it's just not as believable, or", "Tyreese Tyreese was devastated upon witnessing Carol kill herself in front of the group; however, his grief quickly turned to anger because of how he saw suicide as a pathetic act. Nevertheless, her death drove him deeper into the arms of Michonne. During the attack on the prison, he and Michonne attempted guerilla warfare, only to be ambushed in their attempt and Tyreese captured and taken as a hostage. The Governor planned to use him as leverage so as to gain access into the prison; however, when this fails, Tyreese is slowly and brutally decapitated in front of the group. In", "Carl Grimes in getting the photo safely. As they return to the prison with weapons and supplies, Carl tells Rick that he believes Michonne is one of them, having gained trust in her. When the Governor attacks the prison, Carl helps in its defense, including killing a terrified teenager compelled to fight when he was advancing on the unarmed Hershel and Judith. Carl later tells Rick he didn't want what happened to Dale, caused by his inaction, happen to anyone else. The Governor is chased away, and the Woodbury group is integrated into the prison, as Rick finally has come to terms", "Maggie Greene threatened her with rape in his attempt to get her to divulge the location of their camp, which she eventually does when The Governor threatens to shoot Glenn. In the mid-season finale \"Made to Suffer\", Rick's group makes it into Woodbury and rescues the couple, with Daryl being captured. As they escape over the wall, Oscar is shot, and Maggie shoots him in the head to prevent reanimation. In the mid-season premiere, \"The Suicide King\", Maggie goes back into Woodbury with Rick and rescues Daryl and Merle. In the episode \"Home\", back at the prison, Maggie initially pushes Glenn away,", "Infected (The Walking Dead) Back in Cell Block \"D\", a zombified Patrick (Vincent Martella) enters a cell and kills the man sleeping inside. After Patrick feeds on him, the man reanimates. Michonne (Danai Gurira) goes to hunt for The Governor, while Rick (Andrew Lincoln) and Carl (Chandler Riggs) head out to tend to the pigs. Carl asks if he can help clear the walkers at the fence, but Rick shuts the idea down. Carl apologizes but asks for his gun back. They hear gunshots and see Lizzie and Mika Samuels (Brighton Sharbino and Kyla Kenedy) run out of Cell Block \"D\", screaming for help.", "The Governor (The Walking Dead) the planned community called the Wiltshire Estates, where Rick's group coincidentally stayed, was one of these. Eventually, Brian's group came upon Woodbury, Georgia, a ravaged town being led by a group of National Guardsmen under Major Gene Gavin, who used fear to assert his authority. After becoming the last of his group, Brian rallied the townspeople against Gavin and the Guardsmen and afterward declared himself \"Governor\" of the four blocks making up the settlement. Initially appearing to be a fair and strong leader, he became increasingly more ruthless and power-hungry. He kept the zombified Penny tied up in his apartment,", "Daryl Dixon a prison as a new shelter at the start of Season 3. In dealing with this, Rick's wife Lori dies after giving birth to her daughter, and Rick is devastated, having hallucinations of her and unable to make decisions. Daryl steps up to help lead the group alongside Hershel during Rick's lapse. His friendship with Carol strengthens after she was feared lost dealing with the walkers. The group is forced to deal with the Governor from the nearby Woodbury community, who seeks to kill them and take their supplies for himself. In rescuing two of their allies kidnapped by the", "Milton Mamet Milton Mamet Milton Mamet is a fictional character from the American television series \"The Walking Dead\" portrayed by Dallas Roberts. He is an original character and has no comic counterpart in \"The Walking Dead\" comic book series. Milton Mamet is a scientist who serves as one of the Governor's right-hand men. He knew Phillip Blake before he became \"The Governor\", and is thus one of the Governor's longest-lived pre-/post-apocalyptic associates. Although allied with the Governor, Milton is taken aback by Philip's violent methods. In the episode \"Walk with Me\", Milton studies the decapitated bodies of Michonne's walker-pets and informs the" ]

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[ "Tours\nTours [tuːʀ] on kaupunki Ranskan keskiosissa, Loirejoen varressa, Orléansin ja Atlantin rannikon välissä. Alue on tunnettua viininviljelyseutua. Toursissa oli 138588 asukasta vuonna 2009.[1] Toursin seudun ranskankieltä pidetään lähimpänä kirjakieltä olevana murteena." ]

[ "Tartus\nRistiretkien jälkeen Tartusin asukasluku pieneni ja siellä oli vain vähän asukkaita aina 1900-luvulle saakka. Kaupunki elpyi Ranskan hallitessa Syyriaa ja jälkimmäisen itsenäistyttyä toisen maailmansodan jälkeen. Sen kasvuun vaikutti etenkin tärkeän satamakaupunki İskenderunin menetys Turkille vuonna 1939, mikä pakotti rakentamaan satamia muualle. Kaupunkiin kehittyi kalastusteollisuutta ja sinne rakennettiin Irakista tulevan öljyputken päätepiste. 1970-luvun alulta lähtien Tartus on ollut samannimisen maakunnan keskus.", "Tudors\nSarjan toinen tuotantokausi debytoi Showtimella 30. maaliskuuta 2008 ja BBC:llä 1. elokuuta 2008. Kolmannen tuotantokauden tuottaminen alkoi 16. kesäkuuta 2008 Bray'ssä, Wicklown kreivikunnassa, Irlannissa[3][4] ja kauden ensi-ilta Showtimella oli 5. huhtikuuta 2009.", "Tours\nKaupungin keskustassa on paljon puistoja, ja sitä kutsutaan Ranskan puutarhakaupungiksi. Vanhassa kaupungissa on säilynyt keskiaikaisia taloja. Tyypillinen kattomateriaali on musta laattakivi pohjoisranskalaiseen tyyliin, erotuksena eteläranskalaisista tiilikatoista.", "Tourijärvi\nTourijärvi on Kanta-Hämeessä Lopella Räyskälän kylän lähellä sijaitseva järvi.", "Urkeš\nUrkeš on kukkula, jolla sijaitsi muinainen kaupunki nimeltään Urkeš eli Urkiš. Kaupunki on myöhemmin saanut nimen Tell Mozan. Kukkula sijaitsee Taurusvuorten ja Zagrosvuorten lähellä.[1] Urkeš kuului Transkaukasialaiseen alueeseen. Se sijaitsi hieman Nagarin (Nawar) kaupungin pohjoispuolella. Kaupungin asukkaat olivat enimmäkseen hurrilaisia.[2]", "Tartus\nTartus (, muita nimiä: Antaradus; Tartous; Tortosa) on satamakaupunki Syyrian länsiosassa, Välimeren rannalla. Vuoden 2004 väestönlaskennassa asukasluku oli 115 769. Kaupunki on Tartusin maakunnan hallintokeskus. Kaupunki on Latakian jälkeen Syyrian merkittävin satama.", "Lutakko\nKun Jyväskylä perustettiin vuonna 1837, niemi oli kooltaan huomattavasti pienempi; melkein koko nykyinen Lutakko on syntynyt Jyväsjärven järvenlaskujen myötä ja Jyväsjärveä täytettäessä. Yhdellä järvenlaskukerralla Jyväsjärvi menetti ainoan nimetyn saarensa, Vasikkasaaren, kun rantaviiva kuroutui siihen kiinni. Jyväsjärvelle jäi vain yksi nimetön saari. Se sijaitsee Äijälänsalmen lähellä. Yksi arvio on, että vain viidesosa Lutakon kiinteästä maasta on alkuperäistä. Sana ”lutakko” tarkoittaakin liejuista rantakosteikkoa[4] – merkitys onkin herättänyt ajoittain keskustelua nimen sopivuudesta[8]. Lutakon uudeksi nimeksi on harkittu nimeä Touruniemi.", "Kouroussa\nKaupunki sijaitsee Nigerjoen yläjuoksulla pääkaupunki Conakryn ja Kankanin välisen maantien varrella. Kouroussa on keskeinen markkinapaikka prefektuurissa tuotetulle riisille, sipulille, hirssille, maapähkinöille, seesaminsiemenille, puuvillalle ja karjalle. Kouroussassa on muun muassa ranskalaisen tutkimusmatkailijan René-Auguste Caillién muistomerkki; Callié oli ensimmäinen Timbuktusta käsin kaupungissa vieraillut eurooppalainen (1828).", "Mosul\nMosulin historiallinen keskusta sijaitsee Tigrisjoen länsirannalla ja sitä vastapäätä on Assyrian muinaisen pääkaupunki Niniven rauniot.[3] Nykyinen kaupunki on levinnyt myös muinaisten raunioiden ympärille. Matkaa Irakin pääkaupunki bagdadiin etelässä on noin 360 kilometriä.[4] Kaupungin arabiankielinen nimitys Al-Mawṣil on johdettu liittymistä tarkoittavasta sanasta waşala, joka puolestaan viittaa useisiin eri Tigrisin sivujokiin, jotka liittyvät yhteen virtaan Mosulin alueella. Itse kaupunki on rakennettu jokialangosta törröttävälle laakiolle. Mosul hallitsee alankoa samaan tapaan kuin Ninive ennen Mosulin perustamista. Paikan läpi on kulkenut historian saatossa useita kauppareittejä ja tämän takia kaupunki on ollut kaupan paikallinen keskus.[3]", "Thiers\nThiers on keskiaikainen kaupunki, joka on jaettu ylä- ja alakaupunkiin. Yläkaupungin kapeiden ja kaltevien katujen varrella on vanhoja keskiaikaisia puutaloja, kuten \"Château du Pirou\". Romaaninen Saint-Genès’n kirkko on rakennettu 1000-luvulla. Yläkaupungilta on näkymät Chaîne des Puys’n vulkaanisten kukkuloiden ketjuun sekä Limagne'n tasangolle.", "Tarascon\nTarascon on kunta Kaakkois-Ranskassa Bouches-du-Rhônen departementissa Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azurin alueella. Se sijaitsee Rhônejoen varrella. Kunnan huomattavin nähtävyys on sen linna Château de Tarascon, jonka rakennutti Napolin kuningas René d'Anjou 1400-luvun alussa. Kaupungissa oleva Pyhän Martan kirkko (\"Église Sainte-Marthe de Tarascon\") on omistettu Pyhälle Martalle, joka auttoi legendan mukaan kaupunkilaisia tuhoamaan seudulla kauhua herättäneen lohikäärme Tarasquen.\nKirjailija Alphonse Daudet kirja Tarasconin Tartarin (\"Tartarin de Tarascon\") on tehnyt kuntaa tunnetuksi.", "Tourcoing\nTourcoing on kaupunki Pohjois-Ranskassa Nordin departementissa lähellä Belgian rajaa. Yhdessä lähellä sijaitsevien Lillen ja Roubaix’n kaupunkien kanssa Tourcoing muodostaa metropolialueen. Ensimmäinen maininta Tourcoingista on vuodelta 1080.", "World of Warcraft\nStormwind (): Suurin ihmisten kaupungeista, joka sijaitsee Elwynnin metsässä. Ironforge (): Dun Moroghin vuoristossa sijaitseva vuoren sisään rakennettu kääpiöiden ja maahisten kaupunki. Darnassus: Nykyisen Elämän Puun, Teldrassilin, oksilla sijaitseva yöhaltioiden kaupunki. Exodar: Azuremystin saarella sijaitseva draeneiden kaupunki. Entinen avaruusalus. Gilneas (tai myös Greymane City): Samannimisessä kuningaskunnassa sijaitseva worgenien kaupunki. Shrine of Seven Stars: Osa Vale of Eternal Blossomsin pääkaupunkia, Mogu'shanin palatsia. Liittouman tukikohta Pandariassa. Stormshield: Ashranin eteläosissa sijaitseva Liittouman tukikohta menneisyyden Draenorissa. Boralus Harbor: Kul Tirasin pääkaupunki.", "Viry-Châtillon\nViry-Châtillon on kunta Ranskassa Essonnen departementissa Île-de-Francen alueella. Se sijaitsee noin 25 kilometriä Pariisista etelään Seinejoen varrella.\nMaailman ensimmäinen lentoasema Port-Aviation sijaitsi Viry-Châtillonissa. Sitä käyttivät aikanaan sellaiset ilmailun pioneerit kuten Roland Garros ja Louis Bleriot. Nykyään kaupungissa on Formula 1 -talli Renaultin päämaja.", "Thurn und Taxis\nVarhaisimmat tiedot suvusta ovat peräisin 1200-luvulta. Suku on peräisin Lombardiasta, joka sijaitsee Bergamossa, ja oli nimeltään \"de la Torre\". Torni (saks. \"Turm\") on sijoitettu suvun vaakunaan, ja mäyrä ( ja saks. \"Dachs\") on ollut perustana nimen Taxis-osalle.", "Availles-Thouarsais\nAvailles-Thouarsais on Ranskan kunta Deux-Sèvresin departementissa Poitou-Charentesin hallintoalueella. Vajaan 11 neliökilometrin laajuisessa kunnassa oli vuoden 2012 väestönlaskennassa 203 asukasta. Kunnan läpi kulkee Loiren sivujoki Thouet.", "Tourtour\nTourtour on Ranskan kunta Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azurin alueella Varin departementissa. Kunnan asukasluku vuonna 2014 oli 589. Tourtour kuuluu departementissaan Flayoscin kantoniin Brignolesin arrondissementissa.", "Axe historique\nAxe historique (ranskaa, ”historiallinen akseli”; tunnetaan myös nimillä Voie Triomphale ja Voie Royale) on noin kahdeksan kilometriä pitkä samansuuntaisten katujen ja puistojen muodostama kaakko–luode-suuntainen kaupunkiakseli Pariisissa. Se alkaa keskustasta Louvren taidemuseon sisäpihalta ja ulottuu La Défensen esikaupunkiin. Akseliin sisältyvät muun muassa Tuileries’n puisto ja Champs-Élysées-puistokatu, ja sen varrella ovat muun muassa aukiot Place de la Concorde ja Place Charles de Gaulle (ent. Place de l’Étoile) sekä Pariisin kolme riemukaarta, Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, varsinainen Riemukaari (\"Arc de Triomphe\") ja Grande Arche. Akseli on rakentunut vähitellen vuosisatojen kuluessa alkaen Tuileries’n puutarhan perustamisesta 1500-luvulla. La Défense rakennettiin akselin päätteeksi vasta 1900-luvun jälkipuolella.", "Ranskan Indokiinan sota (1858–1863)\nVietnamilaisten vihamielisyys eurooppalaisia kohtaan johti siihen, että loppukesällä 1858 ranskalais-espanjalainen retkikunta pommitti ja valtasi Đà Nẵngin (myöhempi Tourane). Retkikuntaa vaivasivat trooppiset taudit ja heikko huolto, joten se ei pystynyt etenemään sisämaahan Vietnamin pääkaupunki Huếen. Sen sijaan retkikunta valtasi Gia Địnhin (myöhemmältä nimeltään Saigon) vuoden 1859 alussa. Kaupunkiin jätettiin tuhannen miehen varuskunta ja muut joukot palasivat Touraneen.", "Thibodaux\nThibodaux [] on pieni kaupunki Lafourchen kunnassa Louisianassa, Yhdysvalloissa, Bayou Lafourche -joen varrella. Thibodaux'ta kutsutaan myös \"Lafourchen kuningattareksi\", koska se on kunnan suurin yhteisö. Thibodaux'ssa toimii Nicholls State University. Kaupunki sijaitsee keskellä niin kutsuttua Cajun-aluetta, noin 80 kilometrin päässä New Orleansista ja noin 100 kilometrin päässä osavaltion pääkaupungista Baton Rougesta.", "Montsoreau\nMontsoreau sijaitsee Loire-joen varrella noin 15 kilometriä yläjuoksulle eli kaakkoon päin Saumurin kaupungista. Läheisiä isompia Loiren varren kaupunkeja ovat Angers noin 70 kilometriä luoteeseen ja Tours saman verran itäkoilliseen.", "Athens (Georgia)\nKaupungissa sijaitsee Georgian yliopisto, joka on kaupungin keskipiste. Yliopiston opiskelijat vaikuttavat voimakkaasti kaupungin kulttuuriin, josta on tullut taide- ja musiikkielämää sekä älyllistä ilmapiiriä. Kaupungista löytyy musiikkitapahtumapaikkoja, ravintoloita, baareja ja kahviloita. Yliopiston kampuksen merkittävin kiintokaluste lienee \"The Arch\" -niminen kaarirakenne. Valurautainen porttikäytävä on ollut Athensin historialliseen keskustaan päin siitä lähtien, kun se rakennettiin 1850-luvulla. Yliopiston jalkapallojoukkue on Georgia Bulldogs, ja kampuksella sijaitsee Sanford-niminen stadion, johon mahtuu 90 000 ihmistä.", "Tour Saint-Jacques\nTour Saint-Jacques (\"Pyhän Jaakobin torni\") on historiallinen torni Pariisin keskustassa 4. arrondissementin alueella, Rue de Rivoli -kadun varrella sijaitsevassa pienessä puistossa. Tornin korkeus on 52 metriä.", "World of Warcraft\nOrgrimmar: Durotarin karuissa maisemissa sijaitseva örkkien ja peikkojen rakentama suurkaupunki. Thunder Bluff (): Mulgoressa olevien pöytävuorien päälle rakennettu taureenien kaupunki. Undercity: Tirisfal Gladesissa () entisen Lordaeronin kaupungin raunioiden alapuolella sijaitseva epäkuolleiden pahamaineinen kaupunki, jossa aikoinaan vallitsi rutto. Silvermoon City (): Eversong Woodsissa sijaitseva verihaltioiden puoliksi Kalmorutton () epäkuolleiden invaasiosta tuhoutunut kaupunki. Bilgewater Harbor: Underminessa ennen asuneiden hiisien uusi satamakaupunki Azsharassa. Shrine of Two Moons: Osa Vale of Eternal Blossomsin pääkaupunkia, Mogu'shanin palatsia. Lauman tukikohta Pandariassa. Warspear: Ashranin pohjoisosissa sijaitseva Lauman tukikohta menneisyyden Draenorissa. Dazar'alor: Zandalari-imperiumin muinaisen pääkaupungin Zuldazarin urbaani keskus.", "Toulouse\nToulousen perustajina pidetään kelttejä, jotka ennen ajanlaskun alkua asettuivat lähimpänä Atlanttia olevalle Garonnen ylityspaikalle. Toulouse oli merkittävä kaupunki jo Rooman valtakunnan aikana. Sen nimi oli silloin Tolosa, ja se oli visigoottien pääkaupunki vuosina 419–507.", "Lorraine\nLorraine (ransk.) tai Lothringen (saks.) on Ranskan hallinnollinen alue maan koillisosassa. Lorrainessa on 2310376 asukasta, ja sen pääkaupunki on Metz. Muita suuria kaupunkeja ovat Nancy ja Verdun. Alue on Ranskan raskaan teollisuuden keskus, ja perinteisesti hiili- ja terästeollisuusaluetta.[1] Kuuluisin alueella syntynyt henkilö on Jeanne d’Arc.", "Dijon\nDijon () on kaupunki Ranskassa, Côte-d'Orin departementissa, Bourgogne-Franche-Comtén alueella. Kaupunki on sekä Côte-d'Orin departementin pääkaupunki että Burgundin aluekeskus.", "Lontoo\nLontoon City sijaitsee Thamesin pohjoisrannalla, ja se on kaupungin vanhin osa. Se tunnetaan ennen kaikkea liike-elämän keskuksena, jossa on paljon toimistoja mutta vain vähän asukkaita. Keskellä Lontoon Cityä sijaitsee St Paulin katedraali ja Cityn itärajalla Towerin linna.[9]", "Toulouse\nToulouse [] () on kaupunki Lounais-Ranskassa Garonnejoen varrella. Toulouse on Haute-Garonnen departementin pääkaupunki, ja sen väkiluku on noin 449 000, esikaupungit mukaan lukien yli 1,2 miljoonaa (2012).", "Tripoli\nTripoli sijaitsee Pohjois-Libyassa Välimeren rannikolla. Nafusavuoret Tripolista etelään toimivat Libyan sisämaan ja rannikkoalueen erottajina.[1] Tripolista pohjoiseen meren takana sijaitsee Sisilia. Itse kaupunki sijaitsee kivikkoisella niemekkeellä ja se voidaan jakaa kahteen erilliseen osaan. Kaupunginmuurin ympäröimä vanhakaupunki eli medina sijaitsee kaupungin sataman luona ja sen kaupunkikuvaa hallitsee espanjalaisten 1500-luvulla rakennuttama linna. Monet kaupungin virastot sijaitsevat puolestaan uudessa kaupunginosassa, joka on kasvanut etenkin 1970-luvulta lähtien.[2]", "Tour Total\nTour Total on Ranskan pääkaupungin Pariisin lähellä La Défensessä sijaitseva pilvenpiirtäjä. Toimistokäytössä oleva rakennus rakennettiin vuosina 1982-1985, ja se yltää 190 metrin korkeuteen. Kerroksia pilvenpiirtäjässä on yhteensä 48. Sen suunnittelusta vastasivat WZMH Architects, Roger Saubot sekä François Jullien.", "Mayotte\nMayotte eli Mahoré on Ranskan merentakainen departementti ja aluehallinto, joka sijaitsee Mosambikin kanaalin pohjoispäässä Intian valtameressä, Madagaskarin pohjoisosan ja Mosambikin pohjoisosan välissä, lähellä Komoreja. Mayotte olikin osa Ranskan hallitsemia Komoreja, kunnes muut Komorit itsenäistyivät vuonna 1975 Mayotten saaren jäädessä osaksi Ranskaa. Sen pääkaupunki on Mamoudzou. Mayottella oli vuonna 2009 arviolta 223765 asukasta. Saarilla asuu alkuperältään arabialaista, afrikkalaista ja madagaskarilaista väestöä. Mausteet, kaakao ja kookospähkinät kuuluvat Mayotten tärkeimpiin maataloustuotteisiin. Mayottella on oma Internet-maatunnus, .yt.[1]", "Tournai\nSaalilaiset frankit tekivät kaupungista 400-luvun aikana pienen valtakuntansa pääkaupungin. Jo 1600-luvulla kaivauksissa löydettiin frankkikuningas Klodvigin isän, kuningas Kilderik I:n, arvokkain esinein varustettu hauta, joka sijaitsee Escautjoen pohjoisrannalla. Seuraava suuri muutos kaupungin historiassa tapahtui 800-luvulla, kun se erotettiin maallisen vallan hallinnasta ja siitä tuli suoraan frankkien kuninkaiden alaisuudessa toimiva piispallinen hallintolääni. Piispat säilyttivät hallinnassaan joen pohjoisen puolen ja 1000-luvulla Flanderin kreivit ottivat haltuunsa joen etelärannan ja tekivät siitä herruusalueensa.", "Monaco\nMonaco on maailman toiseksi pienin itsenäinen valtio Vatikaanin jälkeen. Se sijaitsee Alppien juurella Välimeren rannalla lähellä Italian rajaa 18 kilometriä Nizzasta itään ja on Ranskan ympäröimä kolmesta ilmansuunnasta.[2] Monacon korkein kohta on Chemin des Révoires (161 metriä),[3] joka on Mont Agel-vuoren rinteellä. Vuoren huippu on Ranskan puolella.[4]", "Étretat\nÉtretat oli aiemmin vaatimaton kalastajakylä, mutta nykyään se on hyvin tunnettu lomanviettokaupunki. Se sijaitsee Normandiassa, Englannin kanaalin rannikolla. Sen valkoiset liitukivikalliot ja harmahtavien mukulakivien peittämät rannat ovat tehneet kaupungista kansainvälisen matkailukohteen. Alueen tärkein tulonlähde onkin turismi, ja Étretat on eräs suosituimmista Haute-Normandien turistikohteista. Kuvataiteilijat, kuten Gustave Courbet, Eugène Boudin ja Claude Monet ovat ikuistaneet kaupungin maalauksissaan. Myös kirjailijat, kuten Gustave Flaubert ja Guy de Maupassant ovat lukeutuneet paikan ihailijoihin kuten myös Maurice Leblanc, jonka Arsène Lupin -salapoliisiromaani Onton neulan salaisuus (L'Aiguille creuse), on lisännyt paikan mystisyyttä, sillä romaanin tapahtumat sijoittuvat osittain kaupunkiin.", "Tikritin toinen taistelu\nTikrit on kaupunki noin 130 kilometriä Irakin pääkaupunki Bagdadista luoteeseen. Sen asukkaiden valtaosa on sunnalaisia arabeja. Kaupunki tunnetaan Irakissa entisen diktaattori Saddam Husseinin kotikaupunkina, ja tähän liittyen sillä on suuri symbolinen arvo. Ääri-islamistinen Isis-järjestö valtasi kaupungin kesäkuussa 2014 pian Mosulin kukistumisen jälkeen. Järjestön asemiehet toteuttivat saman kuun puolella Camp Speicherin joukkomurhan, jossa sai surmansa 1 000 Irakin armeijan jäsentä.", "Tauria\nTauria tai Tauris (, ) eli Taurien Khersonesos () oli antiikin aikainen nimitys nykyiselle Krimin niemimaalle. Kreikkalaiset perustivat alueelle siirtokuntia 600-luvulla eaa. Taurian tärkeimpiä kaupunkeja oli nykyisen Sevastopolin liepeillä sijainnut Khersonesos eli Tauris, jonka perustivat Herakleia Pontiken asukkaat.", "Tourlída\nTourlída sijaitsee noin viisi kilometriä etelään Mesolóngin kaupungista. Saaren itäpuolella sijaitsee Kleísovan laguuni ja länsipuolella suurempi Mesolóngin laguuni. Aiemmin saari toimi suojasatamana laivoille, jotka lähestyivät Mesolóngin kaupunkia, sillä laguunien vesi on hyvin matalaa. Vuodesta 1885 lähtien saari on ollut yhdistetty pengertiellä mantereeseen ja Mesolóngin kaupunkiin. Tourlídan nimi viittaa alueen kuoveihin (\"tourlídes\").", "Bourbon Street\nBourbon Street () on Yhdysvalloissa Louisianan osavaltiossa sijaitsevan New Orleansin kaupungin tunnetuin katu ja sen merkittävin turistinähtävyys. Noin 1,3 kilometrin pituinen katu kulkee halki New Orleansin vanhimman kaupunginosan French Quarterin eli ns. \"ranskalaiskortteleiden\".", "Vorkuta\nSe sijaitsee Euroopan koillisimmassa kulmassa Petšorajoen Usa-haaran haarajoen äärellä Uralvuorten pohjoispään länsipuolella. Pohjoinen jäämeri sijaitsee vajaan 200 kilometrin päässä koillisessa. Lännessä ja pohjoisessa Vorkuta rajoittuu Nenetsian autonomiseen piirikuntaan, idässä Tjumenin alueeseen, etelässä ja lounaassa Intaan.[2] Etäisyys Syktyvkariin on linnuntietä 904 kilometriä[1], rautateitse 1030 kilometriä. Kunnollista ympärivuotista maantieyhteyttä ei tasavallan pääkaupungista ole.[2]", "Diables Noirs de Tours\nDiables noirs de Tours (viralliseltaan nimeltään L'Association des Sports de Glace de Tours) on toursilainen jääkiekkojoukkue, joka pelaa Ranskan pääsarjassa, Ligue Magnusissa. Diables on voittanut maansa mestaruuden vuonna 1980.", "Tílos\nTílos sijaitsee Välimereen kuuluvan Egeanmeren kaakkoisosassa Nísyroksen ja Chálkin saarten välissä, Ródoksesta pohjoiseen. Pääkaupunki Ateenan kupeessa sijaitsevaan Pireukseen matkaa kertyy 290 meripeninkulmaa eli noin 537 kilometriä.", "Ranskan ympäriajo 2006\nTämän jälkeen kisa seuraili Ranskan länsirannikkoa aina Bretagneen asti, josta siirryttiin Bordeaux'n kaupunkiin. Päivämatkan päästä alkoivat osuudet Pyreneillä ja ne kestivät noin neljä päivää, kunnes siirryttiin Välimeren rannikolle Béziersiin ja Montélimariin. Tämän jälkeen, eli kisan 14. etapin jälkeen olivat vuorossa alppiajot, jotka kestivät aina toiseksi viimeiseen etappiin asti. Kisan loppuosa ajettiin lähinnä Pariisin ympäristössä ja perinteiseen tapaan Pariisissa.Vuoden 2006 Tourille osallistui yksi suomalainen. Hän on Kjell Carlström, joka ajoi Liquigas-tallin väreissä. Hän oli kokonaiskilpailussa 132:s. Hän ajoi 8. etapilla maaliin toisena, mikä on paras suomalaissijoitus tourilla tähän asti.", "Toursin raitiotieliikenne\nKaupungin raitiotieliikenne alkoi vuonna 1877, jolloin hevosraitiotie aloitti toimintansa. Radan sähköistäminen aloitettiin 1900-luvun alussa ja vuonna 1906 liikennöitiin ensimmäistä kertaa sähkövaunuilla. Toisen maailmansodan pommitukset vaurioittivat rataverkostoa merkittävästi ja raitiotieliikennöinti lopetettiinkin vuonna 1949.", "Lourdes\nLourdes on kaupunki Ranskan lounaisosassa Hautes-Pyrénées -departementissa Midi-Pyrénéesin alueella. Kaupungin oksitaaninkielinen nimi on \"Lorda\". Siellä on vuoden 2006 tietojen mukaan 15 265 asukasta. Lourdesin pinta-ala on 37 neliökilometriä ja sen keskusta on noin 410 metrin korkeudella merenpinnasta. Kaupunki sijaitsee Espanjan rajan läheisyydessä Pyreneiden juurella. Se on yksi tärkeimmistä ja suosituimmista katolisen kirkon pyhiinvaelluskohteista. ", "Pariisi–Tours\nKilpailun reitti on muuttunut useasti vuosien saatossa kilpailun kokonaismatkan kuitenkin säilyessä noin 250 km. Varsin aikaisessa vaiheessa kilpailun lähtö siirrettiin pois Pariisista, ensin Versailles'hin ja myöhemmin nykyisen paikkaansa Saint Arnould en Yvelinesiin. Vuosina 1919–1926 kilpailun reitissä tapahtui suuria muutoksia, joiden tavoitteena oli tehdä kilpailun lopusta vaativampi. Reittiin lisättiin mutka Chinon kaupunkiin, minkä myötä Toursia lähestyttiin mäkisempää maastoa pitkin ja samalla kilpailun kokonaismitta kasvoi 342 kilometriin. Tästä huolimatta kiriajajat jatkoivat kilpailun dominointia ja vuonna 1959 järjestäjät päättivät lisätä loppuun kolme kierrosta, joiden aikana noustiin Aloutte-mäen päälle. Tämäkään ei kuitenkaan auttanut ja vuonna 1965 muutosta yritettiin jälleen. Tällä kertaa kiellettiin ulkopuolisten vaihtajien käyttö ja ajajat pakotettiin käyttämään vain kahta eri vaihdetta. Kilpailun voitti alankomaalainen, ensimmäistä vuottaan kilpaillut Gerben Karstens, joka oli valinnut käyttöönsä välitykset 53×16 ja 53×15. Karstensin keskinopeus 246 km reitillä oli 45,029 km/h, mikä tuohon aikaan oli kilpailun ennätys. Vaihteiden käytön rajoittaminen huomattiin kuitenkin varsin pian toimimattomaksi ratkaisuksi sillä vuoden 1966 kilpailu päättyi lähes vastaavanlaiseen massakiriin kuin vuonna 1964, joten vaihteiden rajoituksista luovuttiin, eikä niitä ole käytetty vuoden 1966 jälkeen.", "Montreal\nMontrealin kaupunki sijaitsee Montrealsaarella lähellä Saint Lawrence -joen ja Ottawajoen yhtymäkohtaa Quebecin lounaisosassa. Hallinnollisesti Montreal käsittää itse Montrealsaaren lisäksi joitakin pienenmpiä saaria.[3] Ympäröivä alue on Saint Lawrence -joen laaksoa, joka on muodostunut jääkauden lopussa alueella sijainneen Champlainmeren rantaviivan vetäytyessä. St. Lawrence laskee mereen Suurilta järviltä ja joki on ollut pitkään merkittävä kulkureitti.[4]", "La Turbie\nLa Turbie on kunta Kaakkois-Ranskassa Alpes-Maritimesin departementissa Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azurin alueella. Se sijaitsee Välimeren läheisyydessä Ranskan Rivieralla ja sillä on vähän yhteistä rajaa Monacon kanssa. Kunnan nähtävyys on massiivinen Alppien voitonmerkki Trophée des Alpes, jonka roomalaiset pystyttivät vuonna 6 eaa.", "Poitiers’n taistelu (732)\nPoitiers’n taistelu eli Toursin taistelu käytiin Toursin ja Poitiers’n välisellä seudulla lokakuun 10. päivänä vuonna 732. Vastakkain olivat emiiri Abdulrahmanin islamilainen armeija ja frankkien major domus Kaarle Martelin johtamat frankkilaiset ja burgundilaiset joukot. Kaarle ansaitsi liikanimensä Martel eli ”vasara” juuri voitollaan tässä taistelussa. Islamilaisen armeijan tappio pysäytti tuolloin yli 13 miljoonan neliökilometrin laajuisen Umayyad-kalifaatin laajenemisen ja pakotti muslimit takaisin Espanjaan. ", "Henkäys ikuisuudesta\nHenkäys Ikuisuudesta Tour", "Albi\nTarnin prefektuuri Albi sijaitsee Tarnjoen rannalla ja lähellä Gaillacin suuria ja merkittäviä viinitarhoja sekä lähellä cordais’n tasankoa ja Grésignen metsää. Kaupungista on 80 kilometriä Toulousen kaupunkiin, kolmen tunnin matka Pyreneille ja 2 tuntia Välimerelle.", "Tallard\nKylän asujaimistoa kutsutaan tallardialaisiksi (tallardien). Asukasluvun kehitys on ollut verkkaisaa, mutta kuitenkin kasvuvoittoista.Vuoden 2007 Tour de France valitsi Tallardin kylän toimimaan yhdeksännen etapin lähtöpaikkana. Kilpailu oli pituudeltaan 229,5 kilometriä ja se päättyi Marseilleen.", "Tourtour\n635 metrin korkeudella sijaitsevaa Tourtouria kutsutaan nimellä \"le village dans le ciel de Provence\", ”kylä Provencen taivaalla”. Kahden linnan, keskiaikaisen ja 1700-luvulta peräisin olevan, ympärille kasvanut Tourtour kuuluu kauneimpien ranskalaiskylien järjestöön \"Les Plus Beaux Villages de France\". Siihen kuuluu kolme muutakin Varin departementin kylää.", "Hyères\nHyères [ jɛ:ʁ ] sijaitsee Ranskan Rivieralla 15 kilometriä Toulonista itään, ja se on Välimeren lomakeskuksista vanhin. Vuonna 2006 Hyèresissä oli 55 007 asukasta. Place de la Républiquella on 1200-luvulla rakennettu kirkko, jossa Ranskan kuningas Ludvig Pyhä rukoili 1254 palattuaan ristiretkeltä. ", "Ranskan ympäriajo 2006\nVuoden 2006 Tour alkoi Strasbourgin kaupungista. Ennen kaupungista poistumista avausetapin jälkeen ajettiin myös ensimmäinen varsinainen etappi kaupunkia ympäröivillä maanteillä sekä Alsacessa että myös Saksassa. Reitti vieraili myös Alankomaissa Valkenburg aan de Geulissa jatkaen sieltä Belgiaaan, Huyn kaupunkiin.", "Toulouse\nEnsimmäisen maailmansodan aikana Toulousessa valmistettiin aseita ja lentokoneita. Sodan jälkeen sieltä kuljetettiin lentopostia Afrikkaan ja Etelä-Amerikkaan – lentäjien joukossa oli Antoine de Saint-Exupery. Toisen maailmansodan jälkeen Ranskan ilmailuteollisuus keskittyi Toulouseen, missä valmistettiin muun muassa Caravelle, Concorde ja Airbus A380 sekä avaruussukkula Ariane. Toulousen väkiluku onkin kasvanut nopeasti, sillä se on hyötynyt asemastaan Euroopan ilmailuteollisuuden pääkaupunkina ja ihmisten muuttovirrasta teollisuusalueilta lämpimämmille ja puhtaammille alueille. Ilmailu- ja biotekniikkateollisuus siivittävät kaupungin kasvua edelleen.", "Tuva\nTuvan sijainti vuoristoalueella on aiheuttanut sen, ettei maahan ole rakennettu kovinkaan kattavaa maantieverkkoa. Tärkeimmät maantiet ovat pääkaupungista Kyzylistä maan länsiosaan johtava maantie sekä maan eteläosasta Kyzylin kautta naapuritasavallan Hakassian pääkaupunkiin Abakaniin johtava maantie. Rautateitä tasavallassa ei ole lainkaan.[1] Lentoliikennettäkin on varsin vähän. Maan tärkein lentokenttä sijaitsee Kyzylissä ja sieltä on lentoyhteyksiä Tuvan lähialueille (mm. Krasnojarskiin). Lähes kaikki liikenne tapahtuu maanteitä ja jokia pitkin.", "Trèbes\nTrèbes on kunta Lounais-Ranskassa Auden departementissa Occitanien alueella. Se sijaitsee noin 8 kilometriä Carcassonnen kaupungista itään Audejoen varrella.", "Toul\nToul on kunta Pohjois-Ranskassa Meurthe-et-Mosellen departementissa Lorrainen alueella. Toul tunnettiin kaupunkina jo antiikin Rooman aikaan. Kaupunki on ollut myös varuskuntakaupunki, ja sen linnoitukset ovat edelleen nähtävyyksiä. Kaupungin tärkein nähtävyys on kuitenkin Saint-Étiennen katedraali (\"Cathédrale Saint-Étienne de Toul\").", "Tyros\nSe sijaitsi 37 km Akkosta pohjoiseen ja 32 km Sidonista etelään. Nykyisin kaupungissa asuu noin 117 000 ihmistä Kaupungin nimi tarkoittaa \"vuorta\". Tyros lisättiin Unescon maailmanperintöluetteloon vuonna 1979 Tyroksessa sijaitsevan roomalainen hippodromin vuoksi. Niin sanottu Vanha Tyros sijaitsi mantereella, mutta kaupunki siirrettiin myöhemmin saarelle, joka sijaitsi parin sadan metrin päässä rannasta. Saarella kaupunki oli suojassa vihollisten hyökkäyksiltä.", "Tour Gan\nTour Gan (tunnettiin aikaisemmin nimellä Tour Nobel) on pilvenpiirtäjä Ranskan pääkaupungin Pariisin lähellä. Se sijaitsee La Défensen alueella. Toimistokäytössä oleva rakennus rakennettiin vuosina 1972-1974, ja se yltää 187 metrin korkeuteen. Kerroksia pilvenpiirtäjässä on yhteensä 44. Sen suunnittelusta vastasivat arkkitehdit Harrisson & Abramovitz sekä J. P. Bisseuil.", "Tarn\nTarn () on Ranskan departementti numero 81, joka on saanut nimensä Tarn-joen mukaan. Departementti sijaitsee Etelä-Ranskassa entisellä Midi-Pyrénées'n hallintoalueella. Departementti on pinta-alaltaan 5 758 neliökilometriä ja siellä on 377 675 asukasta (2011). Tarnin pääkaupunki on Albi. Tarn on jaettu edelleen kahteen arrondissementtiin, 46 kantoniin ja 324 kuntaan.", "Tournemire (Cantal)\nTournemire kuuluu Saint-Cerninin kantoniin Aurillacin arrondissementissa. Naapurikuntia ovat pohjoisessa Saint-Projet-de-Salers, kaakossa Girgols ja lännessä Saint-Cernin. Departementin pääkaupunki Aurillac sijaitsee noin 25 kilometriä Tournemirestä etelään. Suurempia kaupunkeja ovat luoteessa Limoges ja koillisessa Clermont-Ferrand, joihin molempiin on runsaan kahden tunnin ajomatka.", "Tournai\nRoomalainen kaupunki \"Tornacum\" syntyi todennäköisesti muiden vastaavien kaupunkien tavoin sotilasleirin ympärille ensimmäisen vuosisadan aikana. Vuonna 1954 löydettiin kaivauksissa roomalaiselle sotilasleirille tyypillisen vallikaivannon jääneitä. Paikka oli myös maanteiden ja vesireittien risteyksessä ja lähellä valtakunnan pohjoista rajaa. Escautjoki oli erinomaisen keskeinen liikenneväylä jo varhaisina vuosisatoina kaupungin historiassa. Joen varrelta löytyneet muinaisjäännökset kertovat sen merkityksestä koko roomalaisvallan ajan.", "Tartus\nTartus sijaitsee kolmen kilometrin päässä merellä olevasta Arwadin saari. Mantereen asutus tunnettiin antiikin aikana aluksi nimellä \"Antaradus\", ja se oli aluksi Araduksen (Arwad) saaren siirtokunta. Keisari Konstantinus I rakennutti asutuksen uudelleen (346 jaa.) ja paikkakunta kukoisti Rooman valtakunnan ja Bysantin aikana. Roomalaisaikana Antaradosia kutsuttiin nimellä Constantia, vaikkakin vanhempi nimi säilyi käytössä sen ohella. Muslimit valloittivat paikalla sijainneen linnoituksen vuonna 638, jonka jälkeen kaupunki tuhottiin ja paikka oli pitkään asumaton. Kaupunki jälleenrakennettiin ja linnoitettiin kalifi Muawija I:n valtakaudella. Paikalle asettui sotilaita, joille jaettiin alueelta maata. Kaupungin edustalla oleva Arwadin saari valloitettiin Bysantilta vasta näihin aikoihin. Joidenkin lähteiden mukaan Nikeforos II Fokas epäonnistui kaupungin piirityksessä vuonna 968, kun taas joidenkin muiden lähteiden mukaan hän valloitti sen. Basileios II:n kaudella kaupunki oli joka tapauksessa jo takaisin Bysantin valtakunnan käsissä.", "Ulm\nUlm on Saksan Baden-Württembergin osavaltiossa sijaitseva kaupunki, joka on parhaiten tunnettu siitä, että sen tuomiokirkon torni on maailman korkein (161,53 m) kirkon torni. Kaupunki sijaitsee Saksan eteläosassa parin tunnin matkan päässä Münchenistä. Asukkaita on noin 122 000, joista noin 22 000 on ulkomaalaisia. Sen lisäksi noin 50 000 ihmistä matkustaa kaupunkiin töihin päivittäin. Virallisesti Ulm sijaitsee Tonavan pohjoisrannalla ja eteläpuolella Tonavaa sijaitsee Neu-Ulm-niminen kaupunki, joka kuuluu Baijerin osavaltioon. Molemmilla kaupungeilla on oma hallintonsa, mutta kaupunkien välillä on paljon yhteistoimintaa. Niinpä osavaltion ja kaupunkien rajaa ei helposti huomaa. Ulm julistettiin kaupungiksi vuonna 1164. Kaupunki sijaitsee Tonavan alkulähteillä.", "Maurice Thorez\nKommunistien asema Ranskan parlamentissa romahti de Gaullen valtaanpaluun ja viidennen tasavallan perustamisen jälkeen vuonna 1958, mutta Thorez oli yksi harvoista edustajanpaikkansa säilyttäneistä. Hän kuoli vuonna 1964 laivamatkalla Jaltalle. Pian sen jälkeen hänen mukaansa nimettiin Torezin kaupunki (aiemmin Tšistjakove) Ukrainassa.", "Porta\nPortan naapurikunnat ovat Porté-Puymorens pohjoisessa, Enveitg idässä sekä Latour-de-Carol kaakossa. Lännessä kunta rajautuu Andorraan ja etelässä Espanjaan. Portasta on matkaa Porté-Puymorensiin 2,5 kilometriä, L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorreen 7,1 km, Latour-de-Caroliin 8,4 km, Dorresiin 10,1 km, Enveitgiin 10,1 km, Uriin 11,2 km ja Angoustrine-Villeneuve-des-Escaldesiin 11,8 km. Ranskan pääkaupunkiin Pariisiin on matkaa 707 km.", "Tournai\nKeskiajan jälkipuolisko merkitsi kaupungille myös vahvan käsiteollisuuden syntyä, kuten niin monille muillekin nykyisen Belgian alueen keskiaikaisille kaupungeille. Tournain markkinat vetivät puoleensa väkeä jopa Saksasta, Englannista ja tietenkin lähialueelta. Syynä tähän oli erittäin lempeä verokohtelu niin myyjille kuin ostajillekin. Kaupunki liittyi myös osaksi Hansa-kauppayhteisön Lontoon konttoria.", "Porté-Puymorens\nPorté-Puymorensin naapurikunnat ovat L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre pohjoisessa, Angoustrine-Villeneuve-des-Escaldes idässä, Dorres kaakossa, Enveitg etelässä sekä Porta etelässä ja lännessä. Luoteessa kunta rajautuu Andorraan. Porté-Puymorensista on matkaa Portaan 2,5 kilometriä, L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorreen 5 km, Latour-de-Caroliin 10,3 km, Dorresiin 11,1 km, Enveitgiin 11,8 km, Mérens-les-Valsiin 12,3 km ja Angoustrine-Villeneuve-des-Escaldesiin 12,7 km. Ranskan pääkaupunkiin Pariisiin on matkaa 704 km.", "Ibrahim Touré\nBouakéssa syntynyt Touré aloitti ammattilaisuransa kotimaansa ASEC Mimosasissa, josta hän siirtyi vuonna 2003 ukrainalaiseen FK Metalurh Donetskiin, jossa hän pelasi neljä kautta, ennen kuin siirtyi Ranskan liigan OGC Niceen. Nizzassa Touré pelasi vain kaksi kautta, kunnes siirtyi Syyrian liigaan pelaamaan Al-Ittihadin riveihin vuonna 2009 kahden vuoden pelitauon jälkeen. Seuraavaksi Touré pelasi Egyptissä kahdessa eri seurassa, kunnes siirtyi viimeiseksi jääneen seuransa Al-Safan riveihin.", "Pariisi\nPariisissa on myös maailman toiseksi suurin kirjasto Bibliothèque nationale de France.Pariisissa pidetään vuosittain Ranskan avoin tennisturnaus joka kestää toukokuun puolivälistä kesäkuun alkuun. Pariisi on myös Ranskan ympäriajon eli \"Tour de France\" -pyöräilykilpailun maali. Olympialaiset järjestettiin kaupungissa vuosina 1900 ja 1924. Yleisurheilun maailmanmestaruuskilpailut järjestettiin Pariisissa vuonna 2003 ja Euroopan-mestaruuskilpailut vuonna 1938. Jalkapallon maailmanmestaruuskilpailut 1998 järjestettiin Ranskassa ja finaali Pariisin Stade de France -stadionilla. Pariisin liepeillä sijaitsee Euroopan suurin ravirata Hippodrome de Vincennes.\nPariisin kunniakansalaisuuden ovat saaneet muun muassa 14. dalai-lama, kiinalainen demokratia-aktivisti Hu Jia, Myanmarin (Burman) oppositiojohtaja Aung San Suu Kyi ja iranilainen demokratia-aktivisti Shiribin Ebadi.", "Tartto\nTartto sijaitsee Emajoen keskijuoksulla Võrtsjärven ja Peipsijärven välillä. Emajoen laakso halkaisee kaupungin luoteesta kaakkoon 800–2000 metriä leveänä. Laakeaa laaksoa ympäröivät aaltoilevat moreenitasanteet. Tarton keskusalueella sijaitsee tasalakinen Toomemägi, jota ympäröivät pienemmät notkelmat.[7]", "Courmayeur\nCourmayeur on Italian luoteisnurkassa sijaitsevaan Aostanlaakson autonomiseen alueeseen kuuluva kunta. Kunta sijaitsee Euroopan korkeimman vuoren Mont Blancin kupeessa ja siellä asuu 2 825 asukasta. Courmayeurissa sijaitsee talviurheilukeskus ja sen läpi kulkee Pojoen sivujoki Dora Baltea. Courmayeurin yhdistää Ranskan puolella sijaitsevaan Chamonix’in 11,6 kilometriä pitkä vuonna 1965 valmistunut Mont Blancin tunneli.", "Athos\nAthos tai Athosvuori (, Áthos), usein Pyhä Vuori (Άγιο Όρος, Ágio Óros), on Kreikan alaisuuteen kuuluva itsehallinnollinen alue,[1] viralliselta nimeltään Pyhän Vuoren autonominen munkkivaltio (), joka sijaitsee Makedoniassa Pohjois-Kreikassa. Itsehallintoalue käsittää pääosan Áthoksen niemestä, joka on itäisin Chalkidikín niemimaan kolmesta Egeanmereen pistävästä niemestä, ja on saanut nimensä sen kärjessä sijaitsevasta Áthos-vuoresta ().", "Aniche\nAniche on kunta Pohjois-Ranskassa Nordin departementissa Hauts-de-Francen alueella. Se sijaitsee noin 15 kilometriä Douain kaupungista itään.\nAniche on yhä aktiivinen kaivos- ja lasiteollisuuskaupunki. Aiemmin se tunnettiin yhtenä Ranskan suurimpana ikkunalasien tuottajana. Kaupungissa on yhä seitsemän toiminnassa olevaa lasitehdasta, kuten Saint-Gobain. Kaupungissa on myös lasintuotannon museo \"Centre de mémoire de la Verrerie d'en haut\". Tarinan mukaan kirjailija Jules Verne tuli Anicheen vuonna 1860 keskustelemaan paikallisten lasintekijöiden kanssa siitä, kestäisivätkö hänen Sukelluslaivalla maapallon ympäri -kirjassaan esiintyvä Nautilus-sukellusveneen yhdeksän ikkunaa syvänmeren paineen. ", "Allos\nAllos on kunta Kaakkois-Ranskassa Alpes-de-Haute-Provencen departementissa Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azurin alueella. Allos’n pieni alppikylä sijaitsee Mercantourin kansallispuiston reunalla. Kunnan alueella sijaitsee laskettelukeskus La Foux d'Allos, sekä pyöräilykilpailuista tunnetuksi tullut vuoren ylityspaikka Col d'Allos 2245 metrin korkeudessa. Allos’ssa oleva järvi Lac d'Allos on Euroopan korkeimmalla sijaitseva järvi.", "Termessos\nTermessos on rauniokaupunki Antalyan maakunnassa Turkissa. Kaupunki sijaitsee yli kilometrin korkeudella vuoristossa, missä sitä on ollut hyvä puolustaa. Aleksanteri Suuri yritti valloittaa kaupungin sotajoukkoineen, mutta epäonnistui. Kaupungissa on jäljellä muun muassa suuren teatterin rauniot.", "La Tour-de-Peilz\nTaidemaalari Gustave Courbet eli viimeiset vuotensa ja kuoli La Tour-de-Peilzissa. Meritieteilijä Jacques Piccard asui ja kuoli kaupungissa. Sarjakuvataiteilija Derib on syntynyt La Tour-de-Peilzissa. Musiikintekijä Robert John ”Mutt” Lange ja laulaja-lauluntekijä Shania Twain ovat asuneet pitkään kaupungissa.", "Bissandougou\nBissandougou on kaupunki Guineassa. 1800-luvulla se oli djulasotapäällikön Samori Tourén Mandinkavaltakunnan pääkaupunkina. Touré tunnettiin huomattavasta vastarinnastaan Ranskan siirtomaahallintoa vastaan ja oli Ranskan imperiumia sekä pienempiä Afrikan valtioita vastaan ylivoimainen vuosia. ", "Thiès\nThiès on Senegalin kolmanneksi suurin kaupunki. Vuonna 2007 siellä oli 263 500 asukasta. Se sijaitsee noin 60 kilometriä Dakarista itään. Thiès on rautateiden risteysasema, josta kulkee rata Dakariin, Bamakoon ja St-Louisiin.\nKaupunki toimii myös kauppapaikkana lähiseudun maataloustuotteille: siellä käsitellään riisiä, maapähkinöitä, hirssiä ja hedelmiä. Vuonna 2007 sinne perustettiin yliopisto.", "Grand Tour\nGrand Tour [gʀɑˈtuːʀ] (ranskaa; , myös sivistysmatka) tarkoittaa matkaa, joka renessanssin ajasta lähtien oli lähes pakollinen Euroopan aateliston ja myöhemmin myös ylemmän porvariston pojille. Matkakohteena oli yleensä Keski-Eurooppa, Italia, Espanja ja myös Pyhä maa. Erityisesti Englannissa \"Grand Tour\" vaikutti kirjallisuuteen 1800-luvulla.", "Indre-et-Loire\nIndre-et-Loiren departementin pinta-ala on 6 127 neliökilometriä ja väkiluku 580 312 (vuonna 2006). Sen pääkaupunki on Tours.", "Villars-les-Dombes\nVillars-les-Dombes on kunta itäisessä Ranskassa Ainin departementissa Auvergne-Rhône-Alpesin alueella. Se sijaitsee noin 40 kilometriä Lyonista koilliseen Dombesin alueella.\nKunnan suurin matkailukohde on lintupuisto Parc des Oiseaux. Puistossa on 3000 lintua kolmestasadasta eri lajista ja viideltä eri mantereelta. Toinen nähtävyys on 1100-luvulta peräisin oleva kirkko \"Église de la Nativité-de-la-Sainte-Vierge\".", "Tournai\nTournain kaupunki elää tietenkin paljon pitkästä ja monipuolisesta historiastaan, mutta matkailu ei voi ylläpitää nykyaikaista palvelutasoa ja siksi kaupunki yrittää jälleen kerran selvitä suuresta rakennemuutoksesta ja kehittyä nykyaikaiseksi palvelujen ja uudenlaisen teollisuuden keskukseksi keskellä Eurooppaa.", "Samori Touré\nTouré pyrki laajentamaan valtakuntaansa edelleen vanhoja kauppareittejä pitkin, mutta nyt Ranska alkoi levittää siirtomaavaltaansa alueella. Touré kykeni ensin pitämään ranskalaiset loitolla sopimusten ja pienien yhteenottojen avulla. Hän kävi myös kauppaa brittien kanssa saaden näiltä aseita Freetownista brittien siirtomaa Sierra Leonesta. Vuonna 1882 Ranska aloitti kuitenkin suuren sotilasoperaation Mandinkan valtakunnan valloittamiseksi. Touré käytti heitä vastaan poltetun maan taktiikkaa, mutta joutui vuoteen 1894 mennessä vetäytymään nykyisestä Ghanasta ja Norsunluurannikosta valloittamilleen alueille. Vuonna 1898 Ranska oli valloittanut koko valtakunnan alueen ja Touré jäi lopulta vangiksi hänen paettuaan nykyisen Liberian alueelle. Ranskalaiset karkottivat hänet Gaboniin Atlantin valtameren rannikolle, jossa Touré kuoli vuonna 1900.", "Tours\nTours toimii vuosittain pyöräilykilpailu Pariisi–Tours'n maalipaikkana. Paikallinen jääkiekkojoukkue Diables Noirs de Tours pelaa Ranskan pääsarjassa Ligue Magnus’ssa ja on voittanut maan mestaruuden 1980. Jalkapalloseura Tours FC pelaa Ranskan toiseksi korkeimmalla sarjatasolla, Ligue 2’ssa.", "Place du Tertre\nPlace du Tertre on aukio Pariisin Montmartren kaupunginosassa. Sen yhteydessä on paljon kahviloita ja ravintoloita, ja se on Montmartren turismin keskus. Aukio sijaitsee Montmartren kukkulan laella, Pariisin korkeimmalla maastonkohdalla, vain parin korttelin päässä Sacré-Coeur-kirkosta. Nimi \"Tertre\" tarkoittaa kumpua. Place du Tertre tunnetaan sitä kansoittavista turisteja palvelevista katutaiteilijoista, kuten muotokuvapiirtäjistä ja varjokuvien leikkaajista. Myös monet 1800- ja 1900-luvun maailmankuulut taiteilijat ovat asuneet aukion läheisyydessä. Aukiolla on nykyään 149 katutaiteilijoille varattua yhden neliömetrin suuruista työskentelypaikkaa.", "Tulsa\nTulsa sijaitsee Arkansas-joen varrella Oklahoman osavaltion koillisosassa. Kaupunki on Tulsan piirikunnan keskus, minkä lisäksi sen hallinnollinen alue käsittää osia Osagen piirikunnasta. Matkaa Oklahoman suurimpaan kaupunkiin Oklahoma Cityyn lounaassa on noin 145 kilometriä. Kaupunkia ympäröivät matalat kukkulat, jotka etenevät kohti Ozarkvuorten juurta.", "Lot (departementti)\nLot [] () on Ranskan departementti numero 46, joka on saanut nimensä Lot-joen mukaan. Departementti sijaitsee Lounais-Ranskassa Midi-Pyrénées’n hallintoalueella. Departementti on pinta-alaltaan 5 217 neliökilometriä, ja siellä on 169 533 asukasta (2006). Lotin pääkaupunki on Cahors. Lot on jaettu edelleen kolmeen arrondissementtiin, 31 kantoniin ja 340 kuntaan.", "Thiers\nThiersin kaupungissa on pitkät perinteet puukkojen ja aterimien valmistuksessa. Tehtaat rakennettiin alakaupunkiin Durollejoen varrelle, jonka vesivoimaa ne hyödynsivät. Yhdessä vanhoista tehtaista sijaitsee nykytaiteenmuseo \"Creux de l'Enfer\". Kaupungissa järjestetään joka kevät suuret \"Coutellia\" -veitsimessut.", "Tour Areva\nTour Areva on Ranskan pääkaupungin Pariisin lähellä La Défensessä sijaitseva pilvenpiirtäjä. Toimistokäytössä oleva rakennus rakennettiin vuosina 1972–1974, ja se yltää 184 metrin korkeuteen. Kerroksia siinä on yhteensä 44. Sen suunnittelusta vastasivat arkkitehdit Roger Saubot ja François Jullien. Pilvenpiirtäjä on täysin musta: Se on päällystetty tummalla graniitilla ja tummennetuilla ikkunoilla.", "Vosges\nVosges [] on Ranskan departementti numero 88. Se on nimetty Vogeesien vuoriston () mukaan. Vosges sijaitsee Koillis-Ranskassa, Lorrainen hallintoalueella. Departementti on pinta-alaltaan 5 874 neliökilometriä, ja siellä on 378 830 asukasta (2011). Vosgesin pääkaupunki on Épinal. Vosges on jaettu edelleen kolmeen arrondissementtiin, 31 kantoniin ja 515 kuntaan.", "Turan\nTuran () on kaupunki Tuvassa, Venäjällä. Se perustettiin vuonna 1885 ja kaupunki se on ollut vuodesta 1945 lähtien. Turan sijaitsee 70 kilometrin päässä Tuvan pääkaupungista Kyzylistä. Kaupungin asukasluku on noin 5 598 (2002). Kaupungissa on muun muassa lentokenttä.", "Laos\nLaos sijaitsee vuoristoisella alueella. Annamin vuoriketju kulkee maan halki pohjoisesta etelään pitkin itäistä, Vietnamin vastaista rajaa. Vuoria on muuallakin, ja pääkaupunki Vientianen pohjoispuolella sijaitsee maan korkein kohta, Phou Bia 2817 metrin korkeudessa merenpinnan yläpuolella. Matalin kohta on 70 metriä merenpinnan yläpuolella. Joet saavat alkunsa näiltä vuorilta, virtaavat idästä länteen ja yhtyvät Mekong-jokeen. Mekong muodostaa osan Burman-vastaisesta rajasta ja suuren osan läntisestä, Thaimaan-vastaisesta rajasta.[15][10]", "Tournain katedraali\nTournain Notre-Damen katedraali on yksi Belgian merkittävimmistä arkkitehtonisista monumenteista. Paikallisesta siniharmaasta kivestä tehty kirkkorakennus kohoaa Scheldejoen eteläisellä törmällä Tournain kaupungissa. Katedraalin rakentaminen aloitettiin 1100-luvulla ja rakennus yhdistää kolmen eri aikakauden tyyliä: päälaiva edustaa raskasta ja karua romaanista arkkitehtuuria, poikkilaiva siirtymävaiheen aikakautta ja kuori goottilaista tyyliä. Poikkilaiva on rakennuksen ominaisin piirre viisine kellotorneineen ja puoliympyrän muotoisine päineen.", "Yaya Touré\nTouré voitti Norsunluurannikon mestaruuden ASEC Mimosas -joukkueessa 2001. Hän aloitti uransa Euroopassa 18-vuotiaana Belgian Beverenissä. Siellä hän pelasi kaksi ja puoli vuotta. Beverenistä Touré siirtyi Ukrainaan ja Metalurh Donetskin joukkueeseen. Puolentoista vuoden jälkeen Touré vaihtoi taas maisemaa ja tällä kertaa hän siirtyi Kreikkaan Olympiakosiin. Siellä hänellä oli joukkuetovereina entisiä tähtiä mm. Rivaldo, ja Olympiakos etenikin Mestarien liigaan. Se voitti Kreikan liiga- ja cupmestaruuden 2006. Kaudelle 2006–2007 Touré siirtyi Ranskan liigaan ja AS Monacoon. Monacossa Touré pelasi Monacon 34 liigapelistä 27:ssä pelissä. ", "Tournai\nUseiden alueliitosten jälkeen Tournai on pinta-alaltaan Belgian suurin kunta. Nykyään kaupungin pinta-alasta onkin maatalouden käytössä noin kaksi kolmannesta. Kaupunki kuuluu Vallonian alueeseen, jonka kansantulo asukasta kohden oli vuonna 2000 vain 78,2 % viidentoista EU-maan keskimääräisestä kansantulosta.", "Territoire de Belfort\nTerritoire de Belfort (ranskaksi virallisesti \"Département du Territoire de Belfort\") on Ranskan departementti numero 90. Se sijaitsee Franche-Comtén alueella, maan itärajalla, Vogeesien vuoriston ja Juravuoriston välissä. Departementti on pinta-alaltaan vain 609 neliökilometriä, ja vuonna 2011 siellä oli noin 143 348 asukasta.\nDepartementin pääkaupunki on Belfort. Departementin pienen koon vuoksi se muodostaa yhden ainoan arrondissementin. Alueella on 15 kantonia, jotka jakautuvat edelleen 102 kuntaan.\nVuoteen 1871 Belfortin seutu muodosti Elsassin alueeseen kuuluvan Haut-Rhinin departementin lounaisimman osan. Ranskan–Preussin sodan jälkeen saksankielinen osa Elsassia liitettiin Saksan keisarikuntaan. Belfortin kaupungin sodassa osoittaman urheuden ja sen väestön ranskankielisyyden vuoksi Belfort ympäristöineen jätettiin kuitenkin Ranskalle ja siitä muodostettiin erityishallintoalue. Tässä tilapäiseksi tarkoitetussa järjestelyssä Belfortin arrondissementiksi kutsutun alueen katsottiin virallisesti yhä kuuluvan Haut-Rhinin departementtiin. Ensimmäisen maailmansodan jälkeen Elsass-Lothringen palautui Ranskalle, mutta Belfortin aluetta ei liitettykään takaisin Haut-Rhinin departementtiin, vaan vuonna 1922 siitä muodostettiin virallisesti oma departementtinsa nimellä \"Territoire de Belfort\". Kun Ranska toisen maailmansodan jälkeen jaettiin hallintoalueisiin, Belfortin departementti liitettiin Franche-Comtéhen eikä Elsassiin, johon se historiallisesti oikeastaan kuuluisi.", "Plessisville\nKaupunki sijaitsee Quebec Route 116 ja 165 ‑teiden varrella, 185 kilometrin päässä Montrealista ja 95 kilometrin päässä Quebecistä. Plessisville tunnetaan lempinimellä ”Maailman vaahterapääkaupunki”; se on isännöinyt vuosittain huhtikuussa järjestettävää \"Maple Festival\" (”Vaahterafestivaali”) ‑tapahtumaa vuodesta 1958. " ]

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[ "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) Cape Verde, the first squadron of Afonso de Albuquerque struck out into the south Atlantic, following the South Atlantic Gyre. Along the way, Albuquerque came across Ascension Island. Although the island had already been discovered back in 1501 by the Third Armada of João da Nova (and named \"ilha da Conceição\" then), Albuquerque renamed it \"ilha da Ascensão\" on account of it being Ascension Day (May 21), the name that has since stuck. Strong south-westerly winds pushed them towards the coast of Brazil, where Albuquerque made a brief stop to take on water (exactly where is uncertain), before making his", "Ascension Island a staging point by the British military during the Falklands War. Ascension Island hosts one of four ground antennas (others are on Kwajalein Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape Canaveral) that assist in the operation of the Global Positioning System (GPS) navigational system. NASA operates a Meter Class Autonomous Telescope (MCAT) on Ascension Island for tracking orbital debris, which is potentially hazardous to operating spacecraft and astronauts, at a facility called the John Africano NASA/AFRL Orbital Debris Observatory. In 1501, the Portuguese navigator Afonso de Albuquerque sighted the island on Ascension Day (which fell on 21 May that year) and named" ]

[ "Portuguese corvette Afonso de Albuquerque (1884) Portuguese corvette Afonso de Albuquerque (1884) The Afonso de Albuquerque (also spelled as \"Afonso d’ Albuquerque) was a sloop or small unprotected cruiser of the Portuguese Navy. In Portuguese service, she was classified as \"corvette\". Launched in 1885, she was named after the 16th-century Portuguese general and governor of India Afonso de Albuquerque. She was decommissioned in 1909. She was a small colonial warship, larger than most gunboats but weaker than a protected cruiser. The term \"sloop\" in the steamship era was used by some navies including the Royal Navy for what were essentially large gunboats. The \"Afonso de Albuquerque\"", "Portuguese corvette Afonso de Albuquerque (1884) resembled in size and performance the Spanish unprotected cruisers of the \"Velasco\" class, which were used for colonial duties (and the unsuccessful defense of Manila Bay in 1898). Portuguese corvette Afonso de Albuquerque (1884) The Afonso de Albuquerque (also spelled as \"Afonso d’ Albuquerque) was a sloop or small unprotected cruiser of the Portuguese Navy. In Portuguese service, she was classified as \"corvette\". Launched in 1885, she was named after the 16th-century Portuguese general and governor of India Afonso de Albuquerque. She was decommissioned in 1909. She was a small colonial warship, larger than most gunboats but weaker than a", "NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) The remainder was sold as scrap. NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) The NRP \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" was a warship of the Portuguese Navy, named after the 16th-century Portuguese navigator Afonso de Albuquerque. She was destroyed in combat on 18 December 1961, defending Goa against the Indian Armed Forces invasion. The ship was the first of the \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" class, which also included the NRP \"Bartolomeu Dias\". These ships were classified, by the Portuguese Navy, as \"avisos coloniais de 1ª classe\" (1st class colonial aviso or sloop) and were designed to maintain a Portuguese naval presence in the Overseas territories", "NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) The NRP \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" was a warship of the Portuguese Navy, named after the 16th-century Portuguese navigator Afonso de Albuquerque. She was destroyed in combat on 18 December 1961, defending Goa against the Indian Armed Forces invasion. The ship was the first of the \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" class, which also included the NRP \"Bartolomeu Dias\". These ships were classified, by the Portuguese Navy, as \"avisos coloniais de 1ª classe\" (1st class colonial aviso or sloop) and were designed to maintain a Portuguese naval presence in the Overseas territories of Portugal. They had limited capacity", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) remain based in Cochin city rather than move to Edapalli. Thus 1503 is commonly cited as the foundation year of the Kingdom of Cochin. In the meantime, Francisco de Albuquerque persuaded Trimumpara Raja to allow the Portuguese to erect and garrison a fortress in Cochin. The timber fortress was named Fort Sant'Iago by Afonso de Albuquerque, in honor of the knightly Order of Santiago to which he belonged (it was also the name of his ship). It was erected in a part of Cochinese peninsula, known to the Portuguese as \"Santa Cruz\" (or \"Cochim-de-Baixo\", 'Lower Cochin', now known as Fort", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) 5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) The Fifth India Armada was assembled in 1503 on the order of King Manuel I of Portugal and placed under the command of Afonso de Albuquerque. It was Albuquerque's first trip to India. It was not a particularly successful armada - navigational mistakes scattered the fleet on the outward journey. Ships spent much time looking for each other and several ended up travelling alone. The vanguard arrived in India just in time to rescue Portuguese-allied ruler of Cochin from a land invasion by the Zamorin of Calicut. Anticipating a new invasion, the armada erected", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) Cochin with an army of some 57,000-84,000 men and 260 vessels, and force Duarte Pacheco and his tiny Portuguese garrison into the incredible heroics of the Battle of Cochin (1504). Secondary 5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) The Fifth India Armada was assembled in 1503 on the order of King Manuel I of Portugal and placed under the command of Afonso de Albuquerque. It was Albuquerque's first trip to India. It was not a particularly successful armada - navigational mistakes scattered the fleet on the outward journey. Ships spent much time looking for each other and several ended up travelling", "Afonso de Albuquerque Afonso de Albuquerque Afonso de Albuquerque, Duke of Goa (; 1453 – 16 December 1515) (also spelled Aphonso or Alfonso), was a Portuguese general, a \"great conqueror\", a statesman, and an empire builder. Afonso advanced the three-fold Portuguese grand scheme of combating Islam, spreading Christianity, and securing the trade of spices by establishing a Portuguese Asian empire. Among his achievements, Afonso managed to conquer the island of Goa and was the first European of his Renaissance to raid the Persian Gulf, and he led the first voyage by a European fleet into the Red Sea. His military and administrative works", "Afonso de Albuquerque Square Afonso de Albuquerque Square Afonso de Albuquerque Square () is a public square in the Belém district of the city of Lisbon, Portugal. The square is located in front of Belém Palace, an early 18th-century palace that nowadays serves as residence for the President of Portugal. The square is named after the Second Governor of Portuguese India Afonso de Albuquerque, and offers the best views of Belém Palace. It has a beautiful monument, in neo-Manueline style, by artists \"Silva Pinto\" and \"Costa Mota tio\", inaugurated in 1902. The monument carries a bronze statue of Afonso de Albuquerque and has reliefs", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) to bolster the Indian Ocean coastal patrol. April 6, 1503 - The first squadron of the 5th Armada, three (or four) ships under Afonso de Albuquerque, departed Lisbon. (Chronicler Diogo do Couto places it in mid-March) April 14, 1503 - The second squadron of the 5th Armada, three ships under Francisco de Albuquerque, departed Lisbon. (Couto places it in early April) Early May, 1503 - The third squadron of the 5th Armada, three ships under António de Saldanha, Rui Lourenço Ravasco and Diogo Fernandes Pereira), departed Lisbon. (Couto places it in mid-April) May 1503 - After making a stop at", "Afonso de Albuquerque asked King Manuel I to leave to the son all his wealth and that the King oversee the son's education. When Afonso died, Manuel I renamed the child \"Afonso\" in his father's memory. Brás Afonso de Albuquerque, or Braz in the old spelling, was born in 1500 and died in 1580. Afonso de Albuquerque Afonso de Albuquerque, Duke of Goa (; 1453 – 16 December 1515) (also spelled Aphonso or Alfonso), was a Portuguese general, a \"great conqueror\", a statesman, and an empire builder. Afonso advanced the three-fold Portuguese grand scheme of combating Islam, spreading Christianity, and securing the trade", "Afonso de Albuquerque to each of the fields in the Portuguese coat-of-arms, Afonso being one of the wings of the griffin headed by Henry the Navigator, the other wing being King John II. A variety of mango that he used to bring on his journeys to India has been named in his honour. Numerous homages have been paid to Afonso; he is featured in the Padrão dos Descobrimentos monument; there is a square carrying his name in the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, which also features a bronze statue; two Portuguese Navy ships have been named in his honour: the sloop NRP \"Afonso de", "NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) November 1942, \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" was in Lourenço Marques when the torpedoed and sank the British troop ship off the coast of Natal Province, South Africa. \"Nova Scotia\" had 1,052 people aboard, most of them Italian prisoners of war or civilian internees, but in accordance with the Laconia Order that Admiral Dönitz had issued two months previously, \"U-177\" left the scene without rescuing survivors. Instead the German \"Befehlshaber der U-Boote\" (BdU) requested help from the Portuguese authorities, who sent \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" to the scene. The ship reached the position the next day, by which time survivors who were in", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) which Empoli probably is) and, a couple of weeks later, by the captain-major Afonso de Albuquerque himself. All three ships of the third squadron (Antonio de Saldanha, Rui Lourenço Ravasco and Diogo Fernandes Pereira) would miss that year's summer monsoon and would only cross the Indian Ocean the next year (1504). The 4th Armada of Vasco da Gama had left India in the early months of 1503 with little resolved. Despite terror, bombardment and blockade, Calicut remained defiant, and the two fledgling Portuguese factories in allied cities - one in Cochin, the other in Cannanore - were vulnerable to her", "NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) and Daman and Diu by force. At the time, \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" was based in Goa as the leading naval unit of the Portuguese India Naval Command, with Captain Cunha Aragão as her commander. Early on the morning of 18 December 1961 \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" received information that the Indian Armed Forces had launched Operation Vijay. Her crew went to battle stations. As the land communication infrastructure was bombed and destroyed by the Indian Air Force, \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" received the responsibility to maintain radio communications between Goa and Lisbon. At 0900, \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" sighted three Indian Navy ships,", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) of 1503, too late to affect the outfitting of the 5th Armada, which had departed that April. So the 5th Armada of Afonso de Albuquerque was assembled and organized without any news of the results of Gama's expedition. It is uncertain exactly what instructions were given to the 5th Armada. The chroniclers report that Albuquerque was given instructions to construct a fort in Cochin, and that one squadron (Saldanha's) was given instructions to remain in Africa, patrolling the mouth of the Red Sea and harassing Arab shipping. But that conclusion was reached with the benefit of hindsight. It is not", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) push across the Atlantic Ocean towards the Cape. May/June 1503 - In the meantime, the Third Squadron was a pilotage disaster. Caught by a storm off Cape Verde, two of the ships, those of António de Saldanha and Rui Lourenço Ravasco, were caught by the equatorial counter-current and sailed by mistake into the Gulf of Guinea. They ended up at São Tomé island, with no idea where their third ship (that of Diogo Fernandes Pereira) might have been. (The story of their subsequent misadventures will be told separately below). June/July 1503 - The second squadron of Francisco de Albuquerque, apparently", "Afonso de Albuquerque is where he would make his greatest impact. When King Manuel I of Portugal was enthroned, he showed some reticence towards Afonso, a close friend of his dreaded predecessor and seventeen years his senior. Eight years later, on 6 April 1503, after a long military career and at a mature age, Afonso was sent on his first expedition to India together with his cousin Francisco de Albuquerque. Each commanded three ships, sailing with Duarte Pacheco Pereira and Nicolau Coelho. They engaged in several battles against the forces of the Zamorin of Calicut (\"Calecute\", Kozhikode) and succeeded in establishing the King", "NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) to combat other surface vessels, as they were intended, mainly, to support amphibious operations and troops on land. After the Second World War, the \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" class ships were reclassified as frigates. In her career \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" served mainly in the Indian and the Pacific oceans, protecting the Portuguese territories of Mozambique, India, Macau and Timor. On 9 September 1936 the crews of the \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" and the destroyer \"Dão\" mutinied while anchored in Lisbon harbour. Opposed to the Salazar dictatorship's support of the Nationalists rebels against the pro-government Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, the sailors", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) if more could be procured there - Quilon having been better connected to Ceylon and points east, its spice supply was not as dependent on the Zamorin's sway and had often invited the Portuguese before. But soon after their departure, Albuquerque heard that the Zamorin of Calicut was preparing a Calicut fleet of some 30 ships for Quilon. Afonso de Albuquerque left Cochin and hurried down to Quilon himself. Albuquerque arrived in Quilon, and instructed the Portuguese factor to hurry his business along, and sought out an audience with the regent-queen of Quilon. They were still docked when the Calicut", "Afonso de Albuquerque many months earlier, and that his reversed decision had been delivered many months too late. After 51 years, in 1566, his body was moved to Nossa Senhora da Graça church in Lisbon, which was ruined and rebuilt after the 1755 Great Lisbon earthquake. King Manuel I of Portugal was belatedly convinced of Afonso's loyalty, and endeavoured to atone for his lack of confidence in Afonso by heaping honours upon his son, Brás de Albuquerque (1500–1580), whom he renamed \"Afonso\" in memory of the father. Afonso de Albuquerque was a prolific writer, having sent numerous letters to the king during his", "NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) led by the Leopard-class frigate , just outside the Mormugao port. The two frigates and a minesweeper were an advance group of a task force which included the aircraft carrier and about ten cruisers, destroyers, frigates and minesweepers. At 1200, as the Portuguese commanders refused to surrender, the INS \"Betwa\" and her sister ship forced the entrance into the port and opened fire on \"Afonso de Albuquerque\", which moved towards the enemy ships and returned fire. At the same time, the final radio message was sent to Lisbon: \"We are being attacked. We are responding.\" \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" was hit", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) In either case, Ataíde remained in Mozambique, where he would die soon after. On his deathbed, Ataíde wrote his final testament, giving a full and exact account of his time in India, including the travails of Vicente Sodré's Indian coastal patrol in 1503 (placing much of the blame for that debacle on the shoulders of Brás Sodré) and condemning the behavior of António do Campo (for refusing to help him and his shipwrecked crew in Mozambique.) Reduced to two ships, Afonso de Albuquerque and Fernão Martins de Almada (Campo having gone on ahead by himself), set sail out of Mozambique", "Afonso de Albuquerque During Afonso's absence from Malacca, Portuguese who opposed the taking of Goa had waived its possession, even writing to the King that it would be best to let it go. Held up by the monsoon and with few forces available, Afonso had to wait for the arrival of reinforcement fleets headed by his nephew D. Garcia de Noronha, and Jorge de Mello Pereira. While at Cochin, Albuquerque started a school. In a private letter to King Manuel I, he states that he had found a chest full of books with which to teach the children of married Portuguese settlers (\"casados\")", "Afonso de Albuquerque and established the first European permanent settlement on Chinese soil, which served as a permanent colonial base in southern China, and the two empires maintained an exchange in culture and trade for nearly 500 years. The longest empire in history (1515–1999), begun by Afonso de Albuquerque five centuries earlier, ended when Portugal ceded the government of Macau to China. Afonso de Albuquerque pioneered trade relations with Thailand, and was as such the first recorded European to contact Thailand. Afonso de Albuquerque had a bastard son with an unrecorded woman. He legitimized the boy in February 1506. Before his death, he", "Afonso de Albuquerque with Duarte Fernandes as envoy, and with Timor, passing through Malaysia and Indonesia in a voyage headed by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão. He also aided diplomatic relations with Ethiopia using priest envoys João Gomes and João Sanches, and established diplomatic ties with Persia, during the Safavid dynasty. He became known as \"the Great\", \"the Terrible\", \"the Caesar of the East\", \"the Lion of the Seas\", and \"the Portuguese Mars\". Afonso de Albuquerque was born in 1453 in Alhandra, near Lisbon. He was the second son of Gonçalo de Albuquerque, Lord of Vila Verde dos Francos, and Dona Leonor", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) of nine (in some accounts ten) ships split up into three squadrons. The first squadron was led by Afonso de Albuquerque, the second by his cousin Francisco de Albuquerque and the third by António de Saldanha. The exact composition of the three squadrons differs in the various accounts. The following list of ships should not be regarded as authoritative, but a tentative list compiled from various conflicting accounts. [Almost all Portuguese chronicles suggest that the first squadron was composed only of three ships. However, the account of Italian passenger Giovanni da Empoli, the only eyewitness account of this armada, claims", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) the others, for fear of missing the summer southwesterly monsoon winds to take them across to India - a delay which could add as much as an extra year to their journey (see Portuguese India Armadas). So the Indian Ocean crossing of the 5th Armada was to be done in separate waves. The second squadron, the ships of Francisco de Albuquerque and Nicolau Coelho, were the first to cross the Indian Ocean in August 1503. They were followed soon after by the solitary ship of Duarte Pacheco Perreira (of the first squadron), followed soon after by d'Almada's \"São Cristóvão\" (on", "3rd Portuguese India Armada (Nova, 1501) which he names \"Ilha da Conceição\" (\"Conception Island\", it was only named \"ilha da Ascensção\" in 1503, when it was re-discovered by Afonso de Albuquerque. However, see discussion below.) July 7, 1501 - After crossing the Cape of Good Hope without known incident, João da Nova's fleet anchors at Mossel Bay (\"Aguada de São Brás\"). There, in a shoe by the watering hole, Nova finds the note left a month or so earlier by Pêro de Ataíde, one of the captains of the returning Second Armada. Ataíde's note warns all captains bound for India that Calicut is now hostile to", "Afonso de Albuquerque Guinea, the \"Island of the Papua\". Through Afonso's diplomatic activities, Portugal opened the sea between Europe and China. As early as 1513, Jorge de Albuquerque, a Portuguese commanding officer in Malacca, sent his subordinate Jorge Álvares to sail to China on a ship loaded with pepper from Sumatra. After sailing across the sea, Jorge Álvares and his crew dropped anchor in Tamao, an island located at the mouth of the Pearl River. This was the first Portuguese to set foot in the territory known as China, the mythical \"Middle Kingdom\" where they erected a stone Padrão. Álvares is the first", "Afonso de Albuquerque are generally regarded as among the most vital to building and securing the Portuguese Empire in the Orient, the Middle East, and the spice routes of eastern Oceania. Afonso is generally considered a military genius, and \"probably the greatest naval commander of the age\" given his successful strategy—he attempted to close all the Indian Ocean naval passages to the Atlantic, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and to the Pacific, transforming it into a Portuguese \"mare clausum\" established over the opposition of the Ottoman Empire and its Muslim and Hindu allies. In the expansion of the Portuguese Empire, Afonso initiated a rivalry", "Afonso de Albuquerque his captains to decide the main matters affecting the Portuguese State of India. He wrote a brief letter to King Manuel, asking him to confer onto his natural son \"all of the high honors and rewards\" that were justly due to Afonso. He wrote in dignified and affectionate terms, assuring Manuel of his loyalty. On 16 December 1515, Afonso de Albuquerque died within sight of Goa. As his death was known, in the city \"grait wailing arose\", and many took to the streets to witness his body carried on a chair by his main captains, in a procession lit by", "Afonso de Albuquerque Albuquerque\" (1884) and the warship NRP \"Afonso de Albuquerque\", the latter belonging to a sloop class named Albuquerque. The fabled Spice Islands were on the imagination of Europe since ancient times. In the 2nd century AD, the Malay Peninsula was known by the Greek philosopher Ptolemy, who labeled it 'Aurea Chersonesus\"; and who said that it was believed the fabled area held gold in abundance. Even Indian traders referred to the East Pacific region as \"Land of Gold\" and made regular visits to Malaya in search of the precious metal, tin and sweet scented jungle woods. But neither Ptolemy, nor", "João Afonso de Albuquerque his wife and their only son were subsequently buried. Between 1323 and 1324, he married his cousin Isabel Téllez de Meneses, the tenth Lady of Meneses, and daughter of Tello Alfonso de Meneses and Maria of Portugal, granddaughter of Afonso III of Portugal. One son was born of this marriage: João Afonso de Albuquerque had several children out of wedkock with Maria Rodrigues Barba, daughter of Rui Martins Barba and Iria Martins Alardo: He had another son with María Gil: João Afonso de Albuquerque João Afonso de Albuquerque, (28 September 1354), Juan Alfonso de Alburquerque in Spanish and nicknamed \"o", "NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) the water had either drowned or been eaten by sharks. Five survivors fired a distress flare and were rescued by the ship. The next day \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" found herself surrounded by hundreds of floating corpses. In all the ship rescued 130 Italian internees, 42 guards, 17 crew members, three military and naval personnel, one DEMS gunner and one passenger. 858 people were lost: 650 Italian internees, 96 crew members, 88 South African guards, 10 DEMS gunners, eight military and naval personnel, five passengers, and \"Nova Scotia\"s master. In December 1941 Australian and Dutch forces occupied Portuguese Timor with the", "NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) as a shore battery. The crew continued to resist and fight until about the 1410. The crew was captured by Indian forces on the next day at 20.30. It is estimated that during her last combat \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" fired almost 400 shells. Five of her crew were killed and 13 were wounded. The advantage of the Indian Navy was significant, as their ships were more modern. \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" lay grounded at the beach near Dona Paula until 1962 when she was refloated and towed to Bombay. Parts of the ship are on display at a museum in Mumbai.", "Afonso de Albuquerque and Christian converts to read and write which, according to Albuquerque, there were about a hundred in his time, \"all very sharp and easily learn what they are taught\". On 10 September 1512, Afonso sailed from Cochin to Goa with fourteen ships carrying 1,700 soldiers. Determined to recapture the fortress, he ordered trenches dug and a wall breached. But on the day of the planned final assault, Rasul Khan surrendered. Afonso demanded the fort be handed over with its artillery, ammunition and horses, and the deserters to be given up. Some had joined Rasul Khan when the Portuguese were forced", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) ships, separated ships — could not have reflected well on Afonso de Albuquerque's reputation as an admiral, particularly when contrasted with the follow-up 6th Armada, whose admiral Lopo Soares de Albergaria kept a very disciplined fleet and suffered minimal losses. This may have been a factor that prevented the appointment of Albuquerque to command another armada; he joined the 8th India Armada (Cunha, 1506), but only as the head of a squadron subordinate to the overall command of Tristão da Cunha. Yet, despite his apparent shortcomings as a fleet admiral, Albuquerque was appointed the second governor of Portuguese India, so", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) 1507-08 and Malacca in 1511 have since overshadowed his shaky start. The loss of Francisco de Albuquerque and Nicolau Coelho weighed heavily in court, and in late 1505, a small search-and-rescue mission led by Cide Barbudo was sent out to scour the South African coast for their traces. None were found. Of the seven ships of the 4th Armada which had been left behind in the Indian Ocean by Vasco da Gama in early 1503, one returned (Campo), two were lost (Sodré brothers), two remained in India (Pires, Rafael) and the fate of two is uncertain (Bardaças, Ataide's original caravel).", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) captain Nicolau Coelho (the old veteran of Gama's 1497 expedition and Cabral's 1500 armada). The third captain is uncertain (possibly Fernão Rodrigues Bardaças, one of the patrol captains?). They would never be heard from again. It is presumed that F. de Albuquerque and Nicolau Coelho were caught by bad currents in the Mozambique Channel and shipwrecked or sunk off the coast of South Africa. A rescue expedition would be launched in late 1505 (under Cide Barbubo & Pedro Quaresma) to search for them. In February 1504, Afonso de Albuquerque's squadron made its first stop at Mozambique Island. But things had", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) East Africa by himself, Afonso de Albuquerque, captain-major of the 5th Armada, crossed the Indian Ocean and arrived in Cochin (just in the nick of time - as the monsoon was on the point of reversing.) Hearing of the events that had occurred in the past month, Afonso immediately assumed command from his cousin, Francisco, and oversaw the finalization of the construction of Fort Sant'Iago and the arrangements with the Trimumpara Raja of Cochin. The new priority taken up by Afonso de Albuquerque was the preparation of the return fleet - that is, loading up spices. The siege of Cochin", "Afonso de Albuquerque de Menezes. His father held an important position at court and was connected by remote illegitimate descent with the Portuguese monarchy. He was educated in mathematics and Latin at the court of Afonso V of Portugal, where he befriended Prince John, the future King John II of Portugal. Afonso's early training is described by Diogo Barbosa Machado: \"“D. Alfonso de Albuquerque, surnamed the Great, by reason of the heroic deeds wherewith he filled Europe with admiration, and Asia with fear and trembling, was born in the year 1453, in the Estate called, for the loveliness of its situation, the Paradise", "Afonso de Albuquerque European to reach Chinese land by sea, and, the first European to enter Hong Kong. In 1514 Afonso de Albuquerque, the Viceroy of the Estado da India dispatched Rafael Perestrello to sail to China in order to pioneer European trade relations with the Chinese nation. Rafael Perestrelo was quoted as saying, \"being a very good and honest people, the Chinese hope to make friends with the Portuguese.\" In spite of initial harmony and excitement between the two empires, difficulties soon arose. Portugal's efforts in establishing lasting ties with China did pay off in the long run; the Portuguese colonized Macau,", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) one nau, the \"Concepção\". January 30, 1504 - Noting that his cousin Francisco de Albuquerque was still delayed loading up with spices at Cannanore, Afonso de Albuqurque decided to divide the fleet into two return squadrons. Afonso de Albuquerque set out with the first squadron for Portugal, which included the ships of Fernão Martins de Almada (probably carrying Giovanni da Empoli), Pêro de Ataíde (bringing back Duarte Pacheco's ship) and the ship of António do Campo (overhang from the 4th Armada). However Barros (p. 97) suggests António do Campo was sent out earlier, ahead of the others, to urgently report", "Afonso de Albuquerque discovering their sea routes. Afonso found what had evaded Columbus' grasp – the wealth of the Orient. His discoveries did not go unnoticed, and it took little time for Magellan to arrive in the same region a few years later and discover the Philippines for Spain, giving birth to the Papal Treaty of Zaragoza. Afonso's operations sent a voyage pushing further south which made the European discovery of Timor in the far south of Oceania, and the discovery of Papua New Guinea in 1512. This was followed up by another Portuguese, Jorge de Menezes in 1526, who named Papua New", "Afonso de Albuquerque to Vijayanagara and Hindu princes in return for their assistance. Afonso explained to his armies why the Portuguese wanted to capture Malacca: In February 1511, through a friendly Hindu merchant, Nina Chatu, Afonso received a letter from Rui de Araújo, one of the nineteen Portuguese held at Malacca since 1509. It urged moving forward with the largest possible fleet to demand their release, and gave details of the fortifications. Afonso showed it to Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos, as an argument to advance in a joint fleet. In April 1511, after fortifying Goa, he gathered a force of about 900 Portuguese,", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) that is, Francisco de Albuquerque and Nicolau Coelho. Finishing repairs, Albuquerque placed the patrol caravels under his command and set sail south towards Cannanore. Along the way, they were caught up by the ship of Duarte Pacheco Pereira (of the first squadron of the 5th Armada, who had undertaken a solo crossing of the Ocean - the captain-major Afonso de Albuquerque probably decided to remain behind in Malindi as long as possible, to see if Saldanha's third squadron showed up). By this time, as promised, the Zamorin of Calicut had reassembled his army and resumed the siege of Cochin (or", "Afonso de Albuquerque Rome, nor Alexander was able to see the fabled regions of the East Pacific. Afonso de Albuquerque became the first European to reach the Spice Islands. Upon discovering the Malay Archipelago, he proceeded in 1511 to conquer Malacca, then commissioned an expedition under the command of António de Abreu and Vice-Commander Francisco Serrão (the latter being a cousin of Magellan) to further explore the extremities of the region in east Indonesia. As a result of these voyages of exploration, the Portuguese became the first Europeans to discover and to reach the fabled Spice Islands in the Indies in addition to", "Afonso de Albuquerque Manuel\" According to Brás de Albuquerque, it was Shah Ismael who coined the term \"Lion of the seas\", addressing Albuquerque as such. Afonso began building the Fort of Our Lady of Victory (later renamed Fort of Our Lady of the Conception), engaging his men of all ranks in the work. However, some of his officers revolted against the heavy work and climate and, claiming that Afonso was exceeding his orders, departed for India. With the fleet reduced to two ships and left without supplies, he was unable to maintain this position for long. Forced to abandon Ormuz in January 1508,", "Afonso de Albuquerque the bridge in the evening. After fruitlessly waiting for the Sultan's reaction, they returned to the ships and prepared a junk (offered by Chinese merchants), filling it with men, artillery and sandbags. Commanded by António de Abreu, it sailed upriver at high tide to the bridge. The day after, all had landed. After a fierce fight during which the Sultan appeared with an army of war elephants, the defenders were dispersed and the Sultan fled. Afonso waited for the reaction of the Sultan. Merchants approached, asking for Portuguese protection. They were given banners to mark their premises, a sign that", "Portuguese Navy eight frigates and five other ships. The Portuguese naval forces comprised only three small patrol boats, one each in Goa, Daman and Diu, and the old sloop , based in Goa. Besides its mission of facing the enemy naval units, \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" was also tasked with serving as coastal battery for the defense of the Mormugao harbor, as well as providing vital radio communications with Lisbon after on-shore radio facilities had been destroyed in Indian air-strikes. \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" engaged in the last conventional battle fought by the Portuguese Navy to the present day, when, at the 12h00 of", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) Cochin. On the other hand, the chroniclers also report difficulties in finding enough spice supplies to load up the ships, and so Albuquerque may have opened up negotiations in an effort to have the pepper blockade relaxed so they could load up their ships and maybe even secure a modicum of peace for the Portuguese factories after the armada leaves. Whomever initiated it, the peace terms were soon agreed upon in mid-December 1503: the Zamorin is to deliver 1500 \"bahars\" of pepper as compensation for the Portuguese factory in Calicut, to expel the Arab merchants from Calicut (some say only", "Peros Banhos in the geography of this atoll since the first maps were published in the mid-19th century. Île St. Brandon, which was covered with coconut trees when the first survey of this atoll was done, is now just a sandbank. On the other hand, in the western rim of Peros Banhos, the island north of Île Verte was only a small sandbank at the time of Commander Robert Moresby's Survey in 1837, but now it is a medium-sized island covered with vegetation. Peros Banhos was discovered in 1513 by Portuguese navigator Afonso de Albuquerque. The name of this atoll derives from", "Afonso de Albuquerque Square about his life. The site of the square used to be a harbour, built in 1753. In 1807, Queen Mary I, Prince John VI and the royal family fled Lisbon from this harbour to Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil, to escape the Napoleonic troops which had invaded Portugal. Notable buildings include Belém Palace and the Nacional Coach Museum. Afonso de Albuquerque Square Afonso de Albuquerque Square () is a public square in the Belém district of the city of Lisbon, Portugal. The square is located in front of Belém Palace, an early 18th-century palace that nowadays serves as residence for", "Afonso de Albuquerque of the Town of Alhandra, six leagues distant from Lisbon. He was the second son of Gonçalo de Albuquerque, Lord of Villaverde, and of D. Leonor de Menezes, daughter of D. Álvaro Gonçalves de Athayde, Count of Atouguia, and of his wife D. Guiomar de Castro, and corrected this injustice of nature by climbing to the summit of every virtue, both political and moral. He was educated in the Palace of the King D. Afonso V, in whose palaestra he strove emulously to become the rival of that African Mars”. Afonso served 10 years in North Africa, where he gained", "Fort of Our Lady of the Conception Portuguese commander Afonso de Albuquerque in 1507, when his forces seized the island for a short time, being then named \"Fort of Our Lady of Victory\" (\"Forte de Nossa Senhora da Vitória\"). Engaging his men of all ranks in the building works, Albuquerque faced a revolt and had to retreat. He came back and reconquered the island in 1515, when he completed and renamed the fort. The Persian Safavid king, Abbas I of Persia (1587–1629), wanted to end Portuguese rule in the south and eventually managed to convince the British East India Company to allow its ships to cooperate with", "Portuguese conquest of Goa Portuguese conquest of Goa The Portuguese conquest of Goa occurred when the governor of Portuguese India Afonso de Albuquerque captured the city in 1510. Goa was not among the cities Albuquerque had received orders to conquer: he had only been ordered by the Portuguese king to capture Hormuz, Aden and Malacca. On November 4, 1509, Afonso de Albuquerque succeeded Dom Francisco de Almeida as Governor of the Portuguese State of India, after the arrival in India of the Marshal of Portugal Dom Fernando Coutinho, sent by King Manuel to enforce the orderly succession of Albuquerque to office. Unlike Almeida, Albuquerque", "Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe São Tomé and Príncipe islands were a colony of the Portuguese Empire from its discovery in 1470 until 1975, when independence was granted by Portugal. The Portuguese explorers João de Santarém and Pêro Escobar discovered the islands around 1470, which they found uninhabited. The São Tomé island was named by the Portuguese in honor of Saint Thomas, as they discovered the island on his feast day, while the Príncipe island (Prince's island) was named in honor of Afonso, Prince of Portugal, his father's favorite. The first attempt of settlement in the islands began in 1485,", "João Afonso de Albuquerque João Afonso de Albuquerque João Afonso de Albuquerque, (28 September 1354), Juan Alfonso de Alburquerque in Spanish and nicknamed \"o do Ataúde\", 6th Lord of Alburquerque, was a member of the highest ranks of the nobility of the Kingdom of Portugal, an astute politician, and descendant from the royal houses of both Portugal and Castile, although through illegitimate lines. Count of Alburquerque, Lord of Azagala, Codosera, Alconchel, Medellín, Meneses and Tiedra, he was the \"Alférez\" of King Alfonso XI of Castile and Leon (13331336), Chancellor of Castile between 1350 and 1353, and Mayordomo mayor of \"Infante\" Peter, later King Peter", "NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) confined their officers and declared their solidarity with the Spanish Republic. As the ships were leaving the Tejo estuary they were fired upon by the batteries from the forts and both the \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" and the \"Dão\" received direct hits and were grounded. Some of the sailors were killed while trying to flee, but most of the sailors were arrested and sent to the penal colony of Tarrafal in Portuguese Cape Verde. After the mutiny was put down the government claimed that the sailors had prepared to sail to Spain in order to assist the Spanish Republic. On 28", "Afonso de Albuquerque to Persia. Miguel Ferreira was sent via Ormuz to Tabriz, where he had several interviews with the shah about common goals on defeating the Mamluk sultan. At the same time, Albuquerque decided to conclude the effective conquest of Hormuz. He had learned that after the Portuguese retreat in 1507, a young king was reigning under the influence of a powerful Persian vizier, Reis Hamed, whom the king greatly feared. At Ormuz in March 1515, Afonso met the king and asked the vizier to be present. He then had him immediately stabbed and killed by his entourage, thus \"freeing\" the dominated", "João Afonso de Albuquerque I of Castile, who is suspected of having him poisoned in 1354. His father, Afonso Sanches, was the firstborn and favorite son of King Dinis I of Portugal who had him out of wedlock with Aldonza Rodrigues Telha. Teresa Martins de Meneses, his mother, was the daughter of João Afonso Telo, the first count of Barcelos, and of Teresa Sánchez, an illegitimate daughter of Sancho IV the Brave, king of Castile and León. Teresa survived her husband by almost twenty years. João Afonso de Albuquerque was raised in Lisbon at the house of João Simão de Urrô who in 1314", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) their handful of crew and leaking hulls. They were well received. Albuquerque is said to have presented some splendid specimens of Persian horses acquired in the Indian markets to the king. By and large, the 5th Armada was a disaster. Of the ten ships that set out, only two were known to have returned on time (Afonso de Albuquerque, Fernão Martins de Almada). Two were lost around the Cape on the outgoing voyage (\"Catharina Dias\" and the ship of Vaz da Veiga), two ships were lost on the return (F. Albuquerque, Coelho) and a third (the ship captained by Ataíde)", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) Kochi), just a little northwest of the old city of Cochin proper (\"Cochim-de-Cima\", 'Upper Cochin', now Mattancherry) (the seat of Trimumpara Raja). Fort Sant'Iago was the first Portuguese fort in Asia. The timber would be replaced by stone in 1505 by Francisco de Almeida and renamed \"Fort Manuel\" (after the Portuguese king). The Portuguese were also given permission to erect what is arguably the first Roman Catholic church in Asia, \"São Bartolomeu\", within the fort in 1504 (later rebuilt in stone and rededicated several times, it currently stands as St. Francis church in Kochi). October, 1503 - Setting out from", "Afonso Sanches, Lord of Albuquerque Afonso Sanches, Lord of Albuquerque Afonso Sanches, Lord of Albuquerque (1289-1329; also known as Alfonso Sanches) was a Medieval nobleman, Lord of Cerva and Alburquerque. Born in Portugal, he was the firstborn and favorite son of King Denis of Portugal and Aldonça Rodrigues Talha. Afonso was married to Teresa Martins Telo, daughter of João Afonso Telo, the first count of Barcelos, and of Teresa Sánchez, an illegitimate daughter of Sancho IV the Brave, king of Castile and León.. He was the half brother of Afonso IV. They were the parents of João Afonso de Albuquerque. Afonso and his wife Teresa", "4th Portuguese India Armada (Gama, 1502) discovered the previous year by João da Nova's Third Armada). Vasco da Gama's main fleet arrives in Lisbon in September, 1503. Gama delivers his report, noting his failure to bring the Zamorin of Calicut to terms, and urging the immediate outfitting of a strong fleet to establish strong permanent Portuguese garrisons to protect the allied cities of Cochin and Cannanore. Gama arrives too late to affect the outfitting of the 5th Armada, which had already departed in April, 1503 under the command of Afonso de Albuquerque. But his recommendation will guide the formation of the next one, the 6th Armada,", "João Afonso da Costa de Sousa de Macedo, 1st Duke of Albuquerque João Afonso da Costa de Sousa de Macedo, 1st Duke of Albuquerque \"Dom\" João Afonso da Costa de Sousa de Macedo (February 11, 1815 – September 24, 1890) was the 2nd Count of Mesquitela and 1st Duke of Albuquerque. Born and died in Lisbon, he was son of Luís da Costa de Sousa de Macedo e Albuquerque, the 1st Count of Mesquitela and Maria Inácia de Saldanha Oliveira e Daun, from the family of Marquis of Pombal. After his studies in the Nobility College (\"Colégio dos Nobres\") in Lisbon, he travelled around Europe (visiting Spain, France, and England) and was", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) for Lisbon. They were unaware of the tragic fate of the squad of Francisco de Albuquerque and Nicolau Coelho (and possibly unaware of Ataíde too). Almada's ship began to have trouble, and they were forced to make a stop at the watering hole of São Brás (Mossel Bay) (there, Albuquerque found a message from António de Saldanha, the captain of the third squadron, saying that he had been there the previous October). While at São Brás, they realized that the ship of Albuquerque had rotted through and they were forced into lengthy repairs. On May 1, 1504, Afonso de Albuquerque", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) rather Vypin island, Cochin itself being a smoldering ruins). Receiving the alarming news at Cannanore, Francisco de Albuquerque wasted no time and rushed his fleet of eight ships - the three of the 5th Armada, the four caravels of the old coastal patrol plus Campo - down to relieve Cochin. Francisco de Albuquerque's makeshift squadron arrived at Cochin, to find the Trimumpara Raja and the Portuguese factor Diogo Fernandes Correia once again holed up in Vypin island, besieged by the armies of Calicut. Seeing the approaching fleet, the besieging army began to dissolve. Fearing Portuguese retribution, the auxiliary troops (of", "Afonso de Albuquerque the powerful Javanese merchant Utimuti Raja who, after being appointed to a position in the Portuguese administration as representative of the Javanese population, had maintained contacts with the exiled royal family. Afonso arranged for the shipping of many Órfãs d'El-Rei to Portuguese Malacca. On 20 November 1511 Afonso sailed from Malacca to the coast of Malabar on the old \"Flor de la Mar\" carrack that had served to support the conquest of Malacca. Despite its unsound condition, he used it to transport the treasure amassed in the conquest, given its large capacity. He wanted to give the court of King", "7th Portuguese India Armada (Almeida, 1505) when the armada was absent, the Portuguese factories were very vulnerable. The armies of the Zamorin of Calicut had nearly overrun Cochin twice in the intervening years. The Fifth Armada (1503) under Afonso de Albuquerque had erected a small timber fortress, (Fort Sant'Iago, soon to be renamed Fort Manuel), to protect the factory in Cochin. The Sixth Armada (1504), under Lopo Soares de Albergaria had dropped off a larger Portuguese garrison and a small coastal patrol to harass Calicut and protect the allied cities. But this was not nearly enough against a Zamorin that could call on an army of", "NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (1934) stated purpose of defending the territory against possible Japanese invasion. In February 1942, in response to the Australian and Dutch occupation, Japanese forces invaded Timor. Japanese forces occupied Timor until the end of the Second World War, at the end of which Portugal sent a naval and military expedition to re-occupy and reconstruct East Timor. \"Afonso de Albuquerque\" escorted the troopship \"Angola\", which carried the first Portuguese troops of the expedition, reaching Timor on 29 September 1945. Late in 1961, unable to convince Portugal to relinquish its integrated territories in the Indian subcontinent, India launched Operation Vijay to seize Goa", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) fleet arrived, carrying an embassy from the Zamorin with the mission to persuade (or intimidate) Quilon from abandoning the Portuguese. The regent queen of Quilon rejected the Zamorin's request, but also forbade Albuquerque from engaging in hostilities in the harbor. Albuquerque, realizing Quilon was the only spice supply he had access to, acceded to her request. Albuquerque resigned himself to negotiating a commercial treaty and establishing a permanent Portuguese factory in Quilon (the third in India), placing it under factor António de Sá, with two assistants and twenty armed men to protect the factory. That settled, Albuquerque returned to Cochin", "João Afonso de Albuquerque of Badajoz and occupied Ciudad Rodrigo. A few days after the successful occupation of Medina del Campo by the rebels, João Afonso de Albuquerque died suddenly in that city in 1354, most probably poisoned, according to Pero López de Ayala, by a physician, following the orders of King Peter I, who gave him a poisonous potion. After his death, the King's rivals carried his coffin throughout the kingdom and they did not bury him until King Peter I was defeated. His final resting place was the Monastery of Santa María de la Santa Espina in the province of Valladolid where", "Exploration of the Pacific was made by the Portuguese expeditions of António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão, via the Lesser Sunda Islands, to the Maluku Islands, in 1512, and with Jorge Álvares's expedition to southern China in 1513, both ordered by Afonso de Albuquerque from Malacca. Spanish explorer Balboa was the first European to sight the Pacific from America in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached a new ocean. He named it \"Mar del Sur\" (literally, \"Sea of the South\" or \"South Sea\") because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first", "Afonso de Albuquerque king, so the island in the Persian Gulf yielded to him without resistance and remained a vassal state of the Portuguese Empire. Ormuz itself would not be Persian territory for another century, until a British-Persian alliance finally expelled the Portuguese in 1622. At Ormuz, Afonso met with Miguel Ferreira, returning with rich presents and an ambassador, carrying a letter from the Persian potentate Shah Ismael, inviting Afonso to become a leading lord in Persia. There he remained, engaging in diplomatic efforts, receiving envoys and overseeing the construction of the new fortress, while becoming increasingly ill. His illness was reported as", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) there were four and gives their names and tonnages as listed above. The list of captains is principally based on João de Barros's \"Décadas\", Damião de Gois's \"Chronica\", Castanheda's \"História\", Faria e Sousa's \"Asia\" and Quintella's \"Annaes da Marinha\". The \"Relação das Naus da Índia\" swaps around Fernão Martins de Almada and Pedro Vaz da Veiga The chronicle of Gaspar Correia places nephew Vicente Albuquerque (son of Francisco?) in command of one of the naus of the first squadron, shunting Almada to the second squadron, in place of Vaz da Veiga (who is omitted).] Afonso de Albuquerque and his cousin", "Afonso de Albuquerque he remained under what he considered to be imprisonment. In September 1509, Sequeira tried to establish contact with the Sultan of Malacca but failed, leaving behind 19 Portuguese prisoners. Afonso was released after three months' confinement, on the arrival at Cannanore of the Marshal of Portugal with a large fleet. The Portuguese Marshal was the most important Portuguese noble ever to visit India and he brought an armada of fifteen ships and 3,000 men sent by the King to defend Afonso's rights, and to take Calicut. On 4 November 1509, Afonso became the second Governor of the State of India,", "João Afonso da Costa de Sousa de Macedo, 1st Duke of Albuquerque Duke of Saldanha, who promised him the title of Duke. As he was not a politician, he refused both the post and the title. He was a remarkable and very considered person in Portuguese society, and King Luis I of Portugal, by a royal decree dated from May 19, 1886, granted him the title of Duke of Albuquerque. He did not marry nor had any issue. He was peerage both in United Kingdom and in Portugal: \"Nobreza de Portugal e Brasil\" - Vol II, page 215. Published by Zairol Lda., Lisbon 1989 João Afonso da Costa de Sousa de Macedo,", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) having had a generally less troubled trip than the others, was the first to round the Cape of Good Hope - albeit losing one ship, that of Pedro Vaz da Veiga, in the process. Francisco Albuquerque's squadron seems to have been the first of the three squadrons to arrive on the East African coast (Malindi). August, 1503 - Afonso de Albuquerque's first squadron rounded the Cape of Good Hope, tossed by terrible storms. According to Empoli (p. 222), the \"Catharina Dias\" was sunk, and the remainder were separated. The ship Empoli was on (probably d'Almada's) was forced to stop in", "Afonso de Albuquerque 200 Hindu mercenaries and about eighteen ships. He then sailed to Malacca against orders and despite the protest of Diogo Mendes, who claimed command of the expedition. Afonso eventually centralized the Portuguese government in the Indian Ocean. After the Malaccan conquest he wrote a letter to the King to explain his disagreement with Diogo Mendes, suggesting that further divisions could be harmful to the Portuguese in India. Under his command was Ferdinand Magellan, who had participated in the failed embassy of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in 1509. After a false start towards the Red Sea, they sailed to the Strait", "Fajã de Fernando Afonso Fajã de Fernando Afonso The Fajã de Fernando Afonso is a permanent debris field, built from the collapsing cliffs on the northern coast of the civil parish of Rosais, in the municipality of Velas, island of São Jorge, in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores. The fajã was named for an early settler that occupied a home at the base of the cliff. Following the 1 January 1980 earthquake the area was temporarily abandoned, owing to its instability and the aftershocks. Because of the danger, farmers returned to the area to only cultivate their small vineyards. A subsequent aftershock was", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) had disrupted the spice markets, and the Zamorin of Calicut had used his authority in the Kerala hinterlands to cut off the supply of pepper to the Portuguese-allied cities of Cochin and Cannanore. Nonetheless, attracted by profit, pepper ships from the Kerala backwaters continued arriving in Cochin. It is at this point that peace feelers were sent through the backchannels between the Zamorin and the Portuguese captain Francisco de Albuquerque. Some Portuguese chroniclers assert it was initiated by the Zamorin, alarmed at the erection of the fort and frustrated by his apparent inability to shut down the pepper supply to", "Age of Discovery hypothetical continent. Juan Fernandez, sailing from Chile in 1576, claimed he had discovered the Southern Continent. Luis Váez de Torres, a Galician navigator working for the Spanish Crown, proved the existence of a passage south of New Guinea, now known as Torres Strait. Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, a Portuguese navigator sailing for the Spanish Crown, saw a large island south of New Guinea in 1606, which he named La Australia del Espiritu Santo. He represented this to the King of Spain as the Terra Australis incognita. In fact, it was not Australia but an island in present-day Vanuatu. Dutch navigator", "Infant Jesus Cathedral Infant Jesus Cathedral The Infant Jesus Cathedral is a historic Roman Catholic church established by Portuguese during 1614, situated at Tangasseri in the city of Quilon (Kollam), India. It is now the cathedral i.e the Seat of the Bishop of Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon, the ancient and first catholic diocese of India. The Church remains as a memento of the Portuguese rule of old Quilon city. The history of Infant Jesus Cathedral dates back to 1503 when Tangasseri came under the control of the Portuguese. The Portuguese who came to Quilon in 1503 led by Afonso de Albuquerque made", "Portuguese conquest of Goa intended Goa to be the center of the Portuguese Empire in Asia, it was only in 1530 that governor Nuno da Cunha transferred the viceregal court from Cochin to Goa, thus officially making Goa the capital of the Portuguese State of India until 1961. Portuguese conquest of Goa The Portuguese conquest of Goa occurred when the governor of Portuguese India Afonso de Albuquerque captured the city in 1510. Goa was not among the cities Albuquerque had received orders to conquer: he had only been ordered by the Portuguese king to capture Hormuz, Aden and Malacca. On November 4, 1509, Afonso", "Afonso de Albuquerque with a Siamese envoy bearing gifts and letters to Afonso and the King of Portugal. In November, after having secured Malacca and learning the location of the then secret \"spice islands\", Afonso sent three ships to find them, led by trusted António de Abreu with deputy commander Francisco Serrão. Malay sailors were recruited to guide them through Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands and the Ambon Island to Banda Islands, where they arrived in early 1512. There they remained for a month, buying and filling their ships with nutmeg and cloves. António de Abreu then sailed to Amboina whilst Serrão sailed", "Afonso de Albuquerque to flee Goa in May 1510, others during the recent siege. Rasul Khan consented, on condition that their lives be spared. Afonso agreed and he left Goa. He did spare the lives of the deserters, but had them horribly mutilated. One such renegade was Fernão Lopes, bound for Portugal in custody, who escaped at the island of Saint Helena and led a 'Robinson Crusoe' life for many years. After such measures the town became the most prosperous Portuguese settlement in India. In December 1512 an envoy from Ethiopia arrived at Goa. Mateus was sent by the regent queen Eleni, following", "Portuguese Empire hostilities with Muslims within those regions and threats from the Mamluk sultan. A Portuguese fleet under the command of Tristão da Cunha and Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Socotra at the entrance of the Red Sea in 1506 and Muscat in 1507. Having failed to conquer Ormuz, they instead followed a strategy intended to close off commerce to and from the Indian Ocean. Madagascar was partly explored by Cunha, and Mauritius was discovered by Cunha whilst possibly being accompanied by Albuquerque. After the capture of Socotra, Cunha and Albuquerque operated separately. While Cunha traveled India and Portugal for trading purposes, Albuquerque", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) passing Portuguese slaving ship bound for Guinea, which replenished their supplies and escorted them to Santiago, Cape Verde. After resupply and repairs on Cape Verde (and taking on slaves to help make up for the missing crew), the ships set sail again, taking the route through the Azores islands, towards Lisbon. They were battered by storms and another wave of crew deaths on their final approach to Portugal. On September 16, 1504, the two remaining ships of the Fifth Armada, Afonso de Albuquerque's \"Sant'Iago\" and Fernão Martins de Almada's \"São Cristóvão\", in a terrible shape, hobbled into Lisbon harbor, with", "João Afonso Telo, 1st Count of Barcelos João Afonso Telo, 1st Count of Barcelos João Afonso Telo (died May 1304), was the 4th Lord of Albuquerque and the 1st Count of Barcelos. João Afonso Telo was the son of Rodrigo Anes de Meneses, 3rd Lord of Albuquerque, and Teresa Martins de Soverosa, daughter of Martim Gil de Soverosa and Inés Fernández de Castro His paternal grandparents were João Afonso Telo, 2nd Lord of Albuquerque, and his wife Elvira González Girón. A Castilian and Portuguese nobleman, he returned to Portugal, the birthplace of his parents, where he served King Denis as his \"mordomo-mor\" and was entrusted with important", "5th Portuguese India Armada (Albuquerque, 1503) India Armada (Cunha) of 1506 would be given the mission of conquering it for Portugal. Of the other two, we know that in October, 1503, António de Saldanha was still stuck in South Africa - for he had left his own note at the watering hole in Mossel Bay (\"São Brás\") with that date. Rui Lourenço Ravasco, in the meantime, had left Mozambique Island and moored his ship in Kilwa (\"Quiloa\"), waiting for his captain. The summer monsoon winds were long gone by then, so there was no hope of an Indian Ocean crossing that year. The third squadron was", "Afonso de Albuquerque and greatly feared yet greatly loved by all, a quality rarely found united in one captain. He was very valiant and favoured by fortune.\" In 1572, Afonso's feats were described in \"The Lusiads\", the Portuguese main epic poem by Luís Vaz de Camões (Canto X, strophes 40–49). The poet praises his achievements, but has the muses frown upon the harsh rule of his men, of whom Camões was almost a contemporary fellow. In 1934, Afonso was celebrated by Fernando Pessoa in \"Mensagem\", a symbolist epic. In the first part of this work, called \"Brasão\" (Coat-of-Arms), he relates Portuguese historical protagonists", "João Afonso Telo, 1st Count of Barcelos Two daughters were born of this marriage: João Afonso Telo, 1st Count of Barcelos João Afonso Telo (died May 1304), was the 4th Lord of Albuquerque and the 1st Count of Barcelos. João Afonso Telo was the son of Rodrigo Anes de Meneses, 3rd Lord of Albuquerque, and Teresa Martins de Soverosa, daughter of Martim Gil de Soverosa and Inés Fernández de Castro His paternal grandparents were João Afonso Telo, 2nd Lord of Albuquerque, and his wife Elvira González Girón. A Castilian and Portuguese nobleman, he returned to Portugal, the birthplace of his parents, where he served King Denis as", "Afonso de Albuquerque encouraged him to seize power. On 3 February 1509, Almeida fought the naval Battle of Diu against a joint fleet of Mamluks, Ottomans, the Zamorin of Calicut, and the Sultan of Gujarat, regarding it as personal revenge for the death of his son. His victory was decisive: the Ottomans and Mamluks abandoned the Indian Ocean, easing the way for Portuguese rule there for the next century. In August, after a petition from Afonso's former officers with the support of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira claiming him unfit for governance, Afonso was sent in custody to St. Angelo Fort in Cannanore. There", "Afonso de Albuquerque Manuel a show of Malaccan treasures. There were also the offers from the Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) to the King of Portugal and all his own fortune. On the voyage the \"Flor de la Mar\" was wrecked in a storm, and Afonso barely escaped drowning. Most Muslim and Gujarati merchants having fled the city, Afonso invested in diplomatic efforts demonstrating generosity to Southeast Asian merchants, like the Chinese, to encourage good relations with the Portuguese. Trade and diplomatic missions were sent to continental kingdoms: Rui Nunes da Cunha was sent to Pegu (Burma), from where King Binyaram sent back a", "Afonso de Albuquerque With peace concluded, in 1514 Afonso devoted himself to governing Goa and receiving embassies from Indian governors, strengthening the city and encouraging marriages of Portuguese men and local women. At that time, Portuguese women were barred from traveling overseas. In 1511 under a policy which Afonso promulgated, the Portuguese government encouraged their explorers to marry local women. To promote settlement, the King of Portugal granted freeman status and exemption from Crown taxes to Portuguese men (known as \"casados\", or \"married men\") who ventured overseas and married local women. With Afonso's encouragement, mixed marriages flourished. He appointed local people for positions", "Afonso de Albuquerque to the city, his ships decorated with banners, firing cannon volleys. He declared himself lord of all the navigation, demanded the Sultan release the prisoners and pay for damages, and demanded consent to build a fortified trading post. The Sultan eventually freed the prisoners, but was unimpressed by the small Portuguese contingent. Afonso then burned some ships at the port and four coastal buildings as a demonstration. The city being divided by the Malacca River, the connecting bridge was a strategic point, so at dawn on 25 July the Portuguese landed and fought a tough battle, facing poisoned arrows, taking" ]

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[ "The Goldfinch (novel) The Goldfinch (2013) is the third novel by American author Donna Tartt, her first new book in 11 years. It won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 2014 among other honors.", "Donna Tartt Donna Tartt (born December 23, 1963) is an American writer, the author of the novels \"The Secret History\" (1992), \"The Little Friend\" (2002), and \"The Goldfinch\" (2013). Tartt won the WH Smith Literary Award for \"The Little Friend\" in 2003 and the Pulitzer Prize for fiction for \"The Goldfinch\" in 2014. She was included in the list of the \"100 Most Influential People\" compiled by \"Time\" magazine in 2014." ]

[ "Bernard Newman (author) Bernard Charles Newman (8 May 1897 – 19 February 1968) was a British author of over 100 books, both fiction and non-fiction. An historian, he was considered an authority on spies, but also wrote travel books and on politics. His fiction included mystery novels, science fiction and children's books.", "Michael Lewis Michael Monroe Lewis (born October 15, 1960) is an American non-fiction author and financial journalist. His bestselling books include \"Liar's Poker\" (1989), \"The New New Thing\" (2000), \"Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game\" (2003), \"\" (2006), \"Panic\" (2008), \" Home Game: An Accidental Guide to Fatherhood\" (2009), \"The Big Short: Inside the Doomsday Machine\" (2010), \"\" (2011) and \"Flash Boys\" (2014). He has also been a contributing editor to \"Vanity Fair\" since 2009. His most recent book is called \"The Undoing Project\".", "Robert Ludlum bibliography Robert Ludlum (1927–2001) was an American author of twenty-seven novels between 1971 and 2006, the last being issued five years after his death. Of his twenty-seven novels, two were originally published under the pseudonym of Jonathan Ryder and another under the pseudonym of Michael Shepherd. Ludlum also created the \"Covert-One\" series, overseeing the first three novels with Gayle Lynds and Philip Shelby before his death. Following Ludlum's death, his estate has continued to publish novels under his name with eight authors having written a combined twenty-two novels under the Ludlum brand, a trademark inscription of \"Robert Ludlum's\" on every book (e.g. \"Robert Ludlum's The Bourne Dominion\"). Since 2007, publishing rights in the United States have been held by Grand Central Publishing, taking over from St. Martin's Press who held the rights from 2000 to 2006.", "William T. Vollmann William Tanner Vollmann (born July 28, 1959) is an American novelist, journalist, war correspondent, short story writer, and essayist. He won the 2005 National Book Award for Fiction for the novel \"Europe Central\".", "Philip Roth Philip Milton Roth (born March 19, 1933) is an American novelist.", "Agatha Christie's Secret Notebooks Agatha Christie's Secret Notebooks: \"Fifty Years of Mysteries in the Making\" is a book written by John Curran and published by HarperCollins on 6 September 2009, which later went on to win the Anthony Award for Best Critical Nonfiction in 2011.", "Christopher Andersen Christopher Peter Andersen (born May 26, 1949) is an American journalist and the author of 34 books, including many bestsellers.", "Edwin Mullhouse Edwin Mullhouse: The Life and Death of an American Writer 1943-1954, by Jeffrey Cartwright is the critically acclaimed debut novel by American author Steven Millhauser, published in 1972 and written in the form of a biography of a fictitious person by a fictitious author. It was Millhauser's best known novel until the publication of his Pulitzer Prize-winning \"Martin Dressler\" in 1997, and according to Patrick McGrath writing in \"The New York Times\" it is his best work. \"Edwin Mullhouse\" is described by \"Publishers Weekly\" as a 'cult novel'.", "Sam Merwin Jr. Samuel Kimball Merwin Jr. (April 28, 1910 - January 13, 1996) was an American mystery fiction writer, editor and science fiction author, who published fiction mostly as Sam Merwin Jr. His pseudonyms included Elizabeth Deare Bennett, Matt Lee, Jacques Jean Ferrat and Carter Sprague.", "Karen Harper Karen Harper (born April 6, 1945) is an historical fiction and contemporary fiction author. She is a \"New York Times\" and \"USA Today\" bestselling author .", "D.M. Pulley D.M. Pulley is the Grand Prize winner of the 2014 Amazon Breakthrough Novel Award and author the Mystery/Thriller novel \"The Dead Key\". After winning the Amazon Breakthrough award in July 2014, Pulley received a publishing contract with Amazon Publishing (under the Thomas & Mercer imprint).", "Alison Lurie Alison Lurie (born September 3, 1926) is an American novelist and academic. She won the Pulitzer Prize for her 1984 novel \"Foreign Affairs\". Although better known as a novelist, she has also written numerous non-fiction books and articles, particularly on children's literature and the semiotics of dress.", "Secret History (book series) Secret History is a fantasy/science fiction series by Simon R. Green. This book series was supposed to be a trilogy, but due to the great popularity of the books Simon R. Green has decided to continue with the series.", "E. L. Doctorow Edgar Lawrence \"E. L.\" Doctorow (January 6, 1931 – July 21, 2015) was an American novelist, editor, and professor, best known internationally for his works of historical fiction. He has been described as one of the most important American novelists of the 20th century.", "Ron Powers Ron Powers (born November 18, 1941) is an American journalist, novelist, and non-fiction writer. His works include \"White Town Drowsing: Journeys to Hannibal\", \"Dangerous Water: A Biography of the Boy Who Became Mark Twain\", and \"Mark Twain: A Life\". With James Bradley, he co-wrote the 2000 #1 New York Times Bestseller \"Flags of Our Fathers\". The book won the Colby Award the following year.", "Mark Lynton History Prize The Mark Lynton History Prize is an annual award in the amount of $10,000 given to a book \"of history, on any subject, that best combines intellectual or scholarly distinction with felicity of expression\". The prize is one of three awards given as part of the J. Anthony Lukas Book Prize administered by the Nieman Foundation for Journalism and by the Columbia University School of Journalism.", "John Loftus (author) John Joseph Loftus (February 12, 1950) is an American author, former U.S. government prosecutor and former Army intelligence officer. He is a president of The Intelligence Summit and president of the Florida Holocaust Museum in St. Petersburg. Loftus also serves on the Board of Advisers to Public Information Research. Loftus is a author of numerous books on the CIA-Nazi connection including \"The Belarus Secret\" and \"The Secret War Against the Jews\", both of which have extensive material on the Bush-Rockefeller-Nazi connection.", "Breathing Lessons Breathing Lessons is a 1989 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel by American author Anne Tyler. It is her eleventh novel.", "Michael Herr Michael David Herr (April 13, 1940 – June 23, 2016) was an American writer and war correspondent, known as the author of \"Dispatches\" (1977), a memoir of his time as a correspondent for \"Esquire magazine\" (1967–1969) during the Vietnam War. The book was called the best \"to have been written about the Vietnam War\" by \"The New York Times Book Review\"; novelist John le Carré called it \"the best book I have ever read on men and war in our time.\" Herr later was credited with pioneering the literary genre of the nonfiction novel, along with authors such as Truman Capote, Norman Mailer, and Tom Wolfe.", "The Secret Intensity of Everyday Life The Secret Intensity of Everyday Life is a novel by the British playwright, novelist and Oscar nominated screenwriter William Nicholson." ]

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[ "Dwight D. Eisenhower Dwight D. Eisenhower Dwight David \"Ike\" Eisenhower ( ; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was an American army general and statesman who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, he was a five-star general in the United States Army and served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43 and the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944–45 from the Western Front. Born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison,", "Dwight D. Eisenhower became president on January 20, 1953. He was returned to active duty when he left office eight years later. General: Dwight D. Eisenhower Dwight David \"Ike\" Eisenhower ( ; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was an American army general and statesman who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, he was a five-star general in the United States Army and served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial The Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial is a United States presidential memorial under construction, honoring Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe during World War II and the 34th President of the United States. On October 25, 1999, the United States Congress created the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, and charged it with creating \"...an appropriate permanent memorial to Dwight D. Eisenhower...to perpetuate his memory and his contributions to the United States.\" A preliminary design by architect Frank Gehry proved controversial. After several years of hearings and several design changes, a revised", "Dwight D. Eisenhower not Marshall – would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. He was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany. Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had", "Dwight D. Eisenhower in which he made improper comments about postwar policy. The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful. Two months later (August 15), the invasion of Southern France took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. From then until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. In these positions he was charged with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of western Europe and the invasion of Germany. A month after the Normandy D-Day landings on June 6, 1944, Operation Dragoon the invasion of southern France took place, and control of the forces which took part in the", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. From then until the end of World War II in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower through SHAEF had supreme command of all operational Allied forces and through his command of ETOUSA, administrative command of all U.S. forces, on the Western Front north of the Alps. As recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army, equivalent to the rank of Field marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his", "Utah Beach at the Trident Conference, held in Washington in May 1943. The Allies initially planned to launch the invasion on May 1, 1944, and a draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF). General Bernard Montgomery was named as commander of the 21st Army Group, which comprised all of the land forces involved in the invasion. On December 31, 1943, Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the plan, which proposed amphibious landings by three divisions and two-thirds of an airborne division. The two", "Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine in the center, and the Franco-American 6th Army Group (Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers) in the south, formed a broad front under the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower and his headquarters SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force). While Montgomery and Bradley each favored relatively direct thrusts into Germany (with Montgomery and Bradley each offering to be the spearhead of such an assault), General Eisenhower disagreed. Instead, he chose a \"broad-front\" strategy, which allowed the Allies to gain ground from the beaten Germans in all sectors, allowed the advancing Allied forces to support each other, and minimized the difficulty", "Battle for Caen Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander Allied Expeditionary Force. The invasion was to be conducted by the 21st Army Group (General Bernard Montgomery), which would command all Allied troops in France until Eisenhower established his ground forces HQ in France. Lieutenant-General Frederick Morgan, Chief of Staff, Supreme Allied Commander (COSSAC) and his staff had been preparing invasion plans since May 1943. Montgomery studied the COSSAC plan and at a conference on 21 January 1944, advocated a landing on a wider front between Quinéville in the west and Cabourg les Bains on the east side of the Orne river.", "Camp Griffiss of the Allied departments. The camp served as the European Headquarters for the USAAF from July 1942 to December 1944. General Dwight Eisenhower was averse to working in the centre of London during World War II. He decided instead to make Bushy Park the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) centre for planning Operation Overlord, the code name for the Allied invasion of north-west Europe that began with the D-Day landings. The base was named after Lieutenant Colonel Townsend Griffiss. Griffiss had been aide to Major General James E. Chaney, and was killed in a friendly fire incident when the", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower abilities. In 1942, Eisenhower was appointed Commanding General, European Theater of Operations, United States Army (ETOUSA) and was based in London, England. In November, he was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied (Expeditionary) Force of the North African Theater of Operations, United States Army (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters A(E)FHQ. The word \"expeditionary\" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British Eighth Army, commanded by General Bernard Law Montgomery. The Eighth Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the" ]

[ "LNER Class A4 4496 Dwight D Eisenhower along with the other 5 surviving A4s. In 2015, Hornby also released a model of it in its original garter blue livery and name, \"Golden Shuttle\". LNER Class A4 4496 Dwight D Eisenhower 60008 \"Dwight D Eisenhower\" is an LNER Class A4 steam locomotive named after the United States General of the Army. Built for the London & North Eastern Railway in 1937, this locomotive was originally numbered 4496 and named \"Golden Shuttle\". It was renamed \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" after World War II and renumbered 8 on 23 November 1946 under Edward Thompson's LNER 1946 renumbering scheme. After nationalisation in", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial time\" that the design team gave to the Section 106 Consultation Meeting process, noting that there are no negative impacts on the view and vista of the U.S. Capitol. The commission's preferred design concept approved in March 2010, which included Commissioner David Eisenhower's approval (Dwight Eisenhower's grandson), represents Eisenhower as president and general through large stone bas reliefs and text. Although final images and quotations are still under consideration, the leading alternative image representing the general is prior to the D-Day invasion in June 1944. Memorials in Washington have historically been controversial. The design has been severely criticized by the", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower Naval Shipyard (Portsmouth, Virginia) in September 1988; she returned to the fleet in April 1989. In 1990, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" completed her seventh Mediterranean deployment. The deployment became a commemorative event in the worldwide \"Dwight D. Eisenhower Centennial\", celebrating the 100th anniversary of the late president's birth. During D-Day anniversary ceremonies off the coast of Normandy, President Eisenhower's son John Eisenhower and D-Day veterans embarked in the ship, while Carrier Air Wing Seven conducted a memorial flyover of the American cemetery at Omaha Beach in Normandy, France. In response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" became the first", "Dwight D. Eisenhower General George V. Mosely, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to February 1933. Major Dwight D. Eisenhower graduated from the Army Industrial College (Washington, DC) in 1933 and later served on the faculty (it was later expanded to become the Industrial College of the Armed Services and is now known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy). His primary duty was planning for the next war, which proved most difficult in the midst of the Great Depression. He then was posted as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff. In 1932,", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower or foreign militant supporters escaping\" Somalia. In March 2007, following the Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" began battle group exercises off the Iranian coastline. The following month, in April, the ship was relieved by \"Nimitz\". On 4 October 2008 \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" Petty Officer 2nd Class Robert Lemar Robinson was killed aboard ship during training exercises off the coast of North Carolina. The sailor was struck and mortally wounded, by an airplane at 8:15 p.m. on the carrier's flight deck. On 21 February 2009, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" deployed for the Arabian Sea and environs rotating into", "LNER Class A4 4496 Dwight D Eisenhower LNER Class A4 4496 Dwight D Eisenhower 60008 \"Dwight D Eisenhower\" is an LNER Class A4 steam locomotive named after the United States General of the Army. Built for the London & North Eastern Railway in 1937, this locomotive was originally numbered 4496 and named \"Golden Shuttle\". It was renamed \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" after World War II and renumbered 8 on 23 November 1946 under Edward Thompson's LNER 1946 renumbering scheme. After nationalisation in 1948 British Railways renumbered it 60008 on 29 October 1948. It was retired from service in 1963, and was moved to the National Railroad Museum in", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower 2009, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" returned to Naval Station Norfolk after an almost six-month long deployment. On 2 January 2010, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" again deployed to the U.S. 5th and 6th Fleet areas of operation in the Middle East. She served as the flagship of the \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" Carrier Strike Group commanded by Rear Admiral Philip S. Davidson. While in theater, the strike group provided security cooperation, forward naval presence, maritime security, and crisis response. In addition to \"Ike\", the strike group was made up of Carrier Air Wing 7; Commander, Destroyer Squadron 28; the guided-missile cruiser ; and guided-missile", "Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport and had been converted into a cocktail lounge. Gate 11 was last used by Delta Air Lines/Delta Connection until they merged with Northwest Airlines and moved to the East Concourse in February 2010, this Gate was then converted to other use. Also in 2015, when the terminal closed, only gates 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 10 & 12 had boarding bridges. On March 4, 2014, the Wichita City Council approved changing the name of the airport from Wichita Mid-Continent Airport to Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport, in honor of former president, general, and Kansas native Dwight D. Eisenhower. Groundbreaking", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower USS Dwight D. Eisenhower USS \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" (CVN-69) (known informally as \"\"Ike\"\") is a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier currently in service with the United States Navy. Commissioned in 1977, the ship is the second of the ten s currently in service, and is the first ship named after the 34th President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower. The vessel was initially named simply as USS \"Eisenhower\", much like the lead ship of the class, , but the name was changed to its present form on 25 May 1970. The carrier, like all others of her class, was constructed at", "Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower while withdrawing support from European colonialism. He rescued the Republican Party from isolationism and McCarthyism. He maintained prosperity, balanced the budget, promoted technological innovation, facilitated (if reluctantly) the civil rights movement and warned, in the most memorable farewell address since Washington's, of a \"military–industrial complex\" that could endanger the nation's liberties. Not until Reagan would another president leave office with so strong a sense of having accomplished what he set out to do. Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower The presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower began on January 20, 1953, when he was inaugurated as the 34th President of the United", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower May 31, 1952 and resigned his commission on July 18, 1952 to run for President. He was restored to active duty on March 30, 1961. Notes - In addition, Eisenhower's name was given to a variety of streets, avenues, etc. in cities around the world, including Paris, France. Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower The military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower encompassed over forty six years of active service. Entering the United States Military Academy in June 1911, Eisenhower had a \"spectacular\" 1912 football touchdown praised by the \"New York Herald\". The week after sharing a tackle of Jim Thorpe", "First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower The first inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower as the 34th President of the United States was held on Tuesday, January 20, 1953, at the east portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.. The inauguration marked the commencement of the first four-year term of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President and of Richard Nixon as Vice President. Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson administered the presidential oath of office to Eisenhower. The vice presidential oath was administered to Nixon by Senator William Knowland (R–CA). Eisenhower placed his hand on two Bibles when he recited the", "First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower oath: the Bible used by George Washington in 1789, opened to II Chronicles 7:14; and his own personal \"West Point Bible,\" opened to Psalm 33:12. Afterward, he recited his own prayer, rather than kissing the Bible. The 1953 United States Congress Joint Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies, the group responsible for the planning and execution of the Inauguration, was composed of: First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower The first inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower as the 34th President of the United States was held on Tuesday, January 20, 1953, at the east portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C..", "Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower The presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower began on January 20, 1953, when he was inaugurated as the 34th President of the United States, and ended on January 20, 1961. Eisenhower, a Republican, took office as president following a landslide win over Democrat Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential election. This victory upended the New Deal Coalition that had kept the presidency in the hands of the Democratic Party for 20 years. Four years later, in the 1956 presidential election, he defeated Stevenson in a landslide again, winning a second term in office. He was succeeded", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign. Eisenhower gained his fourth star and gave up command of ETOUSA to be commander of NATOUSA. After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower remained in command of the renamed Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO), keeping the operational title and continued in command of NATOUSA renamed MTOUSA. In this position he oversaw the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy. In December 1943, it was announced that Eisenhower would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. In January 1944, he resumed command of ETOUSA and", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower The military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower encompassed over forty six years of active service. Entering the United States Military Academy in June 1911, Eisenhower had a \"spectacular\" 1912 football touchdown praised by the \"New York Herald\". The week after sharing a tackle of Jim Thorpe , Eisenhower's sports career ended with a severe knee injury. Eisenhower graduated in 1915 ranked 61st in a class of 164. The risk, however, that the football injury would cause the government to later have to give Eisenhower a medical discharge and pension, almost caused the army to", "Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport is a commercial airport located about west of downtown Wichita, Kansas, United States. It is the largest and busiest airport in the state of Kansas. ICT covers 3,248 acres (1,314 ha). The airport is commonly referred to as Eisenhower National Airport or by its former name Mid-Continent Airport. The airport's airport code, ICT, is also a commonly used nickname for the city. The airport was previously Wichita Mid-Continent Airport. The name was to be changed on March 31, 2015 by the city of Wichita, but the official change", "Crusade in Europe Crusade in Europe Crusade in Europe is a book of wartime memoirs by General Dwight D. Eisenhower published by Doubleday in 1948. Maps were provided by Rafael Palacios. \"Crusade in Europe\" is a personal account by one of the senior military figures of World War II. It recounts his appointment by General George Marshall to plan the defense of the Philippines and continues to describe his appointment, and execution of the role of Supreme Allied Commander in Northern Europe. Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by an unprecedented ruling by the Treasury Department that Eisenhower was not a", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower 2018, is in the steel cutting and fabrication stages of construction.. The exact date of the ship's inactivation and decommissioning will likely depend on many factors, including Defense Department funding considerations. \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" has earned a number of awards, including the Battle \"E\" in 1979, 1980, 1981, 1985, 1990, 1998, 1999, 2006 and 2012 as the most battle efficient carrier in the Atlantic Fleet. In 1999, she won the Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award for the Atlantic Fleet. USS Dwight D. Eisenhower USS \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" (CVN-69) (known informally as \"\"Ike\"\") is a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier currently in service", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower active service on May 31, 1952, upon entering politics. He wrote \"Crusade in Europe\", widely regarded as one of the finest U.S. military memoirs. During this period Eisenhower served as President of Columbia University from 1948 until 1953, though he was on leave from the university while he served as NATO commander. After his many wartime successes, General Eisenhower returned to the U.S. a great hero. He was unusual for a military hero as he never saw the front line in his life. The nearest he came to being under enemy fire was in 1944 when a German fighter strafed", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Park (San Antonio) Dwight D. Eisenhower Park (San Antonio) Dwight D. Eisenhower Park, also known as Eisenhower City Park is a park located in the Texas Hill Country outside San Antonio. It is managed by the City of San Antonio Parks and Recreation Department. The park was formerly part of the US Army training ground Camp Bullis. It was opened to the public in 1988. The park is named after U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower who was originally from Texas and was an army commander at nearby Fort Sam Houston. The park is popular for hiking; there are over of trails. There are", "Fictional characters in the Southern Victory Series Madison for killing Jake Featherston, and was present at the inauguration of Thomas E. Dewey on February 1, 1945. General Ironhewer of the United States Army, accepted the surrender of Confederate General George Patton in Birmingham, Alabama the closing days of the Second Great War in July 1944. Ironhewer was a long-faced bald man. Ironhewer's name is a literal translation of the German \"Eisenhower\", and his brief description suggests a similarity to the real life U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Hal Jacobs was a cobbler in Washington, D.C., during the Great War. He was an agent for the spy ring", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial received from FedEx, Honeywell, Pfizer, and an anonymous donor. Commission officials said that if Congress authorized another $41 million in 2018, the commission would have enough money to build the memorial (a total of $111 million). The Eisenhower Memorial Commission consists of 12 appointed commissioners. Four members are appointed by the President of the United States. They are: Four members are appointed by the President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate. They are: Four members are appointed by the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. They are: Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial The Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial is", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower offload in preparation for an upcoming docked planned incremental availability (DPIA) at Norfolk Naval Shipyard. On 26 August 2014, the ship was moved to Berth 42-43 from Dry Dock #8 at Norfolk Naval Shipyard, and as of 4 February 2015, the DPIA was four months behind schedule, with the ship planned to remain in the yard until at least April 2015. On 3 September 2015, the ship went back to sea. On 8 June 2016, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" and her Carrier Strike Group sailed the Atlantic Ocean into the U.S. 6th Fleet's area of operations (AoR) in support of U.S.", "Military history of the United States during World War II the North African Campaign and then employed more significantly with British Forces in Italy in 1943–45, where U.S. forces, representing about a third of the Allied forces deployed, bogged down after Italy surrendered and the Germans took over. Finally the main invasion of France took place in June 1944, under General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Meanwhile, the U.S. Army Air Forces and the British Royal Air Force engaged in the area bombardment of German cities and systematically targeted German transportation links and synthetic oil plants, as it knocked out what was left of the Luftwaffe post Battle of Britain in 1944.", "Crusade in Europe in Europe\" was released on Region 1 DVD October 4, 2011, by MPI Home Video. Crusade in Europe Crusade in Europe is a book of wartime memoirs by General Dwight D. Eisenhower published by Doubleday in 1948. Maps were provided by Rafael Palacios. \"Crusade in Europe\" is a personal account by one of the senior military figures of World War II. It recounts his appointment by General George Marshall to plan the defense of the Philippines and continues to describe his appointment, and execution of the role of Supreme Allied Commander in Northern Europe. Eisenhower's profit on the book was", "Dwight D. Eisenhower age of three. Eisenhower was mostly reticent to discuss his death. Their second son, John Eisenhower (1922–2013), was born in Denver, Colorado. John served in the United States Army, retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as U.S. Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. Coincidentally, John graduated from West Point on D-Day, June 6, 1944. He married Barbara Jean Thompson on June 10, 1947. John and Barbara had four children: David, Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean. David, after whom Camp David is named, married Richard Nixon's daughter Julie in 1968. Eisenhower was a golf", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Tunnel on Interstate 70 west of Denver, and Interstate 80 in California. Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy is a senior war college of the Department of Defense's National Defense University in Washington, DC. Eisenhower graduated from this school when it was previously known as the Army Industrial College. The school's building on Fort Lesley J. McNair, when it was known as the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, was dedicated as Eisenhower Hall in 1960. Eisenhower was honored on a US one dollar coin, minted from 1971 to 1978. His centenary was honored on a", "American airborne landings in Normandy with excessive scattering of the drops. Despite this, German forces were unable to exploit the chaos. Many German units made a tenacious defense of their strong-points, but all were systematically defeated within the week. Plans for the invasion of Normandy went through several preliminary phases throughout 1943, during which the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) allocated 13½ U.S. troop carrier groups to an undefined airborne assault. The actual size, objectives, and details of the plan were not drawn up until after General Dwight D. Eisenhower became Supreme Allied Commander in January 1944. In mid-February Eisenhower received word from Headquarters U.S.", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial in Europe Day. Three individuals were behind the successful effort to establish a memorial to President Dwight D. Eisenhower: Rocco Siciliano, Senator Daniel Inouye (D-Hawaii), and Senator Ted Stevens (R-Alaska). Siciliano, a Roman Catholic, Italian American born in Utah, was called to active duty as a Private in 1943 while a ROTC student. Promoted quickly to first lieutenant in the United States Army, he was awarded a Bronze Star for valor for his actions as part of the 87th Mountain Infantry Regiment during the Italian Campaign. A graduate of Georgetown Law School, he worked for the National Labor Relations Board", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Park (San Antonio) also picnic areas, playground, camp sites and nature trails. Wildlife such as white-tail deer, armadillos, raccoons, skunks and others live in the park. It is also popular for bird watching. Dwight D. Eisenhower Park (San Antonio) Dwight D. Eisenhower Park, also known as Eisenhower City Park is a park located in the Texas Hill Country outside San Antonio. It is managed by the City of San Antonio Parks and Recreation Department. The park was formerly part of the US Army training ground Camp Bullis. It was opened to the public in 1988. The park is named after U.S. President Dwight", "Henry Balding Lewis the Western Front in 1944 and 1945. It was commanded by General Omar Bradley with its headquarters established in London on 14 July 1944. Bradley's First United States Army, which later formed part of the Twelfth Army Group, formed the right wing of the Allied lines during the Normandy landings and the Battle of Normandy. They were joined during July by the Third United States Army, under the command of General George Patton. Until September, when General Dwight D. Eisenhower assumed overall command of the Allied land forces in Northwest Europe, the U.S. forces in Normandy were included with the", "Dwight D. Eisenhower are part of the Presidential Medal of Appreciation Award Medal Series. The Interstate Highway System is officially known as the \"Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways\" in his honor. It was inspired in part by Eisenhower's own Army experiences in World War II, where he recognized the advantages of the autobahn system in Germany. Commemorative signs reading \"Eisenhower Interstate System\" and bearing Eisenhower's permanent 5-star rank insignia were introduced in 1993 and now are displayed throughout the Interstate System. Several highways are also named for him, including the Eisenhower Expressway (Interstate 290) near Chicago. the Eisenhower", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower for overhaul and conversion, returning to the fleet 12 November 1993. In September 1994, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" and elements of the U.S. 10th Mountain Division first tested the concept of adaptive force packaging. The division's soldiers and equipment were loaded on board, and the ship's Army/Navy team headed for Port-au-Prince to lead Operation Uphold Democracy, the U.S.-led effort to restore the elected government of Haiti. One month later, in October 1994, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" departed for a six-month deployment which included flying missions in support of Operation Southern Watch and Operation Deny Flight. This deployment marked the first time that", "Dwight D. Eisenhower after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family. All of the boys were called \"Ike\", such as \"Big Ike\" (Edgar) and \"Little Ike\" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name. By World War II, only Dwight was still called \"Ike\". In 1892, the family moved to Abilene, Kansas, which Eisenhower considered his hometown. As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother an eye; he later referred to this as an experience that taught him the need to be protective of those under him.", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates During his two terms in office, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed five members of the Supreme Court of the United States: Chief Justice Earl Warren, and Associate Justices John Marshall Harlan, William Brennan, Charles Evans Whittaker, and Potter Stewart. Chief Justice Fred Vinson died in office on September 8, 1953. Eisenhower appointed California Governor Earl Warren as Chief Justice on October 5, 1953, by using a recess appointment. In 1952 Warren had stood as a \"favorite son\" candidate of California for the Republican nomination for President, but withdrew in support of Eisenhower. Warren was", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home The Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home is the presidential library and museum of Dwight David Eisenhower, the 34th President of the United States (1953–1961), located in his hometown of Abilene, Kansas. The museum also includes his boyhood home, where he lived from 1898 until being appointed to West Point in 1911, and his final resting place. It is one of the thirteen presidential libraries under the auspices of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). Admission to the Visitor Center, Place of Meditation (gravesite), and the archives", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Eisenhower Memorial Commission and the design and construction of the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial were initially intended to be fully funded by the federal government. The Eisenhower Memorial Commission assured the Eisenhower family that no private fundraising for the memorial would be needed. This was an important issue for the Eisenhowers, who have established or sit on the board of directors of six \"legacy organizations\". The family was concerned that fundraising for the memorial would negatively affect their ability to fundraise for these legacy organizations. In 2008, however, House Appropriations Committee staff informed the Eisenhower Memorial Commission that Congress was", "Earl D. Eisenhower Earl D. Eisenhower Earl Dewey Eisenhower (February 1, 1898 – December 18, 1968) was an American electrical engineer and legislator, as well as the younger brother of U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Born in Abilene, Kansas, his brothers were President Dwight Eisenhower, attorney Edgar N. Eisenhower, and university president Milton Eisenhower. Eisenhower moved to the U.S. state of Washington, where he stayed with his brother Edgar who helped with college expenses. Earl Eisenhower graduated from the University of Washington in 1923 with a degree in electrical engineering. After working on a passenger ship, he worked in Pennsylvania with West Penn", "Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U.S. Presidents. Dwight D. Eisenhower and Senator Robert A. Taft from Ohio were the two front-runners for the Republican Party presidential nomination going into the 1952 Republican presidential primaries. Also contending for the nomination were Governor Earl Warren of California, and former Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota. Taft led the conservative wing of the party, centered in the Midwest, that rejected many of the New Deal social welfare programs created in the 1930s, and generally held a non-interventionist foreign policy stance, believing that America should avoid alliances with foreign", "Dwight D. Eisenhower while Generals Bradley (12th U.S. Army Group) and Devers (Sixth U.S. Army Group) insisted they be given priority in the center and south of the front (respectively). Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944, and victory became a more distinct probability. In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower the forward-deployed forces there. She served as the flagship of Carrier Strike Group 8 commanded by Rear Admiral Kurt W. Tidd. Also embarked were Carrier Air Wing 7 and the staff of Commander, Destroyer Squadron 28. Other ships of Strike Group 8 were , , , , and . In addition to supporting Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom, the strike group conducted maritime security operations including anti-piracy operations. On 16 May, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" became the first \"Nimitz\"-class carrier to dock pierside in Manama, Bahrain. The last carrier to moor pierside in Bahrain was in 1948. On 30 July", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates nominated on January 17, 1959, and was confirmed by the United States Senate on May 5, 1959, by a vote of 70–17. Following is a list of individuals who were mentioned in various news accounts and books as having been considered by Eisenhower for a Supreme Court appointment: Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates During his two terms in office, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed five members of the Supreme Court of the United States: Chief Justice Earl Warren, and Associate Justices John Marshall Harlan, William Brennan, Charles Evans Whittaker, and Potter Stewart. Chief Justice Fred Vinson died in office", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower national security interests in Europe. On 22 November 2016, \"Military Times\" reported that since June 2016, when the ship entered the Persian Gulf after launching strikes from the eastern Mediterranean, the carrier's Captain, Paul Spedero, reported that sorties from \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" had dropped nearly 1,100 bombs on ISIS targets in Iraq and Syria. \"Ike\" returned to homeport Norfolk December 30. On 18 March 2016, while she was sailing off the coast of Virginia, eight members of her deck crew were injured when the arresting gear cables failed and \"came apart\", during the routine landing of an E-2 Hawkeye aircraft.", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower deck. \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" returned to Newport News Shipbuilding on 17 July 1995 for an 18-month complex overhaul, completed on 27 January 1997. Among other upgrades, they installed a new Advanced combat direction system. The ship departed on her 10th deployment on 10 June 1998 and returned in December. In February 1999, she returned to the Norfolk Navy Shipyard for a six-month refitting and returned to the fleet in June. Upon completion in June 1999, she returned to full duty in the fleet. Deploying in February 2000 and returning that August on the \"Millennium Cruise\", for the first time \"Ike\"s", "LNER Class A4 4496 Dwight D Eisenhower the tender were also stainless steel. This livery design was also used on the A4's that were named after countries, on the \"Coronation\" service in order to match with the rolling stock. 4496's next livery was wartime black with \"LNER\" on the tender, applied 30 January 1942. This livery was modified to read just \"NE\" on the tender in a repaint on 12 March 1943. LNER garter blue was reapplied 25 September 1945 and the name \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" applied, but the name was covered until February 1946. The next livery applied was British Railways dark blue livery with black", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center The Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center (EAMC) is a 93-bed medical treatment facility located on Fort Gordon, Ga., located near Augusta, Georgia that previously served as the headquarters of the Army's Southeast Regional Medical Command (SERMC). SERMC oversaw the Army's hospitals and clinics within the southeastern United States and Puerto Rico. SERMC was renamed Southern Regional Medical Command (SRMC) and was relocated to San Antonio in 2009. The hospital started as Camp Gordon Station Hospital in 1941, caring for World War II casualties and dependents. It was closed in 1946, but reopened as", "Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy The Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy (Eisenhower School), formerly known as the Industrial College of the Armed Forces (ICAF), is a part of the National Defense University. It was renamed on September 6, 2012 in honor of Dwight D. Eisenhower who graduated from this school when it was previously known as the Army Industrial College. The Eisenhower School is a United States military educational institution tasked with preparing selected military officers and civilians for senior national security leadership positions dealing with the resource component of", "Dwight D. Eisenhower used as a runway for airplanes, which would be beneficial to war efforts. This system was put into place by Franklin D. Roosevelt, in 1944, under the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944. Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.S. would not only be beneficial for military operations, but provide a measure of continued economic growth. The legislation initially stalled in the Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and the law was signed by Eisenhower in June 1956. In", "Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower disenfranchised. One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was the Interstate Highway System, which Congress authorized through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956. Historian James T. Patterson describes the act as the \"only important law\" passed during Eisenhower's first term aside from the expansion of Social Security. In 1954, Eisenhower appointed General Lucius D. Clay to head a committee charged with proposing an interstate highway system plan. The president's support for the project was influenced by his experiences as a young army officer crossing the country as part of the 1919 Army Convoy. Summing up motivations for the construction of such", "Dwight D. Eisenhower commemorative dollar coin issued in 1990. In 1969, four major record companies – ABC Records, MGM Records, Buddha Records and Caedmon Audio – released tribute albums in Eisenhower's honor. In 1999, the United States Congress created the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, to create an enduring national memorial in Washington, D.C.. In 2009, the commission chose the architect Frank Gehry to design the memorial. The memorial will stand on a four-acre site near the National Mall on Maryland Avenue, SW across the street from the National Air and Space Museum. Note – Eisenhower relinquished his active duty status when he", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center ASAM Level III Programs are the highest level of multidisciplinary treatment programs and provide care to the full spectrum of patients with alcohol and substance dependence disorders combined with conditions such as PTSD, Depression, and mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center The Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center (EAMC) is a 93-bed medical treatment facility located on Fort Gordon, Ga., located near Augusta, Georgia that previously served as the headquarters of the Army's Southeast Regional Medical Command (SERMC). SERMC oversaw the Army's hospitals and clinics within the southeastern United States and Puerto Rico. SERMC was renamed", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower Newport News Shipbuilding Company in Virginia, with the same design as the lead ship, although the ship has been overhauled twice to bring her up to the standards of those constructed more recently. Since commissioning, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" has participated in deployments including Operation Eagle Claw during the Iran hostage crisis in 1980, as well as the Gulf War in the 1990s, and more recently in support of U.S. military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. The carrier currently serves as the flagship of Carrier Strike Group 10. On 29 June 1970, then-Northrop Grumman Newport News of Newport News, Virginia was", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower women had deployed as crew members of a U.S. Navy combatant. \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\", Carrier Air Wing Three (CVW-3), and the Commander, Cruiser-Destroyer Group 8 staff team included more than 400 women. The integration of women caused some negative headlines for the Navy. During the deployment, 15 women serving aboard had to be reassigned ashore because of pregnancy, earning the ship the nickname \"The Love Boat\". There was also a case of a sailor who filmed himself having sex with a female. In April 1995, the game show \"Wheel of Fortune\" taped two weeks of episodes on the ship's hangar", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial memorial design, remain an area of significant concern,\" the bill read. \"It is inconceivable and unacceptable to the Committee that a memorial to Dwight D. Eisenhower could be designed, approved, and built without the active support of the Eisenhower family.\" The full House Appropriations Committee approved the draft on June 16. The draft Senate version of the bill funded commission operations at $1 million in fiscal 2016. The Senate bill contained nonbinding language, advising the memorial commission that \"Construction should not commence until there is broad support among the public, the Eisenhower family and Congress.\" By June 2015, the memorial's", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home separate \"Eisenhower Presidential Library Commission,\" and over the next five years enough money was raised to begin construction. Again, President Eisenhower was present when ground was broken on October 13, 1959. The project took three years to complete, and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson joined the retired President Eisenhower at the dedication on May 1, 1962. Operation of the site was turned over to the NARA in 1966, when it became the fourth library in the system. The campus has five buildings: Also on the site: Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home The Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential", "Dwight D. Eisenhower High School (Blue Island, Illinois) Dwight D. Eisenhower High School (Blue Island, Illinois) Dwight D. Eisenhower High School (Eisenhower, DDE, EHS or Ike) is a public four-year high school located in Blue Island, Illinois, a southern suburb of Chicago, Illinois, in the United States. It is part of Community High School District 218 along with sister schools Alan B. Shepard High School and Harold L. Richards High School. Eisenhower is a diverse school with a balanced student body of Caucasian, Hispanic and African American students. Eisenhower serves students from the communities of Blue Island, Calumet Park, Robbins, Alsip, Merrionette Park, Posen, Deer Pointe & Garden", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower yard period included the addition of the Close-in Weapons System (CIWS), NATO Sea Sparrow Missile System, Naval Tactical Data System, anti-submarine warfare module, communications upgrades and rehabilitation of 1,831 berths in 25 compartments. She re-entered the fleet in April 1987. On 29 February 1988, \"Ike\" started her sixth deployment to the Mediterranean. While returning to Norfolk, on 29 August 1988, she collided with an anchored Spanish coal ship while entering the harbor to dock at Norfolk Naval Station when wind and currents pushed the carrier off course, but only caused minor damage to both ships. \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" entered Norfolk", "Battle of Rapido River the opening of the Western Front in German-occupied Europe and thus reduce the importance of operations in the Italian peninsula. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander, left the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO) in December 1943 and returned to the United Kingdom to plan for Operation Overlord, the invasion of Normandy. Shortly afterwards, General Sir Bernard L. Montgomery, commander of the British Eighth Army, was given command of the 21st Army Group and command of the Eighth Army passed to Lieutenant General Sir Oliver W. H. Leese and he, Montgomery, also returned to the United Kingdom; seven veteran", "Dwight D. Eisenhower of the class of 1915, which became known as \"the class the stars fell on\", because 59 members eventually became general officers. While Eisenhower was stationed in Texas, he met Mamie Doud of Boone, Iowa. They were immediately taken with each other. He proposed to her on Valentine's Day in 1916. A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the pending U.S. entry into World War I. They moved many times during their first 35 years of marriage. The Eisenhowers had two sons. Doud Dwight \"Icky\" Eisenhower (1917–1921) died of scarlet fever at the", "Dwight D. Eisenhower to take alternate years at college while the other worked to earn the tuitions. Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery. When Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented and worked for a second year. At that time, a friend \"Swede\" Hazlett was applying to the Naval Academy and urged Dwight to apply to the school, since no tuition was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his U.S. Senator, Joseph L. Bristow. Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam", "LNER Class A4 4496 Dwight D Eisenhower and white lining on 14 June 1950. The final livery applied was British Railways Brunswick green, applied 9 November 1951. \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" had a non-standard red background to the nameplate c. 1958. During its time allocated to Grantham motive power depot, the name of the depot was stencilled on the buffer beam. Like all the early A4 locomotives prior to \"Mallard\", \"Golden Shuttle\" was released to service with a single chimney and side valances covering the wheels. The valances were removed to aid in maintenance during a general overhaul on 30 January 1942. Experimental Automatic Train Control equipment was", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower embarked aircraft dropped ordnance in combat while enforcing Operation Southern Watch's No-Fly Zone over Iraq. On 3 October 2006 with Carrier Air Wing Seven (CVW-7), \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" returned to sea as flagship of RADM Allen G. Myers, commanding Carrier Strike Group Eight (CSG-8), which included guided-missile cruiser , guided-missile destroyers and , and fast-attack submarine . She visited Naples, Italy, and then Limassol, Cyprus, for three days in October 2006 before departing to the east. She entered the Persian Gulf in December 2006. On 8 January 2007, a U.S. AC-130 gunship based out of Djibouti was dispatched to target", "Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport exhibits are part of the terminal's design. Major elements include: The New Terminal/Concourse opened on June 3, 2015. The airport has one terminal and one concourse with 12 gates, all with glass jetways that can accommodate most current commercial aircraft. Concourse Gates: 1–12 Airlines: Alaska Airlines (11), Allegiant Air (3), American Airlines/American Eagle (6 & 7), Delta Air Lines/Delta Connection (1 & 2), Southwest Airlines (4 & 5) & United Airlines/United Express (8 & 9) Other airports in Wichita Other airports in metro Other airports in region Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport is", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower visited by President Jimmy Carter with his wife Rosalynn Carter, Defense Secretary Harold Brown and National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzeziński. In January 1979, she sailed for her first deployment to the Mediterranean Sea. During this deployment, while off the coast of Israel, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin visited \"Dwight D. Eisenhower,\" The carrier returned to Norfolk Naval Station in July of the same year. Under the command of her second Commanding Officer, Captain James H. Mauldin, her second deployment occurred in 1980, when she was dispatched by President Carter to the Indian Ocean, in response to the Iran hostage crisis.", "United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe of those younger organizations throughout the war. With the in-depth Allied contacts and overall responsibility directly affecting the strategic bombing of industrial regions of Germany the Eighth's planning and intelligence staffs were the natural best choice to assert overall coordinated control with the D-Day Operation Overlord needs of the Allies, under General Dwight D. Eisenhower as Supreme Allied Commander. Subsequently, the strategic bombing effort's intelligence, targeting and planning, co-ordination, including mission designation command and control were separated—not without controversy and opposition—from actual operations commands in direct control of air forces on 23 February 1944. The new command was organized on", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower She relieved sister-carrier \"Nimitz\" three days after the Iranian hostage rescue attempt. To help maintain morale, Capt. Mauldin allowed the men aboard to participate in \"Flight Deck Olympics\". The Navy also authorized a special ration of beer, consisting of six cans per man, which was dispensed over a two-month period. \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" returned to the Mediterranean Sea for her third deployment, under the command of her third Captain E. W. Clexton, Jr., from 5 January to 13 July 1982. During this deployment, 11 passengers and crew were lost when \"Mamie\", her onboard logistics aircraft, crashed near Souda Bay, Crete,", "History of the trucking industry in the United States bus drivers. In 1941, the ICC reported that inconsistent weight limitations imposed by the states were a hindrance to effective interstate truck commerce. Also in 1941, President Roosevelt appointed a special committee to explore the idea of a \"national inter-regional highway\" system, but the committee's progress was halted by the initiation of World War II. After the war was over, the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 authorized the designation of what are now termed \"Interstate Highways\", but did not include a funding program to build the highways. Limited progress was made until President Dwight D. Eisenhower renewed interest in the", "Dwight D. Eisenhower High School (Blue Island, Illinois) compete in the Special Olympics. The following teams have finished in the top four of their respective IHSA sponsored state championship tournaments or meets: Dwight D. Eisenhower High School (Blue Island, Illinois) Dwight D. Eisenhower High School (Eisenhower, DDE, EHS or Ike) is a public four-year high school located in Blue Island, Illinois, a southern suburb of Chicago, Illinois, in the United States. It is part of Community High School District 218 along with sister schools Alan B. Shepard High School and Harold L. Richards High School. Eisenhower is a diverse school with a balanced student body of Caucasian, Hispanic", "LNER Class A4 4496 Dwight D Eisenhower unveiling, but this could not be arranged. From new, \"Golden Shuttle\" was allocated to Doncaster shed for just nine days from 20–29 September 1937. It was transferred to Kings Cross Top Shed until 4 December 1939 when it was reallocated to Grantham. 4 June 1950 saw \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" reallocated back to Top Shed. 7 April 1957 saw a move back to Grantham until it was sent back to 'Top Shed' on 15 September 1957. Its final depot allocation was New England shed in Peterborough from 16 June 1963. 4 October 1962, \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" hauled a special train from", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower awarded the contract for construction. On 30 June 1975, her designation was changed from CVAN-69 to CVN-69. She was laid down as hull number 599 on 15 August 1970 at Newport News shipyard at a cost of $679 million ($4.5 billion in 2016 dollars), launched 11 October 1975 after christening by Mamie Doud-Eisenhower, and commissioned 18 October 1977, Captain William E. Ramsey in command. On commissioning, she replaced the aging World War II–era carrier in the fleet. \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" was initially assigned to the United States Atlantic Fleet, and, after receiving over a year of training, the ship was", "General of the Air Force was first informally used in 1944 after General Henry H. Arnold was promoted, along with other senior World War II American officers, to the rank of General of the Army. Arnold was at that time head of the United States Army Air Forces which had, for all intents and purposes, become its own branch of service in all but name. To differentiate Arnold from the other five-star generals in the regular U.S. Army (such as Dwight Eisenhower and Douglas MacArthur), Arnold was commonly referred to as \"General of the Air Force Arnold\" in all but official correspondence in which his", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower plan and had previously given Morgenthau at least some of his ideas about how Germany should be treated. He also incorporated officials from Morgenthau's Treasury Department into the army of occupation. These were commonly called \"Morgenthau boys\" for their zeal in interpreting the occupation directive JCS 1067, which had been heavily influenced by Morgenthau and his plan, as strictly as possible. Eisenhower served as Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army from 1945–48. In December 1950, he was named Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from", "18th Army Group 18th Army Group The 18th Army Group was an Allied formation in the Second World War. It was formed on 20 February 1943 when British Eighth Army advancing from the east and British First Army advancing into Tunisia from the west came close enough to require coordinated command during the Tunisia Campaign. The 18th Army Group was commanded by General Sir Harold Alexander and came under General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces Headquarters (AFHQ). Its principal formations were the British Eighth Army, under Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery and the British First Army under Lieutenant-General Kenneth Anderson. Eighth Army had three", "History of conservatism in the United States in the government, and some of the Left at the time were indeed covering up those communist networks. Examining postwar conservative intellectual history, Kim Phillips-Fein writes: As shown by General Dwight D. Eisenhower's defeat of Senator Robert A. Taft for the GOP nomination in 1952, isolationism had weakened the Old Right. Eisenhower then won the 1952 election by crusading against what he called Truman's failures: \"Korea, Communism and Corruption.\" Eisenhower quickly ended the Korean War, which most conservatives by then opposed; and adopted a conservative fiscal policy while cooperating with Taft, who became the Senate Majority Leader. As President, Eisenhower", "Gold Beach captured until the next day. British casualties at Gold are estimated at 1,000–1,100. German casualties are unknown. After the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing for the creation of a in Western Europe. The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion of continental Europe within the next year was taken at the Trident Conference, held in Washington in May 1943. The Allies initially planned to launch the invasion on 1 May 1944, and a draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed", "Everett Hughes (general) awarded the Bronze Star Medal and the Army Distinguished Service Medal. Everett Hughes was instrumental during Algeria-French Morocco Campaign, and Eisenhower had him transferred to London for the upcoming Normandy Invasion on February 21, 1944 after Hughes was declared surplus in North Africa. Eisenhower wrote to his wife, Mamie, \"I do miss Everett, wish I still had him.\" Hughes endeared himself to Eisenhower for his gift of procuring hard-to-find items such as Eisenhower's favorite whiskey, \"Director's Reserve.\" Hughes' official role during the invasion of Europe was to be what Eisenhower termed his \"eyes and ears.\" He toured behind lines, reported", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial and audio to both provide greater insight into how these events were not only important to Eisenhower but also helped change national and world affairs. Some visual components will be superimposed onto the physical memorial, to provide interactivity between the physical and virtual worlds. The app will also include educational games for children. Some of the materials used by the app will be provided by the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum. Development costs for the app were anticipated to be $2 million, and the National Park Service would be responsible for maintaining and upgrading the e-memorial once the", "Eisenhower Park owners were unable to pay taxes and the county took over the property. Subsequently, the county acquired additional land in the area. In 1944, Nassau County Park at Salisbury was established as part of County Executive J. Russell Sprague's vision to create a park that \"one day will be to Nassau County what Central Park is today to New York City.\" Salisbury Park was officially dedicated in October 1949. On October 13, 1969, Salisbury Park was rededicated as Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Park at a ceremony attended by the 34th President's grandson, Dwight D. Eisenhower II, and his wife, Julie", "USS Dwight D. Eisenhower October. She once again had to make speed toward Beirut, just five days later on the 26th, because of suicide attacks that killed nearly 300 American and French troops on 23 October. \"Ike\" would remain on station until relieved by carriers and in mid November. In May and June 1984, for the 40th anniversary of D-Day, \"Ike\" was deployed to Normandy, France and Portsmouth, England. The port visit in England included a visit from Queen Elizabeth II. After her fifth deployment \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" went into Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock in October 1985 for a major overhaul. The 18-month", "Dwight D. Eisenhower during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. During the Syrian Crisis of 1957 he approved a CIA-MI6 plan to stage fake border incidents as an excuse for an invasion by Syria's pro-Western neighbours. After the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the Space Race. He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a summit meeting with the Soviets collapsed when a U.S. spy plane was shot down over Russia. He approved the Bay of Pigs invasion,", "Third and fourth terms of the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt an invasion of France in mid-1944, and the Allied Powers began to build up a force for that operation, diverting soldiers from the Italian Campaign. To command the invasion of France, Roosevelt passed over Marshall and in favor of General Eisenhower. Roosevelt had originally wanted to appoint Marshall to the command, but top military leaders argued that Marshall was indispensable in his role in Washington. While building up forces in Britain, the Allied Powers engaged in Operation Bodyguard, an elaborate campaign designed to mask where the Allies would land in Northwestern Europe. Eisenhower launched Operation Overlord, a landing in the", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center Camp Gordon became the more permanent Fort Gordon during the Cold War. The hospital's current building, opened for patients in 1976, replaced sprawling wooden buildings from the World War II era. During the building's dedication a year prior its opening, it was dedicated in honor of former General of the U.S. Army and President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who made his farewell address to the Army at Fort Gordon in 1961. During one visit in 1965 he suffered a heart attack and was treated in a large private suite in the old hospital for two weeks before being sent to Walter", "Dwight D. Eisenhower period.) On December 20, 1944, Eisenhower was appointed to the rank of General of the Army, placing him in the company of George Marshall, Henry \"Hap\" Arnold, and Douglas MacArthur, the only four men to achieve the rank in World War II. Along with Omar Bradley, they were the only five men to achieve the rank since the August 5, 1888 death of Philip Sheridan, and the only five men to hold the rank as a Five-star general. The rank was created by an Act of Congress on a temporary basis, when Public Law was passed on December 14, 1944,", "Dwight D. Eisenhower the expanded campaign schedule and limit himself to the original schedule. Nixon reflected that if Eisenhower had carried out his expanded campaign schedule he might have had a decisive impact on the outcome of the election, especially in states that Kennedy won with razor-thin margins. It was years later before Mamie told Dwight why Nixon changed his mind on Dwight's campaigning. On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the Oval Office. In his farewell speech, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower General Eisenhower was never in combat on the battlefront. The majority of his military career (23 of 38 years) was at the rank of major or lieutenant colonel, mid-level field ranks. He spent a great deal of his military career in staff positions as a planner or trainer and not as a commander of combat army units. He was an aide to the legendary general Douglas MacArthur who was very difficult to deal with. General Eisenhower's skill at dealing with difficult personalities persuaded President Roosevelt to promote him to become the commanding general of the largest amphibious military invasion in", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower of General Fox Conner, who wanted Eisenhower to serve as his executive officer in the Panama Canal Zone, saved him from a court-martial and possible dismissal and imprisonment. Eisenhower received a written reprimand that became part of his military record. While working under Conner for three years the general tutored him on military history and theory (including Carl von Clausewitz's \"On War\"), and Eisenhower later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking. Ranked in the top 10% of active-duty majors, in 1925–26 he attended the Command and General Staff College (CGS) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He was worried that", "LNER Class A4 4496 Dwight D Eisenhower Stratford station in East London to York, after being specially cleaned by Kings Cross Top Shed staff. It was withdrawn from service on 20 July 1963. By this time, the Deltic diesel electric locomotives had displaced steam from premier services so the A4 fleet was reduced and concentrated further north. \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\" was donated to the United States of America and sent to Doncaster Works for restoration. Earmarked for the National Railroad Museum in Ashwaubenon, a suburb of Green Bay, Wisconsin, the locomotive was cosmetically restored at Doncaster Works 19 July 1963. The following spring, it was shipped to" ]

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[ "Some of the activities were different." ]

[ "All of the activities were exactly the same.", "A mountain goat runs in the snow.", "Mrs. Inglethorp, however, seemed to think that everything was normal.", "The child is a violin playing prodigy who is practising for a concert", "The place looks amazing during the winter.", "The village did not have television pictures until 1986.", "Several criminals are walking through the underground tunnel" ]

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[ "Henry Hall (lighthouse keeper) Henry Hall (lighthouse keeper) Henry Hall (1661 – 8 December 1755) was a British lighthouse keeper who worked on the Eddystone Lighthouse, in the English county of Devon, some 9 statute miles (14 kilometres) southwest of Rame Head, Cornwall, UK. Henry Hall is the oldest-known member of the Hall Family of Lighthouse Keepers that kept lights around the English and Welsh coasts from at least the mid-eighteenth century until 1913 (Robert James Hall at Spurn Head, Yorkshire). The Hall family inter-married with the Knott family 1730–1910 and also the Darling family which includes the famous Grace Darling. Hall is remembered", "Farne Islands was the daughter of Longstone lighthouse-keeper (one of the islands' lighthouses), William Darling, and on 7 September 1838, at the age of 22 years, she and her father rescued nine people from the wreck of the 'Forfarshire' in a strong gale and thick fog, the vessel having run aground on Harcar Rock. The story of the rescue attracted extraordinary attention throughout Britain and made Grace Darling a heroine who has gone down in British folklore. The islands have no permanent population, the only residents being National Trust Assistant Rangers during part of the year: they live in the old pele" ]

[ "Marcus Hanna (lighthouse keeper) heavy fire to get water for comrades in rifle pits. Notes References Marcus Hanna (lighthouse keeper) Marcus Aurelius Hanna (November 3, 1842 – December 21, 1921) was an American lighthouse keeper famous for his heroism. He is the only person in history to have received both the Medal of Honor and the Gold Lifesaving Medal. He is not to be confused with political boss Marcus \"Mark\" Hanna (1837-1904). Hanna was born in Bristol, Maine, the son of the keeper of the Franklin Island Light. He spent his early years at the station before going off to sea at the age", "Marcus Hanna (lighthouse keeper) Marcus Hanna (lighthouse keeper) Marcus Aurelius Hanna (November 3, 1842 – December 21, 1921) was an American lighthouse keeper famous for his heroism. He is the only person in history to have received both the Medal of Honor and the Gold Lifesaving Medal. He is not to be confused with political boss Marcus \"Mark\" Hanna (1837-1904). Hanna was born in Bristol, Maine, the son of the keeper of the Franklin Island Light. He spent his early years at the station before going off to sea at the age of ten. By 18 he had risen to the position of ship's", "Lighthouse keeper capacity as a lighthouse keeper was William, a member of the now famous Knott family, who was appointed to the South Foreland lighthouse near Dover, England in 1730. In the US, periodic maintenance of the lights is now performed by visiting Coast Guard Aids to Navigation teams. George Worthylake served as the first lighthouse keeper in the United States. He served at Boston Harbor Lighthouse from 1716 until his death in 1718. In 1776, Hannah Thomas became the first female lighthouse keeper in the United States when she became keeper of Plymouth (Gurnet) Lighthouse in Massachusetts following the death of", "Lighthouse keeper her husband, John Thomas. Both Hannah and her husband received $200 per year for their service. The last manned lighthouse in Australia was Sugarloaf Point Lighthouse, where the last keeper left in 2006. According to the Canadian Lightkeepers Association, there are 37 staffed lighthouses in British Columbia, Newfoundland and Labrador, though the Canadian Coast Guard has plans to automate these installations. Machias Seal Island, in New Brunswick, has a lighthouse manned by the Canadian Coast Guard. It is kept manned for sovereignty purposes due to the disputed status of the island with the US. The last manned lighthouse in Finland", "James Rankin (lighthouse keeper) James Rankin (lighthouse keeper) James Rankin (1844–1921) was a lighthouse keeper in the United States. A native of Killashee, County Longford, Ireland, Rankin emigrated to the United States in 1867. He served in the US Lighthouse Service as the keeper of East Brother Island Light in California from 1877 to 1878. He then transferred to Fort Point Light in San Francisco, where he remained for 40 years, until retiring in 1919. During his tenure he was credited with saving the lives of 18 people. Rankin died in Antioch, California, where he had moved soon after retiring. In 1997, the United", "Henry Blake (lighthouse keeper) woman that night. Blake and Mary Ann McDonnell had five children: Catherine, Richard, Clara, Mary and Hannah. The first three were born in the lighthouse. A USCG coastal buoy tender WLM-563 based in Everett, Washington is named after him. The USCGC Henry Blake (WLM-563) honors his commitment to mariner safety in its name and motto, \"The Keeper of Tradition.\" Henry Blake (lighthouse keeper) William Henry Blake (1837–1871) was the first New Dungeness Lighthouse keeper. Blake began his term after the New Dungeness Lighthouse was first lighted on December 14, 1858. Blake overcame the loneliness and dreariness associated with the profession", "Lighthouse keeper Lighthouse keeper A lighthouse keeper is the person responsible for tending and caring for a lighthouse, particularly the light and lens in the days when oil lamps and clockwork mechanisms were used. Lighthouse keepers were sometimes referred to as \"wickies\" because of their job trimming the wicks. Lighthouse keepers were needed to trim the wicks, replenish fuel, wind clockworks and perform maintenance tasks such as cleaning lenses and windows. Electrification and other automated improvements such as remote monitoring and automatic bulb changing made paid keepers resident at the lights unnecessary. The earliest record of a named individual in a formal", "Lighthouse keeper 1996 and 2000 and are used to maintain aids to navigation, including lighthouses. The following WLMs are in service as of 2006: \"Stag light\" was the unofficial term given to isolated lighthouses in the United States Lighthouse Service. It meant stations that were operated solely by men, rather than accommodating keepers and their families. Lighthouse keeper A lighthouse keeper is the person responsible for tending and caring for a lighthouse, particularly the light and lens in the days when oil lamps and clockwork mechanisms were used. Lighthouse keepers were sometimes referred to as \"wickies\" because of their job trimming the", "Lighthouse keeper 2002. The last manned lighthouse in the United Kingdom, the North Foreland Lighthouse, was automated in 1998. The last civilian keeper in the United States, Frank Schubert, died in 2003. The last officially manned lighthouse, Boston Light, was manned by the Coast Guard until 1998. It now has volunteer \"keepers\" whose primary role is to serve as interpretive tour guides for visitors. To recognize the role of Lighthouse keepers in the nation's maritime safety, the US Coast Guard named a class of USCG Coastal Buoy Tenders after famous US Lighthouse Keepers. Fourteen ships in the \"Keeper\" class were built between", "Lighthouse keeper was deserted in 1987. Most French lighthouses are automated, though a few are still manned. The last lighthouse keeper in Iceland was terminated in 2010. Baily Lighthouse was the last Irish lighthouse to be unmanned, in 1997. As of 2011, there were 62 manned lighthouses in Italy In 2006 Meshima Lighthouse became the last lighthouse in Japan to become automated. As of 2011, there are two manned lighthouses in the Netherlands, one at Schiermonnikoog and the other at Terschelling. All lighthouses in New Zealand have been automated since 1990. The last Norwegian lighthouse keeper moved out of Runde Lighthouse in", "Henry Hall (lighthouse keeper) centre, set into the pavement between Plymouth Pavilions, the Sippers pub and The Duke of Cornwall Hotel, Millbay Road. The piece of lead found in Henry Hall's stomach now resides in the National Museum of Scotland. Henry Hall (lighthouse keeper) Henry Hall (1661 – 8 December 1755) was a British lighthouse keeper who worked on the Eddystone Lighthouse, in the English county of Devon, some 9 statute miles (14 kilometres) southwest of Rame Head, Cornwall, UK. Henry Hall is the oldest-known member of the Hall Family of Lighthouse Keepers that kept lights around the English and Welsh coasts from at", "James Rankin (lighthouse keeper) States Coast Guard named a buoy tender USCGC \"James Rankin\" (WLM-555) in his honor. Its homeport is Curtis Bay, Baltimore. James Rankin (lighthouse keeper) James Rankin (1844–1921) was a lighthouse keeper in the United States. A native of Killashee, County Longford, Ireland, Rankin emigrated to the United States in 1867. He served in the US Lighthouse Service as the keeper of East Brother Island Light in California from 1877 to 1878. He then transferred to Fort Point Light in San Francisco, where he remained for 40 years, until retiring in 1919. During his tenure he was credited with saving the", "Henry Blake (lighthouse keeper) Henry Blake (lighthouse keeper) William Henry Blake (1837–1871) was the first New Dungeness Lighthouse keeper. Blake began his term after the New Dungeness Lighthouse was first lighted on December 14, 1858. Blake overcame the loneliness and dreariness associated with the profession of lighthouse keeping, serving for over a decade as the New Dungeness light's only attendant. He steadfastly kept the kerosene lantern lighted each night, and tolled the large bell constantly when fog rolled in to warn mariners away from the spit. In 1862 he married Mary Ann McDonnell. Blake is considered to be one of the first and best", "William Tate (lighthouse keeper) the Lighthouse Service to inspect lighted Aids to Navigation from an airplane. The flight was made in April, 1920. His report states: \"This keeper made the trip along the river in an airplane, flying, about on a level with the lights and within 50 feet of the same, and it was easily seen whether they were burning.\" This eventually led to the formation of the Lighthouse Service Air Arm, which checked Aids to Navigation from the air. A USCG coastal buoy tender WLM-560 based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania is named after him William Tate (lighthouse keeper) Capt. William J. Tate was", "William Tate (lighthouse keeper) William Tate (lighthouse keeper) Capt. William J. Tate was the North Landing Lighthouse keeper from 1915 to 1939. He was also an aviation pioneer having helped the Wright Brothers assemble their aircraft at Kill Devil Hill on the Outer Banks. Tate was responsible for keeping lit a string of 42 lights stretching over 65 miles of waterway. In addition, William was also responsible for maintaining his Keepers Quarters. During his years of service, William J. Tate was cited frequently in the Report of the Commissioner of Lighthouses for saving lives and property, which is no small feat. In fact, he", "Medal for Rescue at Sea Medal for Rescue at Sea The Medal for Rescue at Sea is a Norwegian award was instituted by Royal Decree on 25 August 1978. It ranks as number 14 in the order of precedence of the Orders, decorations, and medals of Norway. The medal is awarded by the Ministry of Trade and Industry, on the recommendation of the Norwegian Maritime Directorate. Individuals who have demonstrated courage, resourcefulness and skill for the saving of life at sea, are eligible for this award. The Medal for Rescue at Sea is made of silver. The obverse shows the Coat of arms of Norway", "Medal for Rescue at Sea surrounded by the inscription \"Kongeriket Norge\" (Kingdom of Norway). On the reverse edge is the inscription \"For Redningsdåd til Sjøs\" (For Rescue at Sea) at the top with an oak wreath below. The medal is suspended from a ribbon of red with a white edged blue stripe in the middle, like the flag of Norway. Medal for Rescue at Sea The Medal for Rescue at Sea is a Norwegian award was instituted by Royal Decree on 25 August 1978. It ranks as number 14 in the order of precedence of the Orders, decorations, and medals of Norway. The medal is", "The Rescue of the Renown to dry land. Of the ship's total crew of 30, approximately five died in the shipwreck and the remainder were rescued between 9 and 11 December. The heroic rescue ended successfully, and Dorus Rijkers was later awarded with a gold medal for valour. All of the surviving crew members received a small stipend from the court of The Hague after it was decided that they earned it because \"Renown\" was in bad condition when she left the harbor at Hamburg, Germany, one week before the accident. The Rescue of the Renown Renown was a German barque used as a sailing", "Chantry Island Lighthouse 20 people, was awarded a gold watch and a bronze medal for his heroic efforts. After he became the keeper, Lambert developed Chantry Island Lightstation Tower and the island as a visitor showplace with one of the first marine museums on the Great Lakes. On retiring, he received the Imperial Service Medal. The Chantry lighthouse is a significant landmark. It was built at a time when commercial shipping traffic was increasing on the Great Lakes between Canada and the U.S. because of new trade agreements and the opening of the Sault Ste. Marie Canal locks in 1855. The Bruce Peninsula", "Watch Hill Light first lighthouse stood tall. In 1827, a rotating light was installed to differentiate it from the Stonington Harbor Light in Connecticut. Erosion forced it to close in 1855 and move farther away from the bluff edge. The next lighthouse opened in 1856 and remains as the present structure, standing tall. The steamer \"Metis\" crashed off Watch Hill in 1872, killing 130 people. In 1873, lighthouse keeper Captain Jared Starr Crandall was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal for rescue operations involving the \"Metis\". In 1879, Capt. Crandall's widow Sally Ann (Gavitt) Crandall became the first woman lighthouse keeper there. A United", "Punta Imperatore Lighthouse to a distance of . The lighthouse is completely automated and operated by the Marina Militare with the identification code number 2398 E.F. The lighthouse for many years was managed by Lucia Capuano, widow of the lighthouse keeper who died in service on November 25, 1937, who succeed to get her husband's job and become a keeper herself. Punta Imperatore Lighthouse Punta Imperatore Lighthouse () is an active lighthouse located atop an impressive overhanging promontory in the westernmost point of Ischia, Campania on the Tyrrhenian Sea. The lighthouse serves Naples as sighting approach. The first lighthouse was built in 1884", "A Shipwreck in the Sand A Shipwreck in the Sand A Shipwreck in the Sand is the fourth studio album by Canadian post-hardcore band, Silverstein, released March 31, 2009 through Victory. \"A Shipwreck in the Sand\" was recorded at Metalworks Studios, in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, with producer Cameron Webb, who also engineered and mixed it. Silverstein returned to \"Discovering the Waterfront\" (2005) producer Cameron Webb, after being disappointed with the recording process of their previous album, \"Arrivals & Departures\" (2007), which was produced by Mark Trombino. Mixing took place at Maple Studios in Santa Ana, California, U.S. Sergio Chavez provided additional engineering, while Kevin Dietz", "Key West Lighthouse Key West Lighthouse The Key West Lighthouse is located in Key West, Florida. The first Key West lighthouse was a tower completed in 1825. It had 15 lamps in reflectors. The first keeper, Michael Mabrity, died in 1832, and his widow, Barbara, became the lighthouse keeper, serving for 32 years. The Great Havana Hurricane of 1846 destroyed the lighthouse; the USS \"Morris\", which was wrecked during the storm, reported \"a white sand beach covers the spot where Key West Lighthouse stood\". Barbara Mabrity survived, but fourteen people who had sought refuge in the lighthouse tower died, including seven members of", "Dog Island Lighthouse keeper died when he fell down the central shaft trying to attach weights to the mechanism. In 1977, the number of lighthouse keepers were reduced from two to one due to operational improvements. There was a Committee of Inquiry into lighthouse automation in 1981 and the Dog Island site was one of nine sites throughout New Zealand that was to remain staffed; in this case, it was due to its remoteness, and its ability to help with search and rescue in the area. In August 1989, Dog Island was fully automated and the last permanent lighthouse keeper in New Zealand", "Lifesaving Medal Forces. The ribbons were also redesigned to have multiple colors. The laws governing the awarding of medal were amended over the years, and is currently awarded by the Coast Guard. The Commandant of the Coast Guard makes the final determination in authorizing the award. \"The Gold Lifesaving Medal or the Silver Lifesaving Medal may be awarded to any person who rescues or endeavors to rescue any other person from drowning, shipwreck, or other perils of the water. The rescue or attempted rescue must either take place in waters within the U.S. or subject to the jurisdiction thereof, or one or", "William Keller (Medal of Honor) William Keller (Medal of Honor) William G. Keller (April 19, 1876 – September 20, 1963) was a private serving in the United States Army during the Spanish–American War who received the Medal of Honor for bravery. Keller was born April 19, 1876 in Buffalo, New York and entered the army from same location. He was sent to the Spanish–American War with Company F, 10th U.S. Infantry as a private where he received the Medal of Honor for assisting in the rescue of wounded while under heavy enemy fire. He died September 20, 1963 and is buried in Lake View Cemetery,", "William Tate (lighthouse keeper) is cited so often that Coast Guard Historian Dr. Robert Browning remarked, \"it is truly amazing that any one man would be cited so many times.\" The citations from just his 1917 rescues read as follows: William's hard work did not go unnoticed. He was given over $400 in raises between 1917 and 1921 to make him one of the best-paid keepers in the U.S. Lighthouse Service. William's interest in aviation continued throughout his life. Coupling his interest in flight with his duty as a lighthouse keeper, William Tate realized his dream of flying and became the first member of", "Cape Leeuwin Lighthouse removed. The nearest functioning lighthouse north of Cape Leeuwin is the much smaller Cape Hamelin lighthouse, just south of the Hamelin Bay camping area. The young Felix von Luckner, later a German WWI war hero noted for his long voyage on the \"Seeadler\" during which he captured 14 enemy ships, was briefly assistant lighthouse keeper, a job he abandoned when discovered with his hotel keeper's daughter by her father. The International Lighthouse Day was celebrated at Cape Leeuwin lighthouse for the first time in 2004. Cape Leeuwin Lighthouse The Cape Leeuwin Lighthouse is a lighthouse located on the headland of", "Marcus Hanna (lighthouse keeper) is buried in Mount Pleasant Cemetery in South Portland, Maine. Sergeant Hanna received the following medals - In 1997 the United States Coast Guard named a Keeper class buoy tender the USCGC \"Marcus Hanna\" (WLM-554). The \"Marcus Hanna\" is based in South Portland, Maine, near the site of Hanna's rescue of the sailors from the \"Australia\" in 1885. Rank and organization: Sergeant, Company B, 50th Massachusetts Infantry. Place and date: At Port Hudson, La., July 4, 1863. Entered service at: Rockport, Mass. Born: November 3, 1842, Bristol, Maine. Date of issue: November 2, 1895. Citation: Voluntarily exposed himself to a", "Keeper-class cutter Keeper-class cutter The United States Coast Guard commissioned a new Keeper class of coastal buoy tenders in the 1990s that are 175 feet (53 m) in length and named after lighthouse keepers. Keeper-class cutters serve the Coast Guard in a variety of missions and are tasked with maintaining aids to navigation (ATON), search and rescue (SAR), law enforcement (LE), migrant interdiction, marine safety inspections, environmental protection and natural resources management. Keeper-class cutters are also used for light ice breaking operations. These vessels are 175' long and replaced the World War II era 180', 157' and 133' tenders. The new class", "James A. Smith (Medal of Honor) James A. Smith (Medal of Honor) James Aloysius Smith (September 2, 1880 – November 9, 1944) was an American sailor serving in the United States Navy during the Boxer Rebellion who received the Medal of Honor for bravery. He was later a decorated member of the New York City Fire Department, and an early member of Rescue 1. Smith was born September 2, 1880 in New York, and after entering the navy he was sent as a landsman to China to fight in the Boxer Rebellion. After serving in the navy, Smith became a fireman with Rescue 1 of the", "William Campbell (Medal of Honor, 1838) William Campbell (Medal of Honor, 1838) William Campbell (1838 – unknown) was a sailor in the U.S. Navy during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Second Battle of Fort Fisher on January 15, 1865. Campbell volunteered for service in the U.S. Navy and was assigned to the Union sloop-of-war . His enlistment is credited to the state of Indiana. On January 15, 1865, the North Carolina Confederate stronghold of Fort Fisher was taken by a combined Union storming party of sailors, marines, and soldiers under the command of Admiral David Dixon", "A Shipwreck in the Sand dates were added, extending the tour into May, prior to an appearance at The Bamboozle and Slam Dunk festivals. In June and, the band went on performed a handful of shows in Canada and the US. The Canadian dates were played with I Am Committing a Sin and Desperate Union, while the US dates were with Poison the Well, the Sleeping and Oceana. Following this, the band performed two stints on Warped Tour in mid-July and mid-to-late August. Starbuck directed their video for \"American Dream\", released on May 18, 2010. \"A Shipwreck in the Sand\" received mainly positive reviews from", "Alondra (shipwreck) cliffs to lift other surviving crew members out of \"Alondra\". In total, 23 men were rescued from the ship. The RNLI awarded Silver Medals for Gallantry to Archdeacon Becher and to Lieutenant Sanderson for assisting with the rescue. In 1913, the RNLI had established a lifeboat base in Baltimore, which could have been of assistance in rescuing the crew of the \"Alondra\". Unfortunately, World War I delayed the official opening of the base until 1919. In 2013, a professional film crew sponsored by the Arts Council England created a film based on the events surrounding the \"Alondra\" shipwreck of 1916.", "A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers and near the end of the song. (Fripp also had a cameo on \"Pawn Hearts\" track \"Man-Erg\".) Peter Hammill, interviewed by \"Sounds\", said: \"It's just the story of the lighthouse keeper, that's it on its basic level. And there's the narrative about his guilt and his complexes about seeing people die and letting people die, and not being able to help. In the end – well, it doesn't really have an end, it's really up to you to decide. He either kills himself, or he rationalises it all and can live in peace... Then on the psychic/religious level it's about", "A Psychological Shipwreck given him. When Gordon and Jarrett arrive in New York, they look for the \"Morrow\" to arrive, but it never appears. \"A Psychological Shipwreck\" is quoted in the prologue to American science fiction writer Gene Wolfe's 1975 novella \"Silhouette.\" The theme of apportation -- human consciousness moving instantaneously between physical locations -- is integral to both stories. A Psychological Shipwreck \"A Psychological Shipwreck\" is a short story by American Civil War soldier, wit, and writer Ambrose Bierce and published by \"The Argonaut\" under the title \"My Shipwreck\" on May 24, 1879. It was included in the 1893 collection \"Can Such", "Honorary Medal for Charitable Assistance war the medal was significantly less awarded. In 1982 a soldier of the Royal Netherlands Air Force received the bronze medal, and in 2005 two silver medals were awarded to rescuers of the Royal Netherlands Sea Rescue Institution. The medal was last awarded to five members of the Search and Rescue squadron 7 of the Royal Netherlands Navy, this because they saved the life of the captain and coxswain of an Iranian container ship. Silver medals were awarded on 29 May 2008 by the then Dutch Minister of Defence Eimert van Middelkoop. Honorary Medal for Charitable Assistance The Honorary Medal", "Rescue craft uses the United States Coast Guard for theirs. There were attempts as early as the 14th century to aid shipwreck victims with the Chinese training in resuscitation for the drowning, as well as Portugal and Sweden in the 1690s ordering that ships should be sent to sea to rescue shipwreck survivors, but the first mention of lifeboats was in China where boats were used to rescue people from the rivers in 1737. The development of the seaplane meant that aircraft could be used to rescue people but was limited as they could not land or take off in heavy seas.", "History of Royal Navy Helicopter Search and Rescue RE Smith, was awarded an MBE for his actions during this rescue. (This rescue was not undertaken by SAR dedicated crew, but a Commando Role crew. All Royal Navy aircrew is trained in search and rescue techniques.) A Wessex HAS.1 of 706 Naval Air Squadron was used to rescue a lighthouse keeper from Longships Lighthouse off Lands End in 1968. The pilot, Lt D Blythe, was awarded the MBE for this rescue. The Wessex fleet was complemented in 1969 by the introduction of the Westland Sea King to Fleet Air Arm (FAA) service. The Wessex continued to provide SAR with", "Keeper-class cutter and ECDIS to allow the Cutter to maintain static positions. This allows the cutter to precisely place an aid to navigation (ATON). Keeper-class boarding teams are armed with modern small arms. The following 175-foot WLMs in service (as of 2006): Keeper-class cutter The United States Coast Guard commissioned a new Keeper class of coastal buoy tenders in the 1990s that are 175 feet (53 m) in length and named after lighthouse keepers. Keeper-class cutters serve the Coast Guard in a variety of missions and are tasked with maintaining aids to navigation (ATON), search and rescue (SAR), law enforcement (LE), migrant", "Marcus Hanna (lighthouse keeper) steward. When the American Civil War began, Hanna enlisted, serving in the Navy for one year before being mustered out. He spent the remainder of the war fighting with various volunteer regiments. He saw action in 1863 at Port Hudson, Louisiana while serving as a sergeant with the 50th Massachusetts Infantry. During the engagement, Hanna volunteered to carry water behind the lines to the remainder of his company. This was the heaviest action he was to see during the war and for which he later received the Medal of Honor. After the war, Hanna was appointed keeper of Pemaquid Point", "A Psychological Shipwreck A Psychological Shipwreck \"A Psychological Shipwreck\" is a short story by American Civil War soldier, wit, and writer Ambrose Bierce and published by \"The Argonaut\" under the title \"My Shipwreck\" on May 24, 1879. It was included in the 1893 collection \"Can Such Things Be?\" In Liverpool, William Jarrett (the first-person narrator) boards the \"Morrow\", a sailing ship for New York City, with few other companions besides a woman, Miss Janette Harford. They become friendly and connect in a deep way that William assures the reader is not love. However, when he speaks of this feeling to Jannette, she takes", "Capo San Marco Lighthouse sea level and emits two white flashes in a 10 seconds period visible up to a distance of . The lighthouse is completely automated and managed by the Marina Militare with the identification code number 1390 E.F. The lighthouse, since 1969, was managed by Elisabetta Deriu widow of the lighthouse keeper who died in service in 1967; she succeed to get her husband's job and she became the first female keeper in Italy after attending the professional training course in La Spezia. Capo San Marco Lighthouse Capo San Marco Lighthouse () is an active lighthouse located on Capo San Marco", "A Shipwreck in the Sand the band's \"superb combination of heavy and melodic sections, improved song construction and memorable hooks\" and dubbed the album \"a strong release from the Canadian quintet\". Drew Beringer of AbsolutePunk also gave a mainly positive review, calling it an \"enjoyable, catchy album that digs deeper than most bands in its genre\", giving the album an overall rating of 77% and saying although \"musically, the album doesn’t implement a new sound or direction\" it is \"a refinement and polishing of the things the band has tried over the years\". Personnel per booklet. A Shipwreck in the Sand A Shipwreck in the", "Tilly Keeper Tilly Keeper Matilda \"Tilly\" Keeper (born 16 August 1997) is an English actress who portrays the role of Louise Mitchell on the BBC One soap opera \"EastEnders\". Keeper was born in London, England. Her father is Peter Keeper, one of the \"Spitting Image\" writers and her mother is called Amanda. Keeper also has two brothers. She attended the D&B Academy of Performing Arts School in Bromley for 14 years. From the age of 4, Keeper took ballet lessons before joining their agency at the age of 7. Keeper lives in Chislehurst, Bromley with her parents and she attended Bromley High", "Tarbat Ness Lighthouse and Skerryvore and is notable for having two distinguishing broad red bands. Bella Bathurst's 1999 'The Lighthouse Stevensons' refers to a rescue made by the principal keeper William Davidson of 4 of the 5 crew members of a Norwegian schooner. No date given for this. She mentions this in the context that Robert Stevenson required keepers to stay with the light and not risk rescuing shipwrecked people. It seems that even with the light ships could still be driven ashore. She accessed the full entries of logs and diaries available at the Northern Lights Board. Earthquake shocks were sometimes reported", "Stanhope Medal The award is presented annually for the most gallant rescue of the previous twelve months. It has been awarded by the Liverpool Shipwreck and Humane Society, as well as by Humane Societies in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. Periodically no medal has been awarded as no significant rescue was deemed sufficiently worthy during the previous 12 months. The gold medal was officially founded in 1873. The medal issued in the twenty-first century is identical to the Royal Humane Society's bronze and silver awards but is in 9-carat gold. Before 1937, the Stanhope Medal was 18-carat gold on a plaque-shaped bar", "Key West Lighthouse her family. (The same hurricane destroyed the Sand Key Lighthouse, eight miles (13 km) away, killing six people, including the keeper, Rebecca Flaherty, another widow of a previous keeper.) Barbara Mabrity continued to serve as keeper of the Key West Light until the early 1860s, when she was fired at age 82 for making statements against the Union (Key West remained under Union control throughout the Civil War). As both lighthouses serving Key West had been destroyed in the 1846 hurricane, a ship, the \"Honey\", was acquired and outfitted as a lightship to serve as the Sand Key Light until", "Captain January (1924 film) dealers. Captain January (1924 film) Captain January is a 1924 silent film featuring child star Baby Peggy. It was the first screen adaptation of the 1891 children's book \"Captain January\" by Laura E. Richards. Captain January (Baby Peggy) is a young girl who lives in a lighthouse in Maine with her guardian, Jeremiah \"Daddy\" Judkins (Hobart Bosworth). Judkins, who is the lighthouse keeper, rescued January from a shipwreck when she was an infant. The only clue to the baby's identity was a locket with a photograph of a woman around her neck, so Judkins adopted her as his own daughter.", "Captain January (1924 film) Captain January (1924 film) Captain January is a 1924 silent film featuring child star Baby Peggy. It was the first screen adaptation of the 1891 children's book \"Captain January\" by Laura E. Richards. Captain January (Baby Peggy) is a young girl who lives in a lighthouse in Maine with her guardian, Jeremiah \"Daddy\" Judkins (Hobart Bosworth). Judkins, who is the lighthouse keeper, rescued January from a shipwreck when she was an infant. The only clue to the baby's identity was a locket with a photograph of a woman around her neck, so Judkins adopted her as his own daughter. January", "Rescue from Gilligan's Island Rescue from Gilligan's Island Rescue from Gilligan's Island is a 1978 made-for-television comedy film that continues the adventures of the shipwrecked castaways from the 1964–67 sitcom \"Gilligan's Island\", starring Bob Denver and Alan Hale, Jr., and featuring all the original cast except Tina Louise. The film first aired on NBC as a two-part special on October 14 and October 21, 1978. The film has the characters finally being rescued after 15 years on the island. The film was directed by Leslie H. Martinson. The story picks up 15 years after the original shipwreck. Gilligan has a nightmare about the island", "A land without a people for a people without a land and Israelis preferred to pretend that Palestinian Arabs did not exist and the fact that Jews wished they would go away. Nur Masalha, contributing to an edited collection by Ghada Karmi and Eugene Cotran, cites Israel's leading satirist Dan Ben-Amotz, who observed that \"the Arabs do not exist in our textbooks [for children]. This is apparently in accordance with the Jewish-Zionist-socialist principles we have received. \"A-people-without-a-land-returns-to-a-land-without-people\". Another group of scholars interprets the phrase as an expression of the fact that, in the nineteenth century and the twentieth century up to WWI, the Arabs living in Palestine did not constitute a", "Old Point Loma Lighthouse Robert and Maria Israel. The names of the lighthouse keepers were: San Diego pioneer Robert Decatur Israel was lighthouse keeper for the longest period of time, 18 years. He was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on March 23, 1826. His father was described as Pennsylvania Dutch and mother as Scotch-Irish. He wasn't Jewish, but because of his surname many people today mistakenly assume that he was. He had fought in the Mexican–American War, including the famous Battle of Chapultepec. He and a young Mexican bride, Marie Arcadia Alipas, were married by a priest in 1852 at the Casa de Estudillo in", "Point Pinos Lighthouse Anastacio Garcia. He was succeeded by his widow, Charlotte, who remained head lightkeeper until 1860, when she married her assistant lightkeeper, George Harris. Robert Louis Stevenson wrote of visiting lightkeeper Allen Luce in 1879 after a long walk through the woods from Monterey, praising Luce's hospitality, piano playing, ship models and oil paintings. He wrote about the light in his book \"From Scotland to Silverado\". The most famous lightkeeper was Mrs. Emily Fish, who served from 1893 to 1914. She was called the \"Socialite Keeper\" due to her love of entertaining guests at the lighthouse. Point Pinos Lighthouse is on", "A Father for Brittany cancer. During her struggle to fight it, their new adopted daughter arrives. They name her Brittany. Keith's fears of becoming a father fade away as he gets to know his new daughter. When Kim dies before the adoption is finalized, Keith loses Brittany because the adoption agency says they do not allow single parent adoptions. Keith goes to court to bring his daughter home and wins. Keith and Brittany are reunited. A Father for Brittany A Father for Brittany (also known as A Change of Heart) is a Lifetime Movie aired on television in 1998 and based on a true", "Lighthouse (film) gave the film a mostly negative review, calling it \"[a] grade-C British horror thriller\", but also stated that the film was not without its crude pretensions. Kim Newman from \"Empire\" awarded the film a negative 2 out of 5 stars, calling it \"uneven\". Lighthouse (film) Lighthouse (released as Dead of Night in the United States) is a 1999 British horror film directed by Simon Hunter. The film follows survivors of a shipwreck being preyed on by an escaped psychotic convict who beheads his victims. It was shot in Cornwall for the main locations (lighthouse, beaches rockshores), and Hastings in East", "Medal \"For Courage in a Fire\" presence of other medals of the USSR, it was located immediately after the Medal \"For Distinction in the Protection of Public Order\". If worn in the presence or awards of the Russian Federation, the latter have precedence. Posthumous awards of the Medal \"For Courage in a fire\", or medals awarded to recipients since dead, were to be retained, along with the attestation of award booklet, by the family as a souvenir. The Medal \"For Courage in a Fire\" was a 32 mm in diameter circular medal originally struck from silver, later examples were struck from silver-plated nickel. It had a", "The Phantom Light lighthouse, explaining that she belongs to a \"psychic society\" and wants to investigate the \"legend of the phantom lighthouse\". He turns her down. Sam reports to Harbour Master David Owen, who informs him that Jack Davis, Sam's predecessor, \"just disappeared\", as did the chief lighthouse keeper before him. Owen confirms there was a major shipwreck a year ago, caused, so he believes, by the phantom light. Jim Pearce tries to bribe Sam to take him to the lighthouse; Sam guesses he is a reporter. Alice later overhears Jim ask about hiring a boat, so she tries her charms on him,", "Isaac Allerton (shipwreck) salvage had a payoff of over US$50,000, making \"Isaac Allerton\" the richest wreck in Key West history. In 1985, the wreck of \"Isaac Allerton\" was rediscovered by a group of local divers who had been searching for the celebrated \"Nuestra Señora de Atocha\" wreck. Artifacts from \"Isaac Allerton\" are on display at the Key West Shipwreck Museum in Key West. Isaac Allerton (shipwreck) Isaac Allerton was a 594-ton American merchant ship that sank in a hurricane east-southeast of Key West in the Florida Keys near the Saddlebunch Keys on August 28, 1856. \"Isaac Allerton\" was built in 1838 at Portsmouth,", "New Point Loma Lighthouse New Point Loma Lighthouse The New Point Loma Lighthouse (officially Point Loma Light) is a lighthouse at the southern tip of the Point Loma peninsula in San Diego, California. It was first lighted on March 23, 1891, replacing the Old Point Loma Lighthouse which is atop the cliffs of Point Loma; the old lighthouse was often obscured by fog. The new light is only above the water. The first lighthouse keeper was Robert Decatur Israel, who had been keeper at the old lighthouse for 18 years. The original light was 600,000 candlepower and could be seen at a distance of", "The Time Keeper The Time Keeper The Time Keeper is a work of inspirational fiction by author Mitch Albom. Dor, the central character, invents the first clock. Punished for trying to measure time, Dor is banished to a cave for thousands of years. Dor becomes Father Time and has to listen to every person who laments about not having enough time. Eventually, Dor has a chance to redeem himself and regain his freedom. He must help two diametrically different people understand the value of time management. One is a teenage girl named Sarah Lemon, who has decided to commit suicide after her parents", "The Man in the Lighthouse is a story of relationships in a small town called Lobo most known for its lighthouse and the local legend says that it is inhabited by a fairy who seduces desirable men who then never marry. Mateo (Harry Laurel) has been searching for his father Fernando (Richard Quan) who left when he was five. His search leads him to Lobo. Awaiting his father's return, Mateo agrees to work as the caretaker of the lighthouse. Although he is courting Suzette (Jennifer Lee), a teacher in the town, his meeting with Jerome (Justin de Leon), a gay man from Manila discovers them", "Henry Hall (lighthouse keeper) for his actions following a fire at the Eddystone Lighthouse on 2 December 1755, when the wooden Rudyerd's Tower of 1706 burned down. At around 2 a.m., Hall was on duty alone when he discovered that a spark from the lamp had set the roof alight. He attempted to put the fire out by throwing buckets of water \"four yards higher than his head\". Hall was soon joined by the other two lighthouse keepers who also tried to extinguish the fire. Hall looked up to check his progress and was showered with falling molten lead from the lighthouse roof. The", "Cape Agulhas Lighthouse performed by the Bredasdorp Shipwreck Museum and the local council, and the lighthouse was recommissioned in 1988. The lighthouse consists of a round tower, high and painted red with a white band, that is attached to the keeper's house, which now contains a museum and restaurant. The design of the building was inspired by the Pharos of Alexandria. The focal plane of the light is above high water; the range of the 7.5 megacandela lantern is . The rotating optic gives off one white flash every five seconds. Cape Agulhas Lighthouse The Cape Agulhas Lighthouse is situated at Cape Agulhas,", "Norwegian Society for Sea Rescue of 2016 is the Petter C. G. Sundt class introduced in 2016. Norwegian Society for Sea Rescue The Norwegian Society for Sea Rescue (Redningsselskapet in Norwegian, commonly shortened to RS) is the only organization wholly dedicated to assisting people at sea along the extensive Norwegian coastline. Norwegian Society for Sea Rescue is a charity organization funded partly by membership fees, partly by donations, and partly by government subsidies. It employs around 280 staff, 4200 volunteers, and has around 110.000 paying members. Pleasure craft owners can sign up for a \"totalmedlemsskap\" (Total Membership), a service and assistance package deal. The organization", "Norwegian Society for Sea Rescue Norwegian Society for Sea Rescue The Norwegian Society for Sea Rescue (Redningsselskapet in Norwegian, commonly shortened to RS) is the only organization wholly dedicated to assisting people at sea along the extensive Norwegian coastline. Norwegian Society for Sea Rescue is a charity organization funded partly by membership fees, partly by donations, and partly by government subsidies. It employs around 280 staff, 4200 volunteers, and has around 110.000 paying members. Pleasure craft owners can sign up for a \"totalmedlemsskap\" (Total Membership), a service and assistance package deal. The organization publishes the quarterly magazine \"RS-Magasinet\". The organization operates 50 vessels stationed along", "Europa Point Lighthouse may soon be retired if plans for a new UEFA Category 4 stadium go ahead. Also known as the Trinity Lighthouse at Europa Point and the Victoria Tower, the Europa Point Lighthouse, of classic British design, first underwent construction in 1838. Sir Alexander George Woodford (1782–1870), Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Gibraltar, set the first stone for the lighthouse's foundation on 26 April 1838, with the aid of the Masonic Order of Gibraltar. The inscription read: A brief ceremony commemorated the event, which was witnessed by about 10,000 people. Construction of the lighthouse was completed in 1841, and was inaugurated according", "Leasowe Lighthouse Leasowe Lighthouse Leasowe Lighthouse is a historic lighthouse in Leasowe, Merseyside, England. The lighthouse was built in 1763 by The Mersey Docks and Harbour Company to guide shipping safely to the Port of Liverpool and is the oldest lighthouse built from bricks in the United Kingdom. The lighthouse became obsolete and was closed in 1908. The last lighthouse keeper was a Mrs. Williams, the only known female lighthouse keeper of the period. An Act of Parliament passed in 1761 allowed the Liverpool Docks Trustees to build four lighthouses. Two were built at Leasowe. These were the Upper Mockbeggar Light and", "Leasowe Lighthouse Leasowe Lighthouse Leasowe Lighthouse is a historic lighthouse in Leasowe, Merseyside, England. The lighthouse was built in 1763 by The Mersey Docks and Harbour Company to guide shipping safely to the Port of Liverpool and is the oldest lighthouse built from bricks in the United Kingdom. The lighthouse became obsolete and was closed in 1908. The last lighthouse keeper was a Mrs. Williams, the only known female lighthouse keeper of the period. An Act of Parliament passed in 1761 allowed the Liverpool Docks Trustees to build four lighthouses. Two were built at Leasowe. These were the Upper Mockbeggar Light and", "Diver rescue leg cramps. A complex and high-risk rescue would be to locate, free and bring to the surface a lost diver who is trapped underwater in an enclosed space such as a shipwreck or cave with limited breathing gas supplies. The sequence of potential activities needed in a generic rescue are: Before any attempt to perform a rescue can be made, a person or group of people who are in a position to initiate appropriate procedures must be aware of the need. This may seem an obvious requirement, but many diving fatalities occur without anyone knowing that there is a problem,", "Virginia Beach Surf & Rescue Museum signal the ship with a Coston flare that help was on the way. The Coston flare would alert the other surfmen on watch or at the station. The surfmen would man the apparatus cart and pull and push the 1400 pound and above cart through wet sand, gale-force winds, and high surf to render aid to victims of a shipwreck. If conditions dictated it, the surfboat would be used. The surfboat was also placed on a wheeled cart to travel to a wreck. Upon arrival at the shipwreck; the keeper of the station would determine the method of rescue. The", "LightHouse for the Blind and Visually Impaired LightHouse for the Blind and Visually Impaired The LightHouse for the Blind and Visually Impaired is a San Francisco-based nonprofit organization, and is the oldest and largest of its kind in Northern California. The organization offers a wide range of services for the visually challenged in order to, according to its mission statement,\"promote the equality and self-reliance of people who are blind or visually impaired through rehabilitation training, employment placement, Enchanted Hills Camp and other relevant services\". In 2014, the LightHouse received a $125 million bequest from Seattle construction insurance businessman Donald Sirkin, which is arguably the most sizable donation", "Wadjemup Lighthouse Wadjemup Lighthouse Completed in 1849, the original Wadjemup Lighthouse (also known as Rottnest Island Light Station) was Western Australia's first stone lighthouse and was built to provide a safer sailing passage for ships to Fremantle Port and the Swan River Colony. A second and larger replacement tower was built on the same site in 1896. It is the fourth oldest extant lighthouse in Western Australia and was Australia's first rotating beam lighthouse. A shipwreck which was partly caused by poor communications and misunderstood signals from the lighthouse prompted the construction of another lighthouse on the island in 1900. Rottnest Island", "Veli Rat Lighthouse range of 22 nautical miles and consists of two flashes of white light every twelve seconds. Veli Rat along with a number of other Croatia lighthouses still retains a lighthouse keeper. In 2014 the serving keeper was Zvone, who along with his wife and family live on site. Since 2000, rooms within the lighthouse have also been made available for rent as holiday accommodation. In 2010, Veli Rat in conjunction with the lighthouses at Vir and Tajer were depicted in a set of commemorative stamps by the Croatian postal service Hrvatska pošta. Veli Rat Lighthouse Veli Rat Lighthouse is an", "A Fringe of Leaves in sharp relief the distinctions between men and women, whites and blacks, the convicts and the free, and English colonists and Australian settlers. The contrast between Ellen's rural Cornish background and the English middle-class she has married into is also highlighted. The shipwreck and rescue parts of the novel reflect the experiences of Eliza Fraser, who was also shipwrecked on the island that bears her name, met with an escaped convict who had lived alongside the island's aboriginal people, and married a \"Mr Jevons\". She, however, eventually returned to the UK. White's novel is (arguably recursively) often cited about Fraser", "Five on a Treasure Island cousins to the nearby Kirrin Island, which belongs to her mother's family. On their way to the island, she shows them a shipwreck, which George explains was her great-great-great grandfather's ship. He had been transporting gold when the ship was wrecked in a storm, but despite divers investigating the wreck, the gold was never found. After visiting the wreck, the five arrive on Kirrin Island and are exploring the ruined castle when a huge storm blows up, making it too dangerous for them to return to the mainland. While they take shelter on the island, the sea throws up the", "Father Ray's Sponsor a Child Foundation Father Ray's Sponsor a Child Foundation Father Ray's Sponsor a Child Foundation (FRSAC) is a not for profit 501(c)(3) registered United States charity which focus on assisting needy children primarily in Thailand and also in the United States. The Father Ray Sponsor a Child Foundation (FRSAC) was started in memory of Father Ray Brennan who worked for nearly 40 years in and around the town of Pattaya Thailand until his death in 2003. Ray initially established an orphanage there because one day he found an abandoned baby on the rectory doorstep. He eventually established a multitude of projects which are", "Five Mile Point Light in a \"very bad state of repair\". The light would be replaced with a fourth-order Fresnel lens in 1855. In the 1860s, a fog bell was also added. The lighthouse was extinguished in 1877 when the offshore Southwest Ledge Light replaced it for navigation. The keeper, Elizur Thompson, went to be the Southwest Ledge Light's keeper for five years before returning to live in the Five Mile Point Light keeper's quarters and fly storm signal flags for the United States Weather Bureau. In 1896, the lighthouse was transferred to the United States Department of War and was improved by a", "2011 Mediterranean Sea migrant shipwreck 2011 Mediterranean Sea migrant shipwreck On 6 April 2011, a boat carrying migrants from Libya to Italy sank south of Lampedusa and southwest of Malta. An emergency response involving the Italian Coast Guard resulted in the rescue of an initial 48 survivors and the retrieval of 20 bodies. A fishing boat picked up an additional three survivors. At least a further 130 people were not found after the shipwreck. The boat left from Zuwara in northwestern Libya on 4 April, amongst the first to leave the country after the unrest began in March. According to the International Organization for Migration,", "Pencarrow Head Lighthouse Pencarrow Head Lighthouse Pencarrow Head Lighthouse is a decommissioned lighthouse at Pencarrow Head in the Wellington Region of the North Island of New Zealand. Constructed in 1859, the Pencarrow Head Lighthouse was the first permanent lighthouse built in New Zealand. It was constructed from sections of cast iron that were shipped from England. Its first keeper, Mary Bennett, was the first and only female lighthouse keeper in New Zealand. The light was decommissioned in 1935 when it was replaced by the Baring Head Lighthouse. The lighthouse is registered as a Category I Historic Place. It was the first structure in", "Leasowe Lighthouse Lake anchorage. Protected by a wide sandbank known as Hoyle Bank and with a water depth of about 20 feet, it provided a safe anchorage for ships. Leasowe Lighthouse was in use until 14 July 1908; by this time, the sand banks had shifted so much that Rock Channel was barely navigable, rendering the lighthouse obsolete. The lighthouse was a place of work and also a home. The last lighthouse keeper was a Mrs. Williams, the only known female lighthouse keeper in this period. Upon its closure as a lighthouse, Williams moved into a cottage but kept the lighthouse open", "Cape St George Lighthouse called Kate Gibson (married to Nils Gibson, the lighthouse keeper of Bustard Head in Queensland) was found with her throat slashed open from ear to ear. The second Kate's death was ruled at the time a suicide, and she was buried in the cemetery at Bustard Head. In 1895, Edward Bailey, the Chief Lighthouse Keeper, drowned while fishing south of the lighthouse, leaving a large family of eleven children. He was washed off the rocks and was believed to have been taken by sharks. His son Arthur took over him and reared his brothers and sisters. Another son, Arthur, became", "The Father Hunt The Father Hunt The Father Hunt is a Nero Wolfe detective novel by Rex Stout, published by the Viking Press in 1968. \"This is the first Nero Wolfe novel in nearly two years,\" the front flap of the dust jacket reads, \"an unusual interval for the productive Rex Stout, who celebrated his eightieth birthday in December 1966.\" Amy Denovo, a young woman assisting Lily Rowan, hires Nero Wolfe because she \"must\" find out who her father is, or was. After her mother was killed in a recent hit-and-run, Amy received a locked metal box containing more than a quarter of", "Falsterbo Lighthouse end of the 19th century another house was built for the assistants to the lighthouse keeper. Also when the oil was replaced with paraffin and, later gas, the screen still had to be moved around. When electric light was installed in 1935 the screen was removed and so were most of the staff. Only one lighthouse keeper remained. In 1972 the lighthouse was automated and the last keeper retired. The lighthouse is high and broad. Nowadays it has no importance as a navigation mark and therefore the light is not very strong (ca. 4000 candela). It was totally turned off", "Amrum lighthouse been displayed at the Paris Exposition in 1867. Also, a dwelling house was built below the dune to host three lighthouse keepers. The \"Amrum Wittdün lighthouse\" (\"Leuchtfeuer Amrum Wittdün\") was officially activated on January 1, 1875, shortly before sunset. It was the first German lighthouse to be erected in Nordfriesland. In 1936, the lantern was electrified and only in 1952 the lighthouse received its red and white marking. The last keeper left the lighthouse in 1984 when the facility had become automated. The 2.7 metres tall optic with a weight of 2.9 tonnes is extremely precious. Its current value is", "Five Minutes to a Fortune Keeper, but this time is not deducted from the team's overall five-minute allotment. Money drained during the stopped game is not replaced in the hourglass. At the end of each round, the drained money is counted and removed from the hourglass, and the remainder is kept in play for the next round. After the fifth round, the Time Keeper plays one last game, choosing one of the two remaining categories (or the last one if the Emergency Stop has been used) and with no help from the Game Player. The Time Keeper is shown the heading of a list with", "Medal \"For the Salvation of the Drowning\" Soviet Union; an interim design with \"Russia\" replacing the \"USSR\" on the reverse was awarded a few times until it was replaced in 1994 by the Russian Federation's Medal \"For Life Saving\". The Medal \"For the Salvation of the Drowning\" was awarded to rescue personnel and other citizens of the USSR, as well as to persons who were not citizens of the USSR, for courage, bravery and selflessness displayed during the rescue of people in the water, for a high degree of vigilance and resourcefulness resulting in the prompt alert and direction of rescue services to the scenes of accidents", "New Point Loma Lighthouse VLB-44. The LED apparatus reduces the maintenance cost of the lighthouse and is brighter than the previous light. <br> <br> New Point Loma Lighthouse The New Point Loma Lighthouse (officially Point Loma Light) is a lighthouse at the southern tip of the Point Loma peninsula in San Diego, California. It was first lighted on March 23, 1891, replacing the Old Point Loma Lighthouse which is atop the cliffs of Point Loma; the old lighthouse was often obscured by fog. The new light is only above the water. The first lighthouse keeper was Robert Decatur Israel, who had been keeper at", "A Father for Brittany A Father for Brittany A Father for Brittany (also known as A Change of Heart) is a Lifetime Movie aired on television in 1998 and based on a true story. Andrew McCarthy and Teri Polo play a husband and wife who try to adopt a child. Keith Lussier - a hard working man - and his wife Kim - a speech therapist - are high school sweethearts unable to conceive. The couple decides to adopt a baby, but Kim is more interested in the idea than Keith. Just before their baby girl arrives from Korea, Kim is diagnosed with uterine", "Honorary Medal for Charitable Assistance or bronze. By decree on 15 April 1952 it was decided that the golden honorary medal has precedence just below the Dutch Cross of Resistance; herewith the golden Honorary Medal for Charitable Assistance is one of the highest awards in the Netherlands. The silver and bronze honorary medals has lower precedence after the Airman's Cross. Before or since World War II it was common to award the medal to sailors. During World War II the medal was primarily award by the Dutch government in exile to those British sailors who rescued Dutch victims from drowning by a shipwreck. After the", "Medal \"For Courage in a Fire\" raised rim on both sides. On the obverse in the center, the relief image of crossed fire ax and adjustable wrench below a five pointed star. At the bottom, the relief image of the hammer and sickle over laurel and oak branches, along the side and upper circumference, the relief inscription \"FOR COURAGE IN A FIRE\" (). On the reverse, in the background and to the right, a two storied house on fire, along the left circumference, a laurel branch, at the forefront and to the left, the relief image of a helmeted firefighter carrying a child. The medal was", "Joe Keeper Joe Keeper Joseph Benjamin Keeper (January 17, 1886 – September 29, 1971) was a Canadian long distance runner, and a member of the 1912 Canadian Olympic team. Keeper, a member of the Norway House Cree Nation, was born at Walker Lake, Manitoba. He was sent to Brandon for schooling at the Brandon Indian Residential School, and it was while there that he showed an enthusiasm for long distance running. During his upbringing he was raised to practice the Methodist religion. In 1916, Keeper joined the Army, and served for two years in France. He received a Military Medal for his", "Father Ray's Sponsor a Child Foundation fully documented in the article about the Father Ray Foundation. However US Residents who supported the various projects found that they were unable to make tax deductible contributions directly to Fr Ray and his projects. When Ray died, Ron Small from the United States formed the Father Ray's Sponsor a Child Foundation to support the projects that Ray initiated plus many others. The US foundation permits US contributors to deduct their contributions. The foundation is an IRS approved 501c(3) charity incorporated in the state of New Jersey. Mr. Small who operates the foundation has spent much time in Thailand assisting", "Honour medal for courage and devotion Honour medal for courage and devotion The Honour medal for courage and devotion () is a French decoration than can be bestowed to individuals and whole units. It is awarded for acts of courage during a rescue. The Honour medal for courage and devotion was created on 2 March 1820 by King Louis XVIII. It has gone through several designs during its long history. The award was given its present name by a decree of 16 November 1901. Any person who risks his or her life to come to the rescue of one or many persons in danger, may be", "Encouraging or assisting a crime in English law illegal fashion. However, in \"R v. James\" the selling of \"black boxes\" solely capable of illegally tapping mains electricity sources was not found to incite a crime. In \"R v. Marlow\" providing information on the growing of cannabis was found to constitute an offence. \"Assisting\" is likely to be considered similar to \"aiding\" in accessorial liability. Assistance can be provided indirectly, for example through a third person. Whereas incitement can only be committed when the defendant incites the principal offender, the crime of \"encouraging or assisting\" includes helping an accessory. Whilst a section 44 offence can be committed in relation", "Lighthouse (film) Lighthouse (film) Lighthouse (released as Dead of Night in the United States) is a 1999 British horror film directed by Simon Hunter. The film follows survivors of a shipwreck being preyed on by an escaped psychotic convict who beheads his victims. It was shot in Cornwall for the main locations (lighthouse, beaches rockshores), and Hastings in East Sussex. A prison ship on its way to a remote island prison runs aground on rocks and sinks. Mixed survivors of cons and prison guards struggle ashore, only to discover to their horror that another survivor has made it ashore before them. Murderous", "Wadjemup Lighthouse side of the island. Between 24 and 26 people, all on board, were drowned. There was no indication of the lighthouse having played a role in its loss. A second Rottnest lighthouse at Bathurst Point was built in 1900 on the north-east of the island partly in response to the incident, as well as other shipping disasters in the area. The lighthouse precinct includes the following extant structures Wadjemup Lighthouse was converted to automatic operations in November 1986 and is currently operated to the Australian Maritime Safety Authority. The last lighthouse keeper left the island in 1990. It is a", "A Gold Medal Winning Tramp Dog the talent of Dong Dong, and despite the disagreement from his father and the school manager, he kept it to train it for the Gold Medal Winning Tramp Dog championship. The film received positive to mixed reviews from film critics. In \"Sohu\" review, it was written that the film had a \"fresh, smooth style and care of stray animals theme\". In a review published in \"Baidu\", the film was called an \"inspirational movie that can be unique\". A Gold Medal Winning Tramp Dog A Gold Medal Winning Tramp Dog () is a 2014 Chinese comedy-drama film directed by Mario ()" ]

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[ "Shin Hye-sun Shin Hye-sun (born August 31, 1989) is a South Korean actress. She made her debut in the television series \"School 2013\" and acted her first protagonist role in \"My Golden Life\" (2017).", "My Golden Life My Golden Life () is a 2017 South Korean television series starring Park Si-hoo, Shin Hye-sun, Lee Tae-hwan, and Seo Eun-soo. The series airs on KBS2 every Saturday and Sunday from 7:55 p.m. to 9:15 p.m. (KST)." ]

[ "Golden Cross (TV series) Golden Cross () is a 2014 South Korean television series starring Kim Kang-woo, Lee Si-young, Um Ki-joon, Han Eun-jung and Jeong Bo-seok. It aired on KBS2 from April 9 to June 19, 2014 on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 22:00 for 20 episodes.", "Choi Cheol-ho Choi Cheol-ho (; born 2 March 1970) is a South Korean actor. He rose to fame after appearing in the hit drama \"Queen of Housewives\" (also known as \"My Wife is a Superwoman\", 2009). Other notable roles include King Seonjo in \"The Immortal Lee Soon-shin\" (2004), Geolsa Biu in \"Dae Jo Yeong\" (2006) and King Gyeongjong in \"Empress Cheonchu\" (also known as \"The Iron Empress\", 2009).", "Love My Life (manga) Love My Life (ラブ・マイ・ライフ , Rabu mai raifu ) is a 2001 Japanese josei manga by Ebine Yamaji and a 2006 live-action film directed by Kōji Kawano based on the manga itself.", "Yoon Yoo-sun Yoon Yoo-sun (born January 17, 1969) is a South Korean actress. Yoon began her career as a child actress in 1975, and continues to be active in film and television, notably in \"The Story of Two Women\" (1994), \"Even If the Wind Blows\" (1995), \"\" (2011) and \"Another Promise\" (2014).", "Jung Min-ah Jung Min-ah (born March 3, 1994) is a South Korean actress. She began her career as a child actress, starring in television dramas such as \"Damo\" (2003), \"Fashion 70's\" (2005) and \"Time Between Dog and Wolf\" (2007).", "Cha Hwa-yeon Cha Hwa-yeon (born Cha Hak-kyung on December 27, 1960) is a South Korean actress. Cha made her acting debut in 1978, and became best known as the heroine Kim Mi-ja in the 1987 television drama \"Love and Ambition\", a character who became an icon for modern Korean women in that era. But she retired a year later, after getting married in 1988. Cha returned to acting twenty years later in 2008 with \"Aeja's Older Sister, Minja\".", "Hwang Shin-hye Hwang Shin-Hye (born Hwang Jung-Man on April 16, 1963) is a South Korean actress. She is known as one of the most beautiful actresses in Korea.", "Lee Tae-ran Lee Tae-ran (Hangul: 이태란 ; Hanja: 李泰蘭 ; born 6 May 1975 or 25 March in Korean calendar) is a South Korean actress. She is best known for her roles in Korean dramas such as \"Yellow Handkerchief\", \"My Rosy Life\", \"Famous Princesses\" and \"Wang's Family\".", "Yoon Kye-sang Yoon Kye-sang (born December 20, 1978) is a South Korean actor and singer. He began his career in 1999 as part of the K-pop boy band g.o.d, then left the group in 2004 and pursued an acting career. He made his acting debut in the film \"Flying Boys\" (2004), for which he won Best New Actor at the Baeksang Arts Awards. Yoon became active in both television and film, with leading roles in romantic comedies such as \"My 19 Year Old Sister-in-Law\" (2004) and \"Who Are You?\" (2008) and the melodrama \"Crazy for You\" (2007), as well as more serious fare in \"The Moonlight of Seoul\" (2008) and \"The Executioner\" (2009). After a supporting turn in the hit series \"The Greatest Love\" (2011), he returned to the big screen in the well-received indie \"Poongsan\" (2011).", "Azooma Azooma () is a 2013 South Korean film starring Jang Young-nam in her first leading role as a mother seeking justice for the rape of her ten-year-old daughter. It made its world premiere at the 2012 Busan International Film Festival, and was released in theaters on April 18, 2013. The film has since received recognition in the international film festival circuit.", "Yoon So-yi Yoon So-yi (born Moon So-yi on January 5, 1985) is a South Korean actress. She debuted as a print and commercial model, then began acting in Ryoo Seung-wan's action-comedy film \"Arahan\" in 2004, followed by \"Shadowless Sword\" in 2005. Yoon has had leading roles in television dramas, notably in \"Goodbye Solo\" (2006), \"Glass Castle\" (2008), \"Hero\" (2009), and \"Warrior Baek Dong-soo\" (2011).", "Shin Eun-kyung Shin Eun-kyung (born 15 February 1973) is a South Korean actress. She is best known for her leading roles in \"Downfall\" (1997) and \"My Wife Is a Gangster\" (2001).", "Kim Hwan-hee Kim Hwan-hee (born August 25, 2002) is a South Korean actress. She began her career as a child actress in 2008, and has been active ever since. She has starred in television dramas such as \"Invincible Lee Pyung Kang\" (2009), \"Believe in Love\" (also known as \"My Love, My Family\", 2010), \"My One and Only\" (2010), and \"You're the Best, Lee Soon-shin\" (2013), as well as the films \"Born to Sing\" (2013) and \"The Wailing\" (2016).", "Jang Seo-hee Jang Seo-hee (; born January 5, 1972) is a South Korean actress. She has starred in numerous television dramas, including \"Miss Mermaid\" (2002) and \"Temptation of Wife\" (2008), which were both extremely successful in the ratings and earned Jang the highest acting prize from MBC and SBS. In a 2007 Chinese survey of the most influential Korean actors, Jang was the highest ranking actress and placed seventh overall.", "Bang Eun-hee Bang Eun-hee (born Bang Min-seo on December 1, 1967) is a South Korean actress. Bang made her acting debut in 1988, and rose to fame after being cast as the lead actress in Im Kwon-taek's \"General's Son\" (1990). She has starred in films and television dramas such as \"The Day a Pig Fell into the Well\" (1996), \"No. 3\" (1997), \"3PM Paradise Bath House\" (1997), \"Shadows of an Old Love\" (1998), \"Legend of Hyang Dan\" (2007), \"Daebak Life\" (2008), and \"All My Love\" (2010).", "Ordinary Person Ordinary Person () is a 2017 South Korean film directed by Kim Bong-han, starring Son Hyun-joo and Jang Hyuk. It was released on 23 March 2017.", "Lee Da-hae Lee Da-hae, or Lee Da-hey (born Byun Da-hae on April 19, 1984) is a South Korean actress. She is best known for her roles in Korean dramas such as \"My Girl\" (2005), \"Green Rose\" (2005), \"The Slave Hunters\" (2010), \"Miss Ripley\" (2011), and \"Hotel King\" (2014), as well as the Chinese dramas \"Love Actually\" (2012) and \"Best Couple\" (2016).", "Seo Hyun-jin Seo Hyun-jin (Hangul: 서현진 ; born February 27, 1985) is a South Korean actress and singer. Seo debuted as the main vocalist of South Korean girl group, M.I.L.K in 2001 and continued until 2003 when the group disbanded. She contributed songs as a solo artist after the group disbandment before she transitioned into acting in 2006.", "Kim Nam-jin Kim Nam-jin (born August 1, 1976) is a South Korean actor. Kim began his entertainment career as a model, having walked the runway for Jang Kwang-hyo's Seoul Fashion Artists Association show in 1996 and appeared in advertisements for casual wear brand Storm in 1997. He began acting in 2002, and has since played leading roles in the romantic comedy film \"Spring Bears Love\" (2003), and several television dramas, including \"Ice Girl\" (2005), \"New Wise Mother, Good Wife\" (2007), \"Fly High\" (2007), and \"Don't Be Swayed\" (2008).", "The Spies (film) The Spies (), also known as The Spy, is a 2012 South Korean action comedy film, starring Kim Myung-min, Yum Jung-ah, Byun Hee-bong, Jung Gyu-woon, Yoo Hae-jin and directed by Woo Min-ho. It is about North Korean undercover spies living mundane lives in South Korea. The film was released on September 20, 2012, and attracted 1,310,895 admissions nationwide." ]

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[ "The Order has six officials: the Prelate; the Dean; the Secretary; the Registrar; the King of Arms; and the Usher. The Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Order's Prelate. The Dean of St Paul's is ex officio the Dean of the Order. The Order's King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. The Usher of the Order is known as the Gentleman Usher of the Purple Rod; he does not – unlike his Order of the Garter equivalent, the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod – perform any duties related to the House of Lords." ]

[ "In 1991, US President George H. W. Bush awarded Hayek the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of the two highest civilian awards in the United States, for a \"lifetime of looking beyond the horizon\". Hayek died on 23 March 1992 in Freiburg, Germany, and was buried on 4 April in the Neustift am Walde cemetery in the northern outskirts of Vienna according to the Catholic rite. In 2011, his article The Use of Knowledge in Society was selected as one of the top 20 articles published in the American Economic Review during its first 100 years.", "The 7th and 6th centuries BC witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads. Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas). The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.", "During the First World War, Plymouth was the port of entry for many troops from around the Empire and also developed as a facility for the manufacture of munitions. Although major units of the Royal Navy moved to the safety of Scapa Flow, Devonport was an important base for escort vessels and repairs. Flying boats operated from Mount Batten.", "An important property of light fixtures is the luminous efficacy or wall-plug efficiency, meaning the amount of usable light emanating from the fixture per used energy, usually measured in lumen per watt. A fixture using replaceable light sources can also have its efficiency quoted as the percentage of light passed from the \"bulb\" to the surroundings. The more transparent the lighting fixture is, the higher efficacy. Shading the light will normally decrease efficacy but increase the directionality and the visual comfort probability.", "After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The Indian Penal Code came into being. In education, Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in his famous minute of February 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English as the medium of instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated. The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world. The British Raj invested heavily in infrastructure, including canals and irrigation systems in addition to railways, telegraphy, roads and ports. However, historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British.", "Advaita literally means \"not two, sole, unity\". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism. Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness. This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE. Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.", "Believing the northern approaches to the city too well defended, especially due to the presence of a large star fort and because Sevastopol was on the south side of the inlet from the sea that made the harbour, Sir John Burgoyne, the engineer advisor, recommended that the allies attack Sevastopol from the south. This was agreed by the joint commanders, Raglan and St Arnaud.:426 On 25 September the whole army marched southeast and encircled the city to the south. This let them set up a new supply center in a number of protected inlets on the south coast. The Russians retreated into the city." ]

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[ "The guy is on a bike." ]

[ "A guy is on a bench.", "Are you near the Canadian border?", "A boy is reading.", "Technorealists roam all over the landscape tasting porridge like Goldilocks, seeing which was is perfect.", "Just outside the wall is an unusual 12 sided structure.", "How is Jon? Susan asked.", "A man is leaning against a tennis net in broad daylight." ]

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[ "Wellesley turned on the Marathas clans who controlled the Mughal emperor in Delhi and central India." ]

[ "Wellesley allied with the Marathas clans who controlled the Mughal emperor in Delhi and central India.", "In the 60s, none of my friends were in the peace corps.", "It isn't happening to his wife at all.", "Marketers will do anything that is fun.", "A man posing by a wall.", "The woman is wearing formal attire.", "And that took me aback." ]

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[ "The consecration of Notre-Dame took place in the year 1967 and was attended by Duke William." ]

[ "Duke William was away in England when Notre-Dame's consecration was carried out.", "A surfer is standing on the beach.", "The attorneys are required to do free work for the common good.", "The two programs did not plan on merging.", "A group of middle eastern people roast veggies indoors", "Sinan fortified the structure, but he didn't add any minarets or other flourishes.", "A woman is sleep." ]

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[ "guys are riding bikes" ]

[ "the guys are riding skates", "The real income changes over time.", "A dog is running through the woods.", "A man is eating dinner.", "Three Asian women are waiting for transportation.", "The stadium is empty because the world has ended.", "Two animals are playing with an object." ]

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[ "Bread in culture some languages and dialects, such as Greek and Punjabi. There are many variations on the basic recipe of bread worldwide, such as bagels, baguettes, biscuits, bocadillo, brioche, chapatis, Challah, lavash, naan, pitas, pizza, pretzels, puris, tortillas, and many others. There are various types of traditional \"cheese breads\" in many countries, including Brazil, Colombia, Italy, and Russia. The traditional bread in China is \"mantou\". It is made by steaming or deep-frying dough made from wheat flour. In Northern China and northern central China, \"mantou\" is often eaten as an alternative staple to rice. Steamed \"mantou\" is similar to Western white bread," ]

[ "Praying Hands (Dürer) and the image is thought probably to depict Dürer's own hands. Praying Hands (Dürer) Praying hands (), also known as Study of the Hands of an Apostle (\"Studie zu den Händen eines Apostels\"), is a pen-and-ink drawing by the German printmaker, painter and theorist Albrecht Dürer. The work is today stored at the Albertina museum in Vienna, Austria. Dürer created the drawing using the technique of white heightening and black ink on (self-made) blue colored paper. The drawing shows a close up of two male hands clasped together praying. Also, the partly rolled up sleeves are seen. The drawing is", "Praying Hands (Dürer) Praying Hands (Dürer) Praying hands (), also known as Study of the Hands of an Apostle (\"Studie zu den Händen eines Apostels\"), is a pen-and-ink drawing by the German printmaker, painter and theorist Albrecht Dürer. The work is today stored at the Albertina museum in Vienna, Austria. Dürer created the drawing using the technique of white heightening and black ink on (self-made) blue colored paper. The drawing shows a close up of two male hands clasped together praying. Also, the partly rolled up sleeves are seen. The drawing is a sketch (study) for hands of an apostle, whose full picture", "Bread in culture (or pan de sal, meaning \"bread of salt\" or \"salt bread\") is a rounded bread usually eaten by Filipinos during breakfast. The Philippines also produces a cheap generic white bread called \"Pinoy Tasty\". An enormous variety of bread is available across Europe. Germany alone lays claim to over 1300 basic varieties of breads, rolls, and pastries, as well as having the largest consumption of bread per capita worldwide. Bread and salt is a welcome greeting ceremony in many central and eastern European cultures. During important occasions when guests arrive, they are offered a loaf of bread with a salt holder", "Southern Praying Mantis an emphasis on hands and short kicking techniques makes the Southern Praying Mantis art somewhat akin to what many would call \"street fighting.\" The hands are the most readily available for attack and defence of the upper body, and protect the stylist by employing ruthless techniques designed to inflict serious injury. The legs are moved quickly into range through footwork to protect and defend the body, and kicks are kept low, short and quick so as to never leave the Southern Mantis combatant off balance and vulnerable. There are five main branches of Southern Praying Mantis: A common antecedent can", "Praying Indian to the fact that the communal land property of others passed out of native control. The Indian-inhabited areas were eventually transformed into \"Indian districts\". Descendants of the Praying Indians from Natick have organized as the Praying Indian Tribe of Natick, currently under the leadership of Rosita Andrews or Caring Hands from Stoughton, Massachusetts, who received her title of chief from her mother. The Praying Indian members live within a radius of around Stoughton. According to Caring Hands, in 2011 there were just under 50 members of Natick Praying Indians. On 11 August 2012, members of the tribe celebrated a public", "Bread and Roses Award the Alliance of Radical Booksellers and has no corporate sponsorship. \"Bread and Roses\" is a phrase from the Bread and Roses strike of 1912 among textile workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts. In a song – Bread and Roses – commemorating the event, the strikers supposedly struck \"for bread, and for roses too.\" The inaugural prize was announced 1 May 2012, on International Workers Day, at the Bread and Roses pub in Clapham, London. Bread and Roses Award The Bread and Roses Award for Radical Publishing is a British literary award presented for the best radical book published each year, with \"radical", "Northern Praying Mantis Northern Praying Mantis Northern Praying Mantis () is a style of Chinese martial arts, sometimes called Shandong Praying Mantis after its province of origin. It was created by Wang Lang (王朗) and was named after the praying mantis, an insect, the aggressiveness of which inspired the style. One Mantis legend places the creation of the style in the Song Dynasty when Wang Lang was supposedly one of 18 masters gathered by the Abbot Fu Ju (福居), a legendary persona of the historical Abbot Fu Yu (福裕) (1203–1275), to improve Shaolin martial arts. However, most legends place Wang Lang in the", "Bread and Roses Bread and Roses \"Bread and Roses\" is a political slogan as well as the name of an associated poem and song. It originated from a speech given by Rose Schneiderman; a line in that speech (\"The worker must have bread, but she must have roses, too.\") inspired the title of the poem \"Bread and Roses\" by James Oppenheim. The poem was first published in \"The American Magazine\" in December 1911, with the attribution line \"Bread for all, and Roses, too'—a slogan of the women in the West.\" The poem has been translated into other languages and has been set to", "Praying Hands (Dürer) was planned to occupy the central panel of the triptych installed in Frankfurt entitled the \"Heller Altarpiece\" – destroyed by a fire in 1729. The sketched hands appear on the triptych on the right side of the central panel, and although the detail appears very similar, it is smaller in size in the triptych. The drawing also once contained a sketch of the apostle's head, but the sheet with the head has been separated from it. Overall, Dürer made 18 sketches for the altarpiece. The first public recognition of the artwork was in 1871 when it was exhibited in Vienna,", "Praying (song) Praying (song) \"Praying\" is a song recorded by American singer Kesha for her third studio album \"Rainbow\" (2017). It was made available for digital download by Kemosabe Records on July 6, 2017 as the record's lead single. The track originated from Ryan Lewis, who contacted Kesha and offered her an early version of the song. \"Praying\" was written by the singer with Ben Abraham, Andrew Joslyn, and its producer, Lewis, and co-produced by Jon Castelli. Musically, the song is a gospel and soul-influenced pop piano ballad that features minimal production and accompaniment from violins, violas, strings, celli, backing vocals and", "Bread and Roses music by at least three composers. The phrase is commonly associated with the successful textile strike in Lawrence, Massachusetts, during January–March 1912, now often referred to as the \"Bread and Roses strike\". The slogan pairing bread and roses, appealing for both fair wages and dignified conditions, found resonance as transcending \"the sometimes tedious struggles for marginal economic advances\" in the \"light of labor struggles as based on striving for dignity and respect\", as Robert J. S. Ross wrote in 2013. The slogan \"Bread and Roses\" originated in a speech given by Rose Schneiderman; a line in that speech (\"The worker", "Praying for Power Praying for Power Praying for Power: Buddhism and the Formation of Gentry Society in Late-Ming China is a history book which explores the relationship between Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism during the 17th and 18th centuries in China (the late Ming Dynasty); tourism to Chinese Buddhist sites, and the patronage of Buddhist monasteries in China by Buddhist and Neo-Confucian gentry during this period. This philanthropy allowed these patrons to \"publicize [their] elite status outside the state realm\" and promoted the growth of a society of gentry. The book is written by Timothy Brook, a distinguished Canadian historian who specializes in the study", "Monasteries in Spain Lugo. The apothecaries were served by the monks, themselves specialized. They carried out all relevant tasks for the manufacture of medicines, ointments, and spirits both medicinal and otherwise. Many of these pharmacies have conserved tools such as the stills used for distillation. In the High and Late Medieval period, much learning and literature was in the hands of the monasteries. It was there that knowledge was preserved, books were copied and translations made. Many of these monasteries had a scriptorium in addition to a library, furnished with benches, desks and shelves and equipped with pens, parchment, inks and other tools", "Nordic bread culture In Tampere, central Finland, a large bakery has invented a rye snack, flavoured with chilli, lemon, onion and garlic. The innovation originated from the idea of using the bread taken from the holes which were removed from traditional round crispbreads, which was considered as waste. Rye hazelnut yoghurt – Finland has its own favorite yoghurt – rye-hazelnut. This product was developed from Finnish rye bread crumbs and yoghurt. See also , Breads of Finland With the settlement of the country (around 800–900 AD), grain (barley) was brought to Iceland, cultivated and used for bread and porridge. In Mediaeval times, wheat", "Bread quickly and at low costs to the manufacturer and the consumer. However, there has been some criticism of the effect on nutritional value. Bread is the staple food of the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Europe, and in European-derived cultures such as those in the Americas, Australia, and Southern Africa, in contrast to parts of South and East Asia where rice or noodle is the staple. Bread is usually made from a wheat-flour dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and finally baked in an oven. The addition of yeast to the bread explains the air pockets", "Bread and Roses Heritage Festival Immigrant City. The festival's name refers to the \"Bread and Roses strike\" of 1912, when over 20,000 immigrant workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts protested wage cuts for over two months, led by the Industrial Workers of the World. The strike was notable for its short-term success, despite ethnic divisions among the workers and the preponderance of women among the protesters. The slogan \"Bread and Roses\" originated in a speech given by Rose Schneiderman; a line in that speech (\"The worker must have bread, but she must have roses, too.\") inspired the title of the poem \"Bread and Roses\" by James Oppenheim,", "Bread in culture Bread in culture Bread has a significance beyond mere nutrition in many cultures in the West and Near and Middle East because of its history and contemporary importance. Bread is also significant in Christianity as one of the elements (alongside wine) of the Eucharist; see sacramental bread. The word \"companion\" comes from Latin \"com-\" \"with\" + \"panis\" \"bread\". The political significance of bread is considerable. In 19th century Britain, the inflated price of bread due to the Corn Laws caused major political and social divisions, and was central to debates over free trade versus protectionism. The Assize of Bread and", "Bread and circuses food (bread) or entertainment (circuses). Juvenal, who originated the phrase, used it to decry the selfishness of common people and their neglect of wider concerns. The phrase implies a population's erosion or ignorance of civic duty as a priority. This phrase originates from Rome in \"Satire X\" of the Roman satirical poet Juvenal (circa A.D. 100). In context, the Latin \"panem et circenses\" (bread and circuses) identifies the only remaining interest of a Roman populace which no longer cares for its historical birthright of political involvement. Here Juvenal displays his contempt for the declining heroism of contemporary Romans, using a", "Bread in Europe They are very light, contain preservatives (e.g. ethyl alcohol) and have a very long shelf life (often more than a month). In Ireland it is traditionally held that the end of a loaf of bread (the \"heel\" of the loaf) is the best part of the loaf. Other stories and myths surround this piece of the bread in Irish mythology. Irish soda bread, developed to make the most of the soft wheat grown in Ireland, is unusual for a European bread in that it is a quick bread, using the reaction of buttermilk and baking soda rather than yeast to", "President of the European Central Bank President of the European Central Bank The President of the European Central Bank is the head of the European Central Bank (ECB), the institution responsible for the management of the euro and monetary policy in the Eurozone of the European Union (EU). The President heads the executive board, governing council and general council of the ECB. He also represents the bank abroad, for example at the G20. The President is appointed by a qualified majority vote of the European Council, \"de facto\" by those who have adopted the euro, for an eight-year non-renewable term. However the first President, Duisenberg, did", "Bread and Puppet Theater Bread and Puppet Theater The Bread and Puppet Theater (often known simply as Bread & Puppet) is a politically radical puppet theater, active since the 1960s, currently based in Glover, Vermont. Its founder and director is Peter Schumann. The name Bread & Puppet is derived from the theater's practice of sharing its own fresh bread, served for free with aïoli, with the audience of each performance to create community, and from its central principle art should be as basic as bread to life. Some have heard echoes of the Roman phrase \"bread and circuses\" or the labor slogan \"Bread and", "Bread roll loaves covered in poppy seeds, and the military specialty of rolls baked on a spit. Even in the same languages rolls are known by a variety of names. In Ireland and the UK, a soft roll is called a bap. Rolls are common in Europe, especially in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Norway, Italy, Hungary, the United Kingdom and other countries with a thriving bread culture. Other European languages have many local and dialectal terms for bread rolls. These include German language diminutives of \"Brot\" (bread) in most of western and central Germany (where they are called \"Brötchen\") and", "Quick bread Quick bread Quick bread is any bread leavened with leavening agents other than yeast or eggs. An advantage of quick breads is their ability to be prepared quickly and reliably, without requiring the time-consuming skilled labor and the climate control needed for traditional yeast breads. Quick breads include many cakes, brownies and cookies—as well as banana bread, beer bread, biscuits, cornbread, muffins, pancakes, scones, and soda bread. \"Quick bread\" most probably originated in the United States at the end of the eighteenth century. Before the creation of quick bread, baked goods were leavened either with yeast or by mixing dough", "Tiger bread bread bloomer loaf or bread roll, but the technique can be applied to any shape of bread. The name originated in the Netherlands, where it is known as \"tijgerbrood\" or \"tijgerbol\" (tiger roll), and where it has been sold at least since the early 1970s. The US supermarket chain Wegmans sells it as \"Marco Polo\" bread. In January 2012, the UK supermarket chain Sainsbury's announced that they would market the product under the name \"giraffe bread\", after a three-year-old girl wrote to the company to suggest it. In the Bay Area it is called Dutch Crunch. Tiger bread Tiger bread", "Bread and salt symbol of their friendship. Bread and salt are given as a housewarming gift in one scene of the 1946 film \"It's A Wonderful Life\". Bread and salt Bread and salt is a welcome greeting ceremony in several Slavic and other European cultures and in Middle Eastern cultures. The tradition, known by local Slavic names: Belarusian: \"Хлеб і соль\"; ; ; ; / \"Hleb i so\"; ; ; ; ; , was also adopted by three non-Slavic nations — Lithuanians, Latvians (both Baltic) and Romanians (Latin) — all three of which are culturally and historically close to their Slavic neighbours (.", "Bread and Roses (band) away at that debt through our future endeavors. On a tangentially related note, we suggest that anyone with time on their hands contact the \"Bread And Roses Benefit Agency\" of San Francisco and urge them to change their name to a song quote more suited to their post-hippie worldview; perhaps something from \"The Preacher And The Slave.\" Bread and Roses (band) Bread and Roses was an all-acoustic rock band from Boston, Massachusetts known for their intimate, unamplified DIY-venue performances and crowd singalongs. Their style included influences from early country, bluegrass, Irish traditional, and old-timey genres, as well as punk rock.", "Praying Indian Ponkapoag (present day Canton) served in large numbers. The borders of Revolutionary-era Natick have since changed and included what is now Needham, Dedham, parts of Framingham, Dover, Wellesley, and other Metrowest communities. The first significant engagements Praying Indians participated in were the Battles of Battle Road and Bunker Hill. Approximately five out of the estimated 21 Native Americans at Battle Road were from Praying Indian communities, and out of the estimated 103 Native Americans at Bunker Hill about 10 were Praying Indians from the Natick area (primary source confirmation of service histories puts these numbers significantly less). As a result", "Poulsbo Bread a cool place to live\". Poulsbo Bread Poulsbo Bread is the name of a proprietary variety of multigrain bread that originated in Poulsbo, Washington, in the 1970s, and which was distributed internationally until the 2000s. The creation of the bread was inspired by a Bible passage. As of 2018 it is sold only at a single retail location in Poulsbo. Poulsbo Bread was developed by Marion Sluys, the owner of Sluys' Bakery in Poulsbo, from a biblical recipe. In 1974, after reading a passage in the Book of Ezekiel directing the baking of a specific type of multigrain bread, Sluys", "Poulsbo Bread Poulsbo Bread Poulsbo Bread is the name of a proprietary variety of multigrain bread that originated in Poulsbo, Washington, in the 1970s, and which was distributed internationally until the 2000s. The creation of the bread was inspired by a Bible passage. As of 2018 it is sold only at a single retail location in Poulsbo. Poulsbo Bread was developed by Marion Sluys, the owner of Sluys' Bakery in Poulsbo, from a biblical recipe. In 1974, after reading a passage in the Book of Ezekiel directing the baking of a specific type of multigrain bread, Sluys claims he decided to attempt", "Southern Praying Mantis chi and Wing Chun. The traditions of the Chu family branch contend that the name \"Southern Praying Mantis\" was chosen to conceal from Qing forces its political affiliations by pretending that this esoteric style of Ming loyalists was in fact a regional variant of the popular and widespread Northern Mantis style from Shandong. The use of the term \"Praying Mantis\" seems appropriate when one considers the postures of well known practitioners of this style. The emphasis on the techniques of sticky hands, the use of the forearm with the elbows tucked into the chest, claw like fingers and quick explosive", "Hard dough bread The bread originated from Chinese immigrants who brought the recipe to Jamaica. Hard dough bread is used much the same as a Pullman loaf: as a vehicle for spreads such as butter, cheese or jam; for dipping into liquids, a common one being hot chocolate; or to make sandwiches. Hard dough bread is more resistant than Pullman bread to becoming soggy and breaking apart in sandwiches with fried, greasy fillings such as plantain and egg. Hard dough bread Hard dough bread, also called hardo bread, is a Jamaican bread similar to the Pullman loaf or pain de mie, although hard", "Bread and Roses Laurel Parade ceremony, part of the college's graduation tradition. It is also one of the central songs at Bryn Mawr College, traditionally sung at the College's \"Step-Sings.\" Composer Christian Wolff wrote a piano piece entitled \"Bread And Roses\" (1976) based on the strike song. Mimi Fariña created the Bread and Roses Benefit Agency in 1974. The logo for the Democratic Socialists of America, formed in 1982, was inspired by the slogan. In 1989/91, Si Kahn wrote a song the refrain of which starts with the song's title: \"They all sang 'Bread and Roses'\". A quarterly journal produced by the UK", "Three Represents advanced culture, and the interests of the overwhelming majority. The formal statement of the theory is: One possible interpretation of the \"Three Represents\": One of the main goals of the Three Represents is to change the Communist Party of China into a governmental and more democratic party. This opens up the Party to \"the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people\", as well as businessmen and managers. This makes for a party (\"dǎng\" 党) that is much more attractive for a greater number of people. The Theory of the Three Represents is another expansion to what the government of China would", "Anadama bread Anadama bread Anadama bread is a traditional yeast bread of New England in the United States made with wheat flour, cornmeal, molasses and sometimes rye flour. It is not readily agreed exactly when or where the bread originated, except it existed before 1850 in Rockport, Massachusetts. It is thought to have come from the local fishing community, but it may have come through the Finnish community of local stonecutters. Near the turn of the 20th century, it was baked by a man named Baker Knowlton on King Street in Rockport, Massachusetts, and delivered in a horse-drawn cart to households by", "Cuban bread originated, the first commercial bakery in the U.S. to produce Cuban bread was most likely \"La Joven Francesca\" bakery, which was established by the Sicilian-born Francisco Ferlita in 1896 in Ybor City, a thriving Cuban-Spanish-Italian community in Tampa. The bakery originally sold bread for 3 to 5 cents per loaf, many of which were delivered every morning like milk. Houses in Ybor City often had a sturdy nail driven into the door frame on the front porch, and a bread deliveryman would impale the fresh loaf of bread onto the nail before dawn. Ferlita's bakery was destroyed by fire in", "Anadama bread bulk. Add enough flour to make the dough just firm enough to knead. Shape into loaves and put into buttered pans. Let rise until almost double. Bake about 50 minutes at 350°F/180°C. Makes 2 loaves. Anadama bread Anadama bread is a traditional yeast bread of New England in the United States made with wheat flour, cornmeal, molasses and sometimes rye flour. It is not readily agreed exactly when or where the bread originated, except it existed before 1850 in Rockport, Massachusetts. It is thought to have come from the local fishing community, but it may have come through the Finnish", "Bread and salt Bread and salt Bread and salt is a welcome greeting ceremony in several Slavic and other European cultures and in Middle Eastern cultures. The tradition, known by local Slavic names: Belarusian: \"Хлеб і соль\"; ; ; ; / \"Hleb i so\"; ; ; ; ; , was also adopted by three non-Slavic nations — Lithuanians, Latvians (both Baltic) and Romanians (Latin) — all three of which are culturally and historically close to their Slavic neighbours (. and ). It is also common in Albania (), Armenia (, \"agh u hats\"), the Jewish diaspora, and the Middle East. This tradition has", "Monasteries in Spain King Alfonso VI with whom the relationship moved from being a purely spiritual sympathy to one which has economic ties and political and religious influences. The monastery of Sahagún in León was a central one, as it was the biggest propagator of the Cluniac observance. Alfonso VI became the center of Cluny and became its protector. It was called \"The Spanish Cluny\", the abbey being more powerful in the kingdoms of León and Castile, which had nearly 100 monasteries. Alfonso was owner of the land ranging from the Cantabrian Sea to the River Duero. Sahagun was a central influence in", "Hands up, don't shoot Hands up, don't shoot \"Hands up, don't shoot\", or simply \"hands up\", is a slogan and gesture that originated after the August 9, 2014 shooting of Michael Brown. The slogan was adopted at protests against police violence. Witness reports differed as to what Brown was doing with his hands when he was shot to death, with some claiming he had his hands in the air. A United States Department of Justice investigation found this claim was not consistent with the physical and forensic evidence. On Saturday, August 9, 2014, Michael Brown and Dorian Johnson were walking together in Ferguson, Missouri,", "Northern Praying Mantis was defeated by General Han Tong (韩通), the founder of Tongbeiquan. After leaving the fighting arena, he saw a brave praying mantis attacking the wheels of oncoming carts with its \"broadsword-like\" arms, Mantis fist was born shortly thereafter. However, most legends place Wang Lang living in the late Ming Dynasty. As previously stated, the Water Margin bandits Lin Chong and Yan Qing, the adopted of Lu Junyi, are said to be part of the 18 masters supposedly invited to Shaolin by the legendary Abbot Fuju. According to the folklore biography of Song Dynasty General Yue Fei, Lin and Lu were", "Of Hands and Hearts from the UK, 3 are from Australia, 2 are from Scotland, 1 is from Italy, 1 is from Japan, and 1 is from Russia. Only R. Stevie Moore with Dave Gregory represent two different countries together (the former represents the US and the latter represents the UK). Of Hands and Hearts Of Hands and Hearts: Music for the Tsunami Disaster Fund is a 2005 compilation album. The compilation was released in response to the 2004 Southeast Asia tsunami crisis. The title for the compilation is explained in the liner notes that executive producer Stephen Schnee's father, Duane John Schnee, \"whose", "Praying (song) career.\" Issy Sampson of \"The Guardian\" noted that the recording was to Kesha's oeuvre what \"Fighter\" (2002) was to Aguilera's. \"The New York Times\" Jon Pareles described \"Praying\" as \"a perfectly aimed missile of revenge and career rebooting.\" \"HuffPost\"s Daniel Welsh wrote that it was an \"empowering and haunting ballad\" which \"may come as something of a surprise to more casual Kesha listeners, who are perhaps more used to hearing her glittery songs about partying and having a good time.\" According to Matthew Rozsa of \"Salon\", \"'Praying' is likely to be remembered as the moment when Ke$ha became Kesha —", "Methods of praying the rosary Mary of the decade. The third method combined elements of the first and second, and was made for the use of the Daughters of Wisdom. The fourth method incorporates a small reflection for each bead, usually associated with the mystery of the decade. The fifth method focuses its reflections on the rosary itself: its power, history, and prayers; in what manner it ought to be said (slowly and calmly, etc.); and objections towards praying the rosary to beware of, such as, \"One can be saved without praying the rosary.\" Methods of praying the rosary Five methods of praying the rosary", "Bread clip open and effectively seal food bags. The simple bread clip allowed for that. In addition, re-closability became a selling point as smaller families and higher costs slowed consumption, leading to a potential for higher rates of spoilage. Kwik Lok Corporation continues to be the main manufacturer of bread clips with Schutte as their European competitor. Bread clip A bread clip is a device used to hold plastic bags closed, such as the ones in which sliced bread is commonly packaged. They are also commonly called bread tags, bread tabs, bread ties, bread climps or bread-bag clips. By sealing a bag", "Afghan bread with most meals and is generally torn into shreds and used by those eating to envelope foods, so that they can be picked up and conveyed to the mouth, in a manner similar to a sandwich, and also to soak up liquids on the plate. Since people in Afghanistan normally use their hands to eat, the bread thus acts as a utensil; as compared to Western culinary standards, something akin to both a fork and a spoon. The bread tastes similar to the Armenian lavash bread, as well as to Iranian barbari bread. It has a dense and rich taste.", "Soda bread by various rules and rituals. A coin is often put into the dough during the kneading; other small objects may also be inserted. At the beginning of Christmas dinner, the \"česnica\" is rotated three times counter-clockwise, before being broken among the family members. The person who finds the coin in his piece of the bread will supposedly be exceptionally lucky in the coming year. Before baking, the upper surface of the loaf may be inscribed with various symbols, such as a Christogram, or stars, circles, and impressions of keys or combs. Damper is a traditional Australian bread prepared in a", "Hannah Banana Bread Company Virgin Airlines North America and Jewel supermarkets. Hannah Banana Bread Company Hannah Banana Bread Company is an American baked goods company founded in 2000 to provide stuff to specialty food retailers and consumers. The Company's baked goods are supposedly derived from family recipes and contain no additives or preservatives. All products are named after family members and distributed to a wide variety of food service and retail customers on a wholesale basis, as well as direct to consumers through the company's website. The Company is privately owned and based in Glencoe, Illinois. Hannah Banana Bread Company was founded by Lisa", "Hannah Banana Bread Company Hannah Banana Bread Company Hannah Banana Bread Company is an American baked goods company founded in 2000 to provide stuff to specialty food retailers and consumers. The Company's baked goods are supposedly derived from family recipes and contain no additives or preservatives. All products are named after family members and distributed to a wide variety of food service and retail customers on a wholesale basis, as well as direct to consumers through the company's website. The Company is privately owned and based in Glencoe, Illinois. Hannah Banana Bread Company was founded by Lisa Spinner while on maternity leave from her", "Monasteries in Spain schools and daycare. In addition, about 250 monasteries have a guest house for lay people who must follow some basic rules, with minimal cost. Monasteries in Spain Monasteries in Spain have a rich artistic and cultural tradition, and serve as testament to Spain's religious history and political-military history, from the Visigothic Period to the Middle Ages. The monasteries played an important role in the recruitment conducted by Christian aristocracy during and after the progress of the Reconquista, with the consequent decline in the Muslim south of the peninsula. Their presence in the peninsula dates from the early centuries of Christianity,", "Monasteries in Spain Monasteries in Spain Monasteries in Spain have a rich artistic and cultural tradition, and serve as testament to Spain's religious history and political-military history, from the Visigothic Period to the Middle Ages. The monasteries played an important role in the recruitment conducted by Christian aristocracy during and after the progress of the Reconquista, with the consequent decline in the Muslim south of the peninsula. Their presence in the peninsula dates from the early centuries of Christianity, when the original hermit life gave rise to the formation of religious communities and the construction of small monasteries by Hispanics in the sixth", "Central and Eastern European Online Library with a focus on Central, East and Southeast European societies, their cultures and issues. The first release of CEEOL was developed in 1999 and was operated until the end of 2015 by Questa.Soft GmbH in Frankfurt am Main. A redeveloped, cloud-based CEEOL repository was launched on the 1st of January 2016 and is operated by the Central and Eastern European Online Library GmbH (CEEOL GmbH) in Frankfurt am Main. Central and Eastern European Online Library The Central and Eastern European Online Library (CEEOL) is a repository of full text indexed documents in the fields of Humanities and Social Science publications", "Suppression of monasteries did to German land ownership what the Revolution had done to France. Even when the Monasteries and Abbeys were not closed down as such, with their lands taken away they had lost their means of existence. The page List of Christian monasteries in Germany enumerates both the monasteries which survived up to the present and those which were dissolved. Following 1572, with the success of the Dutch Revolt and consolidation of the Dutch Republic, the Calvinist Church became the sole officially recognized Church in the Republic's entire territory. All properties of the Catholic Church were confiscated and all monasteries dissolved", "Easter bread Easter bread In many European countries, there are various traditions surrounding the use of bread during the Easter holidays. Traditionally the practice of eating Easter bread or sweetened \"communion\" bread traces its origin back to Byzantium and the Orthodox Christian church. The recipe for sweetened or \"honey-leavened\" bread may date back as far as the Homeric Greek period based on anecdotal evidence from classical texts that mention this type of special food. It is also widely known that sweetened bread desserts similar to panettone were a Roman favorite. A \"cozonac\" is traditional Easter bread in Bulgaria, \"kulich\" is one of", "Bread machine Bread machine A bread making machine or bread maker is a home appliance for turning raw ingredients into baked bread. It consists of a bread pan (or \"tin\"), at the bottom of which are one or more built-in paddles, mounted in the center of a small special-purpose oven. This small oven is usually controlled by a simple built-in computer using settings input via a control panel. Most bread machines have different cycles for different kinds of dough—including white bread, whole grain, European-style (sometimes labelled \"French\"), and dough-only (for pizza dough and shaped loaves baked in a conventional oven). Many also", "Nordic bread culture flour, or perhaps wheat for thin or flat bread cakes (tunnbröd). Bread became an important item in the new Christian religion (AD 900) for celebrating Holy Communion (bread and wine), which emphasised bread as being both new and important. Thin bread was baked on stones or iron plates or in a large oven, and this tradition is still in existence today. In Medieval times (1100–1200 AD) in central and southern Sweden, rye flour was baked into soft loafs or, in the central regions, into crispbread (knäckebröd, “bread which can be broken”). The crispbread was baked with a hole in the", "Central European Olympiad in Informatics article about the International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI), which served as a role model for the invention of the more local CEOI. The first CEOI was held in 1994 (Romania, founder of the CEOI), five years after the first IOI. Central European Olympiad in Informatics The Central European Olympiad in Informatics (CEOI) is an annual informatics competition for secondary school students. Each of the participating central European countries (plus one or two guest countries, and a local team from the host area) sends a team of up to four contestants, a team leader and a deputy team leader. The contestants", "Central European Olympiad in Informatics Central European Olympiad in Informatics The Central European Olympiad in Informatics (CEOI) is an annual informatics competition for secondary school students. Each of the participating central European countries (plus one or two guest countries, and a local team from the host area) sends a team of up to four contestants, a team leader and a deputy team leader. The contestants compete individually, i.e. a team score is not calculated. Competitors are selected through national computing contests. The contest consists of two days computer programming, solving problems of an algorithmic nature. The structure of these competition days is described in the", "Praying for Power body of local and monastic histories, usually called 'gazetteers' (\"difang zhi\" and \"sizhi\"), and Brook masterfully shows what can be done through assiduous mining of this genre.\" The reviewer does caution, however, that though the specialist will appreciate Part 3 of the book (\"\"Patronage in Context\"\"), the non-specialist will find it \"heavy going\". Praying for Power Praying for Power: Buddhism and the Formation of Gentry Society in Late-Ming China is a history book which explores the relationship between Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism during the 17th and 18th centuries in China (the late Ming Dynasty); tourism to Chinese Buddhist sites, and the", "Bread price-fixing in Canada Bread price-fixing in Canada The Competition Bureau of Canada alleged, in court documents released 31 January 2018, that seven Canadian bread companies committed indictable offences in what Michael Enright later termed \"the great Canadian bread price-fixing scandal\" of 2018. Penalties can range from $25 million to a prison term of 14 years. Canadians had been victimised over a 14-year or a 16-year period, the bureau said, noting that the scheme inflated the price of bread by at least $1.50. It became known to insiders as the \"7/10 convention\", according to the bureau documents: a usual seven cent price increase at", "Claddagh ring Claddagh ring The Claddagh ring () is a traditional Irish ring which represents love, loyalty, and friendship (the hands represent friendship, the heart represents love, and the crown represents loyalty). The design and customs associated with it originated in the Irish fishing village of the same name in Galway. The ring, as currently known, was first produced in the 17th century. The Claddagh ring belongs to a group of European finger rings called \"\"fede\" rings\". The name \"\"fede\"\" derives from the Italian phrase \"\" (\"hands [joined] in faith\" or \"hands [joined] in loyalty\"). These rings date from Roman times, when", "Prądnik bread Prądnik bread Prądnik bread (Polish: \"Chleb prądnicki\") - is a traditional secale bread baked in Kraków. The bread may be produced in huge loafs amounting to 14 kg. It is a protected produce, under geographical indications and traditional specialities in the European Union. Prądnik bread was produced in villages located on the banks of the Prądnik River - in Prądnik Czerwony and Prądnik Biały, from the fourteenth-century. Formerly, the river's upper course gravitational potential energy was harvested for the use of watermills for milling flour. The oldest document to mention Prądnik bread originates from 1421, when the Bishop of Kraków,", "Raisin bread of the 19th century. In the 1920s, raisin bread was advertised as \"The Bread Of Iron\", due to the high iron content of the raisins. The bread became increasingly popular among English bakers in the 1960s. European versions of raisin bread include the Estonian \"kringel\" and the Slovakian \"vianocka\". A similar food is raisin challah, a traditional Jewish food for Shabbat and holidays. It has been suggested that Garibaldi biscuits were based on a raisin bread that was eaten by the troops of Italian general Giuseppe Garibaldi. The United States Code of Federal Regulations specifies standards that raisin bread produced", "English Bread and Yeast Cookery \"Spices, Salt and Aromatics in the English Kitchen\". \"English Bread and Yeast Cookery\" was David's second book on English food, which she spent five years researching and writing. Some of the research was undertaken with Jill Norman, her friend and publisher. She was angered by the standard of bread in Britain and wrote: What is utterly dismaying is the mess our milling and baking concerns succeed in making with the dearly bought grain that goes into their grist. Quite simply it is wasted on a nation that cares so little about the quality of its bread that it has allowed", "Cockle bread mixed into it. William Carew Hazlitt writing in \"Faith and Folklore: a dictionary\" in 1905, gives the same explanation of \"Cockle Bread\" as Whitworth. In the 17th century a sexual connotation is attached not to the bread itself but to \"a dance that involved revealing the buttocks and simulating sexual activity\" which was known as \"moulding\" cockle bread. John Aubrey writes of \"young wenches\" indulging in a \"wanton sport\" called \"moulding of Cocklebread\" where they would \"get upon a Tableboard, and as they gather-up their knees and their Coates with their hands as high as they can, and then they", "Praying (song) you are not that talented, you are just lucky to have me...You are nothing without me.\" Weiss of \"Billboard\" found the track similar to Alanis Morissette's \"You Oughta Know\" (1995), which \"empowered women to...call out men's abuses,\" \"A Torch\" (1998), a song about a vengeful rape victim from Sarge's album \"The Glass Intact\", and Rihanna's \"Russian Roulette\" (2009), which deals with the singer's assault at the hands of Chris Brown. Kesha has said that \"Praying\" \"showcases [her] voice in a way [her] voice has never been showcased in [her] entire life.\" According to sheet music published by Musicnotes.com, her vocals", "Sliced bread who continue to slice their own bread... we are prepared to take stern measures if necessary.\" On March 8, 1943, the ban was rescinded. Wickard stated that \"Our experience with the order, however, leads us to believe that the savings are not as much as we expected, and the War Production Board tells us that sufficient wax paper to wrap sliced bread for four months is in the hands of paper processor and the baking industry.\" Due to its convenience, sliced bread is popular in many parts of the world, and the usual thickness varies by company and country: The", "I Am Bread and ships made of bakery goods in a parody of \"Star Wars\" called Starch Wars. Another bonus level has a slice of bread seek to find and complete an unfinished sandwich in the refrigerator inside a room with a slumbering Heavy set in \"Team Fortress 2\". Mr. Murton is a therapy patient who had a failed business in the past and a divorced wife. He is distressed over alleged break-ins into his house with the culprit supposedly leaving behind pieces of toasted bread as a taunt or warning. With each scenario, Mr. Murton progressively finds out that the culprit of", "Bush bread Bush bread Bush bread, or seedcakes, refers to the bread made by Australian Aboriginals for many thousands of years, by crushing seeds into a dough, after which it is baked. The bread was high in protein and carbohydrate, and helped form part of a balanced traditional diet. With the arrival of Europeans and pre-milled white flour, this bread-making process all but disappeared (although women were still recorded to be making seedcakes in Central Australia in the 1970s). The tradition of cooking bread in hot coals continues today. Bread-making was a woman's task. It was generally carried out by several women", "Northern Praying Mantis legendary persona of the historical Abbot Fu Yu (福裕) (1203–1275), supposedly invited Wang Lang (王朗) and seventeen other masters to come and improve the martial arts of Shaolin. The Abbot recorded all of the techniques in a manual called the \"Mishou\" (祕手 – \"Secret Hands\") and later passed it onto the Taoist priest Shen Xiao. This manual supposedly disappeared until the Qianlong reign era when it was published under the name \"Arhat exercising merit short strike illustrated manuscript\" (). Some sources place the folk manuscript's publication on the \"sixteenth day of the third month of the spring of 1794\". The", "Monasteries in Spain annotations, the maior domus should be a dependency of high architectural quality and large size, standing next to the church, at the height of the atrium. In the domus as a whole, there were several required dwellings such as the cilla, nursing, the punishment cell, the novitiate, the gatekeeper's shelter. What would be called a chapter house centuries later among the Benedictines was referred to at this time as a conference room in these early Hispanic monasteries. Many documents mention this space and its utility but historians are not certain where it was located. It is known that minor issues", "Monasteries in Spain building of the church inside of which there is a closed off area for the monks or nuns. Inside the church, the pulpit becomes a central element because these congregations have as a main goal to instruct and speak directly to the faithful. There are other elements that distinguish convents from monasteries Female convents there are other elements that characterize them, as the existence of a wheel, the only element of contact the religious residents of the community have with the outside. The church building sometimes has an elevated choir and a choir under the feet or a choir under", "Southern Praying Mantis been refuted. The Iron Ox system can be traced historically to the area of South China where the other branches of Southern Mantis originated and to the same Hakka communities where the art was transmitted. There are many other Southern styles such as Chuka Shaolin that uses similar technique but are not identified as being part of this group of martial arts according to their respective schools. Those styles can be identified as being Hakka Kuen. Kwong Sai Jook Lum tradition mentions that the people of the Pearl River Delta once referred to the Southern Praying Mantis style as \"Hakka", "Vakfıkebir bread Ankara. As it’s cooked in stone ovens, it is also known as “Stone oven” (Taşfırın) bread. In some areas it is mistakenly called “wood bread” (odun ekmeği); what is meant is that the oven is wood-fired. A “Vakfıkebir Bread Festival” is held each year for the purpose of promoting this bread domestically and abroad. Vakfıkebir bread Vakfıkebir bread, produced in Vakfıkebir, as well as in Maçka – Hamsiköy, ranges from 0.45 to 7.5 kilograms in weight. It is known nearly everywhere in Turkey as “Vakfıkebir” or “Trabzon” bread. In addition to Trabson, it is especially produced in small towns along", "Easter bread in flight speak of fertility, sexuality, and procreation — basic themes in Easter and its pagan precursors\". The second bread was designed to have no overall shape, but was rather baked to encircle an egg, with the initials \"BP\" put on it. The initials \"BP\" stand for \"buona Pasqua\" or \"happy Easter\". \"Letters rather than forms express meaning. Letters are symbolic of civilization and ... meaning\". Easter bread In many European countries, there are various traditions surrounding the use of bread during the Easter holidays. Traditionally the practice of eating Easter bread or sweetened \"communion\" bread traces its origin back", "Monkey bread Monkey bread Monkey bread, also called monkey puzzle bread, sticky bread, Hungarian coffee cake, golden dumpling coffee cake, pinch-me cake, and pluck-it cake is a soft, sweet, sticky pastry served in the United States for breakfast or as a treat. It consists of pieces of soft baked dough sprinkled with cinnamon. It is often served at fairs and festivals. The origin of the term \"monkey bread\" comes from the pastry being a finger food: the consumer would pick apart the bread as a monkey would. What most people know as monkey bread today in the United States is actually the", "Monkey bread Monkey bread Monkey bread, also called monkey puzzle bread, sticky bread, Hungarian coffee cake, golden dumpling coffee cake, pinch-me cake, and pluck-it cake is a soft, sweet, sticky pastry served in the United States for breakfast or as a treat. It consists of pieces of soft baked dough sprinkled with cinnamon. It is often served at fairs and festivals. The origin of the term \"monkey bread\" comes from the pastry being a finger food: the consumer would pick apart the bread as a monkey would. What most people know as monkey bread today in the United States is actually the", "Praying (song) from the \"dive bar party anthems\" which Kesha has become known for. The song's production is minimal, with Kesha joined on the track by violins, violas, strings, celli, \"distant\" backing vocals and drums. Dan Weiss of \"Billboard\" deemed \"Praying\"'s arrangement \"unfashionable\" and said the song does not sound like contemporary music. The chorus of \"Praying\" features Kesha singing \"I hope you're somewhere praying, praying/ I hope your soul is changing, changing/ I hope you find your peace falling on your knees, praying.\" The refrain has been described as \"soaring but simple\" by Spencer Kornhaber of \"The Atlantic\", in the vein", "Monasteries in Spain monks gathered in the choir. Documentation of these early Hispanic monasteries is abundant and descriptive. However, only a few of the cloisters have been preserved; the rest of the sites are lost and archaeological evidence is inconclusive. Many monasteries arose in the tenth century on land reclaimed in hitherto barren areas, no man's land, or abandoned places in the basin of the Duero and Bierzo in León. The monasteries might construct new buildings or small churches, or restore those crumbling and neglected earlier that new monks transformed and supplemented with monastic dependencies. In many cases, these areas were found to", "Rye bread Rye bread Rye bread is a type of bread made with various proportions of flour from rye grain. It can be light or dark in color, depending on the type of flour used and the addition of coloring agents, and is typically denser than bread made from wheat flour. It is higher in fiber than white bread and is often darker in color and stronger in flavor. Dark rye bread was considered a staple through the Middle Ages. Many different types of rye grain have come from north-central and western and eastern Europe such as Scandinavia, Finland, Baltic countries, Poland,", "Monasteries in Spain by the Carthusians. In the thirteenth century the Franciscans and Dominicans, Premonstratensian and Jesuits, arrived. Some of these groups have remained quite monastic. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, numerous monasteries and convents arose, such as the Monastery of the Valley of the Fallen. Recent monasteries founded and built in Spain were: Monasteries in this area were historically founded mainly by kings, bishops and nobles. There were a number of reasons individuals might found a monastery, largely self-serving ones: to reserve a burial there, which came with perpetual prayers by the monks on behalf of the founder's soul, sheltering a", "Monasteries in Spain between buttresses. In Navarre there was a proliferation of mendicant convents during the reign of Champagne, especially with Theobald II was defined as chief patron and protector. In Castilla y León were many convents but most which have survived to the twenty-first century are badly deteriorated. Paired monasteries were those made jointly by male and female communities, within the High Middle Ages achieved considerable importance. These monasteries had their origin in the monasteries turned into family homes where whole families decided to benefit from religious rules and form a monastic community whose members spent the rest of their days without", "Bread price-fixing in Canada Law. A senior law officer for the Competition Bureau wrote in the documents that the last documented price increase occurred in December 2015, or a year and a half after the Grupo Bimbo takeover, and he believes the \"conduct is ongoing.\" Bread price-fixing in Canada The Competition Bureau of Canada alleged, in court documents released 31 January 2018, that seven Canadian bread companies committed indictable offences in what Michael Enright later termed \"the great Canadian bread price-fixing scandal\" of 2018. Penalties can range from $25 million to a prison term of 14 years. Canadians had been victimised over a 14-year", "Monasteries in Spain the side of the chancel, separated by a communion rail. Most of these urban monasteries proliferated during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries throughout the Spanish territory. Many of the Hispanic monasteries were abandoned, forgotten and lost, over time. The medieval monasteries were maintained, although some were plundered and burned, to recover from these tragedies only with new reconstructions. The nineteenth century was crucial for the conservation of these monastic buildings. The Spanish War of Independence brought many calamities; French soldiers were quartered in the buildings in some cases the churches were turned into stables or kitchens. Fires were set for", "Monasteries in Spain attached to the south or north nave of the church. One gallery is dedicated always to the chapter house and another small unit. The west gallery houses usually the cilla and laymen, and the gallery border to the church has the refectory and kitchen calefactory. In some monasteries, the profundis room is replaced by the refectory where the monks chant Psalm \"De profundis ad te Dominum clamavi ...\" Psalm 130 (129) One of Saint Benedict's foremost edicts concerned caring for the ill indigent residents around the monasteries. To this end, the monasteries established hospitals both inside the monastery grounds and", "The Bird-catcher and the Blackbird dunghill and there came a sparrow and looked at it and said, 'What doest thou here?' And the snare said, 'I am praying to God.' The sparrow said, 'And what is that in thy mouth?' The snare said, 'Bread for guests.' Then the sparrow drew near and took it, and the snare caught him by the neck. And the sparrow said, as he was being shaken, 'If this is thy bread for guests, may the god to whom thou prayest never listen to thy voice. A much later Arabic recension begins with the inquisitive sparrow but then makes a lark", "Monasteries in Spain economic base, with workshops, foundries, mills, potteries, wineries, and other small businesses. Despite the great vicissitudes suffered by the Spanish monasteries—fire, theft, plundering, confiscations, laziness—there still remains still a considerable heritage of artistic furnishings. The monasteries tried to move away from the heritage of austerity required of ascetics, without exhibiting any external signs of wealth. Maintaining this position was virtually impossible because of the desire of lay founders, sponsors and donors that their gifts be visible as indications of their power, generosity and position. All these monasteries developed a rich collection of art, and this display did not escape the", "Monasteries in Spain or cemeteries, and not only consider this important for the salvation of souls but as a perpetual reminder to future generations how important those buried were. Among the great monasteries which possessed noble or royal mausoleums are: Among the monasteries, cemeteries and burial of the family of the nobility, there are: Some religious communities have education as their main activity. The agencies and the religious way of life is no different from other monasteries, only instead of cultivating the land, their work is channeled to instruction and education. Examples of such religious houses are the Convent of Santo Domingo as", "Monasteries in Spain the Abbot of Fitero, Raymond, at the behest of King Sancho III of Castile, to protect the area restored to the Muslims. Other orders as Order of Santiago, Knights Templar and Canons of the Holy Sepulchre devoted much of their efforts to protect and care for pilgrims on the Camino de Santiago. although many monasteries emerged along the Camino de Santiago, some have disappeared altogether. Typical of the monasteries' aid to travelers are the thirty-twohospitals or hospices governed by a small community of monks belonging to different orders, but many of the monasteries of this route have also attached their", "European integration Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey. The following cooperation agreements have been signed in Central Europe: The Visegrád Group is a Central-European alliance for cooperation and European integration, based on an ancient strategic alliance of core Central European countries. The Group originated in a summit meeting of Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland held in the Hungarian castle town of Visegrád on 15 February 1991. The Czech Republic and Slovakia became members after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993. In 1989, Central European Initiative, a forum of regional has been formed in Hungary. The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is a", "Central European Summer Time 2012–2013. Central European Summer Time Central European Summer Time (CEST), sometime referred also as Central European Daylight Time (CEDT), is the standard clock time observed during the period of summer daylight-saving in those European countries which observe Central European Time () during the other part of the year. It corresponds to , which makes it the same as Central Africa Time, South African Standard Time and Kaliningrad Time in Russia. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time (MEST), Central European Daylight Saving Time (CEDT), and Bravo Time (after the second letter", "Central European Summer Time Central European Summer Time Central European Summer Time (CEST), sometime referred also as Central European Daylight Time (CEDT), is the standard clock time observed during the period of summer daylight-saving in those European countries which observe Central European Time () during the other part of the year. It corresponds to , which makes it the same as Central Africa Time, South African Standard Time and Kaliningrad Time in Russia. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time (MEST), Central European Daylight Saving Time (CEDT), and Bravo Time (after the second letter of", "Bread in Europe It has been estimated that the basic kinds of bread are so widely varied by more than 16,000 local bakeries that more than 1,000 different breads have been presented at a 2005 Cologne bread show. Germans are worldwide the biggest consumers (per capita) of bread, followed by Chile. In 2012 there were 13,666 bakeries in Germany, but the number has been steadily declining, mainly in favour of supermarkets. 3090 different kinds of bread are listed in the German Bread Registry. Popularity of kinds of bread: mixed bread (wheat and rye) 31.8%, toast bread 21.6%, bread with grains and seeds 14.8%,", "Bread an elastic-plastic foam (same as styrofoam). The glutenin protein contributes to its elastic nature, as it is able to regain its initial shape after deformation. The gliadin protein contributes to its plastic nature, because it demonstrates non-reversible structural change after a certain amount of applied force. Because air pockets within this gluten network result from carbon dioxide production during leavening, bread can be defined as a foam, or a gas-in-solid solution. Bread can be served at many temperatures; once baked, it can subsequently be toasted. It is most commonly eaten with the hands, either by itself or as a carrier", "European Central Bank European Central Bank The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank for the euro and administers monetary policy of the Eurozone, which consists of 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the world's most important central banks and is one of the seven institutions of the European Union (EU) listed in the Treaty on European Union (TEU). The capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states. The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998, and it is", "Central and Eastern European Online Library Central and Eastern European Online Library The Central and Eastern European Online Library (CEEOL) is a repository of full text indexed documents in the fields of Humanities and Social Science publications from and about Central and Eastern Europe. The collections include native language sources from and about Central, East and Southeast Europe´s humanities and social sciences in the form of journal articles, eBooks and Grey Literature. The subject areas include anthropology, culture and society, economy, gender studies, history, Judaic studies, fine arts, literature, linguistics, political sciences and social sciences, philosophy, religion, law Updated daily, the CEEOL coverage grows by approximately", "Bush bread a dough and placed in hot ashes for baking. The results could be small buns, today referred to as johnny cakes, or a large loaf, known today as damper. Damper appears to be a mix of this traditional style of bread-making and European-style bread-making. The dough could also be eaten raw. Cooking was a good way to prepare the bread if the group was about to travel for some time. Bread could also be made from roots and corms of plants. In the Top End of Australia, people such as the Yolngu used the lotus root and wild taro. These", "Route of the Monasteries of Valencia Route of the Monasteries of Valencia The Route of the Monasteries of Valencia (GR-236) is a religious and cultural route that connects five monasteries located in central region of the Province of Valencia, (Valencian Community), in Spain. The Route was inaugurated in the year 2008. The route includes the following five monasteries: There are four distinct itineraries. The first road, for condition for hiking: the GR-236 (over 90 km in length), the second route, access to the monasteries with vehicles. The four routes are different and each one goes through different towns, but both routes pass by the five monasteries.", "Bread in culture wheat bread, and priests should confect the body of Christ in either”. Some traditions of Wicca and Neo-Paganism consume bread as part of their religious rituals, attaching varied symbolism to the act. Although eaten by nearly all people, some have rejected bread entirely or rejected types of bread that they consider unhealthy. Reasons for doing so have varied through history: whole grain bread has been criticized as being unrefined, and white bread as being unhealthfully processed; homemade bread has been deemed unsanitary, and factory-made bread regarded with suspicion for being adulterated. \"Amylophobia\", literally \"fear of starch\", was a movement in", "Bread and salt goodness, and salt prosperity and security for the guest. It is part of the state protocol, in use since the Principality of Serbia, often used when welcoming foreign representatives. In Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, bread and salt were traditionally given as a symbol of blessing for a new home. Instead of white bread, dark fiber-rich rye bread was used. Bread and salt are given away for different reasons: In northern Germany and Bohemia (Czech Republic) bread and salt are traditionally put into the diaper of a newborn. In Transylvania bread and salt are served to protect against weather demons." ]

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[ "Evan Hunter\nEvan Hunter (alk. Salvatore Lombino, 15. lokakuuta 1926 – 6. heinäkuuta 2005) oli yhdysvaltalainen kirjailija ja käsikirjoittaja. Hunter tunnetaan erityisesti nimellä Ed McBain kirjoittamastaan yli 50-osaisesta poliisiromaanisarjasta 87. poliisipiiri, joka on yksi poliisiromaanin perusteoksista. Käsikirjoittajana Hunterin tunnetuin elokuva on Alfred Hitchcockin Linnut (1963), joka perustuu Daphne du Maurierin novelliin.[1]" ]

[ "When a Woman Sins\nWhen a Woman Sins (työnimenä \"The Message of the Lilies\") on vuonna 1918 ensi-iltansa saanut J. Gordon Edwardsin ohjaama yhdysvaltalainen mykkä draamaelokuva, jonka pääosissa ovat Theda Bara ja Josef Swickard. Elokuvan tuotanto- ja jakeluyhtiönä toimi Fox Film Corporation, ja se sai ensi-iltansa Yhdysvalloissa 29. syyskuuta vuonna 1918. \"When a Woman Sins\" on nykyisin listattu kadonneeksi elokuvaksi.", "Lintu sininen\nLintu sininen (televisioesityksessä käytetty myös nimekettä Sininen lintu; ; ; ven. \"Sinjaja ptitsa\") on vuonna 1976 ensi-iltansa saanut George Cukorin ohjaama yhdysvaltalais-neuvostoliittolainen fantasiaelokuva, jonka pääosissa ovat Elizabeth Taylor, Jane Fonda ja Cicely Tyson. Elokuva oli ensimmäinen virallinen Yhdysvaltain ja Neuvostoliiton välinen tekemä elokuva.", "John James Audubon\nJohn James Audubon (alun perin Jean Rabin, 26. huhtikuuta 1785 – 27. tammikuuta 1851) oli yhdysvaltalainen lintutieteilijä, joka maalasi 1800-luvun alussa kaikki silloin Yhdysvalloissa tunnetut lintulajit. Saman työn oli tehnyt häntä ennen Alexander Wilson. Hän ei kuitenkaan saanut Yhdysvalloissa paljoakaan kuuluisuutta ja lähetti teoksensa Eurooppaan, missä ne julkaistiin neliosaisena teoksena. \"The Birds of America\" (julkaistu vuosina 1827–1838) menestyikin hyvin. Se on ilmestynyt suomeksi nimellä \"Linnut\" (Weilin & Göös, 1990). ", "Alfred Hitchcock\nSir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock, KBE (13. elokuuta 1899 Lontoo, Englanti, Ison-Britannian ja Irlannin yhdistynyt kuningaskunta – 29. huhtikuuta 1980 Los Angeles, Kalifornia, Yhdysvallat)[1] oli brittiläinen elokuvaohjaaja. Hän siirtyi 1939 Hollywoodiin, jossa hän teki useimmat merkittävimmistä elokuvistaan.", "Lainahöyhenissä (vuoden 1996 elokuva)\nLainahöyhenissä (\"The Birdcage\") on vuonna 1996 ensi-iltansa saanut komediaelokuva. Elokuvan on ohjannut Mike Nichols. Se oli taloudellinen menestys. Elokuva perustuu Jean Poiret’n näytelmään \"La Cage aux Folles\". Samasta aiheesta on tehty italialais-ranskalainen elokuva \"Hullujen häkki\" (1978).", "Hergé\nViimeiset kolme Tintti-seikkailua, \"Castafioren korut\" (1961), \"Lento 714\" (1966) sekä \"Tintti ja Picarot\" (1975) valmistuivat hitaasti aiempien tarinoiden kahden vuoden tasaiseen tahtiin nähden. Samaan aikaan Tintti-tarinat olivat myös alkaneet siirtyä sarjakuvista toisiin medioihin, kun vuonna 1961 ilmestyi toinen Tintti-elokuva, \"Tintin et le mystère de la Toison d’or\", jossa Jean-Pierre Talbot esitti Tinttiä. Tintistä oli jo aiemminkin tehty elokuva, vuonna 1947 julkaistu animaatio \"Le crabe aux pinces d’or\", mutta se ehdittiin esittää julkisesti vain kerran ennen kuin se vedettiin teattereista. \"Le crabe aux pinces d’or\" oli kuitenkin vielä alkeellista stop motion -animaatiota edustava teos, ja ensimmäinen perinteisesti animoitu Tintti-elokuva oli vuonna 1961 ensi-iltaan tullut\"Tintti ja Tuhatkaunon tapaus\" (\"Het geval Zonnebloem\"). Näiden lisäksi Raymond Leblanc käytti Tinttiä \"Tintin Magazinen\" markkinointivalttina.", "Peter Lorre\nVuonna 1933 natsit nousivat valtaan Saksassa, ja juutalainen Lorre lähti maanpakoon. Hän asui ensin Pariisissa ja sitten Lontoossa, jossa näytteli Alfred Hitchcockin elokuvissa \"Mies joka tiesi liikaa\" (\"The Man Who Knew Too Much\", 1934 ja \"Salainen asiamies\" (\"The Secret Agent\", 1936). 1930-luvun lopulla Lorre siirtyi Hollywoodiin. Hän ajautui nopeasti jännitys- ja kauhuelokuvien vakiokasvoksi ja esitti tavallisesti kieroja ja rikollisia sekä enemmän tai vähemmän mielipuolisia hahmoja. Lorren kuuluisimpia yhdysvaltalaisia elokuvia ovat John Hustonin \"Maltan haukka\" (\"The Maltese Falcon\", 1941) ja Michael Curtizin \"Casablanca\" (1942), joissa kummassakin hän on tyypillisessä lipevän ulkomaalaisen konnan roolissa ja molempien pääosassa oli Humphrey Bogart.", "Varkaitten paratiisi\nVarkaitten paratiisi (\"To Catch a Thief\") on Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaama yhdysvaltalainen jännityselokuva vuodelta 1955. Pääosia näyttelee kaksi Hitchcockin luottonäyttelijää: Cary Grant ja Grace Kelly. John Michael Hayes kirjoitti käsikirjoituksen David Dodgen romaanin pohjalta. Kuvaaja Robert Burks sai työstään Oscar-palkinnon.", "Myrskylinnut (elokuva)\nMyrskylinnut () o koko perheen toimintaelokuva, joka pohjautuu 1960-luvulla tuotettuun \"Myrskylinnut\"-televisiosarjaan. Supermarionaatiotekniikalla tehdystä alkuperäisestä televisiosarjasta ja sen aiemmista elokuvasovituksista poiketen \"Myrskylinnuissa\" näyttelivät oikeat ihmiset. Elokuvan ensi-ilta Yhdysvalloissa oli 31. heinäkuuta 2004. Elokuvan ohjaaja Jonathan Frakes on tunnettu erityisesti Star Trek -elokuvista. Elokuvan tarina sijoittuu vuoteen 2010.", "Nuori ja viaton\n\"Nuoressa ja viattomassa\" Hitchcock käyttää jälleen väärän miehen teemaa. Koko elokuva onkin hyvin samankaltainen kuin Hitchcockin paria vuotta aikaisempi \"39 askelta\". Elokuvasta löytyy myös yllättäviä yhtäläisyyksiä Hitchcockin myöhempiin elokuviin: lähikuvat lokeista rannalla tuovat eittämättä mieleen \"Linnut\" (1963) ja alkukohtaus, jossa murhattu nainen huuhtoutuu rannalle, on kuin \"Frenzyn\" (1973) alkukohtaus vuosikymmeniä myöhemmin.", "Alfred Hitchcock\nVuonna 1927 ensi-iltansa saanut Vuokralainen oli Hitchcockin ensimmäinen jännityselokuva. Se oli myös Hitchcockin ensimmäinen yleisö- ja arvostelumenestys. Sitä pidettiin jopa kaikkien aikojen parhaana brittielokuvana, ja teknisten innovaatioidensa ansiosta Hitchcock sai ”ihmepojan” maineen. Hitchcockin omasta mielestä Vuokralainen oli ensimmäinen ”Hitchcock-elokuva”.[23] Siinä Hitchcock käytti myös ensimmäisen kerran syyttömänä syytteeseen joutuvan miehen teemaa, jota hän muunteli lukuisissa myöhemmissä elokuvissaan.[2] Vuokralaisessa on myös Hitchcockin ensimmäinen cameorooli.[24]", "Alfred Hitchcock\nOikeussalidraama 2 pisaraa viiniä (1947) oli Hitchcockin viimeinen Selznickille tekemä elokuva, ja se epäonnistui lähes täydellisesti. Elokuvan valtavat tappiot vaikuttivat osaltaan siihen, että Selznickin itsenäinen levitysyhtiö joutuu lopettamaan toimintansa.[64]", "Les Ailes de la colombe\nLes Ailes de la colombe (kansainvälisesti \"The Wings of the Dove\") on vuonna 1981 ensi-iltansa saanut Benoît Jacquotin ohjaama ja käsikirjoittama ranskalainen romanttinen draamaelokuva, jonka pääosissa ovat Isabelle Huppert, Dominique Sanda ja Michele Placido. Elokuva perustuu löyhästi Henry Jamesin romaaniin \"The Wings of the Dove\" (1902), jonka pohjalta Benoît Jacquot ja Florence Delay sovittivat elokuvan käsikirjoituksen. \"Les Ailes de la colomben\" tuottajana oli Maurice Bernart.", "Lapinlahden Linnut\n1988 yhtye julkaisi albumin Lauluja Nuppilasta, jota on pidetty yhtenä yhtyeen parhaista albumeista. Varsinaiseksi \"pajatson tyhjennykseksi\" osoittautuivat vuosikymmenen vaihteessa tehdyt sketsisarjat, erityisesti Seitsemän kuolemansyntiä ja Maailman kahdeksan ihmettä, joista jälkimmäinen voitti Venla-palkinnon.[4]", "Vertigo – punainen kyynel\nVertigo – Punainen kyynel (\"Vertigo\") on Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaama jännityselokuva vuodelta 1958. Sitä pidetään yleisesti Hitchcockin parhaana elokuvana, jonka maine on vain kasvanut sen uusintaensi-illan jälkeen 1983. Sitä pidetään myös yhtenä kaikkien aikojen parhaista elokuvista: \"Sight & Sound\" -lehden kaikkien aikojen kymmenen parhaan elokuvan listalle se kipusi ensimmäisen kerran 1982, ja vuoden 2002 listalla \"Vertigo\" oli jo toisella sijalla heti \"Citizen Kanen\" jälkeen. Vuoden 2012 äänestyksessä Vertigo oli ensimmäisellä sijalla.", "Lapinlahden Linnut\nLapinlahden Linnut (1985) * Jep (1986) * Vihreä gorilla (1987) Lauluja Nuppilasta (1988) Elämä janottaa (1989) Tähdet kertovat (1990) Grrr! (1992) Köyhän taivas (1994) Tyttö huutaa hii! (1995) Kansandances (1997) Iso muna (1999) Kolmas jalka haudassa (2003) Pienvikaisten paratiisi (2005) Etiäppäin (2007)", "Alfred Hitchcock\nMutta kuka murhasin Harryn? jälkeen Hitchcockin seuraava elokuva oli uudelleenfilmatisointi Mies joka tiesi liikaa, joka perustui Hitchcockin omaan elokuvaan vuodelta 1934. François Truffaut’n haastattelussa Hitchcock sanoi ensimmäisen version olleen lahjakkaan amatöörin tekemä, kun taas toinen oli ammattilaisen.[80] Elokuva oli kassamenestys: parissa viikossa siitä tuli vuoden tuottoisin elokuva Yhdysvalloissa.[81] Vuonna 1957 ensi-iltansa saanut Väärä mies käsittelee Hitchcockin suosikkiteemaa väärin perustein syytetystä miehestä. Erikoista on kuitenkin, että elokuva perustui tositapahtumiin ja että Hitchcock jopa säilytti tosielämän repliikit, vaikka ne heikensivät elokuvan draamallista rakennetta. John Russell Taylor pitääkin elokuvaa nopeasti tehtynä mustavalkoisena välityönä, Hitchcockin ystävänpalveluksena Warner Brothersille.[82]", "Ava Gardner\nVuonna 1964 Gardner näytteli poliittisessa jännityselokuvassa Toukokuun 7 päivää, joka oli arvostelumenestys.[18] Tässä miesvaltaisessa elokuvassa hänellä oli vastanäyttelijöinään Burt Lancaster, Kirk Douglas ja Fredric March. Samana vuonna ilmestynyt John Hustonin ohjaama Liskojen yö oli todellinen huippumenestys Gardnerille. Elokuva perustuu Tennessee Williamsin samannimiseen näytelmään,[5] ja hänen vastanäyttelijöinään olivat Richard Burton ja Deborah Kerr.[3] Liskojen yö menestyi sekä arvosteluissa että lippukassoilla, ja Gardner sai roolisuorituksestaan BAFTA- ja Golden Globe -ehdokkuudet sekä elokuvauransa parhaimmat arvostelut.[7][5][16]", "Alfred Hitchcock\nHitchcockin ensimmäinen ohjaustyö oli brittiläis-saksalainen yhteistuotanto The Pleasure Garden 1925. Ulkokuvaukset tehtiin Italiassa ja studiokuvaukset Saksassa. Sen vastaanotto oli myönteinen, mutta se ei ollut arvostelu- tai yleisömenestys. Kunnolliseen levitykseen se pääsi vasta, kun Hitchcockin Vuokralaisesta (ensi-ilta syyskuussa 1926) oli tullut menestys.[22] Seuraavaksi valmistunut melodraama The Mountain Eagle (1926) on ainoa Hitchcockin ohjaamista elokuvista, joka on kadonnut (jollei oteta huomioon keskeneräiseksi jäänyttä elokuvaa Number 13).[19]", "Tippi Hedren\nNathalie Kay ”Tippi” Hedren (s. 19. tammikuuta 1930 New Ulm, Minnesota) on yhdysvaltalainen näyttelijä, jonka tunnetuin roolityö on Melanie Danielsin rooli Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaamassa elokuvassa Linnut (1963). Hedren on näytellyt jo kuuden vuosikymmenen ajan, ja hän on toiminut aktiivisesti eläinten etujen ja turvan puolesta muun muassa perustamalla Los Angelesiin vuonna 1983 eläinten suojelualueen nimeltä Shambala Preserve. Hän hoitaa muun muassa Michael Jacksonin lemmikkitiikereitä.", "Köysi (elokuva)\nKöysi (\"Rope\") on Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaama yhdysvaltalainen jännityselokuva vuodelta 1948. Elokuva pohjautuu Patrick Hamiltonin samannimiseen näytelmään vuodelta 1929, joka puolestaan perustuu löyhästi Leopoldin ja Loebin 1924 tekemään murhaan, jota on käytetty aiheena monissa dramatisoinneissa.", "The Pleasure Garden\nHitchcock oli aloittanut elokuvauransa 1921 välitekstien suunnittelijana. Seuraavana vuonna hän oli edennyt lavastajaksi ja vuodesta 1923 hän toimi apulaisohjaajana ja käsikirjoittajana Graham Cuttsin ohjaamissa elokuvissa. Hitchcockin ensimmäinen yritys ohjaajana oli \"Number 13\" (1922). Tuotantoyhtiön rahavaikeuksien takia se jäi kuitenkin keskeneräiseksi. Toinen ohjausmahdollisuus oli \"Always Tell Your Wife\" (1923), jonka Hitchcock ohjasi loppuun ohjaajan sairastuttua. Kolmas ohjaustyö oli \"Die Prinzessin und der Geiger\" -elokuvan ohjaaminen loppuun Alma Revillen kanssa sen jälkeen kun ohjaaja oli karannut virolaisen tanssijattaren kanssa.", "Jackie Brown\nJackie Brown on Quentin Tarantinon ohjaama ja kirjoittama elokuva, joka sai ensi-iltansa vuonna 1997. Rikostrilleri perustuu Elmore Leonardin romaaniin \"Rommipunssi\" ja kertoo kovapintaisesta lentoemännästä (Pam Grier), joka toimii ammattinsa varjolla huume- ja asekauppiaan (Samuel L. Jackson) kuriirina.", "Nuori ja viaton\nNuori ja viaton (\"Young and Innocent\", Yhdysvalloissa \"The Girl Was Young\") on Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaama brittiläinen jännityselokuva vuodelta 1937. Se muistuttaa asetelmiltaan hänen pari vuotta aikaisempaa menestystrilleriään \"39 askelta\". Kummassakin syytön mies joutuu pakenemaan ja todistamaan syyttömyytensä.", "Hilary Duff\n\"Lizzie McGuire\" ensiesitettiin Disney Channelilla 12. tammikuuta 2001. Se keräsi 2,3 miljoonaa katsojaa jokaista jaksoa kohden. Duffista tuli sarjan myötä erittäin suosittu 7–14-vuotiaiden keskuudessa, ja kriitikko Richard Huff \"New York Daily News\" -lehdestä kutsui Duffia \"vuoden 2002 versioksi Annette Funicellosta\". Duff allekirjoitti sopimuksen 65 lisäjakson kuvaamisesta. Duff näytteli myös Disney Channelin \"Cadet Kelly\"ssä (2002), josta tuli kanavaverkon katsotuin ohjelma 19 vuoteen. Siinä hän näyttelee tyttöä, joka menee sotilaskouluun.\nDuffin seuraava elokuva oli \"Human Nature – luonnon pikku oikkuja\" (2002), joka kuvattiin samoihin aikoihin kuin Lizzie McGuire. Charlie Kaufmanin käsikirjoittama ja Michel Gondryn ohjaama elokuva kertoo luonnontutkijasta, jota näyttelee Patricia Arquette. Duff esitti päähenkilöä nuorena. Samana vuonna Duff teki cover-version Brooke McClymontin kappaleesta \"I Can't Wait\" Lizzie McGuire -elokuvaan ja kappaleen \"The Tiki Tiki Tiki Room\" ensimmäiselle \"DisneyManian\" kokoelma-albumille. ", "François Truffaut\nUskottomuudesta kertonutta Pehmeää ihoa (1964) pidettiin aikanaan epäonnistuneena, mutta sen arvostus on noussut 2000-luvulla tehdyn restauroinnin jälkeen.[1] Ray Bradburyn romaaniin perustunut englanninkielinen Fahrenheit 451 (1966) ajautui vaikeaan ja pitkittyneeseen tuotantoprosessiin. Samana vuonna 1966 ilmestyi Truffaut’n tekemä kirja Hitchcock, joka perustui hänen vuonna 1962 tekemäänsä pitkään Alfred Hitchcock -haastatteluun. Kirja ja Truffaut’n aiemmat artikkelit Hitchcockista olivat vaikuttamassa brittiohjaajan maailmanlaajuiseen maineeseen auteurina. Samoihin aikoihin Truffaut viimeisteli seuraavaa Antoine Doinel -elokuvaa Varastettuja suudelmia (1968).[1] Tässä elokuvassa elokuvaketju on Jean-Pierre Léaudin kumppanina naispuolinen näyttelijä: Claude Jade on nyt Léaudin kumppanina Christine Darbonin roolissa. Hänestä tuli myöhemmin Doinelin vaimo: Varastettuja suudelmia (1968), Nuori pari (1970), Rakkaus karkuteillä (1979).", "Myrskylinnut\nMyrskylinnut () oli Gerry Andersonin ja Sylvia Andersonin luoma 1960-luvun televisiosarja, joka käytti supermarionaatioksi kutsuttua nukkeanimaatiotyyliä. Sarjaa tehtiin vuosina 1964–1966 yhteensä 32 jaksoa. Tulevaisuuteen sijoittuva sarja kertoo kansainvälisestä pelastuspartiosta, jolla on käytössään erilaisia lentäviä kulkuneuvoja. Hahmot esiintyivät myös kahdessa pitkässä elokuvassa: \"Thunderbirds Are Go!\" (1966) ja \"Thunderbird 6\" (1968). Sarjan tunnusmusiikin on säveltänyt Barry Gray.", "Apinoiden planeetan synty\nApinoiden planeetan synty () on vuonna 2011 ensi-iltansa saanut yhdysvaltalainen tieteiselokuva, jonka taustatarinana toimii Pierre Boullen vuoden 1963 romaani \"Apinoiden planeetta\". Elokuvan on ohjannut Rupert Wyatt ja sen pääosia näyttelevät James Franco, Andy Serkis, John Lithgow ja Freida Pinto.", "Alfred Hitchcock\nHitchcock on yksi maailman tunnetuimmista ja arvostetuimmista elokuvaohjaajista. Hän julkaisi kaikkiaan yli 50elokuvaa, joista huomattava osa on saanut klassikkomaineen. Hän tuli tutuksi myös menestyneiden televisiosarjojen Alfred Hitchcock esittää (1955–1962) ja The Alfred Hitchcock Hour (1962–1965) isäntänä. Edellistä on jopa pidetty yhtenä kaikkien aikojen parhaista televisiosarjoista.[5][6] Vuonna 2002 MovieMaker-lehti nimesi Hitchcockin kaikkien aikojen vaikutusvaltaisimmaksi elokuvaohjaajaksi. Hitchcockia on sanottu ”kaikkien aikojen kuuluisimmaksi elokuvaohjaajaksi”.[7]", "Hiirirouva ja ruusupensaan viisaat\nHiirirouva ja ruusupensaan viisaat () on yhdysvaltalaisen Robert C. O'Brienin kirjoittama nuorten tieteisromaani. Englanninkielinen alkuteos julkaistiin vuonna 1971 ja suomennos 1977. Romaanista on tehty vuonna 1982 ensi-iltansa saanut animaatioelokuva \"NIMH – rouva Brisby ja hänen salainen maailmansa\".", "Jack Nicholson\nVuonna 1971 ilmestynyt Sähinää, se sanoi oli Nicholsonin ensimmäinen ohjaustyö. Elokuva ei saanut kovin hyvää vastaanottoa kriitikoilta, ja Nicholson palasi seuraavana vuonna näyttelijäksi elokuvassa Vain unelmilla on siivet.[2] Saattokeikasta (1973) Nicholson oli jälleen Oscar-ehdokkaana ja hänet palkittiin Cannesin elokuvajuhlien parhaan miesnäyttelijän palkinnolla. Hän sai jälleen Oscar-ehdokkuuden Roman Polańskin neo-noirista Chinatown (1974), jossa hän esitti etsivä Jack Gittesiä. Seuraavana vuonna Nicholson esiintyi Michelangelo Antonionin elokuvassa Ammatti: reportteri, musikaalissa Tommy, komediassa Akka jota ei saatu hengiltä ja Miloš Formanin elokuvassa Yksi lensi yli käenpesän, josta Nicholson sai lopulta parhaan miespääosan Oscar-palkinnon.[3] Hän esitti siinä Randall Patrick McMurphyä, rauhatonta mielisairaalaan lähetettyä vankia.[2]", "Daphne du Maurier\nDame Daphne du Maurier DBE (13. toukokuuta 1907 – 19. huhtikuuta 1989) oli brittiläinen kirjailija. Hänet muistetaan varsinkin novellista \"Linnut\" (1952) ja romaanista \"Rebekka\" (1938), jotka molemmat olivat pohjana Alfred Hitchcockin elokuville.", "Sabotaasi (elokuva)\nSabotaasi () on Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaama brittiläinen jännityselokuva vuodelta 1936. Se perustuu Joseph Conradin romaaniin Anarkistit ja kertoo sabotööristä, joka aikoo räjäyttää pommin Lontoossa.[1] Elokuvan pommikohtaus on yksi Hitchcockin uran kuuluisimmista ja kiistellyimmistä kohtauksista.[2]", "Hitchcock (elokuva)\nElokuva loppuu kun Hitchcockin aviopari poistuu Psykon ensi-ilta näytöksestä, ja Alfred kertoo vaimolleen tämän olevan edelleen se kaunein Hitchcock blondi. Seuraavaksi Hitchcock seisoo takapihallaan, kertoen katsojalle että hänen mielensä tekee taas kerran palata elokuvantekoon, muttei taaskaan keksi aihetta seuraavalle elokuvalleen. Yhtäkkiä lintu laskeutuu hänen olkapäälleen hetkeksi, joka antaa hänelle inspiraation seuraavalle elokuvalleen.", "Läpi usvan\nLäpi usvan on Roland af Hällströmin ohjaama elokuva vuodelta 1948. Se on \"Houkutuslinnun\" ohella Hällströmin film noir -tyyppisiä elokuvia. Elokuvan käsikirjoituksen Hällström laati nimimerkillä Viljo Hela, yhdessä Yrjö Rannikon kanssa, jonka ainoa elokuvakäsikirjoitus tämä oli. Film noirin ohella elokuvan tyyli on sukua Teuvo Tulion tummille melodraamoille. Leif Wager sai osasuorituksestaan vuoden miespääosa-Jussin.", "The Last Song\nThe Last Song on 31. maaliskuuta 2010 Yhdysvalloissa ensi-iltansa saanut elokuva, jonka on tuottanut Walt Disney Pictures. Elokuva perustuu Nicholas Sparksin romaaniin vuodelta 2009.[1] Se kertoo kapinallisesta nuoresta, joka joutuu viettämään kesän isänsä kanssa, jota ei oikeastaan tunne ollenkaan. Suomessa elokuva sai ensi-iltansa 1. toukokuuta 2010.[2] Pääosissa näyttelevät Miley Cyrus ja Liam Hemsworth.[3]", "Lupaus (elokuva)\nLupaus on Ilkka Vanteen ohjaama suomalainen lotista kertova elokuva, joka sai ensi-iltansa 2. joulukuuta 2005. Elokuva kuvaa kolmen suomalaisen lotan elämää aina talvisotaan valmistautumisesta Porkkalan palautukseen saakka. Päähenkilöitä ovat siskokset Mona ja Anna Moisio sekä Ruth Limnell. Musiikin elokuvaan on säveltänyt Tuomas Kantelinen.", "Hänen olivat linnut (elokuva)\n\"Hänen olivat linnut\" sai ensi-iltansa MTV1:n Aitiopaikalla syksyllä 1976 ja teos on julkaistu DVD:nä sarjassa \"Suomiviihteen klassikot\". \"Hänen olivat linnut\" on sarjan 18:s julkaisu.", "Tippi Hedren\nEnsimmäisestä roolisuorituksestaan elokuvassa Linnut (1963) Hedren sai uuden tulokkaan Golden Globe -palkinnon. Elokuvakriitikot eivät kuitenkaan vielä vakuuttuneet vaan kritisoivat häntä muun muassa liiallisesta passiivisuudesta. Vuonna 1964 julkaistiin seuraava Hitchcockin ja Hedrenin yhteinen elokuva, Marnie – vaarallisella tiellä. Tällä kertaa Hedreniä syytettiin jopa yli-ilmeikkäästä näyttelystä. Elokuvakriitikoiden arvostuksen hän saikin puolelleen monien mielestä vasta vuosia myöhemmin.", "Walt Disney\nVuonna 1934 Disney vakuuttui siitä, että hänen olisi tuotettava pitkä piirroselokuva. Hän valitsi elokuvansa aiheeksi Lumikin, jonka mykkäelokuvaversion hän oli nähnyt nuorena poikana. Disney kokosi suuren tekijäjoukon piirtämään Lumikkia lyhytelokuviensa rinnalla ja otti sitä varten käyttöön uusia tuotantotekniikoita, kuten monitasokameran. Vihdoin joulukuussa 1937 tuli ensi-iltaan ”Waltin hulluna unelmana” pidetty Lumikki ja seitsemän kääpiötä, joka oli ensimmäinen yhdysvaltalainen täyspitkä piirroselokuva. Vaikka elokuvan teko oli vähällä keskeytyä budjetin ylityttyä, Lumikista tuli suurmenestys ja tuotti siihen sijoitetut rahat moninkertaisesti takaisin.[28]", "Rosebud (elokuva)\nRosebud () on vuonna 1975 ensi-iltansa saanut Otto Premingerin ohjaama ja tuottama yhdysvaltalainen toimintatrillerielokuva, jonka pääosia näyttelevät Peter O’Toole, Richard Attenborough, Cliff Gorman, Claude Dauphin, John Lindsay, Peter Lawford ja Raf Vallone. Elokuva perustuu Paul Bonnecarrèren ja Joan Hemingwayn samannimiseen romaaniin \"Rosebud\" (1973), jonka pohjalta Erik Lee Preminger sovitti elokuvan käsikirjoituksen. \"Rosebud\" oli englantilais-kanadalaisnäyttelijä Kim Cattrallin ensimmäinen elokuva ja ranskalaisnäyttelijä Isabelle Huppertin ensimmäinen yhdysvaltalainen elokuva.", "Alfred Hitchcock\nElokuvauksen tekniset haasteet olivat Hitchcockille henkilökohtaisesti kaikkein mielenkiintoisimpia. Ensimmäisessä menestyselokuvassaan Vuokralainen Hitchcock käytti eräässä kohtauksessa lasilevyä kattona kuvatakseen yläkerrassa asuvan salaperäisen vuokralaisen salamyhkäisyyttä.[105] Puhtauden lunnaissa (1929) Hitchcock käytti Schüfftanin menetelmää luomaan mielikuvaa, että elokuva olisi tosiasiassa kuvattu British Museumissa[106]. Hitchcockin uran kuuluisimmat kohtaukset ovat Psykoa lukuun ottamatta pitkiä kamera-ajoja. Nuoressa ja viattomassa elokuvan päähenkilöt etsivät rikollista, jolla on elohiiri. Elokuvan loppukohtauksessa kamera lähtee katonrajasta yleiskuvasta ja etenee 45metriä, kunnes kuvassa näkyy vain elohiiren nykimä silmä.[107] Amerikan-kaudelta vaikuttavin kamera-ajo on elokuvasta Kohtalon avain (1946), jossa kamera-ajo alkaa yleiskuvasta ja päätyy lähikuvaan Ingrid Bergmanin kädessä olevasta avaimesta.[108]", "Silly Symphonies\nEnsimmäinen \"Hassunkurinen sinfonia\" oli mustavalkoinen piirroselokuva \"Luurankotanssi\" (\"The Skeleton Dance\"), jonka ohjasi Ub Iwerks. Sarjan ensimmäinen värielokuva oli \"Flowers and Trees\" (\"Kukkia ja puita\") vuodelta 1932; sen ohjasi Burton Gillett, ja se on elokuvahistorian ensimmäinen Technicolor-piirroselokuva. Sarjan muita kuuluisia piirroselokuvia ovat muiden muassa \"Kolme pientä porsasta\" (1933), \"Pikku Hiawatha\" (1937) ja \"Vanha mylly\" (1937), joka sai parhaan piirroselokuvan Oscar-palkinnon.", "Alfred Hitchcock\nHitchcockin elämäkertoja John Russell Taylor pitää Noiduttua (1945) Hitchcockin ensimmäisenä todellisena amerikkalaisena elokuvana. Sitä edeltäneet yhdysvaltalaiset elokuvat olivat olleet periaatteessa joko englantilaisia elokuvia tai propagandaelokuvia. Myös amerikkalaiseen pikkukaupunkiin sijoittuva Epäilyksen varjo on Taylorin mielestä elokuva, jonka vain ulkomaalainen saattoi tehdä.[60] Noiduttu oli välitön yleisö- ja arvostelumenestys, ja se oli myös ensimmäinen psykoanalyysia popularisoiva menestyselokuva.[61]", "Rebekka (elokuva)\n\"Tuulen viemää\" ja \"Rebekka\" olivat niin valtavia menestyksiä, että Selznick International Pictures joutui häivyttämään voitot taseestaan eikä sen vuoksi voinut tuottaa elokuvia ennen kuin vuonna 1944 (\"Kunnes palaat\"). Hitchcock oli edelleen Selznickin palkkalistoilla, mutta Selznick joutui lainaamaan Hitchcockin muille studioille, jotta Hitchcock olisi työllistetty.", "Hänen olivat linnut\nHänen olivat linnut on Marja-Liisa Vartion romaani, joka julkaistiin postuumisti vuonna 1967. Romaania pidetään Vartion pääteoksena ja sitä on luonnehdittu erääksi suomalaisen modernismin perusteoksista. Sen pohjalta tehtiin saman niminen televisioelokuva vuonna 1976. \"Hänen olivat linnut\" kertoo leskiruustinna Adele Bromsista, joka muistelee elettyä elämää kotiapulaisensa Alman kanssa. Tarina sijoittuu runsaan kolmen vuosikymmenen ajalle.", "Alfred Hitchcock\nLinnuissa (1963) Hitchcock jatkoi kauhuelokuvalinjalla. Se oli Hitchcockin siihenastisen uran kallein elokuva ja elokuvan mainoskampanja oli myös poikkeuksellisen suuri. Elokuvassa ei ollut lainkaan musiikkia. Hitchcockin vakiosäveltäjä Bernard Herrmann vastasi kuitenkin koko elokuvan äänimaailmasta, joka suunniteltiin äärimmäisen tarkasti. Arvostelijoiden reaktio oli laimeahko, ja vaikka lintuja ja erikoistehosteita kehuttiin, henkilöitä pidettiin latteina ja elokuvan alkua hidastempoisena. Katsojia tämä ei kuitenkaan haitannut, vaan Linnuista muodostui suuri yleisömenestys.[89]", "Nainen katoaa\nLaunder ja Gilliat saivat todeta, että heidän käsikirjoituksestaan oli tullut Hitchcock-elokuva eikä heidän osuuttaan noteerattu. He aloittivat sittemmin yhdessä menestyksekkään uran tuottajina, ohjaajina ja käsikirjoittajina. Heidän elokuvansa \"Vihreä vaara\" (\"Green for Danger\", 1947) sanotaan olevan parhaita niistä \"Hitchcock-elokuvista\", joita Hitchcock itse ei itse tehnyt.", "Robert Richardson (kuvaaja)\nRobert Richardson on yhdysvaltalainen elokuvaaja. Richardsonin parhaimpiin ja tunnetuimpiin töihin lukeutuvat Oliver Stonen elokuvat \"Syntynyt 4. heinäkuuta\" (1989), \"JFK – avoin tapaus\" (1991) ja \"Syntyneet tappajiksi\" (1994). Parhaan kuvauksen Oscar-palkinnon Richardson on voittanut kolmasti; elokuvista \"JFK – avoin tapaus\" (1991), \"Lentäjä\" (2004) ja \"Hugo\" (2011).", "Ethel Lina White\nEthel Lina White (1876 Abergavenny, Monmouthshire, Britannia – 1944 Lontoo, Britannia) oli brittiläinen rikoskirjailija, jonka tunnetuin teos on \"The Wheel Spins\" (1936). Alfred Hitchcock ohjasi kirjan pohjalta elokuvan \"Nainen katoaa\" (1938).", "Birdemic: Shock and Terror\nBirdemic: Shock and Terror (usein myös Birdemic) on vuonna 2008 ensi-iltansa saanut independent-kauhuelokuva, jonka on ohjannut, käsikirjoittanut ja tuottanut James Nguyen. Päärooleissa esiintyvät Alan Bagh ja Whitney Moore. Alfred Hitchcockin \"Linnut\"-elokuvan innoittama elokuva sijoittuu pikkukaupunkiin, joka joutuu lintujen selittämättömän hyökkäyksen kohteeksi. Samalla elokuva on päähenkilöiden, ohjelmistomyyjä Rodin (Bagh) ja malli Nathalien (Moore), rakkaustarina.", "Alfred Hitchcock\nLintujen yleisömenestyksen jälkeen Marnie – vaarallisella tiellä (1964) sai nuivan vastaanoton niin kriitikoilta kuin katsojiltakin. Hitchcockille Marnie oli myös jäähyväiset monelle pitkäaikaiselle työtoverille. Kuvaaja Robert Burks, joka oli kuvannut kaikki Hitchcockin elokuvat vuodesta 1951 alkaen Psykoa lukuun ottamatta, kuoli tulipalossa pian elokuvan valmistumisen jälkeen. Myös leikkaaja George Tomasini kuoli pian elokuvan valmistumisen jälkeen. Säveltäjä Bernard Herrmannillekin se jäi viimeiseksi Hitchcock-elokuvaksi.[90]", "Linnut (elokuva)\nHitchcock esiintyy elokuvan alussa kävelemällä kahden koiran kanssa ulos eläinkaupasta.", "Elävien maassa\nElävien maassa on Edu Kettusen vuonna 1997 julkaistu albumi. Hän on säveltänyt, sanoittanut ja sovittanut kaikki kappaleet sekä soittaa lähes kaikki soittimet itse. Tunnetuin kappale lienee \"Häkkilintu\". Viimeinen kappale on julkaistu ensimmäisen kerran vuoden 1989 albumilla \"Eräänä yönä.", "Sandrine Bonnaire\nBonnaire tunnetaan kansainvälisesti muiden muassa elokuvista \"Kuin taivaan lintu\" (1985), \"Monsieur Hire\" (1989), \"Rutto\" (1991), \"Mademoiselle\" (2001) ja \"Intiimit tunnustukset\" (2004). Hän on myös toiminut elokuvien käsikirjoitajana.", "Punatukka (vuoden 1928 elokuva)\n\"Punatukka\" perustuu Elinor Glynin romaaniin \"The Vicissitudes of Evangeline\" (1905). Elokuvan kuvaukset alkoivat 13. joulukuuta 1927 ja päättyivät seuraavana vuonna 9. tammikuuta. \"Punatukka\" kuvattiin Kaliforniassa, Santa Monican Ocean Parkissa ja Santa Catalina Islandilla. Elokuva on muuten kuvattu kokonaan mustavalkoisena, mutta yksi kohtaus on kuvattu värilliseksi Technicolor-elokuvausmenetelmällä.", "Alfred Hitchcock\nVuokralaisen kuvausten jälkeen Alfred Hitchcock ja Alma Reville vihittiin 2.joulukuuta 1926.[25] Heidän ainoa lapsensa Patricia Hitchcock syntyi 7.heinäkuuta 1928.[26]", "Alfred Hitchcock\nHitchcockin ura ennen vuotta 1934 oli ollut hyvin epätasainen. Vuokralainen ja Puhtauden lunnaat olivat olleet suuria yleisö- ja arvostelumenestyksiä, mutta niiden vastapainona oli ollut runsaasti epäonnistuneita elokuvia. Waltzes of Vienna -elokuvan kuvausten aikana Gaumont Britishin johtaja Michael Balcon – jonka Gainsborough Pictures oli nyt osa Gaumontia – tarjosi Hitchcockille mahdollisuuden ohjata haluamansa elokuva heti, kun Hitchcock vain löytäisi sopivaa materiaalia. Hitchcockilla oli jo sellainen tiedossa, ja hän osti BIP:ltä Sapperin Bulldog Drummondin elokuvaoikeudet ja ohjasi siitä vuonna 1934 elokuvan Mies joka tiesi liikaa. Siitä alkanutta ja vuoteen 1939 kestänyttä ajanjaksoa Hitchcockin elämäkertoja John Russell Taylor nimittää Hitchcockin Englannin-kauden suuruuden ajaksi.[31] Robert A. Harris ja Michael S. Lasky puolestaan puhuvat ”jännityksen mestarin synnystä”.[32]", "Twilight – Aamunkoi, osa 1\nYhdysvaltalaisen elokuvayhtiö Summit Entertainmentin kirjasarjan ensimmäiseen osaan \"Houkutus\" perustuva elokuva \"Twilight – Houkutus\" sai ensi-iltansa 21. marraskuuta 2008. Vaikka elokuva sai kriitikoilta ristiriitaisen vastaanoton, siitä tuli heti suuri taloudellinen menestys ja se tuotti avajaispäivänään 35,7 miljoonaa dollaria. Kokonaisuudessaan elokuva keräsi ensi-iltaviikonloppunaan yli 70,55 miljoonaa dollaria. Kaikkiaan elokuva on tuottanut yli 379 miljoonaa dollaria. \"Twilight – Houkutuksen\" taloudellisesti menestyksellisen ensi-illan jälkeen Summit ilmoitti tekevänsä elokuvan myös \"Uudenkuun\" pohjalta. Chris Weitzin ohjaama \"Twilight – Uusikuu\" sai ensi-iltansa marraskuussa 2009. Se oli ensimmäisen osan tavoin suuri taloudellinen menestys ja tuotti avausviikonloppunaan maailmanlaajuisesti yli 258,8 miljoonaa dollaria. Näitä elokuvia seuraa \"Twilight – Epäilys\", joka sai ensi-iltansa 30. kesäkuuta 2010. Kyseisen elokuvan ohjasi David Slade. \"Epäilys\" teki uuden keskiyön näytökseen myytyjen lippujen ennätyksen Yhdysvaltojen ja Kanadan lippukassan historiassa, saaden kokoon arviolta 30 miljoonaa dollaria yli neljässätuhannessa teatterissa. \"Twilight - Epäilys\" ohitti myös elokuvan \"\" keskiyön näytöksissä Imax-teattereissa. \"Epäilys\" tienasi enemmän kuin miljoona dollaria 192 teatterissa, kun \"Kaatuneiden kosto\" tienasi 959 000 dollaria. Avauspäivänään elokuva tuotti yhteensä 68,5 miljoonaa dollaria Yhdysvalloissa.", "Rod Taylor\nRodney Sturt ”Rod” Taylor (11. tammikuuta 1930 Sydney – 7. tammikuuta 2015 Los Angeles, Kalifornia) oli australialaissyntyinen näyttelijä. Hän muutti vuonna 1954 Yhdysvaltoihin ja sai yhden suurimmista menestyksistään Alfred Hitchcockin elokuvassa \"Linnut\" (1963). Hänellä oli rooleja lukuisissa muissa elokuvissa ja useissa tv-sarjoissa.", "Lilo ja Stitch\nLilo ja Stitch () on Disneyn vuonna 2002 valmistunut piirretty elokuva, joka kertoo pienestä ja yksinäisestä Havaijilla asuvasta tytöstä, Lilosta, sekä tämän lemmikistä nimeltä Stitch.", "Myrskylinnut\nSuomessa \"Myrskylintuja\" on esitetty Yle TV2 -kanavalla keväällä 1966 ja syksyllä 1973, myöhemmin Kolmoskanavalla, MTV3:lla ja SubTV:llä. Vuonna 2008 \"Myrskylintuja\" esitettiin maksullisella MTV3 Scifi -kanavalla.\nVuonna 2004 Jonathan Frakes ohjasi sarjaan perustuvan \"Myrskylinnut\"-elokuvan oikeilla näyttelijöillä. Elokuva ei menestynyt taloudellisesti tai kriitikkojen parissa.", "21 (elokuva)\n21 on vuonna 2008 ensi-iltansa saanut Robert Luketicin ohjaama draamaelokuva, jonka päätähtinä ovat Jim Sturgess, Kevin Spacey, Laurence Fishburne, Kate Bossworth, Liza Lapira, Jacob Pitts ja Aaron Yoo. Elokuva on saanut inspiraationsa MIT Blackjack Teamin tositarinasta, joka kerrotaan Ben Mezrichin menestyskirjassa Bringing Down the House. Elokuvan laajalti ristiriitaisesta vastaanotosta ja elokuvan näyttelijävalintakiistoista huolimatta \"21\" oli myyntimenestys ja se oli ensimmäisen sekä toisen viikonlopun ajan Yhdysvaltain ja Kanadan katsotuin elokuva.", "Alfred Hitchcock\nPuhtauden lunnaiden kuvaukset alkoivat mykkäelokuvana, mutta viime hetkellä siitä päätettiin tehdä äänielokuva. Elokuva oli välitön yleisö- ja arvostelumenestys, ja jopa kaikkein penseimmät kriitikot suhtautuivat siihen myötämielisesti.[28]", "Linnut, linnut\nLinnut, linnut on Hectorin yhdeksäs albumi.", "Syreenien kukkiessa\nSyreenien kukkiessa (\"Lilac Time\") on vuonna 1928 ensi-iltansa saanut yhdysvaltalainen romanttinen mykkäelokuva. Sen pääosia esittävät Colleen Moore ja Gary Cooper. Elokuvan ensi-ilta oli Suomessa lokakuussa 1929, jolloin siitä oli jo tullut jättimenestys Yhdysvalloissa. Jane Cowl oli käsikirjoittanut sekä pääroolittanut näytelmäversion, joka menestyi Broadwayllä sen esitysvuonna 1917. Frank Lloyd ohjasi elokuvaan joitakin lisäkohtauksia.", "Esirippu laskee\nEsirippu laskee on Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaama elokuva vuodelta 1950. Se sijoittuu Lontoon teatterimaailmaan.", "Vuokralainen (vuoden 1926 elokuva)\n\"Vuokralainen\" perustuu Marie Belloc Lowndesin bestseller-romaanin \"The Lodger\" (1911), jonka inspiraationa olivat Viiltäjä-Jackin tekemät murhat 1888. Lisäksi hän oli kuullut tarinan, jonka mukaan tuttavan äidin palvelijapariskunta olisi oletettavasti vuokrannut huoneen Viiltäjä-Jackille. Romaani kertookin tapahtumat vuokranantajapariskunnan näkökulmasta. Hitchcock näki kuitenkin ensin Belloc Lowndesin tekemän näytelmäversion \"Who Is He?\" Aihe kiinnosti Hitchcockia, sillä siinä yhdistyi moni häntä kiehtova teema: rikos ja ihmisten tirkistelevä uteliaisuus, hänen lapsuutensa pikkuporvarillinen maailma ja lisäksi hänelle niin tuttu Lontoo.", "Oskar Sala\nTrautwein ja Sala kehittivät soitinta edelleen ja onnistuivat mm. jäjittelemään vokaaliäänenmuodostusta. Trautoniumista syntyi useita eri malleja: Volkstrautonium 1933, Rundfunktrautonium 1935, Konzerttrautonium 1938.\nSodan jälkeen Sala siirtyi itsenäiseksi muusikoksi ja sai vuonna 1952 valmiiksi Mixtur-Trautoniumin, joka on tunnetuin malli. Sala sävelsi tämän jälkeen runsaasti musiikkia tälle soittimelle ja perusti studion Berliiniin. Alfred Hitchcock tapasi Salan ja pyysi tätä luomaan soittimella lintujen ääniä elokuvaansa Linnut (1962). Sala keskittyi nyt konserttien sijaan elokuvamusiikin luomiseen ja ääniefektien tekemiseen Trautoniumilla ja sai tämän johdosta monia huomionosoituksia ja palkintoja.", "Charles Laughton\nLaughton aloitti elokuvauransa 1920-luvun lopussa. Hänen uransa tunnetuimpia elokuvia ovat muun muassa \"\" (The Private Life of Henry VIII, 1933), \"Kapina laivalla\" (Mutiny on the Bounty, 1935), Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaama \"Jamaica Innin rannikkorosvot\" (Jamaica Inn, 1939), \"Notre Damen kellonsoittaja\" (The Hunchback of Notre Dame, 1939) ja Stanley Kubrickin ohjaama \"Spartacus\" (Spartacus, 1960). Elokuva \"Myrskyä Washingtonissa\" (Advise & Consent, 1962) jäi hänen viimeisekseen. Hän sai parhaan miespääosan Oscarin elokuvasta \"Henrik VIII:n yksityiselämä\" (The Private Life of Henry VIII, 1933). Hän on saanut elokuvaurastaan tähden Hollywood Walk of Famelle.", "Kyllä elämä on ihanaa\nKyllä elämä on ihanaa on suomalainen, Lapinlahden Linnut-yhtyeen jäsenien tekemä ensimmäinen viihdeohjelma. Viihdeohjelma valmistui ja esitettiin vuonna 1987. Ohjelma on julkaistu Lapinlahden Lintujen \"Ehkä kaikki\" -DVD-boksissa. ", "Bah Humduck!: A Looney Tunes Christmas\nBah Humduck!: A Looney Tunes Christmas on vuonna 2006 suoraan DVD:lle julkaistu elokuva, joka perustuu Charles Dickensin romaaniin \"Joululaulu\". Elokuvan ohjasi Charles Visser ja käsikirjoitti Ray De Laurentis. Se sai myös Annie-ehdokkuden parhaasta elokuvamusiikista vuonna 2007", "Alfred Hitchcock\nÄänielokuvan tulon myötä musikaali- ja revyyelokuvia tehtiin runsaasti, koska se koettiin oivaksi tavaksi osoittaa äänielokuvan mahdollisuudet. Niinpä Hitchcock joutuikin osallistumaan episodielokuvaan Elstree Calling (1930), jonka Hitchcockin elämäkertoja John Russell Taylor kuittaa sanoilla ”omituinen välinäytös”. Junoa ja riikinkukkoa (1930) voidaan pitää Hitchcockin ensimmäisenä todellisena äänielokuvana, sillä elokuva tuotettiin alusta alkaen äänielokuvana. Irlantilaisia käsittelevä aihe oli perienglantilaiselle Hitchcockille täysin vieras, mutta kriitikoiden mielestä hän käsitteli irlantilaisia mestarillisesti. Epäiltynä murhasta (1930) vahvisti jälleen Hitchcockin mainetta jännityselokuvien ohjaajana, vaikka se olikin enemmän tyypillinen ”kuka sen teki” -tarina kuin jännitykseen perustuva Hitchcock-elokuva. Sitä seurannut Rikkauden huuma (1931) epäonnistui kuitenkin täydellisesti. Hitchcockin viimeiset elokuvat British International Picturesille olivat nopeasti tehdyt tilaustyöt Talo numero 17 (1932) ja Lord Camber’s Ladies (1932), joka oli Hitchcockin ainoa pelkkänä tuottajana tekemä elokuva.[29]", "Linnut\nEnsimmäiset linnut kehittyivät matelijoista jurakaudella 213–144 miljoonaa vuotta sitten. Lintujen arvellaan kehittyneen liskonlantioisista hirmuliskoista (\"Saurischidia\"). Ensimmäisten lintujen lähimpiä sukulaisia olivat höyhenpeitteiset, melko pienikokoiset, takaraajoiltaan pystyasennossa liikkuneet petohirmuliskot, jotka kuuluivat ryhmään \"Theropoda\". Jurakauden alusta ja keskivaiheilta on löydetty linnuista vain niin mitättömiä fossiilia jäännöksiä, että sukulaisuutta ei ole varmasti voitu osoittaa. Enemmän lintujen ja höyhenten kivettyneitä jäännöksiä alkaa ilmestyä kerrostumiin jurakauden lopulla 150 miljoonaa vuotta sitten. Tunnetuin varhainen lintu on liskolintu (\"Archaeopteryx litographica\"). Se ilmeisesti kuuluu kuitenkin sukupuuttoon kuolleeseen haaraan eikä siis ole nykyisten lintujen esi-isä.", "Alfred Hitchcock\nTransatlanticin konkurssin jälkeen Hitchcock solmi Warnerin kanssa sopimuksen useasta elokuvasta. Niistä ensimmäinen, Esirippu laskee (1950), sai kuitenkin edellisten elokuvien tapaan laimean vastaanoton.[70] Sitä seurannut Muukalaisia junassa (1951) oli kuitenkin valtava menestys ja aloitti Hitchcockin paluun elokuvamaailman huipulle. Teemallisesti elokuvan murhia ”vaihtavat” miehet jatkavat jo Epäilyksen varjossa esiintynyttä teemaa kahdesta samankaltaisesta ihmisestä, jotka edustavat tavallaan yhden persoonan hyvää ja pahaa puolta.[71][72]", "Oliver Stone\nStonen seuraavia elokuvia olivat näytelmäsovitus Talk Radio (1988) sekä jälleen yksi Vietnam-aiheinen elokuva Syntynyt 4. heinäkuuta (1989), josta Stone sai toisen Oscarinsa parhaasta ohjauksesta. Vuoden 1991 ohjaustyö JFK – avoin tapaus kuvaa presidentti Kennedyn salamurhan tutkimuksia, ja samana vuonna julkaistu The Doors kertoo samannimisen rockyhtyeen noususta ja tuhosta. Taivas ja maa (1993) lähestyy Vietnamin sotaa nuoren vietnamilaisnaisen näkökulmasta. Syntyneet tappajiksi (1994) on Quentin Tarantinon käsikirjoittama väkivaltakuvaus, ja Nixon (1995) kertoo harkitsevaan sävyyn presidentti Richard Nixonista. Ohjaustensa ohella Stone kirjoitti käsikirjoituksen elokuvaan Evita (1996).[1]", "Puhtauden lunnaat\n\"Puhtauden lunnaat\" perustuu Charles Bennettin näytelmään \"Blackmail\" (1928). Se ei kuitenkaan menestynyt hyvin ja olisikin unohtunut kokonaan, ellei Bennettin seuraava näytelmä \"This Last Hour\" olisi ollut jättimenestys. Alkuvuodesta 1929 \"Blackmail\" lähti uudelleen teatterikiertueelle. Silloin siitä myös haluttiin tehdä elokuva. Bennett ei ollut siitä kuitenkaan järin kiinnostunut, mutta tapasi kuitenkin Hitchcockin. Bennett sai kuitenkin nimensä alkuteksteihin yhtenä käsikirjoittajista, vaikka omien sanojensa mukaan hänen osuutensa oli minimaalinen.", "Punatukkainen Lilli\nPunatukkainen Lilli () on vuonna 1932 ensi-iltansa saanut yhdysvaltalainen Jack Conwayn ohjaama romanttinen komediaelokuva, jonka pääosissa näyttelevät Jean Harlow ja Chester Morris. Sivuosissa ovat muiden muassa Lewis Stone ja Leila Hyams. Anita Loos käsikirjoitti elokuvan Katherine Brushin romaanin pohjalta.", "Hornan enkelit\nElokuvan käsikirjoituksen laativat Harry Behn, Howard Estabrook ja Joseph Moncure March Marshall Neilanin ja Marchin tarinan pohjalta. \"Hornan enkelit\" on muuten mustavalkoinen, mutta siinä on noin kymmenen minuutin pituinen kohta, jossa on värit. Elokuva on noin 127 minuutin eli kahden tunnin ja seitsemän minuutin mittainen. \"Hornan enkelit\" sai ensi-iltansa Yhdysvalloissa 27. toukokuuta vuonna 1930. Suomessa elokuva sai ensi-iltansa reilua vuotta myöhemmin 6. syyskuuta vuonna 1931. United Artists ja The Caddo Company tuottivat elokuvan. Elokuva on Harlowin ensimmäinen pääosa.\n\"Hornan enkelit\" oli vuonna 1930 ehdokkaana parhaan kuvauksen Oscar-palkintoon. Kuvausten aikana kolme lentäjää kuoli. \"Hornan enkelit\" sijoittuu ensimmäiseen maailmansotaan.", "Jules Verne\nViisi viikkoa ilmapallossa (1863) Pariisi 1900-luvulla (1863, julkaistu 1994) Matka maan keskipisteeseen (1864) Maasta Kuuhun (1865) Kapteeni Hatteras; Pohjoista kohti; Talvi napajäissä (1866) Kapteeni Grantin lapset (1867–1868) Kuun ympäri (1870) Sukelluslaivalla maapallon ympäri (1870) Maailman ympäri 80 päivässä (1872) Turkiksien maassa; Ajelehtiva saari (1873) Salaperäinen saari (1874) Armoton meri (1875) Tsaarin kuriiri (1876) Hector Servadacin avaruusmatka (1877) Kiinalaisen koettelemukset (1879) Begumin 500 miljoonaa (1879) Höyrytalo (1879) Jangada (1880–1881) Robinson-koulu (1882) Etelän tähti (1884) Salaliitto (1885) Robur Valloittaja (1886) Kahden vuoden loma-aika (1886) Karpaattien linna (1892) Claudius Bombarnac (1892) Isänmaan lippu (1896) Maailman herra (1905) Majakka maailman laidalla (1905) Tonavan luotsi (1908)", "Ari Kettunen\nAri \"Arvid\" Kettunen on suomalainen pianisti, laulaja ja säveltäjä. Hän oli yksi Lapinlahden Linnut -yhtyeen perustajajäsenistä, ja vaikutti yhtyeessä vuosina 1983–1988. Kettusen tunnetuimpia sävellyksiä Linnuille ovat muun muassa \"Lipputangon nuppi\", \"Tero ja minä\", \"Kyllä elämä on ihanaa\", \"Tapasin naisen\" ja \"Pikkumiesten laulu\". Yhtyeen debyyttialbumin kaikki kappaleet ovat Kettusen säveltämiä, paitsi \"Ojasta noustaan\", joka on kosketinsoittaja Pekka Hedkrokin sävellys. Seuraavan, \"Jep\" -albumin monet kappaleet ovat Kettusen ja Hedkrokin yhteisiä sävellyksiä.", "Birds of Prey (elokuva)\nBirds of Prey (and the Fantabulous Emancipation of One Harley Quinn), tai vain Birds of Prey, on vuonna 2020 ensi-iltansa saava Cathy Yanin ohjaama ja Christine Hodsonin käsikirjoittama yhdysvaltalainen supersankarielokuva, joka pohjautuu DC Comicsin luomaan samannimiseen supersankariryhmään, jonka jäsenenä toimii tässä elokuvassa myös superroistona tunnettu Harley Quinn. Se tulee olemaan spin-off vuoden 2016 elokuvalle \"Suicide Squad\" sekä Worlds of DC:n kahdeksas elokuva. Pääosissa ovat Margot Robbie, Jurnee Smollett-Bell, Mary Elizabeth Winstead, Rosie Perez, Ella Jay Basco ja Ewan McGregor.", "Boxing Helena – häkkilintu\nBoxing Helena – häkkilintu on vuonna 1993 ensi-iltansa saanut eroottinen draamaelokuva. Elokuvan pääosia esittävät Sherilyn Fenn, Julian Sands, Bill Paxton, Kurtwood Smith, Art Garfunkel, Betsy Clark, Nicolette Scorsese, Meg Register, Bryan Smith, Marla Levine, Kim Lentz ja Lloyd T. Williams. Elokuva oli Jennifer Chambers Lynchin, David Lynchin tyttären esikoisohjaus. Se ei menestynyt taloudellisesti ja voitti Razzie-palkinnon huonoimmasta ohjauksesta.", "Takaikkuna\nTakaikkuna (\"Rear Window\") on Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaama yhdysvaltalainen jännityselokuva vuodelta 1954. John Michael Hayes kirjoitti elokuvan käsikirjoituksen Cornell Woolrichin novellin \"It Had to be Murder\" pohjalta. Pääosia näyttelivät James Stewart ja Grace Kelly, joille kummallekin se oli toinen elokuva Hitchcockin kanssa.", "Anthony Hopkins\nVuonna 1999 kuvatun Shakespeare -sovituksen Titus jälkeen Hopkins jäi sapattivapaalle ja teki vain ääniroolit elokuvissa M:I-2 Vaarallinen tehtävä 2 ja The Grinch. Hopkins palasi, kun hän sai tilaisuuden näytellä jälleen Hannibal Lecteriä Uhrilampaiden jatko-osassa Hannibal (2001). Hän uusi roolinsa jälleen vuotta myöhemmin elokuvassa Punainen lohikäärme.[4] Hannibal menestyi hyvin lippuluukuilla, mutta kriitikot eivät pitäneet elokuvasta eivätkä myöskään seuraavaksi valmistuneista Pedon sydämestä eikä toimintakomedia Bad Companystä, jotka eivät pärjänneet myöskään lippuluukuilla. Punainen lohikäärme palautti kuitenkin Hopkinsin jälleen kriitikkojen suosioon.[5]", "Alfred Hitchcock\nVuokralaisen menestystä seurasi kuitenkin alamäki. Alamäkeen (1927), Kevytkenkäinen (1928) ja Kehä (1927) saivat vielä melko myönteisen vastaanoton, mutta Farmarin naimakauppa (1928), Champagne ja Man-saaren tuomari (1929) menestyivät jokseenkin kehnosti. Kevytkenkäisen jälkeen (kuvattu 1927 mutta ensi-ilta vasta 1928) Hitchcock oli siirtynyt Gainsboroughilta British International Picturesille (BIP), joka oli luvannut suurempia budjetteja ja suurempaa taiteellista vapautta.[27] Vuokralaisen nostattamat odotukset Hitchcockin kyvyistä alkoivat jo laantua, kunnes Puhtauden lunnaat sai ensi-iltansa 1929.[28]", "Punatukka (vuoden 1928 elokuva)\n\"Punatukka\" sai ensi-iltansa Yhdysvalloissa 10. maaliskuuta vuonna 1928 ja Suomessa 21. tammikuuta vuonna 1929. Elokuva on listattu kadonneeksi elokuvaksi, vaikka \"Punatukasta\" on vielä kelan osia tallella. Kuuluisin näistä säilyneistä kohtauksista on Technicolor-kohtaus, jossa Bow esiintyy. Elokuvan osia säilytetään UCLA Film and Television Archive -arkistossa.", "Alfred Hitchcock\nHitchcockin ura elokuvan parissa kesti noin kuusikymmentä vuotta. Hän aloitti elokuvauransa välitekstien suunnittelijana ja lavastajana vuonna 1919. Hän kokeili ohjaamista jo vuosina 1922 ja 1923, mutta hänen ohjaustyönsä tältä ajanjaksolta ovat suurelta osin kadonneet. Hitchcockin ensimmäinen täysin säilynyt ohjaustyö oli rikosdraamaelokuva The Pleasure Garden vuodelta 1925. Ensimmäinen varsinainen ”Hitchcock-elokuva” on vuoden 1926 elokuva Vuokralainen, ja sen myötä hänestä tuli arvostettu ohjaaja. Hitchcockin ”kultakautena” voidaan pitää vuosia 1951–1963, sillä tänä aikana ilmestyivät esimerkiksi Muukalaisia junassa, Vertigo – punainen kyynel, Mies joka tiesi liikaa, Psyko ja Linnut. 1960-luvun lopulla Hitchcock ohjasi useita epäonnistuneita elokuvia ja menetti suosiotaan. Vuoden 1972 elokuva Frenzy ja vuoden 1976 elokuva Perintö sen sijaan olivat menestyselokuvia.", "Kaikki taivaan linnut\nKaik­ki tai­vaan lin­nut () on yhdysvaltalaisen Harper Leen 1950-luvulla kirjoittama romaani, joka julkaistiin 14. heinäkuuta 2015. Teoksen suomensi Kristiina Drews, ja suomennos ilmestyi Gummeruksen kustantamana elokuussa 2015. Kun englanninkielinen laitos julkaistiin, sitä myytiin ensimmäisen viikon aikana yli miljoona kappaletta.", "Puhtauden lunnaat\n\"Puhtauden lunnaissa\" esiintyy ensimmäisen kerran ”syyllisen naisen” teema Hitchcockin elokuvassa. Sama teema toistui myöhemmin monissa merkittävissä Hitchcock-elokuvissa: \"Rebekka\" (1940), \"Kohtalon avain\" (1946), \"Vertigo – punainen kyynel\" (1958), \"Psyko\" (1960), \"Linnut\" (1963) ja \"Marnie – vaarallisella tiellä\" (1964).", "Kannu Vaakunaa / Taivaan lintu\nKannu Vaakunaa / Taivaan lintu on Pate Mustajärven single vuodelta 2000. Sen ensimmäinen raita ”Kannu Vaakunaa” on Juice Leskisen kääntämä vanha irlantilainen kansanlaulu ”Whiskey in the Jar”, jonka Thin Lizzy teki tunnetuksi vuonna 1973. Mustajärvi laulaa kappaleen duettona Solistiyhtye Suomesta tutun Pekka Hartosen kanssa. Singlen kakkosraita on ”Taivaan lintu” -kappale, joka myös on Leskisen käännös Lynyrd Skynyrdin ”Free Bird” -klassikosta. Kappaleessa vierailee kitaristina Heikki Silvennoinen. Kolmantena raitana on radioita varten lyhennetty versio ”Taivaan linnusta”.", "Jamaica Innin rannikkorosvot\nHitchcock oli aloittanut \"Nainen katoaa\" -elokuvan kuvausten aikana sopimusneuvottelut David O. Selznickin kanssa. Selznick oli suunnitellut Hitchcockin ensimmäiseksi elokuvaksi \"Titanicia\". Elokuva kuitenkin hyllytettiin elokuussa 1938 eikä Hitchcockia tarvittu Hollywoodissa ennen kuin vuoden 1939 loppupuolella. Hitchcockilla oli siis yhtäkkiä runsaasti aikaa käytettävissään Britanniassa ja hän ryhtyi etsimään sopivaa materiaalia, josta hän voisi tehdä elokuvan.", "Lumiukko (vuoden 2017 elokuva)\nLumiukko () on vuonna 2017 ensi-iltansa saanut Tomas Alfredsonin ohjaama rikostrilleri, jonka on käsikirjoittanut Hossein Amini ja Peter Straughan. Elokuva perustuu Jo Nesbøn vuonna 2007 julkaistuun samannimiseen romaaniin. Elokuvan levittäjä on Universal Pictures. Elokuvateattereihin se ilmestyi Isossa-Britanniassa ja Suomessa 13. lokakuuta 2017.", "Nainen katoaa\nNainen katoaa (\"The Lady Vanishes\") on Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaama brittiläinen jännityselokuvan klassikko vuodelta 1938. Se oli niin yleisö- kuin arvostelumenestys. Se on myös yksi Hitchcockin kaikkein humoristisimmista jännityselokuvista – vain \"Mutta kuka murhasi Harryn?\" (1955) pääsee huumorin määrässä sen tasolle. Elokuvan edetessä huumori vaihtuu perinteiseen jännityselokuvaan. ", "Alfred Hitchcock\nHitchcockin elokuville tyypillinen piirre on myös MacGuffin – elokuvan henkilöille erittäin tärkeä asia mutta katsojalle täysin yhdentekevä. Se esiintyy etenkin Hitchcockin vakoiluelokuvissa, ja niissä se on tavallisesti vain tekosyy syyttömän sankarin pakomatkan kuvaukseen. Parhaita esimerkkejä MacGuffinin mestarillisesta käytöstä ovat 39 askelta (1935) ja Vaarallinen romanssi (1959) – kummassakaan elokuvassa ei selviä kunnolla, minkä takia kaikki olivat niin hanakasti elokuvien sankareiden perässä. Mielenkiintoisena sivukommenttina voitaneen mainita, että kriitikot, joiden mielestä Vaarallinen romanssi oli Hitchcockin paras yhdysvaltalainen elokuva, ovat myös sitä mieltä, että 39 askelta oli Hitchcockin paras englantilainen elokuva.[35]", "Sabotaasi (elokuva)\nSabotaasi perustuu Joseph Conradin romaaniin Anarkistit (The Secret Agent, 1907). Toisin kuin edellisessä elokuvassa Salainen asiamies Conradin romaani oli Hitchcockin oma valinta. Hitchcock ja Charles Bennett ryhtyivät kirjoittamaan käsikirjoitusta. He käsittelivät Conradin romaania hyvin vapaasti, kun he siirsivät tapahtumat nykyaikaan ja muokkasivat siitä trillerin.[4] Romaani päähenkilöistä jäi jäljelle vain kolme, valepukuinen poliisi lisättiin ja romaanin loppu muutettiin.[2]", "Sara Allgood\nSara Allgood () oli irlantilainen elokuvanäyttelijä, jonka merkittävimpiä elokuvia olivat Alfred Hitchcockin ohjaukset \"Puhtauden lunnaat\" (1929) ja \"Juno ja riikinkukko\" (1930) sekä elokuva \"Vihreä oli laaksoni\" (1941), josta hän oli Oscar-ehdokkaana parhaasta naissivuosasta.", "Linnut\nLiitukauden (144–65 miljoonaa vuotta sitten) alusta tunnetaan jo paljon muinaislintujen fossiileja. Osalla niistä oli vielä joitain dinosaurien ominaisuuksia, kuten terävät hampaat tai pitkä häntä. Niiden siivet olivat kuitenkin samanlaiset kuten nykyisillä linnuilla. Liitukauden lopussa kehittyivät ensimmäiset täysin nykyisten tyyppiset linnut. Samalla jotkin lintulajit menettivät lentokykynsä.", "The Moth (vuoden 1917 elokuva)\n\"The Mothin\" käsikirjoituksen laativat John B. Clymer ja Harry O. Hoyt William Dana Orcuttin samannimisen romaanin (1912) pohjalta. Elokuvan tuotti Joseph M. Schenck, ja sen tuotantoyhtiönä toimi Norma Talmadge Film Corporation. \"The Moth\" sai Yhdysvaltain ensi-iltansa lokakuussa vuonna 1917. Elokuvan levittäjänä oli Select Pictures Corporation. \"The Moth\" on osittain kadonnut elokuva; elokuvan kahta säilynyttä kelaa säilytetään Yhdysvaltain kongressin kirjastossa.", "Mel Gibson\nVuonna 1990 Gibson esiintyi kolmessa eri elokuvassa; ristiriitaisen vastaanoton saaneessa mutta menestyksekkääksi julkaisuksi teatterilevityksessä osoittautuneessa toimintakomediaelokuvassa Kuin lintu langalla, Robert Downey Jr.:n kanssa tähdittämässään komediaelokuvassa Air America ja draamaelokuvassa Hamlet. Kriitikoiden ja yleisön keskuudessa menestyksekkäimmän vastaanoton Gibsonin elokuvista sai Hamlet, joka oli muun muassa ehdolla kahteen Oscar-palkintoon.[5]" ]

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[ "वशिष्ठ नारायण सिंह\nवशिष्ठ नारायण सिंह (२ अप्रैल १९४२ -- १४ नवम्बर २०१९) एक भारतीय गणितज्ञ थे। <ref name=\"भास्कर\">\nवशिष्ठ नारायण सिंह की योग्यता का डंका देश ही नहीं दुनिया में भी बजा; किन्तु वे युवावस्था में ही मनोविदलता (Schizophrenia) नामक मानसिक रोग से ग्रसित हो गए थे और उनके जीवन का अधिकांश भाग उन्होने पागल की तरह अपने गाँव बसन्तपुर में ही बिताए।\n\nआरम्भिक जीवन\nवशिष्ठ नारायण सिंह का जन्म बिहार के भोजपुर जिला में बसन्तपुर नामक गाँव में हुआ था। इनका परिवार आर्थिक रूप से गरीब था। इनके पिताजी पुलिस विभाग में कार्यरत थे। बचपन से वशिष्ठ नारायण सिंह में विलक्षण प्रतिभा थी। सन १९६२ ई• में उन्होने नेतरहाट विद्यालय से मैट्रिक की परीक्षा प्रथम श्रेणी से उत्तीर्ण की और उस समय के 'संयुक्त बिहार' में सर्वाधिक अंक प्राप्त किया।\n\nवशिष्ठ नारायण के लिए विशेष रूप से पटना यूनिवर्सिटी को अपने नियम में परिवर्तन लाना पड़ा था। जब वे पटना साइंस कॉलेज में पढ़ते थे, तब कैलिफोर्निया विश्वविद्यालय के प्रोफेसर जॉन कैली की नजर उन पर पड़ी। कैली ने उनकी प्रतिभा को पहचाना और 1965 में वशिष्ठ को अपने साथ अमेरिका ले गए। 1969 में उन्होंने कैलिफोर्निया विश्वविद्यालय से गणित में पीएचडी की और वॉशिंगटन विश्वविद्यालय में एसोसिएट प्रोफेसर बने। \"चक्रीय सदिश समष्टि सिद्धान्त\" पर किये गए उनके शोधकार्य ने उन्हे भारत और विश्व में प्रसिद्ध कर दिया। इसी दौरान उन्होंने नासा में भी काम किया, लेकिन मन नहीं लगा और 1971 में अपने वतन भारत लौट आए। उन्होंने भारतीय प्रौद्योगिकी संस्थान कानपुर, भारतीय प्रौद्योगिकी संस्थान, मुम्बई और भारतीय सांख्यकीय संस्थान, कोलकाता में काम किया।\n\n1973 में उनका [विवाह]] वन्दना रानी सिंह से हुआ। उनके अध्ययन को लेकर एक रोमांचक घटना यह भी है कि जिस दिन उनका विवाह था उस दिन भी पढाई के कारण उनकी बरात लेट हो गई थी। विवाह के बाद धीरे-धीरे उनके असामान्य व्यवहार के बारे में लोगों को पता चला। छोटी-छोटी बातों पर बहुत क्रोधित हो जाना, कमरा बन्द कर दिनभर पढ़ते रहना, रातभर जागना, उनके व्यवहार में शामिल था। उनकी असामान्य दिनचर्या व व्यवहार के चलते उनकी पत्नी ने जल्द ही उनसे तलाक ले लिया। बस थोड़े ही समय पश्चात् सन् 1974 में उन्हें पहला दिल का दौरा पड़ा था। राँची में उनकी चिकित्सा हुई। इसके बाद से इनकी जिंदगी बहुत ही दर्दनाक स्थिति में आती चली गई। सन् 1987 में वशिष्ठ नारायण जी अपने गांव लौट गए और अपनी माता व भाई के साथ बसर करने लगे थे। इस दौरान तत्कालीन बिहार सरकार व केंद्र सरकार से उन्हें अपेक्षित सहायता नहीं मिली।\n\nउनको पुनः अगस्त 1989 को रांची में इलाज कराकर उनके भाई उन्हें बंगलुरू ले जा रहे थे कि रास्ते में ही खंडवा स्टेशन पर वशिष्ठ जी उतर गए और भीड़ में कहीं खो गए। एक लंबे अवधि तक कोई भी सरकार इनकी सुध नहीं ली। करीब 5 साल तक गुमनाम रहने के बाद उनके गाँव के लोगों को वे छपरा में मिले। इसके बाद राज्य सरकार ने उनकी सुध ली। उन्हें राष्ट्रीय मानसिक जाँच एवं तंत्रिका विज्ञान संस्थान बंगलुरू इलाज के लिए भेजा गया। जहां मार्च 1993 से जून 1997 तक इलाज चला। इसके बाद से वे गाँव में ही रह रहे थे।\n\nइसके बाद तत्कालीन केंद्रीय स्वास्थ्य मंत्री शत्रुघ्न सिन्हा ने इस बीच उनकी सुध ली थी। स्थिति ठीक नहीं होने पर उन्हे 4 सितम्बर 2002 को मानव व्यवहार एवं संबद्ध विज्ञान संस्थान में भर्ती कराया गया। करीब एक साल दो महीने उनका इलाज चला। स्वास्थ्य में लाभ देखते हुए उन्हें यहां से छुट्टी दे दी गई थी। \n\nवे अपने गाँव बसंतपुर में उपेक्षित जीवन व्यतीत कर रहे थे। पिछले दिनों आरा में उनकी आंखों में मोतियाबिन्द का सफल ऑपरेशन हुआ था। कई संस्थाओं ने डॉ वशिष्ठ को गोद लेने की पेशकश की थी। लेकिन उनकी माता को ये स्वीकार नहीं था। 14 नवम्बर 2019 को उन्हें तबीयत खराब होने के चलते पटना ले जाया गया जहाँ डाक्टरों ने उन्हें मृत घोषित कर दिया। इस तरह एक महान गणितज्ञ का बड़ा ही दर्दनाक अंत हो गया। इनके शोध पर अभी भी कई वैज्ञानिक कार्य कर रहे हैं।\n\nमहान गणितज्ञ वशिष्ठ नारायण सिंह की मौत की खबर मिलते ही बिहार सहित पूरे देश मे शोक छा गया। इस पर तत्कालीन प्रधानमंत्री नरेन्द्र मोदी सहित कई बड़े नेताओं ने भी दुख जताया। वही पटना के जिस हॉस्पिटल PMCH में उनकी मृत्यु हुआ था, उस अंतिम समय में उनके छोटे भाई अयोध्या सिंह उनके साथ थे।\n\nप्रमुख प्रकाशन \n Singh, Vashishtha N. (1974). Reproducing kernels and operators with a cyclic vector. I. Pacific J. Math. 52 (1974), no. 2, 567–584.\n Singh, V.N. (1957) \"Certain generalized hypergeometric identities of the Rogers-Ramanujan type\",Pac. J. Math. 7, 1011-1014 \n Singh, V.N. (1957) \"Certain generalized hypergeometric identities of the Rogers-Ramanujan type (II)\",Pac. J. Math. 7, 1691-1699 \n Singh, V.N. (1959) \"A note on the computation of Alder's polynomials,\" Pac. J. Math., 9, 271-275 \n George E. Andrews (1974) \"An analytic generalization of the Rogers-Ramanujan Identities for odd moduli\", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, Vol 71, No.10, 4082-4085\n\nसन्दर्भ \n\nश्रेणी:1942 में जन्मे लोग\nश्रेणी:बिहार के लोग\nश्रेणी:भारतीय प्रौद्योगिकी संस्थान कानपुर के लोग \nश्रेणी:भारतीय गणितज्ञ" ]

[ "मुहम्मद शाफ़ी क़ुरैशी\nजन्म तिथि: 24 नवम्बर, 1929\n\nजन्म स्थान: श्रीनगर (कश्मीर)\n\nवैवाहिक स्थिति: विवाहित, पत्नी श्रीमती बेगम फातिमा बच्चे: दो पुत्र, तीन पुत्रियां पिता का नाम: स्व0 हाजी मुहम्मद अमीन कुरैषी मातृ भाषाः कश्मीरी अन्य भाषायेंः अंगे्रजी,पंजाबी,उर्दू,परषियन, अरबी, तथा हिन्दी का समुचित ज्ञान षिक्षाः\n\n1- प्रारम्भिक शिक्षा क्रिश्चियन मिशन हदाऊ मेमोरियल हाई स्क्ूल, श्रीनगर से प्राप्त की ।\n\n2- श्री अमर सिंह कालेज श्रीनगर से स्नातक ।\n\n 3- अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विष्वविद्यालय से , अलीगढ़ से एम.ए. तथा एल.एल.बी. से डिग्री प्राप्त की ।\n\nकार्य क्षेत्रः 1- अखिल भारतीय वाद-विवाद प्रतियोगिता में अलीगढ़ विष्वविद्यालय का प्रतिनिधित्व किया । एस0पी0 कालेज की डिगेटिंग सोसायटी के अध्यक्ष रहे ।\n\n2- कालेज में शिक्षा प्राप्त करने के दौरान विशेष योग्यता प्रमाण पत्र से अलंकृत किये गये ।\n\n3- अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विष्वविद्यालय छात्र यूनियन के वर्ष 1952-54 में सक्रिय सदस्य रहे ।\n\n4- अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय अलीगढ़ की लाॅ सोसायटी के वर्ष 1953 में सचिव रहे ।\n\n5- अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम विश्वविद्यालय के जियोग्रफिकल सोसायटी के वर्ष 1954 में उपाध्यक्ष रहे ।\n\n6- जम्मू और कष्मीर स्टूडेंट फेडरेशन के अध्यक्ष रहे ।\n\n 7- स्कूल तथा कालेज में षिक्षा ग्रहण करने के दौरान विभिन्न खेलों में सक्रिय रूप से भाग लिया ।\n\nराजनीतिक गतिविधियां\n\n 1- जम्मू कश्मीर में नेशनल कांफ्रेस को नेशनल कांग्रेस में परिवर्तित करने में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका अदा की ।\n\n2- कश्मीर में कांग्रेस को मजबूती प्रदान की तथा जम्मू और कष्मीर नेशनल कांग्रेस के संस्थापक अध्यक्ष पद को सुशोभित किया । \n\nसार्वजनिक जीवन: 1- वर्ष 1965 में जम्मू कश्मीर से राज्य सभा के सदस्य चुने जाने के पूर्व राज्य के उच्च न्यायालय के प्रसिद्ध वकील के रूप में अच्छी ख्याति प्राप्त की ।\n\n 2- वर्ष 1967 में अनन्तनाग संसदीय निर्वाचन क्षेत्र से निर्विरोध एम0पी0 चुने गये ।\n\n3-वर्ष 1977 में लोक सभा के समान्य निर्वाचन क्षेत्र में पुनः अनन्तनाग से लोक सभा के सदस्य चुने गये । जिन पदों पर रहे: 1- दिनांक 281-1966 से 14-2-1969 तक केन्द्रीय वाणिज्य उपमंत्री रहे । 2- दिनांक 15-2-1969 से 2-5-1971 तक केन्द्रीय उस्पात और हैवी इंजीनियरिंग उपमंत्री रहे ।\n\n3- दिनांक 10.10.1974 से मार्च 1977 तक केन्द्रीय उपरेल मंत्री रहे\n\n 4- दिनांक 31.7.79 को केन्द्रीय पर्यटन एवं नागरिक उड्डयन मंत्री रहे ।\n\n5- 19 मार्च 1991 से 13 अगस्त 1993 तक बिहार के राज्यपाल ।\n\n6- 24 जून 1993 केा मध्य प्रदेष के राज्यपाल पद की शपथ ग्रहण की ।\n\n7- 3 मई 1996 को उत्तर प्रदेष के राज्यपाल का अतिरिक्त प्रभार ग्रहण किया ।\n\nविदेष यात्रायें: 1- वर्ष 1964 में बैंडूंग में आयोजित एफ्रो एषियन इस्लामिक कांफ्रेस में भारत प्रतिनिधित्व किया ।\n\n 2- वर्ष 1965 में संसदीय दल के सदस्य के रूप में अल्जीरिया, मोरक्को, टियूनेषिया, सेनेगल आईवरी कोष्ट तथा मोरिटेनियां देषों की यात्रायें की ।\n\n3- वर्ष 1966 के मई माह में नीस में आयोजित अन्तर्राष्टीय सिल्क एसोसिएषन के 10 वें वार्षिक समारोह में भारतीय दल का नेतृत्व किया।\n\n4- वर्ष 1966 के सितम्बर-अक्टूबर माह में बलगारिया और रोमानिया देशों की यात्राएॅं की तथा पोल्वडू अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय मेले में कई वाणिज्यक अनुबन्ध हस्ताक्षरित कराए।\n\n5- वर्ष 1967 के अप्रैल माह में जापान में आयोजित 23वें इकोनामिक कमीशन फार एशिया एण्ड फार ईस्ट के सत्र में भाग लिया तथा भारतीय प्रतिनिधि मण्डल का नेतृत्व किया।\n\n 6- वर्ष 1968 अप्रैल माह में आस्ट्रेलिया में ई.सी.ए.एफ.आई. में भारतीय प्रतिनिधि मण्डल का नेतृत्व किया।\n\n7- वर्ष 1968 मे माह अम्टूबर में भारतीय व्यापार के प्रतिनिधि मण्डल के अध्यक्ष के रूप में बुलगारिया, रोमानिया, हंग्री तथा पोलैण्ड का भ्रण किया।\n\n8- भारतीय हज प्रतिनिधि मण्डल के नेता के रूप में सउदी अरब का भ्रमण किया तथा जनवरी, 1973 में ईराक की भी यात्रा की।\n\n9- वर्ष 1973 सितम्बर में भारतीय सहायता से निर्मित मेखना ब्रिज के पुनः खोले जाने के समय बंगलादेश में भारतीय प्रतिनिधि मण्डल का नेतृत्व किया।\n\n10- वर्ष 1974 अक्टूबर में अल्जीरिया के राष्ट्रीय समारोह में भाग लेने के लिए भारतीय प्रतिनिधि मण्डल के अध्यक्ष के रूप में त्रिपोली (लीबिया) गये।\n\n11- वर्ष 1975 जुलाई में भारत के विशेष दूत के रूप में बहरीन, ईराक, सीरिया तथा संयुक्त अरब अमीरात का भ्रमण किया।\n\n 12- वर्ष 1976 अम्टूबर में भारत के राष्ट्रपति के मिनिस्टर इन वेटिंग के रूप में आबू-धाबी तथा दुबई का भ्रमण किया।\n\n13- वर्ष 1984 में पुनः प्रधानमंत्री के विशेष दूत बनकर लीबिया गये। 14- वर्ष 1989 में अखिल भारतीय कांग्रेस कमेटी के प्रतिनिधि के रूप में ईराक गये।\n\n15- वर्ष 1990 में अखिल भारतीय कांग्रेस कमेटी के प्रतिनिधि मण्डल के सदस्य के रूप में चीन का भ्रमण किया।\n\n16- राष्ट्रपति के दल के सदस्य के रूप में पुर्तगाल, ट्रिनेदाद, टोबैगो, चिली तथा जिम्बांबे का भ्रमण किया।\n\n17- मई 1996 में ईरान तथा तुर्किस्तान के बीच ‘रेल लिंक’ समारोह के अवसर पर भारत के प्रतिनिधि के रूप में ईरान का दौरा किया। सामाजिक गतिविधियाॅंः 1. अखिल भारतीय कांग्रेस कमेटी के सदस्य\n\n2. ट्रस्टी तथा सचिव गालिब संस्थान\n\n3. संरक्षक हिन्दुस्तानी अदबी सोसाइटी, नई दिल्ली\n\n4. अध्यक्ष, अलीगढ़ मुस्लिम यूनिवर्सिटी ओल्ड ब्वायज् एसोसिएशन, नई दिल्ली\n\n5. संस्थापक अध्यक्ष, क्रिसेन्ट एजूकेशनल सोसाइटी, नई दिल्ली अभिरूचिः अध्ययन तथा गोल्फ विशेष रूचि: प्राचीन भारतीय इतिहास खेलों में भागीदारी: क्रिकेट, हाकी, गोल्फ, बिलियर्ट्स क्लबों में भागीदारी:\n\n1. सदस्य, कश्मीर गोल्फ क्लब, श्रीनगर\n\n2. सदस्य, अमर सिंह क्लब, श्रीनगर\n\n3. सदस्य, दिल्ली जिमखाना क्लब, नई दिल्ली\n\n4. सदस्य, दिल्ली गोल्फ क्लब, नई दिल्ली\n\n5. अध्यक्ष, बैडमिंटन एसोसिएशन आफ इण्डिया जबलपुर, मध्य प्रदेश अन्य: वर्ष 1991 में 6 से 12 दिसम्बर तक मारिशस में आयोजित विश्व उर्दू सम्मेलन में भारतीय प्रतिनिधि मण्डल का नेतृत्व किया।\n 03.05.1996 से 19.07.1996 तक उत्तर प्रदेश के राज्यपाल रहे।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160418175848/http://upgovernor.gov.in/hindi_version/qureshibio_H.htm\n\nश्रेणी:1929 में जन्मे लोग", "मदनमोहन मालवीय\nमहामना मदन मोहन मालवीय (25 दिसम्बर 1861 - 12 नवंबर 1946) काशी हिन्दू विश्वविद्यालय के प्रणेता तो थे ही इस युग के आदर्श पुरुष भी थे। वे भारत के पहले और अन्तिम व्यक्ति थे जिन्हें महामना की सम्मानजनक उपाधि से विभूषित किया गया। पत्रकारिता, वकालत, समाज सुधार, मातृ भाषा तथा भारतमाता की सेवा में अपना जीवन अर्पण करने वाले इस महामानव ने जिस विश्वविद्यालय की स्थापना की उसमें उनकी परिकल्पना ऐसे विद्यार्थियों को शिक्षित करके देश सेवा के लिये तैयार करने की थी जो देश का मस्तक गौरव से ऊँचा कर सकें। मालवीयजी सत्य, ब्रह्मचर्य, व्यायाम, देशभक्ति तथा आत्मत्याग में अद्वितीय थे। इन समस्त आचरणों पर वे केवल उपदेश ही नहीं दिया करते थे अपितु स्वयं उनका पालन भी किया करते थे। वे अपने व्यवहार में सदैव मृदुभाषी रहे।\n \nकर्म ही उनका जीवन था। अनेक संस्थाओं के जनक एवं सफल संचालक के रूप में उनकी अपनी विधि व्यवस्था का सुचारु सम्पादन करते हुए उन्होंने कभी भी रोष अथवा कड़ी भाषा का प्रयोग नहीं किया।\n\nभारत सरकार ने २४ दिसम्बर २०१४ को उन्हें भारत रत्न से अलंकृत किया।\n\nप्रारम्भिक जीवन एवं शिक्षा \nमालवीयजी का जन्म प्रयागराज में 25 दिसम्बर 1861 को पं० ब्रजनाथ व मूनादेवी के यहाँ हुआ था। वे अपने माता-पिता से उत्पन्न कुल सात भाई बहनों में पाँचवें पुत्र थे। मध्य भारत के मालवा प्रान्त से प्रयाग आ बसे उनके पूर्वज मालवीय कहलाते थे। आगे चलकर यही जातिसूचक नाम उन्होंने भी अपना लिया। पंडित इनको और इनके पिता जी को उपाधि मे मिली पिता पण्डित ब्रजनाथजी संस्कृत भाषा के प्रकाण्ड विद्वान थे। वे श्रीमद्भागवत की कथा सुनाकर अपनी आजीविका अर्जित करते थे।\n\nपाँच वर्ष की आयु में उन्हें उनके माँ-बाप ने संस्कृत भाषा में प्रारम्भिक शिक्षा लेने हेतु पण्डित हरदेव धर्म ज्ञानोपदेश पाठशाला में भर्ती करा दिया जहाँ से उन्होंने प्राइमरी परीक्षा उत्तीर्ण की। उसके पश्चात वे एक अन्य विद्यालय में भेज दिये गये जिसे प्रयाग की विद्यावर्धिनी सभा संचालित करती थी। यहाँ से शिक्षा पूर्ण कर वे इलाहाबाद के जिला स्कूल पढने गये। यहीं उन्होंने मकरन्द के उपनाम से कवितायें लिखनी प्रारम्भ की। उनकी कवितायें पत्र-पत्रिकाओं में खूब छपती थीं। लोगबाग उन्हें चाव से पढते थे। 1879 में उन्होंने म्योर सेण्ट्रल कॉलेज से, जो आजकल इलाहाबाद विश्वविद्यालय के नाम से जाना जाता है, मैट्रीकुलेशन (दसवीं की परीक्षा) उत्तीर्ण की। हैरिसन स्कूल के प्रिंसपल ने उन्हें छात्रवृत्ति देकर कलकत्ता विश्वविद्यालय भेजा जहाँ से उन्होंने 1884 ई० में बी०ए० की उपाधि प्राप्त की।\n\nपूर्ण परिचय \nअपने हृदय की महानता के कारण सम्पूर्ण भारतवर्ष में 'महामना' के नाम से पूज्य मालवीयजी को संसार में सत्य, दया और न्याय पर आधारित सनातन धर्म सर्वाधिक प्रिय था। करुणामय हृदय, भूतानुकम्पा, मनुष्यमात्र में अद्वेष, शरीर, मन और वाणी के संयम, धर्म और देश के लिये सर्वस्व त्याग, उत्साह और धैर्य, नैराश्यपूर्ण परिस्थितियों में भी आत्मविश्वासपूर्वक दूसरों को असम्भव प्रतीत होने वाले कर्मों का संपादन, वेशभूषा और आचार विचार में मालवीयजी भारतीय संस्कृति के प्रतीक तथा ऋषियों के प्राणवान स्मारक थे।\n\n\"सिर जाय तो जाय प्रभु! मेरो धर्म न जाय\" मालवीयजी का जीवन व्रत था जिससे उनका वैयक्तिक और सार्वजनिक जीवन समान रूप से प्रभावित था। यह आदर्श उन्हें बचपन में ही अपन पितामह प्रेमधर श्रीवास्तव , जिन्होंने 108 दिन निरन्तर 108 बार श्रीमद्भागवत का पारायण किया था, से राधा-कृष्ण की अनन्य भक्ति, पिता ब्रजनाथजी की भागवत-कथा से धर्म-प्रचार एवं माता मूनादेवी से दुखियों की सेवा करने का स्वभाव प्राप्त हुआ था। धनहीन किन्तु निर्लोभी परिवार में पलते हुए भी देश की दरिद्रता तथा अर्थार्थी छात्रों के कष्ट निवारण के स्वभाव से उनका जीवन ओतप्रोत था। बचपन में जिन आचार विचारों का निर्माण हुआ उससे रेल में, जेल में तथा जलयान में कहीं पर भी प्रात:सायं सन्ध्योपासना तथा श्रीमद्भागवत और महाभारत का स्वाध्याय उनके जीवन का अभिन्न अंग बना रहा।\n\nमालवीय जी ने प्रयाग की धर्म ज्ञानोपदेश तथा विद्याधर्म प्रवर्द्धिनी पाठशालाओं में संस्कृत का अध्ययन समाप्त करने के पश्चात् म्योर सेंट्रल कालेज से 1884 ई० में कलकत्ता विश्वविद्यालय की बी० ए० की उपाधि ली। इस बीच अखाड़े में व्यायाम और सितार पर शास्त्रीय संगीत की शिक्षा वे बराबर देते रहे। उनका व्यायाम करने का नियम इतना अद्भुत था कि साठ वर्ष की अवस्था तक वे नियमित व्यायाम करते ही रहे।\n\nसात वर्ष के मदनमोहन को धर्मज्ञानोपदेश पाठशाला के देवकीनन्दन मालवीय माघ मेले में ले जाकर मूढ़े पर खड़ा करके व्याख्यान दिलवाते थे। शायद इसका ही परिणाम था कि कांग्रेस के द्वितीय अधिवेशन में अंग्रेजी के प्रथम भाषण से ही प्रतिनिधियों को मन्त्रमुग्ध कर देने वाले मृदुभाषी मालवीयजी उस समय विद्यमान भारत देश के सर्वश्रेष्ठ हिन्दी, संस्कृत और अंग्रेजी के व्याख्यान वाचस्पतियों में इतने अधिक प्रसिद्ध हुए। हिन्दू धर्मोपदेश, मन्त्रदीक्षा और सनातन धर्म प्रदीप ग्रथों में उनके धार्मिक विचार आज भी उपलब्ध हैं जो परतन्त्र भारत देश की विभिन्न समस्याओं पर बड़ी कौंसिल से लेकर असंख्य सभा सम्मेलनों में दिये गये हजारों व्याख्यानों के रूप में भावी पीढ़ियों के उपयोगार्थ प्रेरणा और ज्ञान के अमित भण्डार हैं। उनके बड़ी कौंसिल में रौलट बिल के विरोध में निरन्तर साढ़े चार घण्टे और अपराध निर्मोचन (अंग्रेजी: Indemnity) बिल पर पाँच घण्टे के भाषण निर्भयता और गम्भीरतापूर्ण दीर्घवक्तृता के लिये आज भी स्मरणीय हैं। उनके उद्घरणों में हृदय को स्पर्श करके रुला देने की क्षमता थी, परन्तु वे अविवेकपूर्ण कार्य के लिये श्रोताओं को कभी उकसाते नहीं थे।\n\nम्योर कालेज के मानसगुरु महामहोपाध्याय पं० आदित्यराम भट्टाचार्य के साथ 1880 ई० में स्थापित हिन्दू समाज में मालवीयजी भाग ले ही रहे थे कि उन्हीं दिनों प्रयाग में वाइसराय लार्ड रिपन का आगमन हुआ। रिपन जो स्थानीय स्वायत्त शासन स्थापित करने के कारण भारतवासियों में जितने लोकप्रिय थे उतने ही अंग्रेजों के कोपभाजन भी। इसी कारण प्रिसिपल हैरिसन के कहने पर उनका स्वागत संगठित करके मालवीयजी ने प्रयाग वासियों के हृदय में अपना विशिष्ट स्थान बना लिया।\n\nअन्य उल्लेखनीय कार्य \nकालाकाँकर के देशभक्त राजा रामपाल सिंह के अनुरोध पर मालवीयजी ने उनके हिन्दी अंग्रेजी समाचार पत्र हिन्दुस्तान का 1887 से सम्पादन करके दो ढाई साल तक जनता को जगाया। उन्होंने कांग्रेस के ही एक अन्य नेता पं0 अयोध्यानाथ का उनके इण्डियन ओपीनियन के सम्पादन में भी हाथ बँटाया और 1907 ई0 में साप्ताहिक अभ्युदय को निकालकर कुछ समय तक उसे भी सम्पादित किया। यही नहीं सरकार समर्थक समाचार पत्र पायोनियर के समकक्ष 1909 में दैनिक 'लीडर' अखबार निकालकर लोकमत निर्माण का महान कार्य सम्पन्न किया तथा दूसरे वर्ष मर्यादा पत्रिका भी प्रकाशित की। इसके बाद उन्होंने 1924 ई0 में दिल्ली आकर हिन्दुस्तान टाइम्स को सुव्यवस्थित किया तथा सनातन धर्म को गति प्रदान करने हेतु लाहौर से विश्वबन्द्य जैसे अग्रणी पत्र को प्रकाशित करवाया।\n\nहिन्दी के उत्थान में मालवीय जी की भूमिका ऐतिहासिक है। भारतेंदु हरिश्चंद्र के नेतृत्व में हिन्दी गद्य के निर्माण में संलग्न मनीषियों में 'मकरंद' तथा 'झक्कड़सिंह' के उपनाम से विद्यार्थी जीवन में रसात्मक काव्य रचना के लिये ख्यातिलब्ध मालवीयजी ने देवनागरी लिपि और हिन्दी भाषा को पश्चिमोत्तर प्रदेश व अवध के गवर्नर सर एंटोनी मैकडोनेल के सम्मुख 1898 ई0 में विविध प्रमाण प्रस्तुत करके कचहरियों में प्रवेश दिलाया। हिन्दी साहित्य सम्मेलन के प्रथम अधिवेशन (काशी-1910) के अध्यक्षीय अभिभाषण में हिन्दी के स्वरूप निरूपण में उन्होंने कहा कि \"उसे फारसी-अरबी के बड़े बड़े शब्दों से लादना जैसे बुरा है, वैसे ही अकारण संस्कृत शब्दों से गूँथना भी अच्छा नहीं और भविष्यवाणी की कि एक दिन यही भाषा राष्ट्रभाषा होगी।\" सम्मेलन के एक अन्य वार्षिक अधिवेशन (बम्बई-1919) के सभापति पद से उन्होंने हिन्दी उर्दू के प्रश्न को, धर्म का नहीं अपितु राष्ट्रीयता का प्रश्न बतलाते हुए उद्घोष किया कि साहित्य और देश की उन्नति अपने देश की भाषा द्वारा ही हो सकती है। समस्त देश की प्रान्तीय भाषाओं के विकास के साथ-साथ हिन्दी को अपनाने के आग्रह के साथ यह भविष्यवाणी भी की कि कोई दिन ऐसा भी आयेगा कि जिस भाँति अंग्रेजी विश्वभाषा हो रही है उसी भाँति हिन्दी का भी सर्वत्र प्रचार होगा। इस प्रकार उन्होंने हिन्दी को अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय रूप का लक्ष्य भी दिया।\n\nकांग्रेस के निर्माताओं में विख्यात मालवीयजी ने उसके द्वितीय अधिवेशन (कलकत्ता-1886) से लेकर अपनी अन्तिम साँस तक स्वराज्य के लिये कठोर तप किया। उसके प्रथम उत्थान में नरम और गरम दलों के बीच की कड़ी मालवीयजी ही थे जो गान्धी-युग की कांग्रेस में हिन्दू मुसलमानों एवं उसके विभिन्न मतों में सामंजस्य स्थापित करने में प्रयत्नशील रहे। एनी बेसेंट ने ठीक कहा था कि \"मैं दावे के साथ कह सकती हूँ कि विभिन्न मतों के बीच, केवल मालवीयजी भारतीय एकता की मूर्ति बने खड़े हुए हैं।\" असहयोग आन्दोलन के आरम्भ तक नरम दल के नेताओं के कांग्रेस को छोड़ देने पर मालवीयजी उसमें डटे रहे और कांग्रेस ने उन्हें चार बार सभापति निर्वाचित करके सम्मानित किया- लाहौर (1909 में), दिल्ली (1918 और 1931 में) तथा कलकत्ता (1933 में)। यद्यपि अन्तिम दोनों बार वे सत्याग्रह के कारण पहले ही गिरफ्तार कर लिये गये। स्वतन्त्रता के लिये उनकी तड़प और प्रयासों के परिचायक फैजपुर कांग्रेस (1936) में राष्ट्रीय सरकार और चुनाव प्रस्ताव के समर्थन में मालवीयजी के ये शब्द स्मरणीय हैं कि मैं पचास वर्ष से कांग्रेस के साथ हूँ। सम्भव है मैं बहुत दिन न जियूँ और अपने जी में यह कसक लेकर मरूँ कि भारत अब भी पराधीन है। किंतु फिर भी मैं यह आशा करता हूँ कि मैं इस भारत को स्वतन्त्र देख सकूँगा।\n\nस्वातन्त्र्य संग्राम में भूमिका \n[[चित्र:Electrical Engg Deptt IT-BHU.JPG|thumb|right|200px|काशी हिन्दू विश्वविद्यालय का एक विभाग]]\nअसहयोग आंदोलन के चतुर्सूत्री कार्यक्रम में शिक्षा संस्थाओं के बहिष्कार का मालवीयजी ने खुलकर विरोध किया जिसके कारण उनके व्यक्तित्व के प्रभाव से हिन्दू विश्वविद्यालय पर उसका अधिक प्रभाव नहीं पड़ा। 1921 ई0 में कांग्रेस के नेताओं ने जेल भर जाने पर किंकर्तव्यविमूढ़ वाइसराय लॉर्ड रीडिंग को प्रान्तों में स्वशासन देकर गान्धीजी से सन्धि कर लेने को मालवीयजी ने भी सहमत कर लिया था परन्तु 4 फ़रवरी 1922 के चौरीचौरा काण्ड ने इतिहास को पलट दिया। गान्धीजी ने बारदौली की कार्यकारिणी में बिना किसी से परामर्श किये सत्याग्रह को अचानक रोक दिया। इससे कांग्रेस जनों में असन्तोष फैल गया और यह खुसुरपुसुर होने लगी कि बड़ा भाई के कहने में आकर गान्धीजी ने यह भयंकर भूल की है। गान्धीजी स्वयं भी पाँच साल के लिये जेल भेज दिये गये। इसके परिणामस्वरूप चिलचिलाती धूप में इकसठ वर्ष के बूढ़े मालवीय ने पेशावर से डिब्रूगढ़ तक तूफानी दौरा करके राष्ट्रीय चेतना को जीवित रखा। इस भ्रमण में उन्होंने बहुत बार कुख्यात धारा 144 का उल्लंघन भी किया जिसे सरकार खून का घूँट समझकर पी गयी। परन्तु 1930 के सविनय अवज्ञा आन्दोलन में उसी ब्रिटिश सरकार ने उन्हें बम्बई में गिरफ्तार कर लिया जिस पर श्रीयुत् भगवान दास (भारतरत्न) ने कहा था कि मालवीयजी का पकड़ा जाना राष्ट्रीय यज्ञ की पूर्णाहुति समझी जानी चाहिये। उसी साल दिल्ली में अवैध घोषित कार्यसमिति की बैठक में मालवीयजी को पुन: बन्दी बनाकर नैनी जेल भेज दिया गया। यह उनकी जीवनचर्या तथा वृद्धावस्था के कारण यथार्थ में एक प्रकार की तपस्या थी। परन्तु सैद्धान्तिक मतभेद के कारण हिन्दू विश्वविद्यालय में प्रिंस ऑव वेल्स का स्वागत और कांग्रेस स्वराज पार्टी के समकक्ष कांग्रेस स्वतंत्र दल व रैमजे मैकडॉनल्ड के साम्प्रदायिक निर्णय पर, जिसकी स्वीकृति को मालवीयजी ने राष्ट्रीय आत्महत्या माना। इस प्रकार कांग्रेस की अस्वीकार नीति के कारण निर्णय विरोधी सम्मेलन और राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस दल का पुन: संगठन करने जैसे उनके कांग्रेस विरोध के उदाहरण भी इतिहास उल्लेखनीय हैं।\n\nधर्म संस्कृति रक्षा \n[[Image:Mahatma Gandhi with Madan Mohan Malaviya.jpeg|right|thumb|250px|मालवीय जी, महात्मा गांधी के साथ]]\nसनातन धर्म व हिन्दू संस्कृति की रक्षा और संवर्धन में मालवीयजी का योगदान अनन्य है। जनबल तथा मनोबल में नित्यश: क्षयशील हिन्दू जाति को विनाश से बचाने के लिये उन्होंने हिन्दू संगठन का शक्तिशाली आन्दोलन चलाया और स्वयं अनुदार सहधर्मियों के तीव्र प्रतिवाद झेलते हुए भी कलकत्ता, काशी, प्रयाग और नासिक में भंगियों को धर्मोपदेश और मन्त्रदीक्षा दी। उल्लेखनीय है कि राष्ट्रनेता मालवीयजी ने, जैसा स्वयं पं0 जवाहरलाल नेहरू ने लिखा है, अपने नेतृत्वकाल में हिन्दू महासभा को राजनीतिक प्रतिक्रियावादिता से मुक्त रखा और अनेक बार धर्मों के सहअस्तित्व में अपनी आस्था को अभिव्यक्त किया।\n\nप्रयाग के भारती भवन पुस्तकालय, मैकडोनेल यूनिवर्सिटी हिन्दू छात्रालय और मिण्टो पार्क के जन्मदाता, बाढ़, भूकम्प, सांप्रदायिक दंगों व मार्शल ला से त्रस्त दुःखियों के आँसू पोंछने वाले मालवीयजी को ऋषिकुल हरिद्वार, गोरक्षा और आयुर्वेद सम्मेलन तथा सेवा समिति, ब्वॉय स्काउट तथा अन्य कई संस्थाओं को स्थापित अथवा प्रोत्साहित करने का श्रेय प्राप्त हुआ, किन्तु उनका अक्षय-र्कीति-स्तम्भ तो काशी हिन्दू विश्वविद्यालय ही है जिसमें उनकी विशाल बुद्धि, संकल्प, देशप्रेम, क्रियाशक्ति तथा तप और त्याग साक्षात् मूर्तिमान हैं। विश्वविद्यालय के उद्देश्यों में हिन्दू समाज और संसार के हित के लिये भारत की प्राचीन सभ्यता और महत्ता की रक्षा, संस्कृत विद्या के विकास एवं पाश्चात्य विज्ञान के साथ भारत की विविध विद्याओं और कलाओं की शिक्षा को प्राथमिकता दी गयी। उसके विशाल तथा भव्य भवनों एवं विश्वनाथ मन्दिर में भारतीय स्थापत्य कला के अलंकरण भी मालवीय जी के आदर्श के ही प्रतिफल हैं।\n\nविरासत\n[[चित्र:PM Modi pays tribute to Madan Mohan Malaviya, on his birth anniversary in 2014.jpg|right|thumb|250px|सन २०१४ में मालवीय जी के जन्म शताब्दी के अवसर पर भारत के प्रधानमन्त्री नरेन्द्र मोदी मालवीय जी की प्रतिमा के सामने नतमस्तक होकर अपनी श्रद्धाञ्जलि अर्पित करते हुए]]\nमालवीय जी ने ही कांग्रेस के सभापति के रूप में सुझाया था कि \"सत्यमेव जयते\" को भारत का राष्ट्रीय उद्घोष वाक्य स्वीकार किया जाय। उन्होंने हरिद्वार में हर की पौड़ी पर गंगा आरती का आयोजन किया जो आज तक चल रहा है। हरिद्वार में घाट के निकट ही स्थित एक छोटे से द्वीप का नाम \"मालवीय द्वीप\" \nरखा गया है। \n\nप्रयागराज, लखनऊ, दिल्ली, देहरादून, भोपाल, दुर्ग और जयपुर में उनके सम्मान में \"मालवीय नगर\" बसे हैं। जबलपुर में एक चौराहे का नाम \"मालवीय चौक\" रखा गया है। मदन मोहन मालवीय प्रौद्योगिकी विश्वविद्यालय, गोरखपुर तथा मालवीय राष्ट्रीय प्रौद्योगिकी संस्थान, जयपुर का नामकरण भी उनके नाम पर किया गया है। उनके नाम पर अनेक छात्रावासों के नाम \"मालवीय भवन\" रखे गये हैं जिनमें से आईआईटी खड़गपुर, आई. आई. टी. रूडकी का सहारनपुर परिसर, बिड़ला प्रौद्योगिकी एवं विज्ञान संस्थान के पिलानी तथा तथा हैदराबाद परिसर सम्मिलित हैं। \n\n२०११ में भारत सरकार ने उनकी स्मृति में एक डाक टिकट जारी किया।\n\n२४ दिसम्बर २०१४ को भारत सरकार ने उन्हें भारतरत्न से सम्मानित किया। \n\n२२ जनवरी २०१६ को महामना एक्सप्रेस चलायी गयी जो वाराणसी से दिल्ली के बीच चलती है।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nसन्दर्भ ग्रन्थ सूची \n महामना पं0 मदनमोहन मालवीय : जीवनचरित (75 वीं वर्षगाँठ का अभिनन्दन ग्रन्थ 1936) प्रकाशक: मालवीय जीवन चरित समिति, काशी, \n जवाहरलाल नेहरू : ऐन आटोबायोग्रैफी (रिबॉडले हेड लन्दन) \n महामना पंडित मदनमोहन मालवीय (संस्मरण) 1957, सम्पादन: चन्द्रबली त्रिपाठी, प्रकाशक: दुर्गावती त्रिपाठी, मदन मोहन मालवीय मार्ग, बस्ती, \n इंडिया विंस फ्रीडम : मौलाना अबुल कलाम आजाद, 1959, ओरिएंट लॉगमैंस लिमिटेड कलकत्ता, \n नेहरू जी अपनी ही भाषा में, 1962, रामनारायण चौधरी, नवजीवन प्रकाशन मन्दिर अहमदाबाद-14\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n काशी हिन्दू विश्वविद्यालय\n हिन्दू महासभा\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n\n पण्डित महामना मदनमोहन मालवीय\n स्वाधीनता संग्राम के क्रान्तिकारी साहित्य का इतिहास\n मालवीय जी और हि‍न्‍दी (पत्र सूचना कार्यालय)\n महामना पण्डित मदनमोहन मालवीय (महामना के १५०वें जन्मदिवस पर निर्मित सम्पूर्ण जालघर)\n अदालत में हिंदी को दिलाया मान (नई दुनिया)\n प्रथम हिन्दी-साहित्य-सम्मेलन के सभापति महामना पंडित मदनमोहन मालवीय का भाषण (महामना जी का यह भाषण नागरी प्रचारिणी सभा के तत्त्वावधान में 10, 11, 12 अक्टूबर 1910 ई0 को हुआ था।)\n\nश्रेणी:1861 में जन्मे लोग\nश्रेणी:१९४६ में निधन\nश्रेणी:भारतीय स्वतंत्रता सेनानी\nश्रेणी:भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस के राजनीतिज्ञ\nश्रेणी:भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस के अध्यक्ष", "राज प्रशस्ति\nराजजसमन्द झील की पाल 25 पाषाणों पर संस्कृत में उत्कीर्ण राजप्रशस्ति, 1676 ई. में महाराजा राजसिंह द्वारा स्थापित कराई गई। यह एक महाकाव्य था, जिसकी रचना रणछोड़ भट्ट तैलंग ने मेवाड़ के महाराणा राजसिंह की आज्ञा से 1676 ई. में की थी। इस ग्रन्थ के लिखे जाने के छ: वर्ष पश्चात महाराणा जयसिंह की आज्ञा से इसे शिलाओं पर उत्कीर्ण किया गया। छठी शिला में इसका संवत 1744 दिया हुआ है। इसे 25 बड़ी शिलाओं में उत्कीर्ण करवाकर राजसमन्द झील की नौ चौकी पाल (बांध) पर विभिन्न ताकों में स्थापित किया गया। यह भारत का सबसे बड़ा शिलालेख है। इसका प्रत्येक शिलाखंड काले पत्थर से निर्मित है जिनका आकार तीन फुट लम्बा तथा ढाई फुट चौड़ा है। प्रथम शिलालेख में माँ दुर्गा, गणपति गणेश, सूर्य आदि देवी-देवताओं की स्तुति है। संस्कृत-भाषा में प्रणीत इस महाकाव्य के शेष 24 शिलालेखों में प्रत्येक में एक-एक सर्ग है तथा इस प्रकार कुल 24 सर्ग है। इसमें कुल 1,106 श्लोक है। संस्कृत भाषा में होने के बावजूद इसमें अरबी, फ़ारसी तथा लोकभाषा का भी प्रभाव है। इसमें मुख्यतः महाराणा राजसिंह के जीवन-चरित्र एवं उनकी उपलब्धियों का वर्णन किया गया है किन्तु इसके प्रथम 5 सर्गों में मेवाड़ का प्रारंभिक इतिहास दिया गया है। इसके अलावा इसमें 17वीं शताब्दी में मेवाड़ की सामाजिक, आर्थिक, धार्मिक तथा राजनैतिक दशा का भी वर्णन मिलता है। यह एक ऐसा काव्य है जिसमें कविता कम और इतिहास प्रधान है। कवि ने महाराणा राजसिंह से संबंधित जिन घटनाओं का वर्णन इसमें किया है वो उसकी स्वयं की आँखों देखी है। इसमें राजसमन्द झील के निर्माण के दुष्कर कार्य, इस पर हुए खर्च तथा इसकी प्रतिष्ठा का वर्णन किया गया है। इसके अतिरिक्त इसमें तत्कालीन मेवाड़ की संस्कृति, वेशभूषा, शिल्पकला, दान-प्रणाली, मुद्रा, युद्ध-नीति, धर्म-कर्म आदि का भी अच्छा उल्लेख है। इतिहासकार डॉ. श्रीकृष्ण ‘जुगनू’ के अनुसार राजप्रशस्ति पहला अभिलेख है, जिसमें पृथ्‍वीराजरासो का प्रसंग संस्‍कृत में उद़धृत किया गया है। इसमें बप्‍पा रावल की कथा को एकलिंगपुराण से उठाया गया है। इसमें सूर्यवंश की वंशावली के साथ गुहिल वंश का संबंध स्‍थापित किया गया है और इस वंश को विप्र के बजाय सूर्यवंश बताने का प्रयास किया गया है। रणछोड भट्ट की एक अन्‍य कृति है जयसमंदप्रशस्ति, जो अप्रकाशित है।\n\nराजसमन्द के शिक्षाविद डॉ. राकेश तैलंग के अनुसार राजप्रशस्ति चंदबरदाई के काल को एक नयी सोच के साथ निर्धारण करने की संभावना को प्रस्तुत करता है। राज-प्रशस्ति के मुताबिक चंदबरदाई कि स्थिति 16वीं शताब्दी है, जबकि दूसरी ओर प्रायः चंदबरदाई का काल 11वीं शताब्दी में पृथ्वीराज राठौड़ के साथ जोड़कर देखा जाता है। उनके अनुसार पं. रणछोड़ भट्ट पद्माकर और लाल कवि की पूर्वज परंपरा के तैलंग ब्राह्मण थे जिन्हें इस काव्य के लेखन के लिए सागर (म.प्र.) से बुलाया गया था।\n\nराजप्रशस्ति महाकाव्य की रचना रणछोड़ भट्ट तैलंग नामक संस्कृत कवि द्वारा मेवाड़ के महाराणा राजसिंह की आज्ञा से 1676 ई. में की थी। इस ग्रन्थ के लिखे जाने के छ: वर्ष पश्चात महाराणा जयसिंह की आज्ञा से इसे शिलाओं पर उत्कीर्ण किया गया। छठी शिला में इसका संवत 1744 दिया हुआ है। इसे 25 बड़ी शिलाओं में उत्कीर्ण करवा कर राजसमन्द झील की नौ चौकी पाल (बांध) पर विभिन्न ताकों में स्थापित किया गया। यह भारत का सबसे बड़ा शिलालेख है। इसका प्रत्येक शिलाखंड काले पत्थर से निर्मित है जिनका आकार तीन फुट लम्बा तथा ढाई फुट चौड़ा है। प्रथम शिलालेख में माँ दुर्गा, गणपति गणेश, सूर्य आदि देवी-देवताओं की स्तुति है। संस्कृत भाषा में प्रणीत इस महाकाव्य के शेष 24 शिलालेखों में प्रत्येक में एक-एक सर्ग है तथा इस प्रकार कुल 24 सर्ग है। इसमें कुल 1106 श्लोक है। संस्कृत भाषा में होने के बावजूद इसमें अरबी, फ़ारसी तथा लोकभाषा का भी प्रभाव है। इसमें मुख्यतः महाराणा राजसिंह के जीवन-चरित्र एवं उनकी उपलब्धियों का वर्णन किया गया है किन्तु इसके प्रथम 5 सर्गों में मेवाड़ का प्रारंभिक इतिहास दिया गया है। इसके अलावा इसमें 17 शताब्दी में मेवाड़ की सामाजिक, आर्थिक, धार्मिक तथा राजनैतिक दशा का भी वर्णन मिलता है। यह एक ऐसा काव्य है जिसमें कविता कम और इतिहास प्रधान है। कवि ने महाराणा राजसिंह से संबंधित जिन घटनाओं का वर्णन इसमें किया है वो उसकी स्वयं की आँखों देखी है। इसमें राजसमन्द झील के निर्माण के दुष्कर कार्य, इस पर हुए खर्च तथा इसकी प्रतिष्ठा का वर्णन किया गया है। इसके अतिरिक्त इसमें तत्कालीन मेवाड़ की संस्कृति, वेशभूषा, शिल्पकला, दान-प्रणाली, मुद्रा, युद्ध-नीति, धर्म-कर्म आदि का भी अच्छा उल्लेख है। इतिहासकार डॉ. श्रीकृष्ण जुगनू के अनुसार राजप्रशस्ति पहला अभिलेख है, जिसमें पृथ्‍वीराज रासो का प्रसंग संस्‍कृत में उद़धृत किया गया है। इसमें बप्‍पा रावल की कथा को एकलिंगपुराण से उठाया गया है। इसमें सूर्यवंश की वंशावली के साथ गुहिल वंश का संबंध स्‍थापित किया गया है और इस वंश को विप्र के बजाय सूर्यवंश बताने का प्रयास किया गया है। रणछोड भट्ट की एक अन्‍य कृति है जयसमंद प्रशस्ति, जो अप्रकाशित है।\n\nसन्दर्भ", "इकसिंगा\nइकसिंगा या यूनिकॉर्न (जो लैटिन शब्दों - unus (यूनस) अर्थात् 'एक' एवं cornu (कॉर्नू) अर्थात् 'सींग' से बना है) एक पौराणिक प्राणी है। हालांकि इकसिंगे का आधुनिक लोकप्रिय छवि कभी-कभी एक घोड़े की छवि की तरह प्रतीत होता है जिसमें केवल एक ही अंतर है कि इकसिंगे के माथे पर एक सींग होता है, लेकिन पारंपरिक इकसिंगे में एक बकरे की तरह दाढ़ी, एक सिंह की तरह पूंछ और फटे खुर भी होते हैं जो इसे एक घोड़े से अलग साबित करते हैं। मरियाना मेयर (द यूनिकॉर्न एण्ड द लेक) के अनुसार, \"इकसिंगा एकमात्र ऐसा मनगढ़ंत पशु है जो शायद मानवीय भय की वजह से प्रकाश में नहीं आया है। यहां तक कि आरंभिक संदर्भों में भी इसे उग्र होने पर भी अच्छा, निस्वार्थ होने पर भी एकांतप्रिय, साथ ही रहस्यमयी रूप से सुंदर बताया गया है। उसे केवल अनुचित तरीके से ही पकड़ा जा सकता था और कहा जाता था कि उसके एकमात्र सींग में ज़हर को भी बेअसर करने की ताकत थी।\"\n\nइतिहास\n\nप्राचीनकालीन इकसिंगा \nसिन्धु घाटी सभ्यता के कुछ मुहरों पर एक सींग वाले पशु (जिसकी रूपरेखा किसी बैल के जैसी हो सकती है) का चित्र है। इस तरह की डिजाइन वाले मुहरों को ऊंची सामाजिक श्रेणी का चिह्न माना जाता है।\n\nबाइबिल के अनुसार \nright|thumb|ऑरोक्स\nहिब्रू बाइबिल में कई जगह रीम (Re’em) () नामक एक पशु का उल्लेख मिलता है जिसे प्रायः शक्ति का प्रतिनिधित्व करने वाले एक रूपक के रूप में प्रस्तुत किया गया है। शक्तिशाली सींग या सींगों वाले महान शक्ति एवं फुर्ती के स्वामी और पालतू न बनाए जाने योग्य एक जंगली पशु के रूप में रीम के प्रसंग-संकेत (, , , , , कॉम्प. ), ऑरोक्स (यूरोपीय जंगली बैल) (बोस प्रिमिजीनियस) के साथ काफी मेल खाते हैं। इस दृष्टिकोण को असीरियाई रिमु (rimu) का समर्थन प्राप्त हुआ है, जिसे प्रायः शक्ति के एक रूपक के रूप में इस्तेमाल किया जाता है और बड़े-बड़े सींगों वाले एक शक्तिशाली, भयंकर, जंगली पहाड़ी बैल के रूप में दर्शाया जाता है। इस पशु को प्रायः प्राचीन मेसोपोटामियाई कला की रूपरेखा में दर्शाया जाता था जिसमें केवल एक ही सींग द्रष्टव्य था।\n \nबाइबिल (1611) के ऑथराइज़्ड किंग जेम्स वर्शन के अनुवादकों ने ग्रीक सेप्टुआगिंट (मोनोकेरोस) एवं लैटिन वल्गेट (यूनिकॉर्निस) का अनुसरण किया और रीम (re'em) का अनुवाद यूनिकॉर्न (इकसिंगा) के रूप में किया और इसे एक पहचानयोग्य पशु के रूप में प्रस्तुत किया जो पालतू न बनाए जाने लायक एक पशु के रूप में अपने स्वभाव की वजह से काफी मशहूर था। अमेरिकन स्टैण्डर्ड वर्शन हर मामले में इस संज्ञा \"जंगली बैल\" का रूपांतरण करता है।\n\n \"ईश्वर उन्हें मिस्र से लाए; उनके पास यह ऐसे रूप में है जैसे कि यह एक इकसिंगे की शक्ति हो.\"--\n \"ईश्वर ने उसे मिस्र से उत्पन्न किया था; उनके पास यह ऐसे रूप में है जैसे कि यह एक इकसिंगे की शक्ति हो.\"--\n \"उनकी महिमा उनके बैल के पहले बच्चे की तरह है और उनकी सींगें इकसिंगों के सींगों की तरह है: उनकी सहायता से वह लोगों को एकसाथ धरती के छोर तक धकेलते हुए ले जाएंगे.\"--\n \"क्या इकसिंगा तेरी सेवा करने का इच्छुक होगा, या तेरे पालने के प्रति निष्ठां रखेगा? क्या तू इकसिंगे को उसके समूह के साथ खांचे में बांध सकता है? या वह तेरे बाद घाटियों में हेंगा फेरेगा? क्या तू उस पर भरोसा करेगा, क्योंकि उसकी शक्ति महान है? या तू अपनी मेहनत उसके लिए छोड़ देगा? क्या तू उस पर विश्वास करेगा, कि वह तेरे बीज को घर लाएगा और उसे तेरे खलिहान में इकठ्ठा करेगा?\"--\n \"मुझे सिंह के मुंह से बचाओ; क्योंकि तूने इकसिंगों की सींगों से मेरे आवाज़ सुनी है।\"--\n \"उन्होंने उन्हें [लेबनान के देवदार] एक बछड़े की तरह कूदने की शक्ति भी प्रदान की है; एक युवा इकसिंगे जैसा लेबनान और सीरियन.\"--\n \"लेकिन मेरा सींग इकसिंगे की सींग की तरह तेरी शक्ति में वृद्धि करेगा: ताज़े तेल से मेरा अभिषेक किया जाएगा.\"--\n \"और इकसिंगे उनके साथ, एवं उनके बैलों के साथ युवा बैलों के साथ आएंगे; और उनकी भूमि रक्त से सिक्त हो जाएगी और उनके धूल मोटापे के साथ मोटे बन गए।\"--\n\nपारंपरिक इकसिंगा \nthumb|right|ब्रिस्टल के काउंसिल हाउस में एक इकसिंगे की सुनहरी प्रतीमा\nयूनानी पौराणिक कथाओं में इकसिंगों का उल्लेख नहीं मिलता है लेकिन प्राकृतिक इतिहास में विवरणों में इसका उल्लेख है क्योंकि प्रतिकृत इतिहास के यूनानी लेखक इकसिंगे की वास्तविकता के कायल थे जिसका पता उन्हें भारत में मिला था जो उनके लिए एक दूरवर्ती एवं उत्कृष्ट क्षेत्र था। इसका आरंभिक विवरण क्टेसियास से प्राप्त हुआ है जिन्होंने इन्हें जंगली गधों के रूप में वर्णित किया था जिसके पैरों में काफी फुर्ती थी और जिसका एक सींग था जिसकी लम्बाई डेढ़ हाथ जितनी थी और जिसका रंग सफ़ेद, लाल एवं काला था। अरस्तू ने एक सींग वाले दो पशुओं - ऑरिक्स (एक प्रकार का मृग) एवं तथाकथित \"भारतीय गधा\", का उल्लेख करते समय क्टेसियास का ही अनुसरण किया होगा। स्ट्रैबो कहते हैं कि काकेशस में एक सींग वाले घोड़े पाए जाते थे जिनके सिर मृग की तरह होते थे।\nप्लिनी द एल्डर ऑरिक्स और एक भारतीय बैल (शायद एक गैंडा) का उल्लेख एक सींग वाले पशुओं के रूप में और साथ ही साथ \"मोनोसेरस नामक एक अतिभयंकर पशु के रूप में करते हैं जिसका सिर मृग की तरह, पैर हाथी की तरह और पूंछ भालू की तरह होता है, जबकि शरीर का बाकी हिस्सा घोड़े की तरह होता है; जो एक बैल की तरह तेज़ डकारने की आवाज़ निकालता है और इसका केवल एक काला सींग होता है, जो इसके माथे के बीच से निकला हुआ होता है और जिसकी लम्बाई दो हाथ जितनी होती है।\" एलियान की ऑन द नेचर ऑफ़ एनिमल्स (Περὶ Ζῴων Ἰδιότητος, डी नेचरा एनिमलियम) का उद्धरण देते हुए क्टेसियास कहते हैं कि भारत में एक सींग वाला घोड़ा भी उत्पन्न होता है (iii. 41; iv. 52), और कहते हैं (xvi. 20) कि मोनोसेरस () को कभी-कभी कार्टाज़ोनस () भी कहा जाता था, जो एक तरह का अरबी कार्काडन हो सकता है, जिसका मतलब \"गैंडा\" है।\n\nहालांकि चीनी पौराणिक कथाओं में क़िलिन () नामक एक प्राणी को कभी-कभी \"चीनी इकसिंगा\" कहा जाता है, लेकिन यह एक संकर पशु है जो देखने में काइमर की तुलना में इकसिंगा जैसा थोड़ा कम लगता है जिसका शरीर एक मृग की तरह और सिर सिंह की तरह होता है और जिसकी त्वचा हरे रंग की होती है और इसका एक सींग होता है जो लम्बा और आगे की तरफ मुड़ा हुआ होता है। चीनी क़िलिन की तरह होने के बावजूद इसका जापानी रूप (किरिन) बहुत कुछ पश्चिमी इक्सिंगे की तरह लगता है। इसी तरह कभी-कभी गलती से \"इकसिंगा\" कहलाने वाले वियतनामी मिथक का क्यू ली धन एवं समृद्धि का एक प्रतीक है जो सबसे पहले लगभग 600 सीई में, डुओंग राजवंश के दौरान, सम्राट डुओंग काओ टो के शासन काल में, उनकी सेना द्वारा टाय न्गुयेन पर विजय प्राप्त करने के बाद, प्रकाश में आया था।\n\n6वीं सदी में अलेक्जेंड्रिया में निवास करने वाले एक व्यापारी और भारत की यात्रा करने वाले एवं सृष्टिवर्णन (कॉस्मोग्राफी) पर कई रचनाओं का लेखन करने वाले कॉस्मस इंडिकोप्ल्यूस्ट्स इकसिंगे का एक चित्र प्रस्तुत करते हैं जिसके बारे में वे कहते हैं कि उन्होंने इसे अपनी आंखों से देखकर नहीं बल्कि इथियोपिया के राजा के महल में रखे हुए पीतल की वस्तु में अंकित इसके चार चित्रों के आधार पर इसे चित्रित किया था। रिपोर्ट के अनुसार उनका कहना है कि \"इस खूंखार पशु को जीवित पकड़ना असंभव है; और वह यह भी कहते हैं कि इसकी सारी शक्ति इसकी सींग में निहित है। जब इसे पता चलता है कि इसका कोई पीछा कर रहा है और इसके पकड़े जाने का खतरा है, तो यह अपने आपको किसी खड़ी चट्टान से फेंक देता हैं और गिरते समय यह इतनी कुशलतापूर्वक पलटता है कि सारी चोटें इसकी सींग को लगती है और यह सही सलामत बचकर निकल जाता है।\" इस बात पर ध्यान दिया जाना चाहिए कि आज के समय में इस तरह से भागने का श्रेय ऑरिक्स, आइबेक्स, कस्तूरी बैल और अर्गली (ओविस एमन) को दिया जाता है।\n\nमध्यकालीन इकसिंगा \nthumb|औवेर्गन में मोज़ैक के मठ की 12वीं सदी की राजधानियों में बकरियों की सवारी करते हुए युवक (पुरातनता का एक डायोनिसियक रूपांकन).ये बकरियां, इक्सिंगों से अप्रभेद्य हैं।\nthumb|1447 की पिसनेलो द्वारा सीसिलिया गोंज़ेगा का पदक\nthumb|upright|इकसिंगे के साथ जंगली महिलाएं, लगभग1500-1510 (बेसल हिस्टोरिकल म्यूज़ियम)\nइस मनगढ़ंत पशु के मध्यकालीन ज्ञान की उत्पत्ति बाइबिल सम्बन्धी एवं प्राचीन स्रोतों से हुई थी और इस प्राणी को नाना प्रकार से एक तरह के जंगली गधे, बकरी, या घोड़े के रूप में प्रदर्शित किया जाता था।\n\nलेट ऐन्टिक्विटी में संकलित एवं फिज़ियोलोगस (Φυσιολόγος) के नाम से ज्ञात, मध्यकालीन बेस्टियरी की पूर्ववर्ती रचना ने एक विस्तृत दृष्टान्त को लोकप्रिय बना दिया जिसमें एक युवती (जो वर्जिन मेरी का प्रतिनिधित्व करती है) द्वारा फंसाया गया एक इकसिंगा अवतार का प्रतीक था। जैसी वह इकसिंगा उसे देखता है, वह अपने सिर को उसकी गोद में रख देता है और सो जाता है। यह एक बुनियादी द्योतक टैग बन गया जो इकसिंगे के मध्यकालीन विचारों का आधार है जो धार्मिक कला के प्रत्यके रूप में इसके स्वरुप को न्यायोचित ठहराता है। इकसिंगे के मिथक की व्याख्याओं से धोखा खाने वाले प्रेमियों/प्रेमिकाओं की मध्यकालीन शिक्षा पर प्रकाश पड़ता है, जबकि कुछ धार्मिक लेखक इस इकसिंगे और इसकी मौत की व्याख्या पैशन ऑफ़ क्राइस्ट (मसीह का जुनून) के रूप में करते हैं। इन मिथकों में एक सींग वाले एक पशु का उल्लेख मिलता है जिसे केवल किसी कुंवारी कन्या द्वारा ही पालतू बनाया जा सकता है; बाद में, कुछ लेखकों ने इसकी व्याख्या वर्जिन मेरी (कुंवारी मेरी) के साथ मसीह के सम्बन्ध के एक दृष्टान्त के रूप में किया।\n\nइकसिंगा सभ्य शब्दों में भी प्रकट हुआ; थिबौट ऑफ़ शैम्पेन एवं रिचर्ड डी फौर्निवल जैसे 13वीं सदी के कुछ फ़्रांसिसी लेखकों के अनुसार, प्रेमी अपनी प्रेमिका की तरफ उसी तरह आकर्षित होता है जिस तरह इकसिंगा किसी कुंवारी कन्या की तरफ आकर्षित होता है। मानवतावाद के उत्थान के साथ, इकसिंगे ने और अधिक रूढ़िवादी धर्मनिरपेक्ष अर्थों का अधिग्रहण किया और यह पवित्र प्रेम एवं विश्वसनीय विवाह का द्योतक बन गया। इस भूमिका को यह पेट्रार्क की ट्रायम्फ ऑफ़ चैस्टिटी में निभाता है।\n\nडेनमार्क का राजसी सिंहासन \"इकसिंगे के सींगों\" से निर्मित था। आनुष्ठानिक प्यालियों के लिए इसी सामग्री का इस्तेमाल किया गया था क्योंकि इकसिंगे के सींग में ज़हर को बेअसर करने की क्षमता होने की बात पर उस समय भी विश्वास कायम था जिसका अनुसरण पारंपरिक लेखकों ने किया था।\n\nकेवल एक कुंवारी कन्या द्वारा पालतू बनाए जाने योग्य इकसिंगे की कहानी मध्यकालीन विद्या में उस समय भी अच्छी तरह से स्थापित थी जिस समय मार्को पोलो ने इनका वर्णन निम्न रूप में किया:\nवे हाथियों से शायद ही छोटे हैं। उनके बाल भैंस की तरह और पैर हाथी की तरह हैं। उनके माथे के बीच में केवल एक बड़ा सा काले रंग का सींग है।.. उनका सिर एक जंगली सूअर की तरह है।.. वे वरीयतापूर्वक मिट्टी एवं कीचड़ में लोटकर अपना समय बिताते हैं। ये पशु देखने में बहुत बदसूरत लगते हैं। ऐसा बिलकुल नहीं है जैसा हम उनके बारे में बताते हैं कि वे खुद को कुंवारी लड़कियों के हाथों पकड़ा जाने देते हैं, लेकिन सच्चाई हमारे विचारों के बिलकुल विपरीत है।\nयह बात साफ़ है कि मार्को पोलो एक गैंडे का वर्णन कर रहे थे। 16वीं सदी के बाद से जर्मन भाषा में आइनहॉर्न (\"एक-सींग\") शब्द गैंडों की विभिन्न प्रजातियों का एक विवरणक बन गया है।\n\nकहा जाता है कि प्राचीन नॉर्वेवासियों को नार्वल (नाउल या सफ़ेद व्हेल) के अस्तित्व पर भरोसा था जो इकसिंगे के अस्तित्व की पुष्टि करता है। इकसिंगे की सींग के बारे में लोगों को विश्वास था कि इसका मूल स्रोत नार्वल की दांत है जो बाहर की तरफ बढ़ता है और इसके ऊपरी जबड़े से बाहर निकलता है।\n\nसर थॉमस ब्राउन द्वारा अपनी स्यूडोडोक्सिया एपिडेमिका में सत्रहवीं सदी में बुद्धिमतापूर्वक एवं विस्तारपूर्वक जांच-परख की गई लोकप्रिय विश्वास के आधार पर इकसिंगे की सींग में ज़हर को बेअसर करने की क्षमता हो सकती थी। इसलिए, जिन लोगों को ज़हर का डर होता था, वे कभी-कभी \"इकसिंगे की सींग\" से बने प्यालों से अपना पेय पिया करते थे। कथित कामोत्तेजक गुणों और अन्य तथाकथित औषधीय गुणों की वजह से भी \"इकसिंगे\" के उत्पादों, जैसे - दूध, खाल, एवं ऑफल, की कीमत में वृद्धि हुई है। इकसिंगों के बारे में यह भी कहा जाता था कि ये इस बात का निर्धारण करने में सक्षम थे कि एक महिला कुंवारी है या नहीं; कुछ कहानियों के अनुसार उन पर केवल कुंवारी कन्याएं ही चढ़ सकती थी।\n\nइकसिंगे का शिकार \nthumb|right|इकसिंगे के साथ कुंवारी कन्या, चित्रयवनिका, 15वीं सदी (मुसी डे क्लूनी, पेरिस)\nthumb|upright|इकसिंगे की कृति, इकसिंगे की चित्रयवनिकाएं, लगभग1495-1505 (क्लोइस्टर्स, मेट्रोपोलिटन म्यूजियम ऑफ आर्ट, न्यूयॉर्क सिटी)\nइकसिंगों का शिकार करने की एक पारंपरिक विधि के तहत इसे एक कुंवारी कन्या द्वारा फंसाया जाता था।\n\nलियोनार्डो डा विंची ने अपनी एक नोटबुक (स्मरणपुस्तिका) में लिखा है:\nइकसिंगा बहुत असंयमी होता है और उसे खुद को नियंत्रित करने का तरीका भी नहीं मालूम होता है, लेकिन उसके दिल में सुन्दर कुंवारियों के लिए जो प्रेम है उसकी वजह से यह अपनी क्रूरता एवं जंगलीपन भूल जाता है; और अपने सारे डर को एक तरफ रखकर यह एक बैठी हुई नवयौवना के पास चला जाएगा और उसकी गोद में सो जाएगा और इस प्रकार शिकारी इसे पकड़ लेते हैं।\nसात चित्रयवनिका पर्दों की प्रसिद्ध गत गोथिक श्रृंखला द हंट ऑफ़ द यूनिकॉर्न का यूरोपी चित्रयवनिका निर्माण के इतिहास में काफी ऊंचा स्थान है जिसमें धर्मनिरपेक्ष के साथ-साथ धार्मिक विषय-वस्तुएं भी शामिल हैं। ये चित्रयवनिकाएं अब न्यूयॉर्क शहर के मेट्रोपोलिटन म्यूज़ियम ऑफ़ आर्ट के क्लॉइस्टर्स खंड में टंगी हुई है। इस श्रृंखला में अच्छी-अच्छी पोशाकें पहने और शिकारियों एवं शिकारी कुत्तों को साथ लिए कुछ अमीर लोग एक इकसिंगे का पीछा करते हैं और इन चित्रयवनिकाओं की पृष्ठभूमि में मिले-फ्लियूर (हज़ारों फूल) या इमारतों एवं उद्यानों का समूह है। वे इस पशु को शायद मारने और इसे महल ले जाने के लिए एक कुंवारी कन्या की मदद से खाड़ी तक लाते हैं जो इसे अपनी सुन्दरता से फंसा लेती है; अंतिम एवं सबसे प्रसिद्ध पैनल, \"द यूनिकॉर्न इन कैप्टिविटी\" में, इकसिंगे को एक बार फिर से जीवित एवं खुश दिखाया गया है, जो फूलों के एक मैदान में एक बाड़ से घिरे एक अनार के पेड़ से जंजीर से बंधा हुआ है। विद्वानों का अनुमान है कि इसके पार्श्व भाग पर जो लाल रंग के धब्बे हैं, वे खून नहीं बल्कि अनार के रस हैं, जो जननक्षमता का एक प्रतीक था। हालांकि, अंतिम पैनल में रहस्यमयी पुनर्जीवित इकसिंगे का सही अर्थ अस्पष्ट है। इस श्रृंखला की बुनाई लगभग 1500 में लो कंट्रीज़, शायद ब्रुसेल्स या लीज में एक अज्ञात संरक्षण के लिए की गई थी। 1540 के दशक में फ़्रांसिसी कलाकार जीन डुवेट ने इसी विषय-वस्तु के आधार पर थोड़े अलग अंदाज़ में छः नक्काशियों के एक समूह की नक्काशी की थी।\n\nपेरिस के मुसी डी क्लूनी में डेम ए ला लिकोर्न (\"लेडी विथ द यूनिकॉर्न\"; हिंदी में - इकसिंगे के साथ महिला) नामक एक और छः चित्रयवनिकाओं के एक प्रसिद्ध समूह की बुनाई ने 1500 से पहले साउदर्न नेदरलैंड्स में की गई थी और इनमें से प्रत्येक टुकड़े में इकसिंगों को दिखाने के साथ, पांच इन्द्रियों (प्रलोभन के द्वार) और अंत में लव (प्रेम) (इसमें \"A mon seul desir\" (ए मोन सियूल डेसिर) लिखा हुआ है) का प्रदर्शन किया गया है।\n\n16वीं सदी में बनाए गए एक समूह की जगह लेने के लिए स्कॉटलैंड के स्टर्लिंग कैसल में स्थायी तौर पर प्रदर्शित करने के लिए वर्तमान में इकसिंगे की चित्रयवनिकाओं की प्रतिकृतियों की बुनाई की जा रही है।\n\nकुलचिह्न-विद्या \nकुलचिह्न-विद्या में, एक इकसिंगे को एक घोड़े के रूप में दर्शाया जाता है जिसके खुर एक बकरी के खुर की तरह फटे होते हैं और साथ में बकरी जैसी दाढ़ी और सिंह जैसी पूंछ और माथे पर एक पतला और सर्पिला सींग होता है।\nचूंकि यह अवतार या अपरिपक्व स्वभाव वाले डरावने पशु के जोश का एक प्रतीक था, आरंभिक कुलचिह्न-विद्या में इकसिंगे का व्यापक इस्तेमाल नहीं किया जाता था, लेकिन 15वीं सदी से यह लोकप्रिय हो गया। हालांकि कभी-कभी इसके गले में पट्टा दिखाया जाता है, जिसे शायद एक संकेत के रूप में यह दर्शाने के लिए शामिल किया गया हो कि यह पालतू या गुस्सैल है, लेकिन इसे ज्यादातर आम तौर पर एक टूटी हुई जंजीर से जुड़े पट्टे के साथ दिखाया जाता है जो इस बात का सबूत है कि इसने खुद को अपने बधन से मुक्त कर लिया है और इसे अब फिर से पकड़ा नहीं जा सकता है।\n\nइसे शायद स्कॉटलैंड और यूनाइटेड किंगडम के रॉयल कोट्स ऑफ़ आर्म्स (शाही चिह्न) से सबसे बेहतर ढंग से जाना जाता है: स्कॉटिश आर्म्स को दो इकसिंगे सहारा देते हैं; यूके आर्म्स को एक सिंह और एक इकसिंगा सहारा देते हैं। लन्दन के वर्शिपफुल सोसाइटी ऑफ़ ऐपॉथकेरीज़ के आर्म्स (राजचिह्न) के दो स्वर्णिम इकसिंगा सहायक हैं (हालांकि, इसके होमपेज (मुखपृष्ठ) पर जैसा दिखाया गया है उसमें उनकी पूँछों से पता चलता है वे घोड़े हैं, न कि सिंह).\n\nउत्पत्ति \nवास्तव में धरती के किसी कोने में इकसिंगे के अस्तित्व के बारे में पुरातनता के लिखकों की जो धारणा है, उसे स्वीकार करते हुए इकसिंगे के मिथक के आधार पर एक वास्तविक पशु के शिकार की कहानी से इकसिंगे की पौराणिक कथाओं में एक और कड़ी जुड़ गई है। वास्तविकता के आधुनिक दृष्टिकोणों के साथ सामंजस्य स्थापित करने के लिए इन्होने विभिन्न रूप धारण कर लिया है जहां इन व्याख्या एक आश्चर्यजनक तरीके के बजाय एक वैज्ञानिक तरीके से की गई है।\n\nकथित सबूत \nthumb|ओस्नाब्रुक स्थित चिड़ियाघर के पास ओटो वॉन ग्वेरिक के इकसिंगे के कंकाल का प्रदर्शन\n1663 में ओट्टो वॉन ग्वेरिक के मैगडेबर्ग के मेयर ने जर्मनी के हार्ज़ माउंटेंस के यूनिकॉर्न केव में पाए गए प्रागैतिहासिक हड्डियों में से कई प्राप्त अवशेषों में से कुछ का चयन किया और उन्हें एक इकसिंगे के रूप में पुनर्निर्मित किया (दायीं तरफ का दृष्टांत देखें). ग्वेरिक के इस तथाकथित इकसिंगे के केवल दो पैर थे और इसका निर्माण एक रोमिल गैंडे और एक मैमथ (विशालकाय हाथी) के जीवाश्म हड्डियों और एक नार्वल (नाउल) की सींग से किया गया था। इस कंकाल की जांच गॉटफ्राइड लेबनीज़ ने की जिन्हें पहले इकसिंगे के अस्तित्व पर संदेह था, लेकिन इससे उन्हें विश्वास हो गया।\n\nबैरन जॉर्जिस क्यूवियर इस बात पर अटल थे कि चूंकि इकसिंगे के खुर फटे होते थे, इसलिए इसकी खोपड़ी भी फटी (द्विशाखित) होनी चाहिए (जिससे केवल एक सींग की वृद्धि असम्भव है); इसे निराधार साबित करने के लिए यूनिवर्सिटी ऑफ़ मेन के एक प्रोफ़ेसर डॉ॰ डब्ल्यू. फ्रैंकलिन डोव ने एक-सींग वाले एक बैल के बाहरी स्वरुप का निर्माण करने के लिए एक बछड़े की सींग के अंकुरों को एकसाथ जोड़ दिया।\n\nसिंधु घाटी सभ्यता के इकसिंगा मुहर \nहड़प्पा और मोहनजोदड़ो की खुदाई से सबसे पहले निकलने वाले वस्तुओं में छोटे-छोटे पत्थर की मुहरें थी \nजिस पर पशुओं के मनोहर चित्रों की नक्काशी की गई थी, जिसमें ऊपर बायीं तरफ एक इकसिंगे जैसी आकृति भी शामिल थी,\nऔर साथ में ये मुहरें सिन्धु लिपि की लिखावट के निशान भी थे जो आज भी विद्वानों असमंजस में डाल देता है।\nइन मुहरों की समयावधि 2500 ई.पू. और स्रोत इलिनोइस के शिकागो का नॉर्थ पार्क यूनिवर्सिटी है। (छवि : हड़प्पा की मुहरें.)\n\nयह मुहर मोहनजोदड़ो में पाए जाने वाले इकसिंगे जैसे पशु का एक क्लोज़-अप (निकटवर्ती चित्र) है, \nजिसकी माप हर तरफ से 29 मिलीमीटर (1.14 इंच) है और यह गर्म स्टीटाइट से बना है।\n\"स्टीटाइट एक ऐसा नरम पत्थर है जिस पर आसानी से नक्काशी की जा सकती है और जो आग में तपने के बाद कठोर हो जाता है।\nसबसे ऊपर सिन्धु लिपि के चार चित्रलेख हैं जिसे अभी तक पढ़ा नहीं जा सका है, \nयह लेखन पद्धति इतिहास की सबसे पहली लेखन पद्धतियों में से एक है।\" छवि स्रोत:\nपुरातत्व एवं संग्रहालय विभाग, पाकिस्तान सरकार. (छवि : हड़प्पा का एक इक्सिंगा.)\n\nएलास्मोथेरियम या गैंडा \nthumb|right|एलास्मोथेरियम\nएक सुझाव यह भी है कि यह इकसिंगा, हिमकालीन यूरोप के रोमिल गैंडे की श्रेणी के दक्षिण में स्टेपी मूल के एलास्मोथेरियम नामक एक विलुप्त और विशालकाय यूरेशियाई गैंडे पर आधारित है। एलास्मोथेरियम देखने में कुछ-कुछ घोड़े की तरह लगता था लेकिन इसके माथे पर एक बड़ा सा सींग था। यह प्रायः उसी समय विलुप्त हुआ जिस समय शेष हिमनदकालीन मेगाफौना (विशालकाय पशु) लुप्त हुए थे।\n\nहालांकि, नॉर्डिस्क फैमिल्जेबोक (नॉर्डिक फैमिलीबुक) और विज्ञान लेखक विली ले के अनुसार रूस के इवेंक लोगों की किंवदंतियों में याद किए जाने वाले माथे पर केवल एक सींग वाले एक विशाल काले बैल के रूप में इस पशु का अस्तित्व काफी लम्बे समय तक रहा है।\n\nइस दावे के समर्थन में यह उल्लिखित किया गया है कि 13वीं सदी में यात्री मार्को पोलो ने जावा में एक इकसिंगे को देखने का दावा किया है लेकिन उनके वर्णन से आधुनिक पाठकों को यह स्पष्ट हो गया है कि उन्होंने वास्तव में जावा के एक गैंडे को देखा था।\n\nएक सींग वाली बकरी \nकभी-कभी एक सींग वाली बकरी के साथ जो इसका सम्बन्ध बताया जाता है, उसकी उत्पत्ति डैनियल के अवलोकन से हुई है:\nऔर जैसा कि मैं सोच-विचार कर रहा था, देखिए, पश्चिम की तरफ से एक बकरा इस परिपूर्ण धरती के सामने आकर प्रस्तुत हुआ और उसने जमीन को स्पर्श नहीं किया: और इस बकरे की आंखों के बीच में एक उल्लेखनीय सींग था। ()\nप्राचीनकालीन वस्तुओं पर अनुसन्धान करने वाले शोधकर्ता टिमोथी ज़ेल ने भी कृत्रिम इकसिंगे प्रस्तुत किए जिन्हें उन्होंने \"द लिविंग यूनिकॉर्न\" नाम दिया, उन्होंने बकरी के बच्चों की \"सींगों के अंकुरों\" को इस तरफ से व्यवस्थित किया कि उनकी सींगें एकसाथ केवल एक सींग के रूप में विकसित हुई थी। ज़ेल ने अनुमान लगाया कि दरबारी अनोखी वस्तुओं और अतीत में प्राकृतिक पशु-समूह नेताओं का निर्माण करने के लिए इस प्रक्रिया का उपयोग किया जाता होगा, क्योंकि बकरी में इस लम्बे सीधे सींग को प्रभावशाली ढ़ंग से एक हथियार एवं एक उपकरण के रूप में इस्तेमाल करने की क्षमता थी। मध्यकालीन कला में प्रायः इकसिंगों को छोटे, फटे हुए खुरों और दाढ़ियों वाले, कभी-कभी सींग युक्त घोड़ों के बजाय बकरियों के समान दिखाया गया है। यह प्रक्रिया केवल उन्हीं पशुओं के साथ संभव है जिनमें स्वाभाविक रूप से सींगें होती है। किसी समय, इनमें से कुछ इकसिंगें रिंगलिंग ब्रदर्स सर्कस (Ringling Brothers Circus) के साथ यात्रा करते थे।\n\nनार्वल (नाउल) \nthumb|300px|नर नाउल\nप्रायः मध्यकालीन एवं पुनर्जागरणकालीन यूरोप में अनोखी वस्तुओं की संदूकों और अन्य सन्दर्भों में पाए जाने वाले इकसिंगों की सींगें 1638 में डेनिश जीव विज्ञानी ओले वर्म द्वारा प्रतिपादित नार्वल (मोनोडन मोनोसेरस) नामक एक आर्कटिक तिमिवर्गीय प्राणी के विशेष सीधे सर्पिल एकमात्र दांत के उदाहरण थे। उन्हें एक अतिमूल्यवान व्यापार के रूप में दक्षिण लाया गया और पौराणिक इकसिंगे की सींगों के रूप में बेचा गया; हाथीदांत जैसी सामग्रियों से निर्मित होने की वजह से, ये दांत इकसिंगे की सींगों को नकली साबित करने के उद्देश्य से किए जाने वाले विभिन्न परीक्षणों को उत्तीर्ण कर जाते थे। चूंकि लोगों को धारणा थी कि इन \"सींगों\" में जादूई शक्तियों का वास होता है, इसलिए वाइकिंग (स्कैंडिनेवियाई जलदस्यु) और अन्य उत्तरी व्यापारी इन्हें इनके वजन से कई गुना ज्यादा वजन के सोने के बदले में बेचने में सक्षम थे। इंग्लैण्ड की एलिज़ाबेथ प्रथम की विचित्र वस्तुओं की संदूक में एक \"इकसिंगे की सींग\" रखी हुई थी जिसे आर्कटिक अन्वेषक मार्टिन फ्रोबिशर ने 1577 में लैब्राडोर से वापस लौटते समय लेते आए थे। कला में आम तौर पर दिखाई देने वाले इकसिंगे के सर्पिल सींगों की उत्पत्ति इन्हीं स्रोतों से हुई है।\n\nअन्वेषण काल के दौरान इन विषानों की उत्पत्ति की सच्चाई में धीरे-धीरे विकास हुआ, जब अन्वेषकों एवं प्रकृतिवादियों ने खुद इन क्षेत्रों का भ्रमण करना शुरू किया। 1555 में, ओलुस मैगनस ने मछली जैसी प्राणी की एक ड्राइंग (रेखाचित्र) प्रकाशित की जिसके माथे पर एक \"सींग\" था।\n\nऑरिक्स \nthumb|ऑरिक्स\nऑरिक्स एक मृग है जिसकी दो लम्बी-लम्बी और पतली-पतली सींगें होती हैं जो इसके माथे से निकली हुई होती हैं। कुछ लोगों का सुझाव है कि किसी एक तरफ से और थोड़ी दूर से देखने पर ऑरिक्स कुछ-कुछ एक सींग वाले एक घोड़े की तरह दिखाई देता है (हालांकि, इसकी 'सींग' पारंपरिक इकसिंगे की तरह आगे की तरफ नहीं, बल्कि पीछे की तरफ निकली हुई होती है). शायद, अरब के यात्रियों ने इन्हीं पशुओं से इकसिंगे की कहानी प्राप्त की होगी. हालांकि, पारंपरिक लेखक ऑरिक्सों और इकसिंगों में स्पष्ट रूप से अंतर स्थापित कर लेते हैं। 1486 में प्रकाशित पेरेग्रिनेशियो इन टेर्रम सैंक्टम (Peregrinatio in terram sanctam), पहला मुद्रित सचित यात्रा-पुस्तक था जिसमें जेरुसलम और वहां से माउंट सिनाई के रास्ते मिस्र की तीर्थयात्रा का वर्णन था। एर्हार्ड रियूविच ने इसमें कई बड़े-बड़े लकड़ी के सांचे और शहरों के सर्वाधिक विस्तृत एवं सटीक दृश्यों को अंतर्भुक्त किया था। इस पुस्तक में यात्रा के दौरान देखे गए पशुओं की तस्वीरें भी निहित थीं जिसमें एक मगरमच्छ, ऊंट और इकसिंगे की तस्वीर भी थी लेकिन यह इकसिंगा संभवतः एक ऑरिक्स था जिसे उन्होंने अपने मार्ग में बड़ी आसानी से देखा होगा।\n\nइलैंड \nthumb|इलैंड\nदक्षिणी अफ्रीका में इलैंड के कुछ हद तक, शायद कम से कम आंशिक रूप से, रहस्यमय या आध्यात्मिक संकेतार्थ हैं क्योंकि इस बहुत बड़े मृग में सिंहों से पानी रक्षा करने की क्षमता हैं और इन भयानक शिकारियों को मारने में भी शक्षम हैं। इस क्षेत्र की चट्टानी कला में इलैंड को कई बार दर्शाया गया है जिसका तात्पर्य यह है कि उन्हें ऐसे रूप में देखा जाता था कि उनका अन्य दुनिया से बहुत मजबूत सम्बन्ध था और कई भाषाओं में इलैंड और नृत्य के लिए जो शब्द हैं वे एक ही है; यह इसलिए महत्वपूर्ण है क्योंकि ओझा लोग अन्य दुनिया से शक्ति प्राप्त करने के साधन के रूप में नृत्य किया करते थे। इन चित्रलेखों के लिए इस्तेमाल किए जाने वाले रंगद्रव्यों को मिलाने के समय और कई दवाओं को बनाने में इलैंड की वसा का इस्तेमाल किया जाता था।\n\nइलैंड की इस विशेष सम्बन्ध को आरंभिक यात्रियों ने बहुत अच्छी तरह से समझ लिया होगा। कहा जाता है कि स्कॉटलैंड के क्लान मैकलियोड के मुख्याधिकारी के महल में इकसिंगे की एक सींग है जिसकी पहचान एक इलैंड के सींग के रूप में की गई है।\n\nसींग वाले पशुओं के आनुवंशिक विकार \n2008 में इटली में एक सींग वाले एक छोटी जाति के मृग की खोज के साथ इकसिंगे की प्रेरणा की एक नई सम्भावना का उद्भव हुआ। एक सींग वाले मृग का पाया जाना कोई अनोखी बात नहीं है; लेकिन, बीच में इस सींग की स्थिति बहुत अनोखी बात है। रोम के चिड़ियाघर के वैज्ञानिक निदेशक, फुल्वियो फ्रैटिसेली ने कहा है, \"आम तौर पर, यह सींग बीच में होने के बजाय (सिर के) एक तरफ होता है। यह बहुत पेचीदा मामला लगता है। फ्रैटिसेली इस बात को भी स्वीकार करते हैं कि सींग का स्थानन मृग के जीवन में कुछ प्रकार के आघात का परिणाम हो सकता है।\n\nप्राटो के सेंटर ऑफ़ नैचरल साइंस के निदेशक, गिलबर्टो टोज़ी के अनुसार, \"इस एक सींग वाले मृग को अपने अनोखेपन का एहसास है और बहुत ज्यादा बाहर नहीं निकलता है, हमेशा छिपकर रहता है।\"\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n कैमाहुएटो (पौराणिक बैलनुमा इकसिंगा)\n इंड्रिक (रूसी लोककथा)\n अदृश्य गुलाबी इकसिंगा (एक आधुनिक व्यंग्यात्मक धार्मिक प्रतीक)\n मोनोसेरस (नक्षत्रमंडल)\n मोनोसेरस (मध्यकालीन बेस्टियरी)\n ओकापी (एक वास्तविक पशु जिसे प्रायः \"अफ़्रीकी इकसिंगा\" कहा जाता है)\n क़िलिन (चीनी पौराणिक कथाओं में इकसिंगे की तरह का एक काल्पनिक प्राणी)\n शधावर (फारसी लोककथा में इकसिंगे की तरह का एक प्राणी)\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nस्रोत \n रुडिजर रॉबर्ट बीयर, यूनिकॉर्न: मिथ एण्ड रियलिटी (1997). (संस्करण: ISBN 0-88405-583-3; ISBN 0-904069-15-X; ISBN 0-442-80583-7.)\n इनसाइक्लोपीडिया ब्रिटानिका, 1911: \"इकसिंगा\"\n लाइस गोटफ्रेडसन, द यूनिकॉर्न (1999). (संस्करण: ISBN 0-7892-0595-5; ISBN 1-86046-267-7.)\n ओडेल शेपर्ड. द लोर ऑफ़ द यूनिकॉर्न . (1930) पाठ\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n\n जीवित इकसिंगा\n पास्कल ग्रैट्ज़, डी मोनोसेरोट - ज़ुर रिज़ेप्शंसगेशिक्ट डेस आइनहॉर्न्स \n ब्रुनो फैडुटी, इमेज्स एट कोनाइसन्स डी ला लाइकोर्न\n आरोन जे. अत्स्मा, थ्योई ग्रीक मिथोलॉजी : एक्यूअस यूनिकॉर्न\n डेविड बडके, मीडियवल बेस्टियरी : इकसिंगा\n डेविड बडके, मीडियवल बेस्टियरी : मोनोसेरस\n डेव के पौराणिक जीव और स्थान - इकसिंगा\n अमेरिकन म्यूज़ियम ऑफ़ नैचरल हिस्ट्री, मिथिक क्रिएचर्स : इकसिंगे, पश्चिम एवं पूर्व\n केविस ओवन्स, ऑल अबाउट यूनिकॉर्न्स : ऐतिहासिक इकसिंगे की जानकारी और साथ में इकसिंगे की तस्वीरों की एक गैलरी.\n ज्यूइश इनसाइक्लोपीडिया - इकसिंगा \n जैमी हॉल, द क्रिप्टिड ज़ू : क्रिप्टोज़ूलॉजी में इकसिंगे\n\nश्रेणी:इकसिंगे\nश्रेणी:कुलचिह्नक पशु\nश्रेणी:पौराणिक स्तनपायी\nश्रेणी:मध्यकालीन कला\nश्रेणी:मध्यकालीन यूरोपीय पौराणिक जीव\nश्रेणी:मध्यकालीन किंवदंतियां\nश्रेणी:पौराणिक घोड़े\nश्रेणी:स्कॉटलैंड के राष्ट्रीय प्रतीक\nश्रेणी:यूनाइटेड किंगडम के राष्ट्रीय प्रतीक\nश्रेणी:श्रेष्ठ लेख योग्य लेख\nश्रेणी:गूगल परियोजना", "राजस्थान साहित्य अकादमी\nराजस्थान साहित्य अकादमी की स्थापना २८ जनवरी १९५८ ई. राज्य सरकार द्वारा राज्य में साहित्य के विकास, प्रोत्साहन व प्रचार-प्रसार के उद्धेश्य से एक शासकीय इकाई के रूप में की गई और ८ नवम्बर १९६२ को इसे स्वायत्तता प्रदान की गई। तब से यह यह संस्थान अपने संविधान के अनुसार राजस्थान में साहित्य की प्रोन्नति तथा साहित्यिक संचेतना के प्रचार-प्रसार के लिए सतत् सक्रिय है। राजस्थान में सृजित साहित्य और यहां के साहित्यकारों की हिन्दी साहित्य के राष्ट्रीय फलक पर विशिष्ट पहचान स्थापित हुई है।\n\nअकादमी की स्वीकृत और अधिकृत योजनाओं की स्पष्टतः कुछ आधारभूत विशेषताएं हैं। अकादमी में रचनाधर्मियों की वाणी और विचार सृजन की स्वतंत्रता को पूरी तरह से संरक्षित और प्रोत्साहित किया गया है। अकादमी किसी भी प्रकार के वादों, घेरों, सम्प्रदायों और राजनीतिक दलबन्दियों से परे है। अकादमी को प्रारम्भ से ही उसका स्वरूप और व्यक्तित्व प्रदान किया गया है और इसका ध्येय, वाक्य और मुद्रा स्वीकृत है।\n\nराजस्थान साहित्य अकादमी की स्थापना साहित्य जगत हेतु एक सुखद अनुभूति है और राजस्थान के सांस्कृतिक और साहित्यिक पुनर्निर्माण एवं विकास की दिशा में एक महत्वपूर्ण कदम है।\n\nउद्देश्य एवं कृत्य \n१. राजस्थान में हिन्दी साहित्य की अभिवृद्धि के लिए प्रयत्न करना।\n\n२. राजस्थान के हिन्दी भाषा के साहित्यकारों और विद्वानों में पारस्परिक सहयोग की अभिवृद्धि के लिए प्रयत्न करना।\n\n३. संस्थाओं और व्यक्तियों को हिन्दी साहित्य से संबंधित उच्चस्तरीय ग्रन्थों, पत्र-पत्रिकाओं, कोश, विश्वकोष, आधारभूत शब्दावली, ग्रन्थ निर्देशिका, सर्वेक्षण व सूचीकरण आदि के सृजन व प्रकाशन में सहायता देना और स्वयं भी इनके प्रकाशन की व्यवस्था करना।\n\n४. भारतीय भाषाओं में एवं विश्वभाषाओं में उत्कृष्ट साहित्य का अनुवाद करना तथा ऐसे अनुवाद कार्य को प्रोत्साहित करना या सहयोग देना।\n\n५. साहित्यिक सम्मेलन, विचार-संगोष्ठियों, परिसंवादों, सृजनतीर्थ, रचना पाठ, लेखक शिविर, प्रदर्शनियां, अन्तर्प्रादेशिक साहित्यकार बंधुत्व यात्राएं, भाषणमाला, कवि सम्मेलन एवं हिन्दी साहित्य के प्रचार-प्रसार की अन्य योजनाओं आदि की व्यवस्था करना तथा तद्निमित्त आर्थिक सहयोग देना।\n\n६. राजस्थान के साहित्यकारों को उनकी हिन्दी साहित्य की उत्कृष्ट रचनाओं के लिए सम्मानित करना।\n\n७. हिन्दी साहित्य से संबंधित सृजन, अनुवाद, साहित्यिक शोध व आलोचनापरक अध्ययन संबंधी प्रकल्प, भाषा वैज्ञानिक एवं साहित्यिक सर्वेक्षण, लोक साहित्य संग्रह तथा ऐसे ही प्रकल्पों के लिए राजस्थान की संस्थाओं तथा व्यक्तियों को वित्तीय सहयोग देना तथा स्वयं भी ऐसे प्रकल्पों को निष्पन्न करना।\n\n८. राजस्थान के हिन्दी के साहित्यकारों को वित्तीय सहायता, शोधवृत्तियां आदि देना।\n\n९. अकादमी पुस्तकालय, वाचनालय तथा अध्ययन एवं विचार-विमर्श केन्द्र स्थापित करना और इस प्रवृत्ति के विकास के लिए राजस्थान की हिन्दी संस्थाओं को वित्तीय सहयोग देना।\n\n१०. ऐसे अन्य कार्य करना जो अकादमी के उद्देश्यों को आगे बढाने के लिए आवश्यक समझे जावें चाहे वे उपर्युक्त कृत्यों में हो या न हों।\n\nसम्मान-परंपरा \nसाहित्य के क्षेत्र में अपनी साधना, मौलिक चिंतन एवं श्रेष्ठ सृजन से साहित्य-जगत को समृद्ध करने वाले प्रांत के सिद्ध व श्रेष्ठ साहित्यकारों को सम्मानित करने की अकादमी की सुदीर्घ परंपरा एवं लक्ष्य रहा है। राजस्थान साहित्य अकादमी, उन मूर्धन्य साहित्यकारों को जिन्होंने अपने रचनात्मक योगदान से साहित्य को विस्तृत व विविध आयाम प्रदान किये तथा नये मान व जीवन मूल्यों की सशक्त धारा प्रवाहित की, ऐसे सरस्वती के उपासकों के कृतित्व के प्रति आदरभाव व कृतज्ञता ज्ञापित करते हुए उन्हें ’साहित्य-मनीषी‘ तथा ’विशिष्ट साहित्यकार सम्मान‘ से अलंकृत कर गौरवान्वित होती है।\n\nसत्र १९६४-६५ से प्रारंभ इस ’सम्मान-परंपरा‘ के अंतर्गत अकादमी अद्यावधि अग्रांकित साहित्यकारों का समादरण कर गौरवान्वित हुई है -\n\nसाहित्य मनीषी \n१. डॉ॰ संपूर्णानंद १९६४-६५\n\n२. मुनि श्री जिनविजय १९६४-६५\n\n३. श्री हरिभाऊ उपाध्याय १९६४-६५\n\n४. श्री सेठ गोविंददास १९६८-६९\n\n५. श्री जनार्दनराय नागर १९६८-६९\n\n६. श्री विद्याधर शास्त्री १९६८-६९\n\n७. डॉ॰रामधारी सिंह ’दिनकर‘ १९७२-७३\n\n८. डॉ॰रामानंद तिवारी ’भारतीनंदन‘१९७२-७३\n\n९. श्री सीताराम लालस १९७२-७३\n\n१०. श्री झाबरमल्ल शर्मा १९८२-८३\n\n११. श्री कन्हैयालाल सेठिया १९८३-८४\n\n१२. श्री पन्नालाल पटेल १९८६-८७\n\n१३. डॉ॰ प्रकाश आतुर १९८९-९०\n\n१४. डॉ॰ फतहसिंह १९९५-९६\n\n१५. डॉ॰ भोलाशंकर व्यास १९९८-९९\n\nविशिष्ट साहित्यकार \nक्र.सं. साहित्यकार वर्ष\n\n१. श्री राजकवि हरनाथ १९६८-६९\n\n२. श्री सुमनेश जोशी १९६८-६९\n\n३. श्री मुंशी चांदबिहारीलाल ’सबा‘ १९६८-६९\n\n४. श्री मुरलीधर व्यास १९६८-६९\n\n५. श्री अगरचंद नाहटा १९६८-६९\n\n६. डॉ॰ मनोहर शर्मा १९६८-६९\n\n७. श्री सीताराम लालस १९६८-६९\n\n८. श्री प्रतापनारायण पुरोहित १९६८-६९\n\n९. डॉ॰ रामानंद तिवारी ’भारतीनंदन‘ १९६८-६९\n\n१०. श्री शंभूदयाल सक्सेना १९६८-६९\n\n११. श्री नरोत्तमदास स्वामी १९७२-७३\n\n१२. श्री कन्हैयालाल सहल १९७२-७३\n\n१३. डॉ॰ मोतीलाल मेनारिया १९७२-७३\n\n१४. डॉ॰ रामगोपाल शर्मा ’दिनेश‘ १९७२-७३\n\n१५. श्री ओंकारनाथ दिनकर १९७२-७३\n\n१६. श्री नारायणसिंह भाटी १९७२-७३\n\n१७. श्री मेघराज मुकुल १९७२-७३\n\n१८. श्री विजयदान देथा १९७२-७३\n\n१९. श्रीमती लक्ष्मीकुमारी चूण्डावत १९७२-७३\n\n२०. श्री परमेश्वर द्विरेफ १९७२-७३\n\n२१. श्री यादवेन्द्र शर्मा ’चन्द्र‘ १९७२-७३\n\n२२. श्री मनोहर वर्मा १९७२-७३\n\n२३. श्री ज्ञान भारिल्ल १९७२-७३\n\n२४. श्री बशीर अहमद ’मयूख‘ १९७२-७३\n\n२५. श्री कमलाकर ’कमल‘ १९७५-७६\n\n२६. श्री हरीश भादानी १९७५-७६\n\n२७. श्री ब्रह्मानन्द शर्मा १९७५-७६\n\n२८. डॉ॰ बिस्मिल सईदी १९७५-७६\n\n२९. श्री सौभाग्यसिंह शेखावत १९७५-७६\n\n३०. श्री चन्द्रसिंह राठौड १९७५-७६\n\n३१. श्री झाबरमल्ल शर्मा १९७५-७६\n\n३२. डॉ॰ भोलाशंकर व्यास १९७६-७७\n\n३३. श्री रावत सारस्वत १९७६-७७\n\n३४. श्री गणेशराम शर्मा १९७६-७७\n\n३५. श्री प्रेमशंकर श्रीवास्तव १९७६-७७\n\n३६. श्री नंद चतुर्वेदी १९७८-७९\n\n३७. श्री नवलकिशोर कांकर १९७८-७९\n\n३८. श्री श्रीलाल नथमल जोशी १९७८-७९\n\n३९. श्री कन्हैयालाल सेठिया १९७९-८०\n\n४०. श्री हरिश्चन्द्र शास्त्री १९७९-८०\n\n४१. श्री अन्नाराम सुदामा १९७९-८०\n\n४२. डॉ॰ रामचरण महेन्द्र १९८०-८१\n\n४३. डॉ॰ सुधीर कुमार गुप्त १९८०-८१\n\n४४. श्री चन्द्रदान चारण १९८०-८१\n\n४५. श्री घनश्याम शलभ १९८१-८२\n\n४६. श्री गिरधारीलाल शास्त्री १९८१-८२\n\n४७. श्री मूलचन्द्र प्राणेश १९८१-८२\n\n४८. श्री रामनाथ कमलाकर १९८२-८३\n\n४९. श्री कोमल कोठारी १९८२-८३\n\n५०. श्री सत्यप्रकाश जोशी १९८२-८३\n\n५१. डॉ॰ ताराप्रकाश जोशी १९८२-८३\n\n५२. श्री युगलकिशोर चतुर्वेदी १९८२-८३\n\n५३. डॉ॰ प्रभुनारायण नाट्याचार्य १९८२-८३\n\n५४. श्री विष्णुदत्त शर्मा १९८२-८३\n\n५५. श्री चन्द्रगुप्त वार्ष्णेय १९८२-८३\n\n५६. श्री कर्पूरचन्द्र ’कुलिश‘ १९८२-८३\n\n५७. श्री नेमिचन्द्र जैन ’भावुक‘ १९८२-८३\n\n५८. श्री प्रकाश जैन १९८२-८३\n\n५९. श्री श्रीगोपाल आचार्य १९८३-८४\n\n६०. प्रो॰ गणपतिचन्द्र भंडारी १९८३-८४\n\n६१. डॉ॰ राजकुमारी कौल १९८३-८४\n\n६२. डॉ॰ शान्ति भारद्वाज ’राकेश‘ १९८३-८४\n\n६३. प्रो॰ रामदेव आचार्य १९८३-८४\n\n६४. श्री जुगमन्दिर तायल १९८३-८४\n\n६५. श्री विश्वनाथ वामन काले १९८३-८४\n\n६६. श्री रामलाल सांवल १९८३-८४\n\n६७. श्री लक्ष्मण स्वरूप त्रिपाठी १९८४-८५\n\n६८. श्री विष्णु अम्बालाल जोशी १९८४-८५\n\n६९. डॉ॰ फैयाज अली खां १९८४-८५\n\n७०. श्री मंगल सक्सेना १९८४-८५\n\n७१. डॉ॰ नवलकिशोर १९८४-८५\n\n७२. सुश्री शकुंतला कुमारी रेणु १९८४-८५\n\n७३. श्री शंकर सहाय सक्सेना १९८४-८५\n\n७४. श्री शोभालाल गुप्त १९८४-८५\n\n७५. श्री हरनारायण शर्मा ’किंकर‘ १९८४-८५\n\n७६. श्री नाथूलाल जैन १९८४-८५\n\n७७. डॉ॰ इन्दुशेखर १९८४-८५\n\n७८. डॉ॰ रमासिंह १९८५-८६\n\n७९. श्री भागीरथ भार्गव १९८५-८६\n\n८०. श्री मणि मधुकर १९८५-८६\n\n८१. श्री शचीन्द्र उपाध्याय १९८५-८६\n\n८२. श्री लक्ष्मीलाल जोशी १९८६-८७\n\n८३. श्री दुर्गाप्रसाद चौधरी १९८६-८७\n\n८४. श्री छगन मोहता १९८६-८७\n\n८५. प्रो॰ सुरजनदास स्वामी १९८६-८७\n\n८६. श्री जीवनसिंह चौधरी १९८६-८७\n\n८७. श्री शरद देवडा १९८६-८७\n\n८८. डॉ॰ मनोहर प्रभाकर १९८६-८७\n\n८९. श्रीमती मन्नू भण्डारी १९८७-८८\n\n९०. श्री गोपालदास १९८७-८८\n\n९१. श्री ऋतुराज १९८७-८८\n\n९२. श्री गोपालनारायण बहुरा १९८८-८९\n\n९३. श्री राजेन्द्र सक्सेना १९८८-८९\n\n९४. श्रीमती सावित्री परमार १९८८-८९\n\n९५. डॉ॰ स्वयं प्रकाश १९८८-८९\n\n९६. श्रीमती शांति मेहरोत्रा १९८९-९०\n\n९७. श्री ओमप्रकाश निर्मल १९८९-९०\n\n९८. श्री योगेन्द्र किसलय १९८९-९०\n\n९९. श्री अमरसिंह १९९०-९१\n\n१००. श्रीमती पार्वती जोशी १९९०-९१\n\n१०१. डॉ॰ राजानंद १९९०-९१\n\n१०२. श्री जनकराज पारीक १९९०-९१\n\n१०३. डॉ॰ रामप्रसाद दाधीच १९९१-९२\n\n१०४. डॉ॰ प्रेमचंद विजयवर्गीय १९९१-९२\n\n१०५. डॉ॰ कृष्णकुमार शर्मा १९९१-९२\n\n१०६. श्री विजेन्द्र १९९१-९२\n\n१०७. डॉ॰ रामेश्वरलाल खण्डेलवाल १९९२-९३\n\n१०८. डॉ॰ हेतु भारद्वाज १९९२-९३\n\n१०९. डॉ॰ बद्रीप्रसाद पंचोली १९९२-९३\n\n११०. डॉ॰ गणपतिचन्द्र गुप्त १९९४-९५\n\n१११. डॉ॰ जयसिंह नीरज १९९४-९५\n\n११२. डॉ॰ दयाकृष्ण विजय १९९४-९५\n\n११३. डॉ॰ राजेन्द्रमोहन भटनागर १९९४-९५\n\n११४. डॉ॰ अम्बाशंकर नागर १९९५-९६\n\n११५. श्री गजेन्द्रसिंह सोलंकी १९९५-९६\n\n११६. डॉ॰ सावित्री डागा १९९५-९६\n\n११७. श्री कल्याणमल लोढा १९९६-९७\n\n११८. डॉ॰ कन्हैयालाल शर्मा १९९६-९७\n\n११९. डॉ॰ मदनगोपाल शर्मा १९९६-९७\n\n१२०. डॉ॰ लालताप्रसाद सक्सेना १९९७-९८\n\n१२१. श्री सुमेरसिंह दईया १९९७-९८\n\n१२२. श्री तारादत्त निर्विरोध १९९७-९८\n\n१२३. डॉ॰ हरीश १९९७-९८\n\n१२४. श्री मधुप शर्मा १९९८-९९\n\n१२५. डॉ॰ लक्ष्मीकांत शर्मा १९९८-९९\n\n१२६. डॉ॰ जबरनाथ पुरोहित १९९८-९९\n\n१२७. डॉ॰ विश्वम्भरनाथ उपाध्याय १९९९-२०००\n\n१२८. डॉ॰ वेंकट शर्मा १९९९-२०००\n\n१२९. श्री विश्वनाथ सचदेव १९९९-२०००\n\n१३०. श्री माणकचंद रामपुरिया १९९९-२०००\n\n१३१. श्री मरुधर मृदुल २०००-०१\n\n१३२. डॉ॰ आलमशाह खान २०००-०१\n\n१३३. श्री कमर मेवाडी २०००-०१\n\n१३४. प्रो॰ मोहनकृष्ण बोहरा २०००-०१\n\n१३५. श्री निर्मोही व्यास २०००-०१\n\n१३६. डॉ॰ नंदकिशोर आचार्य २००१-०२\n\n१३७. श्री वेद व्यास २००१-०२\n\n१३८. श्री वीर सक्सेना २००१-०२\n\n१३९. डॉ॰ सुमन मेहरोत्रा २००१-०२\n\n१४०. श्री पुरुषोत्तम दत्त ’प्रमत्त‘२००२-०३\n\n१४१. श्री रमेश थानवी २००२-०३\n\n१४२. डॉ॰ रमाकांत शर्मा २००२-०३\n\n१४३. श्री प्रेम कृष्ण शर्मा २००२-०३\n\n१४४. डॉ॰ प्रभा वाजपेयी २००५-०६\n\n१४५. श्री भवानीशंकर व्यास’विनोद‘ २००५-०६\n\n१४६. डॉ॰ रामकृष्ण शर्मा २००६-०७\n\n१४७. श्री रघुराजसिंह हाडा १००६-०७\n\n१४८. श्री मधुकर गौड २००६-०७\n\n१४९. श्री बलवीर सिंह’करुण‘ २००६-०७\n\n१५०. डॉ॰ दिवाकर शर्मा २००७-२००८\n\nअकादमी पुरस्कार परंपरा\n\nमीरा पुरस्कार \n\nक्र.सं. साहित्यकार कृति विधा वर्ष\n\n१. डॉ॰ रामानंद तिवारी भारतीय संस्कृति के प्रतीक (नि.) १९५९-६०\n\n२. डॉ॰ रामानंद तिवारी अभिनव रस मीमांसा (आ.) १९६२-६३\n\n३. श्री रघुवीर मित्र भूमिजा (का.) १९६३-६४\n\n४. श्री पोद्दार रामावतार ’अरुण‘ बाणाम्बरी (का.) १९६३-६४\n\n५. डॉ॰ वेंकट शर्मा काव्य सर्जना और काव्यास्वाद (आ.) १९७४-७५\n\n६. डॉ॰ दयाकृष्ण विजय आंजनेय (का.) १९७८-७९\n\n७. डॉ॰ पानू खोलिया सत्तर पार के शिखर (उप.) १९७९-८०\n\n८. श्री हमीदुल्ला उत्तर उर्वशी (ना.) १९८०-८१\n\n९. श्री यादवेन्द्र शर्मा ’चन्द्र‘ हजार घोडों का सवार (उप.) १९८२-८३\n\n१०. श्री नंद चतुर्वेदी शब्द संसार की यायावरी (आ.) १९८३-८४\n\n११. श्री विजेन्द्र चैत की लाल टहनी (का.) १९८६-८७\n\n१२. श्री नंदकिशोर आचार्य वह एक समुद्र था (का.) १९८६-८७\n\n१३. श्री हरीश भादानी एक अकेला सूरज खेले (का.) १९८६-८७\n\n१४. श्री ऋतुराज नहीं प्रबोध चन्द्रोदय (का.) १९८७-८८\n\n१५. श्री ईश्वर चन्दर लौटता हुआ अतीत (कथा) १९८८-८९\n\n१६. डॉ॰ विश्वंभरनाथ उपाध्याय जोगी मत जा (उप.) १९९०-९१\n\n१७. श्री अन्नाराम सुदामा आंगन नदिया (उप.) १९९१-९२\n\n१८. डॉ॰ कन्हैयालाल शर्मा पूर्वी राजस्थानी उद्भव और विकास (आलो.) १९९२-९३\n\n१९. डॉ॰ राजेन्द्रमोहन भटनागर प्रेम दीवानी (उप.) १९९४-९५\n\n२०. श्री भगवान अटलानी अपनी-अपनी मरीचिका (उप.) १९९५-९६\n\n२१. श्रीमती सावित्री परमार जमी हुई झील (कथा) १९९७-९८\n\n२२. डॉ॰ चंद्रप्रकाश देवल बोलो माधवी (काव्य) १९९८-९९\n\n२३. डॉ॰ जीवनसिंह कविता और कविकर्म (आलो.) २०००-०१\n\n२४. डॉ॰ जबरनाथ पुरोहित रेंगती हैं चिटियां (काव्य) २००१-०२\n\n२५. श्री हरिराम मीणा हां, चांद मेरा है (काव्य) २००२-०३\n\n२६. श्री बलवीर सिंह ’करुण‘ मैं द्रोणाचार्य बोलता हूं (काव्य) २००५-०६\n\nसुधीन्द्र (काव्य) \n\nक्र.सं. साहित्यकार कृति वर्ष\n\n१. डॉ॰ रणवीर सिंह प्रताप १९५८-५९\n\n२. श्री परमेश्वर द्विरेफ मीरा १९५८-५९\n\n३. श्री रामगोपाल विजयवर्गीय अभिसार निशा १९५९-६०\n\n४. डॉ॰ रामगोपाल शर्मा ’दिनेश‘ मधुरजनी १९६०-६१\n\n५. श्री गजानन वर्मा सोनो निपजे रेत में १९६१-६२\n\n६. डॉ॰ रामगोपाल शर्मा ’दिनेश‘ सारथि १९६२-६३\n\n७. श्री ज्ञान भारिल्ल सांझ उतरी १९६४-६५\n\n८. श्री हरीश भादानी एक उजली नजर की सूई १९६७-६८\n\n९. श्री विश्वनाथ विमलेश रामकथा १९६७-६८\n\n१०. श्री अकिंचन शर्मा गीतों का क्षण १९६७-६८\n\n११. श्री हरिराम आचार्य खुले किरणपाल १९७२-७३\n\n१२. डॉ॰ रामगोपाल शर्मा ’दिनेश‘ रूपगंधा १९७४-७५\n\n१३. डॉ॰ सावित्री डागा संदर्भों से कटे हुये १९७६-७७\n\n१४. श्री श्रीहर्ष समय से पहले १९७७-७८\n\n१५. श्री मणि मधुकर बलराम के हजारों नाम १९७९-८०\n\n१६. श्री राम जैसवाल बिम्ब प्रतिबिम्ब १९८१-८२\n\n१७. श्री भागीरथ भार्गव शाही सवारी १९८१-८२\n\n१८. श्री भगवतीलाल व्यास फुटपाथ पर चिडया नाचती है १९८२-८३\n\n१९. श्री हरीश भादानी सन्नाटे के शिलाखण्ड पर १९८३-८४\n\n२०. डॉ॰ जयसिंह नीरज ढाणी का आदमी १९८४-८५\n\n२१. श्री योगेन्द्र किसलय अपनी-अपनी जगह १९८५-८६\n\n२२. श्री जुगमन्दिर तायल दर्पण के बिम्ब १९८६-८७\n\n२३. श्री रेवतीरमण शर्मा कदाचित नहीं हूं मैं १९८७-८८\n\n२४. डॉ॰ रमासिंह एक गहरा खारा समुद्र १९८८-८९\n\n२५. श्री तारादत्त निर्विरोध कोई एक नाम १९८९-९०\n\n२६. डॉ॰ जबरनाथ पुरोहित सपने और शब्द १९९०-९१\n\n२७. डॉ॰ मंगत बादल इस मौसम में १९९१-९२\n\n२८. डॉ॰ रामप्रसाद दाधीच तुम एक इच्छा हो १९९२-९३\n\n२९. आचार्य श्री उमेश शास्त्री मेनका (महाकाव्य) १९९४-९५\n\n३०. श्री सवाई सिंह शेखावत पुराना डाकघर और अन्य कविताएं १९९५-९६\n\n३१. श्री ओम पुरोहित ’कागद‘ आदमी नहीं है १९९६-९७\n\n३२. श्री हरदान हर्ष धूप के पांव १९९७-९८\n\n३३. डॉ॰ बद्रीनारायण दीक्षित यायावर १९९८-९९\n\n३४. श्रीमती अंजु ढ्ढढा मिश्र बीच ही से शुरू १९९९-२०००\n\n३५. श्री सुशील पुरोहित शेष जो भी बचा है २०००-०१\n\n३६. श्री अनिल गंगल स्वाद २००१-०२\n\n३७. श्री महेन्द्र रंगा विरह का व्योम २००२-०३\n\n३८. श्री श्याम श्रोत्रिय गीताम्बरा २००५-०६\n\n३९. श्री मनोज कुमार शर्मा और क्या क्या टूट गया भीतर २००६-०७\n\nरांगेय राघव (कथा, उपन्यास) \n\n१. श्री यादवेन्द्र शर्मा ’चन्द्र‘ खम्मा अन्नदाता १९५८-५९\n\n२. डॉ॰ रांगेय राघव मेरी प्रिय कहानियां १९६०-६१\n\n३. श्री परदेशी जय महाकाल १९६२-६३\n\n४. डॉ॰ शांति भारद्वाज ’राकेश‘ सूर्यास्त १९६२-६३\n\n५. श्री यादवेन्द्र शर्मा ’चन्द्र‘ एक इंसान की मौत १९६४-६५\n\n६. श्री निरंजननाथ आचार्य बिखरे पात १९६७-६८\n\n७. श्री शचीन्द्र उपाध्याय झुकी हुई दिशायें १९६७-६८\n\n८. श्री राम जैसवाल असुरक्षित १९७४-७५\n\n९. श्री ईश्वर चन्दर अन्दर का बौनापन १९७७-७८\n\n१०. श्री यादवेन्द्र शर्मा ’चन्द्र‘ ढोलन कुंजकली १९७७-७८\n\n११. डॉ॰ हेतु भारद्वाज जमीन से हटकर १९७९-८०\n\n१२. डॉ॰ पुरुषोत्तम आसोपा पप्पू १९८०-८१\n\n१३. डॉ॰ स्वयंप्रकाश सूरज कब निकलेगा १९८१-८२\n\n१४. श्री हबीब कैफी अनायक १९८२-८३\n\n१५. डॉ॰ राजानंद एक बार फिर १९८३-८४\n\n१६. श्री योगेन्द्र किसलय अपनी अपनी जगह १९८५-८६\n\n१७. श्री हरदर्शन सहगल सफेद पंखों की उडान १९८६-८७\n\n१८. डॉ॰ आलमशाह खान एक और सीता १९८७-८८\n\n१९. श्री योगेन्द्र दवे गिरफ्तारी वारंट १९८८-८९\n\n२०. श्री मोहरसिंह यादव सुखिया सब संसार १९८९-९०\n\n२१. श्री भगवान अटलानी बंद आसमान का आखिरी दरवाजा १९९०-९१\n\n२२. श्री रघुनंदन त्रिवेदी यह ट्रेजेडी क्यों हुई १९९१-९२\n\n२३. श्री सत्य शकुन शहीदे आजम भगतसिंह १९९२-९३\n\n२४. श्री जनकराज पारीक शिकार तथा अन्य कहानियां १९९४-९५\n\n२५. श्री हसन जमाल तीसरा सफर १९९५-९६\n\n२६. श्री आनंद शर्मा रसकपूर १९९६-९७\n\n२७. डॉ॰ सोहन शर्मा मीणा घाटी १९९७-९८\n\n२८. श्री श्यामसुंदर भट्ट मेवाड का सूर्यपुत्र १९९८-९९\n\n२९. श्री अनिरुद्ध उमट अंधेरी खिडकियां १९९९-२०००\n\n३०. श्री कमर मेवाडी ऊंचे कद का आदमी २०००-०१\n\n३१. श्रीमती नीलप्रभा भारद्वाज सडक २००१-०२\n\n३२. श्री भवानीसिंह एक गांव की मौत २००२-०३\n\n३३. श्रीमती दीप्ति कुलश्रेष्ठ खिडकी से झांकता चांद २००५-०६\n\n३४. श्रीमती सुमन मेहरोत्रा यह किसका कसूर २००६-०७\n\nदेवीलाल सामर (नाटक) \n\n१. श्री उदयसिंह भटनागर जागीरदार १९५८-५९\n\n२. श्री ओंकार नाथ दिनकर मयूर फिर नाच उठे १९६०-६१\n\n३. श्री हमीदुल्ला ख्याल भारमली १९७८-७९\n\n४. श्री प्रेमचंद गोस्वामी भटकी हुई दिशायें १९८१-८२\n\n५. श्री रिजवान जहीर उस्मान कल्पना पिशाच १९८४-८५\n\n६. श्री वृद्धिशंकर त्रिवेदी ’शिल्पी‘ हल्दीघाटी का जनयुद्ध १९८५-८६\n\n७. श्री भानु भारती चन्द्रमासिंह उर्फ चमकू १९८७-८८\n\n८. डॉ॰ ब्रजभूषण उजडा हुआ महाविद्यालय १९८९-९०\n\n९. डॉ॰ नरेन्द्रनाथ चतुर्वेदी सूर्य के प्रतिबिम्ब १९९०-९१\n\n१०. श्री मदन शर्मा प्रश्न-चिह्न १९९२-९३\n\n११. श्री निर्मोही व्यास अनामिका १९९५-९६\n\n१२. श्री महेन्द्र जैन सत्य के छोर १९९६-९७\n\n१३. डॉ॰ सत्येन्द्र पारीक ज्योति पुरुष १९९८-९९\n\n१४. श्री वागीश कुमार सिंह प्रेमकथा पंचतंत्र से १९९९-२०००\n\n१५. श्री श्याम कुमार पोकरा इस्पात के खण्डहर २००५-०६\n\nदेवराज उपाध्याय (निबन्ध-आलोचना) \n१. डॉ॰ रामचरण 'महेन्द्र' हिन्दी एकांकी १९५८-५९\n\n२. आचार्य भालचन्द्र गोस्वामी 'प्रखर' : 'कहानी-दर्शन' १९५९-६०\n\n३. श्री पूर्णानन्द मिश्र अनन्त की राह में १९५९-६०\n\n४. डॉ॰ मोहनलाल मेहता जैन दर्शन १९६०-६१\n\n५. डॉ॰ हीरालाल माहेश्वरी राजस्थानी भाषा और साहित्य १९६०-६१\n\n६. डॉ॰ गिरधर शर्मा वैदिक विज्ञान और भारतीय संस्कृति १९६१-६२\n\n७. श्री वेंकट शर्मा आधुनिक हिन्दी साहित्य में समालोचना का विकास १९६३-६४\n\n८. श्री रामजीलाल जांगिड इतिहास के स्फुट लेख १९६४-६५\n\n९. डॉ॰ गोवर्द्धन शर्मा डिंगल साहित्य १९६५-६६\n\n१०. श्री जगदीश वोरा पाठक के नोट १९६७-६८\n\n११. डॉ॰ हीरालाल माहेश्वरी जाम्भोजी विश्नोई संप्रदाय और उसका साहित्य १९७२-७३\n\n१२. डॉ॰ कृष्णकुमार शर्मा शैली विज्ञान की रूपरेखा १९७५-७६\n\n१३. डॉ॰ नवलकिशोर आधुनिक हिन्दी उपन्यास और मानवीय अर्थवत्ता १९७८-७९\n\n१४. डॉ॰ प्रकाश आतुर राजस्थान की हिन्दी कविता १९७९-८०\n\n१५. डॉ॰ कृष्णकुमार शर्मा शैली वैज्ञानिक आलोचना के प्रतिदर्श १९८१-८२\n\n१६. डॉ॰ जगदीश प्रसाद शर्मा साहित्य और कला की पहचान १९८३-८४\n\n१७. प्रो॰ सुरजन दास स्वामी रस सिद्धांत की शास्त्रीय समीक्षा १९८४-८५\n\n१८. डॉ॰ विश्वंभरनाथ उपाध्याय बिन्दु प्रति बिन्दु १९८५-८६\n\n१९. श्री विजय वर्मा सरोकारों के रंग १९८६-८७\n\n२०. डॉ॰ वीरेन्द्र सिंह शब्दार्थों के गवाक्ष १९८७-८८\n\n२१. डॉ॰ रामगोपाल शर्मा ’दिनेश‘ भारत का परिवेश और चेतना १९८८-८९\n\n२२. डॉ॰ माधव हाडा तनी हुई रस्सी पर १९८९-९०\n\n२३. डॉ॰ बद्रीप्रसाद पंचोली भारतीय लोक दर्शन १९९२-९३\n\n२४. श्री गदाधर भट्ट और विविधा १९९४-९५\n\n२५. डॉ॰ रजनी कुलश्रेष्ठ राजस्थान की महिला काव्यधारा १९९५-९६\n\n२६. डॉ॰ राधेश्याम जांगिड माटी कहे कुम्हार से १९९६-९७\n\n२६. डॉ॰ बीना शर्मा निराला और समकालीन हिन्दी कविता १९९७-९८\n\n२७. डॉ॰ नंदलाल कल्ला लोक साहित्य शास्त्र १९९८-९९\n\n२८. डॉ॰ कृष्ण कुमार ’रत्तू‘ भारतीय समाज चिंतन और पतन २०००-०१\n\n२९. श्री बी.एल. आच्छा सृजनात्मक भाषा और आलोचना २००५-०६\n\n३०. श्री मदनमोहन माथुर रंग विविधा २००६-०७\n\nकन्हैयालाल सहल (विविध विधायें) \n\n१. श्री अशोक शुक्ल मेरा पैंतीसवां जन्मदिन १९७९-८०\n\n२. श्री राजेन्द्र शंकर भट्ट कश्मीर यात्रा १९८१-८२\n\n३. श्री रतनलाल मिश्र राजस्थान के दुर्ग १९८२-८३\n\n४. श्रीमती सावित्री परमार शाश्वत सौंदर्य के शिल्पतीर्थ १९८३-८४\n\n५. डॉ॰ शिवकुमार शर्मा पडाव और मंजिल १९८४-८५\n\n६. श्री रामनिवास जाजू मरुभूमि का वह मेघ १९८५-८६\n\n७. श्री नंदकिशोर पारीक राजदरबार और रनिवास १९८६-८७\n\n८. श्री मोहनलाल गुप्त संस्कृति के स्वर १९८७-८८\n\n९. श्री गोपालदास मोहे बिसरत नाहिं १९८८-८९\n\n१०. डॉ॰ मनोहर प्रभाकर आग के अक्षर १९८९-९०\n\n११. डॉ॰ सत्यनारायण इस आदमी को पढो १९९०-९१\n\n१२. श्री पूरन सरमा तैमूरलंग का तोहफा १९९१-९२\n\n१३. डॉ॰ भगवतीलाल व्यास परदे के आगे ः परदे के पीछे १९९२-९३\n\n१४. श्री शंकरलाल मीणा जिन्दाबाद-मुर्दाबाद १९९४-९५\n\n१५. डॉ॰ ओंकारनाथ चतुर्वेदी कबीरा आप ठगाइये १९९६-९७\n\n१६. श्री अरविन्द तिवारी राजनीति में पेटीवाद १९९७-९८\n\n१७. श्री बुलाकी शर्मा दुर्घटना के इर्द-गिर्द १९९८-९९\n\n१८. श्री यशवन्त कोठारी मास्टर का मकान १९९९-२०००\n\n१९. डॉ॰ योगेश चन्द्र शर्मा फोकटिया अफसर २०००-०१\n\n२०. श्री कृष्ण कुमार ’आशु‘ नाक पर चिंतन २००१-०२\n\n२१. श्री राकेश शरमा सच ढूंढते रह जाओगे २००२-०३\n\n२२. श्री अनुराग वाजपेयी खादी का रूमाल २००५-०६\n\n२३. डॉ॰ आदर्श शर्मा अत्र अकुशलम् २००६-०७\n\nअन्तरप्रान्तीय साहित्य बन्धुत्व अनुवाद पुरस्कार \n\n१. डॉ॰ शिबन कृष्ण रैणा पैदाइशी गुलाम तथा अन्य कहानियां १९९६-९७\n\n२. डॉ॰ रामप्रसाद दाधीच अमरुक शतक २०००-०१\n\nसुमनेश जोशी पुरस्कार (प्रथम प्रकाशित कृति) \n\n१. श्री संजीव भानावत आचार्य हजारीप्रसाद द्विवेदी के उपन्यासों में सांस्कृतिक बोध १९८२-८३\n\n२ श्री जीवन महता कविता मेरे लिये १९८३-८४\n\n३. श्री सत्यनारायण बीजावत आंधी के दीप १९८४-८५\n\n४. डॉ॰ प्रभा वाजपेयी शब्द नदी है १९८५-८६\n\n५. श्री गोविन्द माथुर शेष होते हुए १९८६-८७\n\n६. श्री माधव नागदा उसका दर्द १९८७-८८\n\n७. श्री सवाईसिंह शेखावत घर के भीतर घर १९८८-८९\n\n८. डॉ॰ विभा सक्सेना अपने ही चारों ओर १९८९-९०\n\n९. डॉ॰ उषा माहेश्वरी सुबह की धूप १९९०-९१\n\n१०. श्री गोकुल गोस्वामी सलीब पर लटकी जिंदगी १९९१-९२\n\n११. श्री अरविन्द ओझा उजालों के तालाब १९९२-९३\n\n१२. श्री सागर जैन प्रारब्ध १९९४-९५\n\n१३. श्री सुशील पुरोहित जैसी कि अब वही १९९५-९६\n\n१४. श्री कैलाश कबीर तुम्हारे आने पर १९९६-९७\n\n१५. डॉ॰ इन्दु शेखर ’तत्पुरुष‘ खिली धूप में बारिश १९९७-९८\n\n१६. श्री प्रदीप भट्ट बिवाई में टंगी दूरियां १९९८-९९\n\n१७. सुश्री लतामणि सांझ का सूर्योदय १९९९-२०००\n\n१८. श्री कुंजन आचार्य एक टुकडा आसमान २०००-०१\n\n१९. श्री नवनीत पाण्डे सच के आसपास २०००-०१\n\n२०. श्रीमती शांति राजपाल आओ सेतु बांधें २००१-०२\n\n२१. श्री चांद शेरी जर्द पत्ते हरे हो गए २००२-०३\n\n२२. श्रीमती गीता भट्टाचार्या प्रतिदिन २००६-०७\n\nशंभूदयाल सक्सेना पुरस्कार (बाल साहित्य) \n\n१. श्री हरिशंकर ’हरीश‘ नौनिहालों के गीत १९६०-६१\n\n२. श्री भगवतीप्रसाद गौतम गीत शान से गाओ १९७९-८०\n\n३. श्री मनोहर वर्मा शरीर के नौ रत्न १९८२-८३\n\n४. श्री सुरेश विमल काना बाती १९८४-८५\n\n५. श्री यादराम ’रसेन्द्र‘ बोली का घाव १९८५-८६\n\n६. श्री हरीश गोयल शुक्रलोक में एक राजकुमारी १९८६-८७\n\n७. श्री जगदीशचन्द्र शर्मा चौके छक्के १९८७-८८\n\n८. श्री दीनदयाल शर्मा चिंटू पिंटू की सूझ १९८८-८९\n\n९. श्री संकेत गोस्वामी लालच बुरी बला १९८९-९०\n\n१०. डॉ॰ भैरूंलाल गर्ग अनोखा पुरस्कार १९९०-९१\n\n११. श्री सत्यदेव चूरा बरगद की गवाही १९९१-९२\n\n१२. श्री दिनेश विजयवर्गीय साहस का सम्मान १९९२-९३\n\n१३. श्रीमती विमला भंडारी प्रेरणादायक बाल कहानियां १९९४-९५\n\n१४. श्री सुधीर सक्सेना ’सुधि‘ हिरनी १९९५-९६\n\n१५. श्री नवनीत राय सुबह की जीत १९९६-९७\n\n१६. श्री विष्णु प्रसाद चतुर्वेदी कहो कैसी रही १९९७-९८\n\n१७. श्री नमोनाथ अवस्थी नई सदी की बात १९९८-९९\n\n१८. श्रीमती रमा तिवारी उपहार १९९९-२०००\n\n१९. श्री गोविन्द शर्मा सबका देश एक है २०००-०१\n\n२०. श्रीमती सुधा कुलश्रेष्ठ चुनमुन चूं चूं २००१-०२\n\n२१. श्री इन्द्रजीत कौशिक मूंछों वाले मामाजी २००२-०३\n\n२२. श्री योगेन्द्र सिंह भाटी फूल चमन के २००५-०६\n\n२३. श्रीमती गीतिका गोयल चुनमुन की कहानियां २००६-०७ \n\n२४.श्री त्रिलोक सिंह ठकुरेला, नया सवेरा,२०१२-१३\n\nश्री प्रकाश जैन साहित्यिक पत्रकारिता पुरस्कार \n\n१. सम्बोधन (त्रैमासिक), कांकरोली १९८४-८५\n\n२. मधुमाधवी (त्रैमासिक), जयपुर १९८५-८६\n\n३. वैचारिकी (त्रैमासिक), बीकानेर १९९६-९७\n\n४. तटस्थ (त्रैमासिक), सीकर १९९७-९८\n\n५. रंगायन (त्रैमासिक), उदयपुर १९९८-९९\n\nअकादमी-संपर्क \n\nराजस्थान साहित्य अकादमी, सेक्टर-4, हिरणमगरी, उदयपुर - 313002\n\nदूरभाष/फेक्स - 0294-2461717\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n राजस्थान साहित्य अकादमी का जालघर\n मधुमती : राजस्थान साहित्य अकादमी की पत्रिका\n\nश्रेणी:हिन्दी\nश्रेणी:संस्थान", "जय सिंह द्वितीय\nसवाई जयसिंह या जयसिंह (द्वितीय) (03 नवम्बर 1688 - 21 सितम्बर 1743) अठारहवीं सदी में भारत में राजस्थान प्रान्त के नगर/राज्य आमेर के कछवाहा वंश के सर्वाधिक प्रतापी शासक थे। सन १७२७ में आमेर से दक्षिण छः मील दूर एक बेहद सुन्दर, सुव्यवस्थित, सुविधापूर्ण और शिल्पशास्त्र के सिद्धांतों के आधार पर आकल्पित नया शहर 'सवाई जयनगर', जयपुर बसाने वाले नगर-नियोजक के बतौर उनकी ख्याति भारतीय-इतिहास में अमर है।\n\nकाशी, दिल्ली, उज्जैन, मथुरा और जयपुर में, अतुलनीय और अपने समय की सर्वाधिक सटीक गणनाओं के लिए जानी गयी वेधशालाओं के निर्माता, सवाई जयसिह एक नीति-कुशल महाराजा और वीर सेनापति ही नहीं, जाने-माने खगोल वैज्ञानिक और विद्याव्यसनी विद्वान भी थे। उनका संस्कृत , मराठी, तुर्की, फ़ारसी, अरबी, आदि कई भाषाओं पर गंभीर अधिकार था। भारतीय ग्रंथों के अलावा गणित, रेखागणित, खगोल और ज्योतिष में उन्होंने अनेकानेक विदेशी ग्रंथों में वर्णित वैज्ञानिक पद्धतियों का विधिपूर्वक अध्ययन किया था और स्वयं परीक्षण के बाद, कुछ को अपनाया भी था। देश-विदेश से उन्होंने बड़े बड़े विद्वानों और खगोलशास्त्र के विषय-विशेषज्ञों को जयपुर बुलाया, सम्मानित किया और यहाँ सम्मान दे कर बसाया। \n\nजयसिंह की गणित, वास्तुकला और खगोल विज्ञान में बहुत रुचि थी। उन्होंने अपनी राजधानी जयपुर सहित भारत के कई स्थानों पर जंतर मंतर वेधशालाओं का निर्माण किया। उनके पास यूक्लिड के \"एलीमेंट्स ऑफ़ ज्योमेट्री\" का संस्कृत में अनुवाद था\n\nसवाई की मौखिक-उपाधि \nअपने पिता महाराजा बिशन सिंह के असामयिक देहान्त के बाद २५ जनवरी १७०० को ११ वर्ष की लगभग बाल्य-अवस्था में वे आमेर की गद्दी बैठे। औरंगजेब ने उन्हें 'सवाई' की [मौखिक] उपाधि दी थी - जिसका प्रतीकात्मक-अर्थ यही है कि वे अपने समकालीनों से 'सवाया' (या सवा-गुना अधिक बुद्धिमान और वीर) थे। सुना जाता है जब दिल्ली बादशाह औरंगजेब के दरबार में युवा सवाई जयसिंह पहले-पहल हाजिर हुए, तो पता नहीं क्यों औरंगजेब ने एकाएक बालक जयसिंह के दोनों हाथ पकड़ लिए और पूछा \"अब बताइये, आप क्या करेंगे?\" इस पर प्रत्युत्पन्नमति जयसिंह होठों पर मुस्कान लिए निहायत शांत स्वर से बोले, \"आलमपनाह ! हमारे यहां हिन्दुओं में विवाह पर एक परम्परा है। वर, वधू का एक हाथ अपने हाथ में लेकर इस बात की प्रतिज्ञा करता है कि वह उसका हाथ जिन्दगी भर नहीं छोड़ेगा, उम्र भर उसका साथ निबाहेगा! आज बादशाह सलामत खुद मेरा एक हाथ नहीं, मेरे दोनों ही हाथ जब अपने हाथ में ले चुके हैं, फ़िर मुझे किस बात की परवाह?\" औरंगजेब को इस चतुराई भरे जबाब की उम्मीद न थी, लेकिन इस बुद्धिमत्तापूर्ण हाज़िरजवाबी से वह बहुत प्रसन्न हुआ।,\n\nयदुनाथ सरकार ने अपने जयपुर इतिहास में इस 'उपाधि' के बारे में जो शब्द लिखे हैं- अविकल रूप से ये हैं-\"\n\nकुछ दूसरे स्रोत बतलाते हैं 'सवाई' की उपाधि औरंगजेब द्वारा नहीं बल्कि बादशाह फर्रुख़ सियर द्वारा इन्हें दी गयी थी। पर यह बात (जो शायद किंवदंती का रूप ले चुकी है) अधिकांश ग्रंथों में औरंगजेब के साथ जुडी मिलती है।\n\nजन्म और माता-पिता \nजयसिंह द्वितीय का जन्म मार्गशीर्ष वदी 7 वि० सं० १७४५ ई० [दिनांक 4 नवम्बर, 1688] को राजा विष्णुसिंह की राठौड़ रानी, अजमेर में खरवा के ठाकुर केशरीसिंह की पुत्री इन्द्रकँवर से 3 नवम्बर 1688 को हुआ था।\n\nसवाई जयसिंह के शासन का सम्पूर्ण राजनैतिक इतिहास\n\nसत्ता का अधिग्रहण और नाम-परिवर्तन \nराजा विष्णुसिंह की काबुल में रविवार ३१ दिसम्बर १६९९ (रजब १९, जुलुसी वर्ष ४३) को मृत्यु होने पर मार्गशीर्ष सुदी ७ वि० सं० १७५६, जनवरी २५, १७०० ई० को ये आमेर की गद्दी पर बैठे। मृत्यु के प्रायः डेढ़ माह बाद १८ फ़रवरी १७०० को महाराष्ट्र के शाही-शिविर में बिशन सिंह के काबुल में हुए निधन की खबर पहुँची, तो दो दिन बाद (अर्थात २० फरवरी,१७०० को) बादशाह औरंगजेब ने उनके सबसे बड़े पुत्र का नाम विजय सिंह से बदल कर जयसिंह करते हुए, उन्हें आमेर की गद्दी का वारिस स्वीकार किया। बादशाह ने जयसिंह के छोटे भाई चीमा जी का नाम विजयसिंह रखा। \n\nयदुनाथ सरकार के अनुसार \"...जुलाई १६९८ में दक्षिण से लौटने के बाद से जयसिंह आमेर में ही बने रहे, जब कि बादशाह ने इन्हें हाजिरी देने के लिए कई 'कड़े बुलावे' भी भेजे| इनके पिता के समय से ही दिल्ली-बादशाह इनको अपनी सैनिक 'सेवा' में लेने के लिए हेतु दक्षिण में बुलाना चाहते थे। परन्तु राजा विष्णुसिंह अपने पुत्र को दक्षिण में नहीं भेजना चाहते थे। लेकिन बादशाह के ज्यादा दबाव देने पर ई० १६९८ में ये महाराष्ट्र (दक्षिण) गये। (वहां पहली भेंट में बादशाह ने इनकी तीव्र बुद्धि देख कर इन को 'सवाई' कहा था। तभी से इनके नाम के पहले सवाई की उपाधि लग गई, जो अभी तक जयपुर के भूतपूर्व राजाओं के नाम के साथ जुड़ी हुई है।) आठ महीने मुग़ल शिविर में रह कर ये वापस अपनी राजधानी आमेर लौट आये।\n\nऔरंगजेब और जयसिंह \nगद्दी पर बैठने के तुरंत बाद, जैसा ऊपर लिखा गया है, इन्हें नवम्बर १७०० में दक्षिण में अपनी सेना के साथ मुग़ल बादशाह की फ़ौज के रूप में लड़ने के लिए बुलाया गया था, पर किसी न किसी तरह जयसिंह बराबर टालमटोल करते रहे। वह जब कई शाही-आदेशों की अवहेलना कर चुके, तो अंततः इन्हें 'जबरन' ले आने को बादशाह ने कुछ हरकारे आमेर तक भी भेजे| इनकी अनुपस्थिति से नाराज़ बादशाह औरंगजेब ने इन से आमेर राजा का खिताब तो नहीं छीना, पर १३ सितम्बर १७०१ को इन्हें 'पदावनत' करते हुए मात्र ५०० जात, १०० सवार का मामूली मनसबदार बना दिया। कठिन मार्ग और वर्षा से अवरुद्ध रास्तों से जूझते बुरहानपुर में पड़ाव डाल कर अक्टूबर १७०१ में इनके दक्षिण में पहुँचने पर इन्हें औरंगजेब के पोते (सेना-अधिकारी और पुत्र आलम शाह के पुत्र) शाह बिदरबख्त के पास पन्हाला की सुरक्षा के लिए उनका सैन्य-सहयोगी नियुक्त किया गया।\n\nसवाई जयसिंह की आरंभिक सामरिक-सफलताएं और बादशाह औरंगजेब के पूर्वाग्रह \n\nऔरंगजेब के पोते शाह बिदरबख्त के नेतृत्व में बादशाही सेना ने ११ मई ई० १७०२ को खिलना के किले पर भारी हमला किया। इसमें आमेर और मुग़ल संयुक्त-सेना की बहुत जनहानि हुई, पर उसकी दीवारों को तोड़ कर सबसे पहले जयसिंह की कछवाहा सेना ही खिलना-दुर्ग में प्रविष्ट हुई। उसकी बुर्ज पर आमेर का 'पंचरंगा झंडा' फहराया गया। (इस समय जयसिंह की उम्र केवल १४ वर्ष थी)। खिलना-युद्ध में इनका वीर और भरोसेमंद दीवान बुद्धसिंह मारा गया। इस खिलना-विजय पर बादशाह औरंगजेब द्वारा इनका मनसब बढ़ा कर पहले एक हज़ार, फिर शाह बिदरबख्त के अनुरोध के बाद २००० (दो हजार जात) का कर दिया गया। बादशाह की छः साल की 'कठिन सेवा' का महज़ यह प्रतिदान जयसिंह को मिला! इसके बाद जब शाहजादा बिदरबख्त मालवे का सूबेदार हुआ, तब उसने जयसिंह की सेवाओं का सम्मान करते उन को वहाँ का नायब सूबेदार बना दिया, जिसे औरंगजेब ने तत्काल ही 'नामंजूर' कर दिया तथा एक फरमान लिखा कि आइन्दा किसी हिन्दू भी को मामूली फौजदार तक भी नहीं बनाया जाए।'\n\nविडम्बना हैरतंगेज़ है कि जिस औरंगजेब ने कभी इन्हें 'सवाई' कह कर सम्मान दिया वही बाद में वस्तुतः इनसे इस कदर नाराज़ और पूर्वाग्रहग्रस्त था कि उसने ये अपमानजनक आज्ञा जारी की- \"जयसिंह को मसनद पर आसन न दे कर, नीचे ज़मीन पर बिछी 'सुजनी' पर बैठने को कहा जाय!\"\n\nइसी बीच ई० १७०४ में दो बादशाही फौजदारों ने स्थानीय मदद ले कर ठाकुर कुशल सिंह राजावत से सवाई माधोपुर में आज स्थित झिलाय ठिकाने की जागीर छीन कर १३ नवम्बर १७०४ को जयसिंह (आमेर राज्य) को सौंप दी। दूसरे साल ई० १७०५ में शाह बिदरबख्त ने अपनी तरफ से इनके पक्ष में फिर से कोशिश करके जयसिंह को मालवा का भी नायब सूबेदार बनवा दिया। पर जब तक औरंगजेब जीवित रहा, मुग़ल खेमे में इनका प्रभाव मद्धम सा ही रहा।\n\nऔरंगजेब की मृत्यु के बाद \nई० १७०७ में २१ फ़रवरी को औरंगजेब के देहांत के बाद मुग़ल-गद्दी के लिए उसके बेटों में विकट-संघर्ष शुरू हो गया। शाह आजम ने आगरा व दिल्ली पर चढ़ाई की। उस समय तक उसने इनका मनसब ५००० जात ५०० सवार का कर दिया था। जून १८, १७०७ ई० को मौजम (मुअज्जिम) और आज़म की सेनाओं के बीच आगरा के २० मील दक्षिण में जाजू का युद्ध हुआ। जयसिंह मौजम (मुअज्जिम) के साथ थे तथा इनके सगे छोटे भाई चीमाँ जी (विजयसिंह) आज़म की सेना की तरफ। इस युद्ध में मौजम और उनके पुत्र मारे गये। जाजू की लड़ाई में आज़म की विजय हुई। इसी युद्ध में जयसिंह तथा अखेसिंह टोरड़ी भी घायल हुए | इनके कई सरदार- बिहारीदास (दांतरी), केशरीसिंह (हरसोली), सूरसिंह (हरमाड़ा) आदि मारे गये। युद्ध के आखरी समय में जयसिंह बूंदी के राजा अपने बहनोई बुधसिंह हाडा के मारफत युद्ध में विजयी आज़म से जा मिले, परन्तु उसने इनका खास स्वागत नहीं किया।,\n\nआमेर पर हमले और अपमानित जयसिंह \nजयसिंह के छोटे भाई विजयसिंह, बादशाह को खुश करने के लिए अपनी बहन का विवाह बादशाह बहादुरशाह (प्रथम) से करवाना चाहते थे। उन्होंने इसकी खबर दिल्ली भेज दी तथा बुद्धसिंह हाडा को छुट्टी जाते समय रास्ते में रोक कर उन से सामोद में यह विवाह करवा दिया। नये बादशाह बहादुरशाह (प्रथम) ने इसके बाद राजस्थान पर चढ़ाई की। जनवरी १७०८ ई० में वह आमेर पहुँचा और उसे खालसा कर लिया। जयसिंह से आमेर की जागीर जब्त करके बादशाह बहादुरशाह (प्रथम) द्वारा १० जनवरी १७०८ को उनके छोटे भाई विजयसिंह (चीमाजी) को अनेकानेक महंगे उपहारों सहित दे दी गयी। सवाई जयसिंह का राजनैतिक कद घटा कर एक मामूली 'मनसबदार' के रूप में कर दिया गया। \n \nबादशाह इसके बाद अजमेर होकर दक्षिण के लिए अपने भाई कामबक्श से मुकाबला करने को बढ़ा। आमेर और जोधपुर के दोनों राजा मंडलेश्वर के इलाके तक उसके साथ ही गये। जब उन्हें यह आशा नहीं रही कि बादशाह उनके इलाके उन्हें वापस लौटाएगा तो उन्होंने दुर्गादास राठौड़ की राय से, जब बादशाह नर्बदा नदी पार करने को रवाना हुआ, २० अप्रैल १७०८ वैशाख सुदी १३ को बादशाही-शिविर छोड़ दिया और वे राजपूताना की ओर वापस रवाना होकर मेवाड़ उदयपुर पहुँचे।\n\nयहाँ महाराणा प्रताप के पुत्र और उत्तराधिकारीराणा अमरसिंह ने इनका स्वागत किया तथा अपनी पोती जयसिंह को ब्याही। यहाँ से तीन राजाओं की ३० हजार सेना ने संयुक्त-रूप से जोधपुर पर हमला करके ८ जुलाई १७०८ ई० को उसे अपने अधिकार में कर लिया। राजा अतसिंह जोधपुर के जयसिंह ने टीका किया। यहाँ से उन्होंने हिन्दुस्तान के अनेक राजाओं को मुगलों के विरुद्ध एकत्र होने संबंधी पत्र भी लिखे।\n\nजोधपुर से विजय सिंह शासित आमेर पर अधिकार करने को दो सेनाएँ भेजी गयीं। एक दुर्गादास राठौड़ के नेतृत्व में, जिसका सैयदों से काला डेरा के पास युद्ध हुआ। दूसरी सेना में, महाराजा जयसिंह का दीवान रामचन्द्र और श्यामसिंह के अधीन २० हजार घुड़सवार थे। इनका रतनपुरा के पास आमेर के फौजदार हुसैन खाँ से युद्ध हुआ, जिसमें उन्होंने उसे परास्त करके आमेर पर अपना अधिकार कर लिया।\n\nइसके बाद इन दोनों राजाओं के विरुद्ध मेवात के फौजदार सैयद हुसेन खां, अहमद खां फौजदार बैराठ सिधाना और गारात खां फौजदार नारनोल को सांभर भेजा गया । दोनों राजाओं के इन फौजदारों से सांभर में ३ अक्टूबर ई० १७०८ को भीषण युद्ध हुआ, जिसमें मुगलों की विजय हुई। युद्ध के बाद विजय की खुशी में मुगलों की महफिल हो रही थी। इसी समय राव संग्रामसिंह उनियारा के नेतृत्व में नरुका लड़ाके वहाँ पहुँचे और एक रेत के टीबे पर चढ़े, जिसके नीचे सैयद आदि शराब की महफिल कर रहे थे। नरुकों ने उन पर एकाएक बन्दूकों और तीरों से भयानक हमला किया। उसमें सब मुग़ल फौजदार मारे गये तथा मुगलों की जीती हुई बाजी हाथ से निकल गई।\n\nफिर जयसिंह ने एक पत्र बादशाह के विरुद्ध दुर्गादास को लिखा कि \"उदयपुर महाराणा से बात की जाए ...मराठों को मिला कर मुग़लों के विरुद्ध राजपूतों को वही करना चाहिए जो 'हिन्दुस्तान' के लिए गौरव की बात हो।\"\n\nबादशाह बहादुरशाह जब दक्षिण से वापस लौटा, तो उसने यह जरुरी समझा कि किसी तरह जोधपुर और आमेर (जयपुर) दोनों राजाओं से समझौता किया जाए। इन्हें लाने के लिए उसने बुधसिंह हाड़ा राजा बून्दी को भेजा, जिनके मारफत २१ जून ई० १७१० को ये अजमेर के पास बादशाह के सामने हाजिर हुए। बादशाह ने इनके जब्त किये राज्य वापस लौटा दिए और इन दोनों को ४००० जात ४००० सवार के मनसब भी दिये। उस समय तक भी राजपूतों का मुगलों पर बिल्कुल विश्वास नहीं था, इसलिए जब सवाई जयसिंह अजमेर में बादशाह के शिविर में गये तब अजमेर के तमाम पहाड़ तथा घाटियाँ राजपूत-सैनिकों से भरी हुई थीं। मनसब बढ़ने और इलाके वापस आने पर भी उन्हें बहादुरशाह की नीयत पर कभी भी पूर्ण विश्वास नहीं हुआ।\n\nजयसिंह द्वारा छलपूर्वक अपने भाई विजयसिंह की गिरफ्तारी \nजयसिंह के भाई विजयसिंह के साथ भी कुछ ऐसा हुआ कि (जन्म चैत सुदी ६ वि. १७४७) निराश होकर अन्त में मुगल दरबार छोड़ कर हिन्डौन आ गए। जयसिंह को भाई विजयसिंह की तरफ से सशस्त्र विद्रोह खतरा तो बना हुआ था ही। इन्होंने १७१३ ई० में विजयसिंह से समझौता करने और 'राजमाता से भेंट' करने के नाम पर अपने सशस्त्र सैनिकों एवं सरदारों समेत सांगानेर जा कर धोखे से उनको कैद करवा दिया और जयगढ़ किले में भेज दिया। (वहीं वे अन्त में मारे भी गये।) विजयसिंह के इस 'हत्याकाण्ड' में श्यामसिंह खंगारोत विशेष सहायक रहा।\n\nबहादुर शाह (प्रथम) की मृत्यु के बाद उसके उत्तराधिकारी जहाँदरशाह ने आमेर और मारवाड़ दोनों राजाओं को फिर अपने पक्ष में करना चाहा। उसने दोनों को ७००० जात व ७००० सवार का मनसब भी दिया, परन्तु इस बार इन्होंने मुग़ल-उत्तराधिकारी के आपसी संघर्ष में औरंगजेब के पुत्रों से दूर ही रहने का फैसला किया। फ़र्रुख सियर के मुग़ल बादशाह बनने के बाद हुसैन अली सैयद ने श्यामसिंह खंगारोत को बुलवाया तथा उनसे बात करके जयसिंह को बादशाह से ५००० जात ४५०० सवार का मनसब दिलवाया। जब अतसिंह का बादशाह के साथ मतभेद हो गया, तब बादशाह ने सैयद हुसैन अली को सेना लेकर अजमेर भेजा जहाँ अतसिंह ने कब्जा कर लिया था। उस समय जयसिंह भी हुसैन अली सैयद के साथ थे। अन्त में अतसिंह से सन्धि हुई।\n\nमराठे और जयसिंह \nअक्टूबर १७१३ ई० में इन्हें बादशाह फ़र्रुख सियर ने मालवा की सूबेदारी प्रदान की। इन्होंने वहाँ की अनेक बगावतें दबाई व मरहठों के उपद्रव भी कुचले। मरहठों की एक बड़ी सेना जब मालवे में घुसी तब इन्होंने पलसूद के पास उसे बड़ी करारी हार दी। मराठी सेना के लोग भाग कर पलसूद में ठहरे थे। जयसिंह ने रात में ही उन पर हमला कर दिया। इनकी सेना को देखते ही वे भाग निकले व नर्वदा नदी पार कर गये। उनकी लूट का सब माल वहीं रह गया। मालवा में छत्रसाल बुन्देला भी इनके साथ थे। १७१५ ई० में इनको दिल्ली बुला लिया गया। तब इनकी अनुपस्थिति में इनके धाभाई रुपाराम को इन्होंने वहां नायब बना कर रखा। १७१७ तक ये मालवा के सूबेदार रहे। बादशाह फ़र्रुख सियर ने भीमसिंह हाडा राजा कोटा को बून्दी की रियासत दे दी थी और उसने बून्दी पर कब्जा भी कर लिया था। जयसिंह ने प्रयास करके बादशाह से बून्दी वापस राजा बुधसिंह हाडा को दिलवायी।\n\nभरतपुर में विफलता\nदिल्ली से बादशाह ने इनको भरतपुर के चूड़ामन जाट पर चढ़ाई करने की आज्ञा दी, जिसने आगरा के इलाके में लूटमार से बड़ा उपद्रव मचा रखा था। इनके साथ बून्दी के बुद्धसिंह, कोटा के भीमसिंह, नरवर के गजसिंह, दुर्गादास राठौड़ व कई अन्य मनसबदार भी नियुक्त किये गये। १५ सितम्बर १७१६ को ये अपनी फौज ले कर मथुरा के लिए रवाना हुए। नवम्बर में चूड़ामन के प्रसिद्ध किले थूण का घेरा शुरू किया। वर अब्दुल्ला खां सैयद, जयसिंह के विरुद्ध था तथा चूड़ामन को मदद दे रहा था। इससे इन्हें इस अभियान में सफलता नहीं मिल पाई। वर अब्दुल्ला खां सैयद ने अन्त में बीच में पड़ कर थून का घेरा उठवा लिया। मई १७१८ में जयसिंह की वापसी दिल्ली हुई। चूडामन के इलाके में इस असफलता के बावजूद बादशाह ने इनका बड़ा सम्मान किया।\n\nसैयदों और बादशाहों के बीच तलवारें खिंच चुकी थी। जयसिंह ने बादशाह फ़र्रुख सियर को बहुत समझाया कि सैयदों से युद्ध करके उन्हें हमेशा के लिए साफ कर देना चाहिए। उस समय उनके पास २० हजार राजपूत सवार दिल्ली में मौजूद थे तथा बून्दी के बुद्धसिंह हाडा भी उन्हीं के साथ थे। परन्तु बादशाह की यह सैन्य कार्यवाई करने की हिम्मत नहीं हुई। वह सैयदों को किसी तरह खुश करने में लगा रहा। अन्त में सैयदों ने बादशाह से जयसिंह को दिल्ली से जाने को कहलवा दिया। जयसिंह ने बादशाह को सचेत किया कि उनके जाने से बादशाह की जान को खतरा हो जाएगा लेकिन यह सलाह बादशाह की समझ में नहीं आई। १३ फ़रवरी १७१९ ई० को जयसिंह दिल्ली से रवाना हुए। उसके कुछ ही घंटों बाद भींमसिंह कोटा राजा ने बुधसिंह बूंदी पर आक्रमण कर दिया। उनके स्वामिभक्त सरदार जैतसिंह ने बड़ी वीरता से कोटा की सेना को रोका तथा बुधसिंह को सुरक्षित वहाँ से निकाल दिया। वे भाग कर सवाई जयसिंह के पास पहुँचे। १७- १८ अप्रैल को सैयद भाइयों, अतसिंह जोधपुर और भीमसिंह कोटा ने मिल कर दिल्ली में बादशाह फर्रूखशियर को मार डाला।\n\nसैयद और जयसिंह \nजयसिंह ने इलाहाबाद के सूबेदार छबीला राम और निजाम से सैयदों के विरुद्ध भी पत्र-व्यवहार किया। वे चाहते थे कि सब मिल कर सैयदों को अपदस्थ कर दें। इन्होंने छत्रसाल बुन्देला को भी युद्ध के लिए बुलाया। सैयदों ने कई सेनाएँ इनके विरुद्ध कई तरफ से घेरने के लिए भेजीं| वर अब्दुल्ला खां ने ५ जुलाई को नाममात्र के बादशाह रफीउदुल्ला को साथ लेकर जयसिंह पर चढ़ाई की और मथुरा होता हुआ वह आगरा पहुँचा, जहाँ सैयदों के विरुद्ध बगावत हो रही थी। जयसिंह ने भी सैयदों से पूरे तौर से मुकाबला करने की तैयारी कर ली थी पर युद्ध में रवाना होने के पहले उन्होंने ब्राह्मणों को बुलाकर आमेर राज्य दान में दे दिया और केसरिया बाना धारण करके वे सैयदों से लड़ाई के लिए रवाना हुए। ये आमेर से आगे बढ़ कर टोडा रायसिंह तक पहुँच गये थे। पर निजाम और छबीलाराम दोनों ही वायदे के अनुसार इनके पक्ष में कायम नहीं रहे। जयसिंह को निराशा हाथ लगी।\n\nजोधपुर में विवाह \nअन्त में अतसिंह जयसिंह को अपने साथ जोधपुर ले गये जहाँ उन्होंने अपनी पुत्री का जयसिंह से विवाह किया। सैयदों ने जयसिंह को २० लाख रुपये दिये, जिससे वे आमेर वापस ब्राह्मणों से वापस खरीदें। उस समय भी जयसिंह को अतसिंह जोधपुर पर विश्वास नहीं था इसलिए वे अपने विवाह में भी जिरहबख्तर पहन कर गये थे।\n\nनिज़ाम और जयसिंह \nसैयदों की दो सेनाएँ जब दक्षिण में निजाम से परास्त हो गई, तब हुसैन अली खां सैयद, बादशाह मोहम्मद शाह को साथ ले कर, एक बड़ी सेना के साथ निजाम को दबाने के लिए रवाना हुआ। सितम्बर ८, १७२० ई० को टोडाभीम में उसने हुसैन अली को धोखे से मार डाला। अब बादशाह ने तैयारी करके सैयद अब्दुल्ला खां पर चढ़ाई की जो दिल्ली में था। इस युद्ध के लिए महाराणा ने जयसिंह से पूछा कि 'उसे क्या करना चाहिए?' जयसिंह ने उदैपुर के महाराणा को बादशाह की मदद करने के लिए पत्र लिखा तथा साथ में ही महाराणा के अलावा बीकानेर, कोटा और राव इन्द्रसिंह नागौर को भी बादशाह की मदद करने के लिए पत्र भेजे। सवाई जयसिंह ने खुद बादशाह मोहम्मद शाह की मदद के लिए राव जगराम के साथ एक अच्छी सेना भेजी। इस सेना में सवाई राम (नरुका), गढ़ी गजसिंह, नरुका जावली, जसवन्तसिंह, सवाईराम के पुत्र, प्रतापसिंह कल्यणोत, बुद्धसिंह कल्यणोत, गुलाब सिंह कल्यणोत, छीतरसिंह कल्यणोत, अमरसिंह राजावत, बहादुर सिंह खंगोरात और सरदारसिंह नरुका आदि सरदार थे। ३ और ४ नवम्बर १७२० को युद्ध हुआ जिसमें सैयद अब्दुल्ला खां पकड़ा गया। विजय के बाद बादशाह ने जयपुर के सरदारों को अपने हाथ से खिलअतें दीं।\n\nमोहम्मद शाह और जयसिंह \nमोहम्मद शाह ने दिल्ली पहुंचते ही जयसिंह को दिल्ली आने का फरमान भेजा जिसमें लिखा कि उनसे अनेक महत्वपूर्ण समस्याओं पर सलाह लेनी है। उसने दिल्ली पहुंचने पर बादशाह ने अपने नये वर मुहम्मद अमीन खां को उनके डेरे पर लेने भेजा। दरबार में आने पर बादशाह ने उनका बड़ा सत्कार किया और अनेक तोहफे दिए। उनके मनसब में ४००० सवार और बढ़ा दिए गए। इसी मौके पर इन्हें दो करोड़ रुपये इन्हें इनाम/ बख्शीश में दिये जिनको इन्होंने नम्रतापूर्वक लेने से मना कर दिया। पर बादशाह ने सवाई जयसिंह और राजा गिरधर बहादुर के अनुरोध पर हिदुओं पर लगाया जाने वाला कठिन जजिया कर माफ कर दिया। महाराणा मेवाड़ ने जजिया हटवा देने की सफलता पर सवाई जयसिंह को अपनी और से प्रसन्न हो कर लिखित बधाई भेजी।\n\nजयसिंह के महत्त्व में वृद्धि \nसैयदों के पतन के बाद जयसिंह का राजनैतिक महत्त्व तेज़ी से बढ़ने लगा। राजस्थान, मालवा और बुन्देलखण्ड के राजा हर मुसीबत में उनसे सहायता और सलाह चाहते थे। इन इलाकों में इनकी राय के बगैर कुछ भी नहीं होता था। १७३५ ई० के बाद तो मरहठे भी इनकी सलाह लेने तथा इनको आदर देने लग गए।\n\nइन्हें सवाई के अलावा मुग़ल बादशाहों ने जो अन्य उपाधियाँ समय समय पर दीं वे थीं - सरमदे –राजा-ए- हिन्द'/ 'राजराजेश्वर'/ 'श्रीराजाधिराज आदि।\n\nदूसरा जाट युद्ध \nसितम्बर १७२२ ई० में जयसिंह को आगरा का सूबेदार बना कर जाटों को दबाने को भेजा गया। इनके साथ ५० हजार सैनिकों की बड़ी फौज थी तथा अनेक मनसबदार भी इनके साथ थे। शाही तोपखाना भी इनके साथ था। चूड़ामन जाट का पुत्र मोहकमसिंह इस समय जाटों का नेता था। परन्तु चूड़ामन का भतीजा बदनसिंह जो उससे नाराज था, जयसिंह से आ कर मिला। इन्होंने उसका बड़ा स्वागत-सत्कार किया। एक बार फिर इन्होंने थूण के किले पर घेरा डाला। अतसिंह जोघपुर ने एक सेना मोहकमसिंह की मदद के लिए भेजी, परन्तु वह जोबनेर से आगे नहीं बढ़ी। विभीषण की तरह बदनसिंह की सलाह से थूण के किले का विजय होना निश्चित दिख रहा था। तब मोहकमसिंह निराश होकर गुप्त मार्ग से किला छोड़ कर अतर सिंह के पास जोधपुर पहुँचा। किन्तु जाटों के थून स्थित किले पर सवाई जयसिंह का अधिकार हो गया। इन्होंने सूरजमल के पिता बदनसिंह को भरतपुर की जागीर दी तथा राजा के रूप में उनके पगड़ी बाँधी। जून १९, १७२३ ई० को ठाकुर बदनसिंह जाट ने 'जयपुर दरबार की सेवा करने' व ८३ हजार रुपये बतौर सालाना पेशकश देना स्वीकार करके इस आशय की लिखावट पर दस्तखत किये। बदनसिंह जयपुर के दशहरा दरबार में हर साल आया करते थे। जयपुर में जहाँ जाट सेना सहित डीग के राजा का पड़ाव लगता था, वह स्थान अब भी बास बदनपुरा कहलाता है।\n\nमहाराजा सवाई जयसिंह के कार्यकाल का संभवतः सबसे बड़ा और कीर्तिवान कार्य था - सन १७२७ में जयपुर नगर बसाना। इसकी नींव पौष वदी १ वि. सं. १७८४, ई० को रखी गई। राजगुरु सम्राट जगन्नाथ ने नए नगर की नींव रखने का मुहूर्त निकाला तथा भूमि पूजा करवाई थी। महाराजा की आज्ञा के अनुसार नए नगर का नक्शा दीवान विद्याधर ने बनाया जो बहुत प्रतिभाशाली बंगाली ब्राह्मण था और इनके लेखा-विभाग की सेवा में नायब-अंकेक्षक था। सन १७३३ ई० में यह नगर, जिसका नाम सवाई जयसिंह ने ' सवाई जयनगर' रखा बन कर तैयार हुआ।\n\nमालवा की दूसरी बार सूबेदारी \nजयसिंह को मुग़ल बादशाह द्वारा मालवा का दुबारा सूबेदार बनाया गया। वे २३ अक्टूबर १७२९ ई० को उज्जैन के लिए रवाना हुए। जयसिंह अपने राज्य की सुरक्षा के लिए विद्रोही मरहठों से समझौता करना चाहते थे। इनके इस समझौता-प्रस्ताव को बादशाह ने भी स्वीकार कर लिया था। इनकी इस विजय पर साहू से लिखा पढ़ी हुई। साहू इसके लिए तैयार हो गया था, किन्तु पेशवा लोग इस समझौते के ज्यादा पक्ष में नहीं था। इन्होंने दीपसिंह कुम्भाणी को साहू के पास सतारा भेजा। लौटते समय दीपसिंह निजाम से भी मिला, परन्तु सितम्बर १७३० ई० में इनके मालवा की सूबेदारी से हट जाने से वह समझौता नहीं हो सका।\n\nकुशत्तल पंचोलास का युद्ध \nबुद्धसिंह बून्दी और उनकी कछवाही रानी के आपस में गंभीर मतभेद पैदा होने पर जयसिंह के सम्बन्ध भी बूंदी नरेश बुद्धसिंह से बहुत खराब हो गये। अन्त में सम्बन्ध इतने बिगड़े कि जयसिंह ने बादशाह को कह कर बुद्धसिंह के स्थान पर करवाड़ के सालिम सिंह हाडा के पुत्र दलेलसिंह को बून्दी का राजा बनवा दिया और बाद में अपनी पुत्री भी उसे ब्याह दी। इससे राजस्थान में जयपुर और बूंदी के बीच लम्बे समय तक बड़ा दु:खद संघर्ष चला। इस आपसी मनमुटाव से मरहठों को फिर राजस्थान में हस्तक्षेप करने का अवसर मिल गया। जयसिंह को १७३० ई० में मालवा में इत्तला मिली कि बुद्धसिंह फिर से बून्दी पर अधिकार करने जा रहे हैं। इन्होंने एक सेना दलेलसिंह की मदद को भेजी| ६ अप्रैल १७३० को कुशत्तल पंचोलास में बुधसिंह से जयपुर सेना का युद्ध हुआ जिसमें जयपुर के पांच राजावत सरदार फतहसिंह सारसोप (बरवाड़ा) खोजूराम (ईसरदा), सांवलदास (शिवाड), अचलसिंह (नानतोड़ी) और घासीराम अचरे मारे गए।। इस युद्ध में बुद्धसिंह को विजय नहीं मिली। मालवा से लौटते समय महाराजा सवाई जयसिंह कुशत्तल पांचोलास गये। उन्होंने वहाँ मारे गये सरदारों की मातमी करके उनके पुत्रों को सिरोपाव आदि दिये।\n\nतीसरी बार मालवा की सूबेदारी \nजयसिंह दिसम्बर १७३२ में तीसरी बार मालवा प्रान्त के सूबेदार बनकर उज्जैन गये। इस बार मालवा में भी मरहठों का उत्पात इतना बढ़ गया था कि मालवा से मरहठों को निकालने के इनके तमाम प्रयास विफल रहे। १७३४ ई० में खानदौरा एक बड़ी सेना लेकर राजपूताना होता हुआ मालवा में मैराथन के विरुद्ध आगे आया। जयसिंह, अभयसिंह (जोधपुर) आदि अनेक राजा उनके साथ थे। जब यह विशाल सेना रामपुरा पहुँची तो उसे मरहठा मिले। पर वे छुटपुट लड़ाइयों के बाद इन्हें छका कर पीछे से राजस्थान में घुस गये। वहाँ उनको रोकने वाला कोई नहीं था और वे मराठे जयपुर राज्य में साँभर तक लूटपाट करते चले गये। १७३५ ई० में पेशवा बाजीराव की माँ उत्तर में तीर्थ करने आई। महाराजा जयसिंह ने उसका बड़ा आदर-सत्कार किया तथा महाराणा से भी उसका सत्कार करवाया। आगरा में इनके नायब सूबेदार ने अपने दीवान आयामल के भाई नारायणदास को उसका स्वागत करने व पूना तक साथ जाने की आज्ञा भेजी। जनवरी १७३७ ई० को पेशवा उत्तर भारत में आया उसके साथ होलकर, सिन्धिया, पँवार आदि सभी थे। उदयपुर से आते समय पेशवा से २५ फ़रवरी को महाराजा जयसिंह मालपुरा क्षेत्र के झाड़ली गाँव में मिले। उन्होंने उनको अनेक वस्तुएँ भेंट दी। बाजीराव दिल्ली तक जाकर वापस लौट गया।\nबाजीराव पेशवा की मृत्यु से महाराजा जयसिंह को बड़ा दु:ख हुआ। नया पेशवा बालाराव बना। १७४१ ई० में जब नए मराठा पेशवा बाला राव उत्तर में चढ़ाई की उस समय जयसिंह आगरा के सूबेदार थे। इनकी और नये पेशवा बाला राव की धौलपुर में भेंट हुई। इनके प्रयास से बादशाह ने पेशवा को मालवा की नायब सूबेदारी दे दी।\n\nनादिरशाह और सवाई जयसिंह \nजब नादिरशाह भारत में आया तब सभी को बड़ी शंका खड़ी हो गई। पेशवा, महाराणा अन्य राजाओं व बुन्देलों को मिला कर जयसिंह, नादिरशाह का संगठित मुकाबला करना चाह रहा था। हालांकि 24 फरवरी 1739 को करनाल में वह (नादिरशाह) मुग़ल सेना को बुरी तरह पराजित कर चुका था। यह भी अफवाह थी कि नादिरशाह जयपुर होता हुआ अजमेर जाएगा। यह जयसिंह के लिए भी बड़ा खतरा था। सब चौकन्ने थे, लेकिन अन्त में वह मथुरा से ही वापस अपने देश लौट गया।\n\n\"नादिरशाह ने जब भारत पर हमला (फरवरी-मार्च १७३९) किया तब दिल्ली की सहायतार्थ जयसिंह नहीं गए। इस का कारण यह था- तब निजाम और कमरुद्दीन उस समय साम्राज्य में उच्च पदों पर थे और नादिरशाह के हमले के लिए वे लोग इनके उत्तरदायी होने का शक कर सकते थे, किन्तु सम्राट बराबर इनमें विश्वास रख कर इनसे आवश्यक परामर्श करता रहा।\"\n\nसाहित्य-रचना और यज्ञ-परंपरा\nमहाराजा सवाई जयसिंह के दरबार में संस्कृत और ब्रजभाषा साहित्य, स्थापत्य, धर्मशास्त्र, ज्योतिष, खगोल, इतिहास-लेखन, आदि क्षेत्रों में अनेक मौलिक रचनाएं की गयीं और सम्पूर्ण भारतीय मनीषा की इस अकादमिक-योगदान से बड़ी उन्नति हुई। अनेक नए धर्मशास्त्र भी रचे गये क्यों कि इनकी कर्मकांड और धर्मशास्त्र में बड़ी रुचि व निष्ठा थी। इनके समय के सबसे प्रसिद्ध विद्वान पंडित जगन्नाथ सम्राट, पंडित पुण्डरीक रत्नाकर, विद्याधर चक्रवर्ती, शिवानन्द गोस्वामी, श्रीकृष्ण भट्ट कविकलानिधि आदि थे। मूलतः आन्ध्र से आये तैलंग पूर्वजों के वंशज ब्रजनाथ भट्ट भी इनके समय के प्रसिद्ध कवि विद्वानों में से थे। इन्होंने 'ब्रह्मसूत्राणभाण्यवृत्ति' और 'पद्मतरंगिणी' की रचना की। श्रीकृष्ण भट्ट कविकलानिधि ने इनके समय में अनेक ग्रन्थ लिखे जिनमें मुख्य 'ईश्वर विलास- महाकाव्य भी है, जिसमें सवाई जयसिंह द्वारा 'अश्वमेध यज्ञ' करवाने का 'आँखों देखा हाल' वर्णित है। जेम्स टॉड ने लिखा है \" सवाई जयसिंह ने बहुत-सा धन खर्च कर के यज्ञशाला बनवाई थी और उसके स्तंभों और छत को चांदी के पत्तरों से मंडवाया था|\n\nपुण्डरीक रत्नाकर (मृत्यु वि. १७७६ में) ने इनसे व्रात्यस्तोम यज्ञ चैत वदी ३ वि॰सं॰ १७७१ को क्षिप्रा नदी के तट पर उज्जैन में करवाया। इन्होंने और दूसरे यज्ञ-जैसे श्रौत यज्ञ आदि भी सम्पन्न करवाये थे। इनका रचा हुआ 'जयसिंह कल्पद्रुम' एक महत्वपूर्ण ग्रन्थ है। रत्नाकर के पुत्र सुधाकर पौण्डरीक ने जयसिंह से पुरुषमेध यज्ञ करवाया था तथा 'साहित्यसार संग्रह' की रचना की। इन्होंने सम्राट यज्ञ भी कराया, जिसके पुरोहित इनके महाराष्ट्रीय ब्राह्मण गुरु, जगन्नाथ सम्राट थे। १७३४ ई० में जयसिंह ने जो पहला अश्वमेध यज्ञ किया, २९ मई १७३४ को सम्पूर्ण हुआ। इस अश्वमेध यज्ञ के समय, जो राजसी-घोड़ा छोड़ा गया था, उसे कुछ कुम्मणियों ने जलमहल से आगे, जयपुर के एक और प्रवेशद्वार (जिसका नाम बाद में जोरावर सिंह गेट रखा गया) के पास ही पकड़ लिया और अन्त में जयसिंह के अश्व के साथ जा रहे सरदार जोरावर सिंह घोड़ा पकड़ने वालों से युद्ध करके मारे गये।\n\nदूसरा अश्वमेध यज्ञ बड़े पैमाने पर जयसिंह ने वर्ष १७४२ ई० में करवाया। इन यज्ञों के अलावा जयपुर में पुरुषमेध यज्ञ, सर्वमेध यज्ञ, सोम यज्ञ आदि भी किये गये। इन यज्ञों के कारण देश के पंडित-जगत में इनकी बड़ी ख्याति हुई तथा सम्पूर्ण हिन्दू-समाज ने इनकी इस सांस्कृतिक-पहल की प्रशंसा की।\n\nआसपास की राजनैतिक उथल-पुथल के बावजूद जयपुर नगर उस समय विभिन्न विद्याओं, साहित्य और भारतीय-संस्कृति का आगार बन गया था। इसी कारण इसे दूसरी काशी भी कहा गया | कर्नल जेम्स टॉड ने भी माना है कि \"महाराज सवाई जयसिंह ने जयपुर को हिन्दूविद्याओं का शरणस्थल बना दिया था। इस तरह भारत में सदियों से यज्ञादि की जो परम्परा लगभग बन्द हो चुकी थी, उन्हें महाराजा सवाई जयसिंह ने जयपुर राज्य में फिर से प्रारम्भ किया।\"\n\nसवाई जयसिंह का स्थापत्य-कला को योगदान\n\nजयपुर : शिल्पशास्त्र के आधार पर नई राजधानी \nमहाराजा सवाई जयसिह ने एक नया राजधानी-नगर बसाने का विचार आमेर से दक्षिण में छ: मील दूर पौष वदी १ वि. सं. १७८४ तदनुसार नवम्बर २९ ई० १७२७ को पं० जगन्नाथ सम्राट के माध्यम से शिलान्यास करते हुए क्रियान्वित किया। सम्पूर्ण नगर-योजना दरबार के प्रमुख वास्तुविद विद्याधर चक्रवर्ती की तकनीकी सलाह से निर्मित हुई। नक्शा पहले कपड़े पर अमिट काली स्याही से तैयार किया गया। सवाई ने तालकटोरा तालाब बनवाया, मानसागर झील में 'जलमहल' निर्मित करवाया, प्राचीन कछावा किले जयगढ़ का पुनरुद्धार किया, आमेर के जो महल-भाग जयसिंह (प्रथम) ने बनवाए थे, उन सब का विस्तार किया तथा सुदर्शनगढ़ का महल भी बनवाया जिसको आज नाहरगढ़ का किला भी कहते हैं। विविध कला-कौशल विकास हेतु '६४ कारखाने' अर्थात् अलग-अलग विभाग स्थापित किये, नगर के बाहर आगरा रोड पर इनके द्वारा अपनी सिसोदिया रानी के लिए एक ग्रीष्मकालीन बाग़ और महल बनवाया गया। शहर में कल्कि का मंदिर और यज्ञस्तम्भ के पास भगवान विष्णु का मंदिर भी इन्होनें बनवाया। मथुरा में सीतारामजी का और गोवर्धन में गोवर्धनधारी के मंदिर भी इन्होनें ही बनवाये।\n\nनगर का वास्तु-कौशल \nनए नगर को ९ सामान क्षेत्रफल वाले खंडों (चौकड़ियों) में बांटा गया था, जिसके दो खण्ड मुख्य राजमहल 'चन्द्रमहल', विभिन्न राजकीय कारखानों, कुछ खास मंदिरों तथा वेधशाला के लिए आरक्षित रखे गये थे। सूरजपोल दरवाज़े से चांदपोल दरवाज़े तक सड़क की लम्बाई दो मील और चौड़ाई १२० फीट रखी गयी। इसी महामार्ग पर मध्य में तीन सुन्दर चौपड़ों का निर्माण भी प्रस्तावित किया गया जो यहाँ लगे हुए फव्वारों के लिए भूमिगत जलस्रोतों से जुड़े थे। शहर के चौतरफ बनाये गए परकोटे की दीवार २० से २५ फुट ऊंची तथा ९ फीट चौड़ी रखी गयी। इस परकोटे में (शहर में आने - जाने के लिए) सात सुन्दर प्रवेशद्वारों का निर्माण भी किया गया। रात को नगर-सुरक्षा हेतु इन्हें बंद कर दिया जाता था। सुन्दर राजसी राजमहल, भव्य-पाठशालाएं, बड़ी बड़ी, चौड़ी और एक दूसरे को समकोण पर विभाजित करती एकदम सीधी सड़कें, एक सी रूप-रचना के आकर्षक बाज़ार, जगह-जगह कलात्मक मंदिर, (राजा राम की अयोध्या के वास्तु से प्रभावित) आम-भवन-संरचनाएं, सड़कों के किनारे लगे घने छायादार पेड़, पीने के पानी का समुचित प्रबंध, व्यर्थ-जल-निकासी की उपयुक्त व्यवस्था, उद्यान, नागरिक-सुरक्षा, आदि इन सब बातों का पूर्व-नियोजन सवाई जयसिंह ने अपने नगर-कौशल में सफलतापूर्वक किया।\n\nजयपुर पर केन्द्रित संस्कृत महाकाव्य \nकविशिरोमणि भट्ट मथुरानाथ शास्त्री ने सन 1947 में 476 पृष्ठों में प्रकाशित अपना एक यशस्वी काव्य-ग्रन्थ जयपुर-वैभवम तो जयपुर के नगर-सौंदर्य, दर्शनीय स्थानों, देवालयों, मार्गों, यहाँ के सम्मानित नागरिकों, उत्सवों और त्योहारों आदि पर ही केन्द्रित किया था।\n\nखगोलशास्त्र और सवाई जयसिंह \nJai obs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|जयपुर वेधशाला का विहंगम दृश्य\n\nजयपुर के पुराने राजमहल' चन्द्र महल' के उत्तर में जयपुर नरेशों के आराध्य देव गोविन्ददेव जी का मन्दिर है, दुनिया भर में जंतर मंतर के नाम से मशहूर विशाल वेधशाला भी यहीं मौजूद है\n\nपत्थर के विशाल यंत्र और ग्रह नक्षत्रों की गणना के लिए बने , इन गणना-उपकरणों के निर्माता \nसवाई जयसिंह को बचपन से ही गणित और खगोल ज्योतिष में बड़ी गहरी दिलचस्पी थी\n\nकिन्तु महाराजा जयसिंह को खगोलविद्या में 'दीक्षित' करने का बड़ा श्रेय पंडित जगन्नाथ सम्राट को है। राजा को वेद पढ़ाने के लिए नियुक्त मराठी सम्मानित विद्वान भारतीय ज्योतिर्विज्ञान को योगदान देते हुए सम्राट जगन्नाथ ने 'सिद्धान्त कौस्तुभ' की रचना की तथा यूक्लिड के रेखागणित का अरबी से संस्कृत में अनुवाद किया।\n\nसवाई जयसिंह ने अपने गुरु ही के अनुसरण में यह अनुभव किया कि न्यूटन [Newton] और फ्लेमस्टीड [Flamsteed] आदि द्वारा उल्लेखित यूरोपीय वैज्ञानिकों के पीतल या धातु के खगोल-यंत्रों से मौसम, तापमान, घिसाई, आदि कई कारणों से गणना फलावट में अक्सर अन्तर आ जाया करता है, इसलिए इन्होंने सबसे पहले १७२४ ईस्वी में दिल्ली की वेधशाला में धातु को छोड़ कर चूने और तराशे गए पत्थर से बड़े-बड़े गणना यंत्र बनवाये।\n\nफिर इसी तरह इन्होंने जयपुर में १७३४ में और सन १७३२ से १७३४ के बीच मथुरा, बनारस और उज्जैन में भी अपने वास्तुविद विद्याधर के मार्गदर्शन में सम्राट जगन्नाथ द्वारा विकसित उन्नत यंत्रों- सम्राट-यन्त्र (लघु), नाडी-वलय-यन्त्र, कांति-वृक्ष-यन्त्र, यंत्रराज, दक्षिनोदक-भित्ति-यन्त्र, उन्नतांश-यन्त्र, जयप्रकाश-यन्त्र, सम्राट-यन्त्र (दीर्घ), शषतांश यंत्र, कपालीवलय यन्त्र, राशिवलय यन्त्र, चक्र यंत्र, राम यन्त्र, त्रिगंश यन्त्र आदि से युक्त नई वेधशालाएँ बनवाई।, मथुरा की वेधशाला नष्ट हो चुकी, काशी और उज्जैन की वेधशालाएं नष्ट होने के कगार पर हैं; अब केवल जयपुर और थोड़ी बहुत दिल्ल्ली की वेधशाला इनके वैज्ञानिक-व्यक्तित्व का स्मरण कराती हैं।\n\n जयपुर दरबार में विदेशी विद्वान\nजब इनको मालूम हुआ कि पश्चिम के ज्योतिषीगण द्वारा खासतौर पर पुर्तगाल में पिछले कुछ वर्षों में खगोलविद्या पर काफी काम हुआ है, इन्होंने गोवा के पुर्तगाली-गवर्नर के मार्फत पुर्तगाल के बादशाह को अनेक तोहफे भेजे तथा गवर्नर के मार्फत पुर्तगाल से खगोल विद्वान Padre Manoel Figueiredo को जयपुर बुलवाया। जयसिंह ने १७२७ में उसे (Manoel Figueiredo को) योरोप में इस विषय की सारी उपलब्ध नवीनतम पुस्तकें / रचनाएँ तथा दूर्वीक्षण यंत्र (टेलीस्कोप) लाने भेजा। वह जब नवम्बर १७३० में वापस आया तो अपने साथ खगोलज्ञ जेवियर डीसिल्वा को और कुछ दूरबीनें साथ लाया। जेवियर डीसिल्वा Pere de la Hire (1640-1718) की सारणी 'Tabulae Astronomicae' लिस्बन से अपने साथ लाया था। इन्होंने अपने विद्वानों की सहायता से उन सारणियों का अध्ययन किया और व्यावहारिक उपयोग के बाद उनमें त्रुटियाँ पाईं| अंततः इन्होंने अपने यंत्रों की गणना से पुनः नई सारिणी बनाई, जिसका बादशाह के नाम पर नाम जिज़-ए-मुहम्मदशाही रखा गया।\n\nइनके दरबार में चन्द्रनगर से आया फ्रांसीसी खगोलज्ञ क्लाड बोडियर था। इनके दरबार में जर्मनी से फादर ऐन्टोइन गेवेल्स परगुइर व आद्रें स्टोब्ल भी आये थे। एक और हिन्दुस्तानी विद्वान, इनके यहाँ केवलराम था, जो गुजरात से आया था। उसने खगोल सम्बन्धी आठ ग्रन्थ लिखे थे। उसको सवाई जयसिंह ने 'ज्योतिषराय' की उपाधि भी दी।\n\nमहाराजा सवाई जयसिंह ने युद्ध और राजनीति में उलझे रहने के बावजूद, नगर-निर्माण और खगोलशास्त्र में बड़ा काम किया। इन्होंने भारतीय खगोलविद्या के साथ यूनान, मध्य एशिया और योरोप में जो ग्रन्थ लिखे गये थे तथा जो यंत्र बने थे, उनको मंगवा कर उनका परीक्षण व उपयोग किया।282 साल पहले लकड़ी, चूने, पत्थर और धातु से निर्मित यंत्रों के माध्यम से आकाशीय घटनाओं के अध्ययन की भारतीय विद्या को 'अद्भुत' मानते हुए इस स्मारक को विश्व धरोहर सूची में शामिल किया गया है| इन्हीं यंत्रों के गणना के आधार पर आज भी जयपुर के स्थानीय पंचांग का प्रकाशन होता है और हर बरस आषाढ़ पूर्णिमा को खगोलशास्त्रियों द्वारा 'पवन धारणा' प्रक्रिया से आने वाली वर्षा की भविष्यवाणी की जाती है।\n\nभारत में जयसिंह से पूर्व, खगोलशास्त्र में अनेक दशकों यहाँ तक कि सदियों से कोई 'बड़ा' या उल्लेखनीय कार्य नहीं हुआ था, सवाई ने इस सांस्कृतिक-निर्वात की पूर्ति की। \n\n कल्कि का प्राचीन मन्दिर \nright|thumb|350px|कल्कि का ताम्रचित्र (१८वीं शती में निर्मित)\nजयपुर (राजस्थान, भारत) की 'बड़ी चौपड़' से आमेर की ओर जाने वाली सड़क सिरेड्योढ़ी बाज़ार में हवामहल के लगभग सामने भगवान कल्कि का प्राचीन मन्दिर अवस्थित है। जयपुर के संस्थापक सवाई जयसिंह ने पुराणों में वर्णित कथा के आधार पर कल्कि के मन्दिर का निर्माण सन् 1739 ई. में दाक्षिणात-शिखर-शैली में कराया था। संस्कृत विद्वान आचार्य देवर्षि कलानाथ शास्त्री के अनुसार, \"सवाई जयसिंह संसार के ऐसे पहले महाराजा रहे हैं, जिन्होंने जिस देवता का अभी तक अवतार हुआ नहीं, उसके बारे में कल्पना कर कल्कि की मूर्ति बनवाकर मन्दिर में स्थापित करायी।\" सवाई जयसिंह के तत्काली दरबारी कवि श्रीकृष्ण भट्ट कविकलानिधि ने अपने ”कल्कि-काव्य“ में मन्दिर के निर्माण और औचित्य का वर्णन किया है। तद्नुसार ऐसा उल्लेख है कि सवाई जयसिंह ने अपने पौत्र ”कल्कि प्रसाद“ (सवाई ईश्वरी सिंह के पुत्र) जिसकी असमय मृत्यु हो गई थी, उसकी स्मृति में यह मन्दिर स्थापित कराया। यहाँ श्वेत अश्व की प्रतिमा संगमरमर में उत्कीर्ण है जो बहुत सुन्दर, आकर्षक और सम्मोहक है। अश्व के चबूतरे पर लगे बोर्ड पर यह इबारत अंकित है- ”अश्व श्री कल्कि महाराज-मान्यता- अश्व के बाएँ पैर में जो गड्ढा सा (घाव) है, जो स्वतः भर रहा है, उसके भरने पर ही कल्कि भगवान प्रकट होगें।“\n\nजयगढ़ का दुर्ग \nअनेक स्थानों पर इस दुर्ग जयगढ़ का वर्णन किया जा चुका है, अतः पुनरावृत्ति अनावश्यक होगी। \n\n समाज-सुधारक के रूप में सवाई जयसिंह \nसवाई जयसिंह ने सभी समाजों के लिए परंपरा संबंधी सुधार-कार्य किये। ब्राह्मण समाज में कई सुधार करते हुए वैरागी साधुओं में व्याप्त व्यभिचार मिटाने के लिए इन्होंने उनको पुनर्विवाह कर अपनी पत्नी साथ रखने (गृहस्थ आश्रम में प्रवेश) का विधान किया। बादशाह से फकीरों व सन्यासियों की मृत्यु के बाद, उनकी सम्पत्ति राज्य के पक्ष में जब्त नहीं करने की आज्ञा जारी करवाई, किन्तु सन्यासियों को 'निजी सम्पत्ति' रखने से रोका। बादशाह से अनुरोध के बाद हिन्दुओं पर लगाया गया पुराना भयंकर टैक्स जजिया कर समाप्त करवाया, ब्राह्मणों और राजपूतों के शादीब्याह आदि में हैसियत से बाहर जा कर दहेज़ देने और मृत्युभोज आदि सामाजिक अवसरों पर धन की बर्बादी रोकने की कोशिश भी की। जगह-जगह धर्मशालाएं, कई संस्कृत पाठशालाएं और विद्यालय खोले, विधवा-विवाह का पक्ष लिया, स्त्री-हत्या, कन्या-वध रोका, 'सर्वधर्म समभाव' की भावना को बढ़ावा दिया, विशेषतः जयपुर में जैन संप्रदाय को प्रोत्साहित किया, दिल्ली, आगरा, अन्य स्थानों से बड़े २ व्यापारियों को ला कर जयपुर में बसाया, देश में घूम-घूम कर विद्वानों की खोज की, उन्हें राज-सम्मान बक्शा, बड़ी २ जागीरें दीं और उत्तर भारत के समूचे हिन्दू-समाज को ऐसे कठिन वक़्त बाहरी आक्रान्ताओं से मुक्त रखा, जब राजनैतिक उठापटक, केंद्र में प्रशासनिक अराजकता और अनेक राजपूताना राज्यों के बीच सर-फुट्टवल अपने चरम पर थी। \n\n शासन-व्यवस्था\nदिन प्रतिदिन का शासन राजा की आज्ञा से उनके दीवान चलाते थे। दीवानों या मंत्रियों की संख्या राजा की मर्जी के मुताबिक परिवर्तनशील थी। सेना संबंधी सारा काम बख्शी के अधिकार-क्षेत्र में था। जब सवाई जयसिंह गद्दी पर बैठे तब उनके तीन दीवान रामचन्द्र, किशनदास और बिहारीदास थे। वि. सं. १७५७ में इन्होने एक दीवान और बढ़ा कर चार कर दिये थे। वि. सं. १७७३-७४ में आठ दीवान थे। पहले आमेर-दरबार के लेखा-विभाग में 'जूनियर ऑडिटर' का काम कर चुके महान वास्तुविद विद्याधर चक्रवर्ती इनके राजस्व मंत्री (या देश-दीवान) थे। \n[[File:जयगढ़ किले में प्रदर्शित तोप जयबाण.JPG|thumb|जयगढ़ किले में ढाली गयी तोप जयबाण जिसका परीक्षण केवल एक बार हुआ और जिससे छोड़ा गया लोहे का गोला लगभग २२ किलोमीटर दूर चाकसू के आसपास जा कर गिरा था! : छायाकार: हे.शे. ]]\n\nकुंवर नटवर सिंह ने लिखा है-\"यदि जाटों का अभ्युदय न हुआ होता, तो जयपुर का राज्य यमुना-नदी तक फैल गया होता।\"\n\n जयपुर के सेना के कुछ सेना-अधिकारी \nजयसिंह के प्रमुख सेनापतियों में कुशलसिंह राजावत (झिलाय), कोजूरामती राजावत (ईसरदा), दलेलसिंह राजावत (धूला), रावल शेरसिंह नाथावत (सामोद), मोहनसिंह नाथावत (चौमू), बखतसिंह नाथावत (मोरीजा), पदमसिंह चतुरभुजोत (बगरु), श्यामसिंह खंगारोत (डिग्गी), केशरीसिंह नरुका (लदाणा), जोरावरसिंह नरुका (मानपुर-मांचेडी), संग्रामसिंह नरुका (उनियारा), गजसिंह नरुका (जावली), दीपसिंह शेखावत (कासली), शार्दूलसिंह शेखावत (झुंझुनूं), शिवसिंह शेखावत (सीकर), दीपसिंह कुम्भाणी (भांडारेज) जोरावरसिंह, श्योब्रह्मा (पोता) आदि थे। \n\nसेना दो प्रकार की होती थी जागीरदारों की सेना, जिसके एकत्र होने पर सवार और प्यादा आदि के हिसाब से रोजाना का खर्च दिया जाता था। खुद राज्य की ऐसी सेना बहुत छोटी होती थी जिसको मासिक तनख्वाह दी जाती थी। फौज में घुड़सवार सेना भी अपेक्षकृत कम होती थी। मुख्य अंगरक्षक, 'रिसाला' ही होता था जिसमें एक हजार घुड़सवार होते थे। बाकी पैदल सेना अधिक थी। जयसिंह ने अपनी सेना में तोड़ेदार बंदूकें शामिल कर दी थी, जिससे उनकी सेना की मारक-शक्ति बहुत बढ़ गई थी। यदुनाथ सरकार के शब्दों में- \n\"\nइनका तोपखाना भी बड़ा प्रभावी तथा शक्तिशाली था। जयगढ़ में ही तोपें निर्मित की जाती थीं। तोपें ढालने का वह 'यंत्र' और सांचे अभी भी जयगढ़ किले की फाउंड्री में मौजूद है। जयगढ़ में रखी जो बड़ी तोप 'जैबाण' है, उसके मुकाबले की देशज तोपें देश में बहुत कम है। (चित्र)\n\nसेना की भर्ती, वेतन, रसद आदि आवश्यक कार्यों के लिए बख्शी का (बहुत महत्वपूर्ण पद) होता था।\n\n निधन \nइनके समकालीन राजदरबार के कवि श्रीकृष्णभट्ट ने लिखा है कि 'यह अन्तिम दिनों में गोविन्ददेव के ध्यान में लीन रहने लग गए थे।'\n\nसवाई जयसिंह की मृत्यु जयपुर में में आश्विन सुदी १४ वि॰सं॰ १८००, सितम्बर २१, सन १७४३ ई० को वृद्धावस्था और बीमार रहने के बाद हुई। उन्हें गैटोर में अग्नि दी गयी। इनके सत्ताईस रानियां थी, जिनमें से तीन इनकी चिता के साथ सती हुईं | उन रानियों की छतरी जयपुर-आमेर मार्ग पर (जलमहल से पहले) है। \n\nजेम्स टॉड ने लिखा है- \n\n स्मारक और स्मृति-चिन्ह \n सवाई जयसिंह का एक बेहद सुन्दर स्मारक इनके पुत्र ईश्वर सिंह ने जयपुर में ब्रह्मपुरी के गैटोर में बनवाया!\n जयपुर के स्टेचू सर्किल पर बंगाली मूर्तिकार महेंद्र कुमार दास से संगमरमर में बनवा कर इनकी १२ फीट ऊंची एक आकर्षक प्रतिमा राजस्थान शासन ने जयपुर शहर की २५० वीं सालगिरह के अवसर पर 1978 में स्थापित की। . \n सवाई जयसिंह की स्मृति में नई दिल्ली में एक प्रमुख सड़क है। \nइसी तरह जयपुर के बनीपार्क क्षेत्र की एक प्रधान सड़क 'जयसिंह हाइवे' कहलाती है। \nखगोलशास्त्र के योग्य विद्वानों को 'सवाई जयसिंह सम्मान' जयपुर का भूतपूर्व राजघराना प्रतिवर्ष देता है। \nभारत सरकार ने इनके निर्माण जंतर-मंतर को एशियाई खेलों के 'प्रतीक-चिन्ह' के रूप में स्वीकार करते इस पर एक डाक टिकट 1984 में जारी किया था। . \n\n उत्तराधिकारी \nइनसे इनके तीन पुत्र थे-सबसे बड़े, दो लड़कों के पिता (२२ वर्षीय) शिवसिंह, मंझले ईश्वरसिंह और सब से छोटे माधोसिंह |\n\n शिवसिंह की मृत्यु\nशिवसिंह की मृत्यु का कारण 'वंश भास्कर ' के ख्यात-लेखक ने यह बताया है कि मंझले पुत्र ईश्वरसिंह के उकसाने पर सवाई जयसिंह ने ज़हर दे कर अपनी रानी के सहयोग से स्वयं अपने टीकाई पुत्र की हत्या कर दी थी, पर यदुनाथ सरकार जैसे इतिहासकार इसे 'गप्प' मानते हैं और स्वीकार नहीं करते| उनके अनुसार \" (अपने पिता की अनुपस्थिति में बादशाह द्वारा बनाये गए आगरा के सूबेदार) शिवसिंह की हैजे (कॉलेरा) से मथुरा में अकाल-मृत्यु १७२४ ईस्वी में हुई थी, जहाँ वह फौजदार पद पर थे|\" जब कि १९ वीं सदी के अंत में लिखे ग्रन्थ वीर विनोद (जिसे उदयपुर राज्य के शासक महाराणा सज्जन सिंह ने मेवाड़ के प्रामाणिक इतिहास लेखन का उत्तरदायित्व कविराज श्यामलदास को सौंपा था) में यह लिखा गया है \"माधोसिंह ने अपने बड़े भाई शिवसिंह को विष दे कर मार डाला था|\"\n\nसवाई जयसिंह इन तीन पुत्रों के अलावा दो पुत्रियां भी थीं पहली - विचित्र कंवर, जिनका विवाह अभयसिंह (जोधपुर) और छोटी किशन कंवर'', जिनका विवाह बून्दी के राजा दलेलसिंह के साथ हुआ।\n\nसन्दर्भ \n\nof the rulers of Jaipur\n[http ://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=8126718013]\n'जयपुर-दर्शन' प्रकाशक : प्रधान-सम्पादक : डॉ॰ प्रभुदयाल शर्मा 'सहृदय'नाट्याचार्य: वर्ष 1978 [पृष्ठ 210] प्रकाशक : 'जयपुर अढाई शती समारोह समिति', नगर विकास व्यास (अब जयपुर विकास प्राधिकरण) परिसर, भवानी सिंह मार्ग, जयपुर-4\n'संस्कृत-कल्पतरु' : संपादक : कलानाथ शास्त्री एवं घनश्याम गोस्वामी: 'मंजुनाथ शोध संस्थान', सी-8, पृथ्वीराज रोड, सी-स्कीम, जयपुर-302001\nडॉ॰ ज्ञानप्रकाश पिलानिया, 'Enlightened Government in Modern India: Heritage of Sawai Jai Singh ('हेरिटेज ऑफ़ सवाई जयसिंह') ISBN 8187359161, 9788187359166\nयदुनाथ सरकार : A History of Jaipur : Orient BlackSwan : ISBN 978-81-250-3691-3\nडॉ॰असीम कुमार राय की पुस्तक : \"the history of jaipur city\"\nकविशिरोमणि भट्ट मथुरानाथ शास्त्री: 'जयपुर-वैभवम'\nSarkar, Jadunath (1984, reprint 1994) A History of Jaipur, New Delhi: Orient Longman, ISBN 81-250-0333-9\nBowker, John, The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, New York, Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 103\nA B Umashankar Mitra (1995). \"Astronomical Observatories of Maharaja Jai Singh\". School Science (NCERT) 23 (4): 45–48.\nSharma, Virendra Nath (1995), Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy, Motilal Banarsi Das Publ., pp. 8–9, ISBN 81-208-1256-5\nBaber, Zaheer (1996), 'The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India', State University of New York Press, pp. 82–90, ISBN 0-7914-2919-9\nJyoti J. (2001) 'Royal Jaipur', Roli Books, ISBN 81-7436-166-9\nTillotson G, (2006) 'Jaipur-Nama', Penguin books\nMichiel Schwarz, (1980) 'Observatoria : de astronomische instrumenten van Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II in New Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain en Benares', Amsterdam : Westland/Utrecht Hypotheekbank\nBrindaban, 'Safīnā-i Khusgo', r. 123, Khudabaksha Library., Patna\nDastur Kaumvār, 18, 19 & 20, Jaipur State, Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner.\nDe Bois, Joseph. 'Introduction to de La Hire's Tabulae astronomicae', manuscript, Sawai Man Singh II Museum, Jaipur.\n'Gazeta de Lisboa occidental' (in short Gazeta) (1) March 10, 1729, p. 80, (2) Jan. 20, 1729, p. 24.\n'Jām-i Bahādur' Khānī' (1835) by Janupuri, G. H., p. 579, Calcutta, as quoted by Khan Gori, S. A.\nKaye, G. R. (1918). 'The Astronomical Observatories of Jai Singh', Calcutta. Reprint 1973, Indological Book House, Delhi.\nKhan, Gori, S. A. (1980). 'Impact of Modern European Astronomy on Jai Singh', Indian Journal of History of Science, 15, 50-57.\n'Lettres édifiantes et curieuses' (1843) (in short Lettres) tome deuxieme, Paris.\nPurohit Hari Narayan Collection, No. 309/10, Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.\n'Samrāta Siddhānt'a of Jagannāth Samrata. see Sharma, R. S. (1967).\nSharma, R. S. (1967). Ed. 'Samrāta Siddhānta of Jagannath Samrat', 2 1032, Indian Ins. Astro. Sanskrit Research, Reprint 1967, New Delhi.\nSharma, V. N. (1982). 'Jai Singh, His European astronomers and the Copernican Revolution', Indian Journal of History of Science, 17(2), 345-352.\nSharma, V. N. (1982). 'The Impact of Eighteenth Century Jesuit Astronomers on the astronomy of India and China'. Indian Journal of History of Science, 17 (2)345-352.\nSharma, V. N. (1984). 'Jesuit Astronomers in Eighteenth Century India', Archives Internationales D'Histoire Des Sciences, 34, 199-207.\nSharma, V. N. (1987). 'The Astronomical Endeavors of Jai Singh', Interaction between Indian and Central Asian Sciences and Technology in Medieval Times, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi.\nTozis (1) 'Bundles Imarat Khana', Jaipur State, V. S. 1791, Rajasthan, State Archives, Bikaner, (2) Daftar Nushkha Punya, V. S. 1770-1797, Jaipur State, Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner (3) Pothikhana, Jaipure State, V. S. 1800, Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner.\n'Zīj Jadīd Muhammad Shāhī', M. S. Add. 14370: f. 1. Dept. Oriental MSS., The British Library London, England.\n\nइन्हें भी देखें\nजन्तर मन्तर\nजगन्नाथ सम्राट—महाराजा जयसिंह द्वितीय के दरबार के महान गणितज्ञ एवं खगोलविद\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ\n सवाई जयसिंह : राजेन्द्र शंकर भट्ट: नेशनल बुक ट्रस्ट (अंग्रेज़ी अनुवाद: शैलेश कुमार झा) २००५ संस्करण \n'राजस्थान का इतिहास' भाग-2 : लेफ्टिनेंट कर्नल जेम्स टॉड, पृष्ठ 119 : वर्ष २०११ : 'साहित्यागार' प्रकाशन, जयपुर\nBuilding Jaipur: The Making of an Indian City (गूगल पुस्तक ; By Vibhuti Sachdev, Giles Henry Rupert Tillotson)\nजयसिंह और उनकी वेधशालाएँ (शुकदेव प्रसाद)\n\nश्रेणी:राजस्थान का इतिहास\nश्रेणी:जयपुर के लोग\nश्रेणी:राजस्थान के महाराजा\nश्रेणी:जयपुर\nश्रेणी:व्यक्तिगत जीवन\nश्रेणी:इतिहास\nश्रेणी:भारतीय वैज्ञानिक\nश्रेणी:भारतीय गणितज्ञ\nश्रेणी:भारत\nश्रेणी:हिन्दी विकि डीवीडी परियोजना\nश्रेणी:जयपुर के महाराजा", "ताप्ती नदी\nताप्ती (संस्कृत : तापी, मराठी : तापी ; गुजराती : તાપ્તી) पश्चिमी भारत की प्रसिद्ध नदी है। यह मध्य प्रदेश राज्य के बैतूल जिले के मुलताई से निकलकर सतपुड़ा पर्वतप्रक्षेपों के मध्य से पश्चिम की ओर बहती हुई महाराष्ट्र के खानदेश के पठार एवं सूरत के मैदान को पार करती है और गुजरात स्थित खम्भात की खाड़ी, अरब सागर में गिरती है। नदी का उद्गगम् स्थल मुल्ताई है। यह भारत की उन मुख्य नदियों में है जो पूर्व से पश्चिम की तरफ बहती हैं, अन्य दो हैं - नर्मदा नदी और माही नदी।\n\nयह नदी पूर्व से पश्चिम की ओर लगभग 740 किलोमीटर की दूरी तक बहती है और खम्बात की खाड़ी में जाकर मिलती है। सूरत बन्दरगाह इसी नदी के मुहाने पर स्थित है। इसकी प्रधान उपनदी का नाम पूर्णा है। इस नदी को सूर्यपुत्री भी कहा जाता है।\n\nसमुद्र के समीप इसकी ३२ मील की लंबाई में ज्वार आता है, किंतु छोटे जहाज इसमें चल सकते हैं। पुर्तगालियों एवं अंग्रेजों के इतिहास में इसके मुहाने पर स्थित स्वाली बंदरगाह का बड़ा महत्व है। गाद जमने के कारण अब यह बंदरगाह उजाड़ हो गया है।\n\nनाम \n\nताप्ती नदी का उद्गम स्थल मध्य प्रदेश के बैतूल जिले में मुल्ताई नामक स्थान है। इस स्थान का मूल नाम मूलतापी है जिसका अर्थ है तापी का मूल या तापी माता। हिन्दू मान्यता अनुसार ताप्ती को सूर्य एवं उनकी एक पत्नी छाया की पुत्री माना जाता है और ये शनि की बहन है। थाईलैंड की तापी नदी का नाम भी अगस्त १९१५ में भारत की इसी ताप्ती नदी के नाम पर ही रखा गया है। महाभारत, स्कंद पुराण एवं भविष्य पुराण में ताप्ती नदी की महिमा कई स्थानों पर बतायी गई है।ताप्ती नदी का विवाह संवरण नामक राजा के साथ हुुुआ था जो कि वरुण देवता के अवतार थे।\n\nनदी घाटी एवं सहायक नदियां \n\nताप्ती नदी की घाटी का विस्तार कुल 65,145 कि.मी² में है, जो भारत के कुल क्षेत्रफ़ल का २ प्रतिशत है। यह घाटी क्षेत्र महाराष्ट्र में 51,504 कि.मी², मध्य प्रदेश में 9,804 कि.मी² एवं गुजरात में 3,837 कि.मीm² है। ये घाटी महाराष्ट्र उत्तरी एवं पूर्वी जिलों जैसे अमरावती, अकोला, बुल्ढाना, वाशिम, जलगांव, धुले, नंदुरबार एवम नासिक में फ़ैली है, साथ ही मध्य प्रदेश के बैतूल और बुरहानपुर तथा गुजरात के सूरत एवं तापी जिलों में इसका विस्तार है।इसके जलग्रहण क्षेत्र का79%गुजरात शेष मध्य प्रदेश तथा महाराष्ट्र राज्य में पड़ता है\n\nसहायक नदियाँ \nताप्ती नदी की प्रधान सहायक नदियां हैं- मिन्धोला, गिरना, पन्ज़ारा, वाघूर, बोरी एवं आनेर। इनके अलाव अन्य छोटी सहायक नदियाम इस प्रकार से हैं:\n अरुणावती नदी, शिरपुर\n गोमती नदी, नन्दुरबार\n वाकी नदी, धुले जिला, महाराष्ट्र\n बुरई नदी, धुले\n पन्ज़ारा नदी, जलगांव एवं धुले जिले\n कान नदी, धुले\n बोरी नदी, जलगांव\n नेर नदी, जलगांव एवं धुले\n गिरना नदी, नासिक, मालेगांव एवं जलगांव जिले। ये नदी ताप्ती में धुले एवं जलगांव जिलों की सीमा पर कपिलेश्वर में मिलती है।\n तितूर नदी, जलगांव\n मौसम नदी, मालेगांव\n वाघूर नदी, जलगांव, औरंगाबाद\n पूर्णा नदी, अमरावती, अकोला, बुल्धाना एवं जलगांव जिले, महाराष्ट्र एवं मध्य प्रदेश। यह ताप्ती में चांगदेव पर संगम करती है।\n नलगंगा नदी, बुल्ढाना\n विश्वगंगा नदी, बुल्ढाना\n निपणी नदी, बुल्ढाना\n मान नदी, बुल्ढाना, अकोला\n मास नदी, बुल्ढाना\n उतावली नदी, बुल्ढाना, अकोला\n विश्वमित्री नदी, अकोला\n निर्गुण नदी, वाशिम, अकोला\n गांधारी नदी, अकोला\n आस नदी, अकोला\n वान नदी, बुल्ढाना, अकोला, अमरावती \n मोरना नदी, अकोला, वाशिम\n शाहनूर नदी, अकोला, अमरावती\n भावखुरी नदी, अमरावती\n कतेपूर्णा नदी, अकोला, वाशिम\n उमा नदी, अकोला, वाशिम\n पेन्ढी नदी, अकोला, अमरावती\n चंद्रभागा नदी, अमरावती\n भूलेश्वरी नदी, अमरावती\n आर्णा नदी, अमरावती\n गादग नदी, अमरावती\n सिपना नदी, अमरावती\n खापरा नदी, अमरावती\n खांडू नदी, अमरावती\n तिगरी नदी, अमरावती\n सुरखी नदी, अमरावती\n बुर्शी नदी, अमरावती\n गन्जल नदी, बैतूल\n अम्भोरा नदी एवं तवा नदी, बैतूल \n नेसु नदी, सूरत जिला, गुजरात\n\nदर्शनीय स्थल \n\nनदी के तटवर्ती प्रमुख शहरों में आते हैं: मुल्ताई, नेपानगर, बैतूल और बुरहानपुर मध्य प्रदेश में, तथा भुसावल महाराष्ट्र्र में एवं सूरत और सोनगढ़ गुजरात में। नदी पर प्रमुख मार्ग सेतुओं में धुले के सवालदे का राष्ट्रीय राजमार्ग ३ एवं भुसावल-खंडवा रेलमार्ग का भुसावल रेल सेतु जो मध्य रेलवे में आता है। इस नदी पर जलगांव में हथनूर बांध एवं सोनगढ़ में उकई बांध भी बने हैं। सूरत एवं कमरेज में ३ सेतु तथा राष्ट्रीय राजमार्ग ८ पर सूरत सहित १० सेतु बने हैं जिनमें से दो निर्माणाधीन हैं। इनमें से एक गुजरात में रज्जु सेतु भी है।\nइनके अलावा प्रकाशा और सारंगखेड़ा के निकट शहादा में छोटे छोटे बैराज भी बने हैं। प्रकाशा एक पवित्र हिदू तीर्थ भी है जो ताप्ती का तटवर्ती शहर है और यहां भगवान शिव का एक मन्दिर, केदारेश्वर स्थित है। यह इस क्षेत्र का प्राचीनतम स्थान है।\n\nइनके अलावा तटवर्ती अन्य महत्त्वपूर्ण स्थानों में अमरावती जिले का मेलघाट बा घ रिज़र्व नदी के दक्षिण-पूर्वी तट पर स्थित है। यह बाघ परियोजना (प्रोजेक्ट टाइगर) के अन्तर्गत्त आता है और महाराष्ट्र एवं मध्य प्रदेश की सीमा पर स्थित है। इनके साथ ही बुरहानपुर के निकट ही ऐतिहासिक असीरगढ़ दुर्ग भी स्थित है, जिसे दक्खिन की कुंजी भी कहा जाता है। जलगांव में चांगदेव में चांगदेव महाराज का एक मन्दिर भी स्थित है।\n\nताप्ती के सात कुण्ड \nताप्ती नदी के मूलस्थान मुल्तापी में एवं उसके सीमावर्ती क्षेत्र में सात कुण्ड अलग - अलग नामों से बने हुए हैं और उनके बारे में विभिन्न कहानियां प्रचलित है।\n\n सूर्यकुण्ड \nयहां भगवान सूर्य ने स्वंय स्नान किया था।\n\n ताप्ती कुण्ड \nसूर्य के तेज प्रकोप से पशु पक्षी नर किन्नर देव दानव आदि की रक्षा करने हेतु ताप्ती माता की पसीने के तीन बूंंदें के रूप में आकाश धरती और फ़िर पाताल पहुंची। तवही एक बूंद इस कुण्ड में पहुंची और बहती हुई आगे नदी रूप बन गई।\n\n धर्म कुण्ड \nयहां यमराज या धर्मराज ने स्वंय स्नान किया जिस कारण से यह धर्म कुण्ड कहलाता है।\n\n पाप कुण्ड \nपाप कुण्ड में सच्चे मन से पापी व्यक्ति सूर्यपुत्री का ध्यान करके स्नान करता है तो उसके पाप यहां पर धुल जाते है।\n\n नारद कुण्ड \nयहां पर देवर्षि नारद ने श्राप रूप में हुए कोढ के रोग से मुक्ति पाई थी एवं बारह वर्षो तक मां ताप्ती की तपस्या करके उनसे वर मांगा था। उसी से उन्हें पुराण की चोरी के कारण कोढ़ के श्राप से मुक्ति मिल पाई।\n\n शनि कुण्ड \nशनिदेव अपनी बहन ताप्ती के घर पर आने पर इसी कुण्ड में स्नान करने के बाद उनसे मिलने गए थे। इस कुण्ड में स्नान करके मनुष्य को शनिदशा से लाभ मिलता है।\n\n नागा बाबा कुण्ड ; \nयह नागा सम्प्रदाय के नागा बाबाओं का कुण्ड है जिन्होने यहां के तट पर कठोर तपस्या करके भगवान शिव को प्रसन्न किया था। इस कुण्ड के पास सफेद जनेउ धारी शिवलिंग भी है।\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n [[भारत की नदी प्रणालियाँ|भारत में नदियों की सूची]h\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nबाहरी कड़ियां \nताप्ती नदी का जलभराव मानचित्र एवं आंकड़े —वर्ल्ड रिसोर्सेज़ इन्स्टिट्यूट \nताप्ती नदी के जन्म की कथा नवभारत टाइम्स, १४ अगस्त, २०११, लेखक: रामकिशोर पंवार, अभिगमन तिथि: १७ फ़रवरी, २०१५\n\nश्रेणी:महाराष्ट्र की नदियां\nश्रेणी:मध्य प्रदेश की नदियाँ\nश्रेणी:गुजरात की नदियाँ\nश्रेणी:खम्भात की खाड़ी\nश्रेणी:ताप्ती नदी\nश्रेणी:सूरत", "कौषीतकि ब्राह्मणोपनिषद\nकौषीतकि ब्राह्मणोपनिषद कौषीतकि उपनिषद का पूरा नाम है। यह एक ऋग्वेदीय उपनिषद है।कौषीतकि उपनिषद ॠग्वेद के कौषीतकि ब्राह्मण का अंश है। इसमें कुल चार अध्याय हैं। इस उपनिषद में जीवात्मा और ब्रह्मलोक, प्राणोपासना, अग्निहोत्र, विविध उपासनाएं, प्राणतत्व की महिमा तथा सूर्य, चन्द्र, विद्युत मेघ, आकाश, वायु, अग्नि, जल, दर्पण और प्रतिध्वनि में विद्यमान चैतन्य तत्व की उपासना पर प्रकाश डाला गया है। अन्त में 'आत्मतत्त्व' के स्वरूप और उसकी उपासना से प्राप्त फल पर विचार किया गया है।\n\nप्रथम अध्याय \nप्रथम अध्याय में गौतम ऋषि (उद्दालक) एवं गर्ग ऋषि के प्रपौत्र चित्र के संवादों द्वारा 'ब्रह्मज्ञान' के लिए किये जाने वाले अग्निहोत्र तथा उसकी फलश्रुति पर प्रकाश डाला गया है। जब मृत्यु के उपरान्त साधक ब्रह्मलोक पहुंचता हैं, तो उसका सामना अप्सराओं और एक विचित्र पंलग (पर्यंक) पर बैठे ब्रह्माजी से होता है। वह उनसे बातें करता है। इस वार्तालाप को 'पर्यंक-विद्या' भी कहते हैं। गर्ग ऋषि के प्रपौत्र, महर्षि चित्र, यज्ञ करने का निश्चय करके अरुण के पुत्र महात्मा उद्दालक (गौतम) को प्रधान ऋत्विक के रूप में आमन्त्रित करते हैं, परन्तु मुनि उद्दालक स्वयं न जाकर अपने पुत्र श्वेतकेतु को यज्ञ सम्पन्न कराने के लिए भेज देते हैं। श्वेतकेतु अपने पिता की आज्ञानुसार वहां पहुंचकर एक ऊंचे आसन पर विराजमान होते हैं। तब चित्र उससे प्रश्न करता है-'हे गौतमकुमार! इस लोक में कोई ऐसा आवरणयुक्त स्थान है, जहां तुम मुझे ले जाकर रख सकते हो या फिर उसमें भी कोई ऐसा सर्वथा पृथक् और विलक्षण आवरण से शून्य पद है, जिसको जानकर तुम उसी लोक में मुझे प्रतिष्ठित कर सकते हो?'\n\nचित्र की बात सुनकर श्वेतकेतु ने महर्षि चित्र से कहा-'हे भगवन! मैं यह सब नहीं जानता। मेरे पिता आचार्य हैं। मैं उन्हीं से इस प्रश्न को पूछूंगा।' \n\nऐसा कहकर श्वेतकेतु यज्ञ का आसन छोड़कर चले गये और अपने पिता से प्रश्न किया-'हे पिताश्री! महर्षि चित्र ने जो प्रश्न मुझसे किया है, उसका उत्तर में कैसे दूं?' श्वेतकेतु ने चित्र का प्रश्न अपने पिता के सामने दोहरा दिया। तब उद्दालक ऋषि ने कहा-'पुत्र! मैं भी इसका उत्तर नहीं जानता। हम दोनों महर्षि चित्र की यज्ञशाला में चलकर व इसका अध्ययन करके ही इस विद्या को प्राप्त करेंगे।'\nतदनन्तर दोनों पिता-पुत्र प्रसिद्ध आरूणि मुनि के हाथ से समिधा ग्रहण करके जिज्ञासु-भाव से महर्षि चित्र के पास गये और कहा कि वे विद्या-प्राप्ति हेतु उनके पास आये हैं। चित्र ने कहा-'हे गौतम! आप ब्राह्मणों में अति पूजनीय हैं और ब्रह्मविद्या के अधिकारी है; क्योंकि मेरे पास आते हुए आपके मन में अपनी श्रेष्ठता का तनिक-भी अभिमान नहीं है। मैं निश्चय ही आपको इसका बोध कराऊंगा।'\nमहर्षि चित्र ने कहा-'हे विप्रवर! जो व्यक्ति अग्निहोत्रादि सत्कार्यों का अनुष्ठान करने वाले हैं, वे सभी इस लोक से चन्द्रलोक, अर्थात स्वर्गलोक की ओर गमन करते हैं, लेकिन जो व्यक्ति स्वर्गीय सुख के प्रति आसक्त होकर चन्द्रलोक स्वीकार कर लेता है, उसके सभी पुण्य नष्ट हो जाते हैं और वह पुन: इस धरती पर वापस आ गिरता है, अर्थात उसका फिर से पुनर्जन्म हो जात है। उसे मोक्ष नहीं मिल पाता।'\nमहर्षि चित्र के ऐसा कहने पर गौतम मुनि ने फिर पूछा-'हे भगवन! मुझे बतायें कि मैं कौन हूँ? मुझे इस भवसागर से पार होने का वह उपाय बतायें, जिससे मैं समस्त भव-बन्धनों से मुक्त हो सकूं?'\n\nब्रह्मज्ञान क्या हैं? \nतब महर्षि चित्र ने उसे 'ब्रह्मज्ञान' का उपदेश दिया और सर्वप्रथम बताया कि जीवात्मा इस लोक से परलोक अथवा 'ब्रह्मलोक' तक दो मार्गों से ही जा सकता है। एक 'पितृयान' मार्ग है और दूसरा 'देवयान' मार्ग। पितृयान मार्ग से जाने वाले साधक का बार-बार जन्म होता है, उसे मोक्ष प्राप्त नहीं होता, परन्तु देवयान मार्ग से जाने वाले साधक का पुनर्जन्म नहीं होता, उसे मोक्ष प्राप्त हो जाता है। स्वर्ग व नरक के वास्तविक स्वरूप को जानकर, जो साधक विरक्त हो जाता है, वही गुरु से 'ब्रह्मविद्या' पाने का अधिकारी होता है।\n\nमहर्षि चित्र ने कहा-'हे गौतम! देवयान मार्ग से जाने वाला साधक क्रमश: अग्निलोक, वायुलोक, सूर्यलोक, वरुणलोक, इन्द्रलोक व प्रजापतिलोक आदि छह लोकों में से होता हुआ 'ब्रह्मलोक' में प्रवेश कर पाता है। 'ब्रह्मलोक' के प्रवेश द्वार पर 'अर' नाम का एक बड़ा जलाशय है। यह जलाशय काम, क्रोध, मोह आदि शत्रुओं द्वारा निर्तित है। यहां पल-भर का भी अहंकार और काम, क्रोध, लोभ आदि का बन्धन, साधक के सभी पुण्यों को नष्ट कर डालता है। 'इष्ट' की प्राप्ति में यह जलाशय सबसे बड़ी बाधा है, परन्तु जो इसे पार कर लेता है, वह फिर से पावन विरजा नदी के किनारे पहुंच जाता है। उसका समस्त श्रम और वृद्धावस्था, विरजा नदी के दर्शन मात्र से ही दूर हो जाते हैं। उसमें आगे 'इल्य' नामक वृक्ष (पृथिवी का एक नाम इला भी है) आता है। यहीं पर अनेक देवताओं के सुन्दर उपवनों, उद्यानों, बावली, कूप, सरोवर, नदी और जलाशय आदि से युक्त नगर है, जो विरजा नदी और अर्धचन्द्राकार परकोटे से घिरा है। ये सभी मन को बार-बार मोहने के लिए सामने आते हैं, किन्तु जो साधक इनमें लिप्त न होकर आगे बढ़ जाता है, उसे सामने ही ब्रह्मा जी का एक विशाल देवालय दिखाई पड़ता है। इस देवालय का नाम 'अपराजिता' है। सूर्य की प्रखर रश्मियों से युक्त होने के कारण इसे विजित करना अत्यन्त कठिन है। इसकी रक्षा मेघ, यज्ञ से उपलक्षित वायु तथा आकाश-स्वरूप इन्द्र एवं प्रजापति द्वारा की जाती है, परन्तु जो उन्हें पराजित कर लेता है, वह ब्रह्मलोक में प्रवेश कर जाता है। वहां एक विशाल वैभव-सम्पन्न सभा-मण्डप के मध्य 'विचक्षणा' (अध्यात्मिक) नामक वेदी (चबूतरा) पर सर्वशक्तिमान प्राणस्वरूप ब्रह्मा जी एक अति सुन्दर सिंहासन (पंलग) पर विराजमान दिखाई पड़ते हैं। विश्व जननी अम्बा और अम्बवयवी नामक अप्सराएं उनकी सेवा में रत हैं, जो ब्रह्मवेत्ता साधक का स्वागत करती हैं और उसे अलंकृत करके ब्रह्मा जी के सम्मुख उपस्थित करती हैं।'\nइस उपनिषद में एक अत्यन्त सुन्दर रूपक बांधकर देवयान मार्ग से ब्रह्मलोक तक पहुंचने का मार्ग दिखाया गया है। यहीं पर ऋषि कहता है कि रथ में बैठकर यात्रा करने वाला पुरुष, जिस प्रकार रथ के पहियों को दौड़ते हुए तो देखता है, परन्तु वह पहियों की गति के भूमि से होने वाले संयोग को नहीं देख पाता। इसी प्रकार ब्रह्मलोक की यात्रा करने वाला साधक रथ पर बैठकर दिन और रात को तो देखता है, काल की गति को भी देखता है, पाप-पुण्य को भी देखता है, परन्तु वह उनमें लिप्त नहीं होता। वह उनसे दूर रहकर ही 'ब्रह्म' को प्राप्त करता है। काम, क्रोध, लोभ, मोह और अहंकार उसके मार्ग के बाधक नहीं बनता। \nमहर्षि चित्र आगे बताते हैं-'हे गौतम! ब्रह्मवेत्ता बन साधक अपनी सम्पूर्ण इन्द्रियों में ब्रह्मगन्ध, ब्रह्मरस, ब्रह्मतेज, ब्रह्मयश तथा ब्रह्मनाद का अनुभव करता है। तब ब्रह्मा जी उस ब्रह्मज्ञानी से प्रश्न करते हैं-'तुम कौन हो?' उस समय ब्रह्मा जी द्वारा पूछे गये प्रश्नों का उत्तर ब्रह्मज्ञानी को इस प्रकार देना चाहिए—\n\n'मैं वसन्त ऋतु-रूप, स्वयं प्रकाश परब्रह्म का ही अंश हूं। जो आप हैं, वही मैं हूं।'\nइस पर ब्रह्माजी पूछते हैं-'मैं कौन हूं?'\nब्रह्मवेत्ता उत्तर देता है-'आप सत्य हैं।'\nब्रह्मा जी पूछते हैं-'जिसे तुम सत्य कहते हो, वह क्या है?'\nब्रह्मवेत्ता का उत्तर-'जो समस्त देवताओं एवं प्राणों से भी सर्वथा भिन्न एवं विशेष लक्षणों से युक्त है, वह 'सत्' है और जो देवता प्राणस्वरूप है, वह 'त्य' है। वाणी के द्वारा जिस तत्त्व को 'सत्य' कहते हैं, वह यही है। यह और आप सभी कुछ हैं। अत: आप ही 'सत्य' हैं।'\nब्रह्मा जी पूछते हैं-'तुम मेरे पुरुषवाचक नामों को किससे ग्रहण करते हो?'\nसाधक का उत्तर-'प्राण से।'\nब्रह्मा जी का प्रश्न-'स्त्रीवाचक नामों को किससे ग्रहण करते हो?'\nसाधक का उत्तर-'वाणी से।'\nप्र.-'नपुंसकवाची नामों को किससे ग्रहण करते हो?'\nउ.-'मन से।'\nप्र.-'गन्ध का अनुभव किससे करते हो?'\nउ.-'प्राण से- घ्राणेन्द्रिय से।'\nप्र.–'रूपों को किससे ग्रहण करते हो?'\nउ.-'नेत्रों से।'\nप्र.-'शब्दों को किससे सुनते हो?'\nउ.-'कानों से।'\nप्र.-'अन्न का आस्वादन किससे करते हो?'\nउ.-'जिह्वा से।'\nप्र.-'कर्म किससे करते हो?'\nउ.-'हाथों से।'\nप्र.-'सुख-दु:ख का अनुभव किससे करते हो?'\nउ.-'शरीर से।'\nप्र.-'रति का आनन्द एवं प्रजोत्पत्ति का सुख किससे उठाते हो?'\nउ.-'उपस्थ से, अर्थात इन्द्री से।'\nप्र.-'गमन-क्रिया किससे करते हो?'\nउ.-'दोनों पैरों से।' \nप्र.-'बुद्धि-वृत्तियों को, ज्ञातव्य विषयों को और मनोरथों को किससे ग्रहण करते हो?'\nउ.-'प्रज्ञा से।'\n\nइस प्रकार ब्रह्मा जी के सभी प्रश्नों का उत्तर देने के उपरान्त स्वयं ब्रह्मा जी साधक से कहते हैं कि 'जल' आदि प्रसिद्ध पांच महाभूत मेरे स्थान हैं। अत: यह मेरा लोक भी जल आदि तत्त्व द्वारा प्रधान है। तुम मुझसे अभिन्न मेरे उपासक हो। अत: यह तुम्हारा भी लोक है।'\nइस प्रकार वह साधक ब्रह्मा की 'जिति' (विजय प्राप्त करने की शक्ति) और 'व्यष्टि' (सर्वव्यापक शक्ति), दोनों को प्राप्त कर लेता है।'\nमहर्षि चित्र ने इस प्रकार 'ब्रह्मज्ञान' का उपदेश देकर गौतम ऋषि को अभिभूत किया। ऋषि गौतम अपने पुत्र श्वेतकेतु के साथ महर्षि चित्र को प्रणाम करके वापस लौट गये।\n\nद्वितीय अध्याय \nइस अध्याय में 'प्राणतत्त्व' की उपासना और 'ब्रह्मविद्या' के व्यावहारिक पक्ष पर प्रकाश डाला गया है। इसके अतिरिक्त अपने पापों को नष्ट करने के लिए 'सूर्योपासना' पुत्र की कुशल-मंगल कामना और सुरक्षा के लिए, 'चन्द्रोपासना,' अच्छे स्वास्थ्य के लिए 'सोमोपासना,'मोक्ष-प्राप्ति के लिए 'प्राणोंपासना' तथा पुत्र को अपने सम्पूर्ण जीवन का दायित्व-भार सौंपते समय 'सम्प्रदान कर्म' का बड़ा ही सांगोपांग वर्णन किया है। \nप्राणतत्त्व की उपासना\nइस अध्याय में 'प्राण' को ही 'ब्रह्म' का रूप माना है। प्राण की कल्पना राजा के रूप में की गयी है। 'मन' उसका दूत है, 'वाणी' उसकी रानी है, 'चक्षु' उसकी सुरक्षा करने वाले मन्त्री हैं, 'कर्णेन्द्रिय' सन्देश ग्रहण करने वाले द्वारपाल हैं। प्राण के आते ही समस्त इन्द्रियों की सेवा प्राण-रूपी राजा को स्वत: ही प्राप्त हो जाती है। सुप्रसिद्ध महात्मा शुष्कभृंगार 'प्राण' को ही ब्रह्म का रूप स्वीकार करते हैं। अत: प्राण की उपासना ही इष्ट सिद्धियों को देने वाली है। जीवन में श्रेष्ठता, सुख-समृद्धि, यश, तेजस्विता तथा ज्ञान प्राणोपासना द्वारा हो सकता है। \nसूर्योपासना\nकौषीतकि ऋषि ने अपने अनुभव से सूर्योपासना तीन बार-प्रात:काल, मध्याह्नकाल और सांयकाल- करने की बात कही है। उन्होंने कहा है कि प्रात:काल यज्ञोपवीत को सव्य भाव से बाएं कन्धे पर रखकर आचमन करें। फिर जलपात्र को तीन बार शुद्ध जल से भरकर, उदय होते हुए सूर्य को अर्घ्य प्रदान करें और इस मन्त्र का उच्चारण करें—'ॐ वर्गोऽसि पाप्मानं मे वृडधि।' इस प्रकार मध्याह्नकाल में, भगवान भास्कर को स्मरण करें और इस मन्त्र का उच्चारण करें-'ॐ उद्वर्गोऽसि पाप्मानं में संवृडधि।' इसी प्रकार सांयकाल में, अस्त होते हुए सूर्य की उपासना करें और इस मन्त्र का उच्चारण करें-\t'ॐ संवर्गोऽसि पाप्मानं मे संवृडधि।' इस प्रकार सूर्योपासना करने से मनुष्य के दिन-रात के सारे पापों का शमन हो जाता है, पाप कर्म न करने की शक्ति उत्पन्न हो जाती है। \nचन्द्रोपासना\nअमावस्या में, जब सूर्य पश्चिम भाग में स्थित हो तथा चन्द्रमा सुषुम्ना नामक रश्मि में चन्द्रमा स्थित हो, तब इस विधि से चन्द्रोपासना करनी चाहिए। अर्घ्य देने वाले पात्र में दो हरी दूर्वा के अंकुर भी अवश्य रख लें। तब अर्घ्य देते हुए इस मन्त्र का उच्चारण करें-'यत्ते सुसीमं हृदयमधि चन्द्रमसिश्रितं तेनामृतत्वस्येशाने माऽहं पौत्रमद्यं रूदम्।' इस प्रकार की प्रार्थना से उपासक पुत्र शोक से बचा रहता है तथा पुत्र न होने की स्थिति में पुत्र-रत्न प्राप्त कर लेता है। \nसोमोपासना\nऋषि ने सोमोपासना को स्वस्थ शरीर का कारण माना है। वह सोम से प्रार्थना करता है-'हे स्त्री-रूपी सोम! तुम पुरुष-रूपी सूर्य के प्रकाश से विकास को प्राप्त हो। तुम सभी ओर से अन्न की प्राप्ति में सहायक बनो। हे सोम! तुम सौम्य गुणों से युक्त हो। तुम्हारा दिव्य रस सूर्य के तेज को प्राप्त करके पुरुष मात्र के लिए अत्यन्त हितकारी हो जाता है। तुम इस दिव्य रस का सेवन करने वाले पुरुषों को पुष्टि दो और उनके सभी शत्रुओं का पराभव कराने में पूरी तरह से सहायक बनो। हे सोम! तुम आग्नेय तेज से प्रसन्नता को प्राप्त करते हुए, अमृत्व की प्राप्ति में सहयोग प्रदान करो और स्वयं अपने यश को स्वर्गलोक में स्थिर करो। हे सोम! मैं तुम्हारी ही गति का अनुगमन करते हुए अपनी दाहिनी भुजा को बार-बार घुमाता हूं।' ऋषि ने सोम को पांच मुख वाला प्रजापति कहा है। उसका एक मुख 'ब्राह्मण' है, दूसरा मुख 'क्षत्रिय' हैं, तीसरा मुख 'बाज' पक्षी है, चौथा मुख 'अग्नि' है। और पांचवां मुख तुम 'स्वयं' हो। इस प्रकार सोम की प्रार्थना करने के उपरान्त गर्भाधान के लिए तत्पर स्त्री के पास बैठने से पहले उसके हृदय का स्पर्श करें और इस मन्त्र का पाठ करें—'यत्ते सुमीमे हृदये हितमन्त: प्रजापतौ मन्येऽहं मां तद्विद्वांसं तेन माऽहं पौत्रमधं रूदम्।' इस प्रकार की गयी प्रार्थना से साधक को कभी पुत्र शोक नही झेलना पड़ता। ऋषि का संकेत उस माता की ओर है, जो अपना दूध अपनी सन्तान को पिलाती है। उसके दूध में सोमरस-जैसी रक्षात्मक शक्ति विद्यमान होती है। उसी से बालक स्वस्थ रहता है। माता का दूध बालक के लिए नैसर्गिक प्रक्रिया है। प्रकृति का विरोध अनेकानेक भयानक परिणामों का कारण बन जाता है। \nमोक्ष हेतु प्राणोपासना\nमोक्ष के लिए प्राणतत्त्व की उपासना के सन्दर्भ में, ऋषि ने एक सुन्दर रूपक द्वारा प्राणों के महत्व को दर्शाया है। एक समय वाणी आदि समस्त देवता अहंकार के वशीभूत होकर अपनी-अपनी महत्त सिद्ध करने के लिए परस्पर विवाद करने लगे। प्राण के साथ सभी ने शरीर से बहिर्गमन कर दिया। उनके निकल जाने से शरीर काष्ठ की भांति चेतना-रहित होकर सो गया। 'वाणी' ने अपना वर्चस्व सिद्ध करने के लिए शरीर में अकेले ही प्रवेश किया। वाणी के प्रवेश करते ही शरीर वाणी से बोलने लगा, लेकिन वह अपने स्थान से उठ नहीं सका। इसके बाद 'नेत्रेन्द्रिय' देवता ने शरीर में प्रवेश किया। तब वह वाणी से बोलने और नेत्रों से देखने लगा, परन्तु इस बार भी वह उठ नहीं सका। फिर 'श्रोतेन्दिय' देवता ने शरीर में प्रवेश किया। वह सुनने लगा, बोलने भी लगा और देखने भी लगा। लेकिन इस बार भी वह उठ नहीं सका, निश्चेष्ट ही पड़ा रहा। तत्पश्चात् उस शरीर में 'मन' ने प्रवेश किया। मन के द्वारा वह सोचने योग्य तो हो गया, पर इस बार भी वह उठ नहीं सका। तब सबसे अन्त में 'प्राण' ने उस शरीर में प्रवेश किया। उस प्राणतत्त्व के प्रवेश करते ही वह शरीर उठकर बैठ गया। इससे प्राणों का महत्त्व सर्वोपरि सिद्ध हो गयां सभी अन्य इन्द्रियों ने प्राण में ही, मोक्ष आदि साधना की शक्ति को स्वीकार किया। उन्होंने जाना कि प्राणों के द्वारा ही अमृत्व गुण को प्राप्त किया जा सकता है और यह शरीर ऊपर उठकर स्वर्गलोक की ओर जा सकता है। प्राणों के द्वारा ही, शरीर की समस्त चेतनाएं और इन्द्रियां कार्य करती हैं। अत: प्राणों की उपासना द्वारा ही ब्रह्म से संयोग का कारण बनता है। प्राणों के द्वारा ही विशिष्ट ज्ञान-स्वरूप परब्रह्म को प्राप्त किया जा सकता है। \nपिता द्वारा सम्प्रदान-कर्म (उत्तराधिकार देना) करना \nइस अध्याय में पिता द्वारा अपने पुत्र को उत्तराधिकारी बनाने की प्रक्रिया का सांगोपांग उल्लेख किया गया है। ऋषि का कहना है कि अपना अन्तिम समय आया जानकर, पिता को अपने सम्पूर्ण उत्तरदायित्वों से मुक्त हो जाना चाहिए और जो कुछ भी उसके पास है, उसे अपने पुत्र को सौंप देना चाहिए। पुत्र को भी अपने पिता द्वारा छोड़े गये दायित्व को सहर्ष स्वीकार कर लेना चाहिए। पिता को चाहिए कि शुभ्र वस्त्र धारण करके अपने पुत्र को अपने पास बुलाये और उससे कहे-'हे पुत्र! मैं तुम्हें अपनी वाक शक्ति, अपने प्राण, अपने नेत्र, अपने कान, अपने रसास्वादन, अपने समस्त श्रेष्ठ कर्म, अपने सुख-दु:ख, अपनी मैथुनजन्य शक्ति तथा रति-सुख, अपनी गतिशीलता, अपनी समस्त इच्छाएं, अपनी बुद्धि, अपना यश, ब्रह्मतेज औ अपना श्रेष्ठ स्वास्थ्य तथा अन्न को पचाने की शक्ति आदि सभी सद्गुण प्रदान करता हूं या तुम्हारे भीतर प्रतिष्ठित करता हूँ।' पिता द्वारा ऐसा कहने पर पुत्र विनम्रता से उन्हें स्वीकार करे और अपने बाएं कन्धे की ओर दृष्टि करके हाथ से ओट करके कहे-'पिताश्री! आप अपनी इच्छानुसार कामनायुक्त स्वर्ग को तथा वहां के समस्त भोगों को प्राप्त करें।' इसके उपरान्त, यदि पिता निरोग हो, तो वह अपने पुत्र को घर का स्वामी बनाकर अथवा मानकर उसके साथ निवास करे या फिर सभी कुछ त्यागकर व घर छोड़कर संन्यास का जीवन बिताये। ऐसा पिता उचित समय के आने पर दिव्यलोक को गमन करने वाला होता है। वास्तव में उत्तराधिकार का सही नियम यही है।\n\nतीसरा अध्याय \nइस अध्याय में ऋषि ने प्राण, प्रज्ञा और इन्द्रियों का विषद वर्णन करते हुए उनके पारस्परिक सम्बन्धों का विश्लेषण किया है। इसके लिए संवाद-शैली का सहारा लिया गया है। यहां इन्द्र और दिवोदास राजा के पुत्र प्रतर्दन के पारस्परिक संवादों द्वारा प्राण को प्रज्ञा का स्वरूप बताया है और कहा है कि इस प्रज्ञा से ही लोकहित सम्भव है।\n\nलोक-कल्याण का अधिकारी कौन है? \nएक बार देवासुर संग्राम में, देवाताओं की सहायता के लिए राजा दिवोदास के पुत्र प्रतर्दन स्वर्गलोक गये थे। वहां उनकी अद्वितीय युद्धकला एवं शौर्य से प्रसन्न होकर इन्द्र ने उन्हें वरदान देना चाहा था। इस पर प्रतर्दन ने कहा-'हे देवराज! जिस श्रेष्ठ वर को आप मानव-जाति के लिए परम कल्याणयुक्त मानते हों, वैसा ही कोई श्रेष्ठ वर आप स्वयं ही मुझे प्रदान करें।'\nप्रतर्दन की बात सुनकर देवराज इन्द्र ने कहा-'राजन! इस संसार में कोई भी ऐसा व्यक्ति नहीं है, जो दूसरों के सुख के लिए वर मांगता हो। आप कोई ऐसा वर मांगें, जो आपके अपने लिए हो?'\nइस पर प्रतर्दन ने कोई भी वर ग्रहण करने से इंकार कर दिया। राजा प्रतर्दन को सत्य का आरूढ़ देखकर देवराज इन्द्र ने कहा-'हे राजन! तुम मुझे ही, मेरे यथार्थ रूप को जानो? यही मानव-जाति के लिए श्रेष्ठ वरदान है।'\nदेवराज के इस कथन में प्रतर्दन ने पहचाना कि इन्द्र ने न जाने कितने पथभ्रष्ट असुरों और ऋषि-मुनियों को दण्ड दिया, पर अहंकारविहीन और निष्कामी होने के कारण इन्द्र का बाल भी बांका नहीं हुआ। तब उसने समझा कि निष्काम कर्म करते हुए और अहंकार का सर्वथा त्याग करते हुए, जो जीवन जिया जाता है, वह मानव-कल्याण के लिए ही होता है। अत: लोक-कल्याणकारी व्यक्ति के लिए निरभिमानी और निष्काम कर्मी होना परम आवश्यक है। ऐसा व्यक्ति ही इन्द्र, अर्थात प्रज्ञा-रूपी प्राण-तत्त्व के यथार्थ स्वरूप को प्राप्तज कर सकता है और बड़े-से-बड़ा पापकर्म भी उसे प्रभावित नहीं कर सकता। यदि दैविक प्रवृत्तियों की रक्षा के लिए किसी आततायी व्यक्ति का वध भी करना पड़े, तो उसका भी पाप नहीं लगता।\n\nप्रज्ञा-स्वरूप प्राण कौन है? \nदेवराज इन्द्र ने प्रतर्दन को उपदेश देते हुए कहा कि जो भी मेरे सत्य स्वरूप को पहचान जाता है, उसे कभी पाप नहीं लगता; क्योंकि, 'मैं स्वयं ही प्रज्ञा-स्वरूप प्राण हूं।' इन्द्र आगे कहता है कि उस प्राण तथा श्रेष्ठ ज्ञान से युक्त आत्मस्वरूप के रूप में प्रख्यात, मुझ इन्द्र की, तुम आयु औ अमृत-रूप से उपासना करो। वह स्पष्ट करता है कि आयु ही प्राण है, प्राण ही आयु है और प्राण ही अमृततत्व है। इस शरीर में जब तक प्राण है, तभी तक आयु है। इस प्राणतत्त्व के द्वारा ही साधक दूसरे लोक में जाकर अमृततत्त्व के विशेष सुख को प्राप्त करता है। जो व्यक्ति 'आयु' और 'अमृत' के रूप में इन्द्र की उपासना करता है, वह इस लोक में पूर्णायु को प्राप्त करता है और स्वर्ग के सुखों का पान करता है। शरीर में प्राण का महत्त्व ही सर्वोपरि है। यदि प्राण के रहते शरीर का कोई अंग नष्ट हो जाये, तो भी शरीर जीवित रहता है, परन्तु प्राण के न रहने पर, एक क्षण भी शरीर का जीवित रहना असम्भव है। क्रिया शक्ति का बोध कराने वाला प्राण ही है। प्राण ही ज्ञान में प्रवृत्ति होने की शक्ति देता है। इसे ही 'प्रज्ञा-स्वरूप प्राण' अथवा 'आत्मा' कहा गया है। अत: जीवन के उत्थान के लिए प्रज्ञा-स्वरूप इस प्राण की ही उपासना करनी चाहिए। शरीर में प्रज्ञा और प्राण, दोनों साथ-साथ निवास करते हैं तथा जीवात्मा के साथ मिलकर एक साथ ही इस शरीर को छोड़ते हैं। प्राणमय परब्रह्म का यही दर्शन (ज्ञान) है और यही विज्ञान है। इसी की उपासना जन-कल्याण का मुख्य स्रोत है।\n\nप्राण, प्रज्ञा और इन्द्रियों का सम्बन्ध \nसुषुप्त अवस्था में, जब मनुष्य सोया हुआ होता है, तब सभी इन्द्रियां और ज्ञान, प्राण में समाहित हो जाते हैं। लेकिन जब वह जागता है, तब सभी प्रकार का ज्ञान, प्राण से निकलकर अपनी-अपनी इन्द्रियों में समा जाता है और सुषुप्त इन्द्रियां सजग हो जाती हैं। इसे उपनिषद में मरणासन्न व्यक्ति के उदाहरण से समझाया है। एक व्यक्ति, जो मरणासन्न अवस्था में है, उसकी समस्त चेतना शक्ति इन्द्रियों का साथ छोड़कर प्राण में समा जाती है। उस समय वह न तो सुनता है, न देखता है, न बोलता है, ने हाथ-पैर हिला पाता है, न उसका मस्तिष्क ही काम करता है। यही स्थिति ध्यानस्थ योगी की होती है। परन्तु जब वह मरणासन्न व्यक्ति रोगों से छुटकारा पाकर पुन: जीवित हो उठता है अथवा वह ध्यानस्थ योगी फिर से सहज जीवन में लौट आता है, तब उनकी समस्त इन्द्रियां अपने-अपने स्वभाव के अनुसार फिर से सजग हो उठती हैं। मन के द्वारा निर्देशित होने लगती हैं। प्राण ही सर्वप्रथम 'मन' को जाग्रत करता है। वही सम्पूर्ण इन्द्रियों को नियन्त्रित और अनियन्त्रित करता है। मन का सीधा सम्बन्ध 'प्रज्ञा' से है और प्रज्ञा का प्राण से। इस प्रकार प्राण, प्रज्ञा और इन्द्रियों का अन्योन्याश्रित सम्बन्ध है। प्राणतत्व से ही प्रज्ञा है और प्रज्ञा से ही समस्त इन्द्रियों को संचालन होता है। शरीर से उन्मुक्त होने वाला 'प्राण' जब उत्क्रमण करता है, तब वह उस समय इन सभी इन्द्रियों-सहित ही उत्क्रमण करता है। वाणी सभी नामों का, नाक सभी गन्धों का, चक्षु सभी रूपों का, कान सभी ध्वनियों का और मन सभी ध्यानस्थ विषयों का परित्याग कर देता है। अत: शरीर में प्राण ही वह प्रज्ञा है और प्रज्ञा ही वह प्राण है, जो एक साथ इस शरीर में निवास करते हैं। शरीर की समस्त इन्द्रियों का परिचालन इन्हीं के द्वारा होता है। प्रज्ञा के द्वारा ही वह समस्त इन्द्रियों के स्वभाव के अनुरूप अनुभूति को प्राप्त करता है। प्रज्ञा के अभाव में सभी का अस्तित्व नगण्य हो जाता है। प्राण अथवा प्रज्ञा के बिना किसी भी रूप, विषय अथवा इन्द्रिय की सिद्धि नहीं हो सकती। जिस प्रकार रथ की नेमि अरों के और अरे रथ की नाभि के आश्रित होते हैं, उसी प्रकार के समस्त इन्द्रियाँ, प्रज्ञा के द्वारा ही विद्यमान हैं। यह प्रज्ञा अथवा प्राण ही परमात्मा का आनन्दस्वरूप और अजर-अमर रूप है। यह न तो अच्छे काम से वृद्धि पाता है औ न बुरे कार्य से संकुचित होता है। यह समदर्शी है। यह समस्त लोकों का अधिपति है और सबका स्वामी है। यह प्राण ही हमारा आत्मा है। इसे जानकर ही परमात्मा की उपस्थिति को अनुभव किया जा सकता है।\n\nचौथा अध्याय \nइस अध्याय में गार्ग्य नामक ब्राह्मण ऋषि और काशी के विद्वान राजा अजातशत्रु के मध्य हुए वार्तालाप को आधार बनाकर संवाद-शैली में ब्रह्माण्ड की विविध शक्तियों का उल्लेख किया गया है तथा 'आत्मा' को ही 'ब्रह्म' स्वीकार किया है।\n\nब्रह्माण्ड की शक्तियां \nगर्ग गोत्र में उत्पन्न बलाका ऋषि के पुत्र का नाम गार्ग्य ऋषि के नाम से प्रसिद्ध था। वे चारों वेदों के प्रकाण्ड विद्वान थे। उशीनर प्रदेश उनका निवासस्थान था। वे प्राय: देश के विभिन्न प्रदेशों में भ्रमण करते रहते थे। कभी मत्स्य देश में, तो कभी कुरु-पांचाल में रहने पहुंच जाते थे। एक बार वे घूमते-घूमते काशी के विद्वान राजा अजातशत्रु के दबार में पहुंचे। वहां वे अत्यन्त अहंकारपूर्ण वाणी में राजा से बोले-'हे राजन! मैं आपको 'ब्रह्मतत्व' का उपदेश दूंगा।' गार्ग्य ऋषि के ऐसा कहने पर काशी नरेश अजातशत्रु ने कहा-'हे विप्रवर! आपके इस उपदेश के लिए मैं आपको एक सहस्त्र उत्तम कुल वाली गौएं प्रदान करूंगा। मुझे तो प्रसन्नता है कि अब तक ब्रह्मविद्या के श्रोता और दानी के रूप में मिथिला नरेश जनक का ही नाम था। आज आपने हमारे पास आकर विदेह राज जनक की भांति हमारा गौरव बढ़ाया है।' 'ब्रह्मतत्त्व' का उपदेश देते हुए ऋषि गार्ग्य और अजातशत्रु के मध्य इस सप्रकार वार्तालाप हुआ-\nऋषि गार्ग्य—'हे राजन! इस सूर्यमण्डल में जो अन्तर्यामी परमेश्वर स्थित है, मैं ब्रह्मबुद्धि से उसी की साधना करता हूं।'\nअजातशत्रु—'हे ब्रह्मन! ऐसा नहीं है। यह श्वेत वस्त्रधारी सूर्य तो सभी से महान है। यह सबसे उच्च स्थिति में केन्द्रित, सबका शीश है। जो मनुष्य इस विराट पुरुष की इस प्रकार से आराधना करता है, वह सबसे उच्च स्थिति में पहुंचता है।'\nऋषि गार्ग्य-'हे राजन! चन्द्र मण्डल में जो यह अन्तर्यामी विराट पुरुष है, मैं उसे ब्रह्मरूप में मानकर उसकी उपासना करता हूं।'\nअजातशत्रु-'हे विप्रवर! ऐसा नहीं है। यह तो सोम राजा है और अन्न की आत्मा भी यही है। मैं इसी प्रकार इसकी उपासना करता हूं। जो भी इस प्रकार इसकी उपासना करता है, वह निश्चिय ही अन्न की आत्मा हो जाती है तथा धन धान्य से भर जाता है।'\nऋषि गार्ग्य-'हे राजन! विद्युत मण्डल के अन्तर्गत यह जो अन्तर्यामी विराट परब्रह्म है, मैं उसी का उपासक हूं।'\nअजातशत्रु-'हे विप्रवर! ऐसा नहीं है। मैं इस विद्युत को 'प्रकाश की आत्मा' मानकर इसकी उपासना करता हूं। जो भी इस प्रकार इसकी उपासना करता है, वह स्वयं प्रकाश-स्वरूप 'आत्मा' हो जाता है।'\nऋषि गार्ग्य-' हे राजन! मेघ मण्डल में गर्जना के रूप में विद्यमान उस अन्तर्यामी ईश्वर को मैं साक्षात ब्रह्म मानता हूं।'\nअजातशत्रु-'हे विप्रवर! ऐसा न कहें। मैं शब्द की आत्मा समझकर ही इस श्रेष्ठ तत्त्व की उपासना करता हूं। जो इस प्रकार इसकी उपासना करता है, वह स्वयं ही शब्द की आत्मा के रूप में परिणत हो जाता है।'\nऋषि गार्ग्य ने फिर कहा-'हे राजन! आकाश मण्डल में प्रतिष्ठित परब्रह्म परमेश्वर की मैं अविनाशी ब्रह्म के रूप में उपासना करता हूं।'\nअजातशत्रु ने उत्तर दिया-'हे विप्रवर! मैं इस विषय में कुछ नहीं कहना चाहता। यह तो पूर्ण, प्रवृत्ति-रहित (क्रिया-रहित) ब्रह्म, सभी से विशाल है। अवश्य ही मैं इसी रूप में इसकी उपासना करता हूं। जो ऐसे दिव्य ब्रह्म की उपासना करता है, वह समस्त प्राणियों में निर्विकार हो जाता है। समय से पूर्व उसकी मृत्यु नहीं होती।'\nइसी प्रकार वार्ता को आगे बढ़ाते हुए गार्ग्य ऋषि ने वायुमण्डल में स्थित विराट पुरुष को ब्रह्म कहा, पर अजातशत्रु ने उसे इन्द्र के श्रेष्ठ ऐश्वर्य से युक्त वैकुण्ठ कहा, जहां कुण्ठाएं नष्ट हो जाती हैं औ वह सदैव अपराजित रहता है। उसके बाद ऋषि ने अग्नि मण्डल में स्थित विराट पुरुष को, जलमण्डल में उपस्थित विराट पुरुष को, दर्पण में प्रतिबिम्बित विराट पुरुष को, प्रतिध्वनि में स्थित ध्वनि को, गतिशील विराट पुरुष के पीछे उठने वाले ध्वन्यात्मक शब्द को, शरीरधारी की छाया को, शरीर में स्थित विराट पुरुष को, प्रज्ञा से युक्त प्राण-स्वरूप आत्मा को, दाहिने नेत्र में स्थित विराट पुरुष को, बाएं नेत्र में स्थित विराट पुरुष को अविनाशी ब्रह्म के रूप में उपस्थित करके, उसकी उपासना करने की बात कही। परन्तु अजातशत्रु ने क्रमश: सभी को नकारते हुए अग्नि को दूसरों का प्रहार सहन करने वाला 'विषासहि,' जल में स्थित ब्रह्म को नामधारी जीवात्मा, प्रतिबिम्ब को प्रतिरूप, प्रतिध्वनि को गति का अभावयुक्त, ध्वन्यात्मक शब्द को 'प्राणस्वरूप', शरीर की छाया को मृत्यु-रूप, शरीर में स्थित विराट पुरुष को प्रजापति का स्वरूप, प्रज्ञा से युक्त आत्मा को यम का स्वरूप, दाहिने नेत्र में स्थित पुरुष को नाम, अग्नि और ज्योति की आत्मा, बाएं नेत्र में स्थित पुरुष को सत्य, विद्युत और तेज का आत्मा बताया और उसी रूप में उनकी उपासना करने की बात कही। अजातशत्रु की बात सुनकर गार्ग्य ऋषि मौन हो गये और उन्होंने अजातशत्रु को अपना गुरु स्वीकार कर लिया, परन्तु क्षत्रिय होने के कारण अजातशत्रु ने ब्राह्मण गार्ग्य को शिष्य बनाना स्वीकार नहीं किया। हां, एकान्त में उन्हें उन्हें ब्रह्म का ज्ञान अवश्य कराया। वे उन्हें लेकर एक सोते हुए व्यक्ति के पास गये और उसे अनेक नामों से पुकार कर जगाने का प्रयत्न किया, परन्तु जब वह नहीं जागा, तो अजातशत्रु ने छड़ी से चोट मारकर उसे उठाया। उसके जागने पर अजातशत्रु ने ऋषि गार्ग्य से कहा-'हे विप्रवर! यह व्यक्ति इस प्रकार अचेत होकर कहां सोता था और किस प्रदेश में यह था और अब जागने के बाद यह कहां आ गया है?' ऋषि गार्ग्य इस रहस्य को नहीं समझ सके, तो राजा अजातशत्रु ने पुन: कहा-'ऋषिवर! यह पुरुष जहां सोता था, वह स्थान प्राण-रूपी हृदयकमल है। वहां 'हिता' नाम की प्रसिद्ध नाड़ी है। उसके द्वारा हृदय का विस्तार सम्पूर्ण नाड़ियों तक है, जो बाल के हजारवें भाग से भी सूक्ष्म है। इन नाड़ियों में पुरुष सोते समय स्थित रहता है। इस सोये हुए पुरुष के हृदय में स्थित 'प्राण' का सभी इन्द्रियों से समभाव है। यह प्राण ही 'आत्मा' का खोल है। यह प्रज्ञावान आत्मा इसी खोल में सूक्ष्म रूप से उसी प्रकार विराजमान रहती है, जैसे लकड़ी की म्यान में तलवार रहती है। पुरुष के जागने पर यह 'आत्मा' सम्पूर्ण 'प्राणतत्त्व' को सक्रिय कर देती है। तब उस 'साक्षी-रूप आत्मा' का सभी इन्द्रियां अनुमत सेवक की भांति अनुसरण करती हैं।'\nइसी 'आत्मा' को जानने वाला ज्ञानी, इन्द्र की भांति अपने सभी शत्रु असुरों अथवा पापों को नष्ट करके त्रिलोकी का सर्वश्रेष्ठ पद प्राप्त करता है। अत: 'आत्मा' को जानने के लिए अहंकार का त्याग परम आवश्यक है। तभी वह अपने पापों कों नष्ट कर सकता है।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nउपनिषद के अन्य लिंक \n\nश्रेणी:उपनिषद\nश्रेणी:वैदिक साहित्य\nश्रेणी:वैदिक सभ्यता", "भारत छोड़ो आन्दोलन और बिहार\n1 अप्रैल 1937 को मोहम्मद युनुस ने अपने नेतृत्व में प्रथम भारतीय मन्त्रिमण्डल बिहार में स्थापित किया गया। इसके सदस्य वहाब अली, कुमार अजिट प्रताप सिंह और गुरु सहाय लाल थे। युनुस मन्त्रिमण्डल के गठन के दिन जयप्रकाश नारायण, बसावन सिंह, रामवृक्ष बेनीपुरी ने इसके विरुद्ध प्रदर्शन किया। फलतः गवर्नर ने वैधानिक कार्यों में गवर्नर हस्तक्षेप नहीं करेगी का आश्‍वासन दिया।\n\n1 जुलाई 1937 को कांग्रेस कार्यकारिणी ने सरकारों के गठन का फैसला लिया। मोहम्मद यूनुस के अन्तरिम सरकार के त्यागपत्र के बाद २० जुलाई १९३७ को श्रीकृष्ण सिंह ने अपने मन्त्रिमण्डल का संगठन किया लेकिन १५ जनवरी १९३८ में राजनीतिक कैदियों की रिहाई के मुद्दे पर अपने मन्त्रिमण्डल को भंग कर दिया। १९ मार्च १९३८ को द्वितीय विश्‍व युद्ध में बिना ऐलान के भारतीयों को शामिल किया गया, जिसका पूरे देश भर में इसके विरुद्ध प्रदर्शन हुआ। २७ जून १९३७ में लिनलियथगो ने आश्‍वासन दिया कि भारतीय मन्त्रियों के वैधानिक कार्यों में हस्तक्षेप नहीं करेगा।\n\nआजाद दस्ता- यह भारत छोड़ो आन्दोलन के बाद क्रान्तिकारियों द्वारा प्रथम गुप्त गतिविधियाँ थीं। जयप्रकाश नारायण ने इसकी स्थापना नेपाल की तराई के जंगलों में रहकर की थी। इसके सदस्यों को छापामार युद्ध एवं विदेशी शासन को अस्त-व्यस्त एवं पंगु करने का प्रशिक्षण दिया जाने लगा।\n\nबिहार प्रान्तीय आजाद दस्ते का नेतृत्व सूरज नारायण सिंह के अधीन था। परन्तु भारत सरकार के दबाव में मई, १९४३ में जय प्रकाश नारायण, डॉ॰ लोहिया, रामवृक्ष बेनीपुरी, बाबू श्यामनन्दन, कार्तिक प्रसाद सिंह इत्यादि नेताओं को गिरफ्तार कर लिया और हनुमान नगर जेल में डाल दिया गया। आजाद दस्ता के निर्देशक babu shyamsundar prasad थे। मार्च, १९४३ में राजविलास (नेपाल) में प्रथम गुरिल्ला प्रशिक्षण केन्द्र की स्थापना की गई।\n\nसियाराम दल- बिहार में गुप्त क्रान्तिकारी आन्दोलन का नेतृत्व सियाराम दल ने स्थापित किया था। इसके क्रान्तिकारी दल के कार्यक्रम की चार बातें मुख्य थीं- धन संचय, शस्त्र संचय, शस्त्र चलाने का प्रशिक्षण तथा सरकार का प्रतिरोध करने के लिए जनसंगठन बनाना। सियाराम दल का प्रभाव भागलपुर, मुंगेर, किशनगंज, बलिया, सुल्तानगंज, पूर्णिया आदि जिलों में था। सियाराम सिंह सुल्तानगंज के तिलकपुर गांव के निवासी थे l क्रान्तिकारी आन्दोलन में हिंसा और पुलिस दमन के अनगिनत उदाहरण मिलते हैं।\n\nतारापुर गोलीकांड :- मुंगेर जिले के तारापुर थाना में तिरंगा फहराते हुए 60 क्रांतिकारी शहीद हुए थे। 15 फ़रवरी 1932 की दोपहर सैकड़ों आजादी के दीवाने मुंगेर जिला के तारापुर थाने पर तिरंगा लहराने निकल पड़े | उन अमर सेनानियों ने हाथों में राष्ट्रीय झंडा और होठों पर वंदे मातरम, भारत माता की जय नारों की गूँज लिए हँसते-हँसते गोलियाँ खाई थी। भारतीय स्वतंत्रता संग्राम के सबसे बड़े गोलीकांड में देशभक्त पहले से लाठी-गोली खाने को तैयार हो कर घर से निकले थे। 50 से अधिक सपूतों की शहादत के बाद स्थानीय थाना भवन पर तिरंगा लहराया |\nआजादी मिलने के बाद से हर साल 15 फ़रवरी को स्थानीय जागरूक नागरिकों के द्वारा तारापुर दिवस मनाया जाता है। जालियावाला बाग से भी बड़ी घटना थी तारापुर गोलीकांड। सैकड़ों लोगों ने धावक दल को अंग्रेजों के थाने पर झंडा फहराने का जिम्मा दिया था। और उनका मनोबल बढ़ाने के लिए जनता खड़ी होकर भारतमाता की जय, वंदे मातरम्.आदि का जयघोष कर रहे थे। भारत माँ के वीर बेटों के ऊपर अंग्रेजों के कलक्टर ई ओली एवं एसपी डब्ल्यू फ्लैग के नेतृत्व में गोलियां दागी गयी थी। गोली चल रही थी लेकिन कोई भाग नहीं रहा था। लोग डटे हुए थे। इस गोलीकांड के बाद कांग्रेस ने प्रस्ताव पारित कर हर साल देश में 15 फ़रवरी को तारापुर दिवस मनाने का निर्णय लिया था।\nघटना के बाद अंग्रेजों ने शहीदों का शव वाहनों में लाद कर सुलतानगंज की गंगा नदी में बहा दिया था। शहीद सपूतों में से केवल 13 की ही पहचान हो पाई थी। ज्ञात शहीदों में विश्वनाथ सिंह (छत्रहार), महिपाल सिंह (रामचुआ), शीतल (असरगंज), सुकुल सोनार (तारापुर), संता पासी (तारापुर), झोंटी झा (सतखरिया), सिंहेश्वर राजहंस (बिहमा), बदरी मंडल (धनपुरा), वसंत धानुक (लौढि़या), रामेश्वर मंडल (पड़भाड़ा), गैबी सिंह (महेशपुर), अशर्फी मंडल (कष्टीकरी) तथा चंडी महतो (चोरगांव) थे। 31 अज्ञात शव भी मिले थे, जिनकी पहचान नहीं हो पायी थी। और कुछ शव तो गंगा की गोद में समा गए थे।\n\nइलाके के बुजुर्गों के अनुसार शंभुगंज थाना के खौजरी पहाड में तारापुर थाना पर झंडा फहराने की योजना बनी थी। खौजरी पहाड, मंदार, बाराहाट और ढोलपहाड़ी तो जैसे क्रांतिकारियों की सुरक्षा के लिए ही बने थे। प्रसिद्द क्रन्तिकारी सियाराम-ब्रह्मचारी दल भी इन्हीं पहाड़ों में बैठकर आजादी के सपने देखा करते थे। थाना बिहपुर से लेकर गंगा के इस पार बांका –देवघर के जंगलों –पहाड़ों ताक क्रांतिकारियों का असर बहुत अधिक हुआ करता था। मातृभूमि की रक्षा के लिए जान लेने वाले और जान देने वाले दोनों तरह के सेनानियों ने अंग्रेज सरकार की नाक में दम कर रखा था। \nइतिहासकार डी सी डीन्कर ने अपनी किताब “ स्वतंत्रता संग्राम में अछूतों का योगदान “ में भी तारापुर की इस घटना का जिक्र करते हुए विशेष रूप से संता पासी के योगदान का उल्लेख किया है। \nपंडित नेहरु ने भी 1942 में तारापुर की एक यात्रा पर 34 शहीदों के बलिदान का उल्लेख करते हुए कहा था “ The faces of the dead freedom fighters were blackened in front of the resident of Tarapur “\n\n११ अगस्त १९४२ को सचिवालय गोलीकाण्ड बिहार के इतिहास वरन्‌ भारतीय स्वतन्त्रता आन्दोलन का एक अविस्मरणीय दिन था। पटना के जिलाधिकारी डब्ल्यू. जी. आर्थर के आदेश पर पुलिस ने गोलियाँ चलाने का आदेश दे दिया। पुलिस ने १३ या १४ राउण्ड गोलियाँ चलाईं, इस गोलीकाण्ड में सात छात्र शहीद हुए, लगभग २५ गम्भीर रूप से घायल हुए। ११ अगस्त १९४२ के सचिवालय गोलीकाण्ड ने बिहार में आन्दोलन को उग्र कर दिया।\n\nसचिवालय गोलीकाण्ड में शहीद सात महान बिहारी सपूत-\n\n१. उमाकान्त प्रसाद सिंह- राम मोहन राय सेमीनरी स्कूल के १२वीं कक्षा का छात्र था। इसके पिता राजकुमार सिंह थे। वह सारण जिले के नरेन्द्रपुर ग्राम का निवासी था।\n\n२. रामानन्द सिंह- ये राम मोहन राय सेमीनरी स्कूल पटना के ११ वीं कक्षा का छात्र था। इनका जन्म पटना जिले के ग्राम शहादत नगर में हुआ था। इनके पिता लक्ष्मण सिंह थे।\n\n३. सतीश प्रसाद झा- सतीश प्रसाद का जन्म भागलपुर जिले के खडहरा में हुआ था। इनके पिता जगदीश प्रसाद झा थे। वह पटना कालेजियत स्कूल का ११वीं कक्षा का छात्र था। सीवान थाना में फुलेना प्रसाद श्रीवास्तव द्वारा राष्ट्रीय झण्डा लहराने की कोशिश में पुलिस गोली का शिकार हुए।\n\n४. जगपति कुमार- इस महान सपूत का जन्म गया जिले के खराठी गाँव में हुआ था।\n\n५. देवीपद चौधरी- इस महान सपूत का जन्म सिलहर जिले के अन्तर्गत जमालपुर गाँव में हुआ था। वे मीलर हाईस्कूल के ९वीं कक्षा का छात्र था।\n\n६. राजेन्द्र सिंह- इस महान सपूत का जन्म सारण जिले के बनवारी चक ग्राम में हुआ था। वह पटना हाईस्कूल के ११वीं का छात्र था।\n\n७. राय गोविन्द सिंह- इस महान सपूत का जन्म पटना जिले के दशरथ ग्राम में हुआ। वह पुनपुन हाईस्कूल का ११वीं का छात्र था।\n\nस्वतन्त्रता प्राप्ति के बाद इस स्थान पर शहीद स्मारक का निर्माण हुआ। इसका शिलान्यास स्वतन्त्रता दिवस को बिहार के प्रथम राज्यपाल जयराम दौलत राय के हाथों हुआ। औपचारिक अनावरण देश के प्रथम राष्ट्रपति डॉ॰ राजेन्द्र प्रसाद ने १९५६ ई. में किया। भारत छोड़ो आन्दोलन के क्रम में बिहार में १५,००० से अधिक व्यक्‍ति बन्दी बनाये गये, ८,७८३ को सजा मिली एवं १३४ व्यक्‍ति मारे गये।\n\nबिहार में भारत छोड़ो आन्दोलन को सरकार द्वारा बलपूर्वक दबाने का प्रयास किया गया जिसका परिणाम यह हुआ कि क्रान्तिकारियों को गुप्त रूप से आन्दोलन चलाने पर बाध्य होना पड़ा।\n\n९ नवम्बर १९४२ दीवाली की रात में जयप्रकाश नारायण, रामनन्दन मिश्र, योगेन्द्र शुक्ला, सूरज नारायण सिंह इत्यादि व्यक्‍ति हजारीबाग जेल की दीवार फाँदकर भाग गये। सभी शैक्षिक संस्थान हड़ताल पर चली गई और राष्ट्रीय झण्डे लहराये गये। ११ अगस्त को विद्यार्थियों के एक जुलूस ने सचिवालय भवन के सामने विधायिका की इमारत पर राष्ट्रीय झण्डा लहराने की कोशिश की।\n\nद्वितीय विश्‍व युद्ध की प्रगति और उससे उत्पन्‍न गम्भीर परिस्थित्यों को देखते हुए कांग्रेस ने ब्रिटिश सरकार को सहायता व सहयोग दिया। अगस्त प्रस्ताव और क्रिप्स प्रस्ताव में दोष होने के कारण कांग्रेस ने इसे अस्वीकार कर दिया था।\n\nदिसम्बर, १९४१ में जापानी आक्रमण से अंग्रेज भयभीत हो गये थे। मार्च, १९४२ में ब्रिटिश प्रधानमन्त्री विन्सटन चर्चिल ने ब्रिटिश संसद में घोषणा की कि युद्ध की समाप्ति के बाद भारत को औपनिवेशिक स्वराज्य प्रदान किया जायेगा। २२ मार्च १९४२ को स्टेफोर्ड किप्स ने इस व्यवस्था में लाया। फलतः उनके प्रस्ताव राष्ट्रवादियों के लिए असन्तोषजनक सिद्ध हुए। ३० जनवरी १९४२ से १५ फ़रवरी १९४२ तक पटना में रहकर मौलाना अब्दुल कलाम आजाद ने सार्वजनिक सभा को सम्बोधित किया।\n\n१४ जुलाई १९४२ को वर्धा में कांग्रेस कार्यसमिति की बैठक का आयोजन किया गया। इसी समय सुप्रसिद्ध भारत छोड़ो प्रस्ताव स्वीकृत हुआ और उसे अखिल भारतीय कांग्रेस कार्यसमिति को मुम्बई में होने वाली बैठक में प्रस्तुत करने का निर्णय हुआ। 7 अगस्त 1942 को मुम्बई में कांग्रेस कार्यकारिणी की बैठक में भारत छोड़ो प्रस्ताव को स्वीकार कर लिया गया और गाँधी जी ने करो या मरो का नारा दिया साथ ही कहा हम देश को चितरंजन दास की बेड़ियों में बँधे हुए देखने को जिन्दा नहीं रहेंगे। ८ अगस्त को भारत छोड़ो प्रस्ताव पारित होने के तुरन्त बाद कांग्रेस के अधिकतर नेता गिरफ्तार कर लिये गये। डॉ॰ राजेन्द्र प्रसाद को गिरफ्तार कर लिया गया। इसके बाद में मथुरा बाबू, श्रीकृष्ण सिंह, अनुग्रह बाबू इत्यादि भी गिरफ्तार कर लिए गये। बलदेव सहाय ने सरकारी नीति के विरोध में महाधिवक्‍ता पद से इस्तीफा दे दिया। ९ अगस्त अध्यादेश द्वारा कांग्रेस को गैर-कानूनी घोषित कर दिया। इसके फलस्वरूप गवर्नर ने इण्डिपेंडेन्ट पार्टी के सदस्य मोहम्मद युनुस को सरकार बनाने के लिए आमन्त्रण किया। मोहम्मद युनुस बिहार के भारतीय प्रधानमन्त्री बने।\n\n(तत्कालीन समय में प्रान्त के प्रधान को प्रधानमन्त्री कहा जाता था।)\n\nभारत सरकार अधिनियम, १९३५ एवं बिहार में प्रथम कांग्रेस का मन्त्रिमण्डल\n\nब्रिटिश संसद द्वारा १९३५ ई. में भारत के शासन के लिए एक शासन विधान को पारित किया गया। १९३५ ई. से १९४७ ई. तक इसी आधार पर भारतीय शासन होता रहा। इस विधान में एक संघीय शासन की व्यवस्था थी। कांग्रेस ने इसे अपेक्षाओं से कम माना लेकिन चुनाव में भाग लिया। १९३५-३६ ई. के चुनाव तैयार करने लगा। जवाहरलाल नेहरू एवं गोविन्द वल्लभ पन्त ने बिहार का दौरा कर कांग्रेसियों का जोश बढ़ाया।\n\nकांग्रेस ने अनेक रचनात्मक कार्य उद्योग संघ, चर्खा संघ आदि चलाये। रात्रि समय में पाठशाला, ग्राम पुसतकालय खोले गये। आटा चक्‍की, दुकान चलाना एवं खजूर से गुड़ बनाना आदि कार्यों का प्रशिक्षण दिया गया। बिहार में कांग्रेसी आश्रम खोलने का शीलभद्र याज्ञी का विशेष योगदान रहा। १९३५ ई. का वर्ष कांग्रेस का स्वर्ण जयन्ती वर्ष था जो डॉ॰ श्रीकृष्ण सिंह की अध्यक्षता में धूमधाम से मनाया गया। जनवरी १९३६ ई. में छः वर्षों के प्रतिबन्धों के पश्‍चात्‌ बिहार राजनीतिक सम्मेलन का १९वाँ अधिवेशन पटना में आयोजित किया गया। २२ से २७ जनवरी के मध्य बिहार के १५२ निर्वाचन मण्डल क्षेत्रों में चुनाव सम्पन्‍न हुए। कांग्रेस ने १०७ में से ९८ जीते। १७-१८ मार्च को दिल्ली में कांग्रेस बैठक के बाद बिहार में कांग्रेस मन्त्रिमण्डल का गठन हुआ।\n\n२१ जून को वायसराय लिनलिथगो के वक्‍तव्य ने संशयों को दूर करने में सफलता पाई अन्त में युनुस को सरकार का निमन्त्रण न देकर श्रीकृष्ण सिंह के नेतृत्व मन्त्रिमण्डल का गठन किया गया, अनुग्रह नारायण सिंह उप मुख्यमंत्री सह वित्त मंत्री बने। रामदयालु अध्यक्ष तथा प्रो॰ अब्दुल बारी विधानसभा के उपाध्यक्ष बने। इस बीच अण्डमान से लाये गये राजनीतिक कैदियों की रिहाई के प्रश्‍न पर गंभीर विवाद उत्पन्‍न हो गया फलतः वायसराय के समर्थन इन्कार के बाद १५ जनवरी १९३८ के मन्त्रिमण्डल ने इस्तीफा दे दिया। कांग्रेस ने बाद में सुधारात्मक एवं रचनात्मक कार्यों की तरफ ध्यान देने लगा। बिहार टेनेन्सी अमेण्टमेड एक्ट के तहत काश्तकारी व्यवस्था के अन्तर्गत किसानों को होने वाली समस्या को दूर करने का प्रयास किया। चम्पारण कृषि संशोधन कानून और छोटा नागपुर संशोधन कानून पारित किये गये। श्रमिकों में फैले असन्तोष से १९३७-३८ ई. में ग्यारह बार हड़तालें हुईं। अब्दुल बारी ने टाटा वर्क्स यूनियन की स्थापना की। योगेन्द्र शुक्ल, सत्यनारायण सिंह आदि प्रमुख श्रमिक नेता हुए। इस बीच मुस्लिम लीग की गतिविधियाँ बढ़ गयीं।\n\nविदेशी वस्त्र बहिष्कार- ३ जनवरी १९२९ को कलकत्ता में कांग्रेस कार्यसमिति की बैठक में विदेशी वस्त्रों के बहिष्कार करने का निर्णय किया गया। इसमें अपने स्वदेशी वस्त्र खादी वस्त्र को बढ़ावा देने के लिए माँग की गई। सार्वजनिक सभाओं एवं मैजिक लालटेन की सहायता से कार्यकर्ता के सहारे गाँव में पहुँचे।\n\nपूर्ण स्वाधीनता प्रस्ताव- जवाहरलाल नेहरू की अध्यक्षता में कांग्रेस का २९-३१ दिसम्बर १९२९ का लाहौर अधिवेशन में पूर्ण स्वाधीनता प्रस्ताव स्वीकृत किया गया। बिहार कांग्रेस कार्यसमिति की २० जनवरी १९३० को पटना में एक बैठक आयोजित की गई। २६ जनवरी १९३० को सभी जगह स्वतन्त्रता दिवस मनाने को निश्‍चित किया और मनाया गया।\n\nनमक सत्याग्रह और सविनय अवज्ञा आन्दोलन\n\nदिसम्बर १९२९ ई. में पण्डित जवाहरलाल की अध्यक्षता में लाहौर का अधिवेशन सम्पन्‍न हुआ था। इसके साथ ही गाँधी जी ने फरवरी १९३० ई. में कार्यकारिणी कांग्रेस को गाँधी जी को सविनय अवज्ञा आन्दोलन करने का अधिकार दिया।\n\n१२ मार्च १९३० को महात्मा गाँधी के नेतृत्व में सविनय अवज्ञा आन्दोलन का आरम्भ नमक कानून तोड़ने के साथ शुरू हुआ। २६ जनवरी १९३० को बिहार में स्वाधीनता मनाने के उपरान्त १२ मार्च को गाँधी जी की डांडी यात्रा शुरू हुई थी। बिहार में नमक सत्याग्रह का प्रारम्भ १५ अप्रैल १९३० चम्पारण एवं सारण जिलों में नमकीन मिट्टी से नमक बनाकर किया गया। पटना में १६ अप्रैल १९३० को नरवासपिण्ड नामक स्थान दरभंगा में सत्यनारायण सिंह, मुंगेर में श्रीकृष्ण सिंह ने नमक कानून को तोड़ा।\n\n४ मई १९३० को गाँधी जी को गिरफ्तार कर लिया गया। इसके विरोध में पूरे बिहार में विरोध प्रदर्शन किया गया। मई, १९३० ई. में बिहार प्रदेश कांग्रेस कमेटी ने विदेशी वस्त्रों और शराब की दुकानों के आगे धरने का प्रस्ताव किया। इसी आन्दोलन के क्रम में बिहार में चौकीदारी कर देना बन्द कर दिया गया। स्वदेशी वस्त्रों की माँग पर छपरा जिले में कैदियों ने नंगा रहने का निर्णय किया। इसे नंगी हड़ताल के नाम से जाना जाता है। ७ अप्रैल को गाँधी जी ने अपने वक्‍तव्य द्वारा सविनय अवज्ञा आन्दोलन स्थगित करने की सलाह दी। १८ मई १९३४ को बिहार प्रदेश कांग्रेस कमेटी ने आन्दोलन को स्थगित कर दिया।\n\nसाइमन कमीशन वापस जाओ आन्दोलन\n\n१९२७ ई. में ब्रिटिश संसद एवं भारतीय वायसराय लॉर्ड डरविन ने एक घोषणा की भारत में फैल रही नैराश्य स्थिति की समाप्ति हेतु १९२८ ई. में एक कमीशन की स्थापना की घोषणा की। इस कमीशन के अध्यक्ष सर जॉन साइमन थे, अतः इसे साइमन कमीशन कहा जाता है किन्तु इसमें कोई भी भारतीय सदस्य नहीं रखा गया था। भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस ने इस आयोग के बहिष्कार एवं विरोध का फैसला किया। बिहार प्रदेश कांग्रेस कार्यसमिति की पटना में सर अली इमाम की अध्यक्षता में एक बैठक हुई जिसमें साइमन कमीशन के पटना आगमन पर पूर्ण बहिष्कार किया गया।\n\n१८ दिसम्बर १९२८ को साइमन कमीशन बिहार आया। हार्डिंग पार्क (पटना) के सामने बने विशेष प्लेटफार्म के सामने ३०,००० राष्ट्रवादियों ने साइमन वापस जाओ के नारे से स्वागत किया गया। साइमन कमीशन के विरोध के दौरान लखनऊ में पण्डित जवाहर लाल एवं लाहौर में लाला लाजपत राय पर लाठियाँ बरसाई गईं। लाठी की चोट से लाला लाजपत राय की मृत्यु हो गई। फलतः विद्रोह पूरे देश में फैल गया। कमीशन के विरोध में बिहार में राजेन्द्र प्रसाद ने इसकी अध्यक्षता की थी। बिहार राष्ट्रवादियों ने नारा दिया कि “जवानों सवेरा हुआ साइमन भगाने का बेरा हुआ\"। विरोधी नेताओं में ब्रज किशोर जी, रामदयालु जी एवं अनुग्रह नारायण बाबू थे। इस घटना ने बिहार के लिए नई चेतना पैदा कर दी। १९२९ ई. में सर्वदलीय सम्मेलन हुआ जिसमें भारत के लिए संविधान बनाने के लिए मोती लाल नेहरू की अध्यक्षता में एक समिति बनी जिसे नेहरू रिपोर्ट कहते हैं। पटना में दानापुर रोड बना राष्ट्रीय पाठशाला (अन्य) भी खुली। एक मियाँ खैरूद्दीन के मकान के छात्रों को पढ़ाना शुरू किया गया। बाद में यही जगह सदाकत आश्रम के रूप में बदल गया।\n\nनवम्बर १९२१ ई. ब्रिटिश युवराज का भारत आगमन हुआ। इनके आगमन के विरोध करने का फैसला किया गया। इसके लिए बिहार प्रान्तीय सम्मेलन का आयोजन किया गया। जब राजकुमार २२ दिसम्बर १९२१ को पटना आये तो पूरे शहर में हड़ताल थी। ५ जनवरी १९२२ को उत्तर प्रदेश के चौरा-चौरी नामक स्थान पर उग्र भीड़ ने २१ सिपाहियों को जिन्दा जला दिया तो गाँधी जी ने असहयोग आन्दोलन को स्थगित करने का निर्णय लिया। गाँधी जी को १० मार्च १९२२ को गिरफ्तार कर ६ महीना के लिए जेल भेज दिया गया।\n\nबिहार में स्वराज पार्टी\n\nचौरा-चौरी काण्ड से दुःखी होकर गाँधी जी ने असहयोग आन्दोलन को समाप्त कर दिया फलतः देशबन्धु चितरंजन दास और मोतीलाल नेहरू और विट्‍ठलभाई पटेल ने एक स्वराज दल का गठन किया।\n\nबिहार में स्वराज दल का गठन फरवरी १९२३ ई. में हुआ। नारायण प्रसाद अध्यक्ष, अब्दुल बारी सचिव एवं कृष्ण सहाय तथा हरनन्दन सहाय को सहायक सचिव बनाया गया। मई, १९२३ ई. को नई कार्यकारिणी का गठन हुआ। २ जून १९२३ को पटना में स्वराज दल की एक बैठक हुई जिसमें पटना, तिरहुत, छोटा नागपुर एवं भागलपुर मण्डलों में भी स्वराज दल की शाखाओं को गठित करने की घोषणा की गई, लेकिन यह आन्दोलन ज्यादा दिनों तक नहीं चला।\n\nअसहयोग आन्दोलन\n\nइस आन्दोलन का प्रारूप भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस के कलकत्ता अधिवेशन में सितम्बर, १९२० ई. में पारित हुआ, लेकिन बिहार में इसके पूर्व ही असहयोग प्रस्ताव पारित हो चुका था। २९ अगस्त १९१८ को कांग्रेस ने अपने मुम्बई अधिवेशन में ंआण्टेक्यू-चेम्सफोर्ड रिपोर्ट पर विचार किया जिसकी अध्यक्षता बिहार के प्रसिद्ध बैरिस्टर हसन इमान ने की। हसन इमान के नेतृत्व में इंग्लैण्ड में एक शिष्ट मण्डल भेजा जा रहा था, जिससे ब्रिटिश सरकार पर दबाव बनाया जाय। रौलेट एक्ट के काले कानून के विरुद्ध गाँधी जी ने पूरे देश में जनआन्दोलन छेड़ रखा था।\n\nबिहार में ६ अप्रैल १९१९ को हड़ताल हुई। मुजफ्फरपुर, छपरा, गया, मुंगेर आदि स्थानों पर हड़ताल का व्यापक असर पड़ा। ११ अप्रैल १९१९ को पटना में एक जनसभा का आयोजन किया गया जिसमें गाँधी जी की गिरफ्तारी का विरोध किया गया। असहयोग आन्दोलन के क्रम में मजरूलहक, राजेन्द्र प्रसाद, अनुग्रह नारायण सिंह, ब्रजकिशोर प्रसाद, मोहम्मद शफी और अन्य नेताओं ने विधायिका के चुनाव से अपनी उम्मीदवारी वापस ले ली। छात्रों को वैकल्पिक शिक्षा प्रदान करने के लिए पटना-गया रोड पर एक राष्ट्रीय महाविद्यालय के ही प्रांगण में बिहार विद्यापीठ का उद्‍घाटन ६ फ़रवरी १९२१ को गाँधी जी द्वारा किया गया। २० सितम्बर १९२१ से मजहरूल हक ने सदाकत आश्रय से ही मदरलैण्ड नामक अखबार निकालना शुरू किया। इसका प्रमुख उद्देश्य राष्ट्रीय भावना के प्रचार-प्रसार एवं हिन्दू-मुस्लिम एकता की स्थापना करना था। इन्होंने गाँधी जी को किसानों की आर्थिक दशा की तरफ ध्यान दिलाया। ब्रजकिशोर प्रसाद ने एक प्रस्ताव प्रस्तुत किया जिससे समस्याओं का निदान किया जा सके। राजकुमार शुक्ल के अनुरोध पर गाँधी जी ने कलकत्ता से १५ अप्रैल १९१७ को पटना, मुजफ्फरपुर तथा दरभंगा होते हुए चम्पारण पहुँचे। स्थानीय प्रशासन ने उनके आगमन एवं आचरण को गैर-कानूनी घोषित कर गिरफ्तार कर लिया और मोतिहारी की जेल में भेज दिया गया लेकिन अगले दिन छोड़ दिया गया। बाद में तत्कालीन उपराज्यपाल एडवर्ड गेट ने गाँधीजी को वार्ता के लिए बुलाया और किसानों के कष्टों की जाँच के लिए एक समिति के लिए एक कमेटी का गठन किया, जिसका नाम चम्पारण एग्रेरोरियन कमेटी पड़ा। गाँधी जी के कहने पर तीन कढ़िया व्यवस्था का अन्त कर दिया गया।\n\nखिलाफत आन्दोलन\n\nप्रथम विश्‍वयुद्ध की समाप्ति के बाद जब विजयी राष्ट्रों ने तुर्की सुल्तान के खलीफा पद को समाप्त कर दिया तो अंग्रेजों द्वारा कोई आश्‍वासन न मिलने के कारण भारतीय मुसलमानों एवं राष्ट्रवादियों का गुस्सा भड़क उठा। फलतः मौलाना मोहम्मद अली एवं शौकत अली ने खिलाफत आन्दोलन शुरू किया। यह आन्दोलन १९१९-२३ ई. में हुआ।\n\n१६ जनवरी १९१९ को पटना में हसन इमाम की अध्यक्षता में एक सभा का आयोजन किया गया, जिसमें खलीफा के प्रति मित्र राष्ट्रों द्वारा उचित व्यवहार करने को कहा गया। अप्रैल, १९१९ ई. में पटना में शौकत अली आये और १९२० ई. तक पूरे बिहार में यह आन्दोलन फैल गया। इसके लिए उन्होंने मोतीहारी, छपरा, पटना, फुलवारी शरीफ में जनसभाओं को सम्बोधित किया।\n\n१९२२ ई. में यह आन्दोलन पूर्णरूपेण समाप्त हो गया। शचिन्द्रनाथ सान्याल ने १९१३ ई. में पटना में अनुशीलन समिति की शाखा की नींव रखी। ढाका अनुशीलन समिति के सदस्य रेवती नाग ने भागलपुर में और यदुनाथ सरकार ने बक्सर में युवा क्रान्तिकारियों को प्रशिक्षित किया।\n\nहोमरूल आन्दोलन\n\n१९१६ ई. में भारत में होमरूल आन्दोलन प्रारम्भ हुआ था। श्रीमती एनी बेसेन्ट ने मद्रास में एवं बाल गंगाधर तिलक ने पूना में इसकी स्थापना की थी।\n\nबिहार में होमरूल लीग की स्थापना १६ दिसम्बर १९१६ में हुई, इसके अध्यक्ष मौलाना मजहरूल हक, उपाध्यक्ष सरफराज हुसैन खान और पूर्गेन्दू नारायण सिंह तथा मन्त्री चन्द्रवंशी सहाय और वैद्यनाथ नारायण नियुक्‍त किये गये। एनी बेसेन्ट भी होमरूल के आन्दोलन के सम्बन्ध में दो-तीन बार पटना भी आयीं। इनका भव्य स्वागत किया गया। वर्तमान पटना कॉलेज के सामने के सड़क का नाम एनी बेसेन्ट रोड इन्हीं के नाम पर रखा गया है।\n\nचम्पारण सत्याग्रह आन्दोलन\n\nबिहार का चम्पारण जिला १९१७ ई. में महात्मा गाँधी द्वारा भारत में सत्याग्रह के प्रयोग का पहला स्थल था\n\nचम्पारण में अंग्रेज भूमिपतियों द्वारा किसानों पर निर्मम शोषण किया जा रहा था। जमींदारों द्वारा किसानों को बलात नील की खेती के लिए बाध्य किया जाता था। प्रत्येक बीघे पर उन्हें तीन कट्ठों में नील की खेती अनिवार्यतः करनी पड़ती थी। इन्हें तीन कठिया व्यवस्था कहा जाता था। बदले में उचित मजदूरी नहीं दी जाती थी। इसी कारण से किसानों एवं मजदूरों में भयंकर आक्रोश था। सन्‌ १९१६ में लखनऊ अधिवेशन में चम्पारण के राजकुमार शुक्ल जो स्वयं जमींदार के आर्थिक शोषण से ग्रस्त थे, भाग लिया।\n\n२६ दिसम्बर १९३८ को पटना में मुस्लिम लीग का २६वाँ अधिवेशन हुआ। २९ दिसम्बर १९३८ को अखिल भारतीय मुसलमान छात्र सम्मेलन हुआ। ४ जनवरी १९३२ को राजेन्द्र प्रसाद, अनुग्रह नारायण सिंह, ब्रजकिशोर प्रसाद, कृष्ण बल्लभ सहाय आदि नेतागण को गिरफ्तार किया गया। रैम्जे मैक्डोनाल्ड द्वारा हरिजन को कोटा की व्यवस्था से अस्त-व्यस्त हो गया। १२ जुलाई १९३३ को सामुदायिक सविनय अवज्ञा के स्थान पर व्यक्‍तिगत सविनय अवज्ञा का प्रारूप तैयार किया गया। १९२७ ई. में पटना युवा संघ की स्थापना की गई।\n\nनंगी हड़ताल- ४ मई १९३० को गाँधी जी की गिरफ्तारी के बाद स्वदेशी के प्रचार एवं विदेशी वस्त्रों का बहिष्कार किया गया। छपरा के कैदियों ने वस्त्र पहनने से इंकार कर दिया। नंगे शरीर रहकर विदेशी वस्त्रों का विरोध किया गया।\n\nबेगूसराय गोलीकाण्ड एवं बिहार किसान आन्दोलन\n\n२६ जनवरी १९३१ को प्रथम स्वाधीनता दिवस को पूरे जोश से मनाने का निर्णय किया गया। रघुनाथ ब्रह्मचारी के नेतृत्व में बेगूसराय जिले के परहास से एक जुलूस निकाला गया। डीएसपी वशीर अहमद ने गोली चलाने का आदेश दे दिया। छः व्यक्‍ति की घटना स्थल पर मृत्यु हो गई। टेदीनाथ मन्दिर के सामने गोलीकाण्ड हुआ था।\n\n१९१९ ई. में मधुबनी जिले के किसान स्वामी विद्यानन्द ने दरभंगा राज के विरुद्ध विरोध किया। १९२२-३३ ई. में मुंगेर में बिहार किसान सभा का गठन मोहम्मद जूबैर और श्रीकृष्ण सिंह द्वारा किया। १९२८ ई. में स्वामी सहजानन्द सरस्वती ने प्रान्तीय किसान सभा की स्थापना की। इसकी स्थापना में कार्यानन्द शर्मा, राहुल सांकृत्यायन, पंचानन शर्मा, यदुनन्दन शर्मा आदि वामपंथी नेताओं का सहयोग मिला।\n\nस्वामी दयानन्द सहजानन्द ने ४ मार्च १९२८ को किसान आन्दोलन प्रारम्भ किया। इसी वर्ष सरदार वल्लभ भाई पटेल की बिहार यात्रा हुई और अपने भाषणों से किसानों को नई चेतना से जाग्रत किया। बाद में इस आन्दोलन को यूनाइटेड पोलीटीकल पार्टी का नाम दिया गया।\n\n१९३३ ई. में किसान सभा द्वारा जाँच कमेटी का गठन किया गया। कमेटी द्वारा किसानों की दयनीय दशा के प्रति केन्द्रीय कर लगाया गया। १९३६ ई. में अखिल भारतीय किसान सभा का गठन हुआ था। इसके अध्यक्ष स्वामी सहजानन्द स्वामी थे और महासचिव प्रोफेसर एन. जे. रंगा थे।\n\nबिहार में मजदूर आन्दोलन\n\nबिहार में किसानों के समान मजदूरी का भी संगठन बना। बिहार में औद्योगिक मजदूर वर्ग ने मजदूर आन्दोलन चलाया। १९१७ ई. में बोल्शेविक क्रान्ति एवं साम्यवादी विचारों में परिवर्तन के साथ-साथ प्रचार-प्रसार हुआ। दिसम्बर, १९१९ ई. में प्रथम बार जमालपुर (मुंगेर) में मजदूरों की हड़ताल प्रारम्भ हुई। १९२० ई. में एस. एन. हैदर एवं व्यायकेश चक्रवर्ती के मार्गदर्शन में जमशेदपुर वर्क्स एसोसिएशन बनाया गया। १९२५ ई. और १९२८ ई. के बीच मजदूर संगठन की स्थापना हुई। सुभाषचन्द्र बोस, अब्दुल बारी, जयप्रकाश नारायण इसके प्रमुख नेता थे।\n\nबिहार में संवैधानिक प्रगति और द्वैध शासन प्रणाली\n\nबिहार प्रान्त का गठन १ अप्रैल १९१२ में हुआ। इसके गठन के बाद १९१९ ई. को भारत सरकार का कानून लागू किया गया। द्वैध शासन की व्यवस्था बिहार में भी २० दिसम्बर १९२० को प्रारम्भ हुई जिसकी अध्यक्षता आर. एन. मुधोलकर ने की। मौलाना मजरूलहक स्वागत समिति के अध्यक्ष बनाये गये। १९१६ ई. में पटना उच्च न्यायालय और १९१७ ई. में पटना विश्‍वविद्यालय की स्थापना की गई। २० जनवरी १९१३ को बिहार, उड़ीसा के लेफ्टिनेन्ट गवर्नर के नवगठित काउन्सिल की प्रथम बैठक बांकीपुर में हुई, जिसकी अध्यक्षता बिहार-उड़ीसा के लेफ्टिनेन्ट गवर्नर चार्ल्स स्टुअर्ट बेली ने की।\n\n७ फ़रवरी १९२१ को बिहार एवं उड़ीसा लेजिस्लेटिव काउन्सिल की प्रथम बैठक का उद्‍घाटन हुआ जिसकी अध्यक्षता सर मुण्डी ने की।\n\n१ अप्रैल १९३६ को बिहार से उड़ीसा प्रान्त अलग किया गया। पुराने गवर्नमेन्ट ऑफ इण्डिया एक्ट, १९१९ के एक सदनी विधानमण्डल की जगह नया कानून के अनुसार द्वि-सदनी विधानमण्डल स्थापित किया गया।\n\nबिहार में क्रान्तिकारी आन्दोलन\n\nबंग भंग विरोधी आन्दोलन से बिहार तथा बंगाल में क्रान्तिकारी आन्दोलन प्रारम्भ हो गया। बिहार के डॉ॰ ज्ञानेन्द्र नाथ, केदारनाथ बनर्जी एवं बाबा ठाकुर दास प्रमुख थे। बाबा ठाकुर दास ने १९०६-०७ ई. में पटना में रामकृष्ण मिशन सोसायटी की स्थापना की और समाचार-पत्र के द्वारा दी मदरलैण्ड का सम्पादन एवं प्रकाशन शुरू किया। १९०८ ई. में खुदीराम बोस और प्रफुल्ल चाकी नामक दो युवकों ने मुजफ्फरपुर के जिला जज डी. एच. किंग्स फोर्ड की हत्या के प्रयास में मुजफ्फरपुर के नामी वकील की पत्‍नी प्रिग्ल कैनेडी की बेटी की हत्या के कारण ११ अगस्त १९०८ को फाँसी दी गई। इस घटना के बाद भारत को आजाद कराने की भावना प्रबल हो उठी। खेती नाग, चुनचुन पाण्डेय, बटेश्‍वर पाण्डेय, घोटन सिंह, नालिन बागची आदि इस समय प्रमुख नेता थे।\n\n१९०८ ई. में ही नवाब सरफराज हुसैन खाँ की अध्यक्षता में बिहार कांग्रेस कमेटी का गठन हुआ। इसमें सच्चिदानन्द सिंह, मजरूलहक हसन, इमाम दीपनारायण सिंह आदि शामिल थे। कांग्रेस कमेटी के गठन के बाद इसके अध्यक्ष इमाम हुसैन को बनाया गया।\n\n१९०९ ई. में बिहार कांग्रेस सम्मेलन का दूसरा अधिवेशन भागलपुर में सम्पन्‍न हुआ। इसमें भी बिहार को अलग राज्य की माँग जोरदार ढंग से की गई।\n\n१९०७ ई. में ही फखरुद्दीन कलकत्ता उच्च न्यायालय में न्यायाधीश नियुक्‍त होने वाले प्रथम बिहारी बने तथा स्थायी पारदर्शी के रूप में इमाम हुसैन को नियुक्‍त किया गया। १९१० ई. में मार्लेमिण्टो सुधार के अन्तर्गत प्रथम चुनाव आयोजन में सच्चिदानन्द सिंह ने चार महाराजाओं को हराकर बंगाल विधान परिषद्‌ की ओर से केन्द्रीय विधान परिषद्‌ में विधि सदस्य के रूप में नियुक्‍त हुए। १९११ ई. में दिल्ली दरबार में जार्ज पंचम के आगमन में केन्द्रीय परिषद्‍ के अधिवेशन के दौरान सच्चिदानन्द सिंह, अली इमाम एवं मोहम्मद अली ने पृथक बिहार की माँग की। फलतः इन बिहारी महान सपूतों द्वारा १२ दिसम्बर १९११ को दिल्ली के शाही दरबार में बिहार और उड़ीसा को मिलाकर एक नया प्रान्त बनाने की घोषणा हुई। इस घोषणा के अनुसार १ अप्रैल १९१२ को बिहार एवं उड़ीसा नये प्रान्त के रूप में इनकी विधिवत्‌ स्थापना की गई। बिहार के स्वतन्त्र अस्तित्व का मुहर लगने के तत्काल बाद पटना में भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस का २७वाँ वार्षिक सम्मेलन हुआ। मुगलकालीन समय में बिहार एक अलग सूबा था। मुगल सत्ता समाप्ति के समय बंगाल के नवाबों के अधीन बिहार चला गया। फलतः बिहार की अलग राज्य की माँग सर्वप्रथम मुस्लिम और कायस्थ ने की थी। जब लार्ड कर्जन ने बंगाल को १९०५ ई. में पूर्वी भाग एवं पश्‍चिमी भाग में बाँध दिया था तब बिहार के लोगों ने इस प्रस्ताव का विरोध किया एवं सच्चिदानन्द सिंह एवं महेश नारायण ने अखबारों में वैकल्पिक विभाजन की रूपरेखा देते हुए लेख लिखे थे जो पार्टीशन ऑफ बंगाल और लेपरेशन ऑफ बिहार १९०६ ई. में प्रकाशित हुए थे।\n\nइस समय कलकत्ता में राजेन्द्र प्रसाद अध्ययनरत थे वे वहाँ बिहारी क्लब के मन्त्री थे। डॉ॰ सच्चिदानन्द सिंह, अनुग्रह नारायण सिंह, हमेश नारायण तथा अन्य छात्र नेताओं से विचार-विमर्श के बाद पटना में एक विशाल बिहार छात्र सम्मेलन करवाया। यह सम्मेलन दशहरा की छुट्टी में पहला बिहारी छात्र सम्मेलन पटना कॉलेज के प्रांगण में पटना के प्रमुख शर्फुद्दीन के सभापतित्व में सम्पन्‍न हुआ था। इससे बिहार पृथक्‍करण आन्दोलन पर विशेष बल मिला। १९०६ ई. में बिहार टाइम्स का नाम बदलकर बिहारी कर दिया गया। १९०७ ई. में महेश नारायण का निधन हो गया। सच्चिदानन्द ने ब्रह्मदेव नारायण के सहयोग से पत्रिका का सम्पादन जारी रखा।\n\nबिहार प्रादेशिक सम्मेलन की स्थापना १२-१३ अप्रैल १९०६ में पटना में हुई जिसकी अध्यक्षता अली इमाम ने की थी। इसमें बिहार को अलग प्रान्त की माँग के प्रस्ताव को पारित किया गया।\n\nभारतीय राष्ट्रीय आन्दोलन एवं नव बिहार प्रान्त के रूप में गठन\n\nभारतीय राष्ट्रीय आन्दोलन में बिहार का महत्वपूर्ण योगदान रहा है। १८५७ ई. के विद्रोह का प्रभाव उत्तरी एवं मध्य भारत तक ही सीमित राहा। इस आन्दोलन में मुख्य रूप से शिक्षित एवं मध्यम वर्गों का योगदान रहता था।\n\nराष्ट्रीय चेतना की जागृति में बिहार ने अपना योगदान जारी रखा। बिहार और बंगाल राष्ट्रीय चेतना का प्रमुख केन्द्र रहा। सार्वजनिक गठन की १८८० ई. में नींव रखकर भारतीय जनता में राष्ट्रीयता की भावना को जगाया। १८८५ ई. में राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस की स्थापना हो चुकी थी। १८८६ ई. में कलकत्ता के कांग्रेस अधिवेशन में बिहार के कई प्रतिनिधियों ने भाग लिया था। दरभंगा के महाराजा लक्ष्मेश्‍वर सिंह कांग्रेस को आर्थिक सहायता प्रदान की थी।\n\nनव राज्य का गठन\n\nरेग्यूलेटिंग एक्ट १७७४ ई. के तहत बिहार के लिए एक प्रान्तीय सभा का गठन किया तथा १८६५ ई. में पटना और गया के जिले अलग-अलग किये गये।\n\n१८९४ ई. में पटना से प्रकाशित समाचार-पत्र के माध्यम से बिहार पृथक्‍करण आन्दोलन की माँग की गई। इस पत्रिका के सम्पादक महेश नारायण और सच्चिदानन्द थे, जबकि किशोरी लाल तथा कृष्ण सहाय भी शामिल थे। कुर्था थाना में झण्डा फहराने की कोशिश में श्याम बिहारी लाल मारे गये। कटिहार थाने में झण्डा फहराने में कपिल मुनि भी पुलिस का शिकार हुए।\n\nब्रिटिश सरकार आन्दोलन एवं क्रान्तिकारी गतिविधियों से मजबूर होकर अपने शासन प्रणाली के नीति को बदलने लगी।\n\nइस बीच गाँधी जी ने १० फ़रवरी १९४३ को २१ दिन का अनशन करने की घोषणा की। समाचार-पत्र में बिहार हेराल्ड, प्रभाकर योगी ने गाँधी जी की रिहाई की जोरदार माँग की। अक्टूबर, १९४३ के बीच लॉर्ड वेवेल वायसराय बनकर भारत आया। इसी समय २२ जनवरी १९४४ को गाँधी जी की पत्‍नी श्रीमती कस्तूरबा का देहान्त हो गया। मुस्लिम लीग ने बिहार का साम्प्रदायिक माहौल को बिगाड़ कर विभाजन करो और छोड़ो का नारा दे रहा था। मुस्लिम लीग ने ४ फ़रवरी १९४४ को उर्दू दिवस तथा २३ मार्च को पाकिस्तान दिवस भी मनाया गया। ६ मई १९४४ को गाँधी जी को जेल से रिहा कर दिया। अनुग्रह नारायण सिंह, बाबू श्रीकृष्ण सिंह, ठक्‍कर बापा आदि नेताओं की गृह नजरबन्दी का आदेश निर्गत किये गये।\n\nजून, १९४५ में सरकार ने राजनैतिक गतिरोध को दूर करते हुए एक बार फिर मार्च, १९४६ ई. में बिहार में चुनाव सम्पन्‍न कराया गया। विधानसभा की १५२ सीटों में कांग्रेस को ९८, मुस्लिम लीग को ३४ तथा मोमीन को ५ सीटें मिलीं। ३० मार्च १९२६ को श्रीकृष्ण सिंह के नेतृत्व में कांग्रेस द्वारा अन्तरिम सरकार का गठन का मुस्लिम लीग ने प्रतिक्रियात्मक जवाब दिया। देश भर में दंगा भड़क उठा जिसका प्रभाव छपरा, बांका, जहानाबाद, मुंगेर जिलों में था। ६ नवम्बर १९४६ को गाँधी जी ने एक पत्र जारी कर काफी दुःख प्रकट किया। १९ दिसम्बर १९४६ को सच्चिदानन्द सिंह की अध्यक्षता में भारतीय संविधान सभा का अधिवेशन शुरू हुआ। २० फ़रवरी १९४७ में घोषणा की कि ब्रिटिश जून, १९४८ तक भारत छोड़ देगा।\n\n१४ मार्च १९४७ को लार्ड माउण्टबेटन भारत के वायसराय बनाये गये। जुलाई, १९४७ को इण्डियन इंडिपेंडेण्ट बिल संसद में प्रस्तुत किया। इस विधान के अनुसार १५ अगस्त १९४७ से भारत में दि स्वतन्त्र औपनिवेशिक राज्य स्थापित किये जायेंगे। बिहार के प्रथम गवर्नर जयरामदास दौलतराम और मुख्यमंत्री श्रीकृष्ण सिंह बने तथा अनुग्रह नारायण सिंह बिहार के पहले उप मुख्यमंत्री सह वित्त मंत्री बने।\n\n २६ जनवरी १९५० को भारतीय संविधान लागू होने के साथ बिहार भारतीय संघ व्यवस्था के अनुरूप एक राज्य में परिवर्तित हो गया।\n १९४७ ई. के बाद भारत में राज्य पुनर्गठन में बिहार को क श्रेणी का राज्य घोषित किया लेकिन १९५६ ई. में राज्य पुनर्गठन अधिनियम के अन्तर्गत इसे पुनः राज्य के वर्ग। में रखा गया।\n 15 नवम्बर 2000 को बिहार को विभाजित कर झारखण्ड और बिहार कर दिया गया।\n\nश्रेणी:बिहार\nश्रेणी:भारत छोड़ो अंदोलन\nश्रेणी:भारतीय स्वतन्त्रता संग्राम", "आदि शंकराचार्य\nआदि शंकर () ये भारत के एक महान दार्शनिक एवं धर्मप्रवर्तक थे। उन्होने अद्वैत वेदान्त को ठोस आधार प्रदान किया। भगवद्गीता, उपनिषदों और वेदांतसूत्रों पर लिखी हुई इनकी टीकाएँ बहुत प्रसिद्ध हैं। उन्होंने सांख्य दर्शन का प्रधानकारणवाद और मीमांसा दर्शन के ज्ञान-कर्मसमुच्चयवाद का खण्डन किया। उनका जन्म ई. पू. ५०८ में तथा महासमाधि ४७७ ई. पू. में हुई थी। इन्होंने भारतवर्ष में चार कोनों में चार मठों की स्थापना की थी जो अभी तक बहुत प्रसिद्ध और पवित्र माने जाते हैं और जिन पर आसीन संन्यासी 'शंकराचार्य' कहे जाते हैं। वे चारों स्थान ये हैं- (१) ज्योतिष्पीठ बदरिकाश्रम, (२) श्रृंगेरी पीठ, (३) द्वारिका शारदा पीठ और (४) पुरी गोवर्धन पीठ। इन्होंने अनेक विधर्मियों को भी अपने धर्म में दीक्षित किया था। ये शंकर के अवतार माने जाते हैं। इन्होंने ब्रह्मसूत्रों की बड़ी ही विशद और रोचक व्याख्या की है।\n\nउनके विचारोपदेश आत्मा और परमात्मा की एकरूपता पर आधारित हैं जिसके अनुसार परमात्मा एक ही समय में सगुण और निर्गुण दोनों ही स्वरूपों में रहता है। स्मार्त संप्रदाय में आदि शंकराचार्य को शिव का अवतार माना जाता है। इन्होंने ईश, केन, कठ, प्रश्न, मुण्डक, मांडूक्य, ऐतरेय, तैत्तिरीय, बृहदारण्यक और छान्दोग्योपनिषद् पर भाष्य लिखा। वेदों में लिखे ज्ञान को एकमात्र ईश्वर को संबोधित समझा और उसका प्रचार तथा वार्ता पूरे भारतवर्ष में की। उस समय वेदों की समझ के बारे में मतभेद होने पर उत्पन्न चार्वाक, जैन और बौद्ध मतों को शास्त्रार्थों द्वारा खण्डित किया और भारत में चार कोनों पर ज्योति, गोवर्धन, श्रृंगेरी एवं द्वारिका आदि चार मठों की स्थापना की।\n\nकलियुग के प्रथम चरण में विलुप्त तथा विकृत वैदिक ज्ञानविज्ञान को उद्भासित और विशुद्ध कर वैदिक वाङ्मय को दार्शनिक, व्यावहारिक, वैज्ञानिक धरातल पर समृद्ध करने वाले एवं राजर्षि सुधन्वा को सार्वभौम सम्राट ख्यापित करने वाले चतुराम्नाय-चतुष्पीठ संस्थापक नित्य तथा नैमित्तिक युग्मावतार श्रीशिवस्वरुप भगवत्पाद शंकराचार्य की अमोघदृष्टि तथा अद्भुत कृति सर्वथा स्तुत्य है।\n\nसतयुग की अपेक्षा त्रेता में, त्रेता की अपेक्षा द्वापर में तथा द्वापर की अपेक्षा कलि में मनुष्यों की प्रज्ञाशक्ति तथा प्राणशक्ति एवं धर्म औेर आध्यात्म का ह्रास सुनिश्चित है। यही कारण है कि कृतयुग में शिवावतार भगवान दक्षिणामूर्ति ने केवल मौन व्याख्यान से शिष्यों के संशयों का निवारण किय‍ा। त्रेता में ब्रह्मा, विष्णु औऱ शिव अवतार भगवान दत्तात्रेय ने सूत्रात्मक वाक्यों के द्वारा अनुगतों का उद्धार किया। द्वापर में नारायणावतार भगवान कृष्णद्वैपायन वेदव्यास ने वेदों का विभाग कर महाभारत तथा पुराणादि की एवं ब्रह्मसूत्रों की संरचनाकर एवं शुक लोमहर्षणादि कथाव्यासों को प्रशिक्षितकर धर्म तथा आध्यात्म को उज्जीवित रखा। कलियुग में भगवत्पाद श्रीमद् शंकराचार्य ने भाष्य , प्रकरण तथा स्तोत्रग्रन्थों की संरचना कर , विधर्मियों-पन्थायियों एवं मीमांसकादि से शास्त्रार्थ , परकायप्रवेशकर , नारदकुण्ड से अर्चाविग्रह श्री बदरीनाथ एवं भूगर्भ से अर्चाविग्रह श्रीजगन्नाथ दारुब्रह्म को प्रकटकर तथा प्रस्थापित कर , सुधन्वा सार्वभौम को राजसिंहासन समर्पित कर एवं चतुराम्नाय - चतुष्पीठों की स्थापना कर अहर्निश अथक परिश्रम के द्वारा धर्म और आध्यात्म को उज्जीवित तथा प्रतिष्ठित किया।\n\nव्यासपीठ के पोषक राजपीठ के परिपालक धर्माचार्यों को श्रीभगवत्पाद ने नीतिशास्त्र , कुलाचार तथा श्रौत-स्मार्त कर्म , उपासना तथा ज्ञानकाण्ड के यथायोग्य प्रचार-प्रसार की भावना से अपने अधिकार क्षेत्र में परिभ्रमण का उपदेश दिया। उन्होंने धर्मराज्य की स्थापना के लिये व्यासपीठ तथा राजपीठ में सद्भावपूर्ण सम्वाद के माध्यम से सामंजस्य बनाये रखने की प्रेरणा प्रदान की। ब्रह्मतेज तथा क्षात्रबल के साहचर्य से सर्वसुमंगल कालयोग की सिद्धि को सुनिश्चित मानकर कालगर्भित तथा कालातीतदर्शी आचार्य शंकर ने व्यासपीठ तथा राजपीठ का शोधनकर दोनों में सैद्धान्तिक सामंजस्य साधा।\n\nदसनामी गुसांई गोस्वामी (सरस्वती,गिरि, पुरी, बन, पर्वत, अरण्य, सागर, तीर्थ, आश्रम और भारती उपनाम वाले गुसांई, गोसाई, गोस्वामी) इनके आध्यात्मिक उत्तराधिकारी माने जाते हैं और उनके प्रमुख सामाजिक संगठन का नाम \n\"अंतरराष्ट्रीय जगतगुरु दसनाम गुसांई गोस्वामी एकता अखाड़ा परिषद\" है। शंकराचार्य ने पूरे भारत में मंदिरों और शक्तिपीठों की पुनः स्थापना की। नील पर्वत पर स्थित चंडी देवी मंदिर इन्हीं द्वारा स्थापित किया माना जाता है। शिवालिक पर्वत श्रृंखला की पहाड़ियों के मध्य स्थित माता शाकंभरी देवी शक्तिपीठ में जाकर इन्होंने पूजा अर्चना की और शाकंभरी देवी के साथ तीन देवियां भीमा, भ्रामरी और शताक्षी देवी की प्रतिमाओं को स्थापित किया। कामाक्षी देवी मंदिर भी इन्हीं द्वारा स्थापित है जिससे उस युग में धर्म का बढ़-चढ़कर प्रसार हुआ था।\n\nजीवनचरित\nशंकर आचार्य का जन्म ५०७-५०८ ई. पू. में केरल में कालपी अथवा 'काषल' नामक ग्राम में हुआ था। इनके पिता का नाम शिवगुरु भट्ट और माता का नाम सुभद्रा था। बहुत दिन तक सपत्नीक शिव को आराधना करने के अनंतर शिवगुरु ने पुत्र-रत्न पाया था, अत: उसका नाम शंकर रखा। जब ये तीन ही वर्ष के थे तब इनके पिता का देहांत हो गया। ये बड़े ही मेधावी तथा प्रतिभाशाली थे। छह वर्ष की अवस्था में ही ये प्रकांड पंडित हो गए थे और आठ वर्ष की अवस्था में इन्होंने संन्यास ग्रहण किया था। इनके संन्यास ग्रहण करने के समय की कथा बड़ी विचित्र है। कहते हैं, माता एकमात्र पुत्र को संन्यासी बनने की आज्ञा नहीं देती थीं। तब एक दिन नदीकिनारे एक मगरमच्छ ने शंकराचार्यजी का पैर पकड़ लिया तब इस वक्त का फायदा उठाते शंकराचार्यजी ने अपने माँ से कहा \" माँ मुझे सन्यास लेने की आज्ञा दो नही तो हे मगरमच्छ मुझे खा जायेगी \", इससे भयभीत होकर माता ने तुरंत इन्हें संन्यासी होने की आज्ञा प्रदान की ; और आश्चर्य की बात है की, जैसे ही माता ने आज्ञा दी वैसे तुरन्त मगरमच्छ ने शंकराचार्यजी का पैर छोड़ दिया। और इन्होंने गोविन्द नाथ से संन्यास ग्रहण किया।\n\nपहले ये कुछ दिनों तक काशी में रहे, और तब इन्होंने विजिलबिंदु के तालवन में मण्डन मिश्र को सपत्नीक शास्त्रार्थ में परास्त किया। इन्होंने समस्त भारतवर्ष में भ्रमण करके बौद्ध धर्म को मिथ्या प्रमाणित किया तथा वैदिक धर्म को पुनरुज्जीवित किया। कुछ बौद्ध इन्हें अपना शत्रु भी समझते हैं, क्योंकि इन्होंने बौद्धों को कई बार शास्त्रार्थ में पराजित करके वैदिक धर्म की पुन: स्थापना की।\n\n३२ वर्ष की अल्प आयु में सम्वत ८२० ई मेंकेदारनाथ के समीप स्वर्गवासी हुए थे।\n\nकाल \nभारतीय संस्कृति के विकास एवं संरक्षण में आद्य शंकराचार्य का विशेष योगदान रहा है। आचार्य शंकर का जन्म पश्चिम सुधन्वा चौहान, जो कि शंकर के समकालीन थे, उनके ताम्रपत्र अभिलेख में शंकर का जन्म युधिष्ठिराब्द २६३१ शक् (५०७ ई०पू०) तथा शिवलोक गमन युधिष्ठिराब्द २६६३ शक् (४७५ ई०पू०) सर्वमान्य है। इसके प्रमाण सभी शांकर मठों में मिलते हैं।\n\nआदिशंकराचार्य जी ने जो चार पीठ स्थापित किये, उनके काल निर्धारण में उत्थापित की गई भ्रांतियाँ--\n\n1. उत्तर दिशा में बदरिकाश्रम में ज्योतिर्पीठ : स्थापना-युधिष्ठिर संवत् 2641-2645\n\n2. पश्चिम में द्वारिका शारदापीठ- यु.सं. 2648\n\n3.दक्षिण शृंगेरीपीठ- यु.सं. 2648\n\n4. पूर्व दिशा जगन्नाथपुरी गोवर्द्धनपीठ - यु.सं. 2655\n\nआदिशंकर जी अंतिम दिनों में कांची कामकोटि पीठ 2658 यु.सं. में निवास कर रहे थे।\n\nशारदा पीठमें लिखा है -\n \"युधिष्ठिर शके 2631 वैशाखशुक्लापंचम्यां श्रीमच्ठछंकरावतार:।\n ……तदनु 2663 कार्तिकशुक्लपूर्णिमायां ……श्रीमच्छंकरभगवत्पूज्यपादा…… निजदेहेनैव…… निजधाम प्राविशन्निति। \n\nअर्थात् युधिष्ठिर संवत् 2631 में वैशाखमासके शुक्ल पक्ष की पंचमी तिथि को श्रीशंकराचार्य का जन्म हुआ और युधि. सं.2663 कार्तिकशुक्ल पूर्णिमा को देहत्याग हुआ।\n[युधिष्ठिर संवत् 3139 B.C. में प्रवर्तित हुआ था]\n\nराजा सुधन्वा के ताम्रपत्र का लेख द्वारिकापीठके एक आचार्य ने \"विमर्श\" नामक ग्रन्थ में प्रकाशित किया है-\n'निखिलयोगिचक्रवर्त्ती श्रीमच्छंकरभगवत्पादपद्मयोर्भ्र\nमरायमाणसुधन्वनो मम सोमवंशचूडामणियुधिष्ठिरपारम्पर्\n यपरिप्राप्तभारतवर्षस्यांजलिबद्धपूर्वकेयं राजन्यस्य विज्ञप्ति:………युधिष्ठिरशके 2663 आश्विन शुक्ल 15। \n\nएक अन्य ताम्रपत्र संस्कृतचंद्रिका (कोल्हापुर) के खण्ड 14, संख्या 2-3 में प्रकाशित हुआ था। उसके अनुसार गुजरात के राजा सर्वजित् वर्मा ने द्वारिकाशारदापीठ के प्रथम आचार्य श्री सुरेश्वराचार्य (पूर्व नाम-मंडनमिश्र) से लेकर 29वें आचार्य श्री नृसिंहाश्रम तक सभी आचार्यों के विवरण हैं। इसमें प्रथम आचार्य का समय 2649 युधि. सं. दिया है।\n\nसर्वज्ञसदाशिवकृत \"पुण्यश्लोकमंजरी\" आत्मबोध द्वारा रचित \"गुरुरत्नमालिका\" तथा उसकी टीका \"सुषमा\"में कुछ श्लोक हैं। \nउनमें एक श्लोक इस प्रकार है-\n\nतिष्ये प्रयात्यनलशेवधिबाणनेत्रे, ये नन्दने दिनमणावुदगध्वभाजि ।\nरात्रोदितेरुडुविनिर्गतमंगलग्नेत्याहूतवान् शिवगुरु: स च शंकरेति ॥\n\nअर्थ- अनल=3 , शेवधि=निधि=9, बाण=5,नेत्र=2 ,\nअर्थात् 3952 | 'अंकानां वामतोगति:' इस नियमसे अंक विपरीत क्रम से रखने पर 2593 कलिसंवत् बना|\n[कलिसंवत् 3102 B.C. में प्रारम्भ हुआ ]\nतदनुसार 3102-2593=509 BC में आदि शंकराचार्य जी का जन्म वर्ष निश्चित होता है।\n\nकुमारिल भट्ट जो कि शंकराचार्य के समकालीन थे , जैनग्रंथ जिनविजय में लिखा है -\nऋषिर्वारस्तथा पूर्ण मर्त्याक्षौ वाममेलनात्। \nएकीकृत्य लभेतांक:क्रोधीस्यात्तत्र वत्सर:। ।\nभट्टाचार्यस्य कुमारस्य कर्मकाण्डैकवादिन:। \nज्ञेय: प्रादुर्भवस्तस्मिन् वर्षे यौधिष्ठिरे शके।।\n\nजैन लोग युधिष्ठिरसंवत् को 468 कलिसंवत् से प्रारम्भ हुआ मानते हैं। \n\nश्लोकार्थ- ऋषि=7,वार=7,पूर्ण=0, मर्त्याक्षौ=2,\n7702 \"अंकानांवामतोगति\"\n2077 युधिष्ठिर संवत् आया\nअर्थात् 557 B.C.\nकुमारिल 48 वर्ष बड़े थे => 509 B.C. श्रीशंकराचार्य जी का जन्मवर्ष सिद्ध होता है।\n\n\"जिनविजय\" में शंकराचार्यजीके देहावसान के विषयमें लिखा है --\nऋषिर्बाणस्तथा भूमिर्मर्त्याक्षौ वांममेलनात्। \nएकत्वेन लभेतांकस्ताम्राक्षस्तत्र वत्सर: ॥\n2157 यु. सं. (जैन)\n476 B.C. में आचार्य शंकर ब्रह्मलीन हुए !\n\nबृहत्शंकरविजय में चित्सुखाचार्य (शंकराचार्य जी के सह अध्यायी) ने लिखा है--\nषड्विंशकेशतके श्रीमद् युधिष्ठिरशकस्य वै।\nएकत्रिंशेऽथ वर्षेतु हायने नन्दने शुभे। ।\n………………………………|\nप्रासूत तन्वंसाध्वी गिरिजेव षडाननम्।।\n\nयहाँ युधिष्ठिर शक 2631 में अर्थात् 508 ई. पू. में आचार्य का जन्म संवत् बताया गयाहै।\n\nवर्तमान इतिहासकार जिन शंकराचार्य को 788 - 820 ई. का बताते हैं वे वस्तुत: कामकोटि पीठके 38वें आचार्य श्री अभिनवशंकर जी थे।\nवे 787 से 840 ईसवीसन् तक विद्यमान थे। \nवे चिदम्बरम वासी श्रीविश्वजी के पुत्र थे। इन्होंने कश्मीर के वाक्पतिभट्ट को शास्त्रार्थ में पराजित किया और 30 वर्ष तक मठ के आचार्य पद पर रहे।\nसभी सनातन धर्मावलम्बियों को अपनें मूल आचार्य के विषय में ज्ञान होना चाहिए। इस विषय में यह ध्यातव्य है कि पुरी के पूज्य वर्तमान शंकराचार्य जी ने सभी प्रमाणभूत साक्ष्यों को भारत सरकार को सौंपकर उन प्रमाणों के आलोक में ऐतिहासिक अभिलेखों में संशोधन का आग्रह भी किया है!\n\nप्रमुख कार्य \nशंकर दिग्विजय, शंकरविजयविलास, शंकरजय आदि ग्रन्थों में उनके जीवन से सम्बन्धित तथ्य उद्घाटित होते हैं। दक्षिण भारत के केरल राज्य (तत्कालीन मालाबारप्रांत) में आद्य शंकराचार्य जी का जन्म हुआ था। उनके पिता शिव गुरु तैत्तिरीय शाखा के यजुर्वेदी भट्ट ब्राह्मण थे। भारतीय प्राच्य परम्परा में आद्यशंकराचार्य को शिव का अवतार स्वीकार किया जाता है। कुछ उनके जीवन के चमत्कारिक तथ्य सामने आते हैं, जिससे प्रतीत होता है कि वास्तव में आद्य शंकराचार्य शिव के अवतार थे। आठ वर्ष की अवस्था में श्री गोविन्द नाथ के शिष्यत्व को ग्रहण कर संन्यासी हो जाना, पुन: वाराणसी से होते हुए बद्रिकाश्रम तक की पैदल यात्रा करना, सोलह वर्ष की अवस्था में बद्रीकाश्रम पहुंच कर ब्रह्मसूत्र पर भाष्य लिखना, सम्पूर्ण भारत वर्ष में भ्रमण कर अद्वैत वेदान्त का प्रचार करना, दरभंगा में जाकर मण्डन मिश्र से शास्त्रार्थ कर वेदान्त की दीक्षा देना तथा मण्डन मिश्र को संन्यास धारण कराना, भारतवर्ष में प्रचलित तत्कालीन कुरीतियों को दूर कर समभावदर्शी धर्म की स्थापना करना - इत्यादि कार्य इनके महत्व को और बढ़ा देता है। दशनाम गोस्वामी समाज (सरस्वती, गिरि, पुरी, बन, भारती, तीर्थ, सागर, अरण्य, पर्वत और आश्रम ) की सस्थापना कर, हिंदू धर्मगुरू के रूप में हिंदुओं के प्रचार प्रसार व रक्षा का कार्य सौपा और उन्हें अपना आध्यात्मिक उत्तराधिकारी भी बताया।\n\nमठ \nचार धार्मिक मठों में दक्षिण के शृंगेरी शंकराचार्यपीठ, पूर्व (ओडिशा) जगन्नाथपुरी में गोवर्धनपीठ, पश्चिम द्वारिका में शारदामठ तथा बद्रिकाश्रम में ज्योतिर्पीठ भारत की एकात्मकता को आज भी दिग्दर्शित कर रहा है। कुछ लोग शृंगेरी को शारदापीठ तथा गुजरात के द्वारिका में मठ को काली मठ कहते है। उक्त सभी कार्य को सम्पादित कर 32वर्ष की आयु में ब्रह्मलीन हुए।\n\nशास्त्रीय प्रमाण \n\n सर्गे प्राथमिके प्रयाति विरतिं मार्गे स्थिते दौर्गते स्वर्गे दुर्गमतामुपेयुषि भृशं दुर्गेऽपवर्गे सति। \n वर्गे देहभृतां निसर्ग मलिने जातोपसर्गेऽखिले सर्गे विश्वसृजस्तदीयवपुषा भर्गोऽवतीर्णो भुवि। ।\n\nअर्थ:- \" सनातन संस्कृति के पुरोधा सनकादि महर्षियों का प्राथमिक सर्ग जब उपरति को प्राप्त हो गया , अभ्युदय तथा नि:श्रेयसप्रद वैदिक सन्मार्ग की दुर्गति होने लगी , फलस्वरुप स्वर्ग दुर्गम होने लगा ,अपवर्ग अगम हो गया , तब इस भूतल पर भगवान भर्ग ( शिव ) शंकर रूप से अवतीर्ण हुऐ। \"\n\nभगवान शिव द्वारा द्वारा कलियुग के प्रथम चरण में अपने चार शिष्यों के साथ जगदगुरु आचार्य शंकर के रूप में अवतार लेने का वर्णन पुराणशास्त्र में भी वर्णित हैं जो इस प्रकार हैं :-\n\n कल्यब्दे द्विसहस्त्रान्ते लोकानुग्रहकाम्यया। \n चतुर्भि: सह शिष्यैस्तु शंकरोऽवतरिष्यति। । ( भविष्योत्तर पुराण ३६ ) \nअर्थ :- \" कलि के दो सहस्त्र वर्ष व्यतीत होने के पश्चात लोक अनुग्रह की कामना से श्री सर्वेश्वर शिव अपने चार शिष्यों के साथ अवतार धारण कर अवतरित होते हैं। \"\n\n निन्दन्ति वेदविद्यांच द्विजा: कर्माणि वै कलौ। \n कलौ देवो महादेव: शंकरो नीललोहित:। ।\n प्रकाशते प्रतिष्ठार्थं धर्मस्य विकृताकृति:। \n ये तं विप्रा निषेवन्ते येन केनापि शंकरम्। ।\n कलिदोषान्विनिर्जित्य प्रयान्ति परमं पदम्। (लिंगपुराण ४०. २०-२१.१/२)\n\nअर्थ:- \" कलि में ब्राह्मण वेदविद्या और वैदिक कर्मों की जब निन्दा करने लगते हैं ; रुद्र संज्ञक विकटरुप नीललोहित महादेव धर्म की प्रतिष्ठा के लिये अवतीर्ण होते हैं। जो ब्राह्मणादि जिस किसी उपाय से उनका आस्था सहित अनुसरण सेवन करते हैं ; वे परमगति को प्राप्त होते हैं। \"\n\n कलौ रुद्रो महादेवो लोकानामीश्वर: पर:। \n न देवता भवेन्नृणां देवतानांच दैवतम्। ।\n करिष्यत्यवताराणि शंकरो नीललोहित:। \n श्रौतस्मार्त्तप्रतिष्ठार्थं भक्तानां हितकाम्यया। ।\n उपदेक्ष्यति तज्ज्ञानं शिष्याणां ब्रह्मासंज्ञितम। \n सर्ववेदान्तसार हि धर्मान वेदनदिर्शितान। ।\n ये तं विप्रा निषेवन्ते येन केनोपचारत:। \n विजित्य कलिजान दोषान यान्ति ते परमं पदम। । ( कूर्मपुराण १.२८.३२-३४) \nअर्थ:- \" कलि में देवों के देव महादेव लोकों के परमेश्वर रुद्र शिव मनुष्यों के उद्धार के लिये उन भक्तों की हित की कामना से श्रौत-स्मार्त -प्रतिपादित धर्म की प्रतिष्ठा के लिये विविध अवतारों को ग्रहण करेंगें। वे शिष्यों को वेदप्रतिपादित सर्ववेदान्तसार ब्रह्मज्ञानरुप मोक्ष धर्मों का उपदेश करेंगें। जो ब्राह्मण जिस किसी भी प्रकार उनक‍ा सेवन करते हैं ; वे कलिप्रभव दोषों को जीतकर परमपद को प्राप्त करते हैं। \"\n\n व्याकुर्वन् व्याससूत्रार्थं श्रुतेरर्थं यथोचिवान्। \n श्रुतेर्न्याय: स एवार्थ: शंकर: सवितानन:। । ( शिवपुराण-रुद्रखण्ड ७.१)\nअर्थ:- \"सूर्यसदृश प्रतापी श्री शिवावतार आचार्य शंकर श्री बादरायण - वेदव्यासविरचित ब्रह्मसूत्रों पर श्रुतिसम्मत युक्तियुक्त भाष्य संरचना करते हैं। \"\n\nमहत्व \nशंकराचार्य के विषय में कहा गया है-\n\n अष्टवर्षेचतुर्वेदी, द्वादशेसर्वशास्त्रवित् षोडशेकृतवान्भाष्यम्द्वात्रिंशेमुनिरभ्यगात्\n\nअर्थात् आठ वर्ष की आयु में चारों वेदों में निष्णात हो गए, बारह वर्ष की आयु में सभी शास्त्रों में पारंगत, सोलह वर्ष की आयु में शांकरभाष्यतथा बत्तीस वर्ष की आयु में शरीर त्याग दिया। ब्रह्मसूत्र के ऊपर शांकरभाष्यकी रचना कर विश्व को एक सूत्र में बांधने का प्रयास भी शंकराचार्य के द्वारा किया गया है, जो कि सामान्य मानव से सम्भव नहीं है। शंकराचार्य के दर्शन में सगुण ब्रह्म तथा निर्गुण ब्रह्म दोनों का हम दर्शन, कर सकते हैं। निर्गुण ब्रह्म उनका निराकार ईश्वर है तथा सगुण ब्रह्म साकार ईश्वर है। जीव अज्ञान व्यष्टि की उपाधि से युक्त है। तत्त्‍‌वमसि तुम ही ब्रह्म हो; अहं ब्रह्मास्मि मैं ही ब्रह्म हूं; 'अयामात्मा ब्रह्म' यह आत्मा ही ब्रह्म है; इन बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् तथा छान्दोग्योपनिषद वाक्यों के द्वारा इस जीवात्मा को निराकार ब्रह्म से अभिन्न स्थापित करने का प्रयत्‍‌न शंकराचार्य जी ने किया है। ब्रह्म को जगत् के उत्पत्ति, स्थिति तथा प्रलय का निमित्त कारण बताए हैं। ब्रह्म सत् (त्रिकालाबाधित) नित्य, चैतन्यस्वरूप तथा आनंद स्वरूप है। ऐसा उन्होंने स्वीकार किया है। जीवात्मा को भी सत् स्वरूप, चैतन्य स्वरूप तथा आनंद स्वरूप स्वीकार किया है। जगत् के स्वरूप को बताते हुए कहते हैं कि -\n\n नामरूपाभ्यां व्याकृतस्य अनेककर्तृभोक्तृसंयुक्तस्य प्रतिनियत देशकालनिमित्तक्रियाफलाश्रयस्य मनसापि अचिन्त्यरचनारूपस्य जन्मस्थितिभंगंयत:।\n\nअर्थात् नाम एवं रूप से व्याकृत, अनेक कर्ता, अनेक भोक्ता से संयुक्त, जिसमें देश, काल, निमित्त और क्रियाफल भी नियत हैं। जिस जगत् की सृष्टि को मन से भी कल्पना नहीं कर सकते, उस जगत् की उत्पत्ति, स्थिति तथा लय जिससे होता है, उसको ब्रह्म कहते है। सम्पूर्ण जगत् के जीवों को ब्रह्म के रूप में स्वीकार करना, तथा तर्क आदि के द्वारा उसके सिद्ध कर देना, आदि शंकराचार्य की विशेषता रही है। इस प्रकार शंकराचार्य के व्यक्तित्व तथा कृतित्वके मूल्यांकन से हम कह सकते है कि राष्ट्र को एक सूत्र में बांधने का कार्य शंकराचार्य जी ने सर्वतोभावेनकिया था। भारतीय संस्कृति के विस्तार में भी इनका अमूल्य योगदान रहा है।\n\nशास्त्रार्थ \nअंगूठाकार|दाएँ|आदि शंकराचाय जी की मूर्ति\nआदि शंकराचार्य ने बौद्ध धर्म सहित अपने समय के विभिन्न दार्शनिक विचारधाराओं से धार्मिक वाद-विवाद किया और शास्त्रार्थ में कुछ उल्लेखनीय लोगों को सार्वजनिक रूप से हराया।\nवे केरल से लंबी पदयात्रा करके नर्मदा नदी के तट पर स्थित ओंकारनाथ पहुँचे। वहाँ गुरु गोविंदपाद से योग शिक्षा तथा अद्वैत ब्रह्म ज्ञान प्राप्त करने लगे। तीन वर्ष तक आचार्य शंकर अद्वैत तत्व की साधना करते रहे। तत्पश्चात गुरु आज्ञा से वे काशी विश्वनाथ जी के दर्शन के लिए निकल पड़े। जब वे काशी जा रहे थे कि एक चांडाल उनकी राह में आ गया। उन्होंने क्रोधित हो चांडाल को वहाँ से हट जाने के लिए कहा तो चांडाल बोला- ‘हे मुनि! आप शरीरों में रहने वाले एक परमात्मा की उपेक्षा कर रहे हैं, इसलिए आप अब्राह्मण हैं। अतएव मेरे मार्ग से आप हट जायें।’ चांडाल की देववाणी सुन आचार्य शंकर ने अति प्रभावित होकर कहा-‘आपने मुझे ज्ञान दिया है, अत: आप मेरे गुरु हुए।’ यह कहकर आचार्य शंकर ने उन्हें प्रणाम किया तो चांडाल के स्थान पर शिव तथा चार देवों के उन्हें दर्शन हुए। काशी में कुछ दिन रहने के दौरान वे माहिष्मति नगरी (बिहार का महिषी) में आचार्य मंडन मिश्र से मिलने गए। आचार्य मिश्र के घर जो पालतू मैना थी वह भी वेद मंत्रों का उच्चारण करती थी। मिश्र जी के घर जाकर आचार्य शंकर ने उन्हें शास्त्रार्थ में हरा दिया। पति आचार्य मिश्र को हारता देख पत्नी आचार्य शंकर से बोलीं- ‘महात्मन! अभी आपने आधे ही अंग को जीता है। अपनी युक्तियों से मुझे पराजित करके ही आप विजयी कहला सकेंगे।’\n\nतब मिश्र जी की पत्नी भारती ने कामशास्त्र पर प्रश्न करने प्रारम्भ किए। किंतु आचार्य शंकर तो बाल-ब्रह्मचारी थे, अत: काम से संबंधित उनके प्रश्नों के उत्तर कहाँ से देते? इस पर उन्होंने भारती देवी से कुछ दिनों का समय माँगा तथा पर-काया में प्रवेश कर उस विषय की सारी जानकारी प्राप्त की। इसके बाद आचार्य शंकर ने भारती को भी शास्त्रार्थ में हरा दिया। काशी में प्रवास के दौरान उन्होंने और भी बड़े-बड़े ज्ञानी पंडितों को शास्त्रार्थ में परास्त किया और गुरु पद पर प्रतिष्ठित हुए। अनेक शिष्यों ने उनसे दीक्षा ग्रहण की। इसके बाद वे धर्म का प्रचार करने लगे। वेदांत प्रचार में संलग्न रहकर उन्होंने अनेक ग्रंथों की रचना भी की। अद्वैत ब्रह्मवादी आचार्य शंकर केवल निर्विशेष ब्रह्म को सत्य मानते थे और ब्रह्मज्ञान में ही निमग्न रहते थे। एक बार वे ब्रह्म मुहूर्त में अपने शिष्यों के साथ एक अति सँकरी गली से स्नान हेतु मणिकर्णिका घाट जा रहे थे। रास्ते में एक युवती अपने मृत पति का सिर गोद में लिए विलाप करती हुई बैठी थी। आचार्य शंकर के शिष्यों ने उस स्त्री से अपने पति के शव को हटाकर रास्ता देने की प्रार्थना की, लेकिन वह स्त्री उसे अनसुना कर रुदन करती रही। तब स्वयं आचार्य ने उससे वह शव हटाने का अनुरोध किया। उनका आग्रह सुनकर वह स्त्री कहने लगी- ‘हे संन्यासी! आप मुझसे बार-बार यह शव हटाने के लिए कह रहे हैं। आप इस शव को ही हट जाने के लिए क्यों नहीं कहते?’ यह सुनकर आचार्य बोले- ‘हे देवी! आप शोक में कदाचित यह भी भूल गई कि शव में स्वयं हटने की शक्ति ही नहीं है।’ स्त्री ने तुरंत उत्तर दिया- ‘महात्मन् आपकी दृष्टि में तो शक्ति निरपेक्ष ब्रह्म ही जगत का कर्ता है। फिर शक्ति के बिना यह शव क्यों नहीं हट सकता?’ उस स्त्री का ऐसा गंभीर, ज्ञानमय, रहस्यपूर्ण वाक्य सुनकर आचार्य वहीं बैठ गए। उन्हें समाधि लग गई। अंत:चक्षु में उन्होंने देखा- सर्वत्र आद्याशक्ति महामाया लीला विलाप कर रही हैं। उनका हृदय अनिवर्चनीय आनंद से भर गया और मुख से मातृ वंदना की शब्दमयी धारा स्तोत्र बनकर फूट पड़ी।\n \n\nअब आचार्य शंकर ऐसे महासागर बन गए, जिसमें अद्वैतवाद, शुद्धाद्वैतवाद, विशिष्टा द्वैतवाद, निर्गुण ब्रह्म ज्ञान के साथ सगुण साकार की भक्ति की धाराएँ एक साथ हिलोरें लेने लगीं। उन्होंने अनुभव किया कि ज्ञान की अद्वैत भूमि पर जो परमात्मा निर्गुण निराकार ब्रह्म है, वही द्वैत की भूमि पर सगुण साकार है। उन्होंने निर्गुण और सगुण दोनों का समर्थन करके निर्गुण तक पहुँचने के लिए सगुण की उपासना को अपरिहार्य सीढ़ी माना। ज्ञान और भक्ति की मिलन भूमि पर यह भी अनुभव किया कि अद्वैत ज्ञान ही सभी साधनाओं की परम उपलब्धि है। उन्होंने ‘ब्रह्मं सत्यं जगन्मिथ्या’ का उद्घोष भी किया और शिव, पार्वती, गणेश, विष्णु आदि के भक्तिरसपूर्ण स्तोत्र भी रचे, ‘सौन्दर्य लहरी’, ‘विवेक चूड़ामणि’ जैसे श्रेष्ठतम ग्रंथों की रचना की। प्रस्थान त्रयी के भष्य भी लिखे। अपने अकाट्य तर्कों से शैव-शाक्त-वैष्णवों का द्वंद्व समाप्त किया और पंचदेवोपासना का मार्ग प्रशस्त किया। उन्होंने आसेतु हिमालय संपूर्ण भरत की यात्रा की और चार मठों की स्थापना करके पूरे देश को सांस्कृतिक, धार्मिक, दार्शनिक, आध्यात्मिक तथा भौगोलिक एकता के अविच्छिन्न सूत्र में बाँध दिया। उन्होंने समस्त मानव जाति को जीवन्मुक्ति का एक सूत्र दिया-\n\n दुर्जन: सज्जनो भूयात सज्जन: शांतिमाप्नुयात्। \n शान्तो मुच्येत बंधेम्यो मुक्त: चान्यान् विमोच्येत्॥\n\nअर्थात दुर्जन सज्जन बनें, सज्जन शांति बनें। शांतजन बंधनों से मुक्त हों और मुक्त अन्य जनों को मुक्त करें। अपना प्रयोजन पूरा होने बाद तैंतीस वर्ष की अल्पायु में उन्होंने इस नश्वर देह को छोड़ दिया।\n\nदर्शन और विचार\n\nसंक्षेप में अद्वैत मत \nशंकराचार्य एक महान समन्वयवादी थे। उन्हें सनातन धर्म को पुनः स्थापित एवं प्रतिष्ठित करने का श्रेय दिया जाता है। एक तरफ उन्होने अद्वैत चिन्तन को पुनर्जीवित करके सनातन हिन्दू धर्म के दार्शनिक आधार को सुदृढ़ किया, तो दूसरी तरफ उन्होने जनसामान्य में प्रचलित मूर्तिपूजा का औचित्य सिद्ध करने का भी प्रयास किया।\n\nआदि शकराचार्य जी महाराज की 108 फूट की मूर्ति ओम्कारेश्वर जिला खंडवा मध्यप्रदेश में स्थापित की जा रही है\n\nकई यूरोपीय विद्वानों का हवाला देते हुए, Lucian Blaga समझता है कि आदि शंकराचार्य 'सभी समय का सबसे बड़े तत्वमीमांसा का विद्वान है'। आदि शंकराचार्य ने कहा कि ज्ञान के दो प्रकार के होते हैं। एक पराविद्या कहा जाता है और अन्य में अपराविद्या कहा जाता है। पहला सगुण ब्रह्म (ईश्वर) होता है लेकिन दूसरा निर्गुण ब्रह्म होता है।\n\nशंकर के अद्वैत का दर्शन का सार-\n ब्रह्म और जीव मूलतः और तत्वतः एक हैं। हमे जो भी अंतर नजर आता है उसका कारण अज्ञान है।\n जीव की मुक्ति के लिये ज्ञान आवश्यक है।\n जीव की मुक्ति ब्रह्म में लीन हो जाने में है।\n\nबौद्ध धर्म के पतन में भूमिका\nउन्होंने अपने समय में अस्तित्वहीन रीति-रिवाजों, ईश्वरविहीन बौद्ध धर्म और कई अन्य परंपराओं के प्रतिकारक रूप का विरोध किया।\nअद्वैत परंपरा के अनुयायियों का दावा है कि वह \"बौद्धों को दूर भगाने\" के लिए भी जिम्मेदार थे। ऐतिहासिक रूप से भारत में बौद्ध धर्म का पतन शंकर या यहां तक ​​कि कुमारिल भट्ट (जिन्होंने एक परंपरा के अनुसार \"बौद्धों को वाद-विवाद में हराकर\" दूर भगा दिया था) के बाद लंबे समय तक जाना जाता है, अफगानिस्तान में मुस्लिम आक्रमण से कुछ समय पहले (पहले गांधार)। परंपरा के अनुसार, उन्होंने रूढ़िवादी हिंदू परंपराओं और विधर्मी गैर-हिंदू-परंपराओं दोनों से अन्य विचारकों के साथ शास्त्राथ के माध्यम से अपने दर्शन का प्रचार करने के लिए भारतीय उपमहाद्वीप में यात्रा की। यद्यपि अद्वैत के आज के अनुयायी मानते हैं कि शंकर ने व्यक्तिगत रूप से बौद्धों के खिलाफ तर्क दिया, एक ऐतिहासिक स्रोत, माधवीय शंकर विजयम, इंगित करता है कि शंकर ने मीमांसा, सांख्य, न्याय, वैशेषिक और योग विद्वानों के साथ बहस की उतनी ही उत्सुकता से मांग की जितनी कि किसी भी बौद्ध के साथ। \n\nविन्सेंट स्मिथ सहित कई विद्वानों का भी तर्क है कि भारत में बौद्ध धर्म के पतन में आदि शंकराचार्य की कुछ प्रमुख भूमिका रही होगी।\nपरंपरा के अनुसार, उन्होंने रूढ़िवादी हिंदू परंपराओं और विधर्मी गैर-हिंदू-परंपराओं दोनों से अन्य विचारकों के साथ प्रवचन और तात्विक तर्क-वितर्क के माध्यम से अपने दर्शन का प्रचार करने के लिए भारतीय उपमहाद्वीप में यात्रा की।\nआदि शंकराचार्य के आने से भारतीय उपमहाद्वीप पर बौद्ध धर्म का प्रभाव कम हो गया।\n\nऐतिहासिक और सांस्कृतिक प्रभाव\n\nरचनाएँ\n\nलघु तत्त्वज्ञानविषयक रचनाएँ\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n अद्वैतवाद\n कुमारिल भट्ट\n मण्डन मिश्र\n पद्मपादाचार्य\n शंकराचार्य\n स्वामी माधवाश्रम\n जगद्गुरु सुदर्शनाचार्य\n मठाम्नाय महानुशासन (आद्य शंकराचार्य द्वारा रचित ग्रन्थ जिसमें मठों के संचालन का विधान है।)\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n श्री शंकर विरचित ब्रह्मसूत्रभाष्य\nश्रीमच्छङ्करभगवत्पूज्यपादविरचितम् ब्रह्मसूत्रभाष्यम्\n भारतवर्ष Episode 4 Watch the glorious story of आदि शंकराचार्य\n शंकराचार्य के चार मठ\n आदि शंकराचार्य का संपूर्ण रचना संसार\n Complete Works of Sri Sankaracharya संस्कृत में - 20 Volumes\nआठ साल की उम्र में याद कर लिए थे सभी वेद : आदि गुरु शंकराचार्य\n\nश्रेणी:शंकराचार्य\nश्रेणी:हिन्दू आचार्य\nश्रेणी:दार्शनिक\nश्रेणी:हिन्दू सुधारक\nश्रेणी:साधु\nश्रेणी:नौवीं शताब्दी के लोग\nश्रेणी:केरल का इतिहास\nश्रेणी:संस्कृत लेखक\nश्रेणी:अद्वैत वेदांत\nश्रेणी:हिन्दू गुरु", "ग़ाज़ीपुर\nगाजीपुर भारत के उत्तर प्रदेश प्रान्त का एक शहर एवं गाजीपुर जिले का मुख्यालय है। यह गंगा नदी के किनारे स्थित है। यह नगर उत्तर प्रदेश और बिहार की सीमा के बहुत समीप स्थित है। यहाँ की स्थानीय भाषा भोजपुरी एवं हिंदी है। यह बनारस से ७० कि०मी० पूर्व में स्थित है। गाजीपुर को लहुरी काशी भी कहा जाता है। गाजीपुर जिले के बहुत से युवा भारतीय सेना से जुङे हुए हैं इसलिए गाजीपुर जिले को वीरो की धरती भी कहा जाता है। मरणोपरान्त परमवीर चक्र से सम्मानित वीर अब्दुल हमीद यहीं के रहने वाले थें। एशिया का सबसे बड़ा गांव गहमर इसी जिले का हिस्सा है। जहां आज भी लगभग सभी घरों के न्यूनतम एक लोग सेना में तैनात है।\n\nगाजीपुर, अंग्रेजों द्वारा १८२० में स्थापित, एशिया में सबसे बड़े अफीम के कारखाने के लिए प्रख्यात है। यहाँ हथकरघा तथा इत्र उद्योग भी हैं। ब्रिटिश भारत के गवर्नर जनरल लोर्ड कार्नवालिस की मृत्यु यहीं हुई थी तथा वे यहीं दफन हैं।\nसैदपुर — यह गाजीपुर का एक सबसे व्यापक तहसील है सैदपुर के भीतरी में गुप्त साम्राज्य द्वारा बनाया गया स्तंभ लेख है जिसे इतिहास में भीतरी का स्तंभ लेख के नाम से जाना जाता है और यही एक सदियों पुराना विष्णु मंदिर भी है जो अब जर्जर अवस्था में है।\n\nइतिहास \nगाजीपुर की स्थापना तुग़लक़ वंश के शासन काल में सैय्यद मसूद ग़ाज़ी द्वारा की गयी थी । ऐतिहासिक दस्तावेजों के मुताबिक ग़ाज़ीपुर के कठउत पृथ्वीराज चौहान के वंशज राजा मान्धाता का गढ़ था। राजा मांधाता दिल्ली सुल्तान की अधीनता को अस्वीकार कर स्वतंत्र रूप से शासन कर रहा था। दिल्ली के तुगलक वंश के सुल्तान को इस बात की सूचना दी गई जिसके बाद मुहम्मद बिन तुगलक के सिपहसालार सैयद मसूद अल हुसैनी ने सेना की टुकड़ी के साथ राजा मांधाता के गढ़ पर हमला कर दिया। इस युद्ध में राजा मांधाता की पराजय हुई। जिसके बाद मृत राजा की संपत्ति का उत्तराधिकारी सैयद मसूद अल हुसैनी को बना दिया गया। इस जंग में जीत के बाद दिल्ली सुल्तान की ओर से सैयद मसूद अल हुसैनी को मलिक-अल-सादात गााजी की उपाधि से नवाजा गया। जिसके बाद सैयद मसूद गाजी ने कठउत के बगल में गौसुपर को अपना गढ़ बनाया।\n\nवैदिक काल में ग़ाज़ीपुर घने वनों से ढका था तथा उस समय यहाँ कई संतों के आश्रम थे।इस स्थान का सम्बन्ध रामायण से भी है। कहा जाता है कि महर्षि परशुराम के पिता जमदग्नि यहाँ रहते थे।प्रसिद्ध गौतम महर्षि तथा च्यवन ने यहीं शिक्षा प्राप्त की। भगवान बुद्ध ने अपना पहला प्रवचन सारनाथ में दिया था जोकि यहाँ से अधिक दूर नहीं है।बहुत से स्तूप उस काल के प्रमाण हैं।ग़ाज़ीपुर सल्तनत काल से मुग़ल काल तक एक महत्त्वपूर्ण क्षेत्र था।\n\nप्रसिद्ध स्थान\n\nरामलीला मैदान \nरामलीला मैदान लंका मैदान के नाम से भी जाना जाता है। यह शहर के बीच में स्थित एक मैदान है, जहाँ रामलीला होता है। यह चारदीवारी से घिरा हुआ तथा दो मुख्य गेट के साथ सुव्यवस्थित है। जनसभा एवं प्रदर्शनी इत्यादि भी इसी मैदान में होते हैं। इसके किनारे एक तालाब भी है।\n\nगंगा घाट \nपवित्र नदी मानी जाने वाली \"गंगा नदी\" गाजीपुर से होकर बहती है।यह नदी गाजीपुर के सिधौना क्षेत्र से गोमती नदी का संगम करते हुए जिले में प्रवेश करती है| गाजीपुर में वाराणसी के घाटों की तरह कई गंगा घाट हैं जिनमें प्रमुख ददरीघाट, कलेक्टर घाट, स्टीमर घाट, चितनाथ घाट, पोस्ताघाट, रामेश्वर घाट, पक्का घाट, कंकड़िया घाट, महादेव घाट, सिकंदरपुर घाट,चकेरी धाम घाट,महादेव घाट,सगत घाट,रंग महल घाट,राम जानकी घाट,महावीर घाट, (सैदपुर), बराह घाट (औडिहार) ,श्मशान घाट(सबसे पूर्व दिशा ) तथा मुख्य रूप से सिकन्दरपुर घाट जो करण्डा परगना मे प्रचलित घाटो मे शामिल हैं। अतः इसे \"लहुरी काशी\" भी कहते हैं।\n\nनेहरू स्टेडियम \nयह गाजीपुर शहर का एकमात्र स्टेडियम है, जिसका नाम भारत के प्रथम प्रधानमंत्री जवाहरलाल नेहरू के नाम पड़ा है। स्टेडियम आम तौर पर विभिन्न जिला स्तरीय खेलकूद प्रतियोगिताओं के लिए प्रयोग किया जाता है।जनपद गाजीपुर में मिनी स्टेडियम मिर्चा,उसिया,बारा,देवैथा,रामपुर फुफुवाव, कुसी इत्यादि गावो में स्टेडियमों की संख्या ज्यादा हैं\n\nचकेरी धाम\n\nसैदपर से 10 किलोमीटर पूर्व की दिशा मे मां गंगा के किनारे पर बसा है। इस मन्दिर की स्थापना काशी के राजा ने सैकड़ो साल पहले करायी थी। मन्दिर के पश्चिम दिशा में राजा की नील और चुने के कारख़ाने टूटे अवस्था मे आज भी विद्यमान है, पास में ही अधिकारिक आवास भी मौजूद है। नवनिर्मित मन्दिर के निर्माणकर्ता एक महंत जी है।\n\nमहाहर धाम\nग़ाज़ीपुर जिले का सबसे बडा मन्दिर है। धार्मिक आस्था का प्रमुख केन्द्र है ।\n\nकामाख्या धाम मंदिर \nग़ाज़ीपुर जिले का दुसरा सबसे बडा मन्दिर है। धार्मिक आस्था का प्रमुख केन्द्र है।\n\nगाजीपुर आध्यात्मिक आश्रम \n\nमौनी धाम (देवकली चोचकपूर) मेला और स्नान के लिये,पवहारी बाबा आश्रम (करण्डा) स्वामी विवेकानंद के उपदेश लिये, गंगा दास आश्रम (करण्डा) मा मुलायम सिह और माननीय योगी जी के लिये । ये झासी की रानी के लिये युध्द मे सहायता भी किये थे। हथिया राम मठ आश्रम अपंग लोगो के इलाज के लिये, भूड़कूडा आश्रम सनातन धर्म के लिये (जखनिया), चौमुख धाम आश्रम धार्मिक आस्था का केन्द्र (देवकली ), किनाराम आश्रम (देवकली के अन्दर), नागा धाम आश्रम (करण्डा) मेला और स्नान के लिये, विछुडन नाथ, बूढे महादेव धार्मिक आस्था का केन्द्र, साई तकिया आश्रम (सैदपुर), चंडी का धाम धार्मिक आस्था का केन्द्र (देवकली ), नवाजु धाम आश्रम ( जमनिया) दुध के लिये प्रसिद्ध है। पशुओं के रोग मुक्त के लिये (मसोन धाम आश्रम) ,सगत घाट (मतन्ग ऋषि की तपोभूमि) ,रंग महल सन्त श्याम दास की समाधि, रामा नंद मठ, सैदपुर और औडिहार मे स्थित। इस स्थान को हुडो के युध्द के लिये जाना जाता है और इत्यादि छोटे बडे धाम और आश्रम स्थित है। ये आश्रम और धाम अपनी छवि से गाजीपुर को सुशोभित करते है।\n\nप्रसिद्ध व्यक्ति \nमुख्तार अहमद अंसारी, स्वतंत्रता सेनानी,काँग्रेस के पूर्व राष्ट्रीय अध्यक्ष \n\nसहजानंद सरस्वती, तपस्वी और नेता\nअब्दुल हमीद, भारत के सर्वोच्च सैन्य पुरस्कार परम वीर चक्र के प्राप्तकर्ता\nमोहम्मद हामिद अंसारी, भारत के पूर्व उपराष्ट्रपति पद्म श्री\n \nअफजाल अंसारी, सांसद गाजीपुर \nकलराज मिश्र ,राज्यपाल, राजस्थान \nलॉर्ड कार्नवालिस, उत्तरी अमेरिका, आयरलैंड और भारत के औपनिवेशिक प्रशासक की यहाँ मृत्यु हो गई।\nनजीर हुसैन , बॉलीवुड अभिनेता और भोजपुरी सिनेमा के जनक नजीर हुसैन \nमहेन्द्र नाथ पाण्डेय, संसद सदस्य केंद्रीय मंत्री \nराही मासूम रज़ा, लेखक और कवि\nदिनेश लाल यादव, गायक और अभिनेता\nरामबहादुर राय ,पत्रकारपद्म श्री\nविवेकी राय, हिन्दी और भोजपुरी भाषा के  साहित्यकार\nविनोद राय ,पूर्व नियन्त्रक एवं महालेखापरीक्षक\nमनोज सिन्हा, उप राज्यपाल जम्मू और कश्मीर , (पूर्व सांसद व पूर्व रेल राज्य एवं संचार मंत्री)\nकैलाश यादव पूर्व कैबिनेट मंत्री उत्तर प्रदेश\nकुबेर नाथ राय , हिन्दी के ललित निबंधकर\nशिव पूजन राय ,1942 के शहीद\nराजेश्वर प्रसाद सिंह , गाजीपुर के मालवीय\nमोहम्मद अयूब खान दिवगंत लिपिक बनारस हिन्दू विश्वविद्यालय वाराणसी\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nश्रेणी:उत्तर प्रदेश के नगर\nश्रेणी:गाज़ीपुर ज़िला\nश्रेणी:उत्तर प्रदेश के लोग", "लिच्छवि\nलिच्छवि नामक जाति ईसा पूर्व छठी सदी में बिहार प्रदेश के उत्तरी भाग यानी मुजफ्फरपुर जिले के वैशाली नगर में निवास करती थी।लिच्छ नामक महापुरुष के वंशज होने के करण इनका नाम लिच्छवि पड़ा अथवा किसी प्रकार के चिह्न (लिक्ष) अथवा शस्त्र धारण करने के कारण ये इस नाम से प्रसिद्ध हुए। लिच्छवि राजवंश इतिहासप्रसिद्ध है जिसका राज्य किसी समय में नेपाल, मगध और कौशल मे था। \n\nप्राचीन संस्कृत साहित्य में क्षत्रियों की इस शाखा का नाम 'निच्छवि' या 'निच्छिवि' मिलता है। पाली रूप 'लिच्छवि' है। मनुस्मृति के अनुसार लिच्छवि लोग व्रात्य क्षत्रिय थे। उसमें इनकी गणना झल्ल, मल्ल, नट, करण, खश और द्रविड़ के साथ की गई है। इनकी कई शाखाएँ दूर दूर तक फैली थीं। वैशालीवाली शाखा में जैन तीर्थंकर महावीर स्वामी हुए और कोशल की शाक्य शाखा में गौतम बुद्ध प्रादुर्भूत हुए। किसी समय मिथिला से लेकर मगध और कोशल तक इस वंश का राज्य था। जिस प्रकार हिंदुओं के संस्कृत ग्रंथों में यह वंश हीन कहा गया है, उसी प्रकार बौद्धों और जैनों के पालि और प्राकृत ग्रंथों मे यह वंश उच्च कहा गया है। गौतम बुद्ध के समसामयिक मगध के राजा बिंबसार ने वैशाली के लिच्छवि लोगों के यहाँ संबंध किया था। पीछे गुप्त सम्राट् ने भी लिच्छवि कन्या से विवाह किया था।\n\nपरिचय \nइस जाति का इतिहास तथा शासनवृत्तांत एक सहस्र वर्षों तक किसी न किसी रूप में मिलता है। पालि सहित्य में लिच्छवि वज्जि संघ की प्रधान जाति थी अतएव अंगुत्तर निकाय (1,213 : 4,252), महावस्तु (2,2) तथा विनयपिटक (2,146) में षोड़श महाजनपद की सूची में वज्जि का ही नाम आता है, लिच्छवि का नहीं। संभवत: इसी कारण पाणिनि ने (अष्टा. 4/2/131) वृज्जि संघ का ही उल्लेख किया है। (मद्र वृज्यौ: कन्)। कौटिल्य ने भी इसी की पुष्टि की है (वृजिक - अधि. 11/1)। वज्जि संघ की आठ जातियों (अट्टकुलिक) में लिच्छवि को सबल तथा सर्वशक्तिसंपन्न जाति मानते थे जिसकी राजधानी बैशाली का उल्लेख रामायण में भी आता है। (इक्ष्वाकु के पुत्र धर्मात्मा राजा \"विशाल\" ने इसका निर्माण कराया था अतएव इस नगरी का नाम वैशाली रखा गया।)\n\nभारतीय परंपरा के अनुसार लिच्छवि क्षत्रिय वंशज थे, इसी कारण महापरिनिर्वाण के बाद लिच्छवि संघ ने बुद्ध के अवशेष में हिस्सा बँटाया था। उन लोगों ने उस अवशेष पर स्तूप का निर्माण किया था जो वैशाली की खुदाई से (1958 ई.) प्रकाश में आया है। बौद्ध तथा जैन धर्मों का क्षेत्र होने के कारण पालिसाहित्य में लिच्छवि जाति का विशेष वर्णन किया गया है। इसे अपार शक्तिशाली तथा उत्तम ढंग से संगठित संघ कहा गया है। बौद्ध धर्म की द्वितीय संगीति भी वैशाली में हुई थी।\n\nऐसा कहा जाता है कि लिच्छवि लोगों ने बिंबसार के शासनकाल में मगध पर चढ़ाई की थी (ह्वेनसांग का विवरण-बुधिस्ट रेकर्ड ऑव वेस्टर्न वर्ल्ड, भा. 2, 166)। मगध तथा वैशाली राज्यों में संधि के फलस्वरूप वैवाहिक संबंध हो गया परंतु बिंबसार के पश्चात् इस युद्ध का बदला चुकाने का विचार अजातशत्रु ने किया। संसार से विरक्त रहने पर भी बुद्ध ने अजातशत्रु को सचेत किया था कि लिच्छवि संघ अजेय है, अभेद्य है तथा उसके प्रजातंत्रात्मक संगठन को कोई निर्बल नहीं कर सकता। बुद्ध के इन वचनों से अवगत होकर अजातशत्रु ने सीधा आक्रमण करने का विचार त्याग दिया और लिच्छवि संघ को तोड़ने तथा भेद उत्पन्न कर निर्वल बनाने का निंदनीय कार्य अपने मंत्री वस्सकार को सौंपा। अंत में अजात सफल हुआ (भगवतीसूत्र 300)। वैशाली पर आक्रमण करने के निमित्त गंगा के दक्षिण किनारे पर पाटलिपुत्र नगर की स्थापना की, जहाँ मगधसेना संगठित की गई और लिच्छवि संघ फूट के कारण पराजित हुआ।\n\nबौद्ध धर्मानुयायी होने के कारण लिच्छवि जाति ने शांति तथा अहिंसा का समर्थन किया। संभवत: मगध साम्राज्य के अंतर्गत लिच्छवि जाति प्रजातंत्र ढंग पर सदियों तक शासन करती रही। ईसवी सन् के आरंभ से कुषाण काल में लिच्छवि संघ ने पुन: स्वतंत्रता की घोषणा कर दी। उनका संगठन प्रबल हो गया और उत्तरी बिहार में वैशाली राज्य प्रमुख हो गया। चौथी सदी में गुप्त वंश का उदय होने पर गुप्त नरेश लिच्छवि वंश से वैवाहिक संबंध के कारण शक्तिशाली हो गए। गुप्त साम्राज्य का प्रादुर्भाव लिच्छवियों के सहयोग से संभव हो सका था। इसकी पुष्टि गुप्त अभिलेखों तथा स्वर्णमुद्राओं से हो जाती है।\n\nगुप्त कालीन स्वर्ण मुद्राओं में \"चंद्रगुप्त व श्री कुमार देवी\" के नाम से प्रसिद्ध एक स्वर्णमुद्रा मिलती है जिसके अग्रभाग में राजा तथा रानी की आकृति खुदी है और \"चंद्रगुप्त\" तथा \"श्री कुमार देवी\" अंकित है। पृष्ठ भाग पर सिंह की पीठ पर बैठी अंबिका की मूर्ति है। दाहिनी ओर \"लिच्छवय:\" मुद्रालेख पढ़ा गया है। पर्याप्त विवेचन के पश्चात् यह सिद्ध किया गया है कि गुप्त नरेश प्रथम चंद्रगुप्त ने लिच्छवि राजकुमारी कुमारदेवी से विवाहोपरांत यह सिक्का निकाला। इस विवाह की पुष्टि समुद्रगुप्त के प्रयाग स्तंभलेख से होती है जहाँ समुद्र निम्न शब्दों में वर्णित किया गया है : - \"श्री महाराजाधिराज चंद्रगुप्तस्य लिच्छवि दौहित्रस्य महादेव्यां कुमारदेव्यामुत्पन्नस्य महाराजाधिराज श्री समुद्रगुप्तस्य\"। इससे दोनों राष्ट्रों में पारस्परिक सहानुभूति तथा सहयोग रहा। संभवत: साम्राज्यवादी कल्पना के सम्मुख लिच्छवि आदि गण राज्य अस्तित्व को बचाए न रख सके। प्रजातंत्रों के भारतीय रंगमंच से हट जाने के कारण राजनीतिक चेतना को नवजीवन प्रदान करनेवाला स्रोत समाप्त हो गया। लिच्छवि जाति उत्तरी बिहार से हटकर छठी सदी में नेपाल चली गई। उन्होंने काठमांडु के सुरक्षित भूभाग में प्रवेश कर राज्य स्थापित किया। काठमांडू नगर का स्थापना लिच्छवि राजा गुणकामदेव नें किया था। लिच्छवि जाति (वंश) के कई अभिलेख (पाटन, पशुपतिनाथ मंदिर) वहाँ मिले हैं जो इस बात को प्रमाणित करते हैं कि इस जाति ने कई सदियों तक नेपाल में शासन किया। इनका शासनकाल नेपाल के इतिहास में \"स्वर्ण युग\" कहा गया है। लिच्छवियौं को नेपाल में ठकुरी वंशी शासकौं नें हरा कर सत्ता अपने अधीन में ले लिया। नेपाल के नेवार लोग लिच्छवियौं के सन्तति है। लिच्छवियौं के परम्परा को अभी तक इन लोगों में जीवित है। \n\nदीघनिकाय के आधार पर यह कहा जा सकता है कि वज्जिसंघ में स्त्रियों का समादर तथा वृद्धजनों का सम्मान किया जाता था। कुलकुमारियों के साथ बलप्रयोग नहीं किया जाता था। संघ के सदस्य चैत्यों का मान करते, पूजा करते तथा धार्मिक कार्यों को समुचित रूप से संपन्न करते थे।\n\nप्रशासनीय कार्यों के सम्पादन के लिए लिच्छविगण की सभा थी जिसके 7707 सदस्य थे और सब राजा कहलाते थे। स्पष्ट प्रमाणों के अभाव में यह कहना कठिन है कि संघसभा के सभी सदस्यों का निर्वाचन होता था। ललितविस्तर में वर्णन आता है कि लिच्छवि परस्पर एक दूसरे को छोटा बड़ा नहीं मानते थे, सभी अपने को राजा समझते थे (ललित विस्तर अ. 3) इस संबंध में जातक का यह कथन भी महत्वपूर्ण है कि शासन निमित्त वैशाली नगर के गण राजाओं का अभिषेक किया जाता था। (वेसालिनगरे गणराजकुलानं अभिषेक पोक्खरणियं - जा. 4) भगवान बुद्ध ने लिच्छवि गण के संबंध में कहा था कि सभी सदस्य एकमत होकर अधिवेशन में उपस्थित होते थे। बिना नियम बनाए कोई आज्ञा प्रेषित नहीं करते तथा पूर्व नियमों के अनुसार कार्य करते थे। (समग्गा सन्नि पतिस्संति समग्गा संघकरणीयानि करिस्संति महापरिनिव्वाण सुत्त, भा. 2)\n\nवैशाली के लिच्छवि \n\nबिहार में स्थित प्राचीन गणराज्यों में बुद्धकालीन समय में सबसे बड़ा तथा शक्‍तिशाली राज्य था। इस गणराज्य की स्थापना सूर्यवंशीय राजा इश्‍वाकु के पुत्र विशाल ने की थी, जो कालान्तर में ‘वैशाली’ के नाम से विख्यात हुई।\n\n महावग्ग जातक के अनुसार लिच्छवि वज्जिसंघ का एक धनी समृद्धशाली नगर था। यहाँ अनेक सुन्दर भवन, चैत्य तथा विहार थे।\n\n लिच्छवियों ने महात्मा बुद्ध के निवारण हेतु महावन में प्रसिद्ध कतागारशाला का निर्माण करवाया था।\n\n राजा चेतक की पुत्री चेलना का विवाह मगध नरेश बिम्बिसार से हुआ था।\n\n ईसा पूर्व ७वीं शती में वैशाली के लिच्छवि राजतन्त्र से गणतन्त्र में परिवर्तित हो गया।\n\n विशाल ने वैशाली शहर की स्थापना की। वैशालिका राजवंश का प्रथम शासक नमनेदिष्ट था, जबकि अन्तिम राजा सुति या प्रमाति था। इस राजवंश में २४ राजा हुए हैं।\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n वज्जि\n महाजनपद\n\nश्रेणी:बिहार का इतिहास\nश्रेणी:बिहार के राजवंश\nश्रेणी:भारत का इतिहास\nश्रेणी:राजवंश", "वैशाली की नगरवधू\nवैशाली की नगरवधू, आचार्य चतुरसेन शास्त्री द्वारा रचित एक हिन्दी उपन्यास है जिसकी गणना हिन्दी के सर्वश्रेष्ठ उपन्यासों में की जाती है। यह उपन्यास दो भागों में हैं, जिसके प्रथम संस्करण दिल्ली से क्रमशः 1948 तथा 1949 ई. में प्रकाशित हुए। इस उपन्यास के सम्बन्ध में इसके आचार्य चतुरसेन जी ने कहा था, ‘मैं अब तक की सारी रचनाओं को रद्द करता हूँ और ‘वैशाली की नगरवधू’ को अपनी एकमात्र रचना घोषित करता हूँ।’\n\nइसमें भारतीय जीवन का एक जीता-जागता चित्र अंकित हैं। इस उपन्यास का कथात्मक परिवेश ऐतिहासिक तथा सांस्कृतिक है। इसकी कहानी बौद्ध काल से सम्बद्ध है और इसमें तत्कालीन लिच्छिवि संघ की राजधानी वैशाली की पुरावधू 'आम्रपाली' को प्रधान चरित्र के रूप में अवतरित करते हुए उस युग के हास-विलासपूर्ण सांस्कृतिक वातावरण को अंकित करने हुए चेष्टा की गयी है। \n\nउपन्यास में घटनाओं की प्रधानता है किन्तु उनका संघटन सतर्कतापूर्वक किया गया है और बौद्धकालीन सामग्री के विभिन्न स्रोतों का उपयोग करते हुए उन्हें एक सीमा तक प्रामाणिक एवं प्रभावोत्पादक बनाने की चेष्टा की गयी है। उपन्यास की भाषा में ऐतिहासिक वातावरण का निर्माण करने के लिए बहुत से पुराकालीन शब्दों का उपयोग किया गया है। कुल मिलाकर चतुरसेन की यह कृति हिन्दी के ऐतिहासिक उपन्यासों में उल्लेखनीय है। \n\nआचार्य चतुरसेन ने इस उपन्यास की भूमिका में लिखा है कि उन्‍होंने इस उपन्यास की रचना के लिए दस वर्ष तक आर्य, बौद्ध, जैन और हिन्‍दुओं के साहित्‍य का सांस्‍कृतिक अध्‍ययन किया। उनके अनुसार इस उपन्‍यास का उद्देश्‍य ‘‘आर्यों के धर्म, साहित्‍य, राजसत्‍ता और संस्‍कृति की पराजय और मिश्रित जातियों की प्रगतिशील संस्‍कृति की विजय’’ दिखाना है, जिसे छुपाया जाता रहा। ध्यातव्य है कि यह सन् 1949 की रचना है और उस समय भारत के निर्माण और विकास की चुनौती भारतीय बौद्धिकता का बुनियादी सवाल थी। इसके उत्‍तर की सम्भावना अतीत में भी थी।\n\nइस उपन्‍यास में दो जगहों का बुनियादी महत्‍व है: वैशाली और मगध। मगध आर्य जाति का प्रतीक है, साम्राज्‍य (वादी) है। उसमें राजतंत्र है। राजा की इच्‍छा ही वहाँ कानून है। उसमें प्रायः अधिकारों की बात की जाती है। दूसरी तरफ वैशाली है जो मिश्रित जातियों का प्रतिनिधित्‍व करती है। उसमें गणतंत्र है, चुनी हुई राज्‍य-परिषद् का मत उसके लिए कानून है। उसमें अक्‍सर कर्त्‍तव्‍यों की बात की जाती है। उपन्‍यास वस्‍तुतः मगध और वैशाली के रूप में साम्राज्‍य और गणतंत्र के टकराव को रूप देता है। \n\nआचार्य चतुरसेन वैशाली के पक्षधर हैं। कारण यह कि राजतन्त्र और तानाशाह की विजय, शत्रु का पूरी तरह नाश कर देती है जबकि लोकतन्त्र और जनप्रतिनिधियों की विजय उतनी हिंसक नहीं होती। \n\nउपन्‍यास के उद्देश्‍य के अनुसार आर्यों की नीचता बताते हुए उपन्‍यासकार एक पात्र द्वारा कहता है- \n यह आर्यों की पुरानी नीचता है। सभी धूर्त कामुक आर्य अपनी कामवासना-पूर्ति के लिए इतर जातियों की स्त्रियों के रेवड़ों को घर में भर रखते हैं। लालच-लोभ देकर कुमारियों को ख़रीद लेना, छल-बल से उन्‍हें वश कर लेना, रोती-कलपती कन्‍याओं का बलात् हरण करना, मूर्च्छिता- मदबेहोशों का कौमार्य भंग करना- यह सब धूर्त आर्यों ने विवाहों में सम्मिलित कर लिया। फिर बिना ही विवाह के दासी रखने में भी बाधा नहीं।\n\nइसी तरह अनार्यों की श्रेष्‍ठता बताते हुए उपन्‍यासकार एक पात्र द्वारा कहता है- \n सर्वजित् निर्ग्रंथ महावीर और शाक्‍यपुत्र गौतम ने आर्यों के धर्म का समूल नाश प्रारम्भ कर दिया है। उन्‍होंने नया धर्म-चक्र प्रवर्तन किया है जहाँ वेद नहीं हैं, वेद का कर्त्‍ता ईश्‍वर नहीं है, बड़ी-बड़ी दक्षिणा लेकर राजाओं के पापों का समर्थन करने वाले ब्राह्मण नहीं हैं। ब्रह्म और आत्‍मा का पाखण्‍ड नहीं है। उन्‍होंने जीवन का सत्‍य देखा है, वे इसी का लोक में प्रचार कर रहे हैं।''\n\nप्रमुख पात्र\n\nवैशाली के\nमहानामन्। अम्बपाली। सिंह। युवराज स्वर्णसेन। युवराज का साथी सूर्यमल्ल। दस्यु बलभद्र (सोम)। कृतपुण्य सेठ (हर्षदेव)। कृतपुण्य का पुत्र भद्रगुप्त। महाबलाधि‍कृत सुमन सेनापति और सिंह उपसेनापति। संधि‍वैग्राहिक जयराज। कीमियागर गौड़पाद। वेश्या भद्रनंदिनी (कुंडनी)। एक काली छाया। गणदूत काप्यक। वादरायण मठ के अधीश्‍वर भगवान् वादरायण। एक वन्य युवक।\n\nमगध के\nराजधानी : राजगृह। राजा: बिम्बिसार या श्रेणि‍क। अमात्य: वर्षकार। राजकुमार अभयकुमार। आचार्य शाम्बव्य काश्यप। मातंगी—सोम, कुंडनी, अम्बपाली। कुंडनी मातंगी की बेटी। सोम—कुंडनी का भाई। मातंगी का बेटा। मगध के महासेनापति चंडभद्रिक। सेनापति: सोमप्रभ।\n\nअन्य\nकोसल: राजधानी : श्रावस्ती। राजा : प्रसेनजित्। उनका पुत्र: विदूडभ। विदूडभ की माता दासी थी, जो बाद में राजमाता नंदिनी बनी। सेनापति: कारायण। आचार्य अजित केसकम्बली। \n\nचम्पा: राजा: दधि‍वाहन। राजकुमारी राजनंदिनी। \n\nअवन्ति का राजा चंडमहासेन प्रद्योत, मथुरा का राजा अवंतिवर्मन। कौशाम्बी का राजा उदयन। कुशीनारा का योद्धा बंधुल मल्ल। गांधार की कलिंगसेना, जो श्रावस्ती में रही। \n\nधार्मिक पात्र: गौतम बुद्ध, भगवान महावीर, शालिभद्र और धन्य, हरिकेशबल।\n\nकथावस्तु\nमहानामन वैशाली के प्रहरी-प्रमुख हैं। उनको आम के पेड़ के नीचे एक नवजात कन्‍या मिली। इसलिए उन्‍होंने उसका नाम रखा- अम्‍बपाली। अम्‍बपाली ने उनको अड़तीस साल के बाद पिता बनने का सुख दिया। वे वैशाली की नौकरी छोड़ गाँव में कन्‍या का पालन-पोषण करने लगे। कारण यह कि अम्‍बपाली अत्यन्त सुन्दर थी। वैशाली में कानून था कि उसकी सर्वाधिक सुन्दर कन्‍या उसकी नगरवधू/जनपद-कल्‍याणी बनेगी। उसे सभी राजकीय सुवि‍धाएँ मिलेंगी पर साधारण स्‍त्री की तरह अपनी पसन्द के पुरुष से विवाह करने, बच्‍चे पैदा करने और घर बसाने का अधिकार नहीं होगा। अम्‍बपाली के शब्‍दों में आचार्य चतुरसेन ने इस कानून को बार-बार ‘धिक्‍कृत कानून’ कहा है। इस कानून से बचाने के लिए महानामन् अम्‍बपाली को वैशाली से दूर ले गए पर बचा नहीं पाए। \n\nहुआ यह कि बच्‍ची के साथ-साथ उसकी इच्‍छाएँ भी बड़ी होने लगीं। हर इच्‍छा की पूर्ति गॉंव में होना सम्भव नहीं था। उदाहरण के लिए वैशाली की लड़कियाँ जो कपड़े पहनती थीं, वे गॉंव में नहीं मिल सकते थे। अम्‍बपाली उनके लिए रोती थी। उसका रोना न सह पाने के कारण महानामन् उसे पुनः वैशाली लाए।\n\nअम्‍बपाली सुन्दरता में अनुपम थी। उसके सामने नगरवधू बनने का लगभग बाध्‍यकारी प्रस्‍ताव था। उसने अपने साहस का परिचय देते हुए सब राजपुरुषों के सामने वैशाली के कानून को ‘धिक्‍कृत’ कहा। आपत्ति हुई तो उसे और बल देकर ‘धिक्‍कृत’ कहा। ऐसा कहकर उसने सिद्ध किया कि वह सुन्दर और साहसी ही नहीं, बुद्धिमती भी है। उसके साहस का प्रमाण है कि वह नगरवधू बनने के लिए वैशाली के राजपुरुषों के सामने तीन शर्तें रखती है और उनके न मानने पर वैशाली के हत्‍यारों का इंतज़ार करने को तैयार है पर समझौता या आत्‍मसमर्पण करने को नहीं। उसकी तीन शर्तें ये हैं: (१) राजसी रहन-सहन की सारी सुवि‍धाऍं मिलें ; (२) उसके महल की सुरक्षा का प्रबन्ध दुर्ग की तरह हो ; (३) उसके महल में आने-जाने वालों की जाँच न हो। इस तरह उसने अपने लिए सम्पन्‍नता, सुरक्षा और स्‍वतन्त्रता सुनिश्चित की। तीसरी शर्त संशोधन सहित मानी गई कि जाँच की आवश्यकता पड़ी तो एक सप्‍ताह पहले सूचना दी जाएगी। \n\nअम्‍बपाली अपने देश से प्रेम करती है। उसका अपना सपना एक साधारण स्‍त्री की तरह जीने का है। वह नगरवधू नहीं बनना चाहती। उसपर दबाव डाला जाता है। वैशाली के गणपति उससे वैशाली की अखण्डता के लिए उसके नौजवानों की एकता और शत्रुओं के विरुद्ध सक्रियता सम्भव करने की भीख माँगते हैं तो वह अपनी तीसरी शर्त में संशोधन स्‍वीकार कर लेती है। उसका पहला प्रेमी हर्षदेव, महानामन् के पुराने मित्र का बेटा था। उसके साथ उसकी सगाई हो चुकी थी। फिर भी वह वैशाली की भलाई के लिए अपने व्‍यक्तिगत सुख को छोड़ने के लिए तैयार हो जाती है लेकिन उसके मन में वैशाली के ‘धिक्‍कृत कनून’ के लिए भरपूर घृणा है। उसका प्रिय हर्षदेव जब उसके महल ‘सप्‍तभूमिप्रासाद’ आता है तो वह उसे वैशाली को भस्‍म कर देने के लिए कहती है। वह यही करने का संकल्‍प करता है तो कहती है कि वह संकल्‍प–पूर्ति की प्रतीक्षा करेगी। इतनी घृणा उसमें है धिक्‍कृत कानून के प्रति। इसका परिचय उस समय भी मिलता है, जब वह वैशाली और राजगृह के बीच रास्‍ते पर स्थित वादरायण मठ में मगध के राजा से मिलती है। राजा उससे प्रेम की याचना करता है तो वह धिक्‍कृत कानून की पीड़ि‍ता होने के लिए वैशाली को दंडित करने को कहती है। राजा लिच्‍छवि गणतंत्र के समूल नाश की प्रतिज्ञा करता भी है। अपने स्‍त्रीत्‍व को गुलाम बनने पर मजबूर करनेवाले कानून के लिए वह वैशाली को कभी माफ नहीं कर पाती। \n\nवह वैशाली की नगरवधू बन गई थी। एक बार अम्‍बपाली से मिलने कौशाम्‍बीपति संगीतज्ञ महाराज उदयन आए। उन्‍होंने महान् वीणा बजाई और अम्‍बपाली ने अवश नृत्‍य किया। तीन ग्रामों में एक ही बार में वे वीणा-वादन कर जादुई संगीत पैदा कर सकते थे। मधुपर्व के दिन वैशाली में अम्‍बपाली की सवारी निकली। युवकों की भीड़ अपार थी। मार्ग नरमुंडों से भरा था। सभी मधुबन पहुँचे। युवक आखेट कर शिकार अम्‍बपाली के सामने डालने लगे। शाम को अम्‍बपाली के सामने आखेट का प्रस्‍ताव रखा गया। वह पुरुष-वेश में घोड़े पर चली। वैशाली का युवराज स्‍वर्णसेन साथ था। दोनों गहन वन में पहुँचे। स्‍वर्णसेन ने प्रणय-निवेदन किया। सहसा सिंह आया। दोनों अश्‍वों पर सवार हुए। सिंह गरजा। एक भारी वस्‍तु अम्‍बपाली के घोड़े पर आ पड़ी। घोड़ा और अम्‍बपाली गड्ढे में गिर गए। स्‍वर्णसेन अपने घोड़े पर भागे। स्‍वर्णसेन अकेले मधुबन पहुँच और बताया कि अम्‍बपाली को सिंह आक्रान्त कर गया। सर्वत्र शोक। खोज की गई तो अम्‍बपाली का शरीर नहीं मिला। उसके घोड़े का मिला। सोचा गया- देवी को सिंह गुफा में ले जाकर खा गया। \n\nउधर जब अम्‍बपाली को होश आया तो देखा कि सिंह मरा पड़ा है। एक छरहरा युवक वहाँ है। शाम का समय है। दिन रहते मधुबन पहुँचना असम्भव है। युवक ने पुरुषवेश अम्‍बपाली को अपनी कुटिया में रात बिताने को कहा। युवक चित्र बनाता था। सिंह को मार सकता था। कुटी तक जाते-जाते सूर्यास्‍त हो गया। पत्‍थर घिसकर आग जला रौशनी कर वह ईंधन लेने गया। कुटी में महान् वीणा थी। वीणा असाधारण थी। महाराज उदयन की दिव्‍य वीणा ‘मंजुघोषा’ थी वह। युवक लौटा। बोला कि उसकी इच्‍छा है कि एक बार अम्‍बपाली उसके सामने वही अवश नृत्‍य करे। वीणा देख अम्‍बपाली को अपने नृत्‍य की याद इस कदर आई कि वह नृत्‍य करने लगी। पुरुष-वेश गिर गया। युवक ने देखा। वह वीणा बजाने लगा। उदयन की तरह वह भी उस वीणा को बजाने में निपुण था। दोनों बाह्य ज्ञान-शून्‍य हो गए। दोनों में शरीर-सम्बन्ध हुआ। युवक ने अपने को स्‍मरण रखने के लिए अपना नाम ‘सुभद्र’ बताया और इच्‍छा व्‍यक्‍त की कि पुनः वही नृत्‍य हो और वह प्रत्‍येक मुद्रा में अम्‍बपाली का चित्र बनाए। इसके लिए अम्‍बपाली ने उसे अपने आवास पर आने को कहा तो युवक ने मना कर दिया। यह कहकर कि वह धिक्‍कृत कानून से मिला स्‍थान है, जो घृणित है। यह सुनकर अम्‍बपाली हृदय हार बैठी। अम्‍बपाली ने वहीं मुद्राएँ प्रस्‍तुत कीं, उसने चित्र बनाए। सात दिन में चित्र पूरे हुए। युवक उसे वैशाली के द्वार छोड़ वन में लौट गया। अम्‍बपाली के लौट आने से नगर में हलचल मच गयी। तरुणों ने मद्य पी। देवी के जयकार किए‍।\n\nमगध की राजधानी राजगृह थी, सम्राट बिम्‍बसार थे, अमात्‍य वर्षकार थे। गोविन्‍द स्‍वामी ने बिम्‍बसार के पिता को अश्‍वमेध यज्ञ करा 'सम्राट्' की उपाधि दी थी। गोविन्‍द स्‍वामी अपने पीछे आठ साल की बालिका छोड़ गए थे। उसका नाम था- मातंगी। स्‍वामी जी का एक शिष्‍य ब्राह्मण-कुमार था, जिसका नाम वर्षकार था। युवराज बिम्‍बसार और वर्षकार मित्र थे। बिम्‍बसार को मातंगी की ओर आकृष्‍ट दृष्टि से देखते देखा तो वर्षकार ने विरोध किया। बिम्‍बसार का मातंगी के प्रति आकर्षण प्रकट हो गया। मातंगी विवाह किए बिना गर्भवती हुई। शिशु को वर्षकार ने कूड़े के ढेर पर फेंकवा दिया। आचार्य शाम्‍बव्‍य काश्‍यप ने शिशु को उठाया। अपने मठ में ले आए। पता लगा कि यह मातंगी का पुत्र है। सम्राट ने मृत्‍यु से पहले बिम्‍बसार को बुलाकर कहा- तुम राजा बनोगे और वर्षकार अमात्‍य। एक पत्र दिया और कहा- इसे तीन साल बाद खोलना, तब मातंगी का विवाह करना। खोला गया तो लिखा था- मातंगी वर्षकार की बहिन है। विचित्र यह था कि मातंगी वर्षकार द्वारा गर्भवती थी। सम्राट बिम्‍बसार ने यह सत्‍य वर्षकार को नहीं बताया और दोनों को वैशाली भेजा। वहाँ गुप्‍त रूप से एक कन्‍या को जन्‍म देकर मातंगी राजगृह लौट आई। सत्‍य जाना। जानकर एकांतवास ले लिया। विवाह से भी इन्‍कार कर दिया और सम्राट से मिलने से भी। उधर वर्षकार ने भी विवाह नहीं किया। मातंगी के पुत्र-पुत्री की जन्‍मकथा आचार्य शाम्‍बव्‍य काश्‍यप ही जानते थे। सोमप्रभ मातंगी से जन्‍मे अवैध पुत्र थे और कुंडनी पुत्री। सोम के पिता कौन, यह केवल मातंगी जानती थी। \n\nराजगृह में गांधार से तक्षशिला के आचार्य बहुलाश्‍व के पास से आचार्यपाद शाम्‍बव्‍य काश्‍यप से मिलने मठ में सोमप्रभ आया। मठ में कुंडनी को विषकन्‍या बनने के लिए सर्प-दंश दिया जा रहा था। सोम और कुंडनी को चम्‍पा भेजा गया। चम्‍पा के मार्ग में सोम और कुंडनी असुरों के राजा शम्‍बर की नगरी में गए। कुंडनी ने असुरों को मृत्‍यु–चुम्‍बन से मारा और शम्‍बर को भी मारा। वहां उनको एक निष्‍ठावान् सेवक मिला। नाम रखा- शम्‍ब।मगध सेनापति चण्‍डभद्रिक ने चम्‍पा का किला घेर रखा था। तीन मास बीत गए थे। इस बीच सेना तक कोई सहायता नहीं पहुँची थी। ऐसे में सोम वहाँ पहुँचा। चम्‍पा में अपने मित्र की सहायता से किला जीता। चम्‍पा में मागध रहते थे। कुंडनी ने राजा दधिवाहन को मृत्‍यु–चुम्‍बन दिया। इस तरह चम्‍पा के किले पर मगध का अधिकार हुआ। \n\nसोम, कुंडनी, शम्‍ब और चम्‍पा की राजकुमारी राजनन्दिनी श्रावस्‍ती की तरफ़ जा रहे थे। राजकुमारी का तीनों ने आतिथ्‍य किया। सोम उसपर आसक्‍त हो मगध से विद्रोह कर उसे चम्‍पा-साम्राज्ञी बनाने तक के लिए तैयार हो गया। कुंडनी ने उसे समझाया कि पहला काम राजकुमारी को कहीं सुरक्षित पहुँचाना है। इसीलिए श्रावस्‍ती जाना होगा। रास्‍ते मे दास-व्‍यापारी दस्‍युओं से मुकाबला हुआ। दस्‍युओं ने उनको घेर लिया। अपने साथ ही श्रावस्‍ती चलने को कहा। कुंडनी मौका देख भाग निकली, राजकुमारी मूर्च्छित हो गई, सोम घायल हो गया। शम्‍ब उसे एक गुफा में ले गया और उसकी सुरक्षा/सेवा करने लगा।\n\nश्रावस्‍ती में दास-दासियों का बाजार लगा था। वहाँ अनायास मिल गए सोम को कुंडनी ने बताया कि राजकुमारी राजनन्दिनी को दासी की तरह खरीदकर अंतःपुर में ले जाया गया ताकि कलिंगसेना-प्रसेनजित् के विवाह में उसे दासी के रूप में राजा को पट्टराजमहिषी मल्लिका द्वारा भेंट किया जाए। कुंडनी ने सोम को स्‍त्री-वेश में अपने साथ अंतःपुर में जाने को तैयार कर लिया। अमात्‍य वर्षकार से मिलने को भी। सोम स्‍त्री-वेश में कुंडनी के साथ अंतःपुर में गया। दोनों युक्ति से राजन‍न्दिनी तक पहुँचे। कुंडनी ने राजकुमारी को भागने के लिए कहा। राजनन्दिनी ने कहा- भगवान् महावीर तक मेरी सूचना पहुँचाओ। फिर वे जैसा कहें, वैसा किया जाए। सोम भगवान् के पास गए। उन्‍हें राजकुमारी चंद्रभद्रा की खबर दी। सब जानकर महावीर ने उसे प्रतीक्षा करने के लिए उपाश्रय भेज दिया और राजकुमार विदूडभ से मिलने की इच्‍छा की। महावीर के निर्देशानुसार सामनेर (महावीर का शिष्‍य/सेवक) ने सोम को विदूडभ से मिलवाया। विदूडभ ने राजकुमारी का संरक्षण स्‍वीकार किया पर सोम ने पहले राजकुमारी से मिलने की शर्त रखी। महावीर ने उसे अपने मन का मैल दूर करने को कहा। विदूडभ ने उसे आश्‍वस्‍त किया कि राजकुमारी उसके पास भगिनीवत् रहेगी। सोम ने गले लगकर अपनी अविनय की क्षमा मांगी। \n\nविदूडभ अपनी माता महारानी नन्दिनी के पास गया और उनके साथ कलिंगसेना के पास। बताया राजनंदिनी चंद्रभद्रा शीलचंदना के बारे में। दोनों गईं। उन्‍होंने राजकुमारी को गुप्‍त रूप से श्रावस्‍ती से बाहर भेजा। दस दासियाँ अर्पित कीं और कहा- महावीर जैसा कहेंगे, किया जाएगा। कुंडनी ने राजकुमारी से विदा ली। राजकुमारी को साकेत भेज दिया गया। \n\nराजनंदिनी साकेत में सुखी थी। कुंडनी और सोम उससे मिले। राजनंदिनी ने कहा कि सोम महावीर से मिल अपने मन की बात कहें, फिर वे जैसा निर्देश करें। सोम ने यही किया। महावीर बोले- अभी उनसे दूर रहो। यथासमय कर्त्‍तव्‍य-निर्देश दूँगा। फिर भी सोम साकेत गए। राजनंदिनी से मिले। राजनंदिनी ने कहा कि महावीर की आज्ञा लिए बिना फिर कभी यहाँ मत आना। सोम चले गए।\n\nकोसल, मगध का पड़ोसी राज्‍य था जिसकी राजधानी श्रावस्‍ती थी। राजा का नाम प्रसेनजित् था। वह एक कामुक राजा था। युवराज विदूडभ को उसने एक दासी से पैदा किया था। विदूडभ अपने पिता से नफरत करता था। कभी-कभार उनपर हमले किया करता था। एक बार ऐसा ही हमला किया तो उनको एक अजनबी योद्धा ने बचा लिया। वह योद्धा बन्धुल मल्‍ल था जो कुशीनारा का रहनेवाला था तथा तक्षशिला का विद्यार्थी था। कुशीनारा के मल्‍ल उससे ईर्ष्‍या करते थे। इस कारण कुशीनारा में उसे न योग्‍यतानुसार पद मिला, न सम्‍मान। वह कुशीनारा छोड़ श्रावस्‍ती आ गया था। वहीं जब उसने राजा को युवराज के हमले से बचाया तो राजा ने उसे कोसल का सेनापति बनाने का वचन दिया। \n\nएक बार विदूडभ ने मगधेश को लिख दिया कि यही कोसल पर आक्रमण करने का उचित समय है। मगधेश ने आक्रमण किया पर पराजित हुए। वर्षकार ने उनको रोका भी था पर वे माने नहीं। हुआ यह कि कौशाम्‍बीपति उदयन को श्रावस्‍ती पर हमला करना था पर उसने किया नहीं। पहले मगध-श्रावस्‍ती युद्ध का परिणाम देखना तय किया। हमला कलिंगसेना के लिए करना था पर कलिंगसेना ने कहा कि वह कोसलेश को आत्‍मसमर्पण कर चुकी है। श्रावस्‍ती में कलिंगसेना का राजसी स्‍वागत हुआ। वह विदुषी, वीर, सुन्दर थी और मन में उदयन पर आसक्‍त थी। बूढ़े प्रसेनजित् से वि‍रक्ति थी पर अपने पिता के राजनीतिक स्‍वार्थ की रक्षा के लिए समर्पण किया था। वह गान्धार की थी । कोसलेश ने गांधार की सीमा पर सेना भेजी थी। गांधारों के लिए साकेत का सार्थमार्ग (व्‍यापार करने का रास्‍ता) बंद करने की धमकी दी थी। राजकुमारी कलिंगसेना ने अपनी बलि देकर युद्ध को टाला था। विदूडभ की माँ राजमाता नंदिनी उसे श्रावस्‍ती के अंतःपुर में मिली। कलिंगसेना ने उसे कहा कि वह प्रसेनजित् की गुलामी नहीं करेगी। राजमाता ने उसका साथ देने को कहा।\n\nकलिंगसेना-प्रसेनजित् का विवाह हुआ। दासी के भागने की सूचना प्रसेनजित् को मिली। वे कलिंगसेना के पास गए, जिसने उनको सच बता दिया, किन्तु यह नहीं बताया कि वह गई कहाँ। अपने लिए दण्ड मांगा। राजा क्रुद्ध हो चले गए। \n\nआचार्य अजित केसकम्‍बली कोसल में रहते थे। वे संन्‍यासी किन्तु शक्तिशाली थे। उन्‍होंने राजपुत्र वि‍दूडभ को गौतम बुद्ध के विरुद्ध उकसाया ताकि कोसल की सारी सम्‍पदा गौतम को अर्पित न कर दी जाए और राजकोष रिक्‍त न हो जाए। बात यह थी कि राजा प्रसेनजित् गौतम बुद्ध के भक्‍त थे। उनकी सेवा में खर्च किया करते थे। उन्‍होंने ही बंधुल के बारहों पुत्रों के वध का षड्यंत्र रचा। बंधुल की पत्‍नी मल्लिका, गौतम के पास दीक्षा ले, यह निश्चित करने को कहा। वर्षकार ने सोम को मल्‍ल बन्धुल को नष्‍ट करने को कहा। विदूडभ ने प्रसेनजित् और बंधुल को सेनापति कारायण का एक गुप्‍त मित्र के नाम लिखा पत्र दिया जिसमें था कि कौशाम्‍बीपति यज्ञ के समय कोसल पर आक्रमण करेंगे। विदूडभ ने कहा कि बंधुल की यहाँ आवश्‍यकता है, सीमा पर उनके बारहों पुत्र बिना सेना के जाएँ। कारायण को राजधानी बुलाकर उचित दण्ड दिया जाए।\n\nश्रावस्‍ती में राजसूय यज्ञ की तैयारियाँ की गईं। चारों ओर चहल-पहल थी। बन्धुल मल्‍ल के बारह पुत्रों को दस्‍युओं ने मार डाला और लूट लिया। कारायण को श्रावस्‍ती में बन्दीगृह में रखा गया। बंधुल को यह कहकर सीमान्त पर भेजा गया कि उसके पुत्रों की हत्‍या कौशाम्‍बी का षड्यन्त्र भी हो सकता है। श्रावस्‍ती में यज्ञ चल रहा था। आचार्य अजित केसकम्‍बली उसके सर्वेसर्वा थे। उन्‍होंने वि‍दूडभ को आश्‍वस्‍त किया था कि राजा वही बनेगा। विदूडभ ने सेनापति कारायण को बन्दीगृह से मुक्‍त किया और उसे कोसल का प्रधान सेनापति बनाया। उसने विदूडभ को कोसलपति कहकर आदेश माँगा। विदूडभ ने कहा कि प्रसेनजित् जब गौतम के दर्शन कर लौटें तो उनको बन्दी बना पूर्वी सीमान्त पर अकेले छोड़ आओ। अंगरक्षक विरोध करें तो उनको काट डालो। काम गुपचुप हो। बन्धुल सीमांत से लौट आए तो उसे रोको और मार डालो। \n\nकारायण ने प्रसेनजित् को बंदी बनाया। यह सीमान्त से लौटे बन्धुल ने देख लिया। विदूडभ का षड्यन्त्र वह जान गया। बंधुल ने अपनी सुरक्षा की ओर से लापरवाह विदूडभ का अपहरण कर लिया। बन्धुल अजित केसकम्‍बली के पास गया। उसे देख अजित सब समझ गए कि विदूडभ कहाँ लुप्‍त हुआ है। अजित ने कारायण से नगर-रक्षा-प्रबंध और बंधुल पर सतर्क दृष्टि रखने को कहा। कहा कि वह विदूडभ के पास जब जाए तो गुप्‍त रूप से पीछा कर पता लगाया जाए कि विदूडभ कहाँ बन्दी है। यह भी कहा कि कुमार का एक मित्र मागध तरुण श्रावस्‍ती में है, उसका भी पता लगाया जाए। कारायण ने सीमान्त पर पहुँचकर प्रसेनजित् और रानी मल्लिका को मुक्‍त किया। स्‍वर्ण की छोटी-सी थैली पाथेय के रूप में दी, जो कहीं गिर गई। दोनों ने राजगृह जाना तय किया। द्वारपाल ने राजगृह के द्वार रात को नहीं खोले, इसलिए दोनों बाहर चैत्‍य में रहे। उसी रात दोनों की मृत्‍यु हो गई। \n\nसोम और कुंडनी एक नाउन के घर ठहरे थे। कुंडनी को कलिंगसेना और आचार्य अजित की बातचीत से ज्ञात हुआ कि राजधानी में न राजा है, न राजकुमार। महाराज को राजकुमार ने बंदी बनाया है और राजकुमार को बंधुल ने। राजकुमार का पता दीहदन्त के अड्डे से मिलना सम्भव है। सोम ने एक लुच्‍चे मद्यप का रूप धारण किया और कुंडनी ने ‘देहाती अल्‍हड़ बछेड़ी’ का। दीहदन्त के अड्डे पर सोम ने पैसा दे सबको मद्य देने के लिए दीहदंत को कहा। सब ख़ुश हो गए। नाउन ने सोम की तरफ इशारा कर दीहदंत से पूछा- इसी ने राजपुत्र को उड़ाया? दीहदंत बोला- ‘यह नहीं, वह है (दो जुआरियों की ओर इशारा)। नाउन ने कुंडनी को इशारा कर बताया। कुंडनी ने दोनों को लीला-विलास से सम्‍मोहित किया। सोम संकेत पाकर उनके पास आ बैठा। उन्‍हें मद्य पिलाई। बातों-बातों में जाना कि विदूडभ कोसल-दुर्ग में बंदी है। जलगर्भ में बंदीगृह का द्वार है। सोम ने उसे झूठा कहा। शर्त लगाई सौ दम्‍म की। उसे साथ ले गया। \n\nजलगर्भ में बन्दीगृह दुर्गम स्‍थान पर था। कारायण, सैन्‍य, कुंडनी, नाउन, सोम, शम्‍ब; सभी की सहायता से सोम ने बन्धुल मल्‍ल को मार डाला। इस युद्ध में विदूडभ घायल हुए पर मुक्‍त हो गए। राजधानी गए जहाँ यज्ञ चल रहा था। सोम ने विदूडभ को यज्ञ में कोसलपति की जगह बैठाया। जिन्‍होंने इसका विरोध किया, वे कट मरे। विदूडभ का अभिषेक हुआ। उसने आचार्य अजित को कोसल का महामात्‍य बनाया। भगवान महावीर ने सोम से कहा कि वह राजनंदिनी को कोसल की पट्टराजमहिषी बनने दे। सोम ने निराशापूर्वक यन्त्रवत् स्‍वीकार किया। सोम ने राजनन्दिनी को अपना निर्णय बताया। उसे कोसल-पट्टराजमहिषी बनने को तैयार किया। वह तैयार हुई पर यह कहकर कि उसका हृदय हमेशा सोम का रहेगा। सोम, कुण्डनी और शम्‍ब वैशाली की ओर चले।\n\nज्ञातिपुत्र सिंह तक्षशिला से रण-चातुरी और राजनीति पढ़ स्‍नातक हो वैशाली लौटे थे। तक्षशिला के आचार्य बहुलाश्‍व ने अपनी एकलौती पुत्री रोहिणी उनको ब्‍याह दी थी। वे लौटे तो वैशाली में उनका स्‍वागत हुआ।\n\nहर्षदेव वीतिभय नगरी में गया। एक वृद्धा ने उसको अपने स्‍वर्गीय पुत्र की चार वधुओं से एक-एक पुत्र पैदा करने को नियुक्‍त किया ताकि राज्‍य-सेवक उसके परिवार का धन राजकोष हेतु न ले जाएँ। हर्षदेव वृद्धा का कृतपुण्‍य नामक पुत्र बन गया। उसके तीन पुत्र और दो पुत्रियाँ जन्‍मीं। काम हो जाने पर वृद्धा ने उसे निकाल दिया। मध्‍यमा वधू उससे प्रेम करने लगी थी। उसने उसे पाथेय रूप में दो मधुगोलक दिए। एक में रत्‍न भर दिए पर उसे बताया नहीं। कहा- चम्‍पा में उसके पिता के पास वह उसकी प्रतीक्षा करे। अवसर पाते ही वह उससे आ मिलेगी। हर्षदेव पथिक था। चलते-चलते वह अस्थिक ग्राम पहुँचा। वहाँ एक ब्राह्मण को एक मधुगोलक खाने को दिया। उसमें रत्‍न थे। ब्राह्मण ने उसका सत्‍य परिचय जान लिया। ब्राह्मण ने कहा कि वह उसका अनुगत हो वैशाली का उच्‍छेद करे। वह अनुगत बना। ब्राह्मण ने उसके रत्‍न उसी को दिए। अपने मित्र के पास अपनी मुद्रिका देकर पावापुरी भेजा। कहा- वहाँ जाकर रत्‍न बेच, सार्थवाह बन चम्‍पा जा। श्‍वसुर से कृतपुण्‍य बनकर जितना उधार ले सके, ले। अन्‍य क्षेत्रों में व्‍यापार कर। फिर वैशाली में मिलेंगे। \n\nहर्षदेव गया। वैशाली और राजगृह के बीच रास्‍ते पर स्थित वादरायण मठ के अधीश्‍वर भगवान् वादरायण थे। उन्‍होंने एक रात अपने शिष्‍य को एक विशिष्‍ट अतिथि के लिए सत्‍कार की व्‍यवस्‍था करने को कहा। रात को एक वृद्ध भट और अम्‍बपाली आए। अम्‍बपाली ने सम्राट के लिए नियोजित व्‍यवस्‍था का भोग किया। बाद में मगध सम्राट आए। सम्राट ने शिष्‍य (मधु) की कुटिया में रात बिताई। दोनों सुबह भगवान् वादरायण से मिले तो यह सत्‍य सबके सामने आया। वादनारायण मठ में ही अम्‍बपाली मगध-सम्राट से मिली। सम्राट ने प्रणय-निवेदन किया। अम्‍बपाली ने शर्त रखी- मेरा पुत्र ही मगधेश हो। सम्राट ने इसका वचन दिया। अम्‍बपाली ने धिक्‍कृत कानून की पीड़ि‍ता होने के लिए वैशाली को दण्डित करने की प्रार्थना की। सम्राट ने लिच्‍छवि गणतन्त्र के समूल नाश की प्रतिज्ञा भी की। भगवान् वादरायण ने अम्‍बपाली को कहा कि वह मगध सम्राट की माता होगी पर मगध की साम्राज्ञी नहीं। वह प्रसिद्ध साध्‍वी होगी। यह भी कहा कि वह वैशाली का अनिष्‍ट न करे। अनिष्‍ट होता देखे तो महान् त्‍याग करे, वह टल जाएगा। मगध-सम्राट को उन्‍होंने राजगृह भेजा। कहा- वहाँ श्रमण गौतम पहुँचकर उनको समुचित आदेश देंगे। \n\nसम्राट राजगृह लौटे। अवंतिपति (मालवपति) चण्‍ड महासेन प्रद्योत ने राजगृह को घेरा हुआ था। उसकी सहायतार्थ मथुरापति अवंतिवर्मन भी आ रहा था। सहसा चण्‍ड नगर का घेरा छोड़कर भाग गया और उसकी सेना भी भाग गई। हुआ यह कि सेना के पड़ाव जहाँ लगने थे, वहाँ मगध मुद्रांकित सोना जगह-जगह गड़वा दिया गया। आचार्य काश्‍यप ने प्रद्योत को कहा कि उसकी सेना मगध से मिल गई है। प्रमाणस्‍वरूप सोना बरामद हो गया। प्रद्योत भागा। वर्षकार कूटनीति के आगार थे। उन्‍होंने बुद्ध से वैशाली के बारे में पूछा। बुद्ध ने बताया कि वैशाली के गण जब तक मूल्‍यनिष्‍ठ और एक रहेंगे, सम्पन्‍न होते रहेंगे। वर्षकार ने अनेक गुप्‍तचर वैशाली भेजे, वे वहाँ फूट पैदा करने के प्रयास करने लगे। वर्षकार वैशाली से पहले अवन्ती पर आक्रमण चाहते थे जबकि सम्राट पहले वैशाली पर। इसी पर दोनों में विवाद हो गया। वर्षकार ने पद और मगध छोड़ा, फिर सम्राट ने वैशाली पर हमले का आदेश दिया। \n\nराजगृह के चौराहे पर एक नापित (प्रभंजन) की छोटी-सी खरकुटी थी। वहाँ वेश बदले हुए वर्षकार आए। उसे पत्र देकर श्रावस्‍ती में सेनापति के पास भेजा। स्‍वयं उसकी कुटी में रहने लगे। नापित प्रभंजन वेश बदलकर गया। वैशाली में दस्‍यु बलभद्र का आतंक था। मद्य पीते स्‍वर्णसेन के पास उसका मित्र सूर्यमल्‍ल आया। बोला- महाबलाधिकृत का आदेश है कि दस सहस्र सेना (रक्षक) लेकर मधुबन को घेरो। बलभद्र वहीं है। स्‍वर्णसेन मद्यासक्‍त और रूपासक्‍त होकर उसे अम्‍बपाली के यहाँ ले गया। वैशाली में कृतपुण्‍य की धूम मची। वह वैभव-संपन्‍न था। विशेषता यह कि उसके पास असाधारण आठ समुद्री घोड़े थे। \n\nवर्षकार वैशाली आए। उन्‍होंने वैशाली के संथागार से अन्‍न की याचना की। बदले में राजकार्य करना चाहा। वैशाली के सत्‍तापुरुष उनको अतिथि का मान-सम्‍मान देते रहे। कहा कि इस बारे में बाद में निर्णय होगा। तब तक वर्षकार दक्षिण ब्राह्मण कुंडग्राम में सोमिल श्रोत्रिय का अंतेवासी होकर रहे। वैशाली की ओर से सत्‍कार-व्‍यवस्‍था की जाएगी। वैशाली में विदिशा की अपूर्व सुन्दरी वेश्‍या भद्रनन्दिनी आ बसी थी। सौ स्‍वर्ण देकर कोई भी उसके पास जा सकता था। वैशाली में यह प्रसिद्ध था कि वह विदिशा के राजा नागराज शेष के पुत्र पुरंजय भोगी की अन्तेवासिनी है। यह भी कि वह किसी मूल्‍य पर शरीर-स्‍पर्श नहीं करने देती। उसके पास एक तरुण आया। उसने भद्रनंदिनी के पास मद्य पी। कहा कि वह मगध से संबंधित है। उसने इन्‍कार किया तो राजगृह के शिल्‍पी का बना कुंडल उसके कानों में दिखाया। वह चला गया। \n\nभद्रनंदिनी ने नन्दन साहू को बुलाया। नन्दन साहू एक दुकानदार था और जरूरत की सभी वस्तुएं बेचा करता था। उसका एक गूढ़/गुप्‍त व्‍यवसाय भी था। वर्षकार, सोमिल ब्राह्मण के अतिथि बन गए थे। लिच्‍छवि राजकीय विभाग से नित्‍य एक सहस्र स्‍वर्ण आता था। अन्‍य लोग भी उपहार भेजते पर वह उन्‍हें याचकों में बाँट देते। वैशाली में हरिकेशबल नाम के सन्त थे जो कभी स्‍नान न करते थे और मुर्दों के उतरे गुदड़े पहनते थे। कहते थे, मैं चांडाल कुलोत्‍पन्‍न संयमी हूँ, मुझे भिक्षा दो। वह सोमिल के यहाँ पहुँचे। ब्राह्मणों ने उनका अपमान किया। उनको लाठियों से मारा। पूर्व विदेह की पुण्‍डरीकिणी नगरी के राजा महापद्म की पुत्री जयन्ती ने उनको बचाया। कहा कि मेरे पिता ने मुझे इनको दिया पर इन्‍होंने मुझे स्‍वीकार नहीं किया। यह दिव्‍य शक्ति सम्पन्‍न तपस्‍वी हैं। तभी नन्दन साहू आया। उसने हरिकेश के चरण पूजे। जयन्ती वाली बात उसने भी कही। उसे भिक्षार्थ आदरपूर्वक अपने घर ले गया। \n\nहरिकेश-सेवक यक्ष का प्रकोप ब्राह्मणों पर टूटा। सोमिल, अनेक ब्राह्मणों के साथ नन्दन साहू के घर गया । हरिकेश से क्षमा माँगी। हरिकेश ने कहा कि शूलपाणि यक्ष की शरण में जाओ। वे वहाँ गए, तब क्षमा मिली। मगध द्वारा आक्रमण की आशंका के कारण वैशाली में युद्ध की तैयारियाँ होने लगीं। सेनापति व अन्‍य पदों के लिए चुनाव हुआ। महाबलाधिकृत सुमन सेनापति बने। सिंह उपसेनापति हुए। मोहनगृह वैशाली का गुप्‍त मंत्रणा-स्‍थल था। वहाँ मंत्रणा से निर्णय हुआ कि मगध एक कुशल दूत मैत्री-संदेश लेकर जाए। इस बहाने शत्रु की तैयारियों को देखे/परखे। वैशाली में मगध के गुप्‍तचर न हमारी सावधानी जानें, न योजना। कोष-अन्‍न-सैन्‍य को एकत्र करने की गुपचुप व्‍यवस्‍था की जाए। दूत के साथ जयराज गुप्‍त रूप में मगध जाएँगे। एक माह में लौटेंगे। तब पुनः मंत्रणा होगी। \n\nएक बार वैशाली में एक काली भयानक छाया घूमती देखी गई। अटकलें लगाई गई। कई आशंकाएँ होने लगीं। कृतपुण्‍य का पुत्र भद्रगुप्‍त बड़वाश्‍व पर जहाँ सांध्‍य-भ्रमण को जाया करता, वह छाया वहाँ विशेषतः देखी गई। उसका सांध्‍य-भ्रमण बन्द कर दिया गया। कृतपुण्‍य ने पुत्र का विवाह ठाठ-बाट से किया। सुहागरात को वही छाया वहाँ आई। शयन-कक्ष में गई। वह सेट्ठिपुत्र के मुख द्वारा उसके भीतर प्रविष्‍ट हो गई। सेट्ठिपुत्र जागा तो सभी ने उसकी नजर और आवाज में विचित्रता लक्षित की। उठते ही उसने बड़वाश्‍व माँगा। पिता के मना करने पर भी नहीं माना। उसे अचानक अश्‍व–संचालन में अभूतपूर्व निपुणता हासिल हो गई थी। यह समाचार कृतपुण्‍य ने अमात्‍य वर्षकार और नन्दन साहू को दिया। उसने नंदन के जरिये कृतपुण्‍य को हिदायत दी कि वह बेटे पर कड़ी नज़र रखे।\n\nकीमियागर गौड़पाद अपनी प्रयोगशाला में देश-विदेश के विद्यार्थियों को रसायन के रहस्‍य बता रहे थे। तभी उन्‍होंने अप्रत्‍याशित ध्वनि सुनी। आचार्य ने देखा तो सेट्ठिपुत्र के चरणों में गिर पड़े। सेट्ठिपुत्र ने बताया कि कृतपुण्‍य कालिका द्वीप से उसका रत्‍न-भंडार और बड़वाश्‍व हर लाया। इसके अलावा उसे इस शरीर में आम्रपाली का रूप भी खींच लाया। वह भद्रनंदिनी (कुंडनी/विषकन्‍या) का मदभंजन भी करेगा। युद्ध में रक्‍तपान भी करेगा। यह भी कहा कि ये रहस्‍य अपने तक ही रखे। देवजुष्‍ट सेट्ठिपुत्र पुंडरीक भद्रनंदिनी के पास गया। उसकी जूठी मदिरा पी। चुम्‍बन द्वारा उसका प्राणहरण किया। \n\nअम्‍बपाली का जन्‍मोत्‍सव मनाया जा रहा था। सप्‍तभूमिप्रासाद में जनसाधारण को उत्‍सव के लिए बेरोकटोक आने की आजादी थी। वहाँ युवराज स्‍वर्णसेन ने कहा कि आज दस्‍यु बलभद्र यहाँ होता तो खड्ग मदिरा में डुबो उसके आरपार कर देता। दस्‍यु वहाँ आया। एक चषक मद्य माँगने लगा। सूर्यमल्‍ल खड्ग ले उसपर झपटा। अम्‍बपाली ने उसे रोका। पहले मद्य देने को कहा। उसने मद्य पीया। युवराज को चुनौती दी। युवराज ने हमला किया पर दस्‍यु बचा गया। उसने युवराज के कंठ पर खड्ग रख उसे प्राण-भिक्षा माँगने को कहा। सामन्त-पुत्रों ने खड्ग उठाए तो कक्ष में अनेक दस्‍यु आ गए। दस्‍यु ने सभी को गहने आदि उतार अपने चरणों में रखने को कहा। सबने यही किया। कक्ष के बाहर भी अनेक दस्‍यु थे। अम्‍बपाली ने कहा कि सब कुछ लूट लो पर उन्‍होंने अन्‍न ही लूटा। वे दस्‍यु नहीं, भूखे कृषक थे। फिर दस्‍यु-समुदाय चला गया। \n\nजयराज छद्मवेश में राजगृह जा रहे थे। मार्ग में मागध गुप्‍तचर मिले तो उनसे निपटे। कुछ को धोखा दिया, दो को मार डाला। फिर राजगृह की ओर चले। दस्‍यु बलभद्र, आम्रपाली, स्‍वर्णसेन और सूर्यमल्‍ल मधुबन पहुँचे। वे पहाड़ी पर चढ़ गए। नीचे जगह-जगह आग जल रही थी। दस्‍यु थे। तभी वैशाली की सेना ने दस्‍यु-दल पर हमला किया। दस्‍यु सहसा गायब हो गए। सारी सेना घाटी में आ गई तो दस्‍यु-सेना उसके पीछे फैल गई। सेना को तीन ओर से घेरा। मारने लगी। स्‍वर्णसेन और सूर्यमल्‍ल ने आत्‍मसमर्पण कर नरसंहार रुकवाया। फिर दस्‍यु बलभद्र ने अतिथियों के आतिथ्‍य की समुचित व्‍यवस्‍था गुफाओं में कराई। \n\nअम्‍बपाली जहाँ ठहरी थी, वहाँ सोम आया। सोम ने अपना हृदय समर्पित किया। अम्‍बपाली को सोम के मागध होने से बुरा लगा। उसने सोम से अपनी रक्षा की याचना की। जयराज राजगृह पहुँचे। पांथागार-अध्‍यक्ष से पूछा किन्तु वहाँ जगह नहीं थी। वैशाली के राजदूत वहीं ठहरे थे। जयराज ने स्‍वर्ण दिया तो एक अन्यनागरिक के मकान में ठहरने की व्‍यवस्‍था हुई। वहाँ एक 18 वर्षीय युवक सेवक भी मिला। प्रतिहार ने जयराज को बताया कि उसकी पत्‍नी वणिक सुखदास के पास गई थी ताकि सौदा ठीक से पट जाए। पत्‍नी सुंदर थी, सुखदास मोहित हो गया। बोला- आज रात मेरी सेवा में रहे तो 500 घोड़े और एक सहस्र चीनांशुक भेंट कर दूँगा। उसने मुझसे पूछा तो मैंने कहा- एक ही रात में इतना मिले तो हर्ज क्‍या है। उसने अश्‍व और चीनांशुक तो मेरे पास भेज दिए पर स्‍वयं नहीं आ रही। जयराज ने उसे यह कहकर सोने भेज दिया कि कल कुछ करेंगे। अगले दिन जयराज सुखदास के घर गए। सुखदास को डराया। प्रतिहार की पत्‍नी से बात की। पत्‍नी ने वही कहा कि उस लोभी पति से तो यह अच्‍छा जो एक रात के लिए इतना दे दे। जयराज ने उसका समर्थन किया। लौट आए। \n\nवैशाली के दूत का बिम्‍बसार ने स्‍वागत किया। प्रतिहार के जरिये उस दूत से गुपचुप जयराज मिलता रहा। यह मागध संधिवैग्राहिक अभय कुमार को भी पता नहीं लगा। जयराज राजगृह में घूम-घूम जानकारियाँ जुटाते रहे। प्रतिहार की पत्‍नी उनको अंतःपुर के समाचार देने लगी। वैशाली के दूत ने उनसे मिल तय किया कि गणदूत बनकर जयराज ही सम्राट से मिलें। जयराज अनायास ही गणदूत बन सम्राट के सामने पेश हुए। मगध-नरेश ने गणदूतों का स्‍वागत किया। जयराज ने लिच्‍छवि कुमारी से विवाह का प्रस्‍ताव रखा जिसे बिम्‍बसार ने अस्वीकार कर दिया। जयराज और सम्राट में तनातनी हुई। जयराज क्रोधित और चिंतित होकर लौटे। अभयकुमार ने सम्राट को बताया कि गणदूत कोई और था तथा पेश कोई और हुआ। सम्राट ने दोनों को बंदी बना लाने का आदेश दिया। दोनों राजगृह से जा चुके थे। सम्राट ने सीमांत रक्षक को यही आदेश किसी भी मूल्‍य पर पूरा करने को कहा। जयराज जब सम्राट के सामने गए, उससे पहली रात ही गणदूत काप्‍यक ने महत्‍वपूर्ण जानकारियाँ ले वैशाली की ओर प्रस्‍थान कर दिया था। जयराज सम्राट से मिलकर अपने डेरे पर न जाकर युवक सेवक के साथ सीधे प्रस्‍थान कर गए।\n\nअभयकुमार ने जयराज का रास्‍ता घेर ही लिया। जयराज भाग रहे थे और सोच रहे थे- युद्ध अनिवार्य। देवी अम्‍बपाली द्वारा ही मगध-साम्राज्‍य पर विजय सम्भव होगी। देखा कि वैशाली में जो युद्ध की आशंका है, वह मगध में नहीं है। सब निश्चिन्त हैं। जयराज और युवक सेवक के बीच बातचीत हुई। युवक की ससुराल पास ही थी। वहीं चलना तय किया पर शत्रुओं ने घेर लिया। जयराज ने युवक को ससुराल की ओर भगा दिया ताकि तुरन्त सहायता ला सके। स्‍वयं युद्ध किया। घायल हुए पर युद्ध जारी रखा। सेवक सहायता ले आया। सभी शत्रु मृत/बंदी हुए। अभयकुमार बंदी बनाए गए। सब गाँव की ओर चले। जयराज ने युवक सेवक को स्‍वर्ण दे घोड़ा मँगवाया और वैशाली प्रस्‍थान किया। युवक से कहा कि अभय राजकुमार है। इसे राजगृह भेज देना। तुम सुबह वैशाली के लिए चल देना। -मगध सेनापति चण्‍डभद्रिक और सम्राट ने युद्ध-तैयारियों का जायज़ा लिया। सेना को कूच की आज्ञा देने को कहा। -मोहन-गृह में वैशाली की दूसरी मंत्रणा हुई। उसमें जयराज ने बताया कि दस्‍यु बलभद्र ही सोम है और वह वैशाली में सदलबल मौजूद है। मगध-सेना व्‍यवस्थित है। वे सैनिक नौकरी के लिए लड़ते हैं, वैशाली के सैनिक अपने संघ की स्‍वतंत्रता के लिए। मगध-सेना कई जगह फँसी है। सेनापति सिंह ने वैशाली की सेना की तैयारियों की ख़बर दी। निर्णय हुआ कि मगध आक्रमण की प्रतीक्षा करने की बजाय उसपर अवसर आते ही आक्रमण हो। वर्षकार व उनके सहायक बन्दी बनाए जाएँ। वैशाली में वर्षकार, सोमिल, नन्दन साहू, सेट्ठि कृतपुण्‍य बंदी बना लिए गए। सेट्ठिपुत्र को घर में नजरबंद किया गया। सर्वत्र सैन्‍य हलचल थी। सभी स्‍वस्‍थ वयस्‍क पुरुष अनिवार्यतः सैनिक बना दिए गए। अम्‍बपाली-आवास भी फीका पड़ गया। \n\nमगध सम्राट ने सेना सहित राजगृह से वैशाली की ओर प्रयाण किया। वे स्‍कंधावार पहुँचे। सेनापति सिंह ने वैशाली की नौसेना व्‍यवस्‍था का निरीक्षण किया। चरों ने उनको मगधराज की संपूर्ण गतिविधि की खबर दी। मगधराज ने चंडभद्रिक को महासेनापति और सोमप्रभ को सेनापति बनाया। सारी सैन्‍य-व्‍यवस्‍था में सबके कर्त्‍तव्‍य निश्चित किए। युद्ध शुरू हो गया। दोनों ने एक-दूसरे के व्‍यूह भेदे। भयंकर युद्ध किया। एक ही दिन में दोनों पक्षों की अपार हानि हुई। दो लोग छिपते हुए वैशाली पहुँचे। सप्‍तभूमि प्रासाद गए। उनमें एक मगध सम्राट थे। सम्राट के साथ आर्य गोपाल। अम्‍बपाली ने सत्‍कार किया। दोनों के गायब होने से मगध सेनापति चिंतित हुए। भद्रिक और सोम ने वैशाली को नेस्‍तनाबूद करने का संकल्‍प किया। सम्राट के गायब होने का समाचार गुप्‍त रखा गया। नौसेना युद्ध में मगध की क्षति ज्यादा हुई। सोम ने कोसलराज विदूडभ और सेना द्वारा वैशाली को घेरा। एक लौह-यंत्र था- रथमूसल। उसकी चपेट में जो आता, उसी की चटनी बन जाती। वैशाली का पतन सन्निकट था। सम्राट ने सोम को संदेश भिजवाया कि अम्‍बपाली-आवास की रक्षा हो, सम्राट वहीं हैं। सोम ने युद्ध रोक दिया। वैशाली ने साँस ली। दूसरे मोर्चे पर भद्रिक को सिंह सेनापति और सेना ने तीन ओर से घेरा। महाशिलाकंटक विनाश यंत्र से वैशाली ने मगध सेना का खूब नाश किया। सोम से कोई सहायता भद्रिक को नहीं मिली। उलटे सोम द्वारा युद्ध रोक देने का समाचार मिला।\n\nअम्‍बपाली ने सम्राट को बताया कि भद्रिक घिर गए, कभी भी आत्‍मसमर्पण कर सकते हैं। सोम ने युद्ध बन्द कर दिया। सम्राट सोम पर कुपित हुए। सोम की दृष्टि में एक नगरवधू को राजमहिषी बनाने के उद्देश्‍य से युद्ध छेड़ा गया था। अतः उन्‍होंने युद्ध बन्द किया। सम्राट गुप्‍त मार्ग से सोम तक पहुँचे। दोनों में विवाद हुआ फिर् युद्ध हुआ। सम्राट को गिरा उनके वक्ष पर सोम ने पाँव और कण्ठ पर खड्ग रखा। तभी अम्‍बपाली ने वहाँ आकर सम्राट के प्राणों की भिक्षा माँगी। कहा कि वह मगध साम्राज्ञी कभी नहीं बनेगी। सोम ने सम्राट को प्राणदान दिए पर बन्दी बना लिया। अम्‍बपाली को लिच्‍छवि सेनापति के अधिकार-क्षेत्र में पहुँचा दिया गया। भद्रिक ने आत्‍मसमर्पण कर दिया। माँग की कि वर्षकार से परामर्श करने दिया जाए ताकि संधि-वार्ता ठीक से हो सके और मगध सैनिकों को उनके अस्‍त्रों व अश्‍वों के साथ लौटने दिया जाए। सिंह ने वचन दिया कि यही होगा। \n\nसिंह ने युद्ध-क्षेत्र का निरीक्षण किया। अनेक मागध भी घायल थे। उनके उपचार की व्‍यवस्‍था भी की। वैशाली के संथागार में पराजित शत्रु द्वारा प्रस्‍तावित संधि पर विचार हुआ। वैशाली की तीन शर्तें थीं : शत्रु का सैन्‍य-बल दुर्बल हो। शत्रु यथेष्‍ट युद्ध-क्षति दे। सुदूर पूर्वी तट हमारे व्‍यापार के लिए खुला रहे। सर्वसम्‍मति से प्रस्‍ताव स्‍वीकार हो गया। गणोत्‍सव मनाया गया पर अम्‍बपाली-आवास सूना रहा, अंधकाराच्‍छन्‍न। सोम था युद्ध-क्षेत्र में। उसकी माँ वहाँ आई। उसकी गोद में वह रोया। माँ ने बताया कि उसके पिता बन्दी हैं। सम्राट ही उसके पिता हैं। उन्‍हें वह मुक्‍त करे। मरने से पहले माँ ने बताया कि उसकी बहिन के पिता वर्षकार हैं और उसके बिम्‍बसार। सोम ने बन्दीगृह जाकर पिता से क्षमा माँगी। दोनों ने मातंगी का अंतिम संस्‍कार किया। सोम ने कसम खाई कि अम्‍बपाली का पुत्र ही मगध सम्राट होगा। युद्ध के परिणामस्‍वरूप विजय पाने पर भी वैशाली का सुख सूख गया। अम्‍बपाली का द्वार सदैव बन्द रहता। उसने पुत्र को जन्‍म दिया, जिसे मगध सम्राट के पास पहुँचा दिया गया।\n\nउरुबेला तीर्थ में गौतम बुद्ध थे। उनके धर्म व संघ के प्रथम दो उपासक थे- भिल्‍लक और तपस्‍सू। उरुबेला में ही बुद्ध ने बुद्धत्‍व पाया। उनके विविध भिक्षु बने। इकसठ अर्हत् (शिष्‍य) बने। उन्‍हें दीक्षित करने का अधिकार दिया। गौतम बुद्ध राजगृह पधारे। सोण कटिविंश भी दर्शनार्थ गया, प्रव्रज्‍या ली। शरीर सुकुमार था, तलवों में रोम उग आए। बुद्ध ने उसे एक तल्‍ले का जूता पहनने की अनुमति दी। उसके कहने पर सारे संघ के भिक्षुओं को भी यह अनुमति मिली। श्रेष्‍ठी अनाथीपिंडक ने राजगृह में बुद्ध का माहात्‍म्‍य जाना। श्रावस्‍ती में वर्षावास कराया। बहुत स्‍वर्ण खर्च किया। मगधेश बिम्‍बसार श्रेणिक, शालिभद्र को देखने गए । शालिभद्र को पहली बार पराधीनता का अनुभव हुआ। महावीर दर्शन। देशना-श्रवण। वैराग्‍य। दीक्षा। धन्‍य ने भी।\n \nबुद्ध आए और अम्‍बपाली की बाड़ी में ठहरे। सप्‍तभूमि प्रासाद का द्वार बहुत दिनों के बाद खुला। वह बुद्ध के दर्शनार्थ गई। उनको भोजन का निमन्त्रण दिया।लिच्‍छवि राजपुरुष भी उसी दिन उसी समय भोजन-निमन्त्रण देना चाहते थे। किन्तु बुद्ध वचनबद्ध थे। उन्‍होंने अम्‍बपाली से निमन्त्रण खरीदना चाहा किन्तु अम्‍बपाली ने कहा- पूरी वैशाली के बदले भी नहीं। प्रसाद के सप्‍तम खण्ड पर बुद्ध ने भोजन किया। अम्‍बपाली ने सर्वस्‍व त्‍यागा और संघ को अर्पित किया और दीक्षा ली। सोम ने भी दीक्षा ली।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nअन्य विकि परियोजनाओं में\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ\nवैशाली की नगरवधू : नारी अस्मिता के संघर्ष एवं प्रतिशोध की कहानी\n\nश्रेणी:हिन्दी उपन्यास", "अजीत सिंह (मारवाड़)\nअजीत सिंह (जन्म: २४ जून १७२४ लाहौर, पाकिस्तान) राजस्थान के मारवाड़ क्षेत्र के शासक थे। वे महाराजा जसवंत सिंह के पुत्र थे।अजीत सिंह के जन्म से पहले ही उसके पिता की मृत्यु हो चुकी थी। कुछ समय पश्चात अजीत सिंह को दिल्ली लाया गया, जहाँ पर मुग़ल बादशाह औरंगज़ेब उन्हें मुस्लिम बना लेना चाहता था। राजपूत राठौड़ सरदार दुर्गादास व रुपसिंह तथा रघुनाथ भाटी ने बड़े साहस के साथ अजीत सिंह को दिल्ली से निकाल कर मारवाड़ लाया।\n\nप्रारंभिक जीवन \nमारवाड़ में जसवंत सिंह की मृत्यु 1678 दिसंबर को हुई थी।उनकी दो पत्नियाँ गर्भवती थीं, परन्तु मारवाड़ में उनका कोई सजीव वारिस न होने के कारण, सम्राट औरंगजेब को मुगल साम्राज्य की भूमि में बदल दिया गया, जिससे कि उनका प्रबन्ध जागीर के रूप में किया जा सके।उसने जसवंत सिंह के भतीजे इंद्र सिंह राठौर को वहाँ का शासक बनाया।इतिहासकार जॉन एफ. रिचर्ड्स ने इस बात पर बल दिया है कि इसका उद्देश्य नौकरशाही का था, न कि उसका अपना कब्जा.\n\nऔरंगजेब के कार्यों का विरोध इसलिए किया जाता है क्योंकि दोनों महिलाएँ उस समय बेटों को जन्म देती हैं, जब वे अपना निर्णय स्वयं करती हैं।जून 1679 में, पूर्व शासक के एक वरिष्ठ अधिकारी दुर्गदास राठोर ने शाहजहांबाद में एक प्रतिनिधिमंडल का नेतृत्व किया जिसमें औरंगजेब से अनुरोध किया गया कि वे इन दोनों पुत्रों में से एक को पहचानने के लिए अजीत सिंह जवंत सिंह और मारवार के शासक के उत्तराधिकारी हैं।औरंगजेब ने अजीत बढ़ाने और वयस्क होने पर उसे ऊंचे पद पर राजा की उपाधि देने की पेशकश करने से इनकार कर दिया।हालांकि यह प्रस्ताव एक मुस्लिम के रूप में अजीत का पालन होने पर सशर्त था, जो याचिकाकर्ता को मना कर दिया गया था..\n\nविवाद बढ़ गया जब अजीत सिंह के छोटे भाई की मृत्यु हो गई।औरंगजेब ने शाहजहानाबाद में राठौर महल से दोनों रावीयों और अजित को कब्जे में लेने के लिए एक सेना भेजी, लेकिन इसके प्रयास को दुर्गदास राठोर ने रिबूड़ कर दिया. यह बदले में बंदूक का इस्तेमाल कर बदले में शहर से बाहर अजीत और दो रावीयों के साथ जोधपुर ले गया जो सैनिक वेश धारण कर रही थीं.भागने के पक्ष में आने वाले कुछ लोग पार्टी से अलग हो गए और उन्होंने मुगलों का पीछा किये जाने के दौरान युद्ध किया तो उन्हें मार दिया गया.\n\nमारवाड़ के शिशु राजकुमार अजीत सिंह (सारंगी ध्रुव) की धाय माता ने अपने प्रेमी पुत्र को अजीत सिंह के स्थान पर राजपुत्रा में बिठाया और सोने वाले राजकुमार अजीत को एक टोकरी में बांध कर दिल्ली से बाहर भेज दिया।औरंगजेब ने इस धोखे को स्वीकार करने का हुक्म दिया और उसे अपने हरम में मुसलमान के रूप में खड़ा करने को भेजा।बालक का नाम मोहमदी राज कर दिया गया और धर्म में परिवर्तन करने का अर्थ यह था कि रीति-रिवाज के अनुसार मारवाड़ की भूमि में यह वंशानुगत हक खो गया कि यदि वास्तव में अजीत सिंह होता तो उनके पास राज्य पाने का हक होता।\n\nदेश निकाला \nधोखा देकर औरंगजेब ने अजित सिंह के प्रतिनिधियों से बातचीत करने से इनकार कर दिया और यह दावा किया कि बच्चा ठग है.उन्होंने अपने पुत्र मुहम्मद अकबर को मारवाड़ पर कब्जा करने के लिए भेजा।अजित सिंह की मां, जो सिसोदिया थीं, ने मेवाड़ के राणा, राज सिंह प्रथम को, जो कि आम तौर पर अपने रिश्तेदार माने जाते हैं, मुगलों के खिलफ लड़ेने में जुलने के लिए राजी कर दिया.रिचर्ड्स कहते हैं कि राज सिंह का डर है कि मेवाड़ पर भी हमला किया जाएगा, इसमें शामिल होने के लिए एक प्रमुख प्रेरणा थी;दूसरे इतिहासकार सतीश चन्द्र का विचार है कि इसके कई अन्य विकल्प हैं, जिनमें सिंह को इस क्षेत्र के राजपूत सामंतों में मेवाड़ की स्थिति को समझाने का अवसर मिला है।संयुक्त रथौरा सिसोदिया ताकतों का मुगल सेना से कोई मुकाबला नहीं था, मेवाड़ पर खुद हमला हो गया था और राजपूतों को पहाड़ियों में ही रहना पड़ता था, जहां से वे छाटपुट छापामार युद्ध में लगे हुए थे.\n\nइस घटना के 20 वर्ष बाद भी मारवार मुगल गवर्नर के सीधे शासन में रहे।इस अवधि में दुर्गदास राठौड़ ने अपने को घेरे रही सेना के खिलाफ अनवरत संघर्ष किया।इस क्षेत्र से गुजरने वाले व्यापार मार्गों को गुरिल्ला तकनीक से लूटने लगे, जिन्होंने आज के राजस्थान और गुजरात में कई खजाने को लूटा.इन विकारों ने साम्राज्य की वित्तीय स्थिति पर प्रतिकूल प्रभाव डाला |\n\nअरुंगजेब की मृत्यु 1707 में हुई थी;उसने महान मुगलों के अन्तिम भाग को सिद्ध किया।दुर्गादास राठौर ने जोधपुर की पकड़ लेने और अंततः कब्जा मुगल सेना को निकाल फेंकने के लिए इस मौत के बाद दंगों का लाभ उठाया।\n\nमारवाड़ का अधिकार हासिल किया \nमारवाड़ पर अपने शासन की स्थापना को मजबूत करने के बाद अजीत सिंह उतनी तेजी से साहसी हो गये जैसे मुगल सम्राट बहादुर शाह दक्षिण की ओर चल रहे थे।उन्होंने अमरे के साथ सवाई राजा जयसिंह द्वितीय का विवाह किया और मुगल वंश की भूमि पर कब्जा कर लिया।मुगलों के शिविरों पर हमला करने लगे और इसके अलावा कई शहरों और किलों पर कब्जा कर लिया गया, फिर भी मुगलों के लिए सबसे बड़ा प्रहार सांभर पर हुआ, जो नमक बनाने की दृष्टि से महत्वपूर्ण स्थान था।\n\nसन् 1709 में अजित सिंह ने अजमेर पर विजय प्राप्त करने और मुस्लिम मस्जिदों और मस्जिदों को नष्ट करने की योजना बनाई, लेकिन जयसिंह द्वितीय को भय था कि मुसलमान मंदिरों के विनाश से दकन से वापस आने के बाद मुगल सम्राट का रोष हो जाएगा।बहरहाल, जयसिंह ने जयसिंह की अनदेखी कर दी और अपनी सेना को अजमेर की ओर ले जाया.अजीत सिंह ने 19 फरवरी को अजमेर पर घेर लिया. शुजखान के नेतृत्व में मुगल सेना ने अजीत सिंह के साथ 45,000 रुपए, दो घोड़ै, हाथी और पुष्कर नामक पावन नगरी की भेंट से मंदिर-मस्जिद को दे दिया.अजीत सिंह ने उनकी बात मान ली और राजधानी लौटे।\n\nजून 1710 में बहादुरशाह ने बहादुरशाह की एक बड़ी फौज लेकर अजमेर पहुंचा और अजीत सिंह को अजमेर भेज दिया.विद्रोही अजीत सिंह को अंत में क्षमा कर दिया गया और मुगल सम्राट द्वारा जोधपुर के राजा के रूप में औपचारिक रूप से स्वीकार कर लिया गया।1712 में अजीत सिंह को गुजरात के मुगल राज्यपाल के रूप में नियुक्त कर अधिक शक्ति मिली।सन् 1713 में नये मुगल सम्राट फर्रुख्शीयार ने ठट्टा का अजीत सिंह का राज्यपाल नियुक्त किया।अजीत सिंह गरीब प्रदेश के पास जाने से इंकार कर दिया और फर्रुख्शीयार ने हुसेन अली ब्राह्ह को भेजा और अजीत सिंह को सहायता देने का वचन दिया।बल्कि अजीत सिंह ने हुसैन से बातचीत करने का फैसल किया और निकट भविष्य में गुजरात लौटने के वादे से थाटा के गवर्नर का पद स्वीकार किया..\n\nIt.\n\nफर्रुखसियर के चित्रण में भूमिका \n1713 में नए मुगल सम्राट फर्रुखसियर ने अजीत सिंह को थाटा का गवर्नर नियुक्त किया। अजीत सिंह ने लाहौर प्रांत में जाने से इनकार कर दिया और फर्रुखसियर ने हुसैन अली ब्राहा को अजीत सिंह को लाइन में लाने के लिए भेजा, लेकिन साथ ही उन्होंने अजीत सिंह को एक निजी पत्र भी भेजा, जिसमें उन्होंने हुसैन को हराया। इसके बजाय अजीत सिंह ने हुसैन के साथ बातचीत करने का विकल्प चुना, निकट भविष्य में गुजरात लौटने के वादे के साथ थाटा की गवर्नरशिप स्वीकार कर ली।. शांति समझौते की अन्य शर्तों में से एक मुगल सम्राट के साथ जोधपुर राजा की बेटियों में से एक थी, अजीत सिंह ने फारूखसियार से अपनी बेटी से शादी करने के लिए सहमति व्यक्त की लेकिन इसके बजाय, उन्होंने मुगल सम्राट की सलाह पर उनकी बेटी की शादी कर दी। जाट राजा चूरामन। अजीत सिंह ने इस शादी को एक राजनीतिक उपकरण के रूप में इस्तेमाल किया, जिससे उन्हें सम्राट के खिलाफ गठबंधन बनाने के लिए पर्याप्त समय मिल गया।\n\nबाद में अजीत सिंह ने फ़ारूखसियर के खिलाफ सैय्यद बंधुओं के साथ गठबंधन करके अपना बदला लिया। अजीत सिंह और उनके सहयोगियों ने, लाल किला में फर्रुखसियर को घेर लिया और रात भर की लड़ाई के बाद महल के मैदान में प्रवेश किया, पहले कुतुब-उल-मुल्क ने अजीत सिंह को प्रवेश करने से रोकने की कोशिश की, जिस पर क्रोधित अजीत ने उसे चाकू मार दिया। मृत्यु के लिए और अपने राजपूत और पठान सैनिकों को फर्रुखसियर को गिरफ्तार करने के लिए कहा। सम्राट को अपनी माँ, पत्नियों और बेटियों के साथ हरम में छुपा हुआ पकड़ा गया था, उसने विरोध करने की कोशिश की लेकिन त्रिपोलिया गेट के एक छोटे से कमरे में पकड़ा गया और उसे घसीट कर ले जाया गया, जहाँ उसे यातनाएँ दी गई थीं और सुई से अंधा कर दिया गया था। पुराने मुगल अधिकारियों ने दया के लिए रोया और जयपुर के राजा जय सिंह और हैदराबाद के निजाम-उल-मुल्क ने धमकी दी लेकिन उनमें से किसी ने भी कोई कार्रवाई नहीं की। रफ़ी-उद-दरज़ात को राजकुमारों में से चुना गया और अजीत सिंह ने उनका हाथ थाम लिया और उन्हें मोर के सिंहासन पर बिठाया.\n\nहत्या \nजयसिंह ने अभय सिंह को सलाह दी कि अजित सिंह की हत्या कर दें, क्योंकि मुहम्मद शाह ने जोधपुर का संहार करके फर्रुखसियार का बदला लेने की शपथ ली थी।अभिहाई सिंह ने लोभ में या अपने देश को विनाश से बचाने के लिए, अपने भाई बख्त सिंह की सहायता से अपने पिता की हत्या करने की योजना बनायी।यह कार्य 1724 में हुआ और अभाई सिंह को मारवाड़ के नए महाराजा के रूप में सफलता मिली।63 महिलाएं महाराजा अजीत सिंह के साथ चिता पर सती प्रथा में शामिल थीं।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nश्रेणी:भारत के शासक\nश्रेणी:मारवाड़\nश्रेणी:राजपूत शासक", "वज़ीर अली ख़ान\nमिर्ज़ा वज़ीर अली खान(१७८० - १८१७), चौथे नवाब वज़ीर अल ममालिक ए एवध थे।\n\nपांच माह के शासन काल के अंदर ही उन्हें अंग्रेज़ों और अपनी प्रजा, दोनों ही द्वारा विलग कर दिया गया और अंततः उन्हें पदच्युत कर के चुनार के किले में बंदी बनाया गया और वहीं उनका देहांत हुआ।\n\nउत्तराधिकार शृंखला \n\nजब भी हिंदुस्तान में गुलाम भारत में अंग्रेजों के खिलाफ पहले क्रांति की बात होती है तो एका एक ही हमारे जेहन में 1857 या उसके आस पास के सालों की तस्वीर उभरने लगती है पर शायद बहुत कम लोगों को ही पता होगा की 1857 से भी 58 साल पहले 1799 में नवाब वज़ीर अली ख़ान ने अंग्रेजों के खिलाफ बनारस से ही बगावत का झंडा बुलंद कर दिया था। हालाँकि इतिहास के साथ हुए छेड़ छाड़ से ये तारीख हमारी आने वाली नस्लों को शायद ही पढने को मिले या जान बुझ के इसे इतिहास के पन्नो से मिटा दिया गया है पर उन शहीदों के खून के कतरे और कुछ खुद्दार लोग इसे क़ुरबानी को आज तक याद किये हुए हैं।\nइस बगावत की शुरुआत होती है 21 जनवरी 1799 से जब अंग्रेजों ने नवाब असफ-उद-दौला के दत्तक पुत्र नवाब वजीर अली खान पर धोके का इल्जाम लगाकर उन्हें गद्दी से हटाकर बनारस भेज दिया। वजीर अली के जगह पर उनके चाचा सआदत अली खान को अवध का अगला नवाब चुना गया और वजीर अली को रामनगर में नजरबंद कर दिया गया। उन्हें अंग्रेज पेंसन के तौर पे डेढ़ लाख रुपये सलाना दिया जाता रहा तथा तत्कालीन गवर्नर जनरल सर जॉन शोर ने हुक्म दिया की वजीर अली को कही घुमने या किसी से मिलने से ना रोका जाये। 18 साल की उम्र में ही झूटे इल्जाम के बुनियाद पर तख़्त छीन जाने के बुनियाद पे वजीर अली को अंग्रेजों से नफरत हो गयी थी और उन्होंने अंग्रेजों के खिलाफ बगावत करने का मन ही मन कसम खायी…।\nइस बिच अंग्रेजों का अगला हुक्म आया जिसमे उन्हें बनारस से ब्रिटिश मुख्यालय कोलकाता भेजने को कहा गया। इस बात ने वजीर अली की नफरत के आग को और भड़का दी और उन्होंने अपने वफादार सिपहसालारों इज्जत अली और वारिस अली को बुलावा भेजा और गुपचुप तरीके से 200 सिपाहियों का लश्कर भी तैयार कर लिया। \n14 जनवरी 1799 को इस जंग का आगाज हो गया। वजीर अली ने खुद को बनारस से हटाने के फैसले के खिलाफ तत्कालीन कमांडर जार्ज फ्रेडरिक चेरी से मिलने की ख्वाहिश जाहिर की। इस पर चेरी ने हामी भर दी। वजीर अली अपने सिपहसालार इज्जत अली और वारीस अली के साथ चेरी के मिंट हाउस स्थित घर पे अपने लाव लश्कर के साथ पहुचे। बातचीत के दौरान हो उन्होंने हमला बोल दिया नवाब की फ़ौज जो पहले से तैयार थी उसने कमांडर कैंप को घेरकर संतरियों को कब्जे में ले लिया। \nबागियों ने कमांडर चेरी,कैप्टन कानवे,रोबर्ट ग्राहम ,कैप्टन ग्रेग इवांस सहित सात अंग्रेज सिपाहियों को मौत के घाट उतार दिया। सिर पर खून इस कदर सवार था की बागियों ने उस पूरे कैंप का ही सफाया करने की ठान ली। कमांडर के घर से कुछ दूर नदेसर क्षेत्र में तत्कालीन मजिस्ट्रेट एम. डेविस का घर था बागियों ने यहाँ भी हमला कर दिया और कई संतरियों को मार डाला। पत्नी ,बच्चों और दो नौकरों को डेविस ने छत पे छिपा दिया और बागियों से लड़ने के लिए खुद बाहर आ गया। छतपर जाने वाले सीढी के पीछे बैठकर डेविस ने बागियों को काफी देर तक रोके रखा। ब्रिटिश के बगावत की खबर आग की तरह फ़ैल गयी और मजिस्ट्रेट को बचाने के लिए ब्रिटिश फ़ौज नदेसर पहुच गयी। हालाँकि फिर बागियों को पीछे हटना पड़ा और इन वक्तों में नवाब के साथ और भी हजारों बागी जुड़ गए।\nनवाब के बगावत को कुचलने के लिए कोलकाता से जेनेरल अर्सकिन को फ़ौज लेकर बनारस आना पड़ गया। अर्सकिन के भारी फ़ौज के आगे बागी टिक नहीं पाए। सैकड़ो लोग मारे गये बचने का कोई रास्ता ना देख सबने आपसी सहमती से वहाँ से निकल जाने की योजना बनाई वजीर अली भी जान बचाते बचाते राजस्थान के बुटवल पहुंचे। तब जयपुर के तत्कालीन अंग्रेज परस्त राजा ने उन्हेअपने यहाँ ठहरने की दावत दी। नवाब के साथ धोका करके उसने 1799 में वजीर अली को अंग्रेजों के हवाले कर दिया। अंग्रेजों ने वजीर अली को कोलकाता के फोर्ट विलियम जेल भेज दिया। 17 साल जेल में गुजारने के बाद 1817 में नवाब की जेल में ही मौत हो गयी।पश्चिम बंगाल के कैसिया बागान में आज भी वजीर अली की कब्र मौजूद है।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nExternal links \n (अंग्रेज़ी) अवध के नवाबों की शाही वंशावली\n (अंग्रेज़ी) राष्ट्रीय इन्फ़ार्मेटिक्स केंद्र, लखनऊ - अवध के शासक\n (अंग्रेज़ी) अवध के नवाब व उनकी पंथनिरपेक्षता - डॉ॰ बी. बी. सक्सेना\n (अंग्रेज़ी) अवध का इतिहास - भारत का एक रजवाड़ा लेखक हमीद अख्तर सिद्दीक़ी\n\nश्रेणी:१७८० जन्म\nश्रेणी:लखनऊ से लोग\nश्रेणी:अवध के नवाब\nश्रेणी:१८१७ में निधन", "टिकेन्द्रजीत सिंह\nटिकेन्द्रजीत सिंह (29 दिसम्बर, 1856 – 13 अगस्त, 1891) स्वतन्त्र मणिपुर रियासत के राजकुमार थे। उन्हें वीर टिकेन्द्रजीत और कोइरेंग भी कहते हैं। वे मणिपुरी सेना के कमाण्डर थे। वे महान देशभक्त और ब्रिटिश साम्राज्यवादी योजना के घोर विरोधी तथा देश की एकता-अखंडता के कट्टर समर्थक थे। उन्होंने साहसपूर्वक ब्रिटिश साम्राज्यवादी शक्ति के कूटनीतिक और विस्तारवादी कृत्यों से जनमानस को अवगत कराया तथा अदम्य साहस और निर्भीकता के साथ अंग्रेजी साम्राज्यवाद और उपनिवेशवाद के विरुद्ध युद्ध किया। इसी कारण उन्हें 'मणिपुर का शेर' कहा जाता है। यहाँ तक कि ब्रिटिश भारत की तत्कालीन सरकार ने उनकी वीरता, निडरता तथा पराक्रम की तुलना एक ‘खतरनाक बाघ’ से की थी। भारत के स्वतंत्रता-संग्राम में उनका अद्वितीय स्थान है। \n\nउन्होने 'महल-क्रान्ति' की जो मणिपुर रियासत के शासन में अंग्रेजों के परोक्ष हस्तक्षेप के विरुद्ध एक खुला विद्रोह ही था। इसके फलस्वरूप १८९१ में आंग्ल-मणिपुर युद्ध शुरू हुआ। बड़े संघर्ष के बाद अंग्रेज विजयी हुए। इस युद्ध में शहीद होने वाले राज्य के वीर नायकों को श्रद्धांजलि देने के लिए मणिपुर राज्य प्रत्येक वर्ष 13 अगस्त के दिन “देशभक्त दिवस” मनाता है। \n\nप्राकृतिक सौंदर्य से परिपूर्ण मणिपुर का अपना प्राचीनतम एवं गौरवपूर्ण इतिहास रहा है। इसकी सामाजिक, धार्मिक और सांस्कृतिक परंपराएँ और प्राकृतिक सौन्दर्य भारतवासियों के लिए गौरव के विषय हैं, तो उसका शौर्य, साहस एवं त्याग-बलिदान से परिपूर्ण इतिहास भारतवासियों के लिए प्रेरणास्रोत है। मणिपुर के राजाओं ने सन् 1891 में अंग्रेजों से पराजित होने तक अपनी स्वतंत्रता और संप्रभुता के लिए लगातार संघर्ष किया था। एक लंबे और अनवरत संघर्ष के बाद ब्रिटिश साम्राज्यवादियों ने मणिपुर पर अपना आधिपत्य स्थापित किया। मणिपुर के आंतरिक संकट और उसके बर्मा के साथ चले 18 वर्ष लंबे संघर्ष का लाभ उठाकर वे ऐसा करने में सफल हुए।\nसन् 1891 के आंग्ल-मणिपुर युद्ध में मणिपुर के बहादुर लोगों ने औपनिवेशिक शक्तियों का प्रतिरोध जिस वीरता और साहस के साथ किया; वह इतिहास में स्वर्णिम अक्षरों में अंकित है।\n\nटिकेंद्रजीत सिंह महाराजा चंद्रप्रकाश सिंह और चोंगथम चानु कूमेश्वरी देवी की चतुर्थ सन्तान थे। उनका जन्म 29 दिसंबर, 1856 को हुआ था। उन्हें “कोइरेंग” भी कहते थे क्योंकि वे बचपन से ही लोकप्रिय तथा स्वतंत्रता प्रेमी थे। धैर्यवान होने के साथ-साथ वे कुशाग्र बुद्धि वाले थे। बाद में वे मणिपुरी सेना के कमाण्डर नियुक्त हुए थे।\n\nराजकुमार गंभीर सिंह के नेतृत्व में प्रथम आंग्ल-बर्मी युद्ध (1824-1826) में मणिपुर ने बर्मा पर विजय प्राप्त की। परिणामस्वरूप, मणिपुर तबाही से उबर गया और गंभीर सिंह को मणिपुर का राजा बनाया गया। परन्तु उस समय राज्य की सभी महत्वपूर्ण शक्तियाँ अंग्रेजों के हाथ में थीं। राजा ब्रिटिश हस्तक्षेप का विरोध नहीं कर सकता था।\n\nराजा चंद्रकान्त सिंह के उत्तराधिकारी महाराजा सूरचंद्र सिंह के शासनकाल में अंग्रेजों का हस्तक्षेप बहुत अधिक बढ़ गया था। राजपरिवार का सदस्य होने के नाते टिकेंद्रजीत अंग्रेजों के कूट स्वभाव से परिचित थे। अतः वे मणिपुरवासियों को उनके वास्तविक दृष्टिकोण और अंतरतम दुर्भावनाओं के बारे में सचेत करते रहते थे। महाराज गंभीर सिंह की मृत्यु के उपरान्त उनके बड़े बेटे, सूरचंद्र ने मणिपुर के सिंहासन का दायित्व संभाला। अन्य राजकुमारों को राज्याधिकारी, सेना के जनरल और पुलिस प्रमुख के रूप में नियुक्त किया गया।\n\nबाद में, झलकारी की मृत्यु के बाद टिकेंद्रजीत को सेनापति नियुक्त किया गया था। लेकिन राजकुमारों के बीच आपसी गलतफहमी और मनमुटाव पैदा हो गया। इसने अंततः राज-परिवार को दो गुटों में विभाजित कर दिया। एक गुट टिकेंद्रजीत के साथ था तो दूसरा पाकसाना के नेतृत्व में कार्यरत था।\n\nराजा इस स्थिति से अनजान रहे और अराजकता बहुत ज्यादा बढ़ती चली गई। टिकेंद्रजीत को लगता था कि राजा पाकसाना के पक्षधर हैं। अंग्रेज सूदखोरी से अपने साम्राज्य का विस्तार करते थे। वे मोटी ब्याज पर राजा और राजपरिवार को कर्ज देकर धीरे-धीरे उनके राज्य के हिस्सों को हड़पते चले जाते थे। यही नीति उन्होंने मणिपुर के राजपरिवार के प्रति भी अपनाई। इसे राजकुमार टिकेंद्रजीत ने स्वीकार नहीं किया। वे इस तथ्य से भी भलीभाँति अवगत थे कि ब्रिटिश लोग मणिपुर को अपनी एक “कॉलोनी” बनाने के लिए अवसर की प्रतीक्षा कर रहे हैं। इसलिए उन्होंने अपने राज्य की संप्रभुता तथा स्वतंत्रता की रक्षा हेतु एक योजना बनाई।\n\n22 सितंबर, 1890 को टिकेंद्रजीत ने दो अन्य राजकुमारों एंगुसन और जिलंगंबा के साथ सूरचंद्र सिंह के खिलाफ विद्रोह किया और राजा सुरचंद्र को सिंहासन से हटा दिया। सुरचंद्र सिंह ने ब्रिटिश निवास में शरण ले ली। तब कुलाचंद्र ने राज्यभार संभाला और टिकेंद्रजीत उसके उत्तराधिकारी बने। इस घटना को मणिपुर के इतिहास में ‘राजमहल विद्रोह’ के रूप में जाना जाता है।\n\nबाद में, पूर्व शासक सूरचंद्र सिंह कलकत्ता के लिए रवाना हुए। लेकिन उन्होंने टिकेंद्रजीत को सूचित किया कि वे धार्मिक-यात्रा पर वृंदावन जा रहे हैं। कलकत्ता पहुँचने के बाद उन्होंने मणिपुर राज्य का अपना सिंहासन पुनः पाने के लिए ब्रिटिश सरकार को एक याचिका भेजी। उनकी इस याचिका के परिणामस्वरूप अंग्रेज मणिपुर की आतंरिक फूट और संकट से बखूबी अवगत हो गए। वास्तव में, इस याचिका ने ब्रिटिशों को मणिपुर के आंतरिक मामलों में हस्तक्षेप करने का मौका प्रदान किया।\n\nभारत के तत्कालीन वायसराय लॉर्ड लैंड्सडाउन ने कुलाचंद्र को राजा बनाए रखने का निर्णय लिया। लेकिन मणिपुर सिंहासन के उत्तराधिकारी पद से टिकेंद्रजीत को हटाने का आदेश दिया गया क्योंकि अंग्रेज जानते थे कि टिकेंद्रजीत जैसा राष्ट्रवादी उनकी औपनिवेशिक योजनाओं में बहुत बड़ी अड़चन है। उसकी अनुपस्थिति में ही मणिपुर को ब्रिटिश उपनिवेश में रूपांतरित किया जा सकता है।\n\nअतः 22 मार्च, 1891 को मुख्य आयुक्त जेडब्ल्यू क्विंटन सैनिकों की टुकड़ी के साथ मणिपुर पहुँचा। टिकेंद्रजीत को गिरफ्तार करने के लिए अंग्रेजों द्वारा एक गोपनीय योजना बनाई गई थी। लेकिन उनकी यह गुप्त योजना उजागर हो जाने के कारण विफल हो गई। राजनीतिक एजेंट ग्रिमवुड ने तब राजा कुलाचन्द्र को टिकेंद्रजीत को अंग्रेजों को सौंपने के लिए कहा। राजा कुलाचंद्र ने इसके लिए साफ इनकार कर दिया। परिणामस्वरूप अंग्रेजों ने टिकेंद्रजीत को गिरफ्तार करने के लिए बल प्रयोग किया।\n\n24 मार्च, 1891 की शाम को ब्रिटिश सैनिकों ने पैलेस कंपाउंड, विशेष रूप से टिकेंद्रजीत के निवास पर हमला किया। इस हमले में सांस्कृतिक कार्यक्रम देख रहे महिलाओं और बच्चों सहित अनेक निर्दोष नागरिक मारे गए। हालाँकि, मणिपुरी सेना अपने आक्रामक प्रतिरोध में सफल रही और अंग्रेजों को पीछे हटना पड़ा।\n\nपाँच अंग्रेज अधिकारियों- क्विंटन, ग्रिमवुड, लेफ्टिनेंट कर्नल सिम्पसन, कोसिन और बुलेर को भागकर तहखाने में शरण लेनी पड़ी। जिन मणिपुरवासियों के निर्दोष बच्चे, पत्नियों और रिश्तेदारों को अंग्रेजों द्वारा मार दिया गया था, उनके मन में बदले की भावना इतनी प्रबल हो गई कि उन्होंने इन पाँचों अंग्रेजों को मार डाला।\n\nइसके परिणामस्वरूप 1891 में आंग्ल-मणिपुरी युद्ध हुआ। मणिपुरी लोग बड़ी वीरता से लड़े किन्तु इस भयानक युद्ध में अंग्रेजों ने मणिपुर को तहस-नहस कर दिया। 27 अप्रैल, 1891 को कंगला पैलेस को अंग्रेजों ने अपने कब्जे में ले लिया और मेजर मैक्सवेल मुख्य राजनीतिक एजेंट बन गया। ब्रिटिश भारत सरकार ने जाँच-पड़ताल और सजा-निर्धारण के लिए लेफ्टिनेंट कर्नल जॉन मिशेल के अधीन एक विशेष आयोग का गठन किया। इस जाँच में टिकेंद्रजीत को दोषी ठहराया गया और अंग्रेजी अदालत द्वारा उन्हें मौत की सजा सुनाई गई।\n\nमणिपुरवासियों ने अपने प्रिय राजकुमार की प्राण-रक्षा के लिए उनकी फाँसी का पुरजोर विरोध किया। परन्तु लोगों की प्रबल भावना और उनके सक्रिय विरोध के बावजूद अंग्रेजों ने बीर टिकेंद्रजीत को 13 अगस्त, 1891 को आम जनता के सामने एक खुली जगह पर फाँसी लगाई ताकि लोगों में डर पैदा किया जा सके।\n\nमणिपुर राज्य की महिलाओं ने भी उनके बचाव में एक आंदोलन शुरू किया था, परन्तु उनका यह आन्दोलन मणिपुर के भविष्य बीर टिकेंद्नजीत को नहीं बचा सका। उनका बलिदान मणिपुर की स्वतंत्रता, सम्मान और जनकल्याण की भावना के लिए था। उन्होंने विदेशी शक्ति का विरोध करते हुए स्वदेश रक्षा हेतु अपने प्राण गँवाए।\n\nटिकेंद्रजीत अपने विलक्षण युद्ध-कौशल, अद्भुत पराक्रम तथा सक्षम प्रशासन के कारण अत्यंत लोकप्रिय थे। इस महानायक को सम्मानित करते हुए मणिपुर विधानसभा ने अगस्त, 2019 में सर्वसम्मति से प्रस्ताव पारित कर तुलीहल अंतरराष्ट्रीय हवाई अड्डे का नाम बदलकर ‘बीर टिकेंद्रजीत अंतरराष्ट्रीय हवाई अड्डा’ कर दिया है।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nइन्हें भी देखें\n वीर टीकेन्द्रजित रोड\n आंग्ल-मणिपुर युद्ध\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ\nमणिपुर का शेर : बीर टिकेंद्रजीत सिंह\nकांगला दुर्ग का पतन\n 10 Unsung Freedom Fighters From The Northeast India Should Celebrate\n\nश्रेणी:मणिपुर का इतिहास", "टोंक जिला\nटोंक ज़िला भारत के राजस्थान राज्य का एक ज़िला है|\n\nइतिहास \nभले ही इस शहर के इतिहास की कोई लम्बी–चौड़ी तहरीर जिला गजेटियर, जनगणना-दस्तावेजों और इतिहास के ग्रंथों में न अंकित न हो, यह बात निर्विवाद है कि टोंक, जयपुर से पुराना है। हनुमान सिंघल ने साहित्य-कला-संगम द्वारा प्रकाशित अपनी एक पुस्तक ‘हिस्ट्री ऑफ़ टोंक’ में यहाँ के इतिहास पर प्रकाश डाला है ।\nयहाँ से कुछ दूर रणथम्भोर जाने वाले मार्ग में ग्राम ‘ककोड़’ में विशाल ग्रेनाइट शिला से निर्मित एक विशालकाय हाथी, जो 12वीं सदी की रचना है, इस इलाके में सभ्यता की पुरानी रिहाइश का सबूत है ... भारतीय पुरातत्व सर्वेक्षण विभाग द्वारा संरक्षित एक ही चट्टान (Monolithic Rock) में से उत्कीर्ण इस वास्तविक ऊंचाई के हाथी के दाहिने कान में इस बड़े सारे मूर्तिशिल्प के निर्माण की तिथि अंकित है! \n\nमहाभारत काल में टोंक को ‘संवाद लक्ष्य’ के नाम से जाना जाता था। मौर्य शासन में यह मौर्यों के अधीन था और फिर इसे मालवा राज्य में मिला दिया गया था। यह अधिकांश काल तक हर्षवर्धन के अधीन रहा । चीन के आगंतुक यात्री ह्वेन त्सांग के अनुसार, यह तब बैराठ राज्य के अधीन आता था। राजपूतों के शासन में, यह राज्य टोडा के सोलंकी शासकों के अधीन रहा और बाद में इस पर कछवाहों ने कब्जा कर लिया जब राजा मानसिंह ने टोडारायसिंह के राव को हराया। मानसिंह के बाद, यह होल्कर और सिंधिया के शासन में आ गया ।\nस्थानीय अभिलेखों के अनुसार अकबर के शासन-काल में ‘टोडी’ और ‘टोंकड़ा’ नाम के दो जिले आमेर के राजा मुग़ल- सेनापति मानसिंह ने पिंडारियों और अन्य कब्जेदारों से जीते थे, जिनमें से ‘टोंकड़ा’ इलाके के 12 बेचिराग गाँव (जो गैर-आबाद गाँव थे) भोला नाम के किसी ब्राह्मण को भूमि-दान में दे दिए गए थे, जिसने अपने इस इलाके का नया नामकरण टोंकड़ा’ से ‘टोंक’ किया! \n25 मार्च 1948 को एक राज्य के रूप में राजस्थान-निर्माण से पहले टोंक 4 निज़ामतों- टोंक, पिड़ावा, सिरोंज, निम्बाहेड़ा, छबड़ा, और एक नायब-निज़ामत, अलीगढ़ (उनियारा) से मिल कर बना था, आज टोंक के उत्तर में जयपुर, दक्षिण में कोटा, बूंदी और भीलवाड़ा, पूर्व में सवाई माधोपुर और पश्चिम में अजमेर हैं। \n \nटोंक निजामत (राज्य) के संस्थापक थे- नवाब मुहम्मद अमीर खान (1769-1834), जो पश्तून वंश के एक साहसी सैन्य नेता थे। अमीर खान 1798 में मराठा साम्राज्य के यशवंतराव होल्कर की सेवा में एक सैन्य कमांडर बन गये। 1806 में, अमीर खान ने यशवंतराव होल्कर से टोंक का राज्य प्राप्त किया था 1817 में, तीसरे आंग्ल-मराठा युद्ध के बाद, अमीर खान ने अपना राज्य ब्रिटिश ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी को सौंप दिया। नतीजतन, उन्होंने टोंक को अपना इलाका बनाए रखा और नवाब की उपाधि भी प्राप्त की। टोंक राज्य आंतरिक स्वायत्तता बनाए रखते हुए और ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य ख़त्म होने पर राजस्थान का हिस्सा रहा जिसमें छह अलग-अलग जिले शामिल थे। इनमें से तीन तो राजपूताना एजेंसी के अधीन थे, टोंक, अलीगढ़ (पूर्व में रामपुरा) और निम्बाहेड़ा। अन्य तीन, छाबड़ा, पिरावा और सिरोंज सेंट्रल इंडिया एजेंसी में शामिल थे। टोंक राज्य के एक पूर्व मंत्री साहिबज़ादा ओबेदुल्ला खान को 1897 के तिराह अभियान के दौरान पेशावर में राजनीतिक दायित्व पर प्रतिनियुक्त किया गया था। नवाब सर मुहम्मद इब्राहिम अली खान जीसीआईई (शासनकाल 1867-1930) उन कुछ प्रमुखों में से एक थे जिन्होंने 1877 में लॉर्ड लिटन के दरबार और 1903 के दिल्ली दरबार में शासक के रूप में भाग लिया था ।\n1899-1900 में, टोंक राज्य को सूखे के कारण बहुत संकट का सामना करना पड़ा। यहाँ की रियासत की सालाना आमदनी 1883-84 में 1,28,546 पोंड थी! सन् 1817 में टोंक एक ब्रिटिश संरक्षित राज्य बन गया था । 1947 में, भारत के विभाजन पर, जिससे भारत और पाकिस्तान को स्वतंत्रता मिली, टोंक के नवाब ने भारत में शामिल होने का फैसला किया। इसके बाद, टोंक राज्य के अधिकांश क्षेत्र को राजस्थान राज्य में एकीकृत किया गया, जबकि इसके कुछ पूर्वी परिक्षेत्र मध्य प्रदेश का हिस्सा बन गए। भारत की स्वतंत्रता के बाद, टोंक 25 मार्च 1948 को भारतीय गणराज्य में शामिल हो गया।\n\nशासक\nराज्य के शासक, टोंक के सालारजई नवाब, पश्तून तारकानी जनजाति से थे। वे ब्रिटिश अधिकारियों द्वारा 17 तोपों की सलामी के हकदार थे। भारतीय स्वतंत्रता से पहले के अंतिम शासक, नवाब मुहम्मद इस्माइल अली खान के कोई संतान नहीं हुई ।\n\nटोंक के नवाब\n \nमुहम्मद आमिर खान (1806-1834)\nमुहम्मद वज़ीर खान (1834-1864)\nनवाब मुहम्मद अली खान (1864-1867)\nनवाब मुहम्मद इब्राहिम अली खान (1867 - 23 जून 1930)\nनवाब मुहम्मद सआदत अली खान (23 जून 1930 - 31 मई 1947)\nनवाब मुहम्मद फारूक अली खान (1947-1948)\n\nनामधारी नवाब\n \nनवाब मुहम्मद इस्माइल अली खान (1948-1974)\nनवाब मासूम अली खान (1974-1994)\nनवाब आफताब अली खान (1994-)\n\nअन्य तथ्य\nटोंक राज्य के क्षेत्रफल का 2.10 प्रतिशत और इसकी आबादी का 2.43 प्रतिशत हिस्सा है। एक समय इस रियासत का कुल क्षेत्रफल 2553 वर्गमील था, 1901 में जिसकी कुल जनसंख्या 273,201 थी। एक पतंग जैसी शक्ल के इस जिले का भौगोलिक क्षेत्रफल आज 7,163 वर्ग किलोमीटर है और समुद्र-तल से ऊंचाई कोई 264 मीटर! गर्मियों में बला की गर्मी पड़ती है और सर्दियों में खासी ठंड ...घनी वनस्पतियों के अभाव से टोंक जिले की अधिकांश पहाड़ियाँ रूखी-सूखी और बेजान हैं- सिर्फ बरसात का मौसम ही इस इलाके को तर और हरा बनाता है, वन केवल 3 प्रतिशत के करीब भू-भाग में हैं और आदर्श वनक्षेत्र 30 प्रतिशत से बहुत कम हैं ... 2011 की भारतीय जनगणना के अनुसार टोंक जिले की जनसंख्या 1, 65,294 थी, जिसमें 48% महिलाएँ थीं। जनसंख्या का 14% छह वर्ष और उससे कम आयु का है। टोंक की औसत साक्षरता दर 68.62%: पुरुषों में 77.68% और महिलाओं में 59.18% है।एक समय अनाज, कपास, अफीम और खाल राज्य के प्रमुख उत्पाद और निर्यात थे। \n \n \nटोंक के उपनाम : नवाबों की नगरी , राजस्थान का लखनऊ, अदब का गुलशन, अख्तर शेर्यंश की नगरी, मीठे खरबूजे का चमन, हिन्दू मुस्लिम एकता का मुखौटा\nप्राचीन नाम: प्राचीन भारत का टाटानगर, स्वादलक्ष \n\nतथ्य \nसन् 2011 में ज़िले की जनसंख्या 14.21 लाख थी, जिसमें से 7.28 लाख पुरुष और 6.93 लाख महिलाएँ थीं, यानि लिंगानुपात 952 था। पूरी आबादी में से ग्रामीण निवासी 11.038 लाख और नगरीय निवासी 3,17,843 थे। ज़िले का साक्षरता दर 62.46% था। यहाँ का दूरभाष कोड 01432, पिनकोड 304001 और वाहन रेजिस्ट्रेशन कोड RJ-26 है।\n\nभूगोल \nज़िले की औसत ऊँचाई समुद्रतल से लगभग 264.32 मीटर है। ज़िला 25°41\" से 26°34\" उत्तरी अक्षांश तथा 75°70\" से 76°19\" पूर्वी रेखांश के बीच विस्तारित है। यहाँ वार्षिक औसत वर्षा 61.36 मिमी होती है। \n\nअरावली पहाड़ों को बनास नदी इस जिले में दो हिस्सों में काटती है, जो जिले की सबसे प्रमुख नदी है! बनास के अलावा यहाँ छोटी छोटी बरसाती नदियाँ और और हैं- दाई, माशी, सोहदरा, और ढील। बनास जिले की सबसे बड़ी नदी है- जिसका मूल नाम कभी ‘वनाशा’ (वन की आशा) , ‘वर्णाशा’, या ‘वशिष्ठि’ भी था। इस की कुल लम्बाई है - 480 कि.मी. और बेड़च, मेनाल, खारी, कोठारी, और मोरेल नाम की नदियां इसी बनास में आ मिलती हैं। राजस्थान में पूर्णतः प्रवाह की दृष्टि से सर्वाधिक लम्बी इस बनास नदी का उद्गम राजसमंद (उदयपुर संभाग) से होता है, चित्तौड़गढ़, भीलवाड़ा, अजमेर, और टोंक जिलों से हो कर बहती हुई अन्त में सवाई माधोपुर जिले में ‘रामेश्वरम्’ नामक स्थान पर यह हमारी महान् एकमात्र बड़ी नदीचम्बल में विलीन हो जाती है। बनास, जो आकृति में सर्पिलाकार है पर दो सिंचाई बांध बनाए गए हैं -\n• बीसलपुर बांध (तहसील टोडारायसिंह कस्बा टोंक), औसत गहराई : 115.50 मीटर \n• ईसरदा बांध (सवाई माधोपुर) जो पूरा नहीं हुआ है \nईसरदा सवाई माधोपुर जिले का वह ठिकाना है जहाँ से जयपुर रियासत के कई भूतपूर्व राजा गोद आये क्यों कि जयपुर राजाओं को अपना वंश चलने को दत्तक पुत्र यहीं से मिले...\nबीसलपुर बांध से जयपुर और अजमेर जिलों को पीने का पानी सप्लाई किया जाता है, भारतीय पुराणों के पन्नों के अनुसार कभी यहाँ के एक गुफा-मंदिर में लंकाधिपति रावण ने शिव-कृपा के लिए तपस्या की थी और ‘गोकर्णेश्वर महादेव’ का स्वयंभू शिवलिंग शिव से ही प्राप्त किया था। वही शिवलिंग आज भी यहाँ बाँध के ठीक नीचे बने प्राचीन गुफानुमा मंदिर में पूजित है !\n\nअन्य मंदिर/ दर्शनीय स्थल और मेले \nश्री देवनारायण भगवान मंदिर जोधपुरिया- माशी बांध मनोहरपुरा के त्रिवेणी(मांशी, बांडी, केराकशी) स्थल पर स्थित भव्य मन्दिर है जहा इनका मेला भरता है।\n चान्दली माता मन्दिर - देवली के राजा चान्दली गाँव मे हिंगलाज माता का मंदिर । \nडिग्गी कल्याण मन्दिर, डिग्गी (मालपुरा) - यहाँ पर भाद्रपद सुक्ल एकादशी को विशाल मेला लगता है।\n अरबी फारसी शोध संस्थान (टोंक) - इसकी स्थपना 4 दिसंबर 1978 को हुई और यहाँ पर विश्व की सबसे बड़ी कुरान बनाई गई है।\n सुनहरी कोठी (टोंक) - यह टोंक में बड़े कुए के पास नज़रबाग में रतन, कांच व सोने की झाल देकर बनवाई गई। पहले इसे \"शीशमहल\" के नाम से जाना जाता था।\n कल्पवृक्ष बालुन्दा (नगर दुर्ग के पास)\n माण्डव ऋषि की तपोभूमि - इसे लघु-पुष्कर भी कहा जाता है। यह नगरदुर्ग के पास स्थित है। यहाँ पर 15 दिवसीय विशाल पशु मेला कार्तिक पूर्णिमा से लगता है।\n श्री चामुण्डा देवी का मन्दिर नगर (मालपुरा)\n माशी बांध मनोहरपुरा - मिट्टी का बना हुआ हैं जिसको 1981 में बनाया गया था । \n बीसलपुर बांध - यह राजस्थान का दूसरा सबसे बड़ा बांध है, जो टोंक जिले की देवली तहसील के राजमहल में तीन नदियों - बनास, खारी, डाई - के संगम पर बना हुआ है। यह राजस्थान की सबसे बड़ी जल पेयजल परियोजना है।\n टोरडी सागर बांध - इस बांध के सभी गेट खोलने पर एक बूंद भी जल नहीं बचता है।\n ककोड़ का किला - यह टोंक से 20 कि.मी. दूर NH 116 पर ककोड़ में एक ऊंची पहाड़ी पर बना हुआ है।\n पचेवर का किला (मालपुरा) जो अब एक हेरिटेज होटल है ।\n बगडी का किला- बगड़ी (निवा \n हाथीभाटा - यह ककोड़ के पास 5 कि.मी. दूर गुमानपुरा गांव में विशाल पत्थर को काट कर बनाया गया एक हाथी है।\n रक्तांचल पर्वत निवाई में भृगु ऋषि की गुफा, नाथ सम्प्रदाय का जलंधरनाथ मंदिर, सतीमाता का मंदिर, पर्वत के पीछे हरियाली अमावस्या का मेला भरता है\n केंद्रीय भेड़ व उन अनुसंधान केंद्र - यह मालपुरा तहसील के अविकाकनगर में 4000 एकड़ ज़मीन पर बना हुआ है।\n रेड - यह जगह टोंक में निवाई के पास ढील नदी स्थित है, इसे \"प्राचीन भारत का टाटानगर\" के नाम से जाना जाता है, जहाँ पंचमार्क सिक्कों का बड़ा भंडार मिला।\n खातोली - इस जगह सरसो के बचे वेस्ट भाग से विद्युत बनाई जाती है जिसका नाम \"कल्पतरु पावर प्लांट (खातोली)\"है।\n लखडेश्वर महादेव मंदिर - ऊम ग्राम में टोंक से 15 km दक्षिण, नगरफोर्ट के रास्ते । \n संत पीपाजी की गुफा (टोड़ारायसिंह)\n हाड़ी रानी का कुंड (टोड़ारायसिंह)\n रानीपुरा - काले हिरणों के लिए प्रसिद्ध\n मंदिर व गुरूद्वारा धन्ना भगत (धुआँ कलाँ)\n मोती सागर बांध, धुआँ कलाँ, जलदेवी मंदिर बावड़ी गाव टोड़ारायसिंह\n\nमंदिर.. \n\n श्री डिग्गी कल्याण जी का मंदिर\n\nतिलभांडेश्वर मंदिर तिलाजू नगरी।\n\nचांदली माता जी का मंदिर ,चांदली (देवली)\n\nलखडेश्वर महादेव मंदिर , ऊम ( टोंक) टोंक से 15 km दक्षिण में\n\nइन्हें भी देखें \n टोंक\n राजस्थान\n राजस्थान के जिले\n\nसन्दर्भ \n\nश्रेणी:राजस्थान के जिले\n*", "वराह मिहिर\nवराहमिहिर (वरःमिहिर) ईसा की पाँचवीं-छठी शताब्दी के भारतीय गणितज्ञ एवं खगोलज्ञ थे। वाराहमिहिर ने ही अपने पंचसिद्धान्तिका में सबसे पहले बताया कि अयनांश का मान 50.32 सेकेण्ड के बराबर है। यह चंद्रगुप्त विक्रमादित्य के नवरत्नों में से एक थे। \n\nउज्जैन में उनके द्वारा विकसित गणितीय विज्ञान का गुरुकुल सात सौ वर्षों तक अद्वितीय रहा। वरःमिहिर बचपन से ही अत्यन्त मेधावी और तेजस्वी थे। अपने पिता आदित्यदास से परम्परागत गणित एवं ज्योतिष सीखकर इन क्षेत्रों में व्यापक शोध कार्य किया। समय मापक घट यन्त्र, इन्द्रप्रस्थ में लौहस्तम्भ के निर्माण और ईरान के शहंशाह नौशेरवाँ के आमन्त्रण पर जुन्दीशापुर नामक स्थान पर वेधशाला की स्थापना - उनके कार्यों की एक झलक देते हैं। वरःमिहिर का मुख्य उद्देश्य गणित एवं विज्ञान को जनहित से जोड़ना था। वस्तुतः ऋग्वेद काल से ही भारत की यह परम्परा रही है। वरःमिहिर ने पूर्णतः इसका परिपालन किया है।\n\nजीवनी \nवराहमिहिर का जन्म सन् 505 ई. में एक शाकद्वीपीय ब्राह्मण परिवार में हुआ। यह परिवार उज्जैन में शिप्रा नदी के निकट कपित्थ (कायथा) नामक गांव का निवासी था। उनके पिता आदित्यदास सूर्य भगवान के भक्त थे। उन्हीं ने मिहिर को ज्योतिष विद्या सिखाई। कुसुमपुर (पटना) जाने पर युवा मिहिर महान खगोलज्ञ और गणितज्ञ आर्यभट्ट से मिले। इससे उसे इतनी प्रेरणा मिली कि उसने ज्योतिष विद्या और खगोल ज्ञान को ही अपने जीवन का ध्येय बना लिया। उस समय उज्जैन विद्या का केंद्र था। गुप्त शासन के अन्तर्गत वहां पर कला, विज्ञान और संस्कृति के अनेक केंद्र पनप रहे थे। वराह मिहिर इस शहर में रहने के लिये आ गये क्योंकि अन्य स्थानों के विद्वान भी यहां एकत्र होते रहते थे। समय आने पर उनके ज्योतिष ज्ञान का पता विक्रमादित्य चन्द्रगुप्त द्वितीय को लगा। राजा ने उन्हें अपने दरबार के नवरत्नों में शामिल कर लिया। मिहिर ने सुदूर देशों की यात्रा की, यहां तक कि वह यूनान तक भी गये। सन् 587 में महान गणितज्ञ वराहमिहिर की मृत्यु हो गई।\n\nकृतियाँ \n550 ई. के लगभग इन्होंने तीन महत्वपूर्ण पुस्तकें बृहज्जातक, बृहत्संहिता और पंचसिद्धांतिका, लिखीं। इन पुस्तकों में त्रिकोणमिति के महत्वपूर्ण सूत्र दिए हुए हैं, जो वराहमिहिर के त्रिकोणमिति ज्ञान के परिचायक हैं।\n\nपंचसिद्धांतिका में वराहमिहिर से पूर्व प्रचलित पाँच सिद्धांतों का वर्णन है। ये सिद्धांत हैं : पोलिशसिद्धांत, रोमकसिद्धांत, वसिष्ठसिद्धांत, सूर्यसिद्धांत तथा पितामहसिद्धांत। वराहमिहिर ने इन पूर्वप्रचलित सिद्धांतों की महत्वपूर्ण बातें लिखकर अपनी ओर से 'बीज' नामक संस्कार का भी निर्देश किया है, जिससे इन सिद्धांतों द्वारा परिगणित ग्रह दृश्य हो सकें। इन्होंने फलित ज्योतिष के लघुजातक, बृहज्जातक तथा बृहत्संहिता नामक तीन ग्रंथ भी लिखे हैं। बृहत्संहिता में वास्तुविद्या, भवन-निर्माण-कला, वायुमंडल की प्रकृति, वृक्षायुर्वेद आदि विषय सम्मिलित हैं।\n\nअपनी पुस्तक के बारे में वराहमिहिर कहते है:\nज्योतिष विद्या एक अथाह सागर है और हर कोई इसे आसानी से पार नहीं कर सकता। मेरी पुस्तक एक सुरक्षित नाव है, जो इसे पढ़ेगा वह उसे पार ले जायेगी।\n\nयह कोरी शेखी नहीं थी। इस पुस्तक को अब भी ग्रन्थरत्न समझा जाता है। \n कृतियों की सूची\n पंचसिद्धान्तिका,\n बृहज्जातकम्,\n लघुजातक,\n बृहत्संहिता\n टिकनिकयात्रा\n बृहद्यात्रा या महायात्रा\n योगयात्रा या स्वल्पयात्रा\n वृहत् विवाहपटल\n लघु विवाहपटल\n कुतूहलमंजरी\n दैवज्ञवल्लभ\n लग्नवाराहि\n\nवैज्ञानिक विचार तथा योगदान \nबराहमिहिर वेदों के ज्ञाता थे मगर वह अलौकिक में आंखे बंद करके विश्वास नहीं करते थे। उनकी भावना और मनोवृत्ति एक वैज्ञानिक की थी। अपने पूर्ववर्ती वैज्ञानिक आर्यभट्ट की तरह उन्होंने भी कहा कि पृथ्वी गोल है। विज्ञान के इतिहास में वह प्रथम व्यक्ति थे जिन्होंने कहा कि कोई शक्ति ऐसी है जो चीजों को जमीन के साथ चिपकाये रखती है। आज इसी शक्ति को गुरुत्वाकर्षण कहते है। लेकिन उन्होंने एक बड़ी गलती भी की। उन्हें विश्वास था कि पृथ्वी गतिमान नहीं है। \n अगर यह घूम रही होती तो पक्षी पृथ्वी की गति की विपरीत दिशा में (पश्चिम की ओर) कर अपने घोसले में उसी समय वापस पहुंच जाते।\n\nवराहमिहिर ने पर्यावरण विज्ञान (इकालोजी), जल विज्ञान (हाइड्रोलोजी), भूविज्ञान (जिआलोजी) के संबंध में कुछ महत्वपूर्ण टिप्पणियां की। उनका कहना था कि पौधे और दीमक जमीन के नीचे के पानी को इंगित करते हैं। आज वैज्ञानिक जगत द्वारा उस पर ध्यान दिया जा रहा है। उन्होंने लिखा भी बहुत था। संस्कृत व्याकरण में दक्षता और छंद पर अधिकार के कारण उन्होंने स्वयं को एक अनोखी शैली में व्यक्त किया था। अपने विशद ज्ञान और सरस प्रस्तुति के कारण उन्होंने खगोल जैसे शुष्क विषयों को भी रोचक बना दिया है जिससे उन्हें बहुत ख्याति मिली। उनकी पुस्तक पंचसिद्धान्तिका (पांच सिद्धांत), बृहत्संहिता, बृहज्जात्क (ज्योतिष) ने उन्हें फलित ज्योतिष में वही स्थान दिलाया है जो राजनीति दर्शन में कौटिल्य का, व्याकरण में पाणिनि का है।\n\nत्रिकोणमिति\nनिम्ननिखित त्रिकोणमितीय सूत्र वाराहमिहिर ने प्रतिपादित किये हैं-।\n\nवाराहमिहिर ने आर्यभट्ट प्रथम द्वारा प्रतिपादित ज्या सारणी को और अधिक परिशुद्धत बनाया।\n\nअंकगणित\nवराहमिहिर ने शून्य एवं ऋणात्मक संख्याओं के बीजगणितीय गुणों को परिभाषित किया।\n\nसंख्या सिद्धान्त\nवराहमिहिर 'संख्या-सिद्धान्त' नामक एक गणित ग्रन्थ के भी रचयिता हैं जिसके बारे में बहुत कम ज्ञात है। इस ग्रन्थ के बारे में पूरी जानकारी नहीं है क्योंकि इसका एक छोटा अंश ही प्राप्त हो पाया है। प्राप्त ग्रन्थ के बारे में पुराविदों का कथन है कि इसमें उन्नत अंकगणित, त्रिकोणमिति के साथ-साथ कुछ अपेक्षाकृत सरल संकल्पनाओं का भी समावेश है।\n\nक्रमचय-संचय\nवराहमिहिर ने वर्तमान समय में पास्कल त्रिकोण (Pascal's triangle) के नाम से प्रसिद्ध संख्याओं की खोज की। इनका उपयोग वे द्विपद गुणाकों (binomial coefficients) की गणना के लिये करते थे। \n\nबृहत्संहिता में सांयोजिकी (combinatorics) से सम्बन्धित यह श्लोक विद्यामान है-\n षोडशके द्रव्यगणे चतुर्विकल्पेन भिद्यमानानाम्।\n अष्टादश जायन्ते शतानि सहितानि विंशत्या॥\n''(अर्थ: सोलह प्रकार के द्रव्य विद्यमान हों तो उनमें से किसी चार को मिलाकर कुल 1820 प्रकार के इत्र बनाए जा सकते हैं।\n\nआधुनिक गणित की भाषा में कहें तो, 16C4 = (16 × 15 × 14 × 13) / (1 × 2 × 3 × 4) = 1,820\n\nप्रकाशिकी\nवराहमिहिर का प्रकाशिकी में भी योगदान है। उन्होने कहा है कि परावर्तन कणों के प्रति-प्रकीर्णन (back-scattering) से होता है। उन्होने अपवर्तन की भी व्याख्या की है।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\n1. ^ \"the Pañca-siddhāntikā (\"Five Treatises\"), a compendium of Greek, Egyptian, Roman and Indian astronomy. Varāhamihira's knowledge of Western astronomy was thorough. In 5 sections, his monumental work progresses through native Indian astronomy and culminates in 2 treatises on Western astronomy, showing calculations based on Greek and Alexandrian reckoning and even giving complete Ptolemaic mathematical charts and tables. Encyclopædia Britannica (2007) s.v.Varahamihira ^\n\n2. E. C. Sachau, Alberuni's India (1910), vol. I, p. 153\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ \n बृहत्संहिता, भाग-२ (गूगल पुस्तक; अंग्रेजी अनुवादक - रामकृष्ण भट)\n वाराहमिहिर कृत वृहद जातक (गूगल पुस्तक ; अंग्रेजी अनुवाद - चिदंबरम ऐयर)\n वृहद जातक के श्लोकों का अंग्रेजी अनुवाद\n बृहज्जातकम् (देवनागरी में सम्पूर्ण पाठ, बिना अर्थ के)\n वराहमिहीरस्य बृहज्जातकम् (संस्कृत_डोक्युमेन्ट्स पर)\n\nश्रेणी:प्राचीन भारत\nश्रेणी:व्यक्तिगत जीवन\nश्रेणी:भारतीय गणितज्ञ\nश्रेणी:भारतीय वैज्ञानिक", "अपामार्जन स्तोत्र\nअपामार्जन स्तोत्र भगवान् विष्णु का स्तोत्र है जिसका प्रयोग विषरोगादि के निवारण के लिए किया जाता है। इस स्तोत्र के नित्य गायन या पाठन से सभी प्रकार के रोग शरीर से दूर रहते हैं, तथा इसका प्रयोग रोगी व्यक्ति के मार्जन द्वारा रोग निराकरण में किया जाता है।\n\nइस स्तोत्र का उल्लेख भारतीय धर्मग्रन्थों में दो बार प्राप्त हुआ है --- प्रथम विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराण में तथा द्वितीय पद्मपुराण में 6वें स्कन्द का 79वाँ अध्याय। जहाँ विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराण में पुलत्स्य मुनि ने दाल्भ्य के लिए कहा है वहीं पद्मपुराण में इसे भगवान शिव ने माता पार्वती को सुनाया है।\n\nविष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराण में पठित अपामार्जन स्तोत्र \n\nश्रीमान्वेंकटनाथार्यः कवितार्किककेसरी।\n\nवेदान्ताचार्यवर्यो मे सन्निधत्तां सदाहृदि॥\n\nशुक्लाम्बरधरं विष्णुं शशिवर्णं चतुर्भजम्।\n\nप्रसन्नवदनं ध्यायेत् सर्वविघ्नोपशान्तये॥\n\nश्रीदाल्भ्य उवाच – \n\nभगवन् प्राणिनः सर्वे विषरोगाद्युपद्रवैः।\n\nदुष्टग्रहाभिघातैश्च सर्वकालमुपद्रुताः॥०१॥\n\nआभिचारिककृत्याभिः स्पर्थरोगैश्च दारुणैः।\n\nसदा संपीड्यमानस्तु तिष्ठन्ति मुनिसत्तम्॥०२॥\n\nकेन कर्मविपाकेन विषरोगाद्युपद्रवाः।\n\nन भवन्ति नृणां तन्मे यथावद्वक्तुमर्हसि॥०३॥\n\nश्री पुलत्स्य उवाच –\n\nवृतोपवासैर्यैविष्णुर्नान्यजन्मनि तोषितः।\n\nते नरा मुनिशार्दूल विषरोगादिभागिनः॥०४॥\n\nयैर्न तत्प्रवणं चित्तं सर्वदैव नरैः कृतम्।\n\nविषज्वरग्रहाणां ते मनुष्याः दाल्भ्य भागिनः॥०५॥\n\nआरोग्यं परमरुधिं मनसा यध्य धिच्छधि।\n\nथाधन्पोथ्य संधिग्धं परथरा अच्युथ थोष कृतः॥ ०६॥\n\nनाधीन प्रप्नोथि न व्याधीन विष ग्रहं न इभन्धनं।\n\nकृत्य स्परस भयं व अपि थोषिथे मधुसूदने॥ ०७॥\n\nसर्व दुख समास्थास्य सोउम्य स्थस्य सदा ग्रहा।\n\nदेवानामपि थुस्थ्यै स थुष्टो यस्य जनार्धन॥ ०८॥\n\nय समा सर्व भूथेषु यदा आत्मनि थधा परे।\n\nउपवाधि धानेन थोषिथे मधुसुधने॥ ०९॥\n\nथोशकस्थ जयन्थे नरा पूर्ण मनोरधा।\n\nअरोगा सुखिनो भोगान भोक्थारो मुनि सथाम॥ १०॥\n\nन थेशां शत्रवो नैव स्परस रोघाधि भागिन।\n\nग्रह रोगधिकं वापि पाप कार्यं न जयथे॥ ११॥\n\nअव्यःअथानि कृष्णस्य चक्रधीन आयुधानि च।\n\nरक्षन्थि सकला आपद्भ्यो येन विष्णुर उपसिथ॥ १२॥\n\nश्री धलभ्ह्य उवाच – \n\nअनारधिथ गोविन्द, ये नरा दुख बगिन।\n\nथेशां दुख अभि भूथानां यत् कर्थव्यं धयलुभि॥ १३॥\n\nपस्यब्धि सर्व भूथस्थं वासुदेवं महा मुने।\n\nसमा दृष्टि बी रीसेसं थन मम ब्रूह्य सेशत्र्ह॥ १४॥\n\nपुलस्थ्य उवाच – \n\nस्रोथु कामो असि वै धल्भ्य स्रुनुश्व सुसमहिथ\n\nअपारम जनकं वक्ष्ये न्यास पूर्वं इधं परम्।\n\nप्रणवं फ नमो हग्वथे वासुदेवाय – सर्व क्लेसप हन्थ्रे नाम॥ १५॥\n\nअध ध्यानं प्रवक्ष्यामि सर्व पाप प्रनासनम्।\n\nवराह रूपिणं देवं संस्मरन अर्चयेतः जपेतः॥ १६॥\n\nजलोउघ धाम्ना स चराचर धरा विषाण कोट्य अखिल विस्व रूपिण।\n\nसमुद्ध्रुथा येन वराह रूपिणा स मय स्वयम्भुर् भग्वन् प्रसीदथु॥ १७॥\n\nचंचत चन्ध्रर्ध दंष्ट्रं स्फुरद उरु राधानां विध्युतः ध्योथ जिह्वम्\n\nगर्जत पर्जन्य नाधम स्फुर्थार विरुचिं चक्षुर क्षुध्र रोउध्रम्।\n\nथ्रस्थ साह स्थिथि यूढं ज्वलद् अनल सता केसरोदः बस मानं\n\nरक्षो रक्थाभिषिक्थं प्रहराथि दुरिथं ध्ययथां नरसिंहं॥ १८॥\n\nअथि विपुल सुगथ्रं रुक्म पथ्रस्त्हस मननं\n\nस ललिथ धधि खण्डं, पाणिना दक्षिणेन।\n\nकलस ममृथ पूर्णं वमःअस्थे दधानं\n\nथारथि सकल दुखं वामने भवयेतः य॥ १९॥\n\nविष्णुं भास्वतः किरीदंग दवल यगला कल्पज्ज्वलन्गम्\n\nश्रेणी भूषा सुवक्षो मणि मकुट महा कुण्डलैर मन्दिथांगम्।\n\nहस्थ्ध्यस्चंग चकरंभुजगध ममलं पीठ कोउसेयमासा\n\nविध्योथातः भास मुध्यद्धिना कर सदृशं पद्म संस्थं नमामि॥ २०॥\n\nकल्पन्थर्क प्रकाशं त्रिभुवन मखिलं थेजसा पूरयन्थं\n\nरक्थाक्षं पिंग केसम रिपुकुल दमनं भीम दंष्ट्र अत्तःअसम्।\n\nशंकां चरं, गदब्जं प्रधु थर मुसलं सूल पसन्गुसग्नीन\n\nभिब्रनं धोर्भिरध्यं मनसी मुर रिपुं भवाय चक्र संज्ञां॥ २१॥\n\nप्रणवं नाम, परमार्थाय पुरुषाय महात्मने।\n\nअरूप बहु रूपाय व्यापिने पर्मथ्मने॥ २२॥\n\nनिष्कल्माशाय, शुध्य, ध्यान योग रथ्य च।\n\nनमस्कृथ्य प्रवक्ष्यामि यत्र सिधयथु मय वच॥ २३॥\n\nनारायणाय शुध्य विस्वेसेस्वरय च।\n\nअच्य्य्थनन्द गोविन्द, पद्मनाभाय सोउरुधे॥ २४॥\n\nहृस्जिकेसया कूर्माय माधवाय अच्युथाय च।\n\nदामोदराय देवाय अनन्थय महात्मने॥ २५॥\n\nप्रध्य्मुनाय निरुध्य पुरुशोथाम थेय नाम।\n\nय़ोगीस्वरय गुह्याय गूदाय परमथ्मने॥ २६॥\n\nभक्था प्रियाय देवाय विश्वक्सेनय सर्न्गिने।\n\nअदोक्षजय दक्षाय मथ्स्यय मधुःअर्रिने॥ २७॥\n\nवराहाय नृसिंहाय वामनाय महात्मने।\n\nवराहेस, नृसिम्हेस, वमनेस, त्रिविक्रम॥ २८॥\n\nहयग्रीवेस सर्वेस हृषिकेस हरा अशुभम्।\n\nअपरजिथ चक्रध्यै चतुर्भि परमद्भुत्है॥ २९॥\n\nअखन्दिथ्नुभवै सर्व दुष्ट हारो भव।\n\nहरा अमुकस्य दुरिथं दुष्क्रुथं दुरुपोषिथं॥ ३०॥\n\nमृत्यु बन्धर्थि भय धाम अरिष्टस्य च यतः फलम्।\n\nअरमध्वन सहिथं प्रयुक्थं चा अभिचरिकं॥ ३१॥\n\nघर स्परस महा रोगान प्रयुक्थान थ्वरत हर।\n\nप्राणं फ नमो वासुदेवाय नाम कृष्णाय सरन्गिने॥ ३२॥\n\nनाम पुष्कर नेथ्राय केसवयधि चक्रिणे।\n\nनाम कमल किंजल्क पीठ निर्मल वाससे॥ ३३॥\n\nमहा हवरिपुस्थाकन्ध गृष्ट चक्राय चक्रिणे।\n\nदंष्ट्रोग्रेण क्षिथिध्रुथे त्रयी मुर्थ्य माथे नाम॥ ३४॥\n\nमहा यज्ञ वराहाय सेष भोगो उपसयिने।\n\nथाप्थ हतक केसन्थ ज्वलथ् पावक लोचन॥ ३५॥\n\nवज्रयुधा नख स्परस दिव्य सिंह नमोस्थुथे।\n\nकस्यप्पय अथि ह्रुस्वय रिक यजु समा मुर्थय॥ ३६॥\n\nथुभ्यं वामन रूपाय क्रमाथे गां नमो नाम।\n\nवराह सेष दुष्टानि सर्व पाप फलानि वै॥ ३७॥\n\nमर्ध मर्ध महा दंष्ट्र मर्ध मर्ध च ततः फलम्।\n\nनरसिंह करालस्य दन्थ प्रोज्ज्वलानन॥ ३८॥\n\nभन्ज्ह भन्ज्ह निनधेन दुष्तान्यस्या आर्थि नरसन।\n\nरग यजुर समा रूपाभि वाग्भि वामन रूप दृक्॥ ३९॥\n\nप्रसमं सर्व दुष्टानां नयथ्वस्य जनार्धन।\n\nकोउभेरं थेय मुखं रथ्रौ सोउम्यं मुखान दिव॥ ४०॥\n\nज्ंवरथ् मृत्यु भयं घोरं विषं नासयथे ज्वरम्।\n\nत्रिपद भस्म प्रहरण त्रिसिर रक्था लोचन॥ ४१॥\n\nस मय प्रीथ सुखं दध्यातः सर्वमय पथि ज्वर\n\nआध्यन्थवन्थ कवय पुराना सं मर्गवन्थो ह्यनुसासिथरा।\n\nसर्व ज्वरान् ज्ञान्थु मंमनिरुधा प्रध्युम्न, संकर्षण वासुदेव॥ ४२॥\n\nईय्कहिकम्, ध्व्यहिकम् च तधा त्रि दिवस ज्वरम्।\n\nचथुर्थिकं तधा अथ्युग्रं सथाथ ज्वरम्॥ ४३॥\n\nदोशोथं, संनिपथोथं थादिव आगन्थुकं ज्वरम्।\n\nशमं नया असु गोविन्द छिन्धि चिन्धिस्य वेदनां॥ ४४॥\n\nनेत्र दुखं, शिरो दुखं, दुखं चोधर संभवम्।\n\nअथि स्वसम् अनुच्वसम् परिथापं सवे पधुं॥ ४५॥\n\nगूढ ग्रनंग्रि रोगंस्च, कुक्षि रोगं तधा क्षयम्।\n\nकामालधीं स्थाधा रोगान प्रेमेहास्चथि धरुणं॥ ४६॥\n\nभगन्धरथि सारंस्च मुख रोगमवल्गुलिम्।\n\nअस्मरिं मूथ्र कृच्रं च रोगं अन्यस्च धरुणं॥ ४७॥\n\nये वथ प्रभावा रोगा, ये च पिथ समुध्भव।\n\nकप्होत भवास्च ये रोगा ये चान्य्ये संनिपथिक॥ ४८॥\n\nआगन्थुकस्च येअ रोगा लूथाधि स्फतकोध्य।\n\nसर्वे थेय प्रसमं यान्थु वासुदेव अपमर्जणतः॥ ४९॥\n\nविलयं यन्थु थेय सर्वे विष्णोर उचरणेन च।\n\nक्षयं गचन्थु चा सेशस्च क्रोनभिःअथा हरे॥ ५०॥\n\nअच्युथनन्थ गोविन्द विष्णोर नारायनंरुथ।\n\nरोगान मय नास्य असेषान आसु धन्वथारे, हरे॥ ५१॥\n\nअच्युथनन्थ गोविन्द नमोचरण भेषजतः,\n\nनस्यन्थि सकला रोगा सत्यं सत्यं वदंयं॥ ५२॥\n\nसत्यं, सत्यं, पुन सत्यं, मुधथ्य भुज मुच्यथे,\n\nवेदातः सस्थ्रं परम् नास्थि न दैवं केस्वतः परम्॥ ५३॥\n\nस्थावरं, जंगमं चापि क्र्थिरिमं चापि यद विषं,\n\nदन्थोदः भवं नखोध्भूथ मकस प्रभवं विषं॥ ५४॥\n\nलूथाधि स्फोतकं चैव विषं अथ्यथ दुस्सहं,\n\nशमं नयथु ततः सर्वं कीर्थिथोस्य जनार्धन॥ ५५॥\n\nग्रहान प्रेथ ग्रहान चैव थाध्हा वैनयिक ग्रहान,\n\nवेतलंस्च पिसचंस्च ग़न्धर्वन् यक्ष राक्षसान॥ ५६॥\n\nशाकिनी पूथनाध्यंस्च तधा वैनयिक ग्रहान,\n\nमुख मन्दलिकान क्रूरान रेवथीन वृध रेवथीन॥ ५७॥\n\nवृस्चिखखां ग्रहं उग्रान थधा मथ्रु गणान अपि,\n\nबलस्य विष्णोर चार्थं हन्थु बल ग्रहानिमान॥ ५८॥\n\nवृधानां ये ग्रहा केचित् येअ च बल ग्रहं क्वचिथ्,\n\nनरसिंहस्य थेय द्रुश्त्व दग्धा येअ चापि योउवने॥ ५९॥\n\nसता करल वदनो णरसिन्हो महाराव,\n\nग्रहान असेषान निसेषान करोथु जगथो हिथ॥ ६०॥\n\nनरसिंह महासिंह ज्वला मलो ज्वललन,\n\nग्रहान असेषन निस्सेषान खाध खाध अग्नि लोचन॥ ६१॥\n\nय़ेअ रोगा, य़ेअ महोथ्पदा, यद्विषम ये महोरगा,\n\nयानि च क्रूर भूथानि ग्रहं पीदस्च धरुणा॥ ६२॥\n\nसस्थ्र क्षाथे च येअ दोष ज्वाला कर्धम कादय,\n\nयानि चान्यानि दुष्टानि प्राणि पीडा कराणि च॥ ६३॥\n\nथानी सर्वाणि सर्वथमन परमथ्मन जनार्धन,\n\nकिन्चितः रूपं समास्थाय वासुदेवस्य नास्य॥ ६४॥\n\nख़्शिथ्व सुदर्शनम् चक्रं ज्ंवल मल्थि भीषणं,\n\nसर्व दुष्टो उपसमानं कुरु देव वर अच्युथ॥ ६५॥\n\nसुदर्शन महा चक्र गोविन्धस्य करयुधा,\n\nथीष्ण पावक संगस कोटि सूर्य समा प्रभा॥ ६६॥\n\nत्रिलोक्य कर्थ थ्वम् दुष्ट दृप्थ धनव धारण,\n\nथीष्ण धारा महा वेग छिन्धि छिन्धि महा ज्वरम्॥ ६७॥\n\nछिन्धि पथं च लूथं च छिन्धि घोरं, महद्भयं,\n\nकृमिं दहं च शूलं च विष ज्वलाम् च कर्धमन॥ ६८॥\n\nसर्व दुष्टानि रक्षांसि क्षपया रीविभीषणा,\n\nप्राच्यां प्रधीच्यं दिसि च दक्षिणो उथरयो स्थाधा॥ ६९॥\n\nरक्ष्जां करोथु भगवन् बहु रूपी जनार्धन,\n\nपरमाथम यध विष्णु वेदन्थेश्व अभिधीयथे॥ ७०॥\n\nथेन सत्येन सकलं दुष्तमस्य प्रसंयथु,\n\nयध विष्णु जगत्सर्वं स देवासुरा मानुषं॥ ७१॥\n\nथेन सत्येन सकलं दुष्तमस्य प्रसंयथु,\n\nयध विश्नौ स्मृथे साध्या संक्षयं यन्थि पठका॥ ७२॥\n\nथेन सत्येन सकलं दुष्तमस्य प्रसंयथु,\n\nयध यग्नेस्वरो विष्णुर वेधन्थेस्वबिधीयथे॥ ७३॥\n\nथेन सत्येन सकलं यन मयोक्थं थादस्थु ततः,\n\nशथिरस्थु शिवं चास्त्हुःरिषिकेसया कीर्थणतः॥ ७४॥\n\nवासुदेव सरेरोत्है कुसि समर्जिथं मया,\n\nअपमर्जथु गोविन्दो नरो नारायनस्त्धा॥ ७५॥\n\nममास्थु सर्व दुखनां प्रसमो याचनधरे,\n\nसंथ समास्थ रोगस्थे ग्रहा सर्व विषाणि च॥ ७६॥\n\nभूथानि सर्व प्रसंयन्थु संस्मृथे मधु सूदने,\n\nयेथातः समास्थ रोगेषु भूथ ग्रहं भयेष च॥ ७७॥\n\nअपमर्जनकं शस्त्रं विष्णु नामभि मन्थ्रिथं,\n\nयेथे कुसा विष्णु सरीर संभवा जनर्धनोऽहं स्वयमेव चागथ,\n\nहथं मया दुष्ट मसेशमस्य स्वस्थो भवथ्वेषो यधा वाचो हरि॥ ७८॥\n\nशन्थिरस्थु शिवं चास्थु प्रनस्यथ्वसुखं च ततः,\n\nश्र्वस्थ्यमस्थु शिवं चास्थु दुष्तमस्य प्रसंयथु॥ ७९॥\n\nयदस्य दुरिथं किन्चितः ततः क्षिप्थं लवनर्णवे,\n\nश्र्वस्थ्यमस्थु शिवं चास्थु हृषिकेसया कीर्थणतः॥ ८०॥\n\nयेथातः रोगधि पीदसु जन्थुनां हिथ मिचथा,\n\nविष्णु भक्थेन कर्थव्व्य्य मप्मर्जनकं परम्॥ ८१॥\n\nअनेन सर्व दुष्टानि प्रसमं यान्थ्य संसय,\n\nसर्व भूथ हिथर्थाय कुर्यतः थास्मतः सदैव हि॥ ८२॥\n\nकुर्यतः थास्मतः सदिव ह्यिं नाम इथि,\n\nयिधं स्तोत्रं परम् पुण्यं सर्व व्याधि विनासनं,\n\nविनास्य च रोगाणां अप मृत्यु जयाय च॥ ८३॥\n\nइधं स्तोत्रं जपेतः संथ कुसि संमर्जयेतः सुचि,\n\nव्याधय अपस्मार कुष्टधि पिसचो राग राक्षस॥ ८४॥\n\nथस्य पर्स्व न गचन्थि स्तोत्रमेथथु य पदेतः,\n\nवराहं, नारसिंहं च वामनं विष्णुमेव च,\n\nसमरन जपेदः इधं स्तोत्रं सर्व दुख उपसन्थये॥ ८५॥\n\nइथि विष्णु धर्मोथार पुराने दाल्भ्य पुलस्थ्य संवधे,\n\nअपमर्जन स तोत्रं संपूर्णं॥ ९१॥\n\nपद्मपुराण में पठित अपामार्जन स्तोत्र \nमहादेव उवाच –\n\nअथातः संप्रवक्ष्यामि अपामार्जनमुत्ततम्।\n\nपुलस्त्येन यथोक्तं तु दालभ्याय महात्मने॥०१॥\n\nसर्वेषां रोगदोषाणां नाशनं मंगलप्रदम्। \n\nतत्तेऽहं तु प्रवक्ष्यामि शृणु त्वं नगनन्दिनि॥०२॥\n\nपार्वत्युवाच – \n\nभगवन्प्राणिनः सर्वे बिषरोगाद्युपद्रवाः। \n\nदुष्टग्रहाभिभूताश्च सर्वकाले ह्युपद्रुताः॥०३॥\n\nअभिचारककृत्यादिबहुरोगैश्च दारुणैः। \n\nन भवन्ति सुरश्रेष्ठ तन्मे त्वं वक्तुमर्हसि॥०४॥\n\nमहादेव उवाच –\n\nव्रतोपवासैर्नियमैर्बिष्णुर्वै तोषितस्तु यैः। \n\nते नरा नैव रोगार्ता जायन्ते नगनन्दिनि॥०५॥\n\nयैः कृतं न व्रतं पुण्यं न दानं न तपस्तथा। \n\nन तीर्थं देवपूजा च नान्नं दत्तं तु भूरिशः॥०६॥\n\nअपामार्जन न्यास\n\nमहादेव उवाच –\n\nतद्वक्ष्यामि सुरश्रेष्ठे समाहितमनाः शृणु। \n\nरोगदोषाशुभहरं विद्विडापद्विनाशनम्॥१६॥\n\nशिखायां श्रीधरं न्यस्य शिखाधः श्रीकरं तथा। \n\nहृषीकेशं तु केशेषु मूर्ध्नि नारायणं परम्॥१७॥\n\nऊर्ध्वश्रोत्रे न्यसेद्विष्णुं ललाटे जलशायिनम्। \n\nबिष्णुं वै भ्रुयुगे न्यस्य भ्रूमध्ये हरिमेव च॥१८॥\n\nनरसिंहं नासिकाग्रे कर्णयोरर्णवेशयम्। \n\nचक्षुषोः पुण्डरीकाक्षं तदधो भूधरं न्यसेत्॥१९॥\n\nकपोलयोः कल्किनाथं वामनं कर्णमूलयोः। \n\nशंखिनं शंखयोर्न्यस्य गोविन्दं वदने तथा॥२०॥\n\nमुकुन्दं दन्तपंक्तौ तु जिह्वायां वाक्पतिं तथा। \n\nरामं हनौ तु विन्यस्य कण्ठे वैकुण्ठमेव च॥२१॥\n\nबलघ्नं बाहुमुलाधश्चांसयोः कंसघातिनम्। \n\nअजं भुजद्वये न्यस्य शार्ंगपाणिं करद्वये॥२२॥\n\nसंकर्षणं करांगुष्ठे गोपमंगुलिपंक्तिषु। \n\nवक्षस्यधोक्षजं न्यस्य श्रीवत्सं तस्य मध्यतः॥२३॥\n\nस्तनयोरनिरुद्धं च दामोदरमथोदरे। \n\nपद्मनाभं तथा नाभौ नाभ्यधश्चापि केशवम्॥२४॥\n\nमेढ्रे धराधरं देवं गुदे चैव गदाग्रजम्। \n\nपीताम्बरधरं कट्यामूरुयुग्मे मधुद्विषम्॥२५॥\n\nमुरद्विषं पिण्डकयोर्जानुयुग्मे जनार्दनम्। \n\nफणीशं गुल्फयोर्न्यस्य क्रमयोश्च त्रिविक्रमम्॥२६॥\n\nपादांगुष्ठे श्रीपतिं च पादाधो धरणीधरम्। \n\nरोमकूपेषु सर्वेषु बिष्वक्सेनं न्यसेद्बुधः॥२७॥\n\nमत्स्यं मांसे तु विन्यस्य कूर्मं मेदसि विन्यसेत्। \n\nवाराहं तु वसामध्ये सर्वास्थिषु तथाऽच्युतम्॥२८॥\n\nद्विजप्रियं तु मज्जायां शुक्रे श्वेतपतिं तथा। \n\nसर्वांगे यज्ञपुरुषं परमात्मानमात्मनि॥ २९॥\n\nएवं न्यासविधिं कृत्वा साक्षान्नारायणो भवेत्।\n\nयावन्न व्याहरेत्किंचित्तावद्विष्णुमयः स्थितः॥ ३०॥\n\nगृहीत्वा तु समूलाग्रान्कुशांशुद्धान्समाहितः। \n\nमार्जयेत्सर्वगात्राणि कुशाग्रैरिह शान्तिकृत्॥ ३१॥\n\nबिष्णुभक्तो विशेषेण रोगग्रहबिषार्तिनः(र्दितः)। \n\nबिषार्तानां रोगिणां च कुर्याच्छान्तिमिमां शुभाम्॥ ३२॥\n\nजपेत्तत्र तु भो देवि सर्वरोगप्रणाशनम्। \n\nॐ नमः श्रीपरमार्थाय पुरुषाय महात्मने॥ ३३॥\n\nअरूपबहुरूपाय व्यापिने परमात्मने। \n\nवाराहं नारसिंहं च वामनं च सुखप्रदम्॥ ३४॥\n\nध्यात्वा कृत्वा नमो बिष्णोर्नामान्यंगेषु विन्यसेत्। \n\nनिष्कल्मषाय शुद्धाय व्याधिपापहराय वै॥ ३५॥\n\nगोविन्दपद्मनाभाय वासुदेवाय भूभृते।\n\nनमस्कृत्वा प्रवक्ष्यामि यत्तत्सिध्यतु मे वच(चः) ॥ ३६॥\n\nत्रिविक्रमाय रामाय वैकुण्ठाय नराय च। \n\nवाराहाय नृसिंहाय वामनाय महात्मने॥ ३७॥\n\nहयग्रीवाय शुभ्राय हृषीकेश हराशुभम्। \n\nपरोपतापमहितं प्रयुक्तं चाभिचारिण(णा)म्॥ ३८॥\n\nगरस्पर्शमहारोगप्रयोगं जरया जर। \n\nनमोऽस्तु वासुदेवाय नमः कृष्णाय खंगिने॥ ३९॥\n\nनमः पुष्करनेत्राय केशवायऽऽदिचक्रिणे। \n\nनमः किंजल्कवर्णाय पीतनिर्मलवाससे॥ ४०॥\n\nमहादेववपुःस्कन्धधृष्टचक्राय चक्रिणे। \n\nदंष्ट्रोद्धृतक्षितितलत्रिमूर्तिपतये नमः॥ ४१॥\n\nमहायज्ञवराहाय श्रीविष्णवे नमोऽस्तु ते। \n\nतप्तहाटककेशान्तज्वलत्पावकलोचन॥ ४२॥\n\nवज्राधिकनखस्पर्शदिव्यसिंह नमोऽस्तु ते। \n\nकश्यपायातिह्रस्वाय ऋग्यजुःसामलक्षण॥ ४३॥\n\nतुभ्यं वामनरूपाय क्रमते गां नमो नमः। \n\nवाराहाशेषदुःखानि सर्वपापफलानि च॥ ४४॥\n\nमर्द मर्द महादंष्ट्र मर्द मर्द च तत्फलम्। \n\nनरसिंह करालास्यदन्तप्रान्त नखोज्ज्वल॥ ४५॥\n\nभंज भंज निनादेन दुःखान्यस्याऽऽर्तिनाशन।\n\nऋग्यजुःसामभिर्वाग्भिः कामरूपधरादिधृक्॥ ४६॥\n\nप्रशमं सर्वदुःखानि नय त्वस्य जनार्दन। \n\nऐकाहिकं व्द्याहिकं च तथा त्रिदिवसं ज्वरम्॥ ४७॥\n\nचातुर्थिकं तथाऽनुग्रं तथा वै सततज्वरम्।\n\nदोषोत्थं संनिपातोत्थं तथैवाऽऽगन्तुकज्वरम्॥ ४८॥\n\nशमं नयतु गोविन्दो भित्त्वा छित्त्वाऽस्य वेदनम्।\n\nनेत्रदुःखं शिरोदुःखं दुःखं तूदरसंभवम्॥ ४९॥\n\nअनुच्छ्वासं महाश्वासं परितापं तु वेपथुम्।\n\nगुदघ्राणांघ्रिरोगांश्च कुष्ठरोगं तथा क्षयम्॥ ५०॥\n\nकामलादींस्तथा रोगान्प्रमेहादींश्च दारुणान्।\n\nये वातप्रभवा रोगा लूताविस्फोटकादयः॥ ५१॥\n\nते सर्वे विलयं यान्तु वासुदेवापमार्जिताः।\n\nविलयं यान्ति ते सर्वे विष्णोरुच्चारणेन वा॥ ५२॥\n\nक्षयं गच्छन्तु चाशेषास्ते चक्राभिहता हरेः।\n\nअच्युतानन्तगोविन्दनामोच्चारणभेषजात्॥ ५३॥\n\nनश्यन्ति सकला रोगाः सत्यं सत्यं वदाम्यहम्।\n\nस्थावरं जंगमं यच्च कृत्रिमं चापि यद्विषम्॥ ५४॥\n\nदन्तोद्भवं नखोद्भूतमाकाशप्रभवं च यत्।\n\nभूतादिप्रभवं यच्च विषमत्यन्तदुःसहम्॥ ५५॥\n\nशमं नयतु तत्सर्वं कीर्तितोस्य जनार्दनः।\n\nग्रहान्प्रेतग्रहांश्चैव तथाऽन्यांशाकिनीग्रहान्॥ ५६॥\n\nमुखमण्डलकान्कूरान्रेवतीं वृद्धरेवतीम्।\n\nवृद्धिकाख्यान्ग्रहांश्चोग्रांस्तथा मातृग्रहानपि॥ ५७॥\n\nबालस्य विष्णोश्चरितं हन्ति बालग्रहानपि।\n\nवृद्धानां ये ग्रहाः केचिद्बालानां चापि ये ग्रहाः॥ ५८॥\n\nनृसिंहदर्शनादेव नश्यन्ते तत्क्षणादपि।\n\nदंष्ट्राकरालवदनो नृसिंहो दैत्यभीषणः॥ ५९॥\n\nतं दृष्ट्वा ते ग्रहाः सर्वे दूरं यान्ति विशेषतः।\n\nनरसिंह महासिंह ज्वालामालोज्ज्वलानन॥ ६०॥\n\nग्रहानशेषान्सर्वेश नुद स्वास्यविलोचन।\n\nये रोगा ये महोत्पाता यद्विषं ये महाग्रहाः॥ ६१॥\n\nयानि च क्रूरभूतानि ग्रहपीडाश्च दारुणाः।\n\nशस्त्रक्षतेषु ये रोगा ज्वालागर्दभकादयः॥ ६२॥\n\nविस्फोटकादयो ये च ग्रहा गात्रेषु संस्थिताः।\n\nत्रैलोक्यरक्षाकर्तस्त्वं दुष्टदानववारण॥ ६३॥\n\nसुदर्शनमहातेजश्छिन्धि च्छिन्धि महाज्वरम्।\n\nछिन्धि वातं च लूतं च च्छिन्धि घोरं महाविषम्॥ ६४॥\n\nउद्दण्डामरशूलं च विषज्वालासगर्दभम्।\n\nॐ ह्रांह्रांह्रूंह्रूं प्रधारेण कुठारेण हन द्विषः॥ ६५॥\n\nॐ नमो भगवते तुभ्यं दुःखदारणविग्रह। \n\nयानि चान्यानि दुष्टानि प्राणिपीडाकराणि वै॥ ६६॥\n\nतानि सर्वाणि सर्वात्मा परमात्मा जनार्दनः।\n\nकिंचिद्रूपं समास्थाय वासुदेव नमोऽस्तु ते॥ ६७॥\n\nक्षिप्त्वा सुदर्शनं चक्रं ज्वालामालाविभीषणम्।\n\nसर्वदुष्टोपशमनं कुरु देववराच्युत॥ ६८॥\n\nसुदर्शन महाचक्र गोविन्दस्य वरायुध।\n\nतीक्ष्णधार महावेग सूर्यकोटिसमद्युते॥ ६९॥\n\nसुदर्शन महाज्वाल च्छिन्धि च्छिन्धि महारव।\n\nसर्वदुःखानि रक्षांसि पापानि च विभीषण॥ ७०॥\n\nदुरितं हन चाऽऽरोग्यं कुरु त्वं भोः सुदर्शन।\n\nप्राच्यां चैव प्रतीच्यां च दक्षिणोत्तरतस्तथा॥ ७१॥\n\nरक्षां करोतु विश्वात्मा नरसिंहः स्वगर्जितैः।\n\nभूम्यन्तरिक्षे च तथा पृष्ठतः पार्श्वतोऽग्रतः॥ ७२॥\n\nरक्षां करोतु भगवान्बहुरूपी जनार्दनः।\n\n[तथा विष्णुमयं सर्वं सदेवासुरमानुषम्]॥ ७३॥\n\nतेन सत्येन सकलं दुःखमस्य प्रणश्यतु।\n\nयथा योगेश्वरो विष्णुः सर्ववेदेषु गीयते॥ ७४॥\n\nतेन सत्येन सकलं दुःखमस्य प्रणश्यतु। \n\nपरमात्मा यथा विष्णुर्वेदांगेषु च गीयते॥ ७५॥ \n\nतेन सत्येन विश्वात्मा सुखदस्तस्य केशवः।\n\nशान्तिरस्तु शिवं चास्तु प्रणाशं यातु चासुखम्॥ ७६॥\n\nवासुदेवशरीरोत्थैः कुशैः संमार्जितं मया।\n\nअपामार्जितगोविन्दो नरो नारायणस्तथा॥ ७७॥\n\nतथाऽपि सर्वदुःखानां प्रशमो वचनाद्धरेः।\n\nशान्ताः समस्तदोषास्ते ग्रहाः सर्वे विषाणि च।\n\nभूतानि च प्रशाम्यन्ति संस्मृते मधुसूदने॥ ७८॥\n\nएते कुशा विष्णुशरीरसंभवा जनार्दनोऽहं स्वयमेव चाग्रतः।\n\nहतं मया दुःखमशेषमस्य वै स्वस्थो भवत्वेष वचो यथा हरेः॥ ७९॥\n\nशान्तिरस्तु शिवं चास्तु प्रणश्यत्वसुखं च यत्।\n\nयदस्य दुरितं किंचित्क्षिप्तं तल्लवणाम्भसि॥ ८०॥\n\nस्वास्थ्यमस्य सदैवास्तु हृषीकेशस्य कीर्तनात्।\n\nयद्यतोऽत्र गतं पापं तत्तु तत्र प्रगच्छतु॥ ८१॥\n\nएतद्रोगेषु पीडासु जन्तूनां हितमिच्छुभिः।\n\nविष्णुभक्तैश्च कर्तव्यमपामार्जनकं परम्॥ ८२॥\n\nअनेन सर्वदुःखानि विलयं यान्त्यशेषतः।\n\nसर्वपापविशुद्ध्यर्थं विष्णोश्चैवापमार्जनात्॥ ८३॥\n\nआर्द्रं शुष्कं लघु स्थूलं ब्रह्महत्यादिकं तु यत्।\n\nतत्सर्वं नश्यते तूर्णं तमोवद्रविदर्शनात्॥ ८४॥\n\nनश्यन्ति रोगा दोषाश्च सिंहात्क्षुद्रमृगा यथा।\n\nग्रहभूतपिशाचादि श्रवणादेव नश्यति॥ ८५॥\n\nद्रव्यार्थं लोभपरमैर्न कर्तव्यं कदाचन।\n\nकृतेऽपामार्जने किंचिन्न ग्राह्यं हितकाम्यया॥ ८६॥\n\nनिरपेक्षैः प्रकर्तव्यमादिमध्यान्तबोधकैः।\n\nविष्णुभक्तैः सदा शान्तैरन्यथाऽसिद्धिदं भवेत्॥ ८७॥\n\nअतुलेयं नृणां सिद्धिरियं रक्षा परा नृणाम्।\n\nभेषजं परमं ह्येतद्विष्णोर्यदपमार्जनम्॥ ८८॥\n\nउक्तं हि ब्रह्मणा पूर्वं पौ(पु)लस्त्याय सुताय वै।\n\nएतत्पुलस्त्यमुनिना दालभ्यायोदितं स्वयम्॥ ८९॥\n\nसर्वभूतहितार्थाय दालभ्येन प्रकाशितम्।\n\nत्रैलोक्ये तदिदं विष्णोः समाप्तं चापमार्जनम्॥ ९०॥\n\nतवाग्रे कथितं देवि यतो भक्ताऽसि मे सदा।\n\nश्रुत्वा तु सर्वं भक्त्या च रोगान्दोषान्व्यपोहति॥ ९१॥", "बिंदेश्वरी दुबे\nबिन्देश्वरी दूबे (१४ जनवरी, १९२३ - २० जनवरी, १९९३) एक भारतीय राजनेता, प्रशासक, स्वतंत्रता सेनानी एवं श्रमिक नेता थे जो बिहार के मुख्यमंत्री, केन्द्रीय काबीना मंत्री (कानून एवं न्याय तथा श्रम एवं रोजगार), इंटक के राष्ट्रीय अध्यक्ष, बिहार कांग्रेस के अध्यक्ष आदि भी रहे। इससे पूर्व ये अखंड बिहार (एवं झारखंड) सरकारों में भी शिक्षा, परिवहन, स्वास्थ्य एवं परिवार कल्याण मंत्री रहे। १९८० से १९८४ तक सातवीं लोक सभा के सदस्य, १९८८ से १९९३ तक राज्य सभा के सदस्य तथा छह बार विधान सभा के सदस्य रहे। इन्होंने देश की कोलियरियों के राष्ट्रीयकरण में अहम् भूमिका निभाई थी।\n\nव्यक्तिगत जीवन \n\nबिन्देश्वरी दूबे का जन्म बिहार के भोजपुर जिले के 'महुआँव' नामक ग्राम में 'दूबे टोला' के एक साधारण कृषक परिवार में हुआ था। इनके माता-पिता, जानकी देवी एवं शिव नरेश दूबे थे। चार भाईयों के बीच यह दूसरे स्थान पर थे। अन्य तीन राजेन्द्र दूबे, नर्भदेश्वर दूबे एवं पद्म देव दूबे थे। संत माईकल विद्दालय, पटना में मेट्रिक एवं साइंस कॉलेज, पटना में इंटर करने के बाद इन्हें बिहार कॉलेज ऑफ़ इंजीनियरिंग (अभी का एन•आई•टी, पटना) में दाखिला मिला। इन्होंने अंतिम साल में इंजिनियरिंग की पढ़ाई छोड़ दी और भारतीय स्वतंत्रता आंदोलन में शामिल हो गए।\n\nराजनीतिक कालानुक्रम \n १९४४ : उपाध्यक्ष, कोलियरी मजदूर संघ, ढोरी कोलियरी शाखा\n १९४५ : महामंत्री, कोलियरी मजदूर संघ, ढोरी कोलियरी शाखा\n १९४५-४८ : महामंत्री, हजारीबाग जिला कांग्रेस कमिटी\n १९४६ : महामंत्री, कोलियरी मजदूर संघ, करगली कोलियरी शाखा\n १९४८-५२ : उपाध्यक्ष, हजारीबाग जिला कांग्रेस कमिटी\n १९४९ : अध्यक्ष, डी•वी•सी• वर्कर्स यूनियन\n १९५१ : संगठन मंत्री, कोलियरी मजदूर संघ\n १९५२-१९५७ : प्रथम बिहार विधानसभा उपचुनाव में निर्वाचित\n १९५७ : द्वितीय विधानसभा चुनाव लड़े\n १९५८-१९६८ : अध्यक्ष, हजारीबाग जिला कांग्रेस कमिटी\n १९६२-६८ : केंद्रीय उपाध्यक्ष, कोलियरी मजदूर संघ\n १९६२-आजीवन : अध्यक्ष, कोलियरी मजदूर संघ, करगली कोलियरी शाखा\n १९६२-आजीवन : अध्यक्ष, कोलियरी मजदूर संघ, ढोरी कोलियरी शाखा\n १९६२-६७ : तृतीय बिहार विधानसभा में निर्वाचित\n सितंबर-दिसंबर १९६३ : कोलयरी मजदूरों के वेतन में वृद्धि के लिए बना 'वेतन मंडल' (१९७३ से राष्ट्रीय कोयला वेतन समझौता) की पहली बैठक में कोलियरी मजदूर संघ के उपाध्यक्ष के तौर पर शरीक हुए\n २१ अप्रैल १९६३ - आजीवन : कार्यसमिति सदस्य, भारतीय राष्ट्रीय मजदूर कांग्रेस (इंटक)\n जून १९६३-६५ : अध्यक्ष, बोकारो इस्पात मजदूर संघ ('बोकारो स्टील वर्कर्स यूनियन')\n २९ सितंबर १९६३ - आजीवन : अध्यक्ष, भुरकुंडा कोलियरी शाखा मजदूर संघ\n १९६५-८४ : महामंत्री, बोकारो इस्पात मजदूर संघ ('बोकारो स्टील वर्कर्स यूनियन')\n १९६६-आजीवन : अध्यक्ष, एच•एस•सी•एल• वर्कर्स यूनियन\n १९६७-६९ : चतुर्थ बिहार विधानसभा में निर्वाचित\n २५ मई १९६८ : प्रधानमंत्री, कोलियरी मजदूर संघ\n १९६९-७२ : पंचम् बिहार विधानसभा में निर्वाचित\n १९७२-७७ : छठा बिहार विधानसभा में निर्वाचित\n २८ मई - २ जुलाई १९७३ : काबीना मंत्री, शिक्षा तथा विज्ञान एवं प्रौद्योगिकी, बिहार सरकार\n अगस्त १९७३ - आजीवन : केन्द्रीय अध्यक्ष, कोलियरी मजदूर संघ (राष्ट्रीय कोलियरी मजदूर संघ / आर•सी•एम•एस•)\n २५ सितम्बर १९७३ - २८ अप्रैल १९७४ : काबीना मंत्री, परिवहन, बिहार सरकार\n ११ दिसंबर १९७४ - 'राष्ट्रीय कोयला वेतन समझौता-१' (एन•सी•डब्ल्यू•ए•) में मजदूर संघ के प्रतिनिधि के तौर पर शरीक\n १९७५ - आजीवन : अध्यक्ष, राष्ट्रीय मजदूर कांग्रेस (इंटक/आई•एन•टी•यू•सी•), बिहार\n ११ अप्रैल १९७५ - ३० अप्रैल १९७७ : काबीना मंत्री, स्वास्थ्य, बिहार सरकार\n १९७६ - आजीवन : अध्यक्ष, एच•ई•सी• वर्कर्स यूनियन\n १९७७ : सातवां बिहार विधानसभा चुनाव लड़ा\n १९७८ - आजीवन : केन्द्रीय अध्यक्ष, 'इंडियन नैश्नल माईनवर्कर्स फ़ेडरेशन'\n मई-जून १९७९ - जेनेवा में अंतरराष्ट्रीय श्रम संघ (आई•एल•ओ•) के २१०वें संगोष्ठी(सेमिनार) में मजदूर संघ के प्रतिनिधि के तौर पर शरीक\n ११ अगस्त १९७९ - 'राष्ट्रीय कोयला वेतन समझौता-२' (एन•सी•डब्ल्यू•ए•) में मजदूर संघ के प्रतिनिधि के तौर पर शरीक\n १९७९ - आजीवन : अध्यक्ष, 'मेकॉन वर्कर्स यूनियन'\n १९८०-८४ : सातवीं लोकसभा में निर्वाचित\n १९८१ - आजीवन : अध्यक्ष, माईन्स वर्कर्स एकाडेमी\n अक्टूबर १९८१ - फ़िलिपींस में अंतरराष्ट्रीय श्रम संघ (आई•एल•ओ•) के संगोष्ठी(सेमिनार) में मजदूर संघ के प्रतिनिधि के तौर पर शरीक\n १९८२ - आजीवन : अध्यक्ष, इंडियन इलेक्ट्रिसिटी वर्कर्स फ़ेडरेशन\n १३ - २२ अक्टूबर १९८२ : टोक्यो, जापान में अंतरराष्ट्रीय श्रम संघ (आई•एल•ओ•) के संगोष्ठी(सेमिनार) में मजदूर संघ के प्रतिनिधि के तौर पर शरीक\n १९८३ - आजीवन : अध्यक्ष, पी•पी•सी•एल• वर्कर्स यूनियन\n ११ नवंबर १९८३ - 'राष्ट्रीय कोयला वेतन समझौता-३' (एन•सी•डब्ल्यू•ए•) में मजदूर संघ के प्रतिनिधि के तौर पर शरीक\n १९८४ : अध्यक्ष, बोकारो इस्पात मजदूर संघ ('बोकारो स्टील वर्कर्स यूनियन')\n मई १९८४ - मार्च १९८५ : केन्द्रीय अध्यक्ष, राष्ट्रीय मजदूर कांग्रेस (इंटक/आई•एन•टी•यू•सी•)\n सितंबर १९८४ - मार्च १९८५ : अध्यक्ष, बिहार प्रदेश कांग्रेस कमिटी\n १९८५-८८ : नवीं बिहार विधानसभा में निर्वाचित\n ११ मार्च १९८५ - १३ फ़रवरी १९८८ : बिहार कांग्रेस विधानमंडल के नेता\n १२ मार्च १९८५ - १३ फ़रवरी १९८८ : अविभाजित बिहार के मुख्यमंत्री\n १४ फ़रवरी - २६ जून १९८८ : केंद्रीय मंत्री, कानून एवं न्याय\n १९८८-९३ : बिहार से राज्यसभा में निर्वाचित\n २६ जून १९८८ - १ दिसंबर १९८९ : केंद्रीय मंत्री, श्रम् एवं नियोजन\n १४ - १७ मार्च १९८९ : नई दिल्ली में अंतरराष्ट्रीय श्रम संघ (आई•एल•ओ•), एशिया पैसिफ़िक की मानक संबंधित विषयों पर संगोष्ठी(सेमिनार) में केन्द्रीय श्रम् मंत्री के तौर पर शरीक\n २७ जूलाई १९८९ : 'राष्ट्रीय कोयला वेतन समझौता-४' (एन•सी•डब्ल्यू•ए•) में मजदूर संघ के प्रतिनिधि के तौर पर शरीक\n\nचुनाव परिणाम\n\nविधानसभा\n\nलोकसभा\n\nभारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस \nदूबे दो दशक से ज़्यादा समय तक जिला हजारीबाग के कांग्रेस कमीटी में रहे। उस समय के हज़ारीबाग जिले में अभी के हज़ारीबाग के अलावे, गिरिडीह, बोकारो, रामगढ़, कोडरमा और चतरा जिला भी शामिल था। १९४० और ५० के दशक में कमीटी के उपाध्यक्ष और महा सचिव रहने के बाद दूबे १९५८ से ७० तक अध्यक्ष भी रहे। २५ सितम्बर १९८४ को इंदिरा गांधी ने राम शरण सिंह को हटाकर बिन्देश्वरी दूबे को बिहार प्रदेश कांग्रेस कमीटी का अध्यक्ष बनाया था।\n\nराज्य कार्यालय\n\nविधान सभा \n\n१९४०-५० के दशक में दक्षिण बिहार (अभी का झारखंड) में पद्मा महाराज कामख्या नारायण सिंह और उनकी पार्टी प्रजातांत्रिक सोसियलिस्ट पार्टी (पी•एस•पी•) का बड़ा दबदबा था। १९५१ में हुए पहले बिहार विधानसभा चुनाव में वे खुद पाँच सीटों से चुनाव लड़े और पाँचों से जीते भी थे, जिसमें से एक 'पेटरवार' सीट भी थी। वहाँ से उन्होंने कांग्रेस के काशीश्वर प्रसाद चौबे को हराया था। पाँच सीटों से विधायक निर्वाचित होने के कारण उन्हें चार सीटों से इस्तीफ़ा देना पड़ा। छोड़ी हुई चार सीटों में एक 'पेटरवार' भी थी। इसी बीच 'पेटरवार' सीट का नाम बदल कर 'जरीडीह पेटरवार' रख दिया गया। १९५२ में हुए 'बाई एलेक्शन' में कांग्रेस ने ३१ वर्षीय बिन्देश्वरी दूबे को स्वतंत्रता सेनानी और दिग्गज मजदूर नेता होने के नाते जरीडीह-पेटरवार से टिकट दिया गया। \nमिला। युवा दूबे ने पी•एस•पी• के अपने निकटतम् प्रतिद्वन्दी को परास्त कर दिया। पर १९५७ के अगले चुनाव के पहले परीसीमन् में जरीडीह-पेटरवार अब बेरमो हो गया और दूबे बहुत मामूली अन्तर से यह चुनाव राजा के संबन्धी पी•एस•पी• उम्मीदवार ठाकुर ब्रजेश्वर प्रसाद सिंह से हार गए। फिर दूबे ने बेरमो से ही १९६२ के चुनाव में ठाकुर ब्रजेश्वर प्रसाद सिंह को हराया, १९६७ में एन• पी• सिंह को, \n१९६९ में जमुना सिंह तथा १९७२ में रामदास सिंह को हराया। इमरजेंसी की वजह से कांग्रेस विरोधी लहर में १९७७ का चूनाव वह मिथिलेश सिन्हा से हार गए। १९८४ में बिहार प्रदेश कांग्रेस कमीटी का अध्यक्ष बनने के बाद १९८५ के चुनाव उन्होंने अपने गृह क्षेत्र शाहपुर से लड़ा और शिवानंद तिवारी जैसे नेताओं को हराकर भारी अंतर से जीता।\n\nशिक्षा तथा विज्ञान एवं प्रौद्योगिकी मंत्री \n\nश्रमिक नेता होने के कारण दूबे को अक्सर अपनी पार्टी की सरकार से ही लड़ने की वजह से उनका कोपभाजन भी बनना पड़ता था। इसी कारण उनके समकक्ष नेताओं को ज़्यादा तरजीह दी जाती थी। पर अंतत:, पाँचवीं बार विधायक बनने के बाद, २८ मई १९७३ को बिहार के तत्कालीन मुख्य मंत्री केदार पांडे ने उन्हें अपने कैबिनेट में शिक्षा तथा विज्ञान एवं प्रौद्योगिकी मंत्री बनाया। पर अपनी ही पार्टी के नेताओं के विरोध के कारण कुछ दिन बाद ही पांडे की सरकार गिर गई और दूबे भी २४ जून १९७३ तक ही शिक्षा मंत्री के पद पर काबिज़ रह पाए। इसी दौरान दूबे ने मुख्यमंत्री के आदेश लेकर बिहार के विश्वविद्यालयों के शाषण प्रबंधन को हटाकर आई•ए•एस• रैंक के अधिकारियों को वाईस चांसलर बनवाया था जिससे उनकी बड़ी तारीफ़ हुई थी। इतने कम दिनों में ही उन्होंने शिक्षा के क्षेत्र में सुधार लाने के लिए, खासकर बोर्ड परीक्षाओं में नकल पर नकेल कसने के लिए जो आधारशिला तैयार की उसका सुखद परिणाम बाद में देखने में आया।\n\nपरिवहन मंत्री \n\nकेदार पांडे की सरकार गिरने के बाद २ जुलाई १९७३ को अब्दुल गफूर बिहार के मुख्य मंत्री बनाए गए। कुछ दिनों के बाद अब्दुल गफूर ने २५ सितम्बर १९७३ को शत्रुघ्न शरण सिंह को हटाकर दूबे को परिवहन मंत्री बनाया। इस पद पर वह १८ अप्रेल १९७४ तक काबिज़ रहे। इस कार्यकाल में दूबे ने ट्रान्सपोर्टरों से वसूले जाने वाले रंगदारी टैक्स एवं ओवरलोडिंग पर रोक लगाने जैसे कई उल्लेखनीय कार्य किए थे।\n\nस्वास्थ एवं परिवार कल्याण मंत्री \n\n११ अप्रेल १९७५ को जगन्नाथ मिश्र को बिहार का नया मुख्य मंत्री बनाया गया था। इसी दिन बिन्देश्वरी दूबे ने स्वास्थ्य एवं परिवार कल्याण मंत्री के रूप में शपथ ग्रहण किया। स्वास्थ्य मंत्री के रूप में दूबे ने पटना मेडिकल कॉलेज एवं अस्पताल (पी•एम•सी•एच) में बिहार का पहला आई सी यू बनवाया। दूबे ने इस दौरान सरकारी डॉक्टरों की प्राईवेट प्रैक्टिस बन्द कराई जिससे डॉक्टर उनसे इस कदर नाराज़ हो गए कि १९७७ के अगले विधानसभा चुनाव में उनको हराने के लिए धनबल सहित सशरीर उनके विधानसभा क्षेत्र बेरमो में कैम्प कर गए थे। दूबे ने अपने कार्यकाल में राज्य के हर प्रखंड में रेफ़रल हॉस्पिटल बनवाए ताकि ग्रामीणों को छोटे-मोटे इलाज के लिए शहर न जाना पड़े। इमरजेंसी के दौरान परिवार नियोजन कार्यक्रम के तहत ऐसे जिन लोगों की गलती से नसबंदी हो गई थी जिनकी कोई औलाद नहीं थी उनको मुआवज़ा देने की ९ नवंबर १९७६ को दूबे ने घोषणा की थी।\n\nवित्त मंत्री \n\nमुख्य मंत्री के कार्यकाल के दौरान दूबे मार्च १९८५ से फ़रवरी १९८८ तक वित्त मंत्री भी थे।\n\nमुख्य मंत्री \n\nपं• बिन्देश्वरी दूबे १२ मार्च १९८५ से १३ फ़रवरी १९८८ तक बिहार के मुख्यमंत्री रहे। जिस समय उन्होंने बिहार के मुख्यमंत्री का कार्यभार अंगीकृत किया था, उस समय बिहार देश के सर्वाधिक पिछड़े राज्यों में एक था। बिन्देश्वरी दूबे का नाम कृष्ण सिंह एवं नितीश कुमार के साथ बिहार के 'टॉप ३' मुख्य मंत्रियों में लिया जाता है।\n\nकीर्तिमान \n\nदूबे सरकार ने १९८५-८८ के लगभग तीन साल के अपने छोटे से कार्यकाल के दौरान अनेकों कीर्तिमान बनाए जो न सिर्फ़ अपने समय तक सर्वोच्च रहे बल्कि कुछ तो आगे के बीसों साल तक तोड़ा न जा सका और कुछ तो आज तक के सर्वोच्च हैं। ये कुछ कीर्तिमान कुछ इस प्रकार हैं:\n\nबिहार का 'प्रति व्यक्ति आय' (Per Capita Income) ९२९ रु• (१९८०-८१) एवं १,२८५ रु• (१९८४-८५) से बढ़कर १,५४७ रु• (१९८५-८६) दर्ज की गई।\n'योजना व्यय' (Plan Outlays) ८५१ करोड़ रु• (१९८५-८६) से बढ़कर १,१५० करोड़ रु• (१९८६-८७) दर्ज की गई।\n'राज्य संसाधन' (State Resources) ६५०.८ करोड़ रु• (१९८५-८६) से बढ़कर ८९१.६ करोड़ रु• (१९८६-८७) दर्ज की गई।\nदूबे के कार्यकाल के दौरान राज्य के 'ऋण जमा अनुपात' (Credit Deposit Ratio) 35% की उच्चतम रेकॉर्ड दर्ज की गई थी और इस सीमा को कई वर्षों बाद नीतीश कुमार के कार्यकाल के दौरान बाद में पार किया गया।\nउनके कार्यकाल के दौरान बीस सूत्री कार्यक्रम को कार्यान्वित करने के मामले में बिहार चौथे स्थान पर रहा।\nखाद्य उत्पादन के मामले में बिहार पंजाब और हरियाणा को पीछे छोड़ा।\nग्रामीण विकास के मामले में देश के राज्यों में वर्ष १९८६-८७ में बिहार दूसरे स्थान पर आया।\nएक भी संप्रदायिक हिंसा नहीं हुई।\n\nमंत्रीमंडल \n\nकाबीना मंत्री\n\nराज्य मंत्री (स्वतंत्र प्रभार)\n\nराज्य मंत्री\n\nउप मंत्री\n\nअधिकारी\n\nराष्ट्रीय कार्यालय\n\nलोक सभा \n\nबिन्देश्वरी दूबे बिहार के गिरीडीह क्षेत्र से १९८० में सातवीं लोक सभा चुनाव रामदास सिंह, विनोद बिहारी महतो, चपलेंदु भट्टाचार्य जैसे राजनैतिक दिग्गजों को पटखनी देकर जीते थे।\n\nराज्य सभा \n\nदूबे ३ अप्रेल १९८८ से २० जनवरी १९९३ तक आजीवन राज्य सभा के सदस्य रहे।\n\nकानून एवं न्याय मंत्री \n\n१४ जनवरी १९८८ की सुबह बिहार के मुख्य मंत्री पद से इस्तीफ़ा देते ही कुछ ही देर में उन्हें केन्द्रीय कानून एवं न्याय का काबीना मंत्री घोषित कर दिया गया। वह इस पद पर २६ जून १९८८ तक रहे। कानून मंत्री रहते हुए दूबे ने कई उल्लेखनीय काम किए।\n\nश्रम एवं रोजगार मंत्री \n\nकानून एवं न्याय मंत्री बिन्देश्वरी दूबे के आग्रह पर तत्कालीन प्रधान मंत्री राजीव गाँधी ने उन्हें २६ जून १९८८ को केन्द्रीय श्रम एवं रोजगार मंत्री बनाया। वह इस पद पर १ दिसम्बर १९८९ तक काबिज़ रहे। वी•वी• गिरी के अलावे किसी मजदूर नेता को पहली बार श्रम मंत्री बनाया गया था। श्रम मंत्री रहते हुए दूबे ने मजदूर हित में लेबर लॉ में कई संशोधन किये जो आज भी मील के पत्थर हैं।\n\nश्रमिक आंदोलन \n\nबिन्देश्वरी दूबे ने स्वतंत्रता आंदोलन के ही दौरान १९४४ में जेल से छूटने के बाद अपनी आजीविका के लिए दक्षिण बिहार के बेरमो में चंचनी और थापर जैसी कोलियरियों में नौकरी कर ली। वे कोलियरियों में मजदूरों के शोषण के खिलाफ आवाज़ प्रबंधन के समक्ष उठाने लगे। कुछ समय के पश्चात् उन्होंने अपनी नौकरी छोड़ दी। सर्वप्रथम् उन्होंने ट्रेड यूनियन ऐक्टिविटी एक ब्रिटिश मैनेजर द्वारा चलाई जा रही 'सर लिन्सन पैकिन्सन ऐन्ड कं.' से शुरु की। तत्पश्चात बिन्देश्वरी सिंह ने उन्हें कोलियरी मजदूर संघ की ढोरी शाखा का उपाध्यक्ष नियुक्त किया। १९५१ में उन्हें इंटक से संबद्ध कोलियरी मजदूर संघ का राष्ट्रीय संगठन मंत्री बनाया गया।\n\nराष्ट्रीय मजदूर कांग्रेस (इंटक) \nमई १९८४ में धनबाद में हुए कांग्रेस पार्टी से संबद्ध राष्ट्रीय मजदूर कांग्रेस (इंटक) के अधिवेशन में पं• बिन्देश्वरी दूबे को सर्वसम्मति से इंटक का राष्ट्रीय अध्यक्ष चुना गया था। अधिवेशन का उद्घाटन तत्कालीन् प्रधानमंत्री श्रीमती इंदिरा गांधी ने किया था। मार्च १९८५ में बिहार के मुख्यमंत्री बनने के बाद दूबे ने इंटक के राष्ट्रीय अध्यक्ष पद से इस्तीफ़ा दे दिया था तथा उनके उत्तराधिकारी गोपाला रामानूजम बने थे। प्रदेश इंटक के अध्यक्ष पद पर दूबे १९७५ से अंतिम साँस तक काबिज रहे। इसके अलावा इंटक से संबद्ध इंडियन नेश्नल माईनवर्कर्स फ़ेडेरेशन, राष्ट्रीय कोलियरी मजदूर संघ, इंडियन एलेक्ट्रिसिटी वर्कर्स फ़ेडेरेशन, माईन्स वर्कर्स एकाडेमी, एच•एस•सी•एल• वर्कर्स यूनियन, पी•पी•सी•एल• वर्कर्स यूनियन, बोकारो स्टील वर्कर्स यूनियन, टेल्को वर्कर्स यूनियन, डी•वी•सी• वर्कर्स यूनियन, एच•ई•सी• वर्कर्स यूनियन, मेकॉन वर्कर्स यूनियन इत्यादि अनेकों यूनियनों के अध्यक्ष रहे।\n\nराष्ट्रीय कोलियरी मजदूर संघ \n\n'इंटक' से संबद्ध 'राष्ट्रीय कोलियरी मजदूर संघ', जो पहले 'कोलियरी मजदूर संघ' कहलाता था, के दूबे निर्विवाद नेता थे। १९५० और ६० के दशक में संघ के संगठन मंत्री, मंत्री, उपाध्यक्ष और फिर प्रधानमंत्री बनने के बाद १९७० के दशक में अध्यक्ष भी बने और अंतिम साँस तक (२० जनवरी, १९९३) इस पद पर बने रहे। इनके देहांत के बाद कांति मेहता संघ के राष्ट्रीय अध्यक्ष बने।\n\n२४ अक्तूबर, १९६२ को दूबे जी की अध्यक्ष्ता में डी•वी•सी• कोलियरी में केन्द्रीय श्रम विभाग के पार्लियामेन्ट्री सेक्रेटरी श्री आर• एल• मालवीय के हस्तक्षेप पर ठेकेदारी प्रथा पर रोक लगा दी गई। ऐसा किसी सरकारी कोलियरी में पहली बार हुआ था। १९६२-६३ में ही पद्मा महाराज की ढोरी कोलियरी में भी बिन्देश्वरी दूबे की पहल पर ठेकेदारी प्रथा को समाप्त कर दिया गया।\n\n१७ जून १९६८ को राष्ट्रीय खान मजदूर फ़ेडरेशन के प्रधान मंत्री कांती मेहता और कोलियरी मजदूर संघ के प्रधान मंत्री बिन्देश्वरी दूबे की अपील पर वेतन मंडल की सिफ़ारिशों को सही ढंग से लागू कराने तथा १ रू• ४७ पैसे के रेट से महंगाई भत्ता दिलाने के लिए ऐतिहासिक हड़ताल हुई थी जिसमें तत्कालीन बिहार के धनबाद एवं हजारीबाग जिले के करीब डेढ़ लाख कोलियरी मजदूर घनघोर बारिश में हड़ताल पर रहे और प्राय: ७० हजार कोयले का उत्पादन ठप हुआ। चूंकि टाटा कं•, एन•सी•डी•सी• एवं डी•वी•सी• की कोलियरियों में महंगाई भत्ता का भुगतान कर दिया गया था इसलिए वहाँ हड़ताल नहीं करवाया गया। झरिया फ़ील्ड की प्राय: सभी कोलियरियाँ बंद रही क्योंकि वे समझौता करने को तैयार नहीं हो रहे थे। इसके अलावा बिहार, बंगाल, उड़ीसा आदि की करमचंद थापर, चंचनी, बर्ड, के• बोरा, टर्नर कोरिशन, न्यू तेतुलिया, बैजना, मधुबन, अमलाबाद, पुटकी, कनकनी, बागाडीगी, होहना, भौंरा और श्रीपुर, निंघागना, शिवडागा, वास्तकोला, रानीगंज जैसी कोलियरियों को भी भुगतान नहीं करने पर हड़ताल की नोटिस दी गई जिसके फलस्वरूप उनके साथ समझौता हो गया। हड़ताल अलग-अलग जगहों पर लंबे समय तक चलती रही। बाद में नवम्बर १९६९ में एन•सी•डी•सी• के साथ समझौता हुआ और बाकी की कोलियरियों को भी झुकना पड़ा। समझौते में एक अतिरिक्त सालाना बढ़ोत्तरी तथा मकान भाड़ा सिर्फ़ दो रुपया भी मंजूर हुआ। समझौते में संघ की ओर से प्रधानमंत्री बिन्देश्वरी दूबे, मंत्री एस•दासगुप्ता एवं संगठन मंत्री दामोदर पांडेय तथा एन•सी•डी•सी• की ओर से एरिया जेनेरल मैनेजर आर•जी• महेन्द्रु और चीफ़ पर्सनल अफ़सर आई•बी• सान्याल ने हस्ताक्षर किया।\n\nराष्ट्रीय कोयला वेतन समझौता \n\n१९५६ में चीज़ों के दाम में जिस तरह वृद्धि हुई थी, उसके फलस्वरूप मजदूरी में उन्हें जो वृद्धि दी गई थी, वह नगण्य साबित हुई। राष्ट्रीय खान मजदूर फ़ेडरेशन के तत्वावधान मजदूरी में वृद्धि के लिए मालिकों के समक्ष माँगें पेश की गई और सरकार से वेतन मंडल बैठाने की माँग की गई। २३-३० जनवरी, १९६२ तक फ़ेडरेशन के निर्णयानुसार कोलियरी मजदूर संघ की शाखाओं में माँग सप्ताह मनाया गया तथा अनुकूल वातावरण तैयार किया गया। आम हड़ताल की नोटिसें भी दी गईं, मगर सरकार द्वारा हस्तक्षेप करने पर हड़ताल की नौबत नहीं आई। अन्त में वेतन मंडल की घोषणा की गई जिसकी प्रथम बैठक कोलकाता में २५ और २६ अक्तूबर को हुई। अन्तरिम राहत के लिए वेतन मंडल की दूसरी बैठक कोलकाता में ६ दिसम्बर १९६२ तक हुई जिसमें कोलियरी मजदूर संघ के प्रधान मंत्री राम नारायण शर्मा, मंत्री एस• दासगुप्ता, उपाध्यक्ष बिन्देश्वरी दूबे एवं कांती मेहता उपस्थित थे। फलत: अन्तरिम राहत के रूप में हर कोयला खदान मजदूरों को महीने में पौने दस रू• की वृद्धि १ मार्च १९६३ से मिलने लगी। संघ के प्रयास से १ अप्रेल १९६३ से मजदूरों को दी जाने वाली महंगाई भत्ते में भी ३ आना रोजाना या ४ रू• १४ आने प्रति माह की बढ़त मिली। दूबे कोयला वेतन समझौता-१, २, ३ और ४ के सदस्य रहे।\n\nकोलियरियों का राष्ट्रीयकरण \n\nदूबे ने कोयला मजदूरों की आवाज़ को तत्कालीन् प्रधान मंत्री इंदिरा गाँधी और तत्कालीन कोयला मंत्री कुमारमंगलम् तक पहुँचा कर भारत की कोलियरियों के राष्ट्रीयकरण में अहम् भूमिका निभाई। सर्वप्रथम् धनबाद के कोकिंग कोल कोलियरियों का राष्ट्रीयकरण हुआ था।\n\nअंतर्राष्ट्रीय श्रम संगठन (आई•एल•ओ•) \n\nबिन्देश्वरी दूबे ने मजदूरों की समस्याओं को और करीब से समझने और उसके निदान के लिए अंतर्राष्ट्रीय श्रम संगठन के कई सारे कान्फ़रेनसों में भारत का प्रतिनिधित्व करते हुए कई सारे देशों जैसे अमेरिका, जर्मनी, यू•के•, बेल्जियम, नीदरलैंड, फ़्रांस, युगोस्लाविया, स्वीट्ज़रलैंड, जापान इत्यादि का दौरा किया।\n\nसन्दर्भ\n\nबाहरी कड़ियाँ\n\nश्रेणी:बिहार के मुख्यमंत्री\nश्रेणी:1921 में जन्मे लोग\nश्रेणी:१९९३ में निधन\nश्रेणी:भारत के क़ानून एवं न्याय मंत्री\nश्रेणी:भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस के राजनीतिज्ञ" ]

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[ "The earliest signs were often not painted but consisted, for example, of paraphernalia connected with the brewing process such as bunches of hops or brewing implements, which were suspended above the door of the pub. In some cases local nicknames, farming terms and puns were used. Local events were often commemorated in pub signs. Simple natural or religious symbols such as 'The Sun', 'The Star' and 'The Cross' were incorporated into pub signs, sometimes being adapted to incorporate elements of the heraldry (e.g. the coat of arms) of the local lords who owned the lands upon which the pub stood. Some pubs have Latin inscriptions." ]

[ "OU Medicine, an academic medical institution located on the campus of The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, is home to OU Medical Center. OU Medicine operates Oklahoma's only level-one trauma center at the OU Medical Center and the state's only level-one trauma center for children at Children's Hospital at OU Medicine, both of which are located in the Oklahoma Health Center district. Other medical facilities operated by OU Medicine include OU Physicians and OU Children's Physicians, the OU College of Medicine, the Oklahoma Cancer Center and OU Medical Center Edmond, the latter being located in the northern suburb of Edmond.", "Nanjing is the intersection of Yangtze River, an east-west water transport artery, and Nanjing–Beijing railway, a south-north land transport artery, hence the name “door of the east and west, throat of the south and north”. Furthermore, the west part of the Ningzhen range is in Nanjing; the Loong-like Zhong Mountain is curling in the east of the city; the tiger-like Stone Mountain is crouching in the west of the city, hence the name “the Zhong Mountain, a dragon curling, and the Stone Mountain, a tiger crouching”. Mr. Sun Yet-sen spoke highly of Nanjing in the “Constructive Scheme for Our Country”, “The position of Nanjing is wonderful since mountains, lakes and plains all integrated in it. It is hard to find another city like this.”", "The massive work was arranged according to a \"tree of knowledge.\" The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.", "The clock does not run during convert attempts in the last three minutes of a half. If the 15 minutes of a quarter expire while the ball is live, the quarter is extended until the ball becomes dead. If a quarter's time expires while the ball is dead, the quarter is extended for one more scrimmage. A quarter cannot end while a penalty is pending: after the penalty yardage is applied, the quarter is extended one scrimmage. Note that the non-penalized team has the option to decline any penalty it considers disadvantageous, so a losing team cannot indefinitely prolong a game by repeatedly committing infractions.", "The English term comics is used as a singular noun when it refers to the medium and a plural when referring to particular instances, such as individual strips or comic books. Though the term derives from the humorous (or comic) work that predominated in early American newspaper comic strips, it has become standard also for non-humorous works. It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or bandes dessinées for French-language comics. There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on a definition of comics; some emphasize the combination of images and text, some sequentiality or other image relations, and others historical aspects such as mass reproduction or the use of recurring characters. The increasing cross-pollination of concepts from different comics cultures and eras has further made definition difficult.", "Regular script typefaces are also commonly used, but not as common as Ming or sans-serif typefaces for body text. Regular script typefaces are often used to teach students Chinese characters, and often aim to match the standard forms of the region where they are meant to be used. Most typefaces in the Song dynasty were regular script typefaces which resembled a particular person's handwriting (e.g. the handwriting of Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, or Liu Gongquan), while most modern regular script typefaces tend toward anonymity and regularity.", "According to archaeologists and anthropologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of fur, leather, leaves, or grass that were draped, wrapped, or tied around the body. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, since clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared to stone, bone, shell and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia in 1988. Dyed flax fibers that could have been used in clothing have been found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia that date back to 36,000 BP." ]

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[ "Mutualismo (teoría económica)\n\nEl mutualismo (del latín mutuum, mutuo o intercambio)​ es una corriente del pensamiento anarquista, que puede ser atribuida a los escritos de Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, y que propone una sociedad futura sin Estado donde la propiedad de los medios de producción pueda ser individual o colectiva siempre que el intercambio de bienes y servicios represente montos equivalentes de trabajo.​​​\nA partir de este esquema se construiría la sociedad mutualista que funcionaría asociando de forma libre a los productores en federaciones de industria que organicen la cooperación y reemplacen a los empleadores, extiendan certificados de tiempo-trabajo y préstamos a sus miembros, se hagan cargo de los productos finalizados, pacten servicios de policía, intercambien con otros grupos de comercio para su beneficio mutuo a través de una federación de segundo grado habilitando a sus miembros para utilizar su crédito, y asimismo asegurarlos frente a las pérdidas.​​​​\nEl mutualismo está basado generalmente en la teoría del valor-trabajo, que sostiene que cuando el trabajo o lo que este produce es vendido, en intercambio, este debe recibir bienes y servicios que abarquen «el monto de trabajo necesario para producir un artículo exactamente similar e igual utilidad».​​ Recibir menos (o más) se consideraría explotación, robo de trabajo, o usura.​\nEl mutualismo también es crítico con la intervención económica del Estado y con la propiedad privada de bienes naturales y se le ha identificado muchas veces como una ideología económica sintetizadora entre el liberalismo y el socialismo.​​​​​ Debido a estos puntos mencionados previamente, la teoría político-económica mutualista ocupa un sitio poco habitual en el espectro político que en ocasiones se ha caracterizado como un punto intermedio entre anarcoindividualismo y anarcocolectivismo.​ El mismo Proudhon describió la libertad que él pretendía como «la síntesis del comunismo y la propiedad».​\n\nIntercambios recíprocos\n\nUn concepto clave del mutualismo es concretar una economía basada en intercambios mutuamente beneficios. Para ello, tradicionalmente se han basado en alguna interpretación de la teoría del valor-trabajo. Así que sostienen una ética donde los precios estén basados en el costo (gastos más trabajo aplicado). Un intercambio o acuerdo desigual, según ellos, representaría explotación o usura.​ En este sentido, los mutualistas trascienden la idea de individuos recibiendo algún beneficio (en intercambios), renta (en alquileres) o interés (en préstamos) que son considerados en uno u otro nivel acuerdos económicos «injustos», ya que consideran que estos individuos no están trabajando.​ Por otro lado, muchos de ellos sostienen que el Estado ejerce una distorsión estructural —directa o indirecta— sobre el mercado, lo que privilegia a unos individuos a costa de otros, alterando así la posibilidad de realizar intercambios equivalentes.​ Por lo tanto, argumentan que si los privilegios estatales cesan, los ingresos tenderían a igualarse al incrementarse la competencia en capital y los individuos recibirían no más ingresos que aquellos en proporción al monto de trabajo que ellos ejercen,​​ viendo la ausencia de lucro como algo deseable.​ Sin embargo, como el mutualismo es una teoría no compulsiva, las actividades lucrativas se mantendrían como opcionales,​ aunque consideran que fuertemente debilitadas.​​\n\nSocialización evolutiva\n\nEn la medida que aseguran el derecho de los trabajadores al producto completo de su trabajo, los mutualistas respaldan conceptos que ciertos autores han estimado compatibles con la economía de mercado y el derecho de propiedad,​ alejándose así del modelo tradicional de estatización de los medios de producción propuesto en modelos de socialismo de Estado para superar la sociedad capitalista. De todos modos, rechazan la propiedad privada de la tierra, y abogan por títulos condicionales del suelo, donde el dominio privado es legitimado solo en tanto provenga del uso u ocupación (denominado «posesión» por Proudhon).​​ Mientras que para bienes de capital (medios de producción hechos por el ser humano, bienes que no sean suelo) las opiniones mutualistas difieren sobre si estos deben ser bienes administrados asociativamente o propiedades privadas.\nEn La capacidad política de la clase obrera Proudhon lo reseña así:​\n\n \n\n \nDigamos que el proletariado no pretende despojar a la burguesía de sus bienes adquiridos, ni de ninguno de los derechos de que goza justamente; no se quiere sino realizar, bajo los nombres perfectamente jurídicos y legales de libertad de trabajo, crédito y solidaridad, ciertas reformas cuyo resultado sería abolir (¿qué?) los derechos, privilegios y demás beneficios de que la burguesía goza de una manera exclusiva, y por este medio hacer que no haya burguesía, ni proletariado, es decir, absorberla.\n\n \nPierre-Joseph Proudhon\nEl mutualismo, para algunos autores, tiene paralelismos con el ideario más radical del cooperativismo por afirmaciones como esta:​ «No necesitamos dudar, porque no tenemos otra opción... es necesario formar una asociación entre los trabajadores... porque sin ella, estaremos relacionados como subordinados y superiores en dos... castas de los capitanes y los trabajadores-salariados, lo que repugna a una sociedad libre y democrática» y así «se hace necesario para los trabajadores el formar en sí mismos sociedades democráticas, con igualdad de condiciones para todos los miembros, bajo pena de una recaída en el feudalismo».​\nSin embargo, según Daniel Guérin, no era claro si para Proudhon las empresas autogestionadas debían seguir coexistiendo con empresas privadas o debían ser reemplazadas completamente.​ Pero para Clarencee Lee Swartz —un declarado mutualista— el mutualismo coexistiría con otras formas económicas incluyendo la propiedad privada.​\nLos mutualistas decimonónicos, siguiendo a Proudhon, originalmente se consideraban a sí mismos «socialistas» aunque en un modo diferente al de otras tradiciones socialistas debido, entre otras cosas, a que no abogaron por la socialización compulsiva sobre los medios de producción.​ Benjamin Tucker dijo de Proudhon, que «aunque se opuso a la socialización [forzada] de la propiedad del capital, [Proudhon] encaminó no obstante, a socializar sus efectos haciendo su uso beneficioso para todos en lugar de un medio de empobrecimiento de muchos para enriquecer a los pocos... sometiendo el capital a la ley natural de la competencia, obteniendo que el precio de su propio uso baje al coste».​ Para el mutualista contemporáneo Kevin Carson «es la intervención del Estado lo que distingue el capitalismo del libre mercado»​ y «la consecuencia natural de la competencia de mercado sin bozal es el socialismo».​\n\nReforma monetaria\n\nEl mutualismo ha sido asociado a dos tipos de reforma monetaria: las notas de trabajo y el banco mutual.\nEl mutualismo propone la creación de bancos mutuos (término de William Greene) o bancos del pueblo (término de Proudhon) con el objetivo de promover un profundo cambio social no violento. A través de ellos se fomentaría el crédito barato y mutuo y el intercambio de productos equivalentes entre los trabajadores.​​\nLa propuesta del banco mutuo se había planteado como un banco estatal (banco de intercambio), que era básicamente transformar al Banco de Francia bajo principio mutuo.​ Pero como aclara Benjamin Tucker: «Proudhon nunca favoreció la banca mutua a través del Estado, salvo como medida de transición y conveniencia. E incluso en ese aspecto, luego lo desaprobó, confiando en la iniciativa privada y la libre competencia para la realización de sus puntos de vista. Como creyente en la abolición del Estado, la banca del gobierno era necesariamente objetable para él».​\nEn su obra de 1850 Mutual Banking, Greene explica el efecto de hacer funcionar el banco mutuo:​\n\n \n\n \nSupongamos que el Banco Mutuo se ha establecido y ofrece crédito a costa de operar el banco, que es aproximadamente un uno por ciento. Esta será la tasa total cobrada en todos los préstamos. Esta tasa entra en competencia con la tasa cobrada por todos los demás bancos y todos los demás prestamistas. El efecto en los otros bancos se sentirá muy pronto, porque nadie va a pagar un seis u ocho por ciento por dinero cuando puede obtenerlo por uno por ciento o menos. Una de dos cosas debe suceder. Los antiguos bancos deben cumplir con el recorte y también prestar dinero a esa tasa, o bien perder a sus clientes que irán al nuevo banco, el nuevo banco no necesita capital, ya que hace negocios totalmente con el capital de sus clientes, que son también sus miembros; para cada miembro, virtualmente aporta su propio capital al Banco Mutuo cuando se une a él.\n\n \nWilliam Greene\nPor otra parte, Alexander Berkman resume así la reforma monetaria mutualista:​\n\n \n\n \nLos mutualistas, por otra parte, proponen un determinado sistema económico nuevo. Ellos creen, con su maestro, el filósofo francés Proudhon, que el banco y crédito mutuos sin interés serían la mejor forma económica de una sociedad sin gobierno. De acuerdo con la teoría, el crédito libre, que proporciona a cada uno la oportunidad de recibir dinero prestado sin interés, tendería a igualar los ingresos y a reducir las ganancias a un mínimo, y eliminaría de ese modo la riqueza lo mismo que la pobreza. Crédito libre y libre competencia en un mercado abierto, dicen ellos, tendrán como resultado la igualdad económica, mientras que la abolición del gobierno aseguraría la libertad igual.\n\n \nAlexander Berkman\n\nPrincipio federativo\n\nEl principio federativo de Proudhon es desarrollado sobre todo en su etapa más madura, reflejado en obras como El principio federativo (1863) y La capacidad política de la clase obrera (1865).​ Como lo resume Proudhon:​\n\n \n\n \nEl principio federativo, liberal por excelencia, tiene por primer corolario la independencia administrativa de las localidades reunidas; por segundo, la separación de los poderes en cada uno de los Estados soberanos; por tercero, la federación agrícola-industrial.\n\n \nPierre-Joseph Proudhon\nEl orden federativo no necesariamente expresa contigüidad territorial:​\n\n \n\n \nEn cuanto esté proclamada en cualquier punto del globo la reforma mutualista, la confederación llegará a ser una necesidad en todas partes. Y para que exista, no será preciso que los Estados que se confederen estén contiguos ni agrupados en un mismo recinto, como lo estamos viendo en Francia, en Italia y en España. Puede muy bien haber una confederación entre pueblos separados, disgregados y distantes los unos de los otros: basta para ello que declaren unir sus intereses, y darse garantías recíprocas, conforme a los principios del derecho económico y de la reciprocidad.\n\n \nPierre-Joseph Proudhon\nBajo la fórmula federativa Proudhon también llama a consolidar la federación agrícola-industrial, que sería una especie de institución de apoyo mutuo entre los productores, pero recalca: «Fedérense, pues, no para absorberse y confundirse, sino para garantirse mutuamente las condiciones de prosperidad que les son comunes y no pueden constituir el monopolio de ninguna».​\n\nOtros usos\n\nIncluso como un concepto político el término mutualismo no está limitado a la tradición del anarquismo o de Proudhon, otros autores han escrito desde una perspectiva política sobre el concepto biológico de mutualismo, lo contrario de parasitismo, como en el caso de Piotr Kropotkin​ como un llamado para establecer, o según su criterio restablecer, un orden social basado en la reciprocidad. La teoría económica sobre una hipotética sociedad futura aquí explicada llamada mutualismo no debe confundirse con el mutualismo o movimiento de mutualidades, movimiento políticamente neutral que se encuentra plenamente integrado a la sociedad presente.\n\nHistoria\n\nEsta teoría política y económica evolucionista tuvo su mejor periodo de aceptación en el naciente movimiento anarquista a mediados del siglo XIX, pero algunas décadas después su popularidad fue desplazada por visiones más expresamente revolucionarias del anarquismo como el anarcocolectivismo en primera instancia y después por el anarcocomunismo, por lo que ya entrado el siglo XX el mutualismo había perdido su relevancia dentro del movimiento libertario.\n\nOrigen del término\n\nEl mutualismo, como término, ha visto una variedad de usos relacionados. Charles Fourier uso primeramente el término francés mutualisme in 1822,​ aunque no se refería a un sistema económico. El primero uso impreso conocido del término «mutualista», en idioma inglés mutualist, fue una carta en la New-Harmony Gazette por un estadounidense owenista desconocido (quien firma como «The Mutualist») en 1826.​​ En ella «The Mutualist» critica al asentamiento y sus elementos; posteriormente en otras cartas aumenta el tono de su crítica. Además, cita en su inicio Lecture on Human Happiness de John Gray, un socialista ricardiano. Por aquel tiempo Josiah Warren, un futuro pionero del anarcoindividualismo, se encontraba en New Harmony.​\nEn What Is Mutualism? Clarence Lee Swartz da su propio recuento del origen del término, argumentando que «la palabra mutualism parece haber sido usada primero por John Gray, un escritor inglés, en 1832».​ Por otra parte, cuando Lecture on Human Happiness de John Gray de 1825 fue publicada por primera vez en Estados Unidos en 1826, los publicadores pusieron de apéndice el Preamble and constitution of the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests, located at Valley Forge. En 1826 también vio la publicación Constitution of the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests at Kendal, Ohio.\nMientras tanto en Francia durante los primeros años de 1830, una organización laboral de tejedores de seda en Lyon se llamó a sí misma Mutuellists. Proudhon estaba involucrado con los mutualistas de Lyon y luego adoptó el nombre para describir sus propias enseñanzas.​​ Para 1846, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon estuvo hablando de mutualité («mutualidad») en sus escritos, y usó el término mutuellisme, al menos tan temprano como en 1848, en su Programme Révolutionnaire. En su libro Sobre la capacidad política de la clase obrera (1865) los términos «mutualistas» y «mutualismo» ya son usados sistemáticamente por Proudhon.​\nEn 1850 William B. Greene usó el término «mutualismo» para describir un sistema de crédito mutuo similar al de Proudhon.​ En 1850, el periódico estadounidense The Spirit of the Age, editado por William Henry Channing, publicó propuestas para un «poblado mutualista» por Joshua King Ingalls​ y Albert Brisbane,​ junto con trabajos teóricos de Proudhon,​ William B. Greene, Pierre Leroux, y otros.\n\nPrecursores del mutualismo\n\nDe acuerdo con Piotr Kropotkin, el mutualismo francés tuvo un precursor en Inglaterra con William Thompson (quien más tarde se haría comunista) y sus seguidores John Gray y John Francis Bray; y también tuvo un precursor en Estados Unidos que fue Josiah Warren.​ Hoy en día al grupo de los precursores ingleses se les considera como socialistas ricardianos. Otro socialista ricardiano muy nombrado en los círculos mutualistas actuales es Thomas Hodgskin.​​\n\nEl mutualismo francés\n\nIntelectualmente, el mutualismo en Francia surge del contacto de Proudhon —siendo él mismo obrero— con los núcleos obreros de Lyon, de quien toma el nombre y parte de sus ideas. Además, fue durante las décadas centrales del siglo XIX la ideología por excelencia de la clase trabajadora francesa, sobre todo de los sectores cualificados y semiartesanos.​ Sin embargo, según cuenta Edouard Droz, el padre de Proudhon, quien era productor artesanal de cerveza, influyó en su búsqueda de un precio justo ya que solía añadir al costo de producción un monto extra por su trabajo y argumentaba que cobrar por encima de este criterio equivalía a «robar al comprador».​\nEn Francia y sobre todo en París existían numerosas sociedades y clubes mutualistas. Figuras importantes del movimiento mutualista francés eran Louis-Eugène Varlin, Henri Tolain y Nathalie Lemel.​\nPor mucho tiempo Proudhon intentó introducir sus propuestas por la vía parlamentaria: en los años 1840 fue elegido diputado por la Asamblea Nacional, y entre 1848 y 1849 formó parte de la Asamblea Constituyente de la Segunda República Francesa. En 1864 los mutualistas (entre quienes destacan Tolain, Baraguet y Ripert) lanzan la candidatura de Proudhon a la Asamblea Nacional y publican el programa el Manifiesto de los Sesenta. En él escriben:​\n\n \n\n \nNo se nos acuse de soñar con leyes agrarias, igualdad quimérica que pondría a cada individuo en el lecho de Procusto, ni con repartos de propiedad, máximum, impuesto forzoso, etc. No; es tiempo ya de acabar con esas calumnias propagadas por nuestros enemigos y adoptadas por los ignorantes. La libertad, el crédito, la solidaridad, estos son nuestros sueños. (…). El día en que estos sueños se realicen, no habrá más burguesía ni proletariado, amos ni obreros.\n\n \nEse mismo año 1964 los mutualistas se preparan para ir a Londres para fundar la Asociación Internacional de los Trabajadores (Primera Internacional). Las ideas mutualistas tuvieron mucha relevancia en los congresos de Ginebra (1866), Lausana (1867) y Bruselas (1868).​\n\nProudhon fue contemporáneo del llamado padre del socialismo científico Karl Marx. Este último tuvo gran afinidad por Proudhon, sobre todo por sus primeros trabajos; pero Marx rompió con Proudhon tras la publicación de La filosofía de la miseria, contraargumentándolo Marx en La miseria de la filosofía.​\nEn Europa continental dentro de la Primera Internacional el grupo de mutualistas franceses eran el eje del ala federalista, facción de orientación anarquista opuesta al ala centralista del marxismo. El III Congreso de Bruselas (Bélgica) de 1868 de la Primera Internacional marca el inicio de la transición del entonces predominante mutualismo hacia el anarcocolectivismo dentro del ala antiautoritaria de esta organización.​ Fueron representados por Henri Tolain, y se enfrentaron con Karl Marx por el tema del rol del Estado y la cuestión de la colectivización de la tierra, idea a la que se oponían al defender el derecho de los pequeños agricultores a poseer tierras en forma privada.​ Cuando prosperó la moción en favor de la colectivización de la tierra, los mutualistas fueron desplazados en ese punto dentro del ala federalista por Mijaíl Bakunin, defensor de las tesis anarcocolectivistas, y sus seguidores. Sin embargo, también en ese congreso se aprobaron propuestas mutualistas: «Que la producción (el productor) únicamente puede conseguir la posesión de las máquinas mediante las asociaciones cooperativas y una organización de crédito mutuo».​ En 1869, en el Congreso de Basilea, el mutualismo en la Internacional se veía debilitado y ya para 1872 sería apartado por el anacocolectivismo. También contribuyó la represión que sufrió el movimiento obrero francés en 1871 durante la Comuna de París.​\nEn la Comuna de París las dos facciones más importantes fueron la blanquistas (de Louis Auguste Blanqui) y la mutualista donde se encontraban Louis-Eugène Varlin, Nathalie Lemel, Zéphirin Camélinat.​\n\nEl mutualismo estadounidense\n\nSegún Rudolf Rocker, después de la Revolución francesa de 1848 el pensamiento proudhoniano encontró gran difusión en los Estados Unidos con lo cual muchos owenianos y fourieristas cayeron bajo su influencia. De esta ola proudhoniana, el más destacado fue William B. Greene. Para Rocker, con la publicación de su obra de 1850 Mutual Banking, Greene se convirtió en el «verdadero fundador» del mutualismo estadounidense. Otros mutualistas estadounidenses importantes de esa época eran Charles A. Dana y Albert Brisbane.​\nWilliam Greene había pasado por la carrera militar, luego hacia la teología. En 1853 fue electo diputado a la Convención constitucional de Massachusetts para elaborar propuestas para modificar la Constitución, en ella pronunció un discurso a favor de la igualdad de derechos políticos y sociales de las mujeres que impactó enormemente. Poco después conocería en persona a Proudhon en París. En 1862 se despidió de las armas y se instaló en Boston, donde difundiría el mutualismo y actuaría en organizaciones obreras.​ Por otra parte, según James J. Martin, en Men Against the State («Hombres contra el Estado»), Greene no se convirtió en un anarquista «hecho y derecho» hasta la última década de su vida, pero por 1850 había articulado un mutualismo cristiano «hecho y derecho».\nDe acuerdo con Rocker, «aunque Greene ha sido muy influido por Proudhon en sus ideas, no era, sin embargo, un cuerpo extraño en este país, sino que arraigaba fuertemente en la realidad americana y en las tradiciones liberales de los Estados Unidos». En este sentido Greene señalaba, según Rocker, al mutualismo como continuador de las aspiraciones descentralizadoras de Thomas Jefferson.​\nEn 1872 Ezra Heywood, quien era discípulo de Josiah Warren, fundó la revista The Word, la cual duró más de veinte años y en la que colaboraron diversos representantes del socialismo libertario en Estados Unidos. En ella tuvo especial difusión el mutualismo.​ Por otra parte, también ese año Benjamin Tucker conoció en Boston a Josiah Warren y algo más tarde a William Greene. Tucker fue una de las figuras anarcoindividualistas más influenciadas por el pensamiento proudhoniano. Según Rocker, «la filosofía social de Tucker es una especie de síntesis de Warren, Proudhon y Stirner». En 1877 Tucker fundó Radical Review, una publicación trimestral que solo vio cuatro números. No obstante, en 1881 nació Liberty, un periódico anarquista que vio la luz 27 años y donde confluyeron mutualistas e individualistas. Liberty tuvo amplia difusión por el país e incluso cierto impacto en Europa.​\n\nUn importante mutualista cercano a Liberty fue Dyer Lum. Lum fusionó el anarcocolectivismo con mutualismo, además de combinarlo con sindicalismo revolucionario.​ Tras la detención de Albert Parsons, uno de los mártires de Chicago, editó The Alarm de 1892 a 1893.​ Otra figura destacada fue Voltairine de Cleyre, quien empezó siendo una anarcoindividualista muy en la línea de Tucker, pero después gracias a su cercanía con Lum se convirtió en mutualista y finalmente, según sus palabras, «soy anarquista, simplemente, sin etiquetas económicas adjuntas».​\nAunque el mutualismo es similar en ciertos aspectos a las doctrinas económicas de los anarquistas individualistas estadounidenses decimonónicos,​​ de acuerdo con Voltairine de Cleyre, el mutualismo hace «más énfasis en la organización, la cooperación y la federación libre de los trabajadores», obviando la necesidad de un empleador, mientras que el anarcoindividualismo mantiene neutralidad sobre los distintos tipos relaciones sociales de producción asegurando que estas «se vuelven viciosas simplemente por la interferencia del Estado».​ Por otra parte, según Alexander Berkman, tanto mutualistas como anarcoindividualistas «aseguran que la causa de la desigualdad económica es el monopolio» y que «la libre competencia, dicen, acabará con el monopolio y sus males»; pero difieren en que los mutualistas proponen «un nuevo sistema económico» mientras que los anarcoindividualistas «no tienen un plan muy claro de la vida económica bajo la anarquía».​ No obstante, anarcoindividualistas como Josiah Warren desarrollaron proyectos como monedas alternativas y diversas comunidades basadas en los principio del costo como límite del precio.​\nRudolf Rocker describe así la diferencia entre el anarcoindividualista Josiah Warren y el mutualista William B. Greene:​\n\n \n\n \nGreene acentuó más fuertemente el principio de la asociación que Warren y más especialmente que Spooner. También aquí se hizo notar la influencia de Proudhon. Warren, cuyas experiencias prácticas se adaptaban a las condiciones de los pequeños propietarios que producían independientemente y llevaban sus productos a la venta, se preocupaba ante todo de hacer de esa venta un justo intercambio, poniendo en la base del precio el principio del costo y creando, mediante sus labor notes, un medio económico para hacer posible ese intercambio. El principio es en lo esencial el mismo en Warren y en Proudhon.\n\n \nRudolf Rocker\nSin embargo, la libertad individual tiene mucha importancia para los mutualistas, como describe William Greene criticando al comunismo:​\n\n \n\n \nEl comunismo sacrifica al individuo para asegurar la unidad del conjunto. El mutualismo tiene el individualismo ilimitado como primera condición esencial de su propia existencia, y coordina a los individuos en la solidaridad sin el sacrificio de la individualidad.\n\n \nWilliam Greene\nEn el tema de la propiedad de la tierra, tanto mutualistas como anarcoindivualistas aceptaban el principio proudhoniano de «uso y ocupación».​ No obstante, individualistas de la línea de Lysander Spooner fueron más lockeanos en este tema.​\n\nOtros lugares\n\nDe acuerdo con Ángel Cappelletti no solo el socialismo francés fue más proudhoniano que marxista, sino también, en cierto modo, los países latinos de Europa y también algunos de Iberoamérica hasta por lo menos 1920.​\nEn España el mutualismo proudhoniano llegaría a la presidencia de la Primera República de la mano de Francisco Pi y Margall, quien tradujo buena parte de la obra de Proudhon.​ Durante el siglo XX El anarquista español y veterano de la guerra civil española Abraham Guillén ha teorizado sobre autogestión, el socialismo de libre mercado y sobre la guerrilla.​\nPor otra parte, Ángel Capelletti y Carlos Rama en su libro El anarquismo en América Latina describen que el pensamiento proudhoniano influyó en el líder federalista venezolano Ezequiel Zamora.​ Igualmente, de acuerdo con Laureano Villanueva, Zamora tenía ideas socialistas​ y «no estaba haciendo guerras para imponer gobernantes a los pueblos, sino al revés, para que los pueblos se gobernaran por sí, pues era de este modo como él entendía el liberalismo y la Federación».​\n\nActualidad\n\nEn el año 2006, luego de más de un siglo sin exposición teórica visible del mutualismo, Kevin A. Carson presentó una revisión del mutualismo en un libro titulado Studies in Mutualist Political Economy.​​ En él ha integrando las críticas marginalistas en la teoría laboral del valor.​​​ Según Carson, «muchos mutualistas han abandonado la teoría del valor-trabajo, y prefieren evitar el término socialista. Pero aun retienen muchas actitudes culturales, en su gran parte, que los separan de la derecha libertaria».​ Otros pensadores anarquistas estadounidense presentes con ideas mutualistas son Joe Peacott y Shawn Wilbur. En Francia Michel Onfray reivindica a Proudhon y el pensamiento anarcoindividualista.​\n\nCríticas\n\nUna de las áreas de desacuerdo entre mutualistas y anarquistas comunistas viene de la defensa del dinero de parte de Proudhon para compensar a los individuos por su trabajo. Piotr Kropotkin, al igual que otros anarcocomunistas, abogó por la abolición del trabajo asalariado y cuestionó: «¿Cómo puede esta nueva forma de salario, la nota de trabajo, ser aprobada por los que admiten que las casas, los campos, las fábricas ya no son propiedad privada, que pertenecen a la comuna o la nación?».​ De acuerdo con George Woodcock, Kropotkin creía que un sistema de salarios de cualquier forma, «administrados por los Bancos del Pueblo o por las asociaciones de trabajadores a través de cheques de trabajo es una forma de coacción».​\nEl anarquista colectivista Mijaíl Bakunin fue un crítico del mutualismo proudhoniano​ afirmando «cuán ridículas son las ideas de los individualistas de [...] los mutualistas proudhonianos que conciben la sociedad como resultado de la libertad de contrato de las personas absolutamente independientes el uno del otro y entrar en relaciones mutuas sólo por el convenio elaborado entre los hombres. Como si estos hombres han descendido del cielo, trayendo con ellos discurso, voluntad, el pensamiento original, y como si se tratara de algo ajeno a la tierra, es decir, cualquier cosa que tiene origen social».​\nLas críticas de los sectores promercado también han sido comunes. El capitalista laissez faire George Reisman acusa al mutualismo de apoyar la explotación cuando este no reconoce el derecho al individuo a proteger la tierra que él ha mezclado con su trabajo si sucede que no la está usando.​ Reisman considera que la confiscación de esas tierras como el robo del producto del trabajo y ha dicho que «el mutualismo clama oponerse a la explotación de la mano de obra, es decir, el robo de cualquier parte de su producto. Pero cuando se trata de mano de obra que se ha mezclado con la tierra, se hace de la vista gorda a cabo volviéndose del lado del explotador».​ El economista y anarcocapitalista Walter Block dice sobre sostener la teoría del valor-trabajo mutualista en la actualidad: «Para alguien en este día y era, incluso a tomar en serio esta doctrina, y mucho menos tratar de defenderla realmente, es equivalente a hacer lo mismo con respecto a posiciones rechazadas amplia y apropiadamente como la tierra plana, o la teoría del flogisto. Es, en una palabra, medieval».​\nRoderick T. Long critica el argumento de mutualistas modernos, como Kevin A. Carson, quienes sostienen que los plenos derechos de propiedad privada no se derivan del concepto de autopropiedad, Long presenta el argumento de que si uno acepta la propiedad sobre uno mismo, como lo hace Carson, luego los derechos de apropiación sin-condición lockeana deben ser aceptados. Sin embargo, Long acepta el concepto de propiedad pública como válido y escribe que las comunidades pueden adquirir la tierra «por apropiación colectiva» lo que podría «ofrecer una base para los lockeanos no-condicionistas de reconocer como legítimo el régimen de propiedad de las comunidades mutualistas, georgistas, y lockeanas-condicionistas».​" ]

[ "Abadía de Honau\n\nLa abadía de Honau fue una desaparecida fundación monástica establecida en el primer cuarto del siglo VIII cuando monjes irlandeses se establecieron a una decena de kilómetros al norte de Estrasburgo, sobre una isla del Rin llamada Honau (Honaugia) que pertenecía entonces a Alsacia. Construyeron en honor a San Miguel, un monasterio que más tarde fue transformado en un capítulo colegial. En 1290, tras una inundación del Rin que cambió el curso, el lugar se volvió inhabitable.\nEl pueblo de Honau se encuentra actualmente en Alemania sobre la ribera derecha; el capítulo fue transferido en 1290-1292 a Rhinau, al sur de Estrasburgo, y finalmente, en 1398, a la Iglesia de Saint-Pierre-le-Vieux de Estrasburgo (Alt Sankt Peter zu Straßburg). Durante la Revolución francesa el capítulo fue suprimido.\n\nProsperidad material del monasterio\n\nDespués de la adquisición de la isla el monasterio de Honau empieza a brillar, y las limosnas fluyen al punto de constituir a esta iglesia en un muy rico territorio temporal. Las actas de donación se han perdido, pero gracias a un diploma de 884​se conocen las localidades donde estaban situados los bienes que conformaban los ingresos asignados para el mantenimiento de los monjes. Así, poseían bienes diseminados en 41 pueblos de los cuales la mayor parte pertenecía al Nordgau y algunos se encontraban del otro lado del Rin, en Breisgau y en Ortenau y, más al norte, en Hessen y tenían por otro lado dos iglesias en Maguncia. Nada nos informa sobre los ingresos del abad que también debieron ser considerables. Las localidades son:\n1. Localidad no identificada, Biura; 2. Kilstett, Chillistat; 3. Gambsheim, Gamanesheim; 4. Offendorf, Offonthorof; 5. Odratzheim, Odradesheim; 6. Rountzenheim, Ruadmundesheim; 7. Gougenheim, Cohchinheim;​8. Beinheim, Beininheim; 9. Endingen am Kaiserstuhl, Enthinga; 10. Eckbolsheim, Eggiboldesheim; 11. Hatten, Hadana; 12. Huttenheim, Hiudinheim; 13. Nieffern (pueblo incluido en la ciudad de Berstett), Niurida; 14. Kirchheim, Hiuhhiliheim; 15. Osthoffen, Hosthouon; 16. Barr, Barra; 17. Hurtigheim, Hurenheim; 18. Furdenheim, Uirdinheim; 19. Breuschwickersheim, Uuicheresheim; 19. Wickersheim-Wilshausen, Uuicheresheim; 20. Wangen, Uuanga; 21. Rangen, Reudiba; 22. Hœnheim, Hohanheim; 23. Localidad no identificada, Uuenilinga; 24. Schwindratzheim, Suuinderatesheim; 25. Wiwersheim, Uuieresheim;​26. Achenheim, Hakinheim; 27. Schiltigheim, Scildincheim; 28. Dahlenheim, Dalaheim; 29. Niedermodern, Matra; 29. Obermodern-Zutzendorf, Matra; 30. Ringendorf, Rinkindorof; 31. Mulhausen, Munilhuson; 32. Geispolsheim, Buahcgiezo; 33. Dieffenbach-au-Val, Diefengruaba; 34. Bodersweier (pueblo incluido en la ciudad de Kehl), Bothalasuuileri; 35. Widensolen, Uuidendunc;​36. Sundhouse, Sunninisheim;​37. Berstett, Bardesstat; 38. Appenweier, Abbunuuileri; 39. Maguncia, in Magontia basilicas II; 40. Bornheim, Burenheim;​41. Gottestal, Godestal.​\nHonau gozaba de la inmunidad real para su dominio temporal, el diploma de inmunidad más antiguo que se conserva es el de Pipino el Breve en 758.​\nPor otro lado, la exención de un derecho feudal (teloneum) que la abadía había obtenido del soberano desde el siglo VIII, privilegio gracias al cual los hombres pertenecientes a Honau podían comerciar sin pagar derechos en todos los países sometidos al rey franco, es testimonio de la actividad económica de esta gente e indirectamente, de la importancia temporal de Honau. Para una iglesia, este privilegio facilitaba el aprovisionamiento y favorecía seriamente la venta de productos de sus dominios y la compra de aquellos que no producían. Ubicada sobre la gran arteria que era el Rin, un poco al norte de Estrasburgo, ciudad próspera en la época carolingia, Honau tenía a este respecto una situación particularmente favorable. \nLos diplomas dados por Pipino el Breve, mayordomo de palacio entre 748-751​y Carlomagno en 781​a favor de Honau permiten conocer que estas actas habían sido precedidas por otra acta de la misma naturaleza emanada del rey Childerico III (743-751).\nHacia 771, la fortuna de Honau estaba constituida esencialmente por bienes inmuebles, hombres, numerarios y metales preciosos, oro y plata. Tales riquezas atrajeron la codicia, y hacia el momento en que Alsacia pasó a manos de Carlomagno después de la muerte del rey Carlomán, Honau fue víctima de varias personas que echaron mano a los bienes del monasterio. Los autores de estas depredaciones pretendieron ser propietarios de estos bienes, argumentando que los monjes extranjeros del reino franco no estaban habilitados a poseerlos. Negaban así los derechos de Honau. Se ignoran los nombres de las personas en cuestión, pero tal vez algunos fueran los descendientes de Eticho, quienes hasta 748 y 749, habían sido propietarios de una parte de la isla de Honau.\nEn esta situación crítica, el abad Beatus contacta a Carlomagno, algo normal ya que poco menos de veinte años antes el abad Dubanus había colocado todos los bienes del establecimiento bajo la protección de Pipino el Breve, convirtiendo así a Honau en una abadía real. Afortunadamente para Beatus, Carlomagno apreciaba la obra de los irlandeses y no se dejaba dominar por la aristocracia. Envió una orden contundente para que se restituyera todo lo que les habían arrebatado y a los jueces proceder, si fuere necesario, a la investigación pertinente.​Los bienes de los extranjeros, recordó él, son del rey (ius albinagii), y por el favor real los irlandeses son los únicos posesores de sus bienes. Los derechos de terceros sobre estos mismos objetos fueron por lo tanto excluidos. La intervención del rey logró su propósito. Para mayor precaución, el monarca despacha al abad Beatus una carta fechada en Quierzy, el 9 de junio de 775,​ por la cual confirma todos los bienes poseídos por el monasterio y sustituye los títulos perdidos por negligencia. Es evidente que circunstancias conflictivas habían causado la desaparición de ciertas piezas del cartulario de Honau. Estas posesiones fueron puestas a salvo de juicios a futuro.\nQuedaba sin embargo un asunto delicado por resolver: dos de las propiedades usurpadas se encontraban en posesión de otro establecimiento religioso. Los bienes en cuestión estaban situados en Alsacia, en Osthoffen (Oistiva) y en Hohengœft (Gefida). Un tal Immo los había donado a Honau mediante acta escrita, pero más tarde alguien llamada Gebirga los había tomado indebidamente y los había cedido, no se sabe en qué condiciones, a la célebre abadía de Corbie.\nCarlomagno llegó a Alsacia en 775 para pasar la Navidad en su palacio, en Schlettstadt. Se celebró entonces una corte plenaria para resolver el reclamo de la abadía de Honau. El caso fue litigado y discutido ante el rey por Othbertus, Vogt (advocātus) de Honau, enviado del abad Beatus y Agissericus y Aldradus, representantes de la abadía de Corbie. Las partes intentaron probar por sus títulos la legitimidad de sus posesiones. Carlomagno sin atreverse a decidir sobre la autenticidad de uno u otro de estos títulos, ordena, para conocer la verdad, la prueba conocida como el juicio de la cruz (crucis probatio). Esta ordalía, en virtud de la cual se daba por ganador de la causa a aquel que mantuviera por más tiempo los brazos extendidos, era entonces muy común. El concilio de Verberie la autorizaba en 753 mediante sus decretos, y Carlomagno la ordena incluso en el acta de partición (Divisio Regnorum) que hizo de sus Estados entre sus hijos, en 806. Ludovico Pío, su hijo hizo abolir esta práctica. De todos modos, Othbertus y Agissericus se sometieron al juicio de la cruz. Mientras se celebraba la misa delante de Carlomagno, uno y otro estaban de pie ante el altar con los brazos abiertos e inmóviles. Finalmente, Agissericus que tenía brazos, sin duda, menos vigorosos que Othbertus, se cansó primero y bajó el brazo que hizo perder la causa a su abadía. Esta prueba se consideró un milagro que hizo que los dos abogados de Corbie inmediatamente hicieran a Honau la cesión de los bienes en disputa, procediendo a entregar simbólicamente una paja al Vogt de Honau. Carlomagno adjudicó los bienes a esta última abadía por la sentencia que pronunció, asistido por Anselmus, conde de palacio y otros siete condes de su reino. Esta carta de 775 es la primera en Alsacia, donde se hace mención a los Vögte de las abadías (advocatii ecclesiae).​\nEstos hechos ilustran bien los cambios políticos provocados por el advenimiento de los carolingios: una vez colocada bajo la protección real, Honau ve su destino depender del soberano, así como antes el favor de la familia ducal de Alsacia había sido un elemento determinante.\n\nLas instituciones monásticas en Honau\n\nGracias a Honau podemos conocer dos instituciones de un monasterio de irlandeses en el continente.\nLa primera concierne a la elección del abad: el mismo no era elegido por los monjes ni nombrado por una autoridad cualquiera; era el abad en funciones quien designaba su sucesor, sistema bastante generalizado en Galia durante los siglos bárbaros. En su testamento el abad Beatus declara que él designará su sucesor. A este caso se añade la designación de Tubanus por el abad Benedictus en 722 o 723; este último encomienda la regla a su sucesor. Se ignora quién es el autor de esta regla monástica.\nLos abades-obispos constituyen la segunda institución. Similar a lo que sucedía en los monasterios de Irlanda, Honau tenía a la cabeza un abad que era al mismo tiempo obispo. Tal institución aumentaba de manera singular los poderes del abad. En un monasterio del continente que estaba comprendido en una diócesis (Honau formaba parte de la diócesis de Estrasburgo), tenía la ventaja de dar al abad independencia en lo espiritual con relación al obispo y le facilitaba el apostolado.\nCon respecto a esta institución en Honau, sabemos que el abad conserva esta costumbre hasta el ascenso de Carlomagno en esta parte del reino franco (771), y que se pierde poco después; en efecto Beatus fue únicamente abad y no obispo.\nLa desaparición del abad-obispo es ciertamente obra de los obispos diocesanos sostenidos por Carlomagno que gobernaban la Iglesia y estimaban que los monasterios debían estar sometidos a la jurisdicción espiritual de los obispos.\n\nNomina Honaugensium Episcoporum\n\nEl cartulario del siglo XV titulado Bisthumb Honaw contiene al dorso de la portada anterior una nota sobre los descendientes del duque de Alsacia Eticho, benefactores de Honau, seguida de una lista de los primeros obispos y abades de Honau. Esta lista indica que tres de los obispos fueron santos (videlicet Tubanus, Aegidanus, Benedictus; qui tres canonizati sunt):\n1. Sanctus Benedictus episcopus Honaugensis​\n2. Sanctus Dubanus episcopus Honaugensis​\n3. Thomas episcopus Honaugensis​\n4. Stephanus episcopus Honaugensis​\n5. Radalus episcopus Honaugensis​\n6. Wernherus episcopus Honaugensis​\n7. Joseph episcopus Honaugensis\n8. Joppann episcopus Honaugensis\n9. Recho episcopus Honaugensis​\n10. Selbach episcopus Honaugensis​\n11. Bernoldus episcopus Honaugensis​\n12. Fergal episcopus Honaugensis​\n13. Adollohc episcopus Honaugensis​\n14. Hialdus episcopus Honaugensis\n15. Doilgus episcopus Honaugensis​\n16. Sanctus Aydanus episcopus Honaugensis​\n17. Thomas episcopus Honaugensis\n18. Goe episcopus Honaugensis\n19. Lutfridus dux et abbas Honaugensis​\n20. Surlech abbas et episcopus Honaugensis​\n21. Beatus abbas Honaugensis​\n22. Donatus abbas Honaugensis​\n23. Muatwinus abbas Honaugensis.​\n\nSecularización y disolución\n\nLa abadía de Honau fue secularizada probablemente hacia fines del siglo XI, después del año 1079. Los religiosos de Honau vueltos canónigos vivieron en primer lugar en común con su preboste, que distribuía entre ellos diferentes oficinas claustrales relativas al servicio divino y a la administración temporal, ya que los prebostes conservaron el disfrute de casi todas las rentas de la colegiata. Se los asignaban como bienes propios y vinculados a su dignidad, y no dejaban sino muy poco para el mantenimiento de los canónigos, que solo gozaban de las rentas de algunas fundaciones particulares, o de una determinada porción de bienes del prebostazgo que mantenían el lugar de la prebenda. Heinrich III von Stahleck, obispo de Estrasburgo pensó eliminar este abuso, que acumulaba todas las riquezas en una única persona; volvió a poner en 1258 los bienes y las rentas del prebostazgo en la caja capitular para proporcionar a la subsistencia de los canónigos. Una medida similar fue tomada el 22 de abril de 1437 por el obispo Wilhelm II von Diest. Los prebostes de la colegiata de Honau, así como los de Rhinau, siempre procedían de la alta nobleza de Alsacia.\nEl daño causado por el Rin siempre inquieto en su curso vuelve a la isla de Honau inhabitable. Konrad III von Lichtenberg, obispo de Estrasburgo transfirió el 7 de septiembre de 1290 la colegiata a Rhinau, pueblo situado a 30 km al sur de Estrasburgo. Pero la cercanía del Rin vuelve a este segundo emplazamiento tan incómodo como el primero, los canónigos de Rhinau se establecieron en Estrasburgo por el permiso del obispo Wilhelm II von Diest, que les concedió la iglesia parroquial de Saint-Pierre-le-Vieux (Alt Sankt Peter zu Straßburg) para hacer la oficina canónica. El acta de esta nueva translación es del 22 de mayo de 1398. El nuevo capítulo de Saint-Pierre-le-Vieux se componía entonces de veinte canónigos: el número disminuyó en lo sucesivo, y las distintas reuniones lo volvieron a poner en dieciocho, tal como duró hasta la disolución de esta colegiata en 1790, como consecuencia de la Revolución.", "Municipio de Ébano\n\nOrígenes del nombre\n\nSe cuenta que en medio del paraje de la huasteca, en el que no existía ningún punto de referencia, al pie de las vías del ferrocarril donde descendían los trabajadores para ir a trabajar a los pozos petroleros recién descubiertos por el magnate norteamericano Edward L. Doheny, había crecido un enorme árbol de Ébano donde los obreros se protegían del sol mientras esperaban la llegada del tren de Valles para regresar a Tampico, o a que llegara el armón (pequeño carrito que corría sobre rieles impulsado por un motor de gasolina de pocos caballos y que iba del campo petrolero a las vías del ferrocarril a por los obreros y materiales de trabajo) para llevarlos a su centro de trabajo a unos 5 km de distancia.\nLa temperatura promedio al año en este municipio es de 38 ºC, motivo por el cual los trabajadores que llegaban en el tren que venía de paso de Tampico a Valles pedían al maquinista que los bajara \"en el ébano\", de allí de manera coloquial e inconsciente se le fue dando ese nombre a este lugar donde subían y bajaban los trabajadores del tren. Alguna señora puso al pie de la espesa sombra de aquel árbol un comal, su brasero y alguna banca para ofrecer comida y bebidas a los trabajadores que allí esperaban su transporte, por lo que ese árbol de ébano se convirtió en el único punto común de referencia en medio del monte.\nPosteriormente, cuando las necesidades de movilidad y transporte de materiales, herramientas, máquinas y mercancías creció junto con la población, se construyó una pequeña estación de ferrocarril y desde entonces empezó a aparecer en los documentos formales del ferrocarril el nombre de El Ébano como una parada oficial del tren.\nLa importancia de aquella estación era tal que la colonia donde se ubica lleva hasta la actualidad el nombre de \"La Estación\", debido a que en aquella época no existía ninguna comunicación por carretera ni a Tampico ni a Ciudad Valles, las dos poblaciones importantes más cercanas. Toda la comunicación con el primer campo petrolero mexicano era por medio del tren.\nEn 1973, los trabajadores del taller de carpintería de la zona industrial de Petróleos Mexicanos del municipio de Ébano obsequiaron al Presidente de la República, Luis Echeverría Álvarez, con un enorme escritorio que era en sí mismo una auténtica obra de arte. Estaba elaborado con esta madera preciosa y mostraba en su superficie un paisaje de los campos petroleros labrado mediante la técnica de repujado y empalillado.\n\nDatos Monográficos\n\nDenominación:\nÉbano, con referencia a un árbol de esta especie que se encontraba en la “parada” del Ferrocarril Central San Luís – Tampico inaugurado en 1890.\nLocalización:\nEl municipio se encuentra en la región huasteca, la cabecera municipal tiene las siguientes coordenadas: 98° 23’ longitud W. y 22° 13’ latitud N. Con una altura sobre el nivel del mar de 50 m. Sus límites son: al norte, al este y al sur con el Estado de Veracruz, al oeste con el municipio de Tamuín.\nExtensión:\nDe acuerdo a los datos proporcionados por el INEGI en el año 2000, la superficie total del Municipio es de 694,68 km² y representa el 1,15% del territorio estatal.\nOrografía:\nEl municipio está ubicado en la llanura costera del Golfo, con pendientes que van de suaves a planas, sin plegamientos orográficos de importancia, solamente 3 montículos: Cerro de la Dicha, Cerro de la Pez y Cerro de Auza.\nHidrografía:\nEl río Pánuco pasa por el extremo sur del municipio, donde recibe el nombre de río Oviedo. Al norte se encuentra una pequeña porción del río Tamesí, que a su paso por Ébano recibe el nombre de río Jopoy. Al sur de la cabecera municipal existen varias lagunas cuyos nombres son: Laguna Chica, De la Pez, Chanjoy, Laguna Seca y Laguna de Plan de Iguala.\nClima:\nEstá comprendido en la zona térmica Cw (templado con lluvias en verano), pero generalmente el clima es cálido subhúmedo con lluvias en verano. Su temperatura media anual es de 24,8 °C, las precipitaciones de 1150 mm y la temporada de lluvias ocurre en los meses de mayo a octubre. La sequía es de noviembre a mayo, la temporada cálida de abril a septiembre y el periodo de frío de octubre a marzo.\nFlora:\nSelva baja caducifolia. Predominan los pastizales cultivados, como: zacate estrella africana, guinea, pangola y búfell.\nFauna:\nVíboras de cascabel, conejos, liebres, tlacuaches, armadillos, cotorros, garzas, tordos, colibríes, venados, coyotes y gato montés.\nUso del suelo:\nSe utiliza en la ganadería y agricultura. Existen grades extensiones de tierra de riego, sin embargo este sistema resulta costoso.\nGrupos étnicos:\nLos más numerosos se encuentran en el poblado ejidal Ponciano Arriaga y aún conservan gran parte de su cultura ancestral. Los dialectos más usados son el Tének y Náhuatl. El censo reporta 3515 personas.\nNúmero de habitantes:\nEl Censo del año 2000 contempla un total de 39 687 habitantes con una densidad de 105,83 habitantes por km² y una tasa de crecimiento de 0,35, por lo que probablemente en el año 2009 Ébano ya rebasaba los 40 000 habitantes.\nComunicaciones:\nPoblación bien comunicada, cuenta con medios de tecnología punta. Además, la carretera 70 que une poblaciones importantes como Tampico, Pánuco y Cd. Valles también cuenta con servicio de carga por ferrocarril.\nActividades Económicas:\nLa mayor parte de la población, sobre todo la rural, se dedica a la agricultura, cultivando principalmente maíz, frijol, sorgo, papaya, tomate y pasto. Otra parte tiene como ocupación la ganadería de bovinos para leche y carne, además existe cría de ganado porcino, ovino y aves de corral en cantidades considerables. Se han instalado algunas empresas manufactureras que dan empleo a varias personas. La actividad comercial se lleva a cabo en establecimientos de diverso tipo.\nAtractivos históricos y culturales:\nSe encuentra el monumento al pozo Pez No. 1 que marcó el inicio de la era comercial del petróleo en México.\nEdificios construidos en el siglo pasado por las compañías petroleras utilizando materiales traídos de Europa.\nEn la comunidad de Ponciano Arriaga se encuentra una zona arqueológica de 50 ha.\nSus principales fiestas populares se realizan el 18 de marzo, fecha en la que se celebra la expropiación petrolera, el 21 de junio, aniversario del municipio Libre y las fiestas religiosas de cada una de las parroquias.\nCuenta con una gran tradición musical. En la actualidad existe una banda de música que ha sido considerada patrimonio cultural del estado, una orquesta y varios grupos musicales, entre estos últimos sobresale el grupo Selva Negra, intérpretes de música tropical característico de la región. Se practican danzas autóctonas y mestizas en diversas comunidades, así como bordados y tejidos de gran belleza.\nSu comida es variada, destacando platillos regionales como la barbacoa, el Zacahuil, Tamales de diferentes compuestos o pemoles, entre otros. Para recibir a sus visitantes existen 4 hoteles de 3 estrellas y otros de clase económica.\nLas comunidades más importantes son: Ponciano Arriaga, Pujal Coy, Aurelio Manrique, Plan de Iguala, Estación Velasco y Reforma.​\n\nÉpoca de la Conquista\n\nHernán Cortés conquistó la región huasteca en 1522. Coxcatlán fue escenario de una gran batalla entre conquistadores y los huastecos, donde los primeros a pesar de su superioridad en armas estuvieron a punto de ser vencidos, recibiendo una lección de patriotismo y valentía. El mismo Hernán Cortés fue herido en la fiera batalla y tuvo que refugiarse en Tampamolón, Corona, donde reposó algún tiempo para aliviarse y poder continuar.\nCortés llegó hasta Pánuco y allí fundó la Villa de Santiesteban del Puerto y repartió tierras y pueblos entre sus soldados. Dejó para su beneficio los señoríos de Tamuinic y Oxitipa (Tamuín y Cd. Valles), por lo que lo que hoy conocemos como Ébano quedó como propiedad de Hernán Cortés.\nEn la época de evangelización (1553), Ébano quedó bajo la custodia de Salvador de Tampico (fundado por el franciscano Andrés de Olmos). A esta región se le asignó un misionero que recorría el territorio de Pánuco, Ébano y Cd. Valles.\nEl pueblo de Tamatao fue encomendado a don Juan Muñoz de Zayas, quien lo había heredado de su padre, Andrés Muñoz, quien a su vez lo había recibido de Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán.\nDurante la época colonial, Ébano perteneció a la alcaldía mayor de Cd. Valles (población fundada en 1533 por Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán). Posteriormente, lo que hoy es el Estado de San Luis Potosí, en ese tiempo el extremo occidental, perteneció a la Audiencia de Nueva Galicia. El extremo oriental, donde se encuentra Ébano, pasó a formar parte de la Audiencia de México. Después estuvo incluido dentro del enorme latifundio de San Juan Evangelista del Mexquite, ahí ubicada la Ex-hacienda “El Tulillo”.​\n\nÉpoca Independiente\n\nLa hacienda “El Tulillo” contaba con una extensión de 90 000 hectáreas dotadas de exuberante vegetación y una gran población de fauna silvestre. Abundaban los árboles de maderas preciosas, limitaba entre los Estados de Tamaulipas, Veracruz y San Luis Potosí, sus tierras eran cruzadas por los ríos Tamesí, Naranjos y Tantuán. El Tulillo colindaba con otra hacienda llamada “Naranjos” (el casco de esta hacienda estuvo ubicado en el actual poblado de Nueva Apolonia, Tamaulipas). Los terrenos, a pesar de ser planos y propicios para la ganadería, estaban invadidos en algunas partes por fango y chapapote, lo que afectaba a los animales. A principios del siglo XX su dueño era el señor Mariano Arguinsoniz, que había heredado esta propiedad de sus padres españoles.\nEl chapapote de El Tulillo constituía un problema, ya que provocaba constantemente la muerte las reses. Además, el terreno no prestaba ninguna ventaja para la agricultura, pues gran parte del año permanecía seco.\nComo El Tulillo no tenía cerca, el ganado se internaba en terrenos de la hacienda Naranjos, ocasionando destrozos y perjuicios en esa propiedad de Gerardo Meade. Para evitar disgustos y problemas, a principios de 1901 Gerardo Meade pretendió comprar la hacienda vecina ofreciendo al Sr. Arguinsoniz la cantidad de $60 000,°° por El Tulillo, pero don Mariano quería $90 000,°°.​\nA principios de 1902, se unieron varios agricultores y formaron una empresa productora de granos llamada Productores de Granos del Tulillo.\n\nDescubrimiento de petróleo\n\nSi los conquistadores españoles vinieron tras el oro, los imperialistas anglosajones del siglo pasado llegaron tras el petróleo.\nEl significado de la palabra petróleo es aceite de piedra. Los indios de América lo utilizaban para impermeabilizar sus canoas, como incienso, medicina o como dentífrico (totonacas de Papantla). Además, se le atribuía gran valor económico, debido a que en 1784 Antoine Quinquet perfeccionó la lámpara iluminante utilizando petróleo como combustible y se generalizó su uso.\nEl 16 de abril de 1890 se inauguró la vía del Ferrocarril Central San Luis-Tampico, donde se estableció una parada en El Ébano. Esta obra fue realizada por la compañía Southern Pacific de EE.UU., que también construyó las obras portuarias de Tampico. El administrador del ferrocarril, el Sr. A.A. Robinson, comunicó a su amigo californiano Edward Laurence Doheny el descubrimiento de chapapote cerca de la vía en la región del Ébano y lo invitó a venir.\nEdward Laurence Doheny, un aventurero buscador de plata, oro y petróleo, hizo el viaje desde Los Ángeles, California, hasta Tampico en compañía del geólogo Charles A. Canfield y comprobó la información que le hizo llegar su amigo Robinson (Gerente del Ferrocarril). Al saber que El Tulillo estaba en venta, decidió invertir sus ahorros y además consiguió dinero en las oficinas generales del Ferrocarril Central en la Cd. de México. Regresó a Ébano acompañado del gerente Sr. A.A. Robinson y ofreció $300 000,°° por la hacienda de El Tulillo con sus ranchos La Dicha, La Pez y Chijolito, una superficie de 118 000 Has. Pagó a razón de 1,25 pesos por hectárea y empezó los trabajos de exploración.\nCon su socio Charles A. Canfield formó la compañía “Ébano Fuel” que autorizó el Departamento de minas del Gobierno de Porfirio Díaz. Los favoreció el decreto de la ley del petróleo del 24 de diciembre de 1901.\n\nLa Ley del Petróleo\n\nEl 24 de diciembre de 1901, el Congreso de la Unión decretó la Ley del Petróleo de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. En esta ley, el Congreso autoriza al Ejecutivo Federal para conceder permiso a fin de hacer exploraciones en el subsuelo de los terrenos baldíos nacionales, lagos, lagunas y abúlferas, con el objeto de descubrir fuentes o depósitos de petróleo o carburos gaseosos de hidrógeno.\nLos permisos se podían conceder a compañías particulares causando un derecho de cinco centavos por hectárea que se pagaría con estampillas, y las patentes de producción durarían 10 años. Además, no tendrían que pagar impuestos por importar por una sola vez toda la maquinaria necesaria para explotar y refinar el “crudo”, incluyendo tubería, tanques, gasómetros y materiales para edificios destinados a la explotación.\nTambién tenían derecho a comprar los terrenos nacionales necesarios al precio de tarifas de terreno baldío y podían pasar las tuberías por terrenos de propiedad particular.\nBasándose en esta beneficiosa ley para cualquier compañía extranjera, el General Porfirio Díaz hizo las primeras concesiones importantes al norteamericano Edward Laurence Doheny y al inglés Weetman Dickinson Pearson.\nLos primeros trabajadores petroleros en Ébano fueron gente del Altiplano Potosino, que había servido en la instalación de la vía del Ferrocarril Central San Luís Potosí Tampico.\n\nPozo \"La Pez No. 1\"\n\nEn 1901, la compañía inicia los trabajos de perforación, el 1 de abril se perfora el primero de 19 pozos, el “Uno Dicha”, obteniendo muy poca producción en este proyecto, por lo que Doheny estuvo a punto de irse a la quiebra. La compañía “Ébano Fuel” perdió 2,5 millones de dólares.\nA fines de 1901, el ministro de Hacienda José Ives Limantour giró un oficio para que una comisión de geólogos investigara las posibilidades petrolíferas de México, con el propósito de vigilar los trabajos de las 2 compañías autorizadas: la Mexican Petróleum Co. en Ébano y la del inglés Weetman Dickinson Pearson. Nombraron para esa comisión a los geólogos Juan Villarelo y Ezequiel Ordóñez. En 1902, un accidente ferroviario impide al Ing. Ordóñez llevar la información. Cuando logró hacerlo, su compañero ya había entregado la información errónea (tal vez lo hizo a propósito para beneficio de la compañía de Doheny) de que en México no había petróleo. Cuando Ordóñez se presentó en México para rectificar los informes de su compañero, no le dieron crédito y le despidieron del Instituto Geológico de México.\nDoheny al darse cuenta de la injusticia que habían cometido con Ezequiel Ordóñez y sabiendo de sus conocimientos en materia petrolífera, lo contrató para que trabajara en la Mexican Petroleum Co. Con el asesoramiento del Ing. Ordóñez se intensificaron los trabajos en Ébano, pero desgraciadamente la compañía había perdido 2,5 millones de dólares en la perforación de los 19 pozos anteriores, además los accionistas de California no querían invertir más dinero a la compañía y los bancos estadounidenses se negaban a otorgar mas créditos a la Mexican Petróleum Co., por lo que Doheny decidió suspender los trabajos y dejar solo el personal estrictamente necesario para vigilancia.\nA pesar de todo esto, Doheny no se dio por vencido y acudió a su amigo Gerardo Meade, consejero del Banco de San Luis Potosí S.A., para que intercediera en su favor a fin de que esa institución le prestara $50 000,°° en oro.\nUna conversación que sostuvieron una noche en el mes de diciembre de 1903 los señores Doheny, Canfield y el Ing. Ezequiel Ordóñez, cambió el destino de la Mexican Petróleum Co. Ezequiel Ordóñez convenció a los demás de que el sitio ideal para encontrar petróleo era lo más cercano al cerro de la Pez, donde se encontraban dos chapapotes (charcos de petróleo crudo) denominados “picis fontis” que en 1612 fueron localizados por el cartógrafo flamenco Abraham Ortelius.\nOrdóñez, basándose en los estudios hechos, aconsejó suspender los trabajos de la llanura entre el “Cerro de la Dicha”, la Estación de Ébano y la laguna, para que se empezara a perforar al pie del “Cerro de la Pez”. Doheny y Canfield consideraban esta idea descabellada, imposible de llevar a cabo. Después de muchas discusiones, Ezequiel Ordóñez los convenció y se acordó salir al “Cerro de la Pez” a la mañana siguiente.\nSirviéndose de diversos medios de transporte, Doheny, Canfield, Ordóñez y Herbort Wylie (brazo derecho de Doheny), llegaron al pie del Cerro. En cuanto llegaron a su destino, Ezequiel Ordóñez se dirigió a un chapapote y a unos cuantos metros del cantil de lava, al pie mismo de la colina, indicó a sus compañeros el lugar donde deberían perforar, aunque esta localización motivó nuevamente las protestas de los norteamericanos y tuvo que volverlos a convencer.\nDespués de numerosas dificultades, se logró transportar la maquinaria. Considerando el paisaje natural de selva baja y que el transporte más usual eran “bestias de carga”, pocos días después comenzó la perforación. A 177,3 metros se hizo la primera localización arrojando una producción de 28 barriles diarios. El 3 de abril de 1904, a una profundidad de 501,60 metros, brotó el pozo denominado “La Pez” número 1, lanzando un chorro de petróleo a 15 metros de altura, con una producción de 1500 barriles diarios que se sostuvo durante varios años.\nEste hecho sin precedente, concede el honor a Ébano de ser “La cuna del petróleo de México”. Gracias a la intervención tenaz del ingeniero mexicano Ezequiel Ordóñez y a la aportación de capital mexicano, empezó comercialmente la producción del petróleo en la República Mexicana.\n\nSe inicia la era comercial\n\nEn 1903, Doheny estableció la primera refinería de asfalto en Ébano ( La primera de América Latina). Estaba ubicada en lo que fue el Cuartel Militar, hoy Centro de Maestros Profra. María Modesta González González. Esta refinería funcionó hasta 1913 y de ahí salió el material para pavimentar las principales ciudades del país como Tampico, México, Monterrey, Puebla, Guadalajara y Morelia, además de ciudades de EE.UU. como San Francisco y Nueva York.\nTambién junto a la refinería hubo una fábrica de tambores de lámina para envasar el petróleo de exportación hacia los Estados Unidos y Europa (un barril de petróleo almacena 159 L).\nAl enterarse el país de que había trabajo por el petróleo, llegaron a Ébano hombres de varios estados de la república, principalmente de Guanajuato, Jalisco y Querétaro, que se sumaron a los llegados del Altiplano Potosino y de la Huasteca.\nEn 1904, el campamento de los trabajadores que se encontraba al sur de la vía del ferrocarril se traslada a las faldas del cerro de la Dicha, donde se construyeron las primeras casas de madera (camillas) que conocemos actualmente. La primera calle que se trazó fue la que hoy en día se llama Constitución, aunque su nombre original fue “calle ancha”.\nEl 10 de mayo de 1905, Doheny y A.A. Robinson firmaron un contrato para surtir de petróleo combustible al Ferrocarril Central Mexicano, 6000 litros diarios por un tiempo de 15 años.\nLos terrenos que adquirió Doheny en 1905 y en 1906 sirvieron para formar otras compañías como “La Huasteca Petróleum Company”, que fue constituida el 12 de febrero de 1907. En 1908 nació “El Águila” y el 28 de marzo de ese mismo año empezó a elaborar productos para el comercio. Las empresas de Doheny se fueron extendiendo con la protección del gobierno Porfirista. No sólo se dedicaban a explotar el subsuelo, sino también al pueblo mexicano. En ese tiempo llegaron a México diferentes compañías de intereses extranjeros, dejando una estela de terror y miseria, pues se valían de toda clase de artimañas, incluso de asesinatos, para adueñarse de los terrenos en los que había el codiciado “oro negro”. En 1908, el gobierno de don Porfirio Díaz estableció una regalía del 5% de la producción a favor de México.\nÉbano fue creciendo como campo petrolero y más trabajadores vinieron de diferentes partes de la república trayendo a sus familias, buscando mejores condiciones de vida, sin embargo no todo fue fácil.\nEn 1906 se inauguró una pequeña escuela en el lugar hoy llamado “Barrio Chino”. El maestro fue el Sr. Adolfo Cordero Ocampo. En esta escuela conocieron las primeras letras los hermanos Ortiz, los Cuevas, los López, los Banda, los Lee, Juan Rocha, los Chong o los Zamora, entre otros.\nEse mismo año llovió tanto que los lodazales y moscos no permitían trabajar, la población sufrió un epidemia de fiebre amarilla que causó la muerte de mucha gente y una gran alarma entre la población, lo que provocó la emigración de muchas familias. En esa época llegó a Ébano gente de Cerritos y del Altiplano para repoblar el lugar.\nEn 1906, la producción petrolera en Ébano se elevó a 527 000 barriles anuales y para 1907 rebasó el millón. Para almacenar toda esta producción fue necesario construir dos presas con capacidad para 100 000 barriles cada una: la “presa del cuartel” y la “presa del veintiuno”. También se tendió una vía ferroviaria angosta para transportar el crudo hasta las dos llenaderas que se encontraban en la estación del ferrocarril San Luis-Tampico (esta vía sirvió también para el tránsito de un tranvía que funcionó hasta fines de los 50).\nEl descubrimiento de la famosa “Faja de Oro” (1906), un anticlinal o estructura rocosa que en sus grutas almacena petróleo, se localizó en las costas del Golfo de México. Este yacimiento de 80 km de longitud por diez de ancho que se ubica en el corazón de la Huasteca Veracruzana fue un triunfo más para el ingeniero Ezequiel Ordóñez, que contribuyó a que México en 1920 produjera 157 500 000 barriles de petróleo y en 1921 ocupara el 2º lugar en producción a nivel mundial.\nEste atractivo laboral hizo que gente de muchas partes de México y del extranjero viniera a vivir en estos lugares. A Ébano llegaron familias de la República de China, quienes cocinaban los alimentos para los norteamericanos y además establecieron las primeras tiendas comerciales y “cafés”; también llegaron alemanes y, sobre todo, estadounidenses. La población de Tampico en el año 1920 era de 44 822 habitantes y en menos de diez años ascendió a 150 000. En 1924 la Villa de “Doña Cecilia” se independizó y se convirtió en la próspera Ciudad Madero. Durante el tiempo del auge petrolero (1920-1930) se desarrolló en Ébano, y principalmente en el puerto de Tampico, una cultura de derroche, grandes salones y bares: Tampico era la Nueva Orleans Mexicana.\n\nLa Batalla o Sitio de Ébano\n\nEl 13 de febrero de 1913 ocurrió la “Decena Trágica”: el presidente Madero fue traicionado y asesinado por órdenes del general Victoriano Huerta.\nEl 18 de febrero, el general Huerta fue investido presidente de la república, pero por su mal proceder en contra del presidente Madero, no es reconocido por don Venustiano Carranza y el Congreso de Coahuila. Se unen a la rebelión Francisco Villa, Álvaro Obregón y Pablo González, formando el ejército constitucionalista (defendía los postulados de la Constitución de 1857).\nEl 24 de junio de 1913, con la caída de Zacatecas, es derrotado el ejército de Victoriano Huerta y asume la presidencia Don Venustiano Carranza.\nCarranza, considerando haber logrado un ambiente de paz para el país, ordenó el licenciamiento del ejército federal. Algunos militares no lo aceptaron y se pasaron a las tropas villistas y zapatistas.\nEn 1914 se acordó hacer una convención en Aguascalientes para invitar a los jefes revolucionarios rebeldes a discutir un pacto de pacificación. Villa asiste, pero Zapata envía al Lic. Antonio Díaz Soto, quien rehúsa firmar los acuerdos tomados.\nLa convención reconoce el Plan de Ayala, acuerda el cese de Venustiano Carranza como jefe del ejecutivo y nombra a Eulalio Gutiérrez presidente interino. Así surge el conflicto de constitucionalistas (carrancistas) contra convencionistas (villistas). Carranza no reconoció la convención y trasladó el gobierno a Veracruz el 2 de noviembre de 1914.\n\nLa Batalla\n\nA finales de 1914 era necesario para los convencionistas apoderarse del puerto de Tampico porque este era el sitio que abastecía de provisiones al ejército de Carranza, además de ser un lugar estratégico. El paso por Ébano era obligado, dado que la topografía de ese tiempo no permitía avanzar por otra parte a causa de los pantanos, manglares y lagunas.\nCarranza encomendó la defensa del mejor punto de contención localizado en Ébano a los generales Manuel C. Lárraga y Cesar López de Lara (luego intervinieron los generales Jacinto Blas Treviño con el apoyo de Fernando Vizcaíno y Fernando Vázquez).\nLos villistas estaban encabezados por los generales Tomás Urbina y Manuel Chao. Las luchas duraron de diciembre de 1914 a mayo de 1915. Como hecho histórico importante, hay que destacar que se utilizó por primera vez el avión como arma bélica. El ataque más fuerte fue el 2 de abril de 1915 cuando combatieron alrededor de 5000 hombres por bando. No pudieron pasar los villistas.\nVilla ordenó la retirada el 31 de mayo, llevándose a su gente para combatir a Álvaro Obregón en Celaya. El general Jacinto Blas Treviño se alzó con la victoria, siendo el héroe de Ébano. En su memoria, una escuela del lugar lleva su nombre.\nEsta batalla favoreció definitivamente el curso de la historia, ya que en 1915 pudo llegar Carranza a Tampico desde donde inició una gira por Tamaulipas y el norte de la República.\nEl 1 de enero de 1916 el presidente Carranza decidió cambiar la capital federal a Querétaro y empezó a preparar la nueva Constitución que sería promulgada el 5 de febrero de 1917 (Constitución vigente).\n\nEl Sindicato\n\nÉbano, como todos los demás campos petroleros del país, en su inicio sufrió la discriminación y explotación de la clase obrera. Los salarios de los trabajadores eran bajos, no contaban con prestaciones de seguridad social para el trabajador y menos para su familia.\nEn Ébano, los jefes vivían en una colonia privada rodeada de fuertes vallas. Las casas fueron construidas de ladrillo traído de Europa, calles pavimentadas, prados y jardines bien cuidados, contaban con todos los lujos y confort de la época y tenían vigilancia armada que prohibía el acceso a la gente humilde. En contraste a esta opulencia, en el campo (campamento obrero) las casas eran sencillas, de madera (estilo americano), de diferentes estructuras y diseños. Se podían distinguir las casas de cabos, guardias, de las casas más sencillas (camillas) para los trabajadores de planta. Los trabajadores transitorios y peones utilizaban casas de varas, de raja de palma, con techo de zacate y suelo de tierra.\nEl 16 de septiembre de 1910 (109 años) se inauguró el flamante Casino Americano, hoy \"casino petrolero\", que vino a distinguir aún más la élite social. Ahí los jefes celebraban ostentosas fiestas y también servía como lugar de reuniones y esparcimiento. Tenía servicio de cafetería, un lujoso piano y juegos de mesa. Mientras, los trabajadores tenían una modesta construcción de madera a la que llamaban Casino Mexicano, que fue sustituido por el actual edificio del sindicato de la sección 3. Había una cancha de baloncesto donde se celebraban las fiestas de los trabajadores, siempre que contaran con la autorización de los jefes de la compañía.\nLas diferencias sociales motivaron a los trabajadores a reclamar sus derechos más elementales, aun a riesgo de ser castigados, ya que la fuerza y su vida estaban en manos de aquellos voraces explotadores y crueles extranjeros.\nNacieron las ideas del sindicalismo en México y entre los trabajadores petroleros de Ébano, surgieron también líderes que organizaron a la gente para participar en todos los movimientos de lucha que trajo como consecuencia el Sindicato Obrero, buscando beneficios sociales para sus familias.\nA principio de 1922, la empresa Huasteca Petroleum Co. autorizó la formación del Sindicato Católico “Pio XI”, que no era más que un instrumento para seguir controlando y explotando a los trabajadores ya que Edwar Doheny imponía a los dirigentes de la organización obrera, además de intimidar a cualquier líder utilizando pistoleros a sueldo (Guardias Blancas) que impedían a toda costa hacer reclamaciones laborales.\nEl 1 de mayo de 1932, en el acto de manifestación obrera hizo uso de la palabra el Sr. Jesús Martínez, que atacó abiertamente el proceder de la compañía.\nEn 1935 nació el Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores Petroleros de la República Mexicana y se eligió como Secretario General de la Sección 3 de Ébano al Sr. Fausto E. Cordero Uresti.", "Orígenes de la Guerra Fría\n\nExiste amplio consenso en que los orígenes de la Guerra Fría se encuentran estrecha y directamente ligados con las relaciones entre la Unión Soviética y los aliados (Estados Unidos, Reino Unido y Francia) entre los años 1945 a 1947. Estos eventos condujeron a la Guerra Fría que se extendió durante poco menos de medio siglo.\nLos eventos que precedieron la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y aún la Revolución rusa de 1917, configuraron tensiones previas a la Segunda Guerra Mundial entre la Unión Soviética, los países del oeste de Europa y los Estados Unidos. Una serie de eventos durante y luego de la Segunda Guerra Mundial exacerbaron las tensiones, incluido el pacto soviético-alemán durante los dos primeros años de la guerra dando lugar a invasiones, la demora en la invasión anfibia de la Europa ocupada por los alemanes, el apoyo por parte de los aliados occidentales a la Carta del Atlántico, los desacuerdos en las conferencias de guerra sobre la suerte de Europa del este, la creación por parte de los soviéticos del bloque del este de países satélites soviéticos, los aliados occidentales diagramando el plan Morgenthau para apoyar la reconstrucción de la industria alemana, y el plan Marshall.​\nLa Guerra Fría comenzó poco tiempo después de terminar la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el conflicto más destructivo en la historia del planeta. Los Aliados incluidos Estados Unidos, Francia, Gran Bretaña y la Unión Soviética derrotaron a las potencias del Eje: Alemania, Japón e Italia. Varios millones de personas murieron en la guerra y el conflicto expuso los extremos del salvajismo humano.\n\nLa Revolución Rusa\n\nEn la Primera Guerra Mundial, Estados Unidos, Gran Bretaña y Rusia fueron aliados durante siete meses, desde abril de 1917 hasta que los bolcheviques tomaron el poder en Rusia en noviembre. En 1918, los bolcheviques negociaron un acuerdo de paz separado con las potencias centrales en el Tratado de Brest-Litovsk. Esta paz acordada por separado contribuyo a que los norteamericanos desconfiaran de los soviéticos, ya que dejaba a los aliados occidentales que continuaran peleando solos contra las potencias centrales.\nDebido a la revolución bolchevique de 1917 en Rusia seguido de su retiro de la Primera Guerra Mundial, la Rusia soviética se encontró aislada en el campo de la diplomacia internacional.​ El líder Vladímir Lenin expreso que la Unión Soviética se encontraba rodeada por una \"rueda capitalista hostil\" y consideraba a la diplomacia un arma para mantener divididos a los enemigos de Rusia, comenzando con la creación del Comintern soviético, que propugnaba los alzamientos revolucionarios en el extranjero.​ Las tensiones entre Rusia (incluidos sus aliados) y el Oeste adquirieron una fuerte connotación ideológica. La llegada de tropas norteamericanas a Rusia en 1918, que se involucraron prestando asistencia a los blancos anti-bolcheviques en la Guerra Civil Rusa ayudó a fomentar las sospechas de los líderes soviéticos sobre el mundo capitalista. Este fue el primer evento que tornó a las relaciones ruso-norteamericanas en un tema importante y de largo alcance, para los líderes de cada país.​\n\nDiplomacia entre las guerras (EE.UU) (1918–1939)\n\nLuego de ganar la guerra civil, los bolcheviques proclamaron un desafío a nivel mundial al capitalismo.​ Al respecto Iósif Stalin el líder soviético, que consideraba a la Unión Soviética una \"isla \", expresó que la Unión Soviética debe trabajar para que \"el actual cerco capitalista sea reemplazado por un cerco socialista.\"​\nYa en 1925, Stalin expresó que consideraba a la política internacional como un mundo bipolar en el cual la Unión Soviética atraería países hacia el socialismo y los países capitalistas atraerían países con preferencias capitalistas mientras que el mundo se encontraba en un periodo de \"estabilización temporaria del capitalismo\" que precedía su eventual colapso.​ Varios eventos alimentaban la sospecha y la desconfianza entre las potencias occidentales y la Unión Soviética: el desafío bolchevique al capitalismo;​ la guerra polaco-soviética; el apoyo financiero por parte de los soviéticos en 1926 de una huelga general de trabajadores británicos que condujo a que Gran Bretaña rompiera relaciones con la Unión Soviética;​ La declaración de Stalin en 1927 sobre que la coexistencia pacífica con \"los países capitalistas... se está retrotrayendo al pasado\";​ alegaciones conspirativas durante el Proceso de Shajty sobre un golpe de estado liderado por franceses y británicos;​ la Gran Purga que comprendió varias campañas de represión y persecución política en las cuales más de medio millón de soviéticos fueron ejecutados;​ los Juicios de Moscú incluidas acusaciones de espionaje por parte de británicos, franceses, japoneses y alemanes;​ la muerte controvertida de 6 a 8 millones de personas en la República Socialista Soviética de Ucrania durante la hambruna en Ucrania de 1932 y 1933; el apoyo por occidente al Ejército blanco durante la Guerra Civil Rusa; la negativa de Estados Unidos de reconocer a la Unión Soviética sino hasta 1933;​ y la firma por parte de los soviéticos del Tratado de Rapallo.​ Como consecuencia las relaciones ruso-norteamericanas pasaban a ser un importante y continuo tema de preocupación para los líderes de ambos países.​\nLas diferencias entre los sistemas políticos y económicos de las democracias occidentales y la Unión Soviética — socialismo versus capitalismo, autarquía económica versus libre comercio, planificación del estado versus emprendimiento privado— fueron simplificadas y refinadas en ideologías nacionales para representar dos modos de vida. Luego del Temor rojo, posterior a la primera guerra muchos en Estados Unidos consideraban al sistema soviético una amenaza. La naturaleza ateísta del comunismo soviético también preocupaba a muchos norteamericanos. Los ideales norteamericanos de libre determinación y los Catorce Puntos del presidente Woodrow Wilson chocaban con muchas de las políticas de la Unión de Repúblicas Socialistas Soviéticas. Hasta mediados de la década de 1930, los políticos británicos y norteamericanos suponían que la Unión Soviética comunista era una amenaza mucho más grande que la Alemania desarmada y democrática y por ello gran parte de sus esfuerzos de inteligencia estaban enfocados contra Moscú. Sin embargo, también se ha sostenido que en el período entre las dos guerras mundiales, Estados Unidos tenía escaso interés en la Unión Soviética o sobre sus intenciones. Estados Unidos, luego de una mínima contribución a la Primera Guerra Mundial y la Guerra Civil rusa, comenzó a favorecer una posición aislacionista en lo que respecta a políticas globales (algo que posteriormente contribuiría a su tardío ingreso en la Segunda Guerra Mundial). Un ejemplo en este sentido es su ausencia de la Liga de las Naciones, un foro político internacional, en el espíritu de las Naciones Unidas; si bien el presidente Woodrow Wilson fue uno de los principales propulsores de la Liga de las Naciones; sin embargo el senado de Estados Unidos, se opuso a que Estados Unidos formara parte de la misma. Estados Unidos estaba experimentando un crecimiento económico sin precedentes a lo largo de la década de 1910 y comienzos de la década de 1920. Sin embargo, pronto el mundo sería afectado por la Gran Depresión y por lo tanto Estados Unidos estaba menos propenso a realizar concesiones a la política internacional mientras sufría de serios problemas internos financieros y sociales.\nAdemás los soviéticos tenían resentimiento por la Política de apaciguamiento occidental hacia Adolf Hitler especialmente luego de la firma de los Acuerdos de Múnich en 1937.\n\nPacto Ribbentrop-Mólotov y el comienzo de la Segunda Guerra Mundial (1939–1941)\n\nLas sospechas se intensificaron cuando en el verano de 1939, luego de realizar negociaciones tanto con un grupo británico-francés y otro alemán sobre posibles acuerdos militares y políticos,​ la Unión Soviética y Alemania firmaron un Acuerdo comercial para potenciar el comercio de ciertos equipos militares y civiles alemanes a cambio de materia prima soviética​​ y el Pacto Ribbentrop-Mólotov, así denominado por los nombres de los dos secretarios de relaciones extranjeras (Ribbentrop-Mólotov), el pacto incluía un protocolo adicional secreto para dividirse Polonia y el este de Europa entre los dos estados.​​\nUna semana luego de la firma del pacto Ribbentrop-Mólotov, comenzó la partición de Polonia con la invasión alemana del oeste de Polonia.​ Las relaciones entre la Unión Soviética y Occidente se deterioraron aún más cuando, dos semanas luego de la invasión alemana, la Unión Soviética invade el este de Polonia coordinando con las fuerzas alemanas.​ Luego la Unión Soviética invade Finlandia, que también había sido cedida por el protocolo secreto del pacto Ribbentrop-Mólotov,​ pero sufren importantes pérdidas y finalmente acuerdan un tratado de paz provisorio mediante el cual Finlandia le cede partes del este de su territorio.​ En junio, los soviéticos emiten un ultimátum exigiendo Besarabia, Bukovina y parte de la región de Hertza de Rumania, luego de lo cual Rumania cede ante las demandas soviéticas de ocupación.​ Ese mes, los soviéticos también se anexaron los países Bálticos de Lituania, Estonia y Letonia​​\nDesde agosto de 1939 a junio de 1941 (cuando Alemania rompió el pacto e invadió la Unión Soviética), las relaciones entre occidente y los soviéticos se deterioraron más aún cuando la Unión Soviética y Alemania implementaron una relación económica de gran escala mediante la cual la Unión Soviética le enviaba a Alemania materias primas vitales tales como petróleo, caucho, manganeso y otros materiales a cambio de armas, maquinaria para fábricas y tecnología alemana.​​ A finales de 1940, los soviéticos también comenzaron conversaciones con Alemania sobre una posible incorporación al Eje, que culminaron en un intercambio de propuestas escritas, aunque nunca se terminó de acordar la incorporación de la Unión Soviética al Eje.​\n\nAlianza durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial (1941–1945)\n\nDurante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Kim Philby espía encubierto de la NKVD soviética tuvo acceso a muy importante información de inteligencia del MI6 británico, y la pasó a los soviéticos.\nEl 22 de junio de 1941, Alemania rompió el pacto Mólotov–Ribbentrop con la Operación Barbarroja invadiendo la Unión Soviética a través de los territorios que ambos países se habían repartido con anterioridad.​ Stalin pasó de cooperar con Hitler (véase el Tratado Germano-Soviético de Amistad, Cooperación y Demarcación) a hacerlo con Churchill. Gran Bretaña y los soviéticos firmaron una alianza formal, pero Estados Unidos no se unió sino hasta después del ataque de Pearl Harbor el 7 de diciembre de 1941. Inmediatamente, hubo desacuerdos entre Polonia que era aliado de Gran Bretaña y la Unión Soviética. Los británicos y los polacos tenían fuertes sospechas de que, cuando Stalin había cooperado con Hitler, había ordenado la ejecución de unos 8.000 oficiales polacos prisioneros de guerra, en lo que posteriormente se denominó la masacre de Katyn. Aún a pesar de estas tensiones, los soviéticos y los aliados de occidente estaban obligados a cooperar. Estados Unidos envió grandes cantidades de material mediante el programa Préstamo y Arriendo a los soviéticos.\nDurante la guerra, ambos lados tuvieron desacuerdos sobre estrategia militar, especialmente en lo que respecta a abrir un segundo frente de guerra en el oeste de Europa.\nYa en julio de 1941, Stalin le solicitó a Gran Bretaña que invadiera el norte de Francia, sin embargo los ingleses no estaban preparados para realizar dicha tarea en ese momento.​ Lo cual finalmente ocurrió en el día D, el 6 de junio de 1944.\nA comienzos de 1944, el MI6 había revivido su Sección IX, su sección anti-soviética anterior a la guerra, y Philby fue destacado allí. Philby alertó a la NKVD sobre toda la inteligencia británica relacionada con los soviéticos incluida la información que la OSS norteamericana había compartido con los ingleses sobre los soviéticos.\nLos soviéticos pensaban en esa época, y lo continuaron creyendo durante la Guerra Fría, que los británicos y los norteamericanos habían demorado intencionalmente la apertura del segundo frente contra Alemania de forma de intervenir solo a último minuto e influir de esta manera sobre los acuerdos de paz y así dominar Europa. Algunos historiadores como John Lewis Gaddis no están de acuerdo con dicha postura, presentando información sobre temas militares y estratégicos que rodearon a la invasión en Normandía.​ Mientras, los soviéticos experimentaban gran número de bajas, que ascendieron a veinte millones de muertos. De todas maneras, las percepciones (o opiniones erradas) soviéticas sobre Occidente y viceversa dejaron grandes tensiones y hostilidad subyacentes entre las potencias aliadas.​\nPor su parte en 1944, para los aliados los soviéticos habían demorado de manera deliberada la ayuda al alzamiento de Varsovia de la ejército de resistencia polaco contra los nazis. Los soviéticos no proveyeron suministros por el aire al alzamiento, y durante bastante tiempo se negaron a permitir que los británicos y norteamericanos lanzaran suministros desde el aire. En por lo menos una ocasión, un avión soviético derribó un avión de suministro de la RAF que entregaba suministros a los insurgentes polacos en Varsovia. George Orwell realizó una advertencia pública sobre las intenciones soviéticas en la postguerra. Una 'guerra secreta' tuvo lugar entre la Armia Krajowa apoyada por la SOE británica y los partisanos soviéticos apoyados por la NKVD. En estos enfrentamientos, el agente polaco de fuerzas especiales Maciej Kalenkiewicz que había sido entrenado por los británicos fue matado por los soviéticos. Los británicos y soviéticos también apoyaban a elementos de resistencia opuestos entre sí en Yugoslavia y Grecia.\nAdemás, ambos lados tenían ideas distintas sobre el establecimiento y mantenimiento de la seguridad al concluir la guerra. Los norteamericanos tendían a considerar la seguridad en términos situacionales, suponiendo que, si se creaba un gran número de gobiernos y mercados similares al estilo norteamericano, los países podrían resolver sus diferencias de forma pacífica, mediante organizaciones internacionales.​ La clave de la visión norteamericana para la seguridad del mundo de la post guerra, era un mundo de post guerra conformado sobre los principios establecidos en la Carta del Atlántico de 1941, en otras palabras, un sistema internacional liberal basado en el comercio libre y mercados abiertos. Esta visión requería reconstruir una Europa capitalista, con una Alemania saludable en su centro, que sirviera nuevamente como un polo de temas globales.​\nEllo también demandará el liderazgo económico y político de Estados Unidos del mundo posguerra. Europa necesitaba la ayuda de Estados Unidos si es que iba a reconstruir su producción doméstica y financiar su comercio internacional. Estados Unidos era la única potencia del mundo que no estaba devastada económicamente por la guerra. Hacia el final de la guerra, producía casi el 50% de la producción de bienes industriales del mundo.​\nSin embargo, los líderes soviéticos, tendían a considerar la seguridad en términos de espacio.​ Este razonamiento se encontraba condicionado por las experiencias históricas de Rusia, dada la frecuencia con la cual el país había sido invadido en los últimos 150 años.​ La Segunda Guerra Mundial fue una experiencia especialmente dramática para los soviéticos: la Unión Soviética sufrió una devastación sin precedente como consecuencia de la matanza nazi, y más de 20 millones de ciudadanos soviéticos murieron durante la guerra; decenas de miles de ciudades, pueblos y villas soviéticas fueron arrasadas; y 30 100 fábricas soviéticas fueron destruidas.​ De manera de prevenir un asalto similar en el futuro, Stalin estaba determinado a utilizar al Ejercito Rojo para controlar Polonia, de manera de dominar los Balcanes y destruir de forma absoluta la capacidad de Alemania para poder involucrarse en otra guerra. El problema es que la estrategia de Stalin arriesgaba confrontar con Estados Unidos un adversario igualmente poderoso, quien consideraba a las acciones de Stalin eran una violación abierta del acuerdo de Yalta.\nA finales de la guerra en Europa, en mayo de 1945, los soviéticos insistían en ocupar la isla danesa de Bornholm, a causa de su posición estratégica en la entrada del Báltico. Cuando el comandante alemán local insistió en rendirse a los aliados occidentales, tal como habían hecho las fuerzas alemanas en el resto de Dinamarca, los soviéticos bombardearon la isla, causando gran número de bajas y daño entre la población civil que apenas había sido tocada por la guerra, y luego invadieron la isla y la ocuparon hasta mediados de 1946, todo lo cual puede ser considerado parte de las acciones iniciales de la Guerra Fría.\nYa antes de que terminara la guerra, parecía altamente probable que la cooperación entre las potencias occidentales y la URSS daría lugar a una intensa rivalidad o conflicto. Esto se debía básicamente a los marcados contrastes entre las ideologías políticas de las dos superpotencias, ahora las más poderosas del mundo. Mientras que Estados Unidos era un democracia de dos partidos con una economía capitalista avanzada, basada en la libre empresa y la ganancia, la Unión de Repúblicas Socialistas Soviéticas era un estado socialista de partido único con una economía planificada con fuerte presencia estatal.\n\nRelaciones durante la postguerra\n\nEn 1945, la Unión Soviética llevó a cabo una farsa judicial al \"juzgar\" a 16 líderes de la resistencia polaca que habían luchado durante la guerra contra los nazis con ayuda británica y norteamericana. Al cabo de seis años 14 de ellos habían muerto.\nEn los Juicios de Nuremberg, el fiscal general soviético presentó información falsa en un intento de acusar a alemanes por el asesinato de unos 22,000 oficiales polacos en el bosque de Katyn cerca de Smolensk. Sin embargo, al sospechar la culpabilidad de los soviéticos, los otros fiscales aliados se negaron a apoyar la acusación, además los abogados alemanes amenazaron con presentar una defensa que sería embarazosa para los rusos. Finalmente nadie fue acusado ni encontrado culpable en Nuremberg de la masacre del bosque de Katyn.​ En 1990, el gobierno soviético reconoció que la masacre de Katryn había sido llevada a cabo, no por los alemanes, pero sino por la policía secreta soviética.​\nA partir de septiembre de 1945, Witold Pilecki un miembro de la resistencia polaca y justo fue enviado por el General Anders a espiar a los comunistas en Polonia. En 1948, Pilecki fue ejecutado acusado de espionaje y de 'servir a los intereses del imperialismo extranjero'.\n\nConferencias durante la guerra\n\nVarios de los desacuerdos de la postguerra entre los líderes de occidente y los líderes soviéticos estaban relacionados con sus interpretaciones diferentes de las conferencias durante y posteriores a la guerra.\nLa Conferencia de Teherán a finales de 1943 fue la primera conferencia aliada a la cual concurrió Stalin. En la conferencia los soviéticos expresaron su frustración porque los aliados occidentales todavía no habían abierto un segundo frente contra Alemania en el oeste de Europa. En Teherán, los Aliados también conversaron sobre el estatus político de Irán. En esa época los británicos ocupaban el sur de Irán, mientras que los soviéticos habían ocupado un sector en el norte de Irán lindero con la república soviética de Azerbaijan. De todas formas, al finalizar la guerra, surgieron tensiones sobre los tiempos para que ambos lados de retiraran de esta región con importantes reservas petroleras.\nEn febrero de 1945 en la Conferencia de Yalta, los Aliados intentaron definir el andamiaje para una organización de Europa en la postguerra. Los Aliados no pudieron alcanzar acuerdos firmes sobre los temas principales: la ocupación de Alemania, las compensaciones postguerra por parte de Alemania, y los préstamos. No se logró acordar un consenso final en cuanto a Alemania, más allá de acordar con un pedido soviético en que el total de las compensaciones de guerra debía ser de unos 10 000 millones de dólares \"como base para negociar.\"​ Los debates sobre la composición del gobierno de postguerra de Polonia también fueron acalorados.​\nLuego de la victoria Aliada en mayo, los soviéticos ocuparon de hecho el este de Europa, mientras que Estados Unidos abarcaba casi toda Europa Occidental. En la Alemania ocupada, Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética acordaron zonas de ocupación y un esquema indicativo para el control por las cuatro potencias incluidas Francia y Gran Bretaña.\nEn la Conferencia de Potsdam que comenzó a finales de julio de 1945, los Aliados se reunieron para decidir como administrar a la Alemania nazi derrotada, que había aceptado rendirse de manera incondicional nueve semanas antes el 7 y 8 de mayo de 1945, día VE (día de la Victoria en Europa). Importantes diferencias surgieron en torno al desarrollo futuro de Alemania y de Europa del Este.​ En Postdam, Estados Unidos estaba representado por un nuevo presidente, Harry S. Truman, quién el 12 de abril se hizo cargo del gobierno luego de la muerte de Roosevelt. Truman desconocía los planes de Roosevelt para la postguerra en relación a la Unión Soviética, y en general estaba desinformado sobre temas de política exterior y militares.​ Por lo tanto el nuevo presidente, inicialmente dependía de un grupo de asesores (que incluía al embajador ante la Unión Soviética Averell Harriman, el secretario de guerra Henry L. Stimson y el secretario de estado de Truman, James F. Byrnes). Este grupo tendía a tomar una posición más dura hacia Moscú que la que había tenido Roosevelt.​ Aquellos miembros del gobierno que favorecían la cooperación con la Unión Soviética y la incorporación de las economías socialistas en un sistema nundial de libre comercio fueron marginados. Gran Bretaña estaba representada por un nuevo primer ministro, Clement Attlee, que había reemplazado a Churchill luego que el Partido Laborista venciera a los Conservadores en la elección general de 1945.\nUna semana después de que finalizara la Conferencia de Potsdam, los bombardeos atómicos de Hiroshima y Nagasaki incrementaron la desconfianza soviética con respecto a Estados Unidos, cuando poco después de los ataques, Stalin protestó ante personal del gobierno norteamericano cuando Truman dejó a los soviéticos casi sin influencia real sobre el Japón ocupado.​\nLa terminación abrupta de los envíos de material de guerra desde Estados Unidos a la URSS luego de la rendición de Alemania también molestó a algunos políticos en Moscú, quienes interpretaban que Estados Unidos no tenía intenciones de apoyar a la URSS más allá de lo estrictamente imprescindible.\n\nDesafíos de la desmilitarización de la postguerra\n\nLos acuerdos de la Conferencia de Yalta, a la que concurrieron el presidente norteamericano Franklin Roosevelt, el primer ministro británico Winston Churchill, y el líder soviético Joseph Stalin, fueron claves para definir el balance de poder en Europa durante el período de la postguerra.\nSin embargo, hacia el final de la guerra, Stalin estimaba que eran escasas las probabilidades de un frente anglo-norteamericano contra la Unión Soviética. Al final de la guerra, Stalin supuso que el bando capitalista retomaría su rivalidad interna sobre colonias y comercio, y que recién en una fecha posterior se dedicarían a actividades expansionistas, en vez de representar una amenaza para la URSS. Stalin pensaba que Estados Unidos cederia ante la presión popular doméstica para una desmilitarización postguerra. Los asesores económicos soviéticos tales como Eugen Varga predecían que Estados Unidos recortaría sus gastos militares, y por lo tanto padecería de una crisis de sobreproducción, que culminaría en otra gran depresión. Basándose en el análisis de Varga, Stalin supuso que Estados Unidos le ofrecería a los soviéticos ayuda para la reconstrucción postguerra, dada su necesidad de encontrar un destino para sus inversiones masivas de capital y así poder mantener la producción industrial del período de la guerra que le había permitido a Estados Unidos salir de la Gran Depresión.​ Sin embargo, para gran sorpresa de los líderes soviéticos, los Estados Unidos no sufrieron una crisis severa de sobreproducción en la postguerra. En contra de lo que Stalin había supuesto, las inversiones de capital en la industria continuaron manteniendo aproximadamente los mismos niveles de gasto gubernamental.\nEn Estados Unidos, fue difícil regresar a la economía anterior a la guerra. Si bien la cantidad de tropas en Estados Unidos se redujo a una pequeña fracción de la cantidad existente durante la guerra, no se eliminó el complejo militar-industrial norteamericano que fue creado durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Existían fuertes presiones para \"regresar a la normalidad\". El Congreso quería regresar a presupuestos pequeños y equilibrados, y las familias pedían que los soldados regresaran a sus hogares. La principal preocupación del gobierno de Truman era el bajón postguerra, y la siguiente eran las consecuencias inflacionarias de un incremento en la demanda de bienes y servicios. La G.I. Bill, aprobada en 1944, fue una respuesta a este problema: subsidiar a los veteranos para que completaran su educación en vez de inundar el mercado laboral y probablemente disparar la tasa de desempleo. Finalmente, el gobierno de postguerra de Estados Unidos guardaba un gran parecido coon el gobierno en tiempos de la guerra, con grandes gastos en las fuerzas armadas —junto con las industrias militares y de seguridad. El bajón capitalista postguerra predicho por Stalin fue evitado mediante la gestión doméstica del gobierno, combinada con el éxito en promover el comercio internacional y las relaciones monetarias.\n\nVisiones antagónicas sobre la reconstrucción de la postguerra\n\nHabía diferencias fundamentales entre las visiones de Estados Unidos y de la Unión Soviética, entre los ideales del capitalismo y el comunismo. Estas diferencias habían sido simplificadas y refinadas en ideologías nacionales para representar dos formas de vida, cada una de ellas avalada en 1945 por desastres anteriores a la guerra. Modelos antagónicos de autarquía versus exportaciones, y de planificación estatal versus iniciativa privada, iban a servir de base para la confrontación del mundo en los años de la postguerra.\nLos líderes norteamericanos siguiendo los principios de la Carta del Atlántico, tenían la esperanza de modelar el mundo posterior a la guerra abriendo los mercados mundiales al comercio internacional. Los analistas del gobierno eventualmente llegaron a la conclusión que era esencial para mantener la prosperidad en Estados Unidos, reconstruir una Europa Occidental capitalista que pudiera servir nuevamente como punto importante de referencia en el debate de los temas del mundo.\nLa Segunda Guerra Mundial destruyó gran cantidad de infraestructura y población en Eurasia de la cual prácticamente no se libró ningún país. Estados Unidos fue la única potencia industrial del mundo que emergió intacta, y hasta revitalizada desde un punto de vista económico. Como la mayor potencia industrial de mundo, y como uno de los pocos países físicamente intactos por la guerra, los Estados Unidos se beneficiarían de abrir todo el mundo al libre comercio. Estados Unidos tendría un mercado global para sus exportaciones, y tendría acceso irrestricto a materias primas vitales. Determinados a evitar otra catástrofe económica como la de la década de 1930, los líderes de Estados Unidos consideraban que el establecimiento del orden de postguerra era una forma de asegurar la prosperidad de Estados Unidos.\nDicha Europa necesitaba de una Alemania sana. Estados Unidos en la postguerra era una potencia económica que producía el 50% de la producción mundial de bienes industriales y un poderío militar sin rival con un monopolio de la nueva bomba atómica. También era preciso desarrollar nuevas agencias internacionales: el Banco Mundial y el Fondo Monetario Internacional, que fueron creados para asegurar una economía abierta, capitalista e internacional. La Unión Soviética decidió no formar parte de los mismos.\nLa visión norteamericana del mundo de la postguerra chocaba con los objetivos de los líderes soviéticos, quienes, también estaban motivados a definir la Europa de la postguerra. Desde 1924 la Unión Soviética, había asignado una mayor prioridad a su propia seguridad y desarrollo interno que a la visión de Leon Trotsky de una revolución mundial. Por lo tanto, antes de la guerra Stalin había sido proclive a establecer relaciones con gobiernos no comunistas que reconocieran la dominación soviética sobre su zona de influencia y ofrecer tratados de no agresión.\n\nCreación del Bloque del Este\n\nLuego de la guerra, Stalin buscó asegurar la frontera occidental de la Unión Soviética instalando una serie de regímenes dominados por el comunismo bajo influencia soviética en los países fronterizos. Durante y en los años inmediatamente posteriores a la guerra, la Unión Soviética anexó varios países con el estatus de Repúblicas Socialistas Soviéticas (RSS) a la Unión de Repúblicas Socialistas Soviéticas (URSS). Muchos de ellos eran países que originalmente le habían sido cedidos por la Alemania Nazi en el pacto Mólotov-Ribbentrop, antes de que Alemania invadiera la Unión Soviética. Posteriormente la Unión Soviética anexó los territorios del este de Polonia (incorporados en dos RSSs diferentes),​ Letonia (que pasó a ser la RSS de Letonia),​​​ Estonia (que pasó a ser la RSS de Estonia),​​ Lituania (que pasó a ser la RSS de Lituania),​​ parte este de Finlandia (RSS Carelo-Finesa, y anexada a la RSS de Rusia)​ y el norte de Rumania (que pasó a ser la RSS de Moldavia).​​\nOtros estados fueron convertidos en estados satélites soviéticos, tales como Alemania Oriental,​ la República Popular de Polonia, la República Popular de Hungría,​ la República Socialista de Checoslovaquia,​ la República Popular de Rumania y la República Popular de Albania,​ que en la década de 1960 se alejó de Unión Soviética y se alineó con la República Popular de China.\nLa característica distintiva del comunismo estalinista que se implementó en los estados del Bloque del Este fue la simbiosis del estado con la sociedad y la economía, lo que produjo que la política y la economía dejaran de ser esferas autónomas y distinguibles.​ Inicialmente, Stalin impuso sistemas que rechazaban las características institucionales Occidentales de economía de mercado, gobierno democrático (denominado \"democracia burguesa\" en la jerga soviética) y el imperio de la ley subduing discretional intervention by the state.​ Ellos eran comunistas desde un punto de vista económico y dependían de la Unión Soviética para abastecerse de una gran cantidad de materiales.​ Durante los primeros cinco años posteriores a la Segunda Guerra Mundial, se produjo una emigración masiva desde estos estados hacia el occidente, las restricciones que se implementaron posteriormente detuvieron en gran medida la emigración del Este al Oeste, excepto aquella realizada bajo acuerdos bilaterales limitados.​", "Identidad Cristiana\n\nHistoria de la identidad cristiana\n\nEl movimiento de identidad cristiana surgió en los Estados Unidos en las décadas de 1920 y 1930 como una rama del israelismo británico.​​ La idea de que las \"razas inferiores\" se mencionan en la Biblia (en contraste con los arios) se planteó en el libro de 1905 Theozoology; o The Science of the Sodomite Apelings and the Divine Electron por Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels, un escritor volkisch visto por muchos historiadores como una gran influencia en el nazismo. Adolf Hitler, sin embargo, no suscribió la creencia de que los israelitas de la Biblia eran arios; En un discurso que pronunció en Munich en 1920 titulado \"Por qué somos antisemitas\", se refirió y menospreció a Abraham como racialmente judío.​\nMientras que los primeros israelitas británicos como Edward Hine y John Wilson eran filosemitas, la identidad cristiana surgió en un marcado contraste como una teología fuertemente antisemita. La Liga Antidifamación (ADL) describe el surgimiento de la identidad cristiana del israelismo británico como un «giro feo».​\nOtra fuente describe el surgimiento de la identidad cristiana del israelismo británico como una \"transición notable\",​ al tiempo que señala que los israelitas británicos tradicionales eran defensores del filosemitismo que paradójicamente cambió a antisemitismo y racismo bajo la identidad cristiana. De hecho, el israelismo británico tenía varios seguidores judíos, y también recibió el apoyo de los rabinos durante todo el siglo XIX; dentro de la política británica apoyó a Benjamin Disraeli, que descendía de judíos sefardíes.​​ Sin embargo, la identidad cristiana, que surgió en la década de 1920, comenzó a volverse antisemita al enseñar la creencia de que los judíos no descienden de la tribu de Judá (como sostienen los israelitas británicos), sino que descienden de Satanás o de los jázaros. La forma de creencia angloisraelí no tenía opiniones antisemitas; en cambio, sus seguidores sostuvieron la opinión de que los judíos constituían una minoría de las tribus de Israel (Judá y Benjamín), y los británicos y otros pueblos relacionados del norte de Europa constituían el resto.\n\nPrimeros años\n\nLa identidad cristiana se remonta a 1886 con la publicación del libro Lost Israel Found in the Anglo-Saxon Race por E.P. Ingersoll. Esto fue seguido en la década de 1920 por los escritos de Howard Rand (1889-1991).​\nRand era un abogado de Massachusetts que obtuvo un título de abogado en la Universidad de Maine. Fue criado como un angloisraelista, y su padre le presentó el trabajo de J. H. Allen El cetro de Judá y el Derecho de nacimiento de José (1902) a una edad temprana. Si bien el padre de Rand no era antisemita, ni Rand en sus primeros años de angloisraelista lo era, Rand agregó por primera vez un elemento antisemita al israelismo británico en la década de 1920. Afirmó ya en 1924 que los judíos no descendían realmente de la tribu de Judá, sino que eran descendientes de Esaú o los cananeos. Sin embargo, Rand nunca afirmó que los judíos modernos fueran descendientes de Satanás, o que fueran de alguna manera inferiores; él simplemente afirmó que no eran los verdaderos descendientes lineales de Judá. Por esta razón, Rand se considera una figura \"de transición\" del israelismo británico a la identidad cristiana, pero no su fundador real.​\nRand es conocido como la primera persona en acuñar el término \"identidad cristiana\". Rand había establecido la Federación Anglosajona de América en 1933 que promovió su opinión de que los judíos no descendían de Judá; Esto marcó la primera transición clave del israelismo británico a la identidad cristiana. A partir de mayo de 1937, hubo reuniones clave de israelistas británicos en los Estados Unidos que se sintieron atraídos por la teoría de Rand de que los judíos no descendían de Judá. Esto proporcionó el catalizador para la eventual aparición de la identidad cristiana. A fines de la década de 1930, el grupo consideraba que los judíos eran descendientes de Satanás y los demonizaba, como lo hicieron las razas no caucásicas. William Dudley Pelley, fundador del movimiento clerofascista Legión de Plata, también promovió una forma antisemita del israelismo británico a principios de la década de 1930. Los vínculos entre la identidad cristiana y el Ku Klux Klan también surgieron a fines de la década de 1930, aunque el KKK había pasado la cima de su renacimiento a principios del siglo XX.\n\nDesarrolladores clave\n\nWesley Swift (1913–1970) es considerado por el FBI como la figura más importante en los primeros años del movimiento de Identidad Cristiana. Swift nació en Nueva Jersey, y finalmente se mudó a Los Ángeles para asistir a la universidad bíblica. Se afirma que pudo haber sido un \"organizador del Ku Klux Klan y un instructor del equipo de fusiles del Klan\".​ En 1946, fundó su propia iglesia en Lancaster, California. En la década de 1950, fue el representante de Gerald L. K. Smith en la Costa Oeste de la Cruzada Cristiana Nacionalista. Además, presentó una transmisión de radio diaria en California durante las décadas de 1950 y 1960, a través de la cual pudo proclamar su ideología ante una gran audiencia. Debido a los esfuerzos de Swift, el mensaje de su iglesia se extendió, llevando a la creación de iglesias similares en todo el país.​\nEn 1957, el nombre de su iglesia fue cambiado a La Iglesia de Jesucristo Cristiano, que hoy usan las iglesias de las Naciones Arias (AN). Uno de los asociados de Swift fue el coronel retirado William Potter Gale (1917–1988). Según afirmaciones de fiabilidad desconocida, Gale había ayudado previamente al general Douglas MacArthur y había coordinado la resistencia guerrillera en Filipinas durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Gale se convirtió en una figura destacada en los movimientos paramilitares y contra impuestos de los años setenta y ochenta, comenzando con los Rangers de California y el Posse Comitatus, y ayudó a fundar el movimiento de milicias.​\nNumerosas iglesias de identidad cristiana predican mensajes similares. Algunos defienden una retórica más violenta que otros, pero todos creen que los arios son la raza elegida de Dios. Gale presentó a Swift, el futuro fundador de las Naciones Arias, Richard Girnt Butler. Hasta entonces, Butler había admirado a George Lincoln Rockwell y al senador Joseph McCarthy, y había sido relativamente secular. Swift lo convirtió rápidamente a la identidad cristiana. Cuando Swift murió, Butler se hizo cargo de la Iglesia, para consternación aparente de Gale y la familia de Swift. Ni Butler ni Gale rivalizaban con Swift como un orador dinámico, y la asistencia disminuyó bajo el nuevo pastor. Butler eventualmente renombró la organización \"La Iglesia de Jesucristo Cristiano / Naciones Arias\" y la trasladó a Hayden Lake, Idaho.\nFiguras menores participaron cuando la teología de la identidad cristiana tomó forma en las décadas de 1940 y 1950, como San Jacinto Capt, un ministro bautista y miembro del Klan de California (quien afirmó que había presentado a Wesley Swift a la identidad cristiana); y Bertrand Comparet (1901–1983), un Abogado Adjunto de la Ciudad de San Diego (y abogado de Gerald L. K. Smith). Pero en su mayor parte, los grupos de identidad cristiana de hoy parecen haber sido generados por Wesley Swift, a través de sus lugartenientes William Potter Gale y Richard Butler.\n\nTemas\n\nEn lugar de ser una religión organizada, la identidad cristiana se adhiere a individuos, congregaciones independientes y algunas pandillas carcelarias con una teología supremacista blanca que promueve una interpretación racial del cristianismo.y​​ Las creencias de identidad cristiana fueron desarrolladas y promovidas principalmente por dos autores que consideraron a los europeos como el pueblo elegido y a los judíos como descendientes malditos de Caín, el \"híbrido de la serpiente\" (o simiente de la serpiente) (una creencia conocida como la doctrina de las dos semillas y que postula que Caín era hijo de Eva y la Serpiente). Uno de los primeros maestros de identidad cristiana, Wesley A. Swift (1913–1970), formuló la doctrina de que los pueblos no caucásicos no tienen alma y, por lo tanto, nunca pueden ganarse el favor de Dios ni ser salvos.​​ La teología fue promovida por George Lincoln Rockwell (1918 - 1967), el fundador del Partido Nazi Americano.\nNingún documento único expresa el sistema de creencias de identidad cristiana; Hay mucho desacuerdo sobre las doctrinas que enseñan quienes se adscriben a las creencias de IC, ya que no hay una organización central o sede para la secta de IC. Sin embargo, todos los seguidores de IC creen que Adán y su descendencia eran exclusivamente blancos y que las otras razas pre-Adamitas son especies separadas, que no pueden ser igualadas o derivadas de los Adamitas​. Los adherentes de IC citan pasajes del Antiguo Testamento, que incluyen Esdras 9: 2, 12 y Nehemías 13:27, que afirman que contienen órdenes de Yahweh contra los matrimonios interraciales. Los creyentes de identidad cristiana rechazan las doctrinas de la mayoría de las denominaciones cristianas contemporáneas y creen que la doctrina que defiende la opinión de que las promesas de Dios a Israel (a través de Abraham, Isaac y Jacob) se han ampliado para crear un pueblo espiritual de \"Israel\" , es decir, la Iglesia cristiana, es herejía.​\nEl movimiento de Identidad Cristiana recibió la atención generalizada de los principales medios de comunicación en 1984, cuando la organización nacionalista blanca conocida como The Order se embarcó en una ola de crímenes asesinos antes de ser suprimida por el FBI.​​ El organizador del movimiento de milicias Gordon Kahl, cuya muerte en un tiroteo en 1983 con las autoridades federales ayudó a inspirar a The Order, también tenía conexiones con el movimiento de identidad cristiana. El movimiento volvió a la atención pública en 1992 y 1993, a raíz de la confrontación mortal de Ruby Ridge, cuando los periódicos descubrieron que la ex Boina Verde y el separatista de derecha Randy Weaver tenían al menos una asociación flexible con los creyentes de la identidad cristiana.​\nSe estima que estos grupos tienen dos mil miembros en los Estados Unidos y un número desconocido en Canadá y el resto de la Commonwealth británica. Debido a la promoción de las doctrinas de identidad cristiana a través de la radio y luego a través de Internet, se cree que otras cincuenta mil personas no afiliadas tienen creencias de identidad cristiana. Se cree que la principal difusión de las enseñanzas de la identidad cristiana es a través de las pandillas racistas de prisión.​\n\nTeología\n\nLos partidarios de la identidad cristiana afirman que los blancos de Europa o los caucásicos en general son los siervos de Dios, de acuerdo con las promesas que se hicieron a Abraham, Isaac y Jacob.​ Afirma además que las primeras tribus europeas fueron realmente las Tribus perdidas de Israel y, por lo tanto, los herederos legítimos de las promesas de Dios y el pueblo elegido de Dios. Colin Kidd escribió que en Estados Unidos, identidad cristiana explotó \"el enigma de las Diez Tribus Perdidas para justificar una agenda abiertamente antisemita y virulentamente racista\".\n\nAdamitas y preadamitas\n\nUn principio importante de la identidad cristiana es la hipótesis preadamita. Los seguidores de la identidad cristiana creen que Adán y Eva son solo los antepasados ​​de los blancos, y que Adán y Eva fueron precedidos por razas menores no caucásicas que a menudo (aunque no siempre) se identifican como \"bestias del campo\"; por ejemplo, las \"bestias\" que vestían de cilicio y clamaban a Dios (Jonás 3: 8) son identificadas como la raza negra por los seguidores de la identidad cristiana. Para apoyar su teoría sobre la identidad racial de Adán, los defensores de la identidad cristiana señalan que la etimología hebrea de la palabra 'Adán' se traduce como 'ser rojizo, rojo, para mostrar sangre (en la cara)' a menudo citando del Diccionario Hebreo de James Strong y de esto concluyen que solo los caucásicos o las personas con luz blanca la piel puede sonrojarse o ponerse rosa en la cara (porque la hemoglobina solo es visible debajo de la piel pálida). Los defensores de la identidad cristiana creen que Adán solo fue creado hace seis mil años, mientras que las otras razas no caucásicas se crearon durante épocas mucho más antiguas que ocurrieron en los otros continentes.\n\nSimiente de la serpiente\n\nLos defensores de la identidad cristiana creen que Eva tuvo hijos con Satanás y con Adán, creen que Eva fue seducida por la Serpiente (Satanás), compartió su estado caído con Adán al acostarse con él y dio a luz gemelos con diferentes padres: el hijo de Satanás, Caín y el hijo de Adán, Abel. Esta creencia se conoce como la doctrina de la semilla o simiente de la serpiente. Según la forma de \"identidad dual\" de la identidad cristiana, Caín se convirtió en el progenitor de los judíos en sus apareamientos posteriores con miembros de las razas no adámicas.​\nLa idea de la semilla de la serpiente, que atribuye la ascendencia de monstruos legendarios como Grendel a Caín, estaba algo extendida en la Edad Media. También aparece en los primeros textos cristianos gnósticos, así como en algunos textos judíos, por ejemplo, un libro del siglo IX titulado Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer. En Caín: Hijo de la serpiente (1985), David Max Eichhorn, remonta la idea a los primeros textos midrashicos judíos e identifica a muchos rabinos que enseñaron la creencia de que Caín era el hijo de una unión entre la Serpiente y Eva.​\nAlgunos rabinos cabalistas también creen que Caín y Abel tenían un origen genético diferente al de Seth. Esta enseñanza se basa en la teoría de que Dios creó dos \"Adams\" (Adán significa \"hombre\" en hebreo). A uno le dio un alma y al otro no le dio un alma. El que no tiene alma es la criatura conocida en el cristianismo como la Serpiente. Los cabalistas llaman a la serpiente el Nahas (que significa la serpiente en hebreo).\nUna influencia fundamental en las opiniones del movimiento de Identidad Cristiana sobre el pre-Adamismo fue el libro de Charles Carroll de 1900 ¿El negro una bestia o creado en la imagen de Dios?. En el libro, Carroll concluyó que Adán solo dio a luz a la raza blanca y que la raza blanca se hizo a imagen y semejanza de Dios, mientras que los negros son bestias preadamitas que no podrían haber sido creadas a imagen y semejanza de Dios porque «son bestiales, inmorales y feos». Carroll afirmó que las razas pre-Adamitas como los negros no tenían almas. Carroll creía que la mezcla racial era un insulto a Dios porque arruinaba su plan racial de creación. Según Carroll, la mezcla de razas también había llevado a los errores del ateísmo y el evolucionismo.​\n\nCreacionismo\n\nLos defensores de la identidad cristiana creen que tanto el universo como la Tierra tienen miles de millones de años y que las razas no caucásicas fueron creadas hace cientos de miles o incluso millones de años. Sin embargo, creen que Adán (que era el padre de la raza blanca o caucásicos) solo fue creado hace unos 6,000 años.​ \nWesley Swift criticó fuertemente el creacionismo de la Tierra Joven y la visión tradicional judeocristiana de que el diluvio de Noé fue global. En cambio, creía que la inundación era solo local y que la Tierra tenía miles de millones de años. Los partidarios de la identidad cristiana afirman que el diluvio en Génesis solo se elevó lo suficiente como para ahogar la región de la cuenca del Tarim debajo del nivel del mar (Génesis 7:20) y que, por lo tanto, la palabra hebrea \"eretz\" que aparece en esos versículos debería traducirse como \"la tierra\" (como en un lugar específico) en lugar de \"la Tierra \" (el planeta).​\n\nRacialismo\n\nEl racialismo, o filosofía basada en la raza, es el principio básico de la identidad cristiana, y la mayoría de los seguidores de CI son nacionalistas blancos que apoyan la segregación racial.​ Algunos partidarios de CI creen que los judíos están genéticamente obligados por su ascendencia satánica o edomita a llevar a cabo una conspiración contra el linaje adánico y que los judíos han logrado hoy un control casi completo de la Tierra a través de su afirmación de mantener el estatus de la raza blanca como el pueblo elegido de Dios. Como regla general, los seguidores de la identidad cristiana se adhieren a los puntos de vista cristianos tradicionales sobre el papel de la mujer, el aborto y la homosexualidad , y también creen que el mestizaje racial es un pecado y una violación de La ley de Dios como se establece en Génesis 1: 24–25 que ordena que todas las criaturas reproduzcan \"tipo tras tipo\".\nAdemás de sus puntos de vista raciales fundamentalistas, los partidarios de la identidad cristiana se distinguen del fundamentalismo protestante en diversas áreas de la teología. Algunos partidarios de la identidad cristiana siguen la ley mosaica del Antiguo Testamento (por ejemplo, restricciones dietéticas, el sábado del séptimo día y ciertos festivales anuales como la Pascua). También es común que algunos partidarios de la identidad cristiana sigan los movimientos de Solo King James y Nombre Sagrado e insisten en usar los nombres hebreos originales al referirse a Dios (Yahweh) y Jesucristo (Yahshua). Algunos escritores de identidad cristiana critican las ediciones modernas de la Biblia, así como a los judíos, por su eliminación del nombre hebreo original de Dios de la Biblia. Aunque su adhesión a la ley mosaica del Antiguo Testamento puede hacerlos parecer \"judíos\"; Afirman que la interpretación judía de la ley ha sido corrompida a través del Talmud. A diferencia de muchos fundamentalistas protestantes, los partidarios de la identidad cristiana rechazan la noción del Arrebatamiento, creyendo que es una doctrina judaizada que la Biblia no enseña.​\n\nFin del mundo y Armagedón\n\nLos partidarios de la identidad cristiana creen en la Segunda Venida y el Armagedón. Las predicciones varían, incluida una guerra racial o una toma de control de los Estados Unidos por parte de las Naciones Unidas respaldada por judíos, y respaldan la lucha física contra lo que ven como las fuerzas del mal.​\n\nHomosexualidad, mezcla de razas y antisemitismo\n\nLos partidarios de la identidad afirman que las enfermedades, la adicción, el cáncer y las infecciones de transmisión sexual (herpes y VIH/SIDA) se transmiten por \"roedores\" humanos a través del contacto con personas \"impuras\", como \"mezcladores de raza\". Evangelios apócrifos, particularmente el primer libro de Enoc, se usan para justificar estas teorías sociales; los ángeles caídos del Cielo deseaban sexualmente a las doncellas de la Tierra y las tomaron como esposas, lo que resultó en el nacimiento de abominaciones, que Dios ordenó a Miguel Arcángel que destruyera, comenzando así una guerra cósmica entre la Luz y la Oscuridad. Se considera que las cosas (por ejemplo, personas de diferentes razas) contaminan ambos, y también se considera una violación de la ley de Dios.\nLos predicadores de identidad proclaman que, según la Biblia, \"las penas por mezclar razas, la homosexualidad y la usura son la muerte\". La justificación para matar homosexuales se encuentra en Levítico 20:13 \"Si un hombre también acuéstate con la humanidad, como él acuesta con una mujer, ambos han cometido una abominación: seguramente serán ejecutados; su sangre será sobre ellos \". Éxodo 22:25, Levítico 25: 35–37 y Deuteronomio condenan explícitamente la usura. [43]: 92 Ezequiel 18:13 declara: \"El que ha dado a la usura y ha aumentado: ¿vivirá entonces? No vivirá: ha hecho todas estas abominaciones; seguramente morirá; su sangre estará sobre él\" y se cita como justificación para matar judíos.\nLos seguidores de esta identidad rechazan la etiqueta \"antisemita\", afirmando que no pueden ser antisemitas, ya que los verdaderos semitas \"hoy son las grandes naciones cristianas blancas del mundo occidental\", y los judíos modernos son considerados descendientes de los cananeos.\n\nPolítica y economía\n\nLa política de identidad cristiana fue revisada por primera vez por Howard Rand y William J. Cameron después de la Gran Depresión. En 1943, Rand publicó el artículo \"Recopilación de la Ley Divina\" que discutía los desafíos políticos y económicos de la época. Un extracto del artículo dice: \"No podremos continuar de acuerdo con el viejo orden. Ciertos grupos ya están planificando una economía planificada para nuestra nación; pero solo intensificará el sufrimiento y la necesidad del pasado y traerá a nuestros pueblos todos los males que resultarán de tal planificación por parte de un grupo de hombres que no toman en consideración los principios fundamentales que subyacen a la ley del Señor\".​\nSi bien Rand nunca admitió formalmente a qué grupos se refería específicamente, su odio por los judíos, la integración racial y el estado económico del país en ese momento hicieron obvia la dirección de sus comentarios. Identificar problemas económicos específicos no era el único objetivo que Rand tenía en mente. Comenzó a analizar cómo hacer que estos cambios sucedan a través de cambios legales; creando así planes estratégicos para integrar la Biblia en la ley y la economía estadounidenses. El primer objetivo era denunciar todas las leyes hechas por el hombre y reemplazarlas con leyes de la Biblia. El segundo objetivo era crear un estado económico que reflejara las enseñanzas de la Biblia. Tanto Howard Rand como William Cameron creían en estos principios y esto se debía a que, según las enseñanzas de Christian Identity, tenían acceso al conocimiento sobre la ley de Dios que nadie más tiene. Como tenían acceso a más información, eran responsables de influir en la ley civil actual para mantener los estándares de Dios.\nSi bien William Cameron estuvo de acuerdo con el argumento inicial de Rand, centró sus escritos más específicamente en cambiar la economía estadounidense. Uno de los artículos de Cameron \"La Ley Económica de Dios\" hablaba de la Biblia que apoya el individualismo y la justicia social con respecto a la economía. También creía que el gobierno no tenía derecho a gravar la tierra u otras formas de propiedad. De acuerdo con esta doctrina, los reembolsos de impuestos deben aplicarse a viajes de vacaciones familiares o en festivales nacionales para movimientos de identidad cristiana. Asimismo, para mejorar el futuro económico de los Estados Unidos, no se deben aplicar intereses a las cuentas pagadas con crédito, y no se deben imponer impuestos durante el tiempo de viaje de los bienes desde un fabricante hasta el consumidor.\nEl punto en común que compartieron Rand y Cameron fue que, si bien no estaban de acuerdo con la forma en que operaba el gobierno, ninguno de los dos se resistió a las políticas fiscales actuales. Gordon Kahl fue el primer creyente de CI que tomó los principios fundacionales de Rand y Cameron, y los aplicó para tomar medidas contra el gobierno. Kahl creía que estaban en el camino correcto con respecto a lo que había que lograr para cambiar las políticas públicas, sin embargo, sentía que sin tomar medidas contra los infractores, no se realizarían cambios reales. En 1967 dejó de pagar impuestos porque sentía que estaba pagando \"diezmos a la sinagoga de Satanás\". Kahl mató a dos alguaciles federales en 1983. Antes de ser atrapado por los asesinatos, Kahl escribió una nota en la que decía \"nuestra nación ha caído en manos de personas extrañas ... Estos enemigos de Cristo tomaron su Manifiesto Comunista Judío y lo incorporaron en las Leyes Estatutarias de nuestro país y arrojó nuestra Constitución y nuestra Ley Común Cristiana al basurero\".\nLa doctrina de la identidad afirma que la \"raíz de todo mal\" es el papel moneda (en particular, las Notas de la Reserva Federal), y que la usura y los sistemas bancarios están controlados por judíos. La creación del Sistema de la Reserva Federal en 1913 cambió el control de dinero del Congreso a instituciones privadas y violó la Constitución. El sistema monetario alienta a la Reserva Federal a solicitar préstamos, creando billones de dólares en deuda del gobierno y permitiendo que los banqueros internacionales controlen América. Las tarjetas de crédito y los billetes computarizados se consideran el cumplimiento de la escritura bíblica que advierte contra \"la bestia\" (es decir, la banca) como se cita en Apocalipsis 13: 15-18. El predicador de identidad Sheldon Emry afirma que \"la mayoría de los propietarios de los bancos más grandes de América son de ascendencia (judía) de Europa del Este y están conectados con los bancos europeos (judíos) de Rothschild\", por lo tanto, en la doctrina de la identidad, la conspiración bancaria global está dirigida y controlado por intereses judíos.\n\nGrupos\n\nLa identidad cristiana es una importante teología unificadora para varios grupos diversos de cristianos nacionalistas blancos. Es un sistema de creencias que proporciona a sus miembros una base religiosa para el separatismo racial. Herbert W. Armstrong es descrito incorrectamente por algunos de sus críticos, así como por los partidarios de la identidad cristiana, como haber apoyado la identidad cristiana, debido a su creencia en una forma modificada del israelismo británico, y al hecho de que durante su vida, propuso celebraciones favorecidas por muchos grupos de identidad cristiana, como el sabbatarianismo del séptimo día y los festivales bíblicos. La Iglesia de Dios Universal que fundó Armstrong no se suscribió al antisemitismo comúnmente defendido por los grupos de identidad cristianos o israelistas, sino que se adhirió a las creencias tradicionales del israelismo británico; es decir, la creencia de que los judíos de hoy en día son descendientes de la tribu de Judá, mientras que los anglosajones, celtas, daneses, etc.son descendientes de las diez tribus restantes de Israel, antes conocidas como el Reino del Norte.\nLos grupos de identidad cristiana incluyen \"El Pacto, La Espada y el Brazo del Señor\", el Sacerdocio de Phineas, la Milicia Constitucional de Oklahoma, también conocida como La Iglesia Universal de Dios. La identidad cristiana también se adhiere a otros grupos como las Naciones Arias, el Ejército Republicano Ario (ARA) y el Consejo de los Patriotas, la Iglesia de Jesucristo Cristiano, Misión de Israel, Pueblo y Fe, Jubuleo, Red Juvenil Tradicionalista, La Verdad de Yahweh, la Iglesia de Israel, La Capilla del Pastor, y los Ministerios de Identidad del Reino.​​\nSe ha acusado a las ramas sudafricanas de identidad cristiana de participar en actividades terroristas, incluidos los atentados de 2002 de Soweto.​\nOtros grupos de identidad cristiana incluyen la Iglesia Cristiana del Patrimonio, la Legión para la Supervivencia de la Libertad, y los Caballeros de la Camelia Blanca del Ku Klux Klan. Los grupos de identidad cristiana en el Reino Unido incluyen The New Ensign y la Orden Cristiana de las Islas Británicas/Iglesia de Gran Bretaña.​and the Christian Order of the British Isles/Church of Britain.​", "Guyana\n\nEtimología\n\nLos primeros habitantes de Guyana fueron los arahuacos, que la denominaron así Guyana o tierra de agua​ por tener terrenos húmedos y costas tupidas de manglares y pantanos. Los arahuacos fueron desalojados por los caribes, que dominaron gran parte de la región y luego se desplazaron hacia las islas del mar Caribe, que tomó su nombre de ellos.​\n\nHistoria\n\nLos arahuacos y los caribes estuvieron entre los primeros habitantes indígenas del territorio, eran nómadas organizados en familias de 15 o 20 integrantes, y vivían de la caza y de la pesca de tiburones. A la llegada de los europeos a Guyana había 500 000 habitantes (estimaciones más moderadas la reducen a aproximadamente 20 000 a 30 000; el territorio no habría podido mantener a medio millón, una cantidad solo un poco menor a la población total en la actualidad). Hoy quedan cerca de 45 000 originarios, divididos en nueve grupos étnicos, de los cuales solo siete mantienen su identidad y cultura tradicionales.\nLas desembocaduras del Esequibo y el Orinoco, y toda la costa de Guayana fue conocida y explorada por Alonso de Ojeda y Pedro Alonso Niño, que llegaron a Demerara en 1499, como queda referido por Juan de la Cosa, quien cartografió además la zona. El punto en el que tocaron tierra fue llamado Cabo de San Alonso.​\nEntre 1530 y 1531, Diego de Ordás conquista y coloniza toda la costa guayanesa, y en 1594 España toma posesión oficialmente de la Provincia de Guayana, que comprendía la Guayana Esequiba actualmente reclamada por Venezuela. Se cree que hasta la invasión holandesa de 1615, más de 2000 colonos españoles ocuparon este territorio (nuevamente las estimaciones más moderadas la reducen a un máximo de cien o poco más colonos hispanos y el resto hasta 2000 serían indios o mestizos civilizados venidos de la actual Venezuela).​\nImpulsados por la leyenda de El Dorado, la Compañía Holandesa de las Indias Occidentales construyó en el año 1616 el primer fuerte de Guyana, que entonces comprendía tres colonias: Demerara, Berbice y Esequibo. A mediados del siglo XVIII los ingleses habían comenzado una introducción masiva de esclavos africanos para trabajar en las plantaciones de la costa. En 1763, el africano Cuffy (actual héroe nacional), encabezó una rebelión en Berbice que fue reprimida sangrientamente. En 1796, prácticamente la mitad de la Guayana Holandesa fue tomada por los ingleses. Las colonias de Esequibo, Demerara, y Berbice fueron cedidas oficialmente al Reino Unido en el tratado Anglo-Holandés de 1814 y en el Congreso de Viena en 1815. En 1831 se consolidaron como Guayana Británica.\nLos esclavos que escapaban de las plantaciones se iban a vivir a las selvas con los indígenas. El mestizaje racial y cultural dio origen a los denominados cimarrones. A estos grupos se sumaron los chinos, javaneses e indios, traídos por los ingleses como mano de obra barata. Los ideales independentistas lograron canalizarse a partir de 1950 con el Partido Popular Progresista (PPP); un programa de independencia nacional y de mejoras sociales, y a largo plazo, de transformación socialista de la sociedad. El plan fue llevado a cabo por Cheddi Jagan por tres períodos sucesivos en el cargo de primer ministro (1953-1961).\nEn 1953, una nueva constitución estableció el sufragio universal. Las elecciones de abril de 1953 dieron la mayoría al Partido Popular Progresista, que fue juzgado demasiado a la izquierda por el Colonial Office. Una de las primeras leyes del nuevo gobierno fue la obligación de las empresas de reconocer el derecho sindical. Se envían tropas y se suspende la Constitución. La Oficina de la Colonia justifica esta decisión afirmando que \"el gobierno británico ha decidido que la Constitución de Guyana debe ser suspendida para evitar la subversión comunista del gobierno y una crisis peligrosa en el orden público y los asuntos económicos\".​\nEn 1963, el gobierno progresista del Primer Ministro Cheddi Jagan resistió a un intento de golpe de estado que dejó un saldo de 170 muertos. Tras años de gran violencia callejera, Gran Bretaña reconoció la independencia de Guyana el 26 de mayo de 1966, en el seno de la Mancomunidad de Naciones. Para ese entonces el PPP estaba dividido: la mayoría de los afroguyaneses se había agrupado en el Congreso Nacional del Pueblo (CNP), mientras los indoguyaneses seguían fieles a Jagan. Forbes Burnham, líder del CNP, asumió el gobierno, apoyado por otras minorías étnicas.\nEl conflicto étnico y los intereses estadounidenses influyeron en la división del PPP. Estados Unidos veía en la independencia guayanesa y en el socialismo de Jagan una amenaza a su hegemonía en el Caribe.\nBurnham llegó al gobierno con la aceptación de los Estados Unidos, pero su política no se condicionó a la de este país. Se pronunció por el no alineamiento y proclamó en 1970 la República Cooperativa de Guyana. La bauxita, la industria maderera y el azúcar fueron nacionalizados a partir de 1970. En 1976 el Estado controlaba el 75 % de la producción del país. Al mismo tiempo, impulsó la integración a través del CARICOM (Comunidad del Caribe), el SELA y la Flota Mercante del Caribe.\nEn 1976 Cheddi Jagan proclamó la necesidad de «lograr una unidad nacional antiimperialista», en momentos de tensiones fronterizas con Brasil, bajo una dictadura derechista desde 1964. Representantes del PPP regresaron al parlamento, del que se habían retirado en protesta por fraudes electorales. Luego, Burnham anunció la creación de una Milicia Popular para defender la revolución.\nLas elecciones se postergaron por un referéndum que encomendó al parlamento la redacción de un texto constitucional, motivo de la retirada del PPP de las actividades legislativas por segunda vez. En 1980 Burnham fue elegido presidente. Según observadores internacionales, dichos comicios habrían sido fraudulentos. Ese año Burnham solicitó ayuda del FMI y autorizó a empresas trasnacionales explotar el petróleo y el uranio.\nEn 1980, Walter Rodney, fundador de la Alianza del Pueblo Trabajador (WPA), murió al explotar una bomba en su automóvil. Nunca se identificó a los responsables.\nEn 1984, con el aumento de las dificultades financieras y la crisis con los sindicatos, Burnham gestionó con el FMI un préstamo de 150 millones de dólares. Las condiciones del FMI según Burnham eran inaceptables. La invasión de Granada por EE.UU. y la condena de Guyana a esta acción, empeoraron las relaciones entre ambos países. Guyana buscó un acercamiento a los países socialistas.\nBurnham murió en 1985 y fue reemplazado por Desmond Hoyte. El PNC ganó las elecciones generales de ese año, pero la oposición denunció un supuesto fraude. En 1986, cinco de los seis partidos de oposición formaron la Coalición Patriótica por la Democracia y obtuvieron la totalidad de las bancas. Hoyte anunció en 1987 que su gobierno volvería al socialismo cooperativo.\nLuego de que en diciembre de 1991 el gobierno declarara el estado de emergencia, el parlamento se reunió para posponer las elecciones previstas. El estado de emergencia se extendió hasta junio de 1992. En octubre, Cheddi Jagan (54 %) derrotó a Desmond Hoyte (41 %), en las elecciones generales.\nEn 1993, Jagan permitió el despliegue de tropas estadounidenses para entrenamiento militar en las selvas de su país, y admitió la colaboración militar de EE. UU. para combatir el narcotráfico y desarrollar el saneamiento en el interior. Asimismo, el presidente buscó modificar el plan de ajuste iniciado por Hoyte, en acuerdo con el FMI. Propuso la economía de mercado para solucionar la pobreza del 80 % de la población, cuya tasa de emigración era mayor que el índice de crecimiento demográfico. El primer aniversario de su mandato se vio empañado por una huelga en la empresa nacional de electricidad, ante el incumplimiento del compromiso de aumentar un 300 % los salarios estatales. En 1996, el gobierno consiguió la condonación de 500 millones de dólares de su deuda externa, casi la cuarta parte del total.\nAnte la muerte de Jagan en 1997, su viuda Janet Jagan asumió el cargo de primera ministro interina. En las elecciones de diciembre fue electa presidenta con el 55.3 % de los votos contra un 40.6 % del CNP de Hoyte. Sam Hinds fue designado primer ministro. Tras veinte meses de gestión, Janet Jagan, de 79 años, renunció por motivos de salud y fue sustituida por su Ministro de Economía, Bharrat Jagdeo. El Congreso Nacional del Pueblo criticó el procedimiento de transmisión de poderes.\nEn marzo de 2000 el presidente venezolano Hugo Chávez reiteró las demandas de su país sobre la región de Esequibo, y denunció a una compañía estadounidense que planeaba construir una rampa de lanzamiento de cohetes en el área en disputa. Sin embargo cuatro años más tarde, con nuevas alianzas políticas Chávez cambia de opinión, cediendo autonomía a favor del gobierno de Georgetown, afirmando: “El Gobierno venezolano no será un obstáculo para cualquier proyecto a ser conducido en el Esequibo, y cuyo propósito sea beneficiar a los habitantes del área”. (Hugo Chávez en Georgetown, febrero 2004​)\nEl permiso otorgado por Guyana a una petrolera canadiense para la explotación de sus aguas territoriales generó un conflicto con Surinam. Tras conversaciones mediadas por el primer ministro de Jamaica, Percival James Patterson, se abrió una posibilidad de solución al conflicto y se acordó la realización de reuniones entre ambas partes para decidir el futuro de la región.\nEn marzo de 2001 se llevaron a cabo las elecciones generales previstas en 1997, con observadores internacionales que constataron su desarrollo casi normal, a pesar de las irregularidades por la falta de nombres de votantes en los registros. Los comicios dieron la reelección a Jagdeo.\nSegún un informe publicado en octubre de 2003 por la Organización Mundial de Comercio (OMC), la economía del país depende en gran medida de recursos naturales tales como azúcar, oro, bauxita y arroz. La producción de estos recursos ha crecido a un ritmo muy lento en los últimos años, a pesar de las importantes medidas que adoptó Guyana para liberalizar sus regímenes de comercio e inversión en los últimos 15 años.\nEn enero de 2004 los países acreedores del Club de París acordaron reducir en 95 millones de dólares la deuda de Guyana, en el marco de la iniciativa sobre la deuda de los países pobres muy endeudados (PPTE), diseñada por el FMI y el Banco Mundial. Los acreedores también se comprometieron a otorgar un alivio de deuda adicional de 33 millones de dólares.\nAnte la presión de los líderes opositores —que pedían investigar una posible conexión entre el ministro del interior y los escuadrones de la muerte sospechosos de la ejecución de cientos de supuestos criminales—, el titular del ministerio, Ronald Gajraj, dimitió en mayo de 2004 para hacer posible las actuaciones judiciales. En junio, la ONU formó un tribunal que debería dirimir un viejo pleito sobre límites marítimos entre Guyana y Surinam.\nLas investigaciones sobre los crímenes de los escuadrones de la muerte no lograron establecer ninguna conexión entre aquellos y Gajraj, por lo que, en abril de 2005, este reasumió su cargo como ministro del Interior.\nEn medio de una ola de crímenes dirigidos contra objetivos previamente elegidos, en abril de 2006 fue asesinado el ministro de agricultura, Satyadeow Sawh, junto con dos familiares. Desde enero, ya eran 50 los asesinatos; la policía los atribuyó a grupos ligados al tráfico de drogas y el contrabando de armas.\nEn marzo de 2007, el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID) condonó la deuda de Guyana, que rondaba los mil millones de dólares. El gobierno y el BID consideraron el hecho como una oportunidad histórica para un nuevo comienzo.\nEn las elecciones de 2011, Donald Ramotar fue elegido nuevo Presidente. Cuatro años después, en las elecciones de 2015, la oposición a Ramotar ganó las elecciones bajo el liderazgo de David Granger (del PNC), poniendo fin a 23 años de gobierno ininterrumpido del PPP.\n\nPolítica\n\nDe acuerdo con su constitución actual, que entró en vigor el 6 de octubre de 1980, Guyana es técnicamente una república semipresidencialista, aunque con una figura ejecutiva históricamente fuerte, y adopta la democracia representativa multipartidista como forma de gobierno. Si bien es un estado unitario, el país está descentralizado en diez regiones para propósitos administrativos, cada una de las cuales está gobernada por un Consejo Democrático Regional, elegido directamente por los ciudadanos de cada región, y estos a su vez designan un presidente, que ejerce como figura ejecutiva de cada una de las divisiones administrativas. Debido a sus nexos históricos, Guyana forma parte de la comunidad de la Mancomunidad de Naciones, cuya cabeza es la reina Isabel II del Reino Unido.\nEl presidente de la República es el jefe de estado y jefe de gobierno. Aunque cuenta como un primer ministro, designado por el poder ejecutivo de entre los miembros de la Asamblea Nacional para administrar el gabinete, y este debe contar con apoyo de la cámara, en la práctica el accionar del presidente está muy fortalecido y, desde la reforma constitucional de 1980, la jefatura del gobierno ya no recae en el primer ministro, lo que instaura un presidencialismo de facto. El presidente no es elegido directamente, sino que cada partido que presente una lista de candidatos para la Asamblea Nacional debe designar por adelantado a un líder que se convertirá en presidente si ese partido recibe el mayor número de votos, independientemente de que reciba o no una mayoría absoluta de escaños.\nLa Asamblea Nacional es la sede del poder legislativo y consta de 65 escaños. 40 son elegidos directamente por el pueblo mediante un sistema de representación proporcional por listas, con todo el territorio nacional como un solo distrito y los escaños siendo distribuidos mediante Cociente Hare. Los otros 25 escaños son designados por los diez Consejos Democráticos Regionales. A diferencia de un régimen parlamentario total, la Asamblea Nacional no tiene autoridad para cesar al poder ejecutivo, mientras que este puede disolver la Asamblea Nacional y adelantar las elecciones a voluntad, aunque debe hacerlo en un período no mayor a cinco años transcurridos desde su primera sesión. La Asamblea sí puede, en cambio, ejecutar una moción de censura contra el gabinete, lo que en la práctica suele provocar nuevas elecciones parlamentarias y, en consecuencia, adelantar la renovación presidencial, pero no es posible reemplazar al presidente solo con un voto legislativo desfavorable.​\nLa mayor instancia judicial es la Corte de Apelaciones (Court of Appeal), presidida por el Canciller de la Judicatura (Chancellor of the Judiciary). Debajo de ella está la Corte Superior (High Court), presidida por el Jefe de Justicia. El presidente Canciller y el Jefe de Justicia son designados por el presidente de la república.\nDesde su concepción como estado, la raza ha sido un factor dominante en la política de Guyana, y por lo general está por encima de las cuestiones ideológicas. En el plano partidista, desde antes de la independencia, la política electoral ha sido en general bipartidista, siendo los dos principales partidos políticos el Partido Progresista del Pueblo (PPP), y el Congreso Nacional del Pueblo (PNC), ambos teóricamente de carácter socialista o socialdemócrata, pero con bases de votantes diferentes relacionadas más bien con cuestiones étnicas. Históricamente, el PPP se encuentra ligado a los guyaneses de ascendencia india, denominados \"indoguyaneses\", mientras que el PNC es mayoritario entre los afrodescendientes, a los que se conoce como \"afroguyaneses\". Los demás sectores, como los indígenas o los guyaneses de ascendencia mixta, constituyen juntos poco menos de un tercio de la población. Debido a las divisiones raciales, el ambiente político del país suele ser tenso, con acusaciones de fraude electoral frecuentes, así como episodios de violencia partidaria. Desde la definitiva democratización del país, a inicios de la década de 1990, ambos partidos han expresado su interés de alejar su retórica de las cuestiones raciales y buscar una identidad nacional única, viéndose reflejado en la fundación de un sector denominado \"Cívico\" dentro del PPP y liderado por el afroguyanés Sam Hinds (Primer ministro entre 1992 y 2015), y el lema «One Guyana» (en español: \"Una Guyana\") empleado por el PNC en algunas elecciones. Sin embargo, tanto los terceros partidos como organizaciones de derechos humanos han declarado que estos intentos tienen un éxito muy relativo y más bien se trata de «cambios cosméticos». Guyana ha sido descrita como una «democracia defectuosa» por el índice de democracia de The Economist.​\n\nSituación de las minorías sexuales\n\nGuyana es el único país de Sudamérica que considera un delito las relaciones homosexuales masculinas (con penas entre 2 años de cárcel y cadena perpetua),​ y así como una ley que prohíbe vestir prendas del sexo opuesto. La Sociedad Contra la Discriminación por la Orientación Sexual (SASOD) ha exigido al Gobierno que revoque la ley discriminatoria de la época colonial que prohíbe el travestismo en público (22-2-2010).​​​\n\nDefensa\n\nLas Fuerzas Militares Guyanesas están organizadas bajo el nombre de Fuerzas de Defensa de Guyana o (GDF), estas incluyen a las Fuerzas Terrestres (Ground Forces), la Guardia Costera (Coast Guard), y los Cuerpos Aéreos (Air Corps). 210 058 hombres están en edad para el servicio militar (según estimaciones de 2015). La antigua Milicia Popular de Guyana y el Servicio Nacional de Guyana fueron reemplazados.\nLas Fuerzas de Defensa de Guyana conocidas por sus siglas en inglés como GDF fueron creadas el 1 de noviembre de 1965, el alistamiento en la Fuerza es de carácter voluntario para los oficiales y soldados. La formación básica se realiza dentro de las escuelas de formación de las GDF, que también ha entrenado oficiales y soldados de otros territorios del Caribe vinculados a la Commonwealth. Sin embargo, los oficiales también se forman en dos de las escuelas de formación británicas oficiales de renombre mundial: La Real Academia Militar de Sandhurst (Royal Military Academy Sandhurst) en donde se entrena la Infantería; y el Real Colegio Naval Britannia (Britannia Royal Naval College) que es el encargado de la formación de la Guardia Costera.\n\nOrganización territorial\n\nGuyana está organizado en cuatro regiones administrativas y 27 consejos vecinales.\n\nRegiones\n\nCada región está administrada por un Consejo Regional Democrático (Regional Democratic Council - RDC), encabezado por un jefe o Presidente (Chairman).\n\nConsejos vecinales\n\nAdemás hay una serie de consejos vecinales democráticos (Neighbourhood Democratic Councils - NDC) dentro de cada Región. Estos operan a nivel local, comunal o municipal. Las regiones se subdividen en un total de 65 consejos vecinales, más siete municipios y 39 áreas no administradas.​\n\nReclamación venezolana\n\nEl territorio correspondiente a las regiones 1, 2, 3, 7, 8 y 9 es reclamado por Venezuela, recibiendo el nombre de Guayana Esequiba, zona en reclamación o simplemente el Esequibo. Venezuela declara, en el artículo 10 de su Constitución (1999), que «El territorio y demás espacios geográficos de la República son los que correspondían a la Capitanía General de Venezuela antes de la transformación política iniciada el 19 de abril de 1810, con las modificaciones resultantes de los tratados y laudos arbitrales no viciados de nulidad». La Capitanía General de Venezuela comprendía los territorios de la antigua provincia de Guayana, la cual ocupaba la región Esequiba hoy en disputa, sin embargo, el pacto entre Venezuela y Guyana Británica de no explotar la zona en reclamación no se ha respetado, debido a que actualmente dicha zona se ha estado explotando por empresas internacionales traídas por el Gobierno de Guyana.​\n\nReclamación surinamesa\n\nParte del territorio del sureste correspondiente a la región 6 (Berbice Oriental-Corentyne) es reivindicada por Surinam como una parte del suburbio de Coeroeni que pertenece al distrito de Sipaliwini. La zona es delimitada por los ríos Boven-Corantijn (el cual en Guyana es denominado New River) y el Coeroeni y el Koetari. Esta zona de forma triangular es denominada en Guyana el New River Triangle (el triángulo del río nuevo) mientras que en Surinam se le conoce como región de Tigri.\n\nGeografía\n\nEl relieve guyanés está formado por un basamento plano en el litoral, que constituye la zona agrícola donde se concentra el 90 % de la población. Un sector de la planicie se encuentra situado por debajo del nivel del mar y está protegido por una serie de diques. En el interior del territorio abundan las colinas y las selvas, en el sur.\nLos principales ríos son el Esequibo y el Demerara, entre otros.\nEl clima es ecuatorial-tropical, suavizado por la brisa marina (con temperaturas de 28 °C de promedio en Georgetown), y muy húmedo (con más de 2000 mm anuales de precipitaciones en la capital del país).\n\nEconomía\n\nLa principal actividad económica de Guyana es la agricultura, que ocupa la mayor parte de la población activa. En los pólderes del litoral se extienden los campos de arroz, otros cultivos alimentarios (hortalizas, tubérculos) y frutales (cítricos, coco).\nEntre las principales exportaciones agrícolas conviene señalar el cacao, el café y, sobre todo, el azúcar. La actividad pesquera, favorecida por la plataforma continental, permite la venta al exterior de camarones. Aparte de la agricultura, la otra gran riqueza del país es la bauxita (industria del aluminio). Existen asimismo yacimientos de diamantes y oro, y notables reservas madereras.\nHan surgido algunas industrias de bienes de consumo (textiles), favorecidas por una serie de ventajas fiscales. Guyana forma parte desde 2005 de un acuerdo energético con la vecina Venezuela (\"Petrocaribe\"), a través del cual puede obtener petróleo y derivados en condiciones favorables.\nTambién es fuente de ingreso para su economía la emisión de sellos postales destinados, principalmente, al coleccionismo filatélico.\n\nTransporte\n\nHay un total de 187 km de líneas ferroviarias, todos dedicados al transporte de minerales (bauxita y manganeso). Hay 7.970 km de carreteras, de los que 590 km están pavimentados.\nGuyana, es llamada la tierra de los muchos ríos (Land of Many Rivers), por ende, la mejor y más tradicional manera de acceder al interior del país, son sus ríos. Las vías navegables incluyen 1.077 km, incluidos los ríos Berbice, Demerara y Essequibo.\nEl mayor puerto marítimo del país es Georgetown, ubicado sobre el estuario del Demerara, un río navegable.​​ Los principales puertos fluviales son Essequivo, Everton, Puerto Kaituma y Nueva Ámsterdam-Lindem.\nEl principal aeropuerto es el Aeropuerto Internacional Cheddi Jagan.​ Este posee vuelos comerciales regulares a Norteamérica, Gran Bretaña, Brasil, Surinam y a algunos Estados-isla del Caribe inglés y holandés. Existe un aeropuerto de nivel regional, el Aeropuerto Ogle. Ambos se sitúan próximos a la capital del país. Sirve a este aeropuerto, Transguyana Airways, con vuelos nacionales y a Suriname.​\nExisten también alrededor de noventa aeródromos, nueve de los cuales tienen pistas de aterrizaje pavimentadas, pero muy pocos tienen vuelos comerciales regulares de transporte de pasajeros.\n\nIdiomas\n\nEl inglés es el único idioma oficial de Guyana y se utiliza, por ejemplo, en sus escuelas. Además, se utilizan los idiomas caribes (akawaio, wai-wai, arahuaco, patamona y macushi) que son hablados por una pequeña minoría indígena, mientras que el criollo de Guyana (inglés basado en un criollo con sintaxis de los países de África e India, cuya gramática no está estandarizada) es muy hablado. Por otra parte, una característica del inglés de Guyana, en particular en los registros más bajos, es el hecho de que los pronombres del inglés son casi completamente intercambiables. Debido a la influencia cultural de su entorno, el idioma español y el idioma portugués están ampliamente difundidos en el país.\n\nReligión\n\nLa religión también establece una línea divisoria entre la población. Según el desglose de las religiones de Guyana, con base en el censo de 2002, los cristianos representan el 57 % de la población (de los cuales el 16,9 % son pentecostales; 8,1 % Católicos; Anglicanos 6,9 %; 5 % de Adventistas del séptimo día y el 20 % de otras denominaciones cristianas); el 23,4 % son hindúes; 7,3 % musulmanes; 0,5 % rastafaris; el 0,1 % bahaíes; 2,2 % otras religiones; y el 4,3 % sin religión. La mayoría de los cristianos de Guyana son protestantes o católicos e incluyen una combinación de todas las razas. Los cristianos, predominantemente los adscritos a la Iglesia de Inglaterra, son de etnia africana. Por su parte, la comunidad india que llegó al país a principios de siglo XIX, profesa mayoritariamente el hinduismo, aunque existe un porcentaje de indo-guyaneses que se adscribe al islam, junto con algunos afroguyaneses.\n\nCultura\n\nHasta su independencia, Guyana estaba más unida culturalmente a los Estados-islas del Caribe, como a Surinam y a la Guayana Francesa, que al resto de Sudamérica, en cuyo continente está totalmente inserto.\nGuyana fue poblada por colonos procedentes del subcontinente indio (lo que ha hecho posible que en el país se hablen urdu, hindi y tamil), negros africanos y algunos europeos, sobre todo del Reino Unido, su antigua metrópoli. Estos variados grupos étnicos han permanecido bastante diferenciados y, hoy día, cada grupo tiene su propio estilo de vida y cultura, aunque los nexos de unión promovidos por los grupos nacionalistas tienden a su fusión.\nLentamente, una política regional creciente (UNASUR), la construcción de carreteras hacia Venezuela y Brasil, los flujos migratorios y la influencia insoslayable de Venezuela y Brasil provocan que Guyana se inserte más y más en la cultura sudamericana, dominada por los idiomas español y portugués.\n\nDeportes\n\nEl deporte más popular del país, como en muchas ex colonias británicas es el críquet, siendo Guyana parte del equipo de las Indias occidentales que participa en el mundial de críquet que se realiza cada 4 años, otros deportes practicados son el sóftbol, el fútbol y Rugby también en menor medida netball, rounders, tenis, baloncesto, tenis de mesa, boxeo, squash, entre otros.", "Juan Pablo Duarte\n\nHistoria\n\nNació el 26 de enero de 1813 en Santo Domingo colonial (actual Ciudad Colonial) durante el período conocido como la España Boba, en el seno de una familia de clase media que se dedicaba al comercio de artículos de marina y ferretería en la zona portuaria de Santo Domingo​. En sus memorias, el trinitario José María Serra de Castro le describió como un hombre de tez rosácea, labios finos, ojos azules, y cabellera rubia que contrastaba con su negro y espeso bigote.​ Hijo de Juan José Duarte Rodríguez (próspero comerciante peninsular procedente de Vejer de la Frontera, Cádiz, España) y Manuela Díez Jiménez (natural de El Seybo, hija del colono español Antonio Díez Baillo y de la criolla Rufina Jiménez Benítez). Duarte fue el cuarto de once hermanos, siendo los más conocidos Vicente Celestino, comerciante de madera y Rosa Protomártir, quien se desempeñó como periodista y maestra. Ambos tuvieron una activa participación en la causa independentista de su hermano.\nEn 1801, los padres de Duarte emigraron desde la colonia española en Santo Domingo a Mayagüez, en la entonces colonia española de Puerto Rico, evadiendo la imposición del estado francés en el lado oriental de la isla. Esta transformación de la parte colonial de la isla se hizo evidente el año anterior​, cuando Toussaint Louverture, el gobernador de Saint Domingue (actual Haití), una colonia francesa situada en el tercio occidental de La Española, tomó el control de Santo Domingo, situado en la parte oriental de la misma. En ese momento, Francia y Saint Domingue estaban pasando por exhaustivos movimientos sociales, a saber, la Revolución Francesa y la Revolución Haitiana. En la ocupación de la parte española de la isla, el legendario gobernador negro Toussaint Louverture, estaba siguiendo las indicaciones otorgadas por los gobiernos de Francia y España en la Paz de Basilea, firmado en 1795, en el cual España le había cedido la parte española a Francia.\nA su llegada a Santo Domingo, Louverture intentó abolir la esclavitud, que en la parte española tuvo características patriarcales. En 1822 luego de la ocupación haitiana cuyo líder Jean Pierre Boyer, trató también de abolir la esclavitud pero los únicos esclavos que encontró eran domésticos y vivían con sus amos como familia. Louverture quiso convertir al francés las viejas instituciones coloniales españolas y restablecer la economía de plantaciones en ambos lados de la isla. Puerto Rico seguía siendo una colonia española, y al estar Mayagüez tan cerca de La Española, al otro lado del Canal de la Mona, se había convertido en refugio para los que como los Duarte, no aceptaban el gobierno francés. La mayoría de los historiadores suponen que el primer hijo de los Duarte, Vicente Celestino, nació allí, en Mayagüez. La familia regresó a Santo Domingo en 1809, después de que la Guerra de la Reconquista devolviera el lado oriental de La Española al control español.​\nEn 1819, Duarte se inscribió en la escuela de Manuel Aybar donde aprendió lectura, escritura, gramática y aritmética. Fue discípulo del Dr. Juan Vicente Moscoso con quien realizó estudios superiores de latín, filosofía y derecho, debido al cierre de la universidad por parte de las autoridades haitianas. Después del exilio del Dr. Moscoso a Cuba, su rol fue continuado por el sacerdote Gaspar Hernández.​\n\nLa independencia efímera y su contexto\n\nEl 1 de diciembre de 1821 Duarte tenía apenas ocho años cuando el escritor y político José Núñez de Cáceres declaró, por breve tiempo, la independencia del dominio colonial de España y cambió el nombre de la excolonia española por el de Estado Independiente de Haití Español​. Núñez de Cáceres representaba a un selecto y privilegiado grupo cansado de ser ignorado por la Corona y preocupado también por el nuevo giro liberal de Madrid. El proceso liderado por Cáceres, no fue un hecho aislado. La década de 1820 fue una época de profundos cambios políticos en todo el Mundo atlántico español y que influenció la manera de pensar de sectores de la pequeña burguesía como los Duarte. \nEn España, todo comenzó con un conflicto desmoralizador entre realistas y liberales en la Península Ibérica, lo que hoy se conoce como el Trienio Liberal, 1820-1823. Sin embargo, los eventos de la emancipación de 1821 en Santo Domingo fueron diferentes a los del resto del continente, ya que fueron de corta duración. Aunque el gobierno de Núñez de Cáceres pidió apoyo del nuevo gobierno republicano de Simón Bolívar, su petición fue ignorada, dados los conflictos internos en la Gran Colombia.​\nLos historiadores han llamado a este breve episodio de la historia dominicana como la Independencia Efímera. Este suceso culminó con la casi inmediata ocupación haitiana del territorio dominicano por el ejército del presidente haitiano Jean Pierre Boyer el 9 de febrero de 1822​.\n\nOcupación haitiana\n\nEl presidente haitiano Jean Pierre Boyer envió un ejército invasor que ocupó la parte oriental de «La Española». Los haitianos abolieron la esclavitud de una vez por todas, ocupando Santo Domingo de manera oficial y unificándolo con Haití. Las pugnas entre Boyer y la élite de la antigua colonia española provocaron la migración masiva de muchos sectores, entre ellos los colonos. Algunos sectores de la parte oriental aspiraban a mantener la parte oriental de la isla en manos de las potencias imperiales europeas como manera de salvaguardarse del peligro que para ellos significaba la presencia haitiana. La ocupación provocó el debilitamiento de la élite colonial y los sectores burgueses que entraron en componenda con las autoridades haitianas se constituyeron en la nueva clase dominante. \nPor otro lado , el 6 de enero de 1823, Boyer decretó el reclutamiento en el ejército haitiano de todos los jóvenes entre 16 y 25 años. Dicha medida hizo que la Universidad de Santo Domingo, perdiera sus estudiantes y por ende tuviera que cerrar sus puertas. El 14 de noviembre de 1824, Boyer estableció el francés como idioma oficial, único y obligatorio en los actos de los tribunales, del estado civil y de los notarios públicos en toda la isla. \nDespués de haber viajado gran parte de Europa por cuestiones académicas entre 1828 y 1831, y de haber entrado en contacto con la Revolución de Julio, Duarte regresó a Santo Domingo decidido a iniciar un movimiento revolucionario.\n\nFundación de La Trinitaria\n\nEl 16 de julio de 1838 Duarte fundó una sociedad secreta a la cual llamó La Trinitaria, que ayudó a socavar la ocupación haitiana. Algunos de sus primeros miembros incluyeron: Juan Isidro Pérez, Pedro Alejandro Pina, Jacinto de la Concha, Félix María Ruiz, José María Serra de Castro, Benito González, Felipe Alfáu y Juan Nepomuceno Ravelo (más adelante se unirían Francisco del Rosario Sánchez y Matías Ramón Mella, adquiriendo un rol protagónico junto a Duarte).\nLos trinitarios hacían su trabajo político a partir de una estructura celular clandestina. Los iniciados hacían el juramento de luchar por la independencia de la República Dominicana bajo el lema \"Dios, Patria y Libertad\". \nEn 1840 para sus actividades públicas constituyeron otra sociedad llamada La Filantrópica, que llevaba por lema \"Paz, unión y amistad\", y tenía una presencia más pública, tratando de difundir las ideas veladas de liberación a través de escenarios teatrales. Entre las obras que se llegaron a representar están: \"Roma Libre\" del dramaturgo italiano Vittorio Alfieri, \"La viuda de Padilla\" de Francisco Martínez de la Rosa, \"Un día del año 23 en Cádiz\" de Eugenio de Ochoa, entre otras. Luego de varios intentos fallidos, los trinitarios no se sentían a vasto y fundaron La Dramática. En esta tercera sociedad, todos los trinitarios se dedicaron a la actuación.\nEn 1842, Duarte se convirtió en oficial de alto rango de la Guardia Nacional, a la sazón dirigida por el Gobierno haitiano. Para ese momento el régimen impuesto por Boyer había pasado de ser un gobierno liberal y progresista a convertirse en una dictadura en medio de graves problemas económicos y fuerte resistencia interna en la parte occidental de la isla. Los trinitarios, se unieron al movimiento revolucionario reformista haitiano denominado La Reforma que terminó por derrocar a la dictadura de Boyer en febrero de 1843, colocando a Charles Hérard en la presidencia de Haití. \nDuarte encabezó dicho movimiento en la ciudad de Santo Domingo convirtiéndose en el líder político principal en ese momento. No obstante, las actividades independentistas de los trinitarios fueron delatadas y el nuevo presidente Charles Hérard encabezó la ocupación militar de las provincias dominicanas con el objetivo de desarticular el movimiento separatista.\n\nPrimer exilio y declaración de independencia\n\nEn 1843, en pleno preparativo para organizar el movimiento de independencia, Duarte tiene que abandonar el país de manera clandestina hacia Curazao por su conducta insurgente, donde le sorprende la noticia de la muerte de su padre el 25 de noviembre de ese año. Entonces, Duarte le indica a su madre vender el negocio familiar para financiar la revolución independentista.\nEn su ausencia, Sánchez tuvo que tomar las riendas del movimiento y realiza una alianza con el sector separatista conservador encabezado por Tomás Bobadilla y Briones y Buenaventura Báez, surgiendo el Manifiesto del 16 de enero de 1844. Todo esto, junto con la ayuda de muchos que querían librarse de los haitianos que gobernaban sobre los dominicanos condujo a la proclamación de la independencia el 27 de febrero 1844.\n\nRegreso: primera constitución dominicana\n\nJuan Pablo Duarte arribó a Santo Domingo el 15 de marzo de 1844, días después de declarada la independencia del país, cargado con las armas que había comprado en Curazao con el dinero de su propia familia y siendo recibido apoteósicamente como Padre de la Patria . De inmediato, fue designado general del ejército y vocal de la Junta Central que gobernaba la naciente república. Esta junta tuvo también como finalidad la designación del primer gobernante de la nación. Aunque Duarte fue apoyado por muchos como candidato a la presidencia y Mella incluso lo declaró presidente, Duarte declinó argumentando que sólo aceptaría el cargo por la elección mayoritaria de los dominicanos, lo que determinó que Tomás Bobadilla asumiera el cargo. \nDuarte tenía un concepto definido de la nación dominicana y de sus integrantes. Su concepción de república era la de un patriota republicano, anticolonialista, liberal y progresista. En esa época redactó un proyecto de constitución que dice con claridad que la bandera dominicana puede cobijar a todas las razas, sin excluir ni dar predominio a ninguna.\n\nDiferencias con Santana: segundo exilio\n\nEnviado a combatir al ejército haitiano, entra en contradicciones con Pedro Santana, terrateniente, jefe del ejército en el sur del país y uno de los principales caudillos del sector conservador, de tendencias colonialistas y anexionistas.\nEl 26 de mayo de 1844, Tomás Bobadilla, jurista y primer gobernador de la nueva Junta, propuso convertir la república en un protectorado de Francia. El sector conservador liderado por Bobadilla se había adueñado del poder y tenía mayoría en la recién creada Junta Central Gubernativa. El 9 de junio, Duarte encabezó junto a Sánchez un golpe de estado que destituyó a Bobadilla y sustituyó los miembros conservadores de la Junta Central por otros liberales. Esta nueva Junta, ahora encabezada por Sánchez, envió a Duarte y a Mella a la región norte a conseguir apoyo. En julio, el ejército del norte proclamó a Duarte como presidente. A pesar de que Duarte no aceptó, Santana protestó y, apoyándose en el ejército del sur, entró a Santo Domingo y disolvió la Junta que presidía Sánchez, creando otra. En agosto, Santana dispuso el apresamiento de Duarte, quien se rehusaba volver al dominio español. Sin embargo, se dejó apresar para evitar una guerra civil que pudiera ser aprovechada por los haitianos y el 10 de septiembre, Santana declaró a Duarte, Sánchez, Mella y otros liberales \"traidores a la Patria\" enviándolos al exilio en Hamburgo. Tras una breve estancia de en Hamburgo, el 30 de noviembre Duarte se trasladó a La Guaira, donde su familia completa, ahora sumida en la miseria, también había sido desterrada por Santana. \nEn febrero de 1845, estando en Caracas, recibió la noticia del fusilamiento de María Trinidad Sánchez. Asumiéndose culpable de esta muerte, y rechazando la idea de alentar una guerra civil, Duarte desapareció de la vida pública, internándose en la selva venezolana. Después de escribir su libro La cartera del Proscripto se radicó en la ciudad de Angostura, perdiendo todo contacto con amigos y familiares por más de quince años.\nEn 1861, debido una vez más a las invasiones haitianas, el desorden interno, y su mal gobierno, Santana reconvirtió a la nueva nación en una colonia española (conocida como la Anexión a España). Por esta acción, fue galardonado con el título de marqués de Las Carreras por la reina Isabel II.\nEn 1862, Duarte reapareció en Caracas para organizar junto a su hermano Vicente Celestino una pequeña expedición.\nEl 24 de marzo de 1864, Duarte regresó a Santo Domingo para ponerse a las órdenes del gobierno restaurador en armas de Santiago de los Caballeros. Este gobierno decidió nombrarlo su representante en el exterior con la misión de obtener apoyo de Venezuela y los demás países en la lucha militar contra España.\n\nÚltimo exilio, muerte, legado y honores\n\nEl 7 de junio de 1864, Duarte fue enviado como cónsul al exterior con el objetivo de recolectar fondos para la causa restauradora. Esta misión terminó por convertirse en otra especie de exilio, aunque no se puede afirmar que esa fuera la intención del gobierno restaurador. A Duarte le fue ofrecida una pensión honorífica que fue incumplida y se quedó a vivir en Venezuela, donde fue bien recibido junto a su familia, subsistiendo de ingresos provenientes de una fábrica de velas. Duarte se quedó a vivir con su familia en la ciudad de Caracas hasta su fallecimiento el 15 de julio de 1876. \nA pesar de que el presidente Ignacio María González le pidió que regresara, Duarte se sintió a gusto en Venezuela, donde permaneció hasta su fallecimiento el 15 de julio de 1876 en Caracas. Sus restos fueron trasladados a suelo dominicano en 1884, irónicamente, por el gobierno de Ulises Heureaux, dictador de ascendencia haitiana, quien lo declaró Padre de la Patria junto a Francisco del Rosario Sánchez y Matías Ramón Mella. En 1944, los restos de los tres héroes nacionales fueron sepultados en el Altar de la Patria, donde se encuentran.\nDuarte sentó las bases para el advenimiento de una República que como estado democrático garantizara la igualdad de oportunidades y la libertad de sus ciudadanos.\nLos viajes de estudios que realizó a Europa en su adolescencia, lo pusieron en contacto con las ideales liberales de la Revolución Francesa, lo que influyó mucho en sus actitudes posteriores en las luchas independentistas. Una de sus frases más emblemáticas fue sin lugar a dudas ¡Vivir sin patria, es lo mismo que vivir sin honor!\nSe le atribuye, además, ser un precursor del teatro dominicano, mediante la promoción de eventos teatrales a través de sociedades como \"La Filantrópica\" y \"La Dramática\", con obras alusivas al ideal de libertad de los dominicanos.\nEl Pico Duarte, la montaña más alta del Caribe y otros lugares de interés llevan su nombre. Su casa natal fue convertida en un museo. En la misma vivió la familia Duarte-Díez desde su llegada a Santo Domingo hasta su exilio. \nEn Union City (Nueva Jersey), una ciudad colindante con la ciudad de Nueva York, existe un parque llamado Juan Pablo Duarte Square en su honor. El 26 de enero de 1978, en el 165to. del nacimiento de Duarte, el Consulado dominicano en esa ciudad, erigió una estatua en el mismo parque.\nEn el 2000, el alcalde de Nueva York de ese entonces Rudolph Giuliani firmó un proyecto de ley agregando el nombre Juan Pablo Duarte Boulevard a la St. Nicholas Avenue, designando el tramo de la Décima Avenida y West 162nd Street hasta la intersección de West 193rd Street y Fort George Hill.\nEl 24 de febrero de 2011, en conmemoración del 167mo. aniversario de la Independencia Nacional de la República Dominicana, fue inaugurada una estatua suya en el Jardim do Campo Grande, frente a las instalaciones de la embajada de la República Dominicana en Lisboa.​\nEl 26 de enero de 2013 se celebró el bicentenario de su nacimiento.\n\nVida privada\n\nLa vida personal de Duarte hasta la fecha es tema de discusión. Se sabe que fue un poeta seguidor del Romanticismo. También solía tocar la guitarra, el piano y la flauta; además practicaba esgrima. \nDurante su juventud Duarte mantuvo varias relaciones amorosas. La primera relación la sostuvo con María Antonia Bobadilla, la cual terminó años después por razones desconocidas. Años después, Duarte se enamoró de Prudencia “Nona” Lluberes, descendiente de catalanes con quien llegó a formalizar una relación que se vio interrumpida debido a su destierro y su posterior padecimiento de tuberculosis. Las fechas en las que Duarte mantuvo estas relaciones no se conocen, dada la imprecisión sobre su vida privada y a los últimos años de su vida en el exilio. También algunos historiadores certifican que tuvo un hijo durante su estadía en Venezuela con una mujer llamada Marcela Mercedes.​\n\nControversias\n\nDuarte se encontraba en el exilio en 1844, justo en el momento de proclamar la independencia dominicana, por lo que algunos historiadores sostienen que éste no merece ser incluido como uno de los Padres de la Patria.​El catedrático de la Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo, Paulino Ramos, quien además es miembro de la Academia Dominicana de la Historia desmintió esta teoría diciendo \"Si salió del país fue porque se tenía como cierto que, de ser apresado, el movimiento podía fracasar\", dando a entender que Duarte utilizó su viaje a Curazao en ese momento como estrategia y no por cobardía como se insinuó.​\nDurante cincuenta años posteriores a la Independencia de la República Dominicana y de los sucesos posteriores como la Guerra de la Restauración existía un acalorado debate sobre quién o quiénes deberían de considerarse como \"padres de la patria\", \"padres fundadores\" o los líderes de la independencia. Existían varios desacuerdos, por un lado sostenían que debido a que Juan Pablo Duarte no estuvo presente durante la gesta independentistas el 27 de febrero de 1844 no podía ser considerado como padre de la patria. otros no lograban un consenso sobre quién entre Duarte, Sánchez y Mella debía ser considerado el líder. Por órdenes del entonces presidente Ulises Heureaux para poner fin a las constantes pugnas ordenó que se pusieran de acuerdo y así el 11 de abril de 1894 el Congreso Nacional mediante la resolución 3392 establecía que los padres de la patria eran \"Duarte, Sánchez y Mella\" poniendo fin a cincuenta años de acalorados e intensos debates​.\nA lo largo de la la historia ciertos grupos sociales de pensadores, políticos y expertos se han negado a aceptar a la figura de Duarte como líder de la independencia, emitiendo críticas y opiniones públicas que han encontrado adeptos y detractores sin que estos debates tomasen otras connotaciones que no fuesen las meramente histórico-sociales-culturales.\nSin embargo no ha sido así con grupos extremistas antiindependentistas, supremacistas y racistas han tomado ciertos aspectos históricos de las gestas previas y posteriores a la Independencia de la República Dominicana, sacándolos totalmente del contexto histórico y aprovechando el morbo en ciertas situaciones sociales, para socavar la memoria histórica Dominicana y difundir ideas maliciosamente tergiversadas. \nEn los últimos años grupos radicalistas pro-haitianos​​ que buscan la unificación de la isla de la República Dominicana con la Haití ​han desarrollado una cuantiosa campaña de descrédito buscando generar controversias en torno a las figuras de los padres de la patria como lo son Juan Pablo Duarte, Francisco del Rosario Sánchez y Matías Ramón Mella y las gestas de independencia, restauración y otras luchas sociales. Hasta esta Wikipedia ha llegado la mano larga, oscura y maliciosa de estos malintencionados grupos que en 2018 han atacado de manera incontrolada algunos artículos sobre el tema, en especial el artículo de Juan Pablo Duarte, colocando insultos e informaciones falsas lo que ha generado indignación en medios de comunicación masiva, dañando el arduo trabajo desinteresado de miles de usuarios que han realizado contribuciones valiosas, apegadas a referencias históricas de fuentes de alta fiabilidad.\nEn 2008, el diario español El País, tuvo que hacer una aclaración sobre un error de investigación cometido por el periodista de ese medio José Antonio Hernández, quien publicó un artículo en dicho periódico titulado «844 palazos por traicionar a los trinitarios», en el cual se confunde a la Sociedad Secreta La Trinitaria, fundada por Juan Pablo Duarte en 1838 con el objetivo de lograr la independencia dominicana, con una pandilla de igual nombre que actualmente opera en el área de Madrid.​ El canciller dominicano Carlos Morales Troncoso envió una misiva al director del periódico exigiéndole una disculpa al país.​. Doña Jeannette Alfau Ortiz, una prestigiosa abogada de origen dominicano, residente en España, envío una carta al editor del periódico y fue sólo entonces cuando se rectificó el error cometido​.", "Virreinato del Río de la Plata\n\nUbicación territorial\n\nEl virreinato del Río de la Plata nació de una escisión del virreinato del Perú e integró los territorios de las gobernaciones de Buenos Aires, Paraguay, Tucumán y Santa Cruz de la Sierra, el corregimiento de Cuyo (que hasta entonces pertenecía a la capitanía general de Chile) y los corregimientos de la provincia de Charcas. Actualmente este territorio integra las repúblicas de Argentina (incluyendo las disputadas islas Malvinas), Uruguay, Paraguay y Bolivia, así como también partes que desde la segunda mitad del siglo XIX están incorporadas a Brasil, y sectores del norte de Chile y del sureste de Perú. Además incluyó nominalmente las islas africanas de Fernando Poo (hoy Bioko) y Annobón en la actual Guinea Ecuatorial,​ cedidas por Portugal en 1777, aunque el intento por colonizarlas fracasó. \nSe situaba en el Cono Sur de América del Sur sobre el océano Atlántico y es tema de disputa si en algún momento poseyó costas en el océano Pacífico sur.​\n\nRazones que llevaron a la creación del virreinato\n\nLa enorme superficie que abarcaba el virreinato del Perú dificultaba las tareas de gobierno, lo cual fue un poderoso motivo para la división de ese territorio. \nOtras causas que influyeron en la decisión de efectuar esa separación fueron: la ambición de Portugal sobre la Banda Oriental, en donde se hallaban la Colonia del Sacramento y las Misiones Orientales, así como el constante avance lusitano sobre toda la frontera hispano-portuguesa en América del Sur; la creciente importancia que iba cobrando Buenos Aires como centro comercial; el valor del estuario del Río de la Plata como entrada hacia el interior del continente y la defensa de los puertos de Buenos Aires y Montevideo; y las sucesivas expediciones de Gran Bretaña y de Francia sobre las costas de la Patagonia.​\n\nLa Ruta del Galeón\n\nEl itinerario implantado por el monopolio comercial español en sus colonias fue, desde 1573, llamado oficialmente la Ruta del Galeón. Esta ruta fue utilizada para el intercambio comercial entre España y las Indias en dos flotas anuales destinadas a los puertos de Veracruz —Flota de Nueva España— en Nueva España y Portobelo, en Panamá, —Flota de Tierra Firme—. Las remesas de plata, oro, esmeraldas, perlas y demás bienes que salían desde el virreinato del Perú iban regularmente desde el puerto del Callao hasta la ciudad de Panamá. Desde allí los cargamentos de riquezas eran llevados por tierra a Portobelo y desde ese puerto las armadas de galeones surcaban el mar Caribe tocando los puertos de Cartagena de Indias, Santa Marta y Santo Domingo, para luego cruzar el océano Atlántico hasta el puerto de Sevilla, que fue el único puerto habilitado de embarque y desembarque hasta 1765. En el sentido inverso los productos de España llegaban al Callao y de allí podían llegar a lomo de mula a Potosí, desde donde seguían hasta Buenos Aires. Portobelo, Cartagena de Indias y La Habana, eran los baluartes principales para la protección de la Ruta del Galeón, y en Portobelo se realizaban las ferias de intercambio comercial. \nEl 21 de noviembre de 1739 fuerzas británicas capturaron, saquearon y destruyeron Portobelo, lo que demostró paulatinamente a las autoridades españolas que convenía oficializar una ruta más segura, pensándose en la hasta entonces usada para el \"contrabando ejemplar\": la que desde el Alto Perú transportaba clandestinamente las riquezas por el Camino Real, pasando por Salta y Córdoba hasta llegar al puerto de Buenos Aires, puerto que había crecido precisamente por el \"contrabando ejemplar\". El Río de la Plata era la principal alternativa a la Ruta del Galeón, lo que lo convertía en vulnerable a ataques enemigos y hacía necesario un fortalecimiento de la presencia española en él. Desde 1662 existía la Aduana Seca de Córdoba que aplicaba impuestos del 50% a los productos que del Río de la Plata pasaban al Perú, sin distinguir si su origen era legal o del contrabando.\nEn 1778 el rey Carlos III promulgó el Reglamento para el Comercio Libre de España e Indias que puso fin a la ruta monopólica abriendo al comercio recíproco 13 puertos de España y 25 de las Indias, entre ellos Buenos Aires y Montevideo. En cada uno de ellos debían crearse consulados de comercio, pero solo los navíos matriculados en España podían utilizar esos puertos. En 1795 el rey habilitó el comercio con las colonias no españolas y permitió que los navíos matriculados en las Indias pudieran comerciar con puertos españoles. Todas estas reformas borbónicas modificaron sustancialmente los poderes y factores económicos tanto peninsulares como hispanoamericanos.\n\nEl proyecto del virreinato austral\n\nEl 8 de octubre de 1773 el rey Carlos III pidió informes al virrey del Perú, a la Real Audiencia de Lima, y al gobernador de Buenos Aires, respecto de la posible creación de una audiencia en el Tucumán. \nEl virrey Manuel de Amat y Juniet le respondió el 22 de enero de 1775 expresando los motivos por los que creía debía reinstalarse una audiencia en Buenos Aires y crearse un virreinato con capital en Chile que abarcara el Río de la Plata.​\nEl 18 de noviembre de 1775 fueron repetidos los pedidos de informes a la Real Audiencia de Lima y al gobernador de Buenos Aires, que no los habían remitido. \nCuando el proyecto aún estaba en estudio, el 1 de abril de 1776 el comandante general portugués de São José do Norte, el alemán Johann Heinrich Bohm, atacó los fuertes de Santa Bárbara y Trinidad y recuperó la villa de Río Grande, que había sido conquistada por Pedro de Cevallos el 12 de mayo de 1763, cuando era gobernador de Buenos Aires.​ Este conflicto con Portugal precipitó la decisión del rey de crear un virreinato basado en el Río de la Plata y no en Chile.\n\nLa expedición de Cevallos\n\nEl rey enviaba la expedición «dirijida á tomar satisfacción á los portugueses por los insultos cometidos en mis provincias del Rio de la Plata», de modo que su administración sobre el territorio rioplatense y las ciudades de Cuyo incorporadas tendrían en principio un fuerte carácter militar. En ese momento inaugural el virreinato del Río de la Plata incluyó a todo el territorio que actualmente son los estados brasileños de Río Grande del Sur (llamado por los españoles Río Grande de San Pedro), Santa Catarina y amplias zonas que hoy son parte de Paraná y Mato Grosso del Sur así como pequeños sectores que actualmente corresponden al oeste del Mato Grosso. Cevallos inició su campaña intentando llevar el límite de los territorios portugueses al este de la línea del Tratado de Tordesillas (que España situaba en la isla Cananéia) y para ello los desalojó de las plazas de Colonia del Sacramento, Río Grande y la población de Nuestra Señora del Destierro -actual Florianópolis- en la isla de Santa Catalina.\nEl 20 de febrero de 1777 la gran expedición de 116 barcos desembarcó tropas en la isla de Santa Catalina, que se rindió el 5 de marzo, quedando el teniente coronel Juan Roca como gobernador. Luego, al no poder atacar Río Grande por causas climáticas, la flota se dirigió al sur de la Banda Oriental, llegando a Montevideo el 20 de abril de 1777. El 4 de junio se rindió el gobernador portugués de Colonia del Sacramento, que fue arrasada por orden de Cevallos. Luego continuó la ofensiva por tierra en el este del territorio y tomó la Fortaleza de Santa Teresa y el Fuerte de San Miguel, avanzando sobre la población de Río Grande, pero la ofensiva fue detenida el 4 de septiembre de 1777, al conocerse las tratativas de paz entre España y Portugal.\nEl 1 de octubre de 1777 fue firmado el Tratado de San Ildefonso entre España y Portugal, que acordó la soberanía española sobre la Colonia del Sacramento y la isla San Gabriel, pero obligó a España a renunciar definitivamente a la isla de Santa Catalina y al territorio de Río Grande, al norte de la Banda Oriental, que había ido siendo ocupado paulatinamente por Portugal y cuya posesión se había consolidado con el Tratado de Madrid (1750). España recibió también la cesión de las islas de Annobón y Fernando Poo en el golfo de Guinea.\n\nLa ocupación de las Misiones Orientales por Portugal\n\nEl 8 de agosto de 1801 un grupo de irregulares portugueses aliados con algunos guaraníes descontentos, en el contexto de la guerra de las Naranjas que se desarrollaba en Europa, ocuparon el pueblo de San Miguel Arcángel y pocos días después conquistaron el resto de las Misiones Orientales y el pueblo de San Francisco de Borja. Otras fuerzas portuguesas se apoderaron de las guardias entre los ríos Piratiní y el Yaguarón, Batoví, el Fuerte de Santa Tecla, la Guardia de San Martín y el área costera hasta el arroyo Chuy. En enero de 1802 arrasaron el Fuerte de San José ubicado en la margen sur del río Apa en el Paraguay. Aunque el rey portugués aceptó devolver las conquistas, nunca lo hizo.\n\nLas Invasiones Inglesas\n\nEn 1806, en el contexto de las Guerras Napoleónicas y en el marco de la undécima guerra anglo-española, el Reino Unido -potencia que desde el siglo XVIII había comenzado su movimiento ascencional respecto de Francia en la guerra colonial, en especial en las posesiones territoriales de la India y América del Norte, principalmente Canadá- colisionó con el nuevo expansionismo global francés del emperador Napoleón Bonaparte y ocupó la Colonia del Cabo, ubicada en Sudáfrica. Al mismo tiempo aprovechó que el Imperio español se encontraba en una situación sumamente crítica -ya que existía en España una solapada contienda por el trono-, para desde África y siguiendo el Plan Maitland, intentar invadir el estuario del Río de la Plata, núcleo y principal vía de acceso hacia el interior del virreinato del Río de la Plata. Debido a la toma de Buenos Aires por los británicos, el virrey Rafael de Sobremonte se trasladó a Córdoba, ciudad a la que declaró capital interina del virreinato el 14 de julio de 1806.​ Esta primera invasión británica concluyó con la derrota de estas fuerzas, que debieron abandonar la región. \nEn 1807 el Reino Unido intentó una segunda invasión con el mismo fin de apoderarse del Río de la Plata, la que finalizó con idéntico resultado y que frustró los planes colonialistas británicos en el virreinato.\n\nRechazo al rey francés\n\nNapoleón Bonaparte y José I enviaron al marqués de Sassenay al Río de la Plata con el fin de hacer jurar lealtad al nuevo monarca impuesto en España por la ocupación francesa y dar a conocer las Abdicaciones de Bayona de los reyes Carlos IV y su hijo Fernando VII. Cuando el marqués de Sassenay llegó a Buenos Aires en julio de 1808, el virrey Santiago de Liniers realizó consultas con la Real Audiencia y con el cabildo de Buenos Aires para decidir qué posición tomar, pero tanto el cabildo como la audiencia rechazaron las exigencias francesas y quemaron los pliegos que les había presentado el enviado de Napoleón, a quien otorgaron un breve plazo para abandonar la ciudad. Sassenay se dirigió a Montevideo pero allí fue apresado por el gobernador Francisco Javier de Elío. El 21 de agosto se realizó en Buenos Aires la jura de reconocimiento del rey Fernando VII como soberano español. En septiembre de 1808 Liniers declaró la guerra a Napoleón y a José I y reconoció la Junta Suprema Central instalada en Sevilla. José Manuel de Goyeneche fue enviado como delegado para hacer jurar en el Perú y el Río de la Plata lealtad a la Junta de Sevilla. Posteriormente la junta envió a Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros como nuevo virrey en reemplazo de Liniers.​\n\nMovimientos de Chuquisaca y La Paz\n\nPara sofocar las revueltas de Chuquisaca y La Paz, el virrey Cisneros envió desde Buenos Aires un contingente de quinientos hombres al mando de Vicente Nieto, secundado por el capitán de navío José de Córdoba y Rojas. La expedición partió el 4 de octubre de 1809 y al llegar a Chuquisaca no hizo falta que entraran en combate, pues el foco insurreccional le prestó acatamiento, mientras que La Paz fue ocupada por Goyeneche con fuerzas del virreinato del Perú.\n\nLa Revolución de Mayo y desintegración del virreinato\n\nEl 25 de mayo de 1810 se produjo la Revolución de Mayo en Buenos Aires, que depuso al virrey Cisneros y nombró a una junta provisional de gobierno que se negó a reconocer a la Junta de Sevilla y a su sucesor Consejo de Regencia de España e Indias. La triunfante revolución de la capital marcó el inicio del fin del virreinato. \nEl gobernador intendente del Paraguay, Bernardo de Velasco remitió una nota a Buenos Aires comunicando que la provincia del Paraguay no reconocía a su Junta. El 24 de junio de 1810 un congreso paraguayo reiteró su fidelidad al monarca Fernando VII y al Consejo de Regencia. El 17 de junio de 1811 se instaló en Asunción una junta gubernativa presidida por Fulgencio Yegros que depuso a Velasco y luego acordó la paz con Buenos Aires.\nEl 13 de julio de 1810 el virrey del Perú tomó la medida excepcional de reincorporar provisoriamente las intendencias de La Paz, Potosí, Chuquisaca y Córdoba del Tucumán al virreinato del Perú, aunque en la práctica la anexión incluyó también las intendencias de Cochabamba y Salta del Tucumán, y los gobiernos de Moxos y Chiquitos. Lo hizo a pedido del presidente de Charcas, del gobernador de Potosí y también de otras autoridades, aclarando en el decreto de anexión que lo hacía: hasta que se restablezca en su legítimo mando el Excmo. Señor Virey de Buenos-Ayres, y demás autoridades legalmente constituidas, pues solo el rey podía desmembrar formalmente territorio de un virreinato.​​\n\nLa guerra de independencia y el final del virreinato\n\nEl 19 de enero de 1811 Francisco Javier de Elío declaró a Montevideo capital del virreinato y asumió como virrey del Río de la Plata, cargo para el que fue nombrado por el Consejo de Regencia el 31 de agosto de 1810, pero la población rural de la Banda Oriental rechazó su autoridad en febrero de 1811, hecho conocido como \"Grito de Asencio\". El 18 de mayo de ese año, José Gervasio Artigas derrotó en la batalla de Las Piedras al jefe realista José Posadas, quedando Elío sólo con el control de la Colonia del Sacramento y la sitiada ciudad de Montevideo, mientras que las tropas revolucionarias de la junta de Buenos Aires controlaban el resto de la Banda Oriental.\nEl 20 de octubre de 1811, Elío y la junta de Buenos Aires firmaron un armisticio que devolvía al control realista la Banda Oriental y las villas entrerrianas de Gualeguaychú, Gualeguay y Concepción del Uruguay. Por orden del Consejo de Regencia, Elío dejó el cargo de virrey el 18 de noviembre de 1811, asumiendo el mariscal de campo Gaspar de Vigodet como capitán general y gobernador de las provincias del Río de la Plata y presidente de la Real Audiencia de Buenos Aires. A mediados de diciembre Elío se embarcó para España.\nTres importantes hechos fueron determinantes para la gesta revolucionaria de la región del Río de la Plata. Dos batallas, las únicas de carácter campal que se libraron en el actual territorio argentino durante el transcurso de la guerra de la Independencia, decidieron sendas victorias de los ejércitos patriotas sobre los reales y se debieron al general independentista Manuel Belgrano. A la batalla de Tucumán, librada el 24 y 25 de septiembre de 1812, denominada por su vencedor como \"el Sepulcro de la Tiranía\", le siguió un segundo triunfo rioplatense en la batalla de Salta, el 20 de febrero de 1813, que logró expulsar a los ejércitos del rey de la ciudad y que liberó definitivamente a las provincias ubicadas al sur del dominio realista. El 23 de junio de 1814 Vigodet —último gobernante español propio del virreinato del Río de la Plata— se rindió en Montevideo a las tropas revolucionarias comandadas por el general Carlos María de Alvear, quedando la Banda Oriental también libre de la dominación de la corona española.\nEl 6 de diciembre de 1822 el coronel español Pedro Antonio de Olañeta se retiró del territorio jujeño que había invadido, hecho que marcó el final de la presencia militar española en lo que actualmente es la República Argentina. El Ejército Unido Libertador del Perú llevó adelante al mando de Antonio José de Sucre la campaña final sobre los últimos reductos realistas del exvirreinato del Río de la Plata en el Alto Perú, que concluyó el 1 de abril de 1825 con el combate de Tumusla. Después de tenerse en la corte española noticias de la derrota realista en la batalla de Ayacucho y sin conocerse la muerte de Olañeta a orillas del río Tumusla, éste fue nombrado nominalmente virrey del Río de la Plata el 27 de mayo de 1825.​ \nLa banda de los Hermanos Pincheira continuó desde 1817 realizando saqueos y ataques en nombre del rey de España en Chile, Cuyo y la Patagonia argentina hasta su derrota definitiva en la batalla de las lagunas de Epulafquen el 14 de enero de 1832 por obra del general chileno Manuel Bulnes.\nEn la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, España reconoció sucesivamente la independencia de las repúblicas surgidas del virreinato (fechas de los canjes de ratificaciones de los tratados): Argentina (27 de junio de 1860), Bolivia (12 de febrero de 1861), Paraguay (8 de abril de 1882) y Uruguay (9 de octubre de 1882).\n\nOrganización territorial del virreinato\n\nEl territorio del virreinato del Río de la Plata poseyó dos sucesivas organizaciones territoriales:\nLa primera desde 1776 a 1784 implicaba la existencia de una sola audiencia y la conservación de las gobernaciones, gobiernos y corregimientos con los que se había constituido el virreinato: 4 gobernaciones y 3 corregimientos, quedando bajo su dependencia 5 gobiernos político militares (o \"provincias subordinadas\"), 20 corregimientos indígenas, dos corregimientos de españoles subordinados y una comandancia político militar. El corregimiento de Cuyo fue transferido desde la Real Audiencia de Chile a la jurisdicción de la de Charcas. Se agregaron en 1778 la Superintendencia de los Establecimientos Patagónicos (1778-1785) y la efímera gobernación de Fernando Poo y Annobón (1778-1780), no pudiendo conservarse la gobernación creada en la isla de Santa Catalina luego de la paz con Portugal en 1777.\nA partir de 1784 se aplicó el régimen de gobernaciones intendencias, creándose 8 de ellas a las que se le dio el nombre de provincias y los corregimientos pasaron a ser partidos, restableciéndose la Real Audiencia de Buenos Aires. Los gobiernos político militares fueron mantenidos a excepción del gobierno de Chucuito. La Superintendencia de los Establecimientos Patagónicos subsistió hasta 1785, cuando fue transformada en la comandancia de Patagones. En 1784 fue creada la intendencia de Puno con parte de la de La Paz, pero fue transferida al virreinato del Perú en 1796. Desde 1787 tres partidos de esta intendencia pasaron a integrar la nueva Real Audiencia del Cuzco, a la que se integraron los demás desde 1796. Al momento de la Revolución de Mayo en 1810, las 8 intendencias tenían bajo su dependencia a 40 partidos, 4 gobiernos político militares y dos tenencias de gobierno. Existían además varias comandancias político militares ubicadas en zonas de frontera con el Brasil portugués, y por esto particularmente militarizadas, y otras ubicadas en puntos estratégicos y vulnerables (como la Comandancia de las Islas Malvinas) , las cuales estaban bajo la dependencia directa del virrey.\nEclesiásticamente todo el virreinato formaba una provincia de la Iglesia católica, el arzobispado de Charcas, de cuyo arzobispo eran sufragáneos 6 obispos diocesanos, siendo el de Salta creado en 1806. Al pasar al virreinato del Perú la intendencia de Puno en 1796, los partidos de Chucuito y Paucarcolla continuaron dependiendo del obispado de La Paz.\n\nEconomía del virreinato\n\nEl nombre del virreinato del Río de la Plata sugiere cuál fue el producto económico que resultó basal para la economía de éste, la plata, obtenida principalmente de las minas ubicadas en el Alto Perú. De todas las minas altoperuanas la más célebre fue la del cerro Rico de Potosí. La misma región altoperuana era gran productora de otros minerales: cobre, estaño y oro.\nEsta base económica significó el desarrollo de un tránsito carretero que generalmente \"bajaba\" desde el Alto Perú hasta el puerto de Buenos Aires siguiendo el Camino Real, tal tránsito supuso por su parte la cría de mulas, también de caballos y asnos) la cual se realizaba principalmente en las ciudades del Tucumán. \nEste tránsito promovió una industria cuasi artesanal de carretas fabricadas en San Miguel de Tucumán y en la ciudad de Mendoza. Las carretas muy lentas eran casi siempre tiradas por bueyes y sus marchas por extensos itinerarios se reducían a unas pocas leguas por día. El tráfico de plata fue de este modo el principal rubro de exportaciones desde el virreinato hacia Europa. Tal tráfico frecuentemente estaba asociado con el contrabando y un intercambio de plata por gente esclavizada llevada desde África hasta el puerto de Buenos Aires para luego ser distribuida en diversas zonas.\nLa mayoría de la población se concentraba en las zonas altoperuanas, pobres en producciones agrícolas y ganaderas, esto significó el desarrollo de nuevos centros y circuitos productivos y comerciales dentro del virreinato: la región pampeana y las Vaquerías del Mar pobladas por inmensas greyes de vacunos proveyó de carne barata no solo a las poblaciones del Alto Perú sino a las del Brasil portugués, en el segundo de los casos se efectuaba contrabando masivo desde la Banda Oriental y las Misiones Orientales siguiendo luego la Ruta del ganado hasta Curitiba y de allí hasta la \"feria\" de Sorocaba. Los rodeos de ganados realengos, es decir ganados que al carecer de dueños precisos nominalmente eran pertenecientes a la corona española aunque en los hechos, al ser cimarrones, solían resultar de usufructo público, requirieron un tipo especial de trabajador libre: el gaucho, muchas veces arrieros que transportaban los ganados en pie por pistas o huellas durante cientos de kilómetros. La zona de las Misiones y el Paraguay fue sede de cultivos de yerba mate, cultivos iniciados por guaraníes y jesuitas. La yerba mate abastecía a casi todo el virreinato e incluso a la Capitanía General de Chile. Otros cultivos alimenticios surgieron merced a la demanda altoperuana: vinos (en Salta, Tarija, Cuyo, Córdoba), aguardientes y singanis; e incluso plantaciones de olivo, principalmente en La Rioja y Catamarca pero las plantaciones oliveras fueron en gran medida taladas para evitar que compitieran con el monopolio español.\nDel mismo modo el Alto Perú no lograba autoabastecerse con sus producciones de lanas de auquénidos y resultó un cliente que facilitó la plantación de algodón en Santiago del Estero y el establecimiento de una incipiente industria textil, en la cual se elaboraba el algodón junto con la lana de caprinos, ovinos y auquénidos en los territorios de las actuales provincias de Santiago del Estero, Catamarca, Salta, La Rioja así como de talabartería en Tucumán. Por otra parte la ciudad de Córdoba se encontraba beneficiada al ser la encrucijada de las rutas que unían el oeste con el este y el norte con el sureste del virreinato, tal encrucijada hacía que fuera común designar como \"El Arriba\" a todo el territorio ubicado al norte y oeste de la ciudad de Córdoba y como \"El Abajo\" a todo el territorio ubicado al sur y al este de la misma ciudad.\nPor lo demás la agricultura para alimentar a las poblaciones dispersas se encontraba reducida a una agricultura de subsistencia, en muchas ocasiones solo horticultura.\nSiempre que se plantea el análisis de una economía corresponde considerar entre uno de los factores básicos el transporte, en particular la velocidad del mismo, en tal sentido en los terrenos más fácilmente transitables que eran (como aún hoy) los de la planísima región pampeana, las velocidades a caballo promedio eran de unas 8 a 10 leguas diarias; las carreras a \"revientacaballos\" (con chasquis que cambiaban de caballos en cada posta) hacían recorrer (en la región pampeana) 800 kilómetros en diez días, la distancia entre la ciudad de Mendoza y la ciudad de Buenos Aires era cubierta a galope (por el sistema de chasquis) en 22 días recorriéndose para ello unos 1100 km que alternaban relieves llanos y escarpados. El sistema oficial de correos en el territorio que luego sería del virreinato comenzó a establecerse en 1748 y se mejoró y reorganizó con postas en 1771. En 1767 fue establecido el Correo Ultramarino La Coruña - Montevideo y en 1786 se estableció el correo de encomiendas entre Buenos Aires y Potosí. El transporte de cargas por tierra insumía tiempos inverosímiles para la gente de la actualidad: una carreta de ruedas macizas tirada por cuatro bueyes sanos y fuertes tardaba 3 meses en recorrer 1000 kilómetros.\nLa navegación fluvial era relativamente rápida \"bajando\" los ríos: Desde Asunción a la ciudad de Buenos Aires se tardaba aproximadamente 15 días pero la \"subida\" o el navegar el río Paraná en contracorriente aguas arriba (con la tecnología de entonces se lograba una velocidad de tan solo tres millas por hora) demandaba casi tres meses, y más frecuentemente unos 112 días. En 1739 la Real Audiencia de Charcas dispuso que Santa Fe fuera un puerto preciso de la navegación del Paraguay, lo que fue confirmado por una real cédula el 1 de abril de 1743. Todos los barcos procedentes del Paraguay debían desembarcar sus cargas en Santa Fe para seguir por tierra hacia Buenos Aires, lo que provocó disputas entre los cabildos y gobernadores de las tres ciudades. El 13 de abril de 1780 el virrey Pedro Melo de Portugal abolió provisoriamente los privilegios del puerto preciso de Santa Fe, lo que fue confirmado por el Consejo de Indias el 14 de febrero de 1781.​\n\nLos puertos\n\nLa ciudad de la Trinidad y puerto de Santa María del Buen Ayre fue elegida como capital del virreinato del Río de la Plata porque su puerto abastecía un amplio mercado. Con el Reglamento de Libre Comercio de 1778, el puerto de Buenos Aires tuvo vinculaciones con España y con casi toda América. Sin embargo, por su fondo lodoso, en sus muelles no podían amarrar buques de gran calado. Por esto, el puerto de Montevideo, con fondo de piedras y mayor profundidad daba ventajas naturales que le permitieron ganar una importancia comparable al de Buenos Aires o aún mayor. Esto le granjeó en varias oportunidades enfrentamientos con la capital del virreinato.\nTambién Montevideo en poco tiempo se transformó en un gran centro comercial. Su estratégica posición le permitía un gran movimiento de buques mercantes. La ciudad creció rápidamente, en especial el sector social vinculado al comercio, principalmente ganadero. Para la ciudad, el negocio que más prosperó fue el llamado comercio de tránsito: las mercaderías que pasaban por el puerto de Montevideo pagaban un impuesto por los días de permanencia en el mismo. Todo este desarrollo económico y social que experimentó la zona, no venía acompañado de reformas administrativas que se acomodaran a ese crecimiento económico.\nPara luchar contra el contrabando en 1779 fue creado el Resguardo del Puerto de Buenos Aires, que era un cuerpo militar integrado por oficiales y tropa al mando de un comandante que fiscalizaba el puerto, las costas del Río de la Plata y las salidas terrestres. Otro Resguardo fue creado en el Puerto de Montevideo en 1780 y otros en ciudades como Corrientes, Salta, Córdoba y la villa de Oruro.\nEn 1797 el virrey Antonio Olaguer Feliú autorizó la entrada de buques extranjeros y neutrales al puerto de Buenos Aires para estimular las actividades comerciales del virreinato que estaban comenzando a sufrir los efectos negativos de las tensiones crecientes entre las potencias europeas.", "Estatuto de Autonomía del País Vasco de 1936\n\nEl Estatuto de Autonomía del País Vasco de 1936 fue una ley aprobada por las Cortes de la Segunda República Española el 1 de octubre de 1936 en Valencia, ya comenzada la Guerra Civil y sin la participación de Navarra y después de un largo y complicado proceso iniciado en 1931. Tras la aprobación del Estatuto se formó el primer Gobierno autónomo, del 7 de octubre de 1936 al 30 de marzo de 1937. Este Gobierno de Euzkadi fue presidido por José Antonio Aguirre, del Partido Nacionalista Vasco, y contó con participación de representantes del PSOE, PCE, Acción Nacionalista Vasca, Izquierda Republicana y Unión Republicana.\n\nEl Estatuto de Estella\n\nEl País vasconavarro inició el proceso para la consecución de un Estatuto de Autonomía muy pronto. La primera propuesta fue una iniciativa de los alcaldes del Partido Nacionalista Vasco que a principios de mayo de 1931 encargaron a la Sociedad de Estudios Vascos (SEV) la redacción de un anteproyecto de Estatuto General del Estado Vasco (o Euskadi), que incluiría Vizcaya, Álava, Guipúzcoa y Navarra. El resultado fue un intento de síntesis entre el foralismo tradicional y la estructura de los modernos estados federales que no contentó a nadie. Mes y medio después, una asamblea de los ayuntamientos vasconavarros reunidos en Estella el 14 de junio aprobó un Estatuto más conservador y nacionalista que el de la SEV y que se basaba en el restablecimiento de los fueros vascos sometidos a la Constitución por la Ley de Confirmación de Fueros de 1839, junto con la Ley de Amejoramiento del Fuero de 1841.​\nEl Estatuto de Estella fue presentado el 22 de septiembre de 1931 a las Cortes Constituyentes por una delegación de alcaldes pero no fue tomado en consideración porque el proyecto se situaba claramente al margen de Constitución que se estaba debatiendo, entre otras cosas, por su concepción federalista y por la declaración de confesionalidad del «Estado vasco» (que podría negociar por ello un concordato particular con el Vaticano), además de que no reconocía derechos políticos plenos a los inmigrantes españoles con menos de diez años de residencia en Euskadi.​ Así el Estatuto se reservaba la competencias sobre materias religiosas.​\n\nEl Estatuto de las Gestoras y el referéndum de 1933\n\nEn diciembre de 1931 las Cortes encargaron a las Comisiones Gestoras provisionales de las Diputaciones —que habían sido designadas por los gobernadores civiles respectivos para sustituir a los equipos monárquicos, y donde los republicanos y socialistas tenían mayoría— para que elaboraran un nuevo proyecto de Estatuto, que al final fue consensuado con el PNV, que se había distanciado de la Comunión Tradicionalista carlista. Una Asamblea de Ayuntamientos celebrada en Pamplona en junio de 1932 aprobó el proyecto, pero los carlistas lo rechazaron, por lo que al tener la mayoría en Navarra, dejaron fuera del ámbito de la futura «región autónoma» a este territorio.​ Ello obligó a una nueva redacción del proyecto y a un nuevo retraso, que también fue debido a que el gobierno de Azaña no situó al Estatuto vasco entre sus prioridades ya que los republicanos de izquierda y los socialistas se oponían al nacionalismo vasco, como lo demostraron los enfrentamientos callejeros entre jóvenes nacionalistas y socialistas.​ \nUn nuevo obstáculo se planteó cuando al realizarse el preceptivo referéndum sobre el Estatuto de las Gestoras el 5 de noviembre de 1933, en plena campaña para las elecciones a Cortes, los votos favorables en Álava no alcanzaron la mayoría del censo, de nuevo por la oposición de los carlistas (Alava era una provincia que, como Navarra, tenía una menor identidad nacionalista vasca debido a la fuerte implantación del carlismo).​\n\nLa paralización del proceso estatutario durante el segundo bienio\n\nEl nuevo presidente del gobierno salido de las elecciones de noviembre, el republicano radical Alejandro Lerroux ofreció el apoyo al “Estatuto de las Gestoras” a cambio de la colaboración de los diputados del PNV, pero la CEDA, el aliado principal de Lerroux, se opuso a esta iniciativa.​\nLa paralización definitiva del proceso de aprobación del Estatuto del País Vasco se produjo en febrero de 1934 cuando un diputado tradicionalista vasco planteó la exclusión de Álava de la autonomía vasca alegando que allí no se había alcanzado la mayoría necesaria (el 50%) en el referéndum celebrado el 3 de noviembre de 1933 (un hecho que se había producido precisamente por la oposición de los carlistas al estatuto vasco). El 12 de junio los diputados del PNV se retiraron de las Cortes como protesta por la paralización de la tramitación de su Estatuto y en solidaridad con la Esquerra Republicana de Cataluña que también había retirado los suyos después del que el Tribunal de Garantías Constitucionales anulase la Ley de Contratos de Cultivo aprobada por el parlamento catalán.​\n\nLa reanudación del proceso en 1936\n\nEn las elecciones de febrero de 1936 el PNV rechazó presentarse en coalición con la CEDA y la derechas —la unión de los católicos propuesta por la jerarquía eclesiástica— debido a su oposición a la autonomía vasca, y a la de cualquier «región» española —el rechazo provocó duros ataques contra el PNV por parte de la prensa conservadora y tradicionalista que llegó a poner en cuestión su catolicismo y los partidos del bloque contrarrevolucionario lo incluyeron entre «los enemigos de la Cruz y de la Patria»—. Tampoco aceptó formar parte del Frente Nacional Vasco por la independencia propuesto por Jagi-Jagi al PNV y a Acción Nacionalista Vasca —este último partido se incorporó a la candidatura del Frente Popular cuyo lema en el País Vasco fue: «Amnistía, Estatuo, ni un desahucio más»—. Así que se presentó en solitario con el eslogan: «¡Por la civilización cristiana, por la libertad de la patria [vasca] y por la justicia social!».​ \nA diferencia de la polarización que se produjo en el resto de España, el centro político representado por el PNV no se hundió en las elecciones, sino que mantuvo los buenos resultados de las de 1933. Así el PNV siguió siendo la fuerza mayoritaria en el País Vasco con nueve diputados, frente a los siete del Frente Popular y uno, por Álava, del Bloque de derechas encabezado por la Comunión Tradicionalista, que en cambio copó los siete escaños que correspondían a Navarra. Así pues, de las elecciones de febrero de 1936 surgió un \"triángulo político\" formado por el PNV de José Antonio Aguirre, mayoritario en Vizcaya-provincia y en Guipúzcoa, el Frente Popular encabezado por el socialista Indalecio Prieto, mayoritario en Bilbao, y la Comunión Tradicionalista, encabezada por José Luis Oriol, mayoritaria en Álava, y que había anunciado que organizaría un levantamiento armado si perdía las elecciones.​ \nTras la formación del gobierno del Frente Popular Prieto y Aguirre acordaron reanudar el debate parlamentario del proyecto de Estatuto que había quedado paralizado durante el bienio conservador, resolviendo al mismo tiempo la cuestión de Álava que había sido utilizada por las derechas para obstaculizar su tramitación en las Cortes. La Comisión de Estatutos, presidida por Prieto, propuso un proyecto con pocos artículos que fue aceptado por el PNV.​ En julio de 1936 estaba previsto que pasara al pleno de la Cámara, pero el 18 se produjo la sublevación militar que daría inicio a la guerra civil.​\nEl PNV no se sumó al alzamiento y se mantuvo fiel a la República, a pesar de no formar parte del Frente Popular y de ser un partido confesional católico, como le recordaron los obispos de Vitoria y de Pamplona que en una pastoral del 6 de agosto declararon ilícita (Non licet) la unión de los nacionalistas vascos con los republicanos y los socialistas. Tras la entrada de las tropas franquistas en San Sebastián en septiembre —Álava, como Navarra, desde el primer momento estuvieron del lado del bando sublevado—, el PNV entró a formar parte del gobierno del Frente Popular, a cambio de la inmediata promulgación del Estatuto. Así el peneuvista Manuel de Irujo fue nombrado ministro sin cartera del gobierno del socialista Francisco Largo Caballero y las Cortes aprobaron el proyecto.​\n\nContenido\n\nLa referencia del Estatuto vasco de 1936 fue el Estatuto de Autonomía de Cataluña de 1932. Como en el caso catalán se creaba una «región autónoma», formada por las provincias de Álava, Guipúzcoa y Vizcaya —aunque de hecho sólo estuvo vigente en Vizcaya y en la mitad occidental de Guipúzcoa, pues en octubre de 1936 el resto del territorio vasco formaba parte de la zona sublevada— y se delimitaban las competencias que correspondían a aquélla y las que correspondían al Estado, respetándose el régimen de concierto económico para la Hacienda autónoma. La nueva región autónoma contaría también con un gobierno y un parlamento propios.​\nRespecto del Estatuto plebiscitado en noviembre de 1933, era mucho más corto —constaba de 14 artículos agrupados en cinco títulos: disposiciones generales, extensión de la autonomía, organización del País Vasco— y presentaba dos novedades importantes: ni se hacía referencia a la futura integración de Navarra ni a la «reintegración foral».​\n\nAplicación: el gobierno de Aguirre y el «oasis vasco» (octubre de 1936 - junio de 1937)\n\nAnte la imposibilidad de celebrar elecciones al parlamento vasco, se estableció en una disposición transitoria del Estatuto que el primer presidente del gobierno vasco sería nombrado por los concejales de los ayuntamientos no ocupados por los franquistas. Así fue como el 7 de octubre resultó elegido lehendakari en la Casa de Juntas de Guernica José Antonio Aguirre, el líder del PNV, por unanimidad. Aguirre formó inmediatamente un gobierno en el que los nacionalistas vascos ocuparon las principales consejerías —Defensa (de la que se hizo cargo el propio Aguirre), Justicia y Cultura, Gobernación y Hacienda— y el resto los partidos del Frente Popular —PSOE, Izquierda Republicana, Unión Republicana, Acción Nacionalista Vasca y Partido Comunista de Euskadi—. Quedó fuera la CNT por el veto del PNV. En realidad fue un gobierno presidencialista ya que Aguirre concentró muchos poderes al ser al mismo tiempo lehendakari y consejero de Defensa, en un momento en que la prioridad era la guerra.\nLa moderación del gobierno vasco quedó patente en el programa político que hizo público y que reflejaba la hegemonía nacionalista vasca. Se hacía hincapié en el respeto a la libertad religiosa y en la garantía de la seguridad del clero, lo que no estaba sucediendo en absoluto en el resto de la zona republicana. Para el mantenimiento del orden público se creaba la policía foral (Ertzaña), los presos quedaban sometidos a la jurisdicción ordinaria y se protegía a la pequeña y mediana propiedad. Además se establecía la cooficialidad del euskera y el fomento de las «características nacionales del pueblo vasco». Por otro lado se creó el Euzko Gudarostea (Ejército vasco), bajo el control directo de Aguirre y del PNV, que no se unificó con el resto de milicias de partidos y de sindicatos. La consecuencia de todo ello fue que la situación política y social del País Vasco republicano fue completamente diferente a la del resto de la zona republicana ya que allí se respetó a la Iglesia Católica, no hubo revolución social ni checas ni tribunales actuando al margen de la ley, y existió además un pluralismo político mucho mayor. Por eso se habló del «oasis vasco».​ \nEn el momento en que fue nombrado Aguirre lehendakari el frente se había estabilizado y así permaneció hasta marzo de 1937 en que las tropas franquistas reanudaron su ofensiva. En esos seis meses el gobierno de Aguirre construyó una administración propia que absorbió casi todas las competencias del Estado —y también de las diputaciones forales y de los municipios— gracias al aislamiento del País Vasco de la zona principal que había permanecido fiel a la República, pero también debido al deseo del PNV de crear un Estado vasco. Así, como ha destacado el historiador José Luis de la Granja, \"de octubre de 1936 a junio de 1937, el Gobierno de Aguirre transformó lo que era un Estatuto de mínimos en una autonomía de máximos y convirtió a Euskadi, que nació entonces por primera vez en la historia como entidad jurídico-política, en un pequeño Estado semi-independiente con todos sus atributos: mantuvo relaciones exteriores a través de sus delegaciones en el extranjero, sobre todo en Francia y Gran Bretaña; formó el ejército regular de Euskadi, con unos 40.000 soldados encuadrados en 90 batallones de partidos y sindicatos, mandado políticamente (e incluso militarmente en mayo de 1937) por Aguirre como consejero de Defensa; acuñó moneda y expidió pasaportes; reorganizó la justicia, con la Audiencia Territorial, el Tribunal Popular y el Tribunal Militar de Euskadi, y concedió indultos; creó la Universidad vasca y numerosos organismos de todo tipo, según consta en el voluminoso Diario Oficial del País Vasco (Bilbao, 1936-1937)\".​ \nEl 19 de junio de 1937 las tropas franquistas tomaban Bilbao tras el llamado pacto de Santoña realizado entre políticos del PNV y los mandos de las fuerzas italianas y la intermediacion de la Santa Sede. Cuatro días más tarde el general Franco derogaba el concierto económico de Vizcaya y de Guipúzcoa como castigo por no haberse sumado a la sublevación, mientras confirmaba el de Álava y el Convenio de Navarra. A finales de junio caían los últimos reductos vascos que todavía resistían el avance franquista y poco después los batallones del PNV abandonaban la lucha y se rendían en Santoña, mientras que los milicianos vascos socialistas y anarquistas continuaron combatiendo en Santander y en Asturias hasta su caída en octubre de 1937.​", "Juana de Vega\n\nOrígenes familiares y educación\n\nNació el 7 de marzo de 1805 en La Coruña en el seno de una familia acomodada, liberal e ilustrada. Su padre, Juan Antonio de Vega, era un comerciante y hombre de negocios -poseía una fábrica de salazones- que \"hizo las Américas\" -concretamente estuvo en La Habana donde abrió un negocio propio- y que en uno de sus viajes de vuelta a la metrópoli conoció a la que sería su esposa, Josefa Martínez Losada. El padre durante la guerra de la independencia fue elegido procurador síndico del Ayuntamiento y miembro de la Diputación Provincial, por lo que cuando Fernando VII restableció el absolutismo en 1814 fue multado e inhabilitado durante dos años para ejercer cargos públicos. Al año siguiente participó activamente en el pronunciamiento fracasado del brigadier Juan Díaz Porlier en favor de la Constitución de 1812, lo que le obligó a marchar al exilio en Portugal. Cuando triunfó el pronunciamiento de Rafael del Riego que obligó al rey a promulgar de nuevo la Constitución de 1812, fue elegido vocal de la \"Junta de Gobierno\" revolucionaria que se formó en La Coruña. Tras la segunda restauración del absolutismo en 1823 se vio obligado de nuevo a marchar al exilio, esta vez acompañado de su hija Juana, que acaba de casarse con el general liberal Francisco Espoz y Mina.​\nJuana fue educada según los principios de la Ilustración que abogaban por sacar también a las mujeres de la ignorancia, por lo que se benefició de una instrucción en su propio hogar inusual para la época —cuando se decía que la mujer no debía saber ni aun escribir porque eso le podía conducir a su perdición— que estuvo a cargo de preceptores privados —uno de ellos al parecer le instruye en letras y humanidades— y de su propia madre que sentía pasión por la lectura. «Su más \"precioso patrimonio\", como la condesa reputaba su educación, había incluido saberes domésticos (bordado), habilidades ornamentales (música, baile, dibujo) y formación intelectual (gramática, aritmética, francés). Había recibido una instrucción pensada desde dentro de lo que el canon ilustrado fijaba para las jóvenes distinguidas. Es decir, era una educación útil que inculcaba los valores de la domesticidad y el trabajo (al fin y al cabo, el destino de toda mujer), de la distinción en la vida social y del cultivo del saber apropiado».​\n\nEsposa de Francisco Espoz y Mina (1781-1836)\n\nEn enero de 1821 fue nombrado capitán general de Galicia el general Francisco Espoz y Mina, antiguo guerrillero de la Guerra de la Independencia española y exiliado liberal entre 1814 y 1820. En La Coruña, sede de la Capitanía, frecuenta con asiduidad la casa del comerciante liberal de Vega, donde conoce a su hija Juana. Pero en noviembre es separado del mando y destinado a León por un manifiesto que el pueblo y las autoridades de La Coruña elevaron al rey, y que él también firmó, contra el gobierno moderado de Eusebio Bardají. Por eso el matrimonio de Juana de Vega, que tenía dieciséis años de edad, con Francisco Espoz y Mina, de cuarenta, se celebró al mes siguiente por poderes. \"Para ella, el matrimonio con un maduro general, políticamente comprometido, marcaría el resto de su vida. A pesar de su juventud, sabía bien el incierto futuro que podía esperar. Pero el amor y el «decidido entusiasmo por las nuevas instituciones de la patria» la llevaron a asumir el reto\".​ El matrimonio por poderes se celebró el 25 de diciembre de 1821 en su casa paterna, en la calle Real, aunque el acta matrimonial esté levantada en la iglesia de San Nicolás.\nEn el verano de 1822 el general Espoz y Mina fue enviado a Cataluña para que dirigiera la lucha contra las partidas realistas que se habían hecho fuertes en el interior y donde habían proclamado la Regencia de Urgel, pero su joven esposa no pudo acompañarle. Como ella misma escribió, «la imperiosa ley del destino nos obligó después a separarnos repetidas veces, y este fue siempre el mayor sacrificio que Mina hizo por su Patria». Con la llegada de los \"Los cien mil hijos de San Luis\" para restaurar de nuevo el poder absoluto de Fernando VII (1823), Espoz y Mina tiene que abandonar España por segunda vez, y su mujer, acompañada de su padre, se reúne con él en Gran Bretaña en marzo de 1824, después de un azaroso viaje en barco desde Portugal pasando por Francia. En Gran Bretaña permanecen hasta su regreso a España en 1833. Tres años después, en diciembre de 1836, fallece Francisco Espoz y Mina, a los cincuenta y cinco años de edad, mientras su esposa Juana tenía treinta.​\nDurante su matrimonio, Juana de la Vega responde casi a la perfección al arquetipo de \"ángel del hogar\" propio de la época, pero fue mucho más allá al desempeñar también el papel de la \"mujer patriota\". \"Fue la compañera y la enfermera solícita del hombre, al tiempo que la confidente, colaboradora, «amanuense», secretaria en muchas ocasiones y, como tal, responsable de la correspondencia con todos los núcleos conspiradores españoles y extranjeros ligados al héroe Mina. Era, pues, una mujer que iba más allá de los estrechos márgenes establecidos por la cultura burguesa y liberal que había excluido al «sexo olvidado» [en expresión del historiador Bartolomé Clavero] de la res publica\". Un papel que provocó inquietud y críticas entre los propios correligionarios de Mina por la \"influencia\" que ejercía sobre él su esposa a las que ella respondió: \"¡Desviar yo de su deber a Mina, comprometer su nombre! ¿Cómo es posible, teniendo yo tanto amor a la causa de la libertad?\".​\nLas Cortes le otorgaron los títulos de condesa de Espoz y Mina y de vizcondesa del Arado en testimonio de los servicios que había prestado el general a la nación y a Isabel II. A partir de entonces su viuda no dejará de velar por el recuerdo de su esposo que le llevará hasta el extremo de conservar en una urna de ébano y plata el corazón de Espoz y Mina, entre otros restos mortales.​ En 1837 Juana de Vega retorna a La Coruña, instalándose en su casa de la calle Real. Sus salones se convertirían en el punto de reunión de la sociedad liberal coruñesa y de personas notables que pasasen por la ciudad.\n\nAl cuidado de Isabel II (1841-1843)\n\nEn 1840 asumió la regencia el general Baldomero Espartero, tras obligar a partir al exilio a la regente anterior María Cristina de Borbón. Para que la futura reina Isabel II, que entonces contaba con once años de edad, fuera educada en los valores de la monarquía constitucional, contrarrestando así la educación poco adecuada que había recibido hasta entonces, el regente nombró a dos viejas glorias del liberalismo, Agustín de Argüelles -entonces presidente del Congreso de Diputados- y Manuel José Quintana, tutores de la reina y, en julio de 1841, a la condensa de Espoz y Mina aya de Isabel y de su hermana Luisa Fernanda y camarera mayor a partir de 1842, cargos que desempeñó hasta julio de 1843, cuando el general moderado Narváez entró en Madrid y puso fin a la Regencia de Espartero, quien marchó al exilio. Los nombramientos fueron interpretados por el entorno de la exiliada María Cristina, como que a partir de entonces \"la revolución será tutora de la Monarquía\", en palabras de Juan Donoso Cortés.​\nEl cambio en palacio era ciertamente revolucionario porque por primera vez estaba controlado por personas \"plebeyas\", al margen de las camarillas del difunto rey Fernando VII y de su mujer María Cristina de Borbón. Tanto Argüelles como Quintana fueron objeto de duras críticas por parte de la prensa cercana a la antigua regente y de la prensa progresista antiesparterista, pero los artículos más crueles los dedicaron a la Condesa de Espoz y Mina, a quien se calumnió como en un artículo aparecido en El Eco del Comercio que decía:\nDías hace que a resultas del ridículo y perenne luto que presenta aquella señora, hasta en los actos de indisimulable etiqueta, se nos aseguró que la cabeza de S.E. herida y atormentada por la sensible pérdida de su digno esposo, padecía extravíos mentales, a lo cual no habíamos dado asenso: hoy se nos confirma su triste estado intelectual\nAdemás de las duras críticas, la condesa tuvo muchos problemas para cumplir con la misión que se le había encomendado, que ella misma recogió en sus memorias: \"que una señora de mis ideas políticas auxiliase la educación liberal que su majestad, como reina constitucional de España, debía recibir\", con el deber de convertir a Isabel en \"jefe de todos los españoles, y no [en] la cabeza de este o el otro matiz político\", es decir, como le exhortó Salustiano de Olózaga, intentar crear otra reina Victoria de Inglaterra. El problema fue que no pudo controlar el ambiente palaciego \"aristocrático\" que rodeaba a la reina y a la infanta. \"Se enfrentaba a un mundo desconocido, desafecto a la Constitución de 1837 y muy alejado social y culturalmente del suyo\".​\nCiertamente lo intentó, e intentó inculcar a Isabel lo que significaba ser un monarca constitucional y le recordó los sacrificios que había hecho el país para que ella conservara el trono y el \"derecho que por ellos ha adquirido [la nación] de que se la conserven su libertad e independencia\". También le habló de que el principal deber de la reina era labrar la felicidad del pueblo:​\nUna gran parte de los españoles, señora, no tiene casa, ni vestido, ni medio alguno para subsistir, sino el escaso jornal fruto de un trabajo penoso, y aún se reputa afortunado aquel que puede asegurar por este medio un pedazo de pan negro y un montón de paja en una choza miserable. (...) Si yo me hallase colocada en la elevada posición que V.M. ocupa, con las ideas que tengo, consideraría todo gasto superfluo como una falta, por tener obligación de acudir los reyes a las necesidades de sus súbditos, que son los que con su sudor los sostienen\nCuando se produjo el asalto al palacio y el intento de \"rapto\" de la reina Isabel y de la infanta Luisa Fernanda por los conjurados encabezados por los generales Concha y Diego León, contribuyó a que fracasara recibiendo por ello del gobierno del regente Espartero la Grandeza de España.​ Este hecho también fue aprovechado por la prensa moderada y antiesparterista para calumniarla de nuevo, al culparla de que la joven reina no intercediera en la condena o no a muerte del general Diego de León. En esta época es cuando escribe la Historia Interior de Palacio.\n\nLa \"mujer patriota\": conspiración política y asistencia social (1843-1872)\n\nDepuesta de sus cargos de aya y camarera mayor de la reina tras la caída de Espartero y el triunfo de los moderados, regresa a La Coruña, donde continuará su destacada influencia en la vida social y política de esa ciudad, convirtiendo su salón, nuevamente, en centro de reuniones liberales. También de actividades culturales. En 1852 escucha tocar a Pablo Sarasate en una sesión privada y consigue que actúe en público unos días después en el Circo de Artesanos. Se convierte en su protectora y le sufraga los gastos de sus estudios en Madrid. En su recuerdo, Sarasate le dedicaría en 1882 su primera composición, Mi primera inspiración, una mazurca. \nSu salón fue un espacio de libertad para la discusiones políticas a las que acudieron los más significados liberales progresistas coruñeses y los que pasaban por la ciudad. También se fraguó alguna conspiración en él como lo demuestra la documentación de la época en la que aparecen el jefe y varios oficiales del fracasado pronunciamiento de 1846 de La Coruña contra el gobierno del general Narváez como contertulios asiduos al salón de la condesa. El capitán general de Galicia informó de la \"frecuente concurrencia de algunos oficiales a la casa de la condesa de Mina, que es tenida por todos los hombres pensadores por la impulsora y la directora de la sublevación, así como lo fue, según la opinión común, de otras anteriores ocurridas en Galicia\". Su casa fue sometida a vigilancia pero no fue posible acusarla por \"la gran proporción que tiene está interesada de conspirar sin que corra el menor peligro\", aunque el gobierno estudió la posibilidad de expulsarla de España. Sin embargo, la condesa de Mina sí había participado activamente en la conspiración poniendo en contacto a los conspiradores del interior y del exilio a través de los cónsules de Francia y Gran Bretaña acreditados en La Coruña.​ Al parecer el gobierno también intentó controlar su correspondencia sin éxito.\nOtro de los papeles que desempeñó fue poner en contacto a los liberales progresistas gallegos y madrileños, además de colaborar en las campañas electoral nacionales y locales. Para ello mantuvo una copiosa correspondencia a lo largo de los años con los líderes del Partido Progresista como Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, Salustiano Olózaga, Ramón Gil de la Cuadra o Manuel José Quintana. Pero poco a poco, conforme una nueva generación de políticos liberales progresistas se fue haciendo con las riendas del partido \"cada vez más alejados de las utopías liberales, que habían sido las suyas\", Juana de Vega, sin abandonar su salón donde se seguía discutiendo de política, se concentró cada vez más en las actividades de asistencia social en su ciudad, La Coruña. En ello encontró una amiga y colaboradora, Concepción Arenal.​ \nSus actividades de beneficencia social, basada en el principio liberal de la búsqueda de la felicidad del pueblo no en el de la compasión propio de la caridad cristiana, comenzaron nada más morir su marido cuando en 1838 fundó la Asociación de Señoras de La Coruña, cuya junta presidía y cuya finalidad era la de cuidar de los niños expósitos y asistir a los enfermos del Hospital de la Caridad. Inicialmente contó con el asesoramiento del \"protosocialista\" Ramón de la Sagra a quien correspondió el discurso inaugural de la Asociación. Esta tuvo una actuación muy destacada cuando una epidemia de cólera asoló La Coruña en 1853 y 1854, haciéndose cargo del asilo y del hospicio provinciales. La condesa se ocupó de recaudar los fondos necesarios utilizando sus influencias nacionales e internacionales -consiguió que colaboraran la reina Isabel II y la infanta Luisa Fernanda-. Por todo este esfuerzo recibió en noviembre de 1854 el título de duquesa de la Caridad con Grandeza de España, aunque ella rechazó categóricamente la distinción, a causa de su animadversión a los títulos nobiliarios, pero sobre todo debido a que consideraba la beneficencia como un deber cívico y un \"trabajo humanitario\" y a que pensaba que el verdadero premio no debía ser personal sino colectivo, de forma tal que el gobierno aprobara el expediente​\npara que se permita a este pueblo dar pan y trabajo, edificando en el lugar de las derribadas fortificaciones, y yo quedaré más contenta y agradecida con esta gracia, que con todos los títulos y grandezas, que no me han de hacer que varíe de modo de pensar porque son ideas que nacen de una profunda convicción, y no de ahora, sino de toda la vida\nPero estas actividades de las \"mujeres ciudadanas\" que aspiraban a una sociedad civil activa y responsable y que por ello trabajaban por el bien público en nombre de \"la humanidad\", fueron objeto de críticas por la mayoría de la sociedad de su tiempo porque \"casaban mal con las virtudes atribuidas a la feminidad. Juana de Vega podía ser muchas cosas, pero todas ellas bastante alejadas del prototipo de docilidad, pasividad y domesticidad que por entonces triunfaban en España. El cometido de la condesa de Mina fue colaborar a trazar una beneficencia liberal mediante la incorporación femenina a la actividad social. No fue una tarea fácil\".​\nPero Juana de Vega no descartaba la acción del Estado por lo que se convirtió en una mujer \"molesta\" para las autoridades cuando aceptó el nombramiento por la reina Isabel II en 1856 de viceprotectora de los establecimientos de Beneficencia de Galicia. Fue un cargo que se tomó muy en serio y visitó a todas las autoridades civiles y religiosas proponiéndoles todo tipo de iniciativas en este campo y denunciando en la prensa la dejadez de la Administración. Fue en esos años cuando conoció a Concepción Arenal con la que trabó una gran amistad y colaboró intensamente en la acción asistencial, con iniciativas tan innovadoras como crear una asociación de mujeres, La Magdalena, cuya finalidad era visitar y posteriormente reinsertar a las reclusas de la cárcel de mujeres de La Coruña, o la asociación que formaron \"para socorrer a las familias de los que mueren en el trabajo\" y para edificar viviendas para los pobres. En otros ámbitos denunciaron la persecución a que eran sometidos los protestantes españoles en los años sesenta.​\nSu actividad social también se extendió al campo educativo con la fundación y financiación de una escuela para niños pobres, regentada por las Hijas de la Caridad de la Congregación de San Vicente de Paúl en 1863, y una escuela gratuita para adultos, \"para que se aprovecharan de ellos los jornaleros\", que tenía su sede en su propia casa y en la que impartió clases nocturnas. En su testamento incluyó la creación de una escuela teórico-práctica de agricultura, para lo cual constituyó una fundación que todavía hoy existe.​ Para la escuela teórico-práctica de agricultura cedió la casa que poseía en San Pedro de Nós. En la necesaria difusión en Galicia de temas agrícolas, base del desarrollo de la región en aquella época, coincidió de nuevo con Concepción Arenal, como también en protestar públicamente cuando el Gobierno prohibió las Conferencias de la Congregación de San Vicente de Paúl, o en las peticiones de indulto para los condenados a muerte.\n\nLa escritora: a la memoria de su esposo Francisco Espoz y Mina\n\nEl activismo liberal y social lo compaginó con la vindicación de la memoria de su esposo \"que hombres inicuos quisieron atacar, sabiendo que no había de responderles desde el sepulcro\". Por eso se puso inmediatamente a escribir, asumiendo que con ello transgredía los límites de la feminidad al realizar una actividad concebida como masculina y porque en sus obras iba a tratar de los asuntos públicos, entonces considerados ajenos a las mujeres.​\nEn 1851 comenzaron a publicarse las Memorias del general don Francisco Espoz y Mina, redactadas y preparadas por su esposa, cinco volúmenes que se terminaron de publicar en 1852. Esta sería su única obra editada en vida, pues los Apuntes para la historia del tiempo en que ocupó los destinos de aya de S.M. y A. y camarera mayor de Palacio, escritos en 1844 y cedidos al Congreso de Diputados, no se publicarían hasta 1910 y En honor de Mina. Memorias íntimas no logró finalizarla. Su trabajo en las Memorias no se limitó al prólogo, a las notas y a los suplementos propios de la labor de \"editora\" sino que trabajó el material con que contaba —notas del general, de sus secretarios o de ella misma— para darle la forma de memorias. \"En todo caso, Juana de la Vega fue la única responsable del texto que finalmente vio la luz. Fue ella con su escritura y con su constante recuerdo, la que formó la imagen de un general envuelto en los ropajes de los héroes de la antigüedad\".​\nFalleció en su casa de La Coruña el 22 de junio de 1872.", "Reino de Mysore\n\nHistoria temprana\n\nLas fuentes para reconstruir la historia del reino incluyen numerosas inscripciones existentes en placa lítica y cobre, registros del palacio de Mysore y fuentes literarias contemporáneas en canarés, persa y otros idiomas. ​​​ Según las fuentes tradicionales, el reino se originó como un pequeño estado basado en la moderna ciudad de Mysore y fue fundado por dos hermanos, Yaduraya (también conocido como Vijaya) y Krishnaraya. Sus orígenes están inmersos en la leyenda y son todavía una cuestión de debate; mientras que algunos historiadores postulan un origen norteño en Dwarka, ​​ otros lo ubican en Karnataka. ​​ Se dice que Yaduraya se casó con Chikkadevarasi, la princesa local y asumió el título feudal \"Wodeyar\" (lit, \"Señor\"), que la dinastía subsiguiente retuvo. ​ La primera mención inequívoca de la familia Wodeyar se encuentra en la literatura kannada del siglo XVI del reinado del rey Vijayanagara Achyuta Deva Raya (1529-1542); La primera inscripción disponible, emitida por los propios Wodeyars, se remonta al reinado del pequeño jefe Timmaraja II en 1551.​\n\nAutonomía: avances y retrocesos\n\nLos reyes que siguieron gobernaron como vasallos del imperio Vijayanagara hasta el declive de este último en 1565. Para entonces, el reino se había expandido a treinta y tres pueblos protegidos por una fuerza de 300 soldados. ​ El rey Timmaraja II conquistó algunas jefaturas circundantes,​ y el rey Bola Chamaraja IV (lit, \"Calvo\"), el primer gobernante de algún significado político entre ellos, retuvo el tributo al monarca nominal de Vijayanagara Aravidu Ramaraya.​ Después de la muerte de Aravidu Aliya Rama Raya, los Wodeyars comenzaron a imponerse y el Rey Raja Wodeyar I arrebató el control de Srirangapatna del gobernador de Vijayanagara (Mahamandaleshvara) Aravidu Tirumalla: situación que obtuvo, aunque solo ex post facto, la aprobación tácita de Venkatapati Raya, el rey titular del imperio Vijayanagara que gobernaba desde Chandragiri.​ El reinado de Raja Wodeyar I también experimentó una expansión territorial con la anexión de Channapatna al norte de Jaggadeva Raya ​​, un desarrollo que convirtió a Mysore en un factor político regional a tener en cuenta.​​\nEn consecuencia, entre 1612 y 13, los Wodeyars tuvieron gran autonomía y, aunque reconocieron el dominio nominal de la dinastía Aravidu, los tributos y las transferencias de ingresos a Chandragiri cesaron. Esto fue en marcado contraste con otros jefes principales Nayakas del país Tamil que continuaron pagando a los emperadores de Chandragiri hasta bien entrado la década de 1630.​ Chamaraja VI y Kanthirava Narasaraja intentaron expandirce más hacia el norte, pero fueron detenidos por el Sultanato de Bijapur y sus subordinados de Maratha, aunque los ejércitos de Bijapur bajo Ranadullah Khan fueron efectivamente rechazados en su asedio de Srirangapatna en 1638.​​ Las ambiciones expansivas se trasladaron al país tamil, donde Narasaraja Wodeyar conquisto Satyamangalam (en el moderno distrito de Coimbatore), mientras que su sucesora Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar se expandió para capturar las regiones tamiles occidentales de Erode y Dharmapuri, luego de repeler con éxito a los jefes de Madurai. La invasión de los Nayakas de Keladi de Malnad también se trató con éxito. Este período fue seguido por uno de los complejos cambios geopolíticos, cuando en la década de 1670, los Marathas y los Mogoles presionaron sobre el Deccan.​​\nChikka Devaraja (r. 1672–1704), el más notable de los primeros reyes de Mysore, que gobernó durante gran parte de este período, logró no solo sobrevivir a los desafíos impuestos sino expandir aún más el territorio. Lo logró al forjar alianzas estratégicas con los Marathas y los Mogoles.​​ El reino pronto se extendió para incluir Salem y Bangalore al este, Hassan al oeste, Chikkamagaluru y Tumkur al norte y el resto de Coimbatore al sur. ​ A pesar de esta expansión, el reino, que ahora controlaba una parte justa de la tierra en el corazón del sur de la India, que se extiende desde los Ghats occidentales a los límites occidentales de la llanura de Coromandel, permaneció sin salida al mar. Los intentos de Chikka Devaraja para remediar esto llevó a Mysore a entrar en conflicto con los jefes Nayaka de Ikkeri y los reyes (Rajas) de Kodagu (Coorg moderna); quienes entre ellos controlaban la costa de Kanara (áreas costeras de Karnataka moderno) y la región de la colina intermedia respectivamente. ​ El conflicto trajo resultados mixtos con Mysore anexando Periyapatna pero sufriendo un cambio en Palupare.​\nSin embargo, desde alrededor de 1704, cuando el reino pasó al \"Muteking\" (Mukarasu) Kanthirava Narasaraja II, la supervivencia y expansión del mismo se logró jugando un delicado juego de alianza, negociación, subordinación en ocasiones y anexión de territorio en todas las direcciones. Según los historiadores Sanjay Subrahmanyam y Sethu Madhava Rao, Mysore era ahora formalmente un tributario del imperio mogol. Los registros del imperio afirman que Mysore pagaba un tributo regular (peshkash). Sin embargo, el historiador Suryanath U. Kamath cree que los mogoles pueden haber considerado a Mysore como un aliado, una situación provocada por la competencia de supremacía Mogol-Maratha en el sur de la India. ​ Para la década de 1720, con el imperio mogol en decadencia, surgieron más complicaciones con los gobernadores mogoles en Arcot y Sira que reclamaban tributo.​ Los años siguientes vieron a Krishnaraja Wodeyar pisando con cautela el asunto mientras mantenía a los jefes de Kodagu y los Marathas a raya. Fue sucedido por Chamaraja Wodeyar VII durante cuyo reinado el poder cayó en manos del primer ministro (Dalwai o Dalavoy) Nanjarajiah (o Nanjaraja) y el jefe de gobierno (Sarvadhikari) Devarajiah (o Devaraja), que gobernarían durante las próximas tres décadas con los Wodeyars relegados a ser los jefes titulares.​​ La última parte del reinado de Krishnaraja II vio a los Sultanatos del Decán siendo eclipsados ​​por los mogoles y en la confusión que se produjo, Hyder Ali, un capitán en el ejército, se destacó.​ Su victoria contra los Marathas en Bangalore en 1758, que resultó en la anexión de su territorio, lo convirtió en una figura icónica. En honor a sus logros, el rey le dio el título \"Nawab Haider Ali Khan Bahadur\".\n\nBajo Hyder Ali y Tipu Sultan\n\nHyder Ali se ganó un lugar importante en la historia de Karnataka por sus habilidades de lucha y su perspicacia administrativa. ​​ El surgimiento de Hyder se produjo en un momento de importantes desarrollos políticos en el subcontinente. Mientras las potencias europeas estaban ocupadas transformándose de compañías comerciales a potencias políticas, los Nizam, como subedar de los mogoles, persiguieron sus ambiciones en el Deccan, y los Marathas, luego de su derrota en Panipat, buscaron refugios seguros en el sur. El período también vio a los franceses compitiendo con los británicos por el control de Karnataka, una contienda en la que los británicos finalmente prevalecerían cuando el comandante británico Sir Eyre Coote derrotó decisivamente a los franceses bajo el mando el Conde de Lally en la Batalla de Wandiwash en 1760, un hito en la historia de la India, ya que cimentó la supremacía británica en el sur de Asia.​ Aunque los Wodeyars siguieron siendo los jefes nominales de Mysore durante este período, el poder real estaba en manos de Hyder Ali y su hijo Tipu.\nPara 1761, la amenaza Maratha había disminuido y para 1763, Haider Ali había conquistado el reino de Keladi, había derrotado a los gobernantes de Bilgi, Bednur y Gutti, había invadido Malabar en el sur y había conquistado la capital de Zamorín, Calicut, en 1766 y ampliado el reino de Mysore hasta Dharwad y Bellary en el norte. ​​Mysore era ahora una gran potencia política en el subcontinente y el meteórico ascenso de Haider desde la relativa oscuridad y su desafío formó uno de los últimos retos para finalizar de establecer la hegemonía británica sobre el subcontinente indio, un desafío que les tomaría más que tres décadas por superar.​\nEn un intento por frenar el ascenso de Haider, los británicos formaron una alianza con los Marathas y los Nizam de Golconda, que culmino en la Primera Guerra Anglo-Mysore en 1767. A pesar de la superioridad numérica, Haider Ali sufrió derrotas en las batallas de Chengham y Tiruvannamalai. Los británicos ignoraron sus propuestas de paz hasta que Haider Ali movió estratégicamente sus ejércitos a cinco millas de Madras (Chennai moderno) y pudo demandar con éxito la paz. ​​​En 1770, cuando los ejércitos Maratha de Madhavrao Peshwa invadieron Mysore (tres guerras se libraron entre 1764 y 1772 por Madhavrao contra Haider, en las que perdió Haider), Haider espero el apoyo británico según lo establecido en el tratado de 1769, pero lo traicionaron al permanecer fuera del conflicto. La traición británica y la posterior derrota de Haider reforzaron la profunda desconfianza de este hacia los británicos, un sentimiento que compartiría su hijo y que marcaría las rivalidades Anglo-Mysore de las próximas tres décadas. En 1777, Haider Ali recuperó los territorios previamente perdidos de Coorg y Malabar de los Marathas. ​ El ejército de Haider Ali avanzó contra los Marathas y luchó contra ellos en la batalla de Saunshi y salió victorioso durante el mismo año.​\nPara 1779, Haider Ali había capturado partes de los modernos Tamil Nadu y Kerala en el sur, extendiendo el área del Reino a aproximadamente 80,000 m² (205,000 km²).​ En 1780, se hizo amigo de los franceses e hizo las paces con los Marathas y los Nizam.​ Sin embargo, Haider Ali fue traicionado por los Marathas y los Nizam, que también hicieron tratados con los británicos. En julio de 1780, Haider Ali encabezó un ejército de 80,000, en su mayoría de caballería, descendiendo a través de los pasos de los Ghats, antes de asediar a los fuertes británicos en el norte de Arcot, comenzando la Segunda Guerra Anglo-Mysore. Haider Ali tuvo algunos éxitos iniciales contra los británicos, especialmente en Pollilur, la peor derrota que los británicos sufrieron en India hasta Chillianwala, y Arcot, hasta la llegada de Sir Eyre Coote, cuando las fortunas de los británicos comenzaron a cambiar.​ El 1 de junio de 1781, Coote dio el primer golpe fuerte contra Haider Ali en la decisiva batalla de Porto Novo. La batalla fue ganada por Coote contra probabilidades de cinco a uno, y es considerada como una de las mayores hazañas de los británicos en la India. Fue seguida por otra batalla en Pollilur (la escena de un triunfo anterior de Haider Ali sobre una fuerza británica) el 27 de agosto, en la que los británicos obtuvieron otro éxito, y por la derrota de las tropas de Mysore en Sholinghur un mes después. Haider Ali murió el 7 de diciembre de 1782, incluso mientras la lucha continuaba con los británicos. Fue sucedido por su hijo Tipu Sultan, quien continuó las hostilidades contra los británicos al recuperar Baidanur y Mangalore.​​\nEn 1783, ni los británicos ni Mysore pudieron obtener una clara victoria general. Los franceses retiraron su apoyo a Mysore tras el acuerdo de paz en Europa. ​ Sin desanimarse, Tipu, conocido popularmente como el \"Tigre de Mysore\", continuó la guerra contra los británicos, pero perdió ante ellos algunas regiones de la moderna costa de Karnataka. Una nueva guerra entre el Imperio Maratha y Mysore ocurrió entre 1785-1787.​Después de la victoria de Tipu Sultan contra los Marathas en el Sitio de Bahadur Benda, se firmó un acuerdo de paz entre los dos reinos con ganancias y pérdidas mutuas. ​​ De manera similar, el tratado de Mangalore se firmó en 1784, lo que llevó a las hostilidades con los británicos a una detención temporal e incómoda y restauró las tierras de los demás al statu quo ante bellum.​​El tratado es un documento importante en la historia de la India, porque fue la última ocasión en que una potencia de la India dictó los términos a los británicos, quienes fueron obligados a desempeñar el papel de humildes suplicantes por la paz. Un comienzo de nuevas hostilidades entre los británicos y los franceses en Europa habría sido razón suficiente para que Tipu abrogara su tratado y aumentara su ambición de atacar a los británicos. ​Sus intentos de atraer a los Nizam, los Marathas, los franceses y el Sultán de Turquía no lograron brindar ayuda militar directa.​\nLos exitosos ataques de Tipu en 1790 al Reino de Travancore, un aliado británico, precipitaron el estallido de la Tercera Guerra Anglo-Mysore.​ Al principio, los británicos obtuvieron ganancias al tomar el distrito de Coimbatore, pero el contraataque de Tipu revirtió muchas de estas ganancias. En 1792, con la ayuda de los marathas que atacaron desde el noroeste y Nizam que lo hicieron desde el noreste, los británicos bajo Lord Cornwallis sitiaron con éxito Srirangapatna, lo que resultó en la derrota de Tipu y el Tratado de Srirangapatna. La mitad de Mysore se repartió entre los aliados, y dos de sus hijos fueron condenados a rescate.​ Un Tipu humillado pero indomable se dedicó a reconstruir su poder económico y militar. Intentó obtener de manera encubierta el apoyo de la Francia revolucionaria, el Emir de Afganistán, el Imperio Otomano y Arabia. Sin embargo, estos intentos de involucrar a los franceses pronto se dieron a conocer a los británicos, quienes en ese momento estaban luchando contra los franceses en Egipto, fueron respaldados por los Marathas y los Nizam. En 1799, Tipu murió defendiendo Srirangapatna en la Cuarta guerra anglo-mysore, anunciando el fin de la independencia del Reino. ​Los historiadores indios modernos consideran a Tipu Sultan un enemigo empedernido de los británicos, un administrador capaz e innovador.​\n\nEstado principesco\n\nTras la caída de Tipu, una parte del reino de Mysore fue anexada y dividida entre la Presidencia de Madras y el Nizam. El resto del territorio se transformó en un estado principesco; El descendiente de cinco años de la familia Wodeyar, Krishnaraja III, fue instalado en el trono con el ministro principal (Diwan) Purnaiah, quien había servido anteriormente bajo Tipu, manejando las riendas como regente y el teniente coronel Barry Close asumiendo el cargo de residente británico. Los británicos entonces tomaron el control de la política exterior de Mysore y también exigieron un tributo anual y un subsidio para mantener un ejército británico en pie en Mysore.​​​ Como Diwan, Purnaiah se distinguió por su administración progresiva e innovadora hasta que se retiró del servicio en 1811 (y murió poco después) después del 16 cumpleaños del niño rey.​​\nLos años que siguieron fueron testigos de relaciones cordiales entre Mysore y los británicos hasta que las cosas empezaron a agriarse en la década de 1820. A pesar de que el gobernador de Madras, Thomas Munro, determinó después de una investigación personal en 1825 que no había sustancia en las acusaciones de irregularidad financiera formuladas por el teniente coronel Cole, el residente titular de Mysore, con la revuelta de Nagar (una insurrección civil) que estalló hacia el final de la década las cosas cambiaron considerablemente. En 1831, durante la insurrección y citando la mala administración, los británicos tomaron el control directo del estado principesco. ​​​ Durante los siguientes cincuenta años, Mysore pasó bajo el gobierno de sucesivos comisionados británicos; Sir Mark Cubbon, famoso por su habilidad política, sirvió desde 1834 hasta 1861 y puso en marcha un sistema administrativo eficiente y exitoso que dejó a Mysore un estado bien desarrollado.​\nEntre 1876–77, sin embargo, hacia el final del período del dominio británico directo, Mysore sufrió una hambruna devastadora con cifras de mortalidad estimadas entre 700,000 y 1,100,000, o casi una quinta parte de la población. ​Poco después, Maharajá Chamaraja X, educado en el sistema británico, asumió el gobierno de Mysore en 1881. En consecuencia, un oficial británico residente fue nombrado en la corte de Mysore y un Diwan para manejar la administración del Maharajá. ​A partir de entonces, hasta la independencia de la India en 1947, Mysore se mantuvo como un Estado principesco dentro del Imperio Indio Británico, y los Wodeyars continuaron su gobierno.​\nTras la muerte de Maharajá Chamaraja X, Krishnaraja IV, todavía un niño de once años, ascendió al trono en 1895. Su madre Maharaní Kemparajammanniyavaru gobernó como regente hasta que Krishnaraja tomó las riendas el 8 de febrero de 1902.​ Bajo su gobierno, con Sir M. Vishweshwariah como su Diwan, el Maharajá se propuso transformar a Mysore en un estado moderno y progresista, particularmente en la industria, la educación, la agricultura y el arte. Tales fueron los avances que hizo Mysore para que Mahatma Gandhi llamara al Maharajá un \"rey santo\" ( Rajarishi). ​ Paul Brunton, el filósofo y orientalista británico, John Gunther, el autor estadounidense y el estadista británico Lord Samuel elogiaron los esfuerzos del gobernante. Gran parte del trabajo pionero en infraestructura educativa que tuvo lugar durante este período serviría de manera invaluable a Karnataka en las próximas décadas. ​El Maharajá era un músico consumado, y al igual que sus antecesores, patrocinaba con avidez el desarrollo de las bellas artes. ​Fue sucedido por su sobrino Jayachamaraja, cuya regla llegó a su fin cuando firmó el decreto de adhesión y Mysore se unió a la Unión de la India el 9 de agosto de 1947.​\n\nAdministración\n\nNo hay registros relacionados con la administración del territorio de Mysore durante el reinado del Imperio Vijayanagara (1399-1565). Los signos de una administración bien organizada e independiente aparecen desde la época de Raja Wodeyar I, quien se cree que simpatizaba con los campesinos (raiyats) que estaban exentos de cualquier aumento en los impuestos durante su tiempo.​ La primera señal de que el reino se había establecido en el área fue la emisión de monedas de oro (Kanthirayi phanam), que se parecían a las del antiguo Imperio Vijayanagara, durante el gobierno de Narasaraja Wodeyar.​\nEl gobierno de Chikka Devaraja vio varias reformas efectuadas. La administración interna fue remodelada para satisfacer las crecientes necesidades del reino y se hizo más eficiente. Se creó un sistema postal. También se introdujeron reformas financieras de largo alcance. Se impusieron varios impuestos menores en lugar de impuestos directos, como resultado de lo cual los campesinos se vieron obligados a pagar más a través del impuesto sobre la tierra.​ Se dice que el rey se interesó personalmente en la recaudación regular de ingresos que el tesoro aumentó a 90,000,000 Pagoda (una unidad de moneda), lo que le valió el epíteto \"Nine crore Narayana\" (Navakoti Narayana). En 1700, envió una embajada a la corte de Aurangazeb quien le otorgó el título de Jug Deo Raja y obtuvo permiso para sentarse en el trono de marfil. Después de esto, fundó las oficinas de distrito (Attara Kacheri), la secretaría central que comprende dieciocho departamentos, y su administración se inspiró en las líneas Mogolas.​\nDurante el gobierno de Hyder Ali, el reino se dividió en cinco provincias (Asofis) de tamaño desigual, que comprendían 171 taluks (Paraganas) en total.​ Cuando Tipu Sultan se convirtió en el gobernante de facto, el reino, que abarcaba 160,000 km 2 (61,776 millas cuadradas) (62,000 mi²), se dividió en 37 provincias y un total de 124 taluks (Amil). Cada provincia tenía un gobernador (Asof) y un vicegobernador. Cada taluk tenía un jefe llamado Amildar y un grupo de aldeas que estaban a cargo de un Patel.​ La administración central estaba compuesta por seis departamentos encabezados por ministros, cada uno con la ayuda de un consejo asesor de hasta cuatro miembros.​\nCuando el estado principesco cayó bajo el dominio británico directo en 1831, los primeros comisionados Lushington, Briggs y Morrison fueron sucedidos por Mark Cubbon, quien se hizo cargo en 1834.​ Hizo de Bangalore la capital y dividió el estado en cuatro divisiones, cada una bajo un superintendente británico. El estado se dividió adicionalmente en 120 taluks con 85 tribunales taluk, con todas las administraciones de nivel inferior en el idioma kannada.​ La oficina del comisionado tenía ocho departamentos; ingresos, correos, policía, caballería, obras públicas, medicina, ganadería, judicatura y educación. El poder judicial era jerárquico con el tribunal de los comisionados en la cúspide, seguido por el Huzur Adalat, cuatro tribunales de superintendencia y ocho tribunales de Sadar Munsiff en el nivel más bajo.​ Lewin Bowring se convirtió en el comisionado jefe en 1862 y ocupó el cargo hasta 1870. Durante su mandato, la \"Ley de Registro\", el \"Código Penal de la India\" y el \"Código de Procedimiento Penal\" entraron en vigencia y el poder judicial se separó del poder ejecutivo de la administración. [70]El estado se dividió en ocho distritos: Bangalore, Chitraldroog, Hassan, Kadur, Kolar, Mysore, Shimoga y Tumkur.​\nDespués de la rendición, CV Rungacharlu, se convirtió en Diwan. Debajo de él, la primera Asamblea Representativa de la India Británica, con 144 miembros, se formó en 1881. ​ Fue seguido por K. Seshadri Iyer en 1883, durante cuyo mandato comenzó la extracción de oro en los Minas de Oro Kolar, se inició el proyecto hidroeléctrico Shivanasamudra iniciado en 1899 (el primer intento importante en India) y se suministró electricidad y agua potable (la última a través de tuberías) a Bangalore.​ Seshadri Iyer fue seguido por P.N. Krishnamurti, quien fundó el Manual de la Secretaría para mantener registros y el Departamento Cooperativo en 1905,​ la vicepresidenta Madhava Rao, que se centró en la conservación de los bosques, y T. Ananda Rao, que finalizó el proyecto de la represa Kannambadi.​\nSir M. Visvesvaraya, conocido popularmente como el \"Creador del Mysore moderno\", ocupa un lugar clave en la historia de Karnataka.​ Ingeniero de educación, se convirtió en Diwan en 1909.​​ Bajo su mandato, la membresía de la Asamblea Legislativa de Mysore aumentó de 18 a 24, y se le dio el poder de discutir el presupuesto estatal.​ La Conferencia Económica de Mysore se amplió en tres comités; industria y comercio, educación y agricultura, con publicaciones en inglés y kannada.​ Los proyectos importantes encargados durante su tiempo incluyeron la construcción de la presa Kannambadi, la fundación de Mysore Iron Works en Bhadravathi, fundación de la Universidad de Mysore en 1916, la Facultad de Ingeniería de la Universidad Visvesvaraya en Bangalore, establecimiento del departamento de ferrocarriles del estado de Mysore y numerosas industrias en Mysore. En 1955, fue galardonado con el Bharat Ratna, el más alto honor civil de la India.​​\nSir Mirza Ismail asumió el cargo de Diwan en 1926 y se basó en los cimientos establecidos por su predecesor. Entre sus contribuciones estuvieron la expansión de Bhadravathi Iron Works, la fundación de una fábrica de cemento y papel en Bhadravathi y el lanzamiento de Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. Hombre aficionado a los jardines, fundó los Jardines Brindavan (Krishnaraja Sagar) y construyó el canal de alto nivel del río Kaveri para regar 120,000 acres (490 km 2) en el moderno distrito de Mandya.​\nEn 1939, el distrito de Mandya fue separado del distrito de Mysore, con lo que el número de distritos en el estado fue de nueve.\n\nEconomía\n\nLa gran mayoría de la gente vivía en aldeas y la agricultura era su ocupación principal. La economía del reino se basaba en la agricultura. Se cultivaban granos, legumbres, hortalizas y flores. Los cultivos comerciales incluían caña de azúcar y algodón. La población agraria consistía en terratenientes (vokkaliga, zamindar, heggadde) que cultivaban la tierra empleando a varios trabajadores sin tierra, que generalmente les pagaban en grano. Los cultivadores menores también estaban dispuestos a contratarse como trabajadores si surgía la necesidad.​ Debido a la disponibilidad de estos trabajadores sin tierra, los reyes y los terratenientes pudieron ejecutar proyectos importantes como palacios, templos, mezquitas, anicuts (presas) y tanques.​ Como la tierra era abundante y la población era relativamente escasa, no se cobraba alquiler por la propiedad. En cambio, los propietarios pagaban impuestos por el cultivo, que ascendió a la mitad de todos los productos cosechados.​\n\nBajo Hyder Ali y Tipu Sultan\n\nEl Reino de Mysore alcanzó su máximo de poder económico bajo Hyder Ali y Tipu Sultan, en la era post-Mogol de mediados del siglo XVIII. Estos se embarcaron en un ambicioso programa de desarrollo económico, con el objetivo de aumentar la riqueza y los ingresos de Mysore.​ Bajo su reinado, el reino se convirtió en el poder económico dominante de la India, con la agricultura productiva y la fabricación textil.​\nA Tipu Sultan se le atribuye la fundación de depósitos comerciales estatales en varios lugares de su reino. Además, fundó depósitos en lugares extranjeros como Karachi, Jeddah y Mascate, donde se vendían productos Mysore.​ Durante la regla de Tipu, la tecnología francesa se usó por primera vez en carpintería y herrería, la tecnología china se usó para la producción de azúcar, y la tecnología de Bengala ayudó a mejorar la industria de la sericultura.​ Se establecieron fábricas estatales en Kanakapura y Taramandelpeth para producir cañones y pólvora, respectivamente. El estado tenía el monopolio de la producción de productos esenciales como azúcar, sal, hierro, pimienta, cardamomo, nuez de betel, tabaco y sándalo, así como la extracción de aceite de incienso del sándalo y la extracción de plata, oro y piedras preciosas. El sándalo se exportó a China y los países del Golfo Pérsico y se desarrolló la sericultura en veintiún centros dentro del reino.​\nLa industria de la seda Mysore se inició durante el gobierno de Tipu Sultan.​ Más tarde, la industria se vio afectada por una depresión mundial y la competencia de la seda y el rayón importados. Sin embargo, en la segunda mitad del siglo XX revivió y el Estado de Mysore se convirtió en el principal productor de seda multivoltina de la India.​\nBajo Tipu Sultan, Mysore disfrutó de uno de los salarios y niveles de vida reales más altos del mundo a fines del siglo XVIII, más alto que Gran Bretaña, que a su vez tenía los niveles de vida más altos de Europa.​ El ingreso promedio per cápita de Mysore fue cinco veces mayor que el nivel de subsistencia,​ es decir, cinco veces mayor que $ 400 (dólares internacionales de 1990),​ o $ 2,000 per cápita. En comparación, los ingresos per cápita nacionales más altos en 1820 fueron $ 1,838 para los Países Bajos y $ 1,706 para Gran Bretaña.​\n\nGobierno británico\n\nEste sistema cambió bajo los británicos, cuando los pagos de impuestos se hicieron en efectivo, y se utilizaron para el mantenimiento del ejército, la policía y otros establecimientos civiles y públicos. Una parte del impuesto era transferido a Inglaterra como el \"tributo indio\".​ Insatisfechos con la pérdida de su sistema tradicional de ingresos y los problemas que enfrentaban, los campesinos se levantaron en rebelión en muchas partes del sur de la India.​ Después de 1800, entraron en vigor las reformas agrarias de Cornwallis. Reade, Munro, Graham y Thackeray fueron algunos administradores que mejoraron las condiciones económicas de las masas.​ Sin embargo, la industria textil casera sufrió durante el dominio británico, con la excepción de los productores de la tela más fina y la tela gruesa que era popular entre las masas rurales. Esto se debió a que las fábricas de manufactura de Manchester, Liverpool y Escocia eran más que un rival para la industria tradicional de tejido manual, especialmente en hilatura y tejido.​​\nLa revolución económica en Inglaterra y las políticas arancelarias de los británicos también causaron una desindustrialización masiva en otros sectores en toda India y Mysore. Por ejemplo, el negocio de tejido de bolsas de yute había sido un monopolio del pueblo Goniga, que perdieron cuando los británicos comenzaron a gobernar el área. La importación de un sustituto químico del salitre (nitrato de potasio) afectó a la comunidad Uppar, los fabricantes tradicionales de salitre para su uso en la pólvora. La importación de queroseno afectó a la comunidad Ganiga que suministraba aceites. Las industrias extranjeras de esmalte y vajilla afectaron el negocio de la cerámica nativa, y las mantas hechas en fábrica reemplazaron las mantas hechas en el país llamadas kambli.​ Estas consecuencias económicas llevaron a la formación de organizaciones de bienestar social basadas en la comunidad para ayudar a aquellos dentro de la comunidad a enfrentar mejor su nueva situación económica, incluidos los albergues juveniles para estudiantes que buscan educación y refugio.​ Sin embargo, las políticas económicas británicas crearon una estructura de clase que consiste en una clase media recién establecida que comprende varios grupos ocupacionales de cuello azul y blanco, incluidos agentes, corredores, abogados, maestros, funcionarios y médicos. Debido a una jerarquía de castas más flexible, la clase media contenía una mezcla heterogénea de personas de diferentes castas.​\n\nReligión\n\nLos primeros reyes de la dinastía Wodeyar adoraban al dios hindú Shiva. Los reyes posteriores, a partir del siglo XVII, llevaron al vaishnavismo, la adoración del dios hindú Vishnu.​ Según el musicólogo Meera Rajaram Pranesh, el Rey Raja Wodeyar I era un devoto del dios Vishnu, el Rey Dodda Devaraja fue honrado con el título de \"Protector de los Brahmanes\" (Deva Brahmana Paripalaka) por su apoyo a los Brahmanes, y Maharaja Krishnaraja III se dedicó a la diosa Chamundeshwari (una forma de la diosa hindú Durga).​ Wilks (\"Historia de Mysore\", 1800) escribió sobre un levantamiento Jangama (Veerashaiva, santo-devoto de Shiva), relacionado con impuestos excesivos, que fue reprimido firmemente por Chikka Devaraja. El historiador D.R. Nagaraj afirma que cuatrocientos Jangamas fueron asesinados en el proceso, pero aclara que la propia literatura Veerashiava no dice nada sobre el tema.​ El historiador Suryanath Kamath afirma que el rey Chikka Devaraja era un Srivaishnava (seguidor del Sri Vaishnavismo, una secta del Vaishnavismo) pero no era anti-Veerashaiva. ​ El historiador Aiyangar está de acuerdo en que algunos de los reyes, incluidos los célebres Narasaraja I y Chikka Devaraja, eran vaisnavas, pero sugiere que este podría no haber sido el caso con todos los gobernantes de Wodeyar.​ El surgimiento de la moderna ciudad de Mysore como centro de la cultura del sur de la India se remonta al período de su soberanía.​ Raja Wodeyar I inició la celebración del festival Dasara en Mysore, una orgullosa tradición de la antigua familia real de Vijayanagara.​​ \nEl jainismo, aunque en declive durante el período medieval tardío, también disfrutó del patrocinio de los reyes de Mysore, que hicieron grandes dotaciones a la orden monástica jainista en la ciudad de Shravanabelagola.​​ Los registros indican que algunos reyes Wodeyar no solo presidieron la ceremonia Mahamastakabhisheka, un importante evento religioso jainista en Shravanabelagola, sino que también ofrecieron oraciones (puja) personalmente durante los años 1659, 1677, 1800, 1825, 1910, 1925, 1940 y 1953.​\nEl contacto entre el sur de la India y el Islam se remonta al siglo VII, cuando prosperaba el comercio entre los reinos hindúes y los califatos islámicos. Estos comerciantes musulmanes se establecieron en la costa de Malabar y se casaron con mujeres hindúes locales, y sus descendientes llegaron a ser conocidos como Mappillas.​ En el siglo XIV, los musulmanes se habían convertido en una minoría significativa en el sur, aunque la llegada de los misioneros portugueses frenó su crecimiento. ​ Hyder Ali, aunque era un musulmán devoto, no permitió que su fe interfiriera con la administración del reino predominantemente hindú. Sin embargo, los historiadores están divididos sobre las intenciones del hijo de Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan. Se ha afirmado que Tipu elevó a los hindúes a posiciones prominentes en su administración, hizo generosas donaciones a templos hindúes y brahmanes, y en general respetó otras religiones, y que cualquier conversión religiosa que Tipu emprendió fue un castigo para aquellos que se rebelaron contra su autoridad.​ Sin embargo, esto ha sido contrarrestado por otros historiadores que afirman que Tipu Sultan trató a los no musulmanes de Mysore mucho mejor que a los de las regiones de Malabar, Raichur y Kodagu. Opinan que Tipu fue responsable de las conversiones masivas de cristianos e hindúes en estas regiones, ya sea por la fuerza u ofreciéndoles incentivos fiscales y beneficios de ingresos para convertir.​​\n\nSociedad\n\nAntes del siglo XVIII, la sociedad del reino seguía normas antiguas y profundamente establecidas de interacción social entre las personas. Los relatos de viajeros contemporáneos indican la práctica generalizada del sistema de castas hindú y de los sacrificios de animales durante las celebraciones de nueve días (llamado Mahanavami).​ Más tarde, se produjeron cambios fundamentales debido a la lucha entre las potencias nativas y extranjeras. Aunque las guerras entre los reinos hindúes y los sultanatos continuaron, las batallas entre los gobernantes nativos (incluidos los musulmanes) y los británicos recién llegados tomaron el centro del escenario. ​ La difusión de la educación en inglés, la introducción de la imprenta y las críticas al sistema social imperante por parte de los misioneros cristianos ayudaron a que la sociedad fuera más abierta y flexible. El surgimiento del nacionalismo moderno en toda la India también afectó a Mysore.​\nCon el advenimiento del poder británico, la educación en inglés ganó importancia además de la educación tradicional en los idiomas locales. Estos cambios fueron orquestados por Lord Elphinstone, el gobernador de la Presidencia de Madrás. Su plan se convirtió en la constitución de la institución colegiada central o Junta Universitaria en 1841.​ En consecuencia, se estableció un departamento de secundaria de la universidad. Para impartir educación en las regiones del interior, las escuelas se crearon en las ciudades principales que finalmente se elevaron al nivel universitario, y cada universidad se convirtió en el centro de muchas escuelas locales (escuelas zilla).​ Las primeras escuelas de inglés medio aparecieron en 1833 en Mysore y se extendieron por toda la región. En 1858, se fundó el departamento de educación en Mysore y en 1881, se estimaba que había 2.087 escuelas de inglés medio en el estado de Mysore. La educación superior se hizo disponible con la formación del Bangalore Central College en Bangalore (1870), Maharaja's College (1879), Maharani's College (1901) y Mysore University (1916) en Mysore y St. Agnes College en Mangalore (1921).​\nLas reformas sociales destinadas a eliminar prácticas como la sati y la discriminación social basadas en la intocabilidad, así como las demandas de la emancipación de las clases bajas, se extendieron por la India e influyeron en el territorio de Mysore.​ En 1894, el reino aprobó leyes para abolir el matrimonio de las niñas menores de ocho años. Se alentó el nuevo matrimonio de mujeres viudas y el matrimonio de mujeres indigentes, y en 1923, a algunas mujeres se les concedió el permiso para ejercer su franquicia en las elecciones.​ Hubo, sin embargo, levantamientos contra la autoridad británica en el territorio de Mysore, en particular los levantamiento de Kodagu en 1835 (después de que los británicos destronaron al gobernante local Chikkaviraraja) y el levantamiento de Kanara de 1837.​ La era de la imprenta anunciada por los misioneros cristianos, especialmente Hermann Mögling, resultó en la fundación de imprentas en todo el reino. La publicación de libros antiguos y contemporáneos de Kannada (como Pampa Bharata y Jaimini Bharata), una Biblia en idioma Kannada, un diccionario bilingüe y un periódico Kannada llamado Kannada Samachara comenzó a principios del siglo XIX.​ Aluru Venkata Rao publicó una historia consolidada de Kannada que glorifica los logros de los Kannadigas en su libro Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava.​\nEl teatro Clásico Inglés y sánscrito,​ y el teatro musical nativo Yakshagana influyeron en la etapa kannada y produjeron dramaturgos famosos como Gubbi Veeranna.​ El público comenzó a disfrutar de la música Carnatica a través de su transmisión a través de los sistemas de megafonía establecidos en los terrenos del palacio.​ Las pinturas de Mysore, inspiradas en el Renacimiento de Bengala, fueron creadas por artistas como Sundarayya, Ala Singarayya y B. Venkatappa.​\n\nLiteratura\n\nLa era del Reino de Mysore se considera una edad de oro en el desarrollo de la literatura kannada. La corte de Mysore no solo estaba adornada por escritores y compositores famosos de Brahmin y Veerashaiva,​​ los mismos reyes realizaron importantes contribuciones en las bellas artes.​​ Mientras que la literatura convencional en filosofía y religión seguía siendo popular, los escritos en nuevos géneros como crónica, biografía, historia, enciclopedia, novela, drama y tratado musical se hicieron populares.​ Una forma nativa de literatura popular con representación dramática llamada Yakshagana ganó popularidad. ​​ Un desarrollo notable del período posterior fue la influencia de la literatura inglesa y la literatura sánscrita clásica en kannada.​\nGovinda Vaidya, un nativo de Srirangapatna, escribió Kanthirava Narasaraja Vijaya, un elogio a su señor, el Rey Narasaraja I. Escrito en sangatya meter (una composición destinada al acompañamiento de un instrumento musical), el libro describe la corte del rey, la música popular y los tipos de composiciones musicales de la época en veintiséis capítulos. ​​ El rey Chikka Devaraja fue el primer compositor de la dinastía.​​ A él se le atribuye el famoso tratado sobre música llamado Geetha Gopala. Aunque inspirado por la escritura sánscrita de Jayadeva Geetha Govinda, tenía una originalidad propia y estaba escrito en medidor saptapadi.​ Poetas contemporáneos que dejaron su huella en toda la región de habla Kannada incluyen el brahmán poeta Lakshmisa y la itinerante Veerashaiva poeta Sarvajna. Las poetas también desempeñaron un papel en el desarrollo literario, con Cheluvambe (la reina de Krishnaraja Wodeyar I), Helavanakatte Giriyamma, Sri Rangamma (1685) y Sanchi Honnamma (Hadibadeya Dharma, finales del siglo XVII) escribiendo obras notables.​​\nPolíglota, el rey Narasaraja II fue autor de catorce Yakshaganas en varios idiomas, aunque todos están escritos en Kannada.​ Maharaja Krishnaraja III fue un escritor prolífico en Kannada por el que obtuvo el honorífico Abhinava Bhoja (una comparación con el rey medieval Bhoja). ​ Se le atribuyen más de cuarenta escritos, de los cuales el tratado musical Sri Tatwanidhi y un romance poético llamado Saugandika Parinaya escrito en dos versiones, una sangatya y un drama, son más conocidos. ​ Bajo el patrocinio del Maharajá, la literatura Kannada comenzó su lento y gradual cambio hacia la modernidad. Kempu Narayana Mudramanjusha (\"The Seal Casket\", 1823) es el primer trabajo que tiene toques de prosa moderna.​ Sin embargo, el punto de inflexión llegó con Adbhuta Ramayana (1895) y Ramaswamedham (1898) históricamente importantes de Muddanna, a quien el erudito de Kannada Narasimha Murthy considera \"una figura similar a Janus\" de la literatura moderna Kannada. Muddanna ha manejado hábilmente una antigua epopeya desde un punto de vista completamente moderno.​\nBasavappa Shastry, un nativo de Mysore y una luminaria en la corte de Maharaja Krishnaraja III y Maharaja Chamaraja X, es conocido como el \"Padre del teatro Kannada\" (Kannada Nataka Pitamaha).​ Fue autor de dramas en kannada y tradujo \"Othello\" de William Shakespeare a Shurasena Charite. Sus conocidas traducciones del sánscrito al kannada son muchas e incluyen Kalidasa y Abhignyana Shakuntala.​\n\nMúsica\n\nBajo el Maharaja Krishnaraja III y sus sucesores: Chamaraja X, Krishnaraja IV y el último gobernante, Jayachamaraja, la corte de Mysore se convirtió en el mecenas más grande y más famoso de la música.​ Mientras que las cortes de Tanjore y Travancore también extendieron un gran patrocinio y enfatizaron la preservación del arte, la combinación única del patrocinio real de músicos individuales, la fundación de escuelas de música para despertar el interés público y el patrocinio de editores y productores de música europeos distinguen a Mysore.​ Maharaja Krishnaraja III, él mismo músico y musicólogo de mérito, compuso una serie de javalis (letras ligeras) y canciones devocionales en kannada bajo el título Anubhava pancharatna. Sus composiciones llevan el nom de plume (mudra) \"Chamundi\" o \"Chamundeshwari\", en honor a la deidad de la familia Wodeyar.​ Su sucesor, Chamaraja X, fundó la Biblioteca Oriental en 1891 para albergar libros de música y también encargó grabaciones fonográficas de varios músicos para la biblioteca del palacio.\nBajo Krishnaraja IV, el arte recibió más patrocinio. Una escuela distinta de música que dio importancia a la evolución de raga y bhava.​​​ La Real Escuela de Música fundada en el palacio ayudó a institucionalizar la enseñanza del arte. Se imprimieron composiciones carnáticas y la notación del personal europeo llegó a ser empleada por músicos reales. También se alentó la música occidental: el concierto para piano de Margaret Cousins con la Orquesta del Palacio marcó las celebraciones del centenario de Beethoven en Bangalore.​ El Maharajá Jayachamaraja, también un reconocido compositor de kritis carnática (una composición musical), patrocinó una serie de grabaciones del compositor ruso Nikolái Médtner y otros.​ El tribunal se aseguró de que la música carnática también se mantuviera al día. Grabaciones de gramófono de la banda del palacio fueron hechas y vendidas comercialmente.​ Se prestó atención a la \"tecnología del concierto\". Se gastaron sumas generosas en la adquisición de varios instrumentos, incluido el violín de trompeta no convencional, theremin y Calíope, un reproductor de música mecánico.​\nLa corte de Mysore fue el hogar de varios expertos de renombre (vidwan) de la época. Veena Sheshanna, músico de la corte durante el gobierno de Maharaja Chamaraja X,​ es considerada una de las máximas exponentes de la veena.​ Sus logros en la música clásica le dieron a Mysore un lugar destacado en el arte de la música carnática instrumental y Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV le dio el honorífico Vainika Shikhamani. ​​ Mysore Vasudevacharya fue un destacado músico y compositor en sánscrito y telugu de Mysore.​ Tiene la distinción única de ser patrocinado por cuatro generaciones de reyes y gobernantes de Mysore y por ser músico de la corte para tres de ellos.​​ H.L. Muthiah Bhagavatar fue otro músico-compositor que adornaba la corte de Mysore.​ Considerado uno de los compositores más importantes del período posterior a Tyagaraja,​ se le atribuyen unas 400 composiciones en sánscrito, kannada, telugu y tamil bajo el seudónimo \"Harikesha\". Entre los violinistas, T. Chowdiah surgió como uno de los exponentes más consumados de la época. Se sabe que domina el violín de siete cuerdas.​​ Chowdiah fue nombrado músico de la corte por Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV en 1939 y recibió títulos como \"Sangeeta Ratna\" y \"Sangeeta Kalanidhi\". Se le atribuyen composiciones en kannada, telugu y sánscrito bajo el seudónimo de \"Trimakuta\".​\n\nArquitectura\n\nEl estilo arquitectónico de las estructuras cortesanas y reales en el reino sufrió profundos cambios durante el dominio británico, una mezcla de tradiciones europeas con elementos nativos. Los templos hindúes en el reino fueron construidos en el típico estilo dravídico del sur de la India, una versión modesta del lenguaje de construcción de Vijayanagara.​ Cuando estaba en el poder, Tipu Sultan construyó un palacio y una mezquita en Srirangapatna, su capital. Sin embargo, es la ciudad de Mysore la más conocida por sus palacios reales, lo que le valió el sobrenombre de \"Ciudad de los Palacios\". El palacio principal de la ciudad, el Palacio Mysore, también se conoce como el Palacio Amba Vilas. El complejo original fue destruido por un incendio y un nuevo palacio fue encargado por la Reina-Regente y diseñado por el arquitecto inglés Henry Irwin en 1897.​ El diseño general es una combinación de estilos hindúes, islámicos, indo-sarracenos y árabes, que por primera vez en la India utilizaron columnas de hierro fundido y marcos de techo. La característica más llamativa del exterior son las columnas de granito que sostienen arcos cúspides en el pórtico, una torre alta cuyo remate es una cúpula dorada con un paraguas (chattri) y grupos de otras cúpulas a su alrededor.​ El interior está ricamente decorado con paredes de mármol y un techo de madera de teca en el que hay esculturas de deidades hindúes. El durbar conduce a una sala privada interior a través de puertas plateadas. Esta opulenta habitación tiene paneles de piso con incrustaciones de piedras semipreciosas y un techo de vidrieras sostenido centralmente por columnas y arcos. La sala de matrimonio (Kalyana mantapa) en el complejo del palacio destaca por su cúpula octogonal de vidrieras con motivos de pavo real.​\nEl Palacio Lalitha Mahal fue construido en 1921 por E.W. Fritchley bajo la comisión del Maharaja Krishnaraja IV. El estilo arquitectónico se llama \"Renacimiento\" y exhibe conceptos de casas señoriales inglesas y palazzos italianos. [169]Se cree que la cúpula central está inspirada en la Catedral de San Pablo en Londres. Otras características importantes son la escalera de mármol italiano, el piso de madera pulida en los salones de banquetes y baile, y las lámparas belgas de vidrio tallado.​ El Palacio de Jaganmohan se encargó en 1861 y se completó en 1910. El edificio de tres pisos con cúpulas, acabados y cúpulas atractivas fue sede de muchas celebraciones reales. Ahora se llama Chamarajendra Art Gallery y alberga una rica colección de artefactos.​\nEl campus de la Universidad de Mysore, también llamado \"Manasa Gangotri\", alberga varios edificios arquitectónicamente interesantes. Algunos de ellos son de estilo europeo y se completaron a finales del siglo XIX. Incluyen la mansión Jayalakshmi Vilas, el Crawford Hall, el Instituto Oriental de Investigación (construido entre 1887 y 1891) con sus columnas jónicas y corintias, y las oficinas del distrito (Athara Kutchery, 1887). El Athara Kutchery, que inicialmente sirvió como la oficina del comisionado británico, tiene una cúpula octogonal y un remate que se suma a su belleza.​ El palacio de verano del maharajá, construido en 1880, se llama Lokaranjan Mahal, e inicialmente sirvió como escuela para la realeza. El palacio Rajendra Vilas, construido en el estilo indo-británico en la cima de la colina Chamundi, fue encargado en 1922 y completado en 1938 por Maharaja Krishnaraja IV.​ Otras mansiones reales construidas por los gobernantes de Mysore fueron el Chittaranjan Mahal en Mysore y el Palacio de Bangalore en Bangalore, una estructura construida en las líneas del Castillo de Windsor de Inglaterra.​ El Instituto Central de Investigación Técnica de Alimentos (Mansión Cheluvamba), construido en estilo barroco renacentista europeo, fue la residencia de la princesa Cheluvambaamani Avaru, una hermana del Maharaja Krishnaraja IV. Destaca su extenso trabajo de pilastra y pisos de mosaico.​\nEl más famoso entre los muchos templos construidos por los Wodeyars es el Templo Chamundeshwari en la cima de la colina Chamundi. La primera estructura aquí fue consagrada en el siglo XII y luego fue patrocinada por los gobernantes de Mysore. Maharaja Krishnaraja III agregó una gopuram de estilo dravídico en 1827. El templo tiene puertas plateadas con imágenes de deidades. Otras imágenes incluyen las del dios hindú Ganesha y del Maharaja Krishnaraja III con sus tres reinas.​ Alrededor del palacio principal de Mysore y dentro del fuerte hay un grupo de templos, construidos en varios períodos. El Templo Prasanna Krishnaswamy (1829), el Templo Lakshmiramana Swamy cuyas primeras estructuras datan de 1499, el Templo Trinesvara Swamy (finales del siglo XVI), el Templo Shweta Varaha Swamy construido por Purnaiah con un toque del estilo arquitectónico Hoysala, el Templo Prasanna Venkataramana Swami (1836) notable por 12 murales de los gobernantes Wodeyar.​ Los templos conocidos fuera de la ciudad de Mysore son el templo Venkataramana con columnas yali (\"bestia mítica\") construido a finales del siglo XVII en el fuerte de Bangalore, y el templo Ranganatha en Srirangapatna.​\nTipu Sultan construyó un palacio con columnas de madera llamado Palacio Dariya Daulat (iluminado, \"jardín de la riqueza del mar\") en Srirangapatna en 1784. Construido en el estilo indo-sarraceno, el palacio es conocido por su intrincada artesanía en madera que consiste en arcos ornamentales, columnas rayadas, diseños florales y pinturas. La pared oeste del palacio está cubierta con murales que representan la victoria de Tipu Sultan sobre el ejército del coronel Baillie en Pollilur, cerca de Kanchipuram en 1780. Un mural muestra a Tipu disfrutando de la fragancia de un ramo de flores mientras la batalla está en progreso. En esa pintura, los bigotes de los soldados franceses los distinguen de los soldados británicos afeitados.​​ También en Srirangapatna se encuentra el mausoleo de Gumbaz, construido por Tipu Sultan en 1784. Alberga las tumbas de Tipu y Hyder Ali. La base de granito está cubierta con una cúpula construida de ladrillo y pilastra.​\n\nTecnología militar\n\nTipu Sultan y su padre Hyder Ali desarrollaron la primera artillería de cohetes de cilindros metálicos y de hierro en la década de 1780. Utilizaron con éxito estos cohetes de cilindros metálicos contra las fuerzas más grandes de la Compañía Británica de las Indias Orientales durante las Guerras Anglo-Mysore. Los cohetes Mysore de este período estaban mucho más avanzados que lo que los británicos habían visto, principalmente debido al uso de tubos de hierro para sostener el propelente; Esto permitió un mayor empuje y un mayor alcance para el misil (hasta 2 km (1 mi) de alcance). Después de la eventual derrota de Tipu en la Cuarta guerra anglo-mysore y la captura de los cohetes de hierro Mysore, influyeron en el desarrollo del cohete británico, inspirando el cohete Congreve, que pronto se puso en uso en las Guerras Napoleónicas.​", "Gobernación de la Patagonia\n\nAntecedentes coloniales\n\nEl 9 de marzo de 1535 Simón de Alcazaba y Sotomayor fundó en la Caleta Hornos, de la Bahía Gil, 29 kilómetros al sur de la actual localidad de Camarones, en la provincia argentina del Chubut, el efímero Puerto de los Leones, que duró hasta el 17 de junio de 1535, cuando fue abandonado después de ser asesinado Alcazaba. La población debía ser la capital de la gobernación de Nueva León, otorgada por el Rey de España a Alcazaba en 1534 y que incluía todas las tierras desde el Atlántico al Pacífico, al sur del paralelo 36º S.\nEl 11 de febrero de 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, que había sido nombrado por el rey Felipe II como \"Gobernador del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios, Capitán General del mismo y gobernador de lo que poblare\", fundó en el Cabo Vírgenes, en territorio argentino casi en el límite con Chile, la población de Nombre de Jesús y posteriormente, el 25 de mayo de 1584 funda la Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe (Puerto del Hambre) en la Bahía San Blas al interior del estrecho de Magallanes, pero sus habitantes perecen de inanición.\nEl 2 de octubre de 1766, el rey Carlos III de España, dicta una real cédula por la cual crea la Gobernación de las islas Malvinas, como dependencia del gobernador y capitán general de Buenos Aires, que era en ese momento Francisco de Paula Bucarelli y Ursúa, nombrando a Felipe Ruiz Puente como su primer gobernador, quien asume el 1 de abril de 1767, al tomar posesión de la colonia francesa. La gobernación es reducida al rango de Comandancia el 5 de enero de 1774. El último comandante español de las islas, el segundo piloto de número de la Real Armada Pablo Guillén Martínez, las evacuó el 13 de febrero de 1811 por orden de Gaspar de Vigodet, gobernador de Montevideo.\n\nEn 1778 el rey Carlos III de España, a instancias de su Ministro de Indias, el Conde de Floridablanca, dictó una real cédula disponiendo que: \nCon el fin de que los ingleses....no piensen establecerse en la bahía San Julián o sobre la misma costa para la pesca de ballenas en aquellos mares... ha resuelto S. M. que se den órdenes reservadas y bien precisas al Virrey de Buenos Aires y también al intendente de la Real Hacienda que... con toda prontitud disponga hacer un formal establecimiento y población en dicha bahía San Julián.\nEl 7 de enero de 1779 se funda el Fuerte y Puerto de San José de la Candelaria, en la Península de Valdés (Chubut). El 22 de abril de 1779 se funda el Fuerte de Nuestra Señora del Carmen y Pueblo de Nueva Murcia, en la margen derecha (sur) del río Negro, trasladada ese año a la margen norte. En 1780 se fundó Castillos de Todos los Santos y San Carlos, en Puerto Deseado (Santa Cruz) y el 19 de abril de 1780, Nueva Población y Fuerte de Floridablanca, Puerto de San Julián, en la bahía San Julián (Santa Cruz).​\nLas colonias de Floridablanca y del Deseado fueron abandonadas por orden real el 23 de enero de 1784, pero se mantuvo por orden del virrey el Fuerte de San José, debido a su importancia estratégica, conservándose hasta el 7 de agosto de 1810, fecha en que es arrasado por los tehuelches y el Fuerte de Nuestra Señora del Carmen (Carmen de Patagones), hasta la actualidad.​\nA fines de 1810 la Primera Junta de Gobierno de Buenos Aires toma el control de Carmen de Patagones, pero en abril de 1812 los realistas reconquistan la población hasta el 13 de diciembre de 1814, fecha en que pasa a depender definitivamente de las Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata.​\n\nAntecedentes de administraciones argentinas\n\nEl 25 de agosto de 1818 el Consulado de Buenos Aires aceptó la solicitud del comerciante de cueros de focas Juan Pedro Aguirre, quien había pedido: \"se le permita el establecimiento de la pesca de lobos marinos en alguna de las islas que en la altura del Polo Sur de este continente se hallan inhabitadas\".​\nEl 22 de octubre de 1821 fue reglamentada la Ley de caza de anfibios en las costas patagónicas, imponiendo el pago de derechos a los extranjeros. Un decreto del 29 de octubre de 1829 prohibió la pesca de anfibios.\nPor un decreto del gobierno de Buenos Aires, el 18 de diciembre de 1823 se le otorgan las tierras de la isla Soledad en las Malvinas a Jorge Pacheco y el 2 de febrero de 1824 el capitán de Milicias Pablo Areguatí es nombrado Comandante de la Isla Soledad, hasta agosto de ese año. Por otro decreto del 5 de enero de 1828, el gobierno de Buenos Aires le cede a Pacheco las tierras de la parte Sudeste de la isla Soledad y a Luis Vernet los terrenos baldíos de la misma isla y de la Isla de los Estados, reservándose 10 leguas en ambas, debiendo levantar una colonia en un plazo de tres 3 años. El 10 de junio de 1829, el gobernador delegado de Buenos Aires, Martín Rodríguez y su ministro Salvador María del Carril, firman el decreto de creación de la \"Comandancia Política y Militar de las Islas Malvinas y adyacentes al Cabo de Hornos en el Mar Atlántico\" desde donde terminaba la comandancia de Patagones hasta el cabo de Hornos.\nEn 1833 el general Juan Manuel de Rosas encabezó una expedición militar contra los aborígenes que llegó hasta la isla Choele Choel.\nEl primer grupo de colonos galeses llegó el 28 de julio de 1865 al Golfo Nuevo en Chubut. Luego se dirigieron al valle inferior del río Chubut, donde el comandante militar de Patagones, Julián Murga, realizó la fundación del pueblo de Rawson (Tre Rawson en gales), nombrándolo en homenaje al Ministro del Interior Guillermo Rawson, quien apoyó y alentó a los inmigrantes galeses. El gobierno pondría en posesión a los recién llegados -primeros pobladores- de las tierras que le correspondían, realizadas las mensuras, llevadas a cabo por el agrimensor Julio V. Díaz.​ Esta mensura todavía distingue al valle inferior del río Chubut y algunas de esas chacras, con la numeración original, que siguen siendo cultivadas por los descendientes de aquellos primeros pioneros.\nEl teniente coronel Julián Murga da cumplimiento a las disposiciones sugeridas por el ministro Rawson, con el amparo de la ley de tierras sancionada el 8 de octubre de 1862 por el Congreso de la Nación, quedando bajo su autoridad y sus leyes. No hubo en el valle del Chubut representación de autoridad nacional hasta 1875. El gobierno nacional envió apoyos y suministros en varias ocasiones para mantener la presencia de la la colonia de galeses. En virtual aislamiento por muy extensos períodos, se formó una particular forma de administración local. Los galeses, a diferencia de quienes los gobernaban en el Reino Unido, aplicaron el sufragio universal, inclusive femenino. Crearon instituciones locales democráticas, dando lugar a una especial vida cultural.\nEn 1875 el gobierno argentino nombró como comisario en Chubut para la colonización de los galeses a Antonio Oneto.\n\nAdministraciones argentinas sobre la Patagonia oriental e islas adyacentes\n\nLa Ley nacional argentina Nº 28 del 17 de octubre de 1862, dispuso que todos los territorios nacionales existentes fuera de los límites o posesión de las provincias sean nacionales, hasta entonces las provincias de Buenos Aires y de Mendoza, además de Chile, mantenían pretensiones sobre los territorios de la Patagonia Oriental.\nLa ley N° 215 del 13 de agosto de 1867 dispuso en su Art. 1: \"Se ocupará por fuerzas del Ejército de la República la ribera del Río Neuquén, desde su nacimiento en los Andes hasta su confluencia en el Río Negro en el Océano Atlántico estableciendo la línea en la margen septentrional del expresado río de Cordillera a mar\". Esta ley corrió los límites de la República Argentina hasta el Río Negro, dejando fuera del territorio nacional a la Patagonia que continuaba en posesión indígena y disputada por Chile.\nPor la ley Nº 947 del 5 de octubre de 1878, los límites de las tierras nacionales situadas al exterior de las fronteras de las provincias de Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Córdoba, San Luis y Mendoza, son establecidos en el Río Negro, desde su desembocadura en el Océano Atlántico remontando su corriente hasta encontrar el grado 5º de longitud occidental del meridiano de Buenos Aires, por este hacia el norte, hasta su intersección con el paralelo 35º de latitud sur, por este paralelo hasta el meridiano 10º de longitud occidental de Buenos Aires, por este meridiano hacia el sur hasta la margen izquierda del Río Colorado y desde allí remontando la corriente de este río hasta sus nacientes y continuando por el Río Barrancas hasta la Cordillera de los Andes. Quedando establecido el límite norte de la Patagonia. Las provincias de Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Córdoba, San Luis y Mendoza ampliaron así sus territorios, los que hasta entonces alcanzaban a los ríos Diamante y Quinto y la línea de fortines.\nLa Gobernación de la Patagonia fue creada por la ley Nº 954, del 11 de octubre de 1878. Su territorio se extendía desde el límite fijado por la ley N° 947 hasta el Cabo de Hornos. Su capital fue Mercedes de Patagones (hoy Viedma). La ley estaba muy ligada al proyecto de la Conquista del Desierto del general Julio Argentino Roca, estableciendo que el Gobernador de la Patagonia dependiera del Ministerio de Guerra y Marina y no del Ministerio del Interior.\n[...] desde el océano por el este, hasta la cordillera por el oeste, y desde los ríos Negro y Neuquén por el norte hasta el Cabo de Hornos por el sur.​\nArtículo 1: El Poder Ejecutivo establecerá una Gobernación en los territorios de la Patagonia, con el personal de empleados y los sueldos que la ley de Presupuesto asigna para la del Chaco.\n\nArtículo 2: Mientras se dicta la ley general para el Gobierno de los territorios nacionales el de la Patagonia se regirá por la ley de 11 de octubre de 1872.\n\nArtículo 3: Este tendrá su asiento en la población de Mercedes de Patagonia y dependerá del Ministerio de Guerra y Marina, en todo lo concerniente á esos ramos de la Administración.\n\nArtículo 4: Comuniqúese al Poder Ejecutivo.\n\nDada en la Sala de Sesiones del Congreso Argentino, en Buenos Aires, á 9 de octubre de 1878.\nEl 21 de octubre fue designado su primer Gobernador, el Coronel Álvaro Barros (cargo que desempeñó hasta julio de 1882) y como secretario de la gobernación al Teniente de Infantería de Línea Martín Gras, asignándose un presupuesto de 7.860 pesos para ese año. El 9 de noviembre de 1878 se hace cargo de la la Comisaría Policial de Mercedes de Patagones el Sargento Mayor del Ejército Pedro Diez Arenas.\nEl 26 de enero de 1879 el gobernador pudo establecerse en su capital, designando a Isaías Crespo como al primer Juez de Paz de la Patagonia y por decreto a la primera comisión municipal de Mercedes de Patagones compuesta por los vecinos José Real, Guillermo Iribarne, Alejo García, Jorge Humble, Manuel Cruzado, Nazario Contín. El 2 de febrero el gobernador procedió a la inauguración oficial de la Gobernación.\nEl gobernador Barros mandó realizar un censo de población, cuyo resultado fue de 2.716 habitantes para Río Negro, \"sin contar la mayor parte de los grupos de indios de la colonia de General Conesa que actualmente se encuentran atacados de viruela\".\nEn julio de 1879 el gobernador Barros dictó el decreto por el cual se denominaba \"con el nombre de Viedma a la población de Mercedes de Patagones, asiento de este Gobierno\". Homenajeando así a su fundador.\nA finales de 1878, empezó la primera ola de avances militares del Ejército Argentino con el objetivo de \"limpiar\" de indígenas la zona entre la zanja de Alsina y el Río Negro a través de ataques sistemáticos y continuos a los establecimientos de los aborígenes.\nCon 6.000 soldados, en 1879 comenzó la segunda ola de avances, ocupándose la isla de Choele Choel en el río Negro.\nEn 1881 bajo el mando del coronel Conrado Villegas, comenzó la conquista militar de las actuales provincias de Río Negro y del Neuquén, finalizando la campaña en diciembre de 1884, cuando el último grupo con más de 3.000 indígenas, bajo el mando de los caciques Inacayal y Foyel, se rindió en la actual provincia del Chubut.\nAl finalizar la Conquista del Desierto, el norte de la Patagonia comenzó a utilizarse para la cría de ovinos, pasando a ser una región productora de lana. Los estancieros aprovechando el valor casi nulo de las tierras y su alto rendimiento inicial invadieron los campos con millones de ovejas. Las grandes estancias británicas ocuparon las mejores tierras y exportaban sin intermediarios su producción, ya que controlaban el transporte y la comercialización en el puerto de Buenos Aires.\nEn 1879 se crean las delegaciones marítimas de Puerto Deseado, Puerto Santa Cruz y de Río Gallegos.\nEn 1881 se firmó el tratado de límites entre Argentina y Chile que asegura definitivamente la posesión argentina de los territorios de la Patagonia Oriental y la posesión chilena del estrecho de Magallanes y las islas al sur del canal Beagle.\nEl 12 de junio de 1882, asume el segundo y último gobernador de la Patagonia, el General Lorenzo Vintter.\n\nÚltimos años y disolución\n\nPor la ley N° 1.265 del 24 de octubre de 1882 (promulgada el 3 de noviembre) se dispuso la enajenación de tierras de propiedad de la Nación, y a esos efectos se dividió la Gobernación de la Patagonia en dos sectores separados por los ríos Agrio, Neuquén y Negro, denominados: territorios de la Pampa (o de la Pampa Central) y territorios de la Patagonia, sin que se alterara su gobierno. El primero incluía la actual provincia de La Pampa y sectores hoy pertenecientes a las provincias de Río Negro, Mendoza, San Luis, Córdoba, Neuquén y Buenos Aires. Los territorios fueron divididos en lotes cuadrados de la siguiente manera:\n1) Se trazarán secciones de un millón de hectáreas (400 leguas de 2.500 hectáreas).\n2) Cada sección se dividirá en cuatro fracciones de doscientas cincuenta mil hectáreas (100 leguas de 2.500 hectáreas) y cada una de estas fracciones en veinticinco lotes de diez mil hectáreas (cuatro leguas).\n\n3) Los lotes de diez mil hectáreas tendrán la forma de un cuadrado.\nPosteriormente fueron promulgadas las leyes N° 1.370 y 1.500 que tratabán, respectivamente, sobre la instalación de colonias en territorios patagónicos y sobre la donación de tierras nacionales a ser distribuidas entre argentinos y extranjeros que deseen poblarlas y cultivarlas.\nEl 16 de noviembre de 1883, la Santa Sede creó el Provicariato Apostólico de la Patagonia (Río Negro, Neuquén y Chubut) con sede en Viedma y a cargo del padre Juan Cagliero y la Prefectura Apostólica de la Patagonia Meridional y Tierra del Fuego que abarcaba Magallanes, Tierra del Fuego y Malvinas, a cargo de José Fagnano.\nEl 25 de mayo de 1884, el entonces Alférez Augusto Lasserre inaugura el Faro de San Juan de Salvamento y la Subprefectura Marítima en la Isla de los Estados y la de Ushuaia el 12 de octubre de ese año.\nPor la ley N° 1.532 del 16 de octubre de 1884, se crearon los Territorios Nacionales dividiendo la Gobernación de la Patagonia en los siguientes territorios nacionales: Río Negro, La Pampa, Neuquén, Chubut, Santa Cruz y Tierra del Fuego. Poniéndose fin a la unidad administrativa de la Patagonia argentina el 24 de noviembre de 1884 al asumir los nuevos gobernadores.​\nLa ley N° 1.552 otorgó títulos de propiedad a los ocupantes de tierras públicas en La Pampa y Patagonia y la N° 1.678 distribuyó tierras entre los jefes, oficiales y tropas de las fuerzas que participaron en la Campaña del Desierto.\n\nGobierno\n\nLa gobernación de la Patagonia estaba dirigida por un gobernador electo por el Poder Ejecutivo Nacional. En el lapso de los 6 años en los que persistió está gobernación, dos fueron los gobernadores: Álvaro Barros y Lorenzo Vintter.", "Reino nabateo\n\nNabateos\n\nLos nabateos eran una de las diversas tribus nómadas beduinas que recorrían el desierto de Arabia y se trasladaron con sus rebaños a donde pudieran encontrar pastos y agua. Se familiarizaron con su área a medida que pasaban las estaciones, y luchaban por sobrevivir durante los años severos cuando disminuía la lluvia estacional.​ Aunque los nabateos estaban inicialmente incrustados en la cultura aramea, las teorías sobre su relación con raíces arameas son generalmente rechazadas por los eruditos modernos. Por otro lado, pruebas arqueológicas, religiosas y lingüísticas confirman que son una tribu de Arabia del Norte.​\nEl origen preciso de la tribu nómada árabe sigue siendo incierto. Una hipótesis ubica su tierra natal en el actual Yemen, al suroeste de la península arábiga, pero sus deidades, idioma y escritura no comparten nada con los del Arabia del Sur. Otra hipótesis sostiene que su origen se encontraba en la costa oriental de la península.​\nLa sugerencia de que partieron del área de Hejaz es considerada más convincente, ya que compartían un gran número de deidades con los pueblos antiguos de esta zona. \"Nbtw\", la consonante raíz del nombre de la tribu, se encuentra en las primeras lenguas semíticas de Hejaz.​\nLas similitudes entre el dialecto árabe nabateo tardío y las encontradas en Mesopotamia durante el período Neo-Asirio, así como un grupo con el nombre de \"Nabatu\" enumerado por los asirios como una de varias tribus árabes rebeldes en la región, sugiere una conexión entre los dos Los nabateos podrían haberse originado allí y emigrar al oeste entre los siglos VI y IV a. C. al noroeste de Arabia y gran parte de lo que hoy es la actual Jordania.​\nLos nabateos han sido falsamente asociados con otros grupos de personas. Un pueblo llamado \"Nabaiti\", que fue derrotado por el rey asirio Ashurbanipal, estuvo asociado por algunos con los nabateos debido a la tentación de vincular sus nombres. Otra idea equivocada es su identificación con los Nebayot de la Biblia hebrea, los descendientes de Ismael, el hijo de Abraham.​\nA diferencia del resto de las tribus árabes, los nabateos surgieron más tarde como dirigentes vitales en la región durante sus tiempos de prosperidad. Sin embargo, su influencia se desvaneció y los nabateos fueron cayendo en el olvido.​\n\nEmergencia\n\nAunque los nabateos conocían la escritura, no dejaron textos históricos de considerado tamaño. Sin embargo, existen miles de inscripciones que todavía se encuentran hoy en varios lugares donde alguna vez vivieron, incluyendo graffitis y sus monedas acuñadas. La primera referencia histórica a los nabateos es del historiador griego Diodoro Sículo, que vivió alrededor del año 30 a. C., pero que incluye información 300 años anteriores.​ Usa como fuente a Jerónimo de Cardia; uno de los generales de Alejandro Magno que tuvo un encuentro de primera mano con los nabateos.​\nDiodoro relata cómo los nabateos sobreviven en un desierto sin agua y cómo lograban vencer a cualquier enemigo al esconderse en el desierto hasta que este se rendía por falta de agua. Los nabateos excavaban cisternas que estaban cubiertas y dejaban señas solo conocidas por ellos mismos. Diodoro escribió sobre cómo eran \"excepcionalmente aficionados a la libertad\" e incluyó una lista sobre incursiones infructuosas que fueron iniciadas por el general griego Antígono I en 312 a. C.​​\nDespués de la muerte de Alejandro Magno en el 323 a. C., su imperio se dividió entre sus generales. Durante el conflicto entre los generales de Alejandro, Antígono conquistó el Levante y esto lo llevó a las fronteras de Edom, justo al norte de Petra.​ Los ricos nabateos se convirtieron en el próximo objetivo de Antígono. Su riqueza era generada por los ingresos de las caravanas comerciales que transportaban incienso, mirra y otras especias de Eudaemon en el actual Yemen, a través de la península arábiga, pasando por Petra y terminando en el Puerto de Gaza para su envío a los mercados europeos.​ Esta riqueza distinguió a los nabateos de otras tribus árabes.​ Antígono ordenó a uno de sus oficiales para atacar a los \"bárbaros\" nabateos y tomar sus rebaños como botín. Las tres incursiones no alcanzaron la victoria o terminaron en desastre para los griegos.​\nEn la primera incursión, los griegos lograron saquear toneladas de especias y plata de Petra en 312 a. C.; y aunque este año se considere como el inicio oficial de la historia de Nabatea, sus habitantes ya poseían amplias riquezas. Pronto se produjeron dos enfrentamientos y, a la luz de las derrotas, Antígono abandonó sus planes contra los nabateos. Durante la Batalla de Ipsus en Anatolia alrededor del 301 a. C., Antígono fue derrotado ante una coalición griega que incluía a los Seléucidas.​\nLa serie de guerras entre los generales griegos terminó en una disputa sobre las tierras de la moderna Jordania entre los Ptolomeos con sede en Egipto y los Seléucidas con sede en Siria. El conflicto permitió a los nabateos extender su reino más allá de Edom.​\n\nReino\n\nDurante el siglo IV a. C., los nabateos ocuparon el norte de Hejaz, Edom y el Neguev en el Mar Mediterráneo, junto con algunas islas de la costa y un tramo de tierra a lo largo de la costa del Mar Rojo. Diodoro menciona que los nabateos habían atacado barcos mercantes pertenecientes a los Ptolomeos en Egipto, pero pronto fueron atacados por una fuerza mayor y \"castigados como se merecían\". Si bien no se sabe por qué los ricos nabateos recurrían a la piratería, una posible razón es que sintieron que sus intereses comerciales estaban amenazados por la competitiva ruta comercial naval a través del Mar Rojo.​\nMedio siglo después de las agresiones de Antígono I Monóftalmos, se encuentra la segunda referencia histórica a los nabateos en Hauran. Dionisio, uno de dos empleados griegos que buscaban una carrera alternativa venidendo mujeres como esclavos sexuales, fue una vez detenido por los nabateos durante una semana durante uno de sus intercambios. Teniendo en cuenta la notable igualdad de género de la sociedad nabatea en ese momento, es probable que estuvieran en desacuerdo al tratamiento de las mujeres en su área, a las que creían responsables en el curso del mantenimiento de la ley y el orden.​\nAretas I fue el primer rey nombrado por los nabateos cuyo nombre se encontró en una inscripción en el Neguev datada del siglo II a. C. Casi al mismo tiempo, los nabateos árabes y los judíos macabeos vecinos habían mantenido una relación amistosa, la primera había simpatizado con los macabeos, que a la vez estaban siendo maltratados por los seléucidas. Los nabateos comenzaron a acuñar monedas durante el mismo siglo, indicando la extensa independencia económica y política de la que disfrutaban.​\nPetra fue incluida en una lista de las principales ciudades del área mediterránea para ser visitada por un notable de Priene, una señal del significado de Nabataea en el mundo antiguo. Petra estaba incluida con Alejandría, que era considerada una ciudad capital en el mundo civilizado.​\n\nNabateos y asmoneos\n\nLos nabateos fueron aliados de los macabeos durante sus luchas contra los monarcas seléucidas. Más tarde se convirtieron en rivales de sus sucesores, la dinastía asmonea de Judea, y un elemento principal en los desórdenes que invitaron a la intervención de Pompeyo en Judea, en el contexto de la Tercera guerra mitridática.​ El Puerto de Gaza era la última parada para especias que eran transportadas por caravanas comerciales antes del envío a los mercados europeos, por lo que los nabateos poseeían una influencia considerable sobre los habitantes de Gaza. El rey asmoneano Alejandro Janneo sitió la ciudad de Gaza alrededor del año 100 a. C., con el argumento de que los habitantes de Gaza habían favorecido a los Ptolomeos por encima de los judíos en sus recientes batallas. Gaza fue ocupada y sus habitantes fueron pasados por la espada por Janneo.​\nLos asmoneos, bajo Janneo, lanzaron una campaña que capturó varios territorios en Transjordania al norte de Nabataea, a lo largo del camino a Damasco, incluyendo el norte de Moab y Galaad. Las adquisiciones territoriales amenazaron los intereses comerciales de Nabatea, tanto a Gaza como a los Seléucidas en Damasco.​ El rey nabateo, Obodas I, luchó por restaurar las áreas. Obodas logró derrotar a Janneo en la Batalla de Gadara alrededor del 93 a. C., cuando lo emboscaron a él y sus fuerzas en un valle empinado donde Janneo \"tuvo suerte de escapar vivo\".​\nDespués de la victoria de Nabatea sobre los judíos, los primeros ahora estaban en desacuerdo con los seléucidas, quienes no quedaron impresionados con la creciente influencia de los nabateos al sur de sus territorios.​ Los nabateos salieron nuevamente victoriosos sobre los griegos, y esta vez sobre los seléucidas. Durante la Batalla de Caná, el rey seléucida Antíoco XII declaró la guerra contra los nabateos y el propio rey fue asesinado durante el combate. Su ejército desmoralizado huyó y pereció en el desierto por inanición. Después de las victorias de Obodas sobre los judíos y los griegos, se convirtió en el primer rey de Nabatea en ser adorado como un dios por su pueblo.\nAvdat fue un templo construido en el desierto de Negev por los nabateos para conmemorar a Obodas. Fue enterrado allí y se han encontrado inscripciones refiriéndose a \"Obodas el Dios\".​\nDurante el reinado de Aretas III (87 a 62 a. C.) el reino alcanzó su cénit territorial, pero fue derrotado por un ejército romano bajo el mando de Marco Emilio Escauro. El ejército de Escauro incluso Petra, pero finalmente se negoció un acuerdo. Pagando tributo, Aretas III recibió el reconocimiento formal de la República Romana.​\nEl reino nabateo se vio lentamente rodeado por el Imperio Romano en expansión, que conquistó Egipto y anexionó la hasmoneana. Mientras el reino nabateo lograba preservar su independencia formal, se convirtió en un reino cliente bajo la influencia de Roma.​\n\nAnexión romana\n\nEn el año 106, durante el reinado del emperador romano Trajano, murió el último rey del reino nabateo, Rabel II Soter. Eso podría haber provocado la anexión oficial de Nabatea al Imperio Romano, pero se desconocen las razones formales y la forma exacta de la anexión.​\nAlgunas evidencias epigráficas sugieren una campaña militar, comandada por Aulo Cornelio Palma, el gobernador de Siria. Las fuerzas romanas partieron de Siria y también de Egipto. Está claro que hacia el 107 d. C. las legiones romanas estaban estacionadas en el área alrededor de Petra y Bostra, como lo demuestra un papiro encontrado en Egipto. El reino fue anexionado por el imperio para convertirse en la provincia de Arabia Pétrea. El comercio fue continuado en gran medida gracias al talento no reducido de los nabateos para comerciar.​\nBajo Adriano, el Limes Arabicus ignoró la mayor parte del territorio nabateano y se dirigieron al noreste desde Aila (actualmente Áqaba) a la cabeza del Golfo de Áqaba. Un siglo más tarde, durante el reinado de Alejandro Severo, el problema local de las monedas llegó a su fin. No hubo más edificios de tumbas suntuosas, aparentemente debido a un cambio repentino en las formas políticas, como una invasión del poder neo-persa bajo el Imperio Sasánida.\nLa ciudad de Palmira, por un tiempo, la capital del Imperio de Palmira, creció en importancia y atrajo el comercio árabe lejos de Petra.​\n\nGeografía\n\nNabatea se encontraba entre la península del Sinaí y la península arábiga. Su vecino del norte era el Reino de Judá, y su vecino al sudoeste era el Egipto ptolemaico. Su capital era la ciudad de Raqmu en Jordania, e incluía las ciudades de Bostra, Mada'in Saleh (Hegra) y Nitzana.\nRaqmu, ahora llamada Petra, era una ciudad comercial rica, ubicada en una convergencia de varias rutas comerciales importantes. Una de ellas fue la Ruta del incienso que se basó en la producción de mirra e incienso en el sur de Arabia, y que recorría Mada'in Saleh hasta Petra. A partir de ahí, los vendedores de especias se distribuyeron por toda la región mediterránea.​", "Prehistoria en Italia\n\nPrehistoria de Italia o en Italia son denominaciones del periodo de la historia de Italia que precede al inicio de la historia (entendida ésta como el registro escrito de los acontecimientos del pasado). En ausencia de fuentes escritas son las fuentes arqueológicas las que permiten su reconstrucción. La utilización del marco geográfico de la actual Italia responde a las convenciones historiográficas de la historia nacional.\nEl inicio de la presencia humana en el territorio pueden rastrearse hasta hace 850.000 años;​ mientras que el final de la prehistoria y el inicio de la protohistoria se produjo en la primera mitad del I milenio a. C., con la colonización griega en la costa sur y el desarrollo en el interior de la civilización etrusca.\n\nPaleolítico\n\nLa geografía de la península itálica era muy diferente a la actual durante las glaciaciones, existiendo itsmos que la conectaban con las islas de Sicilia y Elba, y un mar Adriático muy reducido (comenzaba en la actual península de Gargano.\nHay evidencias de presencia de Homo neanderthalensis, desde hace unos 50,000 años, en unos veinte yacimientos, como los de Grotta Guattari y Breuil grotto (ambas en San Felice Circeo, al sur de Roma) y el de Grotta di Fumane (provincia de Verona).\nLa llegada de la especie humana actual se testimonia con un grupo de fósiles, de los que el denominado Hombre de Grimaldi​ (Balzi Rossi, Ventimiglia) produjo teorías dispares, a causa de sus diferencias tipológicas con el Hombre de Cromagnon, que actualmente se interpretan como variaciones compatibles con la unidad de especie del Homo sapiens arcaico. En noviembre de 2011 se dataron en el Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit un diente que hasta entonces se creía de un Neanderthal infantil, desenterrado en 1964 en Grotta del Cavallo, identificándose como de humano moderno y otorgándole una antigüedad entre 43,000 y 45,000 años, lo que los convierte en los más antiguos localizados en Europa.​\n\nEpipaleolítico y Mesolítico\n\nEl final de la última glaciación en la era actual (Holoceno, hace unos 12,000 años) provocó una disminución de las grandes piezas de caza que constituían una parte principal de la alimentación, con lo que los humanos hubieron de cambiar su forma de vida; se localizan para esta época yacimientos en zonas costeras, donde sería más accesible otro tipo de alimentación.\n\nNeolítico\n\nEl Neolítico se detecta a través de la aparición de la cerámica cardial (que también se denomina impressa -\"impresa\"-, al haberse producido con la impresión de otros objetos y no sólo con la concha de Cardium edulis).​\nLa impressa se halla en toda la península, hasta la costa ligur, diferenciándose de la cardial occidental, que se extiende desde Provenza hasta la península ibérica y el Norte de África.​\nDesde el Neolítico final se desarrolla el megalitismo (un fenómeno cultural común a Europa Occidental) en el valle de Aosta y la isla de Cerdeña. Ya en la Edad del Bronce, estructuras megalíticas se construyeron en el Lazio, Puglia y la isla de Sicilia.​\n\nCalcolítico\n\nCon los nombres de cultura de Remedello, cultura de Rinaldone y cultura de Gaudo se denomina a las culturas del Neolítico final de las actuales regiones de Lombardía, Toscana, Lazio y Campania. A veces se las califica como eneolíticas, por la aparición de los primeras utensilios de cobre. Culturas eneolíticas son también la cultura Laterza en Puglia y Basilicata, la cultura Abealzu-Filigosa en Cerdeña, la cultura Conelle-Ortucchio en Abruzzo y Marche, la cultura Serraferlicchio en Sicilia y el grupo Spilamberto en Emilia-Romagna.\nLos menhires-estatua más antiguos, que incluyen la representación de armas, se levantan durante este periodo en zonas de Italia septentrional, Puglia y Cerdeña. Esta traducción escultórica parece tener sus orígenes en la estepa póntico-caspiana (cultura yamna),​ y aparece en otras regiones más tarde, en las Edades del Bronce y del Hierro.​\nLa cerámica de bandas marca la transición entre el Eneolítico y la Edad del Bronce.\n\nCultura nurágica\n\nLocalizada en Cerdeña y en el sur de Córcega (donde se denomina cultura torreana), la cultura nurágica se desarrolló desde el siglo XVIII a. C. hasta el siglo II a. C., es decir, hasta la romanización. Evolucionó desde la preexistente cultura megalítica (dólmenes y menhires). Toma su nombre de unas características torres denominadas nuraghe, cuyo uso sigue siendo todavía objeto de debate (tumbas monumentales, fortalezas, hornos metalúrgicos, prisiones o templos de culto solar). Los antiguos sardos eran un pueblo marino y guerrero, que comerciaba con otros pueblos mediterráneos, como atestiguan hallazgos exóticos en los nuraghe, como ámbar báltico, estatuillas de bronce que representan animales africanos, armas del Mediterráneo oriental y cerámica micénica. Se ha propuesto identificarlos con los Sherden, uno de los pueblos del mar que desestabilizaron Egipto y otras zonas civilizaciones antiguas hacia el siglo XII a. C.\nOtros elementos originales de la civilización sarda son los \"pozos sagrados\", quizás dedicados al agua sagrada del culto lunar, las \"tumbas de gigantes\", estructuras similares al megaron helénico y refinadas estatuillas, algunas de las cuales se han encontrado en tumbas etruscas, demostrando la relación existente entre ambos pueblos.\n\nCulturas de Castelluccio y de Thapsos\n\nEn Sicilia se desarrolló la cultura de Castelluccio,​ en la que destaca el yacimiento de Tapso o Thapsos (cultura de Thapsos).​\n\nCultura apenínica\n\nEn Italia meridional y centra se desarrolló la denominada cultura apenínica o de los Apeninos durante la Edad del Bronce.\nEl pueblo de esta cultura era predominantemente ganadero, y no se limitaba a las estribaciones montañosas. Construyó asentamientos bien defendidose en lugares elevados, y construía campamentos temporales en cuevas y abrigos en sus rutas trashumantes entre los pastos de verano y de invierno. Se han encontrado muestras de su cerámica en la Colina Capitolina de Roma.\n\nCultura de las Terramaras\n\nLa cultura de las Terramaras pertenece al Bronce Medio y Final, entre los siglos XVI y XII a. C., y se desarrolló en la actual llanura padana, entre Módena y Bolonia, a lo largo del río Panaro. Se la identifica con la llegada de los primeros pueblos itálicos.​ Construyó aldeas fortificadas con casas de madera de planta cuadrada, generalmente junto a cursos de agua, con calles trazadas en ángulo recto. Se ha sugerido que los asentamientos terramaras de la región de Emilia actuaron como un centro comercial de una ruta que conectaba el ámbar báltico y el estaño de Erzgebirge, a través de Val Camonica y el río Po, con Grecia y el Mediterráneo Oriental. Hacia el siglo XII a. C. el sistema de las Terramaras decayó, abandonándose los asentamientos. La población se desplazó hacia el sur, donde se mezcló con el de la cultura de los Apeninos.​\n\nCultura de los castellieri\n\nLa cultura de los castellieri​ se desarrolló en Istria en el Bronce Medio, desde el siglo XV a. C., extendiéndose a Friuli, Venezia Giulia, Dalmacia y zonas vecinas. Se prolongó durante más de un milenio hasta la conquista romana del siglo III a. C. Toma su nombre de los asentamientos la caracterizan (castellieri -cjastelir en la idioma friuliano-), fortificados en alturas naturales y con una o varias murallas concéntricas, de forma circular-elíptica (en Istria y Venezia Giulia) o cuadrangula (en Friuli).\nLa etnicidad del pueblo portador de esta cultura es incierta, aunque parece que eran pre-indoeuropeos, y que habrían llegado a la zona desde el mar (su posible origen ilírico no está demostrado). Los primeros castellieri se identifican con el megalitismo micénico.\n\nCultura de Canegrate\n\nLa cultura de Canegrate​ se desarrolló desde el Bronce Medio (siglo XIII a. C.) hasta la Edad del Hierro en la llanura padana, al oeste de Lombardía, el este del Piamonte y Ticino. Toma su nombre de la ciudad de Canegrate, donde se hallaron cincuenta tumbas con cerámicas y objetos metálicos. La terracota de Canegrate es muy similar a la que en la misma época se realizaba al norte de los Alpes. El pueblo portador de esta cultura parece ser un pueblo guerrero que descendió a la llanura padana desde los Alpes suizos y el Ticino.\n\nCultura proto-vilanoviana\n\n​\n\nCultura de Villanova\n\nDebe su nombre a una localidad de la franzione Castenaso de Bolomoa, donde se descubrió una necrópolis por el arqueólogo Giovanni Gozzadini en 1853-1856.\nCon gran similaridad a los proto-vilanovianos, se caracterizan por las sepulturas de incineración, en la que las cenizas se depositan en urnas bicónicas. Eran inicialmente un pueblo agrícola con un sistema social sencillo. Posteriormente se introdujeron artesanías sofisticadas (metalurgia, cerámica), detectándose la estratificación social y la acumulación de riquezas.\n\nCultura de Golasecca\n\nLa cultura de Golasecca se desarrolló entre el siglo IX y el IV a. C. al norte de la llanura del Po. Toma su nombre de la localidad de Golasecca, donde el abad Giovanni Battista Giani excavó en el siglo XIX los primeros yacimientos (medio centenar de tumbas con cerámica y objetos metálicos). Ocupa un espacio de 20,000 kilómetros cuadrados al sur de los Alpes, entre los ríos Po, Sesia y Serio.\nSus orígenes derivan de la cultura de Canegrate y de la denominada culutra proto-Golasecca (siglos XII al X a. C.) Las recientes excavaciones han demostrado la continuidad de esta colutra tras la invasión de los galos (ca. 390/380 a. C.) El pueblo portador de esta cultura desarrolló comercio con los etruscos y la cultura de Hallstat, incluso alcanzó a comerciar con productos procedentes del espacio griego (aceite, vino, bronce y cerámica) y del norte de Europa (estaño y ámbar).\nEn una tumba Golasecca hallada en Pombia se ha encontrado la más antigua muestra de cerveza de lúpulo.\n\nCamuni\n\nLos camuni son un antiguo pueblo de incierto origen (euganei según Plinio el Viejo, retios según Estrabón), que vivían en Val Camonica, al norte de Lombardía, zona con presencia de grupos cazadores, ganaderos y agricultores desde el Neolítico hasta la Edad del Hierro. Prueba de su importancia es la existencia de numerosos hornos de hierro en Val Camonica. La importancia histórica de la zona se debe sobre todo a los trescientos mil petroglifos, que se datan desde el Paleolítico hasta la Edad Media.\n\nPeriodo pre-romano\n\nLos ligures eran un pueblo indoeuropeo del norte de Italia (actual Liguria, sur del Piamonte y costa mediterránea de la actual Francia). Los vénetos (noreste de Italia) probablemente procedían de Iliria, aunque recientes estudios proponen un origen en Asia Menor.\nEn el centro de la península se establecieron los etruscos, pueblo pre-indoeuropeo de incierto origen, que utilizó la escritura (alfabeto etrusco), por lo que es ya una civilización histórica.\nEl resto de los pueblos de la zona eran de origen indoeuropeo: umbros, latinos, sabinos, volscos, faliscos, ecuos. Más al sur los picenos, samnitas, molisos, daunios, mesapios y peucetios (formando la confederación apulia), lucanos y brucios. En Sicilia sicelos, elimianos y sículos. En Cerdeña continuaban los nurágicos. De entre todos ellos, aparte de los latinos de Roma (que terminaron imponiéndose no sólo entre los pueblos itálicos, sino en todo el Mediterráneo), los de mayor éxito fueron los samnitas, que consiguieron crear una gran federación en los Apeninos centrales, consiguiendo enfrentarse con éxito a los romanos en las guerras samnitas.\nEn la Italia meridional la colonización fenicia y, sobre todo, la colonización griega, muy profunda entre los siglos VIII y III a. C., conformó una zona de gran desarrollo cultural denominada Magna Grecia.", "Reconquista Tudor de Irlanda\n\nLa reconquista Tudor de Irlanda fue realizada por la dinastía inglesa Tudor durante el siglo XVI. Tras la fallida rebelión contra la corona encabezada por la familia FitzGerald (Geraldines) en 1530, Enrique VIII fue proclamado rey de Irlanda por el Parlamento irlandés, con el objetivo de restaurar la autoridad central que se había perdido durante los doscientos años anteriores.​ \nEste periodo se prolongó durante 60 años, alternando fases de negociación con auténticas campañas militares, hasta 1603, año en el que que, finalmente, el país entero fue controlado por Jacobo I, y su consejo privado en Dublín. La «Fuga de los Condes» de 1607 contribuyó aún más a reforzar el dominio inglés.​\nEl deseo de la corona de imponer al pueblo irlandés las leyes, lengua y costumbres inglesas, junto con la reforma protestante complicó notablemente la tarea. El imperio español intervino en numerosas ocasiones durante la Guerra anglo-española (1585-1604), y los irlandeses se encontraron frecuentemente atrapados entre su deber de obediencia al Papa y su lealtad al monarca de Inglaterra e Irlanda.​\nTras la conquista, la Irlanda gaélica quedó totalmente destruida y los españoles abandonaron sus planes de intervención directa, lo que permitió el asentamiento masivo de colonos ingleses, escoceses, y galeses en lo que se ha conocido como colonización de Ulster.​​\n\nIrlanda en 1500\n\nEn 1500, la configuración territorial de Irlanda mostraba aún huellas de la incompleta Invasión normanda, iniciada por los barones cambro-normandos en el siglo XII y continuada por Enrique II, Conde de Anjou, Duque de Normandía, y rey de Inglaterra entre 1154 y 1189. Muchos nativos habían sido expulsados de sus territorios, sobre todo en el este y sureste del país, y habían sido reemplazados por campesinos y trabajadores ingleses. En la costa este, el área situado entre los montes Wicklow al sur y Dundalk al norte (que incluía parte de los modernos condados de Dublín, Meath, Westmearh, Kildare, Offaly, Laois y Kilkenny), recibió el nombre de «la Empalizada». Protegida por fosos y murallas, la Empalizada era la única zona de la isla en que la cultura y el idioma inglés habían arraigado de forma significativa y el gobierno, situado en la antigua ciudad escandinava de Dublín, aplicaba la ley inglesa.​ \nFuera de la Empalizada, la autoridad del gobierno de Dublín era débil. Los barones hiberno-normandos y sus descendientes habían constituido feudos, pero no habían usado colonos ingleses como arrendatarios. Como resultado, durante los siglos XIV y XV, con las primeras rebeliones irlandesas, la invasión escocesa, los brotes de peste negra y la falta de interés por parte del gobierno de Londres, muchos de los territorios ocupados durante la invasión normanda habían regresado al control de los lores irlandeses. Incluso en algunos territorios controlados por las grandes dinastías de ingleses viejos de los Butler, los FitzGerald y los Burke, los gobernantes habían logrado una independencia efectiva, con ejércitos propios, ejerciendo sus propias leyes y adoptando el idioma y la cultura gaélica-irlandesa.\nTras el ostracismo al que habían sido relegados durante las etapas iniciales de la conquista, los irlandeses pudieron disfrutar de algo semejante a un renacimiento en los siglos XIV y XV. Considerables extensiones de terreno ocupadas por los ingleses, fueron abandonadas o invadidas nuevamente por los irlandeses, particularmente en el norte y en el centro de la isla. Entre las miles de dinastías irlandesas, destacan especialmente los O’Neill de Tyrone (Uí Néill) en el centro de Ulster -flanqueados al oeste por los O’Donell de Tyrconnell-, los O’Byrne y O’Toole en el Condado de Wicklow, los Kavanagh en el Condado de Wexford, los MacCarthy y los O’Sullivan en los Cork y Kerry y finalmente el señorío Ó Briain de Thomond en el Condado de Clare. \nLa mayoría de irlandeses gaélicos se mantenía al margen de la jurisdicción inglesa, hablaban irlandés y vivían según su propio sistema social, costumbres y leyes. Los ingleses se referían a ellos como «Los enemigos irlandeses de su majestad». En términos legales, nunca habían sido admitidos como súbditos de la corona, a pesar de que Irlanda no era formalmente un reino sino un señorío, título que era asumido por el monarca inglés en el momento de su coronación. El auge de la influencia gaélica dio lugar a la promulgación de los Estatutos de Kilkenny en 1366, los cuales trataron en vano de prohibir muchas de las prácticas sociales que se habían desarrollado rápidamente como la exogamia, el uso del idioma irlandés y la vestimenta irlandesa. En el siglo XV el gobierno de Dublín fue incapaz de ejercer ningún tipo de presión fuera de la Empalizada, debilitado a causa de la Guerra de las Dos Rosas.\n\nEnrique VIII\n\nHasta el año 1500, los monarcas ingleses habían delegado el gobierno de Irlanda en la poderosa dinastía hiberno-normanda de los Fitzgerald de Kildare, tratando de reducir al mínimo el coste administrativo de gobernar el territorio irlandés y proteger la Empalizada. El lord diputado del rey era el jefe de la administración y tenía su sede en el Castillo de Dublín, que carecía de corte formal y tenía una cuenta limitada para gastos públicos. En 1495, durante un parlamento convocado por el Lord Diputado sir Edward Poynings se aprobó la conocida como Ley de Poyning que imponía el estatuto legal inglés sobre toda Irlanda, subordinando de esta forma el parlamento irlandés al inglés.\nHasta 1531, los FitzGerald de Kildare ostentaron el cargo de Lord Diputado de forma continuada. Sin embargo, el apoyo prestado por los Kildare a la Casa de York, durante la Guerra de las Dos Rosas, y la firma de tratados privados con potencias extranjeras, llevaron a la corona a otorgar el título de Lord Diputado a sus principales rivales, los Butlers de Ormonde, lo que motivó la rebelión inmediata de los FitzGerald. Enrique VIII ejecutó al cabecilla de la revuelta Thomas FitzGerald, conocido como Silken Thomas Fitzgerald, junto a varios de sus tíos y encarceló a Gearoid Og, jefe de la familia. El rey se vio obligado a buscar un sustituto para tratar de mantener la paz en Irlanda, protegiendo la Empalizada y cubriendo el vulnerable flanco oeste de Inglaterra ante una potencial invasión extranjera.\nCon la ayuda de Thomas Cromwell, el rey llevó a cabo en Irlanda una política conocida como de Rendición y reconcesión. Esta nueva política extendía la protección real a toda la clase dirigente irlandesa sin discriminaciones de etnia; a cambio, todos los habitantes de Irlanda deberían obedecer las leyes del gobierno central y todos los jefes irlandeses tendrían que someterse oficialmente a la corona, tras lo que recibirían por Real Decreto los títulos de propiedad de sus tierras. La piedra angular de la reforma fue un estatuto aprobado por el parlamento irlandés en 1541, que establecía la transformación en reino del Señorío de Irlanda. En el fondo, la intención era atraer a las élites gobernantes en Irlanda al entorno de la corona, garantizando su fidelidad a los Tudor; para ello, se concedieron a estas élites títulos ingleses y se admitió, por primera vez, nobles gaélicos en el parlamento irlandés. Destacó especialmente la creación del condado de Tyrone, que fue creado para la dinastía Ui Neill en 1542. De forma muy acertada, el rey resumió sus esfuerzos de reforma como, \"distanciamientos políticos y afables persuasiones\".​ \nEn la práctica, los jefes gaélicos aceptaron sus nuevos privilegios pero continuaron gobernando sus territorios de la misma manera que lo habían hecho en el pasado. Para los Señores Irlandeses, el monarca inglés no era más que una especie de Lord Supremo. Sin embargo, la corona iba a aumentar progresivamente la presión a través del desarrollo de un estado centralizado que pronto entraría en conflicto con el sistema gaélico tradicional. La reforma religiosa de Enrique VIII, pese a que no se llevó a cabo de forma tan radical como en Inglaterra, provocó también tensiones, pero el lord diputado Anthony St Leger consiguió controlar la situación concediendo a los principales opositores las tierras confiscadas a los monasterios.\n\nDificultades\n\nTras la muerte del rey, los sucesivos lores diputados de Irlanda comprobaron que establecer un gobierno centralizado era mucho más difícil que conseguir que los lores cumplieran sus pactos. La primera rebelión importante estalló en Leinster en 1550, cuando los O'Moore y los O'Connor fueron expulsados de sus territorios para dar comienzo a la colonización de los condados del Rey y la Reina, bautizados en honor a María I de Inglaterra y Felipe II de España y que corresponden a los actuales condados de Laois y Offaly. Durante la década de 1560, la intervención inglesa en la disputa sucesoria del clan O'Neill desencadenó una guerra entre el lord diputado Sussex y Shane O'Neill. Los jefes gaélicos continuaron con sus guerras privadas, ignorando al gobierno de Dublín y sus leyes. Como ejemplo, la Batalla de Affane en 1565, entre los Butler de Ormonde y los FitzGerald de Desmond, o la Batalla de Farsetmore en 1567, entre los O'Donnell y los O'Neill. Por otro lado, clanes como los O'Byrne y los O'Tool, prosiguieron sus ataques a la Empalizada. Pero los sucesos más violentos tuvieron lugar en Munster en las décadas de 1560, 1570 y 1580, cuando los Fitzgerald de Desmond encabezaron varias rebeliones contra el dominio inglés. Después de una campaña particularmente cruel, en la que se calcula falleció en torno a un tercio de la población, el asesinato del conde de Desmond en 1583 puso fin a la revuelta.\nLas razones de esta violencia endémica fueron principalmente dos. La primera, la actitud agresiva y brutal de los administradores y soldados ingleses, que ejecutaron de forma ilegal a nobles y dirigentes nativos o confiscaron sus tierras de forma irregular.​\nEn segundo lugar, la incompatibilidad entre la sociedad gaélica y la ley inglesa. Según las costumbres irlandesas, el jefe de clan era elegido de un pequeño grupo de linaje noble denominado fine. Sin embargo, durante el mandato de Enrique VIII, se impulsó el sistema hereditario de primogenitura, lo que provocó violentas disputas en los clanes irlandeses. Por último, importantes sectores de la sociedad irlandesa tenían intereses personales en eliminar la presencia inglesa, que amenazaba su forma de vida. Destacan entre estos los mercenarios (gallowglass) y los poetas irlandeses (file).\n\nSoluciones\n\nDurante los reinados de María I e Isabel I, los ingleses trataron por todos los medios de pacificar Irlanda. Uno de los primeros métodos empleados fue la aplicación de un gobierno militar; así, se enviaron tropas a zonas conflictivas como los Montes Wicklow bajo el mando de comandantes denominados senescales. Los poderes del senescal eran los conferidos por la ley marcial, lo que les permitía autorizar ejecuciones sin juicio con jurado. Todos los habitantes de la zona gobernada por el senescal tenía que contar con algún tipo de reconocimiento por parte del Lord local, y los \"hombres sin amo\" podían ser asesinados. De esta manera, se esperaba que los lores irlandeses controlaran los asaltos realizados por sus propios seguidores. En la práctica, esto simplemente suscitó el antagonismo de los jefes locales.\nEl fracaso de esta política provocó que los ingleses buscasen soluciones a largo plazo para pacificar Irlanda. Una de estas soluciones fue la conocida como Composición, mediante la cual se abolieron los ejércitos privados y las provincias ocupadas por tropas inglesas fueron puestas bajo el mando Presidentes Provinciales. A cambio, se concedía exención fiscal a las principales familias, a la vez que se les reconocían derechos legales a recibir rentas de las familias subordinadas y arrendatarios. La imposición de este acuerdo estuvo marcada por una implacable violencia, particularmente en Connacht, donde los MacWilliam Burke se enfrentaron al presidente provincial inglés Richard Bingham, y su subordinado, Nicholas Malby. La interferencia del Lord Presidente de Munster fue una de las causas principales de las Rebeliones de Desmond. No obstante, este método tuvo éxito en otras zonas, como en Thomond, donde recibió el apoyo de la dinastía gobernante O'Brien. \nLa segunda solución a largo plazo fue la Colonización, que consistía en el establecimiento de asentamientos ingleses en zonas del país, con el propósito de que los colonizadores se mantuviesen leales a la corona y llevasen el idioma inglés y la cultura británica a la isla. Las colonizaciones se habían intentado en los años 1550 en los condados de Laois (conocido también como \"condado de la reina\" en honor a María I) y Offaly, y nuevamente en Antrim en 1570, con un éxito limitado en ambas ocasiones. Sin embargo, con el despertar de las Rebeliones de Desmond, grandes extensiones de tierra en Munster fueron repobladas con ingleses durante la colonización de dicha provincia. La mayor concesión de tierras fue entregada a Walter Raleigh, que se las vendió a Richard Boyle, quien posteriormente se convirtió en Conde de Cork y en el súbdito más poderoso de principios del periodo Estuardo.\nTras un periodo neutral entre 1558 a 1570, el Papa Pío V declaró a Isabel I hereje en la bula como \"Regnans in Excelsis\".​ Esto complicó la actuación inglesa, ya que la autoridad de la reina para gobernar fue denegada y los católicos consideraban que sus oficiales estaban actuando fuera de la ley. La mayoría de irlandeses se mantuvo dentro de la fe católica y la bula dio a los administradores protestantes una nueva razón para acelerar la conquista. La Segunda rebelión de Desmond entre 1579 y 1583 contó la intervención de numerosos efectivos enviados por el papado. Después de que se estableciese la contrarreforma católica y la inquisición, la religión se convirtió en un nuevo indicador de lealtad a la administración.​\nDe hecho, la perspectiva de confiscación de las tierras aumentó aún más la indignación de los irlandeses. No obstante, esta indignación no se limitaba a los gaélicos irlandeses: también a aquellos que reclamaban ser descendientes de los conquistadores originales bajo el reinado de Enrique II de Inglaterra, ahora llamados ingleses viejos, para distinguirlos de los muchos administradores, capitanes y colonizadores (ingleses nuevos) que estaban llegando a Irlanda. Por lo tanto, el compromiso ferviente hacia el catolicismo estaba ganando influencia mayoritariamente en la comunidad de ingleses viejos.\n\nCrisis\n\nEl punto crucial de la conquista isabelina de Irlanda llegó cuando las autoridades inglesas intentaron extender su autoridad sobre el Ulster y sobre Hugo O'Neill, el más poderoso Lord irlandés de su época. Inicialmente parecía que O'Neill apoyó la acción inglesa contra el clan Maguire que había gobernado el Condado de Fermanagh. Sin embargo, en 1595, O'Neill se unió a los rebeldes durante la guerra de los nueve años, que se desarrolló principalmente en el Ulster; O'Neill no quería llegar a acuerdos con la autoridad inglesa, sino eliminarla. En términos más amplios, fue parte de la Guerra anglo-española que tuvo lugar entre 1585 y 1604. O'Neill consiguió la ayuda de varios jefes gaélicos a lo largo de Irlanda, aunque el respaldo más significativo fue el brindado por el gobierno español, cuyo rey, Felipe III de España envió un ejército de 4.000 hombres que fue derrotado en la Batalla de Kinsale en 1601, que marcó el principio del fin. Después de esta derrota, las tropas O'Neill fueron de derrota en derrota hasta que, a principios de 1603 la guerra finalizó, y la autoridad de la corona fue gradualmente establecida en Irlanda. O'Neill y sus aliados fueron tratados con generosidad, considerando el alcance de la rebelión, pudiendo recuperar sus títulos y propiedades. Años más tarde, O'Neill y algunos de sus partidarios abandonaron Irlanda en la «Fuga de los Condes»; el gobierno inglés, temiendo que estuviesen planeando un nuevo levantamiento, proclamó traidor a O'Neill y ordenó la confiscación de sus territorios en el Ulster e iniciando la conocida como Colonización del Ulster.\n\nResultados\n\nEl primero y más importante resultado de la conquista fue el desmantelamiento de la estructura de clanes y el establecimiento de un gobierno central sobre toda la isla. La cultura irlandesa, las leyes y el idioma fueron reemplazados, y muchos jefes nativos perdieron sus tierras y su poder. Miles de colonos ingleses, escoceses, y galeses fueron introducidos en el país, y la administración de la justicia fue impuesta de acuerdo con la ley común inglesa y los estatutos del parlamento irlandés.\nDurante el siglo XVI, las cuestiones religiosas fueron ganando importancia. Rebeldes como James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald y Hugh O'Neill pidieron y recibieron ayuda de las potencias católicas de Europa, justificando sus acciones por motivos religiosos. Sin embargo, la comunidad de la Empalizada y muchos de los lores irlandeses no los consideraron genuinamente motivados por la religión. A comienzos del siglo XVII, el país se polarizó entre católicos y protestantes, especialmente después del asentamiento de una gran población inglesa en Irlanda y de escoceses presbiterianos en Ulster. (Véase Colonización del Ulster).\nBajo el reinado de Jacobo I, tras el descubrimiento de la Conspiración de la pólvora en 1605, se prohibió a los católicos el ejercicio de cargos públicos. Así, los irlandeses gaélicos y los ingleses viejos se definieron asimismo como católicos en oposición de los ingleses nuevos protestantes. Sin embargo, los nativos irlandeses (tanto gaélicos como ingleses viejos) siguieron siendo los terratenientes mayoritarios en el país hasta la Rebelión irlandesa de 1641. Tras las Guerras confederadas de Irlanda y la posterior invasión de Cromwell en 1650, los \"ingleses nuevos\" protestantes dominaron el país, y después de la Revolución Gloriosa de 1688 sus descendientes formaron la conocida como ascendencia.", "Geoffrey Howe\n\nPrimeros años\n\nGeoffrey Howe nació en 1926 en Port Talbot (Gales).​ Estudió en el colegio Bryntirion, una escuela preparatoria en Bridgend,​ y luego en los colegios ingleses Abberley Hall y Winchester College.​​ Desde 1945 hasta 1948 fue teniente de la Royal Corps of Signals en el este de África y luego prosiguió con sus estudios en el Trinity Hall de la Universidad de Cambridge, de donde se graduó como abogado en 1952.​​​\nMientras estudiaba leyes, fue presidente de la Cambridge University Conservative Association (en español, «Asociación conservadora de la Universidad de Cambridge»).​ Se presentó como candidato del Partido Conservador en Aberavon para las elecciones generales de 1955 y 1959,​​ saliendo segundo en ambas.​ En 1955 fue presidente del Bow Group, un think tank conservador del cual formó parte desde su creación en 1951 y editó su revista Crossbow entre 1960 y 1962.​​\nEn 1964 logró entrar a la Cámara de los Comunes por Bebington y en 1970 fue nombrado sub-fiscal general de Inglaterra y Galés. Desde 1972 hasta la caída del gobierno conservador de Edward Heath en 1974, fue ministro de Estado de la cartera de Comercio e Industria.​​​​ En 1975 se presentó en la segunda votación para la presidencia del partido, en donde salió tercero (junto a James Prior) y obtuvo el 6,9% de los votos, frente al 53,3% obtenido por Margaret Thatcher.​ Tras la elección, Thatcher apuntó a Howe como su Ministro de Hacienda en la sombra.​​ Desde este puesto elaboró, con la ayuda de otros parlamentarios, una declaración de la oposición sobre el desarrollo de nuevas políticas económicas titulada The Right Approach to the Economy (en español, «El correcto enfoque en la economía»).​\n\nMinistro de Hacienda\n\nCon la victoria del Partido Conservador en las elecciones de 1979, Geoffrey Howe pasó a ocupar el puesto de Ministro de Hacienda en el gobierno de Margaret Thatcher. Su gestión se caracterizó por políticas radicales para reformar las finanzas públicas, reducir la inflación y liberalizar la economía. Howe abolió los controles de cambio, redujo el gasto público y el Impuesto a la renta y aumentó los impuestos indirectos y el Impuesto al valor agregado.​​​ El presupuesto de 1981 elaborado por Howe fue duramente criticado, en especial por la idea de deflación en la economía en tiempos de recesión. En una carta al The Times, 364 académicos alegaron que «el presupuesto no tenía base en teoría económica y en pruebas de apoyo» y que «amenazaba la estabilidad política y social de Gran Bretaña».​​​\nSus propuestas se basaban en que reduciendo el déficit, en ese momento de 9,3 billones (3,6% del PBI) y controlando la inflación, las tasas de interés a largo plazo declinarían, re-estimulando la economía. En el momento del presupuesto de 1981 la inflación rondaba el 15% y se dirigía al 20%, logrando bajar finalmente en 1982.​​​​ Las tasas de interés a largo plazo, por su parte, también declinaron, de 14% en 1981 a 10% en 1983.​ Finalmente, la economía lentamente salía de la recesión. Sin embargo, el desempleo, ya muy alto, alcanzó un pico de 12%, el más alto desde la década del treinta.​\n\nSecretario de Relaciones Exteriores\n\nLuego de las elecciones de 1983, Thatcher nombró a Howe como secretario de Relaciones Exteriores, un puesto que mantuvo durante seis años.​ Desde este cargo se opuso fuertemente a sanciones económicas a Sudáfrica por el Apartheid diciendo que tarde o temprano Sudáfrica se reformaría «debido al abrumador peso del sentido común».​​ Uno de los principales ejes de su mandato fue la integración del Reino Unido con la Comunidad Europea y su apoyo al ingreso del Reino Unido al MTC, lo que le causó fuertes diferencias con Thatcher. Las diferencias llegaron a tal punto que Howe y Nigel Lawson (sucesor de Howe en el puesto de secretario de Relaciones Exteriores) se reunieron con Thatcher y la amenazaron con renunciar.​ Como representante del Reino Unido en el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas apoyó sanciones y el embargo de armas a Irán, diciendo que las medidas de fuerza son necesarias para demostrar que el Consejo «no carece de valor o es ineficaz».​​\nHowe ocupó además la presidencia del Consejo en septiembre de 1985.​\nA poco de asumir y previamente a la invasión estadounidense de Granada, Estados Unidos pidió consejo al gobierno británico. Tanto Thatcher como Howe se opusieron fuertemente a la invasión a la ex colonia británica, pero Estados Unidos invadió de todos modos, lo cual molestó al gobierno por la poca importancia que el país americano le dio a la opinión británica.​ En 1984 Howe encabezó las negociaciones con China por la condición política y económica de Hong Kong, algo considerado por algunos como uno de sus mayores logros. Finalmente, el Reino Unido y China firmaron una declaración conjunta basada en el ideal Un país, dos sistemas en el cual el Reino Unido se comprometía a entregar la soberanía de Hong Kong a China bajo ciertas condiciones. La declaración decía «Hemos acordado [...] la estructura y principales asuntos en un acuerdo que preservará el estilo único económico y de modo de vida de Hong Kong [...] los sistemas económicos y sociales de Hong Kong, su distintivo modo de vida y su posición como centro financiero e industrial serán asegurados». Andrew McEwen de The Times dijo «Geoffrey Howe es la gota de agua en una roca que eventualmente se abre camino».​ Posteriormente, Kevin Theakston, haciendo alusión al eslogan de la declaración sobre Hong Kong dijo «un gobierno, dos políticas exteriores» en alusión a las diferencias entre Howe y Thatcher.​\n\nViceprimer ministro\n\nEn julio de 1989 Howe fue remplazado en su puesto por John Major y fue nombrado Viceprimer ministro y Líder de la Cámara de los Comunes. Fue tomado por algunos como una represalia de Thatcher por el asunto de la Comunidad Europea y su puesto fue calificado como un «título sin valor» y como posiciones «que sonaban pomposamente pero carecían completamente de poder». Howe incluso perdió beneficios tales como la Residencia Chevening pero recibió apoyo de sus compañeros conservadores durante su primer discurso como Viceprimer ministro, algo nombrado como «una advertencia a Thatcher».​​​\nEl 1 de noviembre de 1990 Howe renunció a sus posiciones en el Gabinete. El 13 de ese mes pronunció su famoso discurso de renuncia, en donde criticó fuertemente a Thatcher por correr grandes riesgos por el futuro del país y por su política europea. Su fuerte discurso es ampliamente considerado de haber servido de incentivo para la candidatura de Michael Heseltine para disputarle la presidencia del partido a la primera ministra. Es a su vez considerado en extensión como causante de la renuncia de Margaret Thatcher tan solo unas semanas después, el 22 de noviembre de 1990.​​ The Telegraph publicó un artículo en el 2010 titulado El momento en que una oveja negra hirió fatalmente a nuestra reina guerrera y dijo que «El discurso de Geoffrey Howe hace 20 años electrificó a la Cámara y cambió la historia» aunque otros como Jeremy Paxman de The Independent consideran que «Margaret Thatcher se suicidó».​​ Cinco días después de su renuncia John Major sería electo líder del partido Conservador.​\nEl conflicto de lealtades, de lealtades a mi Muy Honorable amiga la primera ministra —y, después de todo, luego de dos décadas juntos ese instinto de lealtad es muy fuerte— y de lealtad a lo que yo creo son los verdaderos intereses de la nación, se ha hecho muy grande. Ya no creo que sea posible resolver este problema desde adentro del Gobierno. Es por eso que he renunciado. Al hacerlo he hecho lo que creí correcto para mi partido y mi país. El tiempo ha llegado para que otros consideren su propia reacción al trágico conflicto de lealtades con él cuál he luchado por capaz demasiado tiempo.​\nEn una carta a Howe la mandataria expresó «como ministro de Hacienda llevaste el mayor peso para implementar nuestras medidas económicas: y lo hiciste con tal coraje y fortaleza ante los muchos intentos de desestabilizarnos. Los cimientos del éxito económico de Gran Bretaña en los ochenta se deben a esos primeros años y en particular al presupuesto de 1981». Sobre su gestión al frente de la cartera de Relaciones Exteriores dijo «[desde ese puesto] contruiste sobre el éxito económico para devolver a Gran Bretaña su posición en el mundo [...] tu paciente negociación con el gobierno chino aseguró el futuro de Hong Kong: y luego aplicaste la misma habilidad de negociación con España por Gibraltar. Hiciste una gran parte en restaurar nuestras relaciones con la Unión Soviética y con los países de Europa del Este, mientras emergían de la sombra del comunismo». Sobre Europa mencionó «que las diferencias no eran tan importantes como él pensaba» y finalmente concluyó que «estaba muy triste personalmente» por la decisión de Howe.​\n\nActividad posterior\n\nTras su renuncia Howe volvió a los Backbenches en donde permaneció hasta 1992, cuando se retiró definitivamente de la Cámara de los Comunes. Howe fue nombrado par vitalicio de la Cámara de los Lores bajo el título de Baron Howe of Aberavon.​ Desde ese puesto Howe ha debatido sobre relaciones exteriores y sobre las políticas sobre Europa y se ha opuesto fuertemente al plan del gobierno para convertir a los Lores en una cámara mayoritariamente electa por el pueblo.​​\nAdemás, Howe fue presidente del Centro Gran Bretaña-China desde 1992 y patrón de la UK Metric Association,​​ un grupo cuyo fin es la promoción de la Metrificación en el Reino Unido.​\nEn 1994 publicó sus memorias con su libro Conflict of Loyalty (en español, «Conflicto de lealtades»).​ El ex-viceprimerministro dijo haber visto en 2012 la película The Iron Lady, en donde su persona fue interpretada por Anthony Head, pero evitó hacer declaraciones. Head se reunió con Howe en la Cámara de los Lores y el actor luego comentó «Esta un poco encorvado pero todavía es Geoffrey Howe» y dijo que le preguntó si había algo por lo que se disculparía y Howe respondió que no, que «sabía que había hecho lo correcto».​​ En 2013, asistió al funeral de Margaret Thatcher en la Catedral de San Pablo de Londres y poco después dijo «Es todavía algo que me apena mucho que el triunfo de los años de Thatcher se viese estropeado por su tragedia luego, a veces menos considerada [...] Se presume que Napoleón dijo que la mayor alegría que podía conseguir un político es seguir teniendo enemigos cien años después de su muerte. Margaret no podía esperar menos».​​\nEn mayo de 2015, tras más de medio siglo en el Parlamento, Howe se retiró de la Cámara de los Lores. El 9 de octubre de ese mismo año murió tras un aparente paro cardiaco. El primer ministro David Cameron expresó que los conservadores «habían perdido a uno de sus grandes» y que Howe había sido «el héroe silencioso» del gabinete de Thatcher.​", "San Patricio del Chañar\n\nToponimia\n\nEl nombre original del lugar es Tratayén.​\nSan Patricio del Chañar toma dos nombres que provienen de la historia de su tierra y los hombres que la transformaron.\nSan Patrizio es el santo co-protector de Campofilone,​ localidad de la provincia de Fermo en la región de Marcas en la Italia central, en la que vivió la familia Gasparri, pionera de esta localidad. Chañar es el nombre con el que se conoció al paraje en la época de los fortines, por la existencia de esta especie arbórea (nombre quichua del chical: árbol espinoso de madera dura y propiedades medicinales) que, por un raro capricho de la naturaleza y sin que el suelo sea apto para él, no se encuentra en la zona.\nSan Patricio del Chañar es una localidad ubicada en la provincia de Neuquén, es considerada el epicentro de la industria del vino neuquina.\n\nHistoria de fortines\n\nDentro de la rica y abundante historia de pioneros y colonizadores, de indios y soldados, de conquistas y luchas por las tierras, se pueden encontrar los primeros recuerdos del surgir de este pueblo y sus alrededores.\nLos primeros datos se remontan a un posible mangrullo y posta, con pequeña empalizada y rancho para resguardo de pocos uniformados. Estos datos figuran en plano y documentación de la mensura que practicaron Encina, Moreno y Cía. por cuenta del gobierno nacional en 1881-1882 (cuando hicieron esta mensura lo vieron desde el lado neuquino es decir, río por medio).\nEstos trabajos, dice Juan Mario Raone, citan al \"Mangrullo Chañar, del Fortín Chañar\" (Fortines III – 1969). Sin duda fue lugar de paso obligado desde la campaña de 1879 de Julio A. Roca, tanto para militares como para misioneros salesianos, proveedores y nativos por la rastrillada de Paso de Indios.\nJunto con los Fortines de Coronel Vidal al norte y Tratayen al oeste, conformaban la línea de defensa ante los malones del entonces Cacique Manuel Namuncurá (Mamún Curá: \"Garrón de Piedra\"). Recordemos que su hijo Ceferino quien tuvo una educación católica, se transformaría con el tiempo en un ícono religioso para las poblaciones del Valle de Río Negro, y luego para todo el país.\nEl \"Mangrullo Chañar del ex Fortín Chañar\" era el que seguía luego de Fortín Vidal, hacia el norte neuquino, rastrillada que era muy usada hacia el año 1883. En el recorrido, preferiblemente a orillas de los ríos, el gobierno había escalonado una serie de pequeñas fortalezas o fortines que no eran más que construcciones primitivas, como ranchos de paja y adobe (ladrillos de barro secados al sol).\nOtros importantes antecedentes se pueden conseguir en el viaje realizado por Don Gabriel Carrazco. Era inspector de gobernaciones del Ministerio del Interior y en 1902 viajó en tren desde Buenos Aires a Neuquén, y desde allí a Chos Malal produciendo notable informe al Ministro que luego transformó en libro. Muy observador y con prosa simple y precisa, detalla las etapas de su viaje en sulky (\"un cochecito sin toldo, 16 mulas, 4 caballos y compañeros ocasionales…\"). Al describir el itinerario previamente al relato propiamente dicho, lo hace incluyendo las distancias en leguas: \" … de Neuquén a la Picasa, ranchos en que se encuentra carne: 4; de Picasa a Vidal: 1; de Vidal a Chañar (chañares chicos) casa de Huerta, donde hay arboleda y comida (camino arenoso, poco pasto): 6; de Chañar a Punta de Sierra, donde hay sombra: 4.\"\nTambién recoge información que \"hace nueve meses que no llueve en Neuquén\". La travesía la concretó en enero-febrero de 1902, debiendo soportar algunos días más de 40º de temperatura (llevaba termómetro para tomar las mediciones).\nConcretamente en la parte que interesa en la zona dice: \" … llegamos a los Chañares Chicos, donde reside el vecino Huerta. Unos hermosos sauces que crecen bajo la benéfica influencia del agua cercana, nos brinda fresca sombra… allí hicimos la primera parada. Fuego, asador con la rama de un sauce, suculento asado a la mano y cuchillo, nadie se preocupa del vulgar tenedor, y una espléndida siesta\". Y luego agrega: \" … a las cinco de la tarde seguimos y cuatro horas después llegábamos a Tratayén, puesto de Basilio Toro, laborioso vecino encargado del transporte de la correspondencia. Había tres ranchos y una ramada. Bastos como almohada, mandiles de colchón y poncho de frezada. Pasamos la noche y al otro día seguimos rumbo a Añelo\".\nLuego de años perdidos en la historia sin documentar, podemos volver al camino a través de una mensura realizada por el Ing. Tressens, hacia 1913, en la colonia Tratayen, núcleo urbano que habría llegado a unas 20 manzanas. Presumiblemente la colonia desapareció en una gran crecida del Río Neuquén, ya que sus sistema de riego no contemplaba el control de caudales.\n\nHistoria de Pioneros y Sueños\n\nSegún los registros, los primeros propietarios particulares de estas tierras fueron obreros que trabajaron en la construcción del Dique Ballester. Posteriormente una familia francesa de apellido Deutieux lo adquirió como inversión. En 1943, a raíz de una deuda, el Banco de la Nación remató la propiedad, que fue vendida en 340 mil pesos moneda nacional a una inmobiliaria de Buenos Aires que no le dio ningún aprovechamiento.\nEn 1966 un grupo de vecinos de Cinco Saltos adquirió El Chañar en ocho millones de pesos, pero (aparentemente por razones económicas) no llegaron más allá de la subdivisión del campo.\nEntre abril y mayo de 1968 la firma Frigorífico Cipolletti S.A. (luego absorbida por Gasparri Hnos. S.A.) adquirió las 20 mil hectáreas de tierra en monte bruto siendo el objetivo sistematizar con plantíos estos terrenos en tres etapas, obteniendo agua por medio de bocatomas sobre el río Neuquén.\nTras estudios hechos por la empresa cordobesa Topoges se determinaron 8.400 hectáreas con dominio de riego gravitacional. En 1969 se iniciaron las obras de sistematización, regándose los primeros cultivos y plantaciones por bombeo desde el río Neuquén con tres bombas de 1.000 m³/h cada una. Las primeras cosechas fueron de papas, de distintas variedades y excelente rinde, que se comercializaron durante varios años en la zona. Esta área piloto abarcó aproximadamente 500 hectáreas. Ya con la construcción de la primera bocatoma, en 1971, que permitió regar la primera etapa de 3068 ha, se da comienzo a la venta de parcelas totalmente plantadas, llave en mano, cuya superficie mínima era de 6 ha de acuerdo a la unidad económica establecida en la época.\nEn el año 1973 se construyó la obra de la segunda bocatoma emplazada.\n\nEconomía\n\nSan Patricio del Chañar actualmente se destaca por su producción de vinos finos, en especial la de vinos rosados logrados a través de tempranos cortes de cepajes de Malbec y Merlot.\n\nA esto se añaden otros rubros económicos basados principalmente en la fruticultura merced a la creación de un oasis de riego y suelos y climas propicios, de este modo San Patricio del Chañar es sede de la Fiesta del pelón (a partir de pasas de duraznos y afines); fiesta que ocurre anualmente en la segunda semana de febrero. A esta se suma la Fiesta del Trabajador Rural que ocurre en tercera semana de febrero y luego la Fiesta Pre Baradero que ocurre anualmente en la tercera semana de diciembre, tales festivales son un atractivo para el turismo que tiene como añadido la práctica de pesca y deportes náuticos en la Represa y Dique Compensador Chañar, finalizados en 1980.\nAnualmente, en la 2.ª semana de febrero.\n\nControversia limítrofe\n\nSan Patricio del Chañar se encuentra ubicada dentro del territorio que la provincia de Río Negro reclama como propio. En 1883 se fijó la línea limítrofe entre los entonces territorios nacionales del Neuquén y del Río Negro como prolongación de la línea que divide a La Pampa y Mendoza, llamada Meridiano X Oeste de Buenos Aires (68º 15' O). Debido a la mejora de los medios de medición, para 1966 Río Negro sostuvo que la línea debería correrse unos 12 kilómetros al oeste de la fijada en 1883 y reclamó una franja de terreno de unas 193.000 hectáreas con 110 km lineales. Neuquén rechazó el reclamo rionegrino aduciendo que no se podía ir modificando el límite cada vez que apareciera un nuevo adelanto para medir la ubicación del meridiano. En 1969, el gobierno del general Juan Carlos Onganía le dio la razón a Neuquén por el decreto ley N° 18501, decreto que fue luego rechazado por Río Negro al haber sido hecho por un gobierno de facto.​ La Constitución de Río Negro expresa desde 1988 en su artículo 8 de las normas complementarias: Merecen especial consideración la reivindicación, deslinde y amojonamiento de los territorios afectados por la errónea traza del meridiano diez grados oeste de Buenos Aires (...) La Provincia desconoce expresamente la existencia de la denominada ley de facto No 18.501.​", "Edad de oro del capitalismo\n\nSe denomina Edad de oro del capitalismo o años dorados —también conocido en francés como Trente Glorieuses o Treinta Gloriosos y en alemán como Nachkriegsboom o boom de la posguerra— al período socioeconómico transcurrido desde el final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial en 1945 hasta la crisis del petróleo de 1973.​ El mismo estuvo caracterizado por dos procesos: el crecimiento económico nunca antes alcanzado y el enfrentamiento entre las dos grandes potencias, los Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética, en el marco de la Guerra Fría. Esta fue una de las razones por las que la expansión del capitalismo fue acompañada de una fuerte presencia del Estado, otorgando importancia a cuestiones sociales. \nEn la posguerra se acentuó la tendencia intervencionista del Estado que había comenzado a desarrollarse en la década de 1930 y que dio forma al Estado de Bienestar. El Estado, en los países occidentales, asumió tareas activas en relación con las posibilidades de incidir directamente sobre la actividad económica, en cuestiones como el nivel de empleo, de demanda y de inversión, para asegurar las condiciones de reproducción del sistema capitalista.​\nUno de los nuevos y más destacados rasgos de la economía fue la producción a bajo costo de una enorme y diversificada cantidad de bienes, a raíz del desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías y la introducción de métodos de producción más eficientes. La consecuencia fue la necesidad de dar salida a estos excedentes de producción, para cual el desarrollo de la publicidad condujo a la consolidación de la llamada sociedad de consumo.​\nEn este período, Estados Unidos se consolidó como la principal potencia mundial y a su vez, países como los de Europa Occidental y Japón registraron altísimas tasas de crecimiento. Por otro lado, la concentración de los beneficios del desarrollo industrial de estos países, condujo a un incremento de las desigualdades con los subdesarrollados del hemisferio sur. A pesar de que iniciaron el proceso de industrialización no pudieron desprenderse de la dependencia de las exportaciones de materias primas y alimentos.\n\nTerminología\n\nDurante los años cincuenta, la población de los países desarrollados comenzó a darse cuenta que los tiempos habían mejorado de forma notable con respecto a las décadas anteriores. El primer personaje público en hacer referencia a este proceso fue el primer ministro británico Harold Macmillan, durante las elecciones de 1959 que ganaría, con la frase Jamás os ha ido tan bien.​ Sin embargo, no fue hasta que se hubo acabado este período, durante los turbulentos años setenta, cuando los analistas señalaron que el mundo capitalista desarrollado había atravesado una etapa histórica realmente excepcional, acaso única. Al buscarle un nombre a este período los especialistas franceses lo llamaron los treinta años gloriosos siendo el 1945 la fecha de inicio y 1975 la del final.​ Pero fue edad de oro del capitalismo el término más usado ya que éste se fue dado por los analistas angloparlantes.​\n\nLa recuperación de posguerra\n\nLa Segunda Guerra Mundial dejó un saldo de aproximadamente 60 millones de muertes de las cuales 45 millones se produjeron en territorio europeo.​ Las muertes civiles sobrepasaron ampliamente a las militares.​ Las pérdidas materiales fueron mucho más graves que en la primera guerra mundial y no solo Europa se vio afectada, sino también el norte de África y Asia oriental. Se destruyó gran cantidad de viviendas y los sistemas de transporte quedaron casi paralizados. En la industria, el impacto afectó en mayor medida a los sectores básicos como el carbón, el acero y la energía; pero fue compensado por el aumento en la capacidad productiva. La situación en la agricultura fue mucho más difícil: la producción cayó en todas partes, especialmente en Europa Oriental debido a la falta de mano de obra, pérdida de ganado y la carencia de fertilizantes.​\nA diferencia de lo ocurrido en 1918, los vencedores no firmaron pactos inviables, sino que buscaron llegar a acuerdos razonables y duraderos. Se concretó una división en esferas de influencia occidental y soviética, punto de partida para la división de Europa en dos bloques. Mientras Estados Unidos, al no verse afectado por la devastación de su territorio, defendía la posición de no exigir a los vencidos pagos que afectasen su recuperación, Stalin exigía que las enormes pérdidas sufridas por la Unión Soviética fueran reparadas.​\nEn Europa Occidental, la situación era muy difícil: había escasez de alimentos, materias primas y bienes de consumo, y no había recursos necesarios para financiar las importaciones imprescindibles para relanzar la actividad económica. Además, el proceso de reconstrucción se vio afectado por la inflación producida por la aparición de una cantidad enorme de dinero y una limitada oferta de bienes de consumo. Otro problema que ponía en peligro la recuperación era la escasez de dólares, la cual no podía ser compensada con exportaciones debido a la inferioridad tecnológica de Europa con respecto a Estados Unidos. Ante la necesidad de reponer lo destruido y de reemplazar los equipos obsoletos, este último quedó como el único país capaz de suministrar bienes de capital.​\nEstados Unidos decidió salir de la habitual política aislacionista, y en 1947 el ministro de asuntos exteriores, George Marshall, anunció el plan que luego tomó su nombre. Este estaba influenciado por la doctrina Truman que implicaba apoyar a los pueblos libres a través de ayudas financieras frente a la amenaza del comunismo.​ Esto les permitió a los países beneficiarios, los de Europa Occidental y Japón, disponer de materias primas, alimentos, combustibles y algunos productos manufacturados. Europa pudo reducir su déficit en la balanza comercial, recuperar su nivel de reservas y relanzar su actividad industrial. Asimismo, el Plan Marshall favoreció la implantación de las empresas americanas en Europa. Desde otra perspectiva, contribuyó al aislamiento entre las partes occidental y oriental del continente europeo. Su creación fue respondida por el bloque soviético con la constitución del COMECOM en 1949.​\n\nLa economía mixta\n\nUno de los rasgos más novedosos del escenario de la posguerra fue la emergencia de la economía mixta, la cual se basaba en una relación entre el sector privado, el Estado y los sindicatos.​ Después de la gran depresión de la década de 1930, quedó clara la necesidad de una intervención creciente del Estado por la incapacidad de la economía de mercado para resolver los problemas generados por la crisis. A partir de la posguerra, este concepto evolucionó hacia posiciones más ambiciosas: el Estado también debía asegurar el crecimiento a largo plazo y que el mismo fuera de la forma más equitativa posible.​ \nLa economía mixta se fortaleció mediante la búsqueda del consenso social y político, que se plasmó en la conformación de gobiernos de coalición en los que tomaron un rol activo los partidos de izquierda y los sindicatos. Se adoptaron medidas de reforma como la nacionalización de las industrias básicas, la creación de organismos planificadores y la participación obrera en las ganancias y en la dirección de las empresas.​​ Los rasgos principales de esta nueva realidad fueron los derivados de la convergencia entre el mundo capitalista y el comunista: producción en gran escala, planificación en sustitución del mercado, regulación de la demanda por parte del Estado a través del control de precios y salarios, y el papel preponderante de este en la provisión de fuerza de trabajo educada y entrenada.\n\nLa empresa, el trabajo y capital\n\nEl crecimiento experimentado por la economía occidental se vincula con una modificación de los factores de producción de trabajo y capital. Los avances tecnológicos, la implementación de economías de escala y las mejoras en la organización empresarial, aumentaron la productividad.​ El aumento de la oferta de trabajo se debió al crecimiento natural de la población y a los cambios en la tasa de la población activa fruto de la incorporación masiva del trabajo femenino, por los movimientos internacionales de población y por la atracción de trabajadores procedentes del agro.​​ No solo se observaron aumentos cuantitativos de la oferta de trabajo, sino también cualitativos de debido a la mejora del sistema educativo.\nPor otro lado, el progreso técnico vivido en esta época estuvo vinculado a: la multiplicación de las materias primas gracias la fabricación de fibras sintéticas y a las aleaciones de metales, el espectacular desarrollo de nuevas maquinarias e instrumentos, los avances en la extracción de recursos naturales y las mejoras en los transportes y comunicaciones. Esta revolución tecnológica fue fundamental para la producción en masa, la automatización y la industrialización de la ciencia. La introducción de mecanismos automáticos y semiautomáticos, potenciados por la irrupción de las computadoras, facilitó la expansión de sectores como los del automóvil, los electrodomésticos, la industria química, etc. Las posibilidades de transferencia de tecnología aumentaron mucho más en estos años, a favor de los esfuerzos de Estados Unidos desde el plan Marshall en adelante. La introducción y la difusión de los procesos automáticos contribuyeron a la generalización de la organización fordista del trabajo simplificando y fraccionando las tareas\n\nEl factor demanda\n\nEl crecimiento económico de posguerra está asociado a la expansión de la demanda y al despliegue de la sociedad de consumo que había nacido en Estados Unidos en los años 20. En Europa Occidental y en Japón, el proceso se afirmó a partir del 1945, asociado a los incrementos de la productividad del trabajo y al papel del Estado como redistribuidor de los ingresos en beneficio de los sectores de menos ganancias; y en el caso de Japón, a la actitud paternalista de las grandes empresas las cuales aseguraban beneficios extras a los trabajadores a través de premios y estímulos. \nLa base de la sociedad de consumo fue la elevación de los salarios. A su vez, la expansión de la demanda repercutió sobre la actitud de los empresarios que multiplicaron las inversiones. Estas se orientaron a la producción de bienes de consumo, a la construcción y a actividades recreativas. El Estado también cumplió un papel destacado al invertir en infraestructura y ayudar a las empresas mediante subsidios y créditos en condiciones favorables. La dinámica de la sociedad de consumo condujo a la conformación de una estructura empresarial dual: por una parte, una profundización de la concentración oligopólica de empresas que respondían a la demanda generada por el consumo masivo en crecimiento; por otra, el desarrollo de empresas pequeñas orientadas hacia los servicios y hacia bienes que satisfacían los gustos pautados por la moda. \nTambién, en este período aumentaron notoriamente las exportaciones, lo cual estuvo vinculado a decisiones políticas. Las enseñanzas del período de entreguerras, en las que el incremento de los aranceles y restricciones del comercio tuvieron efectos negativos, fueron aprendidas. En los acuerdos de Bretton Woods, se recomendó liberar el comercio, lo que finalmente se hizo mediante la baja sustancial de las barreras aduaneras y al desarrollo de formas de cooperación económica. Además, los progresos técnicos en el área de los transportes y el bajo precio del petróleo, condujeron a una disminución de los fletes facilitando el intercambio.\n\nLa integración económica internacional\n\nA partir de la puesta en marcha del Plan Marshall por parte de los Estados Unidos, quedó claro que había una intencionalidad diferente por parte de la primera potencia respecto al funcionamiento de la economía mundial. El Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio (GATT, por sus siglas en inglés) fue la primera manifestación de ese nuevo espíritu. La idea, surgida en Bretton Woods, tenía como principios fundamentales, la igualdad de trato y el multilateralismo, promoviendo la defensa del libre cambio con algunas excepciones justificadas por la necesidad de garantizar el pleno empleo o por pautas impuestas por el desarrollo.\nEl logro más significativo con respecto al proceso de cooperación económica fue la creación del Mercado Común Europeo. La idea de integración estaba en mente cuando finalizaba la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y así fue que en 1944 los gobiernos de Bélgica, Holanda y Luxemburgo acordaron la creación, a partir de 1948, de un mercado común denominado Benelux. La integración económica era fuertemente alentada por Estados Unidos ya que crearía una barrera fuerte y prospera contra la propagación del comunismo. Otro ejemplo de cooperación fue el establecimiento de la Comunidad Europea del Carbón y del Acero (CECA) que logró mejorar las relaciones entre Francia y Alemania. Este cuardo fue el antecedente de la conformación de una unión aduanera conocida como Comunidad Económica Europea, la cual permitió el libre movimiento de mano de obra, de capitales y servicios en región; la expansión de cada uno de los países integrantes y el crecimiento del nivel de vida de la población. La constitución de la CEE dio las condiciones necesarias para que los países que quedaban fuera de la misma establecieran su propio bloque, la Asociación Europea de Libre Comercio (EFTA, por sus siglas en inglés). Los acontecimientos posteriores condujeron a un acercamiento de Gran Bretaña y los países del EFTA a la Comunidad Europea los cuales entraron a la misma en 1972.Las transacciones entre los países participantes se cuadriplicaron en diez años y se incrementaron las inversiones extranjeras, especialmente las estadounidenses. \nPor otro lado, la creación del Fondo Monetario Internacional, tras las negociaciones realizadas en Bretton Woods, implicó el establecimiento de pautas para la puesta en vigencia de un sistema monetario basado en paridades fijas y en el respaldo de monedas fuertes. Su funcionamiento dependía de la situación dominante de los Estados Unidos, el país acreedor del mundo occidental. Al dólar se le dio un valor fijo en oro pero asumió un papel contradictorio: en el interior de Estados Unidos no era convertible y los gobiernos podían contraer o ampliar la oferta monetaria. En el exterior en cambio, el dólar era convertible en oro y funcionaba como respaldo de las demás divisas. Este sistema comenzó a tener problemas a medida que la economía europea y japonesa despegaron, mejorando su competitividad internacional, lo que afectó a la moneda norteamericana.\n\nEstados Unidos\n\nLos Estados Unidos, no solo salieron políticamente victoriosos de la guerra, sino que su preeminencia económica se manifestó de manera clara. Terminado el conflicto, este país concentraba la mayor parte de la capacidad manufacturera mundial, así como también los mayores esfuerzos en investigación y desarrollo. De las 100 principales innovaciones introducidas en este período, 60 provenían de compañías estadounidenses. Una de las razones que explican esta transición es la rápida reconversión de la industria bélica hacia la producción de bienes de consumo alentada por la reducción de impuestos y al elevado nivel de gastos por parte del gobierno. Mayor importancia aún tuvo el incremento de la demanda en una población que llevaba varios años sacrificándose por la guerra. Pero el problema principal a que se debió enfrentar a finales de los años cuarenta fue la inflación, que llevó a un aumento en el costo de vida. En estos años se produjo una recesión que pudo ser resuelta por factores endógenos como la aplicación del plan Marshall y la Guerra de Corea. La ayuda brindada a Europa Occidental y a Japón ayudó a aumentar las exportaciones y la inversión en empresas del Viejo Continente por parte de las compañías estadounidenses. \nA partir del 1953, bajo el gobierno republicano de Eisenhower, hubo una aceptación del papel del gobierno federal en las cuestiones sociales y una aceptación de las posibilidades que brindaba el déficit presupuestario como factor dinamizador de la actividad económica; pero no se implantó una política fiscal y monetaria destinada a actuar sobre la demanda. Con el regreso de los demócratas con Kennedy en 1961, se aplicaron medidas keynesianas, como una política fiscal activa y la utilización sistemática del déficit presupuestario. Estas políticas económicas fueron llamadas New Economics y arrojaron resultados positivos, como manifiesta el promedio de 8% anual de crecimiento del PBI entre 1961 y 1969. Sin embargo, el efecto expansivo de la intervención en Vietnam produjo un proceso inflacionario que debió ser afrontado por Nixon después de su investidura en 1969. La ortodoxia del equipo conservador que lo rodeaba condujo a los clásicos ajustes monetarios y presupuestarios, pero el alza de precios no se detuvo. El gobierno estableció estrictos controles para atacar la inflación y las consecuencias fueron recesión y desempleo, sin lograr que los precios se estabilicen. Por lo tanto, cuando en 1973 estalló la crisis del petróleo, la economía norteamericana ya estaba en serios problemas.\n\nGran Bretaña\n\nAl finalizar la segunda guerra mundial, el gobierno británico, bajo la conducción del laborista Clement Attlee, se orientó hacia la implementación de políticas keynesianas. Sus componentes principales fueron la constitución de un Estado benefactor, el objetivo del pleno empleo y la nacionalización de un sector significativo de la estructura industrial. Se buscaba un equilibrio entre la libertad y seguridad, restringiendo algunos principios de la economía de mercado, reemplazados por un activo papel del Estado en el terreno social y en la búsqueda de políticas que terminaran con la desocupación. Así, el Estado asumió de manera plena una función distributiva que, a partir de sustanciales aumentos en las contribuciones patronales, concretó un conjunto de beneficios sociales que protegía a los ciudadanos. A su vez, se nacionalizó el Banco de Inglaterra, la minería del carbón, el gas, la electricidad, los ferrocarriles y una parte de la industria metalúrgica. Sin embargo, la falta de una política de planificación impidió que el Estado hiciera uso efectivo de su poder económico. La recuperación de la economía británica se basó en el incremento de las exportaciones. Además, los controles instaurados en la guerra se conservaron por lo que se mantuvo bajo el nivel de importaciones, asegurando una balanza comercial favorable. La devaluación del 1949 potenció la posición exportadora del país pero generó inflación.\nEsta coyuntura negativa permitió a los conservadores volver al poder de la mano de Winston Churchill. Desde 1964, los laboristas y conservadores se alternarían en el poder y en este período no se produjeron modificaciones significativas en la estructura económica conformada después de la guerra. Con el marco de inconsecuencia de las políticas económicas, debido a la alternación entre gobiernos conservadores y laboristas, se produjo la aceleración del proceso de concentración industrial iniciado en el período de entreguerras. Su rasgo diferenciador fue la diversificación de la producción. Los progresos de la industria se enfrentaron a una dura actitud de los sindicatos los cuales habían tomado fuerza después de la guerra. La estrategia adoptada fue de luchas por incrementos salariales y en la conservación de un poder monopólico, que afectó en muchas veces la introducción de mejoras técnicas. El modesto comportamiento de la economía británica a lo largo del período marcó la desaparición definitiva de su sistema de hegemonía. Luego del impacto de la crisis del petróleo, retornarían las políticas liberales con Margaret Thatcher a la cabeza.\n\nFrancia\n\nEl ejemplo francés fue uno de los casos más concretos de implementación de una economía mixta. El líder de la Francia liberada, Charles De Gaulle, compartía con la izquierda la concepción de que el papel del Estado debía ser mucho más activo. Las nacionalizaciones fueron muchas, continuando una tendencia que se había iniciado con la gran depresión en la cual se habían nacionalizado los ferrocarriles, la industria aeronáutica y la de armamentos. En la posguerra fueron la industria automovilística, el transporte aéreo, la minería de carbón, el gas, la electricidad , el Banco de Francia y otros bancos comerciales, las que pasaron a manos del Estado. Así, el Estado se convirtió en el principal productor y empleador del país, pero las nacionalizaciones no implicaron una modificación de la estructura fabril y la mayoría de las empresas conservó su autonomía.\nEl pilar básico de la economía francesa fue la planificación estatal siendo su impulsor Jean Monnet. La misma apuntó a guiar la producción antes que a controlarla. El crecimiento se basó en el desarrollo de seis industrias estratégicas: carbón, acero, cemento, electricidad, transportes y maquinaria agrícola; más tarde se les sumaron el petróleo y los fertilizantes. Los sucesivos planes cuatrienales se plantearon objetivos diversos, desde la expansión de la industria pesada hasta la consolidación de beneficios sociales para jubilados y asalariados de bajos ingresos, pasando por el desarrollo científico y tecnológico. El plan Marshall creó las condiciones para la puesta en marcha del primer plan, pudiéndose financiar las importaciones esenciales para el despegue y lo dotaron de capitales para impulsar la industria pesada. \nEl principal factor en la restructuración y el despegue de la industria francesa lo constituyó el ingreso en la Comunidad Económica Europea. La obligación de competir condujo a una transformación tanto de la agricultura como de la industria. El campo completó su reconversión basado en una disminución de la población activa y el aumento de la producción gracias a las mejoras técnicas y de la racionalización de los procesos productivos. También, se abandonaron las zonas menos productivas y aumentaron las exportaciones agrarias. Con respecto a la industria, bajo la tutela del estado, esta se renovó de manera total, aumentado su competitividad en el escenario internacional. Como resultado, entre 1949 y 1969 las exportaciones industriales aumentaron en un 5,5%, para la década del 70, Francia era una potencia industrial de primer orden.\n\nAlemania\n\nLos Gobiernos de la República Federal Alemana se orientaron hacia políticas de corte neoliberal, si bien con algunos componentes intervencionistas. A pesar de los proyectos iniciales de los aliados, que planteaban la necesidad de debilitar económicamente a Alemania para impedir al retorno de las situaciones que provocaron las dos guerras, las realidades de la Guerra Fría y la necesidad de frenar el avance del comunismo, obligaron a revisar estas ideas reemplazándolas por la concepción de que una Europa ordenada y próspera requería una Alemania estable y productiva. El triunfo de las ideas neoliberales se produjo en un marco donde en la sociedad alemana existía un consenso mayoritario a favor de una economía planificada. El gobierno aceptó gran parte del ideario neoliberal pero incorporó la cogestión obrero-empresaria y una activa política contra los procesos de concentración, que sin embargo, siguieron siendo característicos de la economía alemana. \nEn Alemania se produjo un despegue acelerado debido a la adecuada provisión de capital, mano de obra y mercados, y la instrumentación de políticas económicas que contribuyeron al crecimiento. Los niveles de inversión bruta en esos años alcanzaron valores que iban desde el 20 al 24%, proporción superior al resto de los países occidentales. La autofinanciación empresarial fue el instrumento principal, y la importante reserva de maquinaria existente permitió la rápida reconstrucción del tejido industrial. La abundancia de mano de obra, ampliada por los emigrantes y refugiados del bloque oriental, permitió la existencia de moderadas demandas salariales, sumada a una comprensión de los sectores sindicales de la necesidad de no profundizar los enfrentamientos con el empresariado. La tradicional capacidad alemana en la industria pesada le permitió aprovechar su reingreso en el mercado mundial, favorecido por la liberación del comercio y el establecimiento del Mercado Común Europeo.\nCon respecto a la política económica, los gabinetes liberales, que gobernaron el país hasta 1966, mantuvieron una orientación que privilegiaba el control de precios y de la balanza de pagos en detrimento de los gastos sociales. Con la llegada de los socialdemócratas al poder en 1966, comenzaron a aplicarse algunos instrumentos de las políticas keynesianas como la financiación deficitaria del presupuesto, la implementación de medidas fiscales y monetarias y algunos elementos de planificación a mediano y largo plazo. Alemania se alejó así de la corriente neoliberal para insertarse en el movimiento generalizado en Occidente de la economía mixta.\n\nJapón\n\nJapón se trata de un país pobre en recursos naturales, superpoblado y con una escasa superficie cultivable por habitante. Es el primer caso de una economía no occidental que despega hasta en punto de convertirse en la segunda potencia del planeta. Para Japón, el enfrentamiento del 1939-1945 terminó en un desastre en el terreno militar y económico. No solo perdió todas sus colonias y su influencia en Asia, sino que también les fueron arrebatadas sus inversiones en Manchuria y China. La idea original de los vencedores era acabar con la hegemonía japonesa en el extremo oriente limitando su crecimiento. Sin embargo, la evolución de la coyuntura internacional, marcada por la guerra fría y al triunfo de Mao Tse Tung en China, obligó a la reconstrucción del Japón como bastión contra los países socialistas. La Guerra de Corea (1950-1956) terminó de definir la situación: la demanda de armamentos y repuestos militares por parte del ejército estadounidense se volcó hacia la economía japonesa, por lo que fue preciso modificar los planeamientos originales, proponiéndose el desarrollo de Japón como potencia hegemónica en el sudeste asiático.\nEl crecimiento explosivo experimentado por Japón, desde principios de los años 50 hasta la crisis del petróleo, fue claramente superior al de cualquier otro país. Esto se debe a una multiplicidad de causas. En primer lugar, el clima internacional de la posguerra, asentado en la hegemonía de Estados Unidos y la expansión del comercio mundial impulsada por el GATT, creo las condiciones necesarias pera la colocación de exportaciones japonesas en el mercado mundial, fundamental para pagar las importaciones de materias primas como petróleo y recursos tecnológicos. Otro factor, fue el importante suministro de mano de obra barata para la industria proveniente del sector agrícola, permitió una gran elasticidad en la oferta, por lo que fue viable que los salarios crecieran menos que la productividad facilitando el descenso de los costos. Por otro lado, el elevado nivel de ahorro de la población, asentado sobre una baja propensión al consumo, permitió que el país tuviera el mayor índice de inversión dentro de los países desarrollados. \nPor otro lado, el papel del Estado partió del rechazo de una estrategia de crecimiento a largo plazo basada en la teoría de ventajas comparativas, por lo que actuó como mecanismo de compensador de las deficiencias del mercado. Además, coordinó de manera amplia el conjunto de la actividad productiva, involucrando organismos públicos y sectores de la actividad privada. Asimismo, desde el estado se estructuró un sistema educativo de alta calidad, dirigido a impulsar el desarrollo económico y a servir a las grandes empresas. Muchos alumnos solo estudiaban para obtener empleo en una de las principales compañías. El proceso de modernización industrial se realizó inicialmente a partir de la utilización de recursos tecnológicos provenientes de Estados Unidos. Este impulso inicial fue acompañado por un considerable esfuerzo del Estado para impulsar el cambio tecnológico, incrementando los gastos en la investigación básica y aplicada. Por último, el predominio del Confucianismo en la sociedad japonesa implicó el asentamiento de una visión del mundo que justificaba el orden social existente y el encolumnamiento detrás de la autoridad. La organización fabril japonesa, con todas sus peculiaridades, fue entonces aceptada mayoritariamente como parte de ese status quo incuestionable, y las clases trabajadoras apuntalaron con su esfuerzo la estrategia de expansión económica acelerada.\n\nEspaña\n\nEn 1945 España era un país principalmente agrícola y atrasado. A pesar de no haber participado en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la guerra civil de 1936-1939 planteó obstáculos en la recuperación económica; agravados por la política franquista de alianza con las potencias del eje, las pretensiones autárquicas y el intervencionismo económico. Sin embargo, cuando las relaciones entre Estados Unidos y la URSS, aliados en la guerra, se deterioraron; se produjo un acercamiento entre España y Estados Unidos basado en el enemigo común que significaba el comunismo. Este proceso culminó en los Acuerdos de Madrid de 1953.\nDesde un punto de vista económico, la década del 40 presenta un balance muy negativo. Solo gracias a la ayuda de Argentina y Estados Unidos el país se salvó de una catástrofe alimenticia. En pocos años, el régimen franquista había acabado con los excedentes de producción de trigo de la Segunda República Española al desabastecimiento de los bienes de consumo más básicos. Pero a partir del 1951 se comenzaron a aplicar políticas de apertura hacia el exterior y de liberalización económica interior, que junto con la ayuda norteamericana y la restauración de las relaciones económicas con una Europa en recuperación, permitieron empezar un proceso industrializador. Este proceso culminó con el Plan Estabilizador de 1959 que reducía la intervención estatal en la economía, saneaba las cuentas públicas, abría la economía al exterior y fijaba un tipo de cambio realista para la peseta.\nA pesar de no formar parte de los acuerdos de integración económica de Europa, la economía española se benefició del espectacular crecimiento europeo de los años 60. En primer lugar, la demanda europea provocó un gran crecimiento de las exportaciones españolas lo que permitió importar los productos necesarios para el desarrollo industrial. Por otro lado, se produjo un proceso de emigración de población española hacia países más industrializados lo que ayudó a resolver la falta de puestos de trabajo en el país. A su vez, el turismo creció como actividad económica ya que muchos europeos comenzaron a elegir a España como destino de sus vacaciones. Por último, tuvo lugar una amplia apertura a las inversiones de capitales extranjeros. Los efectos de este proceso fueron notorios: el crecimiento económico español fue superior a la media europea siendo la industria del automóvil una de las locomotoras más potentes del crecimiento (de 1958 a 1972 creció a una tasa compuesta anual del 21,7 %.) A su vez, el sector agrario vivió un acelerado proceso de modernización paralelo al éxodo rural hacia zonas urbanas y al extranjero.\nSin embargo, el desarrollo industrial sufrió varias limitaciones debido a la persistencia de las prácticas intervencionistas y proteccionistas del franquismo y sus prejuicios sobre sectores que requerían atención preferente. Además, la propia naturaleza del régimen era un obstáculo para el progreso de la educación, la investigación y para el desarrollo del capital humano. La ausencia de una refoma tributaria y la no implementación de políticas keynesianas impidió que el gobierno español gastase más en educación, sanidad e infraestructuras de transporte y comunicaciones. Durante la década del 60, España se convirtió en un país industrial gracias a la favorable coyuntura internacional. Sin embargo, en muchos aspectos, la sociedad española permanecía alejada de muchos patrones europeos, debido al programa franquista que impulsaba el inmovilismo político y social.\n\nLas explicaciones del crecimiento\n\nLa expansión económica de posguerra ha sido objeto de múltiples explicaciones que buscan identificar sus causas.\n\nLa fundamentación neoclásica\n\nExplica el crecimiento partiendo de cada factor de producción. De los tres factores principales (recursos naturales, capital y trabajo) se despegan una significativa cantidad de variables específicas como la duración del año de trabajo, los niveles educativos de la mano de obra, la infraestructura, etc. Incluye también al factor residual como los conocimientos técnicos y los avances en la organización. La teoría neoclásica estudia al crecimiento del lado de la oferta apuntando a sus causas inmediatas.\n\nArgumentos keynesianos\n\nSe enfatiza la importancia de la existencia de una elevada demanda agregada como condición necesaria para el crecimiento. El mismo se alcanza mediante una activa política fiscal y monetaria y un alto nivel de inversiones. El papel del Estado es crucial para evitar la irrupción de coyunturas depresivas que afecten la inversión privada. A su vez, el gobierno debe facilitar el comercio internacional y asegurar ingresos para desocupados, enfermos y jubilados para consolidar una demanda estable. El error de esta teoría es dar por sentado la utilización de políticas keynesianas en países que no lo hicieron o lo hicieron por muy poco tiempo.\n\nModelos del cambio estructural\n\nEl estructuralismo afirma que el crecimiento es un proceso desequilibrado en el que el progreso técnico no se distribuye de forma uniforme entre los sectores. La estructura de la demanda conduce a modificaciones en la estructura productiva: algunos sectores crecen, otros declinan. Se parte del modelo de Lewis que supone la existencia de dos sectores, uno atrasado y otro avanzado con salarios y productividad más elevados. El crecimiento es el proceso de transferencia de trabajo y recursos y aumento de productividad del sector atrasado hasta desaparecer.\n\nLa escuela del catching up\n\nIndica que si el nivel de producción de un país es inferior a otros, los países atrasados pueden acortar las distancias que los separan de los países líderes mediante el deseo de imitación, la flexibilidad para el cambio y la capacidad para organizarlo. Un ejemplo es el crecimiento rápido de la Europa Occidental y el Japón a partir de la imitación de los Estados Unidos mediante la capacidad para organizar el cambio, la libertad de la libre empresa, la organización del sistema educativo y el control institucional de los conflictos. El proceso de crecimiento pierde velocidad cuando ya no queda nada que imitar.\n\nEl enfoque marxista\n\nExplica la historia del modo de producción capitalista desde 1945 de acuerdo con las leyes básicas del movimiento de capital descriptas por Marx. Se hace un análisis cíclico del capitalismo indicando que la onda larga se inicia tras la segunda guerra mundial. La misma se caracteriza por un incremento a largo plazo de la tasa ganancia y una expansión del mercado a través de la innovación tecnológica y un aumento de la tasa de plusvalía acompañado de un aumento de los salarios reales. Esta etapa del capitalismo tardío incluye tres nuevos rasgos: la reducción del tiempo de rotación del capital fijo, la aceleración de la innovación tecnológica y el aumento del costo de los grandes proyectos de acumulación. Asimismo, la creciente propensión del sistema a las explosivas crisis convierte al Estado en un administrador de crisis, el cual mediante políticas anticíclicas evita las depresiones catastróficas. La consecuencia de este intervencionismo produce un proceso inflacionario el cual dificulta sostener la demanda.", "United Farm Workers of America\n\nFundación de la UFW\n\nFred Ross fue el coordinador para la Organización de Servicio Comunitario (CSO, por sus siglas en ingles). Él descubrió que los mexicanoamericanos y los trabajadores agrícolas eran los más discriminados en California. Ross fundó el CSO junto con otros activistas. En 1952, Ross conoció a César Chávez en la ciudad de San José, California. Cuando reconoció la habilidad de Chávez de llegar a los miembros potenciales en las reuniones organizadas por el CSO, Ross decidió convertirlo en su protegido. Ellos viajaron por todo el estado resolviendo los problemas de los mexicanoamericanos.​ \n\nDurante la participación de Chávez en el CSO, Fred Ross entrenó a César Chávez en la táctica de organización de base, puerta a puerta, reunión de la casa, una táctica crucial para los métodos de reclutamiento de la UFW. La táctica de la reunión de la casa estableció con éxito una base amplia de los capítulos locales del CSO durante la era de Ross, y Chávez utilizó esta técnica para extender el alcance de la UFW además de buscar organizadores principiantes. Durante la década de 1950, César Chávez y Fred Ross desarrollaron veintidós nuevos capítulos del CSO en los vecindarios mexicanoamericanos de San José. En 1959, Chávez reclamaría el rango de Director Ejecutivo en el CSO. Durante este tiempo, Chávez observó y adoptó la noción de que la comunidad se involucrara más políticamente para lograr los cambios sociales que la comunidad buscó. Esta sería una táctica vital en las futuras luchas de Chávez en la lucha por los derechos de los inmigrantes.\n\nPara 1959, César Chávez ya había establecido relaciones profesionales con organizaciones comunitarias locales que tenían el objetivo de empoderar a la población de clase obrera al animarlos a que se hicieran más activos políticamente. Además, reclutó a varios organizadores calificados; entre ellos, Gilbert Padilla y Dolores Huerta. Juntos abrieron paso a CSO hacia una mayor defensa para los trabajadores agrícolas en los campos de California.\nA pesar de su trabajo y liderazgo en CSO, Chávez creyó que la organización carecía la suficiente atención a las preocupaciones de los trabajadores agrícolas y las comunidades rurales. El objetivo final de César Chávez, en su participación con el CSO fue el de eventualmente organizar un sindicato para los trabajadores agrícolas. Saul Alinsky y algunos de los otros líderes no compartieron la misma simpatía que Chávez por la lucha de los trabajadores agrícolas. La reacción de Chávez lo dirigió a renunciar del CSO en 1962, y se trasladó a Delano, California donde comenzó a construir una nueva organización de trabajadores agrícolas.\nPara fomentar su causa, Huerta creó la Asociación de Trabajadores Agrícolas (AWA) en 1960. A través de la AWA, ella presionó los políticos en muchos temas, incluyendo permitir a los trabajadores migrantes sin ciudadanía estadounidense recibir asistencia pública, pensiones, crear papeletas de voto en español y pruebas de manejo. En 1962, fundó un sindicato de trabajadores con César Chávez, que más tarde fue conocido como el United Farm Workers of America (UFW) que se hico en un gran grupo. Chávez fue el líder y orador mientras Huerta era una organizadora y negociadora difícil. Huerta fue fundamental en muchos de los éxitos de la unión, incluyendo las huelgas contra los productores de uvas de California en los años sesenta y setenta.\nEn 1965, el AWA había adquirido 1200 miembros a través de los esfuerzos de reclutamiento de persona a persona de Chávez, que aprendió de Fred Ross apenas una década antes. De esos 1200, sólo unos 200 pagaron cuotas. En 1962, Richard Chávez, el hermano de César Chávez, diseñó la insignia del Águila Azteca negra que se convertiría en el símbolo del NFW y la UFW. César Chávez eligió los colores rojo y negro utilizados por la organización.\nAunque aún en sus etapas infantiles, la organización prestó su apoyo a una huelga de los trabajadores de la industria de las rosas en 1965. Esta protesta inicial de la organización joven resultó en un intento fallido de atacar a la industria de las rosas. Ese mismo año los trabajadores agrícolas que trabajaban en los campos de Delano querían atacar a los productores en respuesta a la negación del agricultor al no incrementar los salarios de $1.20 a $1.40 la hora, y buscaron a Chávez y a la Asociación Nacional de Trabajadores Agrícolas para apoyo. La mayoría de los trabajadores agrícolas de Delano eran filipinos afiliados con al Comité Organizador de Trabajadores Agrícolas. La unificación de estas dos organizaciones, en un intento de boicotear las uvas de mesa que se cultivaron en los campos de Delano, dio lugar para la creación de UFWA. La AFL-CIO alquilado los trabajadores Agrícolas Unidos, combinando oficialmente el AWOC y el NFWA, en agosto de 1966.\n\nComplicaciones históricas en el AWOC antes de la formación UFW\n\nEn la historia pasada de la agricultura americana, los trabajadores agrícolas experimentaron muchos intentos fallidos de organizar trabajadores agrícolas. En 1903, los trabajadores agrícolas japoneses y mexicanos intentaron reunirse para luchar por mejores salarios y mejores condiciones de trabajo. Este intento de organizar a los trabajadores agrícolas fue ignorado y disuelto cuando las organizaciones, como la Federación Americana del Trabajo, descuidaron apoyar sus esfuerzos, a menudo reteniendo la ayuda sobre la base de la raza.\nEn 1913, los trabajadores industriales del mundo organizaron una manifestación en un gran rancho en la zona rural del norte de California, que involucró a 2000 trabajadores agrícolas. Esto dio lugar a un ataque contra los participantes del Rally por la Guardia Nacional. Como resultado de la violencia, los dos organizadores de los trabajadores industriales del mundo fueron arrestados, condenados por asesinato y condenados a cadena perpetua. Se cree que las dos personas arrestadas fueron condenadas erróneamente por los cargos de asesinato.\nEn los años tardíos y los años 20 en los Estados Unidos, los intentos más futuros de organizar a trabajadores agrícolas fueron emprendidos por esfuerzos locales espontáneos, y algunos que fueron conducidos por los sindicatos comunistas. Estos intentos también resultaron en un fracaso porque durante ese tiempo los empleadores no estaban obligados por ley a involucrarse con las negociaciones con sus trabajadores. Durante este período de tiempo, los empleadores también podrían despedir legalmente a sus empleados si optaron por unirse a un sindicato.\nEn 1936, la ley nacional de relaciones laborales fue puesta en vigencia. Esta legislación proporcionó a la mayoría de los trabajadores americanos el derecho de afiliarse a sindicatos y negociar colectivamente. Los trabajadores agrícolas estaban exentos de la protección de esta ley. Algunos creen que esta categoría laboral fue excluida como resultado de una táctica política para ganar el apoyo de los políticos del sur en la aprobación de esta ley.\nEn 1941, el gobierno de estadounidense y el gobierno mexicano promulgaron el programa de braceros. Inicialmente, este proyecto conjunto entre los Estados Unidos y México se estableció durante la segunda guerra mundial con el fin de abordar la escasez de mano de obra al permitir que \"trabajadores invitados\" de México trabajen en la industria agrícola americana hasta el final de la cosecha. Miles de ciudadanos mexicanos fueron llevados al norte para trabajar en los campos de los Estados Unidos y los agricultores usaron esta oportunidad para socavar los salarios domésticos, y los braceros también fueron utilizados para romper huelgas de los trabajadores agrícolas residentes. Este programa se amplió hasta 1964.\n\nLas Huelgas de Uva en Delano (1965-1970)\n\nLa huelga comenzó el 8 de septiembre de 1965 cuando los trabajadores filipino-americanos de la uva, cuyos eran miembros del Comité Organizativo de Trabajadores Agrícolas (AWOC), salieron en huelga contra los cultivadores de la uva protestando años de mal paga y de condiciones pobres. Los filipinos le preguntaron a César Chávez, quien dirigía el sindicato de la NFWA, para unirse a su huelga.​\n\nChávez y los líderes de la NFWA creían que serían años antes de que su incipiente sindicato estuviera listo para una huelga. Sin embargo, él sabía cómo históricamente los cultivadores se enfrentaban a una raza a la otra para hacer huelgas. El sindicato de Chávez votó para unirse con los trabajadores filipinos en el día de la independencia de México. \nChávez insistió en que los huelguistas latinos y filipinos trabajaran juntos, compartiendo los mismos piquetes. Además, él les pidió que hicieran un juramento de permanecer pasivos y sin violencia. La huelga atrajo un gran apoyo afuera del Valle Central, de otros sindicatos, activistas de derechos civiles, activistas de las iglesias, estudiantes y de latinos y otras minorías. Chávez lideró una peregrinación de 300 millas de Delano a Sacramento. Las huelgas se volvieron boicots, incluyendo la huelga de uvas de mesa, que eventualmente se esparcieron por Norteamérica. \nChávez sabía que el arma más grande de los huelguistas era simplemente su decisión de no dejar rendirse, perseverar sin importar las probabilidades o cuánto tiempo tomaría. Los huelguistas tenían que estar preparados para arriesgarlo todo, comenzando con su seguridad financiera. Dos años y medio dentro de la huelga, durante el invierno de 1967-68, algunos huelguistas jóvenes se pusieron impacientes al hablar de violencia, y de atacar a los productores que abusaron de ellos. Al defenderse, podían probar su machismo. Chávez rechazó esta parte de la cultura americana. Ya había empezado a boicotear las uvas, y siguiendo la tradición de sus héroes, Mahatma Gandhi y el Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Chávez también los siguió en la práctica del pacifismo. \nAlgunos de los huelguistas equipararon el pacifismo con la inacción o incluso la cobardía. César pensaba exactamente lo contrario. Creía que la no violencia era más poderosa que la violencia, que te apoya si tu causa es justa. Chávez también pensaba que el pacifismo obligaba a ser creativo y permitía mantener la ofensiva, lo cual es crucial para ganar cualquier concurso. \nSin embargo, él no le enseñó a la gente con lecciones o diciéndoles qué hacer si no dirigiéndoles con ejemplo. Plantó pequeñas semillas de esperanza que brotaron en un movimiento renovado. En el febrero de 1968, Chávez anuncio una huelga de ayuno para rededicar el movimiento a la no violencia. El no comió por 25 días y solamente tomo agua. Durante el ayuno, Chávez perdió 35 libras. El ayuno termino durante una misa en Delano frente a miles de personas. Además, la huelga de hambre pudo detener las conversaciones de violencia entre los huelguistas. \nChávez supo que los trabajadores agrícolas no serían capaces de ganar solo con una huelga porque los cultivadores tenían demasiado poder social y político. Él y la UFW decidieron usar un boicot contra los productores de uva. Debido al boicot, los huelguistas fueron capaces de cambiar las probabilidades a su favor vía la ayuda del pueblo estadounidense. Cientos de huelguistas viajaron por todo Norteamérica para organizar el apoyo al boicot. Miles de simpatizantes se unieron a la causa y ayudaron a apoyar el boicot. Debido al boicot, millones de consumidores dejaron de comprar uvas de los supermercados. El boicot termino en 1970 cuando los productores de uva firmaron los primeros contratos sindicales, otorgando a los trabajadores mejores salarios, beneficios, y protecciones.\n\nLa Década de los 70\n\nLos primeros años de la década de los setentas fueron difíciles para la organización. En 1972 Chávez mudo la sede central de la UFW desde Delano a La Paz, California en la base de las montañas de Tehachapi, contribuyendo a la alienación de Chávez de sus miembros. Después de la mudanza, Chávez visitó a las oficinas del campo con menos frecuencia. Además, la organización entró en una batalla con otra organización por los contratos de los trabajadores agrícolas.​ \nLa unión estaba a punto de lanzar su próxima gran campaña en los campos de la lechuga en 1970, cuando un acuerdo entre el International Brotherhood of Teamsters y los productores casi la destruyeron. Inicialmente los teamsters firmaron contratos con cultivadores de lechuga en el valle de Salinas, los cuales quisieron evitar el reconocimiento de la UFW. Después, en 1973, cuando expiraron los contratos de uva UFW de tres años, los productores de uva firmaron contratos que daban a los camioneros el derecho de representar a los trabajadores que habían sido miembros de la UFW. \nCon intimidación física, los teamsters declararon guerra contra Chávez y la UFW. Los de la UFW respondieron con huelgas, pleitos y boicots, incluyendo boicots secundarios en la industria de abarrotes minoristas. Las batallas en los campos se volvieron violentas, con un número de miembros de la UFW asesinados en la línea de piquete. Además, causa de las acciones de los teamsters, la membrecía de la UFW se redujo de 60,000 miembros a 6,000 para el invierno de 1973. La pérdida de miembros redujo las cuotas, reduciendo así la viabilidad económica de la organización. En respuesta a la violencia, Chávez siguió una segunda huelga de hambre para calmar a sus seguidores, pero falló en detener la perdida de miembros y cambiar el impulso hacia la UFW. Además, la violencia llevó al estado en 1975 a promulgar la ley de Relaciones Laborales Agrícolas de California (ALRA). Esto creó una agencia administrativa, la Junta de Relaciones Laborales Agrícolas (ALRB), la cual supervisó las elecciones secretas electorales y resolvió cargos de prácticas laborales injustas, como no negociar de buena fe, o discriminación contra los trabajadores. A fines de 1975, el ALRB sostuvo 354 elecciones; de éstos, la UFW anotó 189 victorias, representando a 26,956 trabajadores, o el 50.2 por ciento de votantes. Los teamsters, en comparación, ganaron 101 elecciones representando a 12,284 trabajadores, o el 23 por ciento. Aunque a no le gustaba perder a ningún trabajador, la UFW se consolaba en el hecho de que, en las elecciones de 58 ranchos, 8.228 trabajadores cambiaron las lealtades de los camioneros al UFW. Solo cuatro por ciento de los trabajadores votaron por no representación. \nEl primero de diciembre de 1976, la UFW y los teamsters se reunieron para mantener el acuerdo de suspender las demandas entre los dos. El 10 de marzo de 1977, Jerry Cohen facilitó una reunión de César Chávez y el presidente de los teamsters, Frank Fitzsimmons. Esto fue para firmar un pacto jurisdiccional que reconoció el derecho de los teamsters a organizar camioneros, trabajadores de la fábrica de conservas y otros trabajadores no del campo; mientras que la UFW gano derechos exclusivos para organizar a los trabajadores agrícolas. Este pacto acabó con la guerra de casi seis años entre las dos organizaciones. \nA pesar del triunfo contra los teamsters, Chávez y la UFW se enfrentaron con muchos problemas después. Seis meses después de su inauguración, el ALRB uso todos sus presupuestos y tuvo que terminar con sus operaciones. Chávez decidió perseguir una estrategia riesgosa de atraer a los votantes a pasar una ley llamada Proposición 14, lo cual iba a asegurar los fondos por todo el trabajo necesario del ALRB para el año.\nDesafortunadamente, la proposición perdió con un voto de tres a dos costándole 1.3 millones de dólares y un tortazo al poder político de la organización. Pero dentro los años de 1976 y 1977, el ALRB recibió más fondos y la organización recibió nuevas oportunidades de ganar más elecciones. \nAdemás, Chávez apoyó la implementación de un controvertido ejercicio para grupos conocido como The Game, o el juego, practicado en Synanon. El juego sometió a los miembros a interrogatorios severos de colegas, y a veces a Chávez, para lograr una mayor conformidad con el líder. La práctica comenzó con un pequeño grupo de miembros más jóvenes, incluyendo a los hijos de Chávez y Huerta. El grupo se reunió y practicó el juego en la sede de Synanon en Home Place en Badger, California, antes de mudarse a La Paz. Chávez eventualmente exigió que todos en La Paz jugaran el juego, aunque varios miembros se resistieron. Algunos miembros en todo el país cuestionaron esta práctica y escribieron cartas de oposición a Chávez. Además, cuando Chuck Dederich, el fundador de Synanon, cayó en problemas con la ley después de conspirar a matar a un abogado que lo demandó por el maltrato de los niños en Synanon lo cual Chávez defendió; la asociación con Dederich y su experimentación con el juego dañó la camaradería de la UFW y muchos cuestionaron la visión de Chávez sobre el futuro de la organización. Chávez respondió a estas críticas con la cancelación de boicots y despedidas de varios miembros. \nA finales de la década de 1970, el liderazgo de la UFW se vio sacudido por una serie de conflictos, ya que las diferencias surgieron entre Chávez y algunos de sus antiguos colegas.\n\nLa Década de los 80\n\nEn los años 80, la calidad de miembro del UFW se contrajo, al igual que su prominencia nacional. Después de tomar la oficina en los años 80, el gobernador de California George Deukmejian paró la aplicación de las leyes del trabajo de la granja del estado, dando por resultado a trabajadores agrícolas que pierden sus contratos del UFW, siendo encendidos, y lista negra. Debido a las riñas internas, la mayoría del liderazgo original de la Unión se fue o fue forzado a salir, con la excepción de Chávez y Huerta. Para 1986, la Unión se había reducido a 75 contratos y había dejado de organizarse.\nEn la década de 1980, el UFW se unió a la AFL-CIO y otras organizaciones para la campaña nacional de la ira de la uva, reinstaurando el boicot de la uva.\n\nDesarrollos Recientes\n\nEn julio de 2008, el trabajador agrícola Ramiro Carrillo Rodríguez, de 48, murió de un derrame debido a temperaturas altas. Según los trabajadores agrícolas unidos, él era el \"decimotercero muerte del calor del trabajador de granja puesto que el gobernador Schwarzenegger de CA asumió el cargo\" en 2003. En 2006 se promulgaron las primeras regulaciones permanentes de calor de California, pero estas regulaciones no fueron estrictamente aplicadas, sostuvo la Unión.\nCésar Chávez es una película lanzada en marzo de 2014, dirigida por Diego Luna sobre la vida del líder laborista mexicoamericano que cofundó los trabajadores agrícolas unidos. La película protagoniza a Michael Peña como Chávez. El coproductor, John Malkovich, también coprotagoniza el papel de propietario de una gran granja de uva industrial que lidera la oposición a veces violenta a los esfuerzos de organización de Chávez.\n\nGeografía\n\nLa huelga de la uva comenzó oficialmente en Delano en septiembre de 1965. En diciembre, representantes sindicales viajaron desde California a Nueva York, Washington, DC, Pittsburg, Detroit y otras ciudades grandes para alentar el boicot de las uvas cultivadas en ranchos sin contratos de UFW. En el verano de 1966, los sindicatos y grupos religiosos de Seattle y Portland respaldaron el boicot. Los partidarios formaron un comité de boicot en Vancouver, lo que provocó una gran cantidad de apoyo de los canadienses que continuaría durante los años siguientes. \nEn 1967, los partidarios de UFW en Oregón comenzaron piquetes tiendas en Eugene, Salem y Portland. Después de que los trabajadores del melón se declararon en huelga en Texas, los productores celebraron las primeras elecciones de representación sindical en la región, y el UFW se convirtió en el primer sindicato en firmar un contrato con un productor en Texas. El apoyo nacional para el UFW siguió creciendo en 1968, y cientos de miembros y partidarios de UFW fueron arrestados. El piquete continuó en todo el país, incluso en Massachusetts, Nueva Jersey, Ohio, Oklahoma y Florida. Los alcaldes de Nueva York, Baltimore, Filadelfia, Buffalo, Detroit y otras ciudades prometieron su apoyo, y muchos de ellos modificaron las compras de uva de sus ciudades para apoyar el boicot.\nEn 1969, el apoyo a los trabajadores agrícolas aumentó en toda América del Norte. El boicot de la uva se extendió al sur cuando los grupos de derechos civiles presionaron a las tiendas de comestibles en Atlanta, Miami, Nuevo’ Orleans, Nashville y Louisville para que eliminasen las uvas no sindicadas. Grupos estudiantiles en Nueva York protestaron contra el Departamento de Defensa y los acusaron de comprar deliberadamente uvas boicoteadas. El 10 de mayo, simpatizantes de UFW realizaron un piquete en las tiendas de Safeway en todo Estados Unidos y Canadá para celebrar el Día Internacional del Boicot a la Uva. César Chávez también realizó una gira de conferencias a lo largo de la Costa Este para solicitar apoyo de grupos laborales, grupos religiosos y universidades.\n\nEl Papel\n\nLos Trabajadores Agrícolas Unidos, un movimiento de la clase trabajadora había recibido un apoyo sustancial de la clase media, causando problemas de poder y control dentro de la unión. El UFW no dio ningún poder estructural a los trabajadores agrícolas, ya que no había lugareños elegidos como personal. La supervivencia del personal no estaba vinculada directamente a la membresía, ya que ganaban más dinero de fuentes externas que las cuotas sindicales. Hoy, el UFW solo consta de cinco mil miembros que trabajan en condiciones muy similares y bajas como lo hicieron hace 40 años. UFW también incluye a los trabajadores agrícolas indocumentados. El papel de César Chávez, el fundador de UFW, fue enmarcar sus campañas en términos de seguridad del consumidor e involucrando a la justicia social, brindando beneficios a los sindicatos de trabajadores agrícolas. Uno de los aspectos más importantes de UFW, junto con César Chávez, que se ha pasado por alto es la creación de coaliciones.\nLos trabajadores agrícolas Unidos permiten a los trabajadores agrícolas ayudar a mejorar sus condiciones de trabajo y salarios. El UFW adopta la ‘no violencia’ en su intento de cultivar miembros en cuestiones políticas y sociales. El 22 de julio de 2005, la UFW anunció que se uniría a la Federación Change to Win, una coalición de sindicatos que funciona como una alternativa a la AFL-CIO. El 13 de enero de 2006, el sindicato oficialmente desafiliado de la AFL-CIO. En contraste con otros sindicatos afiliados a Change to Win, la AFL-CIO se olvidó de ofrecer el derecho de afiliación a los organismos regionales a la UFW.", "Graneros\n\nDemografía\n\nLa comuna de Graneros tiene una superficie de 113 km² y una población de 31.051 habitantes (Censo Año 2012), correspondientes a 15.719 hombres y 15.332 mujeres.\n\nPeríodo prehispánico\n\nExisten vestigios de ocupación en la zona por el Imperio Inca, asociado al Pucará del Cerro de La Compañía. Seguramente servía al comercio y dominio que este imperio sustentaba con los habitantes de más al sur.\nLos indígenas del Valle del Cachapoal corresponde a los Picunches que se asocian con el Cacique Cachapoal, y se autodenominaban Cachapoales. Su asentamiento se ubicó principalmente en los alrededores de lo que hoy es la ciudad de Rancagua, a orillas del río que lleva el mismo nombre del pueblo, por un grupo de aproximadamente 400 personas.\nEn ese entonces el área de Graneros era un paso hacia el norte a través del Paso de Angostura, al norte de Mostazal. Y el Cerro de La Compañía fue un punto estratégico del control de ese paso, existiendo una comunicación entre los pueblos regidos por los Caciques de cada sector.\nEn la época de la Conquista, los Picunches de cada Cacicato se rindieron si oponer resistencia, ya que culturalmente siempre se mostraron indiferentes a otros pueblos que los dominaron. Y a la caída del Imperio Inca, pasaron años hasta que llegaron españoles a esas tierras.\nEn esa época, los conquistadores se encuentran con espacios cultivados de maíz, o con ganado compuesto por llamas. En cuanto a la minería, existe información referente a la extracción de cobre en el sector del interior de Codegua.\nLos españoles que se avecinan, primero ocupan lo que hoy es Rancagua, refundando la aldea existente.\n\nLa conquista\n\nEn el período de conquista española, la Hacienda es regida por la cacique Elvira de Talagante, nieta del inca Tala Canta Ilabe, ya que los españoles respetaron las tenencias pre-hispánicas, que en este caso había sido otorgada por el Inca. \nA su muerte, su hijo, el único heredero varón, pertenecía a la Compañía de Jesús, sin embargo Catalina de los Ríos y Lísperguer, nieta de la cacique, se las arregló para obtener los derechos de la Hacienda, la que comprendía lo que hoy son las comunas de Codegua, Graneros, Mostazal, Machalí y parte de Rancagua. Su casona se ubicó por los alrededores de lo que hoy es Graneros, pero ya no quedan vestigios.\nLuego de un juicio por la tenencia de la Hacienda, La Quintrala previendo que perdería todos sus bienes, dona la Hacienda a la Compañía de Jesús en 1628, a cambio de mantener para si la Hacienda de Talagante.\nLa Compañía de Jesús traslada las instalaciones de la hacienda, a un lugar donde confluían los caminos hacia Santiago y Rancagua, asegurando de esta forma el transporte de sus productos. \nFundaron en el lugar varios graneros de acopio, casas de la administración y alojamiento, un matadero, talleres de curtiembre y orfebrería en cobre, una escuela y un molino de trigo. \nLa construcción que aun permanece, es la Iglesia de la Inmaculada Concepción, edificada alrededor de 1650, que conservó su estructura simple y un retablo barroco, único en todo Chile, hasta el terremoto en Chile de 2010, en que se derrumbó.\nEn 1767, los Jesuitas son expulsados de todos los reinos de la Corona española, lo que genera la salida de ellos desde la Hacienda. Ésta pasa a manos de la Corona y se procede a su remate, adjudicándosela el Conde de la Conquista, Mateo de Toro y Zambrano, en 1771. La Hacienda continua su producción agrícola, tal como la dejaron los misioneros, y surte a todo el Reino de Chile.\nDon Mateo de Toro y Zambrano, ya de cierta edad, pasa el verano en la Hacienda, y el invierno en la Casa Colorada. A la muerte del Conde, su hijo José Gregorio, que vuelve de España luego de realizar sus estudios de Leyes, hereda las propiedades junto a su esposa, Josefa Dumont de Holdre. El matrimonio tiene tres hijos, Manuel María (fallecido defendiendo los intereses de la monarquía en la batalla de Maipú), José y María Nicolasa.\nEl padre muere joven, dejando a la condesa Josefa a cargo de una Hacienda en medio de una Guerra de Independencia que le es totalmente contraria. Ella, una realista beligerante y antagonista a la visión independista de gran parte de los Toro-Zambrano, envía a sus hijos de quince años a \"defender los intereses de la Corona\". Los muchachos mueren en batalla, quedando ella viuda y sin heredero varón.\nAl perder España la guerra, Bernardo O'Higgins elimina todas las encomiendas y títulos, quedando entonces sin su Casa Colorada ni su Hacienda. Por esto, acude a hablar con el Director Supremo, y ofrece la mano de su hija María Nicolasa de Toro-Zambrano y Dumont de Holdre, a cambio de conservar la Hacienda. Entregando la Casa Colorada al futuro marido designado por O'Higgins mismo.\nBernardo O'Higgins elige a Ramón Freire, ya que no se podía comenzar un nuevo país sin tener un sustento asegurado, como era el proporcionado por la Hacienda. Pero Nicolasa de Toro-Zambrano se enamora del administrador de la Hacienda, Juan de Dios Correa de Saa y Martínez, con quien se casa a complacencia de la madre, quien logra mantener para la familia la Hacienda, y deja a su hija casada con un patriota.\nNicolasa de Toro-Zambrano y Dumont de Holdre, casada con Juan de Dios Correa de Saa y Martínez, quien fuera Presidente del Senado de la República en 1861, toma un real protagonismo en los quehaceres de la Hacienda, y logra que el trazado del tren al sur, tenga una estación en el cruce con el camino que une los dos caminos reales. De esta forma, la Hacienda surte de sus productos a través del ferrocarril, y se genera un poblado alrededor de la estación y graneros de acopio, que se convertiría en la actual ciudad de Graneros.\n\nSiglo XX: Primeros rastros de comunidad\n\nGraneros fue una localidad fundada en 1899 por don José Manuel Irrarázabal Correa, siendo su primer alcalde don Francisco Correa y Toro, fundador material de Graneros. Se caracterizaba por ser un pueblo pequeño, es decir una villa donde vivían tan solo 325 habitantes aproximadamente.\nRecién creada la comuna de Graneros, su territorio abarcaba desde el territorio actual y el de Codegua, incluyendo la localidad de La Compañía. \nUn acontecimiento muy importante fue en 1901, cuando el ingeniero William Hodgkinson arma el primer automóvil de Chile, lo que se realizó en una casona que actualmente se encuentra entre las avenidas La Compañía y Bernardo O'Higgins, la Casa Hodgkinson(lamentablemente esta añosa casa ya no existe debido a que en 2013 un incendio destruyó casi su totalidad y hoy están sólo sus cimientos). Este carro recorrió las calles granerinas de la época. William Hodgkinson, un ingeniero de origen inglés, llega a residir a Graneros luego de contraer nupcias con la sobrina de Rafael Ovalle Correa. En el primer piso de su casa, este ingeniero, junto con Ovalle Correa, fundan la Maestranza Ovalle-Hodgkinson. Donde se fabricaron piezas para ferrocarriles, y luego, al conocer a William Braden, las primeras locomotoras de trocha angosta que llegarían a la actual mina de cobre, El Teniente.\nLa fundación de El Teniente, comienza en esa casa. Ya que Graneros, al tener la conexión de Ferrocarriles, y al estar muy cerca de la ubicación de la mina, se transforma en el centro de operaciones de Braden. Y desde allí se montan expediciones de exploración de vetas y caminos para su desarrollo y explotación.\nPero, dado que don Raul Irarrázabal Correa, quien era dueño de los faldeo de Codegua, no quiso ceder los derechos de paso, Braden y Cia. se trasladaron a Rancagua, e inició la ruta por donde hoy está trazada.\nA mediados del siglo XX, la Corfo (Corporación de Fomento de la Producción) impulsa la formación de la industria Fiat, la que da un gran impulso al desarrollo industrial de la región. La fábrica de autos fue cerrada a principios de los años 80. \nLa zona se caracteriza por la producción agrícola el folklore integrado por varios conjuntos. y la industria del café, debido a la ubicación de una planta de Nestlé en el centro de la localidad. También posee un fiel apego a la tierra y las tradiciones patrias.\n\nTransportes\n\nDesde Santiago, se puede llegar en bus, lo que demora aproximadamente una hora y quince minutos, o en Metrotrén desde Estación Central, que demora una hora a la Estación Graneros.​ Desde Graneros se puede llegar fácilmente en automóvil, colectivo o micros, a las localidades de San Francisco de Mostazal, La Compañía, Codegua, Rancagua, entre otros.", "José Manuel Estrada (pensador)\n\nBiografía\n\nEstrada fue bautizado con el nombre de su padre. Al morir su madre, Rosario Perichón en 1851,​ quedó junto a sus hermanos a cargo de su abuela, Carmen de Liniers, hija del conde de Buenos Aires. En esa casa fue educado por Manuel Pinto, muy rico e influyente, que había perdido la mayor parte de su fortuna en su vejez.​ A los 12 años, comenzó sus estudios secundarios en la escuela de los padres franciscanos, anexa al convento,​ donde asistió a las clases del fraile Buenaventura Hidalgo.​\n\nComienzos literarios\n\nEn 1858, con 16 años, publicó Al descubrimiento de América, con el que ganó un concurso organizado por el Liceo Literario de Buenos Aires. \nSe inició en el periodismo: entre noviembre de ese año y marzo del siguiente dirigió, junto a su hermano Santiago, el semanario La Guirnalda, y colaboró en el semanario La Religión fundado por León Federico Aneiros y Olegario Correa.​ \nEn 1859 publicó Signum Foederis - efectos sociales y religiosos de la armonía, obra en la que, con 17 años,​ urgía al Estado de Buenos Aires a unirse a la Confederación Argentina para restablecer la armonía nacional.​\nEn 1861 creó la Sociedad San Francisco Javier, para unir a los artesanos de Buenos Aires,​ y para difundir entre ellos la cultura católica.​ Esto fue un antecedente de los Círculos Católicos de Obreros, y un signo de la preocupación social de Estrada, en línea con lo que se conocería como Doctrina social de la Iglesia.​\nEn 1862, desde el su opúsculo Cristianismo y Democracia rebatió la tesis de Francisco Bilbao de que el cristianismo y la democracia eran incompatibles, y que el cristianismo era la causa de los males de América. Dijo Estrada: «somos republicanos y amamos la libertad, porque somos cristianos y amamos la dignidad del hombre». En El génesis de nuestra raza, una obra polémica,​ refutó a Gustavo Minelli, profesor de historia en la Universidad de Buenos Aires.​ En esta obra, Estrada aseveró que la raza humana es una sola.​\nEn 1864, con 22 años, fundó junto a Lucio V. Mansilla el Círculo Literario,​ a cuya primera reunión concurrieron Valentín Alsina, Dardo Rocha, Luis Sáenz Peña, Miguel Navarro Viola, Carlos Guido y Spano y Estanislao del Campo.​ Alsina ofició de presidente del círculo, con Mansilla y Estrada como secretarios. Después fueron elegidos Juan María Gutiérrez como presidente, y Juana Manso, Marcos Sastre, Luis Lorenzo Domínguez, Dardo Rocha y Juan Carlos Gómez como vocales. El círculo se concentró en el estudio de la Historia argentina, temática propuesta por el presidente de la Nación, Bartolomé Mitre.​ Otras personalidades que participaron fueron Amadeo Jacques, Pastor Obligado, Miguel Puiggari, Carlos Burmeister y Manuel Trelles. Ese año, Estrada publicó Ensayo histórico sobre la revolución de los comuneros del Paraguay en el siglo XVIII.​\n\nEstrada educador\n\nEn octubre de 1865 el director de Escuelas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Luis José de la Peña, lo convocó para dictar un curso de Historia argentina en la nueva Escuela Normal de Profesores que funcionaba en una habitación de la Escuela de Catedral al Norte.​ Estrada diseñó un curso de 30 lecciones en dos conferencias nocturnas públicas por semana: inmediatamente captó el interés de los vecinos ilustrados ya que en ese momento no era común que se estudiara la Historia del país.\nEn 1868, dado el éxito de sus cursos, publicó el libro Lecciones de Historia argentina, en el que se incluyen 21 de las 30 lecciones, desde la conquista hasta el gobierno de Rosas: más de la mitad de ellas tratan el período anterior a la Revolución de Mayo.​\nEl presidente Domingo Faustino Sarmiento tenía aprecio por Estrada, aun cuando discreparan en algunos aspectos ideológicos: «del joven Estrada he gustado mucho de sus lecturas sobre historia».​ Por eso, cuando en 1869 el presidente fundó una cátedra de Instrucción Cívica en el Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires, lo designó titular. En ese año también Emilio Castro,​ gobernador de Buenos Aires, lo designó jefe del Departamento de Escuelas, cargo que antes había tenido el renunciante Luis José de la Peña y que Estrada ocuparía hasta 1870.​ En esa época los maestros no tenían título ni se los evaluaba: Estrada organizó un ciclo de conferencias y cursos para su desarrollo profesional y propuso remover a quienes fueran menos competentes o tuvieran un injustificado ausentismo.​ El gobernador puso en práctica estas reformas de manera parcial, por lo que Estrada renunció al año siguiente.​\n\nIncursiones políticas\n\nEn 1871 Estrada fue electo para la convención constituyente de la Provincia de Buenos Aires por la Quinta Sección de Campaña, que comprendía los partidos de Luján, Mercedes y Chivilcoy. La constitución provincial se había escrito en 1854 cuando todavía estaba separada del resto de la Confederación, y debía adecuarse al nuevo contexto.​ Estrada hizo su aporte en la regulación del derecho de enseñar, favoreciendo una redacción del artículo 33 que permitiese el funcionamiento de universidades con la facultad de otorgar grados académicos y poseer bienes.​ Además defendió el sistema electivo proporcional, pero no logró que se impusiera el voto secreto.​ En ese mismo año también publicó un artículo titulado La Iglesia y el Estado, que recibiría críticas por parte de otros católicos, notablemente Félix Frías y Fray Mamerto Esquiú. Ese fue el período más liberal de Estrada, en el que sostuvo la tesis de Montalambert: «Iglesia libre en el Estado libre».​\nEn 1873 Estrada fue elegido diputado provincial. En tal carácter, participó activamente del debate sobre la ley de educación provincial y preparó un proyecto de ley sobre escuelas. Su pertenencia a la Cámara de diputados provincial se extendería hasta 1876. Se publicaron sus clases sobre Instrucción Cívica en el Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires, que serían conocidas y leídas por varias generaciones de argentinos bajo el título La política liberal bajo la tiranía de Rosas, donde analizó la obra de Esteban Echeverría titulada Dogma socialista y construyó una filosofía social y política más elaborada.​\nEn 1874 fue nombrado jefe de la Dirección General de Escuelas Normales, y en 1875, aunque no contaba con un título universitario, a pedido del presidente Nicolás Avellaneda tomó la cátedra de Derecho constitucional y administrativo en la Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad de Buenos Aires que había quedado vacante tras la muerte de Florentino González.​ Estrada puso mucho empeño en su labor docente y escribió una serie de artículos sobre la materia, dado que no había manuales y se usaban libros de derecho estadounidense. Se destacan su artículos Sufragio y Representación de las minorías.​\nEstrada aceptó el ofrecimiento del presidente Avellaneda de ocupar el cargo de rector del Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires como sucesor de Alfredo Cosson, y fue designado el 16 de julio de 1876.​ Como rector emprendió una serie de reformas en el currículo: agregó temas de Historia argentina para hacer brotar en los alumnos un sentimiento de sano patriotismo, e incorporó el estudio de las instituciones del federalismo. Además impulsó un aumento en el salario de los profesores, ya que «la vocación del profesor no se confunde con la del mártir, ni con la del penitente».​​ Entre sus muchos discursos —que mostraron su capacidad docente y su oratoria engalanada y apasionada— se conservan aquellos que tuvieron por audiencia a los alumnos del Colegio Nacional, entre ellos, el efectuado con motivo de la muerte del exgobernador Juan Manuel de Rosas, a quien presentó como «dos hombres: el caudillo y el tirano».​ Una de las locuciones del discurso, «¡Desgraciados los pueblos que olvidan!», se transformó en un pensamiento señero dentro de la Historia político-social y constitucional de Argentina.​​ Terminada la conferencia, los alumnos lo acompañaron en el camino a su casa vivándolo por la calle y ante la estatua de San Martín en Retiro, Adolfo Mitre improvisó un discurso en nombre de los alumnos.​​\n¡Desgraciados los pueblos que olvidan! Aquellos de cuyo corazón desaparece la memoria de sus bienhechores, como inscripciones sepulcrales que borran los vivos al pasar; aquellos de cuya conciencia desaparece el odio hacia los grandes malvados, como el fuego de una antorcha apagada en la onda abominable! ¡Demos gracias al cielo, porque sabemos glorificar a San Martín; démosle gracias porque sabemos execrar a Rosas, y levantemos al pie del altar la plegaria cristiana por todos los que resistieron a la corrupción y cayeron bajo el puñal! [...]\n\n¡Ah! Si me fuera dado infundir en vuestro espíritu esas verdades, como una luz para las horas congojosas de la incertidumbre, como una fuerza para las horas a ciegas de la tentación y de la lucha; si pudiera devolveros a la familia, y entregaros a la vida impregnados en estos sentimientos que empalidecen y se enfrían en mis labios, yo también exclamaría: non omnis moriar: ¡no, no moriré del todo!​\nJosé Manuel Estrada, 24 de abril de 1877.\n Del comienzo y final de su discurso a los alumnos del Colegio Nacional\n con motivo de la muerte de Juan Manuel de Rosas y\n los funerales celebrados en Buenos Aires por las víctimas de la tiranía\n\nEn política nacional\n\nEntre fines de la década de 1870 e inicios de la de 1880, Estrada cambió radicalmente su relación con el liberalismo: manteniendo las ideas de la libertad individual y la democracia, rechazó de plano el nombre de liberal, ya que consideraba que el liberalismo político estaba intrínsecamente unido al relativismo moral y al laicismo.​ En 1880 decidió volver a editar la Revista Argentina, que había desaparecido en 1872. En su primer número, la nota editorial afirmó que la revista «será cristiana», y el lema elegido para la publicación era la frase de San Pablo: instaurare omnia in Christo (Efesios 1:10).​\nFue especialmente importante su actuación en el Congreso Pedagógico de 1882 donde sostuvo que la escuela pública común debía ser católica, manteniendo un duro debate con Leandro N. Alem. La masonería proponía una prohibición de las escuelas religiosas, y la estricta laicidad de todas las escuelas del país.​ En ese momento, en un sistema que no generaba controversias, se exceptuaba de la enseñanza religiosa en las escuelas públicas a los alumnos cuyos padres así lo solicitaran.​\nEl 1 de agosto de ese año se fundó el diario La Unión con la colaboración, entre otras personalidades, de Estrada y de su hermano Santiago. Este diario se publicaría durante ocho años y tenía por objetivo mitigar la ausencia de periódicos de tendencia no liberal.​\nEn 1883 se fundó La Asociación Católica, que presidió Estrada y en cuya dirigencia participaron: Tristán Achával Rodríguez, Miguel Navarro Viola, Emilio Lamarca, Apolinario Casabal, Pedro Goyena, Tomás de Anchorena, y Enrique Lezica, entre otros.​ La Asociación buscó impactar en el debate público acerca de la laicidad o catolicidad de la enseñanza. Un año más tarde, tras una concurrida Asamblea de Católicos,​ la Asociación transmutaría en un partido político, Unión Católica, con el que Estrada sería electo diputado nacional.​ En julio de ese año el presidente Julio Argentino Roca y su ministro de educación Eduardo Wilde relevaron a Estrada por Amancio Alcorta en el rectorado del Colegio Nacional, antecedente de la escalada de hechos que enfrentaría al gobierno con la Iglesia católica al año siguiente.​​\nA principios de 1884, el gobierno contrató a un grupo de maestras norteamericanas seleccionadas especialmente para que fueran de religión protestante y las destinó a la nueva Escuela Normal de Córdoba.​ El sacerdote vicario de la diócesis, Gerónimo Clara, instó a los católicos a que no mandaran sus hijos a esa escuela, y el gobierno contestó acusándolo de desestabilizador y subversivo. Un grupo de católicos, entre ellos tres profesores universitarios, firmó un manifiesto en defensa del religioso y por esta razón los profesores fueron dejados cesantes de sus cátedras. Estrada y otras personalidades intercedieron por esos profesores ante el gobierno nacional, y así también un decreto presidencial expulsó a Estrada de su cátedra de Derecho constitucional y administrativo en la Universidad de Buenos Aires.​​ Además se expulsó al nuncio apostólico, y se intervino las diócesis de Salta, Jujuy y Santiago del Estero.​ Fue entonces cuando, ante los numerosos alumnos que acudieron a su domicilio para desagraviarlo, Estrada pronunció uno de sus discursos más famosos, en el que aludió a Julio A. Roca y sus colaboradores:\nRecibí la misión de enseñaros el Derecho. Gobernantes abortados de los campamentos y de la descomposición de las oligarquías, no son jueces de mi enseñanza; pero la sociedad entera es testigo de lo que ahora os enseño: a ejercerlo sin mirar a los que fraguan despotismos desde arriba, derribando la justicia, y desde abajo, acomodando el cuello para recibir el yugo [...]​​\nEn 1886 fue electo diputado por la Unión Católica, junto a Pedro Goyena.​ Desde su banca trató de impedir que el gobierno nacional asignara tierras sobre el canal del Beagle a un súbdito de la corona británica, cosa que fue aprobada y llevó a la fundación de la ciudad de Ushuaia.​ En diciembre de ese año la provincia de Tucumán había elegido de gobernador a Juan Posse, que no era partidario del presidente Juárez Celman. Por este motivo se organizó una columna armada que partió de Córdoba y ocupó el cabildo provincial. El congreso nacional, en vez de mandar que se restituyera en el poder a las autoridades legales, ordenó la intervención federal de la provincia, designando interventor al oficialista Salustiano Zavalía. A estos manejos se opuso Estrada, aunque sin resultados positivos.​ También se opuso y representó la opinión del pensamiento católico, contra la ley de matrimonio civil sancionada en 1888 y adjetivada como una intromisión del estado en un rol social que no le corresponde. Además se opuso a la Ley de enseñanza 1420 porque estableció la escuela laica.​ Pese a toda su oposición y lucha, no pudo evitar que se promulgaran las leyes de educación laica, el matrimonio civil y el pase del Registro civil a manos del Estado.\n\nÚltimos años\n\nEn 1890, terminado ya su mandato como diputado, fue uno de los oradores en el célebre mitin del 13 de abril en el Frontón Buenos Aires donde se fundó la Unión Cívica de la Juventud, que se transformaría en la Unión Cívica Radical.​ El día del acto, a la noche, Estrada sufrió un desmayo y vómitos, lo cual preocupó a sus médicos, quienes le recomendaron un tiempo de reposo. Desde entonces su participación en la vida política y periodística fue disminuyendo:​ la Unión Cívica llevó a cabo una revolución en julio de 1890, pero Estrada fue totalmente ajeno a los hechos porque se encontraba en la ciudad de Rosario de la Frontera reponiendo su estado físico.​ En octubre de 1893 el presidente electo Luis Sáenz Peña lo llamó para ocupar un lugar en su gabinete, pero Estrada rechazó el ofrecimiento. En cambio, aceptó ser designado ministro plenipotenciario ante el gobierno de Paraguay, donde pensaba encontrar un clima más adecuado para su salud.​ En ese país era ministro de Relaciones Exteriores un ex alumno suyo: Venancio López, lo cual facilitó su trabajo. La salud de Estrada no mejoró, y murió en la tarde del 17 de septiembre de 1894.\nSus restos llegaron a Buenos Aires a bordo de la fragata La Argentina. Por disposición presidencial fue velado en la Catedral Metropolitana con los honores de un general de división; y el canónigo Juan Nepomuceno Terrero, muy amigo de Estrada, pronunció la oración fúnebre. A su funeral asistieron miles de personas, incluyendo el presidente Luis Sáenz Peña.​Sus restos descansan en el cementerio de la Recoleta.​ El sepulcro fue declarado monumento histórico por decreto 12806 del 2 de octubre de 1946, e identificado con el número 419.​\nEn conmemoración de su muerte el día 17 de septiembre en la República Argentina se conmemora el día del Profesor.​\nEstampad en vuestra alma dos nombres, divisa y enseña de las supremas victorias ¡Dios y la Patria!​\nJosé Manuel Estrada, a los alumnos del\nColegio Nacional de Buenos Aires.\n\nLey moral y orden natural\n\nEstrada afirmaba que la dignidad humana era intrínseca de todas las personas, y que el origen de esta dignidad residía en el orden natural.​ Por este motivo, el autor colocó a la ley moral como principio indispensable para cualquier orden jurídico justo: «ninguna legislación política ni ningún acto colectivo en las mil situaciones históricas de la humanidad, puede disminuir la estabilidad y la eficiencia de la ley moral».​ Esto se contrapone al utilitarismo propagado en el Plata por Esteban Echeverría.​ También rechazaba el relativismo moral, calificado de «variable», «corruptible» y «extravagancias metafísicas».​\nEs la ley moral, según Estrada, la que hace realmente iguales a los hombres: los hombres son iguales por su propia naturaleza, no porque al Poder se le antoja igualarlos. La ley moral es independiente de lo que llegue a decir la ley civil, que cambia según quién legisle: ante la ley moral todos los hombres deben comportarse moralmente.​ Pero sin la ley moral del cristianismo, se abre la puerta para negar la dignidad humana - cuyo único sustento filosófico es la moral.​ De aquí surge su afirmación de la importancia social de la religión, y de su influencia en los asuntos públicos.​\nExiste una soberanía superior a todas las que se han disputado el dominio de la sociedad y los honores de la historia. En medio de las vicisitudes humanas y de la extrema movilidad de las pasiones, permanece inmutable con aquella augusta identidad de lo absoluto. Esta soberanía es la del bien moral ... De consiguiente ... las relaciones sociales del hombre están regidas por el bien moral, y se profiere una horrible blasfemia cuando se afirma que la política puede prescindir de sus reglas. ... Así pues, ni los gobiernos ni los pueblos lo pueden todo. El capricho de los tiranos y el entusiasmo o la medrosidad de las muchedumbres tienen un límite que no les es dado salvar. Ese límite son los principios morales fundamentales.​\n\nLa ciudad, el campo y la inmigración\n\nEstrada observó la crudeza de la vida en el campo: el gaucho no tenía hogar ni propiedades, y no podía llegar a obtenerlas ya que la falta de un trabajo fijo le impedía ahorrar. Además la gran tasa de analfabetismo y la lejanía del centro de poder hacía que no pudieran tener representación política. Su artículo La Campaña, de 1869, fue pionero en esas denuncias (al poco tiempo se publicaría El Gaucho Martín Fierro): en la campaña las únicas personas realmente libres eran el juez de paz y el comisario.​ Los gauchos, en cambio, estaban oprimidos por «la manera arbitraria y cruel de aplicar las leyes»:​ según Estrada la verdadera igualdad democrática sólo se conseguiría «levantando el nivel intelectual y moral» del pueblo de la campaña mediante el acceso a la educación pública.​\nLa inmigración a la Argentina, según el autor, no ayudó a solucionar el problema de la exclusión política de la gente de campo, ya que la mayor parte de los inmigrantes se instalaron el las ciudades, especialmente en la de Buenos Aires y en el litoral.​ A diferencia de otros autores de su época, Estrada mostró cierta indiferencia respecto al tema. Sarmiento, por ejemplo, tuvo políticas tendientes a inundar el país con inmigrantes blancos para anular la influencia de los criollos, negros e indios. Estrada, en cambio, se limitó a observar el fenómeno y comentar el hecho de que muchos inmigrantes no desearan tomar la ciudadanía argentina: por eso propuso la posibilidad de que alguien pueda tener varias nacionalidades.​\n\nEl rol del Estado\n\nEstrada temía que la Argentina volviera a una situación semejante a la del gobierno de Juan Manuel de Rosas, por lo tanto siempre favoreció la libertad individual y la iniciativa privada. El Estado, según su pensamiento, no debería prohibir nada que las personas estuviesen capacitadas para hacer, y la autoridad de decisión siempre debería ser lo más cercana a ellas que sea posible (mejor municipal que provincial, mejor provincial que nacional). Estas ideas están en la misma línea que las que luego expondrían los Papas en la Doctrina Social de la Iglesia y que hoy se expresan en el principio de subsidiariedad.​ Si bien en su primera juventud se había acercado al liberalismo francés, luego leyó a Alexis de Tocqueville y pasó a un liberalismo más similar al norteamericano. Así el pensamiento de Estrada buscaba la supremacía de la sociedad civil sobre el Estado. En las controversias políticas de 1880, el liberalismo se identificó con el laicismo y Estrada entonces se separó completamente de esa ideología.​\nEn cuanto a las relaciones del Estado con la Iglesia, Estrada no admitía que se la marginara la esfera privada, pero sí apoyaba la libertad religiosa, entendida principalmente como la ausencia de regulaciones estatales en materia de religión personal o en el funcionamiento de las órdenes religiosas y de la Iglesia en su conjunto. En un período temprano de su juventud Estrada aceptó las tesis del catolicismo liberal francés, pero cambió su postura tras estudiar el magisterio papal y los documentos del Primer Concilio Vaticano.​\nMe sedujo durante algún tiempo el espíritu, bien intencionado pero paradojal, de los que en Bélgica y en Francia se llamaron, antes del Concilio Vaticano, católicos liberales. Doy gracias a Dios que me abrió los ojos y disipó de mi alma estas ilusiones ... El cristianismo es el Reino de Cristo sobre las almas y las sociedades. Qué idea tan sencilla, tan luminosa, y tan difícil de percibir, sin embargo, cuando se envenena desde la niñez en una atmósfera de filantropía, que es una verdadera antropolatría.​\nEl cristianismo, según el autor, hace un énfasis en la íntima conciencia de la persona que no hacen otros pensadores o moralistas, quienes suelen poner el acento en la obediencia a normas estatales o dependientes de alguna otra autoridad humana. Es por eso que rechaza la influencia del Estado en los temas morales, que según él deben quedar en manos de la Iglesia.​\n\nLibertad y liberalismo\n\nEn su conferencia de 1878, en la Asociación Católica, Estrada expuso parte de su pensamiento acerca de la libertad y el liberalismo. Como católico, Estrada defiende el libre albedrío de la persona humana, pero insiste en que el pensamiento moderno tiene un concepto de libertad que él considera errado, la llama «libertad materialista», e interpreta que desde la revolución francesa en adelante se intentó ampliar el concepto de la libertad sin obtener buenos resultados (a juicio del autor), antes bien, se obtuvo el industrialismo cuyas sociedades anónimas de capital, afirma, separaban por un lado el mundo del trabajo y por otro las responsabilidades morales del empleador.​\nEn su libro sobre Estrada, Héctor Tanzi interpreta su pensamiento como «las libertades liberales trajeron la explotación del asalariado»,​ la verdadera libertad, según Estrada, sería la que surge del orden natural y de la moral.​\nEstrada defendía la libertad de enseñanza. En su artículo Reforma Universitaria, publicado en El Argentino en 1873, sostiene que la existencia de universidades independientes no es incompatible con la de universidades estatales, y que parte del derecho a enseñar de un profesor consiste en tener la posibilidad de enseñar en una universidad que no esté controlada por el gobierno. Además sostenía que, si bien el profesor es legítimamente libre para enseñar, tenía la obligación moral de mantener, en el aula, la neutralidad en materia política y religiosa.​\nRespecto del padre, la libertad de la enseñanza consiste en el pleno derecho según el cual puede escoger las doctrinas bajo las cuales sus hijos han de ser educados y los maestros a los cuales ha de ser confiada su educación. Respecto de los profesores, consiste en el derecho de derramar las doctrinas que forman el fondo de su carácter científico y moral, sin ser trabados por la censura del Estado.​\nEstrada propuso la instrucción pública como solución a los grandes desniveles culturales entre los sectores de la sociedad, ya que ésta fomenta las capacidades intelectuales de los niños, posibilitando su desarrollo social.​ Sin embargo, Estrada rechazaba la gratuidad de la enseñanza pública que haría a las familias rehenes del Estado y aumentaría los impuestos. También rechazaba su obligatoriedad basada en la fuerza coercitiva del Estado, prefiriendo estímulos indirectos.​\nLa educación es primitivamente un ministerio paternal, subsidiariamente una función social.​\n\nLa familia\n\nLa familia tenía mucha importancia para el pensamiento del autor. Según él, la intervención del Estado en los nexos familiares carece de legitimidad, por este motivo se opuso a la institución del registro civil, al concepto de matrimonio como contrato y a su disolución, el divorcio. Definió familia como «una asociación puramente de amor».​ Además sostuvo que corresponde a las familias decidir acerca de la educación de sus hijos y el régimen del patrimonio familiar, resaltando la importancia de la libertad testamentaria.​ En derecho testamentario, Estrada rechazaba la idea de una legítima establecida por ley, considerándola una intromisión arbitraria del Estado en los asuntos de las familias.​\nEn buena hora que se repudien los modelos de la institución patriarcal ... las sociedades liberales debieran estudiar el modelo de la sociedad doméstica autonómica y vigorosa por la solidez de la propiedad e imperio del testamento.​\n\nLa propiedad de la tierra\n\nEstrada afirmaba que los problemas de despoblamiento de la Argentina y el abandono de los habitantes del campo se originaron en la temprana conquista y feudalización de grandes extensiones de tierras.​ En su Curso de Derecho Constitucional comparó diversas maneras en que se genera y transmite la propiedad, y describió tres grandes categorías: el sistema feudal donde la mayor parte de la tierra se obtuvo por conquista y está concentrada en una clase social minoritaria, el sistema francés en que la tierra recibe un trato mercantil y en la que intervienen bancos y el Estado; y el sistema angloamericano con la ley de apropiación original (homestead) que entrega lotes de tierras públicas a quien se comprometa a habitarlas y cultivarlas durante un tiempo.​\n\nAportes a la Educación\n\nEstrada propuso una serie de ideas novedosas para el campo de la Educación en la Argentina: a diferencia de otros intelectuales de la generación del 80 como Sarmiento y Wilde, Estrada se opuso al Estado Docente, y favoreció el cogobierno de la Educación tanto por el Estado como por las familias de los alumnos. Él también preveía una descentralización educativa que garantizara el derecho a la educación y la libertad de enseñanza.​\n\nEscuela primaria\n\nEn el pensamiento de Estrada, común a fines del siglo XIX,​ el objetivo de la escuela primaria es moralizar y formar el carácter de los individuos; y así moralizar a la sociedad en su conjunto y hacerla apta para la democracia, una forma de gobierno que, según el autor, exige preparación cultural e intelectual. Esta educación primaria dependería de dos instituciones: la escuela, y la biblioteca popular.​ Con una población así educada se evitarían tanto el despotismo, que requiere el sometimiento voluntario de las mayorías, como los gobiernos de oligarquías o de mayorías incultas.​ En su libro Memoria para la Educación Común en la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Estrada trata sistemáticamente los aspectos de la educación. Distingue primero la educación física, de la educación espiritual. Dentro de esta última distingue los aspectos de la vida social (educación para la vinculación con los pares, para la vida de familia, y para la ciudadanía) y la vida individual (dominio de la voluntad, dominio de la sensibilidad, y educación intelectual tanto informativa como moral).​\nEstrada consideraba que los partidarios de la enseñanza obligatoria tienen una opinión buena y legítima,​ pero nunca terminó de aceptarla, pensando que han de buscarse métodos no coercitivos que tengan el mismo resultado.​ Acerca de su gratuidad, el autor la considera un engaño,​ ya que las familias en la realidad sí pagan la educación estatal mediante impuestos, y entonces es imposible llamarla «gratuita».​ Además a Estrada repugnaba la idea de que la única educación gratuita fuera la que provee el monopolio del estado, haciendo imposible la educación católica para las clases más pobres.​ En cambio, Estrada proponía «una co-participación subsidiaria entre todos los agentes educativos, incluido el Estado, a la hora de financiar la educación para responder así simultáneamente a la igualdad y a la libertad».​ Un tercer punto que examinó Estrada es la religiosidad de la escuela: él considera que sin religión no hay un sustento suficientemente firme para la moral, o sea para determinar exactamente qué son el bien y el mal. Se enfrentó a dos problemas, primero la contradicción que la enseñanza religiosa traería para la escuela estatal, dependiente de un Estado que gobierna a personas de distintas creencias;​ y segundo el método anticuado que había adoptado la Provincia de Buenos Aires, de hacer que los alumnos simplemente memoricen mecánicamente el catecismo.​\nEducación para la libertad, o simplemente educación, porque no puede menos de ser libre un pueblo compuesto de hombres que se conocen y se moderan.\nJosé Manuel Estrada​\n\nEducación secundaria y universitaria\n\nSiguiendo las ideas de su época,​ Estrada consideraba que la educación secundaria tenía por objetivo la formación de la clase dirigente: «La instrucción secundaria, unidamente con la superior, profesional y facultativa, prepara la clase gobernante en las naciones organizadas bajo el principio de la igualdad política».​ Dado que se trata de una formación de dirigentes, el autor pensaba que la motivación no debía ser el lucro económico, sino la elevación del espíritu y de las facultades humanas.​ Estrada afirmó que lo mejor sería que las universidades controlen a los colegios secundarios y dicten sus planes de estudio según se considere más conveniente para el ingreso a los claustros académicos; y que tanto universidades como colegios tengan personería jurídica para ser titulares de bienes inmuebles.​\n\nCrítica literaria\n\nSegún su alumno Martín García Merou, su austeridad y su talento le inspiraron respeto y simpatía; en lo literario, su estilo «es un estilo oratorio por excelencia, lleno de imágenes y de frases de efecto».​ Ricardo Rojas en su Historia de la Literatura Argentina hace propia la opinión de García Merou y agrega: «se reveló como orador académico, por el horizonte filosófico de sus ideas, y por la conciencia literaria de su estilo», aunque refiriéndose a las Lecciones de Historia, adjetiva como «confusas» algunas de las imágenes propias de la oralidad de la enseñanza una vez transferidas al texto escrito.​ Rómulo Beovide, miembro de la Academia Nacional de Periodismo, describió su estilo como «verbo apasionado y cautivante».​\n\nFamilia y descendencia\n\nEstrada era hijo de José Manuel Estrada Barquín y Rosario Perichón de Vandeuil.\nPor la rama paterna, era nieto de Juan Bautista Estrada, oriundo de Santander, que había pasado a Indias en 1799 junto a su hermano Francisco Tomás. Se casaron con las hermanas Carlota y Manuela Barquín Velasco respectivamente. Juan Bautista tuvo a José Manuel Estrada Barquín, diputado de la legislatura provincial de Buenos Aires, y fundador de la primera usina de gas para el alumbrado público de la ciudad, que fue el padre del autor biografado.​\nEn rama materna: Martín Altolaguirre, nacido en Vitoria, casó en Buenos Aires el 19 de marzo de 1730 con María Josefa de Pando Patiño. Su hija Tomasa Altolaguirre casó con el guipuzcoano Martín Simón de Sarratea, cuya hija María Martina Sarratea fue la mujer de Santiago de Liniers. Entre los hijos de la familia Liniers estaba María del Carmen, casada con Juan Bautista Perichon de Vandeuil: éstos eran los abuelos maternos.\nTras el fusilamiento de Liniers, muchos de sus hijos se fueron a España. María del Carmen permaneció en la Argentina y por eso la casa del virrey y los terrenos aledaños fueron el lugar donde el hermano de José Manuel, Ángel fundó la reconocida editorial Estrada.​\nTuvo ocho hermanos. Además del mencionado Ángel, Santiago, Narciso, Eduardo, Juan Bautista, Enrique y otros dos que murieron muy jóvenes.​\nEstrada se casó el 14 de marzo de 1868 con Elena Esteves Saguí, hija de Miguel Esteves Saguí y Juana Santos Rubio. Sus hijos fueron: José Manuel, Miguel, Alberto, María Elena y María Cecilia. La residencia de la familia era una quinta ubicada en la esquina de Juncal y Suipacha, llegando hasta el Río de la Plata.​" ]

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[ "There is one woman sitting in a car." ]

[ "Two dogs are chasing each other.", "A woman is celebrating at a gathering.", "I have Italian heritage, so I love pasta.", "A man entertains a crowd.", "The people are running away from a big wave.", "The best DOD teaming practices achieve the best results.", "A man crossing a street in Asia." ]

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[ "Miami and its suburbs are located on a broad plain between the Florida Everglades to the west and Biscayne Bay to the east, which also extends from Florida Bay north to Lake Okeechobee. The elevation of the area never rises above 40 ft (12 m) and averages at around 6 ft (1.8 m) above mean sea level in most neighborhoods, especially near the coast. The highest undulations are found along the coastal Miami Rock Ridge, whose substrate underlies most of the eastern Miami metropolitan region. The main portion of the city lies on the shores of Biscayne Bay which contains several hundred natural and artificially created barrier islands, the largest of which contains Miami Beach and South Beach. The Gulf Stream, a warm ocean current, runs northward just 15 miles (24 km) off the coast, allowing the city's climate to stay warm and mild all year." ]

[ "Following speculation that Sony was working on a 'slim' model, Sony officially announced the PS3 CECH-2000 model on August 18, 2009, at the Sony Gamescom press conference. New features included a slimmer form factor, decreased power consumption, and a quieter cooling system. It was released in major territories by September 2009. As part of the release for the slim model, the console logo ceased using the \"Spider-Man font\" (the same font used for the title of Sony's Spider-Man 3) and the capitalized PLAYSTATION 3. It instead reverted to a more traditional PlayStation- and PlayStation 2-like 'PlayStation 3' logo with \"PS3\" imprinted on the console. Along with the redesigning of the console and logo, the boot screen of all consoles changed from \"Sony Computer Entertainment\" to \"PS3 PlayStation 3\", with a new chime and the game start splash screen being dropped. The cover art and packaging of games was also changed.", "Most wrestling matches last for a set number of falls, with the first side to achieve the majority number of pinfalls, submissions, or countouts being the winner. Historically, matches were wrestled to 3 falls (\"best 2 out of 3\") or 5 falls (\"best 3 out of 5\"). The standard for modern matches is one fall. However, even though it is now standard, many announcers will explicitly state this (e.g. \"The following contest is set for one fall with a 20-minute time limit\"). These matches are given a time limit; if not enough falls are scored by the end of the time limit, the match is declared a draw. Modern matches are generally given a 10- to 30-minute time limit for standard matches; title matches can go for up to one hour. British wrestling matches held under Admiral-Lord Mountevans rules are 2 out of 3 falls.", "The Canadian constitution determines that the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces is the country's sovereign, who, since 1904, has authorized his or her viceroy, the governor general, to exercise the duties ascribed to the post of Commander-in-Chief and to hold the associated title since 1905. All troop deployment and disposition orders, including declarations of war, fall within the royal prerogative and are issued as Orders in Council, which must be signed by either the monarch or governor general. Under the Westminster system's parliamentary customs and practices, however, the monarch and viceroy must generally follow the advice of his or her ministers in Cabinet, including the prime minister and minister of national defence, who are accountable to the elected House of Commons.", "Asphalt/bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as \"oil sands\" in Alberta, Canada, and the similar \"tar sands\" in Utah, US. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves of natural bitumen, in three huge deposits covering 142,000 square kilometres (55,000 sq mi), an area larger than England or New York state. These bituminous sands contain 166 billion barrels (26.4×10^9 m3) of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest oil reserves in the world. and produce over 2.3 million barrels per day (370×10^3 m3/d) of heavy crude oil and synthetic crude oil. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the bitumen is now used as raw material for oil refineries in Canada and the United States.", "Some hunter-gatherer cultures, such as the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, lived in particularly rich environments that allowed them to be sedentary or semi-sedentary.", "Nasser was informed of the British–American withdrawal via a news statement while aboard a plane returning to Cairo from Belgrade, and took great offense. Although ideas for nationalizing the Suez Canal were in the offing after the UK agreed to withdraw its military from Egypt in 1954 (the last British troops left on 13 June 1956), journalist Mohamed Hassanein Heikal asserts that Nasser made the final decision to nationalize the waterway between 19 and 20 July. Nasser himself would later state that he decided on 23 July, after studying the issue and deliberating with some of his advisers from the dissolved RCC, namely Boghdadi and technical specialist Mahmoud Younis, beginning on 21 July. The rest of the RCC's former members were informed of the decision on 24 July, while the bulk of the cabinet was unaware of the nationalization scheme until hours before Nasser publicly announced it. According to Ramadan, Nasser's decision to nationalize the canal was a solitary decision, taken without consultation.", "John spent much of 1205 securing England against a potential French invasion. As an emergency measure, John recreated a version of Henry II's Assize of Arms of 1181, with each shire creating a structure to mobilise local levies. When the threat of invasion faded, John formed a large military force in England intended for Poitou, and a large fleet with soldiers under his own command intended for Normandy. To achieve this, John reformed the English feudal contribution to his campaigns, creating a more flexible system under which only one knight in ten would actually be mobilised, but would be financially supported by the other nine; knights would serve for an indefinite period. John built up a strong team of engineers for siege warfare and a substantial force of professional crossbowmen. The king was supported by a team of leading barons with military expertise, including William Longespée, William the Marshal, Roger de Lacy and, until he fell from favour, the marcher lord William de Braose." ]

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[ "Sturdy rubber-soled shoes are appropriate for rock climbing." ]

[ "Ballet flats are a good pick for climbing over rocks.", "The 2 people are not strangers.", "The men were walking through the park.", "Working inside on the house.", "A baseball player points to his head.", "Two girls with green shirts.", "A sleigh is being pulled by a horse." ]

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[ "A man is outside of a store." ]

[ "A male is protesting in front of a police station.", "The Opus Alexandrinum marks the spot where the bishop would stand during church services.", "A cat climbing down a hill.", "Three children are entering a bouncy castle while a fourth looks on.", "That topic is stupid and I hate it.", "Competitive swimmers climb out of the edge of the pool.", "The dog is lying in the bedroom." ]

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[ "Greenbrier Valley Airport Greenbrier Valley Airport Greenbrier Valley Airport is a public airport three miles (5 km) north of Lewisburg in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, United States. It has one runway and is owned by the Greenbrier County Airport Authority. SkyWest Airlines (\"United Express\") has scheduled airline flights, subsidized by the Essential Air Service program, to Chicago O'Hare International Airport and Washington–Dulles International Airport, which replaced ViaAir service to Charlotte-Douglas International Airport in spring of 2018. Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport had 7,153 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2008, 4,651 in 2009 and 12,293 in 2010. It is in the" ]

[ "Shepherd Field Air National Guard Base wastewater-treatment area\". The military seeks to determine if the compounds are present, and if they seeped into the groundwater. The Eastern West Virginia Regional Airport is in the Big Springs wellhead-protection area for the city's water supply. West Virginia National Guard Shepherd Field Air National Guard Base Shepherd Field Air National Guard Base is the home base of the West Virginia Air National Guard 167th Airlift Wing located at the Eastern West Virginia Regional Airport, 4 miles south of Martinsburg, West Virginia. the U.S. Air Force has been investigating whether industrial chemicals have seeped from the 167th Airlift Wing base", "White Sulphur Springs station White Sulphur Springs station White Sulphur Springs is a railway station in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, served by Amtrak, the national passenger railway. The station is a stop on Amtrak's \"Cardinal\" route. The station was built in 1930 or 1931 by the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) to serve passengers on the new Pullman rail coaches to the resort hotel. The current brick building replaced a wooden structure that was built in the early 1900s. It is directly across from the entrance to The Greenbrier Hotel grounds. The original cottages that eventually expanded to a resort property known as", "White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia White Sulphur Springs is a city in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, United States. The population was 2,444 at the 2010 census. White Sulphur Springs grew in the first half of the nineteenth century as the southern \"Queen of the Watering Places\". The springs resort first became the standard summer destination for wealthy Virginia Low Country residents seeking reprieve from heat, humidity, and disease of the \"sickly season\". As its popularity increased and it gained status as a socially exclusive site, the springs attracted elite guests from all areas of the South. The resort, now known", "Sulphur Springs Municipal Airport Sulphur Springs Municipal Airport Sulphur Springs Municipal Airport is a city-owned, public-use airport located two nautical miles (4 km) northwest of the central business district of Sulphur Springs, a city in Hopkins County, Texas, United States. It is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, which categorized it as a \"general aviation\" facility. It was named Texas Airport of the Year for 2003 by the Federal Aviation Administration. Sulphur Springs Municipal Airport covers an area of 197 acres (80 ha) at an elevation of 489 feet (149 m) above mean sea level. It has one runway", "Colgan Air carrier, focusing its routes around major US Airways stations such as LaGuardia, Pittsburgh, and Boston. However, in 2005 Colgan acquired additional Saab 340 aircraft and resumed service as Continental Connection out of Houston. On October 4, 2005, Colgan Air started providing flights for United Express flights out of Washington's Dulles International Airport. Initially serving Charleston, West Virginia, and Westchester County Airport in White Plains, New York, Colgan expanded its United Express service to include State College, Pennsylvania; Charlottesville, Virginia; Allentown, Pennsylvania; and Binghamton, New York. Colgan Air was acquired by Pinnacle Airlines Corporation on January 18, 2007, for US$20 million.", "Richmond International Airport Roanoke, VA; Piedmont Regional Airlines operating Beechcraft 99, de Havilland Canada DHC-7 Dash 7 and Short 330 turboprops with nonstop service flown on a code sharing basis for Piedmont from Baltimore, Newport News, Norfolk and Roanoke, VA; and Wheeler Airlines operating Beechcraft 99 turboprops nonstop from Danville, VA, Raleigh/Durham, Washington D.C. National Airport and Wilmington, DE. By 1986, Wheeler Airlines had created a small hub at the airport and had added nonstop flights from Charleston, WV and Parkersburg, WV. In 2017, the airport served 3,657,479 passengers, an all-time record for the airport and broke its previous record of 3,634,544 in", "Beckley, West Virginia for over 100,000 Southern West Virginia residents. It is the eighth-largest city in West Virginia, exceeded in population by Fairmont and followed by Martinsburg. Amtrak services Beckley at Prince Station in Prince, West Virginia. Greater Beckley's only airport is Beckley Raleigh County Memorial Airport. Raleigh County Memorial Airport is served by ViaAir with service to Charlotte. Beckley is well known for two major tourist attractions: The Beckley Exhibition Coal Mine and Tamarack. The Exhibition Coal Mine is a preserved coal mine that offers daily tours and a history lesson on coal mining in Appalachia. Tamarack, a showcase of Appalachian arts", "White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia Sulphur Springs Library was rebuilt from the old community house. The Library is being redeveloped as an educational resource and one of the hearts of the town. The building that the library lives in was renamed Katherine Coleman Johnson Building in 2017, after White Sulphur Springs native and NASA scientist Katherine Coleman Johnson. The town is featured as a US Army Center of Operations in the book \"\", by Harry Turtledove White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia White Sulphur Springs is a city in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, United States. The population was 2,444 at the 2010 census. White Sulphur Springs", "The Greenbrier The Greenbrier The Greenbrier is a luxury resort located in the Allegheny Mountains near White Sulphur Springs in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, in the United States. Since 1778, visitors have traveled to this part of the state to \"take the waters\" of the area. Today, The Greenbrier is situated on of land with 710 guest rooms, 20 restaurants and lounges, more than 55 indoor and outdoor activities and sports, and 36 retail shops. The current Greenbrier was built in 1913 by the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway and was owned for much of its history by that company and its successors,", "Paintsville, Kentucky South Mayo Trail, serves as the city's main business route and passes through Mayo Plaza. Located southeast of Paintsville in neighboring Martin County is Big Sandy Regional Airport. The publicly owned, private-use airport is used for general aviation. Its main runway is 5,000 ft (1,524 m) long. The nearest airport that provides commercial aviation services is Tri-State Airport, northeast in Ceredo, West Virginia. Paintsville, Kentucky Paintsville () is a home rule-class city along Paint Creek in Johnson County, Kentucky, in the United States. It is the seat of its county. The population was 3,459 during the 2010 U.S. Census. A", "Martinsburg, West Virginia centers/areas in Martinsburg include: Amtrak provides service to Martinsburg. The city's passenger rail station is located downtown at 229 East Martin Street. MARC, Maryland's commuter rail system, operates trains on weekdays on its which terminates in Martinsburg. Service is provided to Union Station in Washington, D.C. Eastern Panhandle Transit Authority operates public bus transit routes in Martinsburg, surrounding Berkeley County, and neighboring Jefferson County, West Virginia. Eastern WV Regional Airport, south of the city, handles general aviation and Shepherd Field Air National Guard Base is located at this airport. The closest airport with commercial air service is Hagerstown Regional Airport,", "Elkins, West Virginia US 219, and US 250. Heading west of the city, US 33 is Corridor H, a major four-lane highway connecting to Interstate 79 at Weston. Long-term plans call for Corridor H to be extended further past Elkins eventually to Interstate 81 at Strasburg, Virginia. Elkins–Randolph County Airport (Jennings Randolph Airfield) (code KEKN) is a regional airport with two large runways, each over long with plans for lengthening the runways by at least . The community leaders are planning to expand the facilities at the airport in order to serve the growing need for a regional air service and the increase", "Shreveport Regional Airport for 2007-2011, it is a \"primary commercial service\" airport. The FAA classifies Shreveport Regional Airport as a \"Small Hub\" airport. For the 2011-2012 calendar years, Shreveport Regional Airport ranked just under Mobile Regional Airport (Mobile, Alabama) and Fort Wayne International Airport (Fort Wayne, Indiana) and just above Jackson Hole Airport (Jackson Hole, Wyoming) and Yeager Airport (Charleston, West Virginia) in total enplanements. Historically, Shreveport was served by a number of airlines operating mainline jet service. Delta Air Lines was a major player at the airport for many years as Shreveport was a \"focus city\" and mini-hub for this air carrier.", "Rocky Mountain Airways but none of the aircraft were ever delivered to Rocky Mountain. Both the DHC-6 Twin Otter and the DHC-7 Dash 7 featured short takeoff and landing (STOL) performance. This enabled Rocky Mountain Airways to serve destinations that otherwise would not have received scheduled passenger air service. One example was the Avon STOLport (WHR) located in close proximity to the Vail ski resort which was served with the Dash 7. Another example was the Steamboat Springs Airport (SBS) which was also served with the Dash 7. With a relatively short runway length of 4,452 feet and an airfield elevation of 6,882", "Forest, Virginia National D-Day Memorial in Bedford, and the Peaks of Otter in the Blue Ridge Mountains. The nearest urban center is downtown Lynchburg, approximately northeast of town. Forest is accessed via Route 221 and U.S. Route 460. The nearest rail line is Amtrak's \"Crescent\" train at the Kemper Street station in Lynchburg. Amtrak Virginia also provides regional service with a Lynchburg stop between Roanoke and Northern VA/Washington, D.C. The nearest major airport is Lynchburg Regional Airport offering commercial service through US Airways Express to Charlotte, North Carolina. Private charter flights are available through Virginia Aviation. There is also a public general", "Wayne County, West Virginia those age 65 or over. The public Tri-State Airport, the major airport serving the Huntington–Ashland area, is located in Wayne County south of Interstate 64. The airport is accessible from Interstate 64 via Exit 1. Commercial air service is provided by Allegiant Air, Delta Connection, and US Airways Express. The following books take place in Wayne County: Wayne County, West Virginia Wayne County is the westernmost county in the U.S. state of West Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 42,481. Its county seat is Wayne. The county was founded in 1842 and named for General \"Mad\" Anthony", "Rocky Mountain Airways feet, the Dash 7 was well suited for passenger operations from this small airport located near the Steamboat Springs ski resort. Rocky Mountain Airways also operated Twin Otter flights from Lake County Airport (LXV) in Leadville, Colorado. With an airfield elevation of 9,927 feet, Leadville is the location of the highest airport ever to have received scheduled passenger air service in the U.S. The Avon STOLport, which was a private airstrip controlled by the airline, no longer exists. Airline service to Vail is now provided via the Eagle County Airport which is located over 35 miles to the west via", "Shepherd Field Air National Guard Base Shepherd Field Air National Guard Base Shepherd Field Air National Guard Base is the home base of the West Virginia Air National Guard 167th Airlift Wing located at the Eastern West Virginia Regional Airport, 4 miles south of Martinsburg, West Virginia. the U.S. Air Force has been investigating whether industrial chemicals have seeped from the 167th Airlift Wing base into the groundwater. In August 2014, the Air Force had found 10 areas where aqueous film forming foam may have entered the soil including \"a former fire-training area, three hangars, two buildings, a fire-truck testing area, two storage areas and a", "Marshall County Airport (West Virginia) ft (1,006 x 18 m) asphalt surface. Situated in rugged mountain terrain, the airport site is a removed mountaintop with steep slopes to all sides. For the 12-month period ending December 31, 2006, the airport had 19,300 aircraft operations, an average of 52 per day: 97% general aviation, 3% military and <1% air taxi. Marshall County Airport (West Virginia) Marshall County Airport is a public airport located three miles (5 km) south of the central business district of Moundsville, a city in Marshall County, West Virginia, United States. The airport is owned by the Marshall County Commission. Although most U.S.", "Greenbrier Presidential Express rolling stock scheduled for auction on September 18, 2014. Greenbrier Presidential Express The Greenbrier Presidential Express is a cancelled luxury passenger train that was planned to operate between Union Station in Washington, D.C., United States, and the train station at the Greenbrier resort in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. The project was initiated in June 2011 but canceled in May 2012 due to numerous issues, among which were capacity constraints on the Buckingham Branch Railroad and Federal approval of the train's engineering. Following his purchase of The Greenbrier resort in his native West Virginia, billionaire coal entrepreneur Jim Justice launched", "Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport Airways in July 2012. Silver Airways' service to the airport ended in November 2016. Frontier Airlines began service between Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport and Orlando International Airport in November 2012. The service was canceled in April 2013. ViaAir began flights between Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport and Charlotte-Douglas International Airport in September 2016. ViaAir also began flights from Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport to Orlando Sanford International Airport. In November 2017, it was announced that the EAS routes served by ViaAir would cease and SkyWest, operated as United Express, service would replace ViaAir beginning on April 1, 2018. In June 2013, an", "Tri-State Airport jet, 1 helicopter, and 1 ultralight. FedEx Feeder is operated at the field by Mountain Air Cargo. Tri-State Airport Tri-State Airport , also known as Milton J. Ferguson Field, is a public airport in Wayne County, West Virginia, three miles south of Huntington, West Virginia, near Ceredo and Kenova. Owned by the Tri-State Airport Authority, it serves Huntington; Ashland, Kentucky; and Ironton, Ohio. It has heavy use for general aviation, and after the withdrawal of Delta Air Lines in June 2012, is down to two airlines, one of which provides nationwide connecting service. Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport", "Eastern WV Regional Airport 31, 2017, the airport had 29,303 aircraft operations, an average of 80 per day: 79% general aviation, 20% military, and 1% air taxi. At that time there were 90 aircraft based at this airport: 78% single-engine, 13% multi-engine, and 9% military. Eastern WV Regional Airport The Eastern West Virginia Regional Airport , also known as Shepherd Field, is a civilian-owned, public use airport located four nautical miles (5 mi, 7 km) south of the central business district of Martinsburg, a city in Berkeley County, West Virginia, United States. It is owned by the Eastern West Virginia Regional Airport Authority or", "Ashland, Kentucky fields and a skate park. Located just north of the city in Worthington is the Ashland Regional Airport. This airport is used for general aviation. The then-named \"Ashland-Boyd County Airport\" opened in 1953 and featured a . runway with a . clearance. Tri-State Airport, located in nearby Ceredo, West Virginia, provides commercial aviation services for the city. Amtrak serves Ashland with the three-days-a-week \"Cardinal\", connecting New York City, Washington, Charlottesville, VA, Indianapolis, and Chicago. Westbound trains are scheduled to stop Sunday, Wednesday, Friday in the late evening. Eastbound the stops are early morning Wednesday, Friday, Sunday. Amtrak uses the Ashland", "Charleston, West Virginia Kentucky, and southern Ohio. There are four VHF and ten UHF television stations in the market. There are 21 high-rise buildings in Charleston. Laidley Tower is the tallest structure in the downtown area. Yeager Airport is West Virginia's largest airport serving more than twice as many passengers as all other WV airports combined. It is north of Interstate 64 and Interstate 77, accessible via WV 114. Amtrak, the national passenger rail service, provides tri-weekly service to Charleston via the \"Cardinal\" routes. The Amtrak station is on the south side of the Kanawha River, at 350 MacCorkle Avenue near downtown. Historically,", "Interstate 81 its route through Tennessee and Virginia, serving such cities as the twin cities of Bristol, Tennessee, and Bristol, Virginia, Roanoke, Christiansburg, Lexington, Staunton, Harrisonburg, Wytheville, and Winchester. In Harrisonburg, I-81 cuts through James Madison University. It parallels its older counterpart, U.S. Route 11, for its entire length in Virginia. I-81 briefly enters the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia for about , serving the city of Martinsburg. The entire routing is in Berkeley County and serves the Eastern WV Regional Airport. The West Virginia segment was completed in 1966 and there have been no realignments since. West Virginia is currently widening", "Amherst, Virginia in Amherst that serves the community in higher education. Amherst has several places of business and commerce that provide products and jobs for the community. Major employers in and near the town include: Amherst provides services for the town (and in some cases outside the corporate limits) including: There is no public transportation in Amherst. All forms of transportation and transportation services are privately owned. Lynchburg Regional Airport is located along U.S. 29 approximately 20 miles south of Amherst. Falwell Aviation, Inc., a general utility airport is located on U.S. 29 in the City of Lynchburg. Both airports are used", "Gallipolis, Ohio Ohio Valley Christian School, which includes both elementary and secondary grades. The village is served by the Dr. Samuel L. Bossard Memorial Library, the county's only public lending library. U.S. Route 35 traverses the community, and provides a link to West Virginia across the Ohio River. State routes include Ohio State Route 7, State Route 141, State Route 160, and State Route 588. Gallipolis is served by the Gallia-Meigs Regional Airport. Gallipolis, Ohio Gallipolis ( ) is a chartered village in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Gallia County. The municipality is located in Southeast Ohio", "Yeager Airport Yeager Airport Yeager Airport is a public airport three miles (6 km) east of downtown Charleston, in Kanawha County, West Virginia, United States. It is owned by the Central West Virginia Regional Airport Authority. The airport hosts McLaughlin Air National Guard Base, home to nine C-130 Hercules aircraft of the West Virginia Air National Guard's 130th Airlift Wing (130 AW), an Air Mobility Command (AMC)-gained unit of the West Virginia Air National Guard. The airport sits on a hilltop over 300 feet (about 100 m) above the valleys of the Elk and Kanawha Rivers, and the hill drops off sharply", "Tri-State Airport Tri-State Airport Tri-State Airport , also known as Milton J. Ferguson Field, is a public airport in Wayne County, West Virginia, three miles south of Huntington, West Virginia, near Ceredo and Kenova. Owned by the Tri-State Airport Authority, it serves Huntington; Ashland, Kentucky; and Ironton, Ohio. It has heavy use for general aviation, and after the withdrawal of Delta Air Lines in June 2012, is down to two airlines, one of which provides nationwide connecting service. Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport had 115,263 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2010, 10.9% more than 2009. It is included in", "Greenbrier Presidential Express Greenbrier Presidential Express The Greenbrier Presidential Express is a cancelled luxury passenger train that was planned to operate between Union Station in Washington, D.C., United States, and the train station at the Greenbrier resort in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. The project was initiated in June 2011 but canceled in May 2012 due to numerous issues, among which were capacity constraints on the Buckingham Branch Railroad and Federal approval of the train's engineering. Following his purchase of The Greenbrier resort in his native West Virginia, billionaire coal entrepreneur Jim Justice launched a number of new initiatives aimed at reinvigorating the", "Mount Pleasant, South Carolina Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 14.30%, is water. The town of Mount Pleasant is served by the Charleston International Airport. It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about northwest of Mount Pleasant. It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina . The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base. Mount Pleasant Regional Airport also known as \"Faison Field\" and LRO, is a public airport located within the town limits northeast of the central business district of Mount Pleasant. Both airports are", "Mineral County, West Virginia Mineral Counties Vocational and Technical School. The Greater Cumberland Regional Airport is located in Wiley Ford. CSX lines run along the Potomac River on the northern border of the county. Amtrak service is available in Cumberland, Maryland, just across from Ridgeley, West Virginia. Keyser's railroad station closed in the 1980s. Owned by Mineral County, the park size is . Includes two pavilions with 10 tables, an amphitheater with seating capacity of 600. One Little League field and one softball field. Fishing Areas; two flood control dams stocked by WVDNR, . All are open to public hunting by permit. Approximately 5", "ViaAir Austin based operations to expand. We will roll out additional cities throughout next year as we hope to be known as Austin’s hometown airline.\" On February 9, 2018 Via announced two new destinations from Austin (Little Rock and Tulsa), bringing the total of destinations served from Austin up to six. All aircraft used for ViaAir flights are operated by its subsidiary, Via Airlines. ViaAir ViaAir is a US domestic regional airline offering scheduled service across the United States. The airline originally focused on scheduled Essential Air Service from Raleigh County Memorial Airport in Beckley, West Virginia, Parkersburg/Marietta in Parkersburg, West", "White Mountain Airport (New Hampshire) White Mountain Airport (New Hampshire) White Mountain Airport was a private airport located in North Conway, in Carroll County, New Hampshire, United States. This general aviation airport had one runway. The airport closed in the late 1980s. The property has since become the site of Settlers' Green Outlet Village and hotel, as well as the proposed site for the middle segment of the Conway Bypass. In 1921, the Carroll County Park Association procured approximately of land in a series of purchases. The property included a grandstand and racing track that had hosted horse racing and motorcycle racing over the years", "White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia the population were below the poverty line, including 23.9% of those under age 18 and 8.5% of those age 65 or over. Amtrak, the national passenger rail service, provides service to White Sulphur Springs under the \"Cardinal\" route. The Alleghany Subdivision of the main line of the former Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad (now part of CSX) runs through White Sulphur Springs. At one time in its history it was part of the limestone flux cargo route from Hinton, West Virginia to Clifton Forge, Virginia. Its affectionate nickname was \"The Gravel Gertie\" after the Dick Tracy character. In 1987 the White", "WSLW than the main AM station; WSLW WSLW is a broadcast radio station licensed to White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, serving White Sulphur Springs and Lewisburg in West Virginia. WSLW is owned by Todd P. Robinson. For a while, WSLW was licensed to the town of \"White Sulphur Spring\" in West Virginia, though there is no town by that spelling in West Virginia. The correct spelling of the town's name is White Sulphur Springs. This was finally corrected sometime in 2011. In addition to the main station at 1310 kilohertz, an FM translator is used to provide nighttime coverage, albeit with", "Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport inmate of the Virginia Department of Corrections escaped from a landscaping work program based at Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport. United States Marshals Service recaptured the inmate in Washington, D.C., nine hours later. Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport is a public airport located in Weyers Cave, Virginia; 10 nautical miles (12 mi, 19 km) northeast of the central business district of Staunton. It is mostly used for general aviation, but is also served by one commercial airline. Service is subsidized by the Essential Air Service program. The airport is operated by the Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport Commission, which", "Marietta, Ohio 60, Ohio State Route 26, Ohio State Route 550, and Ohio State Route 676. Marietta is served by Mid-Ohio Valley Regional Airport in Williamstown, West Virginia which has 3 flights a day Monday thru Friday from Charlotte Douglas International Airport. As of the census of 2010, there were 14,085 people, 5,828 households, and 3,215 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 6,519 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 94.9% White, 1.3% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.4% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 1.5% from two", "Pittsburgh International Airport British Airways, and Wow Air. After United Airlines shifted flights from Newark Liberty International Airport to Washington–Dulles at the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton International Airport, Pittsburgh became the last airport in Pennsylvania to have non-stop flights into EWR. Pittsburgh International Airport is the busiest airport in western Pennsylvania and the second-busiest airport in the state, after Philadelphia International Airport. In 2017 it served 8,988,016 passengers. The airport is encircled by I-376 and Business Loop 376, which is the main access for Airport Cargo and Servicing as well as other flight industries. It is owned by the county and operated by the Allegheny County", "Martinsburg, West Virginia that is about driving distance north. The closest international airport is Washington Dulles International Airport near D.C., which is about driving distance east. Martinsburg, West Virginia Martinsburg is a city in and the county seat of Berkeley County, West Virginia, United States, in the tip of the state's Eastern Panhandle region in the lower Shenandoah Valley. Its population was 17,687 in the 2016 census estimate, making it the largest city in the Eastern Panhandle and the ninth-largest municipality in the state. Martinsburg is part of the Hagerstown-Martinsburg, MD-WV Metropolitan Statistical Area. Martinsburg was established by an act of the Virginia", "North Central West Virginia Airport per day: 54% military, 35% general aviation, 10% air taxi, and <1% scheduled commercial. At that time there were 80 aircraft based at this airport: 61% single-engine, 20% multi-engine, 4% jet, and 15% military. The following airlines offer scheduled passenger service: North Central West Virginia Airport North Central West Virginia Airport is a joint-use public and military airport located one nautical mile (2 km) northeast of the central business district of Bridgeport, a city in Harrison County, West Virginia, United States. While located in Bridgeport, the airport is primarily associated with Clarksburg, West Virginia. It is owned and operated by", "Greenville–Spartanburg International Airport Greenville–Spartanburg International Airport Greenville–Spartanburg International Airport (Roger Milliken Field) is near Greer, South Carolina, midway between Greenville and Spartanburg, the major cities of the Upstate region. The airport is the second-busiest airport in South Carolina, after Charleston International Airport, with about 2.13 million passengers in 2017. It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021, in which it is categorized as a small-hub primary commercial service facility. Prior to construction of the Greenville–Spartanburg International Airport (GSP), each city had separate airports and competed for airline service. In the mid-1950s, Roger Milliken, a", "Fayetteville Regional Airport Connection carrier ExpressJet, American Eagle carriers Piedmont Airlines and PSA Airlines, and United Express carriers CommutAir and Air Wisconsin. American Eagle offers direct flights to Charlotte/Douglas International Airport. Delta and Delta Connection offer direct service to Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport. United Express offers direct service to Washington Dulles International Airport. Fayetteville is served by member airlines of Star Alliance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam, the three major global airline alliances, providing access to thousands of destinations worldwide via major hub airports. As per Federal Aviation Administration records, the airport had 202,597 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2008, 231,002 enplanements in 2009,", "Wheeling Ohio County Airport 47% single engine, 19% ultralights, 19% military, 13% multi-engine and 3% jet aircraft. Wheeling Ohio County Airport Wheeling Ohio County Airport is a public airport serving Wheeling and Ohio County, WV. It is eight miles (13 km) northeast of downtown Wheeling and is owned by the Ohio County Commission. Wheeling Ohio County Airport covers and has two asphalt runways: 3/21 is 5,002 x 150 ft. (1,525 x 46 m) and 16/34 is 4,499 x 150 ft. (1,371 x 46 m). In the year ending July 15, 2004 the airport had 52,832 aircraft operations, average 144 per day: 53% general aviation,", "Burton, West Virginia to the Northeast (approx. 70 minutes). Other important connections include WV Route 69 North into Pennsylvania, where it turns into PA Route 18 and leads towards Waynesburg, PA (approx 45 minutes) and beyond to Pittsburgh, PA (approx 90-120 mins, traffic dependent). Pittsburgh International Airport, is the nearest intercontinental airport, while Burton is also served by a smaller regional airport, Morgantown Municipal Airport. It is thought to be named for George Bartrug, who settled here around 1812. The name difference may be due to an apparent misreading of the name by railway officials. Due to its distance from the county seat", "Marshall County Airport (West Virginia) Marshall County Airport (West Virginia) Marshall County Airport is a public airport located three miles (5 km) south of the central business district of Moundsville, a city in Marshall County, West Virginia, United States. The airport is owned by the Marshall County Commission. Although most U.S. airports use the same three-letter location identifier for the FAA and IATA, Marshall County Airport is assigned MPG by the FAA but has no designation from the IATA (which assigned MPG to Makini, Papua New Guinea). Marshall County Airport covers an area of which contains one runway designated 6/24 with a 3,302 x 60", "Smith Reynolds Airport four scheduled passenger feeder line routes extending from Wilmington, NC to Cincinnati, Ohio, serving twenty-two airports with one of three of the original DC-3's affectionately known as the Pacemakers. According to the airline's July 1, 1948 system timetable, Piedmont was operating nonstop service from the airport to both Bristol, TN and nearby Greensboro-High Point, NC as well as direct, no change of plane service to Cincinnati, Lexington, Raleigh-Durham, Goldsboro, NC, New Bern, NC, Morehead City-Beaufort, NC and Wilmington, NC with all flights operated with Douglas DC-3 aircraft. While it operated, the route between Winston-Salem and Greensboro-High Point was the shortest", "WSLW WSLW WSLW is a broadcast radio station licensed to White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, serving White Sulphur Springs and Lewisburg in West Virginia. WSLW is owned by Todd P. Robinson. For a while, WSLW was licensed to the town of \"White Sulphur Spring\" in West Virginia, though there is no town by that spelling in West Virginia. The correct spelling of the town's name is White Sulphur Springs. This was finally corrected sometime in 2011. In addition to the main station at 1310 kilohertz, an FM translator is used to provide nighttime coverage, albeit with a much smaller coverage area", "Mid-Ohio Valley Regional Airport 30, 2011, the airport had 34,485 aircraft operations, an average of 94 per day: 62% general aviation, 23% military, 14% air taxi, and <1% scheduled commercial. At that time there were 56 aircraft based at this airport: 68% single-engine, 20% military, 5% multi-engine, 5% jet, and 2% helicopter. Mid-Ohio Valley Regional Airport Mid-Ohio Valley Regional Airport is a public use airport located six nautical miles (11 km) northeast of the central business district of Parkersburg, in Wood County, West Virginia, United States. It is owned by the Wood County Airport Authority and is also known as Wood County Airport or", "Tarboro, North Carolina freight and passenger train service, interstate and intrastate highway systems, and the deepwater ports of Morehead City and Wilmington, North Carolina. Tarboro-Edgecombe Airport: This facility, located north of downtown, has a paved and lighted runway with a approach apron from both ends, accommodating a wide variety of small general aviation aircraft. Pitt–Greenville Airport: Located south of Tarboro, this airport has a lighted precision approach runway, a lighted non-precision crosswind runway and a unlighted visual approach runway. PGV provides commuter service to Charlotte Douglas International Airport through US Airways Express with 11 daily flights. Jet service is available. All aircraft services", "Leadville, Colorado Arapahoe, and White River National Forests. The Camp Hale Memorial is located along the byway, where soldiers trained on skis to fight in the Apennine Mountains of Italy during World War II. The road passes through the Arkansas Headwaters Recreation Area and the Arkansas River Headwaters State Park. Leadville is served by Lake County Airport. However, there are no scheduled airline services available from this airport. The closest airports to provide scheduled services are Eagle County Airport and Aspen-Pitkin County Airport, both located away. All of the highways in Lake County are part of the Top of the Rockies Scenic", "Big Draft Wilderness Big Draft Wilderness The Big Draft Wilderness is a U.S. Wilderness area in the Monongahela National Forest of southeast West Virginia, USA. Its name derives from the nearby Big Draft, a tributary of Anthony Creek which is a tributary of the Greenbrier River. Big Draft Wilderness occupies the southern-most acreage of the Monongahela National Forest and is located just south of the Blue Bend Recreation Area. The town White Sulphur Springs lies about 5 miles south of the Wilderness and about 15 miles northeast of Lewisburg. The Big Draft Wilderness is located entirely in Greenbrier County. The Wilderness is drained", "Whitemarsh Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania West Chester to New York City. The bus stop in Fort Washington is located adjacent to the Fort Washington station. The route started on December 21, 2017. Norfolk Southern Railway's Morrisville Line freight railroad line passes through Whitemarsh Township, running parallel to the south of the Pennsylvania Turnpike. There are no airports in Whitemarsh Township. The closest airport is the Wings Field in Whitpain Township. Whitemarsh Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania Whitemarsh Township is a Home Rule Municipality in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, USA. However, it maintains its former classification of \"Township\" in its official name. The population was 17,349 at the", "Hot Springs, Montana artists. Occasionally there are special concerts of artists which may include a special concert on Sunday. In summer, the stage moves outdoors. The Hot Springs Airport is a county-owned public-use airport located two nautical miles (4 km) east of the central business district of Hot Springs. Additional transportation, ground transportation, is available from Sanders County Transportation which operates shuttle vans and buses to and from several cities and towns in Sanders, Flathead and Missoula Counties. From Hot Springs, \"Hot Springs Transit\" (Sanders County Transportation) will take adults (any age) from their home to Missoula, Kalispell, Plains, Polson, and Thompson Falls,", "Greater Cumberland Regional Airport Greater Cumberland Regional Airport Greater Cumberland Regional Airport is a public airport in the town of Wiley Ford (population 1,095) in Mineral County, West Virginia. It is two miles (3 km) south of Cumberland (population 21,518) in Allegany County, Maryland. Although the airport is in the Potomac Highlands of West Virginia, the FAA lists this as a Maryland airport. On the second level of the airport terminal is the Cohongaronta Gallery (\"Cohongaronta\" being a Shawnee name for the Potomac River) with an array of displays on the history of the Potomac Highlands area. The centerpiece of the gallery is a", "Silver Springs Airport Silver Springs Airport Silver Springs Airport is a public use airport located southwest of the central business district of Silver Springs, in Lyon County, Nevada, United States. It is owned by Lyon County and leased to Silver Springs Airport, LLC. Although many U.S. airports use the same three-letter location identifier for the FAA and IATA, this airport is assigned SPZ by the FAA but has no designation from the IATA (which assigned SPZ to Springdale Municipal Airport in Springdale, Arkansas). The airport was built by the United States Army Air Forces about 1942, and was known as Churchill Flight Strip.", "Mercer County Airport (West Virginia) Mercer County Airport (West Virginia) Mercer County Airport is in Mercer County, West Virginia, United States. Owned by the Mercer County Airport Authority, it is three miles northeast of Bluefield, West Virginia and about nine miles southwest of Princeton, West Virginia. The National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015 categorized it as a \"general aviation\" facility. The airport has been served by scheduled airlines. Service was subsidized by the Essential Air Service program until August 1, 2006, when it ended due to federal law not allowing a subsidy over $200 per passenger for communities within 210 miles of a", "Wheeling, West Virginia as the hub for Hub-and-Spoke routes, provide regional transportation through West Virginia and Eastern Ohio. Wheeling operated streetcars from the 1880s until 1943 under the Wheeling Traction Company and Co-operative Transit Company. Buses replaced streetcar operations due to operating costs. The city is served by the Wheeling Ohio County Airport for general aviation and Pittsburgh International Airport for passenger service. Wheeling, West Virginia Wheeling is a city in Ohio and Marshall counties in the U.S. state of West Virginia. Located almost entirely in Ohio County, of which it is the county seat, it lies along the Ohio River in the", "Highlands, North Carolina Mountain, Georgia and Walhalla, South Carolina, keeping the number 28 in all three states. Dillard Road carries N.C. 106 southwest toward Scaly Mountain and Sky Valley, becoming Georgia 246, crossing the state line five times, and soon ending at U.S. 441 in Dillard. There are also other state secondary roads maintained by NCDOT, with Buck Creek Road (N.C. 1535/1538) acting as a very curvy bypass route around the town. There is no public transportation within or through the town. The nearest municipal airport is Macon County Airport, between Franklin and Iotla. While it is also the nearest automated airport weather", "Charter Air Transport owned by the same holding company as CAT began operating the scheduled Essential Air Service from Raleigh County Memorial Airport in Beckley, West Virginia to Charlotte Douglas International Airport. It also began seasonal unsubsidized service from Charlotte to Northeast Florida Regional Airport. All ViaAir flights use Charter Air Transport Embraer E-120 aircraft. Charter Air Transport serves a variety of on-demand air taxi services with their own fleet of the following aircraft: Charter Air Transport Charter Air Transport is a certified part 135 air taxi provider based in Cleveland, OH at Burke Lakefront Airport. The airline is licensed by the Department", "Mercer County Airport (West Virginia) large or medium hub airport (Charlotte/Douglas International Airport in North Carolina being 173 miles away). Federal Aviation Administration records say Mercer County Airport had 2,041 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2004, 1,885 enplanments in 2005, 1,833 in 2006, and 1,721 in 2007. Scheduled passenger flights ended in 2007. Mercer County Airport covers 144 acres (58 ha) at an elevation of 2,857 feet (871 m0. Its one runway, 5/23, is 4,743 by 100 feet (1,446 x 30 m) asphalt. In the year ending October 30, 2009 the airport had 16,400 aircraft operations, average 44 per day: 88% general aviation, 11%", "U.S. Route 11 in West Virginia of the Eastern WV Regional Airport, which the pike passes to the west of as it approaches the community of Pikeside and an intersection with County Route 19. The name of the road changes back to Winchester Avenue as it heads north into the city of Martinsburg, intersecting WV 45 before the highway turns east onto West King Street. US 11 heads east for several blocks along King Street before turning north along Queen Street, concurrent with WV 9 and WV 45. The three highways pass just west of the Martinsburg train station, which services both Amtrak and MARC, before", "Smith Reynolds Airport flying nonstop jet service to Asheville and Roanoke as well as direct 727 flights to Atlanta, New York La Guardia Airport and Charlottesville. Fairchild Hiller FH-227B turboprops were also being operated at this time by the airline from INT. By 1978, the airline was operating both Boeing 727 and Boeing 737-200 jets on flights from the airport in addition to NAMC YS-11 turboprops and had added direct jet service to Chicago O'Hare Airport (ORD) and nonstop jet flights to Washington National Airport (DCA). In 1983, Piedmont was operating all flights from Smith Reynolds Airport with Boeing 737-200 jetliners with nonstop", "Wilmington Air Park it was announced in November 2018 that ILN would again open for Amazon so that capacity demands could be met during construction of the company's sort facility at CVG, with operations expected to resume in early 2019. Wilmington Air Park Wilmington Air Park is a public-use airport located two nautical miles (3.7 km) southeast of the central business district of Wilmington, a city in Clinton County, Ohio, United States. While DHL had privately owned the property while operating from the facility, the company agreed to donate the property to the Clinton County Port Authority. The airport was formerly known as", "Chicken Strip Chicken Strip Saline Valley Warm Springs Airfield, commonly known as the Chicken Strip is a non-towered dirt airstrip not depicted on an FAA Sectional chart. The airstrip provides general aviation fly-in access to the Saline Valley hot springs in Death Valley National Park. The closest airport to the airstrip is Lone Pine Airport at to the southwest and the closest airport with regular airline service is Fresno Yosemite International Airport at to the west. Chicken Strip was built in the 1960s to provide quicker access to the nearby hot springs, sometimes called the warm springs, that are a short walking", "Eagle, Colorado project still called Eagle River Station. Eagle experiences a semi-arid climate with cold winters and hot summers. Due to the high elevation, temperatures drop sharply after sunset. Eagle County Regional Airport (IATA:EGE, ICAO:KEGE) is to the west, located between Eagle and the town of Gypsum. Many airlines provide services from Eagle to various destinations during the ski season months, although in the low season months the airport just has services to Dallas and Denver. ECO Transit provides local transportation from Eagle to Dotsero, Gypsum, Edwards, Avon and Vail. Union Pacific Railroad's tracks cross Eagle, linking the town to Denver, Grand", "Bristow, Virginia voted by \"Golf Digest\" as one of \"Top 100 Places to Play from 1998-2000\". The Bristow Beat online publication covers local news. Major highways that connect Bristow include Virginia Route 28, Virginia Route 234 and Virginia Route 215. Bristow is served by the Broad Run/Airport Virginia Railway Express station, which is in the southern-tier of the community. The station offers weekday service to inner suburbs in Fairfax County, Virginia and Washington, D.C. The Manassas Regional Airport is located in the City of Manassas, adjacent to Bristow, and serves the area. Bristow, Virginia Bristow is an unincorporated community of Prince William", "Greenbrier State Forest state licenses are required. Accommodations include 12 one- and two-bedroom cabins, 1 handicapped accessible cabin, and 16 campsites with electric hookups and water available at the central bathhouse. Greenbrier State Forest Greenbrier State Forest is a state forest between Lewisburg and White Sulphur Springs in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, United States. Greenbrier State Forest is located on Harts Run, a tributary of Howard Creek, and contains historic Kate's Mountain (3,330 feet/1,015 m). Greenbrier State Forest features of hiking trails, many of which are also suitable for mountain biking. There is a heated pool, numerous picnic sites with two shelters, archery", "Yeager Airport International Airport was forced to divert to Yeager Airport in Charleston, West Virginia after a hole formed on the top of the plane's fuselage near the tail resulting in depressurization of the cabin and deployment of the oxygen masks. The 133 passengers and crew landed safely. On January 19, 2010, PSA Airlines Canadair CRJ-200 N246PS on flight 2495 to Charlotte, North Carolina on behalf of US Airways with 30 passengers and 3 crew, overran the runway following a rejected take-off at 16:13 local time (21:13 UTC). The aircraft was stopped by the EMAS at the end of the runway, sustaining", "Murphy, North Carolina center focuses on creative folk arts for all ages. The Folkschool also offers musical concerts and community dance entertainment. Murphy sits just northwest of 19/74/64/129 which runs from just southwest of Murphy to Topton, just before US 129 breaks off. It is easily accessed by motor vehicle. In-town and in-county transportation is available, for a small fee, via Cherokee County Transit. There are also private taxis for hire. Western Carolina Regional Airport , known locally as the Murphy Airport, Andrews Airport, or Andrews-Murphy Airport, is located between the cities of Andrews and Murphy. The closest commercial passenger airports are the", "STOLport abandoned and then demolished to make way for new suburban development. There is no trace remaining of this pioneering airfield. Rocky Mountain Airways was the worldwide launch customer of the de Havilland Canada DHC-7 Dash 7 four engine turboprop STOL aircraft. Rocky Mountain selected the 50-passenger Dash 7 specifically for the purpose of transporting passengers into high mountain airports with short runways such as the Avon STOLport located near Vail, Colorado from its hub located at Denver Airport. The airline also utilized the Dash 7 for scheduled flights into the small Steamboat Springs Airport (SBS) in Colorado. Rocky Mountain first", "Whitefield, New Hampshire Dalton and points beyond. Once important but now seldom-used railroad lines of the Maine Central and Boston and Maine railroads run through town. The Mount Washington Regional Airport is located in Whitefield. As of January 2006 Whitefield is also served by The Tri-Town Bus, a public transportation route connecting with Lancaster and Littleton. Whitefield, New Hampshire Whitefield is a town in Coos County, New Hampshire, United States, in the White Mountains Region. The population was 2,306 at the 2010 census. Situated on the northern edge of the White Mountains, Whitefield is home to the Mount Washington Regional Airport and the", "Mason County Airport (West Virginia) an asphalt surface measuring 4,000 by 75 feet (1,219 x 23 m). For the 12-month period ending July 1, 2012, the airport had 1,810 aircraft operations, an average of 150 per month: 93.9% general aviation, 5.5% air taxi, and 0.6% military. At that time there were nine aircraft based at this airport: 56% single-engine, 22% ultralight, 11% multi-engine, and 11% helicopter. Mason County Airport (West Virginia) Mason County Airport is a public use airport in Mason County, West Virginia, United States. It is owned by the Mason County Commission and located four nautical miles (5 mi, 7 km) northeast of", "Mid-Ohio Valley Regional Airport Mid-Ohio Valley Regional Airport Mid-Ohio Valley Regional Airport is a public use airport located six nautical miles (11 km) northeast of the central business district of Parkersburg, in Wood County, West Virginia, United States. It is owned by the Wood County Airport Authority and is also known as Wood County Airport or Gill Robb Wilson Field. It serves the Mid-Ohio Valley area which includes the Ohio cities of Marietta and Belpre and the West Virginia cities of Williamstown, Parkersburg and Vienna. It is mostly used for general aviation, but also has scheduled passenger service subsidized by the Essential Air Service", "North Central West Virginia Airport North Central West Virginia Airport North Central West Virginia Airport is a joint-use public and military airport located one nautical mile (2 km) northeast of the central business district of Bridgeport, a city in Harrison County, West Virginia, United States. While located in Bridgeport, the airport is primarily associated with Clarksburg, West Virginia. It is owned and operated by the Benedum Airport Authority, serving Harrison and Marion County, and was formerly known as Benedum Airport and Harrison-Marion Regional Airport. The airport is served by one commercial airline with scheduled passenger service subsidized by the Essential Air Service program. As per", "Eastern WV Regional Airport Eastern WV Regional Airport The Eastern West Virginia Regional Airport , also known as Shepherd Field, is a civilian-owned, public use airport located four nautical miles (5 mi, 7 km) south of the central business district of Martinsburg, a city in Berkeley County, West Virginia, United States. It is owned by the Eastern West Virginia Regional Airport Authority or EWVRAA. This airport is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, in which the Federal Aviation Administration categorized it as a \"reliever airport\". The airport is mostly used for general aviation. The airport's fixed base operator, Aero-Smith,", "Memorial Field Airport - Hot Springs - Shreveport - Houston (Hobby Airport). In later years from the late 1970s to the mid 1990s, several commuter airlines served Hot Springs with nonstop propjet flights to Dallas/Ft. Worth (DFW). Rio Airways, Scheduled Skyways and Lone Star Airlines all flew Fairchild Swearingen Metroliners nonstop to DFW. Rio previously flew Beechcraft 99 turboprops nonstop to Dallas/Fort Worth and Memphis. Lone Star operated Dornier 328 propjets on the DFW route as well. In addition, Executive Express operated Piper Navajo twin prop aircraft to DFW. Memorial Field Airport Memorial Field Airport is three miles southwest of the City of", "Destin–Fort Walton Beach Airport airlines serving the airport operate Canadair CRJ or Embraer ERJ regional jets. As a result of the American Airlines/US Airways merger, nonstop service between VPS and Reagan National in Washington, D.C. (DCA) was discontinued in early 2014 and then resumed in 2016 only to be discontinued once again. American Eagle now operates this Washington D.C. service on a seasonal basis. United Express flies daily regional jet service between VPS and Houston (IAH). American Eagle currently serves Dallas/Fort Worth (DFW) and Charlotte (CLT) and has discussed possibly starting nonstop service to Chicago (ORD) while American operates mainline jet service between the", "Roanoke–Blacksburg Regional Airport also included the creation of a tunnel beneath Runway 06/24 along Virginia State Route 118. Completed between 1983 and 1985, it is maintained by the Roanoke Regional Airport Commission. The most recent runway refurbishment was completed in 2002, in addition to the relocating one of the taxiways to prevent runway incursions. Due to the size and layout of its runways, the airport has been rated among the top ten airports within usable distance of Andrews Air Force Base for training pilots in the 89th Operations Group. This group is responsible for piloting Air Force One as the Special Air Mission", "Weirton, West Virginia Ohio River from Steubenville, Ohio, and about 35 miles west of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, along U.S. Route 22. Pittsburgh International Airport is less than 30 miles away. With the opening of Pennsylvania Route 576 from US 22 to the airport in October 2006, the highway distance to the airport has decreased to about 20 miles. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water. Weirton has three borders, including the cities of Follansbee to the south and New Cumberland to the north and the Pennsylvania/Washington County township of", "Middletown, Delaware in Middletown and Wilmington. The Route 302 bus provides intercounty service between Newark and Dover via Middletown, serving the Amazon fulfillment center. A railroad operated by the Delmarva Central Railroad runs through the center of Middletown. Summit Airport is just to the north of the town. The larger Wilmington Airport is in New Castle, and the nearest airport with commercial air service is the Philadelphia International Airport in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The Town of Middletown Electric Department provides electricity to the town. The electric department is a member of the Delaware Municipal Electric Corporation. The town maintains an electric substation, with", "Boyer Flight Park 18 per month. There are two ultralight aircraft based at this airport. Boyer Flight Park Boyer Flight Park is a public use ultralight airport in Carroll County, Indiana, United States. It is located four nautical miles (7 km) southwest of the central business district of Burnettsville, a town in White County. Boyer Flight Park covers an area of 7 acres (3 ha) at an elevation of 710 feet (216 m) above mean sea level. It has one runway designated 18/36 with a turf surface measuring 1,770 by 120 feet (539 x 37 m). For the 12-month period ending December 31,", "Mount Washington Regional Airport Mount Washington Regional Airport Mount Washington Regional Airport is a public airport located east of downtown Whitefield in Coos County, New Hampshire, USA. The Civil Air Patrol maintains a composite squadron at this location. It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021, in which it is categorized as a local general aviation facility. The airport has a single, newly re-paved runway that is long, wide, at an average altitude of MSL, beneath the Yankee One Military Operations Area (MOA). It features pilot-controlled lighting. Traffic pattern altitude is MSL, and pilots must", "Huntington, West Virginia of total tonnage and ton-miles. This is due in large part to the coal traffic from the railroads and the petroleum products produced by the Marathon Petroleum oil refinery in nearby Catlettsburg, Kentucky that use the Port of Huntington/Tri-State to load their products onto barges. The public Tri-State Airport, southwest of the city, has two runways. Commercial air service is provided by Allegiant Air and American Eagle. Huntington, West Virginia Huntington is a city in Cabell and Wayne Counties in the U.S. state of West Virginia. It is the county seat of Cabell County, and largest city in the Huntington-Ashland,", "White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia the Cold War, the resort had been the site of a \"bunker\", the Emergency Relocation Center, which was intended to house and protect the U.S. Congress in the event of a nuclear attack. In June 2016, there was a historic severe flood in West Virginia that impacted White Sulphur Springs. The Greenbrier also currently serves as the location for training camp for the Houston Texans. White Sulphur Springs is located at (37.793975, -80.303538). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. It is also within the", "Route 311 (Virginia–West Virginia) or from northbound Route 311 to eastbound I-64. Route 311 (Virginia–West Virginia) Virginia State Route 311 (SR 311) and West Virginia Route 311 (WV 311) are adjoining state highways in the U.S. states of Virginia and West Virginia. The two state highways together run from U.S. Route 11 in Salem, Virginia north to Interstate 64 and U.S. Route 60 near White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. The two Virginia portions of Route 311 are maintained by the Virginia Department of Transportation, with the exception of the city-maintained portion within Salem. The West Virginia segments are maintained by the West Virginia Division", "Mason County Airport (West Virginia) Mason County Airport (West Virginia) Mason County Airport is a public use airport in Mason County, West Virginia, United States. It is owned by the Mason County Commission and located four nautical miles (5 mi, 7 km) northeast of the central business district of Point Pleasant, West Virginia. This airport is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, which categorized it as a \"general aviation\" facility. Mason County Airport covers an area of 124 acres (50 ha) at an elevation of 643 feet (196 m) above mean sea level. It has one runway designated 7/25 with", "Piedmont Airlines (1948–89) North Carolina, to Lynchburg, Virginia. Its early routes stretched from Wilmington, North Carolina, northwest to Cincinnati, Ohio, with numerous intermediate stops. Early routes were operated with Douglas DC-3 aircraft. Piedmont started with Douglas DC-3s and later added the Fairchild F-27 and Martin 4-0-4; Fairchild Hiller FH-227B flights started in 1967 and NAMC YS-11A flights in May 1969. In August 1953 it scheduled flights to 26 airports and by May 1968 the number of airports served had grown to 47. Like other Local Service airlines, Piedmont was subsidized; in 1962, its operating \"revenues\" of $18.2 million included $4.8 million \"Pub. serv.", "Grant County Airport (West Virginia) surface measuring 5,000 by 75 feet (1,524 x 23 m). For the 12-month period ending December 31, 2009, the airport had 14,000 aircraft operations, an average of 38 per day: 99% general aviation and 1% military. At that time there were 24 aircraft based at this airport: 71% single-engine, 13% multi-engine, 4% helicopter, and 13% glider. Grant County Airport (West Virginia) Grant County Airport is a public use airport in Grant County, West Virginia, United States. It is located one nautical mile (2 km) southwest of the central business district of Petersburg, West Virginia, and owned by the Grant County", "Eagle-Vail, Colorado the population were living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 7.5% of those over 64. Vail is served by Eagle County Airport, which is near Gypsum. Native Americans used to call the area near this airport the \"hole in the sky\" because storms seemed to avoid it. Interstate 70 runs east-west through the middle of Eagle Vail and is the only road to Eagle Vail. East of Eagle Vail along the highway is Vail, Vail Pass and Denver, located 97 miles away. To the West, it passes through Avon, Eagle, Grand Junction and reaches the State of", "Bellingham, Massachusetts Industrial Park Airport, just over the town line along Route 140. The Worcester Regional Airport is twenty-eight miles away, and the nearest national air service can be reached at T. F. Green Airport, thirty miles away. The nearest international airport is Boston's Logan International Airport, 35 miles (56 km) away. There is no rail service in town; however, the MBTA's Franklin Line terminates just 2 miles (3 km) from the town line at Forge Park/I-495 in Franklin, and approximately 5 miles (8 km) from the town center. The neighboring city of Woonsocket, Rhode Island had proposed a plan to bring", "Fayetteville Regional Airport were 55 aircraft based at this airport: 62% single-engine, 25% multi-engine, 11% jet, and 2% helicopter. Fayetteville Regional Airport was served in the past by Piedmont Airlines, which merged with Allegheny Airlines and Pacific Southwest Airlines to form US Airways and US Airways Express; Atlantic Southeast Airlines, now a part of Delta Connection; and American Eagle, a subsidiary of AMR Corporation and commuter carrier for American Airlines. American Eagle provided nonstop service to Raleigh–Durham International Airport and Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. US Airways Express provided nonstop service to Charlotte Douglas International Airport, Washington–National and offered seasonal service to Philadelphia International", "Mountain Line Transit Authority Mountain Line Transit Authority Mountain Line Transit Authority is the main provider of public transportation located in Morgantown, West Virginia and the surrounding area. It is also the provider of bus service on the campus of West Virginia University. Inter-city bus service to Fairmont, Clarksburg, Waynesburg, PA, Pittsburgh, PA, and the Pittsburgh International Airport is achieved with the Gray Line. Fare for all local routes is $0.75 (Purple UTC is $1.00), while Gray Line can cost up to $30 for a single person to Pittsburgh International Airport from Clarksburg WV. Towers to downtown by way of Ruby Hospital, Valley View", "Route 311 (Virginia–West Virginia) Route 311 (Virginia–West Virginia) Virginia State Route 311 (SR 311) and West Virginia Route 311 (WV 311) are adjoining state highways in the U.S. states of Virginia and West Virginia. The two state highways together run from U.S. Route 11 in Salem, Virginia north to Interstate 64 and U.S. Route 60 near White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. The two Virginia portions of Route 311 are maintained by the Virginia Department of Transportation, with the exception of the city-maintained portion within Salem. The West Virginia segments are maintained by the West Virginia Division of Highways. SR 311 is a Virginia Byway", "Morgantown, West Virginia few local news stories and an abundance of advertisements. Both are free of charge and mass-mailed throughout the Morgantown area. Morgantown is part of the Pittsburgh television market, though stations in the Clarksburg/Weston market claim Morgantown as part of their primary coverage area. Morgantown Municipal Airport is one of West Virginia's few commercial airports. It is located approximately northeast of the downtown along U.S. Route 119. The only active rail line near Morgantown is owned by Norfolk Southern with CSX trackage rights and serves a mine located northwest of Rivesville, West Virginia. Coal is the major commodity, with a train", "Welch Municipal Airport 8% military. At that time there were two single-engine aircraft based at this airport. This airport has been closed since at least 2013. The nearest active airport is Kee Field near Windom, West Virginia. Welch Municipal Airport Welch Municipal Airport is a city-owned, public-use airport located three nautical miles (6 km) southeast of the central business district of Welch, a city in McDowell County, West Virginia, United States. Welch Municipal Airport covers an area of 65 acres (26 ha) at an elevation of 2,118 feet (646 m) above mean sea level. It has one runway designated 9/27 with an asphalt", "Intermountain Healthcare Children's Medical Center in Salt Lake City, and Dixie Regional Medical Center in St. George. Life Flight also operates three Beechcraft B200 King Air twin-turboprop aircraft. Two are based at Life Flight's operations center at the Salt Lake City International Airport, and the third is based at St. George Regional Airport. The helicopters generally service an area 150 mile around their base, but can travel 1,000 miles without refueling. In addition to servicing Utah, Life Flight transports patients from Arizona, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Wyoming, and other locations in the Western United States. Life Flight and its staff are Commission on", "Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport and Williamsburg, as well as James City County and York County. Since 2010, the Commission consists of six commissioners who are appointed by the cities of Hampton (2) and Newport News (4). In 1985, USAir added mainline jet services from Pittsburgh and Washington, DC. These jet services were pulled in 1995. US Airways Express (and, later, American Eagle) subsequently served Philadelphia and Charlotte from the airport. AirTran started service from the airport to Atlanta in 1995, but ended service in March 2012. Delta Connection began service from Newport News to Atlanta in February 2002. The PAC renamed the facility Newport", "People Express Airlines (2010s) authority and FAA Part 121 certification. People Express had plans on obtaining its own FAA certification and begin operating independently within the next few years. The airline's business model was to operate to niche markets, largely in the eastern United States, that were underserved or unserved by mainline airlines while charging about 40% less than typical fares. The airline's base and hub were located at Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport (PHF) in Newport News, VA. The airport was previously served by AirTran in 2012 and Allegiant Air in 2014; however, both airlines then ceased serving Newport News. In addition, the airport" ]

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[ "Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms \"educational psychology\" and \"school psychology\" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities." ]

[ "Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H2. However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from Earth's gravity more easily than heavier gases. However, hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth's surface, mostly in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water. Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus, as is methane, itself a hydrogen source of increasing importance.", "When a joint German–Soviet peace initiative was rejected by Britain and France on 28 September 1939, Soviet foreign policy became critical of the Allies and more pro-German in turn. During the fifth session of the Supreme Soviet on 31 October 1939 Molotov analysed the international situation thus giving the direction for Communist propaganda. According to Molotov Germany had a legitimate interest in regaining its position as a great power and the Allies had started an aggressive war in order to maintain the Versailles system.", "In 1964, Paul VI created a Secretariat for non-Christians, later renamed the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue and a year later a new Secretariat (later Pontifical Council) for Dialogue with Non-Believers. This latter was in 1993 incorporated by Pope John Paul II in the Pontifical Council for Culture, which he had established in 1982. In 1971, Paul VI created a papal office for economic development and catastrophic assistance. To foster common bonds with all persons of good will, he decreed an annual peace day to be celebrated on January first of every year. Trying to improve the condition of Christians behind the Iron Curtain, Paul VI engaged in dialogue with Communist authorities at several levels, receiving Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko and Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet Nikolai Podgorny in 1966 and 1967 in the Vatican. The situation of the Church in Hungary, Poland and Romania, improved during his pontificate.", "The Partyja BPF (Belarusian Popular Front) was established in 1988 as a political party and cultural movement for democracy and independence, à la the Baltic republics’ popular fronts. The discovery of mass graves in Kurapaty outside Minsk by historian Zianon Pazniak, the Belarusian Popular Front’s first leader, gave additional momentum to the pro-democracy and pro-independence movement in Belarus. It claimed that the NKVD performed secret killings in Kurapaty. Initially the Front had significant visibility because its numerous public actions almost always ended in clashes with the police and the KGB.", "The Arctic tern holds the long-distance migration record for birds, travelling between Arctic breeding grounds and the Antarctic each year. Some species of tubenoses (Procellariiformes) such as albatrosses circle the earth, flying over the southern oceans, while others such as Manx shearwaters migrate 14,000 km (8,700 mi) between their northern breeding grounds and the southern ocean. Shorter migrations are common, including altitudinal migrations on mountains such as the Andes and Himalayas.", "Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for example by rotating or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with a set of stationary plates. Low cost variable capacitors squeeze together alternating layers of aluminum and plastic with a screw. Electrical control of capacitance is achievable with varactors (or varicaps), which are reverse-biased semiconductor diodes whose depletion region width varies with applied voltage. They are used in phase-locked loops, amongst other applications.", "Due to the legitimate role that referees play in wrestling of serving as liaison between the bookers backstage and the wrestlers in the ring (the role of being a final arbitrator is merely kayfabe), the referee is present, even in matches that do not at first glance appear to require a referee (such as a ladder match, as it is no holds barred, and the criteria for victory could theoretically be assessed from afar). Although their actions are also frequently scripted for dramatic effect, referees are subject to certain general rules and requirements in order to maintain the theatrical appearance of unbiased authority. The most basic rule is that an action must be seen by a referee to be declared for a fall or disqualification. This allows for heel characters to gain a scripted advantage by distracting or disabling the referee in order to perform some ostensibly illegal maneuver on their opponent. Most referees are unnamed and essentially anonymous, though the WWE has let their officials reveal their names." ]

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[ "On May 9, 2011, Shriver and Schwarzenegger ended their relationship after 25 years of marriage, with Shriver moving out of the couple's Brentwood mansion. On May 16, 2011, the Los Angeles Times revealed that Schwarzenegger had fathered a son more than fourteen years earlier with an employee in their household, Mildred Patricia 'Patty' Baena. \"After leaving the governor's office I told my wife about this event, which occurred over a decade ago,\" Schwarzenegger said in a statement issued to The Times. In the statement, Schwarzenegger did not mention that he had confessed to his wife only after Shriver had confronted him with the information, which she had done after confirming with the housekeeper what she had suspected about the child." ]

[ "The operational framework is provided by the Byelaws, which are more frequently updated than the Charter. Any revisions to the Charter or Byelaws require the Privy Council's approval. ", "An important part of traditional, pre-generative schools of phonology is studying which sounds can be grouped into distinctive units within a language; these units are known as phonemes. For example, in English, the \"p\" sound in pot is aspirated (pronounced [pʰ]) while that in spot is not aspirated (pronounced [p]). However, English speakers intuitively treat both sounds as variations (allophones) of the same phonological category, that is of the phoneme /p/. (Traditionally, it would be argued that if an aspirated [pʰ] were interchanged with the unaspirated [p] in spot, native speakers of English would still hear the same words; that is, the two sounds are perceived as \"the same\" /p/.) In some other languages, however, these two sounds are perceived as different, and they are consequently assigned to different phonemes. For example, in Thai, Hindi, and Quechua, there are minimal pairs of words for which aspiration is the only contrasting feature (two words can have different meanings but with the only difference in pronunciation being that one has an aspirated sound where the other has an unaspirated one).", "Marvel counts among its characters such well-known superheroes as Spider-Man, Iron Man, Captain America, Wolverine, Thor, Hulk, Ant-Man, such teams as the Avengers, the Guardians of the Galaxy, the Fantastic Four, the Inhumans and the X-Men, and antagonists such as Doctor Doom, The Enchantress, Green Goblin, Ultron, Doctor Octopus, Thanos, Magneto and Loki. Most of Marvel's fictional characters operate in a single reality known as the Marvel Universe, with locations that mirror real-life cities. Characters such as Spider-Man, the Fantastic Four, the Avengers, Daredevil and Doctor Strange are based in New York City, whereas the X-Men have historically been based in Salem Center, New York and Hulk's stories often have been set in the American Southwest.", "The city is governed pursuant to the Home Rule Charter of the City of Detroit. The city government is run by a mayor and a nine-member city council and clerk elected on an at-large nonpartisan ballot. Since voters approved the city's charter in 1974, Detroit has had a \"strong mayoral\" system, with the mayor approving departmental appointments. The council approves budgets but the mayor is not obligated to adhere to any earmarking. City ordinances and substantially large contracts must be approved by the council. The Detroit City Code is the codification of Detroit's local ordinances.", "Whilst filming in Mexico City, speculation in the media claimed that the script had been altered to accommodate the demands of Mexican authorities—reportedly influencing details of the scene and characters, casting choices, and modifying the script in order to portray the country in a \"positive light\"—in order to secure tax concessions and financial support worth up to $20 million for the film. This was denied by producer Michael G. Wilson, who stated that the scene had always been intended to be shot in Mexico as production had been attracted to the imagery of the Day of the Dead, and that the script had been developed from there. Production of Skyfall had previously faced similar problems while attempting to secure permits to shoot the film's pre-title sequence in India before moving to Istanbul.", "Since the late 1980s, significant development has occurred in the Bronx, first stimulated by the city's \"Ten-Year Housing Plan\" and community members working to rebuild the social, economic and environmental infrastructure by creating affordable housing. Groups affiliated with churches in the South Bronx erected the Nehemiah Homes with about 1,000 units. The grass roots organization Nos Quedamos' endeavor known as Melrose Commons began to rebuild areas in the South Bronx. The IRT White Plains Road Line (2 5 trains) began to show an increase in riders. Chains such as Marshalls, Staples, and Target opened stores in the Bronx. More bank branches opened in the Bronx as a whole (rising from 106 in 1997 to 149 in 2007), although not primarily in poor or minority neighborhoods, while the Bronx still has fewer branches per person than other boroughs.", "As of 2002 there are four areas in Detroit with significant Asian and Asian American populations. Northeast Detroit has population of Hmong with a smaller group of Lao people. A portion of Detroit next to eastern Hamtramck includes Bangladeshi Americans, Indian Americans, and Pakistani Americans; nearly all of the Bangladeshi population in Detroit lives in that area. Many of those residents own small businesses or work in blue collar jobs, and the population in that area is mostly Muslim. The area north of Downtown Detroit; including the region around the Henry Ford Hospital, the Detroit Medical Center, and Wayne State University; has transient Asian national origin residents who are university students or hospital workers. Few of them have permanent residency after schooling ends. They are mostly Chinese and Indian but the population also includes Filipinos, Koreans, and Pakistanis. In Southwest Detroit and western Detroit there are smaller, scattered Asian communities including an area in the westside adjacent to Dearborn and Redford Township that has a mostly Indian Asian population, and a community of Vietnamese and Laotians in Southwest Detroit." ]

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[ "The Shot (Valparaiso University) \"The Shot\" refers to a play by Valparaiso University's Crusaders that occurred in the first round of the 1998 NCAA Tournament. The play came in Valpo's game against the University of Mississippi Rebels at The Myriad in Oklahoma City on March 13, 1998, and gave the #13 seed Crusaders a 70–69 victory over #4 seed Ole Miss. The game was part of a Valparaiso Cinderella run in the tournament that ended in the Sweet Sixteen when the Crusaders lost to Rhode Island.", "Ole Miss Rebels The Ole Miss Rebels are the intercollegiate athletic teams officially representing the University of Mississippi. Originally known as the \"Mississippi Flood\", the teams were renamed the Rebels in 1936 and compete in the Southeastern Conference (SEC) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)'s Division I. The only exception is the rifle team, which participates in the Great America Rifle Conference because the SEC does not sponsor that sport. The school's colors are red (PMS 186) and navy blue (PMS 2767), purposely chosen to mirror the school colors of Harvard and Yale, respectively. With a long history in intercollegiate athletics (Ole Miss began football in 1890), the university competes in 18 men's and women's sports. Student-athletes, 630 in all, received all-conference academic honors from 1995 to 2004." ]

[ "2010 Ole Miss Rebels football team The 2010 Ole Miss Rebels football team represented the University of Mississippi during the 2010 college football season. The team was coached by Houston Nutt, who was in his third season as the Rebels' head coach. Ole Miss has been a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC) since the league's inception in 1932, and has participated in that conference's Western Division since its formation in 1992. The Rebels played seven home games in 2010 at Vaught–Hemingway Stadium in Oxford, Mississippi, which has been Ole Miss football's home since 1915. They finished the season 4–8, 1–7 in SEC play.", "Southern Miss Golden Eagles football The Southern Miss Golden Eagles football program represents the University of Southern Mississippi in college football at the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision. The Eagles are members of Conference USA and play their home games at M. M. Roberts Stadium in Hattiesburg, Mississippi.", "2014–15 Ole Miss Rebels men's basketball team The 2014–15 Ole Miss Rebels men's basketball team represented the University of Mississippi in the 2014–15 NCAA Division I men's basketball season. The team's head coach was Andy Kennedy, in his ninth season at Ole Miss. The team played their home games at the Tad Smith Coliseum in Oxford, Mississippi as a member of the Southeastern Conference. They finished the season 21–13, 11–7 in SEC play to finish in four way tie for third place. They lost in the second round of the SEC Tournament to South Carolina. They received an at-large bid to the NCAA Tournament where they defeated BYU in the First Four before losing in the second round to Xavier.", "Ohio Bobcats men's basketball The Ohio Bobcats men's basketball team is an intercollegiate varsity sports program of Ohio University. The team is a member of the Mid-American Conference East Division competing in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The Bobcats have played their home games in the Convocation Center since 1968.", "List of Oklahoma Sooners head basketball coaches The Oklahoma Sooners men's basketball and women's basketball programs are college basketball teams that represents the University of Oklahoma. Both teams play at the Division I level of the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA).", "1991 Ole Miss Rebels football team The 1991 Ole Miss Rebels football team represented the University of Mississippi during the 1991 NCAA Division I-A football season. The Rebels were led by ninth-year head coach Billy Brewer and played their home games at Vaught–Hemingway Stadium in Oxford, Mississippi, and alternate-site home games at Mississippi Veterans Memorial Stadium in Jackson, Mississippi. They competed as members of the Southeastern Conference, finishing in ninth.", "Maryland Terrapins The Maryland Terrapins, commonly referred to as the Terps, consist of 20 men's and women's athletic teams that represent the University of Maryland, College Park in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I competition. Maryland was a founding member of the Southern Conference in 1921, a founding member of the Atlantic Coast Conference in 1952, and is now a member of the Big Ten Conference.", "Morgan State Bears The Morgan State Bears are the twelve varsity sports teams representing Morgan State University in Baltimore, Maryland in intercollegiate athletics, including men and women's basketball, cross country, tennis and track and field; women's-only bowling, softball, and volleyball; and men's-only football. The Bears compete in the NCAA Division I FCS and are members of the Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference.", "Northern Illinois Huskies The Northern Illinois Huskies are the athletic teams that represent Northern Illinois University (NIU). The Huskies are a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and the Mid-American Conference (MAC). The athletic program is made up of seven men's sports (baseball, basketball, football, golf, soccer, tennis, and wrestling) and 10 women's sports (basketball, cross country, golf, gymnastics, soccer, softball, tennis, track, and volleyball). The football team competes in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS).", "2000 NCAA Rifle Championships The 2000 NCAA Rifle Championships were contested at the 21st annual NCAA-sanctioned competition to determine the team and individual national champions of co-ed collegiate rifle shooting in the United States. The championship was hosted by the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington, Virginia.", "Alabama Crimson Tide women's volleyball The Alabama Crimson Tide volleyball team represents the University of Alabama located in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and competes in National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) Division I, and the Southeastern Conference (SEC).", "Ohio Bobcats football The Ohio Bobcats football team is an intercollegiate varsity sports program of Ohio University. The team represents the university as a member of the Mid-American Conference (MAC), playing at the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision level. The Bobcats have played their home games in Peden Stadium in Athens, Ohio since 1929.", "2004 Cotton Bowl Classic The 2004 Cotton Bowl Classic was a post-season college football bowl game between the Ole Miss Rebels and the Oklahoma State Cowboys on January 2, 2004, at the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, Texas. It was the final game of the 2003 NCAA Division I-A football season for each team and resulted in a 31-28 Ole Miss victory. Ole Miss represented the Southeastern Conference (SEC) while Oklahome State represented the Big 12 Conference. It was Ole Miss's first January bowl victory since the 1970 Sugar Bowl and first Cotton Bowl Classic appearance since 1962.", "1990 SEC Men's Basketball Tournament The 1990 SEC Men’s Basketball Tournament was held March 8-11, 1990 at the Orlando Arena in Orlando, Florida. The Alabama Crimson Tide won the tournament and received the SEC’s automatic bid to the 1990 NCAA Men’s Division I Basketball Tournament by defeating the Ole Miss Rebels by a score of 70-51.", "Mississippi College Choctaws The Mississippi College Choctaws are the athletic teams of Mississippi College. On July 11, 2014 the NCAA approved entering their second year of NCAA Division II candidacy. The Choctaws are in the process of becoming full members of the Gulf South Conference. The college sponsors teams in football, basketball (men's and women's), baseball, softball, tennis (men's & women's), golf (men's & women's), soccer (women's), volleyball, track and field (men's outdoor & women's indoor & outdoor), cross country running (men's & women's), equestrian (women's), and table tennis (men's & women's). In the second year of transition, the Choctaws compete against members of the Gulf South Conference. They will become full members of NCAA Division II and a full Gulf South Conference member in 2016-17.", "Oklahoma Sooners men's basketball The Oklahoma Sooners men's basketball team represents the University of Oklahoma in men's NCAA Division I basketball. The Sooners play in the Big 12 Conference.", "1959 Ole Miss Rebels football team The 1959 Ole Miss Rebels football team represented the University of Mississippi during the 1959 college football season. Ole Miss finished the season with an overall record of ten wins and one loss (10–1), tied for second in the Southeastern Conference (SEC) and with a victory over LSU in the Sugar Bowl. The team gave up only 21 points all season, and were crowned national champions by Berryman, Billingsley, Dunkel and Sagarin. Syracuse was crowned as the national champion by both the AP and the UPI wire services. The team was later rated the third best squad from 1956–1995 by Sagarin.", "Mount Olive Trojans The Mount Olive Trojans are the athletic teams that represent the University of Mount Olive, located in Mount Olive, North Carolina, in NCAA Division II intercollegiate sporting competitions. UMO's sports teams are known as the Trojans; their colors are green and white. The Trojans participate as a member of Conference Carolinas at the NCAA Division II level in 18 sports:", "Missouri State Bears and Lady Bears The Missouri State Bears and Lady Bears are the athletic teams representing Missouri State University (formerly Southwest Missouri State University). These athletics programs date back to 1908. Missouri State competes in the NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision, and most teams compete in the Missouri Valley Conference. Missouri State is more and more frequently being abbreviated by the media as MOST.", "Colonel Reb Colonel Reb was the mascot of Ole Miss Rebels, the collegiate athletic teams of the University of Mississippi (\"Ole Miss\") in Oxford, Mississippi. Designed in 1936, the Colonel served as the teams' official sideline mascot from 1979 until 2003. The university replaced him in 2010 with a new on-field mascot, the Black Bear." ]

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[ "Zuiganji temple is in the middle of a Zen Buddhist seminary." ]

[ "Zuiganji temple is outside of a Zen Buddhist seminary.", "People watch a young boy dressed in traditional clothing while walking down a road.", "They have no legal option besides to pay.", "The dog waded through the water towards the rock.", "Will you get me a glass of water.", "Man is controlling a bicycle on something", "the man in indoors" ]

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[ "Sorry if this upsets you, but I am on the payroll." ]

[ "I've been scrounging for change since becoming unemployed.", "Could there anything more different than these two campaigns by ABC and Nike?", "Bike riders are preparing to race.", "There is a cement truck on the street.", "Just a mile away lies the island of Telendos.", "A woman is sipping some wine.", "Despite Brosnan's attempt, he just did not capture the Flemingesque irritation in the opening chase." ]

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[ "When we are there, finish the job." ]

[ "They did not want the job finished.", "The institute of Jamaica is found on West street.", "A man is reading a book while in bed.", "A man is fishing.", "A man is about to his a gold ball with his club.", "A woman singing for money.", "I will give it all my capability. The vehicle darted forwards in the traffic." ]

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[ "A young boy holding a seashell." ]

[ "A young boy eats a crab.", "A woman is carrying food.", "The girl and guy are laying down looking at the stars.", "The man is playing the piano at the rock concert.", "The festival has a big parade.", "The marble the created the Arsinoion rotunda wasn't brought from Thasos.", "A bird in a tree." ]

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[ "Le est le jour de l'année du calendrier grégorien, le en cas d'année bissextile. Il reste 179 jours avant la fin de l'année.\n\nC'était généralement le du mois de messidor dans le calendrier républicain français, officiellement dénommé jour de la groseille.\n\n4 juillet - - 6 juillet\n\nÉvénements\n\n1194 : bataille de Fréteval entre Richard Cœur de Lion et Philippe Auguste. Battu, Philippe parvient à s'enfuir mais perd son trésor et ses archives.\n\n1316 : bataille de Manolada entre Ferdinand de Majorque et Louis de Bourgogne.\n\n1594 : au Sri Lanka, début de la campagne de Danture des Portugais contre le Royaume de Kandy. Elle se termine par l'annéantissement de leur corps expéditionnaire le 9 octobre. Le royaume restera indépendant jusqu'en 1815.\n\n1770 : bataille de Tchesmé entre les flottes de la Russie de Catherine II et de l'Empire ottoman.\n\n1809 : début de la bataille de Wagram entre Napoléon et archiduc Charles.\n 1811 : déclaration d'indépendance du Venezuela.\n 1814 : bataille de Chippawa lors de la guerre anglo-américaine de 1812.\n 1830 : prise d'Alger.\n 1833 : l'escadre britannique de Charles Napier défait la flotte de Dom Miguel lors de la bataille du cap Saint-Vincent.\n 1863 : établissement d'un protectorat français au Cambodge par signature d'un traité avec le roi Norodom .\n 1865 : fondation de l'Armée du salut.\n 1884 : protectorat allemand sur le Togo et sur le Cameroun.\n\n1905 : Alfred Deakin devient Premier ministre d'Australie pour la seconde fois.\n 1932 : Salazar devient président du Conseil portugais.\n 1934 : « jeudi sanglant » qui déclenche la à San Francisco.\n 1943 : début de la bataille de Koursk.\n 1950 : la loi du retour, votée par la Knesset, garantit à tout Juif le droit d'immigrer en Israël.\n 1962 : Massacre d'Oran, quelques heures avant la proclamation officielle de l'indépendance de l'Algérie.\n 1972 : Pierre Messmer devient Premier ministre de la France.\n 1975 : indépendance du Cap-Vert.\n 1980 : abolition de l'esclavage en Mauritanie.\n 1995 : adoption de la constitution de la République d'Arménie.\n\n2006 : inauguration du nouveau terminal de l'aéroport d'Alger. Il remplace l'ancien terminal international.\n 2012 :\n inauguration du Shard London Bridge à Londres, le plus haut gratte-ciel d’Europe.\n résolution du Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies ayant pour sujet : paix et sécurité en Afrique.\n résolution du Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies ayant pour sujet : rapport du secrétaire général sur le Soudan.\n 2014 : le siège de Sloviansk se conclut par la reprise de la ville par l’armée ukrainienne.\n 2017 : après presque trois années de combats contre divers groupes djihadistes, l'Armée nationale libyenne s'empare en totalité de la ville de Benghazi.\n\nArts, culture et religion \n\n 1916 : début de la parution régulière de l'hebdomadaire satirique français Le Canard enchaîné.\n\nSciences et techniques \n\n 1687 : publication de Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica d'Isaac Newton.\n 1951 : annonce d'un nouveau type de transistor, le JFET par William Shockley des laboratoires Bell.\n 1996 : naissance de Dolly la brebis, le premier mammifère cloné.\n 2016 : mise en orbite de la sonde spatiale Juno autour de Jupiter.\n\nÉconomie et société \n\n 1865 : fondation de l'Armée du salut.\n 2001 : pic historique de 11,7 millions de téléspectateurs sur M6 pour la dernière diffusion de la Saison 1 de Loft Story.\n 2015 : le « non » l'emporte lors d'un référendum organisé en Grèce sur le projet d’accord proposé par les créanciers du pays.\n\nNaissances\n\n182 : Sun Quan (孙权), empereur chinois de la dynastie des Wu occidentaux, régnant de 222 à 252 († ).\n\n465 : Ahkal Mo' Naab' I, souverain de Palenque, régnant de 501 à 524 († ).\n\n1029 : Al-Mustansir Billah (المستنصر), huitième calife fatimide, régnant de 1035 à 1094 († ).\n\n1182 : François d'Assise (Giovanni di Pietro Bernardone, dit), saint catholique italien († ).\n\n1321: Jeanne d'Angleterre, reine d'Écosse, première épouse du roi David II d'Écosse († ).\n\n1466: Giovanni Sforza, condottiere italien († ).\n\n1500 : Pâris Bordone, peintre italien († ).\n 1512 : Cristoforo Madruzzo, cardinal germano-italien († ).\n 1549 : Francesco Maria del Monte, prélat italien († ).\n 1554 : Élisabeth d'Autriche, reine de France, épouse de Charles IX († ).\n 1580 : Carlo Contarini, de Venise († ).\n 1586 : Thomas Hooker, religieux américain († ).\n\n1613 : Jean-François Niceron, physicien français († ).\n 1670 : Dorothée Sophie de Neubourg, duchesse de Parme († ).\n 1673 : Friedrich Heinrich von Seckendorff, diplomate allemand († ).\n\n1704 : Jack Broughton, boxeur anglais († ).\n 1709 : Étienne de Silhouette, haut fonctionnaire français († ).\n 1717 : Pierre III de Portugal, roi de Portugal, régnant de 1777 à 1786 († ).\n 1723 : Philippe II de Schaumbourg-Lippe, comte de Schaumbourg-Lippe († ).\n 1735 : August Ludwig Schlözer, homme de lettres allemand († ).\n 1745 : Carl Arnold Kortum, écrivain et médecin allemand († ).\n 1750 : Ami Argand, physicien et chimiste suisse († ).\n 1755 :\n Sarah Siddons, actrice britannique († ).\n Théodore de Reding de Biberegg, général suisse († ).\n 1766 : Jean-Pierre de Montalivet, homme d'État français († ).\n 1773 : Jeanne-Élisabeth Bichier des Ages, religieuse française, sainte catholique († ).\n 1775 : William Crotch, organiste et compositeur anglais († ).\n 1781 :\n George Bruce, industriel, inventeur et entrepreneur écossais naturalisé américain († ).\n Thomas Stamford Raffles, militaire et un naturaliste britannique († ).\n 1783 : Charles-Louis Havas, journaliste et écrivain français, fondateur de l'Agence Havas († ).\n 1784 : Leopoldo Nobili, physicien italien († ).\n 1789 : Faddeï Boulgarine (Фаддей Венедиктович Булгарин) (né Jan Tadeusz Bułharyn), homme de lettres russo-polonais († ).\n 1795 : Pavel Ivanovitch Pestel (Павел Иванович Пестель), révolutionnaire russe († ).\n 1794 : Sylvester Graham, pasteur presbytérien et diététicien américain († ).\n 1795 :\n Charles Beslay, personnalité de la Commune de Paris († ).\n Ernst Hampe, botaniste allemand († ).\n Benjamin Morrell, explorateur américain († 1839).\n\n1801 : David Farragut, militaire américain († ).\n 1802 : Pavel Nakhimov (Павел Степанович Нахимов), militaire russe († ).\n 1805 : Robert FitzRoy, hydrographe et cartographe britannique († ).\n 1810 : Phineas Taylor Barnum, homme de cirque américain († ).\n 1817 : Carl Vogt, naturaliste et médecin suisse d'origine allemande († ).\n 1820 : William John Macquorn Rankine, physicien écossais († ).\n 1830 :\n Pablo de Anda Padilla, prêtre, fondateur († ).\n Emilio Dandolo, patriote italien († ).\n 1832 : Pavel Tchistiakov (Павел Петрович Чистяков), peintre russe († ).\n 1837 : Joachim IV de Constantinople, patriarche de Constantinople († ).\n 1843 : Anton Ausserer, naturaliste allemand († ).\n 1844 : Arthur Dansereau, journaliste québécois († ).\n 1846 : Joseph B. Foraker, homme politique américain, gouverneur de l'Ohio de 1886 à 1890 († ).\n 1849 : William Thomas Stead, journaliste, écrivain et spiritualiste anglais († ).\n 1851 : William Brewster, ornithologue américain († ).\n 1853 : \n Cecil Rhodes, homme d'affaires britannique († ).\n Charles Mengin, peintre et sculpteur français († ).\n Tivadar Kosztka Csontváry, peintre hongrois († ).\n 1854 : Giuseppe Sacconi, architecte italien († ).\n 1857 :\n Julien Tiersot, musicologue, ethnomusicologue et compositeur français († ).\n Clara Zetkin, journaliste et femme politique allemande († ).\n 1860 :\n Mathieu Jaboulay, chirurgien français († ).\n Albert Döderlein, gynécologue allemand († ).\n 1864 : Stephan Krehl, compositeur allemand († ).\n 1867 : Max Jakob Friedländer, historien de l'art allemand († ).\n 1872 : Édouard Herriot, homme politique français, président du Conseil de juin à († ).\n 1874 : Eugen Fischer, médecin, généticien, anthropologue et universitaire allemand († ).\n 1879 :\n Dwight Davis, joueur de tennis et homme politique américain, créateur de la Coupe Davis († ).\n Wanda Landowska, pianiste et claveciniste polonaise († ).\n Volkmar Andreae, compositeur et chef d’orchestre suisse († ).\n 1880 : Jan Kubelík, musicien hongrois († ).\n 1883 : Gustave Lanctôt, écrivain, historien et archiviste québécois († ).\n 1885 : \n André Lhote, peintre français († ).\n Blas Infante, politicien, idéologue et écrivain andalou († ).\n 1886 : Willem Drees, homme politique, Premier ministre des Pays-Bas de 1948 à 1958 († ).\n 1889 : Jean Cocteau, écrivain, cinéaste et dessinateur français, membre de l'Académie française († ).\n 1891 :\n John Howard Northrop, biochimiste américain, prix Nobel en 1946 († ).\n Tin Ujević, poète croate († ).\n 1893 : Léon-Charles de Habsbourg-Lorraine, archiduc d'Autriche († ).\n 1898 : Robert Roth, lutteur suisse († ).\n 1899 :\n Marcel Achard, homme de lettres français, membre de l'Académie française († ).\n Marcel Arland, écrivain français, membre de l'Académie française († ).\n 1900 : Bernard Jan Alfrink, prélat néerlandais, primat des Pays-Bas († ).\n\n1902 : Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., homme politique et diplomate américain († ).\n 1904 :\n Ernst Mayr, ornithologue, biologiste et généticien allemand († ).\n Milburn Stone, acteur américain († ).\n 1907 : Yang Shangkun (杨尚昆), président de la République populaire de Chine de 1988 à 1993 († ).\n 1908 : Henri d'Orléans, prétendant orléaniste à la couronne de France († ).\n 1911 : Georges Pompidou, homme politique français, président de 1969 à 1974 († ).\n 1912 : Mack David, compositeur et parolier américain († ).\n 1914 :\n Alain de Boissieu, militaire français († ).\n Eduardo Herrera Bueno, footballeur espagnol († ).\n 1915 : Babe Paley, personnalité mondaine américaine († ).\n 1918 :\n René Lecavalier, animateur québécois de radio et de sport télévisé († ).\n Zakaria Mohieddin (زكريا محيى الدين), militaire et homme politique égyptien, Premier ministre de 1965 à 1966 († ).\n 1921 : Vito Ortelli, coureur cycliste italien († ).\n 1923 : Gustaaf Joos, prélat belge († ).\n 1924 :\n Edward Idris Cassidy, prélat australien.\n János Starker, violoncelliste américain d’origine hongroise († ).\n 1925 : Jean Raspail, écrivain français.\n 1926 :\n Salvador Jorge Blanco, homme politique dominicain, président de la République de 1982 à 1986 († ).\n Diana Lynn, actrice américaine († ).\n 1928 :\n Katherine Helmond, actrice et réalisatrice américaine († ).\n Pierre Mauroy, homme politique français, Premier ministre de 1981 à 1984 († ).\n Warren Oates, acteur américain († ).\n 1929 : Chikao Ōtsuka (大塚 周夫), seiyū japonais († ).\n 1932 :\n Philippe Erulin, officier supérieur de l'Armée française († ).\n Gyula Horn, homme politique hongrois, Premier ministre de 1994 à 1998 († ).\n 1934 :\n Tom Krause, chanteur lyrique baryton-basse finlandais († ).\n Guy Sanche, acteur québécois, interprète de Bobino († ).\n 1936 :\n Shirley Knight, actrice américaine.\n James Mirrlees, économiste écossais († ).\n 1939 : Guy Latraverse, imprésario, producteur et gérant d’artistes québécois.\n 1943 :\n Claude Azéma, prélat français.\n Robbie Robertson, musicien et compositeur canadien, membre du groupe The Band.\n 1944 : Geneviève Grad, actrice française.\n 1945 :\n Michael Blake, auteur américain († ).\n François Bourgeon, scénariste et dessinateur de bande dessinée français.\n 1946 :\n Pierre-Marc Johnson, médecin et homme politique québécois.\n Gerard 't Hooft, physicien néerlandais, prix Nobel de physique en 1999.\n 1947 : Sony Labou Tansi, écrivain congolais († ).\n 1950 :\n Huey Lewis, musicien et chanteur américain.\n , guitariste américain, membre du groupe Steppenwolf.\n 1951 : \n Rich Gossage, joueur de baseball américain.\n Keiko Fuji (藤 圭子), chanteuse japonaise († ).\n 1952 : Terence T. Henricks, astronaute américain.\n 1955 : Peter McNamara, joueur de tennis australien.\n 1956 :\n Gaétan Barrette, médecin et homme politique québécois.\n Horacio Cartes, homme politique paraguayen, président du Paraguay depuis 2013.\n James Lofton, joueur puis entraîneur de football américain.\n 1957 : Doug Wilson, joueur et dirigeant canadien de hockey sur glace.\n 1958 : \n Veronica Guerin, journaliste irlandaise († ).\n Avigdor Liberman, homme politique israélien\n Dominique Nicolas, musicien français, guitariste du groupe Indochine.\n Bill Watterson, dessinateur américain, créateur de Calvin et Hobbes.\n 1959 : Marc Cohn, chanteur et compositeur américain.\n 1961 : Marcello Landi, philosophe et théologien italien.\n 1962 : Philippe Vandel, chroniqueur français.\n 1963 : Edie Falco, actrice américaine.\n 1966 : Laurence Ferrari, journaliste française.\n 1968 : Ken Akamatsu (赤松 健), mangaka japonais.\n 1969 :\n Marc-Olivier Fogiel, journaliste français.\n John LeClair, joueur de hockey sur glace américain.\n RZA, musicien américain.\n 1972 : Gilles Lellouche, acteur français.\n 1973 :\n Marcus Allbäck, footballeur suédois.\n Róisín Murphy, chanteuse irlandaise.\n 1974 : Roberto Locatelli, pilote de moto italien.\n 1975 :\n Hernán Crespo, footballeur argentin.\n Patrick Hivon, acteur québécois.\n Surya Saputra, acteur et chanteur indonésien.\n Ai Sugiyama (杉山愛), joueuse de tennis japonaise.\n 1976 : Nuno Gomes, footballeur portugais.\n 1979 : Amélie Mauresmo, joueuse de tennis française.\n 1980 :\n Lætitia Milot, actrice française.\n Pauly D (Paul DelVecchio, dit), disc-jockey américain.\n Jason Wade, chanteur et guitariste américain, membre du groupe Lifehouse.\n 1981 : Ryan Hansen, acteur américain.\n 1982 :\n Julien Féret, footballeur français.\n Alberto Gilardino, footballeur italien.\n Philippe Gilbert, coureur cycliste belge.\n Beno Udrih, joueur de basket-ball slovène.\n 1983 :\n Jonás Gutiérrez, footballeur argentin.\n Zheng Jie (郑洁), joueuse de tennis chinoise.\n 1984 : Danay García, actrice cubaine.\n 1985 :\n François Arnaud, acteur canadien.\n Élodie Godin, basketteuse française.\n Nick O'Malley, bassiste britannique du groupe Arctic Monkeys.\n Alexandre Picard, joueur de hockey sur glace québécois.\n 1986 :\n Kévin Anin, footballeur français.\n Kévin Guilbert, joueur de rink hockey français.\n Samuel Honrubia, handballeur français.\n Laura Laune, humoriste, comédienne et musicienne belge.\n Piermario Morosini, footballeur italien († ).\n Aleksandr Radulov (Александр Валерьевич Радулов), joueur de hockey sur glace russe.\n Adam Young, chanteur américain, membre du groupe Owl City.\n 1987 :\n Thomas Abercrombie, basketteur néo-zélandais.\n David Tait, joueur de rugby britannique († ).\n 1988 : Ish Smith, basketteur américain.\n 1989 :\n Dwight King, joueur de hockey sur glace professionnel canadien.\n Dejan Lovren, footballeur croate.\n 1990 :\n Abeba Aregawi, athlète de demi-fond éthiopienne.\n James O'Connor, joueur de rugby australien.\n 1991 : Jason Dolley, acteur américain.\n 1992 :\n Alberto Moreno Pérez, footballeur espagnol.\n Anna Felicitas Sarholz, footballeuse allemande.\n 1993 :\n Sandra le Grange, joueuse sud-africaine de badminton.\n Maciej Okręglak, kayakiste polonais.\n\nDécès\n\n967 : Murakami (村上天皇), du Japon, ayant régné de 946 à 967 (° ).\n\n1000 : Athanase l'Athonite, moine byzantin (° vers ).\n 1044 : Samuel Aba de Hongrie, roi de Hongrie, ayant régné de 1041 à 1044 (° 990).\n 1080 : Ísleifr Gizurarson, évêque islandais (° 1006).\n\n1375 : Charles III d'Alençon, comte d'Alençon (° 1337).\n\n1507 : Petrus Crinitus, écrivain italien (° ).\n 1572 : Ming Longqing (隆庆), empereur chinois, ayant régné de 1567 à 1572 (° ).\n 1578 : Cristoforo Madruzzo, cardinal germano-italien (° ).\n\n1633 : Marguerite d'Autriche, princesse de la maison des Habsbourg (° ).\n\n1762 : Jakob Adlung, organiste allemand (° ).\n 1793 : Alexandre Roslin, peintre suédois (° ).\n\n1826 :\n Thomas Stamford Raffles, militaire et un naturaliste britannique (° ).\n Joseph Louis Proust, chimiste français (° ).\n 1833 :\n Dorothea Jordan, actrice irlandaise (° ).\n Nicéphore Niépce, physicien français, considéré comme l'un des inventeurs de la photographie (° ).\n 1839 : Flora Hastings, aristocrate britannique (° ).\n 1850 : Alire Raffeneau-Delile, botaniste français (° ).\n 1857 : Barthélemy Thimonnier, inventeur français (° ).\n 1859 : Charles Cagniard de Latour, physicien français (° ).\n 1862 : Heinrich Georg Bronn, géologue allemand (° ).\n 1875 : Maria Röhl, peintre suédoise (° ).\n 1878 : François-Louis Parisel, médecin français (° ).\n 1884 :\n Austen Henry Layard, archéologue britannique (° ).\n Victor Massé, compositeur français (° ).\n 1899 : Hippolyte Lucas, entomologiste français (° ).\n\n1904 : Abaï Kounanbaïouly, poète, compositeur et moraliste kazakh (° ).\n 1906:\n Jules Breton, peintre et poète français (° ).\n Paul Drude, physicien allemand (° ).\n 1907 : Kuno Fischer, philosophe allemand (° ).\n 1927 : Albrecht Kossel, médecin allemand, prix Nobel de physiologie ou médecine en 1910 (° ).\n 1948 :\n Georges Bernanos, écrivain français (° ).\n Carole Landis, actrice américaine (° ).\n 1966 : George de Hevesy, chimiste hongrois, prix Nobel de chimie en 1943 (° ).\n 1968 : Enrique Plá y Deniel, prélat espagnol, primat d'Espagne (° ).\n 1969 :\n Wilhelm Backhaus, pianiste allemand (° ).\n Leo McCarey, cinéaste américain (° ).\n Tom Mboya, homme politique kényan, ayant occupé plusieurs ministères (° ).\n Ben Alexander, acteur américain (° ).\n Lambert Hillyer, scénariste et réalisateur américain (° ).\n Walter Gropius, scénariste et réalisateur américain (° ).\n 1980 : Ary Sternfeld, spécialiste de l'astronautique polonais (° ).\n 1983 : Harry James, trompettiste et chef d’orchestre américain (° ).\n 1991 : Mildred Dunnock, actrice américaine (° ).\n 1995 :\n Christian Calmes, docteur en droit, diplomate et historien luxembourgeois (° ).\n Jüri Järvet, acteur soviétique puis estonien (° ).\n 1999 : Jean-Pierre Darras, homme de théâtre et de cinéma français (° ).\n 2000 : Dorino Serafini, pilote motocyclette et automobile italien (° ).\n\n2001 : Ernie K-Doe, chanteur américain (° ).\n 2002 :\n Katy Jurado, actrice mexicaine (° ).\n Ted Williams, joueur de baseball américain (° ).\n 2003 : Isabelle d'Orléans et Bragance, « comtesse de Paris » (° ).\n 2004 : Rodger Ward, pilote automobile américain (° ).\n 2005 :\n , homme politique et juge canadien (° ).\n Shirley Goodman, chanteuse américaine (° ).\n 2006 :\n Gabrielle Gourdeau, romancière canadienne (° ).\n Kenneth Lay, homme d’affaires américain, P-DG d’Enron (° ).\n 2007 :\n Régine Crespin, artiste lyrique française (° ).\n George Melly, musicien et chanteur anglais (° ).\n Kerwin Mathews, acteur américain (° ).\n 2008 :\n René Harris, homme politique naruan et ancien président de la République à quatre reprises (° ).\n Thomas M. Disch, écrivain de science fiction américain (° ).\n 2009 :\n Takeo Doi, psychiatre et psychanalyste japonais (° ? 1920).\n Gérard Moroze, basketteur français (° ? 1944).\n 2010 :\n Nasr Hamid Abû Zayd, professeur d'études islamiques néerlandais et égyptien (° ou ).\n Paul Ambille, peintre français (° ).\n Bob Probert, hockeyeur sur glace canadien (° ).\n Cesare Siepi, chanteur lyrique italien (° ).\n 2011 :\n Émile Biasini, homme politique français (° ).\n Hanna Segal, psychanalyste britannique (° ).\n 2015 : Dorothée Marie de Bavière, princesse de Bavière, grande-duchesse titulaire de Toscane (° ).\n 2017 : Joachim Meisner, prélat allemand (° ).\n\nCélébrations \n\n Pas de journée internationale répertoriée pour cette date.\n Algérie : fête de l'indépendance.\n Arménie : fête de la Constitution.\n Cap-Vert : fête nationale.\n Île de Man : Tynwald Day, fête nationale.\n Venezuela : fête de l'indépendance.\n\nSaints des Églises chrétiennes\n\nSaints catholiques et orthodoxes du jour \n\n Athanase l'Athonite († vers 1000), fondateur du monastère de la Grande Laure de l'Athos.\n Cyprien († 1679), dit « le Jeune », originaire de Grèce centrale, prêtre au monastère de Koutloumousiou au Mont-Athos, hiéromoine, martyr par la main des musulmans à Constantinople.\n Cyprille († ), avec Aroa et Lucie, martyres à Cyrène en Libye durant la persécution de Dioclétien ; date occidentale, fêtées le 4 juillet en Orient.\n Modwène de Whitby († vers 695), - ou « Modwene », « Modwenna », « Modivène », « Medana », « Edana » ou « Merryn » -, abbesse de Whitby en Angleterre.\n Zoé († vers 286), - ou « Zoa » -, martyre à Rome.\n\nSaints et bienheureux catholiques du jour \n\n Antoine-Marie Zaccaria († 1539), fondateur des Barnabites.\n Athanase († 451), diacre de l'Anastasis de Jérusalem.\n Cast (vers 522 - ), - ou « Kast » -, moine irlandais, venu en Bretagne armoricaine à l'époque du monachisme celtique, disciple de saint Jagud.\n Domèce (), dit « le Médecin », ermite en Arménie, au mont Qouros.\n Élie de Bourdeille (1413 - 1484), - ou « Hélie de Bourdeilles » -, bienheureux, évêque de Périgueux puis archevêque de Tours, puis cardinal et confesseur du roi Louis XI.\n Fragan et Gwenn (Blanche) (), mari et femme originaires du Pays de Galles, réfugiés en Bretagne, ils auraient évangélisé l'Armorique, parents de saint Guénolé, saint Jacut et sainte Klervi, patrons de Ploufragan et de Saint-Frégant.\n Mars (), évêque de Nantes.\n Modwène († ), - « Modwène de Burton », « Edana », « Medana », « Merryn », « Modwenna », « Modivène » -, vierge et abbesse.\n\nSaints orthodoxes du jour \n\n Saint Numérien (Numerianus) († 657 ou 666), archevêque de Trèves en Rhénanie.\n Serge de Radonège († ?), invention en 1421 de ses reliques.\n\nPrénoms du jour \n\nBonne fête aux :\n Antoine-Marie\net aussi aux :\n Zoé et ses variantes, au féminin Zoée, Zoéline et Zoëlle et au masculin Zoël.\n\nTraditions et superstitions\n\nDictons \n\n « À sainte Zoé, jeunes oés (oies). »\n\nAstrologie \n\n Signe du zodiaque : du signe astrologique du cancer.\n\nToponymie \n\nLes noms de plusieurs voies, places, sites ou édifices, de pays ou régions francophones, contiennent cette date, sous diverses graphies : voir .\n\nNotes et références\n\nArticles connexes" ]

[ "thumb|Shane Archbold lors d'un contre-la-montre en 2013.\nShane Archbold, né le à Timaru, est un coureur cycliste néo-zélandais, membre de l'équipe Deceuninck-Quick Step. Il a obtenu la médaille d'argent de l'omnium aux championnats du monde de 2011 à Apeldoorn aux Pays-Bas.\n\nBiographie \nShane Archbold est surnommé Novie et The Flying Mullet. \n\nEn 2005, il devient chez les jeunes (moins de 17 ans) champion de Nouvelle-Zélande du contre-la-montre et vice-champion sur la course en ligne. L'année suivante, sur piste, il est vice-champion du monde poursuite par équipes juniors (moins de 19 ans), aux côtés de Jesse Sergent, Shem Rodger et Westley Gough. En 2007, il est devenu champion de Nouvelle-Zélande de poursuite individuelle juniors. Archbold participe également à des courses sur route, mais connait plus de succès sur la piste. Il remporte néanmoins une étape de la Mi-août en Bretagne (2011) et de l'An Post Rás (2013).\n\nIl se présente aux mondiaux sur piste 2011 d'Apeldoorn avec deux succès en Coupe du monde sur l'omnium. Il décroche une médaille d'argent sur la discipline, à quatre points du champion du monde Michael Freiberg. La même année, il est champion d'Océanie dans la même discipline après avoir remporté ce titre en 2010. En 2012, il est cinquième de l'omnium aux mondiaux et est sélectionné pour les Jeux olympiques de Londres, où il prend la huitième place de l'omnium. En 2013, il gagne avec son compatriote Dylan Kennett les Six jours de Fiorenzuola d'Arda. Aux Jeux du Commonwealth de 2014, il remporte deux médailles, l'or sur la course scratch et le bronze en poursuite par équipes (avec Pieter Bulling, Dylan Kennett et Marc Ryan).\n\nEn 2015, il rejoint l'équipe Bora-Argon 18 et dispute Paris-Roubaix. Il termine avant dernier de la course malgré une chute sur la Trouée d'Arenberg et des blessures au visage. Il prend le départ du Tour de France 2016, son premier un grand tour. Lors de la , il chute lourdement contre la roche et se fissure le bassin, il arrive toutefois à regagner l'arrivée, mais est non-partant le lendemain. En raison de cette blessure, il se retrouve presque un an sans courir et doit subir une intervention chirurgicale en Allemagne en mai 2017.\n\nEn octobre 2017, sa signature pour 2018 au sein de l'équipe irlandaise Aqua Blue Sport est annoncée. Cependant en août 2018, il se retrouve sans contrat, l'équipe s'étant arrêtée brusquement. Il décide alors de faire équipe sur les Six jours avec Aaron Gate pour revenir au cyclisme sur piste en vue d'une qualification sur la course à l'américaine aux Jeux olympiques d'été de Tokyo en 2020.\n\nEn 2019, il signe au sein de l'équipe continentale EvoPro Racing, où il passe quelques mois. En avril, il effectue son retour dans le World-Tour au sein de la formation Bora-Hansgrohe pour remplacer Peter Kennaugh.\n\nPalmarès sur piste\n\nJeux olympiques \n Londres 2012\n de l'omnium\n\nChampionnats du monde \n Apeldoorn 2011\n Médaillé d'argent de l'omnium\n Melbourne 2012\n de l'omnium\n de l'américaine\n Cali 2014\n de l'américaine\n de la poursuite individuelle\n\nChampionnats du monde juniors \n 2006\n Médaillé d'argent de la poursuite par équipes juniors\n\nCoupe du monde \n 2009-2010\n de la poursuite par équipes à Pékin\n 2010-2011\n de l'omnium à Melbourne\n de l'omnium à Manchester\n\nJeux du Commonwealth \n Glasgow 2014\n Médaillé d'or du scratch\n Médaillé de bronze de la poursuite par équipes\n\nChampionnats d'Océanie \n Invercargill 2007\n Médaillé de bronze de la poursuite par équipes\n Adélaïde 2010\n Champion d'Océanie de l'omnium\n Invercargill 2011\n Champion d'Océanie de l'omnium\n Invercargill 2013\n Médaillé d'argent du scratch\n Médaillé d'argent de l'américaine\n\nSix jours \n 2013 : Six jours de Fiorenzuola d'Arda (avec Dylan Kennett)\n\nChampionnats nationaux \n Champion de Nouvelle-Zélande de poursuite juniors : 2007\n Champion de Nouvelle-Zélande de l'américaine : 2009 (avec Thomas Scully) et 2014 (avec Dylan Kennett)\n Champion de Nouvelle-Zélande de poursuite par équipes : 2013 (avec Dylan Kennett, Marc Ryan et Andrew Van der Hayden), 2014 (avec Dylan Kennett, Alex Hooper et Andrew Van der Hayden)\n\nPalmarès sur route \nthumb|upright=1.3|Podium de l'édition 2015 du Grand Prix d'Isbergues : Michal Kolář (), Nacer Bouhanni () et Shane Archbold ().\n\nPar années \n 2004\n du championnat de Nouvelle-Zélande sur route cadets\n 2005\n Champion de Nouvelle-Zélande du contre-la-montre cadets\n du championnat de Nouvelle-Zélande sur route cadets\n 2007\n du Tour du Pays de Vaud\n 2008\n du Tour de Vineyards\n , et des Benchmark Homes Series\n 2009\n du Prix des Vins Henri Valloton\n 2011\n de la Mi-août en Bretagne\n des Benchmark Homes Series\n 2012\n du Tour de Dordogne (contre-la-montre)\n Prologue du Tour de Southland (contre-la-montre par équipes)\n 2013\n de l'An Post Rás\n des Suir Valley Three Day\n 2015\n de la Classica Corsica\n du Grand Prix d'Isbergues\n 2019\n du Tour de République tchèque\n 2020\n Champion de Nouvelle-Zélande sur route\n\nRésultats sur les grands tours\n\nTour de France \n1 participation\n 2016 : non-partant ()\n\nTour d'Espagne \n1 participation\n 2019 :\n\nClassements mondiaux\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n\n \n\nCatégorie:Coureur cycliste néo-zélandais\nCatégorie:Coureur cycliste sur piste\nCatégorie:Coureur cycliste aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2012\nCatégorie:Naissance en février 1989\nCatégorie:Naissance à Timaru", "Le Réseau canadien contre les accidents cérébrovasculaires - un des réseaux de centres d'excellence du Canada - réunit dans des rapports uniques de collaboration des chercheurs d’hôpital et d’université, des étudiants, les gouvernements, l'entreprise et le secteur sans but lucratif. Le Réseau compte plus de 100 scientifiques, cliniciens et spécialistes en réadaptation et en application des connaissances à la pointe de leur domaine à l’œuvre dans 24 universités à l'échelle du pays.\n\nLancé en 1999 grâce à une subvention de démarrage de 4,7 millions de dollars du gouvernement fédéral, le Réseau est une société sans but lucratif gouvernée par un Conseil d'administration à partir de son siège à l'Université d'Ottawa. Il est dirigé par le chef de la direction et le directeur scientifique du Réseau, le Antoine Hakim.\n\nLe Réseau met le Canada à l'avant-garde de la recherche sur l'AVC grâce à son programme d'investigation multidisciplinaire, sa formation de pointe des scientifiques et cliniciens canadiens et ses partenariats nationaux et globaux.\n\nLa mission du Réseau canadien contre les accidents cérébrovasculaires est de réduire l’impact de l’AVC sur les Canadiennes et les Canadiens en stimulant les collaborations qui visent à créer de nouveaux savoirs, en assurant que les connaissances optimales sont appliquées et en renforçant les capacités canadiennes dans le domaine de l’AVC.\n\nRecherche \n\nLes chercheurs du Réseau veillent à constamment mettre à jour et à élargir l’, une ressource remarquable qui porte sur la recherche dans le domaine de la réadaptation de l’AVC. Elle est la plus exhaustive et la plus à jour qui soit disponible n’importe où au monde. Aussi, Info AVC/StrokEngine, l’outil pédagogique sur l’Internet qui énumère en ordre alphabétique chaque intervention de réadaptation disponible au Canada, continue à être alimenté par les chercheurs du Réseau.\n\nLe Réseau canadien contre les accidents cérébrovasculaires finance le Registre du Réseau canadien contre les accidents cérébrovasculaires. Depuis son lancement en 2001, le Registre, par son évaluation du système de soins et les données précieuses qu’il fournit à la recherche, a fourni bien davantage de renseignements vitaux pour les chercheurs, les décideurs et les fournisseurs de soins de santé au Canada qu’on n’avait prédit.\n\nEn partenariat avec la Fondation des maladies du cœur du Canada, le Réseau a produit les Recommandations canadiennes pour les pratiques optimales de soins de l’AVC 2006, qui couvrent le continuum allant de la prévention aux soins et à la réadaptation de l’AVC. Ce manuel est publié sur les sites Web du Réseau et de la Stratégie canadienne de l’AVC.\n\nFormation & Sensibilisation \n\nLe Réseau canadien contre les accidents cérébrovasculaires a pris les devants dans les efforts nationaux de sensibilisation aux risques pour la santé que crée une consommation excessive de sodium. Le Réseau a diffusé les conclusions de recherches récentes auxquelles prenaient part ses chercheurs, et avec l’aide de ses partenaires, a réussi à convaincre Santé Canada d’inclure un avertissement à ce propos dans le Guide alimentaire canadien. \n\nLe Réseau organise et soutient la conférence nationale sur la réadaptation de l’AVC, le congrès mondial de l’AVC, ainsi que plusieurs réunions, ateliers, et conférences pour sensibiliser le grand public à la recherche dans le domaine.\n\nLe Réseau a conçu et continue à améliorer le site Web pour la Stratégie canadienne de l’AVC, une initiative conjointe du Réseau canadien contre les accidents cérébrovasculaires ainsi que la Fondation des maladies du cœur du Canada, qui « vise à ce que chaque province et territoire au Canada /…/ ait une approche intégrée à la prévention, aux soins et à la réadaptation de l’AVC ».\n\nChaque année, le Réseau, en partenariat avec le , organise la Conférence nationale sur l’AVC. Cette conférence annuelle réunit plus de 150 urgentologues, internistes et neurologues autour du thème de la coordination des soins de l’AVC.\n\nLe Réseau a participé à la création du Conseil national des soins infirmiers de l’AVC en 2005, un conseil qui vise à regrouper le personnel infirmier travaillant dans le domaine dans le but de renforcer les volets éducation, formation et perfectionnement professionnel. Soins infirmiers de l’AVC est le bulletin mensuel diffusé et financé par le Réseau.\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n La stratégie canadienne de l'AVC\n Réseau canadien contre les accidents cérébrovasculaires\n Evidence-based Review of Stroke Rehabilitation\n Le Régistre du Réseau canadien contre les accidents cérébrovasculaires\n Réseaux de centres d'excellence\n\nCatégorie:Maladie neurovasculaire\nCatégorie:Organisation canadienne", "Tommy Westlund (né le à Fors en Suède) est un joueur professionnel suédois de hockey sur glace. Il évolue au poste d'ailier.\n\nBiographie\n\nCarrière en club \nIl débute en senior dans la Division 1 avec l'Avesta BK en 1991. Il découvre en 1995 l'Elitserien avec le Brynäs IF. Il est choisi au quatrième tour en quatre-vingt-treizième position par les Hurricanes de la Caroline lors du repêchage d'entrée dans la LNH 1998. Il part alors en Amérique du Nord et assigné au Beast de New Haven dans la Ligue américaine de hockey. Le , il joue son premier match dans la Ligue nationale de hockey avec les Hurricanes chez les Bruins de Boston. Il met un terme à sa carrière en 2004 après une dernière saison avec le Leksands IF.\n\nCarrière internationale \nIl représente la Suède au niveau international.\n\nStatistiques \nPour les significations des abréviations, voir statistiques du hockey sur glace.\n\nEn club \n\n| 1991-1992|| Avesta BK|| Division 2|| 27|| 11|| 9|| 20|| 8|| || || || || \n|-\n| 1992-1993|| Avesta BK|| Division 1|| 32|| 9|| 5|| 14|| 32|| || || || || \n|-\n| 1993-1994|| Avesta BK|| Division 1 || 31|| 20|| 11|| 31|| 34|| || || || || \n|-\n| 1994-1995|| Avesta BK|| Division 1 || 32|| 17|| 13|| 30|| 22|| || || || || \n|-\n| rowspan=2|1995-1996|| Brynäs IF|| Elitserien|| 18|| 2|| 1|| 3|| 2|| || || || || \n|-\n| Brynäs IF|| Allsvenskan || 18|| 10|| 10|| 20|| 4|| 8|| 1|| 0|| 1|| 4\n|-\n| 1996-1997|| Brynäs IF|| Elitserien|| 50|| 21|| 13|| 34|| 16|| || || || || \n|-\n| 1997-1998|| Brynäs IF|| Elitserien|| 46|| 29|| 9|| 38|| 45|| 3|| 0|| 1|| 1|| 0\n|-\n| 1998-1999|| Beast de New Haven|| LAH|| 50|| 8|| 18|| 26|| 31|| || || || || \n|-\n| 1999-2000|| Hurricanes de la Caroline|| LNH|| 81|| 4|| 8|| 12|| 19|| || || || || \n|-\n| 2000-2001|| Hurricanes de la Caroline|| LNH|| 79|| 5|| 3|| 8|| 23|| 6|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 17\n|-\n| 2001-2002|| Hurricanes de la Caroline || LNH|| 40|| 0|| 2|| 2|| 6|| 19|| 1|| 0|| 1|| 0\n|-\n| 2002-2003|| Hurricanes de la Caroline || LNH|| 3|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0|| || || || || \n|-\n| 2002-2003|| Lock Monsters de Lowell|| LAH|| 22|| 1|| 3|| 4|| 12|| || || || || \n|-\n| 2003-2004|| Leksands IF|| Elitserien|| 14|| 3|| 2|| 5|| 6|| || || || || \n\n| | 203|| 9|| 13|| 22|| 48|| 25|| 1|| 0|| 1|| 17\n\nAu niveau international \n\n| 1998 || align=\"left\"| Championnat du monde || 1|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0||align=\"left\"| Médaille d'or\n\nRéférences \n\nCatégorie:Naissance en décembre 1974\nCatégorie:Naissance en Suède\nCatégorie:Joueur international suédois de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Champion du monde de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Choix de repêchage des Hurricanes de la Caroline\nCatégorie:Joueur du Brynäs IF\nCatégorie:Joueur du Leksands IF\nCatégorie:Joueur du Beast de New Haven\nCatégorie:Joueur des Lock Monsters de Lowell\nCatégorie:Joueur des Hurricanes de la Caroline\nCatégorie:Attaquant de hockey sur glace", "Julien Chorier, né le , est un coureur de fond français, spécialisé dans le trail et l'ultra-trail. Originaire de l'Isère, il vit à présent en Savoie à Saint-Thibaud-de-Couz. Il est licencié depuis le à \"Coureurs du Monde en Isère\" (CMI).\n\nÉléments biographiques \nIngénieur bâtiment depuis 2003, Doctorat en Génie Civil et Sciences de l’Habitat sur « le diagnostic et l’évaluation des risques incendie d’une construction et de sa mise en sécurité » Soutenance en .\n\nRésultats \nRésultats 2017\n du Hong Kong 100 en 10 h 44 min (janvier, 100 km, Hong Kong, Chine)\n du Be Run Duo en 3 h 28 min (mai, 40 km, Aix-Les-Bains - Annecy, France)\n du Trail de Haute Provence (mai, 45 km, Forcalquier, France)\n du Lavaredo Ultra Trail en 13 h 45 min (juin, 123 km, Cortina d'Ampezo, Italie)\n de l'Ironman France Nice en 10 h 22 min 36 s (juillet, 3,8 km de natation, 180 km de vélo, 42,2 km de course à pied, Nice, France)\n du VT Speed 3200 en 49 min 54 s (aout, 4,3 km, Val Thorens, France)\n du VT Trail Pursuit 30 km en 2 h 40 min 57 s (aout, 30 km, Val Thorens, France)\n de l'Ultra Trail du Mont-Blanc (septembre, 170 km, Courmayeur - Champex - Chamonix, France)\n\nRésultats 2016\n de la Transgrancanaria en 14 h 24 min 59 s (mars, 125 km, Grande Canarie, Espagne)\n du Semi Ironman du Pays d'Aix en 3 h 57 min 50 s (janvier, 90 km de vélo, 21,1 km de course à pied, Aix en Provence, France)\n de la course sur route Grenoble Vizille en 1 h 20 min 53 s (avril, 22,04 km, Grenoble, France)\n du trail Interlac en 8 h 01 min 03 s (mai, 80 km, Aix les Bains-Annecy, France)\n de l'Ironman France Nice en 9 h 50 min 05 s (mai, 3,8 km de natation, 180 km de vélo, 42,2 km de course à pied, Nice, France)\n du VT pursuit en 1 h 00 min 32 s (aout, 12 km, Val Thorens, France)\n du KV de l'UT4M en 40 min 57 s (aout, 3 km, Grenoble, France)\n de l'Utra Trail du Mont Blanc en 23 h 13 min 34 s (août, 170 km, Courmayeur-Champex-Chamonix, France)\n du Madeira Island Ultra Trail en 8 h 38 min 31 s (octobre, 80 km, Funchal, Portugal)\n\nRésultats 2015\n Vainqueur du kilomètre vertical de l'UT4M en 38 min 50 s (août, 3 km, 1 000 m de D+, France)\n Vainqueur de l'Ecotrail Funchal Madeira (octobre, 40 km, 2 300 m de D+, Funchal, Portugal)\n de l'Ultra Trail de l'Atlas Toubkal (UTAT 2015, 105 km, 6 500 m D+, Maroc)\n de l'Hong-Kong Oxfam Trailwalker (novembre, 100 km, 4 010 m de D+, Hong-Kong)\n avec le team Hoka à l'Interlac Trail (juillet, 77 km, 3 500 m de D+, France)\n de la Western States 100 Run Endurance (juin, 160,9 km, 5 500 m de D+, California, USA)\n du kilomètre vertical de Val Thorens en 45 min 56 s (août, 4,3 km, 1 000 m de D+, Saint Martin de Belleville, France)\n 8 de The NorthFace 100 Australia (mai, 100 km, 4 308 m de D+, Katumba, Australie)\n\nRésultats 2014\n Vainqueur du Madeira Island Ultra Trail (avril, 115 km, D+ à Madère, Portugal)\n à la Transgrancanaria (mars, 125 km, D+ à Gran Canaria, Espagne)\n à la Hardrock 100 (juillet, 100,5 miles, 10 400 m de D+ à San Juan Range, Colorado, USA)\n\nRésultats 2013\n Vainqueur de la Ronda dels Cimes (juin, 178 km – D+ en Andorre)\n Vainqueur du trail de l'ours\n 2 de l’Ultra-Trail Mt.Fuji (mai, 160 km – D+ au Japon)\n de l'UTMB (août, 165 km - D+)\n\nRésultats 2012\n Vainqueur du Zugspitz UltraTrail (juin, 100 km, D+ en Allemagne)\n Vainqueur de l’Ultra-Trail Mt.Fuji (mai, 156 km, D+ au Japon)\n Vainqueur du Trail des Collines (mars, 35 km, D+)\n Vainqueur du Hong Kong Oxfam Trailwalker avec le team Salomon (novembre, 100 km, D+)\n Vainqueur de la Grésylienne (septembre, 16,1 km, 350 m D+)\n du trail du Malpassant (mai, 26 km, D+)\n du trail des Citadelles (avril, 73 km, D+)\n\nRésultats 2011\n Vainqueur du Grand Raid de la Réunion (octobre, 162 km, D+)\n Vainqueur de l'Hardrock 100 de Silverston dans le Colorado (juillet, 161 km, D+)\n Vainqueur de l’Ultra-Technitrail de Tiranges (mai, 80 km, D+)\n du Signes Trail Méounes-Belgentiere (avril, 2 x 46 km, D+)\n de la Maxi-Race du Lac d'Annecy (mai, 78 km, 4 400 m D+)\n avec Philipp Reiter de la Gore-Tex® Transalpine Run (septembre, 8 étapes, 273,3 km, 15 436 m D+)\n\nRésultats 2010\n Vainqueur du Trail des Croque chemins en Auvergne (avril, 30 km, D+)\n Vainqueur du Trail de l'Ardéchois (mai, 57 km, D+)\n Vainqueur du Grand Raid 73 - Petit Savoyard (fin mai, 23 km, D+)\n Vainqueur de l'Andorra Ultra Trail Vallnord (juin, 112 km, D+)\n de l'UTMB (août, 95 km, D+)\n de la Transmartinique (décembre, 140 km, D+)\n\nRésultats 2009\n Vainqueur des Drayes blanches dans le Vercors (février)\n au Trail du Ventoux (mars)\n au Trail de l'Ardéchois (mai)\n Vainqueur des Drayes du Vercors (juin)\n Merrell SkyRace à Serre-Chevalier (juillet)\n Vainqueur du Grand Raid de la Réunion (octobre, 150 km, D+)\n\nRésultats 2008\n Vainqueur au Trail des Lacs de Chevelu (avril)\n Grand Raid 73 (mai)\n à l'UTMB (août)\n au Trail du Ventoux (mars)\n Merrell SkyRace à Serre-Chevalier (juillet)\n au Trail Blanc de Serre-Chevalier (janvier)\n Raid VTT Valence Gap (, 170 km, D+)\n au Grand Raid de la Réunion (octobre)\n\nRésultats 2007\n Vainqueur au Trail des Lacs de Chevelu ()\n Vainqueur au Cross de Quaix ()\n Vainqueur du Tour des Glaciers de la Vanoise ()\n Vainqueur de l’UTMB (CCC) ; Courmayeur, Champex, Chamonix ()\n Vainqueur de la Montée de la Bastille ()\n Marathon de Venise (, le )\n Vainqueur de la Corrida d’Armande ()\n au 10 km de Grignon (33 h 43 min) ()\n au 10 km de Bourgoin-Jallieu (33 h 52 min) ()\n au Grand Raid 73, Le Petit Savoyard ()\n\nRésultats 2006\n à la Gresylienne ()\n au Trail du Bugey ()\n à la Saintélyon ()\n\nAvant 2006\n Cycliste de niveau National licencié à Chambéry Cyclisme Compétition.\n Champion Rhône Alpes sur route en 2004.\n du tour de la Drôme 2004.\n Vainqueur de nombreuses courses régionales et cyclosportives (La Préalpes, Coironnaise, la Laurent Jalabert, Vaujany, Étapes Beaujolaise, trois Cols, Ventoux Beaume de Venise…)\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n .\n \n\nCatégorie:Coureur d'ultra-trail français\nCatégorie:Vainqueur de la Diagonale des Fous\nCatégorie:Naissance en octobre 1980", "Cette page concerne l'année 2001 du calendrier grégorien en Suisse.\n\nChronologie de l'Europe\n<small>1999 par pays en Europe - 2000 par pays en Europe - 2001 par pays en Europe - 2002 par pays en Europe - 2003 par pays en Europe\n<center>1999 en Europe - 2000 en Europe - 2001 en Europe - 2002 en Europe - 2003 en Europe </small></center>\n\nGouvernement en 2001 \n Conseil fédéral\n Moritz Leuenberger, PSS, président de la Confédération\n Kaspar Villiger, PRD, vice-président de la Confédération\n Pascal Couchepin, PRD,\n Joseph Deiss, PDC,\n Samuel Schmid, UDC,\n Ruth Dreifuss, PSS,\n Ruth Metzler-Arnold, PDC.\n\nÉvénements\n\nJanvier \n Dimanche 14 janvier \n Décès de l’écrivain Maurice Métral.\n\nFévrier \n Dimanche 18 février \n Décès à Rossinière du peintre Balthus.\n Mercredi 28 février \n L’ancien conseiller fédéral Adolf Ogi est nommé conseiller spécial pour le sport au service du développement et de la paix par le secrétaire général de l'ONU Kofi Annan.\n\nMars \n Dimanche 4 mars \n Votations fédérales. Le peuple rejette, par non (76,8 %) contre oui (23,2 %), l'initiative populaire « Oui à l'Europe ! ».\n Votations fédérales. Le peuple rejette, par non (69,1 %) contre oui (30,9 %), l'initiative populaire « pour des médicaments à moindre prix ».\n Votations fédérales. Le peuple rejette, par non (79,7 %) contre oui (20,3 %), l'initiative populaire « pour plus de sécurité à l'intérieur des localités grâce à une vitesse maximale de 30 km/h assortie d'exceptions ».\n Élections cantonales en Valais. Trois candidats sont élus lors du de scrutin. Il s’agit de Jean-René Fournier (PDC), Wilhelm Schnyder (PDC) et Jean-Jacques Rey-Bellet (PDC).\n Élections cantonales à Soleure. Christian Wanner (PRD) et Walter Straumann (PDC) sont élus au Gouvernement cantonal lors du .\n Mercredi 7 mars \n Moritz Suter démissionne avec effet immédiat de son poste de responsable des activités aériennes du SAirGroup\n Jeudi 15 mars \n Inauguration du Parc Saint-Jacques, à Bâle.\n Dimanche 18 mars \n Élections cantonales en Valais. Thomas Burgener (PSS) et Claude Roch (PRD) sont élus lors du second tour pour compléter le Gouvernement cantonal.\n Jeudi 29 mars \n Visite officielle du secrétaire général de l'ONU Kofi Annan.\n Samedi 31 mars \n Décès à Belle-Île-en-Mer, (Bretagne), à l’âge de 67 ans, de l’acteur Jean-Marc Bory.\n\nAvril \n Samedi 7 avril \n Pour la cinquième fois de son histoire, le Zurich Lions devient champion de Suisse de hockey-sur-glace.\n Dimanche 22 avril \n Élections cantonales à Soleure. Thomas Wallner (PDC), Ruth Gisi (PRD) et Rolf Ritschard (PSS) sont élus au Gouvernement lors du second tour.\n Vendredi 27 avril \n Inauguration à Neuchâtel de la gare rénovée et du nouveau funiculaire Funambule.\n Élections cantonales à Neuchâtel. Pierre Hirschy (Parti libéral suisse|PLS), Thierry Béguin (PRD), Sylvie Perrinjaquet (PLS), sont élus lors du premier tour. Bernard Soguel (PSS) et Monika Dusong (PSS) sont élus tacitement après le retrait des autres candidats.\n\nMai \n Mercredi 9 mai \n Quelque personnes participent à Berne à une manifestation du personnel soignant du canton de Berne revendiquant des salaires plus élevés et de meilleures conditions de travail.\n Mercredi 16 mai \n Huit spéléologues bâlois sont bloqués durant deux jours dans une grotte à Goumois, dans le département du Doubs.\n Samedi 26 mai \n Les Grasshoppers s’adjugent, pour la vingt-sixième fois de leur histoire, le titre de champion de Suisse de football.\n\nJuin \n Dimanche 10 juin \n Votations fédérales. Le peuple approuve, par oui (51,0 %) contre non (49,0 %), la modification de la Loi fédérale sur l'armée et l'administration militaire concernant l’armement.\n Votations fédérales. Le peuple approuve, par oui (51,1 %) contre non (48,9 %), la modification de la Loi fédérale sur l'armée et l'administration militaire concernant la coopération en matière d’instruction.\n Votations fédérales. Le peuple approuve, par oui (64,2 %) contre non (35,8 %), l’abrogation de la disposition constitutionnelle soumettant l'érection des évêchés à l'approbation de la Confédération.\n Jeudi 21 juin \n Science : Le PRD organise la première journée numérique d'un parti politique au cours de laquelle fut votée une résolution sur « la société des chances ».\n Visite officielle du président tchèque Václav Havel.\n L’Américain Lance Armstrong remporte le Tour de Suisse cycliste\n\nJuillet \n Samedi 7 juillet \n La Lesbian and Gay Pride est organisée en Valais.\n Mercredi 11 juillet \n Le groupe Globus annonce que les succursales de la chaîne ABM vont être transformées en magasins de vêtements de groupe italien Oviesse.\n Mercredi 18 juillet \n Le groupe de presse français Hersant acquiert, via sa société France-Antilles, le quotidien La Côte, édité à Nyon.\n\nAoût\n\nSeptembre \n Vendredi 7 septembre \n Inauguration à Bâle du Parc Saint-Jacques, premier stade de Suisse à disposer de sa propre gare.\n Vendredi 21 septembre \n Création de la compagnie ferroviaire Thurbo AG, qui assure le trafic régional dans le canton de Thurgovie et relie ce dernier à Schaffhouse, Saint-Gall et Zurich.\n Jeudi 27 septembre \n Au Parlement de Zoug, un forcené abat froidement 14 personnes et en blesse 14 autres avant de se suicider, lors de ce qui est appelé communément la Fusillade de Zoug.\n\nOctobre \n Lundi \n Swissair Group demande un Sursis concordataire partiel demandé et cède le transport aérien à la compagnie Crossair. suppressions d’emplois sont envisagées.\n Mardi 2 octobre \n Tous les avions de Swissair restent cloués au sol, la compagnie n’obtenant plus de kérosène pour ravitailler ses appareils. passagers sont bloqués dans les aéroports.\n Mercredi 24 octobre \n Dans le tunnel du Gothard, la collision de deux camions provoque un grave incendie : 11 morts et 35 disparus.\n\nNovembre \n Jeudi 8 novembre \n Décès de Jean-François Acker, fondateur de Couleur 3\n Dimanche 11 novembre \n Élections cantonales à Genève. Les sept élus au Gouvernement sont Micheline Calmy-Rey (PSS), Carlo Lamprecht (PDC), Robert Cramer (Les Verts), Pierre-François Unger (PDC), Laurent Moutinot (PSS), Martine Brunschwig Graf (PLS) et Micheline Spoerri (PLS).\n Élections cantonales à Fribourg. Pascal Corminboeuf (indépendant) est le seul élu au Gouvernement lors du . Urs Schwaller (PDC), Michel Pittet (PDC), Isabelle Chassot (PDC), Ruth Lüthi (PSS), Claude Grandjean (PSS) et Claude Lässer (PRD) seront élus tacitement à la suite du retrait des autres candidats.\n Vendredi 23 novembre \n Coop devient partenaire des éditions Betty Bossi en reprenant 50 % du capital. L'autre moitié des actions reste entre les mains du groupe de presse Ringier.\n Samedi 24 novembre \n Le Jumbolino du vol Crossair 3597 Berlin-Zurich s'écrase dans une colline à quatre kilomètres de l'Aéroport de Zurich, près de la ville de Bassersdorf (ZH). Il y a neuf survivants.\n\nDécembre \n Dimanche 2 décembre \n Votations fédérales. Le peuple approuve, par oui (84,7 %) contre non (15,3 %), l’arrêté fédéral concernant un frein à l'endettement.\n Votations fédérales. Le peuple rejette, par non (77,1 %) contre oui (22,9 %), l'initiative populaire « pour garantir l'AVS - taxer l'énergie et non le travail! »\n Votations fédérales. Le peuple rejette, par non (78,1 %) contre oui (21,9 %), l'initiative populaire « pour une politique de sécurité crédible et une Suisse sans armée ».\n Votations fédérales. Le peuple rejette, par non (76,8 %) contre oui (23,2 %), l'initiative populaire « La solidarité crée la sécurité : pour un service civil volontaire pour la paix ».\n Votations fédérales. Le peuple rejette, par non (65,9 %) contre oui (34,1 %), l'Initiative populaire « pour un impôt sur les gains en capital ».\n\n Mercredi 19 décembre \n Dissolution de la Commission Indépendante d'Experts par le Conseil fédéral.\n\n Jeudi 27 décembre \n L'éditeur Ringier annonce la reprise de Jean Frey SA avec l'ensemble de ses titres.\n\nRéférences \n\n 00\n\n__NOTOC__", "Les Lake Monsters du Vermont, (en anglais : ) ex-les Expos du Vermont (en anglais : ), sont une équipe de baseball évoluant en New York - Penn League (A) dans la ville de Burlington au Vermont. Les matchs à domicile se jouent au Centennial Field sur le campus de l'Université du Vermont.\n\nJusqu'en 2006, l'équipe était associée aux Expos de Montréal, mais cette franchise de la Ligue majeure déménage à Washington D.C. pour devenir les Nationals de Washington. Les amateurs de baseball vermontois lancent un concours pour trouver un nouveau nom à l'équipe, recevant suggestions avant de choisir un titre qui fait référence à Champy, le monstre imaginaire du lac Champlain. \n\nEn 2010, les Nationals s'engagent avec les Auburn Doubledays et l'équipe passe dans la franchise des Athletics d'Oakland. \n\nLe , l'équipe a été mise en vedette sur ESPN lors de l'émission SportsCenter, en tant que segment du programme 50 états en 50 jours.\n\nHistoire\n\nExpos du Vermont \nEn 1993, l'homme d'affaires Ray Pecor, propriétaire de la Lake Champlain Transportation Company à Burlington depuis 1976, achète les droits de la franchise des Expos de Jamestown et l'installe à Burlington. Le nom \"Expos\" est conservé et les Expos du Vermont jouent leur premier match au Centennial Field le . fans sont présents pour assister à la défaite des Expos 6-5 face aux Pittsfield Mets. \n\nLes Expos de Montréal annoncent le le déménagement de la franchise à Washington, D.C. à l'issue de la saison. Ils changent de nom et deviennent les Nationals de Washington. Les clubs de Ligue mineure ont 60 jours après la fin de la saison pour changer les noms de leurs équipes. Vermont n'avait pas assez de temps pour modifier son nom et garde celui des Expos en 2005. \n\nthumb|left\nLe club dispute son dernier match sous le nom d'Expos le . La franchise était le dernier club de baseball professionnel à porter le nom des Expos. Le stade du club, le Centennial Field, est situé à 100 miles du dernier stade des Expos de Montréal, le stade olympique de Montréal. Jusqu'en 2005, Montréal était le stade MLB le plus proche de la ville de Burlington.\n\nLe , les Expos du Vermont rendent hommage à la promotion des Expos et honorent Andre Dawson au Centennial Field. Un deuxième hommage est rendu, honorant le lanceur Dennis Martinez et les joueurs portent les uniformes des Expos pendant la rencontre. Un troisième hommage honore Tim Wallach en août 2007.\n\nLake Monsters du Vermont \nPendant l'année 2005, le club décide de changer de nom et sollicite les supporters locaux. Après suggestions, dont les plus populaires étaient « Green Mountain Boys » et « Lakemonsters » d'après le New York Times, le club choisi le nom de Lake Monsters et dévoile en novembre les nouvelles couleurs et uniformes de l'équipe. Les couleurs rouge, blanc et bleu des Expos sont remplacées par le bleu navy, le bleu columbia et le vert. Le nom fait référence à Champ, le légendaire monstre du lac Champlain qui était la mascotte du club depuis 1994.\n\nLes Lake Monsters du Vermont jouent leur dernière saison au sein de l'organisation des Nationals de Washington en 2010. Mi-septembre de cette année, les Nationals signent les Auburn Doubledays pour remplacer les Lake Monsters comme équipe affiliée. Fin septembre, les Athletics d'Oakland signent un contrat de deux ans avec le Vermont pour intégrer l'équipe au sein de leur franchise. C'est la première fois en 14 ans d'histoire que les Lake Monsters ne sont pas affiliés aux Expos ou au Nationals. Vermont dispute sa première saison sous la bannière des A's d'Oakland en 2011.\n\nPalmarès\n\nManagers \n 1994 : Terry Kennedy\n 1995 : Jim Gabella\n 1996-1997 : Kevin Higgins\n 1998-1999 : Tony Barbone\n 2000 : Tim Leiper\n 2001 : Steve Balboni\n 2002-2003 : Dave Barnett\n 2004 : Jose Alguacil\n 2005-2006 : Bobby Williams\t\n 2007 : Darnell Coles\n 2008 : Ramon Aviles\t\n 2009-2010 : Jeff Garber\n 2011-2013 : Rick Magnante\n 2014 : David Newhan\t\n 2015- : Aaron Nieckula\n\nJoueurs notables \n Ken Griffey, Jr. (1988, Mariners de Seattle)\n Geoff Blum (1994, Astros de Houston)\n Orlando Cabrera (1995, Reds de Cincinnati)\n Michael Barrett (1995, Padres de San Diego)\n Milton Bradley (1997, Mariners de Seattle)\n Jorge Julio (1998, Braves d'Atlanta)\n Wilson Valdez (1999, Phillies de Philadelphie)\n Jason Bay (2000, Mets de New York)\n Brandon Watson (2000, AAA Lehigh Valley Iron Pigs ; record de coup sûr dans 43 matchs d'affilée en 2007)\n Jason Bergmann (2002, Nationals de Washington)\n Darrell Rasner (2002, Yankees de New York)\n John Lannan (2005, Nationals de Washington)\n Danny Espinosa (2008, Nationals de Washington)\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n Site officiel\n Vermont Lake Monsters sur Baseball Reference\n Vermont Expos sur Baseball Reference\n\nCatégorie:Club de la Ligue New York - Penn\nCatégorie:Club américain de baseball en A\nV\nV\nCatégorie:Club sportif au Vermont\nCatégorie:Burlington (Vermont)", "Cooper Douglas Kupp, né le à Yakima, Washington, est un Américain, joueur professionnel de football américain évoluant au poste de wide receiver pour la franchise des Rams de Los Angeles au sein de la National Football League (NFL).\n\nAuparavant, il joue au niveau universitaire pour les Eagles d'Eastern Washington où il est sélectionné dans l'équipe-type du pays (All-America). \n\nKupp est sélectionné par les Rams de Los Angeles lors du troisième tour de la draft 2017 de la NFL.\n\nSa jeunesse\nKupp est né à Yakima dans l'état de Washington. Kupp est gradué du de Yakima en 2012 où il pratique le football américain et le basket-ball. Il est repris dans les sélections de l'état pour ces deux sports et obtient même une mention honorable pour l'Associated Press en football américain pour le poste de wide receiver. Kupp est également désigné par le Seattle Times comme un des 100 meilleurs espoirs de l'état de Washington en football américain.\n\nKupp est sélectionné comme wide receiver et comme defensive back de Davis dans l'équipe type de l'All-Columbia Basin Big Nine League. Il termine son année senior avec 60 réceptions pour un gain global de 1059 yards (moyenne de 17,7 par réception) et 18 touchdowns par la passe. Lors de son passage à Davis il inscrit un total de 22 touchdowns en réception, établissant un nouveau record de son lycée. Il réalise également 11 courses pour un gain de 122 yards, inscrivant deux touchdowns à la course. Il permet à son lycée d'accéder pour la première fois de son histoire au dernier tour précédant les playoffs de létat de Washington State. Kupp termine sa carrière au lycée Davis avec 110 réceptions pour un gain de . \n\nEn basket-ball, il établit un nouveau record (23 victoires pour 2 défaites) du lycée tout en remportant le tournoi final de l'état lors de son année senior.\n\nCarrière universitaire \n\nKupp intègre l'université d'Eastern Washington, où il joue sous les ordre de l'entraîneur principal Beau Baldwin en 2012. Il ne joue pas la première année étant sous statut redshirt.\n\nSaison 2013 \nEn 2013, Kupp débute son année freshman comme titulaire au poste de wide receiver. Il termine la saison établissant plusieurs records de son équipe et de la NCAA Division I FCS : \n plus grand nombre de yards gagnés en réception par un freshman sur la saison \n plus grand nombre de touchdowns inscrits en réception sur la saison : 21 \n plus grand nombre de matchs consécutifs en inscrivant un touchdown en réception : 14\n plus grand nombre de réceptions sur la saison : 93\n\nLe 26 novembre 2013, Kupp est sélectionné dans l'équipe-type de la Conférence Big Sky et remporte le titre du freshman de l'année de cette conférence. Le 16 décembre 2013, Kupp remporte le décerné au meilleur joueur freshman de la NCAA Division I FCS. Il est le premier joueur d'Eastern Washington et de la Conférence Big Sky à remporter ce prix.\n\nKupp est sélectionné dans l'équipe type FCS du pays (All-American) ayant été honoré par les quatre plus importants organismes de sélection FCS soit dans l', l'Associated Press, The Sports Network et la . Kupp devient le premier joueur freshman au poste de wide receiver à être sélectionné en équipe type du pays (All-American) depuis Randy Moss en 1996.\n\nLe 9 janvier 2014, Kupp reçoit le trophée du meilleur wide receiver FCS 2013 lors des College Football Performance Awards. Il succède à ce palmarès au wide receiver également des Eagles d'Eastern Washington.\n\nSaison 2014 \nKupp clôture sa saison sophomore avec pour un gain de et en . Il est sélectionné dans l'équipe-type FCS (All-American) par l'AFCA, l'AP, et TSN pour la seconde saison consécutive. I est également sélectionné dans l'équipe-type de la Conférence Big Sky au poste de wide receiver pour la seconde saison consécutive et est également sélectionné dans la troisième équipe-type de cette conférence pour le poste de punt returner. Kupp est classé Walter Payton Award 2014.\n\nSaison 2015 \nKupp termine sa saison 2015 avec un bilan de pour un gain de et en .\n\nKupp améliore ainsi le record de réceptions sur une saison de la Conférence Big Sky, neuvième meilleur performance de l'histoire de la FCS. Kupp est sélectionné comme wide receiver dans l'équipe-type de la Conférence Big Sky pour la troisième saison consécutive et est désigné MVP offensif de cette conférence. Il n'est que le second WR désigné MVP de cette conférence lors des 42 dernières années. Il remporte en plus le Walter Payton Award devenant le troisième joueur d'Eastern Washington et le second WR (après des Wildcats de Villanova en 1997) à remporter ce prix.\n\nSaison 2016 \nLe 30 novembre 2015, Kupp déclare qu'il effectuera son année senior en NCAA même s'il a pensé se présenter à la draft 2016 de la NFL. Il était sur le point de battre presque toutes les records en réception sur une carrière en FCS au cours de cette dernière saison.\n \nIl termine la saison avec un bilan de pour un gain de et . \n\nIl compilera eu cours de sa carrière universitaire 428 réceptions pour un gain de établissant deux nouveaux records FCS détenus jusqu'alors par des Phoenix d'Elon (de 2006 à -2009) avec et . Les inscrits en réception au cours de sa carrière universitaire constituent également un record FCS, dépassant les 58 inscrits entre 2003 et 2006 par des Wildcats du New Hampshire.\n\nCarrière professionnelle\n\nSaison 2017 \nLe 9 juin 2017, Kupp signe avec les Rams de Los Angeles un contrat de quatre ans pour incluant un bonus à la signature de .\n\nKupp est mis en concurrence avec Tavon Austin, Robert Woods, , , et lors des camps d'entraînement pour une place de titulaire au poste de wide receiver libérée par le départ de lors de la free agency. L'entraîneur principal Sean McVay le désigne comme quatrième titulaire à ce poste avec Sammy Watkins, Robert Woods et Tavon Austin.\n\nKupp fait ses débuts en NFL lors du premier match de la saison contre les Colts d'Indianapolis et il effectue pour un gain de dont un touchdown de (le premier de sa carrière NFL) à la suite d'une passe de quarterback Jared Goff(victoire 46 9 ). En semaine, lors de la victoire 35 à 30 contre les Cowboys de Dallas, Kupp réussit cinq réceptions pour un gain de inscrivant un nouveau touchdown.\n\nEn semaine, à Londres (victoire 33 à 0 contre les Cardinals de l'Arizona), il réceptionne quatre ballons pour un gain de inscrivant un touchdown de 18 yards. Lors des sept premiers matchs, Kupp est la cible principale des Rams en zone rouge (red zone) avec sept réceptions et devient le meilleur receveur de Jared Goff dans ce secteur ainsi qu'en troisième tentative (3° down). Il se classe quatrième cible en zone rouge de la NFL derrière Davante Adams, Larry Fitzgerald et Dez Bryant lesquels avaient été ciblés à . En semaine, Kupp débute pour la première fois de sa carrière en NFL comme titulaire. Il réceptionne trois ballons pour un gain de lors de la victoire 51 à 17 contre les Giants de New York. À domicile en semaine, il réussit six réception (record de sa saison) pour un gain de (victoire 33 à 7 contre les Texans de Houston.\n\nPendant la semaine contre les Saints de La Nouvelle-Orléans (victoire 26 à 20), Kupp gagne pour la première fois de sa carrière plus de en réception (116 yards). En semaine contre les Eagles de Philadelphie, il comptabilise cinq réceptions pour un gain de en inscrivant un touchdown. En décembre, Kupp est titulaire à temps plein au poste de wide receiver et termine sa saison avec pour et cinq touchdowns\n\nThe Rams gagnent la division NFC West avec un bilan de 11 victoires pour 5 défaites. Le 6 janvier 2018, Kupp joue son premier match de séries éliminatoires NFL. Il effectue huit réceptions pour un gain de inscrivant un touchdown mais les Rams perdent le match 13 à 26 contre les Falcons d'Atlanta en match de wild card NFC au Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum.\n\nAprès la saison, Kupp est sélectionné dans l'équipe-type des débutants pour la saison 2017 par la .\n\nSaison 2018 \nL'entraîneur principal McVay désigne Kupp comme titulaire au poste de wide receiver pour la saison 2018 aux côtés de Robert Woods et de la nouvelle acquisition de la franchise Brandin Cooks. En semaine, Kupp réceptionne neuf ballons pour un gain de inscrivant deux touchdowns (son record jusqu'à présent en un match) dont un de lors de la victoire 38 à 31 contre les Vikings du Minnesota. Une semaine plus tard, il se blesse au genou contre les Broncos de Denver (victoire 23 à 20) et doit quitter le terrain. Il va rater les deux prochains matchs. Kupp rejoue en semaine contre les Saints de La Nouvelle-Orléans (défaite 35 à 45) réussissant cinq réceptions pour un gain de dont une amenant un touchdown de dans le quart-temps. En semaine, lors du quatrième quart-temps du match gagné 36 à 31 contre les Seahawks de Seattle, Kuppe se blesse seul. Une IRM confirmera une lésion du ligament croisé antérieur ce qui met un terme prématuré à sa saison. Il termine la saison sur un bilan de pour un gain de et six touchdowns en huit matchs. Sans Kupp blessé, les rams accèdent au Super Bowl LIII qu'ils perdent 3 à 13 contre les Patriots de la Nouvelle-Angleterre.\n\nSaison 2019 \nKupp est remis de sa blessure et peux jouer le premier match de la saison des Rams contre les Panthers de la Caroline. Lors de cette victoire 30 à 27, il totalise pour un gain de . En semaine, victoire 27 à 9 contre les Saints de La Nouvelle-Orléans, il effectue cinq réceptions pour un gain de . La semaine suivante, (victoire 30 à 13 contre les Browns de Cleveland, Kupp réceptionne onze ballons pour un gain de et deux touchdowns.\n\nStatistiques\n\nUniversitaires \n\n|-\n| 2013 || Eagles d'Eastern Washington || || 15 || 93 || || 6,2 || 21 || ? || ? || ? || ?\n|-\n| 2014 || Eagles d'Eastern Washington || SO || 13 || 104 || || 8 || 16 || ? || ? || ? || ?\n|-\n| 2015 || Eagles d'Eastern Washington || || 11 || 114 || || 10,4 || 19 || ? || ? || ? || ?\n|-\n| 2016 || Eagles d'Eastern Washington || || 13 || 117 || || 9 || 17 || ? || ? || ? || ?\n|-\n\n| 52 || 428 || || 8,4 || 73 || ? || ? || ? || ?\n\nProfessionnelles \n\n|-\n| 2017 || Rams de Los Angeles || 15 || 62 || 869 || 14 || 5 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1\n|-\n| 2018 || Rams de Los Angeles || 8 || 40 || 566 || 14,2 || 6 || 4 || 25 || 6,3 || 0 || 0 || 0\n|-\n| 2019 || Rams de Los Angeles || ? || Colspan=\"4\" | Saison en cours || Colspan=\"4\" | Saison en cours || ||\n\n| 23 || 102 || || 14,1 || 11 || 4 || 25 || 6,3 || 0 || 1 || 1\n\n|-\n| 2017 || Rams de Los Angeles || 1 || 8 || 69 || 8,6 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0\n\n| 1 || 8 || 69 || 8,6 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0\n\nVie privée \nKupp est le fils de l'ancien quarterback NFL sélectionné lors du cinquième tour de la draft 1990 de la NFL par les Giants de New York. Il jouait au niveau universitaire pour la . Il a également joué pour les Cardinals de Phoenix et les Cowboys de Dallas en NFL. Son plus jeune frère a également joué pour les Eagles d'Eastern Washington. Il est ensuite engagé par les Rams de Los Angeles comme agent libre en 2019. Il participe aux camps d'entraînement et aux matchs d'avant-saison mais ne fait pas partie du roster final.\n\nSon grand-père, , a joué comme joueur de ligne offensif pour l'université de Washington. Il est sélectionné lors du neuvième tour de la draft 1964 de la NFL par les Cowboys de Dallas et joue entre 1964 et 1975 au poste de garde, respectivement pour les Cowboys de Dallas, les Redskins de Washington, Falcons d'Atlanta et les Saints de La Nouvelle-Orléans. Il est sélectionné dans l'équipe-type des débutants (rookies) de la NFL et est intronisé au Pro Football Hall of Fame en 1991.\n\nKupp entretient une relation d'amitié avec le quarterback des Rams Jared Goff après avoir vécu ensemble quelques semaines après la draft. Ils se sont entraîné ensemble, mais ont également analysé des films, étudié les schémas défensifs et appris le playbook ensemble. Leur relation est comparable à celle liant le quarterback Tom Brady et son wide receiver Julian Edelman.\n\nKupp est un chrétien pratiquant.\n\nC'est à l'université d'Eastern Washington que Kupp rencontre sa future épouse, Anna Croskrey. Le couple se marie en juin 2015. Cooper Jameson Kupp, leur premier enfant naît le 3 juillet 2018.\n\nRéférences \n\nCatégorie:Naissance en juin 1993\nCatégorie:Naissance à Yakima\nCatégorie:Joueur américain de football américain\nCatégorie:Wide receiver\nCatégorie:Joueur de football américain des Eagles d'Eastern Washington\nCatégorie:Choix de draft des Rams de Los Angeles\nCatégorie:Joueur des Rams de Los Angeles", "Don O'Donoghue (né le à Kingston en Ontario- mort le ) est un joueur professionnel de hockey sur glace.\n\nCarrière de joueur \nIl joua dans la Ligue nationale de hockey pour les Seals d'Oakland et dans l'association mondiale de hockey pour les Blazers de Philadelphie, les Blazers de Vancouver et les Stingers de Cincinnati.\n\nIl fut repêché par les Seals au du repêchage amateur de la LNH 1969, au total, des Black Hawks de St. Catharines.\n\nStatistiques \nPour les significations des abréviations, voir Statistiques du hockey sur glace.\n\n| 1967-1968|| Black Hawks de Saint-Catharines|| AHO|| 54|| 5|| 15|| 20|| 12|| || || || || \n|-\n| 1968-1969|| Black Hawks de Saint-Catharines|| AHO|| 45|| 9|| 21|| 30|| 61|| || || || || \n|- \n| 1968-1969|| Université McMaster || CIAU|| || || || || || || || || || \n|-\n| 1969-1970||Seals d'Oakland || LNH|| 68|| 5|| 6|| 11|| 21|| 3|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0\n|- \n| 1970-1971|| Reds de Providence|| LAH|| 25|| 9|| 8|| 17|| 20|| --|| --|| --|| --|| --\n|-\n| 1970-1971|| Golden Seals de la Californie|| LNH|| 43|| 11|| 9|| 20|| 10|| --|| --|| --|| --|| --\n|- \n| 1971-1972|| Clippers de Baltimore|| LAH|| 23|| 3|| 6|| 9|| 10|| --|| --|| --|| --|| --\n|-\n| 1971-1972|| Braves de Boston || LAH|| 16|| 0|| 3|| 3|| 0|| 9|| 0|| 1|| 1|| 7\n|- \n| 1971-1972|| Golden Seals de la Californie|| LNH|| 14|| 2|| 2|| 4|| 4|| --|| --|| --|| --|| --\n|-\n| 1972-1973|| Blazers de Philadelphie|| AMH|| 74|| 16|| 23|| 39|| 43|| 4|| 0|| 1|| 1|| 0\n|- \n| 1973-1974|| Dusters de Broome || N LAH|| 17|| 2|| 5|| 7|| 13|| --|| --|| --|| --|| --\n|-\n| 1973-1974|| Blazers de Vancouver || AMH|| 49|| 8|| 6|| 14|| 20|| --|| --|| --|| --|| --\n|- \n| 1974-1975|| Oilers de Tulsa|| LCH|| 46|| 8|| 22|| 30|| 60|| 2|| 1|| 0|| 1|| 2\n|-\n| 1974-1975|| Port Huron-Des Moines|| LIH|| 32|| 0|| 1|| 1|| 28|| || || || || \n|- \n| 1974-1975|| Blazers de Vancouver || AMH|| 4|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0|| --|| --|| --|| --|| --\n|-\n| 1975-1976|| Stingers de Cincinnati || AMH|| 20|| 1|| 8|| 9|| 0|| --|| --|| --|| --|| --\n|- \n| 1975-1976|| Gulls de Hampton || SHL|| 45|| 15|| 26|| 41|| 59|| 9|| 2|| 6|| 8|| 4\n|-\n| 1976-1977|| Gulls de Hampton || SHL|| 50|| 16|| 26|| 42|| 46|| || || || || \n|- \n| 1977-1978|| Gulls de Hampton || LAH|| 43|| 4|| 8|| 12|| 84|| --|| --|| --|| --|| --\n\n| 125|| 18|| 17|| 35|| 35|| 3|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0\n\nRéférences\n\nVoir aussi\n\nCatégorie:Naissance en août 1949\nCatégorie:Naissance à Kingston (Ontario)\nCatégorie:Décès en juin 2007\nCatégorie:Joueur canadien de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Choix de repêchage des Seals d'Oakland\nCatégorie:Joueur des Seals d'Oakland\nCatégorie:Joueur des Golden Seals de la Californie\nCatégorie:Joueur des Blazers de Philadelphie\nCatégorie:Joueur des Blazers de Vancouver\nCatégorie:Joueur des Stingers de Cincinnati\nCatégorie:Joueur des Reds de Providence\nCatégorie:Joueur des Clippers de Baltimore\nCatégorie:Joueur des Braves de Boston\nCatégorie:Joueur des Wings de Port Huron\nCatégorie:Joueur des Capitols de Des Moines\nCatégorie:Joueur des Oilers de Tulsa (1968-1984)\nCatégorie:Joueur des Gulls de Hampton\nCatégorie:Attaquant de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Décès à 57 ans", "(né le à Sōka, Saitama, Japon), plus connu sous son nom de ring Kenta, est un catcheur japonais.\n\nIl est principalement connu pour son travail au Japon à la entre 2000 et 2014 d'abord dans la catégorie des poids-lourds junior où il devient triple champion par équipe poids-lourds junior (GHC) avec Naomichi Marufuji, Taiji Ishimori et Yoshinobu Kanemaru ainsi que triple champion poids-lourds junior GHC. Il change de catégorie pour être poids-lourds en 2011 et y remporte le championnat par équipe GHC avec Maybach Taniguchi ainsi que le championnat poids-lourds GHC. Durant cette période, il apparaît ponctuellement à la .\nIl travaille actuellement à la New Japan Pro Wrestling où il est membre du Bullet Club et ancien détenteur du NEVER Openweight Championship\n\nCarrière\n\nPro Wrestling NOAH (2000-2014)\n\nDébuts (2000-2002) \nIl fait ses débuts dans le catch professionnel le face à Naomichi Marufuji, à l' (AJPW) catchant dans la division des poids-lourds junior.\n\nIl rejoint ensuite Mitsuharu Misawa, qui décide de créer sa propre fédération après avoir quitté l'AJPW pour fonder la et Kenta participe à , le spectacle inaugural, le en perdant contre Satoru Asako.\n\nLe , il est éliminé au premier tour par Path Finder du tournoi pour désigner le premier champion poids-lourds junior (GHC). Il décide par la suite de changer de nom de ring pour celui de KENTA afin de ne pas être confondu avec Kenta Kobashi, un de ses mentors.\n\nKENTA s'allie avec Naomichi Marufuji pour le tournoi désignant les premiers champions par équipe poids-lourds junior GHC en . Ils éliminent Mitsuo Momota et Tsuyoshi Kikuchi puis Tatsuhito Takaiwa et Yoshihito Sasaki avant de remporter le titre le après leur victoire sur Jushin Thunder Liger et Takehiro Murahama le . Ils défendent leur titre avec succès le face à Makoto Hashi et Yoshinobu Kanemaru.\n\nLe , lui et Maybach Taniguchi battent Samoa Joe et Magnus et remportent les GHC Tag Team Championship. Le , ils perdent les titres contre Akitoshi Saito et Gō Shiozaki.\n\nGHC Heavyweight Champion (2013-2014) \nLors de Great Voyage 2013 In Osaka, il bat Takeshi Morishima et remporte le GHC Heavyweight Championship. Lors de Great Voyage 2013 In Yokohama, il conserve son titre contre Maybach Taniguchi. Le , il prend part au match de la retraite de son entraîneur Kenta Kobashi, où lui, Gō Shiozaki, Maybach Taniguchi et Yoshinobu Kanemaru perdent contre Kenta Kobashi, Jun Akiyama, Keiji Mutō et Kensuke Sasaki. Le lendemain, il conserve son titre contre Takashi Sugiura. Le , il conserve son titre contre Toru Yano. Le , il conserve son titre contre Naomichi Marufuji. Le , Il perd le titre contre Takeshi Morishima.\n\nRetour (2018) \nLe lors de NOAH Naomichi Marufuji 20th Anniversary Show, il effectue un retour d'un soir en perdant contre Naomichi Marufuji.\n\nRing of Honor (2005-2009) \n\nKENTA fait ses débuts à la ROH en 2005 et s'y fait vite un nom, il ne remporte pas de titre à la ROH mais acquiert un nom aux US en plus de sa réputation au Japon, c'est un des chouchoux du public de la ROH et il est aujourd'hui un catcheur qui fait des matchs occasionnellement dans cette fédération, notamment dans les PPV, comme à ROH Supercard of Honor IV où il défendit son titre GHC Jr Heavyweight contre Davey Richards.\n\nWorld Wrestling Entertainment (2014-2019) \nIl signe à la World Wrestling Entertainement le lors d'un show au Japon, à l'arène de Tokyo, en compagnie de Jimmy Hart et de Hulk Hogan.\n\nIl rejoint ensuite le centre de développement de la fédération avant d'intégrer le roster de WWE NXT.\n\nNXT (2014-2017) \nIl dispute son premier combat à NXT le sous le nom d'Hideo Itami en battant Justin Gabriel. Lors de NXT Takeover: R Evolution, il gagne avec Finn Balor contre The Ascension. Lors de NXT Takeover: Rival, il bat Tyler Breeze.\n\nLors de WrestleMania 31, il participe à la Andre The Giant Memorial Battle Royal, remportée par Big Show.\n\nIl devait affronter Finn Bálor et Tyler Breeze lors de NXT Takeover: Unstoppable pour déterminer le challenger n°1 au NXT Championship, mais est attaqué sur le parking avant le show et est retiré du match. Cet angle vise à le retirer des shows télévisés car il a en réalité subi une blessure à l'épaule. Fin , il est opéré de l'épaule. Lors de l'épisode de NXT du , il fait une apparition pour évoquer sa blessure. Il explique notamment qu'il sera hors d'action pour 3 à 4 mois, et challenge le prochain NXT Champion à un match. Il passe finalement plus d'un an éloigné des rings.\n\nIl fait son retour à NXT le en battant Sean Meluta.\n\nLe à NXT, il fait son retour en confrontant le Champion de la NXT Bobby Roode à qui il porte son GTS. Le , il bat Kona Reeves. Le , il bat Roderick Strong et affrontera Bobby Roode pour le NXT Championship lors de NXT TakeOver: Chicago. Le , il attaque Bobby Roode en lui portant son GTS après que ce dernier l'ait critiqué. Lors de NXT Takeover: Chicago, il perd contre Bobby Roode et ne remporte pas le NXT Championship. Le , lui et Kassius Ohno perdent contre Alexander Wolfe et Killian Dain. Le , il perd par disqualification contre Kassius Ohno en lui portant un Low blow. À la fin du match, il attaque ce dernier avec trois Go To Sleep dont le dernier sur les escaliers en acier et effectue un heel turn. Le , il se fait interrompre par Aleister Black qui l'attaque avec son Black Mass. Lors de NXT Takeover: Brooklyn III, il perd contre Aleister Black. Le , il perd contre Kassius Ohno dans un NO Disqualification Match.\n\n205 Live et Départ (2017-2019) \nthumb|upright|Itami en Avril 2018\nLe lors de 205 Live, une vidéo annonce qu'il fera ses débuts à 205 Live le . Il fait ses débuts à Raw le en faisant équipe avec Finn Balor pour battre le Miztourage. Le à 205 Live, il bat Colin Delaney. Le à Raw, il bat The Brian Kendrick et lui casse le nez avec un GTS. Le à 205 Live il bat Gentleman Jack Gallagher. Le à 205 Live, il se fait tabasser par Gentleman Jack Gallagher a coups de barre de fer. Le à 205 Live, il attaque Gentleman Jack Gallagher. Le à 205 Live, il bat Gentleman Jack Gallagher. Le à 205 Live, il ne passe pas le premier tour du Cruiserweight Tournament en perdant contre Roderick Strong. \n\nLe , lui & Akira Tozawa battent Nemeth Alexander & Scott James. Le , ils battent Lince Dorado & Gran Metalik. Le , il affronte Lince Dorado au cours d'un match terminé en no contest. Le , Gran Metalik et Lince Dorado vs Hideo Itami et Akira Tozawa se termine en no contest. Le lors de Wrestlemania Axxess, il passe le premier tour du NXT North American Invitational en battant Wolfgang. Le , lui & Akira Tozawa perdent contre Lince Dorado & Gran Metalik au cours d'un Tornado Tag Team match. Le 1er mai à 205 Live, il perd avec Akira Tozawa contre The Brian Kendrick et Gentleman Jack Gallagher, après le match, il envoie Tozawa au sol et effectue un heel turn. Le , il bat Akira Tozawa. \n\nLe , il attaque Mustafa Ali et Buddy Murphy au cours de leur match. Le , il bat Mustafa Ali et Buddy Murphy au cours d'un triple threat match. Le 1er juillet en House Show, il perd contre Sin Cara. Le , il perd contre Cedric Alexander et ne remporte pas le WWE Cruiserweight Championship. \n\nLe , il perd un fatal-4 way match au profit de Drew Gulak, ce match impliquait aussi Mustafa Ali et TJP et déterminait le nouveau challenger au titre cruiserweight. Le , il bat Mustafa Ali après que ce dernier se soit vu pris de vertiges. \n\nLe , il bat Trent Newman par K.O, après le match il attaque ce dernier. Le , alors qu'il était en plein match contre un jobber, il est attaqué par Mustafa Ali mais il s\"enfuit avant que ce dernier ne monte sur le ring, son match se termine en no contest. \n\nLe , son match contre Mustafa Ali se termine en double décompte à l'extérieur après un 450 splash de Ali sur Itami sur le rebord du ring. Lors du 100ème épisode de 205 Live, il perd un Falls Count Anywhere contre Mustafa Ali. \n\nLe , il bat un jobber. Après le match, il continue de frapper le jobber. Il est ensuite interrompu par Ariya Daivari qui vient également s'attaquer au jobber. \n\nLe , accompagné par Ariya Daivari, il bat Noam Dar. Le , il bat Kalisto & Akira Tozawa au cours d'un triple threat match. Lors du Royal Rumble (2019), il perd contre Buddy Murphy dans un Fatal-4 Way Match qui comprenaient également Kalisto et Akira Tozawa et ne remporte pas le WWE Cruiserweight Championship.\n\nLe à 205 Live, il perd contre Tozawa après avoir accidentellement percuté Ariya Daivari. Après le match, il est attaqué par Daivari. Le même soir, il est annoncé qu'il à demandé à être libéré de son contrat avec la WWE et que sa demande lui fut accordée.\n\nNew Japan Pro Wrestling (2019-...) \nthumb|Kenta avec le NEVER Openweight Championship en Décembre 2019\nIl est de retour dans son pays le japon où il signe un contrat avec la NJPW. Il apparaît pendant l’événement NJPW Dominion 2019 et il annonce sa participation au G1 Climax 2019.\n\nLe , lui et Chaos (Tomohiro Ishii et Yoshi-Hashi) perdent contre Bullet Club (Bad Luck Fale, Tama Tonga et Tanga Loa) après qu'il se soit retourné contre ces partenaires, rejoignant par la même occasion le Bullet Club. Katsuyori Shibata tente ensuite de l'attaquer, mais il le maîtrise avec l'aide de ces nouveaux équipiers. Lors de , il bat Tomohiro Ishii et remporte le NEVER Openweight Championship.\n\nLors de , il perd son titre contre Hirooki Goto et plus tard dans la soirée, il attaque Tetsuya Naitō et le défie pour le IWGP Heavyweight Championship et le IWGP Intercontinental Championship, et s’assoit sur lui par la suite.\n\nCaractéristiques au catch \nPrises de finition\nBusaiku Knee Kick\n Go To Sleep (Fireman Carry Single Knee Facebuster) (créateur)\n Game Over (LeBell Lock) (2013) \n Octopus Stretch\nCorner Hesitation Dropkick (sur un adversaire assis dans le coin du ring)\n\n Équipes et Clans\n Disobey (2011)\n No Mercy (2011-2014)\n Bullet Club (2019-...)\n\n Surnoms\n \"Black Sun\"\n \"International/Japanese Sensation\"\n\nPalmarès \n Alianza Latinoamericana de Lucha Libre\n Torneo Latino Americano de Lucha Libre (2013)\n\n New Japan Pro Wrestling\n 1 fois NEVER Openweight Championship\n\n Pro Wrestling NOAH\n 1 fois GHC Heavyweight Championship\n 3 fois GHC Junior Heavyweight Championship\n 3 fois GHC Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship avec Naomichi Marufuji (1), Taiji Ishimori (1) et Yoshinobu Kanemaru (1)\n 1 fois GHC Tag Team Championship avec Maybach Taniguchi\n One Day Six Man Tag Team Tournament (2002) avec Kenta Kobashi et Kentaro Shiga\n Differ Cup (2005)\n Nippon TV Cup Junior Heavyweight Tag League (2007, 2008, 2010) avec Taiji Ishimori (2007, 2008) et Atsushi Aoki (2010)\n 2 Days Tag Tournament (2011) avec Yoshihiro Takayama\n Global Tag League (2013) avec Yoshihiro Takayama\n Matsumoto Day Clinic Cup Contention Heavyweight Battle Royal (2013)\n Global Tag League Fighting Spirit Award (2014) avec Yoshihiro Takayama\n\n Tokyo Sports Grand Prix \n Best Bout 2006 vs. Naomichi Marufuji, \n\n Wrestling Observer Newsletter Awards \n Best Wrestling Maneuver (2006, 2007) - Go 2 Sleep \n Tag Team of the Year (2003, 2004) avec Naomichi Marufuji\n\nJeux vidéo \nWWE 2K16\n WWE 2K17\nWWE 2K18\n WWE 2K19\n\nRécompenses des magazines\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n\nCatégorie:Naissance dans la préfecture de Saitama\nCatégorie:Catcheur japonais\nCatégorie:Naissance en mars 1981\nCatégorie:Catcheur de la Ring of Honor\nCatégorie:Catcheur de la Pro Wrestling NOAH\nCatégorie:Catcheur de la World Wrestling Entertainment", "Le Tour de Tolède est une compétition cycliste par étapes, en général quatre, créée en 1969. Elle se déroule en août dans la province de Tolède. Plusieurs éditions ont été annulées depuis la création de l'épreuve. L'ancien coureur Federico Bahamontes s'est à plusieurs reprises investi dans l'organisation de la course.\n\nPalmarès \n\n|-\n|1966\n|20px|Espanya Enrique Cifuentes\n|\n|\n|-\n|1967\n|20px|Espanya Agustín Tamames\n|\n|\n|-\n|1968\n|20px|Espanya Manuel Sánchez\n|\n|\n|-\n|1969\n|20px|Espanya José Antonio Pontón\n|20px|Espanya Francisco Tomás\n|20px|Espanya José Moreno Torres\n|-\n|1970\n|20px|Espanya Félix González\n|\n|\n|-\n|1971\n|20px|Espanya José Luis Viejo\n|\n|\n|-\n|1972\n| Jacques Marquette\n|\n|\n|-\n|1973\n| Stanisław Szozda\n|\n|\n|-\n|1974\n| Stanisław Szozda\n|\n|\n|-\n|1975\n|20px|Espanya Jesús López Carril\n|\n|\n|-\n|1976\n|20px|Espanya Bernardo Rey\n|\n|\n|-\n|1977\n|20px|Espanya Anastasio Greciano\n|\n|\n|-\n|1978\n|20px|Espanya Ángel Camarillo\n|\n|\n|-\n|1979\n|20px|Espanya Ángel Ocaña\n|\n|\n|-\n|1980\n|20px|Espanya Juan José Cubillo\n|\n|\n|-\n|1981\n| J. Gérard Poirot\n|\n|\n|-\n|1982\n| Alexandre Averine\n| Ramazan Galaletdinov\n| Soukanon\n|-\n|1983\n| Eugenio Herranz\n| \n| Guillermo Arenas\n|-\n|1984\n| José Fernando Pacheco\n| Álvaro Fernández\n|\n|-\n|1985\n| Jesús Cruz Martín\n| Mauro Ribeiro\n| Manuel Carrera\n|-\n|1986\n| José López Carrión\n| Clemencio Rodas\n|\n|-\n|1987\n| Gabriel Sabbiao\n|\n|\n|-\n|1988\n| Gonzalo Guirao\n|\n|\n|-\n|1989\n| \n| José Luis Otero\n|\n|-\n|1990\n| \n|\n|\n|-\n|1991\n| David Plaza\n| Ramón García España\n|\n|-\n|1992\n| Linas Knistautas\n| José María Jiménez\n| Arvis Piziks\n|-\n|1993\n| Thierry Elissalde\n| Ángel Casero\n|\n|-\n|1994\n| Javier Pascual Llorente\n| José Luis Rebollo\n|\n|-\n|1995\n| Miguel Ángel Martín Perdiguero\n| Pablo Lastras\n|\n|-\n|1996\n| Carlos Golbano\n| Isaac Villanueva\n| David Cancela\n|-\n|1997\n| Anton Chantyr\n|\n|\n|-\n|1998\n| David Bernabéu\n|\n|\n|-\n|1999\n| Juan Antonio Flecha\n| David Muñoz\n| Claudio Faria\n|-\n|2000\n| Luis Fernando Poyatos\n| Daniel Fernández Díaz\n| José Manuel Maestre\n|-\n|2001\n| Rubén González de Castro\n| Patxi Ugarte\n| Julián Fernández\n|-\n|2002\n| Luis Pasamontes\n| Alexander Rotar\n| Javier Benítez\n|-\n|2003\n| Daniel Moreno\n| Jorge García Marín\n| Rodrigo García Rena\n|-\n|2004\n| Rodrigo García Rena\n| Francisco Javier Andújar\n| Jesús Pérez Priego\n|-\n|2005\n| Juan Carlos Fernández\n| Diego Milán\n| Joaquín Sobrino\n|-\n|2006\n| Pablo Hernán Marcos\n| Joaquín Novoa\n| José Luis Ruiz\n|-\n|2007\n| José Vicente Toribio\n| Daniel Sesma\n| José Luis Ruiz\n|-\n|2008\n| Raúl García de Mateos\n| Álvaro García Caballero\n| Rubén Martínez Hernández\n|-\n|2009\n| Carlos Oyarzún\n| José Ángel Rodríguez\n| Yannick Marié\n|-\n|2010\n| Thomas Vaubourzeix\n| Evaldas Šiškevičius\n| Ramūnas Navardauskas\n|-\n|2011\n| Ibon Zugasti\n| Anthony Perez\n| Daniel Sánchez\n|-\n|2012\n| Diego Tamayo\n| Rubén Martínez González\n| Víctor Martín\n|-\n|2013\n| Edison Bravo\n| Aitor González Prieto\n| Sergio Miguez\n|-\n|2014\n| Pedro Merino\n| Antonio Pedrero\n| Mikel Bizkarra\n|-\n|2015\n| Mikel Aristi\n| Mikel Iturria\n| Roberto Mediero\n|-\n| 2016\n| Gonzalo Serrano\n| Óscar González de Campo\n| Antonio Angulo\n|}\n\nRéférences \n\nCatégorie:Compétition cycliste en Espagne\nCatégorie:Cyclisme en Castille-La Manche\nCatégorie:Compétition fondée en 1969\nCatégorie:Tolède", "Ai Miyazato (宮里藍 en japonais), née le à Higashi dans la Préfecture d'Okinawa (Japon), est une golfeuse japonaise. Professionnelle depuis 2004 sur le circuit japonais, elle rejoint en 2006 le circuit américain (). Elle compte vingt-cinq titres professionnelles, dont neuf sur le . Ses victoires les plus pretigieuses sont obtenues lors de l'Evian Masters en 2009 et 2011. Elle met un terme à sa carrière en 2017.\n\nBiographie \n\nAlors qu'elle est encore étudiante, Ai Miyazato devient la première amateure en trente ans à remporter un titre sur le circuit JLPGA. La saison suivante, elle remporte cinq ce circuit pour sa saison de débutante.\n\nEn 2005, elle remporte la disputée à George, avec sa compatriote Rui Kitada.\n\nAprès une carrière sur le LPGA Japan Tour où elle remporte quatorze victoires, elle rejoint le circuit américain du LPGA Tour. Elle obtient dès sa première année un Top 5 dans l'un des tournois majeurs avec une troisième place au LPGA Championship, à un coupe de Se Ri Pak et Karrie Webb qui se départagent en playoff. En 2008, elle obtient une cinquième place lors de l'Open britannique.\n\nEn , elle remporte l'Evian Masters dans un playoff l'opposant à la Suédoise Sophie Gustafson après avoir réussi un score de 274 (69-66-70-69). Elle l'emporte lors du premier tour du playoff. C'est sa première victoire sur le LPGA Tour, obtenue de plus sur l'un des tournois les plus richement dotés du golf féminin et qui est désormais considéré comme le cinquième majeur féminin. Elle enchaîne ensuite par une troisième place à l'Open britannique, qu'elle partage avec Paula Creamer, Hee-Won Han et Christina Kim, derrière l'Écossaise Catriona Matthew qui l'emporte devant Karrie Webb.\n\nvignette|upright=1|gauche|Ai Miyazato lors de 'Open britannique 2010.|alt=Golfeuse de face, tenant son club avec les deux mains au dessus de la tête.\nL'année suivante, elle remporte cinq tournois sur ce même circuit américain et, comme en 2009, elle termine à deux reprises dans le dans les tournois majeurs, troisième au LPGA Championship et neuvième à l'Open britannique. Ces performances lui permettent d'occuper la première place du classement mondial pendant une semaine en juin, puis de nouveau une semaine en juillet, et enfin du au , date à laquelle elle est dépassée par Cristie Kerr. Malgré ses cinq victoires, en départs, elle ne termine pas la saison en tête du classement des gains, remporté par la Sud-Coréenne Na Yeon Choi, ou du , joueuse de l'année, remporté par la Taiwanaise Yani Tseng.\n\nEn 2011, après un début de saison plus compliqué avec une seule place dans le d'un tournoi lors du , elle termine au sixième rang de l'US Open. Deux semaines plus tard, elle remporte son second titre de l'Evian Masters, tournoi dont elle occupe la première place à l'issue du troisième tour avec deux coups d'avance. Elle confirme lors du dernier tour et l'emporte avec un score de 273 (68, 68, 67, 70), soit 15 sous le par et deux coups d'avance sur Stacy Lewis.\n\nElle remporte ses huitième et neuvième tournois sur le circuit LPGA, le Lotte Championship et le Walmart NW Arkansas Championship Presented by P&G lors de la saison 2012.\n\nEn 2017, elle met un terme à sa carrière lors de l'Evian Championship.\n\nDurant cette année 2017, elle est au cœur d'une polémique autour du choix du site pour les Jeux olympiques de 2020. Le Kasumigaseki Country Club, site retenu, n'autorise pas les femmes à être membres à part entière et ne peuvent donc pas jouer certains dimanches. Le club renonce à cette politique peu après sous la pression du Comité international olympique.\n\nSollicitée pour prendre le rôle de coach de l'équipe japonaise pour ces Jeux, elle décline, estimant que, malgré son intention de se diriger vers cette carrière, ce projet serait trop difficile sans aucune expérience.\n\nPalmarès \nAi Miyazato compte au total vingt-cinq titres professionnelles, neuf sur le circuit de la LPGA (nord-américain), quinze sur le circuit japonais (JLGPA) et le . Sa meilleure performance sur un tournoi majeur de la LPGA est une troisième place, lors des éditions du LPGA Championship et lors de l' à l'Open britannique. Sa plus prestigieuse victoire est l'Evian Masters en 2009, tournoi qu'elle remporte de nouveau en 2011.\n\nLe , elle devient la quatrième joueuse à occuper la première place du Women's World Golf Rankings, après Annika Sörenstam, Lorena Ochoa et Jiyai Shin.\n\nVictoires professionnelles (25)\n\nParcours en tournois majeurs \nthumb|Ai Miyazato à l'Open britannique en 2009.\n\nDNP = N'a pas participé\nCUT = A raté le Cut\n\"T\" = Égalité\nLe fond vert montre les victoires et le fond jaune un top 10.\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n\n \n Site Officiel de Ai Miyazato .\n\nCatégorie:Golfeuse japonaise\nCatégorie:Naissance en juin 1985\nCatégorie:Naissance dans la préfecture d'Okinawa", "Ronald Lorne Stackhouse (né le à Haliburton en Ontario, Canada) est un joueur de hockey sur glace professionnel qui évolue dans la Ligue nationale de hockey (LNH) pour les Golden Seals de la Californie, les Red Wings de Détroit puis les Penguins de Pittsburgh.\n\nStackhouse est repêché depuis les Petes de Peterborough de l'Association de hockey de l'Ontario (AHO) en tant que au total lors du repêchage amateur de 1969 par les Seals d'Oakland. Il joue quelques saisons avec les Seals et les Red Wings avant de se retrouver à Pittsburgh au début de 1974.\n\nIl égale un record de la ligue en obtenant six passes en un seul match, connaît des saisons de soixante et soixante-et-onze points et prend part au Match des étoiles de 1980. Il reste avec les Penguins jusqu'en 1982, année où il prend sa retraite pour retourner vivre à Haliburton.\n\nBiographie\n\nSes débuts \nRonald Lorne Stackhouse naît le à Haliburton, une ville proche de Toronto en Ontario, Canada. Il grandit en regardant jouer les Maple Leafs de Toronto dans la Ligue nationale de hockey et son joueur préféré est alors Frank Mahovlich. En 1966-1967, il fait ses débuts au hockey sur glace en tant que défenseur en jouant pour l'équipe de sa ville, les Hawks, dans une des divisions de l'Association de hockey de l'Ontario.\n\nLa saison suivante, il rejoint la division principale de l'AHO en jouant pour les Petes de Peterborough ; à la fin de sa première saison, les Petes terminent huitièmes sur dix de la saison régulière mais jouent tout de même les séries éliminatoires. Lors de la saison suivante, les Petes se classent troisième meilleure équipe de la saison mais sont éliminés au deuxième tour des séries.\n\nAu cours de cette deuxième saison dans l'AHO, Stackhouse est nommé dans la deuxième équipe d'étoiles. L'équipe de Peterborough est alors entraînée par Roger Neilson qui a pour l'habitude de remplacer son gardien de but lors des tirs de pénalités par un défenseur, et ce rôle échoue régulièrement à Stackhouse qui peut facilement empêcher l'attaquant adverse de marquer un but.\n\nÀ la suite de cette saison, il participe au repêchage amateur de 1969 de la LNH et est sélectionné en tant que dix-huitième joueur, le deuxième choix des Seals d'Oakland ; ces derniers choisissent un autre joueur des Petes en tant que septième choix du repêchage : Tony Featherstone.\n\nLes Seals puis les Red Wings \nStackhouse fait ses débuts en tant que professionnel au cours de la saison 1969-1970 en jouant dans la Ligue américaine de hockey (LAH) pour les Reds de Providence, équipe affiliée à la franchise de la LNH. Avec seulement cinquante-deux points en soixante-douze rencontres, les Reds, qui terminent à la dernière place de leur division et même de toute la LAH, ne sont pas qualifiés pour les séries éliminatoires de la Coupe Calder. La saison de Stackhouse ne s'arrête pas là puisqu'il rejoint les Totems de Seattle dans la (WHL), une autre équipe affiliée aux Seals, pour les séries éliminatoires de la WHL ; il joue cinq rencontres de plus avec les Totems.\n\nIl rejoint l'effectif des Golden Seals de la Californie, nouveau nom de sa franchise, pour la saison 1970-1971 et est associé en défense à Carol Vadnais. Stackhouse inscrit une trentaine de points au cours de la saison, le meilleur total de son équipe pour un défenseur, mais cela ne suffit pas pour que l'équipe évite à la dernière place du classement de la LNH avec seulement quarante-cinq points récoltés.\n\nStackhouse commence la saison suivante en Californie, mais, après seulement six matchs joués, il change d'équipe ; le , il quitte la franchise d'Oakland pour rejoindre les Red Wings de Détroit en retour de Tom Webster. Sa nouvelle équipe termine la saison cinquième de sa division et ne se qualifie pas pour les séries, ce qui est également le cas lors de la saison suivante. Lors de cette dernière, il termine le calendrier avec trente-quatre points, le plus haut total de sa carrière jusque-là et le meilleur pour un défenseur des Red Wings.\n\nLes Penguins de Pittsburgh \nAprès une trentaine de rencontres au cours de la saison 1973-1974, Stackhouse change une nouvelle fois de franchise de la LNH. Le , il rejoint les Penguins de Pittsburgh en retour de Jim Rutherford et de Jack Lynch. Les Penguins terminent la saison à la sixième place du classement et manquent les séries.\n\nAvant le début de la saison suivante, la LNH change de format en intégrant deux nouvelles franchises, les Scouts de Kansas City et les Capitals de Washington ; dix-huit équipes jouent désormais pour la Coupe Stanley et la LNH est divisée en quatre divisions. Les Penguins rejoignent la division Norris où ils finissent troisièmes et se qualifient pour les séries. Ils remportent le tour préliminaire contre les Blues de Saint-Louis en deux matchs mais ils perdent en quart de finale contre les Islanders de New York : après avoir remporté les trois premiers matchs, les Penguins laissent filer les quatre suivants dont le dernier sur le score de 1-0, but inscrit par Ed Westfall. Au cours de cette saison, les finances des Penguins sont au plus bas et la franchise est au bord de la faillite.\n\nD'un point de vue personnel, Stackhouse comptabilise soixante points, le meilleur total pour un défenseur de l'équipe et avec quarante-cinq passes décisives, il est le troisième passeur de la formation derrière Ron Schock et Syl Apps. Au cours de cette saison, le , il réalise six passes décisives au cours d'un même match, une victoire 8-2 contre les Flyers de Philadelphie, une première pour les Penguins. Shock et Stackhouse sont désignés meilleurs joueurs de l'équipe.\n\nStackhouse connaît le meilleur total de points de sa carrière au cours de la campagne 1975-1976 en totalisant onze buts et soixante passes décisives. L'équipe se qualifie pour les séries mais perd lors du tour préliminaire contre les Maple Leafs de Toronto en trois matchs. Au cours d'un match contre les Capitals de Washington en , il effectue quatorze lancers contre le gardien adverse, un record pour l'équipe, record toujours d'actualité à la fin de la saison 2010-2011.\n\nLes Penguins se qualifient pour les séries à l'issue de la saison 1976-1977 mais ils perdent à nouveau contre les Maple Leafs dès le tour préliminaire, une nouvelle fois en trois matchs. Stackhouse comptabilise quarante-et-un points à la fin de la saison, jouant l'intégralité des matchs de son équipe. Il manque trente rencontres lors de la saison suivante alors que les Penguins ne se qualifient pas pour les séries avec la quatrième place de la division.\n\nLes Penguins retrouvent les séries éliminatoires lors de la saison 1978-1979 en terminant à la deuxième place de la division Norris derrière les Canadiens de Montréal. Ils remportent le tour préliminaire en battant les Sabres de Buffalo en trois rencontres mais chutent au deuxième tour contre les Bruins de Boston en quatre parties. Stackhouse est une nouvelle fois un joueur clé de l'organisation et reçoit son deuxième titre de meilleur joueur de l'équipe, cette fois en compagnie d'Orest Kindrachuk.\n\nBoston se dresse une nouvelle fois contre les Penguins lors des séries de la saison 1979-1980, en les battant en cinq rencontres lors du tour préliminaire. Au cours de cette saison, le rôle important de Stackhouse au sein des Penguins est reconnu par la LNH lorsqu'il joue le Match des étoiles ; il inscrit un but pour l'association Prince de Galles. Stackhouse joue ses deux dernières saisons dans la LNH sous les couleurs des Penguins lors des saisons 1980-1981 et 1981-1982 alors qu'ils sont à chaque fois éliminés en cinq rencontres au premier tour des séries éliminatoires que ce soit par les Bruins ou par les Blues de Saint-Louis .\n\nAprès carrière \nLe joueur de l'Ontario met fin à sa carrière dans la LNH après 889 matchs joués dont 621 avec les Penguins de Pittsburgh ; il est alors, à l'époque, le deuxième joueur ayant porté le plus le chandail de Pittsburgh après Jean Pronovost – 753 matchs avec les Penguins. Après avoir arrêté sa carrière de joueur, il devient professeur dans l'enseignement secondaire dans sa ville natale.\n\nEn 2010, les Penguins dévoilent une liste des quinze meilleurs joueurs de l'histoire de la franchise, selon les votes de journalistes et des fans de l'équipe ; cinq joueurs ne faisant pas partie de la liste sont tout de même mis en avant par une mention dit honorable. Stackhouse fait partie de cette seconde catégorie aux côtés de Randy Carlyle, Rick Tocchet, Martin Straka et Lowell MacDonald.\n\nStatistiques \nPour les significations des abréviations, voir statistiques du hockey sur glace.\n\n| 1967-1968 || Petes de Peterborough || AHO || 49 || 13 || 9 || 22 || 88 || 5 || 0 || 3 || 3 || 20\n|- \n| 1968-1969 || Petes de Peterborough || AHO || 54 || 15 || 31 || 46 || 52 || 10 || 6 || 4 || 10 || 14\n|- \n| 1969-1970 || Reds de Providence || LAH || 65 || 1 || 5 || 6 || 37 || || || || || \n|- \n| 1969-1970 || Totems de Seattle || WHL || - || - || - || - || - || 5 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 2\n|- \n| 1970-1971 || Golden Seals de la Californie || LNH || 78 || 8 || 24 || 32 || 73 || || || || || \n|- \n| 1971-1972 || Golden Seals de la Californie || LNH || 6 || 1 || 3 || 4 || 6 || || || || || \n|- \n| 1971-1972 || Red Wings de Détroit || LNH || 73 || 5 || 25 || 30 || 83 || || || || || \n|- \n| 1972-1973 || Red Wings de Détroit || LNH || 78 || 5 || 29 || 34 || 82 || || || || || \n|- \n| 1973-1974 || Red Wings de Détroit || LNH || 33 || 2 || 14 || 16 || 33 || || || || || \n|- \n| 1973-1974 || Penguins de Pittsburgh || LNH || 36 || 4 || 15 || 19 || 33 || || || || || \n|- \n| 1974-1975 || Penguins de Pittsburgh || LNH || 72 || 15 || 45 || 60 || 52 || 9 || 2 || 6 || 8 || 10\n|- \n| 1975-1976 || Penguins de Pittsburgh || LNH || 80 || 11 || 60 || 71 || 76 || 3 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0\n|- \n| 1976-1977 || Penguins de Pittsburgh || LNH || 80 || 7 || 34 || 41 || 72 || 3 || 2 || 1 || 3 || 0\n|- \n| 1977-1978 || Penguins de Pittsburgh || LNH || 50 || 5 || 15 || 20 || 36 || || || || || \n|- \n| 1978-1979 || Penguins de Pittsburgh || LNH || 75 || 10 || 33 || 43 || 54 || 7 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 4\n|- \n| 1979-1980 || Penguins de Pittsburgh || LNH || 78 || 6 || 27 || 33 || 36 || 5 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 18\n|- \n| 1980-1981 || Penguins de Pittsburgh || LNH || 74 || 6 || 29 || 35 || 86 || 4 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 6\n|- \n| 1981-1982 || Penguins de Pittsburgh || LNH || 76 || 2 || 19 || 21 || 102 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0\n\n| 889 || 87 || 372 || 459 || 824 || 32 || 5 || 8 || 13 || 38\n\nTrophées et honneurs personnels \n 1968-1969 : sélectionné dans la seconde équipe d'étoiles de l'AHO\n 1974-1975 : meilleur joueur des Penguins en compagnie de Ron Schock\n 1978-1979 : meilleur joueur des Penguins en compagnie d'Orest Kindrachuk\n 1979-1980 : joue le Match des étoiles de la LNH\n 2010 : sélectionné parmi les cinq joueurs de la mention honorable de l'histoire des Penguins\n\nNotes et références\n\nNotes\n\nRéférences\n\nBibliographie \n\n \n \n \n\nCatégorie:Naissance en août 1949\nCatégorie:Joueur canadien de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Choix de repêchage des Seals d'Oakland\nCatégorie:Joueur des Golden Seals de la Californie\nCatégorie:Joueur des Red Wings de Détroit\nCatégorie:Joueur des Penguins de Pittsburgh\nCatégorie:Joueur des Reds de Providence\nCatégorie:Joueur d'un Match des étoiles de la Ligue nationale de hockey\nCatégorie:Naissance en Ontario\nCatégorie:Défenseur de hockey sur glace", "Jared Walker (né le à Winnipeg, dans la province du Manitoba) est un joueur canadien de hockey sur glace.\n\nCarrière de joueur\nIl a été repêché en , au total par les Blackhawks de Chicago au repêchage d'entrée de 2004 qui évolue au poste de ailier gauche.\n\nStatistiques \nPour les significations des abréviations, voir Statistiques du hockey sur glace.\n\n| 2002-2003|| Rebels de Red Deer || LHOu ||24 ||0 ||5 ||5 ||18 || || || || || \n|- \n| 2003-2004|| Rebels de Red Deer || LHOu||67 ||11 ||8 ||19 ||34 ||19 ||1 ||2 ||3 ||18 \n|-\n| 2004-2005|| Rebels de Red Deer || LHOu||61 ||13 ||9 ||22 ||74 ||7 ||3 ||1 ||4 ||4 \n|- \n| 2005-2006|| Rebels de Red Deer || LHOu||19 ||5 ||8 ||13 ||20 || || || || || \n|- \n| 2005-2006|| Cougars de Prince George || LHOu||54 ||14 ||24 ||38 ||60 ||5 ||0 ||3 ||3 ||6 \n|-\n| 2006-2007|| Cougars de Prince George || LHOu||70 ||27 ||28 ||55 ||105 ||15 ||8 ||13 ||21 ||18 \n|- \n| 2007-2008|| Université du Manitoba || SIC ||11 ||2 ||3 ||5 ||20 || || || || || \n|- \n| 2007-2008|| Condors de Bakersfield || ECHL ||5 ||0 ||0 ||0 ||2|| || || || || \n|- \n| 2008-2009|| Université du Manitoba || SIC ||27 ||8 ||9 ||17 ||42 || || || || || \n|- \n| 2009-2010|| Université du Manitoba || SIC ||28 ||5 ||13 ||18 ||24 || 6 || 3 || 3 || 6 || 4\n|-\n| 2010-2011 || Université du Manitoba || SIC || 28 || 9 || 10 || 19 || 46|| || || || || \n|-\n| 2011-2012 || Université du Manitoba || SIC || 28 || 8 || 11 || 19 || 51 || 2 || 2 || 0 || 2 || 2\n|-\n| 2012-2013 || Blaze de Bloomington || LCH || 59 || 9 || 16 || 25 || 62|| || || || \n|-\n| 2013-2014 || Thunder de Wichita || LCH || 46 || 9 || 13 || 22 || 62|| || || || || \n|-\n| 2014-2015 || Thunder de Wichita || ECHL || 72 || 12 || 21 || 33 || 111|| || || || \n|-\n| 2015-2016 || Warren Mercs || SEMHL || 10 || 9 || 5 || 14 || 2|| || || || ||\n\nRéférences \n\nCatégorie:Naissance en janvier 1986\nCatégorie:Naissance à Winnipeg\nCatégorie:Joueur canadien de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Joueur des Rebels de Red Deer\nCatégorie:Joueur des Cougars de Prince George\nCatégorie:Choix de repêchage des Blackhawks de Chicago\nCatégorie:Joueur des Condors de Bakersfield (ECHL)\nCatégorie:Joueur du Blaze de Bloomington\nCatégorie:Attaquant de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Joueur du Thunder de Wichita", "Voici la liste des joueurs des Lakers de Los Angeles ayant disputé au moins un match en NBA depuis la création de la franchise en 1960.\n\nA\n\n Kareem Abdul-Jabbar\n Mahdi Abdul-Rahman\n Tom Abernethy\n Gary Alcorn\n Lucius Allen\n Cliff Anderson\n Trevor Ariza\n Ron Artest\n Chucky Atkins\n\nB\n\n Jim Barnes\n Dick Barnett\n Jon Barry\n Billy Ray Bates\n Elgin Baylor\n Ed Beach\n Zelmo Beaty\n Benoit Benjamin\n Mario Bennett\n Alex Blackwell\n John Block\n Mike Bloom\n Corie Blount\n Tony Bobbitt\n Ron Boone\n Bob Boozer\n Sam Bowie\n Adrian Branch\n Jim Brewer\n Frank Brickowski\n Bill Bridges\n Chucky Brown\n George Brown\n Kwame Brown\n Walter Roger Brown\n Shannon Brown\n Tierre Brown\n Tony Brown\n Kobe Bryant\n Steve Bucknall\n Bob Burrow\n Caron Butler\n Andrew Bynum\n Marty Byrnes\n\nC\n\n Corky Calhoun\n Demetrius Calip\n Mack Calvin\n Elden Campbell\n Tony Campbell\n Don Carlson\n Bob Carney\n Kenny Carr\n Butch Carter\n Maurice Carter\n Ron Carter\n Jay Carty\n Cedric Ceballos\n John Celestand\n Wilt Chamberlain\n Jerry Chambers\n Don Chaney\n Jim Chones\n Doug Christie\n Archie Clark\n Jim Cleamons\n Lester Conner\n Brian Cook\n Duane Cooper\n Joe Cooper\n Michael Cooper\n Mel Counts\n Freddie Crawford\n Joe Crispin\n Javaris Crittenton\n\nD\n\n Lloyd Daniels\n Adrian Dantley\n Brad Davis\n Walter Devlin\n Ernie DiGregorio\n Vlade Divac\n Larry Drew\n Walter Dukes\n Jack Dwan\n\nE\n\n James Edwards\n Johnny Egan\n Ray Ellefson\n Boo Ellis\n Leroy Ellis\n Bobo Erias\n Keith Erickson\n Maurice Evans\n\nF\n\n John Fairchild\n Jordan Farmar\n Ron Feiereisel\n Ray Felix\n Arnie Ferrin\n Hank Finkel\n Derek Fisher\n Ed Fleming\n Don Ford\n Donnie Forman\n Greg Foster\n Larry Foust\n Rick Fox\n Donnie Freeman\n Jim Fritsche\n\nG\n\n Earl Gardner\n Dick Garmaker\n Calvin Garrett\n Dick Garrett\n Pau Gasol\n Devean George\n Mel Gibson\n Norman Glick\n Gail Goodrich\n Brian Grant\n Bud Grant\n Horace Grant\n Travis Grant\n A.C. Green\n Jerry Grote\n Petur Gudmundsson\n\nH\n\n Happy Hairston\n Jack Haley\n Dennis Hamilton\n Steve Hamilton\n Alan Hardy\n Derek Harper\n Ron Harper\n Bob Harrison\n Antonio Harvey\n Billy Hassett\n Connie Hawkins\n Tom Hawkins\n Nate Hawthorne\n Spencer Haywood\n Walt Hazzard\n Jérôme Henderson\n Fred Hetzel\n Bill Hewitt\n Mike Higgins\n Lew Hitch\n Brad Holland\n Jim Holstein\n Johnny Horan\n Ron Horn\n Robert Horry\n Lou Hudson\n Rod Hundley\n Lindsey Hunter\n Joe Hutton\n\nI\n\n Darrall Imhoff\n Joel Ingram\n\nJ\n\n Jim Jackson\n Tony Jackson\n Sam Jacobson\n Tony Jaros\n Clay Johnson\n Magic Johnson\n Ron Johnson\n Howie Jolliff\n Dwight Jones\n Earl Jones\n Eddie Jones\n Jumaine Jones\n Eddie Jordan\n Reggie Jordan\n Johnny Jorgensen\n\nK\n\n Edwin Kachan\n Ed Kalafat\n Coby Karl\n Jerome Kersey\n Randolph Keys\n Earnie Killum\n Frankie King\n Jim King\n Joe Kleine\n Travis Knight\n Jim Krebs\n Larry Krystkowiak\n Mitch Kupchak\n CJ Kupec\n\nL\n\n Bo Lamar\n Jeff Lamp\n Mark Landsberger\n Stu Lantz\n Rudy LaRusso\n Butch Lee\n Slick Leonard\n Ronnie Lester\n Stan Love\n Clyde Lovellette\n Maurice Lucas\n Tyronn Lue\n George Lynch\n Mike Lynn\n\nM\n\n Ollie Mack\n Mark Madsen\n Karl Malone\n Nick Mantis\n Slater Martin\n Wes Matthews\n Didier Ilunga\n Bob McAdoo\n Mel McCants\n Willie McCarter\n George McCloud\n Jelani McCoy\n Jim McDaniels\n Mike McGee\n Bill McGill\n Kevin McKenna\n Aaron McKie\n Jim McMillian\n Mark McNamara\n Bob Mcneill\n Slava Medvedenko\n Cliff Meely\n Chuck Mencel\n Chris Mihm\n George Mikan\n Vern Mikkelsen\n Anthony Miller\n Steve Mix\n Adam Morrison\n Erwin Mueller\n Allen Murphy\n Tracy Murray\n\nN\n\n Cotton Nash\n Swen Nater\n Don Nelson\n Johnny Neumann\n Chuck Nevitt\n Ira Newble\n Norm Nixon\n\nO\n\n Shaquille O'Neal\n Kevin O'Shea\n Lamar Odom\n Jawann Oldham\n\nP\n\n Jannero Pargo\n Smush Parker\n Myles Patrick\n Ruben Patterson\n Jim Paxson\n Gary Payton\n Anthony Peeler\n Mike Penberthy\n Sam Perkins\n John Pilch\n Jim Pollard\n Josh Powell\n Jim Price\n Laron Profit\n\nR\n\n Vladimir Radmanovic\n Kurt Rambis\n Hub Reed\n J. R. Reid\n Glen Rice\n Mitch Richmond\n Isaiah Rider\n Pat Riley\n David Rivers\n Rick Roberson\n Fred Roberts\n Marv Roberts\n Cliff Robinson\n Flynn Robinson\n Rumeal Robinson\n Dave Robisch\n John Roche\n Dennis Rodman\n Sean Rooks\n Kareem Rush\n Bryon Russell\n Cazzie Russell\n\nS\n\n John Salley\n Soumaila Samake\n Jamal Sampson\n Frank Saul\n Herm Schaefer\n Danny Schayes\n Dick Schnittker\n Howie Schultz\n Byron Scott\n Charlie Scott\n Shea Seals\n Frank Selvy\n Brian Shaw\n Bobby Sims\n Whitey Skoog\n Bobby Smith\n Donald Smith\n Elmore Smith\n Tony Smith\n Mike Smrek\n Rory Sparrow\n Art Spoelstra\n Larry Spriggs\n Derek Strong\n Gene Stump\n Don Sunderlage\n\nT\n\n Earl Tatum\n Terry Teagle\n Irving Thomas\n Billy Thompson\n Mychal Thompson\n Sedale Threatt\n Jack Tingle\n Ray Tolbert\n John Trapp\n John Tresvant\n Ronny Turiaf\n Bill Turner\n\nU\n\n Ime Udoka\n\nV\n\n Nick Van Exel\n Jay Vincent\n Saša Vujačić\n\nW\n\n Von Wafer\n Milt Wagner\n Samaki Walker\n Paul Walther\n Luke Walton\n Cornell Warner\n Kermit Washington\n Walt Wesley\n Jerry West\n John Wetzel\n Gene Wiley\n Jamaal Wilkes\n Bob Williams\n Ron Williams\n Shammond Williams\n Trevor Wilson\n Brian Winters\n Orlando Woolridge\n James Worthy\n Metta World Peace\n\nY\n\n Wayne Yates\n Sun Yue\n\nVoir aussi\n\n*\nCatégorie:Lakers de Los Angeles", "Le 19 décembre ( de l'année ou en cas d'année bissextile) en sport.\n\n 18 décembre en sport - en sport - 20 décembre en sport\n\nÉvénements\n\n\n\n: 1901-1950 \n 1917 :\n (Hockey sur glace) : les premiers matchs de la Ligue nationale de hockey, nouvellement créée, sont disputés.\n\n: 1951-2000 \n 1978 :\n (Football) : les Belges du RSC Anderlecht s'adjugent la Supercoupe de l'UEFA face aux Anglais du Liverpool FC. Le résultat au terme des deux matches est de 4 buts à 3.\n 1984 :\n (Hockey-sur-glace) : Wayne Gretzky des Oilers d'Edmonton devient le dix-huitième joueur de l'histoire de la LNH à dépasser la barre symbolique des points en carrière lors d'un match contre les Kings de Los Angeles. Avec seulement 424 matchs joués, il est tout de même le joueur le plus rapide de l'histoire à dépasser le millier.\n\n2014 :\n (Athlétisme / Distinction) : le Français Renaud Lavillenie est désigné Champion des champions de L'Équipe dans les catégories Champions des champions mondiaux et Champions des champions français pour les performances réalisées au cours de l'année. Il a gagné le Championnats d'Europe, la Ligue de diamant et devient recordman du monde du saut à la perche.\n\nNaissances\n\n1859 :\n Tom Pettitt, joueur de paume et de tennis britannique. († 17 octobre 1946).\n 1879 :\n Beals Wright, joueur de tennis américain. Champion olympique du simple et du double aux Jeux de Saint-Louis 1904. Vainqueur de l'US Open 1905. († 23 août 1961).\n 1882 :\n Ralph DePalma, pilote de courses automobile italo-américain. Vainqueur des 500 miles d'Indianapolis 1915. († 31 mars 1956).\n 1894 :\n Ford Frick, journaliste sportif, dirigeant de baseball américain. Président de la LNB de 1934 à 1951. Commissaire de la ligue majeur de baseball de 1951 à 1965. († 8 avril 1978).\n\n: 1901-1950 \n 1907 :\n Jimmy McLarnin, boxeur canadien. Champion du monde poids welters de boxe du 29 mai 1933 au 28 mai 1934 et du 17 septembre au 28 mai 1935. († 28 octobre 2004).\n 1915 :\n Claudia Testoni, athlète de haies italienne. Championne d'Europe d'athlétisme du 80m haies 1938. († 17 juillet 1998).\n 1923 :\n Onofre Marimón, pilote de F1 et de courses automobile d'endurance argentin. († 31 juillet 1954).\n 1924 :\n Doug Harvey, hockeyeur sur glace canadien. († 26 décembre 1989).\n 1925 :\n Jacques Fatton, footballeur franco-suisse. (53 sélections en équipe de Suisse). († 25 juillet 2011).\n 1929 :\n Ron Caron, dirigeant de hockey sur glace canadien. († 9 janvier 2012).\n 1934 :\n Al Kaline, joueur de baseball américain. († 6 avril 2020).\n 1942 :\n Hugues de Fierlant, pilote de course automobile belge.\n 1945 :\n Antoine Salamin, pilote de course automobile d'endurance suisse.\n 1946 :\n Laurent Ferrier, pilote de course automobile et homme d'affaires suisse.\n 1949 :\n Jupp Kapellmann, footballeur allemand. Champion du monde de football 1974. Vainqueur des Coupe des clubs champions 1974, 1975 et 1976. (5 sélections en équipe nationale).\n\n: 1951-2000 \n 1951 :\n Migueli, footballeur espagnol. Vainqueur des Coupe d'Europe des vainqueurs de coupe 1979 et 1982.\n 1954 :\n Jeff Allam, pilote de courses automobile d'endurance britannique. \n 1957 :\n Kevin McHale, basketteur puis entraîneur américain.\n 1959 :\n Thomas Gruber, pilote de courses automobile d'endurance autrichien. \n 1961 :\n Claude-Yves Gosselin, pilote de course automobile français.\n Reggie White, joueur de foot U.S. américain. († 26 décembre 2004).\n 1964 :\n Arvydas Sabonis, basketteur puis dirigeant sportif soviétique puis lituanien. Champion olympique aux Jeux de Séoul 1988, médaillé de bronze aux Jeux de Barcelone 1992 et aux Jeux d'Atlanta 1996. Champion du monde de basket-ball 1982. Champion d'Europe de basket-ball 1985. Vainqueur de l'Euroligue de basket-ball 1995.\n 1966 :\n Alberto Tomba, skieur alpin italien. Champion olympique du géant et du slalom aux Jeux de Calgary 1988, champion olympique du géant et médaillé d'argent du slalom aux Jeux d'Albertville 1992 et médaillé d'argent du slalom aux Jeux de Lillehammer 1994. Champion du monde de ski alpin du géant et du slalom 1996.\n Eric Weinrich, hockeyeur sur glace américain.\n 1969 :\n Scott Pearson, hockeyeur sur glace canadien.\n 1970 :\n Robert Lang, hockeyeur sur glace tchèque. Champion olympique aux Jeux de Nagano 1998.\n 1972 :\n Jamie Campbell-Walter, pilote de courses automobile anglais.\n Warren Sapp, joueur de foot US américain.\n 1973 :\n Vrbica Stefanov, basketteur macédonien.\n 1974 :\n Slaven Rimac, basketteur puis entraîneur croate.\n 1977 :\n Jorge Garbajosa, basketteur espagnol. Médaillé d'argent aux Jeux de Pékin 2008. Champion du monde de basket-ball masculin 2006. Vainqueur de la Coupe Saporta 1996. (165 sélections en équipe nationale). \n 1978 :\n Régis Boissié, basketteur français.\n Mariame Dia, basketteuse française.\n 1980 :\n Fabian Bourzat, patineur artistique de danse sur glace français. Champion d'Europe de patinage artistique 2011 et 2012\n Justin Hamilton, basketteur américain.\n 1982 :\n Maurice Williams, basketteur américain.\n 1983 :\n Julien Dupuy, joueur de rugby français. (8 sélections en équipe de France).\n Yannick Nyanga, joueur de rugby français. Vainqueur du Tournoi des Six Nations 2006, de la Coupe d'Europe 2010. (46 sélections en équipe de France).\n 1985 :\n Gary Cahill, footballeur anglais. Vainqueur de la Ligue des champions 2012 et de la Ligue Europa 2013. (40 sélections en équipe nationale).\n Carter Hutton, hockeyeur sur glace canadien.\n Katy McLean, joueuse de rugby à XV anglaise. Victorieuse du Grand Chelem 2007. (4 sélections en équipe nationale).\n Julien Toudic, footballeur français.\n 1986 :\n Ryan Babel, footballeur néerlandais. (42 sélections en équipe nationale).\n Lázaros Christodoulópoulos, footballeur grec. (24 sélections en équipe nationale).\n Marquez Haynes, basketteur américain.\n Zuzana Hejnová, athlète de haies tchèque. Médaillée de bronze du 400m haies aux Jeux de Londres 2012. Championne du monde d'athlétisme du 400m haies 2013 et 2015.\n 1987 :\n Karim Benzema, footballeur français. Vainqueur de la Ligue des champions 2014. (81 sélections en équipe de France).\n Idrissa Coulibaly, footballeur malien. Vainqueur de la Ligue des champions 2011. (6 sélections en équipe nationale).\n Daniel Hackett, basketteur italien. (74 sélections en équipe nationale).\n 1988 :\n Niklas Landin Jacobsen, handballeur danois. Champion d'Europe de handball masculin 2012. Vainqueur de la Coupe EHF 2013. (100 sélections en équipe nationale).\n Loïc Puyo, footballeur français.\n Alexis Sánchez, footballeur chilien. Vainqueur de la Copa América 2015. (91 sélections en équipe nationale).\n 1990 :\n Torrey Craig, basketteur américain.\n Sally Fitzgibbons, surfeuse australienne.\n Landing Sané, basketteur français.\n 1991 :\n Josh Huestis, basketteur américain.\n 1993 :\n Christopher Rühr, hockeyeur sur gazon allemand. Médaillé de bronze aux Jeux de Rio 2016. (81 sélections en équipe nationale).\n 1994 :\n M'Baye Niang, footballeur français.\n Mamignan Touré, basketteuse française.\n 1996 :\n Mouctar Diakhaby, footballeur franco-guinéen.\n 1997 :\n Alex Insam, sauteur à ski italien.\n\n\n\nDécès\n\n\n\n: 1901-1950 \n 1913 :\n Bert Gould, 43 ans, joueur de rugby gallois. (3 sélections en équipe nationale). (° 18 avril 1870).\n 1930 :\n Johnny Douglas, 48 ans, boxeur et joueur de cricket britannique. Champion olympique des -71,7 kg aux Jeux de Londres 1908. (23 sélections en test cricket). (° 3 septembre 1882).\n\n: 1951-2000 \n 1971 :\n Rusty Crawford, 86 ans, hockeyeur sur glace canadien. (° 7 novembre 1885).\n 1974 :\n Ricardo Montero, 72 ans, cycliste sur route espagnol. (° 9 juillet 1902).\n\n2011 :\n Héctor Núñez, 75 ans, footballeur puis entraîneur uruguayen. Vainqueur de la Copa América 1995. (7 sélections en équipe nationale). Sélectionneur de l'équipe du Costa Rica en 1992 et de l'équipe d'Uruguay de 1994 à 1996. (° 8 mai 1936).\n 2012 :\n Colin Davis, 79 ans, pilote de courses automobile britannique. (° 29 juillet 1933).\n Georges Jobé, 51 ans, pilote de moto-cross belge. Champion du monde de motocross 1980 et 1983. Champion du monde de motocross 1987, 1991 et 1992. (° 6 janvier 1961).\n 2014 :\n Dieter Schornstein, 74 ans, pilote de courses automobile allemand. (° 28 juin 1940).\n 2015 :\n Dickie Moore, 84 ans, hockeyeur sur glace canadien. Champion de la Coupe Stanley en 1953 et de 1956 à 1960. Membre du Temple de la renommée (° 6 janvier 1931).\n 2016 :\n Fidel Uriarte, 71 ans, footballeur puis entraîneur espagnol. (° mars 1945).\n\nArticles connexes \n Le 19 décembre dans tous les domaines.\n\nDécembre 19", "Lucas Wallmark (né le à Umeå en Suède) est un joueur professionnel suédois de hockey sur glace. Il évolue au poste d'attaquant.\n\nBiographie\n\nCarrière en club \nFormé à l'IF Björklöven, il poursuit son apprentissage dans les équipes de jeunes du Skellefteå AIK. Il débute dans l'Elitserien avec l'équipe première en 2013. Lors du repêchage d'entrée dans la LNH 2014, il est choisi au quatrième tour, à la place au total par les Hurricanes de la Caroline. Il remporte la Ligue des champions 2015 avec le Luleå HF. Il part en Amérique du Nord en 2016 et est assigné aux Checkers de Charlotte, club ferme des Hurricanes dans la Ligue américaine de hockey. Le , il joue son premier match dans la Ligue nationale de hockey avec les Hurricanes chez les Islanders de New York. Le lendemain, il enregistre son premier point, une assistance face à cette même équipe. Il marque son premier but dans la LNH le chez les Blues de Saint-Louis.\n\nLe 24 février 2020, il est échangé aux Panthers de la Floride avec les attaquants Erik Haula et Eetu Luostarinen ainsi que le défenseur Chase Priskie en retour de Vincent Trocheck.\n\nCarrière internationale \nIl représente la Suède au niveau international. Il prend part aux sélections jeunes.\n\nStatistiques \nPour les significations des abréviations, voir statistiques du hockey sur glace.\n\nEn club \n\n| 2012-2013|| Skellefteå AIK || Elitserien|| 2|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0|| -|| -|| -|| -|| -\n|-\n| 2012-2013||Karlskrona HK || Allsvenskan || 16|| 5|| 5|| 10|| 4|| 7|| 0|| 5|| 5|| 2\n|-\n| 2013-2014|| Luleå HF || SHL || 41|| 3|| 7|| 10|| 2|| 1|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0\n|-\n| 2013-2014 || Asplöven HC || Allsvenskan || 11|| 1|| 7|| 8|| 6|| -|| -|| -|| -|| -\n|-\n| 2014-2015|| Luleå HF || SHL || 50|| 5|| 13|| 18|| 14|| 9|| 0|| 5|| 5|| 2\n|-\n| 2015-2016|| Luleå HF || SHL || 48 || 8 || 24 || 32 || 20 || 11 || 7 || 2 || 9 || 4\n|-\n| 2016-2017 || Checkers de Charlotte || LAH || 67 || 24 || 22 || 46 || 28 || 5 || 3 || 3 || 6 || 2\n|-\n| 2016-2017 || Hurricanes de la Caroline || LNH || 8 || 0 || 2 || 2 || 2 || - || - || - || - || -\n|-\n| 2017-2018 || Hurricanes de la Caroline || LNH || 11 ||1 ||0 ||1 ||2 || - || - || - || - || -\n|-\n| 2017-2018 || Checkers de Charlotte || LAH || 44 || 17 || 37 || 54 || 16|| 8 ||3 ||2 ||\t5 || 4\n|-\n| 2018-2019 || Hurricanes de la Caroline || LNH || 81 || 10 || 18 || 28 || 36 || 15 || 1 || 4 || 5 || 6\n\n|100 || 11 || 20 || 31 || 40 || 15 || 1 || 4 || 5 || 6\n\nAu niveau international \n\n| 2013 || align=\"left\"| Championnat du monde moins de 18 ans || 5|| 2|| 3|| 5|| 2|| 0|| align=\"left\"| place\n|-\n| 2014 || align=\"left\"| Championnat du monde junior || 7|| 3|| 5|| 8|| 2|| +5|| align=\"left\"| Médaille d'argent\n|-\n| 2015 || align=\"left\"| Championnat du monde junior || 7 || 4 || 2 || 6 || 8 || +3|| align=\"left\"| place\n\nRéférences \n\nCatégorie:Naissance à Umeå\nCatégorie:Naissance en septembre 1995\nCatégorie:Joueur international suédois de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Attaquant de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Choix de repêchage des Hurricanes de la Caroline\nCatégorie:Joueur du Skellefteå AIK\nCatégorie:Joueur du Luleå HF\nCatégorie:Joueur du Asplöven HC\nCatégorie:Joueur du Karlskrona HK\nCatégorie:Joueur des Checkers de Charlotte (LAH)\nCatégorie:Joueur des Hurricanes de la Caroline", "Le 28 mai ( jour de l'année ou en cas d'année bissextile) en sport.\n\n 27 mai en sport - en sport - 29 mai en sport\n\nÉvénements\n\n1893 :\n (Cyclisme) : deuxième édition de la course cycliste Liège-Bastogne-Liège. Le Belge Léon Houa s’impose.\n 1894 :\n (Cyclisme) : quatrième édition de la course cycliste Bordeaux-Paris. Le Français Lucien Lesna s’impose.\n 1899 :\n (Cyclisme) : neuvième édition de la course cycliste Bordeaux-Paris. Le Français Constant Huret s’impose.\n\nde 1901 à 1950 \n 1907 :\n (Boxe anglaise) : Tommy Ryan, champion du monde des poids welters entre le et le , et des poids moyens depuis cette date annonce sa retraite après une défaite sans titre en jeu face à Harry Forbes.\n 1933 :\n (Sport automobile) : Eifelrennen.\n (Sport automobile) : Targa Florio.\n 1939 :\n (Sport automobile) : Grand Prix des Frontières.\n\nde 1951 à 2000 \n 1958 :\n (Football) : le Real Madrid remporte la Coupe des clubs champions européens en s'imposant 3-2 en finale face au Milan AC.\n 1961 :\n (Rugby à XV) : l'AS Béziers remporte le Championnat de France de rugby en s'imposant 6-3 en finale face à l'US Dax.\n 1967 :\n (Rugby à XV) : l'US Montauban remporte le Championnat de France de rugby en s'imposant 11-3 en finale face au CA Bègles.\n 1969 :\n (Football) : le Milan AC remporte la Coupe des clubs champions européens en s'imposant 4-1 en finale face à l'Ajax Amsterdam.\n 1973 :\n (Rallye automobile) : arrivée du Rallye de l'Acropole.\n 1975 :\n (Football) : le Bayern Munich remporte la Coupe des clubs champions européens en s'imposant 2-0 en finale face à Leeds United FC.\n 1976 :\n (Rallye automobile) : arrivée du Rallye de l'Acropole.\n 1978 :\n (Rugby à XV) : l'AS Béziers remporte le Championnat de France de rugby en s'imposant 31-9 en finale face à l'AS Montferrand.\n 1980 :\n (Football) : Nottingham Forest FC remporte la Coupe des clubs champions européens en s'imposant 1-0 en finale face au Hambourg SV.\n 1983 :\n (Rugby à XV) : l'AS Béziers remporte le Championnat de France de rugby en s'imposant 14-6 en finale face au RC Nice.\n 1988 :\n (Rugby à XV) : le SU Agen remporte la Championnat de France de rugby en s'imposant 9-3 en finale face au Stadoceste tarbais.\n 1989 :\n (Formule 1) : Grand Prix automobile du Mexique.\n 1994 :\n (Rugby à XV) : le Stade toulousain remporte le Championnat de France de rugby en s'imposant 22-16 en finale face à l'AS Montferrand.\n 1995 : \n (Formule 1) : Grand Prix automobile de Monaco.\n 1997 :\n (Football) : le Borussia Dortmund remporte la Ligue des champions de l'UEFA en s'imposant 3-1 en finale face à la Juventus.\n\n2003 :\n (Football) : Le Milan AC remporte la Ligue des champions de l'UEFA en s'imposant aux tirs au but en finale face à la Juventus.\n 2006 :\n (Sport automobile) : L'Espagnol Fernando Alonso remporte le Grand Prix de Monaco de Formule 1 sur une Renault.\n 2010 :\n (Football) : la France est désignée pays organisateur de l'Euro 2016.\n 2011 :\n (Football) : le FC Barcelone remporte sa quatrième Ligue des champions en battant Manchester United 3-1 à Wembley.\n 2015 :\n (Cyclisme sur route /Tour d'Italie) : le Belge Philippe Gilbert s'adjuge la du Tour d'Italie, à Verbania, son deuxième succès depuis le départ. Alberto Contador, qui est passé à l'attaque, conforte son maillot rose de leader à trois jours de l'arrivée.\n 2016 :\n (Cyclisme sur route /Tour d'Italie) : sur la 20e étape du Tour d'Italie 2016, victoire de l'Estonien Rein Taaramäe et l'Italien Vincenzo Nibali s'empare du maillot rose.\n (Football /Ligue des champions) : en Italie, au stade de San Siro de Milan, le Réal Madrid remporte la finale de la Ligue des champions face à l'Atlético de Madrid aux tirs au but (1-1, 5-3 aux t.a.b.). Les hommes de Zinédine Zidane décrochent le sacre continental de l'histoire du club.\n 2017 :\n (Cyclisme sur route /Tour d'Italie) : le Néerlandais Tom Dumoulin remporte la du Tour d’Italie.\n 2019 :\n (Cyclisme sur route /Tour d'Italie) : sur la 16e étape du Tour d'Italie 2019 qui se déroule entre Lovere et Ponte di Legno, sur une distance de mais avec un changement de parcours lié aux conditions climatiques, la distance est ramenée à , victoire de l'Italien Giulio Ciccone. L'Équatorien Richard Carapaz conserve le maillot rose.\n\nNaissances\n\n1862 : \n Henry Slocum, joueur de tennis américain. Vainqueur des US Open 1888 et 1889. († 22 janvier 1949).\n 1872 : \n Charles Gmelin, athlète de sprint britannique. Médaillé de bronze du 400m aux Jeux d'Athènes 1896. († 12 octobre 1950).\n 1888 : \n Jim Thorpe, joueur et dirigeant de foot U.S, joueur de baseball, basketteur et athlète d'épreuves combinées américain. Champion olympique du décathlon et du pentathlon aux Jeux de Stockholm 1912. († 28 mars 1953).\n\nde 1901 à 1950 \n 1906 : \n André Verger, joueur de rugby à XV français. (7 sélections en équipe de France). († 27 mars 1978).\n 1909 :\n Red Horner, dirigeant de hockey sur glace canadien. († 27 avril 2005).\n 1938 : \n Jerry West, basketteur américain. Champion olympique aux Jeux de Rome 1960. (14 sélections en équipe nationale).\n 1947 : \n Jean-Pierre Hortoland, joueur de rugby à XV français. (1 sélection en équipe de France).\n 1948 : \n Jürgen Fassbender, joueur de tennis allemand.\n Barry McGann, joueur de rugby à XV irlandais. (25 sélections en équipe nationale).\n\nde 1951 à 2000 \n 1953 :\n Pierre Gauthier, dirigeant de hockey sur glace canadien.\n 1954 :\n João Carlos de Oliveira, athlète de sauts brésilien. Médaillé de bronze du triple saut aux Jeux de Montréal 1976 puis aux Jeux de Moscou 1980. († 17 mai 1999).\n 1955 :\n Mark Howe, hockeyeur sur glace américano-canadien.\n 1956 :\n Francis Joyon, navigateur français. Vainqueur de la Transat anglaise 2000, de la Route du Rhum 2018 et du Trophée Jules-Verne 2017. Détenteur du Record du tour du monde à la voile en solitaire et sans escale de 2004 à 2005 et de 2008 à 2016.\n 1957 :\n Véronique Brouquier, fleurettiste française. Championne olympique par équipes aux Jeux de Moscou 1980 et médaillée de bronze par équipes aux Jeux de Los Angeles 1984.\n Susanna Driano, patineuse artistique italien.\n 1959 :\n Michel Dussuyer, footballeur puis entraîneur français. Sélectionneur de l'équipe de Guinée de 2000 à 2004 et de 2010 à 2015, de l'équipe du Bénin de 2008 à 2010 et depuis 2018 puis de l'équipe de Côte d'Ivoire de 2015 à 2017.\n 1964 :\n Beth Herr, joueuse de tennis américaine.\n Armen Gilliam, basketteur américain. Champion du monde de basket-ball masculin 1986. (8 sélections en équipe nationale). († 5 juillet 2011).\n 1965 :\n Stein Rønning, karatéka norvégien. Champion du monde de karaté kumite des -60 kg 1990. Champion d'Europe de karaté kumite des -60 kg 1985 et 1988, champion d'Europe de karaté kumite des -65 kg 1993. († 23 janvier 2008).\n Catherine Tanvier, joueur de tennis française.\n 1969 :\n Valérie Barlois, épéiste française. Championne olympique par équipes et médaillée d'argent en individuelle aux Jeux d'Atlanta 1996. Championne du monde d'escrime par équipes à l'épée 1998.\n 1971 :\n Ekaterina Gordeeva, patineuse artistique russe. Championne olympique en couple aux Jeux de Calgary 1988 et aux Jeux de Lillehammer 1994. Championne du monde de patinage artistique en couple 1986, 1987, 1989, 1990. Championne d'Europe de patinage artistique en couple 1988, 1990 et 1994.\n Xavier Revil, skipper français.\n 1972 :\n Michael Boogerd, cycliste sur route néerlandais. Vainqueur de l'Amstel Gold Race 1999.\n Andrea Strnadová, joueuse de tennis tchécoslovaque puis tchèque.\n 1973 :\n Lionel Letizi, footballeur français. (4 sélections en équipe de France).\n Todd Simpson, hockeyeur sur glace canadien.\n 1974 :\n Hans-Jörg Butt, footballeur allemand. (4 sélections en équipe nationale).\n Oleksij Gatin, volleyeur ukrainien.\n 1978 :\n Ferréol Cannard, biathlète français. Médaillé de bronze du relais 4×7,5km aux Jeux de Turin 2006.\n Jimmy Casper, cycliste sur route français.\n 1979 :\n Wim Van Huffel, cycliste sur route belge.\n 1980 :\n Mickaël Bourgain, cycliste sur piste français. Médaillé de bronze de la vitesse par équipes aux Jeux d'Athènes 2004 puis d'argent de la vitesse par équipes et de bronze en individuelle aux Jeux de Pékin 2008. Champion du monde de cyclisme sur piste de la vitesse par équipes 2004, 2006, 2007 et 2009.\n Darnell Hinson, basketteur américain.\n 1981 :\n Boris Herrmann, navigateur allemand.\n Derval O'Rourke, athlète de haies irlandaise.\n 1982 :\n Jhonny Peralta, joueur de baseball dominicain.\n 1983 :\n Jernej Damjan, sauteur à ski slovène.\n 1985 :\n Simon Pouplin, footballeur français.\n 1986 :\n Eline Berings, athlète de haies belge.\n Bryant Dunston, basketteur américano-slovène. (7 sélections avec l'équipe d'Arménie).\n Othello Hunter, basketteur américano-libérien.\n 1987 :\n Youssef Benali, handballeur tunisien puis qatari. Champion d'Asie masculin de handball 2018. (63 sélections avec l'équipe du Qatar). \n Yoann Kowal, athlète de demi-fond français. Champion d'Europe d'athlétisme du 3 000m steeple 2014.\n Kamil Stoch, sauteur à ski polonais. Champion olympique en individuel du petit et du grand tremplin aux Jeux de Sotchi 2014 puis champion olympique du grand tremplin individuel et médaillé de bronze du grand tremplin par équipes aux jeux Pyeongchang 2018. Champion du monde de saut à ski du grand tremplin en individuel 2013 et du grand tremplin par équipes 2017.\n 1988 :\n Carmen Jordá, pilote de course automobile espagnole. \n Craig Kimbrel, joueur de baseball américain.\n David Perron, hockeyeur sur glace canadien.\n 1989 :\n Sébastien Reichenbach, cycliste sur route suisse.\n 1990 :\n Rohan Dennis, cycliste sur piste et sur route australien. Médaillé d'argent de la poursuite par équipes aux Jeux de Londres 2012. Champion du monde de cyclisme sur piste de la poursuite par équipes 2010 et 2011. Champion du monde de cyclisme sur route du contre la montre par équipes 2014 et 2015 puis du contre la montre individuel 2018.\n Jamina Roberts, handballeuse suédoise. Victorieuse de la Coupe EHF de handball féminin 2015 et de la Coupe d'Europe des vainqueurs de coupe de handball féminin 2016. (138 sélections en équipe nationale).\n 1991 :\n Magda Cazanga, handballeuse angolaise. Championne d'Afrique des nations de handball féminin 2016. (34 sélections en équipe nationale).\n Alexandre Lacazette, footballeur français. (16 sélections en équipe de France).\n Jonathan Ligali, footballeur franco-béninois.\n Andrei Vasilevski, joueur de tennis biélorusse.\n 1992 :\n Stéphane Bahoken, footballeur franco-camerounais. (10 sélections avec l'équipe du Cameroun).\n Haukur Helgi Pálsson, basketteur islandais. (40 sélections en équipe nationale).\n 1995 :\n Maurin Bouvet, hockeyeur sur glace français.\n Héctor Carretero, cycliste sur route espagnol.\n Mamadou N'Diaye, footballeur camerounais. (1 sélection en équipe nationale).\n 1996 :\n Elizabeth Price, gymnaste américaine.\n 1997 :\n Erik Černák, hockeyeur sur glace slovaque.\n 1998 :\n De'Anthony Melton, basketteur américain.\n\n\n\nDécès\n\n\n\nde 1901 à 1950 \n 1913 : \n Bruno Götze, 50 ans, cycliste sur piste allemand. (° 21 juin 1862).\n\nde 1951 à 2000 \n 1959 : \n Charles Pélissier, 56 ans, cycliste sur route et cyclocrossman français. (° 20 février 1903).\n 1975 : \n Ezzard Charles, 53 ans, boxeur américain. Champion du monde poids lourds de boxe de 1949 à 1951. (° 7 juillet 1921).\n 1978 : \n Ernest Cadine, 65 ans, haltérophile français. Champion olympique des mi-lourds aux Jeux d'Anvers 1920. (° 12 juillet 1893).\n 1979 : \n Frank Fredrickson, 83 ans, hockeyeur sur glace canadien. Champion olympique aux Jeux d'Anvers 1920. (° 11 juin 1895).\n 1993 : \n Ugo Locatelli, 77 ans, footballeur italien. Champion olympique aux Jeux de Berlin 1936. Champion du monde de football 1938. (22 sélections en équipe nationale). (° 5 février 1916).\n 1994 : \n Julius Boros, 74 ans, golfeur américain. Vainqueur des US Open 1952 et 1963, puis de l'USPGA 1968. (° 3 mars 1920).\n 1997 : \n Edouard Muller, 77 ans, cycliste sur route français. (° 8 juin 1919).\n John Stack, 73 ans, rameur d'aviron américain. Champion olympique du huit aux Jeux de Londres 1948. (° 22 mars 1924).\n\n2006 : \n Johnny Servoz-Gavin, 64 ans, pilote de course automobile français. (° 18 janvier 1942).\n 2009 :\n Pierre Gallien, 97 ans, coureur cycliste français (° 19 octobre 1911).\n 2011 : \n Romuald Klim, 78 ans, athlète de lancers soviétique puis biélorusse. champion olympique du marteau aux Jeux de Tokyo 1964 et médaillé d'argent du marteau aux Jeux de Mexico 1968. Champion d'Europe d'athlétisme du marteau 1966. (° 25 mai 1933)\n 2014 : \n Pierre Bernard, 82 ans, footballeur français. (21 sélections en équipe de France). (° 27 janvier 1932).\n 2016 : \n David Cañada, 41 ans, cycliste sur route espagnol. Vainqueur du Tour de Catalogne 2006. (° 14 mars 1975).\n Bryce Dejean-Jones, 23 ans, basketteur américain. (° 21 août 1992).\n 2017 : \n Eric Broadley, 88 ans, pilote de courses automobile britannique. (° 22 septembre 1928).\n\nArticles connexes \n Le 28 mai dans tous les domaines.\n\nMai 28", "Ville Peltonen (né le à Vantaa en Finlande) est un joueur professionnel finlandais de hockey sur glace, devenu entraîneur. Ville Peltonen est le fils de Esa Peltonen, membre du Temple de la renommée de l'IIHF en 2007, il a joué 277 matchs pour la Finlande.\n\nBiographie\n\nCarrière en club \n\nPeltonen a commencé sa carrière professionnelle avec le HIFK dans le SM-liiga en 1991. En 1995, il est choisi au cours repêchage d'entrée dans la Ligue nationale de hockey par les Sharks de San José en tant que . Il commence la 1995-1996 par jouer dans la Ligue internationale de hockey pour les Blades de Kansas City avant de réellement faire ses débuts dans la LNH. Mais après deux saisons en Amérique du Nord, il revient jouer en Europe pour une saison avec le Frölunda HC dans l'Elitserien.\n\nEn 1998, Peltonen retourne aux États-Unis pour rejoindre les Predators de Nashville. Ce séjour ne dure que deux ans puis il retourne une nouvelle fois en Europe avec le Jokerit Helsinki pour deux saisons et enfin, il rejoint la Suisse et Ligue nationale A et le HC Lugano\n\nEn 2006, Peltonen a de nouveau dans le LNH pour jouer avec les Panthers de la Floride, aux côtés du finlandais Olli Jokinen. En 2009, il signe au Dinamo Minsk dans la KHL.\n\nCarrière internationale \nPeltonen a représenté la Finlande dans les tournois internationaux à plusieurs occasions, le plus mémorablement en 1995 des championnats du monde de hockey sur glace; Peltonen a marqué un tour du chapeau dans la finale contre Suède, finale gagnée 4-1. Il a joué sur la première ligne finlandaise avec Saku Koivu et Jere Lehtinen. Il était un membre de l'équipe finlandaise de hockey sur glace quand ils ont gagné la médaille d'argent aux Jeux olympiques 2006 d'hiver à Turin. Ville Peltonen a participé à 4 tournois olympiques: 1994-1998-2006-2010 et à 13 championnats du monde entre 1994 et 2008, remportant un titre mondial en 1995. Il est porte-drapeau de la Finlande aux Jeux olympiques de 2010 à Vancouver.\n\nPalmarès \n Championnat du monde de hockey sur glace\n Championnat du monde de hockey sur glace 1995\n Médaille d'Or\n Championnat du monde de hockey sur glace 1998\n Médaille d'argent\n Championnat du monde de hockey sur glace 1999\n Médaille d'argent\n Championnat du monde de hockey sur glace 2000\n Médaille de Bronze\n Championnat du monde de hockey sur glace 2001\n Médaille d'argent\n Championnat du monde de hockey sur glace 2006\n Médaille de Bronze\n Championnat du monde de hockey sur glace 2007\n Médaille d'argent\n Championnat du monde de hockey sur glace 2008\n Médaille de Bronze\n Jeux olympiques d'hiver\n Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1994\n Médaille de Bronze\n Jeux olympiques d'hiver\n Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1998\n Médaille de Bronze\n Jeux olympiques d'hiver\n Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2006\n Médaille d'argent\n Champion de Finlande : 2002 avec Jokerit Helsinki\n Champion de Suisse : 2003 et 2006 avec HC Lugano\n\nTrophées et honneurs personnels\n\nSM-liiga \n1993 : remporte le Trophée Jarmo Wasama.\n2003 : remporte le Trophée Raimo Kilpiö.\n2011 : nommé dans l'équipe type.\n2011 : remporte le Trophée Lasse-Oksanen.\n2011 : remporte le Kultainen kypärä.\n2011 : remporte le Trophée Raimo Kilpiö.\n\nLigue continentale de hockey \n2010 : participe avec l'équipe Jágr au deuxième Match des étoiles.\n\nStatistiques \nPour les significations des abréviations, voir statistiques du hockey sur glace.\n\n| 1991-1992|| HIFK|| SM-liiga|| 6|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0|| || || || || \n|-\n| 1992-1993|| HIFK|| SM-liiga|| 46|| 13|| 24|| 37|| 16|| || || || || \n|- \n| 1993-1994|| HIFK|| SM-liiga|| 43|| 16|| 22|| 38|| 14|| 3|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 2\n|-\n| 1994-1995|| HIFK|| SM-liiga|| 45|| 20|| 16|| 36|| 16|| 3|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0\n|- \n| 1995-1996|| Blades de Kansas City|| LIH|| 29|| 5|| 13|| 18|| 8|| || || || || \n|-\n| 1995-1996|| Sharks de San José|| LNH|| 31|| 2|| 11|| 13|| 14|| || || || || \n|- \n| 1996-1997|| Thoroughblades du Kentucky|| LAH|| 40|| 22|| 30|| 52|| 21|| || || || || \n|-\n| 1996-1997|| Sharks de San José|| LNH|| 28|| 2|| 3|| 5|| 0|| || || || || \n|- \n| 1997-1998|| Frölunda HC|| Elitserien|| 45|| 22|| 29|| 51|| 44|| || || || || \n|-\n| 1998-1999|| Predators de Nashville|| LNH|| 14|| 5|| 5|| 10|| 2|| || || || || \n|- \n| 1999-2000|| Predators de Nashville|| LNH|| 79|| 6|| 22|| 28|| 22|| || || || || \n|-\n| 2000-2001|| Admirals de Milwaukee|| LIH|| 53|| 27|| 33|| 60|| 26|| 5|| 2|| 1|| 3|| 6\n|- \n| 2001-2002|| Jokerit Helsinki|| SM-liiga|| 30|| 11|| 18|| 29|| 8|| || || || || \n|-\n| 2002-2003|| Jokerit Helsinki|| SM-liiga|| 49|| 23|| 19|| 42|| 14|| 10|| 4|| 6|| 10|| 0\n|- \n| 2003-2004|| HC Lugano|| LNA|| 48|| 28|| 44|| 72|| 16|| 16|| 4|| 10|| 14|| 8\n|-\n| 2004-2005|| HC Lugano|| LNA|| 44|| 24|| 32|| 56|| 16|| 5|| 0|| 3|| 3|| 2\n|- \n| 2005-2006|| HC Lugano|| LNA|| 39|| 23|| 25|| 48|| 22|| || || || || \n|-\n| 2006-2007 || Panthers de la Floride || LNH||72 ||17 ||20 ||37 ||28 || || || || || \n|- \n| 2007-2008 || Panthers de la Floride || LNH||56 ||5 ||15 ||20 ||20 || || || || || \n|-\n| 2008-2009 || Panthers de la Floride || LNH||79 ||12 ||19 ||31 ||31 || || || || || \n|-\n| 2009-2010|| Dinamo Minsk|| KHL || 51|| 6|| 20|| 26|| 54|| || || || || \n|-\n| 2010-2011|| HIFK || SM-liiga || 54|| 28|| 37|| 65|| 16|| 16|| 6|| 6|| 12|| 6\n|-\n| 2011-2012|| HIFK || SM-liiga || 49|| 24|| 24|| 48|| 36|| 4|| 0|| 1|| 1|| 0\n|-\n| 2012-2013|| HIFK || SM-liiga || 43|| 13|| 16|| 29|| 40|| -|| -|| -|| -|| -\n|-\n| 2013-2014|| HIFK || SM-liiga || || || || || || || || || || \n\n| 382|| 52|| 96|| 148|| 119|| || || || ||\n\nNotes et références \n\nCatégorie:Naissance en mai 1973\nCatégorie:Naissance à Vantaa\nCatégorie:Joueur international finlandais de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Choix de repêchage des Sharks de San José\nCatégorie:Joueur des Sharks de San José\nCatégorie:Joueur des Predators de Nashville\nCatégorie:Joueur des Panthers de la Floride\nCatégorie:Joueur des Blades de Kansas City\nCatégorie:Joueur des Thoroughblades du Kentucky\nCatégorie:Joueur des Admirals de Milwaukee (LIH)\nCatégorie:Joueur du HIFK\nCatégorie:Joueur du Jokerit Helsinki\nCatégorie:Joueur des Frölunda Indians\nCatégorie:Joueur du HC Lugano\nCatégorie:Joueur du Dinamo Minsk\nCatégorie:Joueur de hockey sur glace aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1994\nCatégorie:Joueur de hockey sur glace aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1998\nCatégorie:Joueur de hockey sur glace aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2006\nCatégorie:Joueur de hockey sur glace aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2010\nCatégorie:Champion du monde de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Médaillé d'argent olympique finlandais\nCatégorie:Médaillé de bronze olympique finlandais\nCatégorie:Attaquant de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Membre du Temple de la renommée du hockey finlandais\nCatégorie:Membre du Temple de la renommée de l'IIHF\nCatégorie:Porte-drapeau olympique", "Chad Klassen (né le à Warman, dans la province de la Saskatchewan au Canada) est un joueur canadien de hockey sur glace.\n\nCarrière en club \nEn 2001, il commence sa carrière avec les Chiefs de Spokane dans la Ligue de hockey de l'Ouest.\n\nStatistiques \nPour les significations des abréviations, voir statistiques du hockey sur glace.\n\n|2001-2002 || Chiefs de Spokane || LHOu ||32 ||5 ||5 ||10 ||8 ||- ||- ||- ||- ||-\n|-\n|2002-2003 || Chiefs de Spokane || LHOu ||69 ||15 ||29 ||44 ||64 ||11 ||3 ||2 ||5 ||10\n|-\n|2003-2004 || Chiefs de Spokane || LHOu ||72 ||35 ||56 ||91 ||67 ||4 ||0 ||0 ||0 ||4\n|-\n|2004-2005 || Chiefs de Spokane || LHOu ||69 ||27 ||37 ||64 ||41 ||- ||- ||- ||- ||-\n|-\n| rowspan=\"2\"|2005-2006 || Chiefs de Spokane || LHOu ||40 ||14 ||29 ||43 ||51 ||- ||- ||- ||- ||-\n|-\n| Blades de Saskatoon || LHOu ||28 ||13 ||19 ||32 ||10 ||10 ||6 ||6 ||12 ||20\n|-\n|2006-2007 || Université de l'Alberta || SIC ||15 ||3 ||5 ||8 ||16 ||- ||- ||- ||- ||-\n|-\n|2007-2008 || Université de l'Alberta || SIC ||28 ||8 ||12 ||20 ||12 ||- ||- ||- ||- ||-\n|-\n|2008-2009 || Université de l'Alberta || SIC ||26 ||12 ||25 ||37 ||8 ||- ||- ||- ||- ||-\n|-\n|2009-2010 || Université de l'Alberta || SIC ||28 ||18 ||28 ||46 ||20 ||- ||- ||- ||- ||-\n|-\n|2010-2011 || Université de l'Alberta || SIC || 28|| 14|| 31|| 45|| 14|| -|| -|| -|| -|| -\n|-\n|2010-2011 || Salmon Kings de Victoria || ECHL || 1|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 11|| 3|| 6|| 9|| 2\n|-\n|2011-2012 || Steelheads de l'Idaho || ECHL || 29|| 13|| 22|| 35|| 18|| -|| -|| -|| -|| -\n|-\n|2011-2012 || Alba Volán Székesfehérvár || EBEL || 13|| 4|| 2|| 6|| 27|| 6|| 2|| 2|| 4|| 2\n|-\n|2011-2012 || Alba Volán Székesfehérvár || OB I. Bajnokság || 0|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 4|| 1|| 5|| 6|| 0\n|-\n|2012-2013 || Chiefs de Fort Saskatchewan || Chinook HL || 0|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 0|| 2|| 0|| 1|| 1|| 0\n\nNotes et références \n\nCatégorie:Naissance en avril 1985\nCatégorie:Naissance en Saskatchewan\nCatégorie:Joueur canadien de hockey sur glace\nCatégorie:Joueur des Chiefs de Spokane\nCatégorie:Joueur des Blades de Saskatoon\nCatégorie:Joueur des Steelheads de l'Idaho\nCatégorie:Joueur du Alba Volán Székesfehérvár\nCatégorie:Joueur des Salmon Kings de Victoria\nCatégorie:Attaquant de hockey sur glace", "L'Aigle de fer 2 : La Mission () est un film canado-israélien réalisé par Sidney J. Furie, sorti en 1988. C'est le second volet de la quadrilogie Aigle de fer.\n\nSynopsis \n\nLes services de renseignement américain et russe découvrent une base militaire nucléaire dans un pays ennemi. Le général Charles « Chappy » Sinclair est alors chargé de la destruction des missiles. À la suite d'un sabotage, Sinclair et son homologue russe comprennent que cette alliance américano-russe engendre du mécontentement. Parmi ces opposants, le général Stillmore n'admet pas cette politique de détente et préfère recourir aux armes nucléaires, peu importe le nombre de victimes.\n\nFiche technique \n\n Titre original : \n Titre français : L'Aigle de fer 2 : La Mission\n Titre québécois : L'Aigle de fer II\n Réalisation : Sidney J. Furie\n Scénario : Kevin Elders et Sidney J. Furie \n Direction artistique : Robb Wilson King\n Décors : Ariel Roshko\n Costumes : Sylvie Krasker\n Photographie : Alain Dostie\n Montage : Rit Wallis\n Musique : Amin Bhatia\n Production : Sharon Harel, John Kemeny et Jacob Kotzky\nProducteurs associés : Stéphane Reichel et Asher Gat\nProducteur délégué : Andras Hamori\n Sociétés de production : Carolco Pictures, Alliance Entertainment, Canadian Entertainment Investors Number One and Company Limited Partnership et Harkot Productions\n Société(s) de distribution : Alliance Atlantis Home Video (Canada)\n Pays d'origine : Canada, Israël \n Langues originales : anglais, russe\n Format : couleur — 1.85:1\n Genre : action\n Durée : 105 minutes\n Dates de sortie : \n : \n : \n :\n\nDistribution \n Louis Gossett Jr. : Charles « Chappy » Sinclair\n Mark Humphrey : capitaine Matt « Cobra » Cooper\n Stuart Margolin : général Stillmore\n Alan Scarfe : colonel Vardovsky\n Sharon Brandon : Valeri Zuyeniko\n Maury Chaykin : sergent Downs\n Colm Feore : Yuri Lebanov\n Clark Johnson : Graves\n Neil Munro : Edward Strappman\n Gary Reineke : Bowers\n Michael J. Reynolds : le Secrétaire d'État à la Défense\n Jason Gedrick : Doug Masters (non crédité)\n\nProduction\n\nGenèse et développement \nL'histoire du film s'inspire de l'Opération Opéra, une opération militaire israélienne qui se déroula le à Osirak en Irak.\n\nDistribution des rôles \nSeuls Louis Gossett Jr. et Jason Gedrick reprennent leur rôle du premier film. Le second n'apparait que brièvement au début du film et n'est pas crédité au générique.\n\nTournage \nLe tournage a eu lieu en Israël, notamment sur une base militaire à Ramat-David.\n\nBande originale \n\nLa musique du film est composée par le Britannique Amin Bhatia. L'album de la bande originale commercialisé par Epic Records contient cependant des chansons non-originales de divers artistes comme Alice Cooper ou Rick Springfield.\n\nListe des titres\nChasing the Angels - interprété par Mike Reno\nGimme Some Lovin’ - interprété par D'Insiders (Spencer Davis / Muff Winwood / Steve Winwood)\nIf You Were My Firl - interprété par Henry Lee Summer\nBurning My Heart Down - interprété par FM\nI Need You - interprété par Rick Springfield\nI Got a Line on You - interprété par Alice Cooper\nTomcat Prowl - interprété par Doug and the Slugs\nLivin' on the Edge - interprété par Britny Fox\nTake These Chains - interprété par Sweet Obsession\nEnemies Like You and Me - interprété par Ruth Pointer & Billy Vera\n\nSaga Aigle de fer\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n \n\nCatégorie:Film canadien sorti en 1988\nCatégorie:Film israélien sorti en 1988\nCatégorie:Film d'action canadien\nCatégorie:Film d'action israélien\nCatégorie:Aviation au cinéma\nCatégorie:Forces armées des États-Unis au cinéma\nCatégorie:Film de Carolco Pictures\nCatégorie:Film de StudioCanal\nCatégorie:Film tourné en Israël\nCatégorie:Film se déroulant en Arizona\nCatégorie:Film se déroulant en Israël\nCatégorie:Film en anglais\nCatégorie:Film en russe" ]

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[ "There was no obvious winner in the wager." ]

[ "The President was the obvious winner in the wager.", "There are dogs outside.", "Once the request has been made, the President will send someone else to conduct the meeting.", "The robot made no noises.", "He has never used hickory chips in the barbecue.", "the historian and his friend are digging for fossils to study.", "We've been in our house for five years and it's been a great investment." ]

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[ "Queer Eye (2018 TV series) seven critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". Queer Eye (2018 TV series) Queer Eye is an American Netflix original series, initially released on February 7, 2018. It is a reboot of the Bravo series \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\", featuring a new Fab Five: Antoni Porowski, food and wine expert; Tan France, fashion expert; Karamo Brown, culture expert; Bobby Berk, design expert; and Jonathan Van Ness, grooming expert. In July 2018, the series was renewed for a third season, which is set to premiere in 2019. The cast are also titled the Fab Five. Creator credit is given to David" ]

[ "Queer Eye Queer Eye Queer Eye is an American reality television series that premiered on the cable television network Bravo in July 2003. Originally Queer Eye for the Straight Guy, the title was later shortened to broaden the overall scope. The series was created by executive producers David Collins and Michael Williams along with David Metzler through their company, Scout Productions. The premise relies on the stereotype of gay (queer) men as experts in matters of fashion, style, personal grooming, interior design, and culture. Each episode features a team collectively known as the \"Fab Five\" performing a makeover (in the parlance of", "Queer Eye episodes were billed as \"Queer Eye: The Final Season\" and aired twice weekly beginning October 2, 2007. During January 2005, Scout Productions premiered a spin-off series titled \"Queer Eye for the Straight Girl\", set in Los Angeles. It featured a cast of four lifestyle experts (three men and a woman, known as the \"Gal Pals\") who performed makeovers for women. The show was cancelled after one season. \"Queer Eye\"s American success caused television networks in several countries to syndicate the American episodes, with a number of countries creating their own local versions of \"Queer Eye\" for broadcast in their countries.", "Queer Eye for the Straight Girl first season. Queer Eye for the Straight Girl Queer Eye for the Straight Girl is a spin-off of the television show \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\". \"Straight Girl\" aired from January to May 2005. As the name suggests, the program focuses on makeovers for women while following the format of the original show. As opposed to the original show, which is mostly set in New York City, \"Queer Eye for the Straight Girl\" is set in Los Angeles. The hosts are called \"The Gal Pals\" and include three gay men and a lesbian. The show was unsuccessful and ended", "Jonathan Van Ness Jonathan Van Ness Jonathan Van Ness (born March 28, 1987) is an American hairdresser, podcaster, and television personality. He is known for the web series parody \"Gay of Thrones\", hosting the \"Getting Curious with Jonathan Van Ness\" podcast, and as the grooming expert on the Netflix series \"Queer Eye\". Van Ness was born and raised in Quincy, Illinois. He was the first male cheerleader at Quincy Senior High School and continued this activity in college. Van Ness attended the University of Arizona, majoring in political science. Due to his habit of skipping class to watch reruns of \"The Golden Girls\",", "Ally McBeal (season 1) Ally McBeal (season 1) The first season of the television series \"Ally McBeal\" began airing in the United States on September 8, 1997, concluded on May 18, 1998, and consisted of 23 episodes. It tells the story of Ally McBeal, a young lawyer who found herself without a job after being sexually harassed by her boss, only to end up employed by her friend from college, Richard Fish, to work in the firm he created with his friend John Cage, named \"Cage & Fish.\" The entire season aired Mondays at 9pm. It was released on DVD as a six disc", "Queer Eye for the Straight Girl Queer Eye for the Straight Girl Queer Eye for the Straight Girl is a spin-off of the television show \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\". \"Straight Girl\" aired from January to May 2005. As the name suggests, the program focuses on makeovers for women while following the format of the original show. As opposed to the original show, which is mostly set in New York City, \"Queer Eye for the Straight Girl\" is set in Los Angeles. The hosts are called \"The Gal Pals\" and include three gay men and a lesbian. The show was unsuccessful and ended after the", "Bobby Berk Bobby Berk Bobby James Berk (born August 25, 1981) is an American interior designer and reality television personality. He currently stars in the Netflix series \"Queer Eye\" as the interior design expert. Berk was born in Houston, Texas Berk left home at the age of 15. He landed in Springfield, Missouri, sometimes living on the street. When times were good - after he got a job at Applebee's, in Branson - Berk would sleep in his car after working double shifts four days in a row, then drive back to Springfield to try to find somewhere to crash. Just before", "Gay Weddings example of reality TV\" and that it \"has a cheap, thrown together on-the-fly feel\". Bravo aired the complete eight-part series on January 26, 2003 as counterprogramming to Super Bowl XXXVII. The ratings success of the marathon led Bravo to develop additional LGBT-interest programming, including the very successful \"Queer Eye\" and the gay dating show \"Boy Meets Boy\". With the success of the first season, the production company advertised for couples to appear in a second season of the program. However, no second season was produced. Bravo has no plans to revive the series. During the series' September 2 premiere, Bravo", "Love & Hip Hop: New York (season 1) Love & Hip Hop: New York (season 1) The first season of the reality television series \"\" aired on VH1 from March 6, 2011 until May 2, 2011. The show was primarily filmed in New York City, New York. It was executively produced by Mona Scott-Young for Monami Entertainment, Toby Barraud and Stefan Springman for NFGTV, Kenny Hull for Interloc Films, and Jim Ackerman and Jeff Olde for VH1. The series chronicles the lives of several women and men in the New York area, involved in hip hop music. It consists of 9 episodes, including a reunion special hosted by", "Queer Eye second and third episodes and for which he was credited as a \"guest culture expert\") but was replaced by Rodriguez beginning with production of the third episode. Each episode was shot over a span of four days and edited to create the perception that the events of the episode took place in a single day. The majority of \"Queer Eye\" episodes use the same basic format. The episode begins with the Fab Five in an SUV (usually in New York City, where the series was based) discussing their heterosexual subject. The Five review details of the subject's personal life and", "Ally McBeal (season 1) return, guest starred on \"The Practice\". <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> Ally McBeal (season 1) The first season of the television series \"Ally McBeal\" began airing in the United States on September 8, 1997, concluded on May 18, 1998, and consisted of 23 episodes. It tells the story of Ally McBeal, a young lawyer who found herself without a job after being sexually harassed by her boss, only to end up employed by her friend from college, Richard Fish, to work in the firm he created with his friend John Cage, named \"Cage & Fish.\" The entire season aired Mondays at 9pm. It was", "Kyan Douglas Kyan Douglas Kyan Douglas (born Hugh Edward Douglas, Jr.; May 5, 1970) is an American television personality and stylist. He was the grooming expert on the American television program \"Queer Eye\" from 2003 to 2007. Born as \"Hugh Edward Douglas, Jr.\" in Miami, Florida, Kyan Douglas was raised in Tampa and Tallahassee. He has a sister, Kelli (who first taught him about styling hair). After high school he moved first to Dallas, where he studied philosophy at Brookhaven College and first became interested in religion and the healing arts. He then moved to Austin, where he had initially planned to", "Sex and the City (season 1) Sex and the City (season 1) The first season of \"Sex and the City\", an American television romantic sitcom, aired in the United States on HBO from June 6 to August 23, 1998. Based on the eponymous book written by Candace Bushnell, the series was created by Darren Star and produced by Darren Star Productions, HBO Original Programming, and Warner Bros. Television. Star, Barry Josen and Michael Patrick King served as the series' executive producers. The show follows the relationships and sexual escapades of Carrie Bradshaw, a sex columnist for the fictional \"New York Star\", and her friends Samantha Jones,", "Looking (TV series) at HBO to continue the series. HBO eventually planned to air a special episode in the form of a movie to wrap up the storyline of the show. Alvarez revealed in an interview with Vulture that filming was planned to start in September 2015 and that the length of the finale would be 2 hours. The movie premiered on June 2, 2016 at the Frameline Film Festival in San Francisco and was eventually aired on July 23, 2016. \"Looking\" has received widely positive reviews from critics who hailed it as a fresh take on gay themed drama and acclaimed the", "Kate Madison website and possibly other online venues. The production team has spent the first half of 2014 working on story lines, scouting locations, costume production, and calls for contributors for all aspects of the series. Filming for Season One began in the latter half of 2014 and was completed by mid-November. The episode one of Season One was uploaded to the Mythica Entertainment YouTube channel March 1, 2016. “It’s a great way for an independent film-maker to do something relatively low budget,” Madison told the Cambridge News, “and get it out there, and get people watching it. I like the fact", "Homicide: Life on the Street (season 1) Homicide: Life on the Street (season 1) The first season of \"\", an American police procedural drama television series, originally aired in the United States on NBC between January 31 and March 31, 1993. The show was created by Paul Attanasio, with film director Barry Levinson and television writer and producer Tom Fontana serving as executive producers. Adapted from David Simon's 1991 non-fiction book \"\", the season followed the fictional detectives of Baltimore Police Department homicide unit and the murder cases they investigate. The show was broadcast on Wednesdays at 9 p.m. EST, with the exception of the series premiere,", "Quantico (season 1) York City and Quantico. Production began in late July 2015 and ended in mid-April, 2016. Scenes of the Quantico Academy were shot at the campus of the Université de Sherbrooke, which stood in for the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia, where the show is based. The series was shot both in studio at Mel’s Cité du Cinéma and on location. Colleen Sharp, Nicholas Erasmus, Terilyn A. Shropshire and Lori Ball were the editors for multiple episodes. Allyson C Johnson and Vanessa Procopio edited one episode each. The Director of Photography was Anthony Wolberg, who has provided cinematography for the maximum", "RuPaul's Drag Race (season 1) RuPaul's Drag Race (season 1) The first season of \"RuPaul's Drag Race\", later referred to as \"RuPaul's Drag Race: The Lost Season Ru-Vealed\", premiered in the United States on February 2, 2009, on Logo. Nine contestants were selected to compete in the running of becoming \"America's Next Drag Superstar.\" The first season was filmed during the summer of 2008. The winner of the first season won $5,000 worth of MAC Cosmetics, was featured in an LA Eyeworks campaign, joined the Logo Drag Race tour, and won a cash prize of $20,000. One of the nine contestants to compete on \"RuPaul's", "Thom Filicia Thom Filicia Thom Filicia (born May 17, 1969) is an American interior designer, known for his role as an interior design expert on the American television program \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy.\" He is also a co-author of a book based on the show. Filicia is founder and chief creative officer of New York City-based design firm, Thom Filicia, Inc., founded in 1998. Filicia was cast as the interior design expert in the Emmy-Award winning show \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\". Filicia has also hosted several shows for the Style Network, including \"Dress My Nest\" and \"Tacky House\".", "Knock First two carpenters: Carrie Roy, Andy Hampton. The first season of Knock First centered mainly around teenagers in and around the Northeast, whereas the second season expanded to homes in California, to a slightly older audience. The show theme for the first season was titled \"(This Is The Way) I Am\", and was written and produced by Widelife, also creators of the theme for Bravo's Queer Eye For The Straight Guy, and performed by Faith Trent. The show theme for the second season was titled \"Bring it to Life,\" written and performed by Kat Meoz. The show was redesigned for its", "Aussie Queer Eye for the Straight Guy and food. The program premiered on Network Ten at on Wednesday 9 February 2005, during the first week the 2005 Australian ratings season to a national audience of 903,254. After the second episode saw its audience share drop 20 per cent to 725,263, rumours began the show would now be moved from its prime time slot at on Wednesdays to on Mondays. However, after the third episode which aired on 23 February, the Network axed the program. The three remaining episodes aired later in the year. Aussie Queer Eye for the Straight Guy Aussie Queer Eye for the Straight Guy", "Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta (season 1) Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta (season 1) The first season of the reality television series \"\" aired on VH1 from June 18, 2012 until September 3, 2012. The show was primarily filmed in Atlanta, Georgia. It was executively produced by Mona Scott-Young for Monami Entertainment, Toby Barraud and Stefan Springman for NFGTV, and Shelly Tatro, Brad Abramson, Danielle Gelfand and Jeff Olde for VH1. Carlos King served as co-executive producer. The series chronicles the lives of several women and men in the Atlanta area, involved in hip hop music. It consists of 12 episodes, including a two-part reunion special hosted", "JAG (season 1) JAG (season 1) The first season of \"JAG\" premiered on NBC on September 23, 1995, and concluded on May 22, 1996. The season, initially starring David James Elliott and Andrea Parker, and later starring Tracey Needham, was produced by Belisarius Productions in association with NBC Productions. Lieutenant Harmon Rabb, Jr. (David James Elliott), a former aviator, is employed by the Navy's Judge Advocate General Corps, the elite legal division of the United States Navy. In Washington, D.C., Harm is partnered with Lieutenant Meg Austin (Tracey Needham), a junior officer with drive and determination. Together, Harm and Meg work alongside Commander", "Shameless (season 1) cast as Sheila, a romantic interest for Frank, replacing Allison Janney, who portrayed the role in the pilot. A preview of the pilot aired on December 12, 2010, after the Season 5 finale of \"Dexter\". The first season officially began airing on Showtime on Sunday, January 9, 2011. Production began in mid-September 2010. It is filmed in the North Lawndale community area of Chicago and Burbank, California, at Warner Bros. Studios. Shameless (season 1) The first season of \"Shameless\", an American comedy-drama television series based on the British series of the same name by Paul Abbott, premiered on January 9,", "Quantico (season 1) Quantico (season 1) The first season of the American drama thriller series \"Quantico\" premiered in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) on September 27, 2015, and concluded on May 15, 2016. ABC Studios produced the season, with creator Joshua Safran, Mark Gordon, Robert Sertner, Nicholas Pepper and Jake Coburn serving as executive producers. Consisting of twenty-two episodes, season one follows Alex Parrish, the brightest FBI recruit in her class, who becomes an FBI field agent after graduating from the FBI Academy at Quantico, Virginia, and later becomes a prime suspect after a terrorist attack on Grand Central", "Woody's (Toronto) Woody's (Toronto) Woody's on Church is a gay bar located in Toronto's gay village. The bar was established in 1989, and has since become a landmark within the Church and Wellesley village and a popular destination for LGBT tourists visiting the city. The North American version of the television show \"Queer as Folk\" featured the bar as its main queer hangout. Filmed in Toronto, the series was set in Pittsburgh, and the show would often film on the street outside the bar. Indoor scenes were shot on location in the first season, but a soundstage was later built. In a", "Gaycation (TV series) went viral; the exchange would appear in the United States episode of the series. Each of the episodes were made available for online viewing shortly after each episode's premiere. Filming for season 2 began in March 2016. A special episode aired on August 24, 2016, focusing on the aftermath of the mass shooting that occurred at the Pulse nightclub in Orlando, Florida. The second season began airing on September 7, 2016. In January 2017, the series was nominated for a GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Reality Program. <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> <onlyinclude> </onlyinclude> Gaycation (TV series) Gaycation (also known as \"Gaycation", "Queer Eye June, Gay Pride Month, during 2004 and 2006) and in one episode made over a transgender man. The show also featured makeovers of members of the Boston Red Sox after their 2004 World Series victory, several holiday specials, and, in the final season, a \"Mister Straight Guy\" pageant featuring subjects from the series' history. \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\" debuted on July 15, 2003 and the series quickly attained high ratings, peaking during September of that year with 3.34 million viewers per episode. The popularity of the series established the Fab Five as media celebrities, with high-profile appearances at", "Michelle Rothschild-Patterson they were all wrong for her daughter. The show premiered on Monday, January 8, 2007 and was the most-watched series debut in VH1 history with 4.426 million viewers. Its season 1 finale brought in 4.8M million viewers and its reunion show ratings held 5.01 million viewers. Despite being engaged to \"I Love New York\" season 1 winner Patrick \"Tango\" Hunter, Pollard's engagement was soon called off. Afterwards, Pollard signed on for a second season of \"I Love New York\". When asked if Patterson would make an appearance, Pollard responded; \"Definitely, definitely. I couldn't do it without her. She's going to", "Queer Eye by Clarkson Potter/Publishers, an imprint of Random House. Several DVDs were released in conjunction with the series. Kressley, Filicia and Allen each had individual releases emphasizing their topics of expertise. Douglas and Rodriguez were featured together in a single DVD focused on grooming. Additional DVD releases include \"Queer Eye for the Red Sox\" (featuring the team makeover episode) and a multi-disc box set. Netflix ordered 8 new episodes of \"Queer Eye\" in January 2017, to feature a new Fab Five. Scout Productions has contributed involvement with the revival, which trades the original New York setting for Georgia. The new Fab", "Designated Survivor (season 1) Designated Survivor (season 1) The first season of the American political drama series \"Designated Survivor\" began airing on September 21, 2016 on ABC. The series was ordered straight to series by ABC in December 2015, with a formal announcement of 13 episodes in May 2016. Eight days after the premiere, on September 29, 2016, ABC gave the series a full season order. The series is produced by ABC Studios and The Mark Gordon Company, and is filmed in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The series was renewed for a second season on May 11, 2017. On the night of the State of", "The Cobblestone Corridor Poets Society\", \"The Maltese Falcon\", \"Hey Arnold!\", \"Scream Queens\", and \"Gossip Girl\". Season 1 began production on December 19, 2015 and concluded on March 23, 2016. Principal photography took place primarily at University of Connecticut School of Law in Hartford, Connecticut and Ethel Walker School in Simsbury, Connecticut. Alfred Pierce Preparatory School becomes a hotbed for suspense and intrigue after a prank targeting the Associate Headmaster. \"Initial Airdate: October 16, 2016\" After the school mascot is stolen from the field house, Archer and company go on an undercover mission to recover it. \"Initial Airdate: October 23, 2016\" Archer becomes suspicious", "Gaycation (TV series) ideas for the new channel; she suggested a travel show with an LGBT perspective. After Jonze recommended that Page be accompanied by a companion during the series, Page suggested Ian Daniel, a personal friend who had experience as an art curator and worked as the Director of Artistic Programs at The Civilians Theater Company, to be brought on as a co-host. The series was renewed for a second season in 2016. Filming for the first season began June 2015, in New York City. Notably, Page's attempt to interview Ted Cruz at the Iowa State Fair was recorded by bystanders and", "Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta (season 1) coincide with the airing of the episodes. Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta (season 1) The first season of the reality television series \"\" aired on VH1 from June 18, 2012 until September 3, 2012. The show was primarily filmed in Atlanta, Georgia. It was executively produced by Mona Scott-Young for Monami Entertainment, Toby Barraud and Stefan Springman for NFGTV, and Shelly Tatro, Brad Abramson, Danielle Gelfand and Jeff Olde for VH1. Carlos King served as co-executive producer. The series chronicles the lives of several women and men in the Atlanta area, involved in hip hop music. It consists of 12", "Life Unexpected Union Station, and many other Portland locations. Scenes of Westmonte High are filmed at Sutherland Secondary School in North Vancouver and H. J. Cambie Secondary School in Richmond, British Columbia. The exterior of Baze's bar is located on Granville Island and the Ironworks Building in Vancouver. North Shore Studios, formally Lionsgate, was used as the primary studio for season one while Coast Mountain Film Studios housed the show for the second and final season. The show premiered on The CW on Monday, January 18, 2010. The 13-episode first season run ended on April 12, 2010. The series was picked up", "Project Runway (season 1) piece collection for a showing at New York Olympus Fashion Week. Project Runway (season 1) Project Runway Season 1 was the first season of \"Project Runway\", Bravo's reality competition show for fashion designers. The season received critical acclaim including an Emmy nomination for outstanding competitive reality series. Growth in audience popularity was also dramatic from its debut to the season finale, making it a sleeper hit. \"Project Runway\" gave Bravo one of its most successful series since \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\". The winning designer of the first season was Pennsylvania-based designer Jay McCarroll. As his prize for winning", "Shades of Blue (TV series) a recurring role as Assistant District Attorney James Nava. On June 15, 2016, Anna Gunn joined Shades of Blue's second season in a recurring role. Filming for the first season began on June 5, 2015, in New York City. Filming for the second season began in July 2016 in New York City. Filming for the third season began in April 2017 in New York City. The show has received mixed reviews despite praise for Lopez's performance. On Metacritic, \"Shades of Blue\" has a Metascore of 58/100, based on 28 critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the show is rated 56% based on", "Matthew Pillsbury Atlanta, GA on September 13, 2012 and ran until November 17, 2012 at Jackson Fine Art gallery. Another exhibition, which highlights many pieces from Pillsbury's previous \"Screen Lives\" collection, began Feb 26, 2014 at the Sasha Wolf Gallery and ran through April 20, 2014. Pillsbury began shooting the series in 2004 when he met his ex-partner Nathan Noland and came out of the closet as a gay man. The series is the first show in his career solely focused on Pillsbury's personal life. In September 2013, the Aperture Foundation published a monograph that includes a retrospective of Pillsbury works, titled,", "Pinkeye (South Park) Pinkeye (South Park) \"Pinkeye\" is the seventh episode of the first season of the American animated television series \"South Park\". It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on October 29, 1997. In \"Pinkeye\", Kenny is killed and, through a freak accident, he is brought back to life as a zombie and starts terrorizing South Park residents, who believe the rise of the living dead is an epidemic of \"pinkeye\". The episode was written by series co-founders Trey Parker and Matt Stone, along with writer Philip Stark. The episode was the first of a new slate of \"South", "I'm Gay and I'm Getting Married celebrations with family to applying and receiving their marriage licenses. The documentary won Outstanding Documentary at the 16th GLAAD Media Awards and was accepted by Aaron Pike and Stephen in March 2005 in New York City's Marriott Marquee, Times Square. I'm Gay and I'm Getting Married \"I'm Gay and I'm Getting Married\" is the first episode from the fifth season of the MTV series \"True Life\" features two gay couples as they apply for marriage licenses and get married in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It originally aired on June 24, 2004. The episode follows a gay couple, Aaron Pike and", "NYPD Blue (season 1) NYPD Blue (season 1) NYPD Blue is an American television police drama set in New York City, exploring the internal and external struggles of the fictional 15th precinct detective squad in Manhattan. Each episode typically intertwined several plots involving an ensemble cast. Season 1 aired as part of the 1993–94 United States network television schedule for ABC, premiering on 21 September 1993 and concluding on 17 May 1994. The show's first season led to a record 26 Emmy nominations and six awards. John Kelly and Andy Sipowicz are detectives in the 15th squad. Sipowicz is the elder partner but is", "Looking (TV series) The three men navigate life, relationships, family, and careers in modern-day San Francisco. HBO ordered an eight-episode first season of \"Looking\" on May 14, 2013. The pilot was written by Michael Lannan, based on Lannan's 2011 short film entitled \"Lorimer\", and directed by Andrew Haigh. Filming began in the San Francisco Bay Area on September 16, 2013, and ended on November 7, 2013. The first season premiered on January 19, 2014. Creator Michael Lannan announced in an interview in February 2014 that the writers were already thinking of new material for a second season, should it come. His comment was", "I Love New York (season 1) I Love New York (season 1) I Love New York (season 1) is first season of the VH1 reality television series entitled \"I Love New York\". The first season consisted of 12 episodes, which first aired weekly from January 8, 2007 to April 15, 2007. In July 2006, VH1 published a casting call looking for contestants for their new series tentatively titled \"The Flavorette\". Various blogs speculated that the star of this program could be \"Flavor of Love\" season one contestants \"Rain\" (Thela Brown), \"Hoopz\" (Nicole Alexander) or Pollard. Before the second season finale of \"Flavor of Love\", Pollard denied", "Carson Kressley their bets when they should be neutral at all times. And then after the pageant, while doing their CHI interview, people called the two of them as plastics because they congratulated the eventual winner of the pageant. He began as an independent stylist, then worked for Ralph Lauren from 1994 until 2002, working in several areas including menswear and corporate advertising. His leap into television took place in 2003 when he gained great exposure as the \"fashion savant\" on \"Queer Eye\" when the show debuted on the Bravo cable television network. He remains active and visible on television as a", "Carson Kressley for the Melbourne Cup, in 2007 playing a part in the 'Fashion On The Field'. In November 2006, Kressley competed on a celebrity edition of \"Jeopardy\" against Regis Philbin and Nancy Grace. Carson took second place, losing by one dollar. Carson Kressley Carson Lee Kressley (born November 11, 1969) is an American television personality, actor and designer. He was the fashion expert on the American television program \"Queer Eye\", where he was one of the show's \"Fab Five\". He was also the motivational host of the TV show \"How to Look Good Naked\" and OWN's \"Carson Nation\", as well as", "Portlandia (TV series) and the project was quickly approved. Some of the content on the show first appeared in the web series; the \"Women & Women First\" feminist bookstore sketch and its owners' characters, Toni and Candace, originated there. The series is set and filmed on location in Portland, Oregon. Production for the first season, consisting of six episodes, began in August 2010 and was completed in September 2010. The budget for the first season was set at less than $1 million (US). Along with Allison Silverman, a former head writer and executive producer for \"The Colbert Report\", and \"Portlandia\" director Jonathan Krisel,", "Straight Plan for the Gay Man ego to mask all personal failings. Episodes involved making over a fashion salesman into a meat-packer, a yoga instructor into a jock, and an entertainer into a suave \"babe-magnet\". Straight Plan for the Gay Man Straight Plan for the Gay Man is an American comedy television series that premiered on February 23, 2004, on Comedy Central. It is a parody of Bravo's hit \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\". Four straight comedians (the \"Flab Four\") – Curtis Gwinn (environment guy), Billy Merritt (appearance guy), Kyle Grooms (information guy), and Rob Riggle (culture guy) – makeover three gay men to pass", "Project Runway (season 1) Project Runway (season 1) Project Runway Season 1 was the first season of \"Project Runway\", Bravo's reality competition show for fashion designers. The season received critical acclaim including an Emmy nomination for outstanding competitive reality series. Growth in audience popularity was also dramatic from its debut to the season finale, making it a sleeper hit. \"Project Runway\" gave Bravo one of its most successful series since \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\". The winning designer of the first season was Pennsylvania-based designer Jay McCarroll. As his prize for winning the competition among 12 designers, McCarroll won $100,000, a mentorship with", "Ally McBeal (season 1) boxed set under the title of \"Ally McBeal: Season One\" on October 7, 2002. Due to music rights issues, only several episodes of the first season of \"Ally McBeal\" were available in the United States. The first season had an average rating of 11.4 million viewers in the United States and was ranked #59 on the complete ranking sheet of all the year's shows. A month after the conclusion of the first season, a debate sparked by the show was the cover story of \"Time\" magazine, which juxtaposed McBeal with three pioneering feminists and asked \"Is Feminism Dead?\". On the", "Gay Witch Hunt Michael. \"Gay Witch Hunt\" first aired on NBC on September 21, 2006. The Nielsen ratings for \"Gay Witch Hunt\" indicated that it was watched by approximately 9.1 million viewers, a 23 percent increase from the second season premiere \"The Dundies\". During its timeslot, \"Gay Witch Hunt\" ranked second among men ages 18–49 and 24–54, and first among men ages 18–34. \"Gay Witch Hunt\" generally received praise from critics. \"TV Guide\"'s Matt Roush admitted that he \"loved Oscar's self-deprecating reaction to his newfound notoriety\". Roush said that when watching Michael \"you can't help but forgive the idiot, while wondering how in", "Party/Party invest so much in the celebrations of their children's major rites of passages,\" she also added. Party/Party Party/Party is an American reality television series which premiered on December 6, 2005, on Bravo, as a lead-in to \"Queer Eye\". Announced in June 2005 as \"It's My Party\", the one-hour series features parents as they try to put their best effort in order to throw the most memorable party for their beloved children. Each episode follows two different families who prepare for very similar parties using their own methods and ideas. \"[The show] puts a unique twist on a familiar concept,\" said", "Joshua Seftel \"Lidia Celebrates America\" in 2011-2012. In this mini-series produced for PBS, celebrity chef Lidia Bastianich and special guests Stanley Tucci, Mo Rocca and Mario Batali explore how immigrants have preserved their unique culinary traditions for generations. The project was nominated for both a James Beard Foundation Broadcast Media Award for Special/Documentary and a Silver Telly award. In reality television, Seftel directed the first two seasons of \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\" and received a National Emmy Award Nomination for his work on the series. He also helped develop the A&E series \"Confessions of a Matchmaker,\" featuring Patti Novak, directing", "Looking (TV series) in South Africa. Looking (TV series) Looking is an American comedy-drama television series about a group of gay friends living in San Francisco. It premiered on January 19, 2014, on HBO. The series' executive producers are David Marshall Grant, Sarah Condon, and Andrew Haigh. After two seasons, HBO announced that \"Looking\" would not be renewed for a third season, instead ordering a one-time special to serve as its series finale which aired on July 23, 2016 in the U.S. on HBO and on August 2, 2016 in the UK on Sky Atlantic. Patrick Murray, a 28/29-year-old video game designer, lives", "Kyan Douglas fourth season) on TLC. \"Queer Eye\" won an Emmy in 2004 for Outstanding Reality Program, and received a nomination again in the same category in 2005. In 2006, Douglas was awarded the HRC's Humanitarian Award for his work with a number of charities, including HRC, DIFFA, and AmFAR. Kyan Douglas Kyan Douglas (born Hugh Edward Douglas, Jr.; May 5, 1970) is an American television personality and stylist. He was the grooming expert on the American television program \"Queer Eye\" from 2003 to 2007. Born as \"Hugh Edward Douglas, Jr.\" in Miami, Florida, Kyan Douglas was raised in Tampa and Tallahassee.", "The Blacklist (season 1) And with Spader in command, odds are NBC will.\" Tim Goodman of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" praised both Spader's performance and the procedural elements of the show, writing \"there's an overarching element to the premise as well that makes it intriguing without making it overly complicated.\" The Blacklist (season 1) The first season of the American crime thriller television series \"The Blacklist\" premiered on NBC on September 23, 2013. The season was produced by Davis Entertainment, Universal Television, and Sony Pictures Television, and the executive producers are Jon Bokenkamp, John Davis, John Eisendrath, John Fox, and Joe Carnahan. <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> The first", "Thom Filicia book for Clarkson Potter Publishers was scheduled for release in November 2012. Filicia graduated from Syracuse University with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Interior Design. He was a guest judge on HGTV's \"The White Room Challenge\". Thom Filicia Thom Filicia (born May 17, 1969) is an American interior designer, known for his role as an interior design expert on the American television program \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy.\" He is also a co-author of a book based on the show. Filicia is founder and chief creative officer of New York City-based design firm, Thom Filicia, Inc., founded in", "Rookie Blue (season 1) Rookie Blue (season 1) The first season of the Canadian police drama \"Rookie Blue\" began airing on June 24, 2010 with a simultaneous premiere on Global in Canada and ABC in the U.S. On July 12, 2010, four days after the third episode was broadcast, it was announced that the show had been renewed for a second season. The first season completed its run on September 9, 2010 with a double episode airing. The series is set and filmed in Toronto. The first season was produced in 2009 by Canwest, Thump Inc., and E1 Entertainment. The season was shot on", "Friday Night Lights (season 1) the 23rd TCA Awards, the series won for Outstanding New Program of the Year and received nominations for Outstanding Achievement in Drama, Program of the Year, and Individual Achievement in Drama (Connie Britton and Kyle Chandler). Friday Night Lights (season 1) The first season of the American serial drama television series \"Friday Night Lights\" commenced airing in the United States and Canada on October 3, 2006 and concluded its 22-episode season on April 11, 2007 on NBC. The series revolves around the Dillon Panthers and their new head coach Eric Taylor as they deal with the pressure of high school", "Broad City (season 1) Broad City (season 1) The first season of \"Broad City\", an American comedy television series created by and starring Ilana Glazer and Abbi Jacobson, premiered on Comedy Central on January 22, 2014. The series was adapted from their independently-produced web series of the same name which ran from 2009 to 2011. It is produced by Lily Burns and John Skidmore, with Jacobson and Glazer serving as executive producers, alongside Amy Poehler, Dave Becky, Tony Hernandez, and Samantha Saifer. The season consists of 10 episodes, with concluded on March 26, 2014. Prior to the creation of the original web series, Glazer", "Eric McCormack Max Mutchnick, co-creator and executive producer of the show said 'That was perfect. Just to let you know, you never have to be more gay than that.'\" He explained that when he first read the script, \"what hit me immediately was that this was me. I mean, sexual orientation aside, Will was so much like me. He's a great host, he's relatively funny and he has great friends and he's a good friend to them ... the gay issue just wasn't really a big thing.\" The show debuted on September 21, 1998, and was watched by almost 8.6 million American", "NYPD Blue (season 1) for Steven Bochco, David Milch, and Gregory Hoblit; and two Viewers For Quality Television Awards.Awards for \"NYPD Blue\" from Internet Movie Database. NYPD Blue (season 1) NYPD Blue is an American television police drama set in New York City, exploring the internal and external struggles of the fictional 15th precinct detective squad in Manhattan. Each episode typically intertwined several plots involving an ensemble cast. Season 1 aired as part of the 1993–94 United States network television schedule for ABC, premiering on 21 September 1993 and concluding on 17 May 1994. The show's first season led to a record 26 Emmy", "The L Word (season 1) The L Word (season 1) The first season of American/Canadian co-produced drama television series, \"The L Word\" premiered on Showtime on January 18, 2004 and ended on April 11, 2004, created by Ilene Chaiken, Michele Abbot, and Kathy Greenberg. The series portrayed the lives of a group of lesbians and their friends, connections, family and lovers in the trendy Greater Los Angeles, California city of West Hollywood. The series was highly popular and was Showtime's highest rated series. It was renewed for a second and third season. <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> \"The L Word\" rated as Showtime's highest new show for the 2003-04", "How to Be Indie (season 1) How to Be Indie (season 1) Season one of \"How to Be Indie\" first premiered on October 2, 2009 on YTV. The series follows the comical exploits of teenager Indira \"Indie\" Mehta, her patriotic parents from India, two best friends Abi and Marlon and the numerous daily events which result in Indie being in some sort of trouble. The title of each episode begins with 'How to', which is also the first two words of the series title. Season one was produced by the Heroic Film Company and was distributed across the world by DHX Media. The first season achieved", "Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood (season 1) Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood (season 1) The first season of the reality television series \"\" aired on VH1 from September 15, 2014 until December 9, 2014. It was primarily filmed in Los Angeles, California. It is executively produced by Mona Scott-Young for Monami Entertainment, Toby Barraud and Stefan Springman for Eastern TV, and Susan Levison, Nina L. Diaz and Vivian Gomez for VH1. The series chronicles the lives of several women and men in the Hollywood area, involved in hip hop music. It consists of 14 episodes, including a two-part reunion special hosted by Mona Scott-Young. On August 18,", "Cordon (TV series) decaying cordon together. Season 1 Season 2 On 8 May 2015 Eyeworks, the company that produced the Flemish series, announced that a US-version would be broadcast on the American network The CW. The miniseries, retitled \"Containment\", is set in the US city of Atlanta, and was produced by Julie Plec and directed by David Nutter. The series debuted on April 19, 2016, and was cancelled after one season of 13 episodes; the last aired on July 19, 2016. The series was also aired by the Global Television Network in Canada, and in the UK on E4 (TV channel). Cordon (TV", "Starved so the next natural evolution is to do something in the comedy space.\" The network ordered seven episodes of each series. \"Starved\" was shot in the spring of 2005 in New York City using a single-camera setup and without a laugh track. It and \"Sunny\" were the first shows that FX produced inhouse. \"Starved\" generated controversy even before its premiere. A number of specialists in the treatment of eating disorders expressed concern that the program would either make light of or glamorize eating disorders. Others, however, felt that \"Starved\" might focus attention on eating disorders as a serious medical condition.", "The Fight (The Office) a reference to \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\", a make-over reality television program featuring five openly gay men dispensing fashion and style advise. \"The Fight\" originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 1, 2005. The episode was viewed by 7.9 million viewers and received a 3.9 rating/9% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 3.9% of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 9% of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. An encore presentation of the episode, on April 25, 2006, received", "South Park Is Gay! South Park Is Gay! \"South Park Is Gay!\" is the eighth episode of the seventh season and the 104th overall episode of the American animated television series \"South Park\". It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on October 22, 2003. In it, Kyle struggles to understand a new metrosexual fad that has sprung around the men and boys of South Park and is the only one who does not want to conform to it. The episode features a parody of the TV show, \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy\". The episode was written and directed by series", "Queer Eye However, few of these homegrown versions have proven as successful as the original, and most did not last long before cancellation. Licensing of the format is managed by NBCUniversal. NBCU licensed television producer David Hedges and his UK production house vialondon.tv to produce local versions for Europe, with Flextech's Living channel doing the same to produce the United Kingdom's version after a first attempt at a UK production by \"Making Time\" was abandoned. The first episode of the Finnish version, \"\", created controversy, not for the homosexual content but for the blatant product placement considered to be a transgression of", "Greenleaf (TV series) 2015. On September 9, 2015, \"The Book of Negroes\" writer and director Clement Virgo joined the series as executive producer and director of the pilot episode. Filming of the first season began in October, 2015 in Atlanta, and ended on March 24, 2016. On January 21, 2016, it was announced that series will debut with a two-night premiere at 10pm Tuesday, May 24, 2016 and 10pm Wednesday, May 25, and will regularly air on Wednesdays at 10pm. Later premiere was moved to June 21, 2016 and June 22, 2016. The world premiere of \"Greenleaf\" will be shown during Tribeca Film", "Brini Maxwell she redecorated every week. After Bravo passed on the show Briamonte, Sander and Termite Art pitched it to Stephen Schwartz and Heather Moran, newly named VP’s of programming for the Style network. The pitch resulted in an order for a 13-episode season The first season of The Brini Maxwell Show for the Style network was taped in the summer of 2003 with studio production taking place on the main stage at Unitel Studios on west 57th St. in New York City. Location shoots for the season were taped over a period of 6 months in New York City, Los Angeles", "The Cosby Show the fictional \"10 Stigwood Avenue\"). The earliest episodes of the series were videotaped at NBC's Brooklyn studios (now owned by JC Studios). The network later sold that building, and production moved to the Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens. Even though the show was set to take place in Brooklyn, the exterior façade was actually of a brownstone townhouse located in Manhattan's Greenwich Village at 10 Leroy Street/ 10 St. Luke's Place. The pilot was filmed in May 1984, with season one's production commencing in July 1984, and the first taping on August 1, 1984 (\"Goodbye Mr. Goldfish\"). During its original", "Tracey Takes On... Brooks who helped launch her American career and \"The Tracey Ullman Show\". \"Last year, I was 35 years old, and I thought, 'It's time to do it myself really. I thought, 'I know the premise, I know what I want to do...' I sat at the head of the table and made myself a boss.'\" Production on season 1 of \"Tracey Takes On...\" began in Los Angeles in 1995. Characters created for the former two specials were carried over into series: gay airline steward Trevor Ayliss, conservative British MP wife Virginia Bugge, British magazine editor Janie Pillsworth, Long Island housewife", "NY Ink NY Ink NY Ink is an American reality documentary television series that debuted June 2, 2011 on TLC. TLC renewed the series for a second season in August 2011, also noting that the series' first season averaged 1.3 million viewers per episode. Filming for the third season started in August 2012 with the season premiering on April 4, 2013. After \"Miami Ink\" (2004–2008) ended, tattoo artist Ami James moved to New York City in 2011 to fulfill his dream of opening a new tattoo studio, which he named the Wooster St. Social Club (now called Five Points Tattoo, located on", "Queer Eye Of the eventual Fab Five, only Kressley and Allen appeared. The culture, design and grooming roles were filled by James Hannaham, Charles Daboub, Jr., and Sam Spector, respectively. The pilot was delivered to Bravo during September 2002, and was well received in audience testing. Soon thereafter NBC purchased Bravo and ordered 12 episodes of the series. NBC promoted the show extensively, including billboard campaigns and print advertisements in national magazines. Kyan Douglas and Thom Filicia joined the show for these episodes, along with Blair Boone in the role of \"culture guy.\" Boone filmed two episodes (which were broadcast as the", "Arrested Development (season 1) featurette; The Museum of Television & Radio: Q&A with Creator Mitchell Hurwitz and the cast of \"Arrested Development\"; TV Land – \"\"Arrested Development\": The Making of a Future Classic\"; TV Land Awards — The Future Classic Award; Ron Howard Sneak Peek at Season 2; \"Arrested Development\" Promo – \"Blind\"; Easter Egg — Tobias Outtake. Arrested Development (season 1) The first season of the television comedy series \"Arrested Development\" aired between November 2, 2003 and June 6, 2004, on Fox in the United States. It consisted of 22 episodes, each running approximately 22 minutes in length. The first season was released", "Happy Endings (season 1) the 18-49 age demographic. Happy Endings (season 1) The first season of \"Happy Endings\", an American television series, premiered on April 13, 2011 and concluded on August 24 of the same year. ABC officially picked up the show on May 18, 2010, where it premiered on April as a mid-season replacement, <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> On January 19, 2010, ABC green-lit the pilot episode, which was written by David Caspe and directed by Anthony Russo and Joe Russo. The show is from production companies Sony Pictures Television, ABC Studios, and executive producer Jamie Tarses' FanFare Productions. Executive producers are Jamie Tarses, Jonathan Groff", "Girls (TV series) they become everyday topics.\" On the other hand, Catherine Scott of \"The Independent,\" writing about season one in 2012, asked, \"What’s there to celebrate for feminism when black, Hispanic or Asian women are totally written out of a series that’s supposedly set in one of the most diverse cities on earth? But also, what’s there to celebrate for feminism when a show depicts four entirely self-interested young women and a lead character having the most depressing, disempowered sexual relationships imaginable?\" \"Girls\" premiered on April 15, 2012, on HBO in the United States. The first three episodes were screened at the", "Jane the Virgin an extended trailer was released by The CW. On August 8, 2014, it was announced that \"White Collar\"s Bridget Regan and Azie Tesfai would join the series as respectively Rose, a former lawyer, and Detective Nadine Hansan, a police detective and rival to Dier's character. On August 10, 2014, TVLine announced that \"Melrose Place\" and \"Emily Owens, M.D.\" actor Michael Rady would join the series as Lachlan. Filming for season one commenced on July 28, 2014. The show is filmed on soundstages in Los Angeles and the pilot was filmed in Huntington Beach, California. On October 21, 2014, the show", "NY Ink 127 Lafayette Street. Open everyday from 12pm to 8pm). James was joined again by producers David Roma and Charlie Corwin to detail the proceedings in the shop on \"NY Ink\". The series intro is narrated by James: NY Ink NY Ink is an American reality documentary television series that debuted June 2, 2011 on TLC. TLC renewed the series for a second season in August 2011, also noting that the series' first season averaged 1.3 million viewers per episode. Filming for the third season started in August 2012 with the season premiering on April 4, 2013. After \"Miami Ink\" (2004–2008)", "Cloak & Dagger (season 1) total $42 million budget for the season in Louisiana, over an 86-day filming period. Filming on the pilot episode wrapped on February 24, 2017. Photography on the remainder of the season resumed in New Orleans on July 24. Filming locations included the Le Pavillon Hotel. The church where Tandy lives was filmed in a real church that was being renovated into a music venue during the pilot. By the time filming resumed for the season, the renovation had progress to where the series could no longer film at the location, so production designer Meghan Rogers rebuilt the set on a", "Queer Eye through the event itself, with the Five again performing a running commentary and the subject often expressing his deep gratitude to the Fab Five for their counsel. A final tip from each of the Fab Five, usually relating to one of the topics covered in the episode, plays just before the credits. Special episodes of \"Queer Eye\" that deviated from this formula included episodes in which the Fab Five journeyed outside the greater New York area, including shows filmed in England, Texas, and Las Vegas. In two episodes, the Fab Five made over homosexual men (both of which aired during", "Twisted (TV series) The pilot was greenlighted in August 2012, and was filmed three months later in New York City in October. In February 2013, ABC Family ordered the show as a series. On April 3, 2013, production commenced in Studio City. The 19-episode first season began with a sneak peek on March 19, 2013, before its official premiere on June 11, 2013, receiving 1.19 million viewers and 1.61 million viewers, respectively. The mid-season finale aired on August 27, 2013. The second half of the season aired from February 11, 2014 through April 1, 2014. A recap episode narrated by Ashton Moio titled", "Shortbus comprehensive documentary, \"Gifted and Challenged: the Making of \"Shortbus\"\" (Director/producer M. Sean Kaminsky), the vérité-style \"How to Shoot Sex: A Docu-Primer\", deleted scenes (including a dropped subplot about a character who is the Bush twins' personal assistant), as well as a filmmaker/cast audio commentary. The soundtrack was released on Conor Oberst's record label, Team Love, on November 7, 2006. Mitchell directed the music video for Bright Eyes' \"First Day of My Life\" (which featured \"Shortbus\" cast members Bitch, Daniela Sea, and Ray Rivas). The soundtrack was released in Europe on V2 with the Anita O'Day song replaced by \"What Matters", "The Goldbergs (season 1) The Goldbergs (season 1) The first season of the television comedy series \"The Goldbergs\" aired between September 24, 2013 and May 13, 2014, on ABC in the United States. It was produced by Adam F. Goldberg Productions, Happy Madison Productions and Sony Pictures Television with series creator Adam F. Goldberg serving as executive producer, alongside Doug Robinson, and Seth Gordon. The show explores the daily lives of the Goldberg Family; a family living in Jenkintown, Pennsylvania in the 1980s. Beverly Goldberg (Wendi McLendon-Covey), the overprotective matriarch of the Goldbergs is married to Murray Goldberg (Jeff Garlin). They are the parents", "Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood (season 1) service announcement about domestic violence, along with a statement by VH1 condemning Berg's actions. Friends and family Hip hop music industry <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> Several cast members had their music featured on the show and released singles to coincide with the airing of the episodes. Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood (season 1) The first season of the reality television series \"\" aired on VH1 from September 15, 2014 until December 9, 2014. It was primarily filmed in Los Angeles, California. It is executively produced by Mona Scott-Young for Monami Entertainment, Toby Barraud and Stefan Springman for Eastern TV, and Susan Levison, Nina", "The Odd Couple (1970 TV series) up with a multitude of situations for Felix and Oscar to be in, while staying true to the soul of the play, which always reverted to the human tensions between the two that created the comic situations. The show premiered September 24, 1970 on ABC. The first season was filmed using the single-camera method and a laugh track, utilizing the apartment set featured from the 1968 film version. Klugman and Randall expressed displeasure with using the laugh track without a live audience. Co-creator/executive producer Garry Marshall also disliked the practice; theatre veteran Randall particularly resented the process of having to", "Looking (TV series) Looking (TV series) Looking is an American comedy-drama television series about a group of gay friends living in San Francisco. It premiered on January 19, 2014, on HBO. The series' executive producers are David Marshall Grant, Sarah Condon, and Andrew Haigh. After two seasons, HBO announced that \"Looking\" would not be renewed for a third season, instead ordering a one-time special to serve as its series finale which aired on July 23, 2016 in the U.S. on HBO and on August 2, 2016 in the UK on Sky Atlantic. Patrick Murray, a 28/29-year-old video game designer, lives in San Francisco", "Guiding Light the Chelsea Studios. From soon before February 29, 2008, outdoor scenes were filmed on location in Peapack, New Jersey. The location filming coincided with another significant production change, as the series became the first American weekday soap opera to be recorded digitally. The production team chose to film with Canon XH-G1 HDV camcorders. Unlike the old production model with pedestal-style cameras and traditional three-sided sets, handheld cameras allowed producers to choose as many locations as they wished. During the daytime drama's 57th season on television and 72nd overall season, the series had changed its look to a more realistic experience", "I'm Gay and I'm Getting Married I'm Gay and I'm Getting Married \"I'm Gay and I'm Getting Married\" is the first episode from the fifth season of the MTV series \"True Life\" features two gay couples as they apply for marriage licenses and get married in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It originally aired on June 24, 2004. The episode follows a gay couple, Aaron Pike and Stephen, and a lesbian couple, Sara and Jessica, who legalize their unions by getting marriage licenses in Massachusetts after they became available on May 17, 2004. The couples, both from Massachusetts, go through all the wedding preparations, from the special", "Between (TV series) series was originally set for a season of six one-hour episodes, co-produced and financed by Citytv and Netflix as part of a collaboration deal. The series represents the first major television solo starring role for McCurdy. Production of season 1 began on October 20, 2014. Citytv aired an exclusive preview of the series during their broadcast of the 57th Annual Grammy Awards, and the series premiered on May 21, 2015. Jesse Carere was promoted to managing director for season 2. Production of season 2 began in January 2016, with six one-hour episodes like the first season. The series shot though", "Odd Mom Out Odd Mom Out Odd Mom Out is an American comedy television series created by and starring Jill Kargman. A 10-episode first season was ordered by the American cable television network Bravo. The series focuses on Jill Kargman playing a fictionalized version of herself, Jill Weber, who is forced to navigate the wealthy mommy clique that resides in New York's prestigious Upper East Side neighborhood. The principal photography commenced in September 2014; the show is filmed at various locations in New York City. The series premiered on June 8, 2015. On September 22, 2016, the network renewed \"Odd Mom Out\" for", "Bad Girls Club (season 1) was removed or left. <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> Bad Girls Club (season 1) The first season of the Bad Girls Club debuted on December 5, 2006, and concluded on April 24, 2007, followed by two specials. Production of the season began in June 2006, and was located in Los Angeles, California. In each season of the \"Bad Girls Club\", one or more girls is asked to leave the house either from violence, physical fighting, or leaves on their own accord, which then gives the producers a chance at a new \"bad girl\" who arrives to the house in a couple days to replace", "ICarly (season 1) by Michael Corcoran and is performed by Miranda Cosgrove, featuring Drake Bell. All episodes from this season were originally produced in the 14:9 format, then cropped to 4:3 for broadcast and 16:9 for widescreen release. The season began production in January 2007. <onlyinclude> </onlyinclude> ICarly (season 1) The first season of \"iCarly\" aired on Nickelodeon from September 8, 2007 to July 25, 2008. The season introduces Carly Shay (Miranda Cosgrove), Sam Puckett (Jennette McCurdy), Freddie Benson (Nathan Kress), and Spencer Shay (Jerry Trainor). This is notably the only season without a 1 hour special. The series was created and executive", "The Fosters (season 1) The Fosters (season 1) The first season of \"The Fosters\" premiered on June 3, 2013 and ended on March 24, 2014. The season consisted of 21 episodes and stars Teri Polo and Sherri Saum as Stef Foster and Lena Adams, an interracial lesbian couple, who foster a girl (Maia Mitchell) and her younger brother (Hayden Byerly) while also trying to juggle raising Latinx twin teenagers, (Cierra Ramirez and Jake T. Austin), and Stef's biological son (David Lambert). <onlyinclude> </onlyinclude> \"The Fosters\" was originally conceived by openly gay creators Bradley Bredeweg and Peter Paige who wanted to write a drama that", "Happy Endings (season 1) Happy Endings (season 1) The first season of \"Happy Endings\", an American television series, premiered on April 13, 2011 and concluded on August 24 of the same year. ABC officially picked up the show on May 18, 2010, where it premiered on April as a mid-season replacement, <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> On January 19, 2010, ABC green-lit the pilot episode, which was written by David Caspe and directed by Anthony Russo and Joe Russo. The show is from production companies Sony Pictures Television, ABC Studios, and executive producer Jamie Tarses' FanFare Productions. Executive producers are Jamie Tarses, Jonathan Groff and The Russo Brothers.", "Queer Eye by Jamelia from the soundtrack also went to number one on the Australian singles charts in the same week, and the theme song of the show, \"All Things (Just Keep Getting Better)\" by Widelife, went to the top 20 that month. \"All Things\" scored a 2005 Juno Award for \"Dance Recording of the Year\" for Widelife (Rachid Wehbi & Ian Nieman). Rob Eric was the executive producer for the album. A tie-in book titled \"Queer Eye for the Straight Guy: The Fab 5's Guide to Looking Better, Cooking Better, Dressing Better, Behaving Better and Living Better\" was published during 2004", "Harry's Law (season 1) Harry's Law (season 1) The first season of \"Harry's Law\", a legal dramedy created by David E. Kelley, premiered on January 17, 2011, and concluded on April 4, 2011. The season consisted of twelve hour-long episodes that aired Monday nights at 10pm on NBC. The series stars Kathy Bates as Harriett Korn, a patent lawyer who is fired from her firm when she is caught smoking cannabis in her office. She subsequently starts her own small firm in a storefront that used to be a shoe store where she defends clients charged with serious crimes. Despite mixed reaction from critics,", "Black-ish (season 1) Black-ish (season 1) The first season of \"Black-ish\" aired from September 24, 2014 to May 20, 2015. on ABC in the United States. It is produced by Khalabo Ink Society, Wilmore Films, Cinema Gypsy Productions and Principato-Young Entertainment, with creator Kenya Barris, who also served as executive producer alongside Anthony Anderson, Brian Dobbins, Jonathon Groff and Helen Sugland. The series revolves around Dre, portrayed by Anthony Anderson, a family man who struggles with finding his cultural identity while raising his kids in a white neighborhood. He lives with his wife, Bow (Tracee Ellis Ross) and his kids Zoey (Yara Shahidi),", "Tan France Tan France Tanweer Wasim \"Tan\" France (né Safdar; ; born 20 April 1983) is an English fashion designer and television personality. He is currently the fashion expert for the Netflix series \"Queer Eye\". France was born and raised in Doncaster, South Yorkshire, England to Punjabi Pakistani parents. France commented on how he was raised in a very strict Asian household and how his sexuality was viewed negatively in his upbringing. France's interest in fashion began at a young age, inspired by the clothing that was made in his grandparents' factory for Disney. He attended Hall Cross School and later Doncaster" ]

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[ "Pam Beesly in hand-drawn works. In \"Two Weeks\", Pam agrees to become Michael's first saleswoman in his not-yet-established company, The Michael Scott Paper Co., as a supportive Jim looks on. When David Wallace makes an offer to buy the company Michael negotiates in order to get their jobs at Dunder Mifflin back instead, including adding Pam to the sales team. In \"Company Picnic\", Pam, after dominating the company volleyball tournament, injures her ankle during a game and is taken to the hospital against her wishes. At the hospital, the camera crew is stationed outside an exam room while a doctor updates Jim" ]

[ "Jim Halpert the pregnancy is confirmed in the Season 6 premiere, \"Gossip\". Jim is promoted to Regional Co-Manager, alongside Michael, in \"The Meeting.\" His promotion causes problems in the office as the staff doesn't take him seriously and he is often in a power struggle with Michael. When Dunder Mifflin files for bankruptcy and is taken over by Sabre, a company that sells printers, Jim chooses to become a salesman again (largely because Sabre's uncapped commission means a huge pay increase). Jim and Pam marry in the highly anticipated, hour-long episode, \"Niagara\". When their guests' craziness threatens to ruin the wedding day,", "Pam Beesly and Pam on her condition. There is no audio as the camera shows Jim and Pam embrace, looking shocked and ecstatic. It is implied that she is pregnant and is confirmed in the Season 6 premiere, \"Gossip\". Jim and Pam marry early in the season, at Niagara Falls, during the highly anticipated, hour long episode, \"Niagara\". The ending of the episode, in which their co-workers dance down the aisle, is an imitation of a viral YouTube video — JK Wedding Entrance Dance. Following the wedding, a multi-episode story arc begins in which it is revealed that Michael hooked up with", "The Delivery (The Office) part two is written by Charlie Grandy and directed by Harold Ramis. The episode received mixed reviews from critics and came first in its time slot helping NBC be third highest rated network of the night. Pam (Jenna Fischer) and Jim (John Krasinski) both acquire sales while making small talk about their baby's upcoming birth. Dwight (Rainn Wilson) wants to do the same and asks Angela (Angela Kinsey) to have a baby with him. Angela is initially excited, but gets annoyed with Dwight making a parenting contract with absurd demands he wants her to agree to. Michael (Steve Carell) anxiously", "Pam Beesly airport in time and is the last person to see Michael before he leaves. At the beginning of Season 8, Pam is revealed to be pregnant with her and Jim's second child, Philip Halpert. The child coincided with Jenna Fischer's actual pregnancy. She begins her maternity leave after \"Gettysburg\". Pam returns in \"Jury Duty\", where she and Jim bring Cece and Phillip into the office. In both \"Tallahassee\" and \"Test the Store\" Pam is shown helping, and developing her friendship with Andy. Early in season 9, Jim is restless about his life in Scranton and helps a friend start a", "Baby Shower process of birth with a watermelon, as Michael (Steve Carell) wants to be prepared for Jan's (Melora Hardin) baby. The Party Planning Committee is planning Jan's baby shower, and collects money for a present, to which many employees are reluctant to donate. Angela (Angela Kinsey) makes a \"guess whose baby picture\" game for the shower, and she is angered when Andy (Ed Helms) unintentionally makes fun of her picture. Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam (Jenna Fischer) feel awkward trying to communicate with each other throughout the day, with Pam telling the documentary crew that the two of them were having", "The Delivery (The Office) waits for Pam and Jim's baby to be born; Jim urges Pam to let him take her to the hospital, but Pam would rather wait until midnight like she and Jim wanted to do initially (arriving after midnight means a longer hospital stay under the terms of their health insurance). She finds comfort in watching the rest of the office performing absurd activities to distract her from the pain. When Jim reaches his breaking point, Pam reveals that their baby is a girl, which calms Jim's nerves a bit, but then she tells him that her water broke. Since Pam", "Pam Beesly season's 4th and 5th episodes (hour long), a feat considered noteworthy by many television critics, as bringing together the two lead love interests in a television series is often thought to be a risky venture. Their child is born in the second half of the season, during another hour long, \"The Delivery\". Pam and Jim's second child is born during season 8. In season 9, their marriage becomes strained when Jim takes up a second job in Philadelphia. They ultimately decide to leave Dunder Mifflin together so Jim can pursue his dream job. When the series begins, Pam is engaged", "Stanley Hudson \"Scott's Tots\", Stanley laughs out loud at Michael's suffering. During the office Christmas party, Phyllis as Santa asks if he's been a good boy, Stanley deadpans that he has only for Michael to blurt out a reference to his affair. In \"The Delivery\", Stanley shows that he cares very little about Pam being pregnant, as when she goes in labor and Jim and Michael rush her into the elevator, Stanley notices it is 5:00 and makes them hold the elevator for him. In \"New Leads\", Stanley, along with the rest of the sales staff, lets Sabre's new \"sales is king\"", "Pam Beesly Pam's mother the night of the wedding. The two break up during \"Double Date\", an episode that ends with Pam slapping Michael in response to his actions. In \"The Delivery\" of Season 6, Pam and Jim have their first child, a daughter named Cecelia Marie Halpert. Jenna Fischer was granted naming rights by show producers, and chose to name her after her own niece. In \"Counseling\", Pam feels inadequate about her poor performance in sales and tricks Gabe into promoting her to a phony new salaried position called office administrator. In \"China\", Pam tries to use her authority as office", "Gossip (The Office) he confesses that he created the rumors to conceal the one true rumor. Andy fears that it might be the one about him. The employees urge Michael to tell them which one is true, but just as Michael is about to give in, Jim announces that Pam is actually pregnant to save Stanley. Michael denies it, but Pam shows her baby's ultrasound picture to prove it. Later, while Michael discusses her pregnancy with Jim and Pam in his office, Stanley's wife Teri returns Michael's call from earlier. He picks up the phone with the intention of making an excuse for", "Jim Halpert they run off and are privately married on the \"Maid of the Mist\" before returning to take part in their planned church wedding. Their daughter, Cecelia Marie Halpert (named after Jenna Fischer's niece who was born the day they shot \"The Delivery\") is born in another hour-long episode several months later, in \"The Delivery\". In season 7, some of Jim's vulnerabilities are displayed. Jim displays some mild jealousy when he meets Danny Cordray, a superior paper salesman who went on a few dates with Pam while he was in Stamford. In \"Costume Contest\", after hearing that Danny never called Pam", "Dwight Schrute Delivery\", Dwight shows more signs of his begrudging friendship with Jim and Pam during Pam's pregnancy. In the episode, he is sent to the Halperts' house to retrieve Pam's iPod, while they are at the hospital. Instead of finding the iPod and bringing it back to her, Dwight completely rebuilds and repaints their kitchen, after discovering mold. He also advises Pam on how to keep her daughter, Cece, from crying, during \"Viewing Party\", by relating his child rearing experiences. Dwight's odd friendship with Pam is explored again in \"Doomsday\". At this point, Pam is the only one in the office", "The Office (U.S. season 8) and Dan Greaney. The season also saw the directorial debuts of cast members Ed Helms and Brian Baumgartner; Helms directed the episode \"Christmas Wishes\", and Baumgartner directed \"After Hours\". The series was renewed for an eighth season on March 17, 2011, began filming on July 25, 2011, and the season concluded filming on March 9, 2012. Jenna Fischer's pregnancy was written into the show, and Pam was again pregnant at the start of the season with a boy as she was in real life. Unlike the sixth season, there was no episode focusing on the baby's birth; it was instead", "The Delivery (The Office) time to leave for the hospital). Pam finally acquiesces and Michael drives her and Jim to the hospital, with Dwight \"escorting\" them. Pam realizes she has forgotten her iPod with her desired birth music on it so they request that Dwight retrieve it from their house, asking that he not \"touch anything\". After 19 hours of labor Cecelia Marie Halpert is born at 1:21 pm, weighing in at 7 lbs 2oz. Pam's breastfeeding does not go well, and though a male lactation consultant (Lee Kirk, Jenna Fischer's husband, and at that time Jenna's fiance) is summoned to provide apparently successful", "PDA (The Office) Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) have too much champagne during lunch, causing complications when they have to return to work. During the PDA meeting, Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) mentions a list of people who have had sex in the workplace, and Jim and Pam are not mentioned. Due to their intoxication, they agree to give it a try, but they have a hard time finding a place to do it, from hidden places in the warehouse to Ryan Howard's (B. J. Novak) closet. They eventually return to their desks. The two tell the interviewers that they left", "Double Date (The Office) when Michael discovers just how old Helene is turning, and breaks up with her. Meanwhile, Dwight offers to do nice things for all the members of the office so that they will owe him a specific favor, but Andy ruins his plans. Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam (Jenna Fischer) have constantly tried to avoid social contact with Michael (Steve Carell) and Helene (Linda Purl), Pam's mother. However, Pam relents on the occasion of Helene's birthday, saying there is \"no way out.\" Pam is disgusted that Michael picked a restaurant that she likes (she snaps that maybe Michael will start dating", "Niagara (The Office) and after fumbling through several weak excuses Jim finally admits that Pam is pregnant. Meemaw then decides not to attend the wedding out of moral outrage. Michael later visits Meemaw in her hotel room. Despite his indelicate approach to the subject of sex, he establishes an instant rapport with Meemaw and convinces her to attend the wedding. Andy hosts a dance party in his room later that night, with the office staff attending. Andy punctures his scrotum trying to do a split. The guests rouse Pam, the only sober person, to take him to the hospital. Pam reluctantly agrees, but", "Pam's Replacement Lindsey Broad, and her character was described as \"Pam’s competent and likable pal,\" Cathy. She appeared in a recurring role in the eighth season. The episode also relates to Pam's pregnancy. Jenna Fischer was actually pregnant and her pregnancy was written into the series with Pam and Jim having their second baby. The man who played Robert's skilled drummer friend is Steve Moore, better known as \"The Mad Drummer\" for the viral video he featured in, \"This drummer is at the wrong gig\". In its original American broadcast, \"Pam's Replacement\" was viewed by an estimated 5.96 million viewers and received", "Mrs. California recurring role for the season. Due to Jenna Fischer's actual pregnancy Pam did not appear in the episode. The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode. Notable cut scenes include more office workers joining Dwight's gym, Andy and Jim trying to get out of Mr. and Mrs. California's difficulties, and more scenes of Jim running away. Ryan mentions his desire to found the \"Dream for a Wish Foundation,\" a play on the actual Make-A-Wish Foundation. During Dwight and Darryl's gym scenes, Darryl sardonically corrects Dwight by telling him that the pronunciation for LeBron James is", "The Farm (The Office) rude remarks masked as apologies and hands out store-bought cupcakes. Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) argues that they should not eat the cupcakes, to spite Packer. She remains adamant on this point even after Packer leaves, but once Pam goes home the remaining employees eat the cupcakes. Packer reveals to the documentary crew that he spiked the cupcakes with drugs, supposedly as revenge for getting him fired (though none of the employees present save Nellie had anything to do with his being fired). He then visits Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) and Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson) at Athlead in Philadelphia, pulling the", "Work Bus Tate) asks for Andy's (Ed Helms) help in adopting a baby. Jim tries to make Pam (Jenna Fischer) happy with some pie. \"Work Bus\" received mostly positive reviews from television critics. Many praised the episode's humor and the dynamic between Jim and Pam, and Jim and Dwight. Despite this, Andy's characterization throughout the episode was mainly criticized. \"Work Bus\" was viewed by 4.28 million viewers and received a 2.1/6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, ranking third in its timeslot. \"The Office\" also ranked as the highest-rated NBC series of the night. When Jim Halpert", "Work Bus a local pie stand to please Pam. Dwight eventually gets angry and climbs onto the roof of the bus, refusing to drive any further. Pam suspects something else is wrong and asks Jim to talk to him. Jim learns that Dwight thought his magnetic power prank was real as he suspects he is infertile, which he has convinced himself explains why he was not the father of Angela Martin's (Angela Kinsey) baby. Jim tells Dwight he is like a father to the entire office, and Dwight then drives everyone to the pie stand where they have a great finish to", "Garden Party (The Office) about his outburst, and when Andy admits to trying to win his father's affection, he reacts with annoyance. This conversation is overheard by the other staff on the baby monitor Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) brought for their daughter, and Pam quickly turns off the monitor to let Andy save face. Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson) and Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez) confide to the camera that they now understand why Andy feels he needs to prove himself to everyone. After his family leaves, a dejected Andy, feeling unwanted by his family and co-workers, says goodbye to the office", "Niagara (The Office) episode revolves around the wedding of Jim and Pam at Niagara Falls. Not all goes smoothly when Jim accidentally reveals Pam's pregnancy to all the guests, including Pam's very old-fashioned grandmother, and Andy injures his scrotum while dancing. Meanwhile, Michael and Dwight both try to hook up with women, with mixed results. The episode was met with positive reviews from critics and fans. Although not all television critics reacted positively to Andy's dancing injury sub-plot, \"Niagara\" has nonetheless come to be considered a classic episode of the series. In a poll conducted by \"OfficeTally\", the episode was named the second", "Pam's Replacement take her place while she is on maternity leave, and enlists Dwight Schrute's (Rainn Wilson) support when she tries to show that Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) finds her replacement attractive. Meanwhile, Robert California (James Spader) surprises Andy Bernard (Ed Helms), Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner), and Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson) when he requests to join their band. \"Pam's Replacement\" relates to Pam's pregnancy; Fischer was actually pregnant and her pregnancy was written into the series with Pam and Jim having their second baby. The episode received mixed reviews from critics. According to Nielsen Media Research, the episode received 5.96 million viewers", "Pam's Replacement that she is, if anything, more sexually attractive than before she was pregnant. Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson), however, argues that sexual attractiveness is a mostly objective quality and pregnant women cannot be sexually attractive, and accuses the others of lying to spare Pam's feelings. Troubled by Dwight's comments, Pam asks her husband Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) if he finds the new temp attractive. Not wanting to upset his wife, Jim tells her that he does not find her replacement attractive, even objectively. Though Jim gives no sign of unease, Pam is convinced that he is lying to her, and enlists", "Pam's Replacement that the episode needed a stronger A-plot writing that the plots \"felt like a meal made up of two tasty side dishes\". She gave it a 7 out of 10. Hanna Lawrence of \"Hollywood.com\" praised the episode for being believable and for showing things that happen in real life. She also praised the Jim–Pam plot for showcasing the couple as not completely \"perfect\". She called the band subplot \"weak\". Pam's Replacement \"Pam's Replacement\" is the seventh episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series \"The Office\", and the show's 159th episode overall. The episode aired on NBC", "Christmas Wishes (The Office) directed by cast member Ed Helms, making his directorial debut. The episode also marks the fourth appearance of Lindsey Broad who plays Cathy, Pam's replacement during her maternity leave. She appeared in a recurring role for the season and she initially appeared in \"Pam's Replacement\". Due to Jenna Fischer's actual pregnancy, Pam did not appear in the episode. The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode. Notable cut scenes include shoots of several of the staff member's Christmas wishes being revealed, Dwight and Jim's pranks start turning on Cathy, and Meredith hitting on a newly", "Jim Halpert the background music for the video that he shows to Pam of their past history on the documentary in the episode \"A.A.R.M.\" Apparently, he is of Scottish descent, as in \"Niagara\", his father can be seen wearing a kilt to Jim's wedding to Pam. In the episode \"Weight Loss\", it is revealed that his screen name for AIM is JIM9334. Like his father, Jim suffers from high blood pressure, as revealed in the episode \"Pam's Replacement.\" Though Jim loves to play pranks on Dwight, he is shown to have some things in common with his nemesis, such as a knowledge", "Christening (The Office) a 3.8 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49, marking a slight drop in the ratings when compared to the previous week. The episode received mixed reviews from critics; while a few enjoyed the episode, several felt that the main story was unfunny and forced. Cindy White of IGN even called it one of the worst episodes of \"The Office\" to air. Pam (Jenna Fischer) and Jim Halpert's (John Krasinski) daughter CeCe is being christened, and Michael Scott (Steve Carell) has invited all the members of the office to the service, much to their disappointment. During the", "The Secret (The Office) that Michael will not reveal Jim's feelings for Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer). Meanwhile, Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez) takes a \"sick day\" and Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) investigates whether he is actually sick. \"The Secret\" was written in roughly 26 hours and was the fastest episode written for the series at the time. The title for the episode is purposely vague and refers to Jim's hidden feelings for Pam, Dwight and Angela's relationship, and Oscar's homosexuality. The shots at the Hooters restaurant were filmed relatively early in the day, and a majority of the scenes were improvised by Carell. \"The Secret\"", "Drug Testing (The Office) for the office in an attempt to cast suspicion off himself and excuse himself from the drug test. When Dwight informs him there is no getting out of the test, he pressures Dwight for a cup of his \"clean\" urine, which he uses to pass the drug test. Deeming this a violation of his oath as sheriff deputy, Dwight turns in his badge. Michael feels guilty, so he makes Dwight an \"Honorary Security Advisor\" for Dunder Mifflin Scranton. When Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) and Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) say the same thing simultaneously, Pam calls \"jinx\", meaning Jim cannot talk", "The List (The Office) joining the cast, \"The List\" also revealed that Andy (portrayed by Ed Helms) would ascend to the position of manager; the series' executive Producer and showrunner Paul Lieberstein revealed this information to Ed Helms during lunch in June. Prior to their decision, the writers had gone through the main contenders for the job, Darryl, Dwight and Andy, and concluded that Andy would be the best choice. Finally, this episode opens with the announcement that Pam is pregnant with her second child. Pam's pregnancy was written into the show so as to correspond with Jenna Fischer's real-life pregnancy. The Season Eight", "Crime Aid Crime Aid \"Crime Aid\" is the fifth episode of the fifth season of the television series \"The Office\", and the show's seventy-seventh episode overall. The episode aired in the United States on October 23, 2008 on NBC. In this episode, Michael and Holly allow the office to be robbed after having sex in the office twice and forgetting to lock the door, so Michael organizes an auction to raise money. Meanwhile, Dwight insists that Angela make a decision between him and Andy. Pam (Jenna Fischer) finds that living in New York has become too expensive. Michael (Steve Carell) helps her", "Pam Beesly that he will propose to Pam that evening. Just as Jim is preparing to propose, however, Andy Bernard stands up and makes his own impromptu proposal to Angela. Having had his thunder stolen by Andy, Jim reluctantly puts the ring back in his jacket pocket, leaving Pam visibly disappointed as she was expecting Jim to propose that night. In the Season 5 premiere, \"Weight Loss\", Pam begins her three-month course at the Pratt Institute. In this episode, Jim proposes in the pouring rain at a rest stop, saying that he \"can't wait\". In \"Business Trip\", Pam learns that she is", "Creed Bratton (character) confused, Creed can be seen becoming emotional. In \"Double Date\", when Pam tries to avoid the launch with Micheal and his Mom by faking to have lost a load of paper, Creed appears worried. When Jim announces that everything is fine, Creed says that \"Something is up\" and \"That load was never supposed to arrive\" In \"Murder\", Creed shows up late to work and steps in during the middle of the office's murder mystery game. When Michael tells him that they have discovered a murder and he is a suspect, Creed steps out under the guise of settling at his", "Paper Airplane (The Office) airplane contest. Meanwhile, Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) prepares for a potential acting job, and Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) utilize new skills that they learned in couples' counseling. The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics; some felt that the episode was humorous, whereas others were critical of the main plot involving Pam and Jim. The episode was viewed by 3.25 million viewers and received a 1.7/5 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, giving it the lowest viewership rating of any episode of \"The Office\". \"Paper Airplane\" ranked fourth in its timeslot, but", "Danny Messer Danny learns that Lindsay is pregnant with his child in episode 509, \"The Box\". . In \"The Box,\" much of the episode is shown from Danny's point of view and details his reaction to Lindsay's admission of her pregnancy and her remarks that she \"knows him\" and does not expect anything from him. Though he is scared of the changes that Lindsay's pregnancy will bring, by the end of the episode, he makes the decision to stand by Lindsay, figuratively (and literally, in context). In episode 510, \"The Triangle,\" Danny expresses concern over the baby's health and asks Lindsay to", "The Delivery (The Office) and Kevin (Brian Baumgartner) have gotten hungry at the same times, they have enjoyed regular meals together, and Kevin prepares her one final \"Ultra Feast\" before she gives birth. When the contractions appear to become too extreme, Jim, Michael, and Kevin all think it is time for her to go to the hospital. Pam still refuses, and finally breaks down admitting she is too scared to give birth. Jim initially assures her that everything will be all right, but goes into a panic when he's informed she is now at 2 minutes in between contractions (5–7 minutes is the suggested", "Hot Girl (The Office) (Jenna Fischer) and Jim (John Krasinski) use the situation to play yet another prank on Dwight (Rainn Wilson). \"Hot Girl\" received mostly positive reviews from critics. According to Nielsen Media Research, the episode received 4.8 million viewers and received a 2.3 rating/5% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. As such, \"Hot Girl\" is currently one of the lowest-rated episodes and the second-lowest-rated season finale of \"The Office\", after the eighth season finale \"Free Family Portrait Studio\". Corporate informs Michael Scott (Steve Carell) that an incentive program has been set up where the top Dunder Mifflin sales", "Baby Shower Baby Shower \"Baby Shower\" is the fourth episode of the fifth season of the television series \"The Office\", and the show's seventy-sixth episode overall. The episode aired in the United States on October 16, 2008 on NBC. In this episode, Michael's ex-girlfriend Jan Levinson comes to the office for a baby shower, although she has already given birth, to her daughter Astrid. Her arrival causes Michael to be rude to his love interest Holly in order to fool Jan and causes Dwight to spend most of his day testing out Jan's expensive new stroller. Dwight (Rainn Wilson) acts out the", "Lecture Circuit not ready to face his ex-girlfriend Holly, who works there. They first visit the Utica branch, where former Scranton employee Karen (Rashida Jones) is now regional manager. Pam, who is engaged to Karen's ex-boyfriend Jim (John Krasinski), fears the encounter will be awkward. But Karen is now married and pregnant, and the two get along very well – when Pam reveals her and Jim's engagement, Karen even offers genuine congratulations. Michael's lecture in Utica proves to be a disaster when he tries to teach the employees a trick for how to memorize names and ends up insulting everybody. Nevertheless, Pam", "Pam's Replacement and received a 3.0 rating/7% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 marking a slight drop in the ratings from the previous episode, \"Doomsday\". Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) trains a temporary worker Cathy Simms (Lindsey Broad) so that she can take her place when she goes on maternity leave. In the break room, the other workers discuss how attractive Cathy is and how excited they are to have her in the office. Pam, being well into her pregnancy, is sensitive about her looks and so becomes offended by their discussion. Most of them respond by assuring Pam", "Lice (The Office) its timeslot. The episode ultimately ranked as the highest-rated NBC series of the night. Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) finds managing her household without her husband Jim (John Krasinski) to be more difficult than anticipated, as she struggles with duties such as taking out the trash. Her already frazzled condition worsens when she finds lice on her daughter CeCe, leaving her no choice but to wash all the clothing in the house. At work the next day, she notices Meredith Palmer (Kate Flannery) frantically scratching her head, and realizes she may have transferred the lice from CeCe to the office. She", "Casino Night which Michael Scott (Carell) inadvertently invites two dates. Meanwhile, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) decides to transfer to Dunder Mifflin's Stamford branch and reveals to Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) his feelings for her. The episode was the first of the series to run as a \"supersized\" episode, featuring twenty-eight minutes and twenty seconds of content rather than the standard twenty minutes and thirty seconds. In addition, the episode was the first of the series to be written by Carell; he had suggested the idea for the episode to executive producer Greg Daniels, who thoroughly enjoyed the idea and green lit the", "Jim Halpert then a Subaru Outback. He mentions in \"Niagara\" that he has been able to drive a standard transmission since high school. In \"Goodbye, Toby\", Jim shows his happiness and support for Pam getting into the Pratt Institute, where she will be for the next three months. He plans to propose at Toby's going away party, until Andy proposes in front of everybody to Angela, who accepts. Jim puts his ring back in his pocket and postpones the engagement. Instead, he proposes during the season 5 premiere, \"Weight Loss\", during a rainy last minute lunch date at an Interstate rest stop", "Jim Halpert Pam is describing her lack of satisfaction with the current state of her relationship with Jim. Jim then suddenly interrupts the session to ask her to dinner, much to her surprise. She becomes flustered and overjoyed, and accepts the invitation. Jim replies \"All right. Then... it's a date,\" and leaves abruptly. Pam turns back to the camera, smiling, only to ask, \"What was the question?\" In a webisode titled \"Office Summer Vacation\", found on NBC's website, Karen states that Jim \"dumped my ass\" and left her crying at a fountain. In the season premiere, \"Fun Run\", Pam and Jim reveal", "Pool Party (The Office) also marks the sixth appearance of Lindsey Broad, who plays Cathy, Pam's replacement during her maternity leave. Due to Jenna Fischer's actual pregnancy, Pam did not appear in the episode. The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode. Notable cut scenes include Erin and Dwight taking turns suggestively massaging and stretching each other, Erin talking to the camera about her convoluted relationship with Andy, and Robert shows his guests his \"shame\" room. The songs \"Big White Elephant\" and \"Model Homes\" by the band In-Flight Safety were featured during scenes at the party. The song \"Can't", "Special Project the previous episode which he called \"promising\". He wrote that the jokes and story of the episode went \"nowhere\" and he criticized the episode for its loud, \"laugh-track-worthy\" jokes compared to the early seasons of the series that featured more subtle humor. Despite the mostly negative review, he wrote that he hoped the episode would lead to a better storyline in the following episodes. The ending scene featuring Cathy's phone conversation about Jim and Pam's marriage has also received significant attention. Cindy White criticized the suggestion that Cathy will break Jim and Pam, calling it a \"cheap plow\" and that", "The Convention (The Office) for being superior to him, tries to one-up both Jim and Josh at every opportunity. Meanwhile, Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling) sets up Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) on a double date with one of her friends which goes nowhere. Toby Flenderson's (Paul Lieberstein) interest in Pam is piqued, beginning an unrequited crush on his part. The first draft of the script included a scene suggesting that Angela was pregnant with Dwight's child, but this was cut by showrunner Greg Daniels. Initially, there were plans for the cast members from the British version of \"The Office\" to appear in this episode, but", "A.A.R.M. of past episodes of the series, with scenes mimicking unique shots in both the third season installment \"Gay Witch Hunt\" and the sixth season episode \"The Delivery\". The episode was also viewed by 4.56 million viewers and received a 2.3/6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, ranking third in its timeslot, making it the highest-rated episode of the season since the earlier entry \"The Boat\". \"A.A.R.M.\" received largely positive reviews from critics. The interaction between Jim, Pam, and Dwight received particular praise; many were particularly pleased with the call-back to \"Christmas Party\". Andy's audition subplot,", "Baby Shower 10. Baby Shower \"Baby Shower\" is the fourth episode of the fifth season of the television series \"The Office\", and the show's seventy-sixth episode overall. The episode aired in the United States on October 16, 2008 on NBC. In this episode, Michael's ex-girlfriend Jan Levinson comes to the office for a baby shower, although she has already given birth, to her daughter Astrid. Her arrival causes Michael to be rude to his love interest Holly in order to fool Jan and causes Dwight to spend most of his day testing out Jan's expensive new stroller. Dwight (Rainn Wilson) acts out", "Health Care (The Office) Pam (Jenna Fischer) and Jim (John Krasinski) make up fake diseases, much to Dwight's chagrin. In an attempt to appease them, Michael promises the entire office a surprise and then spends the rest of the day scrambling to come through with his promise. The employees wait for Michael's surprise, which he awkwardly never delivers. Jenna Fischer later called \"Health Care\" her favorite season one episode. During one particular scene, Rainn Wilson kept improvising new fake diseases. The laughter that resulted in his ad-libs was not scripted, as they were in fact the cast's genuine reaction to Wilson's fake diseases. The", "Blood Drive (The Office) Blood Drive (The Office) \"Blood Drive\" is the eighteenth episode of the fifth season of the American comedy television series \"The Office\", and the 90th overall episode of the series. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 5, 2009. In the episode, a lonely Michael strikes up a pleasant conversation with a woman while giving blood, but passes out before he can learn her name. He holds a Valentine's Day singles party at the Dunder Mifflin office with the hopes of meeting her. Meanwhile, Jim and Pam go on an awkward double date with Phyllis and", "Goodbye, Toby after discovering he planned on giving him a rock for a going away gift. Dwight, however, continues the hazing, telling Holly that Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner) is mentally challenged, and putting a raccoon in her car. When Michael catches Dwight trying to release a raccoon into Holly's car, he loudly proclaims his esteem for Holly. Holly gives special attention to Kevin throughout the episode due to her belief that he is mentally challenged, but Kevin believes her attention is a sexual interest in him. Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) reveals that she is spending the summer studying graphic design at Pratt", "Pam Beesly Dunder Mifflin \"Casino Night\" she turns him down. She later talks to her mom on the phone and says Jim is her best friend (though she doesn't say his name), and says \"Yeah, I think I am\" to an unheard question. She is interrupted by Jim, who enters and kisses her; she responds by kissing back. Season three marks a turning point for Pam's character: she gains self-confidence and appears less passive and more self-assured as the season progresses. In \"Gay Witch Hunt,\" the season's opener, it is revealed that Pam got cold feet before her wedding and did not", "Son of a Preacher Man episode of the American series \"The Office\" titled \"Baby Shower\", Jan Levinson, played by Melora Hardin, is filmed singing \"Son of a Preacher Man\" as a lullaby to her newborn daughter Astrid. Later in the same episode, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) describes the bizarre scene to his fiancée, Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer), noting that the song is about \"losing your virginity next to a church.\" Samples from \"Son of a Preacher Man\" were used on Cypress Hill's \"Hits from the Bong\" on their album \"Black Sunday\". Melissa Manchester has paid tribute to Dusty Springfield by performing the song live in", "The Dundies of the office. But the night does not turn out as he plans, and Michael ends up angering or humiliating the majority of the office staff. Meanwhile, after Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) argues with her fiancé and becomes obviously intoxicated, she kisses Jim Halpert (John Krasinski). \"The Dundies\" was the second episode of the series directed by Greg Daniels. Many of the scenes at the Chili's had to be changed so the restaurant would allow filming, most notably the scenes where Pam falls over. \"The Dundies\" was viewed by an estimated 9.0 million viewers and received a 4.3/10% rating share", "Pam Beesly witnesses Pam kissing Jim Halpert in the break room, which prompts him to issue a memo about public displays of affection in the workplace. Later, when Jim and Pam admit they are dating and ask to fill out a disclosure form, he hesitates to give them a form saying they should wait and see. In \"Night Out\", Toby awkwardly rubs her knee while they share a laugh (and while Jim sits just on her other side), and the rest of the office watches in horror. In his mortification, Toby immediately announces that he is moving to Costa Rica before jumping", "Business Ethics (The Office) Pam (Jenna Fischer) is talking to Jim (John Krasinski) on the phone, and Jim reluctantly reveals their engagement to the office, to no congratulations, aside from a surprised reaction from Oscar, who had assumed they were already engaged, and much insulting commentary from everyone else. Michael (Steve Carell), however, is elated by the news and tackles Jim with a flying hug when he hears the news. Following Ryan's (B. J. Novak) recent actions, corporate wants Holly (Amy Ryan) to set up a seminar regarding business ethics, where Michael invites the office to tell her about their personal time-theft stories without", "Todd Packer (The Office) stuck as \"the American version of Finchy\" from the original British series, and as such, did not fit into the show's dynamics. Sepinwall was further critical of the main story, calling it \"flat and uncomfortable\". However, he enjoyed the later part of Pam and Andy's storyline, as well as Jim and Dwight teaming up to beat Packer. Todd Packer (The Office) \"Todd Packer\" is the eighteenth episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series \"The Office\", and the show's 144th episode overall. It originally aired on NBC on February 24, 2011. The episode was written by Amelie", "Paper Airplane (The Office) down from shooting a scene using an eye wash, since he has an aversion towards anything being shot into his eye. However, Carla threatens to have him blacklisted if he does not go through with the scene. Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson), who came along as friendly support, gives Andy the confidence to shoot the scene, and in the end Andy even insists on doing two takes. In couples' counseling, Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) have been told to express appreciation for the things their spouse does for them, be frank about things that make them unhappy, and", "Christening (The Office) Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In the episode, Pam (Jenna Fischer) and Jim Halpert's (John Krasinski) baby, CeCe, is christened and Michael Scott (Steve Carell) invites the entire office to celebrate. Michael joins a church group of high school graduates on a mission to Mexico, with Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) following along to impress Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper). Since the seventh season of \"The Office\" focused on Michael's departure, the producers wanted to showcase the ensemble cast in various episodes; \"Christening\" dealt with Pam and Jim. The episode was watched by 7.65 million viewers and received", "The List (The Office) means; and Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) is \"easily the most creative and kind person [he has] ever worked with\". Andy concedes to Robert that putting Gabe Lewis (Zach Woods) in the losers' column was \"astute\". He then demands the Columbus half day and exits, prompting a respecting smile from Robert. Though the office annually gets the half day in any case, they happily wish him good evening as they depart, and Andy looks very pleased with his work as the boss. Pam is pregnant with her and Jim's second child (revealed to be a boy) and is emotional, easily brought", "Viewing Party handle the fact that the office workers think of Gabe as their boss instead of him. Growing more jealous of Gabe and Erin's relationship, Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) goes to extremes in order to impress her. Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) helps Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) with CeCe, much to her husband Jim's (John Krasinski) chagrin. The episode featured several direct references to the Fox series \"Glee\", in addition to various other cultural references. \"Viewing Party\" was viewed by 7.15 million viewers and received a 3.6 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49, marking a decrease in the", "Gossip (The Office) phone call with Stanley's wife. Dan Hopper said of the episode, \"Season six is off to an appropriately awkward start.\" \"Philadelphia Examiner\" writer Matt Carter gave the episode an 8.9 out of 10 score. Carter said the episode was \"proof that there is still a ton of life left in these characters\", and particularly enjoyed the way Jim and Pam stood up for Stanley by revealing the truth about Pam's pregnancy. Dan Phillips of \"IGN\" said the episode included several \"amusing asides and laugh-out-loud moments\", particularly from supporting characters Creed, Kevin and Andy. He also praises the episode's \"day in", "Creed Bratton (character) he believed was dressed as Edward James Olmos (though he actually wore no costume and said he was actually dressed as a \"rational consumer\", causing a plurality of people to vote for him thinking he could never win). In \"Christening\", Creed attends the christening of Jim and Pam's baby, Cece, and he and Darryl fall asleep next to each other. In \"Viewing Party\", Creed attends Gabe's \"Glee\" viewing party. When Andy becomes intoxicated with a Chinese virility supplement, he brings the bottle to Creed and asks if he can read Chinese. Creed responds that he can read it better than", "Dwight Schrute that he now has \"the strength of a grown man and a little baby\". He also claims to have been born weighing , rendering his mother incapable of walking for three months and two days, and in \"Baby Shower\", he claims to have performed his own circumcision. In \"Viewing Party\", he informs Jim and Pam Halpert that, in the Schrute family, the youngest child raises the other children. Little is known about Dwight's parents, except that his father used to take him hunting, cheated in games, made him and his siblings biscuits for breakfast every morning, and that he battled", "Two Weeks (The Office) Two Weeks (The Office) \"Two Weeks\" is the twenty-first episode of the fifth season of the television series \"The Office\", and the 93rd overall episode of the series. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 26, 2009. In this episode, Michael, who has given his two weeks' notice to Dunder Mifflin, tries to convince others in the office to quit and join him in starting a new paper company. Meanwhile, Pam spends her day trying to put together the new photocopier and becomes frustrated with her job. The episode was written by Aaron Shure and directed", "Jim Halpert \"Casino Night\", he confesses his love for Pam in the office. Pam, whose wedding to Roy was planned out and just weeks away, clearly shows her anguish but gently turns him down. Jim tearfully walks away, later kisses her in the office, and the season ends. In the third season premiere \"Gay Witch Hunt\", it is revealed that he did transfer to Stamford despite the fact that Pam has called off her wedding and he clearly still harbors intense feelings for her. His reason is later stated as \"It's just, I kinda put it all on the line. Twice. And", "Drug Testing (The Office) don't get it. What does he get out of that relationship?\" A cut-away emphasizes his own relationship with Pam. \"Drug Testing\" was written by Jennifer Celotta and directed by show runner and executive producer Greg Daniels. Fischer noted that the subplot featuring Jim unable to talk was important because \"Pam and Jim can say a lot to one another without any words at all\", a reference to the \"27 seconds of silence\" the two shared in the earlier episode \"Booze Cruise\". Michael has a bandage around his finger in this episode because Steve Carell hurt his finger during the week", "Did I Stutter? situation. Michael tries to assert his power over Stanley, by pretending to fire him, but that only makes matters worse. The two eventually end up alone in the office. Meanwhile, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) receives a warning about his job performance, Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) is forced to wear her glasses, and Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) buys Andy Bernard's (Ed Helms) car. Originally, episode writers Justin Spitzer and Brent Forrester were supposed to write two separate episodes. However, the effects of the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike forced the two to share an episode. \"Did I Stutter?\" contained several", "Blood Drive (The Office) a singles mixer. He puts up flyers which also advertise the finding of a missing glove, and Michael hopes his mystery woman will come to the party as a result. When Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam (Jenna Fischer) are threatened with banishment by Michael after they constantly gaze happily on each other, Phyllis (Phyllis Smith) invites them to have lunch with her and her husband Bob Vance (Robert R. Shafer). Their meal initially goes well, but Phyllis and Bob disappear for a while after their food arrives. Hungry and not wanting to be rude by eating before they get back,", "Sexual Harassment (The Office) Michael Scott (Steve Carell) is concerned when he believes Dunder Mifflin is targeting him for sexual harassment training. Meanwhile, Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) anxiously awaits the arrival of her mother, and Michael's obnoxious friend Todd Packer (David Koechner) spends the day in the office. Novak was inspired to write the episode after attending an NBC sexual harassment seminar that the cast and crew had to attend before the series began. Many jokes and personal experiences involving sexual harassment were added into the script. This episode aired with a warning that it contained adult content and subject matter, which is rare", "Pam Beesly over the locked gate and fleeing. In \"Goodbye, Toby\", Toby purchases a DSLR camera just to get a picture with Pam. On the eve of his departure, Pam confesses to the cameras that she always thought Toby was \"kind of cute\". In \"Niagara\", Pam and Jim are late for their wedding and he is visibly excited at the prospect that the wedding might not happen. In \"Finale\", Pam and Toby dance with each other at Dwight's wedding, with Toby beginning to cry as Pam comforts him. When she asks, \"is it me?\", he replies that \"it's everything!\". Pam Halpert has", "Jury Duty (The Office) the sixth season, there was no episode focusing on the baby's birth; it was instead announced on a blog. According to showrunner Paul Lieberstein, she will come back \"with very little fanfare\". The episode also marks the seventh appearance of Lindsey Broad, who plays Cathy, Pam's replacement during her maternity leave. She appeared in a recurring role for the season, after she initially appeared in \"Pam's Replacement\". The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode. Notable cut scenes include Andy getting a friend of his, who starred in the Scranton production of \"Sweeney Todd\", to", "Business Ethics (The Office) Business Ethics (The Office) \"Business Ethics\" is the third episode of the fifth season of the television series \"The Office\", and the show's seventy-fifth episode overall. The episode aired in the United States on October 9, 2008 on NBC. In this episode, new HR rep Holly tries to conduct a business ethics seminar, which does not go smoothly when it is revealed that Meredith has been having sex with a supplier in order to gain discounts. Meanwhile, Jim tries to prove to Dwight that he (Dwight) does waste company time, which he claims he does not. In the cold open,", "Trivia (The Office) cast member B. J. Novak, who portrays Ryan Howard on the show. The episode also marks the fifth appearance of Lindsey Broad, who plays Cathy, Pam's replacement during her maternity leave. She appeared in a recurring role for the season and she initially appeared in \"Pam's Replacement.\" Due to Jenna Fischer's actual pregnancy, Pam did not appear in the episode. After airing, the episode sparked a debate among fans, as well as critics, as to whether former leading actor Steve Carell had made an uncredited cameo as a member of an opposing trivia team, The Queerstein Bears. NBC later denied", "Scott's Tots he apparently picked himself by accident. Everyone starts blaming Jim for using this gimmick as a ploy to take money away from the office. Jim tries to pin part of the failure on Dwight, but since he has taken numerous precautions to protect himself from direct blame, he passively fires back. Jim decides to forgo the award and give it to the next best employee, but things are only made worse when that person is revealed to be his wife Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer). Everyone reaches their breaking point when a cake is delivered to the office with Jim's face", "The Carpet Michael Scott's (Steve Carell) office, and Michael tries to discover who did it. While his carpet is being replaced, he uses Jim Halpert's (John Krasinski) desk, forcing Jim to move away from Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) into the annex. \"The Carpet\" is the first and only episode to feature Howard as Truck. However, the death of the character would serve as the main plot for the third season episode \"Grief Counseling\". The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics. Upon its original broadcast, \"The Carpet\" earned a Nielsen rating of 4.6 in the 18–49 demographic, being viewed by 8.6", "Sexual Harassment (The Office) contained adult content and subject matter, which is rare for a network comedy. Novak explained that he had to fight NBC to get the word \"boner\" on the air because the replacement—\"schwing\"—did not have, according to Novak, \"the same redemption for Michael at the end.\" The disclaimer was a compromise. A station in Kentucky nevertheless refused to air this episode. Pam's mother was played by Shannon Cochran in this episode of the series, in the first appearance of the character at this point in the show. Cochran was unable to return to play the character for the season six episode", "Kate McGregor (character) her pregnancy to her. However the audience do not get a glimpse of the pregnancy test, leading to speculation that the test is actually positive, aided by the fact that as soon as she denies it, she asks Mike \"out of curiosity, how would you feel if I was [pregnant]?\" If nothing else, it confirms speculation that Kate was sleeping with Jim. In the series finale 'One Perfect Day', Jim proposes to Kate on the deck of the Hammersley. Before she can give him an answer they are interrupted, and they are called in to intercept a terrorist attack on", "Niagara (The Office) offends Oscar by thinking Kevin was his boyfriend Gil. Pam's mother Helene (Linda Purl) is visibly disturbed at the fact that Pam's father and Helene's ex-husband, William (Rick Overton) has come to the wedding with his new girlfriend who is half his own age. Pam's grandmother, \"Meemaw\" (played by Peggy Stewart), is a woman of conservative morals, so everyone is told not to mention Pam's pregnancy. At the rehearsal dinner, Jim gives a moving toast to his soon-to-be wife. However, he finishes by saying that everyone but Pam will drink to the toast \"for obvious reasons\". Meemaw questions this remark,", "A.A.R.M. Paper Company. In the episode, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) convinces Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) that he needs to choose someone to act as an Assistant to the Assistant to the Regional Manager (A.A.R.M.); the two subsequently hold tryouts for the position. Angela Lipton (Angela Kinsey) is forced to bring her son, Phillip, to work, and Dwight thinks that he may be his son. Pam Halpert's (Jenna Fischer) final fears about her husband's love are settled. Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) attempts to get on \"The Next Great A Cappella Sensation\", but is not able to audition. Finally, all the members of", "Night Out (The Office) employees are going to be forced to work on a Saturday to record their own sales as the website's sales, which is, according to Ryan, \"a temporary procedure to increase the legitimacy of the website.\" Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) suggests everyone stay in the office late instead of coming in for the Saturday. They all agree to the plan, but Jim forgets to tell the security guard they are staying late. After working until 9:00 pm, they find the parking lot gates locked, and are unable to return to the office because Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) locked the door from", "Angela Martin pleased expression on her face). In \"Viewing Party\", she and Dwight agree to have sex during the night as part of their contract. However, Pam and Jim prevent him from going to Angela due to the fact that their baby seems to be attracted to Dwight, so she's left waiting in the back seat of her car, visibly topless when Pam comes out to see her. In \"WUPHF.com\", Dwight's hay festival distracts him from fulfilling a request for sex from Angela (per their contract). Angela's at her most irritated when she meets a charming, friendly single father named Robert Lipton", "Jury Duty (The Office) and Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) questions him on every detail of his case. However, Jim later comes under fire when Dwight reveals he only served half a day on his single case then took the rest of the week off to spend time with his wife, Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer), looking after their toddler and new baby, Phillip. Meanwhile, Angela (Angela Kinsey) and the state senator welcome an infant son. \"Jury Duty\" marks the first appearance of Fischer since \"Gettysburg\", when her character went on maternity leave. \"Jury Duty\" received mostly positive reviews from critics, with many reviews noting that", "Angela Martin Pastor Davis?\" prompting Creed to switch the envelopes between Angela and Meredith. After reading the note, Angela appears to be heavily embarrassed. In The Chump, Angela reveals that her four cats are named \"Ember, Milky Way, Diane, and Lumpy\". In the season eight premiere Angela is married to Robert and pregnant. She is pregnant with her first child but she has a step son with Robert. Angela wanted to name her son \"Philip\" after her cat, but Pam (who is pregnant with her 2nd child) wanted the name \"Philip\" after her grandfather. Angela tried browbeating Pam into giving up the", "Stress Relief (The Office) for a fake package. Michael returns to the office, where he roasts each of his co-workers with one-liners. Stanley laughs heartily when Michael roasts him, breaking the tension. Michael tells his employees that they are the reason he got into the paper business, and they applaud him. Pam asks Jim to talk to her father and convince him to work things out with her mother. But shortly after they talk, Pam learns her father has sought a separation and will be looking for his own apartment. Pam assumes it is because of something Jim said to her father, and blames", "Body Language (The Office) minority training program. \"Body Language\" has received positive reviews from critics and was viewed by 7.09 million viewers. Pam (Jenna Fischer) and Jim (John Krasinski) work on their first sales pitch together to Donna (Amy Pietz), the manager of a local restaurant. Michael (Steve Carell) employs several tactical dating and psychology moves to flirt with her, including juxtaposing pictures of himself with attractive people. He also gives Donna a Victoria's Secret catalog and flashes subliminal messages of the word \"SEX\" in his presentation. Throughout the day, he makes numerous unsuccessful attempts to kiss her. Michael discusses these attempts with the", "The Deposition (The Office) against the company. While Michael originally intends to be a witness against the company, he ends up defending the company. Meanwhile, Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling) talks smack to Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) after Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson) beats Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) in a game of ping pong, prompting Jim to spend the entire day practicing in the conference room. After his girlfriend Jan Levinson (Melora Hardin) sues her former employer Dunder Mifflin for wrongful termination, Michael Scott (Steve Carell) finds himself forced by Jan to be a witness against his employer. Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak) wants to make", "The List (The Office) to tears throughout the day. Angela is also pregnant, having married the state senator Robert Lipton over the summer, and says that she's \"Little Preg\" to Pam's \"Big Preg\". When Jim picks up his things to leave for the day, he \"accidentally\" drops a piece of paper. Pam picks it up and sees Jim's personal winners and losers list: Pam, Cece and their new baby are on the left, and the words \"everything else\" is written on the right. Pam tearfully vows to frame it. The episode was written and directed by executive producer B. J. Novak, who also portrays", "The Lover (The Office) to install a recording device in Jim's office, by giving him a wooden mallard as an apology for their long rivalry. Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam (Jenna Fischer) return from their honeymoon in Puerto Rico and Michael (Steve Carell) tells Jim that he has been dating Pam's mother, Helene (Linda Purl), after spending the night with her at their wedding in Niagara. Jim is shocked and tells Michael not to mention anything to Pam (which he reluctantly agrees to do) and to break it off with Helene immediately (which he does not agree to). However, when Jim and Pam give", "Phyllis Vance is cheating on her with his secretary. She immediately laughs it off, though, saying it sounds silly when said aloud, and it is no longer spoken of in the season. Phyllis and Bob both attend Jim and Pam's wedding in Niagara Falls. In \"Secret Santa\", Phyllis is delighted and emotional to finally achieve her goal of being Santa Claus at the office's annual Christmas Party, much to Michael's chagrin. In \"The Manager and the Salesman\", Phyllis takes allergy medicine, which causes her to defecate in her pants. In \"New Leads\", she is very rude to Angela (telling her former adversary", "Couples Discount he can bluff his way through a meeting with CEO David Wallace (Andy Buckley), who has no idea that Andy was gone at all. The employees decide not to tell David about Andy's unapproved absence, but at the meeting they cannot resist crafting made-up recent events in the hope that he will blow his own cover. However, when David meets with Andy he is almost completely oblivious to Andy's erroneous statements, and Andy quickly catches on to what the employees are up to. Meanwhile, Pam (Jenna Fischer) and Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) share lunch with Brian (Chris Diamantopoulos) to thank", "Business Trip with the client and calls David Wallace, who congratulates him. Michael then tells him he had a terrible time in Winnipeg and berates him for taking Holly away from him before abruptly hanging up. He then gets on the plane back to Scranton, mentioning he has stayed with the company for a long time because they give him enough respect that he could talk down his boss and not be fired. Back in Scranton, Jim (John Krasinski) and the rest of the staff are eagerly counting down the days until Pam (Jenna Fischer) returns from art school, with the staff", "The Chump pay her damages, she offers him a \"settlement\": five separate sessions of intercourse. He accepts. Later, Dwight carries out various methods to try to sterilize himself before the first \"session\", such as holding his crotch near a running microwave, dropping books on it, and beating it with drumsticks. Pam and Jim are both exhausted from the long nights with the new baby, and their work is being adversely affected. Gabe catches them both sleeping at their desks and talks to them privately about it. He asks them what they would do about the rumors of printers catching fire, but they", "A.A.R.M. the office gather at Poor Richard's Pub and watch the airing of the official in-series documentary. \"A.A.R.M.\" features a dramatic scene in which Jim presents a DVD of the highlights of his relationship with Pam, topped with him finally presenting her with a card he wrote in the second season episode \"Christmas Party\". The idea to have Jim finally give Pam his card had been considered in the writers' room for some time, but only during \"A.A.R.M.\" did the writers feel it was the right time. In addition, the episode contained several scenes that were purposely staged to be reminiscent", "Gabe Lewis simply bypass Gabe when needed and talk directly, and jointly, to Jo. In \"Christening\", he attends the christening of Pam and Jim's baby, Cecelia. He is also among the employees that try to talk Michael out of getting on the bus that is headed to Mexico, to help build a school for underprivileged children. In \"Viewing Party\", he and Erin host a \"Glee\" viewing party at his apartment. Throughout the episode, he is the subject of hatred by Michael, due to the fact that the office staff refer to him as their boss. Several items of Asian origin, that increase", "Beth Raines unhappily allows her to be in Philip and Harley's wedding. In 1998, Beth makes a play for Matt Reardon, but later dates Jim Lemay (legally father to Harley's daughter Susan, who she gave up for adoption as a teen mom). When Beth, Philip and Jim are in a plane crash, Jim escapes to find help. Beth and Philip, thinking they are about to die make love. After being rescued, Beth accepts Jim Lemay's proposal. In 2000, Beth found out that she was pregnant with Philip's baby. She convinced Philip to allow her to pass the baby off as Jim's, in" ]

[ -1.7158203125 ]

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[ "The reception desk was empty, no one was there." ]

[ "There were three clerks at the reception desk.", "The little girl is taking a picture with the camera.", "We do not know if the coffee was poisoned or not.", "How come, Jonah?", "In Chicago, they caved in to peer pressure 50 years ago.", "The standard-size paper is not able to be formatted for printing.", "A man has a tennis racket." ]

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[ "A dog runs through a grassy yard." ]

[ "A cat sleeps inside.", "Rennie had never lived in Kentucky.", "It continues to do that.", "Miss Cowley had been taken away by a fake telegram.", "A group of protesters are chained to a building.", "A lady is sitting on the deck.", "The child leaps." ]

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[ "Mexican War of Independence Mexican War of Independence The Mexican War of Independence () was an armed conflict, and the culmination of a political and social process which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain. The war had its antecedent in Napoleon's French invasion of Spain in 1808; it extended from the Cry of Dolores by Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla on September 16, 1810, to the entrance of the Army of the Three Guarantees led by Agustín de Iturbide to Mexico City on September 27, 1821. September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day. The movement for" ]

[ "Miguel Ramos Arizpe Mexico was threatened. Royalist military officer Agustín de Iturbide made an alliance with Guerrero, and under the Plan de Iguala declaring Mexico's independence, which was achieved in 1821. The formation of the new Mexican state initially involved a constituent congress, but Iturbide seized power and declared himself Agustín I, emperor of Mexico. Ramos Arizpe returned to Mexico in 1822, when opposition to Iturbide was coalescing. He was \"instrumental in mobilizing the provinces and drafting the Plan of Casa Mata,\" which called for the overthrow of Iturbide. With the ouster of Iturbide, Mexican elites created a second Constituent Congress to write", "Agustín de Iturbide Agustín de Iturbide Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu (; 27 September 178319 July 1824), also known as Augustine of Mexico, was a Mexican army general and politician. During the Mexican War of Independence, he built a successful political and military coalition that took control in Mexico City on 27 September 1821, decisively gaining independence for Mexico. After the secession of Mexico was secured, he was proclaimed President of the Regency in 1821. A year later, he was announced as the Constitutional Emperor of Mexico, reigning briefly from 19 May 1822 to 19 March 1823. He is credited as", "Mexico In subsequent years, the insurgency was near collapse, but in 1820 Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent an army under the criollo general Agustín de Iturbide against the troops of Vicente Guerrero. Instead, Iturbide approached Guerrero to join forces, and on August 24, 1821 representatives of the Spanish Crown and Iturbide signed the \"Treaty of Córdoba\" and the \"Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire\", which recognized the independence of Mexico under the terms of the \"Plan of Iguala\". Mexico's short recovery after the War of Independence was soon cut short again by the civil wars and institutional instability of", "Spanish Texas quelled by Colonel Ignacio Pérez and his Spanish troops. The following year Long established a new base near Galveston Bay \"to free Texas from 'the yoke of Spanish authority. . . the most atrocious despotism that ever disgraced the annals of Europe.'\" His basis for a rebellion was soon gone, however. On February 24, 1821, Agustín de Iturbide launched a drive for Mexican Independence. Texas became a part of the newly independent nation without a shot being fired. Spanish control of Texas was followed by Mexican control of Texas, and it can be difficult to separate the Spanish and Mexican", "Chihuahua (state) major insurgent leader, Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, who had led rebel movements with Hidalgo, became head of the insurgents. Hidalgo is hailed as the \"Father of the Nation\" even though it was Agustin de Iturbide and not Hidalgo who achieved Mexican Independence in 1821. Shortly after gaining independence, the day to celebrate it varied between September 16, the day of Hidalgo's Grito, and September 27, the day Iturbide rode into Mexico City to end the war. Later, political movements would favor the more liberal Hidalgo over the conservative Iturbide, so that eventually September 16, 1810 became the officially recognized", "Santa Fe de Nuevo México jurisdiction of the Commandant General of the Provincias Internas. The province remained in Spanish control until Mexico's declaration of independence in 1821. Under the 1824 Constitution of Mexico, it became the federally administered Territory of New Mexico. The part of the former province east of the Rio Grande was claimed by the Republic of Texas which won its independence in 1836. This claim was disputed by Mexico. In 1841, the Texans sent the Texan Santa Fe Expedition, ostensibly for trade but with hopes of occupying the claimed area, but the expedition was captured by Mexican troops. The United States inherited", "Guadalupe Victoria the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, opened new ports for shipping, began construction on the National Museum, garrisoned Yucatán to thwart a contemplated Cuba-based Spanish invasion, and unmasked a conspiracy led by a monk named Joaquín Arenas to restore Spanish rule. Victoria also facilitated the activities of the Lancasterian Society, which was dedicated to education, and he created the naval force that enabled his greatest achievement: the complete independence of Mexico, when on 18 November 1825, general Miguel Barragán took the last Spanish stronghold, the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa in Veracruz. In politics, his actions were conciliatory. He tried to", "Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico posed by the military forces stationed in Cuba to Mexico. Since 1824, Alaman had held the belief that Mexico should seize Cuba, arguing that \"Cuba without Mexico is aimed at imperialist yoke; Mexico without Cuba is a prisoner of the Gulf of Mexico.\" He believed that the Mexican forces, with the support of foreign powers such as France or England (which had been the first European power to recognize the independence of Mexico on July 16, 1836), could overcome the Spanish in Cuba. The United States insisted upon the retention of Cuba by the Spanish government. To advance its ambitions", "History of Mexico Coahuila y Tejas. Both areas sought independence from the central government. Negotiations and the presence of Santa Anna's army caused Yucatán to recognize Mexican sovereignty. Then Santa Anna's army turned to the northern rebellion. The inhabitants of Tejas declared the Republic of Texas independent from Mexico on 2 March 1836 at Washington-on-the-Brazos. They called themselves Texans and were led mainly by recent English-speaking settlers. At the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, Texan militias defeated the Mexican army and captured General Santa Anna. The Mexican government refused to recognize the independence of Texas. The northern states grew increasingly", "Guanajuato Riaños. The insurgents overwhelmed the defenses in two days and killed an estimated 400–600 men, women and children. Fighting associated with the War of Independence would return near the end of the conflict. Military commanders Luis de Cortázar and Anastasio Bustamante joined forces with Agustín de Iturbide and took the city of Guanajuato on 8 July 1821, declaring the entire state independent of Spanish rule. In 1824, Guanajuato was officially proclaimed a state of Mexico by the Constitutional Congress of Mexico. The years after the end of the War of Independence were extremely unstable, and would continue to be unstable", "First Mexican Empire president of Mexico during the secession of Texas and the disastrous Mexican–American War. Santa Anna and his troops revolted against Iturbide, calling for the restoration of the Congress on 1 December 1822. Santa Anna had secretly persuaded General Echávarri, the commander of the Imperial forces, to switch sides and support the revolution when it was ready to be proclaimed throughout Mexico. The independence heroes Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria soon joined, signing the Plan of Casa Mata on February 1, 1823, which called for the restoration of the Congress. The Plan of Casa Mata, which other Mexican generals,", "Mexico freedoms. As the Conservatives. refused to recognize it, the Reform War began in 1858, during which both groups had their own governments. The war ended in 1861 with victory by the Liberals, led by president Benito Juárez, who was an ethnic Zapotec. In the 1860s Mexico was occupied by France, which established the Second Mexican Empire under the rule of the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria with support from the Roman Catholic clergy and the Conservatives. The latter switched sides and joined the Liberals. Maximilian surrendered, was tried on June 14, 1867, and was executed a few days later", "Centralist Republic of Mexico The rebels took several major cities and also asked for aid from the Government of Texas, who supported them with two boats. This rebellion culminated in January 1841, with the triumph of the Federalists and the fall of the Centralist Governor José Ignacio Gutiérrez. The then-Mexican President Anastasio Bustamante, in retaliation for this rebellion, closed the port of San Juan Bautista, which affected the economic life of the territory. This caused further agitation among the Federalist Tabasco authorities, who then on February 13, 1841 declared Tabasco's independence from Mexico. Months later, Antonio López de Santa Anna, in response to the", "Mariano Paredes (President of Mexico) officially took the oath of office, but did not begin exercising power. On 1 January 1846, the state of Yucatán declared its independence from Mexico and its neutrality in the war with the United States. General was defeated by U.S. forces under General Zachary Taylor at Frontón de Santa Isabel on 5 March 1846. Ampudia was replaced by General Mariano Arista, who was also defeated, at Palo Alto. Thereupon Arista was arrested and Ampudia reappointed. On 12 June 1846, Paredes was officially reelected president by Congress. He chose General Nicolás Bravo as his vice-president. On 20 June, he was officially", "Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 in the flourishing business of slave trading in the Caribbean. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Spanish colonies in the western hemisphere fought for independence. In South America, Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led colonists to victory against Spanish rule; in Mexico, José María Morelos led the movement. By 1825, the Spanish Empire had lost control of all of its territories in the Americas with the exception of Puerto Rico and Cuba. These two possessions were also demanding more autonomy, and pro-independence movements had been gathering strength. Trying to forestall the loss of these colonies, the", "Mexican Texas separate Mexican state. Although Mexico implemented several measures to appease the colonists, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna's measures to transform Mexico from a federalist to a centralist state appeared to be the catalyst for the Anglo-Texan colonists to revolt. The first violent incident occurred on June 26, 1832, at the Battle of Velasco. On March 2, 1836, Texians declared their independence from Mexico. The Texas Revolution ended on April 21, 1836, when Santa Anna was taken prisoner by Texians following the Battle of San Jacinto. Although Texas declared its independence as the Republic of Texas, Mexico refused to recognize it.", "Jalisco founded in 1811 in Guadalajara, sympathetic to the insurgent cause. However, no other major battles of the war would be fought in the state. Independence was won by Agustín de Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees, which would make Iturbide Mexico's first emperor, and making Jalisco one of a number of \"departments\" which answered directly to Mexico City. This act broke Nueva Galicia's tradition of relative independence and provoked support for federalism. In 1821, a proposal for a \"Republic of the United States of Anáhuac\" circulated in Guadalajara which called for a federation of states to allow for the best", "Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire the National Autonomous University of Mexico are working on a system of preservation and exhibition of historical documents in order to permanently exhibit the act in the near future. Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire The Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire () is the document by which the Mexican Empire declared independence from the Spanish Empire. This founding document of the Mexican nation was drafted in the National Palace in Mexico City on September 28, 1821, by Juan José Espinosa de los Monteros, secretary of the Provisional Governmental Board. Three copies of the act were executed. One", "History of Mexican Americans raids on New Mexico villages and ranches were ignored, as was the vulnerability of California, as the central government pulled back its soldiers to use them in recurrent civil wars and factional battles. After armed uprisings in Texas Mexico's President Santa Anna led an army to put down the rebellion. After initial victories at The Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna was decisively defeated by the Texans, who declared independence. The Tejanos in Texas joined the revolution and supported the new Republic of Texas; The Hispanics in New Mexico and California were localistic and did not identify with the regime in", "Latin American wars of independence happiness still to dare to threaten us with the return of slavery?” Ultimately, slavery was abolished from French colonies in 1794 and Haiti declared Independence from France in 1804. <Toussaint L'Ouverture, \"Letter to the French Directory, 1797,\" in Nicola Foote, Sources for Latin America in the Modern World. (NY: Oxford University Press, 2018)> When Mexico achieved its independence in 1821 with the Treaty of Córdoba, the Captaincy General of Guatemala that had ruled Central America became politically independent as well, without the necessity of violent struggle. Guatemala declared its own independence September 15, 1821, likely to prevent the Mexican Army", "Agustín de Iturbide for him was orchestrated by him and his followers. Others insist that the people's offer of the throne was sincere, as there was no other candidate and the people were grateful to him for the liberation of Mexico. The latter accounts stress that Iturbide initially rejected the offer, in favor of persuading Ferdinand VII to change his mind about ruling Mexico, but then reluctantly accepted. It should be noted that when the liberating army entered Mexico on September 27, 1821, the army sought to proclaim Iturbide as Emperor, which he himself stopped, with no lack of effort. A month later,", "Battle of Azcapotzalco Bridge. The victory by the insurgent forces of the Army of the Three Guarantees forced the royalists to leave the Haciendas of Clavería, Tacuba, Popotla and San Jacinto. Days later independence was granted. The victory of the insurgents in the last battle of the war cleared the way to Mexico City which was finally taken by the insurgents on 27 September 1821, ending the long Mexican War of Independence. Valentin Canalizo also fought in this battle. He, like Anastasio Bustamante, would later become President of Mexico. Battle of Azcapotzalco The Battle of Azcapotzalco, (), was fought on August 19, 1821,", "Republic of Yucatán refused to recognize the independence of Yucatán and banned the entry of ships under flag of Yucatán to Mexican territory. He also prohibited the transit of Mexican ships to Yucatán. This overturned all Yucatecan trade with the mainland of Mexico, causing deep economic problems. Barbachano, knowing that Santa Anna was defeated in the military by Yucatán, decided to negotiate with the central government. Yucatán proposed several conditions to the central government. Santa Anna agreed to several conditions giving full autonomy to the Yucatán on December 5, 1843. Yucatán resumed trade with Mexico and the Republic retained its sovereignty. The situation", "History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States from Nacogdoches traded with the French and Anglo residents of Louisiana, and were culturally influenced by them. The third settlement was located North of the Rio Grande toward the Nueces River. These Southern ranchers were citizens of Spanish origin from Tamaulipas and Northern Mexico, and identified with both Spanish and Mexican culture. 1821, Agustin de Iturbide launched a drive for Mexican Independence. Texas became a part of the newly independent nation without a shot being fired. In 1821 at the end of the Mexican War of Independence, there were about 4,000 Tejanos living in what is now the state of", "Antonio López de Santa Anna openly rebelled against the changes: Coahuila y Tejas (the northern part of which would become the Republic of Texas), San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Durango, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Yucatán, Jalisco, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas. Several of these states formed their own governments: the Republic of the Rio Grande, the Republic of Yucatán, and the Republic of Texas. Only the Texans defeated Santa Anna and retained their independence. Their fierce resistance was possibly fueled by reprisals Santa Anna committed against his defeated enemies. The \"New York Post\" editorialized that \"had [Santa Anna] treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have", "History of Western civilization clash between these provinces and the rest of Mexico. When Mexico became a dictatorship under General Antonio López de Santa Anna, the Texans declared independence. After several battles, Texas gained independence from Mexico, although Mexico later claimed it still had a right to Texas. After existing as a republic modeled after the U.S. for several years, Texas joined the United States in 1845. This led to border disputes between the U.S. and Mexico, resulting in the Mexican–American War. The war ended with an American victory, and Mexico had to cede all its northern territories to the United States, and recognize", "Army of the Three Guarantees Three Guarantees was created on February 24, 1821, and continued battling Spanish royalist forces which refused to accept Mexican independence. These battles continued until August 1821, when Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy Juan de O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba, virtually ratifying Mexico's independence. The Army was a decisive force during the Battle of Azcapotzalco. The victory in this last battle of the war cleared the way to Mexico City. On September 27, 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees triumphantly entered Mexico City, led by Iturbide. The following day Mexico was declared independent. By that time, the Army of the", "Decolonization of the Americas further wars were fought, such as the Paraguayan War and the War of the Pacific. A related process took place in what is now Mexico, Central America, and parts of North America between 1810 and 1821 with the Mexican War of Independence. Independence was achieved in 1821 by a coalition uniting under Agustín de Iturbide and the Army of the Three Guarantees. Unity was maintained for a short period under the First Mexican Empire, but within a decade the region fought against the United States over the border lands (losing bordering lands of California and Texas). Most of the heat", "Reform War the U.S. transit rights through Mexican territory. Liberal victories accumulated thereafter until Conservative forces surrendered in December 1860. While the Conservative forces lost the war, guerrillas remained active in the countryside for years after, and Conservatives in Mexico would conspire with French forces to install Maximilian I as emperor during the following French Intervention in Mexico. After the end of the Mexican War of Independence, the country was strongly divided as it tried to recover from more than a decade of fighting. From 1821-57, 50 different governments ruled the country. These included dictatorships, constitutional republican governments and a monarchy. The", "Guadalupe Victoria hands of the states. On 24 March 1825, the congress passed a law to open the doors to foreign colonization fully; the law gave the settlers land privileges and exemption from taxes for ten years. The immigration of Americans was abundant and communities quickly formed that retained their language, religion and customs, resulting in weak links with the rest of the country. They disobeyed the laws and continued slavery in Mexican territory. In 1826, the first attempt at separatism was made when \"empresario\" Haden Edwards declared independence from state of Coahuila y Tejas and created the Republic of Fredonia near", "1840s brief and unsuccessful war for independence, returning to Mexico late in the year. In 1841, Generals Santa Anna and Paredes led a rebellion against President Bustamante, resulting in Santa Anna becoming president of the centralist government for a fifth time . Local officials in Yucatán declared independence in 1841, opposing strong autocratic rule and demanding the restoration of the Constitution of 1824, thus establishing the second Republic of Yucatán. In 1842, the region of Soconusco was annexed by Mexico as part of the state of Chiapas, following the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America. In 1846, President Paredes", "Francisco Morazán Spanish colonial times, they gained independence in 1821 and were briefly annexed to the Mexican empire formed by Agustín de Iturbide. On July 1, 1823, these nations regained their independence, and joined together in a loose federal state. In the following year, the Constituent Congress of Central America met in Guatemala City, to decide which system of government to adopt for the young nation. In debates two different proposals emerged. The Liberal Party wanted a federalist government, similar to that of the United States of 1789. This type of government would provide every state significant autonomy of self-administration, freedom to", "Agustín de Iturbide road to gaining the support of the most powerful factions: the insurgents, the clergy and the Spaniards. In the plan, a monarchy was ensured, thus assuring the support of the royalists as well. Iturbide held a series of negotiations with Guerrero and made a number of demonstrations of his intentions to form an independent Mexico. Iturbide offered Guerrero a full pardon if he surrendered. Guerrero rejected the pardon but agreed to meet with Iturbide to discuss the independence of Mexico. That meeting is now referred to as the \"Embrace of Acatempán,\" after the locale in which they agreed to implement", "Mexico When he suspended the 1824 Constitution, civil war spread across the country. Three new governments declared independence: the Republic of Texas, the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán. The 1846 United States annexation of the Republic of Texas and subsequent American military incursion into territory that was part of Coahuila (also claimed by Texas) instigated the Mexican–American War. The war was settled in 1848 via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico was forced to give up more than one-third of its land to the U.S., including Alta California, Santa Fe de Nuevo México and the territory", "Martín Javier Mina y Larrea to Puerto Principe, Haiti, and from Puerto Principe to Galveston, Nueva España, where they arrived November 24. He then moved to what is now the nation of Mexico. In April 1817, Mina took a force of about 250 men southward in ships provided by the French privateer, Louis-Michel Aury. They arrived at Soto la Marina, Tamaulipas. His plan was to join the southern Mexican revolutionaries led by Guadalupe Victoria and others. Mina fully engaged in the struggle for Mexican independence. On May 24, 1817, Mina left his base with 300 men, moving to several villages on his way to Fuerte", "Yaqui Banderas wished to unite the Mayo, Opata, Pima, and Yaqui into a state that would be autonomous, or independent of Mexico. The combined Indian force drove the Mexicans out of their territories, but Banderas was eventually defeated and executed in 1833. This led to a succession of revolts as the Yaqui resisted the Mexican government's attempts to gain control of the Yaqui and their lands. The Yaqui supported the French during the brief reign of Maximilian I of Mexico in the 1860s. Under the leadership of Jose Maria Leyva, known as Cajemé, the Yaqui continued the struggle to maintain their", "Military history of Mexico itself an independent nation, but during the crisis of the revolt had offered sovereignty to any nation that would aid in defeating the Indians. The Mexican government was in a rare position of being cash rich from payment by the United States under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo for the territory taken in the Mexican–American War, and accepted Yucatán's offer. Yucatán was officially reunited with Mexico on 17 August 1848. European Yucateco forces rallied, aided by fresh guns, money, and troops from Mexico, and pushed back the Maya from more than half of the state. In the 1850s a stalemate", "Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo a transcontinental railroad. However, the American Civil War delayed construction of such a route, and it was not until 1881 that the Southern Pacific Railroad finally was completed, fulfilling the purpose of the acquisition. Mexico had claimed the area in question since winning its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence. The Spanish Empire had conquered part of the area from the American Indian tribes over the preceding three centuries, but there remained powerful and independent indigenous nations within that northern region of Mexico. Most of that land was too dry (low rainfall) and", "Latin America–United States relations and help from, Britain, the United States issued the Monroe Doctrine in 1823, warning against the establishment of any additional European colonies in Latin America. Texas, which had been settled by colonies of Americans, fought a successful war to steal land from Mexico in 1836. Mexico refused to recognize the independence and warned that annexation to the United States meant war. Annexation came in 1845 and the Mexican–American War began in 1846. The American military was easily triumphant. The result was the Mexican Cession of Santa Fe de Nuevo México and Alta California. About 60,000 Mexicans remained in the territories", "1820s and loyalists to secure independence for Mexico and the protection of Roman Catholicism. Iturbide's army was joined by rebel forces from all over Mexico, and quickly gained control of Mexico. On August 24, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córdoba, which recognized the Mexican Empire under the terms of the Plan of Iguala. On September 27 the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the Mexican Empire. The newly formed Mexican congress eventually declared Iturbide emperor of Mexico on May 19, 1822. Later that", "Military history of Mexico teetered between collapse and invasion from Mexico until it was annexed by the United States of America in 1845. The dominant figure of the second quarter of 19th century Mexico was the dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna. During this period, many of the territories in the north were lost to the United States. Santa Anna was the nation's leader during the conflict with Texas, which declared itself independent in 1836, and during the Mexican–American War (1846–48). One of the memorable battles of the U.S. invasion of 1847 was when a group of young Military College cadets (now considered national", "History of Honduras (to 1838) Mexican Empire under the rule of General Agustín de Iturbide. Ultimately, Comayagua's position prevailed, and in early 1822 the Central American provinces declared their allegiance to Mexico. This union lasted just over a year and produced few if any benefits for either party. In March 1823, Iturbide was overthrown in Mexico, and the empire was replaced by a republic. The Central American Congress, in which Comayagua but not Tegucigalpa was represented, was quickly convened. With little debate, the United Provinces of Central America declared their independence from Mexico. Mexico's only effort to reverse this decision consisted in maintaining control over", "Honduras–Mexico relations Honduras–Mexico relations Honduras–Mexico relations refers to the diplomatic relations between Honduras and Mexico. Both nations are members of the Association of Caribbean States, Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States and the United Nations. Honduras and Mexico share a common history. Both nations were colonized and pertained to the Spanish Empire. Soon after achieving Independence in 1821, Honduras belonged to the First Mexican Empire until 1823 when it then joined the United Provinces of Central America. After its dissolution in 1838, Honduras became an independent nation. Honduras and Mexico established diplomatic relations", "Chicano nationalism the Mexican War of Independence, then claimed as \"territories\" (as opposed to \"states\", often referred to as \"provinces\") by 1824 Constitution, and finally ceded to the United States in 1848 as an outcome of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (although it also included Texas, which had earlier proclaimed its independence from the government in Mexico City and was independent territory.) The commitment to a nationalist ideology allowed Chicano activists to supersede differences that threatened their unity. Mexican Americans had regional, linguistic, age, cultural, racial, and gender differences, all of which were all subsumed to a mutual dedication to the Chicano", "Republic of either African or Amerindian descent, and the Creole elite had little interest in giving these groups power and broad-based popular sovereignty. Simón Bolívar, both the main instigator of the revolts and one of its most important theorists, was sympathetic to liberal ideals but felt that Latin America lacked the social cohesion for such a system to function and advocated autocracy as necessary. In Mexico this autocracy briefly took the form of a monarchy in the First Mexican Empire. Due to the Peninsular War, the Portuguese court was relocated to Brazil in 1808. Brazil gained independence as a monarchy on", "Administrative divisions of Mexico an Independent Empire – \"monarchist, constitutional and moderate\". The new country took the name of Mexican Empire. The morning after the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City on September 28, 1821, Agustín de Iturbide ordered the Supreme Provisional Governmental Junta (September 1821 – February 1822) to meet to elect a president of the Imperial Regency and to issue a declaration of independence for the new nation. Iturbide was elected president of the Regency, and that afternoon the members of the Regency and the Supreme Junta signed the Declaration. A minority of the Constituent Congress, looking for stability, elected", "Texas annexation petitions for redress of grievances to overturn the restrictions, with limited success. In 1835, an army under Mexican President Santa Anna entered its territory of Texas and abolished self-government. Texans responded by declaring their independence from Mexico on March 2, 1836. On April 20–21, rebel forces under Texas General Sam Houston defeated the Mexican army at the Battle of San Jacinto. In June 1836, Santa Anna agreed to Texas independence, but the Mexican government refused to honor Santa Anna's pledge. Texans, now \"de facto\" independent, recognized that their security and prosperity could never be achieved while Mexico denied the legitimacy", "Antonio López de Santa Anna were suffering from yellow fever. The defeat of the Spanish army not only increased Santa Anna's popularity, but also consolidated the independence of the new Mexican republic. Santa Anna was declared a hero. From then on, he styled himself \"The Victor of Tampico\" and \"The Savior of the Motherland\". His main act of self-promotion was to call himself \"The Napoleon of the West\". In a December 1829 coup, Vice-President Anastasio Bustamante rebelled against President Guerrero, who left the capital to lead a rebellion in southern Mexico. On 1 January 1830, Bustamante took over the presidency. In 1832, a rebellion started", "Benito Juárez Mexican Empire fell in 1867, the Mexican Republic with Juárez as president was restored to full power. In his success in ousting the European incursion, Latin Americans considered his a \"second struggle for independence, a second defeat for the European powers, and a second reversal of the Conquest.\" He is now \"a preeminent symbol of Mexican nationalism and resistance to foreign intervention.\" Juárez was a practical and skilled politician, controversial in his lifetime and beyond. He had an understanding of the importance of a working relationship with the United States, and secured its recognition for his liberal government during the", "Compromise of 1850 Columbia. The independent Republic of Texas won the decisive Battle of San Jacinto (April 21, 1836) against Mexico and captured Mexican president Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. He signed the Treaties of Velasco, which recognized the Rio Grande as the boundary of the Republic of Texas. The treaties were then repudiated by the government of Mexico, which insisted that it was sovereign over Texas and promised to reclaim the lost territories. To the extent that there was a \"de facto\" recognition, Mexico treated the Nueces River as its northern boundary control. A vast, largely-unsettled area was between the two rivers.", "Plan of Iguala would become Emperor of Mexico) and Vicente Guerrero, revolutionary rebel leader and later President of Mexico. The Army of the Three Guarantees was formed by the unified forces Iturbide and Guerrero to defend the ideals of the Plan of Iguala. On 24 August 1821, Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba in Córdoba, Veracruz, ratifying the Plan of Iguala, and thus confirming Mexico's independence. The Plan of Iguala established three central principles for the nascent Mexican state: the primacy of Roman Catholicism, the absolute political independence of Mexico, and full social equality for all social and", "Agustín de Iturbide Iturbide entertained the notion of becoming the ruler when he started his campaign for Mexico's independence. To show the military might of the alliance, Iturbide co-ordinated with associated royalist and insurgent commanders in the provinces, opting for a replay of the strategy of closing in on Mexico City from the periphery, which Morelos had attempted in 1811–14. However, Iturbide had the advantage of having most of the former royalist army on his side. Iturbide marched into Mexico City on 27 September 1821, his own birthday, with the Army of the Three Guarantees. The army was received by a jubilant populace", "Centralist Republic of Mexico of its declaration of independence from Mexico, is still widely used as civil emblem in the State and there are proposals even today to adopt it as the official state flag. Engraved stone that tells a few episodes of the Caste War between 1854 and 1855. Although the Centralist regime had already formally disappeared by that time, the stone still mentions the \"Department of YUCATÁN\". Political turmoil continued. In 1841, Antonio López de Santa Anna assumed the Presidency of Mexico, with extraordinary powers to govern and legislate; and he announced elections for a new Congress that would draft a new", "Campeche Isla del Carmen. Other settlements in the west of the peninsula expressed its desire to be partition with these areas as a new state. In 1858, representatives from Campeche and Mérida signed an agreement to divide the peninsula, which was ratified to make the division official. During the French Intervention in Mexico, forces under Felipe Navarrete took Campeche and forced the state to rejoin the rest of the Yucatán. In 1864, insurgents defeated the imperial army in Hecelchakán and in 1867, they retook Campeche to regain the state's independence. During the Mexican Revolution, Manuel Castilla Brito took up arms in", "Republic of Texas Mexican Texas) declared its independence from Mexico during the Texas Revolution in 1836. The Texas war of independence ended on April 21, 1836, but Mexico refused to recognize the independence of the Republic of Texas, and intermittent conflicts between the two states continued into the 1840s. The United States recognized the Republic of Texas in March 1837 but declined to annex the territory. The Republic-claimed borders were based upon the Treaties of Velasco between the newly created Texas Republic and Antonio López de Santa Anna of Mexico. The eastern boundary had been defined by the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819 between", "Hispanos of New Mexico and New Mexico became part of the new nation of Mexico. The Spanish settlers of New Mexico, and their descendants, adapted somewhat to Mexican citizenship. The Hispanos choose to make New Mexico a territory of Mexico, rather than a state, in order to have more local control over its affairs. In 1836, after the Republic of Texas gained independence, Texas claimed part of the Province of New Mexico which was disputed by Mexico. In 1841, the Texians sent an expedition to occupy the area, but it was captured by Mexican troops. The Revolt of 1837 in New Mexico caused the", "History of Mexico system of castas. Slavery was not abolished at independence in 1821 or with the constitution in 1824, but was eliminated in 1829. Mexico continues to be constituted as a federated republic, under the Mexican Constitution of 1917. The Age of Santa Anna is the period of the late 1820s to the early 1850s that was dominated by criollo military-man-turned-president Antonio López de Santa Anna. In 1846, the Mexican–American War was provoked by the United States, ending two years later with Mexico ceding almost half of its territory via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to the United States. Even though Santa", "Republic of Yucatán was short-lived. The Mexican government on February 21, 1844 ruled that unique rights and autonomy awarded to Yucatán were unconstitutional. In late 1845, the Mexican Congress revoked the Conventions of December 1843 and the Assembly of Yucatán to declare its independence on January 1, 1846. Yucatán had additional conflicts, in addition to the one with Mexico. Political Yucatecans were divided between the partisans of Mérida, led by Miguel Barbachano, and the partisans of Campeche, led by Santiago Méndez. This rivalry was so pointed that by early 1847 Yucatán had a government in both camps. To this should also be added", "Guadalupe Victoria spread the movement. Several royalist military leaders joined the Plan of Iguala and so did some retired insurgent leaders, including Nicolás Bravo and Ignacio López Rayón. Guadalupe Victoria also joined. On 6 April, Victoria proclaimed independence in the town of Soledad. In late May, with the exception of the capital, the province of Veracruz was up in arms. The Army of the Three Guarantees was created on 24 February 1821 as part of the Plan of Iguala and continued battling Spanish royalist forces that refused to accept Mexican independence. These battles continued until 21 August 1821, when Iturbide and Spanish", "Mariano Fernández de Folgueras established. From October 9–10, 1820, several foreigners were massacred by the natives because of Spanish authorities' claim that the natives spread the cholera in the islands. In 1821, Mexico became an independent nation as a conclusion to Mexican War of Independence; the Viceroyalty was dissolved and the country was directly controlled by the Spanish Crown through the Ministry of the Colonies (\"Ministerio de Ultramar\"). In October 30, 1822, Fernández de Folgueras gave the office to Juan Antonio Martínez and returned to become the lieutenant governor once again. On 1823, Creoles and mestizos staged an insurrection against the government of Martínez", "Vicente Filisola a supporter of Agustin de Iturbide, who declared himself emperor of Mexico, he became a brigadier general in command of the Army of the Three Guarantees. Emperor Iturbide sent him to Central America to ensure its inclusion in the Mexican Empire. This he did, but when Iturbide fell in 1823 and Mexico was declared a republic, Central America (except for Chiapas) declared independence from Mexico. As a governor of Mexico, he occupied Guatemala City after the formation of the Federal Republic of Central America and was successful in annexing El Salvador in 1823, causing an uprising there. In compliance with", "History of Texas harshly, looting the province and executing any Tejanos accused of having Republican tendencies. By 1820 fewer than 2,000 Hispanic citizens remained in Texas. The situation did not normalize until 1821, when Agustin de Iturbide launched a drive for Mexican Independence. Texas became a part of the newly independent nation without a shot being fired, ending the period of Spanish Texas. Spanish control of Texas was followed by Mexican control of Texas, and it can be difficult to separate the Spanish and Mexican influences on the future state. The most obvious legacy is that of the language; every major river in", "La Reforma Victorious liberal president Benito Juárez could not implement the envisioned reforms due to a new political threat. Conservatives had sought another route to regaining power, resulting in their active collaboration with Napoleon III's plans to turn the Mexican Empire into the main American ally of the French empire. Mexican conservatives offered the crown of Mexico to Hapsburg archduke Maximilian. The French invasion and republican resistance to the French Intervention in Mexico lasted from 1862-67. With the defeat of the conservatives and the execution of Maximilian, Juárez again took up his duties as president. In this period from 1867 to 1876,", "France–Mexico relations In 1866, Louis-Napoléon decided to withdraw French troops from Mexico due to American pressure and the fact that the rebel troops were successfully advancing on Mexico City. In 1867, Emperor Maximilian I was captured and executed in Querétaro thus ending the Second Mexican Empire. The events of the 1860 are commemorated in both France and Mexico to this day. In Mexico, Cinco de Mayo commemorates the Mexicans' victory over the French troops at the Battle of Puebla (May 5, 1862). Another defeat of the French – the destruction of the small, but heroic, French Foreign Legion force at the Battle", "Maximilian I of Mexico part of the War of the French Intervention. Seeking to legitimize French rule in the Americas, Napoleon III invited Maximilian to establish a new Mexican monarchy. With the support of the French army and a group of conservative Mexican monarchists hostile to the liberal administration of the new Mexican president, Benito Juárez, Maximilian traveled to Mexico and declared himself Emperor of Mexico on 10 April 1864. The Empire managed to gain recognition by several European powers including Britain, Austria, and Prussia. The United States however, continued to recognize Juárez as the legal president of Mexico. Maximilian never completely defeated the", "First Mexican Republic Juan Ulúa until 1825. Spanish agents sought to assess the political situation in Mexico in the 1820s, looking for an opening to reassert control. \"The Spanish government vacillated between planning military reconquest and seeking other means to achieve a negotiated return to Mexican dependency.\" Many Spaniards did remain in Mexico after independence, but elite Mexicans viewed them warily, particularly those who had fought in the royalist army. This is despite the pledge of the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba guaranteeing equality between peninsular- and American-born Spaniards. All in Mexico were to be Mexican citizens, but with the", "Texas pride of courage that took place nearly two centuries ago. These men, these volunteers, these martyrs mark the beginning of an unmatched cultural nationalism that would stand tall and true through decades of change. In April of 1836, Texas gained independence after defeating the Mexican army at The Battle of San Jacinto. Their status as an independent country remained intact until 1845 when they became the 28th state to be seceded into the Union. During this period of independence that lasted almost a decade, patriotism flourished. This patriotism that was developed during this period of sovereignty undoubtedly continued once Texas became", "Manuel Torres (diplomat) the new territory, while in the meantime Colombia gained increasing military control over its own, and that recognition would soon follow. Torres suffered a three-month illness in late 1821 but on November30 wrote to Adams reporting the latest developments in Colombia. He glorified its achievement of near-total military victory, the extent of its population and territory, and its potential for commerce: The purpose of these boasts was to underscore the importance of the U.S. being the first to recognize its independence, to which Torres added warnings about the unstable politics of Mexico and Peru. The letter received significant publicity because", "Moses Austin fulfill his dream to colonize Texas. Stephen led the colony to a now-sovereign Mexico in 1825, and in time, the settlers demanded autonomy and later won independence from Mexico under President Antonio López de Santa Anna, thereby establishing the Republic of Texas. Moses Austin was born October 4, 1761 to Elias Austin and Eunice Phelps Austin in Durham, Connecticut. In 1784, he moved to Philadelphia to enter the dry goods business with his brother, Stephen. He then moved to Richmond, Virginia to open a second dry goods store. In 1785, he married into the affluent iron mining family of Mary" ]

[ 11.90625 ]

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[ "Cmd.exe Cmd.exe Command Prompt, also known as cmd.exe or cmd (after its executable file name), is the command-line interpreter on Windows NT, Windows CE, OS/2 and eComStation operating systems. It is the counterpart of COMMAND.COM in DOS and Windows 9x systems (where it is also called \"MS-DOS Prompt\"), and analogous to the Unix shells used on Unix-like systems. The initial version of Command Prompt for Windows NT was developed by Therese Stowell. Command Prompt interacts with the user through a command-line interface. In Windows, this interface is implemented through Win32 console. Command Prompt may take advantage of features available to native" ]

[ "Command-line completion Command-line completion Command line interpreters are programs that allow a user to interact with the underlying operating system by typing commands at a command prompt using a command line interface (CLI), in contrast to pointing and clicking a mouse in a Graphical User Interface (GUI). Command-line completion allows the user to type the first few characters of a command, program, or filename, and press a completion key (normally ) to fill in the rest of the item. The user then presses or to run the command or open the file. Command-line completion is useful in several ways, as illustrated by", "Title (command) Title (command) In computing, codice_1 is a command in various command line interpreters (shells) such as the Windows Command Prompt, the Command Processor Shell of Windows Embedded CE and Take Command that changes the title for the graphical terminal emulator window. The command is also used within DFS and ADFS to change the title of the disc in the current drive. In case of the Windows Command Prompt it is a shell builtin of the command line interpreter codice_2. The default window title is defined in the %COMSPEC% environment variable. However, since the Win32 console title can also be defined", "COMMAND.COM COMMAND.COM COMMAND.COM is the default command-line interpreter for DOS, Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows ME. In the case of DOS, it is the default user interface as well. It has an additional role as the first program run after boot, hence being responsible for setting up the system by running the AUTOEXEC.BAT configuration file, and being the ancestor of all processes. COMMAND.COM's successor on OS/2 and Windows NT systems is cmd.exe, although COMMAND.COM is available on IA-32 versions of those operating systems. COMMAND.COM is a DOS program. Programs launched from COMMAND.COM are DOS programs that use the DOS API", "Title (command) can be used in combination with special escape sequences. Within the GNU GRUB command processor codice_1 is one of several menu-specific commands. It is used to start a new boot entry. title [<String>] Arguments: The following batch file changes the title of the Command Prompt window to \"Updating files\" while the codice_10 command is being executed. After the command is executed, the text \"Files updated\" is displayed using the codice_7 command, and the title of the Command Prompt window is changed back to \"Command Prompt\". Title (command) In computing, codice_1 is a command in various command line interpreters (shells) such", "Win32 console include command line interface tools; command line interpreters such as Windows Command Prompt, Windows PowerShell; file managers such as Far Manager and Midnight Commander; and editors such as the MS-DOS Editor. A Win32 console application may run in two modes. One mode places the text in a window and uses an operating system's font rendering. In this mode, an application's interaction with user is controlled by the windowing system. This is analogous to X Window System applications such as xterm. In a full screen mode Win32 console uses a hardware text mode and uploads a raster font to the video", "Common menus in Microsoft Windows option in the system menu the user gets a different cursor and procedure to move the window with. Some applications customize the system menu, typically through the GetSystemMenu WinAPI function. The Win32 console, used e.g. by the Command Prompt (cmd.exe), is an example of this and offers the user an ability to change its preferences through its system menu (other applications typically offer the user to change their preferences through the normal menu below their window's title bar). Common menus in Microsoft Windows This is a list of commonly used Microsoft Windows menus. Most Recently Used (MRU) is a term", "Title (command) in the program shortcut, the title is usually set to \"Command Prompt\". The command is available in Windows 2000 and later. Although the OS/2 command shell is closely related to the Windows Command Prompt, the codice_1 command is not available in the OS/2 version of codice_2. The default title of the OS/2 shell window is \"OS/2 Window\". It can be changed using the codice_5 command. The ReactOS Command Prompt also includes the codice_1 command to set the window title for the command prompt window. The command also is not available in the Mac OS X Terminal. Instead, the codice_7 command", "MS-DOS source code and make their own modifications, and do whatever they like with it. Other versions of MS-DOS can be obtained for operation, but not modification, from abandonware sites such as WinWorldPC. All versions of Microsoft Windows have had an MS-DOS-like command-line interface (CLI) called Command Prompt. This could run many DOS and variously Win32, OS/2 1.x and POSIX command line utilities in the same command-line session, allowing piping between commands. The user interface, and the icon up to Windows 2000, followed the native MS-DOS interface. The 16-bit versions of Windows (up to 3.11) ran as a Graphical User Interface", "PowerShell has included a command line interpreter (CLI) for managing the operating system. Its predecessor, MS-DOS, relied exclusively on a CLI. These are codice_5 in MS-DOS and Windows 9x, and codice_6 in the Windows NT family of operating systems. Both support a few basic internal commands. For other purposes, a separate console application must be written. They also include a basic scripting language (batch files), which can be used to automate various tasks. However, they cannot be used to automate all facets of graphical user interface (GUI) functionality, in part because command-line equivalents of operations are limited, and the scripting language", "Choice (command) Choice (command) In computing, codice_1 is a command that allows for batch files to prompt the user to select one item from a set of single-character choices. The command was introduced as an external command (with filenames CHOICE.COM or CHOICE.EXE) with MS-DOS 6.0, Novell DOS 7 and PC DOS 7.0, and is also available from the command-line shell of some versions of Microsoft Windows, but not under Windows 2000 and Windows XP. It has been reintroduced in Windows Server 2003 and is present in later versions. Starting with Windows 2000, the codice_2 command has similar functionality using the codice_3 command-line", "AUTOEXEC.BAT and Windows Vista parse codice_1 when a user logs on. As with Windows Me, anything other than setting environment variables is ignored. Unlike codice_7, the commands in codice_1 can be entered at the interactive command line interpreter. They are just standard commands that the computer operator wants to be executed automatically whenever the computer is started, and can include other batch files. codice_1 is most often used to set environment variables such as keyboard, soundcard, printer, and temporary file locations. It is also used to initiate low level system utilities, such as the following: In early versions of DOS, codice_1", "CLS (command) CLS (command) In computing, codice_1 (for clear screen) is a command used by the command line interpreters COMMAND.COM and CMD.EXE on DOS, FlexOS, OS/2, Microsoft Windows and ReactOS operating systems to clear the screen or console window of commands and any output generated by them. It does not clear the user's history of commands, however. The command is also available in the DEC RT-11 operating system, in the open-source MS-DOS emulator DOSBox and in the EFI shell. In other environments, such as Linux and Unix, the same functionality is provided by the clear command. While the ultimate origins of using", "Choice (command) screen using the codice_20 command. Choice (command) In computing, codice_1 is a command that allows for batch files to prompt the user to select one item from a set of single-character choices. The command was introduced as an external command (with filenames CHOICE.COM or CHOICE.EXE) with MS-DOS 6.0, Novell DOS 7 and PC DOS 7.0, and is also available from the command-line shell of some versions of Microsoft Windows, but not under Windows 2000 and Windows XP. It has been reintroduced in Windows Server 2003 and is present in later versions. Starting with Windows 2000, the codice_2 command has similar", "DOS can be used to run DOS programs on those machines. DOS systems utilize a command line interface. Programs are started by entering their filename at the command prompt. DOS systems include several programs as system utilities, and provides additional commands that don't correspond to programs (\"internal commands\"). In an attempt to provide a more user-friendly environment, numerous software manufacturers wrote file management programs that provided users with menu- and/or icon-based interfaces. Microsoft Windows is a notable example, eventually resulting in Microsoft Windows 9x becoming a self-contained program loader, and replacing DOS as the most-used PC-compatible program loader. Text user interface", "Batch file system date and time, initialize the DOS environment, load any resident programs or device drivers, or initialize network connections and assignments. A .bat file name extension identifies a file containing commands that are executed by the command interpreter COMMAND.COM line by line, as if it were a list of commands entered manually, with some extra batch-file-specific commands for basic programming functionality, including a codice_3 command for changing flow of line execution. Microsoft Windows was introduced in 1985 as a graphical user interface-based (GUI) overlay on text-based operating systems and was designed to run on DOS. In order to start it,", "COMSPEC COMSPEC COMSPEC or ComSpec is one of the environment variables used in DOS, OS/2 and Windows, which normally points to the command line interpreter, which is by default COMMAND.COM in DOS or CMD.EXE in OS/2 and Windows NT. The variable name is written in all-uppercase under DOS and OS/2. Under Windows, which also supports lowercase environment variable names, the variable name is COMSPEC inside the DOS emulator NTVDM and for any DOS programs, and ComSpec under CMD.EXE. The variable's contents can be displayed by typing SET or ECHO %COMSPEC% at the command prompt. The environment variable by default points to", "Recovery Console shared folder on a remote computer as implied. Recovery Console The Recovery Console is a feature of the Windows 2000, Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 operating systems. It provides the means for administrators to perform a limited range of tasks using a command line interface. Its primary function is to enable administrators to recover from situations where Windows does not boot as far as presenting its graphical user interface. The recovery console is used to provide a way to access the hard drive in an emergency through the command prompt. As such, the Recovery Console can be accessed either", "Batch file (folder) - without first asking for confirmation: These three commands are a simple fork bomb that will continually replicate itself to deplete available system resources, slowing down or crashing the system: The cmd.exe command processor that interprets .cmd files is supported in all 32- and 64-bit versions of Windows . COMMAND.EXE, which interprets .BAT files, was supported in all 16- and 32-bit versions up to at least Windows 10. There are other, later and more powerful, scripting languages available for Windows. However, these require the scripting language interpreter to be installed before they can be used: Script files run if", "Command-line interface from the system mode may not be accessible until the user exits the interface mode and enters the system mode. A command prompt (or just \"prompt\") is a sequence of (one or more) characters used in a command-line interface to indicate readiness to accept commands. It literally s the user to take action. A prompt usually ends with one of the characters codice_4, codice_5, codice_6, codice_7, codice_1 and often includes other information, such as the path of the current working directory and the hostname. On many Unix and derivative systems, the prompt commonly ends in codice_4 or codice_5 if the", "System File Checker ME, as it was replaced with System File Protection (SFP). Similar to WFP, SFP offered real-time protection. The System File Checker component included with versions of Windows 2000 earlier than Service Pack 4 overrode patches distributed by Microsoft; this was rectified in Windows 2000 Service Pack 4. In Windows NT-based operating systems, System File Checker can be invoked via Windows Command Prompt (with Admin privilege), with the following command: or If it finds a problem, it will attempt to replace the problematic files from the \"DLL Cache\" (codice_5). If the file is not in the DLL Cache or the DLL", "Windows 9x in DOS mode, by deleting its files, which are usually locked while infected in Windows. Similarly, corrupted registry files, system files or boot files can be restored from the command line. Windows 95 and Windows 98 can be started from DOS Mode by typing 'WIN' <enter> at the command prompt. However, the Recovery Console for Windows 2000, which as a version of Windows NT played a similar role in removing viruses. Because DOS was not designed for multitasking purposes, Windows versions such as 9x that are DOS-based lack File System security, such as file permissions. Further, if the user uses", "Ease of Access Keyboard, Sticky Keys, Toggle Keys, Filter Keys, and Mouse Keys. Ease of Access Ease of Access Center, formerly Utility Manager, is a component of Windows NT family of operating systems that enables use of assistive technologies. Utility Manager is included with Windows 2000 and Windows XP. In Windows Vista, Utility Manager was replaced with the Ease of Access Center control panel applet, which is still included in Windows 10, Microsoft's latest operating system. The keyboard shortcut for invoking Utility Manager or the Ease of Access Center is . The command-line shortcut (used in Windows Command Prompt or Run command) is", "Features new to Windows XP their order on the command line. Named arguments are grouped in the Named collection object and have the usual methods like Item, Count, Length as well as an Exists method. The 'ShowUsage' method for the WshArguments object mentioned earlier shows the argument information in a message box. Windows XP includes a ScriptPW.Password COM automation object, implemented in the scriptpw.dll file which can be used to mask sensitive information like passwords from command line scripts. Users can log into Windows XP Professional remotely through the Remote Desktop service. It is built on Terminal Services technology (RDP), and is similar to \"Remote", "DOSKEY current Windows NT-based operating systems, DOSKEY's functionality is built into CMD.EXE, although the DOSKEY command is still used to change its operation. DOSKEY is not available in FreeDOS, which has such features built into the command interpreter. DOSKEY allows the use of several command switches: codice_4 During a DOSKEY session, the following keyboard shortcuts can be used: DOSKEY implements support for command macros, a simple text-substitution facility which is used somewhat like command line aliases in other environments. The absence of a command history in codice_1 was a serious inconvenience ever since the earliest versions of MS-DOS. Numerous third-party programs", "Batch file on mainframe and minicomputer systems, batch files were added to ease the work required for certain regular tasks by allowing the user to set up a script to automate them. When a batch file is run, the shell program (usually COMMAND.COM or cmd.exe) reads the file and executes its commands, normally line-by-line. Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, have a similar, but more flexible, type of file called a shell script. The filename extension .bat is used in DOS and Windows. Windows NT and OS/2 also added .cmd. Batch files for other environments may have different extensions, e.g., .btm in", "Windows startup process to Windows, the startup sound is played, the shell (usually codice_30) is loaded from the [boot] section of the codice_20 file, and startup items are loaded. In all versions of Windows 9x except ME, it is also possible to load Windows by booting to a DOS prompt and typing \"win\". There are some command line switches that can be used with the WIN command: with the codice_32 switch, Windows boots to safe mode, and with the codice_33 switch, Windows boots to safe mode with networking. The latter switch only works properly with Windows 95. In Windows 3.1, additional options are", "MS-DOS 2000 was the last version of NT to support OS/2. The emulation is OS/2 1.30. POSIX is emulated through the POSIX shell, but no emulated shell; the commands are handled directly in CMD.EXE. The Command Prompt is often called the MS-DOS prompt. In part, this was the official name for it in Windows 9x and early versions of Windows NT (NT 3.5 and earlier), and in part because the SoftPC emulation of DOS redirects output into it. Actually only codice_1 and other 16-bit commands run in an NTVDM with codice_7 and codice_8 initialisation determined by codice_9, optionally permitting the use", "Command-line interface codice_103 mechanism and OS/2 EXTPROC command facilitate the passing of batch files to external processors. One can use these mechanisms to write specific command processors for dedicated uses, and process external data files which reside in batch files. Many graphical interfaces, such as the OS/2 Presentation Manager and early versions of Microsoft Windows use command-lines to call helper programs to open documents and programs. The commands are stored in the graphical shell or in files like the registry or the OS/2 codice_104 file. The earliest computers did not support interactive input/output devices, often relying on sense switches and lights to", "Function key decide what each function key meant to them, and the command line had its own actions (e.g., copied to the current command prompt words from the previous command). Following the IBM Common User Access guidelines, the key gradually became universally associated with Help in most early Windows programs. To this day, Microsoft Office programs running in Windows list as the key for Help in the Help menu. Internet Explorer in Windows does not list this keystroke in the help menu, but still responds with a help window. is commonly used to activate a search function in applications, often cycling through", "Command-line interface and personal computer systems including MS-DOS, CP/M and Apple DOS. The interface is usually implemented with a command line shell, which is a program that accepts commands as text input and converts commands into appropriate operating system functions. Today, many end users rarely, if ever, use command-line interfaces and instead rely upon graphical user interfaces and menu-driven interactions. However, many software developers, system administrators and advanced users still rely heavily on command-line interfaces to perform tasks more efficiently, configure their machine, or access programs and program features that are not available through a graphical interface. Alternatives to the command line", "Windows Script Host and so on. This can be accomplished by means of the WSH, so any language can be used if there is an installed engine. In recent versions of the Take Command enhanced command prompt and tools, the \"script\" command typed at the shell prompt will produce a list of the currently installed engines, one to a line and therefore CR-LF delimited. The first example is very simple; it shows some VBScript which uses the root WSH COM object \"WScript\" to display a message with an 'OK' button. Upon launching this script the CScript or WScript engine would be called and", "CLS (command) text printed on the form, rather than the whole window or controls on the form. The command CLS has appeared as a clear screen command in many other BASIC dialects and command line interpreters, because of its familiarity through being included in MS-DOS. CLS (command) In computing, codice_1 (for clear screen) is a command used by the command line interpreters COMMAND.COM and CMD.EXE on DOS, FlexOS, OS/2, Microsoft Windows and ReactOS operating systems to clear the screen or console window of commands and any output generated by them. It does not clear the user's history of commands, however. The command", "Batch file are no more commands. In Windows, if the script is executed from an already running command prompt window, the window remains open at the prompt as in MS-DOS; otherwise, the window closes on termination. Variable expansions are substituted textually into the command, and thus variables which contain nothing simply disappear from the syntax, and variables which contain spaces turn into multiple tokens. This can lead to syntax errors or bugs. For example, if %foo% is empty, this statement: parses as the erroneous construct: Similarly, if codice_25 contains codice_26, then a different syntax error results: The usual way to prevent this", "Escape sequence in the PROMPT command) or in command windows in 16-bit Windows. The rise of GUI applications, which directly write to display cards, has greatly reduced the usage of escape sequences on Microsoft platforms, but they can still be used to create interactive random-access character-based screen interfaces with the character-based library routines such as printf without resorting to a GUI program. The default text terminal, and text windows (such as using xterm) respond to ANSI escape sequences. When an escape character is needed within the quoted/escaped string, there are two strategies used within programming and scripting languages: An example of the", "Control-C Control-C Control-C is a common computer command. It is generated by pressing the key while holding down the key on most computer keyboards. In graphical user interface environments that use the control key to control the active program, control-C is often used to copy highlighted text to the clipboard. In many command-line interface environments, control-C is used to abort the current task and regain user control. It is a special sequence which causes the operating system to send a signal to the active program. Usually the signal causes it to end, but the program may \"catch\" it and do something", "Run command Run command On the Microsoft Windows operating system, the Run command is used to directly open an application or document whose path is known. It functions more or less like a single-line command line interface. In the GNOME interface, the Run command is used to run applications via terminal commands. It can be accessed by pressing . KDE has similar functionality called KRunner. It is accessible via the same key binds. In the BASIC programming language, codice_1 is used to start program execution from direct mode, or to start a overlay program from a loader program. Starting with Windows 95,", "Batch file the codice_5 command was used, which could be added to the end of the AUTOEXEC.BAT file to allow automatic loading of Windows. In the earlier versions, one could run a .bat type file from Windows in the MS-DOS Prompt. Windows 3.1x and earlier, as well as Windows 9x invoked COMMAND.COM to run batch files. The IBM OS/2 operating system supported DOS-style batch files. It also included a version of REXX, a more advanced batch-file scripting language. IBM and Microsoft started developing this system, but during the construction of it broke up after a dispute; as a result of this, IBM", "Find (Windows) a specified string and send these to the output data stream. Arguments: Flags: Note: If a pathname is not specified, FIND searches the text typed at the prompt or piped from another command. Find (Windows) In computing, codice_1 is a command in the command line interpreters (shells) of DOS, FlexOS, OS/2, Microsoft Windows, and ReactOS. It is used to search for a specific text string in a file or files. The command sends the specified lines to the standard output device. The FreeDOS version was developed by Jim Hall. The Unix command codice_1 performs an entirely different function, analogous to", "Runas Runas In computing, codice_1 is a command in the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems that allows a user to run specific tools and programs under a different username to the one that was used to logon to a computer interactively. It is similar to the Unix commands codice_2 and codice_3, but the Unix commands generally require prior configuration by the system administrator to work for a particular user and/or command. The codice_1 command was introduced with the Windows 2000 operating system. Any application can use this API to create a process with alternate credentials, for example, Windows Explorer in", "Console application Console application A console application is a computer program designed to be used via a text-only computer interface, such as a text terminal, the command line interface of some operating systems (Unix, DOS, etc.) or the text-based interface included with most Graphical User Interface (GUI) operating systems, such as the Win32 console in Microsoft Windows, the Terminal in Mac OS X, and xterm in Unix. A user typically interacts with a console application using only a keyboard and display screen, as opposed to GUI applications, which normally require the use of a mouse or other pointing device. Many console applications", "Batch file scripts with either the .CMD or .BAT extension. Cmd.exe added additional commands, and implemented existing ones in a slightly different way, so that the same batch file (with different extension) might work differently with cmd.exe and COMMAND.COM. In most cases, operation is identical if the few unsupported commands are not used. Cmd.exe's extensions to COMMAND.COM can be disabled for compatibility. Microsoft released a version of cmd.exe for Windows 9x and ME called WIN95CMD to allow users of older versions of Windows to use certain cmd.exe-style batch files. , cmd.exe is the normal command interpreter for batch files; the older COMMAND.COM", "Command-line interface by prohibiting embedded spaces in file and directory names in the first place (for example, by substituting them with underscores codice_96), or by enclosing a name with embedded spaces between quote characters or using an escape character before the space, usually a backslash (codice_45). For example is ambiguous (is \"program name\" part of the program name, or two parameters?); however and are not ambiguous. Unix-based operating systems minimize the use of embedded spaces to minimize the need for quotes. In Microsoft Windows, one often has to use quotes because embedded spaces (such as in directory names) are common. The terms", "Command-line completion than 52 keystrokes we would have needed to type without using command-line completion. The following example shows how command-line completion works with rotating completion, such as Windows's CMD uses. We follow the same procedure as for prompting completion until we have: We press once, with the result: We press again, getting: In short we typed: This is just seven keystrokes, comparable to prompting-style completion. This works best if we know what possibilities the interpreter will rotate through. \"(Be sure to check the \"Applies to\" section in each article)\" Command-line completion Command line interpreters are programs that allow a user to", "Management features new to Windows Vista offering access to repair functions, System Restore, a new memory diagnostic tool, access to Complete PC Backup and Restore images, and access to a command prompt. Multiple command prompts can be spawned at once, and more command-line tools are available. Command prompts can be spawned at any time during setup by pressing Shift+F10. A new diagnostic utility, dubbed Startup Repair, Later automatic repair. (formerly the System Recovery Troubleshooter Wizard), is designed to repair issues that may negatively affect the Windows startup process, such as damaged or missing boot and system files, incompatible drivers, and issues that result from damaged hardware.", "Terminate and stay resident program the PC or stay in the background. Viruses would react to disk I/O or execution events by infecting executable (.EXE or .COM) files when they were run and data files when they were opened. Parts of DOS itself, especially in DOS versions 5.0 and later, used this same technique to perform useful functions, such as the DOSKEY command-line editor and various other installable utilities which were installed by running them at the command line (manually, from AUTOEXEC.BAT or through codice_1 from within CONFIG.SYS) rather than loading them as device drivers through codice_2 statements in CONFIG.SYS. A TSR program can be", "Cd (command) Cd (command) The ' command, also known as ' (change directory), is a command-line OS shell command used to change the current working directory in operating systems such as Unix, DOS, OS/2, TRIPOS, AmigaOS (where if a bare path is given, cd is \"implied\"), Microsoft Windows, ReactOS, and Linux. It can be used in shell scripts and batch files. The command is also available in the open source MS-DOS emulator DOSBox and in the EFI shell. The command is named in MPE/iX. The system call that affects the command in most operating systems is that is defined by POSIX. The", "Ease of Access Ease of Access Ease of Access Center, formerly Utility Manager, is a component of Windows NT family of operating systems that enables use of assistive technologies. Utility Manager is included with Windows 2000 and Windows XP. In Windows Vista, Utility Manager was replaced with the Ease of Access Center control panel applet, which is still included in Windows 10, Microsoft's latest operating system. The keyboard shortcut for invoking Utility Manager or the Ease of Access Center is . The command-line shortcut (used in Windows Command Prompt or Run command) is codice_1. Some features include Narrator, Magnifier, High Contrast, On Screen", "Batch file prompt for input to output text without CR/LF trailing the text. In this example, the CR/LF does not follow Message 1, but does follow Line 2 and Line 3: This can be used to output data to a text file without CR/LF appended to the end: However, there is no way to inject this stripped CR/LF prompt output directly into an environment variable. It is not possible to have a command prompt that uses a UNC path as the current working directory; e.g. codice_35 The command prompt requires the use of drive letters to assign a working directory, which makes", "VS/9 had posted a system message, it would display at this time. The user would be at command mode, and a standard / prompt would appear where they could type various commands. The user would finish their session by typing LOGOFF and pressing transmit on the Univac VDT or Control-C on an ascii terminal. Univac's VDT terminal had four function keys at the top, and VS/9 specifically recognized them. VS/9 accepted commands by typing the command and any options. Commands issued in a batch stream either as cards or as a batch file required that they be preceded by a slash;", "IBM System/36 the mouse click. Keys F1-F12 are also called Cmd (\"command\") keys. Most standard S/36 keyboards have 24 Cmd keys (on some models, shifted F1-F12 keys are called F13-F24.) SSP menus associate a number, not an icon, with a desired function or application. The Windows Control Panel is similar to the SSP Main System Menu which is accessible from an application menu by pressing Cmd5. Windows uses point and click; with SSP, the most important function is Enter/Rec Adv, also known as Enter. Under Windows, the operator moves from field to field with the mouse click or by pressing the Tab", "Portable application in Windows XP/2000, though not in Windows Vista or Windows 7)—such would quickly result in \"Permission denied\" errors in Unix-like environments since users will be in an unprivileged state much more often. Programs are therefore generally designed to use the codice_3 environment variable to store settings (e.g. codice_4 for the w3m browser). The dynamic linker provides an environment variable codice_5 that programs can use to load libraries from non-standard directories. Assuming codice_6 contains the portable programs and configuration, a command line may look like: codice_7 A Linux application without need for a user-interaction (e.g. adapting a script or environment variable)", "Brontok concealed, are not easily accessible to the user. It also turns off Windows firewall. In some variants, when a window is found containing certain strings (such as \"application data\") in the window title, the computer reboots. User frustration also occurs when an address typed into Windows Explorer is blanked out before completion. Using its own mailing engine, it sends itself to email addresses it finds on the computer, even faking the own user's email address as the sender. The computer also restarts when trying to open the Windows Command Prompt and prevents the user from downloading files. It also pop", "CMD file (CP/M) (RSXs). The start of the header lists the groups present in the file, and their types. Each type can be used at most once; they are: The first 256 bytes of the data group must be zero. They will be populated by CP/M-86 with the zero page (comparable to the Program Segment Prefix in DOS). If there is no data group, then the first 256 bytes of the code group will be used instead. Under OS/2 and Windows NT the .CMD file extension is associated with batch scripts for their command processor CMD.EXE. Since binary code will not be executed", "COMMAND.COM to communicate with the operating system (DOS). As a shell, COMMAND.COM has two distinct modes of operation. First is the interactive mode, in which the user types commands which are then executed immediately. The second is the batch mode, which executes a predefined sequence of commands stored as a text file with the .BAT extension. Internal commands are commands stored directly inside the COMMAND.COM binary. Thus, they are always available but can only be executed directly from the command interpreter. All commands are executed after the key is pressed at the end of the line. COMMAND.COM is not case-sensitive, meaning", "Cd (command) working drive and that drive's working directory in one step. Modern versions of Windows simulate this behaviour for backwards compatibility under CMD.EXE. Note that executing from the command line with no arguments has different effects in different operating systems. For example, if is executed without arguments in DOS, OS/2, or Windows, the current working directory is displayed (equivalent to Unix codice_2). If is executed without arguments in Unix, the user is returned to the home directory. Executing the command within a script or batch file also has different effects in different operating systems. In DOS, the caller's current directory can", "Abort, Retry, Fail? disks this way without such changes. Still, it was desirable to improve the experience, in particular by giving the user a way to get out of the hang without having to find a disk to insert in the drive. The prompt was invented for this reason. A missing disk (or disk drive door opened) was defined by DOS as a \"critical error\" and would call the \"critical error handler\". The default \"critical error handler\" was part of COMMAND.COM and printed the \"Abort, Retry, ...\" prompt, then waited for user input. Other problems (in particular, a checksum error while reading data", "Shortcut (computing) Menu folders, pinned to the Taskbar or the Desktop. In Windows 2000 onwards, file shortcuts can store comments which are displayed as a tooltip when the mouse hovers over the shortcut. Generally, the effect of double-clicking a shortcut is intended to be the same as double-clicking the application or document to which it refers, but Windows shortcuts contain separate properties for the target file and the \"Start In\" directory. If the latter parameter is not entered, attempting to use the shortcut for some programs may generate \"missing DLL\" errors not present when the application is accessed directly. File system links", "AutoHotkey \"btw\" to produce the text \"by the way\" when typed, or the text \"%o\" to produce \"percentage of\". Further, some scripts can be initiated automatically at computer startup and need not interact with the keyboard at all, perhaps performing file manipulation at a set interval. More complex tasks can be achieved with custom data entry forms (GUI windows), working with the system registry, or using the Windows API by calling functions from DLLs. The scripts can be compiled into an executable file that can be run on other computers that do not have AutoHotkey installed. The source code is in", "Command-line interface a prompt, accept a \"command line\" typed by the user terminated by the Enter key, then execute the specified command and provide textual display of results or error messages. Advanced CLIs will validate, interpret and parameter-expand the command line before executing the specified command, and optionally capture or redirect its output. Unlike a button or menu item in a GUI, a command line is typically self-documenting, stating exactly what the user wants done. In addition, command lines usually include many defaults that can be changed to customize the results. Useful command lines can be saved by assigning a character string", "Program Manager as the default shell. Specifically, the Start Menu took over program organization and launching duties. However, Windows 95 still gave the user the option to start Program Manager at boot. Program Manager was still included in later versions of Windows, and could be accessed by executing PROGMAN.EXE from the command line or \"Run\" dialog. It could be used as the default shell by specifying the \"Shell\" value in the registry at either HKLM\\SOFTWARE\\Microsoft\\Windows NT\\CurrentVersion\\Winlogon (per machine) or HKCU\\SOFTWARE\\Microsoft\\Windows NT\\CurrentVersion\\Winlogon (per user). Microsoft removed Program Manager from Windows XP Service Pack 2. In Windows Vista, PROGMAN.EXE was removed entirely. Program Manager", "Character Map (Windows) Character Map (Windows) Character Map is a utility included with Microsoft Windows operating systems and is used to view the characters in any installed font, to check what keyboard input (Alt code) is used to enter those characters, and to copy characters to the clipboard in lieu of typing them. The tool is usually useful for entering \"special characters\". It can be opened via the command line or Run Command dialog using the 'charmap' command. Other operating systems such as some Unix-Linux variants with GUIs, the HP-48 series graphing calculators and others also have a similar accessory. The \"Advanced view\"", "User Account Control UAC settings. It is possible to: Command Prompt windows that are running elevated will prefix the title of the window with the word \"Administrator\", so that a user can discern which instances are running with elevated privileges. A distinction is made between elevation requests from a signed executable and an unsigned executable; and if the former, whether the publisher is 'Windows Vista'. The color, icon, and wording of the prompts are different in each case; for example, attempting to convey a greater sense of warning if the executable is unsigned than if not. Internet Explorer 7's \"Protected Mode\" feature uses", "DOS captured and run in the window. DOS applications can use the Windows clipboard by accessing extra published calls in WinOldAp, and one can paste text through the WinOldAp graphics. The emulated DOS in OS/2 and Windows NT is based upon DOS 5. Although there is a default configuration (config.sys and autoexec.bat), one can use alternate files on a session-by-session basis. It is possible to load drivers in these files to access the host system, although these are typically third-party. Under OS/2 2.x and later, the DOS emulation is provided by DOSKRNL. This is a file that represents the combined IBMBIO.COM", "Command-line interface older style. Many Unix systems feature the codice_20 variable (Prompt String 1), although other variables also may affect the prompt (depending on the shell used). In the bash shell, a prompt of the form: could be set by issuing the command In zsh the codice_21 variable controls an optional \"prompt\" on the right-hand side of the display. It is not a real prompt in that the location of text entry does not change. It is used to display information on the same line as the prompt, but right-justified. In RISC OS the command prompt is a codice_22 symbol, and thus", "Command-line interface Apple Macintosh. A few computer users used GUIs such as GEOS and Windows 3.1 but the majority of IBM PC users did not replace their COMMAND.COM shell with a GUI until Windows 95 was released in 1995. While most non-expert computer users now use a GUI almost exclusively, more advanced users have access to powerful command-line environments: Most command-line interpreters support scripting, to various extents. (They are, after all, interpreters of an interpreted programming language, albeit in many cases the language is unique to the particular command-line interpreter.) They will interpret scripts (variously termed shell scripts or batch files) written", "Batch file term \"replacement variables\" for them. JP Software calls them \"batch file parameters\". This example batch file displays codice_17, prompts and waits for the user to press a key, and then terminates. (Note: It does not matter if commands are lowercase or uppercase unless working with variables) To execute the file, it must be saved with the extension .bat (or .cmd for Windows NT-type operating systems) in plain text format, typically created by using a text editor such as Microsoft Notepad or a word processor working in plain text mode. When executed, the following is displayed: The interpreter executes each line", "Batch file Batch file A batch file is a kind of script file in DOS, OS/2 and Microsoft Windows. It consists of a series of commands to be executed by the command-line interpreter, stored in a plain text file. A batch file may contain any command the interpreter accepts interactively and use constructs that enable conditional branching and looping within the batch file, such as codice_1, codice_2, and codice_3 labels. The term \"batch\" is from batch processing, meaning \"non-interactive execution\", though a batch file may not process a \"batch\" of multiple data. Similar to Job Control Language (JCL), DCL and other systems", "COMSPEC the full path of the command line interpreter. It can also be made by a different company or be a different version. COMSPEC COMSPEC or ComSpec is one of the environment variables used in DOS, OS/2 and Windows, which normally points to the command line interpreter, which is by default COMMAND.COM in DOS or CMD.EXE in OS/2 and Windows NT. The variable name is written in all-uppercase under DOS and OS/2. Under Windows, which also supports lowercase environment variable names, the variable name is COMSPEC inside the DOS emulator NTVDM and for any DOS programs, and ComSpec under CMD.EXE. The", "Win32 console Win32 console Win32 console is a text user interface implementation within the system of Windows API, which runs console applications. A Win32 console has a screen buffer and an input buffer, and is available both as a window or in text mode screen, with switching back and forth available via Alt-Enter keys. The latter was not supported in Windows Vista, 7, 8, and 8.1, due to the system not supporting fullscreen mode, but was made supported again in Windows 10. Win32 consoles are typically used for applications that do not need to display images but which might use color. Examples", "Tasklist command: codice_7. Optionally, they can be listed sorted by either the imagename, the PID or the amount of computer usage. But by default, they are sorted by chronological order: Tasklist In computing, codice_1 is a command available in Microsoft Windows and in the AROS shell. It is equivalent to the codice_2 command in Unix and Unix-like operating systems and can also be compared with the Windows task manager (taskmgr). Windows NT 4.0, Windows 98 Resource Kit, and the Windows 2000 Support Tools include the similar codice_3 command. Additionally, Microsoft provides the similar codice_4 command as part of Windows Sysinternals. On", "Batch file referred to their DOS-like console shell without mention of Microsoft, naming it just DOS, although this seemingly made no difference with regard to the way batch files worked from COMMAND.COM. OS/2's batch file interpreter also supports an EXTPROC command. This passes the batch file to the program named on the EXTPROC file as a data file. The named program can be a script file; this is similar to the #! mechanism. Unlike Windows 98 and earlier, the Windows NT family of operating systems does not depend on MS-DOS. Windows NT introduced an enhanced 32-bit command interpreter (cmd.exe) that could execute", "Liberty BASIC in a style similar to DOS BASICs that run in console mode, using a default \"main window\" that displays formatted text and accepts user input. It also supports GUI-based event-driven programming using several types of windows that may contain the standard controls such as buttons, menus, textboxes, etc. A central idea in creating Liberty BASIC was to model the handling of windows after the syntax for file handling. For example, (from the Liberty BASIC Help File): \"The OPEN command opens communication with a device, which can be a disk file, a window, a dynamic link library or a serial communications", "Shell (computing) command-line and graphical. Command line shells provide a command-line interface (CLI) to the operating system, while graphical shells provide a graphical user interface (GUI). Other possibilities, although not so common, include voice user interface and various implementations of a text-based user interface (TUI) that are not CLI. The relative merits of CLI- and GUI-based shells are often debated. A command-line interface (CLI) is an operating system shell that uses alphanumeric characters typed on a keyboard to provide instructions and data to the operating system, interactively. For example, a teletypewriter can send codes representing keystrokes to a command interpreter program running", "Command-line interface BASIC. During the 1980s and 1990s, the introduction of the Apple Macintosh and of Microsoft Windows on PCs saw the command line interface as the primary user interface replaced by the Graphical User Interface. The command line remained available as an alternative user interface, often used by system administrators and other advanced users for system administration, computer programming and batch processing. In November 2006, Microsoft released version 1.0 of Windows PowerShell (formerly codenamed \"Monad\"), which combined features of traditional Unix shells with their proprietary object-oriented .NET Framework. MinGW and Cygwin are open-source packages for Windows that offer a Unix-like CLI.", "MS-DOS of Win32 console applications and internal commands with an codice_10 directive. Win32 console applications use codice_3 as their command prompt shell. This confusion does not exist under OS/2 because there are separate DOS and OS/2 prompts, and running a DOS program under OS/2 will launch a separate DOS window to run the application. All versions of Windows for Itanium (no longer sold by Microsoft) and x86-64 architectures no longer include the NTVDM and can therefore no longer natively run MS-DOS or 16-bit Windows applications. There are alternatives in the form of virtual machine emulators such as Microsoft's own Virtual PC,", "Comparison of command shells PowerShell ISE or which can be displayed separately through the Show-Command cmdlet. In anticipation of what a given running application may accept as keyboard input, the user of the shell instructs the shell to generate a sequence of \"simulated\" keystrokes, which the application will interpret as an keyboard input from an interactive user. By sending keystroke sequences the user may be able to direct the application to perform actions that would be impossible to achieve through input redirection or would otherwise require an interactive user. For example, if an application acts on keystrokes, which cannot be redirected, distinguishes between normal", "Recovery Console Recovery Console The Recovery Console is a feature of the Windows 2000, Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 operating systems. It provides the means for administrators to perform a limited range of tasks using a command line interface. Its primary function is to enable administrators to recover from situations where Windows does not boot as far as presenting its graphical user interface. The recovery console is used to provide a way to access the hard drive in an emergency through the command prompt. As such, the Recovery Console can be accessed either through the original installation media used to install", "Command-line interface allows the setting to be changed via codice_43. Under DR-DOS, if the setting has been changed from codice_31, the first directory separator codice_45 in the display of the PROMPT parameter codice_46 will change to a forward slash codice_31 (which is also a valid directory separator in DOS, FlexOS, 4680 OS, 4690 OS, OS/2 and Windows) thereby serving as a visual clue to indicate the change. Some versions of DR-DOS COMMAND.COM also support a PROMPT token codice_48 to display the current setting. COMMAND.COM since DR-DOS 7.02 also provides a pseudo-environment variable named codice_49 to allow portable batchjobs to be written. Several", "Windows NT 3.1 also included applications specifically aimed at the needs of Windows NT, like the User Manager, the Performance Monitor, the Disk Administrator, the Event Viewer and the \"Backup\" application. The \"Advanced Server\" contained further, server-specific administration tools. Because Windows NT 3.1 is not DOS-based, a new 32-bit command-line processor, called CMD.EXE was included which was compatible with MS-DOS 5.0. For compatibility reasons, Windows NT 3.1 shipped with a few 16-bit applications, like Microsoft Write or EDLIN. Windows NT 3.1, being an all-new operating system for which no previous drivers could be used, includes a wealth of drivers for various common components", "Shell (computing) from the keyboard or passing keystrokes on as data to be processed. A feature of many command-line shells is the ability to save sequences of commands for re-use. A data file can contain sequences of commands which the CLI can be made to follow as if typed in by a user. Special features in the CLI may apply when it is carrying out these stored instructions. Such batch files (script files) can be used repeatedly to automate routine operations such as initializing a set of programs when a system is restarted. Batch mode use of shells usually involves structures, conditionals,", "Archy This is known as Creeping. Another feature is intended to provide the power of a command line interface in a graphical user interface (GUI). Command names can be inserted and executed at any place in the interface. This reduces the need to move a mouse pointer to a menu bar or toolbox to execute commands, and allows for quickly composing the results of several commands in sequence. To use a command the user types the command name while holding down the command key (the caps-lock key). Most command names are filled in automatically, so the user needs to type only", "Keyboard shortcut the Alt key, activates such command—whereas a \"hotkey\" on Windows is a system wide shortcut that is always available in all contexts as long as the program responsible for it is running and not suspended. Keyboard shortcuts are typically a means for invoking one or more commands using the keyboard that would otherwise be accessible only through a menu, a pointing device, different levels of a user interface, or via a command-line interface. Keyboard shortcuts are generally used to expedite common operations by reducing input sequences to a few keystrokes, hence the term \"shortcut\". To differentiate from general keyboard input,", "Text-based (computing) carried out by various shells in Unix and Unix-like operating systems, and CMD and PowerShell in Microsoft Windows. Text-based applications typically run faster than software involving graphics does. Text-based applications run faster because the machine does not expend resources on processing the graphics, which generally requires more system resources than text does. For the same reason, text-based applications use memory more efficiently. Command line interfaces often provide the user more control on the software than a graphical user interface, by taking all the details of a command as parameters and/or by redirecting the outputs between commands. Since the available parameters", "Windows shell Windows shell The Windows shell is the graphical user interface for the Microsoft Windows operating system. Its readily identifiable elements consists of the desktop, the taskbar, the Start menu, the task switcher and the Autoplay feature. On some versions of Windows, it also includes Flip 3D and the charms. In Windows 10, the Windows Shell Experience Host interface drives visuals like the Start Menu, Action Center, Taskbar, and Task View/Timeline. However, the Windows shell also implements a shell namespace that enables computer programs running on Windows to access the computer's resources via the hierarchy of shell objects. \"Desktop\" is the", "Backslash backslash to allow paths to be typed at the command line interpreter's prompt while retaining compatibility with MS-DOS 1.0 and CP/M where the slash was the command-line option indicator (typing \"codice_14\" gave the \"wide\" option to the \"codice_15\" command, so some other method was needed if you actually wanted to run a program called codice_16 inside a directory called codice_15). Except for COMMAND.COM, all other parts of the operating system accept both characters in a path, but the Microsoft convention remains to use a backslash, and APIs that \"return\" paths use backslashes. In some versions, the option character can be", "Windows Shell namespace physical file system, which are referred to as virtual folders. Likewise, there are virtual file objects that do not reside on the physical file system. Virtual Shell objects are used throughout the Windows Shell. On the Desktop, Shell launchers are implemented through a built-in shell extension. The Window Shell utilizes virtual Shell objects to conceptually represent computer peripherals and network devices, such as printers and routers. Virtual Shell objects can function as Shell links and execute commands when invoked by the user. For example, in Windows XP and other versions, codice_1 is executed on the command line when a user", "Command-line interface for the shell, the output being placed directly in the document window. A web browser's URL input field can be used as a command line. It can be used to \"launch\" web apps, , as well as perform a search. Google, which has been called \"the command line of the internet\" will perform a domain-specific search when it detects search parameters in a known format. This functionality is present whether the search is triggered from a browser field or on Google's website. Command-line interface A command-line interface or command language interpreter (CLI), also known as command-line user interface, console user", "WIN.COM WIN.COM WIN.COM is the executable file used to load versions of Windows that run from DOS. In Windows 3.1 and its predecessors, it is executed either manually from the DOS prompt or as a line in AUTOEXEC.BAT. In Windows 95 and onward it is automatically invoked by IO.SYS after AUTOEXEC.BAT is processed. The file is present in the SYSTEM32 directory of some NT-based versions of Windows (such as Windows 2000, XP and Vista) for backwards compatibility purposes. WIN.COM has several parameters that facilitate system recovery and diagnostics. Corruption or deletion of WIN.COM caused many issues for users of Windows 1.0,", "Control Panel (Windows) and Windows 7, additional layers of navigation were introduced, and the Control Panel window itself became the main interface for editing settings, as opposed to launching separate dialogs. Many of the individual Control Panel applets can be accessed in other ways. For instance, \"Display Properties\" can be accessed by right-clicking on an empty area of the desktop and choosing \"Properties\". The Control Panel can be accessed from a command prompt by typing \"control\"; optional parameters are available to open specific control panels. On Windows 10, Control Panel is deprecated in favor of Settings app, which was originally introduced on Windows", "Command-line interface text interface is often called a command-line interpreter, command processor or shell. Examples of command-line interpreters include DEC's DIGITAL Command Language (DCL) in OpenVMS and RSX-11, the various Unix shells (sh, ksh, csh, tcsh, bash, etc.), CP/M's CCP, DOS's COMMAND.COM, as well as the OS/2 and the Windows CMD.EXE programs, the latter groups being based heavily on DEC's RSX-11 and RSTS CLIs. Under most operating systems, it is possible to replace the default shell program with alternatives; examples include 4DOS for DOS, 4OS2 for OS/2, and 4NT or Take Command for Windows. Although the term 'shell' is often used to", "Graphical user interface Graphical user interface The graphical user interface (GUI ) is a form of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons and visual indicators such as secondary notation, instead of text-based user interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation. GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces (CLIs), which require commands to be typed on a computer keyboard. The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements. Beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media", "Run command page. This allows user to not only launch codice_3 protocol, but also all registered URI schemes in OS and applications associated with them, like codice_4 and codice_5. In GNOME and KDE, the Run command acts as a location where applications and commands can be executed. Run command On the Microsoft Windows operating system, the Run command is used to directly open an application or document whose path is known. It functions more or less like a single-line command line interface. In the GNOME interface, the Run command is used to run applications via terminal commands. It can be accessed by", "Windows 2000 various methods. It can be installed onto servers via traditional media (such as CD) or via distribution folders that reside on a shared folder. Installations can be attended or unattended. During a manual installation, the administrator must specify configuration options. Unattended installations are scripted via an answer file, or a predefined script in the form of an INI file that has all the options filled in. An answer file can be created manually or using the graphical \"Setup manager\". The Winnt.exe or Winnt32.exe program then uses that answer file to automate the installation. Unattended installations can be performed via a", "AUTOEXEC.BAT its derivatives, Windows 2000, Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP, the equivalent file is called codice_60 and is located in the codice_61 directory. The file is not used during the operating system boot process; it is executed when the MS-DOS environment is started, which occurs when a DOS application is loaded. The codice_1 file may often be found on Windows NT, in the root directory of the boot drive. Windows only considers the codice_63 and codice_64 statements which it contains, in order to define environment variables global to all users. Setting environment variables through this file may be interesting if", "Runas to codice_24 and invokes codice_25 with the given arguments. Note: The command is only invoked if setting of the user name succeeds. Runas In computing, codice_1 is a command in the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems that allows a user to run specific tools and programs under a different username to the one that was used to logon to a computer interactively. It is similar to the Unix commands codice_2 and codice_3, but the Unix commands generally require prior configuration by the system administrator to work for a particular user and/or command. The codice_1 command was introduced with the", "Text-based (computing) Unix and Unix-like, which can usually be accessed through the shell running in a system (or virtual) console or a terminal emulator. In these operating systems text-based programs continue to be the primary software for system administration, programming and scripting. On the contrary, Microsoft Windows contains far less text-based software, which is essentially the remnants due to the MS-DOS ancestry, even though there are still several programs for system administration and critical maintenance. When the method used to access the operating system itself is text-based, the interface is usually referred to as a Command Line Interface (CLI). This function is", "DIGITAL Command Language CGI capabilities distributed by Advanced System Concepts Inc. from 1997. For the OpenVMS implementation, the command line parser is a runtime library (CLI$) that can be compiled into user applications and therefore gives a consistent command line interface for both OS supplied commands and user written commands. The command line must start with a verb and is then followed by arguments or qualifiers (switches in Unix terminology) which begin with a '/' character. Unlike Unix (but similar to DOS), a space is not required before the '/'. Qualifiers can be position independent (occurring anywhere on the command line) or position", "Command (computing) Command (computing) In computing, a command is a directive to a computer program acting as an interpreter of some kind to perform a specific task. Most commonly a command is either a directive to some kind of command-line interface, such as a shell, or an event in a graphical user interface triggered by the user selecting an option in a menu. Specifically, the term \"command\" is used in imperative computer languages. These languages are called this, because statements in these languages are usually written in a manner similar to the imperative mood used in many natural languages. If one views", "Cwm (window manager) the keyboard, making it suitable to use as terminal emulator multiplexer. Furthermore, it allows manipulating pointing devices, such as mice, with the keyboard. Additional key bindings and configuration options can be specified in the configuration file codice_1. cwm is generally well received in software minimalist communities. cwm is noted to be used mainly due to its status as one of the default window managers in OpenBSD, though other reasons are sometimes cited. cwm is also praised for its flexibility, ease of use, and the fact that it can be used without a mouse. Cwm (window manager) cwm (Calm Window Manager)", "ANSI.SYS first version of the operating system supporting device drivers. It is a part of several other Microsoft operating systems, including: It is also present in many non-Microsoft DOS systems, e.g. IBM PC DOS and DR-DOS. ANSI.SYS was required to run some software that used its cursor and color control functions. It could also be used to enable elaborate color codes in the COMMAND.COM prompt. These uses were overshadowed by the use of ANSI.SYS in BBSes; ANSI escape sequences were used to enable BBSes to send elaborate text graphics more elaborate than ASCII art, and to control the cursor in ways" ]

[ 11.0703125 ]

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[ "The rain poured over the corners of Adrin's hat." ]

[ "The hat blocked out the sunshine as Adrin walked around on the warm sunny day.", "it is necessary for all climbers to wear a dress code", "Presort firms have refused to cooperate with their customers about their addresses.", "A cat is asleep in a cat bed.", "Your yelling, whining spouse may be yelling and whining for help.", "We do not have any pets at all, so that makes things better.", "the paper clips are bent" ]

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[]

[ "A woman is singing." ]

[ "They are playing a PlayStation.", "It makes everything seem weird.", "The woman in tennis shoes has blond hair.", "people on snowboards", "Jon pushed her away, not wanting to look at her face.", "That man is getting a hair cut.", "The men are passing them." ]

[]

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[ "Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology (archeological, biological, cultural, linguistic) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white European and American feminists. Historically, such 'peripheral' perspectives have sometimes been marginalized and regarded as less valid or important than knowledge from the western world. Feminist anthropologists have claimed that their research helps to correct this systematic bias in mainstream feminist theory. Feminist anthropologists are centrally concerned with the construction of gender across societies. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of birth anthropology as a specialization." ]

[ "The USAF's KC-135 and KC-10 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with \"probe and drogue\" refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in large-scale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesser-known \"tanker\" aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. The KC-46A Pegasus is undergoing testing and is projected to be delivered to USAF units starting in 2017.", "Layer III audio can also use a \"bit reservoir\", a partially full frame's ability to hold part of the next frame's audio data, allowing temporary changes in effective bitrate, even in a constant bitrate stream. Internal handling of the bit reservoir increases encoding delay.[citation needed]", "Schwarzenegger is a dual Austrian/United States citizen. He holds Austrian citizenship by birth and has held U.S. citizenship since becoming naturalized in 1983. Being Austrian and thus European, he was able to win the 2007 European Voice campaigner of the year award for taking action against climate change with the California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 and plans to introduce an emissions trading scheme with other US states and possibly with the EU.", "West got his big break in the year 2000, when he began to produce for artists on Roc-A-Fella Records. West came to achieve recognition and is often credited with revitalizing Jay-Z's career with his contributions to the rap mogul's influential 2001 album The Blueprint. The Blueprint is consistently ranked among the greatest hip-hop albums, and the critical and financial success of the album generated substantial interest in West as a producer. Serving as an in-house producer for Roc-A-Fella Records, West produced records for other artists from the label, including Beanie Sigel, Freeway, and Cam'ron. He also crafted hit songs for Ludacris, Alicia Keys, and Janet Jackson.", "As sun-god and god of light, Apollo was also known by the epithets Aegletes (/əˈɡliːtiːz/ ə-GLEE-teez; Αἰγλήτης, Aiglētēs, from αἴγλη, \"light of the sun\"), Helius (/ˈhiːliəs/ HEE-lee-əs; Ἥλιος, Helios, literally \"sun\"), Phanaeus (/fəˈniːəs/ fə-NEE-əs; Φαναῖος, Phanaios, literally \"giving or bringing light\"), and Lyceus (/laɪˈsiːəs/ ly-SEE-əs; Λύκειος, Lykeios, from Proto-Greek *λύκη, \"light\"). The meaning of the epithet \"Lyceus\" later became associated with Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia (Λυκία) and who was identified with the wolf (λύκος), earning him the epithets Lycegenes (/laɪˈsɛdʒəniːz/ ly-SEJ-ə-neez; Λυκηγενής, Lukēgenēs, literally \"born of a wolf\" or \"born of Lycia\") and Lycoctonus (/laɪˈkɒktənəs/ ly-KOK-tə-nəs; Λυκοκτόνος, Lykoktonos, from λύκος, \"wolf\", and κτείνειν, \"to kill\"). As god of the sun, Apollo was called Sol (/ˈsɒl/ SOL, literally \"sun\" in Latin) by the Romans.", "If Norman was apparently attempting to change British policy, it was perhaps William Miller (1864–1945), journalist and expert on the Near East, who did the most in that direction. In essence, he signed the death warrant, so to speak, of the Age of Empires. The fall of the Ottoman Empire ultimately enmeshed all the others as well. In the Travel and Politics in the Near East, 1898, Miller claimed to have made four trips to the Balkans, 1894, 1896, 1897 and 1898, and to be, in essence, an expert on \"the Near East,\" by which he primarily meant the Balkans. Apart from the fact that he attended Oxford and played Rugby not many biographical details have been promulgated. He was in effect (whatever his formal associations if any) a point man of British near eastern intelligence.", "In April 1979, young students protested against Bokassa's decree that all school attendees would need to buy uniforms from a company owned by one of his wives. The government violently suppressed the protests, killing 100 children and teenagers. Bokassa himself may have been personally involved in some of the killings. In September 1979, France overthrew Bokassa and \"restored\" Dacko to power (subsequently restoring the name of the country to the Central African Republic). Dacko, in turn, was again overthrown in a coup by General André Kolingba on 1 September 1981." ]

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[ "Kelly Clarkson's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale Kelly Clarkson's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale is a Christmas television special produced by Done and Dusted for NBC. Directed by Hamish Hamilton, it stars Kelly Clarkson, Blake Shelton, Reba McEntire, Trisha Yearwood, Robin Williams, Whoopi Goldberg, William Shatner, Jay Leno, Matt Lauer, Danica Patrick, Heidi Klum, Ken Jeong, Jai Rodriguez and Morgan Bastin. It is a musical comedy pastiche loosely based on Charles Dickens's \"A Christmas Carol\" where Clarkson's character learns the true meaning of Christmas, accompanied by the music of her sixth studio album \"Wrapped in Red\". With its musical performances filmed live at The Venetian Las Vegas on October 30, 2013, the television special itself was broadcast on December 11, 2013 on NBC in the United States. The special won a Gold World Medal for best Variety Special in the New York Festival’s International Television & Film Awards. The special was aired on December 23, 2014 and December 17, 2015.", "The Venetian Las Vegas The Venetian Resort Hotel Casino is a five-diamond luxury hotel and casino resort located on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada, United States, on the site of the old Sands Hotel. Designed by KlingStubbins, the hotel tower contains 36 stories and rises 475 ft . The Venetian is owned and operated by Las Vegas Sands. The Venetian also serves as the seat of the corporate headquarters for its parent company." ]

[ "The Venetian Macao The Venetian Macao () is a luxury hotel and casino resort in Macau owned by the American Las Vegas Sands company. The Venetian is a 39-story, casino hotel on the Cotai Strip in Macau. The 10500000 sqft Venetian Macao is modeled on its sister casino resort The Venetian Las Vegas, and is the seventh-largest building in the world by floor area. The Venetian Macao is also the largest casino in the world, and the largest single structure hotel building in Asia.", "Harrah's Casino Tunica Harrah's Casino Tunica, formerly Grand Casino Tunica, was a casino and resort located in Tunica Resorts, Mississippi. It was owned and operated by Caesars Entertainment. The casino offered a 140000 sqft casino and three hotels with a total of 1,356 rooms. There was also an RV park, the Bellissimo Spa & Salon, a convention center, and a 2,500 seat entertainment venue called the Harrah's Event Center.", "Crown Sri Lanka Crown Sri Lanka was a proposed casino and resort on the banks of the Beira Lake in Colombo, Sri Lanka. It was expected to cost $450 million and consist of two 36 floor buildings", "Caesars Palace Caesars Palace is a AAA Four Diamond luxury hotel and casino in Paradise, Nevada, United States. The hotel is situated on the west side of the Las Vegas Strip between Bellagio and The Mirage. It is one of the most prestigious casino hotels in the world and one of Las Vegas's largest and best known landmarks.", "Casino (Physical Therapy album) Casino is the 1997 follow-up to the album Physical Therapy, and revolves around a casino theme which influences some instrumentation and the name of each track. As the second studio album of Physical Therapy, it features sixteen more minutes of material than its predecessor. It is seemingly, at present, their last foray into commercial music. In 1998, \"Casino\" and \"A Night at the Palace\" were used on the The Weather Channel's local forecast segment.", "Suncoast Hotel and Casino Suncoast is a hotel and casino located in Las Vegas, Nevada. It is owned and operated by Boyd Gaming. The hotel, located on a 50 acre site, contains 432 rooms and has an 82000 sqft casino (with over 2000 slot machines) as well as a Century group movie theatre, bowling alley and conference room / meeting space.", "Park Towers (Las Vegas) Park Towers is a 20-story twin-tower condominium property located east of the Las Vegas Strip, in Paradise, Nevada. The project was announced in 1998, and began construction the following year. The property was developed by Irwin Molasky and Steve Wynn, and was completed in 2001.", "Harrah's New Orleans Harrah's New Orleans is a casino located in New Orleans, Louisiana, near the foot of Canal Street a block away from the Mississippi River. It is a 115000 sqft casino with approximately 2,100 slot machines, over 90 table games and a poker room. There are several places to eat ranging from buffet style to fine dining. Since its opening in 1999 Harrah's has been renting nearby hotel rooms to accommodate its guests; currently, the newly renovated 202-room Wyndham Riverfront Hotel is providing such accommodations. In order to avoid leasing rooms, the casino opened its own 27-story hotel tower with 450 rooms across the street from the casino on September 21, 2006, just days ahead of the New Orleans Saints return to the Louisiana Superdome. It is the only land-based private casino with table games in the state by Louisiana law (there are other casinos in the state with their gambling facilities on floating boats and horse racing racinos with slot machines). It is referred to in state statute as \"the official gaming establishment\", see Chp.10, Title 4 of Louisiana Revised Statutes.", "The Platinum The Platinum is a 17-story, 255-unit condo hotel located at 211 East Flamingo Road in Paradise, Nevada, east of the Las Vegas Strip. The project was approved in 2003, and began construction in 2005, as a joint venture between Diversified Real Estate Concepts, Inc. and Marcus Hotels and Resorts. The project was topped out in December 2005, and was opened in October 2006. In 2009, buyers filed lawsuits against Marcus for various allegations; the last of the lawsuits were settled in March 2013.", "Plaza Hotel &amp; Casino The Plaza Hotel & Casino is a casino–hotel located in downtown Las Vegas, Nevada owned by the Tamares Group, and PlayLV is the leaseholder and operator of the property. It currently has 1,037 rooms and suites, as well as an 80000 sqft casino and there is more than 25,000 sqft of event space. The Plaza also features a classic showroom, seasonal roof top swimming pool, and fitness center, as well as a race and sports book.", "Comstock Hotel &amp; Casino The Comstock Hotel & Casino is a former hotel and casino in Reno, Nevada, USA. The building is now home to the Residences at Riverwalk Towers.", "Parliament House (hotel) Parliament House is a gay resort on the Orange Blossom Trail in Florida, United States that includes several bars and hosts performances such as drag shows. There are 112 rooms in the complex, which encompasses ten thousand square feet, including an outdoor stage, a swimming pool, and a dance floor. The resort was established in 1975, and eventually became the most well-known gay resort in Orlando. In 2006, the resort expanded to include a timeshare. In 2010, Parliament House was in danger of foreclosure. In 2012, Kenneth Creuzer, a 48-year-old HIV-positive man, was arrested on charges relating to his having allegedly raped a man at Parliament House. Alison Arngrim, who portrayed Nellie Oleson on the television series \"Little House on the Prairie\", performed a one-person show called \"Confessions of a Prairie Bitch\" at Parliament House in 2013. On July 25, 2014, the resort filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, with $12.4 million in debts and nearly $4 million in assets. In February 2015, a fourteen-million-dollar debt relief plan was approved by the relevant parties.", "Margaritaville Resort Biloxi Margaritaville Resort Biloxi is a resort hotel in Biloxi on the Mississippi Gulf Coast. It previously operated with a dockside casino as Casino Magic Biloxi Casino & Hotel, until it was severely damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The property has a 373-room hotel, located on 10.6 acre of land.", "Flamingo Las Vegas Flamingo Las Vegas (formerly The Fabulous Flamingo and Flamingo Hilton Las Vegas) is a hotel and casino located on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada. It is owned and operated by Caesars Entertainment Corporation.", "Island View Casino The Island View Casino is a casino and hotel located in Gulfport, Mississippi.", "Chinook Winds Casino Chinook Winds Casino and convention center is a Native American casino located in Lincoln City, Oregon. It is operated by the Confederated Tribes of Siletz. The casino's amenities include a 227-room hotel, a 157000 sqft gaming floor (between two floors), two restaurants (with a 24-hour food counter), a 35000 sqft convention center, arcade, day-care services, live entertainment, a golf course and other special events.", "Resorts Casino Tunica Resorts Casino Tunica, formerly Southern Belle Casino and Harrah's Tunica Mardi Gras Casino, is a 201-room hotel and a 35000 sqft casino located in Tunica Resorts, Mississippi. It is one of three casinos located in the \"Casino Strip\" area, along with Sam's Town and Hollywood Casino. Resorts is owned by Gaming & Leisure Properties and operated by Penn National Gaming.", "Live in Las Vegas: A New Day... Live in Las Vegas: A New Day... is Celine Dion's eighth home video, released on DVD between 7–10 December 2007 in Europe, on 11 December 2007 in North America, 15 December 2007 in Australia and 19 December 2007 in Japan. It includes the record-breaking show \"A New Day...\" at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. The Blu-ray Disc version was also released on 5 February 2008 in North America, and between 8–22 February 2008 in Europe.", "Harrah's Cherokee Harrah's Cherokee Casino Resort is a casino and hotel on the Qualla Boundary in Cherokee, North Carolina. It is owned by the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians and operated by Caesars Entertainment. It is located on the site of the former Frontier Land theme park. It is one of two casinos in North Carolina. A sister property, Harrah's Cherokee Valley River Casino in Murphy, North Carolina opened on September 28, 2015.", "The Palazzo The Palazzo is a luxury hotel and casino resort located on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada. It is the tallest completed building in Nevada. Designed by the Dallas based HKS, Inc., the hotel offers luxury in an Italian Renaissance ambiance. The hotel and casino are part of a larger complex (operated as one hotel) comprising the adjoining Venetian Resort and Casino and the Sands Convention Center, all of which are owned and operated by the Las Vegas Sands Corporation." ]

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[ "Gastric acid Gastric acid Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed in the stomach and is composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl). The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by activating digestive enzymes, and making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break down the long chains of amino acids. Gastric acid is produced by cells in the lining of the stomach, which are coupled in feedback systems to increase acid production when needed. Other cells in the stomach produce bicarbonate, a base, to buffer the fluid, ensuring" ]

[ "Antacid inhibit the contractions of smooth muscle cells in the gastrointestinal tract, slowing peristalsis and lengthening the time needed for stool to pass through the colon. Some such products are formulated to minimize such effects through the inclusion of equal concentrations of magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects. Antacid An antacid is a substance which neutralizes stomach acidity and is used to relieve heartburn, indigestion or an upset stomach. Antacids are available over the counter and are taken by mouth to quickly relieve occasional heartburn, the major symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease and also indigestion. Treatment with", "Gastrointestinal physiology of the stomach creating acidic conditions with a low pH of 1. H is pumped into the stomach by exchanging it with K. This process also requires ATP as a source of energy; however, Cl then follows the positive charge in the H through an open apical channel protein. HCO secretion occurs to neutralize the acid secretions that make their way into the duodenum of the small intestine. Most of the HCO comes from pancreatic acinar cells in the form of NaHCO in an aqueous solution. This is the result of the high concentration of both HCO and Na present", "Secretin smaller numbers in the jejunum of the small intestine. Secretin is released into circulation and/or intestinal lumen in response to low duodenal pH that ranges between 2 and 4.5 depending on species; the acidity is due to hydrochloric acid in the chyme that enters the duodenum from the stomach via the pyloric sphincter. Also, the secretion of secretin is increased by the products of protein digestion bathing the mucosa of the upper small intestine. Secretin release is inhibited by H antagonists, which reduce gastric acid secretion. As a result, if the pH in the duodenum increases above 4.5, secretin cannot", "Enteric coating the intensely acidic pH found in the stomach, but breaks down rapidly at a higher pH (alkaline pH). For example, they will not dissolve in the gastric acids of the stomach (pH ~3), but they will in the alkaline (pH 7–9) environment present in the small intestine. The time required for an enteric-coated dosage form to reach the intestine mostly depends on the presence and type of food in the stomach. It varies from 30 minutes up to 7 hours, with an average time of 6 hours. Although some studies indicated that larger sized dosage forms may require additional time", "Funk Bros. Seed Co. v. Kalo Inoculant Co. Co. v. Richardson Merrell, Inc.\" In that case, the patentee desired to administer trypsin orally for use as an anti-inflammatory. He discovered that trypsin could be absorbed effectively in the lower small intestine (ileum). However, stomach acids destroyed trypsin. The patentee proposed and claimed coating trypsin with an enteric coating (stomach-acid-resistant coating), which permitted the trypsin to pass through the stomach to the small intestine without damage to be absorbed and then, it would act as an anti-inflammatory or analgesic. However, the enteric coating expedient was already known for other products. The United States Court of Appeals for the Third", "Bile to 7.65). Bile in the gallbladder becomes more acidic the longer a person goes without eating, though resting slows this fall in pH. As an alkali, it also has the function of neutralizing excess stomach acid before it enters the duodenum, the first section of the small intestine. Bile salts also act as bactericides, destroying many of the microbes that may be present in the food. In the absence of bile, fats become indigestible and are instead excreted in feces, a condition called steatorrhea. Feces lack their characteristic brown color and instead are white or gray, and greasy. Steatorrhea can", "Tablet (pharmacy) (for example with pearlescent effects) can enhance brand recognition. If the active ingredient of a tablet is sensitive to acid, or is irritant to the stomach lining, an enteric coating can be used, which is resistant to stomach acid, and dissolves in the less acidic area of the intestines. Enteric coatings are also used for medicines that can be negatively affected by taking a long time to reach the small intestine, where they are absorbed. Coatings are often chosen to control the rate of dissolution of the drug in the gastrointestinal tract. Some drugs are absorbed better in certain parts", "Antacid Antacid An antacid is a substance which neutralizes stomach acidity and is used to relieve heartburn, indigestion or an upset stomach. Antacids are available over the counter and are taken by mouth to quickly relieve occasional heartburn, the major symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease and also indigestion. Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor symptoms. Antacids are distinct from acid-reducing drugs like H-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors and they do not kill the bacteria \"Helicobacter pylori\", which causes most ulcers. Non-particulate antacids (sodium citrate, magnesium trisilicate) increase gastric pH with little or no effect on", "Hydrochloric acid and acidifies the stomach content to a pH of 1 to 2. Chloride (Cl) and hydrogen (H) ions are secreted separately in the stomach fundus region at the top of the stomach by parietal cells of the gastric mucosa into a secretory network called canaliculi before it enters the stomach lumen. Gastric acid acts as a barrier against microorganisms to prevent infections and is important for the digestion of food. Its low pH denatures proteins and thereby makes them susceptible to degradation by digestive enzymes such as pepsin. The low pH also activates the enzyme precursor pepsinogen into the active", "Colestyramine treat diarrhea resulting from bile acid malabsorption. It was first used for this in Crohn's disease patients who had undergone ileal resection. The terminal portion of the small bowel (ileum) is where bile acids are reabsorbed. When this section is removed, the bile acids pass into the large bowel and cause diarrhea due to stimulation of chloride/fluid secretion by the colonocytes resulting in a secretory diarrhea. Colestyramine prevents this increase in water by making the bile acids insoluble and osmotically inactive. Colestyramine is also used in the control of other types of bile acid diarrhea. The primary, idiopathic form of", "Enteric coating for gastric emptying, others suggested that the size, shape, or volume of the tablet possess no significant effects instead. Enteric coated granules emptying rate is, however, less affected by the presence of food and present the more uniform release and reproducible transit time typical of the multiparticulates dispersion. By preventing the drug from dissolving into the stomach, enteric coating may protect gastric mucosa from the irritating effects of the medication itself. When the drug reaches the neutral or alkaline environment of the intestine, its active ingredients can then dissolve and become available for absorption into the bloodstream. Drugs that have", "Drug interaction the same effect in the organism and heterergic if their effects are different. Some drugs, such as the prokinetic agents increase the speed with which a substance passes through the intestines. If a drug is present in the digestive tract's absorption zone for less time its blood concentration will decrease. The opposite will occur with drugs that decrease intestinal motility. Certain drugs require an acid stomach pH for absorption. Others require the basic pH of the intestines. Any modification in the pH could change this absorption. In the case of the antacids, an increase in pH can inhibit the absorption", "Omeprazole 72 hours. When omeprazole is stopped, baseline stomach acid secretory activity returns after 3 to 5 days. The inhibitory effect of omeprazole on acid secretion will plateau after 4 days of repeated daily dosing. The absorption of omeprazole takes place in the small intestine and is usually completed within 3 to 6 hours. The systemic bioavailability of omeprazole after repeated doses is about 60%. Omeprazole, as well as other PPIs, are only effective on active H/K-ATPase pumps. These pumps are stimulated in the presence of food to aid in digestion. For this reason, patients should be advised to take omeprazole", "Gastric acid enzymes for protein breakdown (inactive pepsinogen, and in infancy rennin). Hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogen into the enzyme pepsin, which then helps digestion by breaking the bonds linking amino acids, a process known as proteolysis. In addition, many microorganisms have their growth inhibited by such an acidic environment, which is helpful to prevent infection. A typical adult human stomach will secrete about 1.5 liters of gastric acid daily. Gastric acid secretion happens in several steps. Chloride and hydrogen ions are secreted separately from the cytoplasm of parietal cells and mixed in the canaliculi. Gastric acid is then secreted into the lumen", "Digestion 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1-3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine. The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes. Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food", "Cat anatomy acid and other digestive enzymes to break down food. Food moves from the stomach into the small intestine. The first part of the small intestine is the duodenum. As food moves through the duodenum, it mixes with bile, a fluid that neutralizes stomach acid and emulsifies fat. The pancreas releases enzymes that aid in digestion so that nutrients can be broken down and pass through the intestinal mucosa into the blood and travel to the rest of the body. The pancreas doesn't produce starch processing enzymes because cats don't eat a diet high in carbohydrates. Since the cat digests low", "Gastric inhibitory polypeptide of the gastrointestinal tract. Like all endocrine hormones, it is transported by blood. Gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptors are seven-transmembrane proteins found on beta-cells in the pancreas. It has traditionally been named \"gastrointestinal inhibitory peptide\" or \"gastric inhibitory peptide\" and was found to decrease the secretion of stomach acid to protect the small intestine from acid damage, reduce the rate at which food is transferred through the stomach, and inhibit the GI motility and secretion of acid. However, this is incorrect, as it was discovered that these effects are achieved only with higher-than-normal physiological level, and that these results naturally occur", "Human digestive system from the stomach through the opening of the pyloric sphincter. The resulting alkaline fluid mix neutralises the gastric acid which would damage the lining of the intestine. The mucus component lubricates the walls of the intestine. When the digested food particles are reduced enough in size and composition, they can be absorbed by the intestinal wall and carried to the bloodstream. The first receptacle for this chyme is the duodenal bulb. From here it passes into the first of the three sections of the small intestine, the duodenum. (The next section is the jejunum and the third is the ileum).", "Proton-pump inhibitor reduce gastric acid secretion by up to 99%. Decreasing the acid in the stomach can aid the healing of duodenal ulcers and reduce the pain from indigestion and heartburn. However, stomach acids are needed to digest proteins, vitamin B, calcium, and other nutrients, and too little stomach acid causes the condition hypochlorhydria. The PPIs are given in an inactive form, which is neutrally charged (lipophilic) and readily crosses cell membranes into intracellular compartments (like the parietal cell canaliculus) with acidic environments. In an acid environment, the inactive drug is protonated and rearranges into its active form. As described above, the", "Stomach small rounded mass of chewed up food) enters the stomach through the oesophagus via the lower oesophageal sphincter. The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called peristalsis – reducing the volume of the bolus, before looping around the fundus and the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum of", "Indometacin ionised form, leaving very little unionised form of indometacin to cross a cell membrane. If the pH gradient across a cell membrane is high, most of the indometacin molecules will be trapped in one side of the membrane with higher pH. This phenomenon is called \"ion trapping\". The phenomenon of ion trapping is particularly prominent in the stomach as pH at the stomach mucosa layer is extremely acidic, while the parietal cells are more alkaline. Therefore, indometacin are trapped inside the parietal cells in ionised form, damaging the stomach cells, causing stomach irritation. This stomach irritation can reduce if the", "Gastritis alcohol stimulate hydrochloric acid secretion. High doses of alcohol do not stimulate secretion of acid. Chronic gastritis refers to a wide range of problems of the gastric tissues. The immune system makes proteins and antibodies that fight infections in the body to maintain a homeostatic condition. In some disorders the body targets the stomach as if it were a foreign protein or pathogen; it makes antibodies against, severely damages, and may even destroy the stomach or its lining. In some cases bile, normally used to aid digestion in the small intestine, will enter through the pyloric valve of the stomach", "Gastric acid of the gastric gland and gradually reaches the main stomach lumen. The exact manner in which the secreted acid reaches the stomach lumen is controversial, as acid must first cross the relatively pH neutral gastric mucus layer. Chloride and sodium ions are secreted actively from the cytoplasm of the parietal cell into the lumen of the canaliculus. This creates a negative potential of -40 mV to -70 mV across the parietal cell membrane that causes potassium ions and a small number of sodium ions to diffuse from the cytoplasm into the parietal cell canaliculi. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyses the", "Protein (nutrient) Acid Score. Most proteins are decomposed to single amino acids by digestion in the gastro-intestinal tract. Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the action of hydrochloric acid, and continued by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine. Before the absorption in the small intestine, most proteins are already reduced to single amino acid or peptides of several amino acids. Most peptides longer than four amino acids are not absorbed. Absorption into the intestinal absorptive cells is not the end. There, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids. Absorption of the", "Gastric acid excess vomiting, patients develop hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (decreased blood acidity by H and chlorine depletion). The proton pump enzyme is the target of proton pump inhibitors, used to increase gastric pH (and hence decrease stomach acidity) in diseases that feature excess acid. H antagonists indirectly decrease gastric acid production. Antacids neutralize existing acid. The role of gastric acid in digestion was established in the 1820s and 1830s by William Beaumont on Alexis St. Martin, who, as a result of an accident, had a fistula (hole) in his stomach, which allowed Beaumont to observe the process of digestion and to extract", "Enteric coating an irritant effect on the stomach, such as aspirin or potassium chloride, can be coated with a substance that will dissolve only in the small intestine. However, it has been shown that enteric coated aspirin may lead to incomplete inhibition of platelets. Likewise, certain groups of proton pump inhibitors (esomeprazole, omeprazole, pantoprazole and all grouped azoles) are acid-activated. For such types of drugs, enteric coating added to the formulation tends to avoid activation in the mouth and esophagus. Materials used for enteric coatings include fatty acids, waxes, shellac, plastics, and plant fibers. Conventional materials used are solutions of film resins.", "Misoprostol the prevention of NSAID-induced gastric ulcers. It acts upon gastric parietal cells, inhibiting the secretion of gastric acid by G-protein coupled receptor-mediated inhibition of adenylate cyclase, which leads to decreased intracellular cyclic AMP levels and decreased proton pump activity at the apical surface of the parietal cell. Because other classes of drugs, especially H2-receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors, are more effective for the treatment of acute peptic ulcers, misoprostol is only indicated for use by people who are both taking NSAIDs and are at high risk for NSAID-induced ulcers, including the elderly and people with ulcer complications. Misoprostol is", "Gastrointestinal tract intestinal mucosa. Microorganisms also are kept at bay by an extensive immune system comprising the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) There are additional factors contributing to protection from pathogen invasion. For example, low pH (ranging from 1 to 4) of the stomach is fatal for many microorganisms that enter it. Similarly, mucus (containing IgA antibodies) neutralizes many pathogenic microorganisms. Other factors in the GI tract contribution to immune function include enzymes secreted in the saliva and bile. Beneficial bacteria also can contribute to the homeostasis of the gastrointestinal immune system. For example, Clostridia, one of the most predominant bacterial groups in", "Regulation of gastric function Somatostatin inhibits gastrin release from G cells. Reduced gastrin secretion reduces acid secretion. 5-10% of gastric secretion occurs during this phase. The intestinal phase is a stage in which the duodenum responds to arriving chyme and moderates gastric activity through hormones and nervous reflexes. The duodenum initially enhances gastric secretion, but soon inhibits it. Presence of partially digested proteins and amino acids in the duodenum stimulates acid secretion in the stomach by three methods: 1.) Peptones stimulate duodenal G Cells to secrete gastrin. 2.) Peptones stimulate an unknown endocrine cell to release an additional humoral signal, \"enterooxytonin\". 3.) Amino Acids", "Stomach the small intestine, where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into chyme within anywhere between forty minutes and a few hours. The average human stomach can comfortably hold about a litre of food. Gastric juice in the stomach also contains pepsinogen. Hydrochloric acid activates this inactive form of enzyme into the active form, pepsin. Pepsin breaks down proteins into polypeptides. Although the absorption in the human digestive system is mainly a function of the small intestine, some absorption of certain small molecules nevertheless does occur in", "Digestion gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin. The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about", "Duodenum vitamin A. Ulcers of the duodenum commonly occur because of infection by the bacteria \"Helicobacter pylori\". These bacteria, through a number of mechanisms, erode the protective mucosa of the duodenum, predisposing it to damage from gastric acids. The first part of the duodenum is the most common location of ulcers as it is where the acidic chyme meets the duodenal mucosa before mixing with the alkaline secretions of the duodenum. Duodenal ulcers may cause recurrent abdominal pain and dyspepsia, and are often investigated using a urea breath test to test for the bacteria, and endoscopy to confirm ulceration and take", "Gastric acid dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid will tend to equilibrate with the blood, leading to most of the gas produced on neutralisation being exhaled through the lungs. In hypochlorhydria and achlorhydria, there is low or no gastric acid in the stomach, potentially leading to problems as the disinfectant properties of the gastric lumen are decreased. In such conditions, there is greater risk of infections of the digestive tract (such as infection with \"Vibrio\" or \"Helicobacter\" bacteria). In Zollinger–Ellison syndrome and hypercalcemia, there are increased gastrin levels, leading to excess gastric acid production, which can cause gastric ulcers. In diseases featuring", "Brunner's glands The duodenum is readily distinguished from other regions of the small intestine by the presence of submucosal Brunner's glands, which may pack the submucosa so completely that the typical submucosal connective tissue is obscured. The Brunner glands, which empty into the intestinal glands, secrete an alkaline fluid composed of mucin, which exerts a physiologic anti-acid function by coating the duodenal epithelium, therefore protecting it from the acid chyme of the stomach. Furthermore, in response to the presence of acid in the duodenum, these glands secrete pepsinogen and urogastrone, which inhibit gastric acid secretion. The main function of these glands is", "Gastric acid almost exactly isotonic with other bodily fluids. The lowest pH of the secreted acid is 0.8, but the acid is diluted in the stomach lumen to a pH between 1 and 3. There is a small continuous basal secretion of gastric acid between meals of usually less than 10 mEq/hour. There are three phases in the secretion of gastric acid which increase the secretion rate in order to digest a meal: Gastric acid production is regulated by both the autonomic nervous system and several hormones. The parasympathetic nervous system, via the vagus nerve, and the hormone gastrin stimulate the parietal", "Troxipide elevating the tissue respiration and energy metabolism. Troxipide enhances mucosal blood flow, which is the secondary defense barrier of gastric mucosa that supplies nutrients and oxygen to the epithelium, and removes, dilutes and neutralizes toxic substances that have diffused into the mucosa from the lumen. The increment in mucosal blood flow with troxipide is more pronounced in the gastric antrum than in the gastric corpus. Troxipide inhibits \"H. pylori\"-derived urease, a multimeric nickel-containing enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of urea to yield ammonia and carbonic acid, which damage host tissues and trigger inflammatory response, including recruitment of leukocytes and triggering", "Calcium citrate sulfuric acid. In many individuals, bioavailability of calcium citrate is found to be equal to that of the cheaper calcium carbonate. However, alterations to the digestive tract may change how calcium is digested and absorbed. Unlike calcium carbonate, which is basic and neutralizes stomach acid, calcium citrate has no effect on stomach acid. Calcium carbonate is harder to digest than calcium citrate, and calcium carbonate carries a risk of \"acid rebound\" (the stomach overcompensates by producing more acid), so individuals who are sensitive to antacids or who have difficulty producing adequate stomach acid may choose calcium citrate over calcium carbonate", "Somatostatin act in a paracrine manner. In the stomach, somatostatin acts directly on the acid-producing parietal cells via a G-protein coupled receptor (which inhibits adenylate cyclase, thus effectively antagonising the stimulatory effect of histamine) to reduce acid secretion. Somatostatin can also indirectly decrease stomach acid production by preventing the release of other hormones, including gastrin, secretin and histamine which effectively slows down the digestive process. Somatostatin is produced by neuroendocrine neurons of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. These neurons project to the median eminence, where somatostatin is released from neurosecretory nerve endings into the hypothalamohypophysial system through neuron axons. Somatostatin", "Delta cell indirectly decrease stomach acid production by preventing the release of other hormones, including gastrin, secretin and histamine which effectively slows down the digestive process. A tumor of the delta cells is called a \"somatostatinoma\". When a person is infected with H. pylori the lower region of the stomach, the antrum, is predominantly inflamed. This is where most of the D cells in the stomach are. The bacteria produce a cloud of ammonia around themselves using urease to protect them from the stomach acid; however, this reacts with the acid producing ammonium which is toxic to cells. This leads to many", "Delta cell microscope, delta-cells can be identified as cells with smaller and slightly more compact granules than beta cells. D cells in the stomach contain CCKBR (which respond to gastrin) and M3 receptors (which respond to Ach). Respectively, these receptors will increase somatostatin output and decrease somatostatin output from the D cells. VIP, vasoactive intestinal peptide, acts positively on D cells resulting in more somatostatin being released. In the stomach, somatostatin acts directly on the acid-producing parietal cells via a G-protein coupled receptor (which inhibits adenylate cyclase, thus effectively antagonising the stimulatory effect of histamine) to reduce acid secretion. Somatostatin can also", "Secretin production by the liver; the bile emulsifies dietary fats in the duodenum so that pancreatic lipase can act upon them. Meanwhile, in concert with secretin's actions, the other main hormone simultaneously issued by the duodenum, cholecystokinin, is stimulating the gallbladder to contract, delivering its stored bile for the same reason. Prosecretin is a precursor to secretin, which is present in digestion. Secretin is stored in this unusable form, and is activated by gastric acid in the lower intestine to neutralize the pH and ensure no damage is done to the small intestine by the aforementioned acid. In 2007, secretin was", "Maalox hydrochloride found in the gut, resulting in ion-exchange neutralisation of the acid base into water and/or salt. Some may find certain Maalox medications, such as Maalox Multi-Action, to be a successful anti-diarrhea treatment due to the aluminium hydroxide content, which in normal situations has a tendency to result in constipation. Maalox may also be used to treat nausea and stomach cramps associated with dyspepsia, diarrhea, or constipation. Liquid Maalox contains aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide and simethicone. Maalox Regular Strength chewable tablets contain 600 mg of calcium carbonate. Maalox Extra Strength + Anti-Gas tablets contain 1000 mg of calcium carbonate and", "Antihistamine endogenous signaling pathway for gastric acid secretion. Normally, histamine acts on H to stimulate acid secretion; drugs that inhibit H signaling thus reduce the secretion of gastric acid. H-antihistamines are among first-line therapy to treat gastrointestinal conditions including peptic ulcers and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Some formulations are available over the counter. Most side effects are due to cross-reactivity with unintended receptors. Cimetidine, for example, is notorious for antagonizing androgenic testosterone and DHT receptors at high doses. Examples include: These are experimental agents and do not yet have a defined clinical use, although a number of drugs are currently in human", "Gut flora the gut epithelium, the intrusion of gut flora components into other host compartments can lead to sepsis. \"Helicobacter pylori\" can cause stomach ulcers by crossing the epithelial lining of the stomach. Here the body produces an immune response. During this response, parietal cells are stimulated and release extra hydrochloric acid (HCl) into the stomach. However, the response does not stimulate the mucus-secreting cells that protect and line the epithelium of the stomach. The extra acid sears holes into the epithelial lining of the stomach, resulting in stomach ulcers. Normally-commensal bacteria can harm the host if they extrude from the intestinal", "Gastric acid cell to produce gastric acid, both directly acting on parietal cells and indirectly, through the stimulation of the secretion of the hormone histamine from enterochromaffine-like cells (ECL). Vasoactive intestinal peptide, cholecystokinin, and secretin all inhibit production. The production of gastric acid in the stomach is tightly regulated by positive regulators and negative feedback mechanisms. Four types of cells are involved in this process: parietal cells, G cells, D cells and enterochromaffine-like cells. Besides this, the endings of the vagus nerve (CN X) and the intramural nervous plexus in the digestive tract influence the secretion significantly. Nerve endings in the stomach", "Haptocorrin affinity for its molecular structure. Coupled together vitamin B and haptocorrin create a complex. This Haptocorrin-B complex is impervious to the insult of the stomach acid, and passes on via the pylorus to the duodenum. In the duodenum pancreatic proteases (a component of pancreatic juice) cleave haptocorrin, releasing vitamin B in its free form. The same cells in the stomach that produce gastric hydrochloric acid, the parietal cells, also produce a molecule called the intrinsic factor (IF), which binds the B after its release from haptocorrin by digestion, and without which only 1% of vitamin B is absorbed. Intrinsic factor", "Intrinsic factor In the less acidic environment of the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes digest the glycoprotein carrier and vitamin B can then bind to intrinsic factor. This new complex is then absorbed by the epithelial cells (enterocytes) of the ileum. Inside the cells, B dissociates once again and binds to another protein, transcobalamin II (TCN2); the new complex can then exit the epithelial cells to be carried to the liver. The intrinsic factor is secreted by the stomach, and so is present in the gastric juice as well as in the gastric mucous membrane. The optimum pH for its action is approximately", "Antacid gastric volume. Sodium citrate should be given within 1 hour of surgery to be the most effective. Versions with magnesium may cause diarrhea, and brands with calcium or aluminium may cause constipation and rarely, long-term use may cause kidney stones. Long-term use of versions with aluminium may increase the risk for getting osteoporosis. When excessive amounts of acids are produced in the stomach the natural mucous barrier that protects the lining of the stomach can damage the esophagus in people with acid reflux. Antacids contain alkaline ions that chemically neutralize stomach gastric acid, reducing damage and relieving pain. Antacids may", "Large intestine more is made available, thus permitting a higher portion of plant material in the diet. The large intestine produces no digestive enzymes — chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. The pH in the colon varies between 5.5 and 7 (slightly acidic to neutral). Water absorption at the colon typically proceeds against a transmucosal osmotic pressure gradient. The standing gradient osmosis is the reabsorption of water against the osmotic gradient in the intestines. Cells occupying the intestinal lining pump sodium ions into the intercellular space, raising the osmolarity of the intercellular fluid.", "Small intestine Small intestine The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions – the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins. It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi. The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food, using small finger-like", "Digestion small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. It also contains rennin in case of infants and toddlers. As the first two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions", "Peptic ulcer disease the stomach acid when it comes into contact with the ulcerated area. The pain caused by peptic ulcers can be felt anywhere from the navel up to the sternum, it may last from few minutes to several hours and it may be worse when the stomach is empty. Also, sometimes the pain may flare at night and it can commonly be temporarily relieved by eating foods that buffer stomach acid or by taking anti-acid medication. However, peptic ulcer disease symptoms may be different for every sufferer. \"Helicobacter pylori\" is one of the major causative factors of peptic ulcer disease. It", "Enterogastric reflex pylorus, allowing digestion to proceed, when there is Enterogastric reflex The enterogastric reflex is one of the three extrinsic reflexes of the gastrointestinal tract, the other two being the gastroileal reflex and the gastrocolic reflex. The enterogastric reflex is stimulated in the duodenum by a pH of 3-4 and in the stomach by a pH of 1.5. Upon initiation of the reflex, the release of gastrin by G-cells in the antrum of the stomach is shut off. This in turn inhibits gastric motility and the secretion of gastric acid (HCl). The stomach's contents are inhibited from emptying into the small", "Ranitidine cohort analysis of 274 VLBW neonates. Ranitidine may return a false positive on some commercial drug testing kits. Ranitidine is a competitive, reversible inhibitor of the action of histamine at the histamine H receptors found in gastric parietal cells. This results in decreased gastric acid secretion and gastric volume, and reduced hydrogen ion concentration. Absorption: Oral: 50% Protein binding: 15% Metabolism: \"N\"-oxide is the principal metabolite. Half-life elimination: With normal renal function, ranitidine taken orally has a half-life of 2.5–3.0 hours. If taken intravenously, the half-life is generally 2.0–2.5 hours in a patient with normal creatinine clearance. Excretion: The primary", "H2 antagonist therefore, other substances that promote acid secretion (such as gastrin and acetylcholine) have a reduced effect on parietal cells when the H receptors are blocked. H-antagonists are used by clinicians in the treatment of acid-related gastrointestinal conditions, including: People who suffer from infrequent heartburn may take either antacids or H-receptor antagonists for treatment. The H-antagonists offer several advantages over antacids, including longer duration of action (6–10 hours vs 1–2 hours for antacids), greater efficacy, and ability to be used prophylactically before meals to reduce the chance of heartburn occurring. Proton pump inhibitors, however, are the preferred treatment for erosive esophagitis", "Vitamin B12 pentagastrin, as well as the presence of food. In the duodenum, proteases digest R-proteins and release their bound B, which then binds to IF, to form a complex (IF/B). B must be attached to IF for it to be efficiently absorbed, as receptors on the enterocytes in the terminal ileum of the small bowel only recognize the B-IF complex; in addition, intrinsic factor protects the vitamin from catabolism by intestinal bacteria. Absorption of food vitamin B thus requires an intact and functioning stomach, exocrine pancreas, intrinsic factor, and small bowel. Problems with any one of these organs makes a vitamin", "Rabeprazole inhibiting its activity. Thus, acid can no longer be secreted into the gastric lumen (the empty space of the stomach), and the pH of the stomach increases (decrease in the concentration of hydrogen ions, H). Due to the permanent inhibition of the individual proton pump that each molecule of rabeprazole has bound to, acid secretion is effectively suppressed until new proton pumps are produced by the parietal cells. Rabeprazole, like other medications in the same class, cannot inhibit the H/K ATPase pumps found in lysosomes, a cellular organelle that degrades biological molecules, because the pumps found in these organelles lack", "Enterogastric reflex Enterogastric reflex The enterogastric reflex is one of the three extrinsic reflexes of the gastrointestinal tract, the other two being the gastroileal reflex and the gastrocolic reflex. The enterogastric reflex is stimulated in the duodenum by a pH of 3-4 and in the stomach by a pH of 1.5. Upon initiation of the reflex, the release of gastrin by G-cells in the antrum of the stomach is shut off. This in turn inhibits gastric motility and the secretion of gastric acid (HCl). The stomach's contents are inhibited from emptying into the small intestine by The stomach's contents empty through the", "Bismuth subsalicylate such as nausea. The means by which this occurs is still not well documented. It is thought to be some combination of the following: \"In vitro\" and \"in vivo\" data have shown that bismuth subsalicylate hydrolyzes in the gut to bismuth oxychloride and salicylic acid and less commonly bismuth hydroxide. In the stomach, this is likely an acid-catalyzed hydrolysis. The salicylic acid is absorbed and therapeutical concentrations of salicylic acid can be found in blood after bismuth subsalicylate administration. Bismuth oxychloride and bismuth hydroxide are both believed to have bactericidal effects, as is salicylic acid for enterotoxigenic \"E. coli\" a", "Throat irritation cause of throat irritation. Other items known to induce throat irritation include alcohol, spicy or hot foods and smokeless tobacco. This affliction is a common cause of throat irritation. Normally the stomach produces acid in the stomach which is neutralized in the small intestine. To prevent acid from flowing backwards, the lower part of the swallowing tube (esophagus) has a valve which closes after food passes through. In some individuals, this valve becomes incompetent and acid goes up into the esophagus. Reflux episodes often occur at night and one may develop a bitter taste in the mouth. The throat can", "Campylobacter taking antacid medication (e. g. people with gastritis or stomach ulcers) are at higher risk of contracting disease from a smaller amount of organisms, since this type of medication inhibits normal gastric acid. The sites of tissue injury include the jejunum, the ileum, and the colon. Most strains of \"C jejuni\" produce a toxin (cytolethal distending toxin) that hinders the cells from dividing and activating the immune system. This helps the bacteria to evade the immune system and survive for a limited time in the cells. A cholera-like enterotoxin was once thought to be also made, but this appears not", "Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth large bowel; this leads to an increased reflux of bacteria into the small bowel. After bariatric surgery for obesity, connections between the stomach and the ileum can be formed, which may increase bacterial load in the small bowel. Proton pump inhibitors, a class of medication that are used to reduce stomach acid, is associated with an increased risk of developing SIBO. In recent years, several proposed links between SIBO and other disorders have been made. However, the usual methodology of these studies involves the use of breath testing as an indirect investigation for SIBO. Breath testing has been criticized by", "Somatostatin receptor 2 pancreas, this hormone inhibits the secretion of both glucagon and insulin in the alpha and beta cells when stimulated by basic nutrients like sugars, proteins, and fats. In fact, this protein, is the dominant one out of all of the somatostatins in the pancreas. In the stomach, it reduces activity of the digestive tract by inhibiting secretion of gastric acid, pepsin, bile, and colonic acid when in the presence of luminal nutrients; all of these secretions are needed for proper digestion. It also represses motor activity in the gut by blocking segmentation of the intestines, gallbladder contraction, and emptying of", "Human digestive system vitamin from the acidic stomach contents. Once in the more neutral duodenum, pancreatic enzymes break down the protective glycoprotein. The freed vitamin B12 then binds to intrinsic factor which is then absorbed by the enterocytes in the ileum. The stomach is a distensible organ and can normally expand to hold about one litre of food. This expansion is enabled by a series of gastric folds in the inner walls of the stomach. The stomach of a newborn baby will only be able to expand to retain about 30 ml. The spleen breaks down both red and white blood cells that", "Indometacin in the stomach and intestines responsible for maintaining the mucous lining of the gastrointestinal tract. Indometacin, therefore, like other non-selective COX inhibitors can cause peptic ulcers. These ulcers can result in serious bleeding and/or perforation requiring hospitalization of the patient. To reduce the possibility of peptic ulcers, indometacin should be prescribed at the lowest dosage needed to achieve a therapeutic effect, usually between 50–200 mg/day. It should always be taken with food. Nearly all patients benefit from an ulcer protective drug (e.g. highly dosed antacids, ranitidine 150 mg at bedtime, or omeprazole 20 mg at bedtime). Other common gastrointestinal complaints,", "Intestinal mucosal barrier influence barrier function both directly, by stimulating epithelial cell proliferation and secretion of IL-8, and indirectly by producing short-chain fatty acids, which are an important energy source for colonic epithelial cells. The bile produced by the liver to aid in the digestion of lipids has bactericidal properties. The gastric acid produced by the stomach can also kill microorganisms. Both contribute to intestinal barrier function although they are not produced by the intestinal mucosa. Specialised secretory epithelial cells called Paneth cells secrete abundant quantities human α-defensins into the intestinal lumen of healthy individuals. Lysozyme is another defensive molecule secreted by Paneth", "Dephosphorylation demonstrate that changes to dephosphorylation kinetics impact upstream and downstream insulin stimulation. Inhibition of proton pumps significantly decreases the acidity of the gastrointestinal tract, reducing the symptoms of acid-related diseases. The resulting change in pH decreases survival of the bacteria \"H.pylori\", a major cause of peptic ulcer disease. Once the proton pump inhibitor eradicates this bacteria within the gut, reversing erosive reflux. Treating heart disease has improved with the use of drugs that inhibit AMPK via dephosphorylation. In the treatment of diabetes, sulfonylurea drugs are able to stimulate dephosphorylation of the glucose transporter GLUT4, decreasing insulin resistance and increasing and", "Hydrogen potassium ATPase strong association with pre-senile dementia. Hydrogen potassium ATPase Gastric hydrogen potassium ATPase, also known as H/K ATPase, is an enzyme which functions to acidify the stomach. The gastric hydrogen potassium ATPase or H/K ATPase is the proton pump of the stomach. It exchanges potassium from the intestinal lumen with cytoplasmic hydronium and is the enzyme primarily responsible for the acidification of the stomach contents and the activation of the digestive enzyme pepsin (see gastric acid). The H/K ATPase is found in parietal cells, which are highly specialized epithelial cells located in the inner cell lining of the stomach called the", "Omeprazole increase the plasma concentrations of methotrexate. Omeprazole is a selective and irreversible proton pump inhibitor. It suppresses stomach acid secretion by specific inhibition of the H/K-ATPase system found at the secretory surface of gastric parietal cells. Because this enzyme system is regarded as the acid (proton, or H) pump within the gastric mucosa, omeprazole inhibits the final step of acid production. Omeprazole also inhibits both basal and stimulated acid secretion irrespective of the stimulus. The inhibitory effect of omeprazole occurs within 1 hour after oral administration. The maximum effect occurs within 2 hours. The duration of inhibition is up to", "Dipeptide Dietary proteins are digested to dipeptides and amino acids, and the dipeptides are absorbed more rapidly than the amino acids, because their uptake involves a separate mechanism. Dipeptides activate G-cells found in the stomach to secrete gastrin. In this usage, \"X dipeptide\" is taken literally: One amino acid \"X\" is equipped with two minimal peptide bonds: The C terminus COOH becomes COCH, the N terminus NH becomes NHCH. For instance, alanine dipeptide is CHCONHCH(CH)CONHCH. Dipeptide A dipeptide is an organic compound derived from two amino acids. The amino acids can be the same or different. When different, two isomers of", "Donat Mg of the intestinal wall by osmosis, increasing the volume of intestinal content 3 to 5 times; this exerts pressure on the intestinal wall and triggers its peristalsis or movement. Magnesium also additionally stimulates the intestinal hormones that boost peristalsis. The stomach makes 2 to 3 litres of acidic fluids each day. These consist mostly of hydrochloric acid and pepsin (an enzyme that speeds up the metabolism of proteins). Donat Mg contains approximately 7,800 mg of hydrogen carbonate. This high hydrogen carbonate content has a great capacity for bonding to acids and buffering free acids. It bonds to stomach acid in", "Human digestive system the esophagus at its upper end and to the duodenum at its lower end. Gastric acid (informally \"gastric juice\"), produced in the stomach plays a vital role in the digestive process, and mainly contains hydrochloric acid and sodium chloride. A peptide hormone, gastrin, produced by G cells in the gastric glands, stimulates the production of gastric juice which activates the digestive enzymes. Pepsinogen is a precursor enzyme (zymogen) produced by the gastric chief cells, and gastric acid activates this to the enzyme pepsin which begins the digestion of proteins. As these two chemicals would damage the stomach wall, mucus is", "Proton-pump inhibitor studies, it remains uncertain whether such associations are causal relationships. Proton pump inhibitors act by irreversibly blocking the hydrogen/potassium adenosine triphosphatase enzyme system (the H/K ATPase, or, more commonly, the gastric proton pump) of the gastric parietal cells. The proton pump is the terminal stage in gastric acid secretion, being directly responsible for secreting H ions into the gastric lumen, making it an ideal target for inhibiting acid secretion. Targeting the terminal step in acid production, as well as the irreversible nature of the inhibition, results in a class of drugs that are significantly more effective than H antagonists and", "Gastrointestinal tract gastric ATPase ATP4A and gastric intrinsic factor GIF, expressed in parietal cells of the stomach mucosa. Specific proteins expressed in the stomach and duodenum involved in defence include mucin proteins, such as mucin 6 and intelectin-1. The time taken for food or other ingested objects to transit through the gastrointestinal tract varies depending on many factors, but roughly, it takes less than an hour after a meal for 50% of stomach contents to empty into the intestines while total emptying takes around 2 hours. Subsequently, 50% emptying of the small intestine takes between 1 and 2 hours. Finally, transit through", "Zinc L-carnosine ROS-quenching activities. It can remain in the stomach without rapid dissociation and adhere specifically to ulcerous lesions, after which -carnosine and zinc are released to heal the ulcer. It has been shown to stimulate mucus production and to maintain the integrity of the gastric mucosal barrier. It maintains homeostasis of the gastric mucosa by prostaglandin-independent cytoprotective effects due to anti-oxidative membrane stabilizing actions, and it promotes the repair of damaged tissues by wound healing action. It exerts cytoprotection through regulating heat shock proteins and chemokines, and by stabilizing mast cells. It does so without affecting the secretion of gastric acid.", "Motilin ligand in positive feedback mechanism to stimulate the release of more motilin. The main function of motilin is to increase the migrating myoelectric complex component of gastrointestinal motility and stimulate the production of pepsin. Motilin is also called \"housekeeper of the gut\" because it improves peristalsis in the small intestine and clears out the gut to prepare for the next meal. A high level of motilin secreted between meals into the blood stimulates the contraction of the fundus and antrum and accelerates gastric emptying. It then contracts the gallbladder and increases the squeeze pressure of the lower esophageal sphincter. Other", "Onset of action patient receiving the drug. A drug's pharmacological effects can only occur once it has been fully solubilized and has entered the blood stream. For most drugs administered orally, the drug must be ingested, pass through the stomach, and into the small intestine, where the drug molecules enter the blood stream through the villi and microvilli. Gastric emptying time can vary from 0 to 3 hours, and therefore plays a major role in onset of action for orally administered drugs. For intravenous administration, the pathway is much shorter because the drug is administered (usually already in solution) directly to the bloodstream.", "Cholecystokinin contraction of the gall bladder and the relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi (Glisson's sphincter), resulting in the delivery of bile into the duodenal part of the small intestine. Bile salts form amphipathic lipids, micelles that emulsify fats, aiding in their digestion and absorption. As a peptide hormone, CCK mediates satiety by acting on the CCK receptors distributed widely throughout the central nervous system. The mechanism for hunger suppression is thought to be a decrease in the rate of gastric emptying. CCK also has stimulatory effects on the vagus nerve, effects that can be inhibited by capsaicin. The stimulatory effects", "Stomach disease involves its urease enzymes which metabolize urea (which is normally secreted into the stomach) to ammonia and carbon dioxide which neutralises gastric acid and thus prevents its digestion. In recent years, it has been discovered that other \"Helicobacter\" bacteria are also capable of colonising the stomach and have been associated with gastritis. Having too little or no gastric acid is known as hypochlorhydria or achlorhydria respectively and are conditions which can have negative health impacts. Having high levels of gastric acid is called hyperchlorhydria. Many people believe that hyperchlorhydria can cause stomach ulcers. However, recent research indicates that the gastric", "Digestion close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine. Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons", "Zymogen n-terminal extensions of the enzyme or a “prosegment” often aid in the stabilizing and folding of the enzyme they inhibit. The pancreas secretes zymogens partly to prevent the enzymes from digesting proteins in the cells in which they are synthesised. Enzymes like pepsin are created in the form of pepsinogen, an inactive zymogen. Pepsinogen is activated when chief cells release it into the gastric acid, whose hydrochloric acid partially activates it. Another partially activated pepsinogen completes the activation by removing the peptide, turning the pepsinogen into pepsin. Accidental activation of zymogens can happen when the secretion duct in the pancreas", "Rifaximin against both gram positive and gram negative anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. As a result of bile acid solubility, its antibacterial action is limited mostly to the small intestine and less so the colon. A resetting of the bacteria composition has also been suggested as a possible mechanism of action for relief of IBS symptoms. Additionally, rifaximin may have a direct anti-inflammatory effect on gut mucosa via modulation of the pregnane X receptor. Other mechanisms for its therapeutic properties include inhibition of bacterial translocation across the epithelial lining of the intestine, inhibition of adherence of bacteria to the epithelial cells and", "Digestion cleaved from their protein complexes. After the B-haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B molecules which rebind to intrinsic factor (IF). These B-IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where cubilin receptors enable assimilation and circulation of B-IF complexes in the blood. There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. For instance, more connections to metabolic control", "Alcohol (drug) lining is normally protected by a mucosal layer that prevents the stomach from, essentially, digesting itself. However, in patients who have a peptic ulcer disease (PUD), this mucosal layer is broken down. PUD is commonly associated with the bacteria \"H. pylori\". \"H. pylori\" secrete a toxin that weakens the mucosal wall, which as a result lead to acid and protein enzymes penetrating the weakened barrier. Because alcohol stimulates a person's stomach to secrete acid, a person with PUD should avoid drinking alcohol on an empty stomach. Drinking alcohol causes more acid release, which further damages the already-weakened stomach wall. Complications", "Hydrogen potassium ATPase stomach acidity has been the most common method of treating diseases including gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD) and peptic ulcer disease (PUD). Reducing acidity alleviates disease symptoms but does not treat the actual cause of GERD (abnormal relaxation of the esophageal sphincter) or PUD (\"Helicobacter pylori\" and NSAIDs). Three drug classes have been used to inhibit H/K ATPases. H-receptor antagonists, like Cimetidine (Tagamet), inhibit the signaling pathway that leads to activation of the ATPase. This type of inhibitor is effective in treating ulcers but does not prevent them from forming, and patients develop tolerance to them after about one week, leading", "Lansoprazole also a prodrug that targets the cytochrome bc1 complex of Mycobacterium tuberculosis once converted to lansoprazole sulfide in mycobacterial host cells. Lansoprazole Lansoprazole, sold under the brand name Prevacid among others, is a medication which inhibits the stomach's production of gastric acid. There is no evidence that its effectiveness is different from that of other PPIs. Lansoprazole, given through a nasogastric tube, effectively controls pH inside the stomach and is an alternative to intravenous pantoprazole in people who are unable to swallow solid-dose formulations. Lansoprazole is a proton-pump inhibitor (PPI) in the same pharmacologic class as omeprazole. Lansoprazole has been", "Small intestine and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine. Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter. The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from", "Albendazole a fatty meal, as albendazole dissolves better in lipids, allowing it to cross the lipid barrier created by the mucus surface of the GI tract. To target intestinal parasites, albendazole is taken on an empty stomach in order to stay within the gut. Absorption is also affected by how much of the albendazole is degraded within the small intestine by metabolic enzymes in the vili. The pharmacokinetics of albendazole differ slightly between men and women: women have a lower oral clearance and volume of distribution, while men have a lower serum peak concentration. Albendazole undergoes very fast 1st-pass metabolism in", "Argentaffin of the digestive tract and containing granules thought to be of secretory function. These epithelial cells, though common throughout the digestive tract, are most concentrated in the small intestine and appendix. The cells located randomly within the mucous membrane lining of the intestine and in tubelike depressions in that lining known as the Lieberkühn glands. Their granules contain a chemical called serotonin, which stimulates smooth muscle contractions. Functionally, it is believed that serotonin diffuses out of the argentaffin cells into the walls of the digestive tract, where neurons leading to the muscles are stimulated to produce the wavelike contractions of", "Gastroparesis limited and includes nutritional modifications, medications to stimulate gastric emptying, drugs that reduce vomiting, and rarely surgical approaches. Treatment includes dietary changes (low fiber diets) and, in some cases, restrictions on fat and/or solids. Eating smaller meals, spaced two to three hours apart has proved helpful. Avoiding foods that cause the individual problems, such as pain in the abdomen, or constipation, such as rice or beef, will help avoid symptoms. Metoclopramide, a dopamine D receptor antagonist, increases contractility and resting tone within the GI tract to improve gastric emptying. In addition, dopamine antagonist action in the central nervous system prevents", "Healthy digestion them after they begin. Various drugs can relieve the symptoms of poor digestion. Laxatives counter constipation. Loperamide counters diarrhea. An antacid can counter heartburn or indigestion. Simethicone can counter flatulence. Probiotic treatment to promote healthy digestion is popular. Many people who seek healthcare for gastrointestinal problems are not satisfied with the treatment options which they find in conventional medicine. Because of this, people often use alternative medicine to promote healthy digestion. Various organizations observe a \"World Digestive Health Day\" to share information about promoting healthy digestion. Healthy digestion Healthy digestion, also called digestive health, results in the absorption of nutrients", "Glucagon-like peptide-1 the small intestines where the direct stimulation occurs. One of the actions of GLP-1 is to inhibit gastric emptying, thus slowing down its own secretion upon postprandial activation. Fasting plasma concentration of biologically active GLP-1 range between 0 and 15 pmol/L in humans and is increased 2- to 3-fold upon food consumption depending on meal size and nutrient composition. Individual nutrients, such as fatty acids, essential amino acids and dietary fibre have also shown to stimulate GLP-1 secretion. Sugars have been associated with various signalling pathways, which initiate depolarisation of the L-cell membrane causing an elevated concentration of cytosolic Ca", "Nutritional neuroscience a result of malabsorption. These diseases may affect production of intrinsic factor in the stomach, or of pancreatic bile. Diseases that involve disorders of the small intestine, such as celiac disease, Crohn's disease and ileitis, may also reduce B absorption. For example, people with celiac disease may damage the microvilli within their small intestines through the consumption of gluten, thereby inhibiting absorption of B as well as other nutrients. A diet low in B, whether voluntary or not, can also cause symptoms of hypocobalaminemia. Many rich sources of B come from animal meats and by-products. Populations in developing countries may", "Alkaline mucus mucus epithelium of the stomach from acids released during digestion. Ulcers can develop as a result of damage caused to the mucosal barrier. Duodenal ulcers have been shown to develop in sites that are in direct contact with pepsin and acids. To prevent damage and protect the mucus epithelium, alkaline mucus secretions increase in the digestive system when food is being eaten. In the cervix, alkaline mucus has been shown to possess bactericidal properties to protect the cervix, uterus, peritoneal cavity, and vagina from microbes. Alkaline mucus Alkaline mucus is a thick fluid produced by animals which confers tissue protection", "Taurine and sodium taurocholate. The sulfonic acid has a low pKa ensuring that it is fully ionized to the sulfonate at the pH's found in the intestinal tract. Taurine crosses the blood–brain barrier and has been implicated in a wide array of physiological phenomena including inhibitory neurotransmission, long-term potentiation in the striatum/hippocampus, membrane stabilization, feedback inhibition of neutrophil/macrophage respiratory burst, adipose tissue regulation and possible prevention of obesity, calcium homeostasis, recovery from osmotic shock, protection against glutamate excitotoxicity and prevention of epileptic seizures. Taurine has been shown to reduce the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and lipids in HepG2 cells. High concentrations", "Jejunoileal bypass less weight loss initially and greater subsequent weight regain. Bile is secreted by the liver, enters the upper small intestine by way of the bile duct, and is absorbed in the small intestine. Bile has an important role in fat digestion, emulsifying fat as the first stage in its digestion. Bypassing the major site of bile acid reabsorption in the small intestine therefore further reduces fat and fat-soluble vitamin absorption. As a result, huge amounts of fatty acids, which are normally absorbed in the small intestine, enter the colon, where they cause irritation of the colon wall and the secretion", "Pantoprazole in gastric acid production. In the gastric parietal cell of the stomach, pantoprazole covalently binds to the H+/K+ ATP pump to inhibit gastric acid and basal acid secretion. The covalent binding prevents acid secretion of up to 24 hours and longer. Pantoprazole is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 system. Metabolism mainly consists of demethylation by CYP2C19 followed by sulfation. Another metabolic pathway is oxidation by CYP3A4. Pantoprazole metabolites are not thought to have any pharmacological significance. It is usually given with a prokinetic drug because of inactivity in the acidic environment of the stomach. Pantoprazole binds irreversibly", "Stomach in the maintenance of oro-oesophageal and gastric tissue integrity. The biological effects of salivary EGF include healing of oral and gastroesophageal ulcers, inhibition of gastric acid secretion, stimulation of DNA synthesis, and mucosal protection from intraluminal injurious factors such as gastric acid, bile acids, pepsin, and trypsin and from physical, chemical, and bacterial agents. The human stomach can \"taste\" sodium glutamate using glutamate receptors and this information is passed to the lateral hypothalamus and limbic system in the brain as a palatability signal through the vagus nerve. The stomach can also sense, independently of tongue and oral taste receptors, glucose,", "Duodenal-jejunal bypass liner homeostasis. Their \"hindgut hypothesis\" claims that by expediting the delivery of chyme to the distal intestine, the secretion of the gut hormone GLP-1 and glucose-dependent insulin is more effectively promoted, improving glucose metabolism. The \"foregut hypothesis,\" on the other hand, states that by bypassing the duodenum and proximal jejunum (the initial parts of the small intestine), the inhibiting hormone GIP is secreted less, resulting in improved glucose tolerance. , those hypotheses continue to be tested, with Xiong \"et al.\" finding elements of both being involved. Duodenal-jejunal bypass liner A duodenal-jejunal bypass liner, commonly called an EndoBarrier, is an implantable medical", "Peptide YY either alone or co-localized with glucagon or PP. PYY exerts its action through NPY receptors; it inhibits gastric motility and increases water and electrolyte absorption in the colon. PYY may also suppress pancreatic secretion. It is secreted by the neuroendocrine cells in the ileum and colon in response to a meal, and has been shown to reduce appetite. PYY works by slowing the gastric emptying; hence, it increases efficiency of digestion and nutrient absorption after a meal. Research has also indicated PYY may be useful in removing aluminium accumulated in the brain. Several studies have shown acute peripheral administration of" ]

[ 0.2905273438 ]

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[ "There's a park only for residents at Fitzwilliam Square." ]

[ "The park in Fitzwilliam Square is open to the general public.", "A complete picture is not needed to see what is going on in the instance.", "The four boys are sitting in the school.", "The Portuguese won control of the Malabar coast by attacking a trading fleet.", "The Assyrians never invaded Israel in the 8th century b.c.", "the woman is holding a wallet", "The bicycle salesmen sell the women used bicycles." ]

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[ "There is someone with a parachute in midair." ]

[ "The person has a life jacket.", "Two people outside taking pictures.", "Two women playing golf.", "According to her, she affects the lives of people - sometimes profoundly.", "German did not have any goals.", "Nobody worried about them until recently.", "People take a walk through town in the evening." ]

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[ "Aquarela do Brasil\n\"Aquarela do Brasil\" (Portuguese:[akwaˈɾɛlɐ du bɾaˈziw], Watercolor of Brazil), written by Ary Barroso in 1939 and known in the English-speaking world simply as \"Brazil\", is one of the most famous Brazilian songs." ]

[ "Gonçalves Dias\nAntônio Gonçalves Dias (; August 10, 1823November 3, 1864) was a Brazilian Romantic poet, playwright, ethnographer, lawyer and linguist. A major exponent of Brazilian Romanticism and of the literary tradition known as \"Indianism\", he is famous for writing \"Canção do exílio\" (arguably the most well-known poem of Brazilian literature), the short narrative poem \"I-Juca-Pirama\", the unfinished epic \"Os Timbiras\", and many other nationalist and patriotic poems that would award him posthumously with the title of national poet of Brazil. He was also an avid researcher of Native Brazilian languages and folklore.", "Paradinha (song)\n\"Paradinha\" () is a song by Brazilian singer Anitta. It was released on May 31, 2017 by Warner Music. Written by Anitta, Umberto Tavares and Jefferson Junior, the song is expected to be included on her upcoming fourth studio album. It is the first single in Spanish by Anitta after the Spanish version of \"Sim ou Não\" featuring Maluma. \"Paradinha\" is a mix of dancehall-pop and reggaeton with tropical house influences. Inspired by artists like Shakira and Enrique Iglesias, Anitta recorded the song in Spanish as an attempt to reach the millions of people who speak the language in the United States, with plans to cross over to the English-speaking market in the future.", "Brazil (1985 film)\nBrazil is a 1985 British-American dystopian science fiction film directed by Terry Gilliam and written by Gilliam, Charles McKeown, and Tom Stoppard. The film stars Jonathan Pryce and features Robert De Niro, Kim Greist, Michael Palin, Katherine Helmond, Bob Hoskins and Ian Holm.", "Aquarela do Brasil\nIn 2009, the Recording Academy added the 1942 recording of \"Brazil (Aquarela do Brasil)\" by Jimmy Dorsey & His Orchestra, released as Decca 18460B, to the Grammy Hall of Fame.[10][11] Jimmy Dorsey was the first to record the song on July 14, 1942 and release it with the English lyrics by Bob Russell sung by Bob Eberly and Helen O'Connell.[12]", "Rio de Janeiro\n\"Rio was popularised by the hit song \"The Girl from Ipanema\", composed by Antônio Carlos Jobim and Vinicius de Moraes and recorded by Astrud Gilberto and João Gilberto, Frank Sinatra, and Ella Fitzgerald. It is also the main key song of the bossa nova, a music genre born in Rio. A genre unique to Rio and Brazil as a whole is Funk Carioca. While samba music continues to act as the national unifying agent in Rio, Funk Carioca found a strong community following in Brazil. With its genesis in the 1970s as the modern black pop music from the United States, it evolved in the 1990s to describe a variety of electronic music associated with the current US black music scene, including hip hop, modern soul, and house music.\"", "Roberto Carlos (singer)\nMost of his songs are written in partnership with his friend, singer and songwriter Erasmo Carlos. Roberto Carlos has sold over 120 million albums around the world. He is considered one of the most influential artists in Brazil during the 1960s, being cited as a source of inspiration by many artists and bands up to the 1980s. His net worth is estimated at US$160 million.", "Brazil (1985 film)\nGilliam has stated that \"Brazil\" was inspired by George Orwell's \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\"—which he has admitted never having read—but is written from a contemporary perspective rather than looking to the future as Orwell did. In Gilliam's words, his film was \"the \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\" for 1984.\" Critics and analysts have pointed out many similarities and differences between the two, an example being that contrary to Winston Smith, Sam Lowry's spirit did not capitulate as he sank into complete catatonia. The film's ending bears a strong similarity to \"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge\" by Ambrose Bierce.", "Declan McKenna\nDeclan Benedict McKenna (24 December 1998) is an English singer, songwriter and musician. He initially gained recognition for winning the Glastonbury Festival's Emerging Talent Competition in 2015. McKenna self-released the song \"Brazil\", a protest song criticizing FIFA and the 2014 FIFA World Cup held in Brazil, as his debut single in December 2014. It gained recognition after its re-release in August 2015. It reached number one on Sirius XM Radio's Alt Nation Alt 18 Countdown for 23 January 2016 and held that spot for three weeks. The song also reached number 16 on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Alternative Songs chart, number 45 in Japan and number 135 in France. His popularity attracted the attention of many major music labels; he eventually signed to Columbia Records in 2016.", "A Different Story (Deborah Blando album)\n\"Innocence\" was composed by Deborah in his apartment in Rio de Janeiro originally in Portuguese and translated to English by Kit Hain, Larry Dvoskin and ET Thorngren – team organized by David Wolff, who hired the consecrated duo Billy Steinberg and Tom Kelly, responsible for several hits by Cyndi Lauper in the 80s as \"True Colors\" and \"I Drove All Night.\" According to the Billboard Magazine, the song spent 13 weeks at number one in Brazil.", "Asa Branca\n\"Asa Branca\" is a song written by Luiz Gonzaga and Humberto Teixeira in 1947. The \"asa-branca\" (\"white wing\") of the title is the picazuro pigeon. With its departure the desolation of the parched \"sertão\" (the arid backcountry) is complete, and the protagonist of the song, unable to make a living, must leave the \"sertão\" and his lady-love Rosinha. The song closes with his promise to return.The song was voted by the Brazilian edition of \"Rolling Stone\" as the 4th greatest Brazilian song.", "Brazil (The Ritchie Family album)\nBrazil is the debut studio album recorded by American female vocal trio The Ritchie Family, released in 1975 on the 20th Century label.", "Luiz Brasil\nLuiz Brasil (born Luiz Alberto Brasil de Carvalho in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, on April 21, 1954) is a Brazilian guitarist. He is best known as a guitarist who has performed with Caetano Veloso, Gilberto Gil, Gal Costa, Nando Reis, Cássia Eller, and many other vocalists.", "Simplemente Amigos\n\"Simplemente Amigos\" (\"Just Friends\") is a ballad written and performed by Mexican singer-songwriter Ana Gabriel. It was produced by Mariano Pérez Bautista and was released on June 22, 1988 as the second single from her studio album \"Tierra de Nadie\" (1988). The song became Gabriel's second number-one single in the \"Billboard\" Hot Latin Tracks chart after \"Ay Amor\" in 1987. The success of the song led its parent album to its peak at number one in the \"Billboard\" Latin Pop Albums and approximate sales of six million units in Latin America.", "List of Brazilian football songs\nThe music was re-recorded in 1962,after Brazil won the World Cup in that year,with the lyrics of the last verse being modified to\n\"O brasileiro/desta vez no Chile/mostrou o futebol como é que é/ganhou o Bicampeonato/Sambando com a bola no pé/Goool!\" (\"The Brazilian this time in Chile/Showed football the way it is/Won the Bichampionship/Dancing the samba with the ball on the feet/Goal!\")", "Brazilian National Anthem\nFrancisco Manuel da Silva then seized this opportunity to present his composition, and the anthem written by him was played in public for the first time on April 13, 1831. On that same day, the ship carrying the former Emperor left the port of Rio de Janeiro. The date of April 13 now appears in official calendars as the \"Day of the Brazilian National Anthem\".", "Brazil (Bebi Dol song)\n\"Brazil\" (Serbian Cyrillic: \"Бразил\") was a song of the Eurovision Song Contest 1991, performed in Serbo-Croatian by Bebi Dol, representing Yugoslavia.", "Construção\nThe album features \"Olha Maria\", a bittersweet song of stunning beauty also recorded and performed by its cowriter Antonio Carlos Jobim as well as Lee Ritenour, Zimbo Trio and more. \"Construção\" ranks Number 3 on Rolling Stone's list of . The magazine also voted its title-track as the greatest Brazilian song, stating the it \"is still a reference to understand a spiny period of Brazilian society\". It also ranks Number 54 in the list of the 100 greatest records of the 20th century by German music magazine Spex. On September 2012, it was elected by the audience of Radio Eldorado FM, of Estadao.com e of Caderno C2+Música (both the latter belong to newspaper \"O Estado de S. Paulo\") as the sixth best Brazilian album ever.", "Aquarela do Brasil\nSome criticism to the song, at the time, was that it used expressions little known by the general public, such as \"inzoneiro\", \"merencória\", and \"trigueiro\" (intriguing, melancholic, and swarthy), and that he was too redundant in the verses \"meu Brasil brasileiro\" (\"my Brazilian Brazil\") and \"esse coqueiro que dá coco\" (\"this coconut palm that produces coconut\"). The composer defended his work, saying that these expressions were poetic effects inseparable of the original composition. On the original recording, Alves sung \"mulato risoneiro\" (laughing mulatto) instead of \"inzoneiro\" because he was unable to understand Barroso's illegible handwriting.[6]", "Flag of Brazil\nThe Brazilian Flag Anthem (\"Hino à Bandeira Nacional\") is a song dedicated to the country's flag. It is performed on 19 November (Flag Day). The Portuguese lyrics were written by poet Olavo Bilac, and the music composed by Francisco Braga.", "Luz no Meu Caminho\nThe album approaches a more mature language bringing themes like ballad, religion, love and patriotism. One of the bands that stands out most is \"Brasileira\". The song portrays Xuxa's love for Brazil, extolling its people and culture. During the recording of the song, the presenter asked to include an excerpt from the 1994 World Cup narrative, when Brazil became four times champion, besides the story of Galvão Bueno in one of the victories of Ayrton Senna. The blonde also shows the love for her land in another track, but this time, talking about her hometown, Santa Rosa, Rio Grande do Sul, which gives title to the song.", "Latin ballad\nThe heyday of the ballad was reached in the mid-1970s, where artists such as José José, Camilo Sesto, Raphael, Roberto Carlos, Rocío Dúrcal and others released a big number of hits. The main hits of José José were \"El triste\" (The Sad One), \"La nave del olvido\" (The Ship of Forgetfullness), \"Te extraño\" (I Miss You, also written by Manzanero), \"Amar y querer\" (To love and To want), or \"Gavilán o paloma\" (Hawk or Dove), \"El pasado\" (The Past), \"Volcán\" (Volcano) or \"Lo que no fue no será\" (What Never Was Will Never Be). By Roberto Carlos the songs \"Amigos\" (Friends) or \"Detalles\" (Details). By Camilo Sesto the hits \"Fresa Salvaje\" (Wild Strawberry), \"Perdóname\" (Forgive Me) or \"Vivir Así es Morir de Amor\" (To Live Like This is to Die of Love). Rocío Dúrcal enjoyed worldwide success and was known as \"La Dama de la canción\" (The Lady of Song). Her successful ballads include \"Costumbres\" (Customs), \"Amor Eterno\" (Eternal Love), \"Diferentes\" (Different), among many others that were released in Latin America.[2] These songs are widely known today in Latin America.", "Olavo Bilac\nOlavo Brás Martins dos Guimarães Bilac (16 December 1865 – 28 December 1918), often known as Olavo Bilac (), was a Brazilian Parnassian poet, journalist and translator. Alongside Alberto de Oliveira and Raimundo Correia, he was a member of the \"Parnassian Triad\". He was elected the \"Prince of Brazilian Poets\" in 1907 by the magazine \"Fon-Fon\". He wrote the lyrics of the Brazilian Flag Anthem.", "O Que É Que A Baiana Tem?\nFrom the beginning of his career, Dorival Caymmi musically imbued his country with a rhythmic, romantic identity that went well with Brazil's enticing geography and sultry, bikini-clad women. His first and immediately popular song, written at 16, was “O Que É Que a Baiana Tem?”. That song became the first hit of Carmen Miranda, whose well-displayed limbs, extravagant hats and exuberant voice made her a global sensation as the \"Brazilian Bombshell\". In 1996, the publication News From Brazil said Mr. Caymmi taught Ms. Miranda to move her arms and hands with the music, which became her trademark.", "Brazilian Dreams\nProduced by Jay Ashby, the album features seven songs written by Brazilian performers including Antônio Carlos Jobim, Luiz Bonfá, João Donato and Caetano Veloso, and three original songs, and was conceived as a tribute to the music of Brazil of which D'Rivera has always been an admirer. \"Brazilian Dreams\" received mixed reviews by critics, some praising the performers and the musical selection, and others being critical about the lack of improvement on the arrangements on the classic songs of the genre included. The album earned D'Rivera the Latin Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album.", "Lula, Son of Brazil\nThe soundtrack was composed by Antonio Pinto. The musical taste of Lula was faithfully followed in the preparation of the soundtrack. He requested the sertanejo duo Zezé Di Camargo & Luciano to record \"Meu Primeiro Amor\", a version of \"Lejanía\" by Paraguayan composer Herminio Giménez adapted into Portuguese by José Fortuna. The former president also requested the inclusion of two remarkable songs in his life and emotional memories: \"Nossa Canção\", a romantic samba by Luiz Ayrão, recorded by Nana Caymmi especially for the soundtrack, and \"Desesperar Jamais\" by Ivan Lins and Vitor Martins, recorded by Ivan and samba player Roberto Ribeiro. The soundtrack is complemented with songs contemporary to the years represented in the film, such as \"Sentimental Demais\" by Altemar Dutra, \"Estúpido Cupido\" by Celly Campelo, \"Saudosa Maloca\" by Demônios da Garoa, and even \"Pra Frente Brasil\", an anthem for the Brazil national football team during the 1970 FIFA World Cup. The film's soundtrack album was released a month before the film, marking the first time this had ever happeneded in Brazil.", "Scream for Me Brazil\nAll songs written by Bruce Dickinson and Roy Z, except where noted.", "África Brasil\nÁfrica Brasil is a 1976 release by Brazilian artist Jorge Ben, recording at the time as Jorge Ben. It was Ben's 14th studio album. \"África Brasil\" represented a milestone in Ben's career with Ben's switch to electric guitar and incorporation of both Afro-Brazilian and African-American pop music styles into his sound. Known for its funkiness, \"África Brasil\" is one of Ben's best-known recordings. \"Rolling Stone\" Brazil listed it as one of the 100 best Brazilian albums in history, and it was included in both Robert Dimery's \"1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die\" as well as Tom Moon's collection \"1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die\".", "Do You Want To\nBrazil CD ", "Brazilian National Anthem\nThe melody of the Brazilian national anthem was composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva, and was presented to the public for the first time in April 1831. On 7 April 1831, the first Brazilian Emperor, Pedro I, abdicated the Crown and days later left for Europe, leaving behind the then-five-year-old Emperor Pedro II.", "Brazil, Bossa Nova &amp; Blues\nBrazil, Bossa Nova & Blues (also released as Brazil Blues and Jazz Impressions of Brazil) is an album by American jazz flautist Herbie Mann recorded in 1962 for the United Artists label.", "Na Baixa do Sapateiro\n\"Na Baixa do Sapateiro\" () is a famous Brazilian song, written by Ary Barroso. Its title comes from a street in Salvador, Bahia, where many cobblers once worked.\nIt was originally released in 1938 as the B side to \"Salada Mista\", which did not achieve the same level of success.\nThis first recording was sung by Carmen Miranda with Orchestra Odeon.\nShe never released the song on disc in the United States. The song was originally going to be featured in the Carmen Miranda film \"Banana da Terra\" (1939), but was replaced with \"O Que É Que A Baiana Tem?\", because of the high license fee demanded by Ary Barroso to use his song. However the song has been recorded many other times by a large number of artists. The song gained international fame when it was featured in the Disney film \"The Three Caballeros\" (1944).", "Blitz (Brazilian band)\nBlitz is a Brazilian rock band. The band was the first to achieve mainstream success and to have hit singles (\"Você não soube me amar\", \"A dois passos do paraíso\", \"Ana Maria (biquíni de bolinha amarelinha tão pequenininho)\") kick-starting the 1980s movement that would later be called \"BRock\". Its \"classic\" formation included Evandro Mesquita (voice), Lobão (drums, later Roberto \"Juba\" Gurgel), Antônio Pedro Fortuna (bass, formerly with Os Mutantes and Lulu Santos), William Forghieri (keyboards) and Fernanda Abreu and Márcia Bulcão (backing vocals). Their \"Aventuras II\" album was nominated for the 2017 Latin Grammy Award for Best Portuguese Language Rock or Alternative Album.", "Gabriel o Pensador\nComing from a middle-class family, a unique background among Brazilian rappers, Gabriel, the son of a well known journalist in Brazil, hit fame in 1992 with the song \"Tô Feliz (Matei o Presidente)\" (\"I' m happy, I've killed the president\"), the debut single from his first and eponymous album. This song was written in protest of President Fernando Collor de Mello and his corrupt administration. Gabriel's mother was Collor's press secretary. The same album also yielded other hits, including \"Lôrabúrra\" (\"Dumb Blonde\", shortened) and \"Retrato de um Playboy\" (\"Portrait of a Playboy\"), bringing hip hop mainstream attention in Brazil by catering to the middle class. Although rapping about everyday life, Gabriel also found time to talk about social injustices with his fourth single, \"O Resto do Mundo\" (\"The Leftovers of the World\", a pun on the words \"leftovers\" and \"rest\" being the same word), a more downbeat track about homeless life, with a purposefully depressive melody and flow. Gabriel was \"notorious for his biting attacks on some of the major ills of Brazilian society: poverty, racism, violence.\"", "Si Piensas, Si Quieres\n\"Si Piensas, Si Quieres\" (\"If You Think So, If You Want To\") is a Latin pop song by Brazilian recording artist Roberto Carlos from his studio \"Roberto Carlos 1992\" (1991). The track was written by Alejandro Vezanni and Roberto Livi, produced by Livi and features vocals by Spanish performer Rocío Dúrcal. It was released as the album's lead single in Latin America and the United States. A Portuguese-language version of the song was also recorded as \"Se Você Quer\" with featured vocals from fellow Brazilian singer Fafá de Belém.", "Brasileirinho (song)\nBrasileirinho (\"Little Brazilian\") is a 1947 choro composed by Waldir Azevedo. It is considered one of the most successful and influential choros of all time, and it has been covered by many artists, like singer Carmen Miranda, acoustic guitarist João Pernambuco and guitarist Pepeu Gomes. It was voted by the Brazilian edition of \"Rolling Stone\" as the 53rd greatest Brazilian song. The 2005 documentary \"Brasileirinho\" is named after it.", "Billboard Brasil\n\"Billboard\" charts are accepted as Brazil's official charts, covering airplay data collected by Crowley/Music Media from 14 different cities. The overall chart is the Brasil Hot 100 Airplay, which is also split between regional music - forró, Axé, sertanejo, pagode - on Brasil Hot Popular Songs, and pop music - both Brazilian and foreign - on Brasil Hot Pop Songs. Regional charts for each of the 14 cities are also given. The charts include:\"Billboard Brasil\" was launched by Bill Werde, editor-in-chief of the American \"Billboard magazine\", in Brazil in September 2009. Werde expressed his appreciation of Brazilian music, and stated that \"Billboard\" would monitor the local market. The magazine is published on a monthly basis.", "Desafinado\n\"Desafinado,\" a Portuguese word (usually rendered into English as \"Out of Tune\", or as \"Off Key\"), is the title of a bossa nova song composed by Antônio Carlos Jobim with lyrics (in Portuguese) by Newton Mendonça. It was originally a response to critics who claimed that bossa nova was a new genre for singers who can't sing. The English language lyrics were written by Jon Hendricks and \"Jessie Cavanaugh\" (a pseudonym used by The Richmond Organisation). Another English lyric, more closely based on the original Portuguese lyric (but not a translation) was written by Gene Lees, and appears on some recordings as well. The version by Stan Getz and Charlie Byrd (from the album \"Jazz Samba\") was a major hit in 1962, reaching number 15 and number 4 on \"Billboard\"′s pop and easy-listening charts, respectively; their definitive rendering also reached number 11 in the UK, while Ella Fitzgerald's version made number 38. The song was voted by the Brazilian edition of \"Rolling Stone\" as the 14th greatest Brazilian song.", "Brazilian National Anthem\nThe official lyrics of the Brazilian National Anthem were proclaimed by decree of President Epitácio Pessoa (Decree 15.761 of 1922), issued on 6 September 1922, at the height of the celebrations of the Independence Centennial. This presidential decree was issued in accordance with authorization contained in a legislative decree adopted by Congress on 21 August 1922. Furthermore, as allowed by the said legislative decree, and before the President of the Republic issued his decree proclaiming the official adoption of Joaquim Osório Duque Estrada's lyrics as the official lyrics of the National anthem, the Federal Government finalized the purchase of the lyrics written by Duque Estrada, signing with the composer the contract that transferred all the rights of authorship over the said lyrics to the Federal Union, and paying the agreed price of 5:000$ (five \"contos\" of réis). ", "Ary Barroso\nAry Barroso was the most influential pre-bossa nova composer in Brazil. Barroso's songs were recorded by a lengthy list of artists including Carmen Miranda and João Gilberto. His 1939 composition \"Aquarela do Brasil\", better known as \"Brazil\", was featured in the 1942 Disney film \"Saludos Amigos\", and has gone on to become one of the 20 most recorded songs of all time. His song \"Na Baixa do Sapateiro\", based on a Brazilian pop tune, was included in the Disney film \"The Three Caballeros\" and popularized as \"Baía\". Barroso's soundtrack for the movie \"Brazil\" was nominated for an Oscar in 1945. Although he failed to win, Barroso was presented a Merit Award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for his work. In 1955, Barroso received the National Order of Merit, the greatest honor bestowed by the Brazilian government.", "Saludos Amigos\n\"Aquarela do Brasil\" (Portuguese for \"Watercolor of Brazil\"), the finale of the film, involves a brand-new character, José Carioca from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, showing Donald Duck around South America, having a drink of cachaça with him and introducing him to the samba (to the tunes of \"Brazil\" and \"Tico-Tico no Fubá\").The film's original score was composed by Edward H. Plumb, Paul J. Smith, and Charles Wolcott. The title song, \"Saludos Amigos\", was written for the film by Charles Wolcott and Ned Washington. The film also featured the song \"Aquarela do Brasil\", written by the popular Brazilian songwriter Ary Barroso and performed by Aloísio de Oliveira, and an instrumental version of \"Tico-Tico no Fubá\", written by Zequinha de Abreu. \"Aquarela do Brasil\" was written and first performed in 1939, but did not achieve much initial success. However, after appearing in this film it became an international hit, becoming the first Brazilian song to be played over a million times on American radio.", "Dorival Caymmi\nCaymmi was a lifelong friend of Bahian author Jorge Amado, and in 1945, he set one of Amado's politically driven poems to music to aid the senatorial campaign of Luís Carlos Prestes. In the late 1970s, Caymmi again took inspiration from Amado when he composed \"\"Modinha para a Gabriela\"\" (\"A Little Song for Gabriela\"), a musical adaptation of Amado's novel \"Gabriela, Cravo e Canela\" (\"Gabriela, Cloves and Cinnamon\"). Perhaps the best-known product of Caymmi and Amado's collaboration is the song \"\"É Doce Morrer no Mar\"\" (\"It's Sweet to Die in the Sea\"), which the two wrote over dinner one night at Amado's home. Other songs they co-wrote include \"\"Beijos pela Noite\"\" (\"Kisses Through the Night\"), \"\"Modinha para Teresa Batista\"\" (\"A Little Song for Teresa Batista\"), \"\"Retirantes\"\" (\"Migrants\"), and \"\"Essa Nega Fulô\"\" (\"This Feisty Dark Lady\").", "Francisco Manuel da Silva\nHe wrote the Brazilian National Anthem, first as a patriotic march, since Dom Pedro I's resignation, later being officialized as anthem by the Brazilian Republic Revolution (1889). He also composed one opera, \"O prestigio da lei\".", "No No Song\nBrazilian rock musician Raul Seixas recorded a Brazilian Portuguese version called \"\" (\"Don't Want to Ride on the Wrong Way Anymore\"), adapting the drugs mentioned in the lyrics to the Brazilian culture (respectively, Colombian marijuana, Bolivian cocaine and Argentinian chloroethane spray). This version was included on his 1988 album \"\" (\"The Genesis's Stone\") and issued as a promotional single.", "Balada (Gusttavo Lima song)\n\"Balada\" (full title \"Balada (Tchê Tcherere Tchê Tchê)\", also known as \"Balada Boa\") is a song by Brazilian Sertanejo artist Gusttavo Lima from his album \"Gusttavo Lima e Você\" (2011). Written by Gusttavo Lima and Cássio Sampaio, it was released on January 21, 2011, in Brazil through label Som Livre. The song became a success in Brazil: it reached the 3rd position in the Brazilian Billboard Hot 100.", "Jonathon Newby\nJonathon Newby was the lead singer of the post-hardcore/progressive rock band Brazil from its inception in 2000 until August 2007. Jonathon and his brother Nic newly were two of the founding members. On earlier Brazil recordings, Jonathon played drums but eventually became the lead singer. Newly left the band in 2007, resulting in its break-up.", "Brazil (1985 film)\nGeoff Muldaur performed a version of Ary Barroso's most famous 1939 song \"Aquarela do Brasil\" (\"Watercolor of Brazil\", often simply called \"Brazil\" in English). The song is a musical ode to the Brazilian motherland. Geoff Muldaur uses the song as a leitmotif in the film, although other background music is also used. Michael Kamen's arrangement and orchestration of Barroso's song for Terry Gilliam's Brazil (1984) made it more pliable to late 20th century tastes to the extent that film trailer composers often use it in contexts that have little to do with Brazil and more to do with Gilliam's dystopian vision. Kamen, who scored the film, originally recorded \"Brazil\" with vocals by Kate Bush. This recording was not included in the actual film or the original soundtrack release; however, it has been subsequently released on re-pressings of the soundtrack. The title of the film is named after the country Brazil, however, it is not about Brazil per se rather Terry Gilliam draws inspiration from the imagery evoked by the lyrics of the song. Gilliam recalls drawing the inspiration to use the song as follows:\nSylvia Albertazzi in her article \"Salman Rushdie's 'The location of Brazil'. The Imaginary homelands of the Fantastic Literature\", stresses even further the importance that the soundtrack had upon the movie's plot and meaning, she suggests \"...the opening question 'where is Gilliam's Brazil?', may be answered, quite literally, 'in a song'; just as it is in a song that there is to be found that world where 'all fall down' in children's games\".", "Que País É Este\n\"Que País É Este\" and \"Conexão Amazônica\" were written by Russo in 1978 and were originally performed by Aborto Elétrico. The title track was voted by the Brazilian edition of \"Rolling Stone\" as the 81st greatest Brazilian song.", "Gabriel o Pensador\nGabriel Contino, better known as Gabriel o Pensador (Portuguese for \"Gabriel the Thinker\") is a Brazilian rapper, writer, and composer known for his intellectual lyrics which speak of activism, and issues of race, politics, social problems, and the Catholic church. Gabriel began his music career when he launched a demo tape containing the song \"Tô Feliz (Matei o Presidente)\" I'm Happy (I killed the President) landing him a contract with Sony Music. Since then he has released eight albums: \"Ainda É Só o Começo\", \"Quebra-Cabeça\", \"Nádegas a Declarar\", \"Gabriel o Pensador\", \"Seja Você Mesmo (mas não Seja sempre o Mesmo)\", \"MTV ao Vivo\", \"Cavaleiro Andante\" and \"Sem Crise\" (this last one was released independently). Gabriel has also written three books: \"Diário Noturno\", \"Um Garoto Chamado Rorbeto\" and \"Meu Pequeno Rubro-Negro\". \"Um Garoto Chamado Rorbeto\" won the \"Prêmio Jabuti\", for best Children's literature.", "Brazilian National Anthem\nInitially, the music composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva was given lyrics by Appeals Judge Ovídio Saraiva de Carvalho e Silva not as a national anthem, but as a hymn commemorating the abdication of Pedro I and the accession of Pedro II to the Throne. It was known during this early period as \"April 7 Hymn\". The lyrics by Ovídio Saraiva soon fell out of use, given that they were considered poor, and even offensive towards the Portuguese. The music, however, continued enjoying sustained popularity, and by 1837 it was played, without lyrics, in all public ceremonies.", "Braguinha (composer)\nCarlos Alberto Ferreira Braga (March 29, 1907 – December 24, 2006), commonly known as Braguinha (\"Little Braga\") or João de Barro (\"the Hornero\"), was a Brazilian songwriter and occasional singer. \nHe was born in Rio de Janeiro, where he lived all his life. Braga studied architecture in his youth, and, when he started to write songs, he adopted the pseudonym \"João de Barro\" (the name of a bird that builds elaborate mud nests), as his father wouldn't approve of seeing the family name associated with the world of samba and popular music, then on the fringes of society.", "List of Brazilian football songs\n\"A Taça do Mundo é Nossa\" (\"The World Cup is Ours\") was introduced in 1958 after Brazil won its first World Cup title. It was composed by Maugeri, Müller, Sobrinho e Dagô.", "João Gilberto\nJoão Gilberto returned to Brazil in 1980. The following year saw the release of \"Brasil\", with guests Gilberto Gil and Caetano Veloso, who in the late 1960s had founded the Tropicalia movement, a fusion of Brazilian popular music with foreign pop. The 1991 release \"João\", with orchestrations by Clare Fischer, was unusual in its lack of even a single Jobim composition, instead featuring songs in English, French, Italian, and Spanish, plus old sambas and the solitary contemporary song \"Sampa\" (Caetano Veloso). Also released in 1991 was the album \"Canto do Pajé\" by Veloso's sister Maria Bethânia, on which Bethânia and Gilberto sing an intimate medley of \"Maria\" (Ary Barroso/Luiz Peixoto) and \"Linda Flor\"' (Henrique Vogeler/Luiz Peixoto/Marques Pôrto), accompanied solely by his guitar. \"João Voz e Violão\" (2000) was an homage to the music of Gilberto's youth as well as a nod to producer Caetano Veloso.", "Opera in Latin America\nThe first opera composed and premiered in Brazil was José Maurício Nunes Garcia's \"I Due Gemelli\"; the text has since been lost. \"A Noite de São João\" may be considered the first truly Brazilian opera, with a text in Portuguese by Elias Álvares Lobo. The most famous Brazilian composer was Antônio Carlos Gomes. Many of his operas premiered in Italy, with texts in Italian. However, Gomes often used typically Brazilian themes in his work, such as in his operas \"Il Guarany\" and \"Lo schiavo\".", "Cazuza\nAgenor de Miranda Araújo Neto, better known as Cazuza (; 4 April 1958 – 7 July 1990), was a Brazilian singer and songwriter, born in Rio de Janeiro. Along with Raul Seixas, Renato Russo and Os Mutantes, Cazuza, both while fronting Barão Vermelho and at solo career, is considered one of the best exponents of Brazilian rock music. In his 9-year career, he sold more than 5 million albums and achieved 11 number one singles and 18 Top 10 singles in Brazil.", "J. C. Schütz\nHis second full-length CD \"Blissa Nova\" from November 2007 has a more contemporary and authentic Brazilian sound, with lyrics still in English and some small parts in Portuguese and Swedish. \"Blissa Nova\" also sees Schütz as a translator, as five of the album's 13 tracks are English translations of Brazilian and Swedish standards/classics: \"Eu Vim da Bahia\" by Gilberto Gil, \"Pra Que Chorar\" by Baden Powell/Vinicius de Moraes, \"Tristeza\" (a duet with Brazilian singer Aline de Lima) by Luiz Bonfá, and \"Underbart Är Kort\" by Povel Ramel and \"Den Lilla Bäcken\" by Allan Edwall.", "Brazilian Flag Anthem\nThe song's lyrics were written by poet Olavo Bilac, and the music composed by Francisco Braga. The anthem was presented for the first time on November 9, 1906 and was originally intended to be a replacement for the National Anthem at the time.", "Bang the Drum (album)\nThe Brazilian release of \"Bang the Drum\", released by EMI in 2010, has one extra track: a Brazilian Portuguese version of the song \"Hey!\", arranged by Cássio Calazans, with vocals by Brazilian singer Ivete Sangalo. This version, called \"Hey! (Cada Coração)\", has lyrics by Pereira Cassio Barbosa Calazans. It was written to be an inspiring anthem, as Brasil was competing at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa that year. \"Cada Coração\" also appeared on the EP \"2010 Brasil!\" (EMI, 2010), and was later included in the Mango Groove compilation album \"Shhhhh…! Have You Heard? The Ultimate Collection, 1989–2011\" (Gallo Record Company, 2011).", "Renato Teixeira\nRenato Teixeira de Oliveira (born May 20, 1945 in Santos) is a Brazilian singer-songwriter. A representative of sertanejo music and folk rock, linked to the \"caipira\" culture and dialect, Teixeira is the author of several hit songs including \"Romaria\", which was notably covered by Elis Regina in her eponymous 1977 album. Other hit songs by Teixeira were \"Dadá Maria\" (in duet with Gal Costa) and \"Tocando em Frente\" (in duet with Almir Sater), later sung also by Maria Bethânia. Teixeira won twice the Latin Grammy Award: in 2015 for Best Sertaneja Music Album, with Sérgio Reis, and in 2016, with Sater.", "Brazilian National Anthem\nAfter the Proclamation of the Republic in 1889, the new rulers made a competition in order to choose a new anthem, and the competition was won by a music composed by Leopoldo Miguez, with lyrics by Medeiros e Albuquerque. After protests against the adoption of the proposed new anthem, however, the Head of the Provisional Government, Deodoro da Fonseca, formalized Francisco Manuel da Silva's composition as the national anthem, while the composition by Miguez and Medeiros e Albuquerque was declared the Anthem of the Proclamation of the Republic. Deodoro himself was said to prefer the old anthem to the new composition. The Decree of the Provisional Government (Decree 171 of 1890) confirming Francisco Manuel da Silva's music, that had served as the National Anthem of the Empire of Brazil, as the National Anthem of the new Republic, was issued on 20 January 1890.", "Titãs (album)\nA song called \"Charles Chacal\" (written by Britto and named after Venezuelan terrorist Carlos the Jackal) was composed during the recording sections, but never made it to the album due to then-rampant government censorship by the Brazilian military government. It was only recorded once, when the band performed it live at a TV Cultura show called \"Fábrica do Som\". In 2013, the song was covered by Brazilian band Garotas Suecas, with the guest performance of Paulo Miklos, who commented:", "Jacques Morali\nIn 1975, Morali told Belolo about his intention to adapt the Brazilian song \"Brazil\" from a musical starring Carmen Miranda. The idea was to make an epic record for the clubs, sung by larger-than-life female singers. Seduced by the idea, Belolo agreed to finance a long-lasting Morali residency at Sigma Sound Studios in Philadelphia. That was the start of their collaboration. They cast three girls (Cheryl Jacks, Cassandra Wooten and Gwendolyn Oliver) and named the band The Ritchie Family. \"Brazil\" was a solid success, the first of many that made them long-term partners (\"The Best Disco In Town\" (1976), \"Life Is Music\" (1977), \"African Queens\" (1977), \"Quiet Village\" (1977) & \"American Generation\" (1978)), both as creator and author, on top of also being writer and editor (Black Scorpio Publishing).", "Culture of Brazil\nBossa nova is a style of Brazilian music that originated in the late 1950s. It has its roots on samba but features less percussion, employing instead a distinctive and percussive guitar pattern. Bossa nova gained mainstream popularity in Brazil in 1958 with the song Chega de Saudade, written by Antônio Carlos Jobim and Vinícius de Moraes. Together with João Gilberto, Jobim and Moraes would become the driving force of the genre, which gained worldwide popularity with the song \"Garota de Ipanema\" as interpreted by Gilberto, his wife Astrud and Stan Getz on the album Getz/Gilberto. The bossa nova genre remains popular in Brazil, particularly among the upper classes and in the Southeast.", "Brasil (Cazuza song)\n\"Brasil\" is a pop-rock song written and performed by Cazuza, recorded as the sixth track in his third solo album \"Ideologia\" (1988). The most well-known version of this song was recorded as a samba by Gal Costa on the soundtrack album of the telenovela \"Vale Tudo\" (1988).", "Live in Brazil (Gary Williams album)\nLive in Brazil is jazz vocalist Gary Williams's seventh album, recorded live onboard Royal Caribbean's ship \"Splendour of the Seas\" in 2013. It includes big band covers of songs by Gipsy Kings, Antônio Carlos and Tom Jobim, Frank Sinatra, Lady Gaga and Kylie Minogue. One song is recorded in English, German and Japanese. The live show was seen by over 20,000 Brazilians in 8 months.", "Brazilian Republic Anthem\nThe \"Brazilian Republic Anthem\", also known as the \"Anthem of the Proclamation of the Republic\" is a Brazilian song commemorating the Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil by the 15 November 1889 military coup d'état that abolished the Brazilian Monarchy. It was composed by Leopoldo Miguez (1850–1902), with lyrics by Medeiros e Albuquerque (1867–1934). It was published in an official document on January 21, 1890.", "Culture of Brazil\nIn the 20th Century, Brazil had a strong modernist and nationalist movement, with the works of internationally renowned composers like Heitor Villa-Lobos, Camargo Guarnieri, César Guerra-Peixe and Cláudio Santoro, and more recently Marlos Nobre and Osvaldo Lacerda. Many famous performers are also from Brazil, such as the opera singer Bidu Sayão, the pianist Nelson Freire and the former pianist and now conductor João Carlos Martins.", "Você Já Foi à Bahia?\n\"Você Já Foi à Bahia?\" () is a Brazilian song written by Dorival Caymmi and first released in 1941. It was one of the year's most successful compositions.\nIt gained international fame when it was featured in the Disney film \"The Three Caballeros\".", "Bud Green\nWhile selling papers, he decided to become a songwriter and started keeping a notebook of poems and rhymes that he thought would be useful someday. His sister, Hannah, was married to the lyricist Bob Russell (1914 – 1970), who wrote \"Brazil\", \"Frenesi\", \"Don't Get Around Much Anymore\", \"He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother\" and many other songs.", "Loona (singer)\nIn 2014, the single \"Brazil\", a cover of Francisco Alves's \"Aquarela do Brasil\", was released for the FIFA World Cup in Brazil. Loona was also guest vocalist on Flava & Stevenson's 2k14 remix of their single \"Rio de Janeiro\", found on their album \"Quantum of Dance\", which both latter mentioned songs appeared on her first extended play titled Brazil. In 2014, Loona released the single \"Ademloos door de Nacht\", a Dutch language cover version of German singer Helene Fischer's single \"Atemlos durch die Nacht\" and first release under her real name Marie-José van der Kolk, from her upcoming studio album. In the summer of 2015, Loona re-released her single \"Caliente\" in a remixed version, and the German language single \"OMG! Dein Body ist so Heiß\" alongside Ko&Ko, formally Gebroeders Ko.", "Aquarela do Brasil\nThis song, because of its exaltation of Brazil's great qualities, marked the creation of a new genre within samba, known as samba-exaltação (exaltation samba). This musical movement, with its extremely patriotic nature, was seen by many as being favorable to the dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas, which generated criticism towards Barroso and his work, as if he were kowtowing to the regime. The Barroso family, however, strongly denies these claims, pointing out that he also wrote an anti-Nazi song named \"Salada Mista\" (Mixed salad), recorded by Carmen Miranda in October 1938. Vargas, although not a fascist himself, was as sympathetic to such regimes in the early years of his presidency as the European governments of the time.[4]", "Little Brazil\nLittle Brazil is a four-piece rock band formed in 2002 in Omaha, Nebraska by Landon Hedges of Desaparecidos and formerly of The Good Life. Originally he intended to use the name Little Brazil for his solo work, yet he recruited his friends Dan Maxwell on bass and Corey Broman on drums, who were in Secret Behind Sunday and Son, Ambulance. The last member was guitarist Austin Britton, who Landon met at an open mic night.", "Singer-songwriter\nWith the influence of Tropicalismo, Traditional Samba and Bossa Nova, MPB (Música popular brasileira), or Brazilian Popular Music, became highly singer-songwriter based. For years solo artists would dominate Brazilian popular music with romantic cynicism alla Jobim or subliminal anti-government messages alla Chico Buarque. After the end of the military dictatorship in Brazil, Brazilian music became less politically and socially conscious. The censored Raul Seixas or the humorous spiritualist Jorge Ben were slowly obscured by funk carioca, axé music and Brazilian disco. In recent years, however, a new stock of socially conscious Brazilian singer-songwriters is beginning to break the almost strictly dance-music momentum that has reigned since the 1980s (see the 'Brazilian folk/folk-rock sub-article in Brazilian Music).", "Name of Brazil\nThe land of what became Brazil was first called \"Ilha de Vera Cruz\" (\"Island of the True Cross\") by the Portuguese captain Pedro Álvares Cabral, upon the Portuguese discovery of the land in 1500, probably in honor of the Feast of the Cross (May 3 on the liturgical calendar). This name is found in two letters, one written by Pêro Vaz de Caminha, another by Mestre João Faras, both written during Cabral's landing and dispatched to Lisbon by courier (either André Gonçalves or Gaspar de Lemos, chronicles conflict).", "Gentle on My Mind (song)\nIn 1984, Brazilian singer-songwriter Roberto Carlos translated the lyrics into Portuguese (with Erasmo Carlos) and recorded it as \"Caminhoneiro\" (\"Trucker\" in Portuguese), played over 3.000 times on the Brazilian airwaves in just one day. Hartford sued Roberto Carlos in order to be credited as the song's composer. A Spanish version \"El Camionero\" was also released by Carlos. American singer Frankie Ruiz covered the Spanish version in salsa.", "Leo Rodriguez (singer)\n\"Bara Bará Bere Berê\" already popular in Brazil for a long time, was recorded by Rodriguez in February 2012 and released on Brazilian Sony label Sony Edições accompanied by a music video. His version contains additional lyrics in Portuguese co-written by Rodríguez himself with Silvio Rodrígues. His version was released in Europe on 19 June 2012 and has charted in the Netherlands simultaneously to Alex Ferrari version charting in France. The Rodríguez version was released on Spinnin label in the Netherlands making it to #61 on chart dated 18 August 2012.", "Todo Cambió\nCD\nDVD\nThis information from La Higuera.\nFor the Brazilian release, the same track listing as in Spain was included, but instead of the track \"Yo Soy Quien\", a re-recording of the single \"Abrázame\" with Brazilian singer Wanessa Camargo (who also wrote verses in Portuguese for the song), retitled as \"Abrázame/Me Abrace\", is track 13.", "List of Brazilian football songs\nPerhaps the most popular melody associated to football in Brazil is \"Na Cadência do Samba\", widely known as \"Que bonito é\" (\"How beautiful it is\"), which served as the theme tune for \"Canal 100\", a newsreel (\"cinejornal\") running in local theaters from 1962 up to early 1980s. It is a soft samba composed and written by Luis Bandeira, famous for his frevo compositions for Carnival in Pernambuco. Although it had lyrics, the song was used by the newsreel producer Carlos Niemeyer in a purely instrumental version, orchestrated with trumpets and piano. More can be seen (and heard) at the newsreel website.", "Taio Cruz\nIn early 2013, Cruz recorded vocals over the song \"Brazil\" by electronic artist Deadmau5 and titled the remake \"Touch the Sky\".", "Lisbon Antigua\n\"Lisbon Antigua\" (modern Portuguese: \"Lisboa Antiga\" , \"Old Lisbon\") is a Portuguese popular song that became a hit in the United States when recorded by the Nelson Riddle orchestra in 1956. The song was originally written in 1937, with music by Raul Portela and Portuguese lyrics by José Galhardo and Amadeu do Vale. It was brought to Riddle's attention by Nat King Cole's manager who had heard a version played by an orchestra in Mexico. Riddle recorded his own arrangement with himself on the piano accompanied by a string section, brass, and a wordless male chorus. \"Lisbon Antiqua\" topped the Billboard magazine chart on February 25, 1956 and remained there for four weeks. The song became a gold record. Riddle then used the song for the theme music when he wrote the score for the 1956 film \"Lisbon.\" \"Billboard\" ranked it as the No. 3 song for 1956.\nAlso in 1956, another popular version was recorded by Frank Chacksfield's orchestra under the title \"In Old Lisbon\", in which the male chorus sang lyrics written in English by Harry Dupree. It was released by the United Kingdom Decca label as catalog number F 10689,and reached #15 on the UK charts.", "Jonathon Newby\nWhen returning to the U.S., Newby moved into the chapel of an abandoned church. While living there, Newby and his brother Nic created the concept of Brazil. Brazil's first demos were recorded in the church's basement. The original band lineup consisted of Benjamin Hunt, Aaron Smith and Johnny Richardson, current member of Brooklyn-based band Aquadora.", "João Lucas &amp; Marcelo\nJoão Lucas & Marcelo (also is João Lucas e Marcelo) is a sertanejo style Brazilian singing duo formed in 2010. João Lucas (born in 1980 in Miranorte, Tocantins) is a vocalist and multi-instrumentalist. Marcelo (born 1986 in Cáceres, Mato Grosso) is main vocalist, and a songwriter who has written songs for Vitor e Léo, Luan Santana, Fernando e Sorocaba and others. They are most famous for their hit \"Eu Quero Tchu, Eu Quero Tcha\". The song's choreography was re-enacted by Brazilian football (soccer) player Neymar celebrating his hundredth career goal. The song reached Top 10 of Brasil Hot 100 Airplay.", "Declan McKenna\nIn August 2015, McKenna self-released his first single, \"Brazil\". It was originally released through his own YouTube channel on December 2, 2014. The song criticised FIFA, the governing body of association football, for awarding the FIFA World Cup to Brazil in 2014 without addressing the extensive and deep poverty affecting the people of the nation. McKenna later told \"DIY\" that he wrote the song because \"it's politics and what I see in the news, and it's just general things I feel strongly about, things happening in my life.\" \"Brazil\" garnered McKenna widespread attention, as many sports commentators found the song to be a commentary on the emerging FIFA corruption scandal. (Ironically, McKenna's single \"Isombard\" appeared on the soundtrack for the 2016 football video game \"FIFA 17\".) Later in the year, he was interviewed on Sky News to discuss his views on football's relationship with poverty. \"Brazil\" reached number one on the Alt 18 Countdown for 23 January 2016 on the Alt Nation alternative rock radio station on Sirius XM Radio, and repeated as number one a week later, on 30 January.", "Aquarela do Brasil\nThe song was featured prominently in Terry Gilliam's 1985 film Brazil, which was named after it. It was recorded by Geoff Muldaur for the soundtrack, but parts of the song were also incorporated throughout the orchestral score by Michael Kamen, including a Kate Bush version. Afterwards, in the 1990s, it was recorded by both Harry Belafonte and Dionne Warwick.", "Gal Costa\nIn 1968, Costa became a part of the Tropicalismo movement. She recorded four songs on \"\". They were \"Mamãe coragem\", written by Veloso and Torquato Neto, \"Parque industrial\", by Tom Zé, \"Enquanto seu lobo não vem\", by Veloso, and \"Baby\", also by Veloso. The latter became Costa's first nationwide solo hit, becoming a classic of Brazilian popular music. The same year, she participated in the 3rd International Music Festival, performing \"Gabriela Mais Bela\", written by Roberto and Erasmo Carlos. In November, she participated on Rede Record's 4th Music Festival, performing the song \"Divino Maravilhoso\", by Gil and Veloso. The song also became a nationwide hit and a classic song of popular music.", "Brazilian National Anthem\nAlthough no statute was passed during the imperial period to declare Francisco Manuel da Silva's musical composition as the national anthem, no formal enactment was considered necessary for the adoption of a national anthem. A national anthem was seen as resulting from praxis or tradition. Thus, by 1837, when it was played in all official solemnities, Francisco Manuel da Silva's composition was already the Brazilian National Anthem.", "Hino da Independência\nThe Hino da Independência (Portuguese for \"Independence Anthem\") is a Brazilian official patriotic song commemorating the country's declaration of independence from Portugal. The anthem was composed in 1822 by Emperor Pedro I, the lead figure in the country's struggle for independence, and the lyrics were written by poet Evaristo da Veiga.", "Brazilian National Anthem\nA new set of lyrics was proposed in 1841, to commemorate the coming of age and Coronation of Emperor Pedro II; those lyrics, popular but also considered poor, were soon abandoned too, this time by order of Emperor Pedro II, who specified that in public ceremonies the anthem should be played with no lyrics. Emperor Pedro II directed that Francisco Manuel da Silva's composition, as the national anthem of the Empire of Brazil, should be played, without lyrics, on all occasions when the monarch presented himself in public, and in solemnities of military or civilian nature; the composition was also played abroad in diplomatic events relating to Brazil or when the Brazilian Emperor was present.", "Brazilian National Anthem\nDuring the Empire of Brazil era, the U.S. composer and pianist Louis Moreau Gottschalk, then residing in Rio de Janeiro, composed two nationalistic works of classical music based on the Brazilian National Anthem that achieved great popularity during the imperial period: the \"Brazilian Solemn March\" (\"Marcha Solene Brasileira\", in the modern Portuguese spelling or \"Marcha Solemne Brazileira\", in the original spelling in force at the time of composition) and the \"Great Triumphal Fantasy on the Brazilian National Anthem\" (\"Grande Fantasia Triunfal sobre o Hino Nacional Brasileiro\"). The former was dedicated to Emperor Pedro II, and the latter was dedicated to his heiress presumptive, the Princess Imperial Isabel, comtesse d'Eu. Those works are in the vein of similar compositions written at the time in other Nations, such as Charles Gounod's \"Fantasy on the Russian National Anthem\". The \"Grand Triumphal Fantasy\", long forgotten, resurfaced in popularity in 1985, at the dawn of Brazil's \"New Republic\", during the country's re-democratization process, when it was played to accompany the funeral cortège of President Tancredo Neves.", "Ao Meu Brasil\nAo Meu Brasil (To My Brazil) is an album by Julio Iglesias released on December 18, 2001 by Sony International. Iglesias sings all the songs in Portuguese.", "Itaiguara Brandão\nItaiguara Mariano Brandão (born October 31, 1968) is a New York City-based recording artist and bassist/guitarist. A native of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Brandão has toured internationally and recorded extensively with a wide range of Latin and World Music artists such as: Dianne Reeves, Marcos Valle, Toquinho, Carlos Lyra, Roberto Menescal, Leny Andrade, Joyce (singer), Paulo Braga, Randy Brecker, Dom Salvador, Paquito D'Rivera, Claudio Roditi, Robin Eubanks, Jovino Santos-Neto, Emílio Santiago, Elba Ramalho, Guilherme Arantes, Romero Lubambo, Léo Gandelman among many others. He has recorded on major labels such as Sony BMG as well as on numerous independent labels. Brandão has been one of the most sought-after Brazilian bassists in the Northeast and freelance musicians in the United States, having completed over 6,000 performances in the past 22 years.", "Zeca Baleiro\nJosé Ribamar Coelho Santos (born 11 April 1966), better known by his stage name Zeca Baleiro (), is a Brazilian MPB artist. One of his most famous songs is \"Salão de Beleza\", which was featured on Putumayo World Music's \"Reggae Around the World\" compilation. Along with being a solo artist, he has also worked with guitarist Pedro Joia.", "Qué será de ti\n\"Como Vai Você\" (English: 'How are you [doing]'; , in Spanish: \"Qué será de ti\", English: 'What went on with you') is a song written by Brazilian singer Roberto Carlos from his album \"Roberto Carlos\" (1972).", "Brazil (book)\nBrazil is a 2012 book by Michael Palin published on 11 October 2012. The book accompanies the TV series \"Brazil with Michael Palin\".", "Dorival Caymmi\nBrazilian singer and composer Carlos Lyra praised Caymmi's style for its \"suave and romantic colloquialism.\" In a 1994 anthology of Caymmi's work, Antônio Carlos Jobim wrote in the introduction, “Dorival is a universal genius. He picked up the guitar and orchestrated the world.” In 2001, \"New York Times\" journalist Ben Ratliff wrote that Caymmi was \"perhaps second only to Antônio Carlos Jobim in 'establishing a songbook of this century’s Brazilian identity.'\" On the day of Caymmi's death in 2008, Brazilian composer and musician Tom Zé said, \"It's difficult to comprehend just how valuable a CD of Caymmi's beach songs from the 1940s is.\" Also around the time of Caymmi's death, President of Brazil Luis Inácio Lula da Silva called him \"one of the founders of Brazilian popular music.\" Several of Caymmi's contemporaries, including Gal Costa and Olivia Hime, have recorded tributes to him.", "Brazil (band)\nThe band was formed as \"London\" in the summer of 2000 by the brothers Jonathon and Nicholas Newby. In early 2001 the band renamed themselves Brazil, taken from the Terry Gilliam film \"Brazil\". In 2002 the band signed a small contract with Fearless Records who released the \"Dasein\" EP. In 2004 they released their debut album \"A Hostage and the Meaning of Life\", also released by Fearless Records. The band later signed with Immortal Records to release \"The Philosophy of Velocity\" in 2006. In August 2007, Jonathon Newby left the band, resulting in the band breaking up. Their final show was performed on August 18, 2007.", "Brazilian National Anthem\nFrom the proclamation of the independence of Brazil in 1822 until the 1831 abdication, an anthem that had been composed by Pedro I himself, celebrating the country's independence (and that now continues to be an official patriotic song, the \"Independence Anthem\"), was used as the national anthem. In the immediate aftermath of the abdication of Pedro I, the anthem composed by him fell in popularity.", "Forever by Your Side (song)\nThe B-side of the single contains the song \"Locked Up in Your Love\", which was also recorded by The Manhattans in 1983 for the album \"Forever by Your Side\". It was written and produced by the musicians John V. Anderson and Steve Williams, (the same authors as \"Crazy\"). It was a simple song from their album that was not released as a single.In 1986, \"Forever by Your Side\" won a Portuguese version in Brazil, called \"Pra Sempre Vou Te Amar\". The lyrics in Portuguese were written by Brazilians Guto Angelicci and Carlinhos Kalunga, recorded by the Brazilian singer Adriana, and included in the complementary soundtrack for the Rede Globo's telenovela \"Mandala\" \"(As 'Preteridas' de Tony Carrado)\" in 1987. \"Pra Sempre Vou Te Amar\" was later recorded by the Brazilian sertanejo duo Wilson & Soraia in 1995, and was included in the soundtrack of the Rede Globo's telenovela \"Irmãos Coragem\" (second version) in 1995. In 2001, \"Pra Sempre Vou Te Amar\" was recorded again, by the Brazilian singer of Contemporary Christian music Robinson Monteiro. The credits for \"Pra Sempre Vou Te Amar\" (\"Forever by Your Side\") are Marc Blatte and Larry Gottlieb, version Guto Angelicci and Carlinhos Kalunga.", "Music of Brazil\nThe only composer who had a relevant work in this period was Francisco Manuel da Silva, disciple of Nunes Garcia, who succeeded him as kapellmeister. In spite of his few resources, he founded the Musical Conservatory of Rio de Janeiro. He was the author of the Brazilian National Anthem's melody. His work reflected the musical transition for the Romanticism, when the interest of the national composers was focused in the opera. The most outstanding Brazilian composer of this period was Antônio Carlos Gomes, who composed Italian-styled operas with national themes, such as \"Il Guarany\" (based on José de Alencar's novel \"O Guarani\") and \"Lo Schiavo\". These operas were very successful in European theaters, like the Teatro alla Scala, in Milan. Other important composer of this time is Elias Álvares Lobo, who wrote the opera \"A Noite de São João\", the first Brazilian opera with text in Portuguese.", "Deborah Blando\nDeborah Salvatrice Blando (Sant'Agata di Militello, March 3, 1969) is an Italian-born Brazilian singer and composer. She has about 6 million copies sold worldwide, with six albums released between 1991 and 2002. She has seven #1 singles and ten Top 10 singles in Brazil, 5 singles in the American Hispanic market, and two of them in the Top 10 which became known in Europe, such as the pop ballad \"Innocence\" in 1992.", "Tatuagem\n\"Tatuagem\" (English: \"Tattoo\") is a poem written by the Brazilian singer, composer, dramatist and writer Chico Buarque de Holanda and the Brazilian film director, screenwriter, film editor, and actor Ruy Guerra, for the stageplay \"Calabar\" (1972–1973). The poem was transformed into a song by Buarque, who recorded it on his album \"Chico Canta\" (1973). It was later by recorded by the Brazian singer Elis Regina for her studio album \"Falso Brilhante\" (1976)." ]

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