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The name moonshine was taken from the term “moonlighter”, used by the English to describe the nighttime runners that smuggled brandy from France. Read more about the history of moonshine, and learn about how it’s made. Moonshine is a common term for home distilled alcohol; especially in places were the production is illegal. The illegal production of moonshine is usually associated with the Southern United States and Appalachia. Since my grandparents had a farm in the Appalachian Mountain Range, I am familiar with the making of moonshine. Not that I ever made any, I was just a child in the 1960’s, but I had kinfolks (as we call them in the south) who did make it. Now, I am not telling anyone to make moonshine. It is illegal and dangerous. Sloppily produced moonshine can be contaminated with toxins, mainly from the materials used in the construction of the still. Some folks use old car radiators for a condenser in their stills. The lead used to solder radiators and in some cases the glycol products from antifreeze are poisonous and potentially deadly. My family had a friend that was in a coma and suffered kidney damage after drinking contaminated moonshine. Thankfully, he lived but it could have easily gone the other direction. Moonshine is made from fermented corn mash distilled in a cooker. The name moonshine was taken from the term “moonlighter” used by the English to describe the nighttime runners that smuggled brandy from France. After World War I, the agricultural prices dropped so during Prohibition, many American farmers turned to making moonshine as a way to support their families. Cosby, Tennessee was known as the “Moonshine Capital of the World”. In the 1960’s it was claimed there were over 200 stills operating on any given day, each averaging 20 gallons a day. It was also locally claimed that they ran moonshine to Atlanta, Knoxville, Chattanooga and Asheville, as well as some unnamed northern cities. The first thing you need before you can make moonshine is a still. A typical mountain still uses a stone furnace for heat and a metal still for fermenting and heating the mash. Large barrels are used to collect the steam and for condensing the alcohol. It is always a smart moonshiner who locates his still next to a mountain stream where good cold water can be easily piped in to condense the steam from the liquor. - 50 lb of cornmeal - 200lb of sugar - 200 gallons of water - 12 oz of yeast. A hint: Don’t buy your sugar all in one place because it is a sure sign to the “revenuers” that you are going to make moonshine. - First carry all your supplies up to your mountain hideout. Have someone else there to keep the still nice and hot. - Bring the cornmeal to a boil add yeast and all your sugar to ferment the mash. - When the mash stops bubbling it is cooked in the still and the stream is captured in a barrel filled with cold mountain stream water. - The steam is allowed to cool and condensed by running it though a long copper coil submerged in another barrel with water in a trough from the near by cold mountain stream. - Once condensed. the clear liquor drips from the bottom of the still into a catch can – these are usually ½ gallon glass jars. Test your moonshine for alcohol content or proof by adding a small amount of gunpowder to it and igniting it. If it burns, and you are still alive, its proof is measured somewhere between 100 and 200 proof or 50% to 100% pure alcohol. Pour into jugs, old coffee cups or mason jars and enjoy. Will get the entire gang drunk or I am not a good old southern girl. Just remember this was only written for fun. Don’t let me see any of you out there making moonshine, and if you do don’t forget to invite me over.

New microfluidic devices found to be effective method of in-vitro fertilization in mice Early research suggests the emerging technology could be viable option for IVF ANN ARBOR, Mich. -- Technology that more closely mirrors the natural fertilization process is showing promise as a new method of in-vitro fertilization, researchers at the University of Michigan Health System have found. The researchers found that microfluidics – an emerging area of physics and biotechnology that deals with the microscopic flow of fluids – can be used successfully for IVF in mice. They also found that lower total numbers and concentrations of sperm were required when using microfluidic channels instead of culture dishes. "This is an extension of the work we've done in recent years to use microfluidics to separate viable sperm from dead and immature sperm in order to maximize the potential chances of fertilizing an egg," says Gary D. Smith, Ph.D., associate professor of obstetrics and gynecology, urology, and physiology at the U-M Medical School. "Now that we are using microfluidics for fertilization, what you are starting to see is the whole IVF process happening on a chip," says Smith, senior author of a study in Human Reproduction and director of the Assisted Reproductive Technologies Laboratory and of the Gamete Cryopreservation Laboratory at the Comprehensive Cancer Center. IVF is a process in which eggs are removed from a woman's body and fertilized with sperm outside the body. Fertilized eggs are then placed in the woman's uterus, where they can develop as in a normal pregnancy. The study, published online in the journal Human Reproduction, suggests that among other uses, microfluidic channels could be used in some – but not all – instances when a common form of insemination, known as ICSI, otherwise would be employed. ICSI, which stands for intracytoplasmic sperm injection, involves a single sperm being injected directly into an egg, or oocyte. Smith says ICSI still will be used in many situations, particularly when other types of fertilization have failed in the past, or when the man has an extremely low sperm count or motility. Smith does not think the use of microfluidics will replace ICSI, but he says it could offer another option to many couples whose situations do not require ICSI, a process that can cost an extra $1,500 to $2,500 in addition to standard IVF costs. "While ICSI bypasses all natural selection, the use of microfluidic channels more closely resembles in vivo insemination. The microfluidic environment also may possess conditions more suitable for efficient sperm-oocyte interaction than the culture dish," he says. During the early stages of the study, researchers found that, contrary to their initial hypothesis, a much lower fertilization rate was achieved with the microfluidic device (12 percent) than in culture dishes (43 percent). They then hypothesized that as sperm concentration is decreased, fertilization rates would improve in microchannels. At these lower concentrations, the combined fertilization rate was significantly higher in microchannels (27 percent) than in culture dishes (10 percent). The authors note that the research has only been conducted on mice, and that more testing and possibly the development of auxiliary technology will be needed before IVF by microfluidics is a viable option for humans. Still, the research is very promising, says lead author Ronald S. Suh, M.D., now with Urology of Indiana LLC in Indianapolis who was a resident in the U-M Department of Urology when he wrote the paper. "There has been a large amount of research on almost every aspect of IVF. The exciting thing we're seeing here is going the potential of integration of all of these things. In the future, you will be able to take patients with low sperm counts, use microfluidics to select the best sperm, and achieve fertilization in one step," he says. "That integration is really what is going to make microfluidics change IVF." In addition to Smith and Suh, other authors of the paper are Dana A. Ohl, M.D., professor of urology

es of fertilization have failed in the past, or when the man has an extremely low sperm count or motility. Smith does not think the use of microfluidics will replace ICSI, but he says it could offer another option to many couples whose situations do not require ICSI, a process that can cost an extra $1,500 to $2,500 in addition to standard IVF costs. "While ICSI bypasses all natural selection, the use of microfluidic channels more closely resembles in vivo insemination. The microfluidic environment also may possess conditions more suitable for efficient sperm-oocyte interaction than the culture dish," he says. During the early stages of the study, researchers found that, contrary to their initial hypothesis, a much lower fertilization rate was achieved with the microfluidic device (12 percent) than in culture dishes (43 percent). They then hypothesized that as sperm concentration is decreased, fertilization rates would improve in microchannels. At these lower concentrations, the combined fertilization rate was significantly higher in microchannels (27 percent) than in culture dishes (10 percent). The authors note that the research has only been conducted on mice, and that more testing and possibly the development of auxiliary technology will be needed before IVF by microfluidics is a viable option for humans. Still, the research is very promising, says lead author Ronald S. Suh, M.D., now with Urology of Indiana LLC in Indianapolis who was a resident in the U-M Department of Urology when he wrote the paper. "There has been a large amount of research on almost every aspect of IVF. The exciting thing we're seeing here is going the potential of integration of all of these things. In the future, you will be able to take patients with low sperm counts, use microfluidics to select the best sperm, and achieve fertilization in one step," he says. "That integration is really what is going to make microfluidics change IVF." In addition to Smith and Suh, other authors of the paper are Dana A. Ohl, M.D., professor of urology at the U-M Medical School; Shuichi Takayama, Ph.D., assistant professor of biomedical engineering and of macromolecular science and engineering at the U-M College of Engineering; Xiaoyue Zhu, research fellow in biomedical engineering; and Nandita Phadke, research assistant in biomedical engineering. Portions of the research were supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health and the College of Engineering Technology Development Fund. U-M has applied for patents on the microfluidic technology involved in this study. Smith and Takayama have formed a company called Incept BioSystems and stand to profit from commercialization of the products. Source: Eurekalert & othersLast reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009 Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.

at the U-M Medical School; Shuichi Takayama, Ph.D., assistant professor of biomedical engineering and of macromolecular science and engineering at the U-M College of Engineering; Xiaoyue Zhu, research fellow in biomedical engineering; and Nandita Phadke, research assistant in biomedical engineering. Portions of the research were supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health and the College of Engineering Technology Development Fund. U-M has applied for patents on the microfluidic technology involved in this study. Smith and Takayama have formed a company called Incept BioSystems and stand to profit from commercialization of the products. Source: Eurekalert & othersLast reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009 Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.

Individual differences | Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology | The Academic Performance Index (API) is a measurement of academic achievement and progress of individual schools in California, United States. It is one of the main components of the Public Schools Accountability Act passed by the California legislature in 1999. API scores ranges from a low of 200 to a high of 1000. A numeric API score ranges from a low of 200 to a high of 1000. The interim statewide API performance target for all schools is 800. A school's growth is measured by how well it is moving toward or past that goal. An API score is calculated for all students in a school as well as numerous API scores for each subgroup at the school (such as by race, English Learner Status, students with disabilities, and socieconomically disadvantaged pupils). The API Statewide Rank score ranks a school with all schools in California based on API score, while the API Similar Schools score ranks a school with 100 other schools in the state with similar demographic profiles (including parent education level, poverty level, student mobility, student ethnicity). Each rank ranges from 1 to 10, with a score of 10 meaning that the school's API fell into the top 10%. Indicator of performanceEdit A school's score or placement on the API is designed to be an indicator of a school's performance level and is calculated annually by the California Department of Education, primarily based on CST and CAHSEE tests. Due to the API's heavy reliance on standardized testing (although some factors such as attendance and graduation rates are considered), many criticisms of standardized testing can also be leveled at the reliability and accuracy of API scores as an indicator of a school's level of "academic achievement." One criticism until recently was that a school's API score took no account of a school's student dropout rate. This created the incentive to let poorly performing students drop out, since this would increase a school's average test scores. SB 219 (Senator Darrell Steinberg, 2007) addressed this concern, however, by requiring schools' API scores to incorporate student dropout rates. These changes are expected to be implemented in 2011. The API is closely tied to monetary and incentive awards by setting Annual Percent Growth Targets for each school and whether the school met or exceeded this goal. The Public Schools Accountability Act also establishes The Immediate Intervention/Underperforming Schools Program and the Governor's High Achieving/Improving Schools Program. In addition, the API is used to determine Adequate Yearly Progress as a part of the No Child Left Behind Act. - Academic Performance Index (API) - Understanding the API - Public Schools Accountability Act (PSAA) - Google - public data: Education Statistics of California: Academic Performance Index (API) |This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|

|Home | About | Journals | Submit | Contact Us | Français| Classical αβ T cells protect the host by monitoring intracellular and extracellular proteins in a two-step process. The first step is protein degradation and combining with a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule leading to surface expression of this amalgam (antigen processing). The second step is the interaction of the T cell receptor (TCR) with the MHC-peptide complex leading to signaling in the T cells (antigen recognition). The context for this interaction is a T cell-antigen presenting cell (APC) junction known as an immunological synapse if symmetric and stable and that we have referred to as a kinapse if it is asymmetric and mobile. The physiological recognition of ligand takes place most efficiently in the filamentous (F)-actin rich lamellipodium and is F-actin dependent in stages of formation, triggering and myosin II dependent for signal amplification. This review discussed how these concepts emerged from early studies on adhesion, signaling and cell biology of T cells. The adaptive immune system is a sensory organ that monitors our inner spaces for evidence of infection or cancer, regulates steady state microbiota and avoids self injury (Krogsgaard and Davis, 2005). The primary filter for this sensor is the dendritic cell (DC), which samples tissue spaces and interfaces for novel macromolecular information (Steinman et al., 2003). DC respond to tissues injury and detect conserved microbial structures leading to changes in DC signals to T lymphocyte (T cells), to shape an appropriate response (Trombetta and Mellman, 2005; West et al., 2004). The largest part of the information is in the form of proteins broken down into peptides that form complexes with surface molecules of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC-peptide complexes) that allow DCs to share this information with T cells expressing the T cell antigen receptors (TCR). An individual has a few hundred T cells that can detect any foreign MHC-peptide complex with single molecule sensitivity (Irvine et al., 2002; Sykulev et al., 1996). This sensitivity evolved by necessity because although the DC may express up to a million MHC molecules, it also samples thousands of proteins, most of which are self-proteins (Trombetta and Mellman, 2005). Thus, each T cell that contacts a DC needs to sort through this huge complexity of ligands and then focus on a few tens or hundreds of ligands that bind the TCR. This ultrasensitive process is still poorly understood, but clues are being discovered at an accelerating rate such that some critical answers are on the horizon. In the 1980’s it was shown that antigen recognition and actin dependent adhesion were integrated processes (Dustin and Springer, 1989); in the 1990’s it was discovered that the actin rich lamellipodium was the most sensitive part of this sensitive cells (Valitutti et al., 1995a); and in the present decade we and others have begun to examine single molecule dynamics of TCR signaling complexes (Douglass and Vale, 2005). This review will describe the cellular context of TCR signaling reactions, which include an important niche based on F-actin rich lamellipodia that can be elaborated in motile and arrested cells. The TCR and adhesion molecules were identified by antibodies in the same burst of activity to discover the receptors involved in lymphocyte function by screening for inhibitors (Sanchez-Madrid et al., 1982; White et al., 1983). The last piece of the molecular puzzle, the structure of an MHC-peptide complex, was determined in 1987 (Bjorkman et al., 1987). This structure clarified the highly competitive nature of binding short peptides to the MHC molecule in a relatively stable manner (Babbitt et al., 1985). Thus, each TCR is locked into recognizing a small number of antigenic structures and each MHC molecule presents a single peptide. DCs use a limited numbers of any single MHC-peptide ligand to search through a vast repertoire of T cells. Thus, powerful mechanisms are needed to coordinate the search and response. Early work

ecule sensitivity (Irvine et al., 2002; Sykulev et al., 1996). This sensitivity evolved by necessity because although the DC may express up to a million MHC molecules, it also samples thousands of proteins, most of which are self-proteins (Trombetta and Mellman, 2005). Thus, each T cell that contacts a DC needs to sort through this huge complexity of ligands and then focus on a few tens or hundreds of ligands that bind the TCR. This ultrasensitive process is still poorly understood, but clues are being discovered at an accelerating rate such that some critical answers are on the horizon. In the 1980’s it was shown that antigen recognition and actin dependent adhesion were integrated processes (Dustin and Springer, 1989); in the 1990’s it was discovered that the actin rich lamellipodium was the most sensitive part of this sensitive cells (Valitutti et al., 1995a); and in the present decade we and others have begun to examine single molecule dynamics of TCR signaling complexes (Douglass and Vale, 2005). This review will describe the cellular context of TCR signaling reactions, which include an important niche based on F-actin rich lamellipodia that can be elaborated in motile and arrested cells. The TCR and adhesion molecules were identified by antibodies in the same burst of activity to discover the receptors involved in lymphocyte function by screening for inhibitors (Sanchez-Madrid et al., 1982; White et al., 1983). The last piece of the molecular puzzle, the structure of an MHC-peptide complex, was determined in 1987 (Bjorkman et al., 1987). This structure clarified the highly competitive nature of binding short peptides to the MHC molecule in a relatively stable manner (Babbitt et al., 1985). Thus, each TCR is locked into recognizing a small number of antigenic structures and each MHC molecule presents a single peptide. DCs use a limited numbers of any single MHC-peptide ligand to search through a vast repertoire of T cells. Thus, powerful mechanisms are needed to coordinate the search and response. Early work on the T cell signaling response to TCR-MHC-peptide interactions revealed rapid elevation of and protein kinase C activation and cytoplasmic Ca2+ down-stream of a tyrosine kinase cascade (Samelsonet al., 1986). Parallel studies on the adhesion molecule LFA-1 demonstrated that it was regulated by an F-actin and energy dependent mechanism that could be activated by phorbol esters (Marlin and Springer, 1987). LFA-1 was found to mediate adhesion by binding to a family of adhesion molecules including ICAM-1, whose expression reflects the innate immune activation of tissues (Dustin et al., 1986). Resting T cells are non-adhesive to ICAM-1 coated surfaces when freshly isolated from peripheral blood, but become more adhesive to ICAM-1 after triggering of TCR signaling (Dustin and Springer, 1989). The time course of adhesion activation closely followed the time course of TCR signaling: a process of “inside-out signaling” (Dustin and Springer, 1989). In the case of LFA-1, a candidate molecular mechanism for this activation was binding of talin to the cytoplasmic domain of LFA-1 (Smith et al., 2005). Talinis recruited to sites of LFA-1 interaction with ligands on APCs and this is a more sensitive process with respect to antigen dose than cytokine production or proliferation (Kupfer and Singer, 1989). The parallel field studying lymphocyte trafficking revealed that LFA-1 can also be acutely activated by G-protein coupled receptors that are associated with lymphocyte homing (Lawrence and Springer, 1991). Thus, LFA-1 regulation is a cornerstone in both body-wide navigation of lymphocytes through vascular interaction and the coordination of antigen recognition and strong, transient adhesion leading to the immunological synapse in tissues. Specific signaling pathways are required for inside out signaling from TCR to LFA-1. The adapter molecule ADAP and its partner SKAP-55 have been shown to contribute to about half of TCR triggered adhesion (Peterson et al., 2001). This process is integrated with F-actin at both the level of th

on the T cell signaling response to TCR-MHC-peptide interactions revealed rapid elevation of and protein kinase C activation and cytoplasmic Ca2+ down-stream of a tyrosine kinase cascade (Samelsonet al., 1986). Parallel studies on the adhesion molecule LFA-1 demonstrated that it was regulated by an F-actin and energy dependent mechanism that could be activated by phorbol esters (Marlin and Springer, 1987). LFA-1 was found to mediate adhesion by binding to a family of adhesion molecules including ICAM-1, whose expression reflects the innate immune activation of tissues (Dustin et al., 1986). Resting T cells are non-adhesive to ICAM-1 coated surfaces when freshly isolated from peripheral blood, but become more adhesive to ICAM-1 after triggering of TCR signaling (Dustin and Springer, 1989). The time course of adhesion activation closely followed the time course of TCR signaling: a process of “inside-out signaling” (Dustin and Springer, 1989). In the case of LFA-1, a candidate molecular mechanism for this activation was binding of talin to the cytoplasmic domain of LFA-1 (Smith et al., 2005). Talinis recruited to sites of LFA-1 interaction with ligands on APCs and this is a more sensitive process with respect to antigen dose than cytokine production or proliferation (Kupfer and Singer, 1989). The parallel field studying lymphocyte trafficking revealed that LFA-1 can also be acutely activated by G-protein coupled receptors that are associated with lymphocyte homing (Lawrence and Springer, 1991). Thus, LFA-1 regulation is a cornerstone in both body-wide navigation of lymphocytes through vascular interaction and the coordination of antigen recognition and strong, transient adhesion leading to the immunological synapse in tissues. Specific signaling pathways are required for inside out signaling from TCR to LFA-1. The adapter molecule ADAP and its partner SKAP-55 have been shown to contribute to about half of TCR triggered adhesion (Peterson et al., 2001). This process is integrated with F-actin at both the level of the TCR signal as discussed below and directly through the interactions of ADAP through Ena-VASP family members, which are involved directly in actin polymerization and contribute to regulation of Arp2/3 (Krause et al., 2000). SKAP-55 forms a complex with RIAM (Menasche et al., 2007), which binds to active Rap-1, a small G-protein related to Ras that is required for regulation of adhesion in lymphocytes. Activation of Rap-1 downstream of tyrosine kinase cascades requires a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) called C3G. TCR signaling activates C3G by a cascade involving Vav, a GEF for Rac (Krawczyk et al., 2002). Recent evidence suggests that Rac activates the WAVE2 complex, which activates Abl and CrkL-C3G to increase active Rap1 (Nolz et al., 2008). The Rap-1-RIAM complex then contributes to activation of talin, which directly binds to the β2 cytoplasmic domain in the critical hinge region to activate and cluster LFA-1 (Smith et al., 2005; Tadokoro et al., 2003; Wegener et al., 2007). This pathway accounts for the strong correlation of LFA-1 dependent cell-cell adhesion and talin accumulation at the interface. Another connection to F-actin is observed in the APC. DC mediated antigen presentation is an active process that requires small G-proteins of the Rac family and intact F-actin (Al-Alwan et al., 2003; Benvenuti et al., 2004). This may be in part due to the interaction if ICAM-1 with the actin cytoskeleton, in part via ERM family members. Norcross and Paul first discussed the idea of an immunological synapse with the main “synapse-like” features being a role for Ca2+ elevation, adhesion and directed secretion and polarity (Norcross, 1984). There are a handful of studies in the 1980’s and 90’s that provide quantitative data on cytoskeletal organization, secretory apparatus polarization and Ca2+ signaling in T cell conjugates with B cells e.g. (Geiger et al., 1982; Kupfer et al., 1986; Poenie et al., 1987), in addition to above mentioned studies on adhesion. The classical picture is of cell pairs with a T

e TCR signal as discussed below and directly through the interactions of ADAP through Ena-VASP family members, which are involved directly in actin polymerization and contribute to regulation of Arp2/3 (Krause et al., 2000). SKAP-55 forms a complex with RIAM (Menasche et al., 2007), which binds to active Rap-1, a small G-protein related to Ras that is required for regulation of adhesion in lymphocytes. Activation of Rap-1 downstream of tyrosine kinase cascades requires a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) called C3G. TCR signaling activates C3G by a cascade involving Vav, a GEF for Rac (Krawczyk et al., 2002). Recent evidence suggests that Rac activates the WAVE2 complex, which activates Abl and CrkL-C3G to increase active Rap1 (Nolz et al., 2008). The Rap-1-RIAM complex then contributes to activation of talin, which directly binds to the β2 cytoplasmic domain in the critical hinge region to activate and cluster LFA-1 (Smith et al., 2005; Tadokoro et al., 2003; Wegener et al., 2007). This pathway accounts for the strong correlation of LFA-1 dependent cell-cell adhesion and talin accumulation at the interface. Another connection to F-actin is observed in the APC. DC mediated antigen presentation is an active process that requires small G-proteins of the Rac family and intact F-actin (Al-Alwan et al., 2003; Benvenuti et al., 2004). This may be in part due to the interaction if ICAM-1 with the actin cytoskeleton, in part via ERM family members. Norcross and Paul first discussed the idea of an immunological synapse with the main “synapse-like” features being a role for Ca2+ elevation, adhesion and directed secretion and polarity (Norcross, 1984). There are a handful of studies in the 1980’s and 90’s that provide quantitative data on cytoskeletal organization, secretory apparatus polarization and Ca2+ signaling in T cell conjugates with B cells e.g. (Geiger et al., 1982; Kupfer et al., 1986; Poenie et al., 1987), in addition to above mentioned studies on adhesion. The classical picture is of cell pairs with a T cell stably appended onto the often-larger target cells like an apse on a building-which is the origin of the term synapse. In one study, a distinct annular adhesive domain and central secretory domains were resolved by electron microscopy (Schmidt et al., 1988), which foreshadows the later work by Kupfer. The molecular organization of these interfaces was not revealed until advances in imaging in the 1990’s led to the definition of discrete localization of TCR and LFA-1 and a more specific definition of immunological synapse was proposed (Dustin et al., 1998). Springer proposed in 1990 that LFA-1 and TCR would be segregated in adhesive interfaces because they are different sizes and it would be impossible for TCR to reach the MHC in a adhesive interface mediated by LFA-1 and it would be similarly difficult for LFA-1 to squeeze into an interface defined by the smaller CD2-CD58 adhesion system, which would in turn be ideal for the TCR (Springer, 1990). Springer further proposed that exclusion of large phosphatases like CD45 might be important for tyrosine phosphorylation down-stream of the tyrosine kinase cascade. This concept has been refined and tested and seems likely to be an important part of the signaling niche for the TCR (Choudhuri and van der Merwe, 2007; Varma et al., 2006). Springer didn’t speculate on the scale over which this segregation process would take place. The initial answers to this question were surprising. Kupfer examined fixed T cell-B cell conjugates and revealed a large central TCR cluster that was also rich in PKC-θ, defined as the central supramolecular activation cluster (cSMAC) (Monks et al., 1998)(Table 1). A ring of LFA-1-ICAM-1 interactions and talin surrounds this central cluster, defined as the peripheral supramolecular activation cluster (pSMAC). Each of these areas contained thousands of molecules in what was apparently a large non-covalent functional network-a supramolecular assembly. Kupfer later defined the distal supramolecular activation cluster as the outermost structure,

cell stably appended onto the often-larger target cells like an apse on a building-which is the origin of the term synapse. In one study, a distinct annular adhesive domain and central secretory domains were resolved by electron microscopy (Schmidt et al., 1988), which foreshadows the later work by Kupfer. The molecular organization of these interfaces was not revealed until advances in imaging in the 1990’s led to the definition of discrete localization of TCR and LFA-1 and a more specific definition of immunological synapse was proposed (Dustin et al., 1998). Springer proposed in 1990 that LFA-1 and TCR would be segregated in adhesive interfaces because they are different sizes and it would be impossible for TCR to reach the MHC in a adhesive interface mediated by LFA-1 and it would be similarly difficult for LFA-1 to squeeze into an interface defined by the smaller CD2-CD58 adhesion system, which would in turn be ideal for the TCR (Springer, 1990). Springer further proposed that exclusion of large phosphatases like CD45 might be important for tyrosine phosphorylation down-stream of the tyrosine kinase cascade. This concept has been refined and tested and seems likely to be an important part of the signaling niche for the TCR (Choudhuri and van der Merwe, 2007; Varma et al., 2006). Springer didn’t speculate on the scale over which this segregation process would take place. The initial answers to this question were surprising. Kupfer examined fixed T cell-B cell conjugates and revealed a large central TCR cluster that was also rich in PKC-θ, defined as the central supramolecular activation cluster (cSMAC) (Monks et al., 1998)(Table 1). A ring of LFA-1-ICAM-1 interactions and talin surrounds this central cluster, defined as the peripheral supramolecular activation cluster (pSMAC). Each of these areas contained thousands of molecules in what was apparently a large non-covalent functional network-a supramolecular assembly. Kupfer later defined the distal supramolecular activation cluster as the outermost structure, enriched in CD45, although this will be discussed further below. The distal pole complex was described by Burkhardt and may be important for sequestering specific negative regulators like SHP-1 (Cullinan et al., 2002). TCR microclusters will be discussed at length. Table I outlines the compartments associated with stable, antigen specific T cell-B cell conjugates. Parallel studies with supported planar bilayers presenting adhesion molecules revealed similar phenomena in which a single adhesion system would establish a cooperative supamolecular cluster and mixed systems would segregate into spatially discrete SMACs. We examined the organization of the CD2-CD58 and LFA-1-ICAM-1 interactions in contacts in Jurkat T cells on planar bilayers containing ICAM-1 and CD58 (Dustin et al., 1998). We proposed that the “specialized junction, cell polarization, and positional stability” of the symmetric contacts were similar to a neural synapse and proposed that stable T-APC interfaces should be defined as “immunological synapses”. A planar bilayer based system using MHC-peptide complexes and LFA-1 fully recapitulated Kupfer’s findings and provided insight into the dynamics of these structures, which were not formed en bloc, but evolved from very distinct early intermediates by an F-actin dependent transport process (Grakoui et al., 1999)(Fig 1). The immunological synapse has an axis of radial symmetry with its center at the cSMAC (Fig 1). At the same time, we can view the synapse as having a direction of polarity along the length of this axis with a proximal and distal pole relative to the APC containing distinct molecules (Fig 1). The function of the immunological synapse pattern is most transparent for cytotoxic T cells where the F-actin free cSMAC serves as a secretory domain and the pSMAC serves as a retaining wall (Beal et al., 2008; Stinchcombe et al., 2006). The importance of directed secretion is supported by studies with human patients with deficiencies in granule transport to the synapse that lead to defects in kil

enriched in CD45, although this will be discussed further below. The distal pole complex was described by Burkhardt and may be important for sequestering specific negative regulators like SHP-1 (Cullinan et al., 2002). TCR microclusters will be discussed at length. Table I outlines the compartments associated with stable, antigen specific T cell-B cell conjugates. Parallel studies with supported planar bilayers presenting adhesion molecules revealed similar phenomena in which a single adhesion system would establish a cooperative supamolecular cluster and mixed systems would segregate into spatially discrete SMACs. We examined the organization of the CD2-CD58 and LFA-1-ICAM-1 interactions in contacts in Jurkat T cells on planar bilayers containing ICAM-1 and CD58 (Dustin et al., 1998). We proposed that the “specialized junction, cell polarization, and positional stability” of the symmetric contacts were similar to a neural synapse and proposed that stable T-APC interfaces should be defined as “immunological synapses”. A planar bilayer based system using MHC-peptide complexes and LFA-1 fully recapitulated Kupfer’s findings and provided insight into the dynamics of these structures, which were not formed en bloc, but evolved from very distinct early intermediates by an F-actin dependent transport process (Grakoui et al., 1999)(Fig 1). The immunological synapse has an axis of radial symmetry with its center at the cSMAC (Fig 1). At the same time, we can view the synapse as having a direction of polarity along the length of this axis with a proximal and distal pole relative to the APC containing distinct molecules (Fig 1). The function of the immunological synapse pattern is most transparent for cytotoxic T cells where the F-actin free cSMAC serves as a secretory domain and the pSMAC serves as a retaining wall (Beal et al., 2008; Stinchcombe et al., 2006). The importance of directed secretion is supported by studies with human patients with deficiencies in granule transport to the synapse that lead to defects in killing (Baetz et al., 1995). Stabilization of the pSMAC of CD4+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) with a PKC-θ inhibitor quantified increased killing, the first evidence of for an advantage of an intact pSMAC (Beal et al., 2008). Structures similar to pSMACs also form between T cells in homotypic aggregates and are important for intensification of cytokine signals during T cell expansion (Sabatos et al., 2008). The symmetric immunological synapse may serve equally important functions in tolerance induction, priming and differentiation as discussed below. Between chemokine dependent extravasation and MHC-peptide dependent immunological synapse formation T cells rapidly migrate in DC networks of T cell zones (Bajenoff et al., 2006). Rapid migration by T cells can be fully reconstituted with solid phase CCL21, a CCR7 ligand, in vitro (Woolf et al., 2007). This involved polarization and formation of a leading edge that takes the form of a flattened lamellipodium on CCL21 and ICAM-1 coated surfaces (Huang and Dustin, unpublished data). LFA-1 is not required for mobility in T cell zones (Woolf et al., 2007), but LFA-1 increases sensitivity to MHC-peptide complexes up to 100-fold (Bachmann et al., 1997) and ICAM-1 is required for antigen specific arrest in vivo (Scholer et al., 2008). The lamellipodium is a sensory structure and has been shown to be the most sensitive part of a T cell by ~40-fold in elegant studies with laser traps and anti-CD3 coated beads (Negulescu et al., 1996; Wei et al., 1999). Valitutti has also described the probing behavior of lymphocytes undergoing sustained signaling on APCs (Valitutti et al., 1995a). Another important experiment is the demonstration that TCR signaling is continually being renewed by new TCR-MHC-peptide interactions such that blocking the access to new MHC-peptide ligands with MHC antibodies immediately block signaling (Valitutti et al., 1995a). Lamellipodia are coordinated by small G-proteins including Rac-1, which activates the WAVE2 complexes leading to dynamic actin in the perip

ling (Baetz et al., 1995). Stabilization of the pSMAC of CD4+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) with a PKC-θ inhibitor quantified increased killing, the first evidence of for an advantage of an intact pSMAC (Beal et al., 2008). Structures similar to pSMACs also form between T cells in homotypic aggregates and are important for intensification of cytokine signals during T cell expansion (Sabatos et al., 2008). The symmetric immunological synapse may serve equally important functions in tolerance induction, priming and differentiation as discussed below. Between chemokine dependent extravasation and MHC-peptide dependent immunological synapse formation T cells rapidly migrate in DC networks of T cell zones (Bajenoff et al., 2006). Rapid migration by T cells can be fully reconstituted with solid phase CCL21, a CCR7 ligand, in vitro (Woolf et al., 2007). This involved polarization and formation of a leading edge that takes the form of a flattened lamellipodium on CCL21 and ICAM-1 coated surfaces (Huang and Dustin, unpublished data). LFA-1 is not required for mobility in T cell zones (Woolf et al., 2007), but LFA-1 increases sensitivity to MHC-peptide complexes up to 100-fold (Bachmann et al., 1997) and ICAM-1 is required for antigen specific arrest in vivo (Scholer et al., 2008). The lamellipodium is a sensory structure and has been shown to be the most sensitive part of a T cell by ~40-fold in elegant studies with laser traps and anti-CD3 coated beads (Negulescu et al., 1996; Wei et al., 1999). Valitutti has also described the probing behavior of lymphocytes undergoing sustained signaling on APCs (Valitutti et al., 1995a). Another important experiment is the demonstration that TCR signaling is continually being renewed by new TCR-MHC-peptide interactions such that blocking the access to new MHC-peptide ligands with MHC antibodies immediately block signaling (Valitutti et al., 1995a). Lamellipodia are coordinated by small G-proteins including Rac-1, which activates the WAVE2 complexes leading to dynamic actin in the periphery of nascent immunological synapses (Nolz et al., 2006). HS-1, a lymphocyte-specific cortactin is important for forming lamellipodia (Gomez et al., 2006). EVL, a hematopoietic cell member of the ENA-VASP family, is found at the tips of projections touching the APC (Lambrechts et al., 2000). Activation of these systems is not antigen specific and similar structures are induced during non-antigen specific engagement of adhesion molecule like LFA-1 by ICAM-1 (Smith et al., 2003) and CD2 by CD58 (or CD48 in the mouse) (Kaizuka et al., 2009). In response to TCR signals, the SLP-76 signaling module recruits and activates Vav, an exchange factor for Rac and Cdc42. Rac then activates WAVE2 and Cdc42 activates WASP. Both WAVE2 and WASP activate the Arp2/3 complex to generate branched actin networks. WAVE2 is associated with lamellipodial actin (Nolz et al., 2006), whereas WASP is associated with ventral projections such as podosomes and invadipodia (Carman et al., 2007). Behind the lamellipodium is the lamella, which has also been referred to as a focal zone in migrating T cells (Smith et al., 2005). These zones are rich in adhesion sites and integrin binding adapter talin, which is also a marker of the pSMAC. T cell may arrest migration and form a stable synapse, or alternatively, they may continue to migrate and integrate signals on the move. This rapid migration during antigen recognition contrasts with the stable synapse and has different functional consequences. Rapid migration during antigen recognition is observed in T-DC interactions in vitro early stages of T cell interaction with low dose agonist stimuli in vivo (Henrickson et al., 2008) and with low potency TCR stimuli (Skokos et al., 2007). There are at least two explanations for these mobile junctions or “kinapses”(Dustin, 2008). Certain chemokinetic signals, such as CCL21 signals, can compete with antigen stop signals (Bromley et al., 2000). The ability of T cells to migrate for some period followed by arrest may relate to signaling thresholds or time dep

hery of nascent immunological synapses (Nolz et al., 2006). HS-1, a lymphocyte-specific cortactin is important for forming lamellipodia (Gomez et al., 2006). EVL, a hematopoietic cell member of the ENA-VASP family, is found at the tips of projections touching the APC (Lambrechts et al., 2000). Activation of these systems is not antigen specific and similar structures are induced during non-antigen specific engagement of adhesion molecule like LFA-1 by ICAM-1 (Smith et al., 2003) and CD2 by CD58 (or CD48 in the mouse) (Kaizuka et al., 2009). In response to TCR signals, the SLP-76 signaling module recruits and activates Vav, an exchange factor for Rac and Cdc42. Rac then activates WAVE2 and Cdc42 activates WASP. Both WAVE2 and WASP activate the Arp2/3 complex to generate branched actin networks. WAVE2 is associated with lamellipodial actin (Nolz et al., 2006), whereas WASP is associated with ventral projections such as podosomes and invadipodia (Carman et al., 2007). Behind the lamellipodium is the lamella, which has also been referred to as a focal zone in migrating T cells (Smith et al., 2005). These zones are rich in adhesion sites and integrin binding adapter talin, which is also a marker of the pSMAC. T cell may arrest migration and form a stable synapse, or alternatively, they may continue to migrate and integrate signals on the move. This rapid migration during antigen recognition contrasts with the stable synapse and has different functional consequences. Rapid migration during antigen recognition is observed in T-DC interactions in vitro early stages of T cell interaction with low dose agonist stimuli in vivo (Henrickson et al., 2008) and with low potency TCR stimuli (Skokos et al., 2007). There are at least two explanations for these mobile junctions or “kinapses”(Dustin, 2008). Certain chemokinetic signals, such as CCL21 signals, can compete with antigen stop signals (Bromley et al., 2000). The ability of T cells to migrate for some period followed by arrest may relate to signaling thresholds or time dependent down-regulation of CCR7. This gives the T cells flexibility in looking at different amounts of antigen on DCs-a few DCs with high amounts of MHC-peptide can stop T cells whereas many DCs with few antigen can sustain signaling until the T cells resets its sensitivity and can arrest (Henrickson et al., 2008). Weaker MHC-peptide never overcome the chemokinetic signals and continually migrate in DC networks (Skokos et al., 2007). T cells encountering these weaker ligands cannot arrest in the steady state and only integrate signals through kinapses. This mode of signal integration is sufficient to induce an alternative mode of tolerance induction when the antigen is presented on many DCs through scavenger receptor DEC-205. The failure of some weaker self-antigens to stop T cells may contribute the failure of tolerance induction and the development of autoimmuity (Zehn and Bevan, 2006). In autoimmunity the combination of strong innate signals and weak TCR signals can lead to robust responses, although there are differences in the kinetics of T cell release from lymph nodes and fitness of the cells that may limit memory generation autoimmunity (Zehn and Bevan, 2006). Thus, a migrating T cell sensing MHC-peptide complexes at its leading edge can integrate signals and make decisions about tolerance to abundant antigens, but not rare self-antigens. How do T cells form a synapse? T cells stopped by MHC-peptide complexes remained highly dynamics with prominent cycles of extension and retraction around a pivot point (Dustin et al., 1997; Valitutti et al., 1995a). Studies on planar bilayers reveal what appears to be an early spreading, receptor engagement and contractile process that form the cSMAC over a period of 5 minutes and which is F-actin dependent (Grakoui et al., 1999). These results also led to speculation that myosin II based contraction might also be involved because of the substantial decreases in contact size and the speed of receptor cluster movement (Dustin and Cooper, 2000; Grakoui et al., 1999). Simila

endent down-regulation of CCR7. This gives the T cells flexibility in looking at different amounts of antigen on DCs-a few DCs with high amounts of MHC-peptide can stop T cells whereas many DCs with few antigen can sustain signaling until the T cells resets its sensitivity and can arrest (Henrickson et al., 2008). Weaker MHC-peptide never overcome the chemokinetic signals and continually migrate in DC networks (Skokos et al., 2007). T cells encountering these weaker ligands cannot arrest in the steady state and only integrate signals through kinapses. This mode of signal integration is sufficient to induce an alternative mode of tolerance induction when the antigen is presented on many DCs through scavenger receptor DEC-205. The failure of some weaker self-antigens to stop T cells may contribute the failure of tolerance induction and the development of autoimmuity (Zehn and Bevan, 2006). In autoimmunity the combination of strong innate signals and weak TCR signals can lead to robust responses, although there are differences in the kinetics of T cell release from lymph nodes and fitness of the cells that may limit memory generation autoimmunity (Zehn and Bevan, 2006). Thus, a migrating T cell sensing MHC-peptide complexes at its leading edge can integrate signals and make decisions about tolerance to abundant antigens, but not rare self-antigens. How do T cells form a synapse? T cells stopped by MHC-peptide complexes remained highly dynamics with prominent cycles of extension and retraction around a pivot point (Dustin et al., 1997; Valitutti et al., 1995a). Studies on planar bilayers reveal what appears to be an early spreading, receptor engagement and contractile process that form the cSMAC over a period of 5 minutes and which is F-actin dependent (Grakoui et al., 1999). These results also led to speculation that myosin II based contraction might also be involved because of the substantial decreases in contact size and the speed of receptor cluster movement (Dustin and Cooper, 2000; Grakoui et al., 1999). Similar results were obtained in live cell-cell systems in which TCR in small clusters moved to the center to form the cSMAC (Krummel et al., 2000). However, these authors eventually rejected the hypothesis that myosin II is required for this contraction and transport process because knockdown of myosin IIA did not appear to eliminate the ability to form a synapse with an APC (Jacobelli et al., 2004). More recent studies in the planar bilayer model actually supported the hypothesis that myosin IIA is important for microcluster transport and signal amplification in that system and for signal amplification in cell-cell models (Ilani et al., 2009). It is possible that there are alternative mechanisms to form a cSMAC in cell-cell systems that involve directed vesicular transport, which would be myosin II independent (Das et al., 2004). Nonetheless, the extension of an APC embracing lamellipodium is observed in cell-cell systems (Antón et al., 2002; Tskvitaria-Fuller et al., 2003). In Jurkat T leukemia cells, spreading on anti-CD3 coated surfaces form a well organized F-actin ring at early time points, and that this ring appear to break up after a contractile phase (Bunnell et al., 2001). These studies suggest that the initial contact expansion is mediated by F-actin driven protrusion, which then shift to a more dynamic extension-retraction process during sustained signaling. In fact the pivoting process observed with solid phase MHC-peptide complexes suggest that the stop was based on loss of persistent polarity. What could account for the ability of cells to rapidly transition from migration to arrest? Quantitative analysis of TCR dynamics and cell spreading provided insight into how the stable and dynamic characteristics of the synapse are reconciled. Observations of contact areas on planar bilayers with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) reveal that the dSMAC is a radial lamellipodium. First, TCR in cells form synapses over a period of 30 minutes and even after cSMAC formation, sub-micron TCR clus

r results were obtained in live cell-cell systems in which TCR in small clusters moved to the center to form the cSMAC (Krummel et al., 2000). However, these authors eventually rejected the hypothesis that myosin II is required for this contraction and transport process because knockdown of myosin IIA did not appear to eliminate the ability to form a synapse with an APC (Jacobelli et al., 2004). More recent studies in the planar bilayer model actually supported the hypothesis that myosin IIA is important for microcluster transport and signal amplification in that system and for signal amplification in cell-cell models (Ilani et al., 2009). It is possible that there are alternative mechanisms to form a cSMAC in cell-cell systems that involve directed vesicular transport, which would be myosin II independent (Das et al., 2004). Nonetheless, the extension of an APC embracing lamellipodium is observed in cell-cell systems (Antón et al., 2002; Tskvitaria-Fuller et al., 2003). In Jurkat T leukemia cells, spreading on anti-CD3 coated surfaces form a well organized F-actin ring at early time points, and that this ring appear to break up after a contractile phase (Bunnell et al., 2001). These studies suggest that the initial contact expansion is mediated by F-actin driven protrusion, which then shift to a more dynamic extension-retraction process during sustained signaling. In fact the pivoting process observed with solid phase MHC-peptide complexes suggest that the stop was based on loss of persistent polarity. What could account for the ability of cells to rapidly transition from migration to arrest? Quantitative analysis of TCR dynamics and cell spreading provided insight into how the stable and dynamic characteristics of the synapse are reconciled. Observations of contact areas on planar bilayers with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) reveal that the dSMAC is a radial lamellipodium. First, TCR in cells form synapses over a period of 30 minutes and even after cSMAC formation, sub-micron TCR clusters continue to form in the periphery (Varma et al., 2006). These small TCR microclusters forming later during stimulation are invisible to wide-field imaging on bilayers or cell-cell system. In fact, the continual formation of small microclusters to sustain signaling has only recently been observed in cell-cell systems using a combination of laser tweezers and spinning disk confocal microscopy (Oddos et al., 2008). This sustained movement of small TCR clusters suggested that some centripetal F-actin flow continued in the stable synapse. How can one define a lamellipodium quantitatively? The Sheetz and Wiggins labs developed methods based on loading cells with a fluorescent dye that fills the cytoplasm and then use TIRFM to image the dynamic footprints of the cell. Edge tracking algorithms quantify the advances and retraction of the edges and modify this to compensate for rapid movement of lymphocytes forming kinapses. This data can then be subjected to graphic and correlation analysis to compare the contact area dynamics between cell types (Dobereiner et al., 2006; Sims et al., 2007). Our collaborative studies revealed that the outer edge of the immunological synapse displayed an evolutionarily conserved dynamic pattern of movement referred to as contractile oscillations (Fig 1). This is thought to emerge from cycles of F-actin polymerization and myosin II dependent contraction that periodically pull the membrane protrusion up and back. This is an excellent way to test the mechanical properties of the surface on which cells are interacting. This protrusion and retraction cycle then propagates as a wave around the entire periphery of the cell. These experiments provided strong quantitative evidence the periphery of primary mouse T cells forming synapses or kinapses on planar bilayers with MHC-pepide complexes, ICAM-1 and CD80 form a radial lamellipodium. More recently, Vale and my lab used speckle microscopy to explicitly demonstrate centripetal actin flow in the dSMAC and pSMAC regions (Kaizuka et al., 2007). T

ters continue to form in the periphery (Varma et al., 2006). These small TCR microclusters forming later during stimulation are invisible to wide-field imaging on bilayers or cell-cell system. In fact, the continual formation of small microclusters to sustain signaling has only recently been observed in cell-cell systems using a combination of laser tweezers and spinning disk confocal microscopy (Oddos et al., 2008). This sustained movement of small TCR clusters suggested that some centripetal F-actin flow continued in the stable synapse. How can one define a lamellipodium quantitatively? The Sheetz and Wiggins labs developed methods based on loading cells with a fluorescent dye that fills the cytoplasm and then use TIRFM to image the dynamic footprints of the cell. Edge tracking algorithms quantify the advances and retraction of the edges and modify this to compensate for rapid movement of lymphocytes forming kinapses. This data can then be subjected to graphic and correlation analysis to compare the contact area dynamics between cell types (Dobereiner et al., 2006; Sims et al., 2007). Our collaborative studies revealed that the outer edge of the immunological synapse displayed an evolutionarily conserved dynamic pattern of movement referred to as contractile oscillations (Fig 1). This is thought to emerge from cycles of F-actin polymerization and myosin II dependent contraction that periodically pull the membrane protrusion up and back. This is an excellent way to test the mechanical properties of the surface on which cells are interacting. This protrusion and retraction cycle then propagates as a wave around the entire periphery of the cell. These experiments provided strong quantitative evidence the periphery of primary mouse T cells forming synapses or kinapses on planar bilayers with MHC-pepide complexes, ICAM-1 and CD80 form a radial lamellipodium. More recently, Vale and my lab used speckle microscopy to explicitly demonstrate centripetal actin flow in the dSMAC and pSMAC regions (Kaizuka et al., 2007). This F-actin flow is a consequence of the polymerization of F-actin at the protruding edge, which is pushed backwards because the outer edge advances more slowly than actin is added to the growing filament ends. TCR microclusters are transported at about 40% of the speed of the F-actin in the lamellipodium. This suggests that the microclusters bind and dissociate from the actin network. This notion is also supported by studies showing that TCR clusters can navigate around barriers placed in planar bilayers by nanofabrication methods (DeMond et al., 2008). The ability to move around the barriers appears to depend upon periods of transport punctuated by diffusive movement, which allows the microcluster to make progress around diagonal barriers. TCR microcluster transport, contractile oscillations and centripetal F-actin flow support the model that immunological synapses are based on maintaining a radially symmetrical lamellipodium-the same structure Kupfer described as a dSMAC (Freiberg et al., 2002). The dSMAC was reported as having a high concentration of both CD4 and CD45, but TIRFM imaging of these structures on bilayers does not consistently show this. It is likely that the impression of increased CD4 or CD45 in wide-field imaging is based on the lamellipodium having two plasma membrane layers separated by only 100–200 nm of cytoplasmic and thus appearing twice as bright as surrounding single membrane layers in the pSMAC. In fact, by TIRFM CD45 appears relatively uniform in the synapse except for discrete areas of exclusion around TCR microclusters (Varma et al., 2006). Thus, dSMAC is immunological shorthand for a radial lamellipodium. The pSMAC must also maintain radial symmetry to have a stable synapse because this structure contains most of the integrins that generate traction for movement (Sims et al., 2007). If the symmetry of the pSMAC is broken the cell will migrate, even if a radially symmetrical dSMAC appears to be maintained. The precise mechanism by which symmetry is established or broken is poorly u

his F-actin flow is a consequence of the polymerization of F-actin at the protruding edge, which is pushed backwards because the outer edge advances more slowly than actin is added to the growing filament ends. TCR microclusters are transported at about 40% of the speed of the F-actin in the lamellipodium. This suggests that the microclusters bind and dissociate from the actin network. This notion is also supported by studies showing that TCR clusters can navigate around barriers placed in planar bilayers by nanofabrication methods (DeMond et al., 2008). The ability to move around the barriers appears to depend upon periods of transport punctuated by diffusive movement, which allows the microcluster to make progress around diagonal barriers. TCR microcluster transport, contractile oscillations and centripetal F-actin flow support the model that immunological synapses are based on maintaining a radially symmetrical lamellipodium-the same structure Kupfer described as a dSMAC (Freiberg et al., 2002). The dSMAC was reported as having a high concentration of both CD4 and CD45, but TIRFM imaging of these structures on bilayers does not consistently show this. It is likely that the impression of increased CD4 or CD45 in wide-field imaging is based on the lamellipodium having two plasma membrane layers separated by only 100–200 nm of cytoplasmic and thus appearing twice as bright as surrounding single membrane layers in the pSMAC. In fact, by TIRFM CD45 appears relatively uniform in the synapse except for discrete areas of exclusion around TCR microclusters (Varma et al., 2006). Thus, dSMAC is immunological shorthand for a radial lamellipodium. The pSMAC must also maintain radial symmetry to have a stable synapse because this structure contains most of the integrins that generate traction for movement (Sims et al., 2007). If the symmetry of the pSMAC is broken the cell will migrate, even if a radially symmetrical dSMAC appears to be maintained. The precise mechanism by which symmetry is established or broken is poorly understood. We know that on the supported planar bilayer system WASP is required to maintain a stable synapse and PKC-θ contributes to symmetry breaking (Sims et al., 2007). Symmetry breaking in the contact plane leads to polarity and in a migrating cells this process is based two opposing actin-myosin networks-the lamellipodium dominated by Rac and a high F-actin:myosin II ratio and the uropod dominated by Rho and a low F-actin:myosin II ratio (Xu et al., 2003). Thus, we have speculated that myosin II may be a target in symmetry breaking. PKC-θ phosphorylates WASP interacting protein (WIP) and regulates its interaction with myosin II (Krzewski et al., 2006). WASP also interacts with this complex. One hypothesis is that myosin II activation via WIP phosphorylation leads to contraction of the pSMAC actin network leading to local thinning and breakdown, whereas WASP may either antagonize this myosin II activation or induced ventral actin polymerization to repair the pSMAC and restore symmetry after its been broken. PKC-θ mediated synapse breaking seems like a negative feedback loop because the other major activity of PKC-θ in T cells is activation of NFkB and other transcription factors. Thus, the functional consequences of synapse stabilization as a result of PKC-θ inhibition can only be studied in pre-armed effector cells, which don’t need to activate transcription for function. The cSMAC was initially shown to contain PKC-θ and Lck, two kinases that are important for T cell activation (Monks et al., 1998). This suggested that the cSMAC might be involved in sustained signaling. Our early studies on planar bilayers demonstrated that TCR signaling was initiated before the cSMAC was formed based on cytoplasmic Ca2+ elevation at a time point where TCR-MHC-peptide interactions were focused in the periphery (Grakoui et al., 1999). This was more explicitly demonstrated with a specific phopho-Lck antibody, which revealed early TCR signaling in the periphery of the nascent synapse, but not at the cSMAC. This led to the sug

nderstood. We know that on the supported planar bilayer system WASP is required to maintain a stable synapse and PKC-θ contributes to symmetry breaking (Sims et al., 2007). Symmetry breaking in the contact plane leads to polarity and in a migrating cells this process is based two opposing actin-myosin networks-the lamellipodium dominated by Rac and a high F-actin:myosin II ratio and the uropod dominated by Rho and a low F-actin:myosin II ratio (Xu et al., 2003). Thus, we have speculated that myosin II may be a target in symmetry breaking. PKC-θ phosphorylates WASP interacting protein (WIP) and regulates its interaction with myosin II (Krzewski et al., 2006). WASP also interacts with this complex. One hypothesis is that myosin II activation via WIP phosphorylation leads to contraction of the pSMAC actin network leading to local thinning and breakdown, whereas WASP may either antagonize this myosin II activation or induced ventral actin polymerization to repair the pSMAC and restore symmetry after its been broken. PKC-θ mediated synapse breaking seems like a negative feedback loop because the other major activity of PKC-θ in T cells is activation of NFkB and other transcription factors. Thus, the functional consequences of synapse stabilization as a result of PKC-θ inhibition can only be studied in pre-armed effector cells, which don’t need to activate transcription for function. The cSMAC was initially shown to contain PKC-θ and Lck, two kinases that are important for T cell activation (Monks et al., 1998). This suggested that the cSMAC might be involved in sustained signaling. Our early studies on planar bilayers demonstrated that TCR signaling was initiated before the cSMAC was formed based on cytoplasmic Ca2+ elevation at a time point where TCR-MHC-peptide interactions were focused in the periphery (Grakoui et al., 1999). This was more explicitly demonstrated with a specific phopho-Lck antibody, which revealed early TCR signaling in the periphery of the nascent synapse, but not at the cSMAC. This led to the suggestion that the cSMAC might be involved in signal termination (Lee et al., 2003). Computer models suggested that signals in response to weaker ligands might survive in the cSMAC due to a less aggressive attack by ubiquitin ligases. As discussed below this preservation of signaling in the cSMAC may also depend upon a reorganization of F-actin to fill in the normally F-actin depleted central area (Cemerski et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2003). The enigma with peripheral signaling in the immunological synapse was that TCR was not clearly associated with the signaling. This issue was resolved with TIRFM, which greatly increased the contrast of imaging of the cell-planar bilayer interface, as described above, but the discovery of the late submicron TCR microclusters that formed in the dSMAC and moved to the pSMAC over ~ 2 minutes. The movement of microcluster was interesting for what it said about actin dynamics, but the signaling behavior was even more interesting. Varma repeated the Valittuti experiment of blocking signaling with anti-MHC while observing TCR microclusters and the cSMAC. He found that the TCR microclusters stopped forming and the last microclusters reached the cSMAC about 2 minutes after addition of the antibody, the exact time course with which Ca2+ signaling was eliminated (Varma et al., 2006). Thus, the cSMAC was unable to sustain TCR signaling beyond the 2 minute lifetime of the microclusters, although cSMAC interactions persisted for many minutes. These experiments implicated TCR microclusters in signaling by way of kinetics and complemented experiments that were performed subsequently demonstrating co-localization of TCR microclusters with signaling molecules including ZAP-70, LAT and SLP-76 in live cells and activated ZAP-70, LAT and Lck in fixed cells (Campi et al., 2005; Yokosuka et al., 2005). The movement of these microclusters was a clue to the cellular context of the activation process. How does the Jurkat T cell line model using solid phase anti-CD3 relate to work in primary cells using bon

gestion that the cSMAC might be involved in signal termination (Lee et al., 2003). Computer models suggested that signals in response to weaker ligands might survive in the cSMAC due to a less aggressive attack by ubiquitin ligases. As discussed below this preservation of signaling in the cSMAC may also depend upon a reorganization of F-actin to fill in the normally F-actin depleted central area (Cemerski et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2003). The enigma with peripheral signaling in the immunological synapse was that TCR was not clearly associated with the signaling. This issue was resolved with TIRFM, which greatly increased the contrast of imaging of the cell-planar bilayer interface, as described above, but the discovery of the late submicron TCR microclusters that formed in the dSMAC and moved to the pSMAC over ~ 2 minutes. The movement of microcluster was interesting for what it said about actin dynamics, but the signaling behavior was even more interesting. Varma repeated the Valittuti experiment of blocking signaling with anti-MHC while observing TCR microclusters and the cSMAC. He found that the TCR microclusters stopped forming and the last microclusters reached the cSMAC about 2 minutes after addition of the antibody, the exact time course with which Ca2+ signaling was eliminated (Varma et al., 2006). Thus, the cSMAC was unable to sustain TCR signaling beyond the 2 minute lifetime of the microclusters, although cSMAC interactions persisted for many minutes. These experiments implicated TCR microclusters in signaling by way of kinetics and complemented experiments that were performed subsequently demonstrating co-localization of TCR microclusters with signaling molecules including ZAP-70, LAT and SLP-76 in live cells and activated ZAP-70, LAT and Lck in fixed cells (Campi et al., 2005; Yokosuka et al., 2005). The movement of these microclusters was a clue to the cellular context of the activation process. How does the Jurkat T cell line model using solid phase anti-CD3 relate to work in primary cells using bona fide MHC-peptide ligands? Signaling of T cells in response to anti-CD3ε is not blocked by depolymerizatin of F-actin (Valitutti et al., 1995a). Similarly, knock-down of the WAVE2 complex completely eliminates lamellipodial F-actin, but doesn’t inhibit early T cell signaling (Nolz et al., 2006). All but the largest TCR microclusters formed with MHC-peptide ligands are dissolved by depolymerization of F-actin (Varma et al., 2006). Nonetheless, the spreading of Jurkat cells on surfaces coated by anti-CD3ε is accompanied by the formation of a dramatic lamellipodial F-actin ring (Bunnell et al., 2001) and the formation of many discrete TCR microclusters throughout the interface that require F-actin to form in the normal manner (Bunnell et al., 2002). These structures recruit ZAP-70 and SLP-76 and, interestingly, the SLP-76 foci dissociate from the ZAP-70 rich TCR clusters and stream toward the center of the interface based on a mixture of F-actin and microtubule dependent transport processes and appear to engage in sustained signaling even after internalization (Barr et al., 2006; Bunnell et al., 2006) Nguyen et al, 2008). This behavior is strikingly similar to the observed movement of MHC-peptide based TCR microclusters, which occurs in the plane of the plasma membrane in the synapse (Varma et al., 2006). However, the anti-CD3ε driven TCR clusters become systematically F-actin independent after formation (Douglass and Vale, 2005). The inclusion of β1 integrin ligands like fibronectin on the surface with anti-CD3ε results in stabilization of the SLP-76 interaction with the TCR clusters and also appears to dampen F-actin dynamics (Nguyen et al., 2008). Integrin ligands generally enhance TCR signaling (Shimizu et al., 1990) and this study suggests that one component of this effect may be stabilization of TCR signaling complexes. There are clearly differences between the polyvalent anti-CD3ε interaction with the TCR complex, which contains two copies of the CD3ε chain (Call et al., 2002), and the monovalent interaction

a fide MHC-peptide ligands? Signaling of T cells in response to anti-CD3ε is not blocked by depolymerizatin of F-actin (Valitutti et al., 1995a). Similarly, knock-down of the WAVE2 complex completely eliminates lamellipodial F-actin, but doesn’t inhibit early T cell signaling (Nolz et al., 2006). All but the largest TCR microclusters formed with MHC-peptide ligands are dissolved by depolymerization of F-actin (Varma et al., 2006). Nonetheless, the spreading of Jurkat cells on surfaces coated by anti-CD3ε is accompanied by the formation of a dramatic lamellipodial F-actin ring (Bunnell et al., 2001) and the formation of many discrete TCR microclusters throughout the interface that require F-actin to form in the normal manner (Bunnell et al., 2002). These structures recruit ZAP-70 and SLP-76 and, interestingly, the SLP-76 foci dissociate from the ZAP-70 rich TCR clusters and stream toward the center of the interface based on a mixture of F-actin and microtubule dependent transport processes and appear to engage in sustained signaling even after internalization (Barr et al., 2006; Bunnell et al., 2006) Nguyen et al, 2008). This behavior is strikingly similar to the observed movement of MHC-peptide based TCR microclusters, which occurs in the plane of the plasma membrane in the synapse (Varma et al., 2006). However, the anti-CD3ε driven TCR clusters become systematically F-actin independent after formation (Douglass and Vale, 2005). The inclusion of β1 integrin ligands like fibronectin on the surface with anti-CD3ε results in stabilization of the SLP-76 interaction with the TCR clusters and also appears to dampen F-actin dynamics (Nguyen et al., 2008). Integrin ligands generally enhance TCR signaling (Shimizu et al., 1990) and this study suggests that one component of this effect may be stabilization of TCR signaling complexes. There are clearly differences between the polyvalent anti-CD3ε interaction with the TCR complex, which contains two copies of the CD3ε chain (Call et al., 2002), and the monovalent interaction of MHC-peptide ligands with TCR that change requirements for signaling. The transport process in the planar bilayers also creates a very useful lateral segregation of TCR based structures by age with the earliest TCR microclusters in the periphery and the oldest TCR clusters in the cSMAC. Recently, monovalent biotinylation of anti-CD3εhas created a means to achieve such tempero-spatial segregation of TCR signaling complexes by attaching anti-CD3 to planar bilayers with lipid anchored ICAM-1 to form classical synapses with Jurkat cells or polyclonal T cell populations (Kaizuka et al., 2007). This method has contributed to our understanding of the synapse dynamics. We have two quite different ways to study microclusters that are appropriate for different questions and have different degrees of difficulty. It is impossible to say that one is better than the other at this point-it depends upon the experiment. Further study of microclusters in T cell-DC interfaces using advanced confocal methodologies and even in vivo will be needed to drill deeper into T cell signaling (Oddos et al., 2008). The relationship between TCR microclusters and F-actin suggests that the TCR clusters are formed actively rather than by diffusion trapping by ligand alone. The formation of TCR microclusters is F-actin dependent whether the ligand is a physiological MHC-peptide complex or a CD3 antibody (Bunnell et al., 2001; Campi et al., 2005; Douglass and Vale, 2005; Varma et al., 2006). This also extends to signaling because depolymerization of actin in an established synapse results in rapid cessation of signaling, but does not disrupt larger TCR microclusters or the cSMAC (Varma et al., 2006). The synapse contains a zone of F-actin depletion at the center, corresponding to the cSMAC regardless of whether this structure is filled with TCR (Kaizuka et al., 2007). When TCR clusters reach the actin free zone in the center the signaling process appears to be terminated. The mechanism of signal termination is not known, but may be as simple as t

of MHC-peptide ligands with TCR that change requirements for signaling. The transport process in the planar bilayers also creates a very useful lateral segregation of TCR based structures by age with the earliest TCR microclusters in the periphery and the oldest TCR clusters in the cSMAC. Recently, monovalent biotinylation of anti-CD3εhas created a means to achieve such tempero-spatial segregation of TCR signaling complexes by attaching anti-CD3 to planar bilayers with lipid anchored ICAM-1 to form classical synapses with Jurkat cells or polyclonal T cell populations (Kaizuka et al., 2007). This method has contributed to our understanding of the synapse dynamics. We have two quite different ways to study microclusters that are appropriate for different questions and have different degrees of difficulty. It is impossible to say that one is better than the other at this point-it depends upon the experiment. Further study of microclusters in T cell-DC interfaces using advanced confocal methodologies and even in vivo will be needed to drill deeper into T cell signaling (Oddos et al., 2008). The relationship between TCR microclusters and F-actin suggests that the TCR clusters are formed actively rather than by diffusion trapping by ligand alone. The formation of TCR microclusters is F-actin dependent whether the ligand is a physiological MHC-peptide complex or a CD3 antibody (Bunnell et al., 2001; Campi et al., 2005; Douglass and Vale, 2005; Varma et al., 2006). This also extends to signaling because depolymerization of actin in an established synapse results in rapid cessation of signaling, but does not disrupt larger TCR microclusters or the cSMAC (Varma et al., 2006). The synapse contains a zone of F-actin depletion at the center, corresponding to the cSMAC regardless of whether this structure is filled with TCR (Kaizuka et al., 2007). When TCR clusters reach the actin free zone in the center the signaling process appears to be terminated. The mechanism of signal termination is not known, but may be as simple as the inability to amplify signals in the absence of F-actin. It is not known how the TCR microclusters continue to move to the center of the synapse when the F-actin conveyor belt stops 1–2 μm from the center. This could be a diffusive process or might involve some alternative transport system that remains to be described. For example, the zone of F-actin depletion is observed in cytotoxic T cell synapses and allows close approach of the centrosome to the plasma membrane for efficient directed secretion (Stinchcombe et al., 2006). It is not clear why F-actin is so important for TCR signal transduction because anti-CD3 stimulation to Ca2+ mobilization and cytokine production doesn’t require intact F-actin (Valitutti et al., 1995a). Similarly, B cells require F-actin to recognize ligands on a surface, but not aggregating ligands in solution. Stimulation by surface presented ligands requires F-actin, Rap1 and CD19 (Depoil et al., 2008; Lin et al., 2008). The model for stimulation of activation of BCR by monovalent ligands in supported planar bilayers is based on diffusion trapping of receptors and ligands in microdomains with multiple BCR and ligands. This mode of clustering is likely driven by F-actin dependent membrane fluctuations and adhesion, perhaps accounting for the role of F-actin in enhancing B cell recognition of solid phase ligands (Carrasco et al., 2004; Tolar et al., 2008). For T cells, the F-actin requirement seems to involve both forming microclusters and then formation of signaling complexes at the TCR clusters. This is based on the observation that many TCR microclusters are stable after F-actin depolymerization, but signaling is still terminated even though the receptor clusters persist. All antigen receptors engage in signaling that activates actin polymerization via the Rac and Cdc42 small G-proteins leading to activation of the WAVE2 complexes and WASp (Barda-Saad et al., 2005; Nolz et al., 2006). In the absence of WAVE2 the lamellipodium at the periphery of T cell contacts with anti-CD3 coated s

he inability to amplify signals in the absence of F-actin. It is not known how the TCR microclusters continue to move to the center of the synapse when the F-actin conveyor belt stops 1–2 μm from the center. This could be a diffusive process or might involve some alternative transport system that remains to be described. For example, the zone of F-actin depletion is observed in cytotoxic T cell synapses and allows close approach of the centrosome to the plasma membrane for efficient directed secretion (Stinchcombe et al., 2006). It is not clear why F-actin is so important for TCR signal transduction because anti-CD3 stimulation to Ca2+ mobilization and cytokine production doesn’t require intact F-actin (Valitutti et al., 1995a). Similarly, B cells require F-actin to recognize ligands on a surface, but not aggregating ligands in solution. Stimulation by surface presented ligands requires F-actin, Rap1 and CD19 (Depoil et al., 2008; Lin et al., 2008). The model for stimulation of activation of BCR by monovalent ligands in supported planar bilayers is based on diffusion trapping of receptors and ligands in microdomains with multiple BCR and ligands. This mode of clustering is likely driven by F-actin dependent membrane fluctuations and adhesion, perhaps accounting for the role of F-actin in enhancing B cell recognition of solid phase ligands (Carrasco et al., 2004; Tolar et al., 2008). For T cells, the F-actin requirement seems to involve both forming microclusters and then formation of signaling complexes at the TCR clusters. This is based on the observation that many TCR microclusters are stable after F-actin depolymerization, but signaling is still terminated even though the receptor clusters persist. All antigen receptors engage in signaling that activates actin polymerization via the Rac and Cdc42 small G-proteins leading to activation of the WAVE2 complexes and WASp (Barda-Saad et al., 2005; Nolz et al., 2006). In the absence of WAVE2 the lamellipodium at the periphery of T cell contacts with anti-CD3 coated surfaces is lost (Nolz et al., 2006). This does not alter that ability of these cells to initiate early TCR signaling in response to solid phase anti-CD3, but more work is needed to determine if this alters sensitivity to MHC-peptide ligands as expected. The recent focus on microclusters raises questions about cSMAC-associated signals. Is the cSMAC just for signal termination or is it a site of TCR or other relevant signaling? Is the cSMAC even one compartment? Kupfer defined the cSMAC based on accumulation of TCR and PKC-θ. Dynamic studies using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) revealed that TCR-MHC-peptide interactions are particularly stable in the cSMAC (Grakoui et al., 1999) and that the TCR microclusters that converge to form the cSMAC appear to fuse together into one stable structure on planar bilayers (Varma et al., 2006). This structure is partly shed by the T cell if it breaks the synapse and migrates or wanes over 10’s of minutes in stable synapses. Is this highly stabilized structure in which TCR seem to be shed or degraded all there is to the cSMAC? Analysis of CD28-CD80 interactions in the synapse suggests that there is a second, more dynamic component to the cSMAC that is typically not well resolved, but represents a very distinct sub-cellular compartment (Tseng et al., 2008; Yokosuka et al., 2008). CD28-CD80 interactions colocalize with TCR-MHC-peptide interactions in microclusters. When these mixed microclusters reach the cSMAC, mostof the TCR are incorporated into a stable central cluster, but all of the CD28 remains in an intermediate compartments which is very dynamic and appears to be critical for sustained PKC-θ signaling (Yokosuka et al., 2008). This annular structure sits at the inside edge of the F-actin rich lamella and thus the small amounts of TCR in this compartment may continue to signal to maintain the dynamic CD28-CD80 interactions. Similar segregation of TCR and CD28 is observed in T cell-DC interfaces, although it was not possible to observe the precursor microclu

urfaces is lost (Nolz et al., 2006). This does not alter that ability of these cells to initiate early TCR signaling in response to solid phase anti-CD3, but more work is needed to determine if this alters sensitivity to MHC-peptide ligands as expected. The recent focus on microclusters raises questions about cSMAC-associated signals. Is the cSMAC just for signal termination or is it a site of TCR or other relevant signaling? Is the cSMAC even one compartment? Kupfer defined the cSMAC based on accumulation of TCR and PKC-θ. Dynamic studies using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) revealed that TCR-MHC-peptide interactions are particularly stable in the cSMAC (Grakoui et al., 1999) and that the TCR microclusters that converge to form the cSMAC appear to fuse together into one stable structure on planar bilayers (Varma et al., 2006). This structure is partly shed by the T cell if it breaks the synapse and migrates or wanes over 10’s of minutes in stable synapses. Is this highly stabilized structure in which TCR seem to be shed or degraded all there is to the cSMAC? Analysis of CD28-CD80 interactions in the synapse suggests that there is a second, more dynamic component to the cSMAC that is typically not well resolved, but represents a very distinct sub-cellular compartment (Tseng et al., 2008; Yokosuka et al., 2008). CD28-CD80 interactions colocalize with TCR-MHC-peptide interactions in microclusters. When these mixed microclusters reach the cSMAC, mostof the TCR are incorporated into a stable central cluster, but all of the CD28 remains in an intermediate compartments which is very dynamic and appears to be critical for sustained PKC-θ signaling (Yokosuka et al., 2008). This annular structure sits at the inside edge of the F-actin rich lamella and thus the small amounts of TCR in this compartment may continue to signal to maintain the dynamic CD28-CD80 interactions. Similar segregation of TCR and CD28 is observed in T cell-DC interfaces, although it was not possible to observe the precursor microclusters (Tseng et al., 2008). Blocking TCR signaling with anti-MHC-peptide antibodies rapidly eliminated the bright CD28-CD80 foci, consistent with a continual role for TCR signaling in maintaining this component of the cSMAC. These studies demonstrate that the cSMAC consists of two compartments: one a stable structure enriched in non-signaling TCR destined for shedding or degradation (a) and one highly dynamic structure rich in F-actin, CD28 and PKC-θ (b) (table 1). These compartments are difficult to resolve in cSMACs formedin cell-cell interfaces. The mechanisms by which CD28 and TCR are segregated into these two cSMAC compartments is not known. The mechanism of TCR triggering has been an enduring problem. The prevailing model has been based on TCR dimerization or clustering as a triggering modality (Germain, 1997; Weiss and Littman, 1994). This is largely based on models from receptor tyrosine kinases and observations that antibody crosslinking triggers signaling. However, the is an adapter that recruits non-receptor tyrosine kinases to 10 docking sites, the immunotyrosine based activation motifs (ITAMs), in response to ligand binding. With all these docking sites, it is not clear that dimerizing this receptor would increase its activity. Recent studies have provided indirect evidence that monovalent ligands can trigger TCR microclusters and signaling events without directly cross-linking the receptor to form dimers e.g.(Varma et al., 2006). It is interesting at this point to think about how the TCR would sense such a monovalent engagement event? Recent data from the BCR and TCR systems provide insights into accessibility changes in cytoplasmic domains of the receptor during triggering and provide raw material for a draft model that incorporates an early role for F-actin. The BCR has two signal transduction subunits with one ITAM in each. BCR with a FRET donor at the C-terminus of transmembrane immunoglobulin (sIg) and a FRET acceptor on the C-terminus of Igα have a high FRET signal in the basal, non-signaling

sters (Tseng et al., 2008). Blocking TCR signaling with anti-MHC-peptide antibodies rapidly eliminated the bright CD28-CD80 foci, consistent with a continual role for TCR signaling in maintaining this component of the cSMAC. These studies demonstrate that the cSMAC consists of two compartments: one a stable structure enriched in non-signaling TCR destined for shedding or degradation (a) and one highly dynamic structure rich in F-actin, CD28 and PKC-θ (b) (table 1). These compartments are difficult to resolve in cSMACs formedin cell-cell interfaces. The mechanisms by which CD28 and TCR are segregated into these two cSMAC compartments is not known. The mechanism of TCR triggering has been an enduring problem. The prevailing model has been based on TCR dimerization or clustering as a triggering modality (Germain, 1997; Weiss and Littman, 1994). This is largely based on models from receptor tyrosine kinases and observations that antibody crosslinking triggers signaling. However, the is an adapter that recruits non-receptor tyrosine kinases to 10 docking sites, the immunotyrosine based activation motifs (ITAMs), in response to ligand binding. With all these docking sites, it is not clear that dimerizing this receptor would increase its activity. Recent studies have provided indirect evidence that monovalent ligands can trigger TCR microclusters and signaling events without directly cross-linking the receptor to form dimers e.g.(Varma et al., 2006). It is interesting at this point to think about how the TCR would sense such a monovalent engagement event? Recent data from the BCR and TCR systems provide insights into accessibility changes in cytoplasmic domains of the receptor during triggering and provide raw material for a draft model that incorporates an early role for F-actin. The BCR has two signal transduction subunits with one ITAM in each. BCR with a FRET donor at the C-terminus of transmembrane immunoglobulin (sIg) and a FRET acceptor on the C-terminus of Igα have a high FRET signal in the basal, non-signaling state. Remarkably, triggering results in a rapid decrease in the FRET signal, suggesting an “opening” of the complex (Tolar et al., 2005). It is not known what conformational change causes this decreased FRET. One interpretation is based on the model that the ITAMs may interact with the membrane prior to triggering, making the tyrosine inaccessible to kinases and preventing signaling (Aivazian and Stern, 2000). The interaction with the membrane would confine the FRET acceptor associated with the C-terminus of the ITAM bearing subunit to the membrane in proximity to the FRET donor that is kept close to the membrane by the short sIg cytoplasmic domain. Triggering would then involve dissociation of the ITAM from the membrane. A recent study using live cell FRET imaging and structure determination supports the idea that ITAM displacement from the membrane is a critical step in triggering (Xu et al., 2008). This study found that each ITAM in the TCR has a positively charged motif on its N-terminal side that interacts with acidic phospholipids in the inner leaflet and facilitates the docking of both tyrosines in the lipid bilayer where they cannot be phosphorylated. The results suggest that a change in the lipid environment to a more neutral composition is needed for ITAM access by Src family kinases (Douglass and Vale, 2005). How could a single MHC-peptide complex change the lipid environment of the TCR? Our understanding of the basal distribution of the TCR is constrained by two seemingly contradictory results: evidence for preclustering from electron microscopy (Schamel et al., 2005) and non-correlated monomeric diffusion using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (James et al., 2007). Long term tracking of Fce receptor movements in the context of actin bundles on rat basophilic leukemia cells shows that receptors can be corralled by actin and diffuse independently at the same time (Andrews et al., 2008). These results suggest that the clusters seen in EM maybe a result of transient confinement on monomeric recepto

state. Remarkably, triggering results in a rapid decrease in the FRET signal, suggesting an “opening” of the complex (Tolar et al., 2005). It is not known what conformational change causes this decreased FRET. One interpretation is based on the model that the ITAMs may interact with the membrane prior to triggering, making the tyrosine inaccessible to kinases and preventing signaling (Aivazian and Stern, 2000). The interaction with the membrane would confine the FRET acceptor associated with the C-terminus of the ITAM bearing subunit to the membrane in proximity to the FRET donor that is kept close to the membrane by the short sIg cytoplasmic domain. Triggering would then involve dissociation of the ITAM from the membrane. A recent study using live cell FRET imaging and structure determination supports the idea that ITAM displacement from the membrane is a critical step in triggering (Xu et al., 2008). This study found that each ITAM in the TCR has a positively charged motif on its N-terminal side that interacts with acidic phospholipids in the inner leaflet and facilitates the docking of both tyrosines in the lipid bilayer where they cannot be phosphorylated. The results suggest that a change in the lipid environment to a more neutral composition is needed for ITAM access by Src family kinases (Douglass and Vale, 2005). How could a single MHC-peptide complex change the lipid environment of the TCR? Our understanding of the basal distribution of the TCR is constrained by two seemingly contradictory results: evidence for preclustering from electron microscopy (Schamel et al., 2005) and non-correlated monomeric diffusion using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (James et al., 2007). Long term tracking of Fce receptor movements in the context of actin bundles on rat basophilic leukemia cells shows that receptors can be corralled by actin and diffuse independently at the same time (Andrews et al., 2008). These results suggest that the clusters seen in EM maybe a result of transient confinement on monomeric receptors. Basal fluctuations in TCR density were observed as highly dynamic structures similar in size to microclusters, but which could not be tracked from one frame to the next (Varma et al., 2006). In order to maintain low basal activity the membrane domains in which the TCR moves prior to ligand binding will likely be highly acidic and fluid. The lamellipodium is a relatively flat membrane region with a dense mesh of branched actin filaments translocating away from the leading edge (Svitkina et al., 1997). The mesh size of the actin gel if relatively fine, with interstitial areas on the order of 100 nm based on electron microscopy analysis of model lamellipodia (Svitkina et al., 1997). This F-actin mesh is similar in scale to the lipids domains that have been identified in membranes as lipid rafts (Sharma et al., 2004). The spatial distribution of acidic lipids like PS on the inner leaflet is not known, but structural constrains suggest that liquid ordered domains should be enriched in neutral phosphatidylethanolamine (Brown and London, 2000). I would speculate that TCR maybe confined to approximately 10% of the plasma membrane composed of disordered, fluid phase and acidic lipids, which are corralled by the mobile actin elements. In the basal state the TCR cannot be individually transported into less acidic liquid ordered domains (Fig 2). Clustering of the receptors by serial ligand binding can stabilize the interaction with the F-actin meshwork and create a sufficient force to overcome resistance to entry into less acidic domains, in which the ITAMs are exposed in the presence of Src family kinases and with depletion of CD45 together lead to triggering of the signaling cascade (Fig 2). It is likely the the “lipid rafts” also anchored to disctinct cortical actin networks and this actin may anchor these domains against movement by the dendritic actin network inivolved in the retrograde flow (Chichili and Rodgers, 2007). This model invokes shearing action of the lamellipodial actin to generate force to overcome ener

rs. Basal fluctuations in TCR density were observed as highly dynamic structures similar in size to microclusters, but which could not be tracked from one frame to the next (Varma et al., 2006). In order to maintain low basal activity the membrane domains in which the TCR moves prior to ligand binding will likely be highly acidic and fluid. The lamellipodium is a relatively flat membrane region with a dense mesh of branched actin filaments translocating away from the leading edge (Svitkina et al., 1997). The mesh size of the actin gel if relatively fine, with interstitial areas on the order of 100 nm based on electron microscopy analysis of model lamellipodia (Svitkina et al., 1997). This F-actin mesh is similar in scale to the lipids domains that have been identified in membranes as lipid rafts (Sharma et al., 2004). The spatial distribution of acidic lipids like PS on the inner leaflet is not known, but structural constrains suggest that liquid ordered domains should be enriched in neutral phosphatidylethanolamine (Brown and London, 2000). I would speculate that TCR maybe confined to approximately 10% of the plasma membrane composed of disordered, fluid phase and acidic lipids, which are corralled by the mobile actin elements. In the basal state the TCR cannot be individually transported into less acidic liquid ordered domains (Fig 2). Clustering of the receptors by serial ligand binding can stabilize the interaction with the F-actin meshwork and create a sufficient force to overcome resistance to entry into less acidic domains, in which the ITAMs are exposed in the presence of Src family kinases and with depletion of CD45 together lead to triggering of the signaling cascade (Fig 2). It is likely the the “lipid rafts” also anchored to disctinct cortical actin networks and this actin may anchor these domains against movement by the dendritic actin network inivolved in the retrograde flow (Chichili and Rodgers, 2007). This model invokes shearing action of the lamellipodial actin to generate force to overcome energetic barriers, similar to recent models for the role of lateral mechanical forces in integrin activation (Zhu et al., 2008). The specific adapters that link TCR to F-actin are not well described. The complex may include NCK, SLP-76, ADAP, SKAP55, EVL, Vav, Rac, Cdc42 and WASP certainly may play a role once signaling is initiated (Barda-Saad et al., 2005; Bubeck Wardenburg et al., 1998; Krause et al., 2000). It has also been suggested that ZAP-70 may play a role through binding of ezrin (Ilani et al., 2007). It appears that TCR signaling in microclusters ceases when the microcluster reaches the actin depleted cSMAC. Since activated TCR appear equipped to generate their own dynamic actin focus, the suppression of this mode of actin dymanics in the cSMAC is likely to be active, rather than a passive dissipation of lamellar actin. Less is known about the basal interactions of TCR with actin that might be available to stabilize a cluster early in the triggering process. This is likely a complex situation. An example of the potential complexity can be seen in interaction networks recently compiled as the integrin adhesome (Zaidel-Bar et al., 2007). Once the ITAMs are exposed Src family kinases can then initiate phosphorylation by diffusion into the same domain (Douglass and Vale, 2005)(Fig 2). Exclusion of CD45 in the nascent foci would increase the half-life of the phosphorylated ITAM allowing sufficient time for ZAP-70 recruitment (Varma et al., 2006). This cluster may interact more strongly with LAT so that ZAP-70 could phosphorylate LAT and Itk to initiate PLC-g recruitment and initiation of Ca2+ signaling, PKC activation and Ras-GRP recruitment. Integrin microclusters will be interspersed with the TCR microclusters. Integrin dependent signaling will generate additional diacylglycerol for RasGRP by activating phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid phosphatase (Mor et al., 2007). Electron micrographs of membrane sheets suggest that immunoreceptor rich and LAT rich islands only partially mix (Lillemeier et al., 2006;

getic barriers, similar to recent models for the role of lateral mechanical forces in integrin activation (Zhu et al., 2008). The specific adapters that link TCR to F-actin are not well described. The complex may include NCK, SLP-76, ADAP, SKAP55, EVL, Vav, Rac, Cdc42 and WASP certainly may play a role once signaling is initiated (Barda-Saad et al., 2005; Bubeck Wardenburg et al., 1998; Krause et al., 2000). It has also been suggested that ZAP-70 may play a role through binding of ezrin (Ilani et al., 2007). It appears that TCR signaling in microclusters ceases when the microcluster reaches the actin depleted cSMAC. Since activated TCR appear equipped to generate their own dynamic actin focus, the suppression of this mode of actin dymanics in the cSMAC is likely to be active, rather than a passive dissipation of lamellar actin. Less is known about the basal interactions of TCR with actin that might be available to stabilize a cluster early in the triggering process. This is likely a complex situation. An example of the potential complexity can be seen in interaction networks recently compiled as the integrin adhesome (Zaidel-Bar et al., 2007). Once the ITAMs are exposed Src family kinases can then initiate phosphorylation by diffusion into the same domain (Douglass and Vale, 2005)(Fig 2). Exclusion of CD45 in the nascent foci would increase the half-life of the phosphorylated ITAM allowing sufficient time for ZAP-70 recruitment (Varma et al., 2006). This cluster may interact more strongly with LAT so that ZAP-70 could phosphorylate LAT and Itk to initiate PLC-g recruitment and initiation of Ca2+ signaling, PKC activation and Ras-GRP recruitment. Integrin microclusters will be interspersed with the TCR microclusters. Integrin dependent signaling will generate additional diacylglycerol for RasGRP by activating phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid phosphatase (Mor et al., 2007). Electron micrographs of membrane sheets suggest that immunoreceptor rich and LAT rich islands only partially mix (Lillemeier et al., 2006; Wilson et al., 2001). The force needed to induce island mixing may be generated by periodic myosin II based contraction. This may account for the role of myosin IIA in the signal amplification from Lck, which is normally activated after myosin IIA knock-down, to ZAP-70 and LAT, which are only weakly activated in myosin IIA knock-down T cells (Ilani et al., 2009). The TCR triggering process in microclusters and how this is sustained in a synapse has relevance to T cell decision-making. T cell differentiation is controlled in large part by cytokines and small molecules from APC. There are two independent reports that propose distinct mechanisms for the synapse to influence differentiation. One is the concentration of interferon-γ receptors in the synapse leading to increased T helper 1 (Th1) cell development (Maldonado et al., 2004). IL-4 counteracts this through Stat6 (Maldonado et al., 2004). The other is the control of polarity networks leading to asymmetric cell division to control memory-effector decisions (Chang et al., 2007; Ludford-Menting et al., 2005). A particular challenge is in understanding how the microcluster-based mechanism sustains signaling from small numbers of ligand to drive differentiation. If each microcluster can sustain signaling for 2 minutes as the microclusters translocates from the periphery to the cSMAC. How is signaling sustained with only 10 MHC-peptide complexes? An interesting observation is that although the actin depleted zone at the center of the synapse is always present, the size of the cSMAC is linearly dependent upon the MHC-peptide density such that no TCR cSMAC if formed at the lower limit of MHC-peptide density. Under these conditions our model would posit that MHC-peptide ligand are recycled expensively by long term serial triggering at the F-actin rich cSMAC-pSMAC boundary. This fits with notions of serial triggering initially propose by Valittuti and Lanzavechia (Valitutti et al., 1995b), but would induce very little if any TCR down-regulation because all receptors a

Wilson et al., 2001). The force needed to induce island mixing may be generated by periodic myosin II based contraction. This may account for the role of myosin IIA in the signal amplification from Lck, which is normally activated after myosin IIA knock-down, to ZAP-70 and LAT, which are only weakly activated in myosin IIA knock-down T cells (Ilani et al., 2009). The TCR triggering process in microclusters and how this is sustained in a synapse has relevance to T cell decision-making. T cell differentiation is controlled in large part by cytokines and small molecules from APC. There are two independent reports that propose distinct mechanisms for the synapse to influence differentiation. One is the concentration of interferon-γ receptors in the synapse leading to increased T helper 1 (Th1) cell development (Maldonado et al., 2004). IL-4 counteracts this through Stat6 (Maldonado et al., 2004). The other is the control of polarity networks leading to asymmetric cell division to control memory-effector decisions (Chang et al., 2007; Ludford-Menting et al., 2005). A particular challenge is in understanding how the microcluster-based mechanism sustains signaling from small numbers of ligand to drive differentiation. If each microcluster can sustain signaling for 2 minutes as the microclusters translocates from the periphery to the cSMAC. How is signaling sustained with only 10 MHC-peptide complexes? An interesting observation is that although the actin depleted zone at the center of the synapse is always present, the size of the cSMAC is linearly dependent upon the MHC-peptide density such that no TCR cSMAC if formed at the lower limit of MHC-peptide density. Under these conditions our model would posit that MHC-peptide ligand are recycled expensively by long term serial triggering at the F-actin rich cSMAC-pSMAC boundary. This fits with notions of serial triggering initially propose by Valittuti and Lanzavechia (Valitutti et al., 1995b), but would induce very little if any TCR down-regulation because all receptors are needed for sensitive recognition of rare MHC-peptide ligands. The links between TCR signaling and polarity networks include Cdc42 and PKC-ζ. Activation of Cdc42 has been extensively studied in T cells due to interest in immunodeficiencies such as Wiscott-Alrdrich Syndrome. PKC-ζ can be activated in the Par3-Par6 complex by activation of Cdc42, but it is not clear what it means that PKC-ζ is concentrated in the distal pole complex, the part of the T cell farthest from the synapse (Chang et al., 2007). The polarity networks control the positioning of actin, microtubules and intermediate filament and spindles. The dynamic F-actin networks and myosin II seem important at early stages of signaling complex assembly. The actin-myosin system is critical for multiple stages in TCR triggering and sustained signaling. It will be exciting in the future to determine in more detail how the context of TCR signaling allows this process to shape differentiation in parallel with powerful innate signals. I thank Kaushik Choudhuri and David Fooksman for valuable discussions. Due to length constraints not all relevant literature could be cited and I apologize in advance regarding omissions. This work was supported by NIH grants AI43542and the PN2 EY016586, a Nanomedicine Development Center.

re needed for sensitive recognition of rare MHC-peptide ligands. The links between TCR signaling and polarity networks include Cdc42 and PKC-ζ. Activation of Cdc42 has been extensively studied in T cells due to interest in immunodeficiencies such as Wiscott-Alrdrich Syndrome. PKC-ζ can be activated in the Par3-Par6 complex by activation of Cdc42, but it is not clear what it means that PKC-ζ is concentrated in the distal pole complex, the part of the T cell farthest from the synapse (Chang et al., 2007). The polarity networks control the positioning of actin, microtubules and intermediate filament and spindles. The dynamic F-actin networks and myosin II seem important at early stages of signaling complex assembly. The actin-myosin system is critical for multiple stages in TCR triggering and sustained signaling. It will be exciting in the future to determine in more detail how the context of TCR signaling allows this process to shape differentiation in parallel with powerful innate signals. I thank Kaushik Choudhuri and David Fooksman for valuable discussions. Due to length constraints not all relevant literature could be cited and I apologize in advance regarding omissions. This work was supported by NIH grants AI43542and the PN2 EY016586, a Nanomedicine Development Center.

A hydrologic reconnaissance of the Medicine Lake Volcano area was done to collect data needed for the design of a hydrologic monitoring plan. The reconnaissance was completed during two field trips made in June and September 1992, during which geothermal and hydrologic features of public interest in the Medicine Lake area were identified. Selected wells, springs, and geothermal features were located and documented, and initial water-level, discharge, temperature, and specific-conductance measurements were made. Lakes in the study area also were surveyed during the September field trip. Temperature, specific- conductance, dissolved oxygen, and pH data were collected by using a multiparameter probe. The proposed monitoring plan includes measurement of water levels in wells, discharge from springs, and lake stage, as well as analysis of well-,spring-, and lake-water quality. In determining lake-water quality, data for both stratified and unstratified conditions would be considered. (Data for stratified conditions were collected during the reconnaissance phase of this project, but data for unstratified conditions were not.) In addition, lake stage also would be monitored. A geothermal feature near Medicine Lake is a "hot spot" from which hot gases discharge from two distinct vents. Gas chemistry and temperature would be monitored in one of these vents. Additional publication details USGS Numbered Series Hydrologic data and description of a hydrologic monitoring plan for Medicine Lake Volcano, California U.S. Geological Survey ; Information Services [distributor],

Key Safe Routes to School Research Practitioners implementing Safe Routes to School programs, or other active travel promotion programs, have a large scope of issues to address. This section is a collection of research that evaluates current Safe Routes to School programs and identifies issues to consider when implementing new programs. Findings from these studies can provide insight into the cost-effectiveness of programs, impact of school siting, and how gender and socio-demographic factors can influence active travel to school. Also included in this section is academic literature reviewing legislative policies that can provide practitioners with information regarding potential funding opportunities and policy trends that influence active transport initiatives. Many of the articles in this section directly reference Safe Routes to School programs. - Safe Routes to School programs have shown a 37 percent increase in bicycling and walking where projects have been undertaken. (Stewart, 2014) - Specific to Safe Routes to School, introducing a program focused on education and encouragement increased bicycling to school by 5 percent each year. When programs also incorporated infrastructure improvements like sidewalks, crosswalks and covered bicycle parking, the rate of bicycling and walking improved to between 5 percent and 20 percent (McDonald, 2013). - One study reports that the national Safe Routes to School program has the potential to positively influence individuals, communities, and the environment regardless of race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status by providing funds to address some of the barriers and improve the ability of students to safely walk and bicycle to school (Martin, et al., 2008). - The findings of an analysis of walking and biking to school among low-income and minority youth in the United States has significant implications, reporting that Safe Routes to School programs have the potential to strongly benefit minority and low-income students, especially because many of those students are more likely to live near the school they attend (McDonald, 2008). - The odds of walking and bicycling to school are 40% lower in girls than in boys (McMillan, et al., 2006). - Results show that children who pass completed Safe Routes to School projects are more likely to show increases in walking or bicycle travel than are children who do not pass by projects (15% vs. 4%), supporting the effectiveness of Safe Routes to School construction projects (Boarnet, et al., 2005). - A review of the success of the Safe Routes to School program in Marin County reports a 64% increase in the number of children walking to school, a 114% increase in the number of students biking, and a 91% increase in the number of students carpooling (Staunton, et al., 2003). Academic Research Articles and Findings: - State-level school physical activity policies are currently not implemented on a broad level, often have weak and non-specific language, and may not effectively monitor implementation. - At the time of study, only 16 states had policies on minutes of physical activity during the school day/week or minutes or percent of physical education to be spent in physical activity. - No policies were rated as having strong wording, defined in this study as specifying moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and wording on implementation and monitoring. - This research study examined state-level policies collected by the RJWF Bridging the Gap (BTG) program in 2011. Policies were rated as weak, moderate, and strong in specifying minutes of physical activity in physical education or during school. - The researchers also interviewed state-level physical education coordinators about implementation, monitoring, and enforcement of policies. Carlson JA, Sallis JF, Chriqui JF, Schneider L, McDermid LC, Agron P. (2013). State policies about physical activity minutes in physical education or during school. Journal of School Health 83, 150-156. - Comprehensive physical activity programs in school settings can affect physical activity, health, and acad

likely to live near the school they attend (McDonald, 2008). - The odds of walking and bicycling to school are 40% lower in girls than in boys (McMillan, et al., 2006). - Results show that children who pass completed Safe Routes to School projects are more likely to show increases in walking or bicycle travel than are children who do not pass by projects (15% vs. 4%), supporting the effectiveness of Safe Routes to School construction projects (Boarnet, et al., 2005). - A review of the success of the Safe Routes to School program in Marin County reports a 64% increase in the number of children walking to school, a 114% increase in the number of students biking, and a 91% increase in the number of students carpooling (Staunton, et al., 2003). Academic Research Articles and Findings: - State-level school physical activity policies are currently not implemented on a broad level, often have weak and non-specific language, and may not effectively monitor implementation. - At the time of study, only 16 states had policies on minutes of physical activity during the school day/week or minutes or percent of physical education to be spent in physical activity. - No policies were rated as having strong wording, defined in this study as specifying moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and wording on implementation and monitoring. - This research study examined state-level policies collected by the RJWF Bridging the Gap (BTG) program in 2011. Policies were rated as weak, moderate, and strong in specifying minutes of physical activity in physical education or during school. - The researchers also interviewed state-level physical education coordinators about implementation, monitoring, and enforcement of policies. Carlson JA, Sallis JF, Chriqui JF, Schneider L, McDermid LC, Agron P. (2013). State policies about physical activity minutes in physical education or during school. Journal of School Health 83, 150-156. - Comprehensive physical activity programs in school settings can affect physical activity, health, and academic performance. - Students participate in much of their physical activity through physical education classes, but schools can help increase students’ activity levels by strengthening curriculum and increasing opportunities outside these classes. - State and school district wellness policies should include stronger goals and requirements for daily physical activity. - Joint use agreements can encourage physical activity after school and on weekends, especially in low-income, inner-city, and rural areas with fewer recreational facilities. - This research synthesis summarizes evidence about different ways schools can promote physical activity. Ward, D.S. (2011). School Policies on Physical Education and Physical Activity: A Research Synthesis. Active Living Research. - Measuring the built environment can help assess needs and set priorities for creating healthy community design. - The built environment includes buildings, roads, sidewalks, utilities, homes, transit, fixtures, parks and all other man-made entities that form the physical characteristics of a community. - The BE Tool assess as core set of features selected by research experts: built environment infrastructure (e.g., road type, curb cuts/ramps, intersections/crosswalks, traffic control, transportation), walkability (e.g. sidewalk/path features, walking safety, aesthetics & amenities), bikeability (e.g., bicycle lane/path features), recreational sites and structures, and the food environment (e.g., access to grocery stores, convenience stores, farmers markets, etc.). - The built environment can influence health by affecting rates of physical activity, air pollutants such as ozone and particulate matter that can exacerbate asthma and respiratory disease, and emissions of carbon dioxide that contributes to climate change. - The manual provides background on the importance of the built environment and health and describes data collection and analysis processes for the BE Tool. The tool, instructions, and a data coding and scoring table are included. - The

emic performance. - Students participate in much of their physical activity through physical education classes, but schools can help increase students’ activity levels by strengthening curriculum and increasing opportunities outside these classes. - State and school district wellness policies should include stronger goals and requirements for daily physical activity. - Joint use agreements can encourage physical activity after school and on weekends, especially in low-income, inner-city, and rural areas with fewer recreational facilities. - This research synthesis summarizes evidence about different ways schools can promote physical activity. Ward, D.S. (2011). School Policies on Physical Education and Physical Activity: A Research Synthesis. Active Living Research. - Measuring the built environment can help assess needs and set priorities for creating healthy community design. - The built environment includes buildings, roads, sidewalks, utilities, homes, transit, fixtures, parks and all other man-made entities that form the physical characteristics of a community. - The BE Tool assess as core set of features selected by research experts: built environment infrastructure (e.g., road type, curb cuts/ramps, intersections/crosswalks, traffic control, transportation), walkability (e.g. sidewalk/path features, walking safety, aesthetics & amenities), bikeability (e.g., bicycle lane/path features), recreational sites and structures, and the food environment (e.g., access to grocery stores, convenience stores, farmers markets, etc.). - The built environment can influence health by affecting rates of physical activity, air pollutants such as ozone and particulate matter that can exacerbate asthma and respiratory disease, and emissions of carbon dioxide that contributes to climate change. - The manual provides background on the importance of the built environment and health and describes data collection and analysis processes for the BE Tool. The tool, instructions, and a data coding and scoring table are included. - The BE Tool was created by ICF International through a contract with the CDC. - Kids are more active when walking and biking are safe, and Safe Routes to School programs can increase safety and active transportation to school. - Traffic speed and volume and lack of sidewalks are major barriers to active travel to school. - Active commuting can provide an estimated 16 of the 60 minutes of daily physical activity recommended for children, as found by a meta-analysis. - Implementing Safe Routes to School programs has been connected with a 44% reduction in injury rates. - This infographic summarizes highlights from the research brief “Impact of Safe Routes to School Programs on Walking and Biking” published by Active Living Research in May 2015. BEST PRACTICES AND RECOMMENDATIONS (2015) - Collaborative partnerships between schools and communities and multi-level strategies are key components of SRTS programs. - The review identified benefits, challenges and lessons learned from SRTS partnerships across studies: - Benefits: “coordination of projects, programs, and policies to avoid duplication; mobilization of partners; builds lasting and trusting relationships; increases credibility and community support; partners bring unique perspectives, which increases knowledge and capacity to problem solve; builds greater sense of community; and provides opportunity for internal and external funding” - Challenges: “inexperience of volunteers; lack of time for outreach and support; difficulties to integrate programs and policies; lack of staff/volunteers; reactive responses and pushback from the community; lack of and dependence on funding support; loss of credibility; difficulties to maintain partnership; and absent stakeholders slows progress” - Lessons learned: “communication and consideration of viewpoints; partner with schools early to identify champions and establish support; implement multiple project, program and policies strategies for greater participation; expect slow progress and gradual change; target children for long

BE Tool was created by ICF International through a contract with the CDC. - Kids are more active when walking and biking are safe, and Safe Routes to School programs can increase safety and active transportation to school. - Traffic speed and volume and lack of sidewalks are major barriers to active travel to school. - Active commuting can provide an estimated 16 of the 60 minutes of daily physical activity recommended for children, as found by a meta-analysis. - Implementing Safe Routes to School programs has been connected with a 44% reduction in injury rates. - This infographic summarizes highlights from the research brief “Impact of Safe Routes to School Programs on Walking and Biking” published by Active Living Research in May 2015. BEST PRACTICES AND RECOMMENDATIONS (2015) - Collaborative partnerships between schools and communities and multi-level strategies are key components of SRTS programs. - The review identified benefits, challenges and lessons learned from SRTS partnerships across studies: - Benefits: “coordination of projects, programs, and policies to avoid duplication; mobilization of partners; builds lasting and trusting relationships; increases credibility and community support; partners bring unique perspectives, which increases knowledge and capacity to problem solve; builds greater sense of community; and provides opportunity for internal and external funding” - Challenges: “inexperience of volunteers; lack of time for outreach and support; difficulties to integrate programs and policies; lack of staff/volunteers; reactive responses and pushback from the community; lack of and dependence on funding support; loss of credibility; difficulties to maintain partnership; and absent stakeholders slows progress” - Lessons learned: “communication and consideration of viewpoints; partner with schools early to identify champions and establish support; implement multiple project, program and policies strategies for greater participation; expect slow progress and gradual change; target children for long-term investment; identify key partnership leaders; have strong evaluation components to monitor progress and success; involve partners when relevant to them; build on small success and community response; and collaborate with preexisting groups, including youth groups” - Data collection methods varied across studies, and tools were often not provided, making it difficult to assess effective evaluation strategies. - This study conducted a qualitative review of 15 journal articles about Safe Routes to School programs in the U.S. and Canada. Elementary schools were more than twice as likely to have a walking school bus (WSB) if district and state policies supported safe active transportation than if no such policies were in place. - The percentage of schools nationally with WSB programs increased from 4.2% in 2008-2009 to 6.2% in 2009-2010. - Schools were 2.14 times as likely to organize a WSB program if a district policy concerning safe active transport to school was in place than if no policy existed. - Schools were 2.72 times as likely to have a WSB program if state law required school crossing guards than if no law existed. - WSB programs were more common in the Northeast (10.9% of schools) and West (7.9%) than in the South (2.9%). - Rural schools were 73% less likely to implement a WSB program than urban schools. - Schools with a majority Latino population were 78% times less likely to have a WSB than schools with a majority white population. - Data was collected through responses to a mail survey from 641 elementary schools in 2008-2009 and 680 elementary schools in 2009-2010. Turner, L., Chriqui, J.F., & Chaloupka, F.J. (2013).Walking School Bus Programs in U.S. Public Elementary Schools. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 10, 641-645. Tags: physical education; education; training; bicycle; biking; students; school; safety - The Bike Smarts skills program incorporated bike skills into elementary and middle-school physical education curriculum to address parents’ safety concerns related to biking and enc

-term investment; identify key partnership leaders; have strong evaluation components to monitor progress and success; involve partners when relevant to them; build on small success and community response; and collaborate with preexisting groups, including youth groups” - Data collection methods varied across studies, and tools were often not provided, making it difficult to assess effective evaluation strategies. - This study conducted a qualitative review of 15 journal articles about Safe Routes to School programs in the U.S. and Canada. Elementary schools were more than twice as likely to have a walking school bus (WSB) if district and state policies supported safe active transportation than if no such policies were in place. - The percentage of schools nationally with WSB programs increased from 4.2% in 2008-2009 to 6.2% in 2009-2010. - Schools were 2.14 times as likely to organize a WSB program if a district policy concerning safe active transport to school was in place than if no policy existed. - Schools were 2.72 times as likely to have a WSB program if state law required school crossing guards than if no law existed. - WSB programs were more common in the Northeast (10.9% of schools) and West (7.9%) than in the South (2.9%). - Rural schools were 73% less likely to implement a WSB program than urban schools. - Schools with a majority Latino population were 78% times less likely to have a WSB than schools with a majority white population. - Data was collected through responses to a mail survey from 641 elementary schools in 2008-2009 and 680 elementary schools in 2009-2010. Turner, L., Chriqui, J.F., & Chaloupka, F.J. (2013).Walking School Bus Programs in U.S. Public Elementary Schools. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 10, 641-645. Tags: physical education; education; training; bicycle; biking; students; school; safety - The Bike Smarts skills program incorporated bike skills into elementary and middle-school physical education curriculum to address parents’ safety concerns related to biking and encourage more students to bike to school. - The Bike Smarts program, developed by the SRTS coordinator to fit into existing physical education curriculum, consisted of four class sessions with components both in and outside the classroom. - When teaching the program, elementary and middle schools could reserve use of a trailer, bikes, and helmets purchased for shared use by the district. - Additional considerations in program development and implementation included bike maintenance, appropriate sizes of helmets, and teacher and student skill level. - A $50,000 Safe Routes to School grant from the North Carolina SRTS Program funded development of the program for Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WSFCS) in North Carolina. Wallace, J.L. & Sutton, N.P. (2015). Biked Skills Training in PE is Fun, Keeps Kids Safe. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance. 86(2), 41-46. - Municipal officials’ involvement in local transportation policies for pedestrian and bicycle safety may be related to levels of collaboration, perceived importance of issues, and support from the public. - Higher perceived resident support of local government to address economic development and traffic congestion through changes in the built environment was associated with increased likelihood of municipal official involvement in development, adoption, or implementation of transportation or public works policy to increase pedestrian or bicycle safety (OR= 1.70). - Perceived importance of health topics was not influential in municipal officials’ transportation policy participation. - Municipal officials who perceived lack of collaboration among departments as a barrier were less likely to be involved in transportation policy (OR = 0.78). - Municipal officials who lived in the city or town where they worked were more likely to be involved in transportation policy (OR=1.83). - This online cross-sectional survey gathered responses from 461 municipal officials from public health, planning, transportation, public works, community and economic dev

ourage more students to bike to school. - The Bike Smarts program, developed by the SRTS coordinator to fit into existing physical education curriculum, consisted of four class sessions with components both in and outside the classroom. - When teaching the program, elementary and middle schools could reserve use of a trailer, bikes, and helmets purchased for shared use by the district. - Additional considerations in program development and implementation included bike maintenance, appropriate sizes of helmets, and teacher and student skill level. - A $50,000 Safe Routes to School grant from the North Carolina SRTS Program funded development of the program for Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WSFCS) in North Carolina. Wallace, J.L. & Sutton, N.P. (2015). Biked Skills Training in PE is Fun, Keeps Kids Safe. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance. 86(2), 41-46. - Municipal officials’ involvement in local transportation policies for pedestrian and bicycle safety may be related to levels of collaboration, perceived importance of issues, and support from the public. - Higher perceived resident support of local government to address economic development and traffic congestion through changes in the built environment was associated with increased likelihood of municipal official involvement in development, adoption, or implementation of transportation or public works policy to increase pedestrian or bicycle safety (OR= 1.70). - Perceived importance of health topics was not influential in municipal officials’ transportation policy participation. - Municipal officials who perceived lack of collaboration among departments as a barrier were less likely to be involved in transportation policy (OR = 0.78). - Municipal officials who lived in the city or town where they worked were more likely to be involved in transportation policy (OR=1.83). - This online cross-sectional survey gathered responses from 461 municipal officials from public health, planning, transportation, public works, community and economic development, parks and recreation, city management, and municipal legislatures in 83 urban areas across 8 states in 2012. Zwald, M., Eyler, A., Goins, K., Brownson, R., Schmid, T., & Lemon, S. (2014). Understanding Municipal Officials' Involvement in Transportation Policies Supportive of Walking and Bicycling. Journal of Public Health Management & Practice. 0(0), 1-8. - There is promising evidence that walking school buses (WSBs) can impact children’s health and safety skills, and supporting facilitators and eliminating barriers to WSBs could improve program sustainability. - Three studies demonstrated a positive relationship between WSBs and proportions of children walking to school through self-report, and three studies showed an association between WSBs and increased activity levels using accelerometers, although not always at statistically significant levels. - Two studies reported savings in car journeys as a result of WSBs. - One study found that WSB schools had a five-fold improvement in children crossing at intersections instead of non-intersection locations. - Child and parent enjoyment during participation, parents’ time savings, and effective information provision and promotion were key facilitators of WSBs. - Parent road safety concerns were the most common barrier across the literature, cited in 10 of 12 studies. - Recruitment of volunteers and children to participate was also a common challenge, and time commitment from coordinators, variable family travel schedules, and lower motivation in winter months can affect recruitment. - This systematic review examined 12 studies conducted between 2001 and 2012 that focused solely on WSBs. These studies included 326 schools in a variety of socio-demographic contexts in Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. - Studies generally focused on either the impact of WSBs on child activity, health, and safety, or barriers and facilitators to implementation. Smith, L, Norgate, SH, Cherrett, T, Davies, N, Wistanley, C and Harding, M. (2015.) Walking school buses

elopment, parks and recreation, city management, and municipal legislatures in 83 urban areas across 8 states in 2012. Zwald, M., Eyler, A., Goins, K., Brownson, R., Schmid, T., & Lemon, S. (2014). Understanding Municipal Officials' Involvement in Transportation Policies Supportive of Walking and Bicycling. Journal of Public Health Management & Practice. 0(0), 1-8. - There is promising evidence that walking school buses (WSBs) can impact children’s health and safety skills, and supporting facilitators and eliminating barriers to WSBs could improve program sustainability. - Three studies demonstrated a positive relationship between WSBs and proportions of children walking to school through self-report, and three studies showed an association between WSBs and increased activity levels using accelerometers, although not always at statistically significant levels. - Two studies reported savings in car journeys as a result of WSBs. - One study found that WSB schools had a five-fold improvement in children crossing at intersections instead of non-intersection locations. - Child and parent enjoyment during participation, parents’ time savings, and effective information provision and promotion were key facilitators of WSBs. - Parent road safety concerns were the most common barrier across the literature, cited in 10 of 12 studies. - Recruitment of volunteers and children to participate was also a common challenge, and time commitment from coordinators, variable family travel schedules, and lower motivation in winter months can affect recruitment. - This systematic review examined 12 studies conducted between 2001 and 2012 that focused solely on WSBs. These studies included 326 schools in a variety of socio-demographic contexts in Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. - Studies generally focused on either the impact of WSBs on child activity, health, and safety, or barriers and facilitators to implementation. Smith, L, Norgate, SH, Cherrett, T, Davies, N, Wistanley, C and Harding, M. (2015.) Walking school buses as a form of active transportation for children: A review of the evidence. Journal of School Health. 85, 197-210. - Biking and walking to school may vary by factors like distance to school, speed of traffic, school encouragement, and children asking permission. - Students were 2.6 times as likely to walk or bike to school if these modes were promoted by the school. - Students who lived within 0.5 miles of the school were 16.7 times as likely to walk or bike to school than those living further away. - Lower travel times were associated with higher percentages of walking and biking to school; 23.8% of children biked or walked who were less than 5 minutes away, while only 2.2% of children more than 20 minutes utilized active modes. - More children in kindergarten through fifth grade walked or biked to school than children in sixth through eighth grade. - Students who asked permission from their parents to walk or bike to school in the past year were seven times as likely to be using active transportation modes. - Children whose parents reported recognizing most people on the block were 1.6 times as likely to walk or bike to school compared to children whose parents did not recognize most people. - · Children of parents who reported speed of traffic as a significant factor affecting their decision to allow children to walk/bike to school were 58% less likely to walk/bike to school than parents who did not identify speed as a significant factor. - This study conducted a baseline assessment of 5 SRTS-awarded schools from pre-kindergarten to eighth grade in communities with similar median incomes in Louisiana. Data was collected using parent surveys, teacher tallies, and the Pedestrian Environmental Data Scan (PEDS). Gustat, J., Richards, K., Rice, J., Andersen, L., Parker-Karst, K., Cole, S. (2015). Youth Walking and Biking Rates Vary by Environments Around 5 Louisiana Schools. Journal of School Health, 85 (1), 36-42. - National governments have provided subsidies for investments in increasing the safety and attractive

as a form of active transportation for children: A review of the evidence. Journal of School Health. 85, 197-210. - Biking and walking to school may vary by factors like distance to school, speed of traffic, school encouragement, and children asking permission. - Students were 2.6 times as likely to walk or bike to school if these modes were promoted by the school. - Students who lived within 0.5 miles of the school were 16.7 times as likely to walk or bike to school than those living further away. - Lower travel times were associated with higher percentages of walking and biking to school; 23.8% of children biked or walked who were less than 5 minutes away, while only 2.2% of children more than 20 minutes utilized active modes. - More children in kindergarten through fifth grade walked or biked to school than children in sixth through eighth grade. - Students who asked permission from their parents to walk or bike to school in the past year were seven times as likely to be using active transportation modes. - Children whose parents reported recognizing most people on the block were 1.6 times as likely to walk or bike to school compared to children whose parents did not recognize most people. - · Children of parents who reported speed of traffic as a significant factor affecting their decision to allow children to walk/bike to school were 58% less likely to walk/bike to school than parents who did not identify speed as a significant factor. - This study conducted a baseline assessment of 5 SRTS-awarded schools from pre-kindergarten to eighth grade in communities with similar median incomes in Louisiana. Data was collected using parent surveys, teacher tallies, and the Pedestrian Environmental Data Scan (PEDS). Gustat, J., Richards, K., Rice, J., Andersen, L., Parker-Karst, K., Cole, S. (2015). Youth Walking and Biking Rates Vary by Environments Around 5 Louisiana Schools. Journal of School Health, 85 (1), 36-42. - National governments have provided subsidies for investments in increasing the safety and attractiveness of walking and biking to school. Evaluations of Safe Routes to School initiatives have found that they have been effective at changing behavior and reducing injuries. - However, there has been little attention to the impacts of these programs on pupil transportation costs. - This analysis assesses the potential economic benefits of Safe Routes to School programs in the US context by estimating the annual costs of using motorized transport for short trips to schools, examining real-world examples of the costs savings of SRTS programs, and evaluating land use impacts on school transportation costs using a simulation analysis of school bus routes. - We find that there is potential for school districts and families to reduce transport expenditures through public sector investments in walking and biking infrastructure near schools. We also find that land use context matters and the most cost-effective investments would benefit schools where large numbers of children live within walking distance. McDonald NC, Steiner RL, Palmer WM, Bullock AN, Sisiopiku VP, and Lytle BF. Costs of school transportation: quantifying the fiscal impacts of encouraging walking and bicycling for school travel. Transportation 2014, November. - Objective. Joint use policies (JUP) encourage shared facility use, usually between schools and a city or private organization, for both physical activity-related and non-physical activity-related programs. Little is known about JUP's impact on physical activity (PA). This study examined whether more specific JUPs were associated with increased PA and decreased sedentary behavior (SB) in adolescents. - Methods. Data on PA, sports participation, and SB were taken from annual cross-sectional nationally representative samples of 51,269 8th, 10th and 12th grade public school students nested in 461 school districts in the US from 2009–2011. JUP measures were constructed using information obtained from corresponding school district JU policies. Multivariable analyses were conducted, controlling for indivi

ness of walking and biking to school. Evaluations of Safe Routes to School initiatives have found that they have been effective at changing behavior and reducing injuries. - However, there has been little attention to the impacts of these programs on pupil transportation costs. - This analysis assesses the potential economic benefits of Safe Routes to School programs in the US context by estimating the annual costs of using motorized transport for short trips to schools, examining real-world examples of the costs savings of SRTS programs, and evaluating land use impacts on school transportation costs using a simulation analysis of school bus routes. - We find that there is potential for school districts and families to reduce transport expenditures through public sector investments in walking and biking infrastructure near schools. We also find that land use context matters and the most cost-effective investments would benefit schools where large numbers of children live within walking distance. McDonald NC, Steiner RL, Palmer WM, Bullock AN, Sisiopiku VP, and Lytle BF. Costs of school transportation: quantifying the fiscal impacts of encouraging walking and bicycling for school travel. Transportation 2014, November. - Objective. Joint use policies (JUP) encourage shared facility use, usually between schools and a city or private organization, for both physical activity-related and non-physical activity-related programs. Little is known about JUP's impact on physical activity (PA). This study examined whether more specific JUPs were associated with increased PA and decreased sedentary behavior (SB) in adolescents. - Methods. Data on PA, sports participation, and SB were taken from annual cross-sectional nationally representative samples of 51,269 8th, 10th and 12th grade public school students nested in 461 school districts in the US from 2009–2011. JUP measures were constructed using information obtained from corresponding school district JU policies. Multivariable analyses were conducted, controlling for individual demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and clustering at the district level. - Results. Results showed small associations between more specific JUPs and increased PA (IRR 1.01, 95% CI: 1.00, 1.02). Closer examination of specific JUP provisions indicates that specifying what times facilities are available for use was associated with vigorous exercise and prioritizing school or affiliated organizations' use and which spaces were available for use were associated with vigorous exercise and more frequent PA participation, which includes participation in sports or athletics. No associations were found between more specific JUPs and SB. - Conclusions. JUPS may have small influences on adolescent physical activity behavior. Future longitudinal studies should be conducted to examine the impact of JUPs in conjunction with other physical activity-related policies and environmental changes to determine what impact they have on overall adolescent physical activity and sedentary behavior. Slater S, Chriqui J, Chaloupka FJ, Johnston L. Joint use policies: Are they related to adolescent behavior? Prev. Med 2014 Dec; 69S:S37-S43. - Defining healthy schools remains largely discipline specific. Design disciplines ground discussions in a “green building” framework. Public health approaches healthy schools through programmatic interventions for physical activity and nutrition. - This article presents a more systemic approach to healthy schools via health impact assessment (HIA). It reviews literature on health determinants in school environments, focusing on physical design. Existing school HIAs are reviewed with other decision support tools that provide guidance on the operation and design of healthy schools. - The paper examines current use of HIAs in schools and develops a screening matrix for using HIA in creating healthy schools. Arthi Rao, Catherine L. Ross. Health Impact Assessments and Healthy Schools. Journal of Planning Education and Research 2014;34(2):141-152. - Despite the growing interest in expanding the j

dual demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and clustering at the district level. - Results. Results showed small associations between more specific JUPs and increased PA (IRR 1.01, 95% CI: 1.00, 1.02). Closer examination of specific JUP provisions indicates that specifying what times facilities are available for use was associated with vigorous exercise and prioritizing school or affiliated organizations' use and which spaces were available for use were associated with vigorous exercise and more frequent PA participation, which includes participation in sports or athletics. No associations were found between more specific JUPs and SB. - Conclusions. JUPS may have small influences on adolescent physical activity behavior. Future longitudinal studies should be conducted to examine the impact of JUPs in conjunction with other physical activity-related policies and environmental changes to determine what impact they have on overall adolescent physical activity and sedentary behavior. Slater S, Chriqui J, Chaloupka FJ, Johnston L. Joint use policies: Are they related to adolescent behavior? Prev. Med 2014 Dec; 69S:S37-S43. - Defining healthy schools remains largely discipline specific. Design disciplines ground discussions in a “green building” framework. Public health approaches healthy schools through programmatic interventions for physical activity and nutrition. - This article presents a more systemic approach to healthy schools via health impact assessment (HIA). It reviews literature on health determinants in school environments, focusing on physical design. Existing school HIAs are reviewed with other decision support tools that provide guidance on the operation and design of healthy schools. - The paper examines current use of HIAs in schools and develops a screening matrix for using HIA in creating healthy schools. Arthi Rao, Catherine L. Ross. Health Impact Assessments and Healthy Schools. Journal of Planning Education and Research 2014;34(2):141-152. - Despite the growing interest in expanding the joint use of K–12 public schools by public health and planning practitioners to promote healthy, sustainable communities, the topic has received little attention in the urban planning and public health scholarship. - The objective of this article is to situate joint use in the academic literature focused on the links between built environments and health. - The author examines the “state of the field” of K–12 joint use through studying the academic and associated literature, interviews, participant observation, and case examples and develops a joint use classification system to aid researchers and practitioners. Vincent J. Joint Use of Public Schools: A Framework for Promoting Healthy Communities. Journal of Planning Education and Research 2014;34(2):153-168. - In 2005, the United States Congress directed the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to develop the Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program (NTPP). - The program provided over $25 million in contract authority to four pilot communities (Columbia, Missouri; Marin County, California; Minneapolis area, Minnesota; and Sheboygan County, Wisconsin) for pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure and nonmotorized programs. - This report summarizes the progress and results of the NTPP from August 2005 through December 2013, updating and expanding upon the analysis from the Report to the U.S. Congress on the Outcomes of the Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program, submitted by the Federal Highway Administration in April 2012. - This report analyzes the results through December 2013 of the NTPP in terms of program implementation, transportation mode shift toward walking and bicycling and associated improvements pertaining to access and mobility, safety and public health, and the environment and energy. - From 2007 to 2013, the pilot communities observed an estimated 22.8 percent increase in the number of walking trips and an estimated 48.3 percent increase in the number of bicycling trips. - This report examines how the NTPP pilot communities provide examples to othe

oint use of K–12 public schools by public health and planning practitioners to promote healthy, sustainable communities, the topic has received little attention in the urban planning and public health scholarship. - The objective of this article is to situate joint use in the academic literature focused on the links between built environments and health. - The author examines the “state of the field” of K–12 joint use through studying the academic and associated literature, interviews, participant observation, and case examples and develops a joint use classification system to aid researchers and practitioners. Vincent J. Joint Use of Public Schools: A Framework for Promoting Healthy Communities. Journal of Planning Education and Research 2014;34(2):153-168. - In 2005, the United States Congress directed the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to develop the Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program (NTPP). - The program provided over $25 million in contract authority to four pilot communities (Columbia, Missouri; Marin County, California; Minneapolis area, Minnesota; and Sheboygan County, Wisconsin) for pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure and nonmotorized programs. - This report summarizes the progress and results of the NTPP from August 2005 through December 2013, updating and expanding upon the analysis from the Report to the U.S. Congress on the Outcomes of the Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program, submitted by the Federal Highway Administration in April 2012. - This report analyzes the results through December 2013 of the NTPP in terms of program implementation, transportation mode shift toward walking and bicycling and associated improvements pertaining to access and mobility, safety and public health, and the environment and energy. - From 2007 to 2013, the pilot communities observed an estimated 22.8 percent increase in the number of walking trips and an estimated 48.3 percent increase in the number of bicycling trips. - This report examines how the NTPP pilot communities provide examples to other communities interested in implementing and evaluating nonmotorized investments. William Lyons, Benjamin Rasmussen, David Daddio, Jared Fijalkowski, Erica Simmons. (2014). Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program: Continued Progress in Developing Walking and Bicycling Networks – May 2014 Report In U. S. D. o. Transportation, J. A. V. N. T. S. Center & T. P. Division (Eds.). 55 Broadway Cambridge, MA 02142-1093: US Dept of Transportation. - Purpose and Method: This research brief examines elementary school administrators’ reports of school participation in Safe Routes to School initiatives and estimated rates of active travel by students, as collected by surveys from administrators at nationally-representative samples of U.S. public elementary schools between the 2006-07 and 2012-13 school years. - Results: The prevalence of elementary school participation in SRTS programs grew steadily over the past seven years, increasing by 54 percent between 2006-07 and 2012-13 (from14.2% of schools to 21.8% of schools). Rates of student active travel to school, as estimated by school administrators, were 60 percent higher at schools that participated in SRTS programs (where 32.4% of students walked or biked) than at schools that did not participate (where 20.2% of students walked or biked). In examining the 2012-13 survey, SRTS programming did not differ by the school’s socioeconomic characteristics. - Conclusions: Active travel is a promising strategy for keeping children physically active and for reducing the adverse health consequences of inactivity, such as childhood obesity. SRTS programs are associated with higher reported rates of children walking or biking to school. Turner L, Slater S, Chaloupka FJ. . (2014). Elementary School Participation in Safe Routes to School Programming is Associated with Higher Rates of Student Active Travel to School. In H. P. C. Bridging the Gap Program, Institute for Health Research and Policy (Ed.), A BTG Research Brief. Chicago, IL.: University of Illinois at Chicago. - Purpose: State

r communities interested in implementing and evaluating nonmotorized investments. William Lyons, Benjamin Rasmussen, David Daddio, Jared Fijalkowski, Erica Simmons. (2014). Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program: Continued Progress in Developing Walking and Bicycling Networks – May 2014 Report In U. S. D. o. Transportation, J. A. V. N. T. S. Center & T. P. Division (Eds.). 55 Broadway Cambridge, MA 02142-1093: US Dept of Transportation. - Purpose and Method: This research brief examines elementary school administrators’ reports of school participation in Safe Routes to School initiatives and estimated rates of active travel by students, as collected by surveys from administrators at nationally-representative samples of U.S. public elementary schools between the 2006-07 and 2012-13 school years. - Results: The prevalence of elementary school participation in SRTS programs grew steadily over the past seven years, increasing by 54 percent between 2006-07 and 2012-13 (from14.2% of schools to 21.8% of schools). Rates of student active travel to school, as estimated by school administrators, were 60 percent higher at schools that participated in SRTS programs (where 32.4% of students walked or biked) than at schools that did not participate (where 20.2% of students walked or biked). In examining the 2012-13 survey, SRTS programming did not differ by the school’s socioeconomic characteristics. - Conclusions: Active travel is a promising strategy for keeping children physically active and for reducing the adverse health consequences of inactivity, such as childhood obesity. SRTS programs are associated with higher reported rates of children walking or biking to school. Turner L, Slater S, Chaloupka FJ. . (2014). Elementary School Participation in Safe Routes to School Programming is Associated with Higher Rates of Student Active Travel to School. In H. P. C. Bridging the Gap Program, Institute for Health Research and Policy (Ed.), A BTG Research Brief. Chicago, IL.: University of Illinois at Chicago. - Purpose: State Safe Routes to School (SRTS) programs provide competitive grants to local projects that support safe walking, bicycling, and other modes of active school travel (AST). This study assessed changes in rates of AST after implementation of SRTS projects at multiple sites across four states (Florida, Mississippi, Washington and Wisconsin). - Measures: AST was measured as the percentage of students walking, bicycling, or using any AST mode. SRTS project characteristics were measured at the project, school, and school neighborhood levels in 53 schools affected by 48 completed Safe Routes to School projects. - Results: Statistically significant increases in AST were observed across projects in all four states. All AST modes increased from 12.9% to 17.6%; walking from 9.8% to 14.2%; and bicycling from 2.5% to 3.0%. Increases in rates of bicycling were negatively correlated with baseline rates of bicycling. - Conclusion: State-funded SRTS projects are achieving one of the primary program goals of increasing rates of AST. They may be particularly effective at introducing bicycling to communities where it is rare. The evaluation framework introduced in this study can be used to continue tracking the effect of state SRTS programs as more projects are completed. Orion Stewart, Anne Vernez Moudon, and Charlotte Claybrooke (2014). Multistate Evaluation of Safe Routes to School Programs. American Journal of Health Promotion, 28(sp3), S89-S96. - Objective. We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of a package of roadway modifications in New York City funded under the Safe Routes to School (SRTS) program. - Methods. We used a Markov model to estimate long-term impacts of SRTS on injury reduction and the associated savings in medical costs, lifelong disability, and death. Model inputs included societal costs (in 2013 US dollars) and observed spatiotemporal changes in injury rates associated with New York City's implementation of SRTS relative to control intersections. Structural changes to roadways were assumed to last 50 years before fu

Safe Routes to School (SRTS) programs provide competitive grants to local projects that support safe walking, bicycling, and other modes of active school travel (AST). This study assessed changes in rates of AST after implementation of SRTS projects at multiple sites across four states (Florida, Mississippi, Washington and Wisconsin). - Measures: AST was measured as the percentage of students walking, bicycling, or using any AST mode. SRTS project characteristics were measured at the project, school, and school neighborhood levels in 53 schools affected by 48 completed Safe Routes to School projects. - Results: Statistically significant increases in AST were observed across projects in all four states. All AST modes increased from 12.9% to 17.6%; walking from 9.8% to 14.2%; and bicycling from 2.5% to 3.0%. Increases in rates of bicycling were negatively correlated with baseline rates of bicycling. - Conclusion: State-funded SRTS projects are achieving one of the primary program goals of increasing rates of AST. They may be particularly effective at introducing bicycling to communities where it is rare. The evaluation framework introduced in this study can be used to continue tracking the effect of state SRTS programs as more projects are completed. Orion Stewart, Anne Vernez Moudon, and Charlotte Claybrooke (2014). Multistate Evaluation of Safe Routes to School Programs. American Journal of Health Promotion, 28(sp3), S89-S96. - Objective. We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of a package of roadway modifications in New York City funded under the Safe Routes to School (SRTS) program. - Methods. We used a Markov model to estimate long-term impacts of SRTS on injury reduction and the associated savings in medical costs, lifelong disability, and death. Model inputs included societal costs (in 2013 US dollars) and observed spatiotemporal changes in injury rates associated with New York City's implementation of SRTS relative to control intersections. Structural changes to roadways were assumed to last 50 years before further investment is required. Therefore, costs were discounted over 50 consecutive cohorts of modified roadway users under SRTS. - Results. SRTS was associated with an overall net societal benefit of $230 million and 2055 quality-adjusted life years gained in New York City. - Conclusions. SRTS reduces injuries and saves money over the long run. Muennig, P. A., Epstein, M., Li, G., & DiMaggio, C. (2014). The Cost-Effectiveness of New York City's Safe Routes to School Program. Am J Public Health. doi: 10.2105/ajph.2014.301868 - Despite the health benefits associated with physical activity participation, activity levels of North American children are declining. In response, practitioners are placing emphasis on active forms of transportation to and from school. The purpose of this study was to explore the barriers and facilitators to active transportation to school (ATS) from the perspectives of practitioners. - The perspectives of 19 practitioners (eg, health promoters, traffic engineers, police, etc.) from 3 communities in Alberta, Canada were captured using focus group interviews followed by content analysis. - Subthemes tied to barriers included logistics, lifestyle, safety, and lack of resources; while facilitators were comprised of collaboration, education, and leadership. The results were interpreted using an ecological model of health behavior. - The most common ATS barriers: attitudes and safety concerns, lack of resources and time, and the nature of the natural and built environments were associated with the intrapersonal, organizational, and physical environmental factors, respectively. The most significant organizational facilitators concerned collaboration among parents, schools, businesses, community organizations, and government agencies. While the multifaceted nature of barriers and facilitators add complexity to the issue, it also challenges practitioners to think and act creatively in finding solutions. Loitz CC, Spencer-Cavaliere N. (2013). Exploring the Barriers and Facilitators to Children's Act

rther investment is required. Therefore, costs were discounted over 50 consecutive cohorts of modified roadway users under SRTS. - Results. SRTS was associated with an overall net societal benefit of $230 million and 2055 quality-adjusted life years gained in New York City. - Conclusions. SRTS reduces injuries and saves money over the long run. Muennig, P. A., Epstein, M., Li, G., & DiMaggio, C. (2014). The Cost-Effectiveness of New York City's Safe Routes to School Program. Am J Public Health. doi: 10.2105/ajph.2014.301868 - Despite the health benefits associated with physical activity participation, activity levels of North American children are declining. In response, practitioners are placing emphasis on active forms of transportation to and from school. The purpose of this study was to explore the barriers and facilitators to active transportation to school (ATS) from the perspectives of practitioners. - The perspectives of 19 practitioners (eg, health promoters, traffic engineers, police, etc.) from 3 communities in Alberta, Canada were captured using focus group interviews followed by content analysis. - Subthemes tied to barriers included logistics, lifestyle, safety, and lack of resources; while facilitators were comprised of collaboration, education, and leadership. The results were interpreted using an ecological model of health behavior. - The most common ATS barriers: attitudes and safety concerns, lack of resources and time, and the nature of the natural and built environments were associated with the intrapersonal, organizational, and physical environmental factors, respectively. The most significant organizational facilitators concerned collaboration among parents, schools, businesses, community organizations, and government agencies. While the multifaceted nature of barriers and facilitators add complexity to the issue, it also challenges practitioners to think and act creatively in finding solutions. Loitz CC, Spencer-Cavaliere N. (2013). Exploring the Barriers and Facilitators to Children's Active Transportation to and From School From the Perspectives of Practitioners. J Phys Act Health, 10(8), 1128-1135. - In many developed countries walking and bicycling are not extensively used as a means of transportation. Further, the share of these non-motorized travel modes (as a percentage of all trips) has been reducing over time. - The increasingly low use of walk and bicycle modes of transportation, and the concomitant increasing use of motorized vehicles for transportation, may be associated with several factors, including land use and development patterns, traffic safety and personal security concerns, and perceptions of and attitudes towards non-motorized transport. These factors manifest themselves differently in developing and developed countries, but throughout the world the increasing reliance on motorized transport contributes to serious traffic congestion problems, air quality degradation, and greenhouse gas emission increases. - In addition to transportation professionals, health agencies are also paying increased attention to non-motorized modes, or “active transport” as a route to improve public health. - In this chapter, the authors discuss the many benefits of non-motorized travel, identify its facilitators and impediments, analyze its utilization in select developed and developing countries, review previous studies of the effectiveness of strategies to promote it, and recommend possible pathways to promote non-motorized travel as a sustainable travel option. Christina Bernardo, Chandra Bhat. (2014). Non-motorized Travel as a Sustainable Travel Option Handbook of Sustainable Travel (pp. 277-291). Netherlands: Springer Netherlands. - This study assesses how federal Safe Routes to School (SRTS) funds were allocated to public and private schools and communities and whether there were demographic or locational differences between schools that benefited from SRTS funding and those that did not receive SRTS awards. - The study analyzes all SRTS projects awarded between 2005 and 2012 (N1⁄45532) by us

ive Transportation to and From School From the Perspectives of Practitioners. J Phys Act Health, 10(8), 1128-1135. - In many developed countries walking and bicycling are not extensively used as a means of transportation. Further, the share of these non-motorized travel modes (as a percentage of all trips) has been reducing over time. - The increasingly low use of walk and bicycle modes of transportation, and the concomitant increasing use of motorized vehicles for transportation, may be associated with several factors, including land use and development patterns, traffic safety and personal security concerns, and perceptions of and attitudes towards non-motorized transport. These factors manifest themselves differently in developing and developed countries, but throughout the world the increasing reliance on motorized transport contributes to serious traffic congestion problems, air quality degradation, and greenhouse gas emission increases. - In addition to transportation professionals, health agencies are also paying increased attention to non-motorized modes, or “active transport” as a route to improve public health. - In this chapter, the authors discuss the many benefits of non-motorized travel, identify its facilitators and impediments, analyze its utilization in select developed and developing countries, review previous studies of the effectiveness of strategies to promote it, and recommend possible pathways to promote non-motorized travel as a sustainable travel option. Christina Bernardo, Chandra Bhat. (2014). Non-motorized Travel as a Sustainable Travel Option Handbook of Sustainable Travel (pp. 277-291). Netherlands: Springer Netherlands. - This study assesses how federal Safe Routes to School (SRTS) funds were allocated to public and private schools and communities and whether there were demographic or locational differences between schools that benefited from SRTS funding and those that did not receive SRTS awards. - The study analyzes all SRTS projects awarded between 2005 and 2012 (N1⁄45532) by using descriptive statistics to profile SRTS funding amounts and purposes, and to compare demographic and neighborhood characteristics of schools with and without SRTS programs. Analysis was conducted in 2013. - The average SRTS award was $158,930 and most funding was spent on infrastructure (62.8%) or combined infrastructure and non-infrastructure (23.5%) projects. - Schools benefiting from the SRTS program served higher proportions of Latino students and were more likely to be in higher-density areas. Few differences existed in neighborhood demographics, particularly educational attainment, work-trip commute mode, and median household income. - Conclusions: Schools benefiting from the SRTS program are more urban and have higher Latino populations but are otherwise comparable to U.S. public schools. This suggests that disadvantaged areas have had access to the SRTS program. Noreen C. McDonald, PhD, Pamela H. Barth, MRP, Ruth L. Steiner, PhD. (2013). Assessing the Distribution of Safe Routes to School Program Funds, 2005–2012. Am J Prev Med, 45(4), 401-406 - The study used a robust quasi-experimental research design to measure the impacts of Eugene, Oregon's Safe Routes to School program on walking and biking. - Using data collected between 2007 and 2011 at 14 schools with and without Safe Routes to School programs, the study showed that the Safe Routes to School program was associated with increases in walking and biking. - Education and encouragement programs were associated with a five percentage point increase in biking. Augmenting education programs with additional SRTS improvements such as sidewalks, crosswalks, covered bike parking, and Boltage was associated with increases in walking and biking of 5–20 percentage points. - The study results illustrate the potential for the Safe Routes to School program to change behavior and should encourage other communities to plan for multi-modal school travel. Noreen C. McDonald a, n, Yizhao Yang b, Steve M. Abbott b, Allison N. Bullock (2013). Impact of the Safe Routes

ing descriptive statistics to profile SRTS funding amounts and purposes, and to compare demographic and neighborhood characteristics of schools with and without SRTS programs. Analysis was conducted in 2013. - The average SRTS award was $158,930 and most funding was spent on infrastructure (62.8%) or combined infrastructure and non-infrastructure (23.5%) projects. - Schools benefiting from the SRTS program served higher proportions of Latino students and were more likely to be in higher-density areas. Few differences existed in neighborhood demographics, particularly educational attainment, work-trip commute mode, and median household income. - Conclusions: Schools benefiting from the SRTS program are more urban and have higher Latino populations but are otherwise comparable to U.S. public schools. This suggests that disadvantaged areas have had access to the SRTS program. Noreen C. McDonald, PhD, Pamela H. Barth, MRP, Ruth L. Steiner, PhD. (2013). Assessing the Distribution of Safe Routes to School Program Funds, 2005–2012. Am J Prev Med, 45(4), 401-406 - The study used a robust quasi-experimental research design to measure the impacts of Eugene, Oregon's Safe Routes to School program on walking and biking. - Using data collected between 2007 and 2011 at 14 schools with and without Safe Routes to School programs, the study showed that the Safe Routes to School program was associated with increases in walking and biking. - Education and encouragement programs were associated with a five percentage point increase in biking. Augmenting education programs with additional SRTS improvements such as sidewalks, crosswalks, covered bike parking, and Boltage was associated with increases in walking and biking of 5–20 percentage points. - The study results illustrate the potential for the Safe Routes to School program to change behavior and should encourage other communities to plan for multi-modal school travel. Noreen C. McDonald a, n, Yizhao Yang b, Steve M. Abbott b, Allison N. Bullock (2013). Impact of the Safe Routes to School program on walking and biking: Eugene, Oregon study. Transport Policy 29 (2013) 243–248, 29, 243-248 - Household and parental characteristics and perceptions of walking and the built environment may reduce the propensity of children to use active travel modes (walking and bicycling) for their school trip. - This paper examines whether there is a relationship between walking or bicycling to school and the walking habits of caregivers or parents. - A statewide pedestrian survey of New Jersey residents was used to assess the mode taken by children for their school trip (age of respondents (parents) 19–84; n=353). Socio-demographic characteristics, public school density, full and part-time employment status of respondents, self-reported frequency of walking of adult respondents and perceived neighborhood environment characteristics are used as independent variables. Logit models are estimated to test associations between these variables. - Non-minority ethnic status, women respondent's employment type, higher income, and vehicle ownership are negatively associated with active travel to school, while higher public school density is positively associated with choice of an active travel mode. - Even in favorable circumstances for active travel to school, the employment circumstances of parents or caregivers may deter children from walking to school. - When parents are active, their children are also more likely to be active. Poor sidewalk quality also deters parents from letting children use active modes for their school trip. Hyunsoo Parka, Robert B. Nolanda. (2013). Active school trips: associations with caregiver walking frequency. Transport Policy, 29, 23-38 - Few reports examined long term predictors of children's active commuting to school (walking or cycling to school, ACS). - To identify predictors of ACS over one school year among a sample of children with relatively high rates of ACS. - Parents were surveyed in September 2010 (Time 1) and April 2011 (Time 2). The dependent variable was children's co

to School program on walking and biking: Eugene, Oregon study. Transport Policy 29 (2013) 243–248, 29, 243-248 - Household and parental characteristics and perceptions of walking and the built environment may reduce the propensity of children to use active travel modes (walking and bicycling) for their school trip. - This paper examines whether there is a relationship between walking or bicycling to school and the walking habits of caregivers or parents. - A statewide pedestrian survey of New Jersey residents was used to assess the mode taken by children for their school trip (age of respondents (parents) 19–84; n=353). Socio-demographic characteristics, public school density, full and part-time employment status of respondents, self-reported frequency of walking of adult respondents and perceived neighborhood environment characteristics are used as independent variables. Logit models are estimated to test associations between these variables. - Non-minority ethnic status, women respondent's employment type, higher income, and vehicle ownership are negatively associated with active travel to school, while higher public school density is positively associated with choice of an active travel mode. - Even in favorable circumstances for active travel to school, the employment circumstances of parents or caregivers may deter children from walking to school. - When parents are active, their children are also more likely to be active. Poor sidewalk quality also deters parents from letting children use active modes for their school trip. Hyunsoo Parka, Robert B. Nolanda. (2013). Active school trips: associations with caregiver walking frequency. Transport Policy, 29, 23-38 - Few reports examined long term predictors of children's active commuting to school (walking or cycling to school, ACS). - To identify predictors of ACS over one school year among a sample of children with relatively high rates of ACS. - Parents were surveyed in September 2010 (Time 1) and April 2011 (Time 2). The dependent variable was children's commuting mode to school (active versus passive). Independent variables included: 1) parents' outcome expectations (from Social Cognitive Theory: the expected risks/benefits for their child doing ACS), 2) distance to school, 3) participation in an adult-led walk to school group, 4) temperature, and 5) child demographics. Generalized mixed-models estimated odds ratios for ACS (n=369 or 49.7% of Time 1 respondents). - ACS was associated with the following: - males (OR=2.59, 95% CI [1.57-4.30]) - adult-led walk to school group participation (OR=1.80, 95% CI [1.14-2.86]) - parents' outcome expectations (OR=1.26, 95% CI [1.14-1.39]) - temperature (OR=1.03, 95% CI [1.01-1.07) - distance to school (OR=0.23, 95% CI [0.14-0.37]) - Latino ethnicity (OR=0.28, 95% CI [0.12-0.65]). - CONCLUSIONS: Programs and policies sensitive to parents' concerns, e.g. adult-led walk to school groups, and targeting Latinos and girls appear promising for increasing ACS. Mendoza JA, Cowan D, Liu Y. (2013). Predictors of Children's Active Commuting to School: An Observational Evaluation in Five US Communities. J Phys Act Health. Epublished. - We assessed changes in transit-associated walking in the United States from 2001 to 2009 and documented their importance to public health. - We examined transit walk times using the National Household Travel Survey, a telephone survey administered by the US Department of Transportation to examine travel behavior in the United States. - People are more likely to transit walk if they are from lower income households, are non-White, and live in large urban areas with access to rail systems. Transit walkers in large urban areas with a rail system were 72% more likely to transit walk 30 minutes or more per day than were those without a rail system. From 2001 to 2009, the estimated number of transit walkers rose from 7.5 million to 9.6 million (a 28% increase); those whose transit-associated walking time was 30 minutes or more increased from approximately 2.6 million to 3.4 million (a 31% increase). - Transit wal

mmuting mode to school (active versus passive). Independent variables included: 1) parents' outcome expectations (from Social Cognitive Theory: the expected risks/benefits for their child doing ACS), 2) distance to school, 3) participation in an adult-led walk to school group, 4) temperature, and 5) child demographics. Generalized mixed-models estimated odds ratios for ACS (n=369 or 49.7% of Time 1 respondents). - ACS was associated with the following: - males (OR=2.59, 95% CI [1.57-4.30]) - adult-led walk to school group participation (OR=1.80, 95% CI [1.14-2.86]) - parents' outcome expectations (OR=1.26, 95% CI [1.14-1.39]) - temperature (OR=1.03, 95% CI [1.01-1.07) - distance to school (OR=0.23, 95% CI [0.14-0.37]) - Latino ethnicity (OR=0.28, 95% CI [0.12-0.65]). - CONCLUSIONS: Programs and policies sensitive to parents' concerns, e.g. adult-led walk to school groups, and targeting Latinos and girls appear promising for increasing ACS. Mendoza JA, Cowan D, Liu Y. (2013). Predictors of Children's Active Commuting to School: An Observational Evaluation in Five US Communities. J Phys Act Health. Epublished. - We assessed changes in transit-associated walking in the United States from 2001 to 2009 and documented their importance to public health. - We examined transit walk times using the National Household Travel Survey, a telephone survey administered by the US Department of Transportation to examine travel behavior in the United States. - People are more likely to transit walk if they are from lower income households, are non-White, and live in large urban areas with access to rail systems. Transit walkers in large urban areas with a rail system were 72% more likely to transit walk 30 minutes or more per day than were those without a rail system. From 2001 to 2009, the estimated number of transit walkers rose from 7.5 million to 9.6 million (a 28% increase); those whose transit-associated walking time was 30 minutes or more increased from approximately 2.6 million to 3.4 million (a 31% increase). - Transit walking contributes to meeting physical activity recommendations. Study results may contribute to transportation-related health impact assessment studies evaluating the impact of proposed transit systems on physical activity, potentially influencing transportation planning decisions. Freeland AL, Banerjee SN, Dannenberg AL, Wendel AM. (2013). Walking associated with public transit: moving toward increased physical activity in the United States. Am J Public Health, 103(3), 536-542. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2012.300912. - This study developed and tested an algorithm to classify accelerometer data as walking or non-walking using either GPS or travel diary data within a large sample of adults under free-living conditions. - Participants wore an accelerometer and a GPS unit, and concurrently completed a travel diary for 7 consecutive days. Physical activity (PA) bouts were identified using accelerometry count sequences. PA bouts were then classified as walking or non-walking based on a decision-tree algorithm consisting of 7 classification scenarios. Algorithm reliability was examined relative to two independent analysts' classification of a 100-bout verification sample. The algorithm was then applied to the entire set of PA bouts. - The 706 participants' (mean age 51 years, 62% female, 80% non-Hispanic white, 70% college graduate or higher) yielded 4,702 person-days of data and had a total of 13,971 PA bouts. The algorithm showed a mean agreement of 95% with the independent analysts. It classified physical activity into 8,170 (58.5 %) walking bouts and 5,337 (38.2%) non-walking bouts; 464 (3.3%) bouts were not classified for lack of GPS and diary data. Nearly 70% of the walking bouts and 68% of the non-walking bouts were classified using only the objective accelerometer and GPS data. Travel diary data helped classify 30% of all bouts with no GPS data. The mean duration of PA bouts classified as walking was 15.2 min (SD=12.9). On average, participants had 1.7 walking bouts and 25.4 total walking minutes per day. - GPS and trave

king contributes to meeting physical activity recommendations. Study results may contribute to transportation-related health impact assessment studies evaluating the impact of proposed transit systems on physical activity, potentially influencing transportation planning decisions. Freeland AL, Banerjee SN, Dannenberg AL, Wendel AM. (2013). Walking associated with public transit: moving toward increased physical activity in the United States. Am J Public Health, 103(3), 536-542. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2012.300912. - This study developed and tested an algorithm to classify accelerometer data as walking or non-walking using either GPS or travel diary data within a large sample of adults under free-living conditions. - Participants wore an accelerometer and a GPS unit, and concurrently completed a travel diary for 7 consecutive days. Physical activity (PA) bouts were identified using accelerometry count sequences. PA bouts were then classified as walking or non-walking based on a decision-tree algorithm consisting of 7 classification scenarios. Algorithm reliability was examined relative to two independent analysts' classification of a 100-bout verification sample. The algorithm was then applied to the entire set of PA bouts. - The 706 participants' (mean age 51 years, 62% female, 80% non-Hispanic white, 70% college graduate or higher) yielded 4,702 person-days of data and had a total of 13,971 PA bouts. The algorithm showed a mean agreement of 95% with the independent analysts. It classified physical activity into 8,170 (58.5 %) walking bouts and 5,337 (38.2%) non-walking bouts; 464 (3.3%) bouts were not classified for lack of GPS and diary data. Nearly 70% of the walking bouts and 68% of the non-walking bouts were classified using only the objective accelerometer and GPS data. Travel diary data helped classify 30% of all bouts with no GPS data. The mean duration of PA bouts classified as walking was 15.2 min (SD=12.9). On average, participants had 1.7 walking bouts and 25.4 total walking minutes per day. - GPS and travel diary information can be helpful in classifying most accelerometer-derived PA bouts into walking or non-walking behavior. Kang B, Moudon AV, Hurvitz PM, et al. (2013). Walking Objectively Measured: Classifying Accelerometer Data with GPS and Travel Diaries. Med Sci Sports Exerc. (e-published). - Given the health benefits of walking, there is interest in understanding how physical environments favor walking. Although GIS-derived measures of land-use mix, street connectivity, and residential density are commonly combined into indices to assess how conducive neighborhoods are to walking, field validation of these measures is limited. - To assess the relationship between audit- and GIS-derived measures of overall neighborhood walkability and between objective (audit- and GIS-derived) and participant-reported measures of walkability. - Walkability assessments were conducted in 2009. Street-level audits were conducted using a modified version of the Pedestrian Environmental Data Scan. GIS analyses were used to derive land-use mix, street connectivity, and residential density. Participant perceptions were assessed using a self-administered questionnaire. Audit, GIS, and participant-reported indices of walkability were calculated. Spearman correlation coefficients were used to assess the relationships between measures. All analyses were conducted in 2012. - The correlation between audit- and GIS-derived measures of overall walkability was high (R=0.7 [95% CI=0.6, 0.8]); the correlations between objective (audit and GIS-derived) and participant-reported measures were low (R=0.2 [95% CI=0.06, 0.3]; R=0.2 [95% CI=0.04, 0.3], respectively). For comparable audit and participant-reported items, correlations were higher for items that appeared more objective (e.g., sidewalk presence, R=0.4 [95% CI=0.3, 0.5], versus safety, R=0.1 [95% CI=0.003, 0.3]). - The GIS-derived measure of walkability correlated well with the in-field audit, suggesting that it is reasonable to use GIS-derived measures in place of more labor-intensive au

l diary information can be helpful in classifying most accelerometer-derived PA bouts into walking or non-walking behavior. Kang B, Moudon AV, Hurvitz PM, et al. (2013). Walking Objectively Measured: Classifying Accelerometer Data with GPS and Travel Diaries. Med Sci Sports Exerc. (e-published). - Given the health benefits of walking, there is interest in understanding how physical environments favor walking. Although GIS-derived measures of land-use mix, street connectivity, and residential density are commonly combined into indices to assess how conducive neighborhoods are to walking, field validation of these measures is limited. - To assess the relationship between audit- and GIS-derived measures of overall neighborhood walkability and between objective (audit- and GIS-derived) and participant-reported measures of walkability. - Walkability assessments were conducted in 2009. Street-level audits were conducted using a modified version of the Pedestrian Environmental Data Scan. GIS analyses were used to derive land-use mix, street connectivity, and residential density. Participant perceptions were assessed using a self-administered questionnaire. Audit, GIS, and participant-reported indices of walkability were calculated. Spearman correlation coefficients were used to assess the relationships between measures. All analyses were conducted in 2012. - The correlation between audit- and GIS-derived measures of overall walkability was high (R=0.7 [95% CI=0.6, 0.8]); the correlations between objective (audit and GIS-derived) and participant-reported measures were low (R=0.2 [95% CI=0.06, 0.3]; R=0.2 [95% CI=0.04, 0.3], respectively). For comparable audit and participant-reported items, correlations were higher for items that appeared more objective (e.g., sidewalk presence, R=0.4 [95% CI=0.3, 0.5], versus safety, R=0.1 [95% CI=0.003, 0.3]). - The GIS-derived measure of walkability correlated well with the in-field audit, suggesting that it is reasonable to use GIS-derived measures in place of more labor-intensive audits. Interestingly, neither audit- nor GIS-derived measures correlated well with participants’ perceptions of walkability. Hajna, Samantha, MSc, Kaberi Dasgupta, MD, MSc, FRCPC, Max Halparin, BA, Nancy A. Ross, PhD. (2012). Neighborhood Walkability: Field Validation of Geographic Information System Measures. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 44(6), e51-e55. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2013.01.033 This report summarizes findings associated with the successful implementation of a Safe Routes to School program in an elementary school in metropolitan Atlanta, GA between 2008–2010. Elements of the program that led to its success may inform future policy efforts related to active transport to school. This was a multilevel, multi-sector, intervention involving education, community capacity building, enablement and reinforcement through supportive environments and evaluation. Elements and results included: - Safe Routes to School Task Force: Parent volunteers formed a Safe Routes to School Task Force comprising the school principal, nurse, and physical education teacher, as well as the county police, public works staff, board of health, and a county commissioner. This Task Force formed the basis of a movement to increase social capital at the community, school, family, and the individual level in order to shift the entire school community culture toward one of active transport. - Education: An informed and engaged community participated on its own behalf. Students, parents, school staff and faculty focused on Safe Routes to School goals of increasing walking roundtrip to school, decreasing traffic, and improving air quality around school. Pedestrian safety education was provided through the Physical Education program. The PTA and local churches were involved. Maps were provided of best walking routes and an extensive publicity campaign was undertaken. - Various local and federal resources were available to help support community infrastructure projects. Interactive Community Police and infrastructure improvements helpe

dits. Interestingly, neither audit- nor GIS-derived measures correlated well with participants’ perceptions of walkability. Hajna, Samantha, MSc, Kaberi Dasgupta, MD, MSc, FRCPC, Max Halparin, BA, Nancy A. Ross, PhD. (2012). Neighborhood Walkability: Field Validation of Geographic Information System Measures. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 44(6), e51-e55. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2013.01.033 This report summarizes findings associated with the successful implementation of a Safe Routes to School program in an elementary school in metropolitan Atlanta, GA between 2008–2010. Elements of the program that led to its success may inform future policy efforts related to active transport to school. This was a multilevel, multi-sector, intervention involving education, community capacity building, enablement and reinforcement through supportive environments and evaluation. Elements and results included: - Safe Routes to School Task Force: Parent volunteers formed a Safe Routes to School Task Force comprising the school principal, nurse, and physical education teacher, as well as the county police, public works staff, board of health, and a county commissioner. This Task Force formed the basis of a movement to increase social capital at the community, school, family, and the individual level in order to shift the entire school community culture toward one of active transport. - Education: An informed and engaged community participated on its own behalf. Students, parents, school staff and faculty focused on Safe Routes to School goals of increasing walking roundtrip to school, decreasing traffic, and improving air quality around school. Pedestrian safety education was provided through the Physical Education program. The PTA and local churches were involved. Maps were provided of best walking routes and an extensive publicity campaign was undertaken. - Various local and federal resources were available to help support community infrastructure projects. Interactive Community Police and infrastructure improvements helped improve safety along routes to school. - Built environment improvements to increase active transport to school benefited the surrounding community as nearly 40% of communities are within ½ mile of a public school. Five crosswalks were restriped and raised walking intersections and new traffic lights were installed. - Parental surveys confirmed increased rates of walking to school (18% to 42% in two years) and parental perceptions of health benefits and enjoyment of walking increased. Rates of walking home did not change. Susan Henderson, Robin Tanner, Normal Klanderman, Abby Mattera, Lindey Martin Webb, John Steward. (2013). Safe Routes to School: A Public Health Practice Success Story—Atlanta, 2008-2010. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 2013, 10, 141-142. - This novel interdisciplinary collaboration between public health and computer science provides automatic analysis of existing public data feeds to quantify the impact of built environment intervention on increasing bike travel mode share. - The Archive of Many Outdoor Scenes (AMOS) has archived over 225 million images of outdoor environments from more than 12,000 public webcams since 2006. Using the publicly available webcams and a custom web crawler (similar to the web search engine or Google), webcam images are captured at the rate of one image per camera per hour and given a time stamp. Many of the locations have had built environment improvements such as complete streets, bike share startups or walking school bus programs. AMOS is able to document and allow quantification of population behavior changes following the built environment modification. - The intersection of Pennsylvania Ave NW and 9th ST NW in Washington, DC where bike lanes were installed was chosen as a location to monitor transportation mode share comparing the first workweek or June 2009 and the first week of June 2010 (pre-bicycle lane and post-bicycle lane). - Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) website was used to crowd-source the image annotation. MTurks are simple tasks not yet c

d improve safety along routes to school. - Built environment improvements to increase active transport to school benefited the surrounding community as nearly 40% of communities are within ½ mile of a public school. Five crosswalks were restriped and raised walking intersections and new traffic lights were installed. - Parental surveys confirmed increased rates of walking to school (18% to 42% in two years) and parental perceptions of health benefits and enjoyment of walking increased. Rates of walking home did not change. Susan Henderson, Robin Tanner, Normal Klanderman, Abby Mattera, Lindey Martin Webb, John Steward. (2013). Safe Routes to School: A Public Health Practice Success Story—Atlanta, 2008-2010. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 2013, 10, 141-142. - This novel interdisciplinary collaboration between public health and computer science provides automatic analysis of existing public data feeds to quantify the impact of built environment intervention on increasing bike travel mode share. - The Archive of Many Outdoor Scenes (AMOS) has archived over 225 million images of outdoor environments from more than 12,000 public webcams since 2006. Using the publicly available webcams and a custom web crawler (similar to the web search engine or Google), webcam images are captured at the rate of one image per camera per hour and given a time stamp. Many of the locations have had built environment improvements such as complete streets, bike share startups or walking school bus programs. AMOS is able to document and allow quantification of population behavior changes following the built environment modification. - The intersection of Pennsylvania Ave NW and 9th ST NW in Washington, DC where bike lanes were installed was chosen as a location to monitor transportation mode share comparing the first workweek or June 2009 and the first week of June 2010 (pre-bicycle lane and post-bicycle lane). - Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) website was used to crowd-source the image annotation. MTurks are simple tasks not yet computer automated. MTurk workers were paid US $0.01, in March 2012 to count each pedestrian, cyclist, and vehicle in a photograph. Each image was counted 5 unique times (n=1200), completed in less than 8 hours. The counts per transportation mode were downloaded to SPSSv.19 for analysis. Results showed a statistically significant difference in transportation mode share between the two years: no significant increase in pedestrians but a four-fold increase in the number of cyclists per scene. - The investigators conclude that the use of AMOS and MTurks offer an inexpensive ($12.00 for this study) opportunity to quantify behavior change impact following built environment changes. Future plans include monitoring other locations in the Washington DC Capitol Bikeshare program and developing computer algorithms to automate the counting process. Hipp, J. Aaron; Adlakha, Deepti; Chang, Bill; Eyler, Amy A.; and Pless, Robert B. (2013). "Emerging Technologies: Webcams and Crowd- Sourcing to Identify Active Transportation" (2013). Brown School Faculty Publications (Paper 3). - The authors indicate that in the United States, development in the past 60 years has turned away from the traditional compact, walkable city or town toward a more dispersed, automobile-centric pattern that makes travel by any means except private vehicle impractical and inconvenient. - The article explores what makes the United States so different from European countries in which walking and bicycling is more prevalent. - To plan sustainable—and healthful—human environments, and to determine the most cost-effective measures to encourage more walking and bicycling, more must be known about the various influences on bicycling and walking behavior. - The article includes an overview of data and planning tools helpful for non-motorized travel, a wide array of walking and bicycling data, an examination of the influence of the natural and built environment, attitudes and perceptions towards walking and bicycling, and questions for future research. - The artic

omputer automated. MTurk workers were paid US $0.01, in March 2012 to count each pedestrian, cyclist, and vehicle in a photograph. Each image was counted 5 unique times (n=1200), completed in less than 8 hours. The counts per transportation mode were downloaded to SPSSv.19 for analysis. Results showed a statistically significant difference in transportation mode share between the two years: no significant increase in pedestrians but a four-fold increase in the number of cyclists per scene. - The investigators conclude that the use of AMOS and MTurks offer an inexpensive ($12.00 for this study) opportunity to quantify behavior change impact following built environment changes. Future plans include monitoring other locations in the Washington DC Capitol Bikeshare program and developing computer algorithms to automate the counting process. Hipp, J. Aaron; Adlakha, Deepti; Chang, Bill; Eyler, Amy A.; and Pless, Robert B. (2013). "Emerging Technologies: Webcams and Crowd- Sourcing to Identify Active Transportation" (2013). Brown School Faculty Publications (Paper 3). - The authors indicate that in the United States, development in the past 60 years has turned away from the traditional compact, walkable city or town toward a more dispersed, automobile-centric pattern that makes travel by any means except private vehicle impractical and inconvenient. - The article explores what makes the United States so different from European countries in which walking and bicycling is more prevalent. - To plan sustainable—and healthful—human environments, and to determine the most cost-effective measures to encourage more walking and bicycling, more must be known about the various influences on bicycling and walking behavior. - The article includes an overview of data and planning tools helpful for non-motorized travel, a wide array of walking and bicycling data, an examination of the influence of the natural and built environment, attitudes and perceptions towards walking and bicycling, and questions for future research. - The article also links to several other publications that may be useful for active transportation practitioners: - NCHRP Project 8-78 guidebook Estimating Bicycling and pedestrian Demand for Planning and Project Development http://apps.trb.org/cmsfeed/TRBNetProjectDisplay.asp?ProjectID=2707 - American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, 4th Edition, https://bookstore.transportation.org/item_details.aspx?ID=1943 - NCHRP (National Cooperative Highway Research Project) Report 500 series Vol 10 and 18 are Guides for Reducing Collisions Involving Pedestrians and a second Guide to Reducing Collisions Involving Bicycles. More information can be found at www.trb.org/Main/Public/Blurbs/152868.aspx - Traveler Response to Transportation system Changes, Chpt 16: Pedestrian and Bicycle Facilities available online at www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/167122.aspx Kuzmyak R. Dill J. (2012). Walking and Bicycling in the United States: The Who, What, Where, and Why. TR News, 280(May/June), 4-17. - This pilot study examined the effects of a teacher-taught, locomotor skill (LMS)-based physical activity (PA) program on the LMS and PA levels of minority preschooler-aged children. - Eight low-socioeconomic status preschool classrooms were randomized into LMS-PA (LMS-oriented lesson plans) or control group (supervised free playtime). Interventions were delivered for 30 min/day, five days/week for six months. Changes in PA (accelerometer) and LMS variables were assessed with MANCOVA. - LMS-PA group exhibited a significant reduction in during-preschool and total daily percent time spent in sedentary activity. LMS-PA group also exhibited significant improvement in leaping skills. No other, significant changes were observed. The implementation of a teacher-taught, LMS-based PA program could potentially improve LMS and reduce sedentary time of minority preschoolers. Alhassan, S., O. Nwaokelemeh, et al. (2012). "Effects of locomotor skill program on minority preschoolers' physical a

le also links to several other publications that may be useful for active transportation practitioners: - NCHRP Project 8-78 guidebook Estimating Bicycling and pedestrian Demand for Planning and Project Development http://apps.trb.org/cmsfeed/TRBNetProjectDisplay.asp?ProjectID=2707 - American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, 4th Edition, https://bookstore.transportation.org/item_details.aspx?ID=1943 - NCHRP (National Cooperative Highway Research Project) Report 500 series Vol 10 and 18 are Guides for Reducing Collisions Involving Pedestrians and a second Guide to Reducing Collisions Involving Bicycles. More information can be found at www.trb.org/Main/Public/Blurbs/152868.aspx - Traveler Response to Transportation system Changes, Chpt 16: Pedestrian and Bicycle Facilities available online at www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/167122.aspx Kuzmyak R. Dill J. (2012). Walking and Bicycling in the United States: The Who, What, Where, and Why. TR News, 280(May/June), 4-17. - This pilot study examined the effects of a teacher-taught, locomotor skill (LMS)-based physical activity (PA) program on the LMS and PA levels of minority preschooler-aged children. - Eight low-socioeconomic status preschool classrooms were randomized into LMS-PA (LMS-oriented lesson plans) or control group (supervised free playtime). Interventions were delivered for 30 min/day, five days/week for six months. Changes in PA (accelerometer) and LMS variables were assessed with MANCOVA. - LMS-PA group exhibited a significant reduction in during-preschool and total daily percent time spent in sedentary activity. LMS-PA group also exhibited significant improvement in leaping skills. No other, significant changes were observed. The implementation of a teacher-taught, LMS-based PA program could potentially improve LMS and reduce sedentary time of minority preschoolers. Alhassan, S., O. Nwaokelemeh, et al. (2012). "Effects of locomotor skill program on minority preschoolers' physical activity levels." Pediatrc Exercise Science 24(3): 435-449. - Washington State Department of Transportation released a report that assessed the Safe Routes to School program in five states: Florida, Mississippi, Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin. - A database of all SRTS projects announced for funding and all schools affected by these projects were developed. The database was analyzed to (1) quantify the SRTS programs’ impact in the five states and compare them to SRTS programs nationally, (2) assess the SRTS programs’ effectiveness in increasing rates of walking and bicycling to school, and (3) identify characteristics of SRTS projects associated with greater increases in walking and bicycling to school. - The results of this study offer preliminary evidence that the SRTS program is achieving one of its primary goals of increasing rates of walking and bicycling to school and that SRTS funds are delivering a return on investment. - Key finding from this study: In the five states, more than 1400 schools and 781,000 children have been reached as a result of Safe Routes to School funding; this is roughly 11 percent of the pre-kindergarten through eighth grade public school population in the five states. - Key finding from this study: Engineering projects made up about 72 percent of the funding in the five states, with sidewalk projects featured in about 69 percent of these projects. Interestingly, the engineering projects that were on smaller scales (affected fewer schools and students) and included encouragement and education components tended to perform better. - Key finding from this study: Rates of walking increased by 45 percent, bicycling increased by 24 percent, and all active travel to school increased by 37 percent in these five states. - The study findings suggested that Safe Routes to School projects may be more effective at encouraging bicycling to school where few children already do so. - Poor lifestyle behaviors, including suboptimal diet, physical inactivity, and tobacco use, are leading causes of prev

ctivity levels." Pediatrc Exercise Science 24(3): 435-449. - Washington State Department of Transportation released a report that assessed the Safe Routes to School program in five states: Florida, Mississippi, Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin. - A database of all SRTS projects announced for funding and all schools affected by these projects were developed. The database was analyzed to (1) quantify the SRTS programs’ impact in the five states and compare them to SRTS programs nationally, (2) assess the SRTS programs’ effectiveness in increasing rates of walking and bicycling to school, and (3) identify characteristics of SRTS projects associated with greater increases in walking and bicycling to school. - The results of this study offer preliminary evidence that the SRTS program is achieving one of its primary goals of increasing rates of walking and bicycling to school and that SRTS funds are delivering a return on investment. - Key finding from this study: In the five states, more than 1400 schools and 781,000 children have been reached as a result of Safe Routes to School funding; this is roughly 11 percent of the pre-kindergarten through eighth grade public school population in the five states. - Key finding from this study: Engineering projects made up about 72 percent of the funding in the five states, with sidewalk projects featured in about 69 percent of these projects. Interestingly, the engineering projects that were on smaller scales (affected fewer schools and students) and included encouragement and education components tended to perform better. - Key finding from this study: Rates of walking increased by 45 percent, bicycling increased by 24 percent, and all active travel to school increased by 37 percent in these five states. - The study findings suggested that Safe Routes to School projects may be more effective at encouraging bicycling to school where few children already do so. - Poor lifestyle behaviors, including suboptimal diet, physical inactivity, and tobacco use, are leading causes of preventable diseases globally. Although even modest population shifts in risk substantially alter health outcomes, the optimal population-level approaches to improve lifestyle are not well established. - In this paper, the authors systematically reviewed and graded the current scientific evidence for effective population approaches to improve dietary habits, increase physical activity, and reduce tobacco use. - Strategies were considered in 6 broad domains: (1) Media and educational campaigns; (2) labeling and consumer information; (3) taxation, subsidies, and other economic incentives; (4) school and workplace approaches; (5) local environmental changes; and (6) direct restrictions and mandates. The writing group also reviewed the potential contributions of healthcare systems and surveillance systems to behavior change efforts. - Several specific population interventions were identified, providing a set of specific evidence-based strategies that deserve close attention and prioritization for wider implementation. School-related interventions included increased availability and types of school playground spaces and equipment, increased number of PE classes, and revised PE curricula to increase time in at least moderate activity. - This systematic review identified and graded the evidence for a range of population-based strategies to promote lifestyle change. The findings provide a framework for policy makers, advocacy groups, researchers, clinicians, communities, and other stakeholders to understand and implement the most effective approaches. New strategic initiatives and partnerships are needed to translate this evidence into action. Mozaffarian, D., A. Afshin, et al. (2012). Population Approaches to Improve Diet, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation 126(12):1514-1563. - The recess environment in schools has been identified as an integral part of school-based programs to enhance physical activity (PA). The purpose of this study was to report p

entable diseases globally. Although even modest population shifts in risk substantially alter health outcomes, the optimal population-level approaches to improve lifestyle are not well established. - In this paper, the authors systematically reviewed and graded the current scientific evidence for effective population approaches to improve dietary habits, increase physical activity, and reduce tobacco use. - Strategies were considered in 6 broad domains: (1) Media and educational campaigns; (2) labeling and consumer information; (3) taxation, subsidies, and other economic incentives; (4) school and workplace approaches; (5) local environmental changes; and (6) direct restrictions and mandates. The writing group also reviewed the potential contributions of healthcare systems and surveillance systems to behavior change efforts. - Several specific population interventions were identified, providing a set of specific evidence-based strategies that deserve close attention and prioritization for wider implementation. School-related interventions included increased availability and types of school playground spaces and equipment, increased number of PE classes, and revised PE curricula to increase time in at least moderate activity. - This systematic review identified and graded the evidence for a range of population-based strategies to promote lifestyle change. The findings provide a framework for policy makers, advocacy groups, researchers, clinicians, communities, and other stakeholders to understand and implement the most effective approaches. New strategic initiatives and partnerships are needed to translate this evidence into action. Mozaffarian, D., A. Afshin, et al. (2012). Population Approaches to Improve Diet, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation 126(12):1514-1563. - The recess environment in schools has been identified as an integral part of school-based programs to enhance physical activity (PA). The purpose of this study was to report pilot findings on the extent to which the Ready for Recess intervention was associated with a different amount of increase in moderate to vigorous PA (MPVA) during recess and the rest of the school day between girls and boys, and between nonwhites and whites. - The Ready for Recess intervention modified the recess environment of schools by providing staff training and recreational equipment. The MPVA levels of 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade students (n = 93) at 2 schools were measured pre- and post-intervention using ActiGraph accelerometers. Multiple regression models with robust variance were utilized to test for the interaction of intervention with gender and race/ethnicity. - The intervention was associated with an adjusted increase of 4.7 minutes (P <.001) in moderate/vigorous PA during recess. There was no evidence that this effect varied by gender (P = .944) or race (P = .731). The intervention was also associated with an adjusted increase of 29.6 minutes (P < .001) in moderate/vigorous PA during rest of the school day. While this effect did not vary by gender, there was some evidence (P = .034) that nonwhites benefited more from the intervention than whites. - Simple strategies such as staff training and recreational equipment may be an effective way to increase PA in children (despite gender or ethnicity) during recess time as well as during the rest of the school day. Siahpush, M., J. L. Huberty, et al. (2012). Does the Effect of a School Recess Intervention on Physical Activity Vary by Gender or Race? Results From the Ready for Recess Pilot Study. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice 18(5): 416-422. - This article reports on a study that explored the barriers that prevent parents from allowing their children to commute to school. - The authors used data from parents of school children in Illinois, U.S., as reported in the National Safe Routes to School Parent Surveys. - The study finds that the top barriers for both urban and suburban children were intersection safety and traffic speed/volume. Dist

ilot findings on the extent to which the Ready for Recess intervention was associated with a different amount of increase in moderate to vigorous PA (MPVA) during recess and the rest of the school day between girls and boys, and between nonwhites and whites. - The Ready for Recess intervention modified the recess environment of schools by providing staff training and recreational equipment. The MPVA levels of 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade students (n = 93) at 2 schools were measured pre- and post-intervention using ActiGraph accelerometers. Multiple regression models with robust variance were utilized to test for the interaction of intervention with gender and race/ethnicity. - The intervention was associated with an adjusted increase of 4.7 minutes (P <.001) in moderate/vigorous PA during recess. There was no evidence that this effect varied by gender (P = .944) or race (P = .731). The intervention was also associated with an adjusted increase of 29.6 minutes (P < .001) in moderate/vigorous PA during rest of the school day. While this effect did not vary by gender, there was some evidence (P = .034) that nonwhites benefited more from the intervention than whites. - Simple strategies such as staff training and recreational equipment may be an effective way to increase PA in children (despite gender or ethnicity) during recess time as well as during the rest of the school day. Siahpush, M., J. L. Huberty, et al. (2012). Does the Effect of a School Recess Intervention on Physical Activity Vary by Gender or Race? Results From the Ready for Recess Pilot Study. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice 18(5): 416-422. - This article reports on a study that explored the barriers that prevent parents from allowing their children to commute to school. - The authors used data from parents of school children in Illinois, U.S., as reported in the National Safe Routes to School Parent Surveys. - The study finds that the top barriers for both urban and suburban children were intersection safety and traffic speed/volume. Distance from school had a greater impact on the walking or bicycling to school habits of suburban students compared to urban students. - The authors contend that actively commuting to school gives children the opportunity to explore nature, get exercise, and develop cognitive skills. With the barriers to active commuting to school identified, the Safe Routes to School Programs in Illinois can target their resources effectively to encourage children and their parents to consider walking and biking alternatives for trips to and from school. Fries, R., E. Sykut, et al. (2012). Barriers Influencing Illinois Children School Travel Mode Choices. Advances in Transportation Studies 27. - This study examined the relationship between state laws requiring minimum bussing distances, hazardous route exemptions, sidewalks, crossing guards, speed zones, and traffic control measures around schools and active travel to school (ATS) policies and practices in nationally representative samples of U.S. public elementary schools between 2007–2009. The state laws and school data were compiled through primary legal research and annual mail-back surveys of principals, respectively. - A pooled, cross-sectional analysis examined the relationship between the state laws and the school policies and practices. - A stacked, cross-sectional data set containing 1967 schools over the combined period, 2007–2009, comprised the final study sample (with 578, 749, and 641 schools included in each of the three corresponding study years). - Multivariate logistic and zero-inflated poisson regression indicated that all state law categories (except for sidewalks) relate to ATS. These laws should be considered in addition to formal Safe Routes to School programs as possible influences on ATS. - Nearly 40 percent of schools were located in states with minimum bussing distance requirements; 23.4 percent were located in states with hazardous route exemptions. - More schools allowed all students to walk to school if the state had a minimum bussing distance law of great

ance from school had a greater impact on the walking or bicycling to school habits of suburban students compared to urban students. - The authors contend that actively commuting to school gives children the opportunity to explore nature, get exercise, and develop cognitive skills. With the barriers to active commuting to school identified, the Safe Routes to School Programs in Illinois can target their resources effectively to encourage children and their parents to consider walking and biking alternatives for trips to and from school. Fries, R., E. Sykut, et al. (2012). Barriers Influencing Illinois Children School Travel Mode Choices. Advances in Transportation Studies 27. - This study examined the relationship between state laws requiring minimum bussing distances, hazardous route exemptions, sidewalks, crossing guards, speed zones, and traffic control measures around schools and active travel to school (ATS) policies and practices in nationally representative samples of U.S. public elementary schools between 2007–2009. The state laws and school data were compiled through primary legal research and annual mail-back surveys of principals, respectively. - A pooled, cross-sectional analysis examined the relationship between the state laws and the school policies and practices. - A stacked, cross-sectional data set containing 1967 schools over the combined period, 2007–2009, comprised the final study sample (with 578, 749, and 641 schools included in each of the three corresponding study years). - Multivariate logistic and zero-inflated poisson regression indicated that all state law categories (except for sidewalks) relate to ATS. These laws should be considered in addition to formal Safe Routes to School programs as possible influences on ATS. - Nearly 40 percent of schools were located in states with minimum bussing distance requirements; 23.4 percent were located in states with hazardous route exemptions. - More schools allowed all students to walk to school if the state had a minimum bussing distance law of greater than one mile or a law requiring sidewalks or traffic control measures. - The odds of zero students walking/biking to school were 68 percent lower in states requiring crossing guards and 55 percent lower in states requiring speed zones. Chriqui, JF, Taber, DR, et al. (2012). “The impact of state safe routes to school-related laws on active travel to school policies and practices in U.S. elementary schools.” Health & Place 18(1): 8-15. - Walking and bicycling are important but underused modes of transportation in the United States. Road design influences how much walking and bicycling takes place along streets and roads. Currently, numerous national policy initiatives, including Safe Routes to School and Complete Streets, are attempting to improve pedestrian and bicycling infrastructure and “friendliness.” However, no state has completed a systematic assessment of its streets to determine how amenable they are to walking and bicycling. This statewide study was undertaken to assess how accessible and friendly Hawaii roads are to these 2 activities. - The authors randomly selected street segments in Hawaii’s 4 counties and then completed objective assessments using the Pedestrian Environmental Data Scan. They audited 321 segments, and interrater reliability was adequate across all measures. Streets were coded as high (42.4%) or low capacity (57.6%) depending on how much vehicular traffic the street was designed to accommodate. Outcome measures included street accommodations (ie, sidewalks and crossing aids) and pedestrian and bicyclist use. - Most high-capacity streets had sidewalks (66%). These sidewalks were usually in good condition, contiguous, and had traffic control devices and pedestrian signals. Most low-capacity roads did not have sidewalks (63.4%). Bicycling facilities were limited (<10%) on both types of roads. Pedestrian and bicycle traffic was related to mixed use, including both residential and retail space, and to pedestrian and bicycling infrastructure. - Road segments in Hawaii with more infrastr

er than one mile or a law requiring sidewalks or traffic control measures. - The odds of zero students walking/biking to school were 68 percent lower in states requiring crossing guards and 55 percent lower in states requiring speed zones. Chriqui, JF, Taber, DR, et al. (2012). “The impact of state safe routes to school-related laws on active travel to school policies and practices in U.S. elementary schools.” Health & Place 18(1): 8-15. - Walking and bicycling are important but underused modes of transportation in the United States. Road design influences how much walking and bicycling takes place along streets and roads. Currently, numerous national policy initiatives, including Safe Routes to School and Complete Streets, are attempting to improve pedestrian and bicycling infrastructure and “friendliness.” However, no state has completed a systematic assessment of its streets to determine how amenable they are to walking and bicycling. This statewide study was undertaken to assess how accessible and friendly Hawaii roads are to these 2 activities. - The authors randomly selected street segments in Hawaii’s 4 counties and then completed objective assessments using the Pedestrian Environmental Data Scan. They audited 321 segments, and interrater reliability was adequate across all measures. Streets were coded as high (42.4%) or low capacity (57.6%) depending on how much vehicular traffic the street was designed to accommodate. Outcome measures included street accommodations (ie, sidewalks and crossing aids) and pedestrian and bicyclist use. - Most high-capacity streets had sidewalks (66%). These sidewalks were usually in good condition, contiguous, and had traffic control devices and pedestrian signals. Most low-capacity roads did not have sidewalks (63.4%). Bicycling facilities were limited (<10%) on both types of roads. Pedestrian and bicycle traffic was related to mixed use, including both residential and retail space, and to pedestrian and bicycling infrastructure. - Road segments in Hawaii with more infrastructure and types of use, including single-family houses, apartment complexes, restaurants, office buildings, and industrial buildings, are used more by pedestrians and bicyclists. Maddock JE, Ramirez V, Heinrich KM, Zhang M, Brunner IM. (2012). “A Statewide Observational Assessment of the Pedestrian and Cycling Environment in Hawaii, 2010.” Preventing Chronic Disease. - This paper examines parents' responses to key factors associated with mode choices for school trips. The research was conducted with parents of elementary school students in Denver Colorado as part of a larger investigation of school travel. - School-based active travel programs aim to encourage students to walk or bike to school more frequently. To that end, planning research has identified an array of factors associated with parents' decisions to drive children to school. Many findings are interpreted as ‘barriers’ to active travel, implying that parents have similar objectives with respect to travel mode choices and that parents respond similarly and consistently to external conditions. While the conclusions are appropriate in forecasting demand and mode share with large populations, they are generally too coarse for programs that aim to influence travel behavior with individuals and small groups. - This research uses content analysis of interview transcripts to examine the contexts of factors associated with parents' mode choices for trips to and from elementary school. Short, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 65 parents from 12 Denver Public Elementary Schools that had been selected to receive 2007–08 Safe Routes to School non-infrastructure grants. Transcripts were analyzed using Nvivo 8.0 to find out how parents respond to selected factors that are often described in planning literature as ‘barriers’ to active travel. - Regular active travel appears to diminish parents' perceptions of barriers so that negotiation becomes second nature. Findings from this study suggest that intervention should build capacity and inclination in o

ucture and types of use, including single-family houses, apartment complexes, restaurants, office buildings, and industrial buildings, are used more by pedestrians and bicyclists. Maddock JE, Ramirez V, Heinrich KM, Zhang M, Brunner IM. (2012). “A Statewide Observational Assessment of the Pedestrian and Cycling Environment in Hawaii, 2010.” Preventing Chronic Disease. - This paper examines parents' responses to key factors associated with mode choices for school trips. The research was conducted with parents of elementary school students in Denver Colorado as part of a larger investigation of school travel. - School-based active travel programs aim to encourage students to walk or bike to school more frequently. To that end, planning research has identified an array of factors associated with parents' decisions to drive children to school. Many findings are interpreted as ‘barriers’ to active travel, implying that parents have similar objectives with respect to travel mode choices and that parents respond similarly and consistently to external conditions. While the conclusions are appropriate in forecasting demand and mode share with large populations, they are generally too coarse for programs that aim to influence travel behavior with individuals and small groups. - This research uses content analysis of interview transcripts to examine the contexts of factors associated with parents' mode choices for trips to and from elementary school. Short, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 65 parents from 12 Denver Public Elementary Schools that had been selected to receive 2007–08 Safe Routes to School non-infrastructure grants. Transcripts were analyzed using Nvivo 8.0 to find out how parents respond to selected factors that are often described in planning literature as ‘barriers’ to active travel. - Regular active travel appears to diminish parents' perceptions of barriers so that negotiation becomes second nature. Findings from this study suggest that intervention should build capacity and inclination in order to increase rates of active travel. Zuniga, Kelly Draper. (2012). “From Barrier Elimination to Barrier Negotiation: A Qualitative Study of Parents’ Attitudes about Active Travel for Elementary School Trips” Transport Policy 20: 75–81. - Despite efforts to combat increasing rates of childhood obesity, the problem is worsening. Safe Routes to School (SRTS), an international movement motivated by the childhood obesity epidemic, seeks to increase the number of children actively commuting (walking or biking) to school by funding projects that remove barriers preventing them from doing so. This article summarizes the evaluation of the first phase of an ongoing SRTS program in California and discusses ways to enhance data collection. - There is no requirement for funded SRTS programs to submit evaluation data to the California Department of Public Health, but some supply information on a voluntary basis. This study used de-identified data sent to the University of California, San Francisco. The information was on children's school transport modes and parents’ views on active commuting from the Arrival and Departure Tally Sheet and Parent Survey about Walking and Biking to School, instruments developed by the SRTS national center. - As of October 2010, 20% (n = 42) of grantees from 219 federally funded programs in California had voluntarily submitted evaluation data pertaining to 392 schools, including 63,078 unique parent records. - Findings: Regardless of weather conditions, day of week, or time of day, the relative pattern of school transport mode was consistent. A majority of children commuted in their family vehicle, and smaller percentages of children walked, carpooled, took the school bus, biked, or used public transportation. Chaufan, C., Yeh, J., Fox, P. (2012). “The Safe Routes to School Program in California: An Update.” American Journal of Public Health 102(6): e8–e11 - Researchers examined the extent to which differential traffic volume and road geometry can explain social inequalities in pedestrian, cyc

rder to increase rates of active travel. Zuniga, Kelly Draper. (2012). “From Barrier Elimination to Barrier Negotiation: A Qualitative Study of Parents’ Attitudes about Active Travel for Elementary School Trips” Transport Policy 20: 75–81. - Despite efforts to combat increasing rates of childhood obesity, the problem is worsening. Safe Routes to School (SRTS), an international movement motivated by the childhood obesity epidemic, seeks to increase the number of children actively commuting (walking or biking) to school by funding projects that remove barriers preventing them from doing so. This article summarizes the evaluation of the first phase of an ongoing SRTS program in California and discusses ways to enhance data collection. - There is no requirement for funded SRTS programs to submit evaluation data to the California Department of Public Health, but some supply information on a voluntary basis. This study used de-identified data sent to the University of California, San Francisco. The information was on children's school transport modes and parents’ views on active commuting from the Arrival and Departure Tally Sheet and Parent Survey about Walking and Biking to School, instruments developed by the SRTS national center. - As of October 2010, 20% (n = 42) of grantees from 219 federally funded programs in California had voluntarily submitted evaluation data pertaining to 392 schools, including 63,078 unique parent records. - Findings: Regardless of weather conditions, day of week, or time of day, the relative pattern of school transport mode was consistent. A majority of children commuted in their family vehicle, and smaller percentages of children walked, carpooled, took the school bus, biked, or used public transportation. Chaufan, C., Yeh, J., Fox, P. (2012). “The Safe Routes to School Program in California: An Update.” American Journal of Public Health 102(6): e8–e11 - Researchers examined the extent to which differential traffic volume and road geometry can explain social inequalities in pedestrian, cyclist, and motor vehicle occupant injuries across wealthy and poor urban areas. - They performed a multilevel observational study of all road users injured over 5 years (n = 19 568) at intersections (n = 17 498) in a large urban area (Island of Montreal, Canada). They considered intersection-level (traffic estimates, major roads, number of legs) and area-level (population density, commuting travel modes, household income) characteristics in multilevel Poisson regressions that nested intersections in 506 census tracts. - There were significantly more injured pedestrians, cyclists, and motor vehicle occupants at intersections in the poorest than in the richest areas. Controlling for traffic volume, intersection geometry, and pedestrian and cyclist volumes greatly attenuated the event rate ratios between intersections in the poorest and richest areas for injured pedestrians (−70%), cyclists (−44%), and motor vehicle occupants (−44%). - Roadway environment can explain a substantial portion of the excess rate of road traffic injuries in the poorest urban areas. Morency, P., L. Gauvin, et al. (2012). "Neighborhood Social Inequalities in Road Traffic Injuries: The Influence of Traffic Volume and Road Design." American Journal of Public Health 102(6): 1112-1119. - Although a health impact assessment (HIA) is a tool that can provide decision makers with recommendations to promote positive health impacts and mitigate adverse health impacts of proposed projects and policies, it is not routinely conducted on most major projects or policies. - To make health a decision criterion for the Atlanta BeltLine, a multibillion-dollar transit, trails, parks, and redevelopment project, a HIA was conducted in 2005–2007 to anticipate and influence the BeltLine's effect on health determinants. - Changes in access and equity, environmental quality, safety, social capital, and physical activity were forecast, and steps to maximize health benefits and reduce negative effects were recommended. - Key recommendations included giving priority to

list, and motor vehicle occupant injuries across wealthy and poor urban areas. - They performed a multilevel observational study of all road users injured over 5 years (n = 19 568) at intersections (n = 17 498) in a large urban area (Island of Montreal, Canada). They considered intersection-level (traffic estimates, major roads, number of legs) and area-level (population density, commuting travel modes, household income) characteristics in multilevel Poisson regressions that nested intersections in 506 census tracts. - There were significantly more injured pedestrians, cyclists, and motor vehicle occupants at intersections in the poorest than in the richest areas. Controlling for traffic volume, intersection geometry, and pedestrian and cyclist volumes greatly attenuated the event rate ratios between intersections in the poorest and richest areas for injured pedestrians (−70%), cyclists (−44%), and motor vehicle occupants (−44%). - Roadway environment can explain a substantial portion of the excess rate of road traffic injuries in the poorest urban areas. Morency, P., L. Gauvin, et al. (2012). "Neighborhood Social Inequalities in Road Traffic Injuries: The Influence of Traffic Volume and Road Design." American Journal of Public Health 102(6): 1112-1119. - Although a health impact assessment (HIA) is a tool that can provide decision makers with recommendations to promote positive health impacts and mitigate adverse health impacts of proposed projects and policies, it is not routinely conducted on most major projects or policies. - To make health a decision criterion for the Atlanta BeltLine, a multibillion-dollar transit, trails, parks, and redevelopment project, a HIA was conducted in 2005–2007 to anticipate and influence the BeltLine's effect on health determinants. - Changes in access and equity, environmental quality, safety, social capital, and physical activity were forecast, and steps to maximize health benefits and reduce negative effects were recommended. - Key recommendations included giving priority to the construction of trails and greenspace rather than residential and retail construction, making health an explicit goal in project priority setting, adding a public health professional to decision-making boards, increasing the connectivity between the BeltLine and civic spaces, and ensuring that affordable housing is built. BeltLine project decision makers have incorporated most of the HIA recommendations into the planning process. The HIA was cited in the awarding of additional funds of $7,000,000 for brownfield clean-up and greenspace development. The project is expected to promote the health of local residents more than in the absence of the HIA. - This report is one of the first HIAs to tie specific assessment findings to specific recommendations and to identifiable impacts from those recommendations. The lessons learned from this project may help others engaged in similar efforts. Ross, C. L., K. Leone de Nie, et al. (2012). "Health Impact Assessment of the Atlanta BeltLine." American journal of preventive medicine 42(3): 203-213. - Few adolescents choose to cycle to school in the UK despite the potential health and environmental benefits of the activity. This study sets out to establish the psychological, social and environmental barriers that affect an adolescent's decision to cycle to school. - Two cross-sectional surveys were distributed, one to pupils aged 11–14 years and one to their parents. Respondents were drawn from a state school for 11–16-year olds in the south of England. Using a Likert scale, respondents were asked to rate barriers to cycling. Fifty-two per cent responded, with 62 households returning both questionnaires. - Using logistical regression analysis, the investigation found that the probability of a pupil cycling to school decreased when they did not have a friend who cycled to school. Other variables that showed a decreased probability of a child cycling to school were linked to either safety or social issues. - The findings of this research suggest that social support and road sa

the construction of trails and greenspace rather than residential and retail construction, making health an explicit goal in project priority setting, adding a public health professional to decision-making boards, increasing the connectivity between the BeltLine and civic spaces, and ensuring that affordable housing is built. BeltLine project decision makers have incorporated most of the HIA recommendations into the planning process. The HIA was cited in the awarding of additional funds of $7,000,000 for brownfield clean-up and greenspace development. The project is expected to promote the health of local residents more than in the absence of the HIA. - This report is one of the first HIAs to tie specific assessment findings to specific recommendations and to identifiable impacts from those recommendations. The lessons learned from this project may help others engaged in similar efforts. Ross, C. L., K. Leone de Nie, et al. (2012). "Health Impact Assessment of the Atlanta BeltLine." American journal of preventive medicine 42(3): 203-213. - Few adolescents choose to cycle to school in the UK despite the potential health and environmental benefits of the activity. This study sets out to establish the psychological, social and environmental barriers that affect an adolescent's decision to cycle to school. - Two cross-sectional surveys were distributed, one to pupils aged 11–14 years and one to their parents. Respondents were drawn from a state school for 11–16-year olds in the south of England. Using a Likert scale, respondents were asked to rate barriers to cycling. Fifty-two per cent responded, with 62 households returning both questionnaires. - Using logistical regression analysis, the investigation found that the probability of a pupil cycling to school decreased when they did not have a friend who cycled to school. Other variables that showed a decreased probability of a child cycling to school were linked to either safety or social issues. - The findings of this research suggest that social support and road safety could be important predictors for adolescent cycling behavior. Recommendations include promoting initiatives that facilitate social interaction and cyclist safety at the school. Benson, J. and A. Scriven (2012). "Psychological, social and environmental barriers to cycling to school." International Journal of Health Promotion and Education 50(1): 34-44. - Walking school buses (WSB) increased children's physical activity, but impact on pedestrian safety behaviors (PSB) is unknown. - This pilot study demonstrated the feasibility of collecting school-level pedestrian safety behavior outcomes and changes to those outcomes during a WSB program study. - The WSB was associated with more children crossing at an intersection, but fewer children fully stopping at the curb. These mixed results suggest modification to the WSB program may be necessary in order to improve children's pedestrian safety behaviors on the walk to and from school. - Further WSB studies, preferably fully powered experimental trials that longitudinally follow participants' pedestrian safety behaviors in the long term, should be conducted in a variety of settings among diverse populations to formally evaluate pedestrian safety and physical activity outcomes. Moreover, studies that examine the influence of the built environment, use objective measures of neighborhood safety, and consider vehicular traffic are also necessary to evaluate their influences on the WSB and children's pedestrian safety. Mendoza, J. A., K. Watson, et al. (2012). "Impact of a pilot walking school bus intervention on children's pedestrian safety behaviors: A pilot study." Health & Place 18(1): 24-30. - The school setting could be a primary venue for promoting physical activity among inner-city children due to the structured natured of the school day. The authors examined differences in step counts between structured school days (SSD) and weekend days (WED) among a sample of public school children in Washington, DC. - Subjects (N = 29) were third- to sixth-grade students enrol

fety could be important predictors for adolescent cycling behavior. Recommendations include promoting initiatives that facilitate social interaction and cyclist safety at the school. Benson, J. and A. Scriven (2012). "Psychological, social and environmental barriers to cycling to school." International Journal of Health Promotion and Education 50(1): 34-44. - Walking school buses (WSB) increased children's physical activity, but impact on pedestrian safety behaviors (PSB) is unknown. - This pilot study demonstrated the feasibility of collecting school-level pedestrian safety behavior outcomes and changes to those outcomes during a WSB program study. - The WSB was associated with more children crossing at an intersection, but fewer children fully stopping at the curb. These mixed results suggest modification to the WSB program may be necessary in order to improve children's pedestrian safety behaviors on the walk to and from school. - Further WSB studies, preferably fully powered experimental trials that longitudinally follow participants' pedestrian safety behaviors in the long term, should be conducted in a variety of settings among diverse populations to formally evaluate pedestrian safety and physical activity outcomes. Moreover, studies that examine the influence of the built environment, use objective measures of neighborhood safety, and consider vehicular traffic are also necessary to evaluate their influences on the WSB and children's pedestrian safety. Mendoza, J. A., K. Watson, et al. (2012). "Impact of a pilot walking school bus intervention on children's pedestrian safety behaviors: A pilot study." Health & Place 18(1): 24-30. - The school setting could be a primary venue for promoting physical activity among inner-city children due to the structured natured of the school day. The authors examined differences in step counts between structured school days (SSD) and weekend days (WED) among a sample of public school children in Washington, DC. - Subjects (N = 29) were third- to sixth-grade students enrolled in government-funded, extended-day enrichment programs. Step counts were measured using a pedometer (Bodytronics) over 2 SSD and 2 WED. Differences in mean step counts between SSD and WED were determined using multivariable linear regression, with adjustments for age, sex, and reported distance between house and school (miles). - Recorded step counts were low on both SSD and WED (7735 ± 3540 and 8339 ± 5314 steps/day). Boys tended to record more steps on SSD compared with girls (8080 ± 3141 vs. 7491 ± 3872 steps/day, respectively), whereas girls recorded more steps on the WED compared with boys (9292 ± 6381 vs. 7194 ± 3669 steps/day). Parameter estimates from the regression modeling suggest distance from school (P < .01) to be the strongest predictor of daily step counts, independent of day (SSD/WED), sex, and age. - Among inner-city school children, a safe walking route to and from school may provide an important opportunity for daily physical activity. Goodman, E., W. Evans, et al. (2012). “Preliminary Evidence for School-Based Physical Activity Policy Needs in Washington, DC.” Journal of Physical Activity & Health 9(1): 124-128. - In 2005, the United States Congress authorized $612 million for use in implementing the US Safe Routes to School program to address physical inactivity, air quality, safety and traffic near schools. - Each US state developed administrative practices to implement the program. Based on state-specific annual obligations, on average, states have obligated 44% of available funds. - State project obligations were directly associated with programmatic factors, including broader adherence to federal agency administrative guidance objectives and the number of years for which the states obligated new projects and indirectly associated with student enrollment and state child poverty. - Overall, $221,229,427 was obligated to implement 2298 SRTS projects in the 50 US states during fiscal years 2005–2009. - Implementation increased across the fiscal years: $4.99 million was obligated for 6 pro

led in government-funded, extended-day enrichment programs. Step counts were measured using a pedometer (Bodytronics) over 2 SSD and 2 WED. Differences in mean step counts between SSD and WED were determined using multivariable linear regression, with adjustments for age, sex, and reported distance between house and school (miles). - Recorded step counts were low on both SSD and WED (7735 ± 3540 and 8339 ± 5314 steps/day). Boys tended to record more steps on SSD compared with girls (8080 ± 3141 vs. 7491 ± 3872 steps/day, respectively), whereas girls recorded more steps on the WED compared with boys (9292 ± 6381 vs. 7194 ± 3669 steps/day). Parameter estimates from the regression modeling suggest distance from school (P < .01) to be the strongest predictor of daily step counts, independent of day (SSD/WED), sex, and age. - Among inner-city school children, a safe walking route to and from school may provide an important opportunity for daily physical activity. Goodman, E., W. Evans, et al. (2012). “Preliminary Evidence for School-Based Physical Activity Policy Needs in Washington, DC.” Journal of Physical Activity & Health 9(1): 124-128. - In 2005, the United States Congress authorized $612 million for use in implementing the US Safe Routes to School program to address physical inactivity, air quality, safety and traffic near schools. - Each US state developed administrative practices to implement the program. Based on state-specific annual obligations, on average, states have obligated 44% of available funds. - State project obligations were directly associated with programmatic factors, including broader adherence to federal agency administrative guidance objectives and the number of years for which the states obligated new projects and indirectly associated with student enrollment and state child poverty. - Overall, $221,229,427 was obligated to implement 2298 SRTS projects in the 50 US states during fiscal years 2005–2009. - Implementation increased across the fiscal years: $4.99 million was obligated for 6 projects in 2005, $22.09 million for 141 projects in 2006, $45.75 million for 344 projects in 2007, $71.97 million for 949 projects in 2008 and $76.43 million for 858 projects in 2009. Overall percentage increase in obligations between 2006, the first full year of funding, and 2009 was 246%, with annual percentage increase in obligations ranging from 6% (FY2009) to 343% (FY2006). - On average, states obligated 44% of available funding (range 6–100%). Average per student obligation was $11.07 (range $0.83–$68.05). - Four states had no county-specific obligations; funding in these states was obligated only to statewide or multi-county projects during the reporting period. Four states had no non-core, rural counties. - Only 12 states (24%) obligated 50% or more of funds within counties in their state that had child poverty rates above the county median poverty rate for their state. - Finally, 33 states (66%) made progress on the promotion of comprehensive SRTS programs and activities via state or local practices encouraging the obligation of funding for both infrastructure and non-infrastructure projects. Cradock, A. L., B. Fields, et al. (2012). "Program practices and demographic factors associated with federal funding for the Safe Routes to School program in the United States." Health & Place 18(1): 16-23. - This study provided insights on how individual activity-travel patterns of adults were impacted by whether they lived with children or not. - This cross-sectional study used the 2006 Puget Sound Regional Council Household Activity and Travel Survey data to investigate activity-travel patterns of 7,709 individual adults living in the Puget Sound Region, Washington. Multilevel regression models with the individual as the first level and the household as a second level were developed. - With one-third of the participants living with children, the results showed that individuals who lived with children made 20% more non-work trips than those who did not live with children. There was no significant difference between

jects in 2005, $22.09 million for 141 projects in 2006, $45.75 million for 344 projects in 2007, $71.97 million for 949 projects in 2008 and $76.43 million for 858 projects in 2009. Overall percentage increase in obligations between 2006, the first full year of funding, and 2009 was 246%, with annual percentage increase in obligations ranging from 6% (FY2009) to 343% (FY2006). - On average, states obligated 44% of available funding (range 6–100%). Average per student obligation was $11.07 (range $0.83–$68.05). - Four states had no county-specific obligations; funding in these states was obligated only to statewide or multi-county projects during the reporting period. Four states had no non-core, rural counties. - Only 12 states (24%) obligated 50% or more of funds within counties in their state that had child poverty rates above the county median poverty rate for their state. - Finally, 33 states (66%) made progress on the promotion of comprehensive SRTS programs and activities via state or local practices encouraging the obligation of funding for both infrastructure and non-infrastructure projects. Cradock, A. L., B. Fields, et al. (2012). "Program practices and demographic factors associated with federal funding for the Safe Routes to School program in the United States." Health & Place 18(1): 16-23. - This study provided insights on how individual activity-travel patterns of adults were impacted by whether they lived with children or not. - This cross-sectional study used the 2006 Puget Sound Regional Council Household Activity and Travel Survey data to investigate activity-travel patterns of 7,709 individual adults living in the Puget Sound Region, Washington. Multilevel regression models with the individual as the first level and the household as a second level were developed. - With one-third of the participants living with children, the results showed that individuals who lived with children made 20% more non-work trips than those who did not live with children. There was no significant difference between the two groups in terms of size of activity realm. - Whether individuals lived with children or not was found to be an insignificant variable to predict individual automobile dependence. - The impact of residential density on parents was not different from that of non-parents. Interactions between gender, work status, and whether adults lived with children or not, revealed complex travel patterns according to different population subgroups. - Women who worked part time and lived with children made the second highest number of non-work trips after women who were unemployed and lived with children. Men who worked part time and lived with children had the largest individual activity realm. Interestingly, men who did not work but lived with children traveled the least. Lin, L. and A. V. Moudon (2012). The Impacts of Children on the Activity-Travel Patterns of Adults. Paper for the 91st Annual Meeting of the TRB, Washington, DC, January 2012. - Although being active is vital to the health and well-being of children, increases in physical activity can lead to an elevated risk of injury, which is a leading cause of childhood mortality globally. - This article provides an overview of the evidence base concerning unintentional injuries associated with popular forms of physical activities for youth, and describes how injury prevention and child obesity professionals can work together to prevent injuries while promoting active lifestyles. - Policy and environmental interventions that are beneficial to both outcomes are highlighted and recommendations for future research for these complementary areas are also provided. Pollack, K. M., C. Kercher, et al. (2012). "Toward environments and policies that promote injury-free active living—it wouldn't hurt." Health & Place 18(1): 106-114. The Safe Routes to School National Partnership has identified several critical areas where additional research is needed. Our meetings with state and federal policy makers and funders have revealed that quantifying these issues will be important f

the two groups in terms of size of activity realm. - Whether individuals lived with children or not was found to be an insignificant variable to predict individual automobile dependence. - The impact of residential density on parents was not different from that of non-parents. Interactions between gender, work status, and whether adults lived with children or not, revealed complex travel patterns according to different population subgroups. - Women who worked part time and lived with children made the second highest number of non-work trips after women who were unemployed and lived with children. Men who worked part time and lived with children had the largest individual activity realm. Interestingly, men who did not work but lived with children traveled the least. Lin, L. and A. V. Moudon (2012). The Impacts of Children on the Activity-Travel Patterns of Adults. Paper for the 91st Annual Meeting of the TRB, Washington, DC, January 2012. - Although being active is vital to the health and well-being of children, increases in physical activity can lead to an elevated risk of injury, which is a leading cause of childhood mortality globally. - This article provides an overview of the evidence base concerning unintentional injuries associated with popular forms of physical activities for youth, and describes how injury prevention and child obesity professionals can work together to prevent injuries while promoting active lifestyles. - Policy and environmental interventions that are beneficial to both outcomes are highlighted and recommendations for future research for these complementary areas are also provided. Pollack, K. M., C. Kercher, et al. (2012). "Toward environments and policies that promote injury-free active living—it wouldn't hurt." Health & Place 18(1): 106-114. The Safe Routes to School National Partnership has identified several critical areas where additional research is needed. Our meetings with state and federal policy makers and funders have revealed that quantifying these issues will be important for the future of Safe Routes to School. Quantifying the Economic Benefits and a Cost/Benefit Analysis of Safe Routes to School Research that codifies the financial benefits of SRTS is greatly needed in the US and would be valuable for advocates as they make their case before policy makers for more funding for SRTS. A cost benefit analysis is also needed, including the creation of jobs, driving costs / busing costs saved, safety savings, and physical activity and air quality benefits. Similar research has already taken place in the UK; however, US policy makers want US research. Sustrans’(UK) Research and Monitoring Unit, working with partners at Bolton University and the Institute for Transport Studies at Leeds University, have produced leading guidance into the appraisal of cycling and walking schemes for the Department for Transport. The guidance enables a monetary valuation to be placed on the costs and benefits of projects like new cycling and walking routes and other features such as road crossings. For a full summary and an explanation of the analysis used, please review the Sustrans methodology report. Linking Physical Activity to Academic Performance and Attendance Schools and education partners frequently request research showing the connection between physical activity, academic performance, behavior and attendance. This is particularly important as school budgets are shrinking and schools are focused on test scores. As we seek to increase collaboration between the public health, school and transportation sectors, more research at multiple sites is needed for substantiating ties between walking and bicycling to school and increased levels of academic performance, attendance and behavior. Such research is also necessary to the school siting debate. State and local-level decisions regarding where schools are built have significant impacts on whether homes are located within walking and bicycling distance of schools. And as a result of No Child Left Behind, the main focus of Departments of Education is on

or the future of Safe Routes to School. Quantifying the Economic Benefits and a Cost/Benefit Analysis of Safe Routes to School Research that codifies the financial benefits of SRTS is greatly needed in the US and would be valuable for advocates as they make their case before policy makers for more funding for SRTS. A cost benefit analysis is also needed, including the creation of jobs, driving costs / busing costs saved, safety savings, and physical activity and air quality benefits. Similar research has already taken place in the UK; however, US policy makers want US research. Sustrans’(UK) Research and Monitoring Unit, working with partners at Bolton University and the Institute for Transport Studies at Leeds University, have produced leading guidance into the appraisal of cycling and walking schemes for the Department for Transport. The guidance enables a monetary valuation to be placed on the costs and benefits of projects like new cycling and walking routes and other features such as road crossings. For a full summary and an explanation of the analysis used, please review the Sustrans methodology report. Linking Physical Activity to Academic Performance and Attendance Schools and education partners frequently request research showing the connection between physical activity, academic performance, behavior and attendance. This is particularly important as school budgets are shrinking and schools are focused on test scores. As we seek to increase collaboration between the public health, school and transportation sectors, more research at multiple sites is needed for substantiating ties between walking and bicycling to school and increased levels of academic performance, attendance and behavior. Such research is also necessary to the school siting debate. State and local-level decisions regarding where schools are built have significant impacts on whether homes are located within walking and bicycling distance of schools. And as a result of No Child Left Behind, the main focus of Departments of Education is on academic performance. We need research in the United States that assesses the direct ties that SRTS has to academic performance, attendance and behavior. A recent European study shows that girls who walk or bike to school do better academically: http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6B74C520101208. School Siting Cost Benefit Analysis A cost-benefit analysis studying school siting is needed, as there is a move across the country to consolidate schools and build them further outside communities, where students cannot bicycle or walk to schools. The percentage of children who live within a mile of school has declined from 41% in 1969 to 31% in 2009. When a school district is making school siting decisions, costs of land and infrastructure are the most obvious considerations, but “hidden” costs such as the impact of a school site on bus transportation costs and traffic congestion are not frequently considered. A cost-benefit analysis that captures the true breadth of costs and benefits deriving from school sites close to children being served versus school sites on the outskirts would be extremely useful for school systems. Such a study would include capital costs, long-term busing costs, infrastructure, maintenance, crashes, congestion, air quality, obesity, etc. Quantifying Calories Burned and Minutes of Physical Activity through Active Transportation to School It is difficult to measure the amount of calories burned and minutes of physical activity gained through walking and bicycling to and from school because these figures depend on distance traveled, speed/intensity of travel, and the age and weight of the child. To be able to compare walking and bicycling to school with other health and obesity interventions—such as increasing P.E. classes or cutting back on sugary foods—requires additional research on the average calories burned and minutes of physical activity gained during an active commute to and from school. Such a study could use accelerometers or similar technology. Assessing Safety Improvements and Mod

academic performance. We need research in the United States that assesses the direct ties that SRTS has to academic performance, attendance and behavior. A recent European study shows that girls who walk or bike to school do better academically: http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6B74C520101208. School Siting Cost Benefit Analysis A cost-benefit analysis studying school siting is needed, as there is a move across the country to consolidate schools and build them further outside communities, where students cannot bicycle or walk to schools. The percentage of children who live within a mile of school has declined from 41% in 1969 to 31% in 2009. When a school district is making school siting decisions, costs of land and infrastructure are the most obvious considerations, but “hidden” costs such as the impact of a school site on bus transportation costs and traffic congestion are not frequently considered. A cost-benefit analysis that captures the true breadth of costs and benefits deriving from school sites close to children being served versus school sites on the outskirts would be extremely useful for school systems. Such a study would include capital costs, long-term busing costs, infrastructure, maintenance, crashes, congestion, air quality, obesity, etc. Quantifying Calories Burned and Minutes of Physical Activity through Active Transportation to School It is difficult to measure the amount of calories burned and minutes of physical activity gained through walking and bicycling to and from school because these figures depend on distance traveled, speed/intensity of travel, and the age and weight of the child. To be able to compare walking and bicycling to school with other health and obesity interventions—such as increasing P.E. classes or cutting back on sugary foods—requires additional research on the average calories burned and minutes of physical activity gained during an active commute to and from school. Such a study could use accelerometers or similar technology. Assessing Safety Improvements and Mode Shift from Safe Routes to School Past research in the transportation field has demonstrated the safety benefits of infrastructure improvements such as sidewalks and crosswalks. From this, we can presume that similar infrastructure improvements installed through Safe Routes to School will improve safety. The state of California also conducted a statewide evaluation of its state Safe Routes to School funds that found that Safe Routes to School did improve safety and rates of walking and bicycling. However, we need more definitive studies that cross different types of communities to demonstrate the impact of Safe Routes to School on safety and mode shift. The majority of Safe Routes to School studies focus on results from one school or one community. A multi-site evaluation study is needed to help understand the true impact of Safe Routes to School, and how impacts vary across different types of settings, population and geographies. Delving into the National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) Data from the 2009 NHTS shows that driving to school has increased from 12.2 percent in 1969 to 44.3 percent in 2009. Based on this, an important research need is for the NHTS data to be cross referenced with program evaluation data from communities that are running Safe Routes to School programs. Cross-referencing this data can help make the case that while the number of people driving their children to school may have risen overall at the national level, if compared to the 5% of schools participating in Safe Routes to School nationwide, a reversal of the national trend is possible. Use of data generated through the federal parent surveys and student tallies would demonstrate to Congress that SRTS is an evidence-based solution to changing transportation patterns to school, while accentuating the need for more funding to make SRTS available to a greater percentage of schools nationwide. Assessing the Impact of Safe Routes to School on Neighborhood Crime Parents often identify fear of neighborhood crime as one reason why they do n

e Shift from Safe Routes to School Past research in the transportation field has demonstrated the safety benefits of infrastructure improvements such as sidewalks and crosswalks. From this, we can presume that similar infrastructure improvements installed through Safe Routes to School will improve safety. The state of California also conducted a statewide evaluation of its state Safe Routes to School funds that found that Safe Routes to School did improve safety and rates of walking and bicycling. However, we need more definitive studies that cross different types of communities to demonstrate the impact of Safe Routes to School on safety and mode shift. The majority of Safe Routes to School studies focus on results from one school or one community. A multi-site evaluation study is needed to help understand the true impact of Safe Routes to School, and how impacts vary across different types of settings, population and geographies. Delving into the National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) Data from the 2009 NHTS shows that driving to school has increased from 12.2 percent in 1969 to 44.3 percent in 2009. Based on this, an important research need is for the NHTS data to be cross referenced with program evaluation data from communities that are running Safe Routes to School programs. Cross-referencing this data can help make the case that while the number of people driving their children to school may have risen overall at the national level, if compared to the 5% of schools participating in Safe Routes to School nationwide, a reversal of the national trend is possible. Use of data generated through the federal parent surveys and student tallies would demonstrate to Congress that SRTS is an evidence-based solution to changing transportation patterns to school, while accentuating the need for more funding to make SRTS available to a greater percentage of schools nationwide. Assessing the Impact of Safe Routes to School on Neighborhood Crime Parents often identify fear of neighborhood crime as one reason why they do not allow children to walk and bicycle to and from school. Safe Routes to School advocates assert that increasing walking and bicycling to school can build social interactions with neighbors, create a sense of community, and reduce crime and fears about crime due to the increased number of people out on the street during the commute to and from school. However, academic research in this area is hard to come by. It would be beneficial to be able to show the broader neighborhood benefits of Safe Routes to School on neighborhood crime. Determining if Safe Routes to School Behaviors Influence Parents Some Safe Routes to School programs report anecdotally that getting more children to walk and bicycle can also have an impact on parental behaviors. As a result of their student(s) participating in a SRTS program, parents may walk and bicycle more themselves, and try to avoid the car for short family and personal trips, increasing opportunities for physical activity for the whole family, while reducing traffic congestion. Parents may also walk or bicycle with their children, getting more exercise themselves, impacting their personal health and physical activity levels. However, these reports are anecdotal and there is no research we are aware of examining systematic changes in transportation behavior that could be attributed as further benefits for Safe Routes to School programs.

ot allow children to walk and bicycle to and from school. Safe Routes to School advocates assert that increasing walking and bicycling to school can build social interactions with neighbors, create a sense of community, and reduce crime and fears about crime due to the increased number of people out on the street during the commute to and from school. However, academic research in this area is hard to come by. It would be beneficial to be able to show the broader neighborhood benefits of Safe Routes to School on neighborhood crime. Determining if Safe Routes to School Behaviors Influence Parents Some Safe Routes to School programs report anecdotally that getting more children to walk and bicycle can also have an impact on parental behaviors. As a result of their student(s) participating in a SRTS program, parents may walk and bicycle more themselves, and try to avoid the car for short family and personal trips, increasing opportunities for physical activity for the whole family, while reducing traffic congestion. Parents may also walk or bicycle with their children, getting more exercise themselves, impacting their personal health and physical activity levels. However, these reports are anecdotal and there is no research we are aware of examining systematic changes in transportation behavior that could be attributed as further benefits for Safe Routes to School programs.

Some time back, I wrote about what you need to make a quantum computer. Given that it’s election season, I thought I’d revisit the topic by looking in detail at the candidate technologies for quantum computing. The first up is Ion Trap Quantum Computing, probably the most well-established of any of the candidates. The field really starts with Dave Wineland’s group at NIST, though there is outstanding stuff being done by Chris Monroe at Maryland, and a host of others. So, how do they stack up? Here are the facts about ion traps as a quantum computing system: What’s the system? Ion traps are, as the name suggests, devices for trapping atoms that have lost one or more electrons. They use the fact that these ions interact very strongly with electric fields to confine them to small volumes using high-voltage electrodes. Once they’re stuck in the trap, the ions can be cooled to very low temperatures using laser cooling. Laser cooling was actually first demonstrated with ions, by the Wineland group– cooling of neutral atoms came later. What’s the qubit? The two states needed for computation (“0” and “1”) are two energy levels of the ion. Generally, these are two hyperfine levels of the ground state. These states are generally separated by a small amount of energy, and thus have extremely long lifetimes, long enough that you don’t need to worry about one spontaneously decaying to the other. The exact choice of states is different for different experiments. How do you manipulate the qubits? In order to do quantum computation, you need to be able to manipulate the states of individual ions. This is done by hitting them with lasers tuned to drive transitions between states. Generally, this is done via “Raman transitions,” which use two lasers with very slightly different frequencies to make a coherent two-photon transition between states. The basic idea is that one photon excites the ion to a high energy state (much higher than either the “0” or “1” states), while the second causes stimulated emission back down into the other of the two computation states. This isn’t quite right– the atoms is never actually in the upper state– but it gets the idea. You can use this Raman technique to do any excitation you want. You can take an ion in “0” and move it to “1,” you can take an ion in “1” and move it to “0,” or you can take an ion in either “0” or “1” and move it into an arbitrary superposition of “0” and “1” at the same time. It’s all a matter of timing– by leaving the lasers on for different amounts of time, you make different states. How do you entangle the qubits? The ion trap system offers a novel method for entangling separated bits. In addition to the quantized internal states of the ions, the traps allow collective modes. If you have two or more ions in a trap, they can be sloshing back and forth in the trap in a couple of different ways. This motion is also quantized. So, if you want to entangle two bits– say, the first one, and the fourth– you can do it using the collective motion as a “data bus.” You do an operation that puts the collective motion into a state that depends on the state of the first bit– not moving if the state is “0,” moving if the state is “1.” Then you do an operation on the fourth bit that depends on the state of the motion– flip the bit if the ions are moving, or leave it alone if they’re not. Then you stop the collective motion. You now have a system in which the state of the fourth ion depends on the state of the first ion. If the fourth ion started as a “0,” it’s a “1” if the first bit was a “1” and a “0” if the first bit was a “0.” And if the first bit was in a superposition of “0” and “1,” the fourth bit is now in a superposition of “0” and “1,” entangled with the state of the first bit. This lets you do all the operations you need to do to make a quantum computer. How do you read the result out? You can detect the state of an individual bit by illuminating it with a laser tuned to a “cycling transition,” which drives the ion back and forth between two energy states, absorbing and emitting lots of ph

er of the two computation states. This isn’t quite right– the atoms is never actually in the upper state– but it gets the idea. You can use this Raman technique to do any excitation you want. You can take an ion in “0” and move it to “1,” you can take an ion in “1” and move it to “0,” or you can take an ion in either “0” or “1” and move it into an arbitrary superposition of “0” and “1” at the same time. It’s all a matter of timing– by leaving the lasers on for different amounts of time, you make different states. How do you entangle the qubits? The ion trap system offers a novel method for entangling separated bits. In addition to the quantized internal states of the ions, the traps allow collective modes. If you have two or more ions in a trap, they can be sloshing back and forth in the trap in a couple of different ways. This motion is also quantized. So, if you want to entangle two bits– say, the first one, and the fourth– you can do it using the collective motion as a “data bus.” You do an operation that puts the collective motion into a state that depends on the state of the first bit– not moving if the state is “0,” moving if the state is “1.” Then you do an operation on the fourth bit that depends on the state of the motion– flip the bit if the ions are moving, or leave it alone if they’re not. Then you stop the collective motion. You now have a system in which the state of the fourth ion depends on the state of the first ion. If the fourth ion started as a “0,” it’s a “1” if the first bit was a “1” and a “0” if the first bit was a “0.” And if the first bit was in a superposition of “0” and “1,” the fourth bit is now in a superposition of “0” and “1,” entangled with the state of the first bit. This lets you do all the operations you need to do to make a quantum computer. How do you read the result out? You can detect the state of an individual bit by illuminating it with a laser tuned to a “cycling transition,” which drives the ion back and forth between two energy states, absorbing and emitting lots of photons. If you tune your laser correctly, ions in “0” will absorb photons from the laser, and then re-emit them, while ions in “1” will do nothing. If you look at the trapped ions with a sensitive CCD camera, you’ll see bright spots at the positions of ions in “0” and nothing at the position of ions in “1.” That lets you read out the values of all the ions in the trap. Does it scale? Yes and no. It’s possible to put multiple atoms in a single trap, but not enough of them to do useful computations (“useful” here meaning things like “factoring products of 100-digit prime numbers”). It’s also possible to build arrays of lots of little traps, and shuttle ions back and forth between computation and storage regions– Chris Monroe’s group has done some really excellent work in this area. It’s hard work, but it looks like it’s at least in principle possible to build a large quantum computer using ion traps. What about decoherence? One of the problems plaguing quantum computation is “decoherence,” a term referring to random interactions with the environment that destroy fragile quantum superposition states, and wreck the operation of the computer. In the ion trap system, the main source of decoherence is heating of the ions in the trap– if you cool all the ions in a trap down to the not-moving state, and hold them for a while, after some time, they start moving. Since this motion is your “data bus,” this is a killer. Finding the source of this heating has been a long and tedious process. As I understand it, the current thinking is that it’s due to random areas of extra charge on the electrodes making up the trap, which push the ions in different directions. A lot of hard work has gone into nailing this problem down, and it looks like they finally have a handle on it. The last decoherence rates I remember seeing were still a little too high to do practical quantum computing, but they’ve made great strides, and the future looks promising. Summary: As I said at the beginning of this, ion traps are the most established of the c

otons. If you tune your laser correctly, ions in “0” will absorb photons from the laser, and then re-emit them, while ions in “1” will do nothing. If you look at the trapped ions with a sensitive CCD camera, you’ll see bright spots at the positions of ions in “0” and nothing at the position of ions in “1.” That lets you read out the values of all the ions in the trap. Does it scale? Yes and no. It’s possible to put multiple atoms in a single trap, but not enough of them to do useful computations (“useful” here meaning things like “factoring products of 100-digit prime numbers”). It’s also possible to build arrays of lots of little traps, and shuttle ions back and forth between computation and storage regions– Chris Monroe’s group has done some really excellent work in this area. It’s hard work, but it looks like it’s at least in principle possible to build a large quantum computer using ion traps. What about decoherence? One of the problems plaguing quantum computation is “decoherence,” a term referring to random interactions with the environment that destroy fragile quantum superposition states, and wreck the operation of the computer. In the ion trap system, the main source of decoherence is heating of the ions in the trap– if you cool all the ions in a trap down to the not-moving state, and hold them for a while, after some time, they start moving. Since this motion is your “data bus,” this is a killer. Finding the source of this heating has been a long and tedious process. As I understand it, the current thinking is that it’s due to random areas of extra charge on the electrodes making up the trap, which push the ions in different directions. A lot of hard work has gone into nailing this problem down, and it looks like they finally have a handle on it. The last decoherence rates I remember seeing were still a little too high to do practical quantum computing, but they’ve made great strides, and the future looks promising. Summary: As I said at the beginning of this, ion traps are the most established of the candidate technologies, and probably the farthest along by most measures. The Wineland group in particular has been working on this stuff for better than twenty years, and they’ve got a lot of the bugs worked out, or at least identified. They’re not ready to make an ion-based quantum computer yet, and the complexity needed for a large system might mean that it never will be the basis for a practical computer. Ion traps are the best test and demonstration system we have at the moment, and they’re likely to remain so for the forseeable future. If they were running for President, they would be: Joe Biden. They’ve been around forever, and are a central part of the quantum computing establishment. They may not be the most exciting candidate out there, but nobody doubts that they could get the job done. (We are currently in the middle of a fundraiser for the educational charity DonorsChoose. My challenge goal works out to about $3 per daily visitor. If you feel that you have gotten $3 worth of entertainment or information from this post, please consider making a donation.)

andidate technologies, and probably the farthest along by most measures. The Wineland group in particular has been working on this stuff for better than twenty years, and they’ve got a lot of the bugs worked out, or at least identified. They’re not ready to make an ion-based quantum computer yet, and the complexity needed for a large system might mean that it never will be the basis for a practical computer. Ion traps are the best test and demonstration system we have at the moment, and they’re likely to remain so for the forseeable future. If they were running for President, they would be: Joe Biden. They’ve been around forever, and are a central part of the quantum computing establishment. They may not be the most exciting candidate out there, but nobody doubts that they could get the job done. (We are currently in the middle of a fundraiser for the educational charity DonorsChoose. My challenge goal works out to about $3 per daily visitor. If you feel that you have gotten $3 worth of entertainment or information from this post, please consider making a donation.)

British troops were involved in a secret plan to go into battle wearing women’s underwear, it has emerged. The plan – recently declassified by the Public Records Office – was set up to protect World War II troops from mustard gas attacks. Kilt-wearing soldiers in the Scots regiments were particularly at risk because their legs were exposed to the poisonous gas. From the 1920s up until 1939, secret tests were carried out on volunteer soldiers dressed in long stockings and woollen bloomers. Wearing underwear, soaked in protective chemicals dissolved in white spirit, volunteers were exposed to mustard gas. The research and tests were carried out at Porton Down, the government-funded military research centre in Wiltshire. Porton Down historian, Gradon Carter, said: “A great deal of attention was paid in those days to the impregnation of battle dress and socks with substances called impregnities. “These were chemicals which could actually combine with mustard gas vapour to render them harmless.” Although the tests showed the underwear did protect the volunteers, it was decided that the protective clothing would be too costly to supply to all Scots regiments. As a result, the kilt was banned from the battlefield in 1940. The Scottish Tartans Authority has decreed that refusing to put on underwear beneath a kilt is “childish and unhygienic”. It also warned that “going commando” flies in the face of decency. Tartans Authority director Brian Wilton said kilt wearers should have the “common sense” to realise they should wear underwear beneath their country’s national dress. He said “The idea that you are not a real Scot unless you are bare under your kilt should be thrown into the same wastepaper basket as the idea that you’re not a real Scot unless you put salt on your porridge. “People should not be browbeaten into believing that nonsense. Just because Highlanders wore nothing in the days before Y-fronts were invented doesn’t mean that we, in the 21st Century, should wear nothing too. Can’t say that I agree. I recommend that London kilts are worn with uncommon indecency! Tip: if you are concerned about hygiene simply safety pin a piece of fabric to the inside of the front apron. You can change it as often as you like without needing to wash the whole kilt.

An essential aspect of managing any business that sells physical goods is determining how many goods to produce and how large of a stock of goods to keep on hand for sale. Goods that are available sale are referred to as a firm's inventory or stock. Keeping a large amount of inventory on hand can be advantageous in that it reduces the chance of running out of a product, but a large inventory can also have several notable disadvantages. Holding a large volume of items on hand means you need a large amount of space to store your inventory. Storage space like warehouses and storage rooms cost money to build, rent and maintain. Storage facilities require workers to categorize and organize items and transport items from one place to another. In addition, high levels of inventory can lead to higher insurance costs. Deterioration and Obsolescence Some businesses sell goods that tend to deteriorate or perish over time, such as food products. Keeping a large amount of perishable inventory on hand risks the possibility that you will be unable to sell some of the inventory in time before it goes bad, which can force you to throw away product. Similarly, certain types of products, such as computers and other electronic devices tend to become obsolete quickly. Keeping a large inventory of such products is risky because consumers might not be willing to buy old versions of products at a price that is profitable when new or updated versions become available. Shifts in Demand Another disadvantage of keeping a large amount inventory on hand is that certain goods might not sell due to shifts in market demand. For example, a clothing store that stocks too many tank tops during the summer may find itself unable to get rid of the tank tops before fall. During the fall, consumers might demand different types of clothing, like T-shirts or sweatshirts, leaving the company with a large quantity of goods on hand that simply take up space. While high levels of inventory can be a disadvantage, carrying too few goods on hand can also be harmful to a business. If you run out of a certain product, you could miss out on potentially profitable sales, and this could cause customers to give their business to your competitors. Managers must decide on an inventory level that balances the risk of running out of products with storage costs and the other negative aspects of holding too much inventory.

- Students will recognize and analyze the uses and types of evidence in argument. - Students will define and evaluate the affect of bullying in young adulthood. In order to enhance our skills at recognizing evidence within an argument, we are going to analyze the documentary Bully. Each day you will be given a specific set of notes to maintain throughout the viewing process. You will use these notes to journal and reflect upon the argument of the documentary. These notes will be created in a Google document, so you will have your computer on during the documentary; however, you are not allowed to have any other documents or Internet sites open during this time. If you are caught with some open, your computer privileges will be revoked for the remainder of the documentary and you will need to maintain handwritten notes. PART 1: Personal Narrative and Anecdote Our first set of notes will focus on the evidence the documentary produces in support of the argument: bullying is a social issue in which aggressors target those viewed as different. - Describe the students the documentary introduces. Briefly describe their stories. - What are the different types of bullying these student encounter? - Why are some young adults more vulnerable to bullying? Why do they become targets? - Who are the bullies? How do they get away with the bullying? How can bullies be stopped? What are the consequences? - What impact does bullying have on the family and friends of people who are bullied? PART 2: Persuasion Evidences and Purposes Every piece of writing constructed has a a specific purpose. The format of the writing is determined based on that purpose. In order to determine the purpose of a text, you must answer the following questions: - What is the argument of the text? - What evidence is used to support the argument/opinion? - Who is the audience? After you have determined the answers to these questions, you can begin to analyze how the writer presents these ideas. These elements will vary based on the type of text. Together we will analyze the different types of argument listed below. We will analyze the elements utilized in the text and we will determine the texts’ purpose. Informational: Informational texts increase the reader’s knowledge of the topic. Think definition. Text: Bullying Definition, StopBullying.gov Opinion: Known as op-ed pieces in the media, is a piece of media typically found in magazines or newspapers. It is a piece of writing, constructed by a columnist, in which they state their opinion about a relevant topic or issue in society. Then with your partner, you will find different types of argument about your topic. Text: Fighting Back Against Bullies, James E. Causey, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel Persuasive: Persuasive writing attempts to coarse the reader to perform a certain action or view the topic in the same way as the writer using appeals. An appeal is a device used in nonfiction to persuade you as the audience to feel and react in a specific way. There are three different types of appeals. This persuasion occurs using specific appeals: ethos, pathos, logos. Although persuasive pieces can utilize all three appeals, the tone of the piece usually has one dominate appeal. Ethos (appeal to character): this is when the filmmaker (or writer) attempts to present an authoritative or credible self-image to convince the audience of the argument. Pathos (appeal to emotion): this is when the filmmaker (or writer) attempts to make the audience feel a certain way, emotionally, in order to make the argument more believable. Examples: The personal narratives and anecdotes of the bully victims in the Bully documentary. Logos (appeal to logic): this is when the filmmaker (or writer) uses facts, evidence, statistics, graphs, basically any type of reason to make the audience believe their audience. Fiction: Fictional texts can create arguments or messages that are conveyed to the reader through literary elements such as characterization, dialogue, conflict/plot, theme, etc. Text: The Swan, Roald Dahl - Identify a specific aspect of

will analyze the different types of argument listed below. We will analyze the elements utilized in the text and we will determine the texts’ purpose. Informational: Informational texts increase the reader’s knowledge of the topic. Think definition. Text: Bullying Definition, StopBullying.gov Opinion: Known as op-ed pieces in the media, is a piece of media typically found in magazines or newspapers. It is a piece of writing, constructed by a columnist, in which they state their opinion about a relevant topic or issue in society. Then with your partner, you will find different types of argument about your topic. Text: Fighting Back Against Bullies, James E. Causey, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel Persuasive: Persuasive writing attempts to coarse the reader to perform a certain action or view the topic in the same way as the writer using appeals. An appeal is a device used in nonfiction to persuade you as the audience to feel and react in a specific way. There are three different types of appeals. This persuasion occurs using specific appeals: ethos, pathos, logos. Although persuasive pieces can utilize all three appeals, the tone of the piece usually has one dominate appeal. Ethos (appeal to character): this is when the filmmaker (or writer) attempts to present an authoritative or credible self-image to convince the audience of the argument. Pathos (appeal to emotion): this is when the filmmaker (or writer) attempts to make the audience feel a certain way, emotionally, in order to make the argument more believable. Examples: The personal narratives and anecdotes of the bully victims in the Bully documentary. Logos (appeal to logic): this is when the filmmaker (or writer) uses facts, evidence, statistics, graphs, basically any type of reason to make the audience believe their audience. Fiction: Fictional texts can create arguments or messages that are conveyed to the reader through literary elements such as characterization, dialogue, conflict/plot, theme, etc. Text: The Swan, Roald Dahl - Identify a specific aspect of your topic that interests you – perhaps a challenge related to your topic or a question that you have about it. - Use the Internet to search for opinions related to your topic. Your goal is to find an opinion that is informed, thoughtful, and engaging. Read a few of them before you settle on just one. You are not limited to the first ten sights that come up in your search. Some sites will be blocked, but there are still some high quality opinions out there. Try using some of Google’s search tips to find quality opinions. [The opinion I chose to read about bullying came from a search that looked like this: opinion:bullying +teen +teachers ] - Once you’ve found an opinion to read, open a Word document. - Use the formal paper format to set up your document. - Copy and Paste the URL of your opinion at the top of the page. Also write the title of the piece and the author’s name. - Answer the following questions about the opinion you chose: - What is the writer’s opinion or message that s/he wants to share with readers? - What can you tell about the writer as a person? What more do you want to know about the writer in order to better understand the opinion? - What insights and views does this writer have to offer your group’s discussion about your topic? - What characteristics of an Op-Ed are present in the piece of writing? [Hint: This refers to things ‘inside the triangle.’] - How is reading this opinion piece different than reading the news article you looked at with your group last week? What do you get from this writer that you didn’t get from the news reporter? - How does your own opinion on the issue brought up in your opinion piece align with or diverge from the writer’s opinion?

your topic that interests you – perhaps a challenge related to your topic or a question that you have about it. - Use the Internet to search for opinions related to your topic. Your goal is to find an opinion that is informed, thoughtful, and engaging. Read a few of them before you settle on just one. You are not limited to the first ten sights that come up in your search. Some sites will be blocked, but there are still some high quality opinions out there. Try using some of Google’s search tips to find quality opinions. [The opinion I chose to read about bullying came from a search that looked like this: opinion:bullying +teen +teachers ] - Once you’ve found an opinion to read, open a Word document. - Use the formal paper format to set up your document. - Copy and Paste the URL of your opinion at the top of the page. Also write the title of the piece and the author’s name. - Answer the following questions about the opinion you chose: - What is the writer’s opinion or message that s/he wants to share with readers? - What can you tell about the writer as a person? What more do you want to know about the writer in order to better understand the opinion? - What insights and views does this writer have to offer your group’s discussion about your topic? - What characteristics of an Op-Ed are present in the piece of writing? [Hint: This refers to things ‘inside the triangle.’] - How is reading this opinion piece different than reading the news article you looked at with your group last week? What do you get from this writer that you didn’t get from the news reporter? - How does your own opinion on the issue brought up in your opinion piece align with or diverge from the writer’s opinion?

Cognitive scientist Johnjoe McFadden’s research indicates that consciousness is a “field effect” resulting from “brain’s electromagnetic field interacting with its circuitry.” Nerve cells firing simultaneously create powerful waves in the field, which in turn cause other neurons to spark. In this way, the electromagnetic field works as a sort of wireless processor, combining the most important information from the hard wiring of the brain into a wireless signal, which is then transmitted back to the brain as conscious thought. Why don’t other electromagnetic waves effect our consciousness? Because “… our skull and protective membranes effectively block the radiation. According to his calculations, the fields from these outside sources are far weaker than the brain’s own natural electromagnetism.” I’m really into consciousness theories; anyone have any interesting ones?

Like any electronics, there are best practices for use With the increasing popularity of tablet devices, many are looking beyond the novelty of apps and the usefulness of the devices, and digging deeper into how people’s good and bad habits are forming around the use of the devices. Much like desktops pose a risk to your eyesight with long term use, tablets possess their own risks when used improperly. Tablets are no longer an item purchased by the most tech savvy people, they have become a mainstream device, with one in five Americans now owning one of a variety of models. Recently, a Harvard study put an iPad 2 up against a Motorola Xoom to analyze the different risks, even with two devices that are not dramatically different in size. The most common problem The most common problem is the most common use of tablets – lap use. Holding a tablet with or without a case on your lap can cause strain on a variety of your muscle groups and can cause eye strain. The study also notes that posture varies depending on where a user places their device, which in and of itself is a health risk – slumping over for hours on end is not good for anybody. The study took particular issue with the iPad 2 smart cover, noting that because of its angle, whether on a desk or not, users are forced to bend their necks, and users are prone to hunching, while desk use may hurt wrists over the long run. Many of these issues can cause pain, discomfort, and over the long term can cause damage, but is this a unique problem? If you watch movies on your smartphone or are constantly looking down at the device, you are equally prone to health hazards, and if you spend 14 hours each day in front of a desktop computer, even improper lighting can cause problems. So no, this problem is not unique, but like all working conditions, there are ideal positions for devices that can curb any body pains or damage.

Regional Earth System Modeling A number of regional climate model (RCM) systems have been developed during the last two decades in order to downscale the output from large scale global climate model simulations and produce fine scale regional climate change information useful for impact assessment and adaptation studies (e.g. Giorgi 2006a). To date most RCMs have been essentially composed by an atmospheric component coupled to a land surface scheme and driven over ocean areas by prescribed sea surface temperature (SST). Although such a RCM can be sufficient for many applications, there are cases in which the fine scale feedbacks associated with air-sea interactions can substantially influence the spatial and temporal structure of regional climates. The development of a Regional Earth System Model has been one of the main objective of the Regional climate variability research area of ENEA. Our main focus is the Mediterranean climate variability, together with the simulations of the African climate. - Modelling the Mediterranean coupled system - Mediterranean ocean variability - Land-surface atmosphere interaction - River modeling - Impact modeling - African climate Modelling the Mediterranean coupled system We developed an atmosphere-ocean regional climate model (AORCM) for the Mediterranean basin, called the PROTHEUS system, composed by the regional climate model RegCM3 as the atmospheric component and by a regional configuration of the MITgcm model as the oceanic component. The model is applied to an area encompassing the Mediterranean Sea and compared to a stand-alone version of its atmospheric component. An assessment of the model performances is done by using available observational datasets. Despite a persistent bias, the PROTHEUS system is able to capture the inter-annual variability of seasonal SST and also the fine scale spatio-temporal evolution of observed SST anomalies, with spatial correlation as high as 0.7 during summer. The close inspection of a 10-day strong wind event during the summer of 2000 proves the capability of the PROTHEUS system to correctly describe the daily evolution of SST under strong air-sea interaction conditions. As a consequence of the model's skill in reproducing observed SST and wind fields, we expect a reliable estimation of air-sea fluxes. The model skill in reproducing climatological land surface fields is in line with that of state of the art regional climate models. This activity is carried out in collaboration with ICTP Within the CIRCE-EU project, we performed regional climate scenarios for the Mediterranean region. Figure. SST anomalies (degrees C) for 09/07/2000 in CPL scale observations. Figure. SST anomalies (degrees C) for 09/07/2000 in fine scale observations. Mediterranean ocean variability The oceanic component of the PROTHEUS system is firstly validated comparing the sea level variability reproduced by the model with altimeter data and then used to study the interannual variability of the Mediterranean Sea and to extrapolate future behavior using the A1B scenario of IPCC. Please note that this work is in progress. The validation with data shows that the fully coupled model (C4, panell upper right on the figure below) bette represents the 'strange' sea level behavio observed between 1993 and 1998 in the Eastern Mediterranean. Probably due to the cooncomitant Eastern Mediterranean Transient, the sea level in the 90's in the EM shown a complicate behavior with apparent oscillation of the sea level height both in space and time. Figure. Sea level trend observed between 1993 and 1998 in the EM from AVISO data (upper left panel) fully copled experiment (upper right panel), oceanic stand-alone experiment (lower left panel) and partly coupled experiment (lower right panel, this experiment is equal to C4 except the interactive river run off scheme) Land-surface atmosphere interaction We investigate the impact of land cover changes on regional climate over the Euro Mediterranean area. Land use and Land Cover Changes (LCC) affect the local, regional and global climate system thro

oves the capability of the PROTHEUS system to correctly describe the daily evolution of SST under strong air-sea interaction conditions. As a consequence of the model's skill in reproducing observed SST and wind fields, we expect a reliable estimation of air-sea fluxes. The model skill in reproducing climatological land surface fields is in line with that of state of the art regional climate models. This activity is carried out in collaboration with ICTP Within the CIRCE-EU project, we performed regional climate scenarios for the Mediterranean region. Figure. SST anomalies (degrees C) for 09/07/2000 in CPL scale observations. Figure. SST anomalies (degrees C) for 09/07/2000 in fine scale observations. Mediterranean ocean variability The oceanic component of the PROTHEUS system is firstly validated comparing the sea level variability reproduced by the model with altimeter data and then used to study the interannual variability of the Mediterranean Sea and to extrapolate future behavior using the A1B scenario of IPCC. Please note that this work is in progress. The validation with data shows that the fully coupled model (C4, panell upper right on the figure below) bette represents the 'strange' sea level behavio observed between 1993 and 1998 in the Eastern Mediterranean. Probably due to the cooncomitant Eastern Mediterranean Transient, the sea level in the 90's in the EM shown a complicate behavior with apparent oscillation of the sea level height both in space and time. Figure. Sea level trend observed between 1993 and 1998 in the EM from AVISO data (upper left panel) fully copled experiment (upper right panel), oceanic stand-alone experiment (lower left panel) and partly coupled experiment (lower right panel, this experiment is equal to C4 except the interactive river run off scheme) Land-surface atmosphere interaction We investigate the impact of land cover changes on regional climate over the Euro Mediterranean area. Land use and Land Cover Changes (LCC) affect the local, regional and global climate system through biogeophysical and biogeochemical processes that modify both surface-atmosphere exchanges of momentum, energy and greenhouse gases and surface roughness. The feedback mechanisms between the land surface and the atmosphere have been increasingly investigated during last decade due to the increasing computational power. Therefore, in order to study the potential impacts of LCC on local climate, the simulations performed by General Circulation Models (GCMs) have been complemented by the use of Regional Climate Models (RCMs): in fact, the coarse resolution of the GCMs limits their capability to capture mesoscale features that play a pivotal role in regional dynamics. Figure. Differences of deforestated and control simulations of horizontal wind vectors (arrows, m/s) and temperature (shaded area, K) at 960 hPa over the summer season (JJA). The contour lines indicate where these differences are statistically significant (t test for 90% confidence level). River discharge data analysis River discharge is one of the five components of the Mediterranean Sea water budget, together with the net inflow of Atlantic water through the Strait of Gibraltar that from the Black Sea at the Dardanelles Strait, evaporation, and precipitation. In terms of absolute values, river discharge (R) represents the smallest contributionto this budget. In fact, climatological annual mean discharge is less than 20% of the atmospheric water budget evaporation minus precipitation (E - P), and the amplitude of its seasonal cycle is almost negligible with respect to the seasonal cycle of E-P. Nevertheless, discharge together with precipitation is the only freshwater input into the basin, and during spring the two basin-integrated components E -P and R are fairly comparable. We collected historical river discharge monthly series from different hydrological database in order to assess the river discharge contribution to the Mediterranean fresh water input. We identified 68 rivers discharging into the Mediterranean and we estimated the climatological

ugh biogeophysical and biogeochemical processes that modify both surface-atmosphere exchanges of momentum, energy and greenhouse gases and surface roughness. The feedback mechanisms between the land surface and the atmosphere have been increasingly investigated during last decade due to the increasing computational power. Therefore, in order to study the potential impacts of LCC on local climate, the simulations performed by General Circulation Models (GCMs) have been complemented by the use of Regional Climate Models (RCMs): in fact, the coarse resolution of the GCMs limits their capability to capture mesoscale features that play a pivotal role in regional dynamics. Figure. Differences of deforestated and control simulations of horizontal wind vectors (arrows, m/s) and temperature (shaded area, K) at 960 hPa over the summer season (JJA). The contour lines indicate where these differences are statistically significant (t test for 90% confidence level). River discharge data analysis River discharge is one of the five components of the Mediterranean Sea water budget, together with the net inflow of Atlantic water through the Strait of Gibraltar that from the Black Sea at the Dardanelles Strait, evaporation, and precipitation. In terms of absolute values, river discharge (R) represents the smallest contributionto this budget. In fact, climatological annual mean discharge is less than 20% of the atmospheric water budget evaporation minus precipitation (E - P), and the amplitude of its seasonal cycle is almost negligible with respect to the seasonal cycle of E-P. Nevertheless, discharge together with precipitation is the only freshwater input into the basin, and during spring the two basin-integrated components E -P and R are fairly comparable. We collected historical river discharge monthly series from different hydrological database in order to assess the river discharge contribution to the Mediterranean fresh water input. We identified 68 rivers discharging into the Mediterranean and we estimated the climatological annual mean Mediterranean discharge with an accuracy of about 78%, see Fig.1 Fig. 1 Climatological seasonal cycle of total discharge into the Mediterranean Sea and its decomposition by continent of origin. Represented here is at least 78% of the actual Mediterranean totals (solid line), 76% of discharge from Europe (short dashed), 40% of that from the Middle East (dotted), and 86% of discharge from North Africa (long dashed). (Values are in m3/s.) From "River Discharge into the Mediterranean Sea: Climatology and Aspects of the Observed Variability" , M.V. Struglia, A. Mariotti, A. Filograsso, Journ. Clim. Vol.17 (2004), No. 24 pp. 4740-4751. Regional projections of river discharge in the Mediterranean catchment Among all the possible physical impacts of climate change in the Mediterranean area, the one related to the availability of water resources is crucial both for natural equilibrium of biological ecosystems and for social and economic activities of the inhabitants of the Mediterranean countries. Projected variations in river discharge deriving from altered rainfall distribution will dramatically affect both natural equilibriums and people, as some areas are liable to experience large increases in flood flows, whereas others will be subject to water stress. We developed IRIS (Interactive River Scheme) which is a numeric tool to estimate river discharge from modelled total runoff fields. Runoff fields are computed by atmospheric models via a soil parameterization scheme, which accounts for energy and water fluxes at the atmosphere-biosphere-land interfaces, thus determining the moisture content of soil, the quantity of water returned to the atmosphere through evapo-transpiration and the excess rainfall that goes into runoff. Fig.2 Mediterranean and Black Sea catchments in IRIS. Reconstruction based on TRIP datase On sufficiently long time scales, vertical balance between the four components of the terrestrial hydrological cycle should be achieved: where P is the cumulated precipitation, E is the cumulated eva

annual mean Mediterranean discharge with an accuracy of about 78%, see Fig.1 Fig. 1 Climatological seasonal cycle of total discharge into the Mediterranean Sea and its decomposition by continent of origin. Represented here is at least 78% of the actual Mediterranean totals (solid line), 76% of discharge from Europe (short dashed), 40% of that from the Middle East (dotted), and 86% of discharge from North Africa (long dashed). (Values are in m3/s.) From "River Discharge into the Mediterranean Sea: Climatology and Aspects of the Observed Variability" , M.V. Struglia, A. Mariotti, A. Filograsso, Journ. Clim. Vol.17 (2004), No. 24 pp. 4740-4751. Regional projections of river discharge in the Mediterranean catchment Among all the possible physical impacts of climate change in the Mediterranean area, the one related to the availability of water resources is crucial both for natural equilibrium of biological ecosystems and for social and economic activities of the inhabitants of the Mediterranean countries. Projected variations in river discharge deriving from altered rainfall distribution will dramatically affect both natural equilibriums and people, as some areas are liable to experience large increases in flood flows, whereas others will be subject to water stress. We developed IRIS (Interactive River Scheme) which is a numeric tool to estimate river discharge from modelled total runoff fields. Runoff fields are computed by atmospheric models via a soil parameterization scheme, which accounts for energy and water fluxes at the atmosphere-biosphere-land interfaces, thus determining the moisture content of soil, the quantity of water returned to the atmosphere through evapo-transpiration and the excess rainfall that goes into runoff. Fig.2 Mediterranean and Black Sea catchments in IRIS. Reconstruction based on TRIP datase On sufficiently long time scales, vertical balance between the four components of the terrestrial hydrological cycle should be achieved: where P is the cumulated precipitation, E is the cumulated evaporation, ΔS is the soil storage variation and R is the cumulated total runoff. Therefore, river discharge can be easily calculated by spatially integrating the simulated time mean total runoff field over distinct catchment basins. Such a simple approach is allowed only when climatic scales are concerned as the relevant variables can be derived as long term means of those computed for forecast purposes. IRIS is based on the Total Runoff Integrated Pathway (TRIP) dataset, which maps information on land water flow directions onto a 0.5°x0.5° regular global grid. The above figure shows the results of the hind-cast run. The blue line is the modelled seasonal cycle from the runoff fields of the hind-cast run of the Protheus coupled model, forced with the ERA-40 reanalysis , years 1958-1997. For comparison, we also show the observed climatology for the same years (red line), computed from river discharge time series. Only in the case of the Danube river the plotted climatology refers to the period 1958-1984, for which observations are available. Designing adaptation strategies requires a fundamental understanding of regional climate change and its impact on productive sectors. The main objectives of our research is the applications of weather-driven physiologically based demographic models (PBDMs) used to analyze a major Mediterranean crop-pest system, namely olive (Olea europaea) and the olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) (Center for the Analysis of Sustainable Agro-ecological Systems). The Mediterranean Basin is expected to be particularly vulnerable to climate change including pronounced climate warming and desertification. The tight co-evolution links of drought-resistant olive and its major pest the olive fly, and their wide distribution makes the system a suitable model for climate change studies. Figure. Olive yield (kg dry matter tree-1) in the Mediterranean Basin: average (a, b) and standard deviation (c, d) for the period 1958-1967 and 1988-1997. The West African Monsoon is a climatological feature of major s

poration, ΔS is the soil storage variation and R is the cumulated total runoff. Therefore, river discharge can be easily calculated by spatially integrating the simulated time mean total runoff field over distinct catchment basins. Such a simple approach is allowed only when climatic scales are concerned as the relevant variables can be derived as long term means of those computed for forecast purposes. IRIS is based on the Total Runoff Integrated Pathway (TRIP) dataset, which maps information on land water flow directions onto a 0.5°x0.5° regular global grid. The above figure shows the results of the hind-cast run. The blue line is the modelled seasonal cycle from the runoff fields of the hind-cast run of the Protheus coupled model, forced with the ERA-40 reanalysis , years 1958-1997. For comparison, we also show the observed climatology for the same years (red line), computed from river discharge time series. Only in the case of the Danube river the plotted climatology refers to the period 1958-1984, for which observations are available. Designing adaptation strategies requires a fundamental understanding of regional climate change and its impact on productive sectors. The main objectives of our research is the applications of weather-driven physiologically based demographic models (PBDMs) used to analyze a major Mediterranean crop-pest system, namely olive (Olea europaea) and the olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) (Center for the Analysis of Sustainable Agro-ecological Systems). The Mediterranean Basin is expected to be particularly vulnerable to climate change including pronounced climate warming and desertification. The tight co-evolution links of drought-resistant olive and its major pest the olive fly, and their wide distribution makes the system a suitable model for climate change studies. Figure. Olive yield (kg dry matter tree-1) in the Mediterranean Basin: average (a, b) and standard deviation (c, d) for the period 1958-1967 and 1988-1997. The West African Monsoon is a climatological feature of major social importance to populations whose economy relies on agriculture. Therefore, understanding its dynamics, variability at various timescale and evolution contribute toward food security and stability of the region. The monsoon is a large-scale circulation characterized by a seasonal reversal of winds due primarily to the land-sea temperature contrast. Within this circulation is embedded a number of rainfall producing systems such as African Easterly Waves (AEWs), squall lines and tropospheric jets: African Easterly Jet (AEJ) centered approximately at 600 hPa and the Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) centered at about 200 hPa. The intensity of these systems and their latitudinal location influence not only the amount of rainfall but also its variability over West Africa. Our research aims to understand the intraseasonal and the interannual variability of rainfall and the related atmospheric circulation over West Africa and to evaluate our capability to correctly reproduce them. Figure. Averaged 1989-2005 Precipitation (in mm/day and shaded) from CRU (Upper Panels), GPCP Superimposed are ERAIM Wind Vectors at 925 hPa (Middle Panels) and RegCM3 Superimposed its 925 hPa Wind Field (Lower Panels) on DJF (Left) and JJA (Right)

ocial importance to populations whose economy relies on agriculture. Therefore, understanding its dynamics, variability at various timescale and evolution contribute toward food security and stability of the region. The monsoon is a large-scale circulation characterized by a seasonal reversal of winds due primarily to the land-sea temperature contrast. Within this circulation is embedded a number of rainfall producing systems such as African Easterly Waves (AEWs), squall lines and tropospheric jets: African Easterly Jet (AEJ) centered approximately at 600 hPa and the Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) centered at about 200 hPa. The intensity of these systems and their latitudinal location influence not only the amount of rainfall but also its variability over West Africa. Our research aims to understand the intraseasonal and the interannual variability of rainfall and the related atmospheric circulation over West Africa and to evaluate our capability to correctly reproduce them. Figure. Averaged 1989-2005 Precipitation (in mm/day and shaded) from CRU (Upper Panels), GPCP Superimposed are ERAIM Wind Vectors at 925 hPa (Middle Panels) and RegCM3 Superimposed its 925 hPa Wind Field (Lower Panels) on DJF (Left) and JJA (Right)

Tech Stuff Mac Users, read this!! How to Make an "A" This will be a presentation on a popular music topic of your choice. Listed below are some interesting topics to get you started. You DO NOT have to choose one of these topics, but you may. by no means an exhaustive list, but a point of departure The Political Power of ____ Music (could be folk, rap, rock, country, etc.) Rock (or country) Stars Who Were Classically Trained (how that affected their music) The Role of the Lyricist in Popular Music A Day in the Life of a Mississippi Delta Blues Musician Same Song - Different Styles (treatment of one song covered by different genres) Rock Music on TV Commercials (how and why it works) Dick Clark and Rock and Roll (his impact and influence) (or Sam Phillips, or another non-musician) The Effect of Music Videos on Popular Music Country Music Hooks Covers You Didn't Know Were Covers (and does it matter?) The Blues Are Everywhere (the influence of the blues in popular music) Classical Music used in Popular Songs Is Rap Music? Social Statements in Popular Music Styles What is Real Country Music? The Subject of _____ in American Popular Music (could be love, war, infidelity, horses, cars . . . ) Early Women Rock Stars The Music Genome Project (Pandora) New Artists - Old Styles What the Top 10 Singers (singles/groups/albums) Have in Common A History of Lip-syncing Rock (country/pop/blues/rap) Song Parodies (their purposes and results) Is It Country or Rock? Singers Who Think They Can Act (or Actors Who Think They Can Sing) Improvisation in Popular Music Is Music an Aphrodisiac? The Psychology of Popular Music (Why we like what we like) Popular Music in Movies (or television or commercials) Dance Crazes in Popular Music (their cause and effect) New Directions in _______ (pick any genre or a particular instrument, record company, radio format . . .) Copyright Laws Are Our Friends (or Are Not Our Friends) The "Crossover" Phenomena Do Rockers Have to Be Unstable? Music That Scares Our Parents Does Music Promote Violence? My, How You've Changed (a "then and now" look at a particular performer, group, or genre) How _________'s (performer/group/style) Philosophies Sabotaged Their (his/her) Career The Most Popular Controversial Songs (some banned, some investigated) [Please feel free to make up your own title. You won't get extra credit for choosing one of these.] Your best bet is to choose a topic that requires some conclusions - not just a narrative of what some artist or group has done, what albums they made, where they went on tour. That is BORING!! One more thing - don't preach to the rest of us Example: "My opinion is the correct one because . . . " or "Music does promote violence and parents should . . . " or "Contemporary Christian music is superior because . . . " In other words, we are not really interested in your opinion, we want to LEARN SOMETHING. Feel free to take any position if you can back it up with research, but I have never heard any research conclusions that included the word "should." And remember - you don't have to use one of these topics. If you want to come up with your own, feel free to do so. If you're not sure about it, ask me. The presentation should be about 6 minutes long. In other words, it should take about 6 minutes to view. This should not count the time it takes to view videos. There should be 6 minutes of material that you produce. Depending upon how much text is on each slide, you should probably have at least 15-20 slides. However, more slides with less text per slide is the preferred default. If you have less than 15, it is probably too short. Name your PowerPoint file and the folder that you put it in Powerpoint_yourname Do not name your project by the title of your subject. (Read this part carefully - this is the biggest part of your grade!) Put your name and the title of your presentation on the first slide. State the intent of your presentation (the conclusion you will support, the analysis you will undertake, the point to which your material will be directed). A good rule to follow: 1) tell m

ow You've Changed (a "then and now" look at a particular performer, group, or genre) How _________'s (performer/group/style) Philosophies Sabotaged Their (his/her) Career The Most Popular Controversial Songs (some banned, some investigated) [Please feel free to make up your own title. You won't get extra credit for choosing one of these.] Your best bet is to choose a topic that requires some conclusions - not just a narrative of what some artist or group has done, what albums they made, where they went on tour. That is BORING!! One more thing - don't preach to the rest of us Example: "My opinion is the correct one because . . . " or "Music does promote violence and parents should . . . " or "Contemporary Christian music is superior because . . . " In other words, we are not really interested in your opinion, we want to LEARN SOMETHING. Feel free to take any position if you can back it up with research, but I have never heard any research conclusions that included the word "should." And remember - you don't have to use one of these topics. If you want to come up with your own, feel free to do so. If you're not sure about it, ask me. The presentation should be about 6 minutes long. In other words, it should take about 6 minutes to view. This should not count the time it takes to view videos. There should be 6 minutes of material that you produce. Depending upon how much text is on each slide, you should probably have at least 15-20 slides. However, more slides with less text per slide is the preferred default. If you have less than 15, it is probably too short. Name your PowerPoint file and the folder that you put it in Powerpoint_yourname Do not name your project by the title of your subject. (Read this part carefully - this is the biggest part of your grade!) Put your name and the title of your presentation on the first slide. State the intent of your presentation (the conclusion you will support, the analysis you will undertake, the point to which your material will be directed). A good rule to follow: 1) tell me what you're going to say, 2) say it, 3) tell me what you said. This is a simple matter of voicing your intent so that I know what to look for as you go through your material to make your point. Then, at the end, you will restate your intent (which should be your conclusion or analysis). Don't just present a bunch of "Trivial Pursuit"- type facts and information. Analyze your information and draw conclusions. At the end of your presentation, I should not be able to say: "And your point is . . . ?" A good place to begin is by asking a question that interests you and your conclusion should answer it. Almost all topics should include audio music clips (see how to insert them below). If you think your topic is an exception, make sure you clear it with me first. Failure to include audio music clips in your presentation will lower your grade one letter. If you use videos, you should integrate them so that you do not have to leave the slide show to view them. Be sure to test that! Use graphics and photos on your slides and not just text. This is a presentation, not a research paper on slides. Do your research, but don't get wordy. Make your points and back them up with visuals and audio. However, DO NOT use video to explain your points. In other words, the videos should be used as examples only, not interviews, etc. to deliver content. You can watch those videos to learn from them, but your point must be made via your own original content. Be sparing with text. The idea of a presentation is to draw in your audience, not to write a research paper. You should not use paragraphs or bullets with many lines of text. Definitely do your research, so that you know your subject well, but then choose carefully what information to highlight. This is the reason I required audio examples. The music should tell part of the story. In other words, do not reduce your subject to textbook information on a slide. Fan-based sites (those posted by fan clubs, blogs, etc.) Your sources for video or graphics such as YouTube or Google images. A

e what you're going to say, 2) say it, 3) tell me what you said. This is a simple matter of voicing your intent so that I know what to look for as you go through your material to make your point. Then, at the end, you will restate your intent (which should be your conclusion or analysis). Don't just present a bunch of "Trivial Pursuit"- type facts and information. Analyze your information and draw conclusions. At the end of your presentation, I should not be able to say: "And your point is . . . ?" A good place to begin is by asking a question that interests you and your conclusion should answer it. Almost all topics should include audio music clips (see how to insert them below). If you think your topic is an exception, make sure you clear it with me first. Failure to include audio music clips in your presentation will lower your grade one letter. If you use videos, you should integrate them so that you do not have to leave the slide show to view them. Be sure to test that! Use graphics and photos on your slides and not just text. This is a presentation, not a research paper on slides. Do your research, but don't get wordy. Make your points and back them up with visuals and audio. However, DO NOT use video to explain your points. In other words, the videos should be used as examples only, not interviews, etc. to deliver content. You can watch those videos to learn from them, but your point must be made via your own original content. Be sparing with text. The idea of a presentation is to draw in your audience, not to write a research paper. You should not use paragraphs or bullets with many lines of text. Definitely do your research, so that you know your subject well, but then choose carefully what information to highlight. This is the reason I required audio examples. The music should tell part of the story. In other words, do not reduce your subject to textbook information on a slide. Fan-based sites (those posted by fan clubs, blogs, etc.) Your sources for video or graphics such as YouTube or Google images. As instructed above, do not include those as sources. Example of a past project If you copy and paste your slide text from some other source, that is plagiarism. The penalty for plagiarism is an F in the course. Don't do it! Note: Even if you cite the source in your bibliography, copying that material for one of your slides is not allowed. Only in the case of a direct quotation is it acceptable to use someone else's words. Do your own work. Don't try to take shortcuts. Most Common Errors Not including the mp3s in the folder with the PowerPoint before zipping. Apostrophes!!! "it's" means "it is" - "music and its effect" (for example) should not use an apostrophe. Also, the word "artist" is NOT plural. If you are referring to more than one, the word is "artists." Putting too much text on each slide. Split up the slides - use more graphics - don't be so wordy. This is not a report. It is a presentation. Using Wikipiedia as one of your reliable sources (or your only source of information) Also, YouTube does not count as a source. General PowerPoint Tips Don't pick a background that fights your content. In other words, text should be plain and readable. Be careful that text does not "bleed over" into graphics as that is hard to read. Put the text in a text box to control the space. Avoid using bright red backgrounds or text, which is difficult to read. On the other hand, don't use a plain white background. This is a presentation and should be attractive. Make sure the photos, graphics you choose are not fuzzy or "pixelly" when sized to your choice. Note: one of my pet peeves is to see pictures that have been stretched to fit a space, causing them to be disproportionate (people look much thinner or fatter than they really are). Enlarge or crop the picture, do not stretch it or smash it. Don't use a lot of animation - words and pictures flying in and out. A little of that goes a long way. A lot is distracting and annoying. Seriously, DO NOT have words bouncing onto the slides. I will count off for that and I will know yo

s instructed above, do not include those as sources. Example of a past project If you copy and paste your slide text from some other source, that is plagiarism. The penalty for plagiarism is an F in the course. Don't do it! Note: Even if you cite the source in your bibliography, copying that material for one of your slides is not allowed. Only in the case of a direct quotation is it acceptable to use someone else's words. Do your own work. Don't try to take shortcuts. Most Common Errors Not including the mp3s in the folder with the PowerPoint before zipping. Apostrophes!!! "it's" means "it is" - "music and its effect" (for example) should not use an apostrophe. Also, the word "artist" is NOT plural. If you are referring to more than one, the word is "artists." Putting too much text on each slide. Split up the slides - use more graphics - don't be so wordy. This is not a report. It is a presentation. Using Wikipiedia as one of your reliable sources (or your only source of information) Also, YouTube does not count as a source. General PowerPoint Tips Don't pick a background that fights your content. In other words, text should be plain and readable. Be careful that text does not "bleed over" into graphics as that is hard to read. Put the text in a text box to control the space. Avoid using bright red backgrounds or text, which is difficult to read. On the other hand, don't use a plain white background. This is a presentation and should be attractive. Make sure the photos, graphics you choose are not fuzzy or "pixelly" when sized to your choice. Note: one of my pet peeves is to see pictures that have been stretched to fit a space, causing them to be disproportionate (people look much thinner or fatter than they really are). Enlarge or crop the picture, do not stretch it or smash it. Don't use a lot of animation - words and pictures flying in and out. A little of that goes a long way. A lot is distracting and annoying. Seriously, DO NOT have words bouncing onto the slides. I will count off for that and I will know you did not read this! Same goes for sound effects. Unless you want to make a specific point, and usually only once, avoid those. Don't use bullets unless you are listing points. You should never use one bullet on a page. If you don't need a bullet, don't use one. They are not for dividing paragraphs. Choose one or two fonts only (heading and body text can be different). This will make your presentation more unified and will look more professional. Don't use a different font on every page. Remember that if you use a font that might not be loaded on my computer, I won't be able to read it properly. Otherwise, when I open your project, it might look like the one below (an actual example). If you want to use a non-standard font, please embed it into your PowerPoint file. Under "PowerPoint Options," choose "Save" and in that window, check the box that says "Embed fonts in the file." This is the rubric I will use to grade your project. Missing or unacceptable content |Incomplete content (too short) or only chronological information| Acceptable content, but too much opinion, incorrect information, or no conclusion Good content with a supported conclusion Well-researched content, well supported by analysis to draw a conclusion |Unacceptable presentation form| Missing element or elements, or extremely wordy Detracting elements used, too much text per slide, or no graphics Good use of background, color, graphics, animation that do not detract from the presentation Excellent use of background, color, graphics, animation that particularly enhance the presentation Audio attempted but files not available (linked incorrectly) One audio example or more than one with lack of integration More than one audio example appropriately placed and integrated Three or more audio examples appropriately placed and integrated Less than 3 sources and/or no book cited other than the textbook 3 sources, including a book other than the textbook, but one or more of questionable reliability At least 3 reliable sources including a book other than the

u did not read this! Same goes for sound effects. Unless you want to make a specific point, and usually only once, avoid those. Don't use bullets unless you are listing points. You should never use one bullet on a page. If you don't need a bullet, don't use one. They are not for dividing paragraphs. Choose one or two fonts only (heading and body text can be different). This will make your presentation more unified and will look more professional. Don't use a different font on every page. Remember that if you use a font that might not be loaded on my computer, I won't be able to read it properly. Otherwise, when I open your project, it might look like the one below (an actual example). If you want to use a non-standard font, please embed it into your PowerPoint file. Under "PowerPoint Options," choose "Save" and in that window, check the box that says "Embed fonts in the file." This is the rubric I will use to grade your project. Missing or unacceptable content |Incomplete content (too short) or only chronological information| Acceptable content, but too much opinion, incorrect information, or no conclusion Good content with a supported conclusion Well-researched content, well supported by analysis to draw a conclusion |Unacceptable presentation form| Missing element or elements, or extremely wordy Detracting elements used, too much text per slide, or no graphics Good use of background, color, graphics, animation that do not detract from the presentation Excellent use of background, color, graphics, animation that particularly enhance the presentation Audio attempted but files not available (linked incorrectly) One audio example or more than one with lack of integration More than one audio example appropriately placed and integrated Three or more audio examples appropriately placed and integrated Less than 3 sources and/or no book cited other than the textbook 3 sources, including a book other than the textbook, but one or more of questionable reliability At least 3 reliable sources including a book other than the textbook More than 3 reliable sources including a book other than the textbook Unacceptable writing form Multiple errors in punctuation, capitalization, grammar, spelling and/or form Several errors in punctuation, capitalization, grammar, spelling and/or form Minimal errors in punctuation, capitalization, grammar, spelling and/or form Correct punctuation, capitalization, grammar, spelling and/or form | || || || || || | Tips on How to Make an "A" First, read everything on this page I know there is a lot to read. The information and instructions on this page are a result of many semesters of grading these PowerPoints. The instructions were very simple at first, but every problem, every misunderstanding, every misguided interpretation, and every erroneous assumption has resulted in additional information or clarification in the hopes that future students will be more informed and therefore, more successful. Do some research "Research" does not mean looking it up on Wikipiedia. Remember that Wikipiedia doesn't even count as a valid source. Some of that information is very good, but anyone can post on Wikipiedia, whether they have a clue or not. You can start there, but use the bibliography at the bottom of the Wikipiedia article to look at other sources. Tarleton also has excellent databases and library services available online. Go to the library page (http://www.tarleton.edu/library/) and click on "Databases." Oxford Music Online and IIMP are a great place to begin. Do some reading but DO NOT under any circumstances copy material from these sources unless you intend to use quotation marks. Even then, quotations should only be used sparingly. Don't choose a single performer or group as your topic Of course you can if you wish. The danger in this is that inevitably, students will start to list what albums they have recorded, what awards they have won, where they went on tour, what year they started using drugs. This information does not require any thinking. If you do choose a single artist or group, do so with a sp

textbook More than 3 reliable sources including a book other than the textbook Unacceptable writing form Multiple errors in punctuation, capitalization, grammar, spelling and/or form Several errors in punctuation, capitalization, grammar, spelling and/or form Minimal errors in punctuation, capitalization, grammar, spelling and/or form Correct punctuation, capitalization, grammar, spelling and/or form | || || || || || | Tips on How to Make an "A" First, read everything on this page I know there is a lot to read. The information and instructions on this page are a result of many semesters of grading these PowerPoints. The instructions were very simple at first, but every problem, every misunderstanding, every misguided interpretation, and every erroneous assumption has resulted in additional information or clarification in the hopes that future students will be more informed and therefore, more successful. Do some research "Research" does not mean looking it up on Wikipiedia. Remember that Wikipiedia doesn't even count as a valid source. Some of that information is very good, but anyone can post on Wikipiedia, whether they have a clue or not. You can start there, but use the bibliography at the bottom of the Wikipiedia article to look at other sources. Tarleton also has excellent databases and library services available online. Go to the library page (http://www.tarleton.edu/library/) and click on "Databases." Oxford Music Online and IIMP are a great place to begin. Do some reading but DO NOT under any circumstances copy material from these sources unless you intend to use quotation marks. Even then, quotations should only be used sparingly. Don't choose a single performer or group as your topic Of course you can if you wish. The danger in this is that inevitably, students will start to list what albums they have recorded, what awards they have won, where they went on tour, what year they started using drugs. This information does not require any thinking. If you do choose a single artist or group, do so with a specific point in mind that does not require a chronological treatment of his/her/their career(s). My observation has also been that students will choose their favorite artist or group, about which they are incapable of being objective. It ends up sounding more like a commercial than an academic assignment. Teach the teacher Along the same lines as the point above, I am most impressed when I can grade a project that makes me think. The fact that Joe Rock Star's third album went triple platinum does not make me think. Find and gather all of the details you like about your topic, but your conclusion should be based upon your own critical thinking skills, taking that information, thinking about it, and drawing your own conclusions (not paraphrasing someone else's conclusion). How to rip CDs into MP3s These instructions use Windows Media Player, but other players use a similar process Right-click along the top of the window. Click the Rip Music tab. Choose MP3 as the format. Note: Do not save as .wav files as these are huge memory hogs (40 megs per song instead of 1 or 2, for example) How to use MP3 audio files with PowerPoint Save your PowerPoint file in a new FOLDER and name it Powerpoint_yourname Copy all of the mp3 files that you plan to use into the same FOLDER (do this first, before you link them to the slides) Note: your Powerpoint is a file! You must put your PowerPoint plus the mp3s in a FOLDER. FOLDERS look like this: When you open the folder, you should be able to see your PowerPoint and the mp3's that you intend to use in your project. Below is an example of what your folder should contain: After you have placed the mp3's in the folder, on each slide in which you wish to insert an audio file, click insert - movies and sounds - sound from file and choose the mp3 from the folder containing your PowerPoint and mp3 files. This will link the mp3 to the PowerPoint slide. When you are finished with your PowerPoint and ready to submit, zip the folder (See below for instructions). Submit the zipped file in the assig

ecific point in mind that does not require a chronological treatment of his/her/their career(s). My observation has also been that students will choose their favorite artist or group, about which they are incapable of being objective. It ends up sounding more like a commercial than an academic assignment. Teach the teacher Along the same lines as the point above, I am most impressed when I can grade a project that makes me think. The fact that Joe Rock Star's third album went triple platinum does not make me think. Find and gather all of the details you like about your topic, but your conclusion should be based upon your own critical thinking skills, taking that information, thinking about it, and drawing your own conclusions (not paraphrasing someone else's conclusion). How to rip CDs into MP3s These instructions use Windows Media Player, but other players use a similar process Right-click along the top of the window. Click the Rip Music tab. Choose MP3 as the format. Note: Do not save as .wav files as these are huge memory hogs (40 megs per song instead of 1 or 2, for example) How to use MP3 audio files with PowerPoint Save your PowerPoint file in a new FOLDER and name it Powerpoint_yourname Copy all of the mp3 files that you plan to use into the same FOLDER (do this first, before you link them to the slides) Note: your Powerpoint is a file! You must put your PowerPoint plus the mp3s in a FOLDER. FOLDERS look like this: When you open the folder, you should be able to see your PowerPoint and the mp3's that you intend to use in your project. Below is an example of what your folder should contain: After you have placed the mp3's in the folder, on each slide in which you wish to insert an audio file, click insert - movies and sounds - sound from file and choose the mp3 from the folder containing your PowerPoint and mp3 files. This will link the mp3 to the PowerPoint slide. When you are finished with your PowerPoint and ready to submit, zip the folder (See below for instructions). Submit the zipped file in the assignment section as usual. Note: You MUST drag the actual mp3 file into the folder with the PowerPoint. If you only follow #3 above, the music will still be on YOUR computer and will not play for me when I open your project. How to use video links with PowerPoint (like YouTube, etc.) Bring up the YouTube video. While it's playing, select and copy the URL in the address bar. In your PowerPoint, type "video" on the page where you want the clip to play. Select that word, right click on it and choose "Insert" on the toolbar at the top. Choose "hyperlink" and in the blank provided, paste the URL that you copied. Test it (but you have to be in Slideshow view) and when you click that word (that should be underlined now as a link) the YouTube video should play. Note: This works the same way with any hyperlink You can also embed your video into your PowerPoint. This is even more convenient as it does not require a new window to open. Do a Google search for these instructions if you wish to try it. How to submit your PowerPoint Project When you are finished with your project, zip the folder containing the PowerPoint and your mp3's Submit the zipped folder in the assignment section as usual. Be aware that large files take some time to submit, so don't wait until just a few minutes before midnight! You MUST have your mp3 files in the folder with your PowerPoint file or I can't listen to them! How to zip your folder Right click on the folder that has your PowerPoint and mp3s inside and select Send To Compressed (zipped) Folder This will create a zip file with the same name as the folder: Preferably, don't use a Mac! If you must, know that PowerPoint/Windows doesn't support QuickTime compression. Do not drag and drop or copy/paste the graphic into PowerPoint. PowerPoint for MAC makes the images into a MAC only readable picture. I will not be able to see those when I grade your project. The only workaround that we have found is for you to save local copies of your images to the computer and Insert à Picture in PowerPoint. Also, yo

nment section as usual. Note: You MUST drag the actual mp3 file into the folder with the PowerPoint. If you only follow #3 above, the music will still be on YOUR computer and will not play for me when I open your project. How to use video links with PowerPoint (like YouTube, etc.) Bring up the YouTube video. While it's playing, select and copy the URL in the address bar. In your PowerPoint, type "video" on the page where you want the clip to play. Select that word, right click on it and choose "Insert" on the toolbar at the top. Choose "hyperlink" and in the blank provided, paste the URL that you copied. Test it (but you have to be in Slideshow view) and when you click that word (that should be underlined now as a link) the YouTube video should play. Note: This works the same way with any hyperlink You can also embed your video into your PowerPoint. This is even more convenient as it does not require a new window to open. Do a Google search for these instructions if you wish to try it. How to submit your PowerPoint Project When you are finished with your project, zip the folder containing the PowerPoint and your mp3's Submit the zipped folder in the assignment section as usual. Be aware that large files take some time to submit, so don't wait until just a few minutes before midnight! You MUST have your mp3 files in the folder with your PowerPoint file or I can't listen to them! How to zip your folder Right click on the folder that has your PowerPoint and mp3s inside and select Send To Compressed (zipped) Folder This will create a zip file with the same name as the folder: Preferably, don't use a Mac! If you must, know that PowerPoint/Windows doesn't support QuickTime compression. Do not drag and drop or copy/paste the graphic into PowerPoint. PowerPoint for MAC makes the images into a MAC only readable picture. I will not be able to see those when I grade your project. The only workaround that we have found is for you to save local copies of your images to the computer and Insert à Picture in PowerPoint. Also, you will need to make sure that the image file type is universal between operating systems. Ex: GIF, JPEG. Created and maintained by Vicky V. Johnson

u will need to make sure that the image file type is universal between operating systems. Ex: GIF, JPEG. Created and maintained by Vicky V. Johnson

GENUS & SPECIES • Wings have evolved into small appendages, useless for flight • Feeds mainly by living in the waters near its isolated Galapagos Islands habitat • Often rests with its stubby wings spread out to dry, as do birds that fly • Relies on its strong, webbed feet for swimming and diving WHERE IN THE WORLD? Having lost the ability to fly, the flightless cormorant now permanently resides on the Galapagos Islands and is rarely found more than a half mile from its breeding grounds. The Galapagos Islands are home to many unique animal species found nowhere else in the world, including the flightless cormorant. These islands lie in the Pacific Ocean about 600 miles off the eastern coast of South America. The flightless cormorant is limited to only Fernandina Island and the western and northern coasts of Isabela Island, 2 of the 13 islands of Galapagos. The flightless cormorant favors a relatively cool, dry climate. It feeds exclusively on marine life in the cold, food-rich inshore waters, and shelters and nests along the rocky coastlines. A Island home Once capable of flight, the flightless cormorant now only swims and walks around the beautiful Galapagos Islands. The El Nino event of 1982-1983 reduced the flightless cormorant’s population by half, but 18 months later, their numbers were back to normal. In 1835, Charles Darwin used his observations of “the Galapagos Islands when constructing his theory of evolution for the topic On The Origin of Species. Food & hunting The cormorant is an efficient daytime hunter with a voracious appetite. It feeds mainly on fish, octopus, squid and eel, along with the occasional invertebrate and crustacean. The bird dives and expertly swims after its prey. The indigestible parts of its prey, such as scales and bones, are regurgitated as pellets. The cormorant feeds at least With a little leap, the flightless cormorant dives from the shoreline into the cold water in search of food. Using its powerful feet for propulsion, the cormorant spots an octopus and quickly changes direction to catch it. Although it speeds off, the octopus is no match for the cormorant, which uses its hooked bill to catch and hold its prey. The cormorant returns to the water’s surface and maneuvers the octopus by tilting back its head and gulping it down. Breeding occurs throughout the year, but peaks from March to September. Unlike most cormorants, which begin courtship on land, the flightless cormorant starts its mating display on the water. This aquatic dance, which includes neck raising and bill movements, occurs from 10 days to 6 weeks before egg laying; the pair bonds at the nest site just before mating. The female lays from 1-4 eggs in a large nest made of seaweed. Both sexes share incubation duties; the eggs then hatch after about 35 days. Born naked and helpless, chicks are fed regurgitated food by the parents and fledge at about 60 days. Relatively few chicks survive to adulthood, though: breeding success is low due to predators, such as feral dogs, which kill chicks and eat eggs. The chicks start to swim after one month. The flightless cormorant has been classified as vulnerable by the IUCN. This species has suffered tremendous declines with the introduction of predatory mammals such as feral dogs. These dogs now pose the biggest threat to nesting birds. The flightless cormorant is also accidentally killed in traps and nets used for catching lobsters and tuna. The population is estimated to be around 900-1,200 individuals. With an extremely limited range, the flightless cormorant has undergone several adaptations. The mild climate of the Galapagos means it doesn’t need to migrate south in the winter; with abundant food nearby it doesn’t travel great distances to eat; and predators for many centuries were few. Thus, over time, the wings of this cormorant have become greatly reduced and are now about the size of penguin flippers. While the flightless cormorant has totally lost the power of flight, it has become a skilled swimmer and developed stronger feet than other cormorants. On land, the flightless

ction to catch it. Although it speeds off, the octopus is no match for the cormorant, which uses its hooked bill to catch and hold its prey. The cormorant returns to the water’s surface and maneuvers the octopus by tilting back its head and gulping it down. Breeding occurs throughout the year, but peaks from March to September. Unlike most cormorants, which begin courtship on land, the flightless cormorant starts its mating display on the water. This aquatic dance, which includes neck raising and bill movements, occurs from 10 days to 6 weeks before egg laying; the pair bonds at the nest site just before mating. The female lays from 1-4 eggs in a large nest made of seaweed. Both sexes share incubation duties; the eggs then hatch after about 35 days. Born naked and helpless, chicks are fed regurgitated food by the parents and fledge at about 60 days. Relatively few chicks survive to adulthood, though: breeding success is low due to predators, such as feral dogs, which kill chicks and eat eggs. The chicks start to swim after one month. The flightless cormorant has been classified as vulnerable by the IUCN. This species has suffered tremendous declines with the introduction of predatory mammals such as feral dogs. These dogs now pose the biggest threat to nesting birds. The flightless cormorant is also accidentally killed in traps and nets used for catching lobsters and tuna. The population is estimated to be around 900-1,200 individuals. With an extremely limited range, the flightless cormorant has undergone several adaptations. The mild climate of the Galapagos means it doesn’t need to migrate south in the winter; with abundant food nearby it doesn’t travel great distances to eat; and predators for many centuries were few. Thus, over time, the wings of this cormorant have become greatly reduced and are now about the size of penguin flippers. While the flightless cormorant has totally lost the power of flight, it has become a skilled swimmer and developed stronger feet than other cormorants. On land, the flightless cormorant waddles clumsily due to the shortness of its legs and its large, webbed feet; underwater it is swift and graceful. A Noisy neighbors The flightless cormorant associates in small colonies of up to 12 breeding pairs and their offspring. The guanay cormorant (Phalacrocorax bougainvillii) has a much wider range than its flightless cousin. It lives along the Pacific coast of South America from Peru to Chile and on the Atlantic coast of Argentina. Although the guanay cormorant can fly, it lives entirely in a marine environment and feeds mainly by diving, much like the flightless cormorant The guanay cormorant feeds entirely on fish, such as sardines. Reaching a length of 30″ and a weight of 7 lbs., the guanay cormorant is much smaller than its flightless cousin. |Weight Length||5.5-9 lbs. 35-40″| |Sexual Maturity||2 years| |Breeding Season||All year, but mainly March -September| |Number of Eggs||1-4; usually |Incubation Period||About 35 days| |Fledging Period||About 60 days| |Breeding Interval||Usually 1 year, but may breed twice per year ;| |Typical Diet||Fish, eels, squid and octopus| • The flightless cormorant belongs to the order Pelecaniformes, which contains tropicbirds, pelicans, gannets, boobies, darters and frigatebirds. There are65 species in the order, but the cormorant family, Phalacrocoracidae, is the largest, with 39 species in only 1 genus. Relatives include the great cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo and the bank cormorant, P. neglectus.

cormorant waddles clumsily due to the shortness of its legs and its large, webbed feet; underwater it is swift and graceful. A Noisy neighbors The flightless cormorant associates in small colonies of up to 12 breeding pairs and their offspring. The guanay cormorant (Phalacrocorax bougainvillii) has a much wider range than its flightless cousin. It lives along the Pacific coast of South America from Peru to Chile and on the Atlantic coast of Argentina. Although the guanay cormorant can fly, it lives entirely in a marine environment and feeds mainly by diving, much like the flightless cormorant The guanay cormorant feeds entirely on fish, such as sardines. Reaching a length of 30″ and a weight of 7 lbs., the guanay cormorant is much smaller than its flightless cousin. |Weight Length||5.5-9 lbs. 35-40″| |Sexual Maturity||2 years| |Breeding Season||All year, but mainly March -September| |Number of Eggs||1-4; usually |Incubation Period||About 35 days| |Fledging Period||About 60 days| |Breeding Interval||Usually 1 year, but may breed twice per year ;| |Typical Diet||Fish, eels, squid and octopus| • The flightless cormorant belongs to the order Pelecaniformes, which contains tropicbirds, pelicans, gannets, boobies, darters and frigatebirds. There are65 species in the order, but the cormorant family, Phalacrocoracidae, is the largest, with 39 species in only 1 genus. Relatives include the great cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo and the bank cormorant, P. neglectus.