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The animation industry consists of more than 430 production companies with some of the major studios including [[Toei Animation]], [[Gainax]], [[Madhouse (company)|Madhouse]], [[Gonzo (company)|Gonzo]], [[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]], [[Bones (studio)|Bones]], [[TMS Entertainment]], [[Nippon Animation]], [[P.A.Works]], [[Studio Pierrot]] and [[Studio Ghibli]]. Many of the studios are organized into a [[trade association]], [[The Association of Japanese Animations]]. There is also a labor union for workers in the industry, the [[Japanese Animation Creators Association]]. Studios will often work together to produce more complex and costly projects, as done with Studio Ghibli's ''[[Spirited Away]]''. An anime episode can cost between US$100,000 and US$300,000 to produce. In 2001, animation accounted for 7% of the Japanese film market, above the 4.6% market share for live-action works. The popularity and success of anime is seen through the profitability of the DVD market, contributing nearly 70% of total sales. According to a 2016 article on Nikkei Asian Review, Japanese television stations have bought over worth of anime from production companies "over the past few years", compared with under from overseas. There has been a rise in sales of shows to television stations in Japan, caused by [[late night anime]] with [[adult animation|adults as the target demographic]]. This type of anime is less popular outside Japan, being considered "more of a [[niche market|niche product]]". ''[[Spirited Away]]'' (2001) is the [[List of highest-grossing films in Japan|all-time highest-grossing film in Japan]]. It was also the [[List of highest-grossing anime films|highest-grossing anime film worldwide]] until it was overtaken by [[Makoto Shinkai]]'s 2016 film ''[[Your Name]]''. Anime films represent a large part of the highest-grossing Japanese films yearly in Japan, with 6 out of the top 10 [[List of Japanese films of 2014#Highest-grossing films|in 2014]], [[List of Japanese films of 2015#Highest-grossing films|in 2015]] and also in [[List of Japanese films of 2016#Highest-grossing films|2016]]. Anime has to be licensed by companies in other countries in order to be legally released. While anime has been licensed by its Japanese owners for use outside Japan since at least the 1960s, the practice became well-established in the United States in the late 1970s to early 1980s, when such TV series as ''[[Gatchaman]]'' and ''[[Captain Harlock]]'' were licensed from their Japanese parent companies for distribution in the US market. The trend towards American distribution of anime continued into the 1980s with the licensing of titles such as ''[[Voltron (1984 TV series)|Voltron]]'' and the 'creation' of new series such as ''[[Robotech]]'' through use of source material from several original series. In the early 1990s, several companies began to experiment with the licensing of less children-oriented material. Some, such as [[A.D. Vision]], and [[Central Park Media]] and its imprints, achieved fairly substantial commercial success and went on to become major players in the now very lucrative American anime market. Others, such as [[AnimEigo]], achieved limited success. Many companies created directly by Japanese parent companies did not do as well, most releasing only one or two titles before completing their American operations.

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Licenses are expensive, often hundreds of thousands of dollars for one series and tens of thousands for one movie. The prices vary widely; for example, ''[[Jinki: Extend]]'' cost only $91,000 to license while ''[[Kurau Phantom Memory]]'' cost $960,000. Simulcast Internet streaming rights can be cheaper, with prices around $1,000-$2,000 an episode, but can also be more expensive, with some series costing more than per episode. The anime market for the United States was worth approximately $2.74 billion in 2009. Dubbed animation began airing in the United States in 2000 on networks like [[The WB Television Network|The WB]] and [[Cartoon Network]]'s [[Adult Swim]]. In 2005, this resulted in five of the top ten anime titles having previously aired on Cartoon Network. As a part of localization, some [[Editing of anime in American distribution|editing]] of cultural references may occur to better follow the references of the non-Japanese culture. The cost of English localization averages US$10,000 per episode. The industry has been subject to both praise and condemnation for [[fansubs]], the addition of unlicensed and unauthorized subtitled translations of anime series or films. Fansubs, which were originally distributed on VHS bootlegged cassettes in the 1980s, have been freely available and disseminated online since the 1990s. Since this practice raises concerns for copyright and piracy issues, fansubbers tend to adhere to an unwritten moral code to destroy or no longer distribute an anime once an official translated or subtitled version becomes licensed. They also try to encourage viewers to buy an official copy of the release once it comes out in English, although fansubs typically continue to circulate through file-sharing networks. Even so, the laid back regulations of the Japanese animation industry tend to overlook these issues, allowing it to grow underground and thus increasing the popularity until there is a demand for official high-quality releases for animation companies. This has led to an increase in global popularity with Japanese animations, reaching $40 million in sales in 2004. Legal international availability of anime on the Internet has changed in recent years, with [[simulcast]] of series available on websites like [[Crunchyroll]]. However, such services are still mostly limited to the Western, English-speaking countries, resulting in many fans in the developing world turning to online piracy.

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[[Japan External Trade Organization]] (JETRO) valued the domestic anime market in Japan at (), including from licensed products, in 2005. JETRO reported sales of overseas anime exports in 2004 to be (). JETRO valued the anime market in the United States at (), including in [[home video]] sales and over from licensed products, in 2005. JETRO projected in 2005 that the worldwide anime market, including sales of licensed products, would grow to (). The anime market in China was valued at in 2017, and is projected to reach by 2020. [[Netflix]] reported that, between October 2019 and September 2020, more than member households worldwide had watched at least one anime title on the platform.

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The anime industry has several annual awards that honor the year's best works. Major annual awards in Japan include the [[Ōfuji Noburō Award]], the [[Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film]], the [[Animation Kobe]] Awards, the [[Japan Media Arts Festival]] animation awards, the [[Tokyo Anime Award]] and the [[Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year]]. In the United States, anime films compete in the [[Crunchyroll Anime Awards]]. There were also the [[American Anime Awards]], which were designed to recognize excellence in anime titles nominated by the industry, and were held only once in 2006. Anime productions have also been nominated and won awards not exclusively for anime, like the [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]] or the [[Golden Bear]].

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Anime has become commercially profitable in [[Western world|Western countries]], as demonstrated by early commercially successful Western adaptations of anime, such as ''[[Astro Boy (1963 TV series)|Astro Boy]]'' and ''[[Speed Racer]]''. Early American adaptions in the 1960s made Japan expand into the continental European market, first with productions aimed at European and Japanese children, such as [[Heidi, Girl of the Alps|''Heidi'']], ''[[Vicky the Viking]]'' and ''[[Barbapapa]]'', which aired in various countries. Particularly Italy, Spain and France grew an interest into Japan's output, due to its cheap selling price and productive output. In fact, Italy imported the most anime outside of Japan. These mass imports influenced anime popularity in South American, Arabic and German markets. The beginning of 1980 saw the introduction of Japanese anime series into the American culture. In the 1990s, Japanese animation slowly gained popularity in America. Media companies such as Viz and Mixx began publishing and releasing animation into the American market. The 1988 film ''[[Akira (1988 film)|Akira]]'' is largely credited with popularizing anime in the Western world during the early 1990s, before anime was further popularized by television shows such as ''[[Pokémon (anime)|Pokémon]]'' and ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'' in the late 1990s. The growth of the Internet later provided international audiences an easy way to access Japanese content. Early on, online piracy played a major role in this, through over time legal alternatives appeared. This is especially the case with net services such as [[Netflix]] and [[Crunchyroll]] which have large catalogs in Western countries, although as of 2020 anime fans in many non-Western countries, such as India or Southeast Asia, have difficulty obtaining access to legal content, and therefore still turn to online piracy.

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[[Anime club]] gave rise to [[anime convention]] in the 1990s with the "anime boom", a period marked by increased popularity of anime. These conventions are dedicated to anime and manga and include elements like [[cosplay]] contests and industry talk panels. Cosplay, a [[portmanteau]] of "costume play", is not unique to anime and has become popular in contests and masquerades at anime conventions. Japanese culture and words have entered English usage through the popularity of the medium, including ''[[otaku]]'', an unflattering Japanese term commonly used in English to denote an obsessive fan of anime and manga. Another word that has arisen describing obsessive fans in the United States is ''wapanese'' meaning 'white individuals who want to be Japanese', or later known as [[Japanophile|''weeaboo'']], individuals who demonstrate an obsession in Japanese anime subculture, a term that originated from abusive content posted on the popular bulletin board website [[4chan.org]]. Anime enthusiasts have produced [[fan fiction]] and [[fan art]], including computer wallpapers and [[anime music video]] (AMVs). As of the 2010s, many anime fans use online communities and databases such as [[MyAnimeList]] to discuss anime and track their progress watching respective series.

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One of the key points that made anime different from a handful of Western cartoons is the potential for visceral content. Once the expectation that the aspects of visual intrigue or animation being just for children is put aside, the audience can realize that themes involving violence, suffering, sexuality, pain, and death can all be storytelling elements utilized in anime as much as other types of media. However, as anime itself became increasingly popular, its styling has been inevitably the subject of both satire and serious creative productions. ''[[South Park]]''s "[[Chinpokomon]]" and "[[Good Times with Weapons]]" episodes, [[Adult Swim]]'s ''[[Perfect Hair Forever]]'', and [[Nickelodeon]]'s ''[[Kappa Mikey]]'' are Western examples of satirical depictions of Japanese culture and anime, but anime tropes have also been satirized by some anime, such as ''[[KonoSuba]]''. Traditionally only Japanese works have been considered anime, but some works have sparked debate for blurring the lines between anime and cartoons, such as the American anime style production ''[[Avatar: The Last Airbender]]''. These anime styled works have become defined as [[anime-influenced animation]], in an attempt to classify all anime styled works of non-Japanese origin. Some creators of these works cite anime as a source of inspiration, for example the French production team for ''[[Ōban Star-Racers]]'' that moved to Tokyo to collaborate with a Japanese production team. When anime is defined as a "style" rather than as a national product it leaves open the possibility of anime being produced in other countries, but this has been contentious amongst fans, with John Oppliger stating, "The insistence on referring to original American art as Japanese "anime" or "manga" robs the work of its cultural identity." A [[United Arab Emirates|U.A.E.]]-[[Philippines|Filipino]] produced TV series called ''Torkaizer'' is dubbed as the "Middle East's First Anime Show", and is currently in production and looking for funding. Netflix has produced multiple anime series in collaboration with Japanese animation studios, and in doing so, has offered a more accessible channel for distribution to Western markets. The web-based series ''[[RWBY]]'', produced by Texas-based company [[Rooster Teeth]], is produced using an anime art style, and the series has been described as "anime" by multiple sources. For example, ''[[Adweek]]'', in the headline to one of its articles, described the series as "American-made anime", and in another headline, ''[[HuffPost|The Huffington Post]]'' described it as simply "anime", without referencing its country of origin. In 2013, [[Monty Oum]], the creator of ''RWBY'', said "Some believe just like Scotch needs to be made in Scotland, an American company can't make anime. I think that's a narrow way of seeing it. Anime is an art form, and to say only one country can make this art is wrong." ''RWBY'' has been released in Japan with a Japanese language dub; the CEO of [[Rooster Teeth]], [[Matt Hullum]], commented "This is the first time any American-made anime has been marketed to Japan. It definitely usually works the other way around, and we're really pleased about that."

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In [[Japanese culture]] and entertainment, media mix is a strategy to disperse content across multiple representations: different [[broadcast media]], gaming technologies, cell phones, toys, [[amusement park]], and other methods. It is the Japanese term for a [[Media franchise#Transmedia franchise|transmedia franchise]]. The term gained its circulation in late 1980s, but the origins of the strategy can be traced back to the 1960s with the proliferation of anime, with its interconnection of media and commodity goods. A number of anime [[media franchise]] have gained considerable global popularity, and are among the world's [[List of highest-grossing media franchises|highest-grossing media franchises]]. ''[[Pokémon]]'' in particular is the highest-grossing media franchise of all time, bigger than ''[[Star Wars]]'' and ''[[Marvel Cinematic Universe]]''.

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'''Asterism''' may refer to: (-) [[Asterism (astronomy)]], a pattern of stars (-) [[Asterism (gemology)]], an optical phenomenon in gemstones (-) [[Asterism (typography)]], (⁂) a moderately rare typographical symbol denoting a break in passages

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'''Ankara''' ( , ; ), historically known as '''Ancyra''' and '''Angora''', is the [[list of national capitals|capital]] of [[Turkey]]. Located in the [[Central Anatolia Region|central part]] of [[Anatolia]], the city has a population of 4.5 million in its urban centre and over 5.6 million in [[Ankara Province]], making it Turkey's [[List of cities in Turkey|second-largest city]] after [[Istanbul]]. Serving as the capital of the ancient [[Celts|Celt]] state of [[Galatia]] (280–64 BC), and later of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province with the [[Galatia (Roman province)|same name]] (25 BC–7th century), the city is very old with various [[Hattians|Hattian]], [[Hittites|Hittite]], [[Lydia]], [[Phrygia]], [[Galatians (people)|Galatian]], [[Hellenistic civilization|Greek]], [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[archaeological site]]. The Ottomans made the city the capital first of the [[Anatolia Eyalet]] (1393–late 15th century), and then the [[Angora Vilayet]] (1867–1922). The historical center of Ankara is a rocky hill rising over the left bank of the [[Ankara River]], a tributary of the [[Sakarya River]]. The hill remains crowned by the ruins of [[Ankara Castle]]. Although few of its outworks have survived, there are well-preserved examples of [[Roman architecture|Roman]] and [[Ottoman architecture]] throughout the city, the most remarkable being the 20 BC [[Augusteum|Temple of Augustus and Rome]] that boasts the [[Monumentum Ancyranum]], the inscription recording the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]''. On 23 April 1920, the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]] was established in Ankara, which became the headquarters of the [[Turkish National Movement]] during the [[Turkish War of Independence]]. Ankara became the new Turkish capital upon the establishment of the Republic on 29 October 1923, succeeding in this role the former Turkish capital Istanbul following the [[Defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|fall of the Ottoman Empire]]. The [[Government of Turkey|government]] is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city, located at the centre of Turkey's road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the [[Angora wool]] shorn from [[Angora rabbit]], the long-haired [[Angora goat]] (the source of [[mohair]]), and the [[Turkish Angora|Angora cat]]. The area is also known for its pears, honey and [[muscat (grape and wine)|muscat]] grapes. Although situated in one of the driest regions of Turkey and surrounded mostly by [[steppe]] vegetation (except for the forested areas on the southern periphery), Ankara can be considered a [[green city]] in terms of green areas per inhabitant, at per head.

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The orthography of the name Ankara has varied over the ages. It has been identified with the [[Hittites|Hittite]] cult center ''Ankuwaš'', although this remains a matter of debate. In classical antiquity and during the medieval period, the city was known as ''Ánkyra'' (,  "[[anchor]]") in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and ''Ancyra'' in [[Latin]]; the [[Galatian language|Galatian Celtic]] name was probably a similar variant. Following its annexation by the [[Seljuk Turks]] in 1073, the city became known in many European languages as ''Angora''; it was also known in [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] as ''Engürü''. The form "Angora" is preserved in the names of breeds of many different kinds of animals, and in the names of several locations in the US (see [[Angora (disambiguation)|Angora]]).

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The region's history can be traced back to the [[Bronze Age]] [[Hattians|Hattic]] [[Hattic language|civilization]], which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium BC by the [[Hittites]], in the 10th century BC by the [[Phrygia]], and later by the [[Lydia]], [[Achaemenid Empire|Persia]], [[Greeks]], [[Galatia]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], and [[Turkish people|Turks]] (the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk]] [[Sultanate of Rûm]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] and finally republican [[Turkey]]).

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The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belonged to the [[Hattians|Hattic]] [[Hattic language|civilization]] which existed during the [[Bronze Age]] and was gradually absorbed c. 2000 – 1700 BC by the [[Hittite language|Indo-European]] [[Hittites]]. The city grew significantly in size and importance under the [[Phrygia]] starting around 1000 BC, and experienced a large expansion following the mass migration from [[Gordium|Gordion]], (the capital of [[Phrygia]]), after an earthquake which severely damaged that city around that time. In Phrygian tradition, King [[Midas]] was venerated as the founder of Ancyra, but [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] mentions that the city was actually far older, which accords with present archaeological knowledge. Phrygian rule was succeeded first by [[Lydia]] and later by [[Iran|Persia]] rule, though the strongly Phrygian character of the peasantry remained, as evidenced by the gravestones of the much later Roman period. Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of [[Alexander the Great]] who conquered the city in 333 BC. Alexander came from [[Gordium|Gordion]] to Ankara and stayed in the city for a short period. After his death at [[Babylon]] in 323 BC and the subsequent divisionJerome|St. Jerome of his empire among his generals, Ankara, and its environs fell into the share of [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]]. Another important expansion took place under the [[Pontic Greeks|Greeks]] of [[Pontus (region)|Pontos]] who came there around 300 BC and developed the city as a trading center for the commerce of goods between the [[Black Sea]] ports and Crimea to the north; Assyria, Cyprus, and Lebanon to the south; and Georgia, Armenia and Persia to the east. By that time the city also took its name Ἄγκυρα (''Ánkyra'', meaning ''[[anchor]]'' in [[Greek language|Greek]]) which, in slightly modified form, provides the modern name of ''Ankara''.

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In 278 BC, the city, along with the rest of central Anatolia, was occupied by a [[Celts|Celt]] group, the [[Galatia]], who were the first to make Ankara one of their main tribal centers, the headquarters of the [[Tectosages]] tribe. Other centers were [[Pessinus]], today's Ballıhisar, for the [[Trocmi]] tribe, and [[Tavium]], to the east of Ankara, for the [[Tolistobogii]] tribe. The city was then known as ''Ancyra''. The Celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers; a warrior aristocracy which ruled over [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]]-speaking peasants. However, the [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] continued to be spoken in Galatia for many centuries. At the end of the 4th century, [[Jerome|St. Jerome]], a native of Dalmatia, observed that the language spoken around Ankara was very similar to that being spoken in the northwest of the Roman world near [[Trier]].

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The city was subsequently passed under the control of the [[Roman Empire]]. In 25 BC, Emperor [[Augustus]] raised it to the status of a ''[[polis]]'' and made it the capital city of the [[Roman province]] of [[Galatia (Roman province)|Galatia]]. Ankara is famous for the ''[[Monumentum Ancyranum]]'' (''Temple of Augustus and Rome'') which contains the official record of the ''Acts of Augustus'', known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'', an inscription cut in marble on the walls of this temple. The ruins of Ancyra still furnish today valuable [[relief|bas-relief]], inscriptions and other architectural fragments. Two other Galatian tribal centers, [[Tavium]] near [[Yozgat]], and [[Pessinus]] (Balhisar) to the west, near Sivrihisar, continued to be reasonably important settlements in the Roman period, but it was Ancyra that grew into a grand metropolis. An estimated 200,000 people lived in Ancyra in good times during the Roman Empire, a far greater number than was to be the case from after the fall of the Roman Empire until the early 20th century. The small [[Ankara River]] ran through the center of the Roman town. It has now been covered and diverted, but it formed the northern boundary of the old town during the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman periods. Çankaya, the rim of the majestic hill to the south of the present city center, stood well outside the Roman city, but may have been a summer resort. In the 19th century, the remains of at least one [[Roman villa]] or large house were still standing not far from where the Çankaya Presidential Residence stands today. To the west, the Roman city extended until the area of the Gençlik Park and Railway Station, while on the southern side of the hill, it may have extended downwards as far as the site presently occupied by [[Hacettepe University]]. It was thus a sizeable city by any standards and much larger than the Roman towns of [[Gaul]] or [[Britannia]]. Ancyra's importance rested on the fact that it was the junction point where the roads in northern Anatolia running north–south and east–west intersected, giving it major strategic importance for Rome's eastern frontier. The great imperial road running east passed through Ankara and a succession of emperors and their armies came this way. They were not the only ones to use the Roman highway network, which was equally convenient for invaders. In the second half of the 3rd century, Ancyra was invaded in rapid succession by the [[Goths]] coming from the west (who rode far into the heart of [[Cappadocia]], taking slaves and pillaging) and later by the [[Arab people|Arab]]. For about a decade, the town was one of the western outposts of one of Palmyrean empress [[Zenobia]] in the [[Syrian Desert]], who took advantage of a period of weakness and disorder in the Roman Empire to set up a short-lived state of her own.

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The town was reincorporated into the Roman Empire under Emperor [[Aurelian]] in 272. The [[tetrarchy]], a system of multiple (up to four) emperors introduced by [[Diocletian]] (284–305), seems to have engaged in a substantial programme of rebuilding and of road construction from Ankara westwards to Germe and [[Dorylaeum]] (now [[Eskişehir]]). In its heyday, Roman Ankara was a large market and trading center but it also functioned as a major administrative capital, where a high official ruled from the city's Praetorium, a large administrative palace or office. During the 3rd century, life in Ancyra, as in other Anatolian towns, seems to have become somewhat militarized in response to the invasions and instability of the town.

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The city is well known during the 4th century as a centre of Christian activity (see also [[#Ecclesiastical history|below]]), due to frequent imperial visits, and through the letters of the pagan scholar [[Libanius]]. Bishop [[Marcellus of Ancyra]] and [[Basil of Ancyra]] were active in the theological controversies of their day, and the city was the site of no less than three church synods in [[Synod of Ancyra|314]], 358 and 375, the latter two in favour of [[Arianism]]. The city was visited by Emperor [[Constans I]] (r. 337–350) in 347 and 350, [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] (r. 361–363) during his Persian campaign in 362, and Julian's successor [[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]] (r. 363–364) in winter 363/364 (he entered his [[Roman consul|consulship]] while in the city). After Jovian's death soon after, [[Valentinian I]] (r. 364–375) was acclaimed emperor at Ancyra, and in the next year his brother [[Valens]] (r. 364–378) used Ancyra as his base against the usurper [[Procopius (usurper)|Procopius]]. When the province of Galatia was divided sometime in 396/99, Ancyra remained the civil capital of Galatia I, as well as its ecclesiastical centre ([[metropolitan see]]). Emperor [[Arcadius]] (r. 383–408) frequently used the city as his summer residence, and some information about the ecclesiastical affairs of the city during the early 5th century is found in the works of [[Palladius of Galatia]] and Nilus of Galatia. In 479, the rebel [[Marcian (usurper)|Marcian]] attacked the city, without being able to capture it. In 610/11, [[Comentiolus (brother of Phocas)|Comentiolus]], brother of Emperor [[Phocas]] (r. 602–610), launched his own unsuccessful rebellion in the city against [[Heraclius]] (r. 610–641). Ten years later, in 620 or more likely 622, it was captured by the [[Sassanid Persia]] during the [[Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628]]. Although the city returned to Byzantine hands after the end of the war, the Persian presence left traces in the city's archaeology, and likely began the process of its transformation from a [[late antique]] city to a medieval fortified settlement.

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In 654, the city was captured for the first time by the [[Arabs]] of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], under [[Muawiyah]], the future founder of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. At about the same time, the [[theme (Byzantine district)|theme]] were established in Anatolia, and Ancyra became capital of the [[Opsician Theme]], which was the largest and most important theme until it was split up under Emperor [[Constantine V]] (r. 741–775); Ancyra then became the capital of the new [[Bucellarian Theme]]. The city was captured at least temporarily by the Umayyad prince [[Maslama ibn Hisham]] in 739/40, the last of the Umayyads' territorial gains from the Byzantine Empire. Ancyra was attacked without success by [[Abbasid]] forces in 776 and in 798/99. In 805, Emperor [[Nikephoros I]] (r. 802–811) strengthened its fortifications, a fact which probably saved it from sack during the [[Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)|large-scale invasion]] of Anatolia by Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] in the next year. Arab sources report that Harun and his successor [[al-Ma'mun]] (r. 813–833) took the city, but this information is later invention. In 838, however, during the [[Sack of Amorium|Amorium campaign]], the armies of Caliph [[al-Mu'tasim]] (r. 833–842) converged and met at the city; abandoned by its inhabitants, Ancara was razed to the ground, before the Arab armies went on to besiege and destroy [[Amorium]]. In 859, Emperor [[Michael III]] (r. 842–867) came to the city during a campaign against the Arabs, and ordered its fortifications restored. In 872, the city was menaced, but not taken, by the [[Paulicians]] under [[Chrysocheir]]. The last Arab raid to reach the city was undertaken in 931, by the Abbasid governor of [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]], [[Thamal al-Dulafi]], but the city again was not captured.

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Early Christian martyrs of Ancyra, about whom little is known, included Proklos and Hilarios who were natives of the otherwise unknown nearby village of Kallippi, and suffered repression under the emperor [[Trajan]] (98–117). In the 280s we hear of Philumenos, a Christian corn merchant from southern Anatolia, being captured and martyred in Ankara, and Eustathius. As in other Roman towns, the reign of [[Diocletian]] marked the culmination of the persecution of the Christians. In 303, Ancyra was one of the towns where the co-emperors Diocletian and his deputy [[Galerius]] launched their anti-Christian persecution. In Ancyra, their first target was the 38-year-old Bishop of the town, whose name was Clement. Clement's life describes how he was taken to Rome, then sent back, and forced to undergo many interrogations and hardship before he, and his brother, and various companions were put to death. The remains of the church of [[Clement of Ancyra|St. Clement]] can be found today in a building just off Işıklar Caddesi in the Ulus district. Quite possibly this marks the site where Clement was originally buried. Four years later, a doctor of the town named Plato and his brother Antiochus also became celebrated martyrs under Galerius. [[Theodotus of Ancyra (martyr)|Theodotus of Ancyra]] is also venerated as a saint. However, the persecution proved unsuccessful and in 314 Ancyra was the center of [[Synod of Ancyra|an important council]] of the [[Early Christianity|early church]]; its 25 disciplinary canons constitute one of the most important documents in the early history of the administration of the [[Confession (religion)|Sacrament of Penance]]. The synod also considered ecclesiastical policy for the reconstruction of the [[Christian Church]] after the persecutions, and in particular the treatment of ''[[Lapsi (Christianity)|lapsi]]''—Christians who had given in to forced [[paganism]] (sacrifices) to avoid [[martyrdom]] during these persecutions. Though paganism was probably tottering in Ancyra in Clement's day, it may still have been the majority religion. Twenty years later, Christianity and [[monotheism]] had taken its place. Ancyra quickly turned into a Christian city, with a life dominated by monks and priests and theological disputes. The town council or senate gave way to the bishop as the main local figurehead. During the middle of the 4th century, Ancyra was involved in the complex theological disputes over the nature of Christ, and a form of [[Arianism]] seems to have originated there. In 362–363, Emperor Julian passed through Ancyra on his way to an ill-fated campaign against the Persians, and according to Christian sources, engaged in a persecution of various holy men. The stone base for a statue, with an inscription describing Julian as "Lord of the whole world from the British Ocean to the barbarian nations", can still be seen, built into the eastern side of the inner circuit of the walls of Ankara Castle. The Column of Julian which was erected in honor of the emperor's visit to the city in 362 still stands today. In 375, Arian bishops met at Ancyra and deposed several bishops, among them [[Gregory of Nyssa|St. Gregory of Nyssa]].

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In the late 4th century, Ancyra became something of an imperial [[resort|holiday resort]]. After [[Constantinople]] became the [[Byzantine Empire|East Roman]] capital, emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries would retire from the humid summer weather on the [[Bosphorus|Bosporus]] to the drier mountain atmosphere of Ancyra. [[Theodosius II]] (408–450) kept his court in Ancyra in the summers. Laws issued in Ancyra testify to the time they spent there. The [[Metropolis of Ancyra]] continued to be a residential [[episcopal see|see]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] until the 20th century, with about 40,000 faithful, mostly Turkish-speaking, but that situation ended as a result of the 1923 [[Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations]]. The earlier [[Armenian Genocide]] put an end to the residential eparchy of Ancyra of the [[Armenian Catholic Church]], which had been established in 1850. It is also a titular metropolis of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]]. Both the Ancient Byzantine Metropolitan archbishopric and the 'modern' Armenian eparchy are now listed by the [[Catholic Church]] as [[titular see]], with separate [[apostolic succession]].

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After the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the [[Seljuk Turks]] overran much of Anatolia. By 1073, the Turkish settlers had reached the vicinity of Ancyra, and the city was captured shortly after, at the latest by the time of the rebellion of [[Nikephoros Melissenos]] in 1081. In 1101, when the [[Crusade of 1101|Crusade]] under [[Raymond IV of Toulouse]] arrived, the city had been under [[Danishmend]] control for some time. The Crusaders captured the city, and handed it over to the Byzantine emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] (r. 1081–1118). Byzantine rule did not last long, and the city was captured by the Seljuk [[Sultanate of Rum]] at some unknown point; in 1127, it returned to Danishmend control until 1143, when the Seljuks of Rum retook it. After the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]] in 1243, in which the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] defeated the Seljuks, most of Anatolia became part of the dominion of the Mongols. Taking advantage of Seljuk decline, a semi-religious cast of craftsmen and trade people named ''[[Ahis|Ahiler]]'' chose Angora as their independent city-state in 1290. [[Orhan I]], the second [[Bey]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], captured the city in 1356. [[Timur]] defeated [[Bayezid I]] at the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402 and took the city, but in 1403 Angora was again under Ottoman control. The [[Levant Company]] maintained a factory in the town from 1639 to 1768. In the 19th century, its population was estimated at 20,000 to 60,000. It was sacked by [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egyptian]] under [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]] in 1832. From 1867 to 1922, the city served as the capital of the [[Angora Vilayet]], which included most of ancient Galatia. Prior to [[World War I]], the town had a [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[consul (representative)|consulate]] and a population of around 28,000, roughly of whom were Christian.

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Following the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] defeat in [[World War I]], the Ottoman capital [[Ottoman Constantinople|Constantinople]] (modern Istanbul) and much of [[Anatolia]] was occupied by the Allies, who planned to share these lands between [[First Republic of Armenia|Armenia]], [[French Third Republic|France]], [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Greece]], [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]], leaving for the Turks the core piece of land in central Anatolia. In response, the leader of the Turkish nationalist movement, [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], established the headquarters of his [[Turkish National Movement|resistance movement]] in Angora in 1920. After the [[Turkish War of Independence]] was won and the [[Treaty of Sèvres]] was superseded by the [[Treaty of Lausanne (1923)]], the Turkish nationalists replaced the Ottoman Empire with the [[Republic of Turkey]] on 29 October 1923. A few days earlier, Angora had officially replaced Constantinople as the new Turkish capital city, on 13 October 1923, and Republican officials declared that the city's name is Ankara. After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called ''Ulus'', and a new section, called ''Yenişehir''. Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section. The new section, now centered on [[Kızılay Meydanı|Kızılay Square]], has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises. Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section. Ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made Turkey's capital in 1923, when it was "a small town of no importance". In 1924, the year after the government had moved there, Ankara had about 35,000 residents. By 1927 there were 44,553 residents and by 1950 the population had grown to 286,781. Ankara continued to grow rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century and eventually outranked [[Izmir]] as Turkey's second-largest city, after [[Istanbul]]. Ankara's urban population reached 4,587,558 in 2014, while the population of [[Ankara Province]] reached 5,150,072 in 2015. After 1930, it became known officially in Western languages as Ankara. After the late 1930s the public stopped using the name "Angora".

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The city has exported [[mohair]] (from the [[Angora goat]]) and [[Angora wool]] (from the [[Angora rabbit]]) internationally for centuries. In the 19th century, the city also exported substantial amounts of [[Goatskin (material)|goat]] and cat skins, [[gum arabic|gum]], [[beeswax|wax]], [[honey]], berries, and [[madder root]]. It was connected to [[Istanbul]] by railway before the [[First World War]], continuing to export mohair, wool, berries, and [[grain]]. The [[Central Anatolia Region]] is one of the primary locations of grape and [[Turkish wine|wine production in Turkey]], and Ankara is particularly famous for its [[Kalecik Karası]] and [[Muscat (grape and wine)|Muscat grapes]]; and its [[Kavaklıdere (winery)|Kavaklıdere wine]], which is produced in the [[Kavaklıdere, Ankara|Kavaklıdere]] neighbourhood within the [[Çankaya, Ankara|Çankaya]] district of the city. Ankara is also famous for its pears. Another renowned natural product of Ankara is its indigenous type of [[honey]] (''Ankara Balı'') which is known for its light color and is mostly produced by the [[Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo]] in the Gazi district, and by other facilities in the Elmadağ, Çubuk and Beypazarı districts. [[Çubuk-1 Dam|Çubuk-1]] and [[Çubuk-2 Dam|Çubuk-2]] [[dam]] on the Çubuk Brook in Ankara were among the first dams constructed in the Turkish Republic. Ankara is the center of the state-owned and private Turkish [[Arms industry|defence]] and [[Aerospace manufacturer|aerospace]] companies, where the industrial plants and headquarters of the [[Turkish Aerospace Industries]], [[Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation (Turkey)|MKE]], [[ASELSAN]], [[HAVELSAN]], [[ROKETSAN]], [[FNSS Defence Systems|FNSS]], [[Nurol Makina]], and numerous other firms are located. Exports to foreign countries from these defence and aerospace firms have steadily increased in the past decades. The [[International Defence Industry Fair|IDEF]] in Ankara is one of the largest international expositions of the global [[arms industry]]. A number of the global [[automotive industry|automotive companies]] also have production facilities in Ankara, such as the German bus and truck manufacturer [[MAN SE]]. Ankara hosts the [[OSTIM Industrial Zone]], Turkey's largest [[industrial park]]. A large percentage of the complicated employment in Ankara is provided by the state institutions; such as the [[ministry (government department)|ministries]], subministries, and other administrative bodies of the Turkish government. There are also many foreign citizens working as diplomats or clerks in the [[embassy|embassies]] of their respective countries.

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Ankara and [[Ankara Province|its province]] are located in the [[Central Anatolia Region]] of Turkey. The Çubuk Brook flows through the city center of Ankara. It is connected in the western suburbs of the city to the [[Ankara River]], which is a [[tributary]] of the [[Sakarya River]].

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Ankara has a [[cold semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''BSk''). Under the [[Trewartha climate classification]], Ankara has a temperate [[continental climate]] (''Dc''). Due to its elevation and inland location, Ankara has cold and snowy winters, and hot and dry summers. Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn. The city lies in [[USDA]] [[Hardiness zone]] 7b, and its annual average precipitation is fairly low at , nevertheless precipitation can be observed throughout the year. Monthly mean temperatures range from in January to in July, with an annual mean of .

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Ankara had a population of 75,000 in 1927. As of 2019, Ankara Province has a population of 5,639,076. When Ankara became the capital of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, it was designated as a planned city for 500,000 future inhabitants. During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the city grew in a planned and orderly pace. However, from the 1950s onward, the city grew much faster than envisioned, because unemployment and poverty forced people to migrate from the countryside into the city in order to seek a better standard of living. As a result, many illegal houses called [[gecekondu]] were built around the city, causing the unplanned and uncontrolled urban landscape of Ankara, as not enough planned housing could be built fast enough. Although precariously built, the vast majority of them have electricity, running water and modern household amenities. Nevertheless, many of these gecekondus have been replaced by huge public housing projects in the form of [[tower block]] such as Elvankent, [[Eryaman, Etimesgut|Eryaman]] and [[Güzelkent, Etimesgut|Güzelkent]]; and also as mass housing compounds for military and civil service accommodation. Although many gecekondus still remain, they too are gradually being replaced by mass housing compounds, as empty land plots in the city of Ankara for new construction projects are becoming impossible to find. Çorum and Yozgat, which are located in Central Anatolia and whose population is decreasing, are the provinces with the highest net migration to Ankara. About one third of the Central Anatolia population of 15,608,868 people resides in Ankara. The population of Ankara has a higher education level than the country average. According to 2008 data, 15-years-higher literacy rate creates 88% of the total provincial population (91% in men and 86% in women). This ratio was 83% for Turkey (88% males, 79% females). This difference is particularly evident in the university educated segment of the population. The ratio of university and high school graduates to total population is 10.6% in Ankara, while 5.4% in Turkey.

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The ''Electricity, Gas, Bus General Directorate'' (EGO) operates the [[Ankara Metro]] and other forms of public transportation. Ankara is served by a [[Commuter rail|suburban rail]] named [[Ankaray]] (A1) and three [[Rapid transit|subway]] lines (M1, M2, M3) of the Ankara Metro with about 300,000 total daily commuters, while an additional subway line (M4) is under construction. A long [[gondola lift]] with four stations connects the district of Şentepe to the [[Yenimahalle, Ankara|Yenimahalle metro station]]. The [[Ankara Central Station]] is a major rail hub in Turkey. The [[Turkish State Railways]] operates passenger train service from Ankara to other major cities, such as: [[Istanbul]], [[Eskişehir]], [[Balıkesir]], [[Kütahya]], [[İzmir]], [[Kayseri]], [[Adana]], [[Kars]], [[Elâzığ]], [[Malatya]], [[Diyarbakır]], [[Karabük]], [[Zonguldak]] and [[Sivas]]. Commuter rail also runs between the stations of [[Sincan-Kayaş Line|Sincan and Kayaş]]. On 13 March 2009, the new [[Yüksek Hızlı Tren]] (YHT) [[High-speed rail in Turkey|high-speed rail service]] began operation between Ankara and Eskişehir. On 23 August 2011, another YHT high-speed line commercially started its service [[Ankara-Konya high-speed railway|between Ankara and Konya]]. On 25 July 2014, the [[Ankara-Istanbul high-speed railway|Ankara–Istanbul high-speed line]] of YHT entered service. [[Esenboğa International Airport]], located in the north-east of the city, is Ankara's main airport.

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The average amount of time people spend commuting on public transit in Ankara on a weekday is 71 minutes. 17% of public transit passengers, ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is sixteen minutes, while 28% of users wait for over twenty minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is , while 27% travel for over in a single direction.

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Ankara is politically a triple battleground between the ruling conservative [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]] (AKP), the opposition [[Kemalism|Kemalist]] centre-left [[Republican People's Party (Turkey)|Republican People's Party]] (CHP) and the nationalist far-right [[Nationalist Movement Party]] (MHP). The [[Ankara Province|province of Ankara]] is divided into 25 districts. The CHP's key and almost only political stronghold in Ankara lies within the central area of [[Çankaya, Ankara (district)|Çankaya]], which is the city's most populous district. While the CHP has always gained between 60 and 70% of the vote in Çankaya since 2002, political support elsewhere throughout Ankara is minimal. The high population within Çankaya, as well as [[Yenimahalle]] to an extent, has allowed the CHP to take overall second place behind the AKP in both local and general elections, with the MHP a close third, despite the fact that the MHP is politically stronger than the CHP in almost every other district. Overall, the AKP enjoys the most support throughout the city. The electorate of Ankara thus tend to vote in favour of the political right, far more so than the other main cities of [[Istanbul]] and [[İzmir]]. In retrospect, the [[2013–14 protests in Turkey|2013–14 protests against the AKP government]] were particularly strong in Ankara, proving to be fatal on multiple occasions.The city suffered from a series of terrorist attacks in 2015 and 2016, most notably on [[2015 Ankara bombings|10 October 2015]]; [[February 2016 Ankara bombing|17 February 2016]]; [[March 2016 Ankara bombing|13 March 2016]]; and [[2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt|15 July 2016]]. [[Melih Gökçek]] was the Metropolitan Mayor of Ankara between 1994 and 2017. Initially elected in the [[1994 Turkish local elections|1994 local elections]], he was re-elected in [[1999 Turkish local elections|1999]], [[2004 Turkish local elections|2004]] and [[2009 Turkish local elections|2009]]. In the [[2014 Turkish local elections|2014 local elections]], Gökçek stood for a fifth term. The MHP's metropolitan mayoral candidate for the 2009 local elections, [[Mansur Yavaş]], stood as the CHP's candidate against Gökçek in 2014. In a heavily controversial election, Gökçek was declared the winner by just 1% ahead of Yavaş amid allegations of systematic electoral fraud. With the [[Supreme Electoral Council of Turkey|Supreme Electoral Council]] and courts rejecting his appeals, Yavaş declared his intention to take the irregularities to the [[European Court of Human Rights]]. Although Gökçek was inaugurated for a fifth term, most election observers believe that Yavaş was the winner of the election. Gökçek resigned on 28 October 2017 and was replaced by the former mayor of [[Sincan, Ankara|Sincan]] district, [[Mustafa Tuna]]. Since 8 April 2019, the Mayor of Ankara is [[Mansur Yavaş]] from the [[Republican People's Party (Turkey)|Republican People's Party (CHP)]], who won the [[2019 Ankara mayoral election|mayoral election in 2019]].

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The foundations of the [[Ankara Castle|Ankara castle and citadel]] were laid by the Galatians on a prominent [[lava]] outcrop (), and the rest was completed by the Romans. The Byzantines and Seljuks further made restorations and additions. The area around and inside the citadel, being the oldest part of Ankara, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture. There are also recreational areas to relax. Many restored traditional Turkish houses inside the citadel area have found new life as restaurants, serving local cuisine. The citadel was depicted in various Turkish banknotes during 1927–1952 and 1983–1989.

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The remains, the stage, and the backstage of the Roman theatre can be seen outside [[Ankara Castle|the castle]]. Roman statues that were found here are exhibited in the [[Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]]. The seating area is still under excavation.

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The Augusteum, now known as the Temple of Augustus and Rome, was built 25  20 BC following the conquest of Central Anatolia by the [[Roman Empire]]. Ancyra then formed the capital of the new [[Roman province|province]] of [[Galatia]]. After the death of [[Augustus]] in AD 14, a copy of the text of the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'' (the ''[[Monumentum Ancyranum]]'') was inscribed on the interior of the temple's '''' in Latin and a Greek translation on an exterior wall of the ''''. The temple on the ancient acropolis of Ancyra was enlarged in the 2nd century and converted into a church in the 5th century. It is located in the Ulus quarter of the city. It was subsequently publicized by the [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] ambassador [[Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq]] in the 16th century.

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The [[Roman Baths of Ankara]] have all the typical features of a classical [[Thermae|Roman bath complex]]: a ''[[frigidarium]]'' (cold room), a ''[[tepidarium]]'' (warm room) and a ''[[caldarium]]'' (hot room). The baths were built during the reign of the Roman emperor [[Caracalla]] in the early 3rd century to honor [[Asclepius|Asclepios]], the God of Medicine. Today, only the basement and first floors remain. It is situated in the Ulus quarter.

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The [[Roman Road of Ankara]] or ''Cardo Maximus'' was found in 1995 by Turkish archaeologist Cevdet Bayburtluoğlu. It is long and wide. Many ancient artifacts were discovered during the excavations along the road and most of them are displayed at the [[Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]].

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The Column of Julian or Julianus, now in the Ulus district, was erected in honor of the Roman emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]'s visit to Ancyra in 362.

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[[Kocatepe Mosque]] is the largest mosque in the city. Located in the Kocatepe quarter, it was constructed between 1967 and 1987 in classical [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman style]] with four minarets. Its size and prominent location have made it a landmark for the city.

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Ahmet Hamdi Akseki Mosque is located near the Presidency of Religious Affairs on the [[Eskişehir]] Road. Built in the Turkish neoclassical style, it is one of the largest new mosques in the city, completed and opened in 2013. It can accommodate 6 thousand people during general prayers, and up to 30 thousand people during funeral prayers. The mosque was decorated with [[Sultanate of Rum|Anatolian]] [[Seljuk architecture|Seljuk style]] patterns.

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It is the largest Ottoman mosque in Ankara and was built by the famous architect Sinan in the 16th century. The mimber (pulpit) and mihrap (prayer niche) are of white marble, and the mosque itself is of Ankara stone, an example of very fine workmanship.

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This mosque, in the Ulus quarter next to the [[Monumentum Ancyranum|Temple of Augustus]], was built in the early 15th century in [[Seljuk architecture|Seljuk style]] by an unknown architect. It was subsequently restored by architect [[Mimar Sinan]] in the 16th century, with [[Kütahya]] tiles being added in the 18th century. The mosque was built in honor of [[Hacı Bayram-ı Veli]], whose tomb is next to the mosque, two years before his death (1427–28). The usable space inside this mosque is on the first floor and on the second floor.

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It was founded in the Ulus quarter near the Ankara Citadel and was constructed by the [[Ahis|Ahi fraternity]] during the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The finely carved walnut mimber (pulpit) is of particular interest.

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The Alâeddin Mosque is the oldest mosque in Ankara. It has a [[wood carving|carved]] [[Juglans|walnut]] [[minbar|mimber]], the inscription on which records that the mosque was completed in early [[Islamic calendar|AH 574]] (which corresponds to the summer of 1178 AD) and was built by the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk]] prince Muhiddin Mesud Şah (died 1204), the [[Bey]] of Ankara, who was the son of the [[Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate|Anatolian Seljuk sultan]] [[Kilij Arslan II|Kılıç Arslan II]] (reigned 1156–1192.)

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The '' [[Victory Monument (Ankara)|Victory Monument]]'' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''[[:tr:Ankara Zafer Anıtı|Zafer Anıtı]]'') was crafted by Austrian sculptor Heinrich Krippel in 1925 and was erected in 1927 at [[Ulus Square]]. The monument is made of [[marble]] and [[bronze]] and features an [[equestrian statue]] of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank [[Field Marshal]].

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Located at Zafer Square ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Zafer Meydanı''), the [[marble]] and [[bronze]] statue was crafted by the renowned Italian sculptor [[Pietro Canonica]] in 1927 and depicts a standing Atatürk who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank [[Field Marshal]].

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This monument, located in Güven Park near Kızılay Square, was erected in 1935 and bears Atatürk's advice to his people: "Turk! Be proud, work hard, and believe in yourself." The monument was depicted on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the Turkish 5 [[Turkish lira|lira]] banknote of 1937–1952 and of the 1000 lira banknotes of 1939–1946.

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Erected in 1978 at [[Sıhhiye Square]], this impressive monument symbolizes the [[Hattians|Hatti]] Sun Disc (which was later adopted by the [[Hittites]]) and commemorates Anatolia's earliest known civilization. The Hatti Sun Disc has been used in the previous logo of Ankara Metropolitan Municipality. It was also used in the previous logo of the Ministry of Culture & Tourism.

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[[Suluhan]] is a historical Inn in Ankara. It is also called the ''Hasanpaşa Han''. It is about southeast of [[Ulus Square]] and situated in the Hacıdoğan neighbourhood. According to the ''vakfiye'' (inscription) of the building, the Ottoman era ''han'' was commissioned by Hasan Pasha, a regional [[beylerbey]], and was constructed between 1508 and 1511, during the final years of the reign of Sultan [[Bayezid II]]. There are 102 rooms (now shops) which face the two yards. In each room there is a window, a niche and a chimney.

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[[Çengelhan Rahmi Koç Museum]] is a museum of industrial technology situated in [[:tr:Çengel Han|Çengel Han]], an Ottoman era Inn which was completed in 1523, during the early years of the reign of Sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]. The exhibits include industrial/technological artifacts from the 1850s onwards. There are also sections about Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey; Vehbi Koç, Rahmi Koç's father and one of the first industrialists of Turkey, and Ankara city.

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Foreign visitors to Ankara usually like to visit the old shops in ''Çıkrıkçılar Yokuşu'' (Weavers' Road) near Ulus, where myriad things ranging from traditional fabrics, hand-woven carpets and leather products can be found at bargain prices. ''Bakırcılar Çarşısı'' (Bazaar of Coppersmiths) is particularly popular, and many interesting items, not just of copper, can be found here like jewelry, carpets, costumes, antiques and embroidery. Up the hill to the castle gate, there are many shops selling a huge and fresh collection of spices, [[dried fruit]], nuts, and other produce. Modern shopping areas are mostly found in [[Kızılay, Ankara|Kızılay]], or on Tunalı Hilmi Avenue, including the modern mall of [[List of shopping malls in Turkey#Ankara|Karum]] (named after the ancient [[Assyria]] merchant colonies called [[Kültepe#Kârum Kaneš|''Kârum'']] that were established in [[Central Anatolia Region|central]] [[Anatolia]] at the beginning of the [[2nd millennium BC]]) which is located towards the end of the Avenue; and in [[Çankaya, Ankara|Çankaya]], the quarter with the highest elevation in the city. [[Atakule|Atakule Tower]] next to [[Atakule#Atrium shopping mall|Atrium Mall]] in Çankaya has views over Ankara and also has a [[revolving restaurant]] at the top. The symbol of the [[List of shopping malls in Turkey#Ankara|Armada Shopping Mall]] is an [[anchor]], and there's a large anchor monument at its entrance, as a reference to the ancient Greek name of the city, Ἄγκυρα (Ánkyra), which means anchor. Likewise, the anchor monument is also related with the Spanish name of the mall, Armada, which means [[naval fleet]]. As Ankara started expanding westward in the 1970s, several modern, suburbia-style developments and mini-cities began to rise along the western highway, also known as the [[Eskişehir]] Road. The ''Armada'', ''CEPA'' and ''Kentpark'' malls on the highway, the ''Galleria'', ''Arcadium'' and ''Gordion'' in Ümitköy, and a huge mall, ''Real'' in Bilkent Center, offer North American and European style shopping opportunities (these places can be reached through the Eskişehir Highway.) There is also the newly expanded ''[[ANKAmall]]'' at the outskirts, on the Istanbul Highway, which houses most of the well-known international brands. This mall is the largest throughout the Ankara region. In 2014 a few more shopping malls were open in Ankara. They are ''Next Level'' and ''Taurus'' on the Boulevard of [[Mevlana]] (also known as [[Konya]] Road).

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[[Turkish State Opera and Ballet]], the national directorate of opera and ballet companies of Turkey, has its headquarters in Ankara, and serves the city with three venues: (-) [[Ankara Opera House]] (''Opera Sahnesi'', also known as ''Büyük Tiyatro'') is the largest of the three venues for opera and ballet in Ankara.

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Ankara is host to five classical music orchestras: (-) [[Presidential Symphony Orchestra]] (Turkish Presidential Symphony Orchestra) (-) [[Bilkent Symphony Orchestra]] (BSO) is a major symphony orchestra of Turkey. (-) [[Hacettepe Symphony Orchestra]] was founded in 2003 and is conducted by Erol Erdinç. (-) Başkent Oda Orkestrası (Chamber Orchestra of the Capital) There are four concert halls in the city: (-) [[CSO Concert Hall]] (-) [[Bilkent Concert Hall]] is a performing arts center in Ankara. It is located in the Bilkent University campus. (-) [[MEB Şura Salonu]] (also known as the Festival Hall), It is noted for its tango performances. (-) [[Çankaya Çağdaş Sanatlar Merkezi Concert Hall]] was founded in 1994. The city has been host to several well-established, annual theatre, music, film festivals: (-) [[Ankara International Music Festival]], a music festival organized in the Turkish capital presenting classical music and ballet programmes. Ankara also has a number of concert venues such as ''Eskiyeni'', ''[[IF Performance Hall]]'', ''[[Jolly Joker (venues chain)|Jolly Joker]]'', ''Kite'', ''Nefes Bar'', ''Noxus Pub'', ''Passage Pub'' and ''Route'', which host the live performances and events of popular musicians.

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The [[Turkish State Theatres]] also has its head office in Ankara and runs the following stages in the city: (-) [[125. Yıl Çayyolu Sahnesi]] (-) [[:tr:Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu|Büyük Tiyatro]], (-) [[Küçük Tiyatro]], (-) [[Şinasi Sahnesi]], (-) [[Akün Sahnesi]], (-) [[Altındağ Tiyatrosu]], (-) [[İrfan Şahinbaş Atölye Sahnesi]], (-) [[Oda Tiyatrosu]], (-) [[Mahir Canova Sahnesi]], (-) [[Muhsin Ertuğrul Sahnesi]]. In addition, the city is served by several private theatre companies, among which [[:tr:Ankara Sanat Tiyatrosu|Ankara Sanat Tiyatrosu]], who have their own stage in the city center, is a notable example.

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The [[Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]] (''Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi'') is situated at the entrance of the [[Ankara Castle]]. It is an old 15th century [[bedesten]] (covered bazaar) that has been restored and now houses a collection of [[Paleolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Hittite empire|Hatti]], [[Hittites|Hittite]], [[Phrygia]], [[Urartu|Urartian]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] works as well as a major section dedicated to [[Lydia]] treasures.

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[[Anıtkabir]] is located on an imposing hill, which forms the ''Anıttepe'' quarter of the city, where the mausoleum of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], founder of the Republic of Turkey, stands. Completed in 1953, it is an impressive fusion of ancient and modern architectural styles. An adjacent museum houses a wax statue of Atatürk, his writings, letters and personal items, as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments in his life and during the establishment of the Republic. Anıtkabir is open every day, while the adjacent museum is open every day except Mondays.

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[[Ethnography Museum of Ankara|Ankara Ethnography Museum]] (''Etnoğrafya Müzesi'') is located opposite to the [[Ankara Opera House]] on Talat Paşa Boulevard, in the Ulus district. There is a fine collection of folkloric items, as well as artifacts from the Seljuk and Ottoman periods. In front of the museum building, there is a [[marble]] and [[bronze]] [[equestrian statue]] of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] (who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank [[Field Marshal]]) which was crafted in 1927 by the renowned Italian sculptor [[Pietro Canonica]].

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The [[State Art and Sculpture Museum]] (''Resim-Heykel Müzesi'') which opened to the public in 1980 is close to the Ethnography Museum and houses a rich collection of Turkish art from the late 19th century to the present day. There are also galleries which host guest exhibitions.

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Cer Modern is the modern-arts museum of Ankara, inaugurated on 1 April 2010. It is situated in the renovated building of the historic [[Turkish State Railways|TCDD]] Cer Atölyeleri, formerly a workshop of the [[Turkish State Railways]]. The museum incorporates the largest exhibition hall in Turkey. The museum holds periodic exhibitions of modern and contemporary art as well as hosting other contemporary arts events.

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The [[War of Independence Museum]] (''Kurtuluş Savaşı Müzesi'') is located on [[Ulus Square]]. It was originally the first Parliament building (TBMM) of the Republic of Turkey. The War of Independence was planned and directed here as recorded in various photographs and items presently on exhibition. In another display, [[wax sculpture|wax figure]] of former presidents of the Republic of Turkey are on exhibit.

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The [[Mehmet Akif Literature Museum Library]] is an important literary museum and archive opened in 2011 and dedicated to [[Mehmet Akif Ersoy]] (1873–1936), the poet of the [[Turkish National Anthem]].

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The [[TCDD Open Air Steam Locomotive Museum]] is an [[open-air museum]] which traces the history of [[steam locomotive]].

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Ankara Aviation Museum (''Hava Kuvvetleri Müzesi Komutanlığı'') is located near the Istanbul Road in Etimesgut. The museum opened to the public in September 1998. It is home to various missiles, avionics, aviation materials and aircraft that have served in the [[Turkish Air Force]] (e.g. combat aircraft such as the [[F-86 Sabre]], [[F-100 Super Sabre]], [[F-102 Delta Dagger]], [[F-104 Starfighter]], [[Northrop F-5|F-5 Freedom Fighter]], [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4 Phantom]]; and cargo planes such as the [[Transall C-160]].) Also a Hungarian [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|MiG-21]], a Pakistani [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19|MiG-19]], and a Bulgarian [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17|MiG-17]] are on display at the museum.

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The [[METU Science and Technology Museum]] (''ODTÜ Bilim ve Teknoloji Müzesi'') is located inside the [[METU|Middle East Technical University]] campus.

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As with all other cities of Turkey, football is the most popular sport in Ankara. The city has two [[football team|football clubs]] competing in the [[Süper Lig|Turkish Süper Lig]]: [[MKE Ankaragücü|Ankaragücü]], founded in 1910, is the oldest club in Ankara and is associated with Ankara's military arsenal manufacturing company [[Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation|MKE]]. They were the [[Türkiye Kupası|Turkish Cup]] winners in 1972 and 1981. [[Gençlerbirliği S.K.|Gençlerbirliği]], founded in 1923, are known as the ''Ankara Gale'' or the ''Poppies'' because of their colors: red and black. They were the Turkish Cup winners in 1987 and 2001. Gençlerbirliği's B team, [[Hacettepe S.K.]] (formerly known as Gençlerbirliği OFTAŞ) played in the Süper Lig but currently plays in the [[TFF Second League]]. A fourth team, [[Büyükşehir Belediye Ankaraspor]], played in the Süper Lig until 2010, when they were expelled. The club was reconstituted in 2014 as [[Osmanlıspor]] but have since returned to their old identity as [[Ankaraspor]]. Ankaraspor currently play in the [[TFF First League]] at the [[Osmanlı Stadium]] in the [[Sincan, Ankara|Sincan]] district of Yenikent, outside the city center. [[Keçiörengücü]] also currently play in the [[TFF First League]]. Ankara has a large number of minor teams, playing at regional levels. In the [[TFF Second League]]: [[Mamak FK]] in Mamak, [[Ankara Demirspor]] in Çankaya, [[Etimesgut Belediyespor]] in Etimesgut; in the [[TFF Third League]]: [[Çankaya FK]] in Keçiören; Altındağspor in Altındağ; in the [[Turkish Regional Amateur League|Amateur League]]: [[Turanspor]] in Etimesgut, [[Türk Telekomspor]] owned by the phone company in Yenimahalle, Çubukspor in Çubuk, and [[Bağlumspor]] in Keçiören. In the [[Turkish Basketball League]], Ankara is represented by [[Türk Telekom]], whose home is the [[Ankara Arena]], and [[TED Kolejliler|CASA TED Kolejliler]], whose home is the TOBB Sports Hall. [[Halkbank Ankara]] is the leading domestic powerhouse in men's volleyball, having won many championships and cups in the [[Turkish Men's Volleyball League]] and even the [[CEV Cup]] in 2013. [[Ankara Ice Palace|Ankara Buz Pateni Sarayı]] is where the [[ice skating]] and [[ice hockey]] competitions take place in the city. There are many popular spots for [[skateboarding]] which is active in the city since the 1980s. Skaters in Ankara usually meet in the park near the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]. The 2012-built [[THF Sport Hall]] hosts the [[Turkish Handball Super League|Handball Super League]] and [[Turkish Women's Handball Super League|Women's Handball Super League]] matches scheduled in Ankara.

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Ankara has many parks and open spaces mainly established in the early years of the Republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter. The most important of these parks are: [[Gençlik Parkı]] (houses an [[amusement park]] with a large pond for rowing), the [[Botanical garden]], Seğmenler Park, Anayasa Park, [[Kuğulu Park]] (famous for the swans received as a gift from the [[PRC|Chinese]] government), [[Abdi İpekçi]] Park, [[Esertepe Parkı]], Güven Park (see above for the monument), Kurtuluş Park (has an ice-skating rink), [[Altınpark]] (also a prominent exposition/fair area), Harikalar Diyarı (claimed to be Biggest Park of Europe inside city borders) and Göksu Park. [[Dikmen Vadisi]] (Dikmen Valley) is a park and recreation area situated in Çankaya district. Gençlik Park was depicted on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the Turkish 100 [[Turkish lira|lira]] banknotes of 1952–1976. [[Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo]] (''Atatürk Orman Çiftliği'') is an expansive recreational farming area which houses a [[zoo]], several small agricultural farms, [[greenhouse]], restaurants, a [[dairy farming|dairy farm]] and a brewery. It is a pleasant place to spend a day with family, be it for having picnics, hiking, biking or simply enjoying good food and nature. There is also an exact replica of the house where Atatürk was born in 1881, in [[Thessaloniki]], Greece. Visitors to the "Çiftlik" (farm) as it is affectionately called by Ankarans, can sample such famous products of the farm such as old-fashioned beer and [[ice cream]], fresh [[dairy product]] and meat rolls/kebaps made on charcoal, at a traditional restaurant (''Merkez Lokantası'', Central Restaurant), cafés and other establishments scattered around the farm.

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Ankara is noted, within Turkey, for the multitude of universities it is home to. These include the following, several of them being among the most reputable in the country: (-) [[Ankara University]] (-) [[Atılım University]] (-) [[Başkent University]] (-) [[Bilkent University]] (-) [[Çankaya University]] (-) [[Gazi University]] (-) [[:tr:Gülhane Askerî Tıp Akademisi|Gülhane Military Medical Academy]] (-) [[Hacettepe University]] (-) [[İpek University]] (-) [[Middle East Technical University]] (-) [[:tr:TED Üniversitesi|TED University]] (-) [[TOBB University of Economics and Technology]] (-) [[:tr:Türk Hava Kurumu Üniversitesi|Turkish Aeronautical Association University]] (-) [[Turkish Military Academy]] (-) [[Turkish National Police Academy]] (-) [[Ufuk University]] (-) [[Yıldırım Beyazıt University]]

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Ankara is home to a world-famous domestic [[cat breed]] – the [[Turkish Angora]], called ''Ankara kedisi'' (Ankara cat) in Turkish. Turkish Angoras are one of the ancient, naturally occurring cat breeds, having originated in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia. They mostly have a white, silky, medium to long length coat, no undercoat and a fine bone structure. There seems to be a connection between the Angora Cats and [[Persian (cat)|Persians]], and the Turkish Angora is also a distant cousin of the [[Turkish Van]]. Although they are known for their shimmery white coat, there are more than twenty varieties including black, blue and reddish fur. They come in [[tabby cat|tabby]] and tabby-white, along with smoke varieties, and are in every color other than pointed, lavender, and cinnamon (all of which would indicate breeding to an outcross.) Eyes may be blue, green, or amber, or even one blue and one amber or green. The [[Cat coat genetics#White spotting and epistatic white|W gene]] which is responsible for the white coat and blue eye is closely related to the hearing ability, and the presence of a blue eye can indicate that the cat is deaf to the side the blue eye is located. However, a great many blue and [[odd-eyed cat|odd-eyed]] white cats have normal hearing, and even deaf cats lead a very normal life if kept indoors. Ears are pointed and large, eyes are almond shaped and the head is massive with a two plane profile. Another characteristic is the tail, which is often kept parallel to the back.

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The [[Angora goat]] () is a breed of [[goat|domestic goat]] that originated in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia. This breed was first mentioned in the time of [[Moses]], roughly in 1500 BC. The first Angora goats were brought to Europe by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]], about 1554, but, like later imports, were not very successful. Angora goats were first introduced in the United States in 1849 by Dr. James P. Davis. Seven adult goats were a gift from Sultan [[Abdülmecid I]] in appreciation for his services and advice on the raising of cotton. The [[Pile (textile)|fleece]] taken from an Angora goat is called [[mohair]]. A single goat produces between of hair per year. Angoras are shorn twice a year, unlike [[Domestic sheep|sheep]], which are shorn only once. Angoras have high nutritional requirements due to their rapid hair growth. A poor quality diet will curtail mohair development. The United States, [[Turkey]], and South Africa are the top producers of mohair. For a long period of time, Angora goats were bred for their white coat. In 1998, the Colored Angora Goat Breeders Association was set up to promote breeding of colored Angoras. Today, Angora goats produce white, black (deep black to greys and silver), red (the color fades significantly as the goat gets older), and brownish fiber. Angora goats were depicted on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the Turkish 50 [[Turkish lira|lira]] banknotes of 1938–1952.

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The [[Angora rabbit]] () is a variety of domestic rabbit bred for its long, soft hair. The Angora is one of the oldest types of domestic rabbit, originating in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia, along with the [[Turkish Angora|Angora cat]] and [[Angora goat]]. The rabbits were popular pets with French royalty in the mid-18th century, and spread to other parts of Europe by the end of the century. They first appeared in the United States in the early 20th century. They are bred largely for their long [[Angora wool]], which may be removed by [[sheep shearing|shear]], combing, or [[plucking (hair removal)|pluck]] (gently pulling loose wool.) Angoras are bred mainly for their wool because it is silky and soft. They have a humorous appearance, as they oddly resemble a fur ball. Most are calm and docile but should be handled carefully. Grooming is necessary to prevent the fiber from matting and felting on the rabbit. A condition called "wool block" is common in Angora rabbits and should be treated quickly. Sometimes they are shorn in the summer as the long fur can cause the rabbits to overheat.

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Ankara is [[Twin towns and sister cities|twinned]] with: (-) [[Seoul]], South Korea (since 1971) (-) [[Islamabad]], Pakistan (since 1982) (-) [[Kuala Lumpur]], Malaysia (since 1984) (-) [[Beijing]], China (since 1990) (-) [[Amman]], Jordan (since 1992) (-) [[Bishkek]], Kyrgyzstan (since 1992) (-) [[Budapest]], Hungary (since 1992) (-) [[Khartoum]], Sudan (since 1992) (-) [[Moscow]], Russia (since 1992) (-) [[Sofia]], Bulgaria (since 1992) (-) [[Havana]], Cuba (since 1993) (-) [[Kyiv]], Ukraine (since 1993) (-) [[Ashgabat]], Turkmenistan (since 1994) (-) [[Kuwait City]], Kuwait (since 1994) (-) [[Sarajevo]], Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 1994) (-) [[Tirana]], Albania (since 1995) (-) [[Tbilisi]], Georgia (since 1996) (-) [[Ufa]], [[Bashkortostan]], Russia (since 1997) (-) [[Bucharest]], Romania (since 1998) (-) [[Hanoi]], Vietnam (since 1998) (-) [[Manama]], Bahrain (since 2000) (-) [[Mogadishu]], Somalia (since 2000) (-) [[Santiago]], Chile (since 2000) (-) [[Nur-Sultan]], Kazakhstan (since 2001) (-) [[Dushanbe]], Tajikistan (since 2003) (-) [[Kabul]], Afghanistan (since 2003) (-) [[Ulan Bator]], Mongolia (since 2003) (-) [[Cairo]], Egypt (since 2004) (-) [[Chișinău]], Moldova (since 2004) (-) [[Sana'a]], Yemen (since 2004) (-) [[Tashkent]], Uzbekistan (since 2004) (-) [[Pristina]], Kosovo (since 2005) (-) [[Kazan]], [[Tatarstan]], Russia (since 2005) (-) [[Kinshasa]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (since 2005) (-) [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia (since 2006) (-) [[Minsk]], Belarus (since 2007) (-) [[Zagreb]], Croatia (since 2008) (-) [[Damascus]], Syria (since 2010) (-) [[Bissau]], Guinea-Bissau (since 2011) (-) [[Washington, D.C.]], USA (since 2011) (-) [[Bangkok]], Thailand (since 2012) (-) [[Tehran]], Iran (since 2013) (-) [[Doha]], Qatar (since 2016) (-) [[Podgorica]], [[Montenegro]] (since 7 March 2019) (-) [[Djibouti City]], [[Djibouti]] (since 2017)

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'''Arabic''' (, '''' or , '''' or ) is a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]] that first emerged in the 1st to 4th centuries CE. It is now the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Arab world]]. It is named after the [[Arabs]], a term initially used to describe peoples living in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] bounded by eastern Egypt in the west, [[Mesopotamia]] in the east, and the [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains|Anti-Lebanon mountains]] and Northern [[Syria]] in the north, as perceived by [[History of cartography#Ancient Greece|ancient Greek geographers]] The [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] assigns language codes to thirty [[varieties of Arabic]], including its standard form, [[Modern Standard Arabic]], also referred to as Literary Arabic, which is modernized [[Classical Arabic]]. This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as ( "the eloquent Arabic") or simply '''' (). [[Modern Standard Arabic]] is an official language of [[List of countries where Arabic is an official language|26 states]] and 1 disputed territory, the third most after English and French. Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government and the media. Arabic, in its [[Standard Arabic|standard form]], is the official language of 26 states, as well as the [[liturgical language]] of the religion of [[Islam]], since the [[Quran]] and [[Hadith]] were written in Arabic. During the Middle Ages, Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also [[loanword|borrowed]] many words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in [[Languages of Europe|European languages]]—mainly [[Arabic language influence on the Spanish language|Spanish]] and to a lesser extent [[Influence of Arabic on other languages#Portuguese|Portuguese]], [[Influence of Arabic on other languages#Catalan|Catalan]], and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]]—owing to both the proximity of Christian European and Muslim Arab civilizations and the long-lasting Arabic culture and language presence mainly in Southern Iberia during the [[Al-Andalus]] era. The [[Maltese language]] is a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]] developed from a dialect of Arabic and written in the [[Latin alphabet]]. The [[Balkans|Balkan]] languages, including [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], have also acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]. Arabic has influenced many other languages around the globe throughout its history. Some of the most influenced languages are [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]]), [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Malay language|Malay]] ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]]), [[Maldivian language|Maldivian]], [[Pashto]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Oriya Language|Odia]] and [[Hausa language|Hausa]] and some languages in parts of Africa. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed words from other languages, including Hebrew, Greek, Aramaic, and Persian in medieval times and languages such as English and [[French language|French]] in modern times.

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Arabic is the [[Sacred language|liturgical language]] of 1.8 billion [[Muslims]], and Arabic is one of six [[official languages of the United Nations]]. All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth [[List of languages by number of native speakers|most spoken language in the world]]. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an [[abjad]] script and is written from [[Right-to-left|right to left]], although the spoken varieties are sometimes [[Arabic chat alphabet|written in ASCII Latin]] from [[left to right]] with no standardized orthography.

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Arabic is usually, but not universally, classified as a [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]] language. It is related to languages in other subgroups of the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] language group ([[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]], [[South Semitic]], [[East Semitic]], [[West Semitic]]), such as [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]], [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]], [[Amorite]], [[Ammonite language|Ammonite]], [[Eblaite]], [[Ancient North Arabian|epigraphic Ancient North Arabian]], [[Ancient South Arabian|epigraphic Ancient South Arabian]], [[Ethiopic]], [[Modern South Arabian]], and numerous other dead and modern languages. Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The [[Semitic languages]] changed a great deal between [[Proto-Semitic]] and the emergence of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: (1) The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation (''jalas-'') into a past tense. (2) The conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation (''yajlis-'') into a present tense. (3) The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms (e.g., a present tense formed by doubling the middle root, a perfect formed by infixing a after the first root consonant, probably a jussive formed by a stress shift) in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms (e.g., ''-u'' for indicative, ''-a'' for subjunctive, no ending for jussive, ''-an'' or ''-anna'' for energetic). (4) The development of an internal passive. There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the [[Safaitic]] and [[Hismaic (Old Arabic)|Hismaic]] inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the [[Dadanitic]] and [[Taymanitic]] languages of the [[Hijaz|northern Hejaz]]. These features are evidence of common descent from a [[Proto-language|hypothetical ancestor]], [[Proto-Arabic]]. The following features can be reconstructed with confidence for Proto-Arabic: (1) negative particles '''' * ; '''' * to Classical Arabic (2) G-passive participle (3) prepositions and adverbs '''', '''', '''', '''', '''' (4) a subjunctive in -'''' (5) ''''-demonstratives (6) leveling of the -'''' allomorph of the feminine ending (7) '''' complementizer and subordinator (8) the use of ''''- to introduce modal clauses (9) independent object pronoun in '''' (10) vestiges of ''[[nunation]]''

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Arabia boasted a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. In the southwest, various [[Central Semitic languages]] both belonging to and outside of the [[Old South Arabian|Ancient South Arabian]] family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It is also believed that the ancestors of the [[Modern South Arabian languages]] (non-Central Semitic languages) were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern [[Hejaz]], [[Dadanitic]] and [[Taymanitic]] held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In [[Najd]] and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in a script derived from ASA attest to a language known as [[Hasaitic dialect|Hasaitic]]. Finally, on the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B, Thamudic D, [[Safaitic]], and [[Hismaic]] are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are in fact early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered [[Old Arabic]]. Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic" (a collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic) first emerged around the 1st century CE. Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in [[Sabaic|Sabaic script]] at [[Qaryat al-Faw|Qaryat Al-Faw]], in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as the conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum.

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It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced--[[epigraphic]] [[Ancient North Arabian]] (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after the towns where the inscriptions were discovered ([[Dadanitic]], [[Taymanitic]], [[Hismaic]], [[Safaitic]]). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered [[Old Arabic]] due to the fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic.The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an [[Nabataean alphabet|ancestor of the modern Arabic script]] are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in [[Avdat|En Avdat, Israel]], and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the [[Namara inscription]], an epitaph of the [[Lakhmids|Lakhmid]] king Mar 'al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at [[Namara inscription|Namaraa]], Syria. From the 4th to the 6th centuries, the [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean script]] evolves into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ([[Zabad, Syria|Zabad]], Jabal 'Usays, [[Harran, as-Suwayda|Harran]], [[Umm el-Jimal|Umm al-Jimaal]]). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of the Qur'an are referred to by linguists as "[[Quranic Arabic]]", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into "[[Classical Arabic]]".

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In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the [[Hejaz]] which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the [[Islamic calendar|Hijra]], most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from the "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an [[Old Higazi]] register. It is clear that the orthography of the [[Quran|Qur'an]] was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In the late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the [[Vernacular|spoken vernaculars]] developed based on the [[Bedouin]] dialects of [[Najd]], probably in connection with the court of [[Al-Hirah|al-Ḥīra]]. During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized [[Classical Arabic]] elements in morphology and syntax. Following the [[early Muslim conquests]], Arabic gained vocabulary from [[Middle Persian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. In the early [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid period]], many [[Ancient Greek|Classical Greek]] terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at [[Baghdad|Baghdad's]] [[House of Wisdom]]. The standardization of Classical Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ''ʿarabiyya'' "Arabic", [[Sibawayh|Sībawayhi's]] ''al''-''Kitāb'', is based first of all upon a corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ''ʿarabiyya''. By the 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world.

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Charles Ferguson's [[koiné language|koine]] theory (Ferguson 1959) claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on the eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from [[pidgin]] Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent [[creolization]] among Arabs and [[Arabization|arabized]] peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around the 11th and 12th centuries in [[al-Andalus]], the ''[[zajal]]'' and [[Muwashshah|''muwashah'']] poetry forms developed in the [[Andalusian Arabic|dialectical Arabic of Cordoba]] and the Maghreb.

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In the wake of the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]] and European [[hegemony]] and [[colonialism]], pioneering Arabic presses, such as the [[Amiri Press]] established by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic [[Arabic literature|literature]] and publications. The ''[[Nahda]]'' cultural renaissance saw the creation of a number of Arabic academies modeled after the ''[[Académie française]]'' that aimed to develop the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in [[Arab Academy of Damascus|Damascus]] (1919), then in [[Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo|Cairo]] (1932), [[Iraqi Academy of Sciences|Baghdad]] (1948), [[Institute for Studies and Research on Arabization|Rabat]] (1960), [[Jordan Academy of Arabic|Amman]] (1977), (1993), and [[Tunisian Academy of Sciences, Letters, and Arts|Tunis]] (1993). In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the [[Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization|Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization]] of the [[Arab League]]. These academies and organizations have worked toward the [[Arabization]] of the sciences, [[Neologism|creating terms]] in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward the standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a [[world language]]. This gave rise to what Western scholars call [[Modern Standard Arabic]]. From the 1950s, [[Arabization]] became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan.

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''Arabic'' usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into [[Classical Arabic]] and [[Modern Standard Arabic]]. It could also refer to any of a variety of regional vernacular [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic dialects]], which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the [[Quran]], used from the period of [[Pre-Islamic Arabia]] to that of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the [[syntactic]] and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as [[Sibawayh]]) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as the [[Ibn Manzur#Lisān al-ʿArab|''Lisān al-ʻArab'']]). Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial]] and [[Post-industrial society|post-industrial era]], especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while the latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of [[Classical Latin]] and [[Vulgar Latin]] vernaculars (which became [[Romance languages]]) in medieval and early modern Europe. This view though does not take into account the widespread use of Modern Standard Arabic as a medium of audiovisual communication in today's mass media—a function Latin has never performed. MSA is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( '''') are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: (-) Certain grammatical constructions of CA that have no counterpart in any modern vernacular dialect (e.g., the [[energetic mood]]) are almost never used in [[Modern Standard Arabic]].

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(-) [[Grammatical case|Case]] distinctions are very rare in Arabic vernaculars. As a result, MSA is generally composed without case distinctions in mind, and the proper cases are added after the fact, when necessary. Because most case endings are noted using final short vowels, which are normally left unwritten in the Arabic script, it is unnecessary to determine the proper case of most words. The practical result of this is that MSA, like English and [[Standard Chinese]], is written in a strongly determined word order and alternative orders that were used in CA for emphasis are rare. In addition, because of the lack of case marking in the spoken varieties, most speakers cannot consistently use the correct endings in extemporaneous speech. As a result, spoken MSA tends to drop or regularize the endings except when reading from a prepared text. (-) The numeral system in CA is complex and heavily tied in with the case system. This system is never used in MSA, even in the most formal of circumstances; instead, a significantly simplified system is used, approximating the system of the conservative spoken varieties. MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., '''' 'to go') that is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., '''' 'film' or '''' 'democracy'). However, the current preference is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use [[loan translation]] (e.g., '''' 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; '''' 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing [[Semitic root|roots]] ( '''' '[[apoptosis]]', using the root ''m/w/t'' 'death' put into the [[Arabic verbs#Form X|Xth form]], or '''' 'university', based on '''' 'to gather, unite'; '''' 'republic', based on '''' 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., '''' 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; '''' 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). ''Colloquial'' or ''dialectal'' Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language and evolved from Classical Arabic. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be [[mutual intelligibility|mutually unintelligible]], and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as [[soap opera]] and [[talk show]], as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising.

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The only variety of modern Arabic to have acquired official language status is [[Maltese language|Maltese]], which is spoken in (predominantly [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) [[Malta]] and written with the [[Maltese alphabet|Latin script]]. It is descended from Classical Arabic through [[Siculo-Arabic]], but is not mutually intelligible with any other variety of Arabic. Most linguists list it as a separate language rather than as a dialect of Arabic. Even during Muhammad's lifetime, there were dialects of spoken Arabic. Muhammad spoke in the dialect of [[Mecca]], in the western [[Arabian peninsula]], and it was in this dialect that the Quran was written down. However, the dialects of the eastern Arabian peninsula were considered the most prestigious at the time, so the language of the Quran was ultimately converted to follow the eastern [[phonology]]. It is this phonology that underlies the modern pronunciation of Classical Arabic. The phonological differences between these two dialects account for some of the complexities of Arabic writing, most notably the writing of the [[glottal stop]] or ''[[hamzah]]'' (which was preserved in the eastern dialects but lost in western speech) and the use of '''' (representing a sound preserved in the western dialects but merged with '''' in eastern speech).

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The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of [[diglossia]], which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. ''Tawleed'' is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, ''al-hatif'' lexicographically, means the one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term ''al-hatif'' is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of ''tawleed'' can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native, mutually unintelligible "dialects"; these dialects linguistically constitute separate languages which may have dialects of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers [[Code-switching|code-switch]] back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. Arabic speakers often improve their familiarity with other dialects via music or film. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the [[varieties of Chinese]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Scots language|Scots]] and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a significant complicating factor: A single written form, significantly different from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites a number of sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak a single language, despite significant issues of mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the [[Romance languages]]. This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for the Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the [[Maghreb]], a linguistically innovative variety such as [[Moroccan Arabic]] is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the [[Mashriq]], much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages.

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The influence of Arabic has been most important in Islamic countries, because it is the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Quran. Arabic is also an important source of vocabulary for languages such as [[Amharic language|Amharic]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Baluchi language|Baluchi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic|Chaldean]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Chittagonian language|Chittagonian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Dagestani language|Dagestani]], [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Hindi]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Kutchi Language|Kutchi]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], [[Malay language|Malay]] ([[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]), [[Pashto language|Pashto]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Rohingya language|Rohingya]], [[Romance languages]] ([[French language|French]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], etc.) [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Somali language|Somali]], [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], [[Urdu]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], [[Visayan languages|Visayan]] and [[Wolof language|Wolof]], as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken. The Education Minister of France [[Jean-Michel Blanquer]] has emphasized the learning and usage of Arabic in French schools. In addition, English has many Arabic loanwords, some directly, but most via other Mediterranean languages. Examples of such words include admiral, adobe, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, alkaline, almanac, amber, arsenal, assassin, candy, carat, cipher, coffee, cotton, ghoul, hazard, jar, kismet, lemon, loofah, magazine, mattress, sherbet, sofa, sumac, tariff, and zenith. Other languages such as Maltese and [[Kinubi]] derive ultimately from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammatical rules. Terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber ''taẓallit'', "prayer", from ''[[salat]]'' ( '''')), academic terms (like [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] ''mentiq'', "logic"), and economic items (like English ''coffee'') to [[placeholder name|placeholders]] (like Spanish ''fulano'', "so-and-so"), everyday terms (like Hindustani ''lekin'', "but", or Spanish ''taza'' and French ''tasse'', meaning "cup"), and expressions (like Catalan ''a betzef'', "galore, in quantity"). Most Berber varieties (such as [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]]), along with Swahili, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most Islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as (''salat''), "prayer", and (''imam''), "prayer leader." In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic. For example, most Arabic loanwords in Hindustani and Turkish entered though Persian is an [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian language]]. Older Arabic loanwords in Hausa were borrowed from [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]. Arabic words also made their way into several West African languages as Islam spread across the Sahara. Variants of Arabic words such as ''kitāb'' ("book") have spread to the languages of African groups who had no direct contact with Arab traders. Since throughout the Islamic world, Arabic occupied a position similar to that of Latin in Europe, many of the Arabic concepts in the fields of science, philosophy, commerce, etc. were coined from Arabic roots by non-native Arabic speakers, notably by Aramaic and Persian translators, and then found their way into other languages. This process of using Arabic roots, especially in Kurdish and Persian, to translate foreign concepts continued through to the 18th and 19th centuries, when swaths of Arab-inhabited lands were under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]].

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The most important sources of borrowings into (pre-Islamic) Arabic are from the related (Semitic) languages [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], which used to be the principal, international language of communication throughout the ancient Near and Middle East, and [[Ge'ez language|Ethiopic]]. In addition, many cultural, religious and political terms have entered Arabic from [[Iranian languages]], notably [[Middle Persian]], [[Parthian language|Parthian]], and (Classical) Persian, and Hellenistic Greek (''kīmiyāʼ'' has as origin the Greek ''khymia'', meaning in that language the melting of metals; see [[Roger Dachez]], ''Histoire de la Médecine de l'Antiquité au XXe siècle'', Tallandier, 2008, p. 251), ''alembic'' (distiller) from ''ambix'' (cup), ''almanac'' (climate) from ''almenichiakon'' (calendar). (For the origin of the last three borrowed words, see Alfred-Louis de Prémare, ''Foundations of Islam'', Seuil, L'Univers Historique, 2002.) Some Arabic borrowings from Semitic or Persian languages are, as presented in De Prémare's above-cited book: (-) ''madīnah''/[[medina]] (مدينة, city or city square), a word of Aramaic origin (in which it means "a state") (-) ''jazīrah'' (جزيرة), as in the well-known form الجزيرة "Al-Jazeera," means "island" and has its origin in the Syriac ܓܙܝܪܗ ''gazīra''. (-) ''lāzaward'' (لازورد) is taken from Persian لاژورد ''lājvard'', the name of a blue stone, lapis lazuli. This word was borrowed in several European languages to mean (light) blue – azure in English, ''azur'' in French and ''azul'' in Portuguese and Spanish. A comprehensive overview of the influence of other languages on Arabic is found in Lucas & Manfredi (2020).

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There have been many instances of national movements to convert Arabic script into Latin script or to Romanize the language. Currently, the only language derived from [[Classical Arabic]] to use Latin script is [[Maltese language|Maltese]].

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The Beirut newspaper ''La Syrie'' pushed for the change from Arabic script to Latin letters in 1922. The major head of this movement was [[Louis Massignon]], a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before the Arabic Language Academy in Damascus in 1928. Massignon's attempt at Romanization failed as the Academy and population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. [[Sa'id al-Afghani|Sa'id Afghani]], a member of the Academy, mentioned that the movement to Romanize the script was a [[Zionism|Zionist]] plan to dominate Lebanon.

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After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for a way to reclaim and re-emphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used. There was also the idea of finding a way to use [[Hieroglyphics]] instead of the Latin alphabet, but this was seen as too complicated to use. A scholar, [[Salama Musa]] agreed with the idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in alphabet, he believed, would solve the problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words that made it difficult for non-native speakers to learn. Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid and Muhammad Azmi, two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported the push for Romanization. The idea that Romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al-Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo. However, this effort failed as the Egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the Arabic alphabet. In particular, the older Egyptian generations believed that the Arabic alphabet had strong connections to Arab values and history, due to the long history of the Arabic alphabet (Shrivtiel, 189) in Muslim societies.

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The [[Quran]] introduced a new way of writing to the world. People began studying and applying the unique styles they learned from the Quran to not only their own writing, but also their culture. Writers studied the unique structure and [[Text formatting|format]] of the Quran in order to identify and apply the figurative devices and their impact on the reader.

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The Quran inspired musicality in poetry through the internal rhythm of the verses. The arrangement of words, how certain sounds create harmony, and the agreement of rhymes create the sense of rhythm within each verse. At times, the chapters of the Quran only have the rhythm in common. The repetition in the Quran introduced the true power and impact repetition can have in poetry. The repetition of certain words and phrases made them appear more firm and explicit in the Quran. The Quran uses constant metaphors of blindness and deafness to imply unbelief. Metaphors were not a new concept to poetry, however the strength of extended metaphors was. The explicit imagery in the Quran inspired many poets to include and focus on the feature in their own work. The poet [[Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz|ibn al-Mu'tazz]] wrote a book regarding the figures of speech inspired by his study of the Quran. Poets such as badr Shakir al sayyab expresses his political opinion in his work through imagery inspired by the forms of more harsher imagery used in the Quran. The Quran uses figurative devices in order to express the meaning in the most beautiful form possible. The study of the pauses in the Quran as well as other rhetoric allow it to be approached in a multiple ways.

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Although the Quran is known for its [[fluency]] and [[harmony]], the structure can be best described as not always being inherently chronological, but can also flow thematically instead (the chapters in the Quran have segments that flow in chronological order, however segments can transition into other segments not related in chronology, but could be related in topic). The [[suras]], also known as chapters of the Quran, are not placed in chronological order. The only constant in their structure is that the longest are placed first and shorter ones follow. The topics discussed in the chapters can also have no direct relation to each other (as seen in many suras) and can share in their sense of [[rhyme]]. The Quran introduces to poetry the idea of abandoning order and scattering narratives throughout the text. Harmony is also present in the sound of the Quran. The elongations and accents present in the Quran create a harmonious flow within the writing. Unique sound of the Quran recited, due to the [[Diacritic|accents]], create a deeper level of understanding through a deeper emotional connection. The Quran is written in a language that is simple and understandable by people. The simplicity of the writing inspired later poets to write in a more clear and clear-cut style. The words of the Quran, although unchanged, are to this day understandable and frequently used in both formal and informal Arabic. The simplicity of the language makes memorizing and reciting the Quran a slightly easier task.

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The writer [[I'jaz|al-Khattabi]] explains how culture is a required element to create a sense of art in work as well as understand it. He believes that the fluency and harmony which the Quran possess are not the only elements that make it beautiful and create a bond between the reader and the text. While a lot of poetry was deemed comparable to the Quran in that it is equal to or better than the composition of the Quran, a debate rose that such statements are not possible because humans are incapable of composing work comparable to the Quran. Because the structure of the Quran made it difficult for a clear timeline to be seen, [[Hadith]] were the main source of chronological order. The Hadith were passed down from generation to generation and this tradition became a large resource for understanding the context. Poetry after the Quran began possessing this element of [[tradition]] by including ambiguity and background information to be required to understand the meaning. After the Quran came down to the people, the tradition of memorizing the [[Verse (poetry)|verses]] became present. It is believed that the greater the amount of the Quran memorized, the greater the faith. As technology improved over time, hearing [[recitation]] of the Quran became more available as well as more tools to help memorize the verses. The tradition of Love Poetry served as a symbolic representation of a Muslim's desire for a closer contact with their Lord. While the influence of the Quran on Arabic poetry is explained and defended by numerous writers, some writers such as [[Al-Baqillani]] believe that poetry and the Quran are in no conceivable way related due to the [[uniqueness]] of the Quran. Poetry's imperfections prove his points that they cannot be compared with the fluency the Quran holds.

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Classical Arabic is the language of poetry and literature (including news); it is also mainly the language of the [[Quran]]. Classical Arabic is closely associated with the religion of Islam because the Quran was written in it. Most of the world's Muslims do not speak Classical Arabic as their native language, but many can read the Quranic script and recite the Quran. Among non-Arab Muslims, translations of the Quran are most often accompanied by the original text. At present, Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is also used in modernized versions of literary forms of the Quran. Some Muslims present a [[Proto-Human language|monogenesis]] of languages and claim that the Arabic language was the language revealed by God for the benefit of mankind and the original language as a prototype system of symbolic communication, based upon its system of triconsonantal roots, spoken by man from which all other languages were derived, having first been corrupted. [[Judaism]] has a similar account with the [[Tower of Babel]].

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''Colloquial Arabic'' is a collective term for the spoken dialects of Arabic used throughout the [[Arab world]], which differ radically from the [[literary language]]. The main dialectal division is between the varieties within and outside of the [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian peninsula]], followed by that between [[Varieties of Arabic#Sedentary vs. Bedouin|sedentary]] varieties and the much more conservative [[Bedouin]] varieties. All the varieties outside of the Arabian peninsula (which include the large majority of speakers) have many features in common with each other that are not found in Classical Arabic. This has led researchers to postulate the existence of a prestige [[Koiné language|koine]] dialect in the one or two centuries immediately following the [[Arab conquest]], whose features eventually spread to all newly conquered areas. These features are present to varying degrees inside the Arabian peninsula. Generally, the Arabian peninsula varieties have much more diversity than the non-peninsula varieties, but these have been understudied. Within the non-peninsula varieties, the largest difference is between the non-Egyptian [[Maghrebi Arabic|North African dialects]] (especially [[Moroccan Arabic]]) and the others. Moroccan Arabic in particular is hardly comprehensible to Arabic speakers east of [[Libya]] (although the converse is not true, in part due to the popularity of Egyptian films and other media). One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among [[Romance languages]], retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus [[Iraqi Arabic|Iraqi]] ''aku'', [[Levantine Arabic|Levantine]] ''fīh'' and [[North African Arabic|North African]] ''kayən'' all mean 'there is', and all come from Classical Arabic forms (''yakūn'', ''fīhi'', ''kā'in'' respectively), but now sound very different.

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Transcription is a [[broad transcription|broad IPA transcription]], so minor differences were ignored for easier comparison. Also, the [[Arabic phonology|pronunciation]] of [[Modern Standard Arabic]] differs significantly from region to region.

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According to [[Charles A. Ferguson]], the following are some of the characteristic features of the [[Koiné language|koiné]] that underlies all the modern dialects outside the Arabian peninsula. Although many other features are common to most or all of these varieties, Ferguson believes that these features in particular are unlikely to have evolved independently more than once or twice and together suggest the existence of the koine: (-) Loss of the [[dual (grammatical number)|dual number]] except on nouns, with consistent plural agreement (cf. feminine singular agreement in plural inanimates). (-) Change of ''a'' to ''i'' in many affixes (e.g., non-past-tense prefixes ''ti- yi- ni-''; ''wi-'' 'and'; ''il-'' 'the'; feminine ''-it'' in the [[construct state]]). (-) Loss of third-weak verbs ending in ''w'' (which merge with verbs ending in ''y''). (-) Reformation of geminate verbs, e.g., '''' 'I untied' → ''''. (-) Conversion of separate words ''lī'' 'to me', ''laka'' 'to you', etc. into indirect-object [[clitic]] suffixes. (-) Certain changes in the [[cardinal number (linguistics)|cardinal number]] system, e.g., '''' 'five days' → '''', where certain words have a special plural with prefixed ''t''. (-) Loss of the feminine [[elative (gradation)|elative]] (comparative). (-) Adjective plurals of the form '''' 'big' → ''''. (-) Change of [[Arabic grammar#Nisba|nisba]] suffix '''' > ''''. (-) Certain [[Lexical item|lexical items]], e.g., '''' 'bring' < '''' 'come with'; '''' 'see'; '''' 'what' (or similar) < '''' 'which thing'; '''' (relative pronoun). (-) Merger of and .

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(-) [[Egyptian Arabic]] is spoken by around 53 million people in [[Egypt]] (55 million worldwide). It is one of the most understood varieties of Arabic, due in large part to the widespread distribution of Egyptian films and television shows throughout the Arabic-speaking world (-) [[Levantine Arabic]] includes [[North Levantine Arabic]], [[South Levantine Arabic]] and [[Cypriot Arabic]]. It is spoken by about 21 million people in [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Jordan]], [[State of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Israel]], [[Cyprus]] and [[Turkey]]. (-) [[Lebanese Arabic]] is a [[Varieties of Arabic|variety]] of [[Levantine Arabic]] spoken primarily in [[Lebanon]]. (-) [[Jordanian Arabic]] is a continuum of mutually intelligible varieties of [[Levantine Arabic]] spoken by the population of the [[Kingdom of Jordan]]. (-) [[Palestinian Arabic]] is a name of several dialects of the subgroup of [[Levantine Arabic]] spoken by the Palestinians in [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestine]], by [[Arab citizens of Israel]] and in most Palestinian populations around the world. (-) [[Samaritan alphabet|Samaritan Arabic]], spoken by only several hundred in the [[Nablus]] region (-) [[Cypriot Maronite Arabic]], spoken in [[Cyprus]] (-) [[Maghrebi Arabic]], also called "Darija" spoken by about 70 million people in [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]]. It also forms the basis of [[Maltese language|Maltese]] via the extinct [[Siculo-Arabic|Sicilian Arabic]] dialect. [[Maghrebi Arabic]] is very hard to understand for Arabic speakers from the [[Mashriq]] or [[Mesopotamia]], the most comprehensible being [[Libyan Arabic]] and the most difficult [[Moroccan Arabic]]. The others such as [[Algerian Arabic]] can be considered in between the two in terms of difficulty. (-) [[Libyan Arabic]] spoken in [[Libya]] and neighboring countries. (-) [[Tunisian Arabic]] spoken in [[Tunisia]] and North-eastern [[Algeria]] (-) [[Algerian Arabic]] spoken in [[Algeria]] (-) [[Judeo-Arabic|Judeo-Algerian Arabic]] was spoken by [[History of the Jews in Algeria|Jews]] in [[Algeria]] until 1962 (-) [[Moroccan Darija|Moroccan Arabic]] spoken in [[Morocco]] (-) [[Hassaniya Arabic]] (3 million speakers), spoken in [[Mauritania]], [[Western Sahara]], some parts of the [[Azawad]] in northern [[Mali]], southern [[Morocco]] and south-western [[Algeria]]. (-) [[Andalusian Arabic]], spoken in [[Spain]] until the 16th century. (-) [[Siculo-Arabic]] ([[Sicilian Arabic]]), was spoken in [[Sicily]] and [[Malta]] between the end of the 9th century and the end of the 12th century and eventually evolved into the [[Maltese language]].

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(-) [[Maltese language|Maltese]], spoken on the [[Malta|island of Malta]], is the only fully separate standardized language to have originated from an Arabic dialect (the extinct [[Siculo-Arabic]] dialect), with independent literary norms. Maltese has evolved independently of [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]] and its varieties into a standardized language over the past 800 years in a gradual process of [[Romanization of Arabic|Latinisation]]. Maltese is therefore considered an exceptional descendant of Arabic that has no [[diglossia|diglossic]] relationship with [[Standard Arabic]] or [[Classical Arabic]]. Maltese is also different from Arabic and other [[Semitic languages]] since its [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] has been deeply influenced by [[Romance languages]], [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]]. It is also the only Semitic language written in the [[Latin script]]. In terms of basic everyday language, speakers of Maltese are reported to be able to understand less than a third of what is said to them in [[Tunisian Arabic]], which is related to Siculo-Arabic, whereas speakers of Tunisian are able to understand about 40% of what is said to them in Maltese. This [[mutual intelligibility|asymmetric intelligibility]] is considerably lower than the [[mutual intelligibility]] found between Maghrebi Arabic dialects. Maltese has its own dialects, with urban varieties of Maltese being closer to Standard Maltese than rural varieties. (-) [[Mesopotamian Arabic]], spoken by about 32 million people in [[Iraq]] (where it is called "Aamiyah"), eastern [[Syria]] and southwestern [[Iran]] ([[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]]). (-) [[Baghdad Arabic]] is the Arabic dialect spoken in [[Baghdad]], the capital of Iraq. It is a subvariety of [[Mesopotamian Arabic]]. (-) [[Kuwaiti Arabic]] is a [[Gulf Arabic]] [[dialect]] spoken in [[Kuwait]]. (-) [[Khuzestani Arabic]] spoken in the Iranian province of [[Khuzestan]]. (-) [[Khorasani Arabic]] spoken in the Iranian province of [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]]. (-) [[Sudanese Arabic]] is spoken by 17 million people in [[Sudan]] and some parts of southern [[Egypt]]. Sudanese Arabic is quite distinct from the dialect of its neighbor to the north; rather, the Sudanese have a dialect similar to the Hejazi dialect. (-) [[Juba Arabic]] spoken in [[South Sudan]] and southern [[Sudan]] (-) [[Gulf Arabic]], spoken by around four million people, predominantly in [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]], some parts of [[Oman]], eastern [[Saudi Arabia]] coastal areas and some parts of [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] and [[Qatar]]. Also spoken in [[Iran]]'s [[Bushehr Province|Bushehr]] and [[Hormozgan Province|Hormozgan]] provinces. Although Gulf Arabic is spoken in [[Qatar]], most Qatari citizens speak [[Najdi Arabic]] (Bedawi). (-) [[Omani Arabic]], distinct from the [[Gulf Arabic]] of [[Eastern Arabia]] and [[Bahrain]], spoken in Central [[Oman]]. With recent oil wealth and mobility has spread over other parts of the Sultanate. (-) [[Hadhrami Arabic]], spoken by around 8 million people, predominantly in [[Hadhramaut]], and in parts of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]], and [[East Africa]] by [[Hadhrami people|Hadhrami]] descendants. (-) [[Yemeni Arabic]] spoken in [[Yemen]], and southern [[Saudi Arabia]] by 15 million people. Similar to [[Gulf Arabic]]. (-) [[Najdi Arabic]], spoken by around 10 million people, mainly spoken in [[Najd]], central and northern [[Saudi Arabia]]. Most Qatari citizens speak Najdi Arabic (Bedawi). (-) [[Hejazi Arabic]] (6 million speakers), spoken in [[Hejaz]], western [[Saudi Arabia]]

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Arabic

(-) [[Saharan Arabic]] spoken in some parts of [[Algeria]], [[Niger]] and [[Mali]] (-) [[Baharna Arabic]] (600,000 speakers), spoken by [[Bahrani people|Bahrani Shiʻah]] in [[Bahrain]] and [[Qatif]], the dialect exhibits many big differences from [[Gulf Arabic]]. It is also spoken to a lesser extent in [[Oman]]. (-) [[Judeo-Arabic languages|Judeo-Arabic]] dialects – these are the dialects spoken by the [[Jews]] that had lived or continue to live in the [[Arab world|Arab World]]. As Jewish migration to Israel took hold, the language did not thrive and is now considered endangered. So-called [[Qәltu]] Arabic. (-) [[Chadian Arabic]], spoken in [[Chad]], [[Sudan]], some parts of [[South Sudan]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]] (-) [[Central Asian Arabic]], spoken in [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Afghanistan]], is highly endangered (-) [[Shirvani Arabic]], spoken in [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Dagestan]] until the 1930s, now extinct.

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Arabic

Of the 29 Proto-Semitic consonants, only one has been lost: , which merged with , while became (see [[Semitic languages#Phonology|Semitic languages]]). Various other consonants have changed their sound too, but have remained distinct. An original lenited to , and – consistently attested in pre-Islamic Greek transcription of Arabic languages – became palatalized to or by the time of the Quran and , , or after [[early Muslim conquests]] and in MSA (see [[Arabic phonology#Local variations]] for more detail). An original [[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative]] became . Its [[emphatic consonant|emphatic]] counterpart was considered by Arabs to be the most unusual sound in Arabic (Hence the Classical Arabic's appellation '''' or "language of the ''''"); for most modern dialects, it has become an emphatic stop with loss of the laterality or with complete loss of any pharyngealization or velarization, . (The classical '''' pronunciation of [[pharyngealization]] still occurs in the [[Mehri language]], and the similar sound without velarization, , exists in other [[Modern South Arabian languages]].) Other changes may also have happened. Classical Arabic pronunciation is not thoroughly recorded and different [[comparative method (linguistics)|reconstructions]] of the sound system of Proto-Semitic propose different phonetic values. One example is the emphatic consonants, which are pharyngealized in modern pronunciations but may have been velarized in the eighth century and glottalized in Proto-Semitic. Reduction of and between vowels occurs in a number of circumstances and is responsible for much of the complexity of third-weak ("defective") verbs. Early Akkadian transcriptions of Arabic names shows that this reduction had not yet occurred as of the early part of the 1st millennium BC. The Classical Arabic language as recorded was a poetic [[Koiné|koine]] that reflected a consciously archaizing dialect, chosen based on the tribes of the western part of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], who spoke the most conservative variants of Arabic. Even at the time of Muhammed and before, other dialects existed with many more changes, including the loss of most glottal stops, the loss of case endings, the reduction of the diphthongs and into monophthongs , etc. Most of these changes are present in most or all modern varieties of Arabic. An interesting feature of the writing system of the Quran (and hence of Classical Arabic) is that it contains certain features of Muhammad's native dialect of Mecca, corrected through diacritics into the forms of standard Classical Arabic. Among these features visible under the corrections are the loss of the glottal stop and a differing development of the reduction of certain final sequences containing : Evidently, final became as in the Classical language, but final became a different sound, possibly (rather than again in the Classical language). This is the apparent source of the ''alif maqṣūrah'' 'restricted alif' where a final is reconstructed: a letter that would normally indicate or some similar high-vowel sound, but is taken in this context to be a logical variant of ''alif'' and represent the sound .

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Arabic

Although Classical Arabic was a unitary language and is now used in Quran, its pronunciation varies somewhat from country to country and from region to region within a country. It is influenced by [[varieties of Arabic#Phonetics|colloquial dialects]].

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Arabic

The "colloquial" spoken dialects of Arabic are learned at home and constitute the native languages of Arabic speakers. "Formal" [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]] (usually specifically Modern Standard Arabic) is learned at school; although many speakers have a native-like command of the language, it is technically not the native language of any speakers. Both varieties can be both written and spoken, although the colloquial varieties are rarely written down and the formal variety is spoken mostly in formal circumstances, e.g., in radio and TV broadcasts, formal lectures, parliamentary discussions and to some extent between speakers of different colloquial dialects. Even when the literary language is spoken, however, it is normally only spoken in its pure form when reading a prepared text out loud and communication between speakers of different colloquial dialects. When speaking [[extemporaneous]] (i.e. making up the language on the spot, as in a normal discussion among people), speakers tend to deviate somewhat from the strict literary language in the direction of the colloquial varieties. In fact, there is a continuous range of "in-between" spoken varieties: from nearly pure Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), to a form that still uses MSA grammar and vocabulary but with significant colloquial influence, to a form of the colloquial language that imports a number of words and grammatical constructions in MSA, to a form that is close to pure colloquial but with the "rough edges" (the most noticeably "vulgar" or non-Classical aspects) smoothed out, to pure colloquial. The particular variant (or ''[[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]]'') used depends on the social class and education level of the speakers involved and the level of formality of the speech situation. Often it will vary within a single encounter, e.g., moving from nearly pure MSA to a more mixed language in the process of a radio interview, as the interviewee becomes more comfortable with the interviewer. This type of variation is characteristic of the [[diglossia]] that exists throughout the Arabic-speaking world.

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Arabic

Although Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is a unitary language, its pronunciation varies somewhat from country to country and from region to region within a country. The variation in individual "accents" of MSA speakers tends to mirror corresponding variations in the colloquial speech of the speakers in question, but with the distinguishing characteristics moderated somewhat. It is important in descriptions of "Arabic" phonology to distinguish between pronunciation of a given colloquial (spoken) dialect and the pronunciation of MSA by these same speakers. Although they are related, they are not the same. For example, the phoneme that derives from Classical Arabic has many different pronunciations in the modern spoken varieties, e.g., including the proposed original . Speakers whose native variety has either or will use the same pronunciation when speaking MSA. Even speakers from Cairo, whose native Egyptian Arabic has , normally use when speaking MSA. The of Persian Gulf speakers is the only variant pronunciation which isn't found in MSA; is used instead, but may use [j] in MSA for comfortable pronunciation. Another reason of different pronunciations is influence of [[varieties of Arabic#Phonetics|colloquial dialects]]. The differentiation of [[varieties of Arabic#phonetics|pronunciation of colloquial dialects]] is the influence from other languages previously spoken and some still presently spoken in the regions, such as [[Coptic language|Coptic]] in Egypt, [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Punic language|Punic]], or [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] in North Africa, [[Himyaritic language|Himyaritic]], [[Modern South Arabian]], and [[Old South Arabian]] in Yemen and Oman, and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]] languages (including [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]) in the Levant and Mesopotamia. Another example: Many colloquial varieties are known for a type of [[vowel harmony]] in which the presence of an "emphatic consonant" triggers backed [[allophone]] of nearby vowels (especially of the low vowels , which are backed to in these circumstances and very often fronted to in all other circumstances). In many spoken varieties, the backed or "emphatic" vowel allophones spread a fair distance in both directions from the triggering consonant; in some varieties (most notably Egyptian Arabic), the "emphatic" allophones spread throughout the entire word, usually including prefixes and suffixes, even at a distance of several syllables from the triggering consonant. Speakers of colloquial varieties with this vowel harmony tend to introduce it into their MSA pronunciation as well, but usually with a lesser degree of spreading than in the colloquial varieties. (For example, speakers of colloquial varieties with extremely long-distance harmony may allow a moderate, but not extreme, amount of spreading of the harmonic allophones in their MSA speech, while speakers of colloquial varieties with moderate-distance harmony may only harmonize immediately adjacent vowels in MSA.)

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Arabic