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metaeval 4

[ "The virus that causes Lofgren's disease cannot be transmitted to human beings by chickens.", "The feed that chickens and cattle are fed is probably not the only source of the virus that causes Lofgren's disease.", "A failure to observe Lofgren's disease in commercial chicken populations is not good evidence that chickens are immune to the virus that causes this disease.", "There is no way to determine whether a chicken is infected with the Lofgren's disease virus before the chicken shows symptoms of the disease." ]

[ "rejects a claim because of its source rather than its content", "fails to consider that a tool might not effectively perform its intended function", "takes for granted that any presentation that is not ineffective is a good presentation", "bases an endorsement of a product entirely on that product's popularity" ]

[ "Paintings that fail to move a viewer to political action cannot be politically significant.", "The interplay of color, texture, and form is not a measure of the worth of representational paintings.", "Unless people view representations of social injustice, their political activity is insignificant.", "Abstract painting cannot stimulate people to act." ]

[ "Some remedies for Salmonella poisoning also cure intestinal disorders caused by other microorganisms.", "Salmonella poisoning is becoming less frequent in the general population.", "The new test returns results very soon after food samples are submitted for testing.", "The level of skill required for laboratory technicians to perform the new test is higher than that required to perform previous tests for Salmonella." ]

[ "In the study, more men than women were aware that in some food categories their diet failed to reflect the recommendations closely.", "Most men in the study did not consume the amounts of fruits and vegetables that the nutritional guidelines recommend.", "Men in the study estimated their daily intake of fruits and vegetables to be significantly lower than it in fact was.", "Both men and women in the study misjudged their compliance with the nutritional guidelines in every food category." ]

[ "The author sets up a false dichotomy.", "The author relies on circular reasoning.", "The author fails to define an important term.", "The author asserts an unjustified metaphor." ]

[ "Computers are as good as teachers at drilling students on facts and rules.", "The job of a teacher is to make students understand the general concepts underlying specific facts and rules.", "It is not possible for students to develop an understanding of the concepts underlying facts and rules through practice drills and coaching.", "It is possible to program computers so that they can teach the understanding of general concepts that underlie specific facts and rules." ]

[ "Adults who have never married have shorter life expectancies than do married people of the same age.", "Overall life expectancies differ among countries, even among countries with similar cultures.", "People often show signs of stress when undergoing a divorce.", "Life expectancy varies with age-group, even among married people." ]

[ "It is an attempt to undermine the criticism cited against the claim that capital punishment for theft was an essential part of the labor discipline of British capitalism.", "It is cited as some evidence against the claim that capital punishment for theft was an essential part of the labor discipline of British capitalism.", "It is cited as a fact supporting the critics of the view that capital punishment for theft was an essential part of the labor discipline of British capitalism.", "It is an attempt to conclusively prove the claim that capital punishment for theft was an essential part of the labor discipline of British capitalism." ]

[ "At some bookstores and libraries, the popularity of books on tape and of videos is beginning to rival that of printed books.", "Publishers will continue to print books in the format stocked by bookstores and public libraries.", "Scholars and scientists do not usually conduct their research in public libraries.", "Scholars and scientists find an electronic format for books the most convenient one for quick searching and cross-referencing." ]

[ "people who eat their biggest meal at night tend to snack more during the day and so tend to take in more total calories than do people who eat their biggest meal earlier in the day", "a few of the people in the group studied who lost significant amounts of weight got nearly all of their calories from carbohydrates and ate their biggest meal at night", "the people in the group studied who increased their activity levels lost more weight, on average, than those who did not, regardless of whether they got more calories from protein or from carbohydrates", "some people in the group studied lost no weight yet got more calories from protein than from carbohydrates and ate their biggest meal early in the day" ]

[ "The first is a position for which the historian argues; the second is an assumption that serves as the basis of that argument.", "The first provides a context for certain evidence that supports the position that the historian seeks to establish; the second is that position.", "The first presents evidence to support the position that the historian seeks to establish; the second acknowledges a consideration that has been used to argue against that position.", "The first is an assumption that the historian explicitly makes in arguing for a certain position; the second acknowledges a consideration that calls that assumption into question." ]

[ "acting this way would allow others to obtain a benefit such as the one that this artist has obtained in the past", "this person had in fact, at an earlier time, made a tacit promise to act this way", "this person has benefited from other people's acting in just this way in the past", "this person, by acting this way, would provide general benefits with a value exceeding the cost to the person of acting this way" ]

[ "The Industrial Revolution in the United States would not have happened without Thomas Edison.", "Thomas Edison was a prolific inventor.", "Thomas Edison is one of the most important figures in American history.", "Common knowledge does not do justice to the legacy of Thomas Edison." ]

[ "Some of the illnesses that vaccines are designed to prevent have become so rare that even if people are not vaccinated, they are unlikely to contract those illnesses.", "The health problems that some people have developed shortly after receiving vaccinations have been more serious than the health problems that the vaccines were intended to prevent.", "People are no more likely, on average, to develop serious health problems shortly after receiving vaccinations than shortly before receiving vaccinations.", "For the most part, stories of people developing serious health problems shortly after receiving vaccinations involve vaccines that were recently introduced." ]

[ "spending time each morning scheduling tasks according to the most immediate deadlines", "meeting daily with other staff members to discuss workloads and schedules", "deciding to take an urgent call from a major customer instead of being punctual at a monthly sales meeting", "instead of working on a report that a supervisor has ordered completed by the following day, spending the entire afternoon completing routine correspondence that could be delayed" ]

[ "Zebras react much faster to moving shapes that have stripes than they do to moving shapes that are otherwise identical but lack stripes.", "The subspecies of zebras with the best-defined stripes is also characterized by exceptional size and vigor.", "In certain tall grasses zebras can be harder to spot than grazing animals with a coat of uniform color.", "A visual signal transmitted among the members of a species can consist of a temporary change of color perceptible to other members of the species." ]

[ "The local news media were wrong to herald Clemens as an honest politician.", "The local newspaper's treatment of Clemens is indicative of its treatment of public figures in general.", "The local news media show too much deference toward public figures.", "Reporters from the local newspaper neglected to follow leads that might have exposed the scandal much earlier." ]

[ "For the typical product, most consumers who assemble it do so very easily and without ever consulting the manufacturer's instructions.", "Often the store at which a consumer purchases an unassembled product will offer, for a fee, to assemble the product and deliver it.", "The typical consumer who assembles a product does so using the manufacturer's instructions, but still has great difficulty.", "Usually a consumer who is trying to assemble a product using the manufacturer's instructions has no difficulty understanding the instructions." ]

[ "Both are premises, for which no evidence is provided, and both support the argument's only conclusion.", "The first is the argument's only conclusion ; the second is a premise, for which no evidence is provided.", "The first is the argument's main conclusion; the second is another conclusion supporting the first.", "The first is a premise, for which no evidence is provided; the second is the argument's only conclusion." ]

[ "Green plants take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen back into the air; so it follows that grass takes in carbon dioxide and releases oxygen into the air.", "Some red butterflies are poisonous to birds that prey on them; so this particular red butterfly is poisonous to birds that prey on it.", "Dierdre has seen every film directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder; so Dierdre must have seen Ali: Fear Eats the Soul, a film directed by Fassbinder.", "Knowledge about the empirical world can be gained from books; so Virginia Woolf's book A Room of One's Own must provide knowledge about the empirical world." ]

[ "Product labels that are literally correct but cannot be interpreted by the average buyer of the product without expert help should be prohibited by law.", "Product labels that are literally correct but will predictably be misinterpreted by some buyers of the product to their own harm should be prohibited by law.", "Product labels that are literally correct, but only on one of two equally accurate interpretations, should be prohibited by law if buyers tend to interpret the label in the way that does not match the product's actual properties.", "Product labels that are literally incorrect, but in such an obvious manner that no rational consumer would rely on them, should nevertheless be prohibited by law." ]

[ "The genetic differences between the shrimp populations are much less significant than those between shrimp and any other marine species.", "The individual shrimp within a given population at any given Indonesian coral reef differ from one another genetically, even though there is widespread interbreeding within any such population.", "Most shrimp hatched at a given Indonesian coral reef are no longer present at that coral reef upon becoming old enough to breed.", "Before breeding, shrimp of the species examined migrate back to the coral reef at which they were hatched." ]

[ "Many popular pets are not usually fed meat.", "Feeding meat to pets contributes to cruelty to animals.", "Loving pets requires loving all forms of animal life.", "Many of those who are opposed to keeping dogs and cats as pets are also opposed to cruelty to animals." ]

[ "The first is an explanation that the argument defends; the second is a finding that has been used to challenge that explanation.", "The first is the position that the argument as a whole opposes; the second is an objection that has been raised against a position defended in the argument.", "The first is an explanation that the argument challenges; the second is a finding on which that challenge is based.", "The first is a claim that has been advanced in support of a position that the argument opposes; the second is a finding that has been used in support of that position." ]

[ "the average length of a hospital stay is the same for those who receive frequent checkups as for those who do not", "medical checkups sometimes do not reveal early symptoms of those chronic illnesses that are best treated in a hospital", "the recommended treatments for complications of many chronic illnesses involve hospitalization even if those complications are detected while barely noticeable", "people with chronic illnesses generally receive medical checkups more frequently than people who are not chronically ill" ]

[ "The best elementary school math teachers are not those for whom math was always easy. Teachers who had to struggle through math themselves are better able to explain math to students.", "One must make a special effort to clearly explain one's views to someone else; people normally find it easier to understand their own views than to understand others' views.", "People should always have their writing proofread by someone else. Someone who does not know in advance what is meant to be said is in a better position to spot typographical errors.", "Juries composed of legal novices, rather than panels of lawyers, should be the final arbiters in legal proceedings. People who are not legal experts are in a better position to detect good legal arguments by lawyers than are other lawyers." ]

[ "a subsidiary conclusion on which his argument's main conclusion is based", "a potential objection that his argument anticipates and attempts to answer before it is raised", "the principal claim that his argument is structured to refute", "background information that neither supports nor undermines his argument's conclusion" ]

[ "A similar survey found that the number of on-the-job accidents remained constant after job safety training in the transportation sector was improved.", "It is likely that the increase in the number of on-the-job accidents experienced by many companies was not merely a random fluctuation.", "Significant safety measures, such as protective equipment and government safety inspections, were in place well before the improvements in job safety training.", "Manufacturers tend to improve their job safety training only when they are increasing the size of their workforce." ]

[ "the average price per box of name-brand cereals has increased significantly in the last 10 years", "several other name-brand cereal manufacturers are about to reduce the wholesale prices of their cereals", "supermarkets make far more profit on sales of store-brand cereals than on sales of name-brand cereals", "the current prices of the manufacturer's cereals are comparable to the prices of name-brand cereals produced by other cereal manufacturers" ]

[ "With the sole exception of riodinid caterpillars, South American ants will vigorously attack any organism other than ants that use riodinids as a source of food.", "Among insect species that inhabit South America, wasps are the only kinds of organism other than ants that use riodinid caterpillars as a source of food.", "Riodinid caterpillars in South America that live among ants are less likely to be attacked by wasps than those that do not live among ants.", "The secretions produced by riodinid caterpillars are chemically identical to substances secreted by plants on which South American ants also feed." ]

[ "It is a conclusion for which the only support offered is the claim that straying from a diet of wild foods has often resulted in chronic illness and other physical problems.", "It is a phenomenon for which the main conclusion of the nutritionist's argument is cited as an explanation.", "It is an intermediate conclusion for which one claim is offered as support, and which is used in turn to support the argument's main conclusion.", "It is a premise for which no justification is provided, but which is used to support the argument's main conclusion." ]

[ "there are no more primate species in Burma than there are in Egypt", "higher primates cannot be identified solely by their lower jawbones", "several anthropologists, using different dating methods, independently confirmed the estimated age of the jawbone fragment", "other archaeological expeditions in Burma have unearthed higher-primate fossilized bone fragments that are clearly older than 40 million years" ]

[ "Long-standing success of substantiation of a theory of physics is no guarantee that the theory will continue to be dominant indefinitely.", "If a long-accepted theory of physics is surpassed, it must be surpassed by a theory that is equally successful.", "Once a theory of physics is accepted, it will remain dominant for centuries.", "Every theory of physics, no matter how successful, is eventually surpassed by one that is more successful." ]

[ "Antilock brakes are no more effective in preventing multiple-car accidents than in preventing other kinds of traffic accidents.", "For inexperienced drivers, antilock brakes are easier to use correctly than are traditional brakes.", "Drivers and passengers in automobiles with antilock brakes feel less vulnerable, and are thus less likely to wear seat belts.", "Under some circumstances, automobiles with traditional brakes stop just as quickly as do automobiles with antilock brakes." ]

[ "Aisha has proofread several issues of the journal Periodos and has encountered no errors. But there are seldom any errors in an issue of this journal. So there will probably be no errors in the next issue of the journal Periodos that she proofreads.", "There usually are errors in each issue of the journal Periodos. Since Aisha has finished proofreading the latest issue of this journal and has detected no errors, Aisha has probably made a mistake in her proofreading.", "Aisha has finished proofreading all but the last two pages of an issue of the journal Periodos and has encountered no errors. However, there are sometimes a few errors in an issue of the journal Periodos. So there may be errors in the pages that Aisha has not yet checked.", "On average, there are a few errors in an issue of the journal Periodos. Aisha has finished proofreading all but the last two pages of an issue of this journal but has encountered no errors. So there are probably errors in the pages she has not yet checked in this issue of the journal." ]

[ "Peterson has also set world records in several other swimming events.", "Peterson had the flu during a recent competition.", "Peterson has in each of the past seven years swum faster during world competitions than during training for those competitions.", "Peterson is widely expected to win the 100-meter backstroke in the next world competition." ]

[ "Most of the island's summer residents would benefit from passage of this law.", "The average income of the island's summer residents is greater than the average income of its permanent residents.", "The problems associated with this law outweigh any benefits it might provide the island's permanent residents.", "Most of the island's summer residents support passage of this law." ]

[ "We cannot indefinitely replace exhausted nonrenewable resources with other nonrenewable resources.", "Consumption of nonrenewable resources will not continue to increase in the near future.", "There are renewable resource replacements for all of the nonrenewable resources currently being consumed.", "Ultimately we cannot do without nonrenewable resources." ]

[ "what is true of a whole is also true of its constituent elements", "the Arctic Circle and Tierra del Fuego do not constitute geographically isolated areas", "what is true of the constituent elements of a whole is also true of the whole", "because ants do not inhabit only a small niche in a geographically isolated area, they are unlike most other insects" ]

[ "It has fuzzy seeds and thorny seedpods.", "It lacks both white flowers and fuzzy seeds.", "It has white flowers and thorny seedpods.", "It has white flowers but lacks fuzzy seeds." ]

[ "crows can distinguish between people who are wearing caveman masks and those who are not, but they cannot recognize individual human faces -17-", "some of the crows that shrieked at and dive-bombed people wearing the masks were not among the crows that had been trapped", "most birds of any species will regard a person as threatening if they see crows shrieking at and dive-bombing that person", "even in places where crows have never been captured, most crows will shriek at and dive-bomb people wearing caveman masks" ]

[ "The felony charge on which Jackie was convicted is relevant to the President of the Executive Council's duties.", "Only candidates eligible to serve as an executive council member can serve as the President of the Executive Council.", "Anyone with a law degree and without a felony conviction is eligible to serve as an executive council member.", "A law degree is not necessary to serve as an executive council member." ]

[ "The proportion of Domoricans who regularly read a newspaper was higher 20 years ago than it is today.", "The number of newspapers in Domorica has been gradually increasing over the past several decades.", "The surveys defined a regular reader of a newspaper as someone who reads a newspaper more than twice a week.", "The proportion of Domoricans in their twenties who regularly read a newspaper has always been low." ]

[ "If manufacturers in one county have been squeezed out of the global market, this shows that their foreign competitors have adopted new technologies more rapidly than they have.", "If a country's foreign competitors can lower their production costs more rapidly than the country's own manufacturers can, then their foreign competitors must have adopted new manufacturing techniques.", "If the manufacturers in one country raise their prices, it is because they have squeezed their foreign competitors out of the global market.", "If a country's manufacturers can lower their prices as rapidly as their foreign competitors can, this shows that they adopt new technology at least as fast as their foreign competitors do." ]

[ "Although the seller is willing to take back the vase if Matilde cannot independently authenticate it, Matilde is not sure that the vase will appreciate much in value in the future.", "The asking price for the vase is significantly less than the amount Matilde thinks it is worth, and the vase is of a style that Matilde particularly likes.", "While this style of vase is not currently sought after by other collectors, Matilde has acquired quite a few similar pieces and has developed significant expertise in identifying counterfeits.", "While Matilde likes the color and features of the vase, its particular style has frequently been reproduced for the mass market, and the vase cannot be examined closely or authenticated over the Internet." ]

[ "I will have to include an inaccurate citation", "if I do not find the book, I will be unable to complete my research paper", "if I do not find the book, I will include the quotation without an accurate citation", "if I do not find the book, my research paper will suffer" ]

[ "Advertising campaigns designed to target one demographic sometimes appeal to a wider group of people than expected.", "Advertising campaigns that target one demographic often alienate people who are not part of the target demographic.", "Fewer people are influenced by auto insurance commercials than by commercials for other types of products.", "Efforts to influence a target demographic do not pay off when the content of the advertising campaign falls short." ]

[ "All of the salespersons were required to attend a series of training sessions for the new database software even though many of them found the software easy to use even without training.", "The number of staff required to create the database turned out to be larger than anticipated, and the company had to pay overtime wages to some of them.", "Most of the salespersons already had portable computers before the new database was created.", "The papers that the salespersons found most important all contained personal information about employees of client companies, which the salespersons did not want in a central database." ]

[ "Of the sixteen players nominated by the coach A, coach B nominated more than half to play in the senior division.", "The four players that Coach B but not Coach A selected for the senior division played the previous year in that division.", "Of those chosen by both coaches to play in the senior division all will end up playing in the senior league.", "To be selected for the senior division, a player need only be nominated by one of the two coaches." ]

[ "A piece of art determined to be a forgery does not, after a period of twenty-five years, become valued for its own intrinsic merits.", "A generation consists of exactly twenty-five years.", "Those who expose the majority of paintings as forgeries are guided by aesthetic considerations.", "What is deemed aesthetically pleasing does not change in the course of twenty-five years." ]

[ "not be able to perform individual functions as well as single-function tools", "be able to perform fewer often-needed functions than some other multiple-function tool", "cost more than the combined cost of two other multiple-function tools that together perform more functions than the VersaTool", "include some functions that are infrequently or never needed" ]

[ "Some readers do not appreciate the subtleties of the disjointed and subjective style adopted by modern novelists.", "The quality of Linsey's songs is better judged by the quality of their lyrics than by the quality of their musical form.", "A disjointed and subjective style of writing is usually more suitable for novels and song lyrics than it is for any other written works.", "Disjointed and subjective writing has a comparable effect in modern novels and in songs." ]

[ "The number of subjects who had awakened with a sense of a strange presence in the room was greater in the first group than in the control group.", "Experiencing a sense of a strange presence in a room in some way causes subjects to feel as though they are paralyzed.", "At least some of the randomly selected subjects of the study gave inconsistent reports.", "The tendency of subjects to report a recollection of an event can sometimes be increased by suggesting circumstances that accompanied the event." ]

[ "Most bills concern issues of fundamental importance to at least one large bloc of representatives in the legislature .", "Most bills that do not concern any issues of fundamental importance to any large bloc of representatives in the legislature pass into law.", "Most bills concerning issues of fundamental importance to a large bloc of representatives pass into law as a result of compromises over the bills' contents.", "Most bills do not concern any issues of fundamental importance to any large bloc of representatives in the legislature." ]

[ "consider that there might be minor, quick-growing crops that do mature in 45 days or less", "identify any alternative method of weed control that could be used instead of the method it rejects", "allow for the possibility of combining the two weed-control methods it mentions", "allow for the possibility that plants other than rye, handled the same way, might have the same effect" ]

[ "The silicate crystals are toxic only to the cells lining the bladder and not to other bladder cells.", "Cells in the bladder regenerate more quickly in mice than they do in rats.", "High doses of saccharin are much more likely to produce silicate crystals than lower doses are.", "Urine proteins that react with saccharin to form silicate crystals are found in rats but not in mice." ]

[ "In the past, Travaillier has found it very difficult to change its customers' vacation preferences.", "Some of Travaillier's competitors have increased profits by concentrating their attention on their customers who spend the most on vacations.", "The industry consultants employed by Travaillier typically recommend that companies expand by introducing their current customers to new products and services.", "At least one of Travaillier's new employees not only has experience in the bus tour industry but has also designed air travel vacation packages." ]

[ "completely reverses any effects from the antibiotics", "restores the correct balance between the \"good\" and \"bad\" bacteria", "targets and eliminates only the \"bad\" bacteria", "bypasses the microbiome altogether" ]

[ "Large income differences between fixed-salary employees and senior staff tend to undermine employee morale.", "Business firms that pay senior staff with stock options are less profitable than other firms.", "Employees whose incomes rise as the profits of their employers rise are more productive than those paid only a fixed salary.", "Reductions in the profitability of a company are usually due to low employee morale." ]

[ "The first provides support for the conclusion of the argument as a whole; the second provides evidence that supports an objection to that conclusion.", "The first provides support for an intermediate conclusion that supports a further conclusion stated in the argument; the second states that intermediate conclusion.", "The first serves as an intermediate conclusion that supports a further conclusion stated in the argument; the second states the position that the argument as a whole opposes.", "The first states the position that the argument as a whole opposes; the second supports the conclusion of the argument." ]

[ "Not all cats are identical with respect to the proteins contained in their skin secretions and saliva.", "The allergic reactions of some people who are allergic to cats are more intense than the allergic reactions of other allergy sufferers.", "Any particular individual will be allergic to some breeds of cat but not to others.", "No cat is capable of causing an allergic reaction in all types of allergy sufferers." ]

[ "no government can achieve a fair distribution of resources under conditions of economic growth", "a society can achieve a fair distribution of resources only if its government actively works to bring about equality of economic opportunity", "all societies that guarantee equality of economic opportunity to all of their members are societies that distribute resources fairly", "some societies that experience economic growth fail to guarantee equality of opportunity to all of their citizens" ]

[ "If air temperatures in the polar regions were considerably warmer, much polar ice would melt off.", "The thicker the polar ice is, the colder the air masses that are in contact with it.", "For snow to turn into ice in the polar regions, the air has to be extremely cold.", "If polar ice is currently growing and expanding at all, it is doing so only slowly." ]

[ "On average, people consume 30 percent less coffee today than they did 10 years ago.", "The consumption of fruit juices and caffeine-free herbal teas has increased over the past decade.", "Heavy coffee drinkers may have mild withdrawal symptoms, such as headaches, for a day or so after significantly decreasing their coffee consumption.", "Coffee prices increased steadily in the past decade because of unusually severe frosts in coffee-growing nations." ]

[ "Because plastics create harmful pollutants when burned, an increasing percentage of the plastics handled by waste management companies are being disposed of in landfills.", "Although many plastics are recyclable, most of the plastics disposed of by waste management companies are not.", "An increasing proportion of the paper, glass, and metal cans that waste management companies used to handle is now being recycled.", "People are more likely to save and reuse plastic containers than containers made of heavier materials like glass or metal." ]

[ "Flights are defined as \"late\" only if they arrive more than fifteen minutes past their scheduled arrival time, and a record is made of how much later than fifteen minutes they are.", "Flights are often made late by bad weather conditions that affect some airlines more than others.", "Airline personnel are aware that the government agency is monitoring all airline flights for lateness.", "Travelers sometimes have no choice of airlines for a given trip at a given time." ]

[ "The chemicals used in the study closely but not perfectly reproduced the corresponding natural scents.", "The subjects in the study were tested in the environments where they usually work.", "Most members of the control group had participated in several earlier studies that involved the identification of scents.", "Every sulfur-emitting factory with workers participating in the study also emits other noxious fumes." ]

[ "With the new office buildings, downtown Villieu would have a greater amount of modern office space than any other downtown business district in the region.", "Most of the businesses currently located in downtown Villieu have long-term leases on the space they occupy there.", "The existing office buildings in downtown Villieu have, on average, a much higher vacancy rate than do office buildings in Villieu's suburbs.", "The local tax rates in Villieu's suburbs are significantly lower than downtown Villieu's proposed rate for businesses that lease space in the new office buildings." ]

[ "It generalizes from atypical occurrences.", "It infers limits on ability from a few isolated lapses in performance.", "It presupposes what it seeks to establish.", "It simply ignores the existence of potential counterevidence." ]

[ "Drug S has certain side effects not shared by drug T.", "After a heart attack, drug T remains relatively effective if given at a time at which drug S is no longer effective.", "Drug T works significantly faster than drug S.", "There is no quick, practical, and relatively inexpensive way of telling for any individual case whether drug S will be as effective as drug T." ]

[ "Revenues from sales of plants collected in the wild are supporting the discovery of new low-cost techniques enabling rare wildflowers to be readily propagated in nurseries.", "When people new to gardening buy plants, they often fail to take adequate care of the plants that they buy and become discouraged from buying those varieties again.", "The demand for rare wildflowers rarely exceeds the number of such plants that can be collected in the wild by plant sellers.", "Plant sellers who sell rare wildflowers have no reasonably inexpensive alternative way to offer their wares directly to new gardeners." ]

[ "If market conditions change, Magu may have to close any such facility or relocate it.", "Some nonprofit organizations are poorly organized, so money donated to them would be of little benefit to the community.", "Spending on charitable ventures would require Magu to decrease direct advertisements, which are the most effective means of reaching its target customers.", "Magu sells its products internationally, so sales in any one city represent only a small portion of total revenue." ]

[ "The people who received the placebo were in better overall physical condition than were the people who received the vaccine.", "Of the people who developed symptoms of hepatitis A, those who received the vaccine recovered more quickly, on average, than those who did not.", "The vaccinated people who exhibited symptoms of hepatitis A were infected with the hepatitis A virus before being vaccinated.", "The placebo did not produce any side effects that resembled any of the symptoms of hepatitis A." ]

[ "The technological complexity of computers may eventually grow less rapidly than at present.", "The current technological knowledge of most specialists within computer programming could also be applied to many technologies that will replace present ones.", "Many other careers will soon offer greater job security and higher wages than computer programming.", "The average wages earned by generalists within computer programming will never be as high as the average wages earned by specialists within computer programming." ]

[ "The leaves of the ibora are used in a number of medical products.", "The ibora generally grows in largely inaccessible places.", "The ibora can be propagated from cuttings and grown under cultivation.", "The drug made from ibora bark is expensive to produce." ]

[ "Some small countries are in favor of a greater role for the United Nations in moderating regional disputes.", "Some small countries do not want the United Nations to increase its spending on refugees.", "Some countries that have permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council are against increased spending on refugees by the United Nations.", "Some countries that are in favor of a greater role for the United Nations in moderating regional disputes are not located in the southern hemisphere." ]

[ "Only Euripides' best-known works are accompanied by ancient commentaries in extant medieval manuscripts", "Euripides' Electra does not appear accompanied by a commentary in any extant medieval manuscript", "No commentaries were written about Euripides' Electra in ancient times", "Euripides' Medea never appears in medieval manuscripts unaccompanied by ancient commentary" ]

[ "the types of aphids that stinging nettles attract do not damage potato plants", "most aphid species that are harmful to potato plants cause greater harm to other edible food plants", "insect pests typically cause less damage to potato plants than other harmful organisms do", "stinging nettles require little care and thus are easy to cultivate" ]

[ "Would revenue losses by Gasco seriously affect Energy Incorporated?", "Have other unions that have employed a similar tactic achieved their goals with it?", "Can current Gasco customers easily obtain gasoline elsewhere?", "Do other corporations that own coal companies also own gas stations?" ]

[ "Artists' preliminary sketches are as beautiful as the final versions of their work.", "Artifacts may have uses different from those intended by their creators.", "Artists are not the best judges of the value of their own work.", "A finished work of art cannot be produced without the execution of a high-quality preliminary sketch." ]

[ "The troposphere over the poles is thicker than the troposphere over the equator.", "The temperature at any point at the top of the stratosphere is at least as great as the temperature at the top of the troposphere directly beneath that point.", "The temperature in the middle part of the stratosphere over the North Pole is at least as great as the temperature in the middle part of the stratosphere over the equator.", "It is warmer at the top of the stratosphere over the poles than it is at the top of the stratosphere over the equator." ]

[ "A rival manufacture recently announced similar plans to introduce a mechanical pencil that would accept only the leads produced by that manufacturer.", "First-time buyers of the mechanical pencils tend to buy the least expensive mechanical pencils available.", "A Write Company executive is studying ways to reduce the cost of manufacturing pencil leads.", "In extensive text marketing, mechanical-pencil users found the new Write Company pencil markedly superior to other mechanical pencils they had used." ]

[ "considers the effects of hunting on tigers without also considering the effects of hunting on other endangered animal species", "neglects to consider the results of governmental attempts in the past to limit tiger hunting", "takes the removal of an impediment to the tigers' survival as a guarantee of their survival", "assumes without sufficient warrant that a ban on tiger hunting could be successfully enforced" ]

[ "makes use of an assumption that one would accept only if one has already accepted the truth of the conclusion", "takes for granted that anyone who is motivated purely by snobbery cannot also be motivated by legitimate historical evidence", "fails to exclude the possibility that there might be legitimate evidence motivating those who reject Shakespeare's authorship", "presumes, without providing justification, that a claim cannot be true if those who advance it are motivated by snobbery" ]

[ "fails to justify its presumption that profits sufficient to motivate very risky investments must be the highest among all industries", "illicitly draws a general conclusion from a specific example that there is reason to think is atypical", "fails to justify its presumption that two events that are correlated must also be causally related", "attacks the character of the oil companies rather than the substance of their conduct" ]

[ "The movie industry's revenues, when adjusted for inflation, have declined sharply in the last 30 years.", "Big-budget movies need to sell many more tickets than do low-budget movies, just to recoup their production costs.", "There are many more low-budget movies produced than there are big- and mediumbudget movies.", "Big-budget movies, because of their elaborate special effects, cost more in insurance premiums than low-budget movies do." ]

[ "There is a difference between knowing a set of rules and behaving in accordance with a set of rules.", "Not everyone follows the same set of rules in acquiring a skill.", "Studying a description of a particular skill is of no help in acquiring that skill.", "No set of rules can exhaustively describe the behavior of someone who is engaged in a complex activity." ]

[ "Holders of life insurance policies do not have longer overall life expectancies than the general population.", "Some people would be unwilling to modify their weights solely to increase the general population's overall life expectancies.", "The tables include data gathered from policyholders whose deaths resulted from accidents in addition to those whose deaths resulted from natural causes.", "People's efforts to modify their weight to conform to a given range would not damage their health enough to decrease their overall life expectancies." ]

[ "questioning the truth of a presumption underlying Yang's argument", "suggesting that an alternative set of evidence better supports Yang's conclusion", "calling into question the truth of the evidence presented in Yang's argument", "pointing out that the premises of Yang's argument more strongly support a contrary conclusion" ]

[ "if violence in certain movies causes violence in viewers, access to those movies should be restricted", "people who experience an emotion vicariously are likely to purge themselves of that emotion", "the members of a mature audience are unlikely to believe that violence is sometimes an appropriate way to resolve problems", "the effects of dramatic depictions of violence on audiences are at least partially understood" ]

[ "stating the definition of a key term of the argument", "using statistical findings to dispute a claim", "using empirical evidence to support one definition of a key term of the argument over another", "undermining a claim by showing that the claim is self-contradictory" ]

[ "Few veterinarians at university research centers chose their profession primarily because they love animals.", "Prominent veterinarians at some veterinary research centers are intensely devoted to the biological sciences but do not feel any pronounced affection for animals.", "Most veterinarians who are not prominent regard an understanding of the biological sciences as the most important quality for success in their profession.", "Some veterinarians have a greater love for biological science than for individual animals." ]

[ "When Vasari preserved the frescoes of Santa Maria Novella he did so secretly.", "Vasari probably would not have built the Palazzo Vecchio wall with a gap behind it except to preserve something behind the new wall.", "Leonardo would probably have completed the Palazzo Vecchio mural if he had had the opportunity to do so.", "Leonardo rarely if ever destroyed artworks that he left unfinished." ]

[ "broadcasters' obligations are not satisfied if they look only to popularity to decide their programming schedules", "the popularity of a television program is a poor indicator of its artistic quality", "broadcast media could be rightly accused of neglecting the public interest only if all channels carried mostly action shows", "television networks should broadcast more artistic and cultural shows and fewer action shows" ]

[ "Promethium-61 and Radon-210 have equal levels of radioactivity.", "Promethium-61 and Technetium-99 have equal levels of radioactivity.", "Technetium-99 is more radioactive than Protactinium-234.", "Promethium-61 is more radioactive than Radon-210." ]

[ "It offers information as support for a conclusion when that information actually shows that the conclusion is false.", "Its conclusion merely restates a claim made earlier in the argument.", "It concludes that one thing was caused by another although the evidence given is consistent with the first thing's having caused the second.", "It attempts to support a sweeping generalization on the basis of information about only a small number of individuals." ]

[ "Appealing to students will in turn appeal to the proposal's committee. Students are the lifeblood of the university and it's critical that the committee determine whether or not students are on board.", "Proposals should appeal to the project's recipients, or those who the project will directly affect. This way, the project will gain support from its followers.", "Proposal audience should not be called upon to respond to an ethical or moral obligation; this is considered inappropriate and unprofessional in the art of proposal writing.", "Proposals should appeal to the decision makers of the proposal, or those who will be reading the proposal in order to make a decision in favor or in opposition to the proposed project." ]

[ "The spleens of Antarctic seals contain greater concentrations of blood vessels than are contained in most of their other organs.", "The oxygen contained in the seals' lungs and bloodstream alone would be inadequate to support the seals during their dives.", "The spleen is much larger in the Antarctic seal than in aquatic mammals that do not make long dives.", "Many species of seal can store oxygen directly in their muscle tissue." ]

[ "If a company's failure is due to a broader economic collapse, then it is not fair to blame the company's executives for the failure. There was a broader economic collapse when ViqCo went bankrupt. So it is probably not fair to blame ViqCo's executives for the failure.", "Since ViqCo's failure was due to a broader economic collapse, it is not fair to blame the company's executives for the failure. But that means that when ViqCo was succeeding because the broader economy was growing, the executives did not deserve the credit.", "If ViqCo's executives were responsible for the company's losses, then ViqCo's losses would have been greater than those of its competitors. But ViqCo's losses were less than those of its competitors. So ViqCo's executives were not responsible for the company's losses.", "If ViqCo's executives were responsible for the company's failure, then it must be possible to say what they should have done differently. Ttherefore, if you cannot say what ViqCo's executives should have done differently, then you should not blame them for the failure." ]