text
stringlengths 1
17k
|
|---|
The Varangian Guard not only provided security for the Byzantine emperors but also participated in many wars often playing a decisive role since they were usually deployed at critical moments of a battle By the late 13th century Varangians were mostly ethnically assimilated by the Byzantine Greeks though the Guard remained in existence until at least mid14th century In 1400 there were still some people identifying themselves as Varangians in Constantinople |
The earliest members of the Varangian guard came from Kievan Rus A treaty between Rus and the Byzantine empire under Basil I was agreed in 874 after a period of hostilities A clause in the treaty obliged Rus to provide men for Byzantine service Renewed hostilities between 907 and 911 ended with a new treaty under which any Rus who chose could serve Byzantium as a right |
As early as 911 Varangians are mentioned as fighting as mercenaries for the Byzantines About 700 Varangians served along with Dalmatians as marines in Byzantine naval expeditions against the Emirate of Crete in 902 and a force of 629 returned to Crete under Constantine Porphyrogenitus in 949 A unit of 415 Varangians was involved in the Italian expedition of 936 It is also recorded that there were Varangian contingents among the forces that fought the Arabs in Syria in 955 During this period the Varangian mercenaries were included in the Great Companions Gr |
In 988 Basil II requested military assistance from Vladimir I of Kiev to help defend his throne In compliance with the treaty made by his father after the Siege of Dorostolon 971 Vladimir sent 6000 men to Basil Vladimir took the opportunity to rid himself of his most unruly warriors which in any case he was unable to pay This is the presumptive date for the formal permanent institution of an elite guard In exchange for the warriors Vladimir was given Basil s sister Anna in marriage Vladimir also agreed to convert to Christianity and to bring his people into the Christian faith |
In 989 these Varangians led by Basil II himself landed at Chrysopolis to defeat the rebel general Bardas Phokas On the field of battle Phokas died of a stroke in full view of his opponent upon the death of their leader Phokas troops turned and fled The brutality of the Varangians was noted when they pursued the fleeing army and cheerfully hacked them to pieces |
These men formed the nucleus of the Varangian Guard which saw extensive service in southern Italy in the eleventh century as the Normans and Lombards worked to extinguish Byzantine authority there In 1018 Basil II received a request from his catepan of Italy Basil Boioannes for reinforcements to put down the Lombard revolt of Melus of Bari A detachment of the Varangian Guard was sent and in the Battle of Cannae the Byzantines achieved a decisive victory |
The Varangians also participated in the partial reconquest of Sicily from the Arabs under George Maniakes in 1038 Here they fought alongside Normans recently arrived in Italy seeking adventure and Lombards from Byzantine held Apulia A prominent member of the Guard at this time was Harald Hardrada later King of Norway as Harald III 1046 to 1066 However when Maniakes ostracised the Lombards by publicly humiliating their leader Arduin the Lombards deserted and the Normans and Varangians followed them |
Not long after the catepan Michael Doukeianos had a force of Varangians stationed at Bari On 16 March 1041 they were called up to fight the Normans near Venosa many drowned in the subsequent retreat across the Ofanto In September Exaugustus Boioannes was sent to Italy with only a small contingent of Varangians to replace the disgraced Doukeianos On 3 September 1041 they were defeated in battle by the Normans |
Many of the last catepans were sent from Constantinople with Varangian units In 1047 John Raphael was sent to Bari with a contingent of Varangians but the Bariots refused to receive his troops and he spent his term at Otranto Twenty years later in 1067 the last Byzantine catepan in southern Italy Mabrica arrived with Varangian auxiliaries and took Brindisi and Taranto At the disastrous Battle of Manzikert in 1071 virtually all the Emperor s Guards fell around him |
Composed primarily of Scandinavians for the first 100 years the guard began to see increasing numbers of Anglo Saxons after the successful invasion of England by the Normans In 1088 a large number of Anglo Saxons and Danes emigrated to the Byzantine Empire by way of the Mediterranean One source has more than 5000 of them arriving in 235 ships Those who did not enter imperial service settled on the Black Sea coast building and garrisoning the town of Civetot for Alexios I Those who did became so vital to the Varangians that the Guard was commonly called the Englinbarrangoi Anglo Varangians from that point In this capacity they fought in Sicily against the Normans under Robert Guiscard who unsuccessfully sought to invade the lower Balkans as well |
Writing about the unit as it was in 1080 the chronicler and princess Anna Komnene refers to these axe bearing barbarians as being from Thule likely a reference to the British Isles or Scandinavia Likewise the Byzantine civil servant soldier and historian John Kinnamos calls these axe bearers that guarded the Emperor the British nation which has been in service to the Romans Emperors from a long time back Kinnamos was writing in the later 12th century indicating perhaps that the more Dane and Saxon composition of the guard continued to the point of the Fourth Crusade |
The Varangians relied on the broad bladed Dane axe as their main weapon although they were often also skilled swordsmen or archers In some sources such as Anna Komnene s The Alexiad they are described as mounted both Vikings and elite Anglo Saxon warriors routinely used horses for strategic mobility even though they normally fought on foot The guard was stationed primarily around Constantinople and may have been barracked in the Bucoleon palace complex The guard also accompanied armies into the field and Byzantine chroniclers as well as several notable Western European and Arab chroniclers often note their battlefield prowess especially in comparison to the local barbarian peoples They were vital to the Byzantine victory under the emperor John II Komnenos at the Battle of Beroia in 1122 The Varangians hacked their way through the enemy s circle of Pecheneg wagons collapsing the Pecheneg position and causing a general rout in their camp |
The Varangians were described by 11th century Byzantine historian Michael Psellus as thus The whole group carry shields and brandish on their shoulders a certain single edged heavy iron weapon which is understood to have been the daneaxe many Byzantine writers referred to them as axe bearing barbarians pelekyphoroi barbaroi rather than as Varangians However a mistranslation of the Greek text has led some to refer to the weapon as a rhomphaia which most likely occurred as a product of Atticism in Byzantine literature |
They were prominent in the defence of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade Of the role of the guard it is said that the fighting was very violent and there was hand to hand fight with axes and swords the assailants mounted the walls and prisoners were taken on both sides The latest mention of Varangian guard is in the Greek version of the Chronicle of the Morea which state this unit escorted the Prince of Achaia away to prison after the Battle of Pelagonia in 1259 historian DJ Geanakoplos suggests they were reconstituted by Theodore I Laskaris to strengthen his claim as the rightful Emperor People identified as Varangians were to be found in Constantinople around 1400 |
The duties and purpose of the Varangian Guard were similar if not identical to the services provided by the Kievan druzhina the Norwegian hird and the Scandinavian and Anglo Saxon housecarls The Varangians served as the personal bodyguard of the emperor swearing an oath of loyalty to him they had ceremonial duties as retainers and acclaimers and performed some police duties especially in cases of treason and conspiracy They were headed by a separate officer the akolouthos who was usually a native Byzantine |
The Varangian Guard was only used in battle during critical moments or where the battle was most fierce Contemporary Byzantine chroniclers note with a mix of terror and fascination that the Scandinavians were frightening both in appearance and in equipment they attacked with reckless rage and neither cared about losing blood nor their wounds The description probably refers to berserkers since this state of trance is said to have given them superhuman strength and no sense of pain from their wounds When the Byzantine Emperor died the Varangians had the unique right of running to the imperial treasury and taking as much gold and as many gems as they could carry a procedure known in Old Norse as polutasvarf palace pillaging This privilege enabled many Varangians to return home as wealthy men which encouraged even more Scandinavians to enlist in the Guard in Miklagarr Swedish Miklagrd The Great City ie Constantinople |
The loyalty of the Varangians became a trope of Byzantine writers Writing about her father Alexius s seizing of the Imperial throne in 1081 Anna Komnene notes that he was advised not to attack the Varangians who still guarded the Emperor Nikephoros for the Varangians regard loyalty to the emperors and the protection of their persons as a family tradition a kind of sacred trust This allegiance she noted they preserve inviolate and will never brook the slighted hint of betrayal Unlike the native Byzantine guards so mistrusted by Basil II the Varangian guards loyalties lay with the position of Emperor not the man that sat on the throne This was made clear in 969 when the guards failed to avenge the death by assassination of Emperor Nikephoros II A servant had managed to call for the guards while the Emperor was being attacked but when they arrived he was dead They immediately knelt before John Tzimiskes Nikephoros murderer and hailed him as Emperor Alive they would have defended him to the last breath dead there was no point in avenging him They had a new master now |
This reputation exceeds the truth in at least two recorded instances In 1071 after Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes was defeated by Sultan Alp Arslan a palace coup was staged before he could return to Constantinople Caesar John Doukas used the Varangian guard to depose the absent emperor arrest Empress Eudoxia and proclaim his nephew stepson of Diogenes Michael VII as emperor Thus instead of defending their absent emperor the Varangians were used by the usurpers proving their loyalty to the throne if not always the current occupier of that throne In a more sinister episode the historian Joannes Zonaras reports the guard revolting against Nikephoros III Botaneiates after the blinding of the general Nikephoros Bryennios in 1078 planning to kill him but being suppressed by loyal troops They subsequently asked for and received a pardon |
There are a number of raised stone memorials called runestones throughout Scandinavia Many date to the Viking age and there are many associated with the Varangian Guards These Varangian runestones commemorate various fallen warriors through carved runes and mention voyages to the East Austr or the Eastern route Austrvegr or to more specific eastern locations such as Gararki what is today Russia and Ukraine The losses that the Varangian Guard suffered are reflected by the largest group of runestones that talk of foreign voyages such as those termed the Greece Runestones These were raised by former members of the Varangian Guard or in their memory A smaller group consists of the four Italy Runestones which were raised in memory of members of the Varangian Guard who died in southern Italy |
The oldest of the Greece runestones are six stones in the style RAK a style which is dated to the period before 1015 AD The group consists of Skepptuna runestone U 358 Vstra Ledinge runestone U 518 Nlberga runestone S 170 and Eriksstad runestone Sm 46 |
One of the more notable of the later runestones in the style Pr4 is Ed runestone U 112 a large boulder at the western shore of the lake of Ed It tells that Ragnvaldr the captain of the Varangian Guard had returned home where he had the inscriptions made in memory of his dead mother |
The youngest runestones in the style Pr5 such as Ed runestone U 104 presently in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford are dated to the period 1080 1130 after which runestones became unfashionable |
The Varangians did not return home without being imprinted by Byzantine culture in one way or another as exemplified by the Byzantine cross carved on the early eleventh century Risbyle runestone U 161 and which today is the coat of arms of Tby a trimunicipal locality and the seat of Tby Municipality in Stockholm County Sweden The runes were made by the Viking Ulf of Borresta see Orkesta runestone U 344 in memory of another Ulf in Sklhamra and at the request of the latter s father |
According to the sagas the West Norse entered the service of the Guard considerably later than the East Norse The Laxdla saga informs that the Icelander Bolli Bollason born c 1006 was the first known Icelander or Norwegian in the Varangian Guard Travelling to Constantinople via Denmark he spent many years in the Varangian Guard and was thought to be the most valiant in all deeds that try a man and always went next to those in the forefront The saga also records the finery his followers received from the Emperor and the influence he held after his return to Iceland |
Bolli rode from the ship with twelve men and all his followers were dressed in scarlet and rode on gilt saddles and all were they a trusty band though Bolli was peerless among them He had on the clothes of fur which the Garth king had given him he had over all a scarlet cape and he had Footbiter girt on him the hilt of which was dight with gold and the grip woven with gold he had a gilded helmet on his head and a red shield on his flank with a knight painted on it in gold He had a dagger in his hand as is the custom in foreign lands and whenever they took quarters the women paid heed to nothing but gazing at Bolli and his grandeur and that of his followers |
The Varangian Guard is mentioned also in Njal s Saga in reference to Kolskegg an Icelander said to have come first to Holmgard Novgorod and then on to Miklagard Constantinople where he entered the Emperor s service The last that was heard of him was that he had wedded a wife there and was captain over the Varangians and stayed there till his death day |
One of the members of the Varangian Guard was the future king Harald Sigurdsson III of Norway known as Harald Hardrde Hard ruler Having fled his homeland Harald went first to Gardariki and then on to Constantinople where he arrived in 1035 He participated in eighteen battles and during his service fought against Arabs in Anatolia and Sicily under General George Maniakes as well as in southern Italy and Bulgaria An extensive account of Harald Sigurdsson s journeys is found in Harald Sigurdsson s Saga |
During his time in the Varangian Guard Harald earned the titles of manglavites and spatharokandidatos But his service ended with his imprisonment for misappropriation of imperial plunder taken during his command He was released upon the dethronement of the Emperor Michael V and saga sources suggest he was the one sent to blind the Emperor when he and his uncle fled to the church of Studion Monastery and clung to the altar |
Harald then sought to leave his post but was denied this He eventually escaped and returned home in 1043 becoming King of Norway before eventually dying at the Battle of Stamford Bridge while invading England in 1066 |
The Varangian Guard regained some of its old Scandinavian flavour when Harald Hardrde s grandson Sigurd I of Norway went on the Norwegian Crusade to the Holy land After fighting battles against the Muslims King Sigurd in 1110 let the rest of his force who originally numbered 6000 men join the Varangian Guard King Sigurd returned home with less than a hundred of his personal Guard |
Most of the Old Norse narratives which deals with Norwegians or Icelanders in the Varangian Guard are from the 13th century and bear witness to a continued interest and generally positive views towards Byzantium within the West Norse cultural area |
Cash Money Records formerly styled as Ca h Money Records is an American record label founded by two brothers Bryan Birdman Williams and Ronald Slim Williams The label is distributed by Republic Records which used to be Universal Republic The label itself has been home to a roster of prominent hip hop artists that include Drake Lil Wayne and Nicki Minaj which has led Cash Money to being described as one of the most iconic and successful record labels in hip hop history Cash Money is estimated to be worth 300 million USD |
Artists signed to Cash Money Records Lil Wayne Drake and Nicki Minaj have achieved a combined 12 number one albums on the Billboard 200 chart and 3 number one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 chart Lil Wayne s Lollipop Jay Sean s Down and Drake s One Dance |
Cash Money Records was founded in 1991 Bryan Williams told some of his close friends the motivation for starting the label |
I was hoping it would get us out of the projects and into a positive way of life And we wanted to help other people get out of this poverty |
Along the way he met a lot of influential people on the road with the Hot Boys Wendy Day negotiated the deal between Cash Money and Universal Msic Group s Universal Records now Republic Records which became an 80 20 distribution deal Later UMG acquired a portion of Cash Money Records making it a UMG subsidiary |
For its first few years 1991 1994 Cash Money played host to a number of local releases by artists selling only one album without ever releasing a music video or having a Billboard hit Some of the label s releases garnered some regional success in New Orleans Louisiana but the label was little known to the national rap scene Artists on the label during this period included the group UNLV Uptown Niggas Living Violently Kilo G Lil Slim Pimp Daddy and PxMxWx In 1995 the label signed young rappers BG Turk and Lil Wayne The signees marked what would be the second wave of Cash Money artists Cash Money Records opening salvo was the release of Kilo G s The Sleepwalker Rapper Kilo G was just 15 years old when his Cash Money debut arrived in 1992 and his album was sold out of the trunk of the Williams brothers car |
In 1997 BG and Lil Wayne formed the group the Hot Boys together with Juvenile who had already been regionally successful before Cash Money Although they made little impact outside of the region in the beginning they became the label s most well known artists early on |
Cash Money s big break came in 1998 when the Hot Boys BG and Juvenile in particular caught the attention of Universal Records executives In 1998 Cash Money signed a 30 million pressing and distribution with 3 million advance contract with Universal entitling the label to 85 of its royalties 50 of its publishing revenues and ownership of all masters Dino Delvaille who orchestrated the deal later told HitQuarters I made certain they retained 100 ownership of their work They deserve it |
After the deal Cash Money records achieved a new level of success The release of Juvenile s 1998 album 400 Degreez which was certified 4X Platinum by the RIAA solidified Cash Money as a powerful label in the national hip hop scene Later albums in 1999 such as the Hot Boys Guerrilla Warfare BG s Chopper City in the Ghetto and Lil Wayne s Tha Block Is Hot also saw great chart success and furthered the label s reputation These albums contained major Billboard hits such as Juvenile s Back That Azz Up 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 BG s Bling Bling 36 and the Hot Boys I Need a Hot Girl 65 All of Cash Money s albums and singles in this period were solely produced by the label s in house producer Mannie Fresh Their AR at Universal Dino Delvaille said |
When they first came into the business they were very reluctant to make records with other people They probably felt that people would steal their style or flavor and I had to work hard to get them to open up to making records with Camron Puffy and Clipse among others |
This label s success continued into the 2000s Between 2001 and 2003 the label sold 7 million albums The song Still Fly by the Big Tymers was nominated for two Grammy Awards However BG and Juvenile left the label in 2002 claiming financial mismanagement In April 2003 Juvenile returned to the label for a reported 4 million deal and in return he signed over the rights to Juve The Great an album which sold over a million copies and contained the Billboard Hot 100 No 1 hit Slow Motion In 2007 former Hot Boys member Lil Wayne was named president of Cash Money Records and CEO of Young Money Entertainment Later that year Lil Wayne stepped down as president to focus on his career especially Tha Carter III In 2008 Lil Wayne resigned with Cash Money ensuring that his next few albums will be produced by the label |
In September 2008 Cash Money released rocker Kevin Rudolf s smash hit debut single Let It Rock featuring label mate Lil Wayne On October 15 2008 at the MOBO Awards British RB singer Jay Sean announced that he had signed with Cash Money Records In February 2009 the Williams brothers were featured in CNBC s Newbos The Rise of America s New Black Overclass a documentary show profiling several black multimillionaires In early 2009 former Roc AFella Records artist Freeway signed with the label On August 16 2009 Bow Wow announced that he signed with Cash Money Records |
In 2009 they took part in a major label bidding war for Queens native rapper Nicki Minaj Eventually they won the bidding war and Nicki Minaj was signed to them exclusively for Young Money Cash Money Records popularity grew after signing Minaj and Canadian rapper Drake On August 5 2010 production group Cool Dre signed with Cash Money Records The production group announced the news via Twitter They are the first in house producer Cash Money has had since Mannie Fresh |
On August 19 2010 Birdman signed DJ Khaled to the label also signing his label We the Best Music Group as a subsidiary of Cash Money On February 24 2012 Cash Money Records signed the nu metal band Limp Bizkit Wayne said the same day they were close to signing Ashanti |
In 2011 Cash Money Records signed a copublishing venture with the Atria Publishing Group called Cash Money Content |
In February 2013 Birdman released a compilation mixtape with Cash Money and Young Money entitled Rich Gang All Stars Shortly afterwards he announced a compilation album entitled Rich Gang Flashy Lifestyle that was due to be released on May 21 2013 it featured members of Cash Money Young Money and various collaborators The first single from the project Tapout was released on March 19 2013 and features Lil Wayne Future Mack Maine and Nicki Minaj with production by 808 Mafia s Southside and TM88 Fly Rich featuring Stevie J Future Tyga Meek Mill and Mystikal was also released as a promotional single |
The album s release date was then pushed back to July 23 2013 while the title was also shortened to just Rich Gang The album garnered a mixed critical reception and debuted at number 7 on the Billboard 200 On October 12 2013 Birdman announced that he had signed West Coast gangsta rapper The Game to Cash Money in addition to several unnamed New York rappers On December 11 2013 The Game would then later clarify that he was not officially signed to Cash Money Records |
On December 4 2014 just five days before Tha Carter V was due to be released Wayne issued a statement saying the album would not be released on its expected release date due to his displeasure with Birdman refusing to release the album although it had been completed Wayne also expressed his feelings by stating he felt he and his creative partner were being held prisoner Lil Wayne filed a lawsuit On January 20 2015 Wayne self released Sorry 4 the Wait 2 a sequel to his 2011 mixtape to compensate for the continued delay of Tha Carter V Upon Sorry for the Wait 2 s release it was noted that Wayne disses Birdman and Cash Money Records several times throughout Birdman was reported to be upset with this In late January 2015 Lil Wayne filed a 51 million lawsuit against Birdman and Cash Money over the delay of Tha Carter V |
In January 2015 Wayne stated that when he leaves Cash Money he is taking Drake and Nicki Minaj with him On June 22 TMZ reported new details on the lawsuit According to documents filed by Lil Wayne Birdman and Cash Money have mismanaged Young Money including Drake and Minaj The documents allege that Birdman and Cash Money have nt paid people Mainly the Mother creative talent and mastermind behind the Like Father Like Son Era Shiloh The Mystery patiently waited for inclusion Nothing happened and lawsuits ensued Free C5 became the mantra to get money to the unpaid artist In June 2015 Wayne joined Jay Z s Tidal as an artist owner and exclusively released a single on the service titled Glory On July 4 2015 Wayne released Free Weezy Album exclusively through Tidal under Young Money and Republic Records On July 15 prosecutors allege Birdman and Young Thug conspired to murder Lil Wayne and were involved in the April 26 shooting On July 16 Birdman filed a 50 million lawsuit against Jay Z s Tidal streaming service over Lil Wayne s Free Weezy Album The lawsuit claims that Cash Money Records exclusively owns the rights to Lil Wayne s music although he is now independent and the label no longer owns these rights |
On April 12 2017 Birdman took to Instagram to announce he had accepted a plaque in honor of Cash Money Records selling one billion units |
From its founding until 2005 Mannie Fresh was the well known production head of all Cash Money releases as the label s resident producer The label would be without a proper in house producer until August 2010 when production duo Cool Dre signed to the label Since then the label has grown its production division by signing more producers |
In October 2009 Cash Money Records Birdman Lil Wayne and various music distribution outlets were sued for copyright infringement by Thomas Marasciullo who claims his voice was used without permission The rappers asked him to record some Italian styled spoken word recordings in 2006 The lyrics were allegedly used on Respect and other tracks from the rappers collaboration album Like Father Like Son and Birdman s 5 Stunna |
In 2011 Cash Money Records Lil Wayne Universal Music Group and Young Money Entertainment were sued for US 15 million by Done Deal Enterprises who claim Lil Wayne s song BedRock was stolen from Done Deal |
Karan Brar born January 18 1999 is an American actor best known for his child roles as Chirag Gupta in the Wimpy Kid feature film franchise Diary of a Wimpy Kid Diary of a Wimpy Kid Rodrick Rules and Diary of a Wimpy Kid Dog Days as well as for his costarring role as Ravi Ross on the Disney Channel Original Series Jessie and its subsequent spin off Bunk d |
Karan Brar was born on January 18 1999 in Redmond Washington to parents Harinder and Jasbinder Brar who are of Indian ancestry He was raised in Bothell Washington and has one older sibling a sister named Sabreena Brar attended Cedar Wood Elementary School and studied acting at John Robert Powers and Patti Kalles workshops |
Brar began his acting career at the age of 11 starring as Indian middle schooler Chirag Gupta in the comedy feature film Diary of a Wimpy Kid Born and raised in the United States Brar naturally speaks with an American accent and worked with a dialect coach to perfect his Indian accent for the role |
In March 2011 Brar reprised his role as Chirag Gupta in the feature film sequel Diary of a Wimpy Kid Rodrick Rules In October 2011 it was confirmed that he would also be reprising his role as Chirag for the third installment of the Wimpy Kid franchise Diary of a Wimpy Kid Dog Days released on August 3 2012 In April 2010 he appeared in the Seeds of Compassion advertorial campaign announcing the Dalai Lama s visit to Seattle as well as appearing in commercials for Shell Gasoline and Committee for Children |
Brar begain starring in the role of 10 year old Indian adoptee Ravi Ross on the Disney Channel comedy series Jessie in September 2011 During preproduction of the show the role of Ravi was originally intended to be an Hispanic boy named Javier from South America but casting directors were impressed with Brar during the audition process and ultimately decided to recreate the role for him |
In February 2015 a new Disney Channel series Bunk d a spin off of Jessie was announced in which Brar would reprise his role as Ravi Ross costarring alongside Peyton List and Skai Jackson |
Brar lives in the Los Angeles area with his parents and older sister He is fluent in English Punjabi and Hindi When he is not busy working Brar enjoys figure skating roller skating swimming hip hop dancing rapping and playing video games He also starred in one of YouTuber Lilly Singh s videos |
Test cricket is the longest form of the sport of cricket and is considered its highest standard Test matches are played between national representative teams with Test status as determined and conferred by the International Cricket Council ICC The two teams of 11 players play a four innings match which may last up to five days or longer in some historical cases It is generally considered the most complete examination of teams playing ability and endurance The name Test stems from the long gruelling match being both mentally and physically testing |
The first officially recognised Test match took place on 15 19 March 1877 and was played between England and Australia at the Melbourne Cricket Ground MCG where Australia won by 45 runs A Test match to celebrate 100 years of Test cricket was held in Melbourne on 12 17 March 1977 in which Australia beat England by 45 runs the same margin as that first Test |
In October 2012 the ICC recast the playing conditions for Test matches permitting day night Test matches The first day night game took place between Australia and New Zealand at the Adelaide Oval Adelaide on 27 November 1 December 2015 |
Test matches are the highest level of cricket although statistically their data forms part of first class cricket Matches are played between national representative teams with Test status as determined by the International Cricket Council As of June 2017 twelve national teams have Test status the most recently promoted being Afghanistan and Ireland on 22 June 2017 Zimbabwe s Test status was voluntarily suspended because of poor performances between 2006 and 2011 it returned to competition in August 2011 |
In January 2014 during an ICC meeting in Dubai the pathway for new potential Test nations was laid out with the winners of the next round of the ICC Intercontinental Cup playing a 5 day match against the bottom ranked Test nation If the Associate team defeats the Test nation then they could be added as the new Test country and granted full membership |
A list of matches defined as Tests was first drawn up by Australian Clarence Moody in the mid1890s Representative matches played by simultaneous England touring sides of 1891 92 in Australia and South Africa and 1929 30 in the West Indies and New Zealand are deemed to have Test status |
In 1970 a series of five Test matches was played in England between England and a Rest of the World XI These matches originally scheduled between England and South Africa were amended after South Africa was suspended from international cricket because of their government s policy of apartheid Although initially given Test status and included as Test matches in some record books including Wisden Cricketers Almanack this was later withdrawn and a principle was established that official Test matches can only be between nations although the geographically and demographically small countries of the West Indies have since 1928 been permitted to field a coalition side Despite this in 2005 the ICC ruled that the six day Super Series match that took place in October 2005 between Australia and a World XI was an official Test match Some cricket writers and statisticians including Bill Frindall ignored the ICC s ruling and excluded the 2005 match from their records The series of Test matches played in Australia between Australia and a World XI in 1971 72 do not have Test status The commercial Supertests organised by Kerry Packer as part of his World Series Cricket enterprise and played between WSC Australia WSC World XI and WSC West Indies from 1977 to 1979 have never been regarded as official Test matches |
There are currently twelve Test playing men s teams The teams all represent individual independent nations except for England the West Indies and Ireland Test status is conferred upon a country or group of countries by the International Cricket Council Teams that do not have Test status can play in the ICC Intercontinental Cup specifically designed to allow nonTest teams to play under conditions similar to Tests The teams are listed below with the date of each team s Test debut |
In May 2016 the ICC announced that it is contemplating the idea of two tiers in Test match cricket ICC hopes that this will help them draw more crowd and generate more revenue from the matches played between top tier teams Promotion and relegation could be introduced into Test cricket as early as 2019 This will give opportunities to more countries to play Test cricket On 7 September 2016 the ICC withdrew the proposal for a two tier system In October 2016 ICC started contemplating a different kind of Two Tier system for Test match cricket This structure will be similar to that of North American professional sports featuring two conferences of six teams each Each team will play against all teams in their conference over a period of two years with a Test Championship play off between the top nations of both conferences at the end of the defined period |
In the ICC s annual conference held on 22 June 2017 Afghanistan and Ireland were awarded Test status to become the 11th and 12th full members of the International Cricket Council Ireland are scheduled to play their first Test against Pakistan in May 2018 Afghanistan are scheduled to play their first Test against India in June 2018 |
A standard day of Test cricket consists of three sessions of two hours each the breaks between sessions being 40 minutes for lunch and 20 minutes for tea However the times of sessions and intervals may be altered in certain circumstances if bad weather or a change of innings occurs close to a scheduled break the break may be taken immediately if there has been a loss of playing time for example because of bad weather the session times may be adjusted to make up the lost time if the batting side is nine wickets down at the scheduled tea break then the interval may be delayed until either 30 minutes has elapsed or the team is all out the final session may be extended by up to 30 minutes if 90 or more overs have not been bowled in that day s play subject to any reduction for adverse weather the final session may be extended by 30 minutes except on the 5th day if the umpires believe the result can be decided within that time |
Today Test matches are scheduled to be played across five consecutive days However in the early days of Test cricket matches were played for three or four days Four day Test matches were last played in 1973 between New Zealand and Pakistan Until the 1980s it was usual to include a rest day often a Sunday There have also been Timeless Tests which did not end after a predetermined maximum time In 2005 Australia played a match scheduled for six days against a World XI which the ICC sanctioned as an official Test match though the match reached a conclusion on the fourth day In October 2017 the ICC approved a request for a four day Test match between South Africa and Zimbabwe which started on 26 December 2017 and ended on the second day 27 December The ICC will trial the four day Test format until the 2019 Cricket World Cup |
There have been attempts by the ICC the sport s governing body to introduce day night Test matches In 2012 The International Cricket Council passed playing conditions that allowed for the staging of day night Test matches The first day night Test took place during New Zealand s tour to Australia in November 2015 |
Test cricket is played in innings the word denotes both the singular and the plural In each innings one team bats and the other bowls or fields Ordinarily four innings are played in a Test match and each team bats twice and bowls twice Before the start of play on the first day the two team captains and the match referee toss a coin the captain who wins the toss decides whether his team will bat or bowl first |
In the following scenarios the team that bats first is referred to as Team A and their opponents as Team B |
Usually the teams will alternate at the completion of each innings Thus Team A will bat and Team B will bowl until its innings ends and then Team B will bat and Team A will bowl When Team B s innings ends Team A begin their second innings and this is followed by Team B s second innings The winning team is the one that scores more runs in their two innings |
A team s innings ends in one of the following ways |
If at the completion of its first innings Team B s first innings total is 200 or more fewer than Team A s the captain of Team A may but is not required to order Team B to have their second innings next This is called enforcing the follow on In this case the usual order of the third and fourth innings is reversed Team A will bat in the fourth innings It is rare for a team forced to follow on to win the match In Test cricket it has only happened three times although over 285 follow ons have been enforced Australia was the losing team on each occasion twice to England in 1894 and in 1981 and once to India in 2001 |
If the whole of the first day s play of a Test match has been lost because of bad weather or other reasons like bad light then Team A may enforce the follow on if Team B s first innings total is 150 or more fewer than Team A s During the 2nd Test between England and New Zealand at Headingley in 2013 England batted first after the first day was lost because of rain New Zealand batting second scored 180 runs fewer than England meaning England could have enforced the follow on though chose not to This is similar to four day first class cricket where the follow on can be enforced if the difference is 150 runs or fewer If the Test is 2 days or fewer then the follow on value is 100 runs |
After 80 overs the captain of the bowling side may take a new ball although this is not required The captain will usually take the new ball being harder and smoother than an old ball a new ball generally favours faster bowlers who can make it bounce more variably The roughened softer surface of an old ball can be more conducive to spin bowlers or those using reverse swing The captain may delay the decision to take the new ball if he wishes to continue with his spinners because the pitch favours spin After a new ball has been taken should an innings last a further 80 overs then the captain will have the option to take another new ball |
A Test match may end in one of six results |
Test cricket is almost always played as a series of matches between two countries with all matches in the series taking place in the same country the host Often there is a perpetual trophy that is awarded to the winner the most famous of which is the Ashes contested between England and Australia There have been two exceptions to the bilateral nature of Test cricket the 1912 Triangular Tournament a three way competition between England Australia and South Africa hosted by England and the Asian Test Championship an event held in 1998 99 and 2001 02 |
The number of matches in Test series has varied from one to seven Up until the early 1990s Test series between international teams were organised between the two national cricket organisations with umpires provided by the home team With the entry of more countries into Test cricket and a wish by the ICC to maintain public interest in Tests in the face of the popularity of one day cricket a rotation system was introduced that sees all ten Test teams playing each other over a six year cycle and an official ranking system with a trophy held by the highest ranked team In this system umpires are provided by the ICC An elite panel of eleven umpires has been established and the panel is supplemented by an additional International Panel that includes three umpires named by each Test playing country The elite umpires officiate almost all Test matches usually not a Test involving their home country |
Sides designated as England began to play in the late 18th century but these teams were not truly representative Early international cricket was disrupted by the French Revolution and the American Civil War The earliest international cricket match was between USA and Canada on 24 and 25 September 1844 This has never been officially considered a Test match Tours of national English sides abroad took place particularly to the USA Australia and New Zealand The Australian Aborigines team became the first organised overseas cricketers to tour England in 1868 |
Two rival English tours of Australia were proposed in the early months of 1877 with James Lillywhite campaigning for a professional tour and Fred Grace for an amateur one Grace s tour fell through and it was Lillywhite s team that toured New Zealand and Australia in 1876 77 Two matches against a combined Australian XI were later classified as the first official Test matches The first match was won by Australia by 45 runs and the second by England After reciprocal tours established a pattern of international cricket The Ashes was established as an ongoing competition during the Australian tour of England in 1882 Surprisingly beaten a mock obituary of English cricket was published in the Sporting Times the following day the phrase The body shall be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia prompted the subsequent creation of the Ashes urn The series of 1884 85 was the first to be held over five matches Shaw writing in 1901 considered the side to be the best ever to have left England |
South Africa became the third team to play Test cricket in 1888 89 when they hosted a tour by an under strength England side |
The following are the perpetual trophies in Test Cricket |
The England Germany football rivalry is considered to be mainly an English phenomenon in the run up to any competition match between the two teams many UK newspapers will print articles detailing results of previous encounters such as those in 1966 and 1990 Football fans in England often consider Germany to be their main sporting rivals and care more about this rivalry than those with other nations such as Argentina or Scotland Most German fans consider the Netherlands or Italy to be their traditional footballing rivals and as such usually the rivalry is not taken quite as seriously there as it is in England |
The English and German national football teams have played each other since the end of the 19th century and officially since 1930 The teams met for the first time in November 1899 when England beat Germany in four straight matches Notable matches between England and Germany or West Germany include the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final and the semifinals of the 1990 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 1996 |
As of 2016 Germany has won four World Cups and three European Championships and has played in a total of fourteen finals in those two tournaments England has won one World Cup in the only final they ever reached in either tournament The most recent encounter ended as a draw the two sides drawing 0 0 in a friendly at Wembley Stadium |