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metaeval 4

[ "If a female woolly monkey dominates a male of the species, the dominated male monkey is not an adult.", "Some large adolescent male woolly monkeys dominate some smaller females of the species.", "Size is the primary determinant of relations of dominance among woolly monkeys.", "If a male woolly monkey is larger than a female of the species, that male will dominate that female." ]

[ "Musical training late in life does not cause anatomic changes to the brain.", "Adult nonmusicians did not participate in activities when they were children that would have stimulated any growth of the corpus callosum.", "For any two musicians whose training began around the age of seven, their corpora callosa are approximately the same size.", "The corpora callosa of musicians, before they started training, do not tend to be larger than those of nonmusicians of the same age." ]

[ "Serves as a historical example of food intolerance.", "Ties the argument's reasoning together.", "Provides an example of how societies can misdiagnose food intolerance.", "Distracts the reader from the argument's primary purpose." ]

[ "Some telephone companies own cable companies in areas other than those in which they provide telephone services.", "The most popular movies and programs on channels carried by cable companies will also be offered on channels carried by the fiberoptic lines owned by the telephone companies.", "Cable television companies will respond to competition from the telephone companies by increasing the number of channels they offer.", "The initial cost per household of installing new fiber-optic television service will exceed the current cost of installing cable television service." ]

[ "It can provide a motivation for companies to act in a manner contrary to the purpose of the law while taking advantage of the tax incentives.", "It will have no immediate effect on the amount of forested land in the region.", "It will ultimately cause lumber companies to plant trees on approximately as much land as they harvest in the region.", "It will provide lumber companies with a tax incentive that will ultimately be responsible for a massive decrease in the number of mature forests in the region." ]

[ "The government would not have accepted a protest rally whose message it opposed.", "The message of the recent protest rally did not concern any function of the government.", "The government feared a backlash if it did not show acceptance of the recent protest rally.", "There are groups that are inhibited from staging a protest rally out of a fear of government response." ]

[ "Some founding members of successful companies can provide both funding and skills in marketing, management, or technical matters.", "Founders of a new company can more easily acquire marketing and management abilities than technical abilities.", "New companies are more likely to succeed when their founders can provide adequate funding and skills in marketing, management, and technical abilities than if they must secure funding or skills from nonfounders.", "A new company is more likely to succeed if every founding member contributes equally to the company's initial funding than if some members contribute more funds than others." ]

[ "Attempting to avoid being kept after school as punishment for breaking a window, Sonia falsely claimed that her brother had broken it; Sonia's action was morally unjustifiable since it resulted in both children being kept after school for something only Sonia had done.", "For James, who was convicted of having defrauded a large number of people out of their savings and wrote a book about his scheme while in prison, to be denied the profits from his book would be morally unjustifiable since he has already been punished for his crime.", "Because Roger's mother suffered severe complications as a result of donating a kidney to him for a lifesaving kidney transplant, it was morally unjustifiable for Roger to receive the transplant, even though his mother, herself a doctor, had been eager for the transplant to be performed.", "Wesley, a doctor, persuaded Max to take part in a medical experiment in which a new drug was being tested; since Wesley failed to warn Max about the serious side effects of the drug and the drug proved to have no other effects, Wesley was morally unjustified in using the results obtained from Max in his report." ]

[ "The object of a natural science must be something tangible that can be perceived by the senses.", "Some great scientists, like Einstein, by their own admission, were not very good at math.", "Mathematics can also be used to serve social sciences, such as economics.", "If one discipline serves another discipline, it can never rise to the same rank as the discipline it serves." ]

[ "No furnaces dating from the Minoan era and suitable for the manufacture of bronze implements have been found in southern Greece.", "Copper and tin, the main ingredients of bronze, were present in Southern Greece.", "The Minoans exported a great deal of pottery, which was highly valued by other ancient civilizations.", "Some of the pieces of bronzeware found on Crete were non-Minoan in origin." ]

[ "Any nation that alone has the capacity to economically resuscitate neighboring countries should exercise that capacity.", "Any nation that can afford to give economic aid to just a few other nations ought to aid just those few.", "Any nation that alone has an obligation to economically resuscitate neighboring countries ought to be the only nation to provide any economic aid.", "Only nations that alone have the capacity to economically resuscitate neighboring countries should exercise that capacity." ]

[ "None of the students who live off campus is a member of the choir.", "All students who are members of the choir are music majors.", "Some of the students who do not live off campus are not music majors.", "All students who live on campus are music majors." ]

[ "The economic upturn is likely to allow Boravia's national parks, where most of the camping and hiking is done, to receive extra funding to improve their visitor facilities.", "Advances in materials technology have led to the development of hiking and camping equipment that is more comfortable and lightweight than before.", "In Boravia when the economy is strong, those who might otherwise go camping tend to take vacations overseas.", "Many people in Boravia not only are committed to preserving the country's wilderness areas but also are interested in spending some time in them." ]

[ "showing that the premises of another argument are mutually inconsistent", "questioning the plausibility of an assumption on which another argument depends", "providing examples that underscore another argument's conclusion", "showing that a principle if generally applied would have anomalous consequences" ]

[ "Since lying is permissible in some situations, reporters are mistaken to think that it is absolutely taboo.", "Reporters disagree on what sort of behavior qualifies as lying.", "There is no correct answer to the question of whether lying in a given situation is right or wrong.", "Omission of the truth is the same thing as lying." ]

[ "people's opinions about investing in information technologies can change as new technologies are developed", "some people who responded to the survey were lying", "the conclusion of the survey will be accepted by the public even though falsified data were used", "the conclusion of the survey would be verified if the falsified data were excluded" ]

[ "Campaign managers have transformed political campaigns by making increasing use of strategies borrowed from corporate advertising campaigns.", "Only a small percentage of eligible voters admit to being influenced by advertising campaigns in deciding how to vote.", "Advertising agencies that specialize in campaigns for corporate clients are not usually chosen for political campaigns.", "The usefulness of an advertising campaign is based solely on the degree to which the campaign's advertisements persuade their audiences." ]

[ "Given the potential harm caused by the use of force, the line between use of force in self-defense and the aggressive use of force is always vague.", "Whether a threat made in self-defense is immoral depends on the circumstances.", "It is immoral to threaten to do what it is immoral to do.", "It is immoral to carry out a threat if making the threat is itself immoral." ]

[ "presupposes the very conclusion that it is trying to prove", "takes for granted that most people who read articles about the exhibit also attended the exhibit", "fails to address the possibility that the exhibit would have drawn enough visitors to prevent bankruptcy even without media coverage", "takes for granted that no previous exhibit at the museum had received such extensive media coverage" ]

[ "Some of the films released in 1991 in country Z were based on novels that were published in 1991.", "None of the films released in country Z in 1992 were based on books other than novels.", "None of the books that were published in country Z in 1992 were based on plots of films released in 1991.", "Some of the films released in country Z in 1992 were based on older films that had been released for the first time many years earlier." ]

[ "Whether the loss was heartbreaking.", "Whether the team rose to the challenge.", "Numerous errors in the field and pitchers giving too many free passes caused the loss.", "Whether getting zero hits in twenty at-bats with runners in scoring position caused the loss." ]

[ "The protection afforded by child safety seats depends on their being used properly, which many parents fail to do.", "The high cost of child safety seats has caused many parents to delay purchasing them.", "Many parents are defying the law by not using safety seats for their children.", "Children are more likely to make automobile trips now than they were before the introduction of the safety seat." ]

[ "In order to discover the meaning of certain seldom-used words, one must use a good dictionary. Paul has used a good dictionary, so Paul must have discovered the meaning of those words.", "One must at least have warm clothing if one is to survive in a very cold climate. Jerome has obtained warm clothing; ttherefore, he might be able to survive in a very cold climate.", "One cannot confuse the majority of one's students if one wants to be a good teacher. Hugo wants to be a good teacher; ttherefore, he might be able to avoid confusing the majority of his students.", "In order to reach one's goals, one must be able to consider these goals carefully. Laura has reached her goals, so she must have been able to consider those goals carefully." ]

[ "Fossils of spiders with respiratory systems adapted only to breathing air were found in the same rock as the centipede fossils.", "The legs of the fossilized centipedes were particularly suited to being a means of locomotion on land.", "Fossils of the earliest land-dwelling animals that had previously been identified were found in rock that did not contain fossilized remains of water-dwelling animals.", "All of the centipedes that had previously been discovered were land dwellers." ]

[ "It fails to establish that professional archaeologists' views that are at least as extreme as Montgomery's views do not deserve negative appraisal for that reason.", "It provides no independent evidence to show that the majority of professional archaeologists do not support Montgomery's views.", "It attempts to support its position by calling into question the motives of anyone who supports an opposing position.", "It assumes without warrant that many professional archaeologists consider biologists unqualified to discuss ancient architecture." ]

[ "Some exuberant people who are actors are shy.", "All people who are not extroverts are not actors.", "Some shy extroverts are not actors.", "Some shy people are extroverts." ]

[ "If someone was disloyal or incompetent, then his dismissal was justified.", "Hastings's dismissal was justified.", "The dismissal of anyone who was disloyal would be justified.", "Anyone whose dismissal was justified was disloyal." ]

[ "The argument ambiguously uses the word \"afford. \"", "The argument is solely an emotional appeal to history.", "The argument inappropriately appeals to the authority of the mayor.", "The argument inappropriately relies on the emotional connotations of words such as \"outdated\" and \"luxury. \"" ]

[ "If high-achieving, competitive, parents were more child-centered, their children would be less aggressive.", "Low levels of television viewing often lead to high levels of aggression among children.", "The level of aggression of a child cannot be predicted from levels of television viewing alone.", "Parental lifestyle is less important than the amount of television viewing in determining the aggressiveness of children." ]

[ "Regardless of the range of choices available to humans, they choose on the basis of their emotions alone.", "Humans have undergone no significant changes since the origin of the species.", "Humans would now be able to make wiser choices than in centuries past only if an essential change had taken place in humans' emotional dispositions.", "Humans who make wise choices are generally in control of their emotions." ]

[ "At least one company has refused to accept coupons issued by its major local competitor simply in order to hurt that competitor, even though those coupons were accepted by all other local competitors.", "Any company that accepts its major competitor's coupons helps its competitor by doing so, even if it also satisfies its own actual or potential customers.", "Any company that wishes to hurt a competitor by refusing to accept coupons issued by that competitor will refuse to accept them even when accepting them would cost nothing and would satisfy its potential customers.", "Any company that refuses to accept coupons issued by a competitor when doing so would satisfy some of the company's potential customers is motivated solely by the desire to hurt that competitor." ]

[ "Some furniture is made to be placed in museums, where it will not be used by anyone.", "Artists are not concerned with the monetary value of their products.", "Cabinetmakers should be more concerned with the practical utility of their products than they currently are.", "An object is not an art object if its maker pays attention to the object's practical utility." ]

[ "generalizes inappropriately from a single extreme case to a universal claim", "presumes, without providing justification, that nothing can have greater value than one's own freedom", "fails to consider that it is not always possible to rebel physically against an encroachment on one's freedom", "fails to establish that the freedom of others is worth taking risks for" ]

[ "When there is not enough information available to determine the meaning of a line of poetry, one should not form an opinion based on the insufficient information. Instead, one should simply acknowledge that it is impossible to determine what the line means.", "Though a researcher may know a great deal about a topic, she or he should not assume that all information relevant to the research is already in her or his possession. A good researcher always looks for further relevant information.", "When deciding which career to pursue, one needs to consider carefully all of the information one has. One should not choose a career solely on the basis of financial compensation; instead, one should consider other factors such as how likely one is to succeed at the career and how much one would enjoy it.", "When one wants to buy a reliable car, one should not choose which car to buy just on the inadequate basis of one's personal experience with cars. Rather, one should study various models' reliability histories that summarize many owners' experiences." ]

[ "Agents listened more closely to customers of long standing and were able to sell them additional insurance policies that met new needs.", "Dissatisfied customers of other agencies, attracted by the reports of the change in agency policy, became customers of the agency.", "Having come to trust the increased judiciousness of the agents' recommendations, customers approached the agency to discuss and ultimately to buy more supplementary insurance than they previously had bought under pressure.", "Agents more frequently postponed completing the attendant paperwork even after the terms for an insurance policy were settled to the satisfaction of the client." ]

[ "The castings that earthworms leave behind are much richer than the soil they ingest.", "Chemical fertilizers destroy earthworms.", "The use of chemical fertilizers should be avoided.", "Earthworms are highly beneficial to soil." ]

[ "Shareholders would want to be served only in ways that are in their own best interest.", "Corporate managers are always able to discern what is in the best interest of shareholders.", "All shareholders want to be served in identical ways.", "The shareholders have interests that can best be served by corporate managers." ]

[ "all of the patients who are diagnosed with this test as having appendicitis do, in fact, have appendicitis", "the misdiagnoses produced by this test are always instances of attributing appendicitis to someone who does not, in fact, have it", "every patient who is diagnosed with this test as having appendicitis has more than one of the symptoms generally associated with appendicitis", "the only patients who are misdiagnosed using this test are patients who lack one or more of the symptoms that are generally associated with appendicitis" ]

[ "fails to adequately address the possibility that inflammatory speeches may be appropriate for some audiences", "fails to adequately address the possibility that Riley's animosity toward the university president is well founded", "concludes that Riley's claim is false merely on the grounds that Riley has something to gain if the claim is accepted as true", "takes for granted that the speech could not be inappropriate if it was not inflammatory" ]

[ "no one should accept the economist's explanation until historical evidence demonstrates that a change in values occurred prior to the Industrial Revolution", "during the Industrial Revolution the productivity of the economy grew at a faster rate than the population", "the improvement in living standards that occurred during the Industrial Revolution was not due to the spread of a change in values", "values such as hard work and thrift did not become widespread prior to the Industrial Revolution" ]

[ "Although he has the strongest motive of anyone for buying Anna's plot of land, Manfred is not pursuing the matter. Ttherefore, regardless of how low a price Anna is prepared to accept, she will be looking for a buyer in vain.", "Beth knows better than anyone else how to spot errors in a computer program, yet even she has not found any in this program so far. So it is clear that the errors must all be in the rest of the program.", "Three times Paul would have liked to take advantage of a special vacation package for himself and his family, but each time he was indispensable at the factory just then. So the more seniority Paul acquires, the greater are the constraints on his personal life.", "If anyone can decipher this inscription, it is Professor Alvarez, but she is so involved with her new research that it will be impossible to interest her in this sort of task. Ttherefore, all we can do now is hope to find someone else." ]

[ "Large land mammals tend to prefer plants from species native to mainland regions over plants from species native to islands.", "The rate of extinction of native plant species on an island tends to increase dramatically after human colonization.", "Many plant species that are not native to islands have become very well established on islands throughout the world.", "Most of the plant species in the world that have not yet gone extinct are native to mainland regions." ]

[ "Carcinogenic chemicals are usually absorbed in small doses in the natural environment.", "Most of the food additives that are now banned because of carcinogenicity could safely be used in human foods.", "In the doses heretofore used in carcinogenicity studies of food additives, cell death often does not occur in test animals.", "Until now results of carcinogenicity studies encouraged overestimation of the degree to which some food additives are carcinogenic." ]

[ "Since funding levels for social programs are being frozen, our society will not become more harmonious. Thus, it may become more discordant.", "Given that over 250 years of attempts to prove the Goldbach conjecture have failed, it will probably never be proved. Hence, it is more likely to be disproved than proved.", "Because Raoul is a vegetarian, he will not have the pepperoni pizza for lunch. It follows that he will have the cheese pizza.", "Since there is a storm moving in, the outside temperature cannot rise this afternoon. Ttherefore, it must fall." ]

[ "Buying unprocessed cashews at lower than world market prices enables cashew processors in Kernland to sell processed nuts at competitive prices.", "A lack of profitable crops is driving an increasing number of small farmers in Kernland off their land and into the cities.", "Other countries in which cashews are processed subsidize their processing plants.", "Some of the by-products of processing cashews are used for manufacturing paints and plastics." ]

[ "The test that the second graders took this year was not more difficult than the test that the second graders took last year.", "Students at other elementary schools in the area also scored poorly on the same test of math skills this year.", "No new textbooks were purchased by the school board this year.", "Other schools in the area also experienced severe budget cuts." ]

[ "It analyzes the past on the basis of social and political categories that properly apply only to the present and uses the results of this analysis to support its conclusion.", "It cites two pieces of evidence, each of which is both questionable and unverifiable, and uses this evidence to support its conclusions.", "It draws conclusions about the merit of a position and about the content of that position from evidence about the position's source.", "It bases a conclusion on two premises that contradict each other and minimizes this contradiction by the vagueness of the terms employed." ]

[ "If the campaign had not been implemented, more than 100, 000 people might have died during the 18-month period due to medical error.", "The key changes initiated by the campaign will continue to be implemented in the future.", "In the future, no one will die because of medical error.", "The campaign saved all of the people who otherwise would have died due to medical error in that time period." ]

[ "The government, during this last school year, began requiring monthly weigh-ins for obese children and parental counseling about proper nutrition.", "A large number of the obese children's conditions were caused by depression, which was greatly alleviated by installing psychiatrists in each elementary school in district X.", "Obesity, like other unhealthy conditions, can lead to decreased cardiovascular health, increased joint pain, and self-esteem problems.", "Over the last year, parents with obese children in district X began sending their children to special weekend camps designed to help children lose weight." ]

[ "People who have lived under someone regarded as a cruel tyrant are more likely to view that person unfavorably than favorably.", "The specific outrageous acts attributed to Caligula in Roman documentation are very similar to acts attributed in earlier writings to other rulers alleged to be cruel tyrants.", "There is less documentation of any sort from Caligula's reign than from the reigns of most other Roman emperors of Caligula's era.", "There is ample documentation of modern tyrants being responsible for outrageous acts worse than those attributed to Caligula." ]

[ "Buildings cannot be heated by solar energy rather than by oil or natural gas.", "No fuel other than natural gas is expected to be used as a replacement for oil in Siduria.", "In Siduria the rate of fuel consumption is rising no more quickly than the rate of fuel production.", "All new homes that are being built will have natural-gas-burning heating systems." ]

[ "It is offered as evidence for the contention that human beings must be descended from either lungfish or coelacanths.", "Since it implies that human beings are not descended from lungfish, it is cited as evidence against the claim that humans are descended from lungfish.", "It is an assumption that both parties to the dispute use as a starting point for their arguments about human evolution.", "It implies that either a match of mitochondrial DNA or a match of hemoglobin between lungfish and coelacanths would show that human beings evolved from one of these two species." ]

[ "It is a conclusion for which the only support provided is the claim that people's responses to words are conditioned both by what the words mean and by how they sound.", "It is a generalization partially supported by the claim that meaningful words can trigger positive or negative responses in people.", "It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that people's responses to words are engendered not only by what the words mean, but also by how they sound.", "It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that people have either a positive or a negative response to any word." ]

[ "Determining the age of a prehistoric cave painting simply by reference to the age of the pigments used in that painting substitutes technology for artistic judgment", "Experts who knew the results of the pigment analyses reexamined these paintings and found no previously unnoticed stylistic similarities between the Altamira paintings and the paintings in the third group", "There are experts who maintain that the results of the recent pigment analyses leave the striking stylistic similarities between the El Castillo paintings and the Altamira paintings unexplained", "There are certain stylistic features that the Altamira paintings share with all known paintings of their period and do not share with the El Castillo paintings" ]

[ "The amount of calories that a person usually burns in a day is determined more by the amount that is consumed that day than by the current weight of the individual.", "The metabolisms of people who are usually not overweight are much more able to vary than the metabolisms of people who have been very overweight.", "Researchers have not yet determined whether the metabolic rates of formerly very overweight individuals can be accelerated by means of chemical agents.", "Relatively few very overweight people who have dieted down to a new weight tend to continue to consume substantially fewer calories than do people whose normal weight is at that level." ]

[ "Anyone who is not both dynamic and successful would misrepresent himself or herself by being the owner of an SKX Mach-5.", "People who buy the SKX Mach-5 are usually more aggressive than people who buy other cars.", "Almost no one would fail to recognize the kind of person who would choose to own an SKX Mach-5.", "Anyone who is dynamic and aggressive is also successful." ]

[ "No other environmental organization gave away copies of To Save the Earth during the month in which the Earth Association gave away its 2, 000 copies.", "The copies of To Save the Earth given away by members of the Earth Association were printed on recycled paper.", "Every recipient of To Save the Earth will embrace the environmental program advocated by the Earth Association.", "None of those who received To Save the Earth from a member of the Earth Association were already committed to the environmentalist cause when they received this book." ]

[ "Anyone who believes in unicorns believes in centaurs. But it has been conclusively proven that there is no such thing as a unicorn, so a belief in centaurs is mistaken as well.", "Anyone who believes in unicorns believes in centaurs. But it has been demonstrated that there are no centaurs, so there are no unicorns either.", "Anyone who believes in unicorns believes in centaurs. But you do not believe in centaurs, so you do not believe in unicorns either.", "Anyone who believes in unicorns believes in centaurs. But you do not believe in unicorns, so you do not believe in centaurs either." ]

[ "Physical examinations and the uncovered laboratory tests together provide a more accurate diagnosis of many diseases than do physical examinations alone.", "Many physicians generally oppose insurance company regulations that, in order to reduce costs, limit the use of laboratory tests.", "There are some illnesses that experienced physicians can diagnose accurately from physical examination alone.", "Many patients who might benefit from the uncovered laboratory tests do not have any form of health insurance." ]

[ "Most plants grown in home gardens and in scientists' test plots need a favorable soil structure, as well as essential nutrients, in order to thrive.", "The findings of soil scientists who are employed by fertilizer manufacturers do not differ widely from those of scientists employed by the government or by universities.", "Some of the varieties of plants grown by home gardeners require greater quantities of nutrients in order to be healthy than do the varieties of plants generally grown by the soil scientists in test plots.", "Compost used in research projects is usually made from leaves and grass clippings only, whereas compost used in home gardens is generally made from a wide variety of ingredients." ]

[ "It succeeds because it undermines the editor's claim about how the magazine's editorial integrity would be affected by allowing advertisers to influence articles.", "It fails because the editor's argument does not depend on any assumption about readers' response to the advertisements they see in the magazine.", "It succeeds because it shows that the editor's argument depends on an unwarranted assumption about factors affecting an advertisement's effectiveness.", "It fails because it is based on a misunderstanding of the editor's view about how readers respond to advertisements they see in the magazine." ]

[ "takes for granted that plumbers are not qualified unless they complete some certification process", "presumes that since one part of a whole lacks a certain characteristic, the whole must lack that characteristic as well", "overlooks the possibility that plumbers at other firms in the region complete certification processes that are even easier than that completed by Plumb-Ace's plumbers", "infers that a claim is false on the grounds that an inadequate argument has been given for that claim" ]

[ "Colored contacts allow people to change their eye color, without altering any of the other characteristics of their iris.", "Insurance and security companies provide other services to companies in addition to protecting laptops.", "There is considerable variation in the color and patterns present in most people's irises.", "In-person security services will not suffer from technological glitches when allowing access to laptops." ]

[ "Mr. Schwartz is polite to anyone who is polite to him. So, since all of his colleagues are polite to him, it must be that he is polite to all his colleagues.", "If articles use specialized technical terminology, they are not widely read. So, since all academic works use specialized technical terminology, articles are not widely read if they are academic works.", "Professor Attah gives students high grades if she thinks their work is greatly improved. So, since she gives some of her students high grades, she thinks those students' work is greatly improved.", "If a biography is unbiased, it contains embarrassing facts about its subject. So, since not all biographies contain embarrassing facts about their subjects, not all biographies are unbiased." ]

[ "takes for granted that crosswalks with both striping and flashing lights have no other safety features", "fails to consider that crosswalks marked by both striping and flashing lights are marked in this way precisely because they are the most dangerous ones", "presumes that there are less expensive features that will reduce the number of pedestrian injuries just as effectively as striping and flashing lights", "takes for granted that safety features that fail to reduce the number of injuries are a waste of taxpayer money" ]

[ "The physicians planning elective surgery performed before the five-week period had fully informed the patients who would undergo it of the possible risks of the procedures.", "Even if a surgical procedure is successful, the patient can die of a hospital-contracted infection with a bacterium that is resistant to antibiotic treatment.", "The conditions for which elective surgery was performed would in the long run have been life-threatening, and surgery for them would have become riskier with time.", "Elective surgery is, in general, less risky than is emergency surgery because the conditions requiring or indicating surgery are often less severe." ]

[ "It can reasonably be assumed that registered voters who respond to a survey regarding the outcome of a future election will exercise their right to vote in that election.", "The way voters feel about a political party at a given time can reasonably be considered a reliable indicator of the way they will continue to feel about that party, barring unforeseeable political developments.", "An increase in ill-feeling toward a political party that is in power can reasonably be expected to result in a corresponding increase in support for rival political parties.", "The proportion of voters who expect a given political possibility to be realized can legitimately be assumed to approximate the proportion of voters who are in favor of that possibility being realized." ]

[ "Varieties of disease X requiring expensive special treatment have become less common during the past decade.", "Of total medical expenditures, the percentage that is due to treatment of disease X increased during the past decade.", "The total amount of money spent on treating disease X slowly declined during the past decade.", "Most of the money spent on treating disease X during the last decade went to pay for nonstandard treatments." ]

[ "In order for the molars of an adult gomphothereto emerge, several juvenile teeth are first forced out of the gums to accommodate the molars.", "The juvenile jawbone of a species related to a gomphothere is longer than the juvenile jawbone of a gomphothere.", "The manner in which teeth grow provide sufficient evidence for the accurate classification of a bygone species.", "The molars of an adult mastodon, a close relative of the gomphothere, are similar in size to those of an adult gomphothere." ]

[ "The Souper chain has generally opened new restaurants in locations that are in the vicinity of a large number of other restaurants.", "Souper restaurants generally offer a much smaller variety of foods than many of the other restaurants in their vicinity.", "Virtually all potential sites for new Souper restaurants in Danport are located in the vicinity of existing Souper restaurants.", "Souper restaurants have always offered meals that are somewhat less expensive than meals at restaurants that compete with Souper for patrons." ]

[ "Some tulip trees are not as old as the oldest sycamores.", "Some dogwoods are as old as the youngest sycamores.", "Some sycamores are not as old as the oldest dogwoods.", "Some sycamores are not as old as the youngest tulip trees." ]

[ "Hydrogen-powered vehicles will be similar to gasoline-powered vehicles with regard to the amount of consumer demand for their fuel-distribution infrastructure.", "The fuel-distribution infrastructure for hydrogen-powered cars is likely to appear and grow rapidly.", "It is already technologically possible to produce nonpolluting cars that burn hydrogen rather than gasoline.", "If a new kind of technology is developed, the infrastructure needed to support that technology is likely to quickly develop in response to consumer demands." ]

[ "K, unlike L, should be administered immediately after the onset of a migraine.", "People whose migraines are treated with L are likely to experience a wider range of effects beyond the cessation of migraines than are people whose migraines are treated with K.", "Treatment with L is likely to be slower-acting in its effect on a migraine than is treatment with K.", "Neither treatment with L nor treatment with K is likely to have a significant effect on the symptoms of a migraine." ]

[ "People who make the initial investment required to create a product have a right to a greater percentage of the receipts from its sale than do those whose contributions occur later.", "Everyone whose activity contributes to the creation of a product deserves an equal share of the proceeds from its sale.", "An investor's profit is not justified in those cases in which the existence of the product does not depend on the investor's initial capital outlay.", "The real value of a product is not completely determined by the cost of the labor needed to bring the product into existence." ]

[ "The presence of wolves in an area tends to discourage other predators from moving into the area.", "Healthy moose generally consume more vegetation than do those that are diseased or injured.", "Attempts to control moose populations in other national parks by introducing predators have also been unsuccessful.", "Wolves often kill moose weakened by diseases that probably would have spread to other moose." ]

[ "For each person interviewed in telephone polls before the next election, pollsters will be able to reasonably determine the likelihood of that person voting.", "In the next election, pollsters will be able to conduct more in-person interviews than telephone interviews.", "The number of voters in Country X's next election will be significantly larger than the number of voters in the last election.", "The Conservative Party will win the next election." ]

[ "The chef never has both fresh radishes and fresh green peppers available for the chef's salad at the same time. If she uses fresh radishes, she also uses spinach. But currently there is no spinach to be had. It can be inferred, then, that she will not be using fresh green peppers.", "Tom will definitely support Parker if Mendoza does not apply; and Tom will not support both Parker and Chung. Since, as it turns out, Mendoza will not apply, it follows that Chung will not get Tom's support.", "In agricultural pest control, either pesticides or the introduction of natural enemies of the pest, but not both, will work. Of course, neither will be needed if pest-resistant crops are planted. So if pesticides are in fact needed, it must be that there are no natural enemies of the pest.", "The city cannot afford to build both a new stadium and the new road that would be needed to get there. But neither of the two projects is worth doing without the other. Since the city will not undertake any but worthwhile projects, the new stadium will not be constructed at this time." ]

[ "If laissez-faire economics makes an incorrect prediction about the minimum wage, then all the doctrines of laissez-faire economics are inaccurate.", "The national unemployment rate did not increase following the increase in the minimum wage.", "Minimum-wage job availability at fast-food restaurants included in the study was representative of minimum-wage job availability in general.", "No study has ever found that a business has decreased the number of its minimum-wage employees after an increase in the minimum wage." ]

[ "Morris already owns more shares of The Daily than anyone except Azedcorp.", "No one other than Morris has expressed any interest in purchasing a majority of The Daily's shares.", "Azedcorp is financially so weak that bankruptcy will probably soon force the sale of its newspaper holdings.", "Azedcorp does not own shares of any newspaper other than The Daily." ]

[ "The 2009 analysis used sophisticated scientific equipment that can detect much smaller amounts of cobalt than could the equipment used for the 1955 analysis.", "New information that came to light in the 1990s suggested that cobalt blue was used only rarely in Italy in the years immediately following 1804.", "The 2009 analysis took more samples from the painting than the 1955 analysis did, though those samples were smaller.", "The 2009 analysis revealed that cobalt was located only in the topmost paint layer, which was possibly applied to conceal damage to original paint layers." ]

[ "It is a premise that, together with another premise, is meant to support the conclusion of the argument.", "It is the overall conclusion of the argument.", "It is the claim that the argument attempts to undermine.", "It is presented as evidence that independently supports the conclusion of the argument." ]

[ "There are strategies that can be effectively employed in the teaching both of algebra and of geometry.", "People who are very good at manipulating symbols do not necessarily have any mathematical understanding.", "Illustrating geometric concepts graphically is an effective teaching method.", "Pictorial understanding is not the final stage of mathematical understanding." ]

[ "Most foreign films, unlike most domestic films, were submitted in categories with high prestige, but with correspondingly low rates of acceptance.", "Significantly more domestic films than foreign films were submitted to the festival.", "In each of the past three years, the overall acceptance rate was higher for foreign than for domestic films, an outcome that had upset some domestic filmmakers.", "The number of films to be selected in each category was predetermined, but in no category was it required that the acceptance rate of foreign films should equal that of domestic films." ]

[ "A person telling the truth might be affected emotionally by being suspected of lying or by some other aspect of the situation.", "A person who is lying might be aware that he or she is being closely observed for indications of lying.", "Someone who is telling the truth might nevertheless have a past history of lying.", "A practiced liar might have achieved great control over body posture and eye contact." ]

[ "The rate of increase in the sales of bottled water has slowed since the publication of the government study.", "Most consumers who habitually drink the bottled water discussed in the study cannot differentiate between the taste of their usual brand of bottled water and that of water from public sources.", "Government health warnings concerning food have become so frequent that consumers have begun to doubt the safety of many everyday foods.", "Increased consumption of the five best-selling brands of bottled water, which the report said were safer than both public water and most other brands of bottled water, accounted for the increase in sales." ]

[ "In the next election, voters will place as much weight on economic performance as on military success.", "The prime minister's party will win the next election if the economy shows some signs of recovery from the recession at the time of the election.", "In the next election, the majority of voters will base their votes on which party's leader they admire most.", "The prime minister's party will not win the next election if the electorate believes the prime minister is responsible for a continuing recession." ]

[ "showing that there are additional alternatives that are unknown", "showing that certain possibilities are not exclusive", "showing that no exceptions could apply", "showing that something must have occurred by excluding the only alternative" ]

[ "criticizes the astronomer's opponents rather than their arguments", "presumes that the astronomer's thesis should not be subject to rational discussion and criticism", "fails to precisely define the key word \"meteoroids\"", "infers the truth of the astronomer's thesis from the mere claim that it has not been proven false" ]

[ "Tyree quits smoking cigarettes, and as a result, he will live longer and save taxpayers' money.", "Isabella founds a non-profit organization that teaches sustainable farming on a small island in the Pacific Ocean, but the island's villages adopt a different farming practice", "Leroy develops a vaccine for malaria, but the cure decimates the mosquito population, destroying the local ecosystem, and causing famine across an entire continent.", "Trevor starts a website that provides people with the best solutions for reforming his nation's corrupt government, but nobody ever reads it." ]

[ "The argument presumes, without providing justification, that the authorities cited have always held the views attributed to them.", "The argument presumes, without providing justification, that the opinions of all experts are equally justified.", "The argument appeals to views that contradict rather than support one another.", "The argument provides no justification for giving preference to the views of one rather than the other of two competing sets of authorities." ]

[ "The proposed legislation has not been criticized by any group that does not identify itself with the political right or the political left.", "It is rare for political groups both on the right and on the left to criticize a particular tax reform proposal.", "The proposed legislation is not made up of a set of statements some of which are overly specific and some of which are overly vague.", "The proposed legislation as it is framed was not meant to satisfy either political groups on the right or political groups on the left." ]

[ "Thanks to changes in automobile design in the past ten years, drivers are better able to maintain control of their cars in dangerous situations.", "It was not until shortly after the introduction of the highway speed limit that most cars were equipped with features such as seat belts and airbags designed to prevent harm to passengers.", "In the years prior to the introduction of the highway speed limit, many cars could go faster than 90 kph (55 mph).", "Ten years ago, at least 95 percent of all automobile accidents in the area occurred on roads with a speed limit of under 80 kph (50 mph)." ]

[ "The resources that are spent on avoiding product tampering are greater than the resources that are spent on avoiding threats that stem from the weather.", "Those who get their information primarily from the news media tend to overestimate the risk of uncommon threats relative to the risk of common threats.", "Reporters tend not to seek out information about long-range future threats but to concentrate their attention on the immediate past and future.", "People tend to magnify the risk of a threat if the threat seems particularly dreadful or if those who would be affected have no control over it." ]

[ "In the Mesozoic era, no creatures other than birds had such feathers.", "The creature to which the feather belonged was a descendant of the pterosaurs.", "The earliest bird flew in an awkward manner.", "The feather belonged to a Mesozoic creature that was neither a pterosaur nor a bird, but an intermediate between them." ]

[ "many governments with bad legal systems have poorly paid police forces", "a well-paid police force is sufficient to guarantee a good legal system", "some bad governments have good legal systems", "a well-paid police force cannot be effective without a good legal system" ]

[ "Galloping would probably have broken the legs of Apatosaurus.", "It is possible to calculate that Apatosaurus leg bones could not have withstood the strain of galloping.", "If galloping would have broken the legs of Apatosaurus, then Apatosaurus was probably unable to gallop.", "The claim of paleontologists that Apatosaurus was able to gallop is likely to be incorrect." ]

[ "Lottery winners in rural areas are notified of winning by public posting of lists of winners, but notification in the city is by private mail.", "Families in rural areas in the Popoyas many contain twelve or fourteen people, but city families average six or seven.", "Popoyan city dwellers tend to buy several lottery tickets at a time, but they buy tickets less frequently than do rural dwellers.", "Twice as many lottery tickets are sold in rural areas as are sold in the city." ]

[ "Kimmy is a highly compensated and extremely popular television and movie actress.", "Kimmy starred in an extremely popular movie.", "The paparazzi track Kimmy's every move for good reason.", "Kimmy does not deserve her fame." ]

[ "cast doubt on the principle that being capable of obeying moral rules is a necessary condition for having rights", "provide evidence suggesting that the concept of morality is often applied too broadly", "provide counterexamples to refute a premise on which a particular conclusion is based", "establish a claim by showing that the denial of that claim entails a logical contradiction" ]

[ "Scientists can make valuable contributions to the scientific work of their time even if the results of their work will later be shown to be mistaken.", "Lessons in scientific methodology can be learned by seeing how earlier scientific work was carried out, sometimes especially when the results of that work are known to be incorrect.", "There are many scientists today who are not thoroughly familiar with earlier scientific research.", "Many firsthand accounts of earlier, flawed scientific work are not generally known to be mistaken." ]