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A scholarly, exhaustively detailed account of how America’s founding generation used the “language of sentiment” to establish a benevolent, romantic self-image for the new nation. Historian Burstein (Univ. of Northern Iowa) has compiled evidence from letters, speeches, newspapers, poems, and popular literature to illustrate 18th-century America’s “concern with the workings of the human heart,” a concern that helped shape the founders and their nationalist ideology. Through the use of sentimental language, the revolutionary generation created a sort of secular religion envisioning America as a divinely ordained Eden whose example would liberate the world from tyranny. Burstein parses this sentimental language, citing the impassioned words of Jefferson, Crävecoeur, Paine, and others. With a profound understanding of the moral and intellectual climate of the Revolutionary era, Burstein describes the evolving mythology of the young nation. Washington was transformed into a symbol of republican virtue, a selfless Cincinnatus forsaking his plow to defend his country. The “spirit of ’76” stressed a love of liberty that compelled total self-sacrifice. As postwar factionalism and economic instability rose, the rhetoric of moral crisis returned. Federalists increasingly bemoaned the “unbridled passions” of the multitudes, fearing a descent into Hobbesian mob rule. Hence, they proposed constitutional checks and balances to channel public sentiment. Jefferson, Burstein’s quintessential Man of Feeling, feared this centralization of power as a smokescreen for aristocracy; he revered the simpler, agrarian virtues, worshiped Nature, and trusted in resilient individualism. While the Jacksonian era seemed to embody Jefferson’s idyllic vision, it also promoted concepts of acquisitiveness and aggression. As the 19th century advanced, Burstein notes, the seemingly contradictory concepts of sentiment and power were merged into a national ideology of benevolent aggression, whereby power was wielded for paternalistic or “civilizing” motives. Burstein wisely admits that the nation hasn’t always lived up to its romantic self-image, especially in its treatment of slaves and Native Americans. A welcome addition to the literature exploring American history’s ideological underpinnings.

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http://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/andrew-burstein/sentimental-democracy/

2013-06-19T06:22:21Z

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en

Neither biography nor history of the Civil War, this is an account of Lincoln’s tactics between the 1860 election and his announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1862. Historian Klingaman (The First Century, 1990) points out that the abolitionists, although heroes to us, were looked upon by most of their contemporaries as a noisy minority, irresponsible and perhaps crazy. Lincoln disapproved of them, knowing that most Northerners opposed slavery but usually despised Negroes nevertheless. The conflicts leading to the Civil War, in the author’s view, had less to do with abolition than with the spread of slavery to the West, where (alarmists feared) slave labor would depress wages and monopolize the cheap land. During his presidential campaign, Lincoln took pains to assure the South that he had no interest in abolition, and even after secession he believed the departed states would return if he could convince them that slavery would be legally protected. He was also obsessed with keeping the slaveholding Border States (Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and Delaware) from seceding. Unfortunately for Lincoln, however, the Republican leaders of the new Congress were enthusiastic abolitionists. The author draws a fascinating portrait of Lincoln’s political maneuvering during his first two years in office: on one side he fended off civic, congressional, and even cabinet pressure for immediate abolition; on the other, he faced growing antiwar sentiment, encouraged by the North’s persistent defeats. When the time seemed ripe, he issued the proclamation: a turgid, legalistic document announcing abolition as a strictly military measure (it abolished slavery only in rebel-held territory). Its reception was mostly bad: abolitionists considered it a feeble gesture, and there was widespread anger in the Midwest and Border States that the war was now “for the Negroes” instead of for the Union. Republicans did badly in the 1862 elections. Yet, as time passed, most anti-Negro Northerners accepted emancipation as a harsh but necessary measure to strike at the South, and Lincoln’s faith that the proclamation’s practicality and absence of moral fervor offered the only chance of success was eventually vindicated. A fine account of a brilliant piece of political strategy.

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http://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/william-k-klingaman/abraham-lincoln-and-the-road-to-emancipation/print/

2013-06-19T06:29:41Z

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en

This week’s EdTech Roundup starts with a question that always springs to mind when people talk about “technology” in the classroom. If the technology advances far enough, will teachers end up obsolete? This CNN article discusses observations from an experiment done in India to see how students learned from computers and the Internet. Younger teachers who may be more familiar with technology that can be incorporated into the classroom are no more likely to use technology than older teachers. There could be many reasons for this, and this article at eSchoolNews.com discusses what could be the case for this result. If the Kno Tablet makes eTextbooks mainstream, then what will make Kno Tablets mainstream? Read more about the product and its potential at ZDNet. Dell hopes to make an impact on worldwide educational technology initiatives with specific goals in countries such as India, Mexico, and South Africa. Find out more about these goals in this article at THE Journal. Is it the technology that’s inciting kids to read, or content? Christopher Dawson at ZDNet shows skepticism towards the appeal of e-books for students.

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http://www.knewton.com/blog/2010/10/17/edtech-news-roundup-tech-and-teachers-common-myths-dispelled-and-a-10-million-gift/

2013-06-19T06:48:28Z

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PLEASE NOTE: Your web browser does not have enabled. Unless you , your ability to navigate and access the features of this website will be limited. Complex molecule (immunoglobulin), produced by lymph tissue in response to the presence of an antigen (such as a protein of bacteria or other infecting organism). Antibodies tend to neutralise the effect of the foreign substance.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.labtestsonline.org.au/glossary/antibody/

2013-06-19T06:36:30Z

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en

Phytochemicals, Antioxidants, and... Phytochemicals, Antioxidants, and Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Cancer Prevention Nutrition to reduce cancer risk The scientific community is continually studying the role of diet in the development of cancer. Many results are preliminary and more is being learned every day. Research is discovering that intake of fruits, vegetables, and cereal grains may interfere with the process of developing certain cancers. In addition to reducing the risk of developing cancer, the risk of developing heart disease, high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, and other chronic diseases might also be lowered by eating more fruits and vegetables. There is also evidence that total fat intake of greater than 30 percent of total calories can increase the risk of developing some cancers. This is especially true when total fat intake includes saturated fat and possibly polyunsaturated fat. ChooseMyPlate.gov, Dietary Guidelines for Americans, and 5 A Day for Better Health Campaign are good sources for nutritional information. What foods help to prevent cancer? Although research studies are inconclusive at this time, preliminary evidence suggests that some components of food may play a role in decreasing the risk of developing cancer, including phytochemicals, antioxidants, and omega-3 fatty acids. What are phytochemicals (or phytonutrients)? Phytochemicals are chemicals found in plants that protect plants against bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Eating large amounts of brightly colored fruits and vegetables (yellow, orange, red, green, white, blue, purple), whole grains and cereals, and beans containing phytochemicals may decrease the risk of developing certain cancers as well as diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease. The action of phytochemicals varies by color and type of the food. They may act as antioxidants or nutrient protectors, or prevent carcinogens (cancer causing agents) from forming. What are specific sources of phytochemicals? The list below is a partial list of phytochemicals found in foods: Allicin is found in onions and garlic. Allicin blocks or eliminates certain toxins from bacteria and viruses. Anthocyanins are found in red and blue fruits (such as raspberries and blueberries) and vegetables. They help to slow the aging process, protect against heart disease and tumors, prevent blood clots, and fight inflammation and allergies. Biflavonoids are found in citrus fruits. Carotenoids are found in dark yellow, orange, red, and deep green fruits and vegetables, such as tomatoes, parsley, oranges, pink grapefruit, and spinach. Flavonoids are found in fruits, vegetables, wine, green tea, onions, apples, kale, and beans. Indoles are found in broccoli, bok choy, cabbage, kale, Brussel sprouts, and turnips (also known as cruciferous vegetables). They contain sulfur and activate agents that destroy cancer-causing chemicals. Isoflavones are found in soybeans and soybean products. Lignans are found in flaxseed and whole-grain products. Lutein is found in leafy green vegetables. It may prevent macular degeneration and cataracts as well as reduce the risk of heart disease and breast cancer. Lycopene is found primarily in tomato products. When cooked, it appears to reduce the risk for cancer and heart attacks. Phenolics are found in citrus fruits, fruit juices, dried and fresh plums, raisins, eggplant, cereals, legumes, and oilseeds. They are studied for a variety of health benefits including slowing the aging process, protecting against heart disease and tumors, and fighting inflammation, allergies, and blood clots. Phytochemicals generally cannot be found in supplements and are only present in food. Foods high in phytochemicals include the following: There is no recommended dietary allowance for phytochemicals. To ensure you are getting adequate amounts in your diet, eat a variety of foods, including plenty of fruits and vegetables. What are antioxidants? Antioxidants are substances that inhibit the oxidation process and act as protective agents. They protect the body from the damaging effects of free radicals (by-products of the body's normal chemical processes). Free radicals attack healthy cells, which changes their DNA and allows tumors to grow. Research is underway to investigate the role of antioxidants in decreasing the risk of developing cancer. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid). According to the USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, the following foods are good sources of vitamin C: One medium orange - 70 mg 3/4 cup orange juice - 61-93 mg 1/2 cup raw green pepper - 60 mg 1 /2 cup raw strawberries - 49 mg 1/4 medium, raw, cubed papaya - 47 mg 1/2 cup raw red pepper - 142 mg 1/2 cup raw broccoli - 39 mg The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for vitamin C is 75 milligrams per day for women and 90 milligrams per day for men. Beta carotene. Beta carotene, also known as provitamin A, may help decrease the risk of developing cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, this nutrient may help prevent normal cells from becoming cancerous, although it's not yet clear if it can actually help prevent cancer in people. Good sources of beta carotene are dark green leafy and yellow-orange fruits and vegetables. In the body, beta carotene is converted to vitamin A. Eating foods rich in beta carotene is recommended to possibly decrease the risk of developing stomach, lung, prostate, breast, and head and neck cancer. However, more research is needed before a definite recommendation on beta carotene consumption can be made. Overdosing on beta carotene is not recommended. Large doses can cause the skin to turn a yellow-orange color, a condition called carotenosis. High intake of beta carotene in supplement form may actually increase the risk of lung cancer in people at risk, such as smokers. While there is a recommended dietary allowance for vitamin A (900 micrograms a day for men and 700 micrograms a day for women), there is not one for beta carotene. Examples of some foods high in beta carotene include the following: Vitamin E. Vitamin E is essential for our bodies to work properly. Vitamin E helps to build normal and red blood cells, as well as working as an antioxidant. Research is finding evidence that vitamin E may protect against prostate and colorectal cancer. The recommended dietary allowance for vitamin E is 15 milligrams per day. The adult upper limit for vitamin E is 1,000 milligrams per day. Good sources of vitamin E (and the amount each serving contains) include the following: 1 tablespoon sunflower oil - 5.6 mg 1 ounce dry, roasted sunflower seeds - 7.4 mg 1 ounce almonds - 7.3 mg 1 ounce hazelnuts - 4.3 mg 1 ounce peanuts - 2.2 mg 1/2 cup tomato sauce - 2.5 mg 1 tablespoon olive oil - 1.9 mg 2 tablespoons toasted, plain wheat germ - 2.3 mg Some sources of vitamin E are high in fat. A synthetic form of a vitamin E is available as a supplement. Vitamin E supplementation is probably not needed for most individuals because vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin and is stored in our bodies. Very high doses of vitamin E can also interfere with the way other fat-soluble vitamins work. Also, large doses of vitamin E from supplements are not recommended for people taking blood thinners and some other medications, as the vitamin can interfere with the action of the medication. To make sure you are meeting your needs, eat a varied diet that includes whole-wheat breads and cereals. There is no recommended dietary allowance for antioxidants overall. Eat a variety of foods, including plenty of fruits and vegetables, to ensure you are getting adequate amounts in your diet. What are omega-3 fatty acids? Researchers are studying the effects omega-3 fatty acids may have on delaying or reducing tumor development. Since our bodies cannot make omega-3 fatty acids, we must get them from food or supplements. The omega-3 fatty acids include: Sources of foods high in omega-3 fatty acids include: Seafood, especially cold-water fish like salmon, mackerel, sardines, herring, halibut, stripped bass, tuna, and lake trout Flaxseed oil and beans, such as kidney, great northern, navy, and soybeans The American Cancer Society recommends avoiding omega-3 fatty acid supplements in the following situations: if you take anticoagulant medications or aspirin, as omega-3 fatty acid supplements may increase the risk of excessive bleeding if you are pregnant or breastfeeding, you should talk to your doctors before eating fish likely to be high in omega-3 fatty acids, or taking omega-3 supplements (or any dietary supplements). There is no recommended dietary allowance for omega-3 fatty acids. Eat a variety of foods, including plenty of fish and beans, to ensure you are getting adequate amounts in your diet.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.lancasterregional.com/health-education/85,p07312

2013-06-19T06:35:26Z

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Be informed. Be involved. Alberta is committed to creating an inclusive education system that inspires and enables all students to achieve success and fulfillment as engaged thinkers and ethical citizens, with an entrepreneurial spirit. We recognize that parents play an important role in shaping the way their children view learning. As a parent, you understand more than anyone else how your child learns and processes information. This resource will provide you with a better understanding of Alberta’s curriculum and how you can help your child. Here, you’ll discover what your child is learning, how they’re assessed and what resources are available to help them be successful from Kindergarten to Grade 12. This resource also contains information on the variety of educational choices you have for your child. To learn more, click on your child’s grade at the top of this page and open the door.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.learnalberta.ca/content/mychildslearning/

2013-06-19T06:28:34Z

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Telling Time With Shadow Sticks Have you ever noticed what happens to shadows during the day? If you've already made outdoor observations, you probably discovered what ancient humans learned. Long ago, people discovered that shadows point north when the sun is highest. A shadow is long in the morning as the sun appears in the east. It is shortest around noon. Then it gets longer again until the sun sets in the west — but the shadow was on the other side of the object. (It had moved "clockwise"!) How do you think they used this information to keep track of time? Jot your ideas. Then read on! They created simple sundials (clocks) called shadow sticks. 2,000 years ago, scientists discovered that if the shadow stick was slanted, it kept more accurate time than a straight object. They learned that if the stick (called a gnomon) was slanted to the same degree as the latitude where it is placed, it kept accurate time all year long. (This is because the earth's axis is also tilted.) Try this! Set up your own shadow stick clock like these fourth grade students in Minnesota did. Here's how: 1. Use an atlas or other resource to look up the latitude of your town. 2. Use a "protractor" to insert a post (stick or yardstick) into the ground at the same angle as your latitude. Use a compass to make sure the shadow stick points North. That aligns it with earth's axis. What next? 3. Go outside in the morning. Use small rocks to mark your stick's shadow. Put the first rock at the top of the shadow and work your way down to the base of the stick. Every hour through the school day, do the same thing. What patterns did you notice? Did the shortest shadow (when the sun was most directly overhead) appear when your watches pointed to noon? Did the times on your shadow stick clock match the times on your watches? Probably not! How would you explain the differences? Discuss this with your class. Then see what scientists say. A clock and a shadow stick (sundial) measure two different things. What Do Clocks Measure? A clock measures time passing in minutes in standard time zones that humans created. What Do Shadow Sticks and Sundials Measure? How Do Time Zones Fit In? Answer: A shadow stick clock (sundial) in Houston would show 9:00 first because it is east of San Antonio. (The sun would pass over it first.) More! Houston is at about 95 degrees W longitude. San Antonio is at about 98 degrees W longitude. The distance between them is 3 degrees longitude. A sundial in Houston would show 9:00 (Local Apparent Time) about 12 minutes before the sundial in San Antonio. (3 degrees longitude X 4 minutes per degree = the time difference.)

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/pde/sl/1/text.html

2013-06-19T06:48:10Z

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en

Harry S. Truman Inaugural Address, Thursday, January 20, 1949Context A former county judge, Senator and Vice President, Harry S. Truman had taken the oath of office first on April 12, 1945, upon the death of President Roosevelt. Mr. Truman's victory in the 1948 election was so unexpected that many newspapers had declared the Republican candidate, Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York, the winner. The President went to the East Portico of the Capitol to take the oath of office on two Bibles--the personal one he had used for the first oath, and a Gutenberg Bible donated by the citizens of Independence, Missouri. The ceremony was televised as well as broadcast on the radio. Mr. Vice President, Mr. Chief Justice, and fellow citizens, I accept with humility the honor which the American people have conferred upon me. I accept it with a deep resolve to do all that I can for the welfare of this Nation and for the peace of the world. In performing the duties of my office, I need the help and prayers of every one of you. I ask for your encouragement and your support. The tasks we face are difficult, and we can accomplish them only if we work together. Each period of our national history has had its special challenges. Those that confront us now are as momentous as any in the past. Today marks the beginning not only of a new administration, but of a period that will be eventful, perhaps decisive, for us and for the world. It may be our lot to experience, and in large measure to bring about, a major turning point in the long history of the human race. The first half of this century has been marked by unprecedented and brutal attacks on the rights of man, and by the two most frightful wars in history. The supreme need of our time is for men to learn to live together in peace and harmony. The peoples of the earth face the future with grave uncertainty, composed almost equally of great hopes and great fears. In this time of doubt, they look to the United States as never before for good will, strength, and wise leadership. It is fitting, therefore, that we take this occasion to proclaim to the world the essential principles of the faith by which we live, and to declare our aims to all peoples. The American people stand firm in the faith which has inspired this Nation from the beginning. We believe that all men have a right to equal justice under law and equal opportunity to share in the common good. We believe that all men have the right to freedom of thought and expression. We believe that all men are created equal because they are created in the image of God. From this faith we will not be moved. The American people desire, and are determined to work for, a world in which all nations and all peoples are free to govern themselves as they see fit, and to achieve a decent and satisfying life. Above all else, our people desire, and are determined to work for, peace on earth--a just and lasting peace--based on genuine agreement freely arrived at by equals. In the pursuit of these aims, the United States and other like-minded nations find themselves directly opposed by a regime with contrary aims and a totally different concept of life. That regime adheres to a false philosophy which purports to offer freedom, security, and greater opportunity to mankind. Misled by this philosophy, many peoples have sacrificed their liberties only to learn to their sorrow that deceit and mockery, poverty and tyranny, are their reward. That false philosophy is communism. Communism is based on the belief that man is so weak and inadequate that he is unable to govern himself, and therefore requires the rule of strong masters. Democracy is based on the conviction that man has the moral and intellectual capacity, as well as the inalienable right, to govern himself with reason and justice. Communism subjects the individual to arrest without lawful cause, punishment without trial, and forced labor as the chattel of the state. It decrees what information he shall receive, what art he shall produce, what leaders he shall follow, and what thoughts he shall think. Democracy maintains that government is established for the benefit of the individual, and is charged with the responsibility of protecting the rights of the individual and his freedom in the exercise of his abilities. Communism maintains that social wrongs can be corrected only by violence. Democracy has proved that social justice can be achieved through peaceful change. Communism holds that the world is so deeply divided into opposing classes that war is inevitable. Democracy holds that free nations can settle differences justly and maintain lasting peace. These differences between communism and democracy do not concern the United States alone. People everywhere are coming to realize that what is involved is material well-being, human dignity, and the right to believe in and worship God. I state these differences, not to draw issues of belief as such, but because the actions resulting from the Communist philosophy are a threat to the efforts of free nations to bring about world recovery and lasting peace. Since the end of hostilities, the United States has invested its substance and its energy in a great constructive effort to restore peace, stability, and freedom to the world. We have sought no territory and we have imposed our will on none. We have asked for no privileges we would not extend to others. We have constantly and vigorously supported the United Nations and related agencies as a means of applying democratic principles to international relations. We have consistently advocated and relied upon peaceful settlement of disputes among nations. We have made every effort to secure agreement on effective international control of our most powerful weapon, and we have worked steadily for the limitation and control of all armaments. We have encouraged, by precept and example, the expansion of world trade on a sound and fair basis. Almost a year ago, in company with 16 free nations of Europe, we launched the greatest cooperative economic program in history. The purpose of that unprecedented effort is to invigorate and strengthen democracy in Europe, so that the free people of that continent can resume their rightful place in the forefront of civilization and can contribute once more to the security and welfare of the world. Our efforts have brought new hope to all mankind. We have beaten back despair and defeatism. We have saved a number of countries from losing their liberty. Hundreds of millions of people all over the world now agree with us, that we need not have war--that we can have peace. The initiative is ours. We are moving on with other nations to build an even stronger structure of international order and justice. We shall have as our partners countries which, no longer solely concerned with the problem of national survival, are now working to improve the standards of living of all their people. We are ready to undertake new projects to strengthen the free world. In the coming years, our program for peace and freedom will emphasize four major courses of action. First, we will continue to give unfaltering support to the United Nations and related agencies, and we will continue to search for ways to strengthen their authority and increase their effectiveness. We believe that the United Nations will be strengthened by the new nations which are being formed in lands now advancing toward self-government under democratic principles. Second, we will continue our programs for world economic recovery. This means, first of all, that we must keep our full weight behind the European recovery program. We are confident of the success of this major venture in world recovery. We believe that our partners in this effort will achieve the status of self-supporting nations once again. In addition, we must carry out our plans for reducing the barriers to world trade and increasing its volume. Economic recovery and peace itself depend on increased world trade. Third, we will strengthen freedom-loving nations against the dangers of aggression. We are now working out with a number of countries a joint agreement designed to strengthen the security of the North Atlantic area. Such an agreement would take the form of a collective defense arrangement within the terms of the United Nations Charter. We have already established such a defense pact for the Western Hemisphere by the treaty of Rio de Janeiro. The primary purpose of these agreements is to provide unmistakable proof of the joint determination of the free countries to resist armed attack from any quarter. Each country participating in these arrangements must contribute all it can to the common defense. If we can make it sufficiently clear, in advance, that any armed attack affecting our national security would be met with overwhelming force, the armed attack might never occur. I hope soon to send to the Senate a treaty respecting the North Atlantic security plan. In addition, we will provide military advice and equipment to free nations which will cooperate with us in the maintenance of peace and security. Fourth, we must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas. More than half the people of the world are living in conditions approaching misery. Their food is inadequate. They are victims of disease. Their economic life is primitive and stagnant. Their poverty is a handicap and a threat both to them and to more prosperous areas. For the first time in history, humanity possesses the knowledge and the skill to relieve the suffering of these people. The United States is pre-eminent among nations in the development of industrial and scientific techniques. The material resources which we can afford to use for the assistance of other peoples are limited. But our imponderable resources in technical knowledge are constantly growing and are inexhaustible. I believe that we should make available to peace-loving peoples the benefits of our store of technical knowledge in order to help them realize their aspirations for a better life. And, in cooperation with other nations, we should foster capital investment in areas needing development. Our aim should be to help the free peoples of the world, through their own efforts, to produce more food, more clothing, more materials for housing, and more mechanical power to lighten their burdens. We invite other countries to pool their technological resources in this undertaking. Their contributions will be warmly welcomed. This should be a cooperative enterprise in which all nations work together through the United Nations and its specialized agencies wherever practicable. It must be a worldwide effort for the achievement of peace, plenty, and freedom. With the cooperation of business, private capital, agriculture, and labor in this country, this program can greatly increase the industrial activity in other nations and can raise substantially their standards of living. Such new economic developments must be devised and controlled to benefit the peoples of the areas in which they are established. Guarantees to the investor must be balanced by guarantees in the interest of the people whose resources and whose labor go into these developments. The old imperialism--exploitation for foreign profit--has no place in our plans. What we envisage is a program of development based on the concepts of democratic fair-dealing. All countries, including our own, will greatly benefit from a constructive program for the better use of the world's human and natural resources. Experience shows that our commerce with other countries expands as they progress industrially and economically. Greater production is the key to prosperity and peace. And the key to greater production is a wider and more vigorous application of modern scientific and technical knowledge. Only by helping the least fortunate of its members to help themselves can the human family achieve the decent, satisfying life that is the right of all people. Democracy alone can supply the vitalizing force to stir the peoples of the world into triumphant action, not only against their human oppressors, but also against their ancient enemies--hunger, misery, and despair. On the basis of these four major courses of action we hope to help create the conditions that will lead eventually to personal freedom and happiness for all mankind. If we are to be successful in carrying out these policies, it is clear that we must have continued prosperity in this country and we must keep ourselves strong. Slowly but surely we are weaving a world fabric of international security and growing prosperity. We are aided by all who wish to live in freedom from fear--even by those who live today in fear under their own governments. We are aided by all who want relief from the lies of propaganda--who desire truth and sincerity. We are aided by all who desire self-government and a voice in deciding their own affairs. We are aided by all who long for economic security--for the security and abundance that men in free societies can enjoy. We are aided by all who desire freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and freedom to live their own lives for useful ends. Our allies are the millions who hunger and thirst after righteousness. In due time, as our stability becomes manifest, as more and more nations come to know the benefits of democracy and to participate in growing abundance, I believe that those countries which now oppose us will abandon their delusions and join with the free nations of the world in a just settlement of international differences. Events have brought our American democracy to new influence and new responsibilities. They will test our courage, our devotion to duty, and our concept of liberty. But I say to all men, what we have achieved in liberty, we will surpass in greater liberty. Steadfast in our faith in the Almighty, we will advance toward a world where man's freedom is secure. To that end we will devote our strength, our resources, and our firmness of resolve. With God's help, the future of mankind will be assured in a world of justice, harmony, and peace.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/presidents/harry-s-truman/inaugural-address-1949.php

2013-06-19T06:34:41Z

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en

Early colonial America was arguably the freest civil society that has ever existed. This freedom extended to education, which meant that parents were responsible for, and had complete control of, their children's schooling. There were no accrediting agencies, no regulatory boards, and no teacher certification requirements. Parents could choose whatever kind of school or education they wanted for their children, and no one was forced to pay for education they did not use or approve of. Prior to the Revolutionary War, the majority of American schools were organized and operated on a laissez-faire basis. There were common schools (often partially financed by local taxpayers but primarily funded through private means) and specialized private schools of every sort (church schools, academies that prepared students for college, seminaries, dame schools for primary education, charity schools for the poor, and private tutors). Common schools are America's original government schools, and they existed primarily in New England. They were first built in the Puritan commonwealth of Massachusetts to inculcate the Calvinist Puritan religion in the colony's young. The Puritans modeled their common schools after those created by Martin Luther and the German princes as a means of instilling religious doctrine and maintaining social order in the Protestant states of Germany.2 Apart from the Puritans' religious considerations, it is uncertain whether the Massachusetts legislature would have enacted the first compulsory school code in 1647, known as the Old Deluder Satan Act. To that point, none of the other colonieswith the exception of Connecticuthad enacted such laws. 3 As the Puritans' commonwealth acceded to the development of trade and the influx of other religious sects, enforcement of the Massachusetts school laws grew lax and private schools soon sprang up to teach the more practical commercial subjects. By 1720, Boston had more private schools than taxpayer-financed ones, and by the close of the American Revolution, many Massachusetts towns had no tax-funded schools at all.4

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http://www.mackinac.org/2033

2013-06-19T06:15:32Z

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en

New Rochelle, New York – MultiEducator today is pleased to announce EXPLORERS: The Story of Exploration of the Americas, From Before Columbus to Cartier 1.01 for iOS, the latest in their series of History on the Go apps. The educational multimedia app presents the stories of 16 Explorers of North and South America, providing engaging resources about each, including: Summary, Maps, In-Depth Article, Multimedia Presentation, Biography, and Historical Documents. These chapters are perfect study companions for students going through standard, statewide, history curriculum modules. * Summary of each exploration * In-depth chronicle of each explorer’s journey * 1-3 minute multimedia/video * Biography of the explorer * Map showing explorer’s discoveries * Historic, primary source document Retina display compatible, the self-contained, landscape-orientation app displays on its splash page a collage of the faces of 16 world famous Explorers, from the Native Americans and Christopher Columbus (1492), to Samuel de Champlain and Henry Hudson (1609). Touching any image reveals a full-size portrait of the man on a solid black background. Thumbnails across the bottom of the screen provide access to the six different categories of resources available to the user (Summary, Maps, In-Depth Article, Multimedia Presentation, Biography, and Historical Documents). Touching any thumbnail button opens that page immediately. All educational materials are authoritative and clearly written, and are appropriate for both students and history buffs. Especially noteworthy are the Multimedia Presentations and Historical Documents. The presentations are professionally narrated mini-documentaries, and they encapsulate the explorer’s accomplishments in a dramatic and entertaining format. The documents are records and observations written by the explorer himself (or an assistant) during his quest. * Native Americans – Arrived Long Before Columbus * A New Age Dawns – The Portuguese Open the Age of Discovery * Christopher Columbus – The First to Discover the New World in the Modern Age * Vasco de Gama – Sails to India * Vasco de Balboa – Explorer of the Pacific * John Cabot – Visits the East Coast of North America * Ponce De Leon – Discovers Florida * Hernando Cortes – Conquers the Aztec * Ferdinand Magellan – Circles the World * Giovanni da Verrazano – First to Enter New York Harbor * Francisco Pizzaro – Conqueror of the Incas * Jacques Cartier – Explorer of the St. Lawrence * Francisco de Coronado – Explorer of the Southwest United States * Hernando de Soto – Explorer of the Mississippi * Samuel de Champlain – Began the First Settlement of Canada * Henry Hudson – Explorer or the Hudson River * Simulation based on some of the decisions presented to Columbus over the course of his voyage “EXPLORERS is the ideal way to experience the discoveries of the Age of Exploration,” commented Marc Schulman of MultiEducator. “We are very proud of our chapter on Christopher Columbus, which includes bonus materials on each of his four voyages, the Columbian Exchange, and an interactive simulation of the various options open to Columbus on his historic first voyage.” * iPhone 3GS/4/4S/5, iPod touch (3rd/4th/5th generation), and iPad 1/2/3 * Requires iOS 5.1 or later * Universal app optimized for display on all iOS devices * 353 MB Pricing and Availability: EXPLORERS: The Story of Exploration of the Americas From Before Columbus to Cartier 1.01 is $0.99 (USD) and available worldwide exclusively through the App Store in the Reference category. Review copies are available on request. Located in New Rochelle, New York, MultiEducator is a privately funded company founded in 1994 by Amy Erani and Marc Schulman. MultiEducator’s goal is to enable students to learn history in a completely new way. Throughout MultiEducator’s years in business, the company has continuously expanded its services and product line. In the summer of 2008 the company sold its HistoryShopping site to concentrate on the content part of the business. It then started its newest division developing software for the Apple iPhone and iPod touch. In October 2008 it released its first application, Formulator. As one of the earliest producers of multimedia software, MultiEducator has been providing schools and the general public with rich, compelling history software for almost two decades. Copyright 2008-2012 MultiEducator. All Rights Reserved. Apple, the Apple logo, iPhone, and iPod are registered trademarks of Apple Inc. in the U.S. and/or other countries. Other trademarks and registered trademarks may be the property of their respective owners.

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http://www.macmegasite.com/2012/11/01/explorers-for-ios-multimedia-stories-of-the-exploration-of-the-americas/

2013-06-19T06:22:08Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142617/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Glossary Definition for Analog Glossary Term: Analog A system in which an electrical value (usually voltage or current, but sometimes frequency, phase, etc.) represents something in the physical world. The electrical signal can then be processed, transmitted, amplified, and finally, transformed back into a physical quality. For example: A microphone produces a current that is proportional to sound pressure. Various stages amplify, process, modulate, etc. Ultimately, a varying voltage is presented to a speaker which converts it back to sound waves. By contrast, a digital system handles a signal as a stream of numbers. Find a term alphabetically: Comment on This Term (Corrections, Suggestions, etc.) Suggest Another Term We Should Add

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http://www.maximintegrated.com/glossary/definitions.mvp/term/Analog/gpk/861

2013-06-19T06:47:26Z

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en

A study of Saccharomyces uvarum fermentation in a microgravity environment. MBAA TQ vol. 33, no. 1, 1996, pp. 33-38. VIEW ARTICLE Sterrett, K.S., Luttges, M.W., Simske, S.J., Edelen, C.L. and Patino, H. In a normal lager fermentation, carbon dioxide bubbles rise to the top and yeast cells sink to the bottom of the fermenter, in consequence of the action of the gravitational pull of the planet. To investigate the effects of a lack of gravitational force on the process, fermentation trials were conducted during two space shuttle flights in February and March 1994, using slightly modified versions of laboratory apparatus developed for other experiments in space. Eight 1 ml hopped wort samples, pitched with lager yeast, were fermented on the first flight and four on the second. On returning from space, the yeast cell count and attenuation of each sample were determined and the yeast was tested for viability and morphologically examined. Both the yeast and the green beer were also analysed to determine their protein composition. The returned samples were propagated until sufficient yeast was available to carry out fermentation trials on the 1 litre scale. Yeast propagated from each of the spaceflight fermentation samples was used to pitch the first of a set of five fermentations, the second and subsequent fermentations being pitched with yeast cropped from the previous fermentation in the series. The first fermentation in each set showed slower yeast growth, a lower maximum cell count and a decreased cell sedimentation rate compared to control samples which had never left the ground. However, all parameters had returned to normal by the time of the fifth fermentation. Electrophoresis of returned samples revealed a significant increase in one protein band (67 kD), thought to represent a stress protein similar to those formed in response to heat shock. The altered growth and sedimentation of the returned yeast may also indicate an increase in the incidence of respiratory deficient (petite) mutation during space travel. However, the viability and cell morphology of the yeast did not appear to be affected by weightlessness. Keywords : brewers' yeast fermentation growth performance

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http://www.mbaa.com/publications/tq/tqPastIssues/1996/Abstracts/tq96ab07.htm

2013-06-19T06:47:41Z

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en

The thyroid gland, a part of the endocrine (hormone ) system, plays a major role in regulating the body's metabolism. Removal of the thyroid may be recommended for: - Increased thyroid function (hyperthyroidism; thyrotoxicosis) - Cancer of the thyroid - Enlargement of the thyroid (goiter) While the patient is deep asleep and pain-free (general anesthesia), an incision is made in the front of the neck. The thyroid gland is removed. Either one lobe of the thyroid gland, or the entire gland, is removed, depending on the disease process being treated. The results of thyroid surgery are usually excellent. Monitoring of thyroid hormone production may continue for some months after the operation. Patients need to take supplemental thyroid hormone for life after complete thyroidectomy.

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http://www.mch.com/page/EN/4853/In-Depth-Reports/Thyroidectomy----series.aspx

2013-06-19T06:21:41Z

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en

Only about half of children with an autism spectrum disorder received the diagnosis before they reached age 5, and once diagnosed, most were given psychotropic drugs, federal survey data indicated. Interviews with parents or guardians of 1,420 children identified as having autism spectrum disorders revealed that the median age at diagnosis was 5, according to Beverly Pringle, PhD, of the National Institute of Mental Health, and colleagues in a Data Brief issued early Thursday by the National Center for Health Statistics. And fully 40% were diagnosed at age 6 and older. Parents of only 18.7% were told of the diagnosis before the child reached age 2, the researchers found. The findings came from the 2011 Survey of Pathways to Diagnosis and Services, conducted with 4,032 parents and guardians of children identified in an earlier survey as having neurobehavioral development disorders, including intellectual disability, developmental delay, or autism spectrum disorders. The new Data Brief contained summary statistics for the children with autism spectrum disorders. Other key findings include: - 56% of children were taking at least one psychotropic medication including stimulants (32%), mood stabilizers (26%), antidepressants (20%), sleep enhancers (19%), and/or antipsychotic drugs (14%). - Among children younger than 12, 91% were using some type of healthcare service for their disability, such as speech therapy or social skills training, and 61% were using at least three. - Primary care providers and psychologists were the most common source of autism spectrum diagnoses before age 5, while older children were more often diagnosed by physician specialists. Pringle and colleagues observed that the variety of psychotropic medications used in children with an autism spectrum disorder could have at least two explanations. It may reflect the presence of "co-occurring symptoms," or perhaps the "absence of clear practice guidelines for psychotropic medications in children with autism spectrum disorders," they wrote. They also expressed concern about the pattern of healthcare service use identified in the survey. Although most children were receiving some type of therapy, 12% were not. Moreover, only about 40% of parents reported behavioral intervention or modification services, "the most well-established and efficacious intervention for autism spectrum disorders."

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http://www.medpagetoday.com/Pediatrics/Autism/32882

2013-06-19T06:49:13Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142617/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Any gallinaceous bird belonging to Coturnix and several allied genera of the Old World, especially the common European quail (Coturnix communis), the rain quail (Coturnix Coromandelica) of India, the stubble quail (Coturnix pectoralis), and the Australian swamp quail (Synoicus australis). Any one of several American partridges belonging to Colinus, Callipepla, and allied genera, especially the bobwhite (called Virginia quail, and Maryland quail), and the California quail (Calipepla Californica). Any one of numerous species of Turnix and allied genera, native of the Old World, as the Australian painted quail (Turnix varius). See Turnix. A prostitute; -- so called because the quail was thought to be a very amorous bird. Small upland game bird known to travel in a covey and scare the living daylights out of hunters and hikers. A small game bird now protected in the wild but farmed for table use. small gallinaceous game birds a bird that likes to live on the ground a small bird and damn hard to hit A quail is a small, short-tailed chickenlike bird found in the wild. Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds in the Pheasant family Phasianidae. Quails include edible game species. The Common Quail was previously much favoured in French cooking, but quail for the table are now more likely to be domesticated Japanese Quail. Quail are commonly eaten complete with the bones, since these are easily chewed and the small size of the bird makes it inconvenient to remove them. The eggs of quail are considered a delicacy, and are sometimes used raw in sushi. a game bird sought for its fine flavor. A popular game bird bred in Japan for its eggs, as... Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds in the pheasant family Phasianidae, or in the family Odontophoridae. This article deals with the Old World species in the former family. The New World quails are not closely related, but are named for their similar appearance and behaviour.

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http://www.metaglossary.com/meanings/406881/

2013-06-19T06:28:40Z

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en

The noun-concept right should be carefully distinguished from the adjective "right," which is the antonym of "wrong" and a synonym for "good" in the sense of "moral." The noun "right" belongs to the domain of political theory, while the adjective pertains directly to ethics. Although the two meanings are related, they differ in two important ways: - The adjective "right" pertains to what is moral for the individual to whom the adjective pertains; the noun "right," in contrast, denotes a moral principle governing the behavior of others in society (including governments) with respect to the possessor of the right. For instance, when we state that "X has a right [noun] to preach communism," we mean that others ought not to interfere forcibly if X chooses to advocate such views. On the other hand, if we were to claim that "X is right [adjective] to preach communism," we would grant moral sanction to X's irrational behavior. To confuse these two meanings is to fall prey to Form 2 of the Fallacy of Political Reductionism (pp. 3.12:26-7). - The adjective "right" denotes a positive moral sanction, whereas the noun implies a negative moral sanction on certain actions of others. For example, by stating that "X is right [adjective]" to take a certain action, we uphold the morality of that action. By declaring that "X has a right [noun]" to take the action, we acknowledge that any coercive interference by other individuals or governments would violate an ethical principle.

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http://www.mindspring.com/~cunningr/pp/cf/HI20040m.html

2013-06-19T06:36:44Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142617/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

From Chapter 5 The designers knew the adulation would not last. The visual experience of inspecting models and renderings in an art gallery could be exhilarating, but there was still a real landscape on the ground with a long history of “tactile” associations for generations of residents and visitors. Rick Olmsted, writing an internal memo twenty-five years later, made clear just how well the commissioners understood this from the start. Much of the existing Mall, he conceded, had become “locally agreeable” as the trees and gardens had matured. The solution that he and McKim had devised in 1901 was not to sweep the nineteenth-century landscape clean all at once but to replace it piecemeal over a period of years: remove obstructive trees gradually to open up the vista; plant the formal rows section by section. Even after some of this work had been accomplished, Olmsted still believed the surviving remnants of the grounds of the Smithsonian and the Agriculture Department were “jealously cherished,” and opposition to their destruction was “even today confidently to be expected.” Locally agreeable facts on the ground – an old tree, a cherished garden, a house, a streetscape – are precisely what anchor people to places. For residents of Washington and longtime visitors, such “tactile” spots did not fragment the landscape or hinder more coordinated systems. Quite the opposite: the locally agreeable landscape knit human lives into recognizable patterns. In the minds of the park commissioners, however, these local attachments were mere clutter that undercut the idea of the national. The nation would have to make itself present, to find a space for itself, by replacing local attachments with an instantly grasped spatial unity, or what Burnham called “a great architectural picture.” Connected only to their particular sites, they had no association with each other; they were even more localized than the statues outside the Mall. Even if Olmsted were right that no monument was more patriotic than the Downing urn, most Americans would not rank high the hero of the national fruit-growers association. With the exception of the obelisk the monuments inside the nineteenth-century Mall commemorated marginal figures in the nation’s history, while the statues that defined the squares and circles of the outer city honored presidents and military commanders. The park commissioners were determined to reverse this arrangement. Monuments to surgeons or horticulturalists or French inventors had no right to occupy the capital’s most potent central space. Only the most important national figures, and the most important monuments, belonged there. Rather than perpetuate the fragmentation of the public into multiple constituencies (photographers, surgeons, pomologists), the monuments should draw Americans together into “one people, with common purposes and aims, common ideals, and a common destiny.” Above all, to unify the space around a common national theme, the monuments needed to relate logically one to one another. Otherwise they would continue to create disparate pockets of merely local interest. By the time the commissioners set to work on the Mall, the Civil War had come to permeate national culture: it was the defining event of the modern nation, in effect a second founding. Over a third of the statue monuments erected in Washington in the second half of the nineteenth century commemorated Civil War heroes. But not a single one of these stood inside the Mall. While the statues outside the Mall reinforced the theme simply by adding individual heroes to an ever growing parade of Union leaders, the commissioners saw the Mall as an opportunity to condense the theme into a more definitive, final form. With the Washington Monument in the center, representing in abstract form the birth of the nation, the outer poles of their composition could be devoted to the solemn story of the nation’s rebirth: what Lincoln called at Gettysburg “a new birth of freedom.”

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.monumentwars.pitt.edu/excerpt/

2013-06-19T06:35:37Z

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en

... to do this due to the Feed in Tariffs (FITs) for renewable energy. The Department of Energy and Climate Change or DECC introduced the FITs ... and the dependency of mankind on unsustainable energysources that are thought to be finite in supply and at risk of depleting if ... ... where a person earns some income for each unit of green energy that they produce and feed back into the national grid for ... grid is the place where the UK stores all of its energysources and distributes it between customers who need it. Renewable energy that ... The use of unsustainable sources of energy for the generation of electricity has often been blamed for ... energysources is to encourage consumers to switch to more sustainablesources of energy generation. Sustainableenergysources, often ... Most of the world's governments are attempting to move their ... to produce it. Renewable energy is often referred to as sustainableenergy as it is able to be replenished without depleting earthly ... damage to the environment by making renewable energysources affordable for the average person to afford. Solar Energy Today Solar energy seemed rather far fetched for use in homes just a few decades ago but ... has accepted that making the switch to renewable energysources has to be done in sufficiently large numbers to have a positive affect ... Due to the increased understanding of how hazardous non-renewable energy sources are to the environment, individuals, communities and businesses alike are being encouraged to use other sources such as solar electricity. Grants have been put in place to promote the change from non-renewable to renewable energy systems. Grants are obtainable through the Government, energy suppliers and local authorities, however mainstream grant funding was abolished in 2010 to be replaced by a new scheme named 'Feed in Tariffs.' Renewable energy and energy efficiency are high on the agenda with today's rising fossil fuel prices. Aside from the feel-good factor of knowing that one's efforts are saving the planet, what are the benefits of getting solar energy up and running? The government Department of Energy and Climate Change or DECC introduced the Feed in Tariff for renewable energy in April 2010 to pay each household for every kilowatt of solar electricity generated by solar panel systems. These payments will be made to those investing in solar energy systems whether the energy generated is used by the household or business or exported to the national grid. Energy exported to the national grid will be paid for at an even greater rate than energy used by the household or business. The UK government has proven its commitment to climate change by planning the introduction of the Renewable Heat Incentive Scheme (RHI) which is set to provide grants and cash payments to households and businesses prepared to invest in renewable heat systems. The renewable heat incentive is set to be introduced in April 2011 and is thought by many to be part of the answer to the problem of global warming. By incentivizing households and businesses financially, the planned switch to renewable methods of heat generation will be easier to achieve. Solar electricity is generated through a system such as solar panels which absorb energy from the rays of the sun and convert them into electricity which can be used to power the home or a business. Solar power can be generated without direct sunlight meaning that all hours of daylight can convert the sun's energy into electricity. Benefits of using Solar Electricity Solar electricity or solar power is considered to be a green energy source and so has a direct positive effect on the environment. With renewable energy and saving the planet so high on the agenda, a number of green companies are offering incentives for those who can generate their own electricity and sell it on. For those considering installing solar (photovoltaic) panels this can mean discounts on energy prices. Photovoltaic roof tiles work on the same principle as solar panels. However they have a major advantage over solar panels and that is that they are made the same size as large format roof tiles. This allows them to either be built into the roof on a new build or into an existing roof when it requires a repair or replacement.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.moodia.com/sustainable-energy-sources

2013-06-19T06:43:04Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142617/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

This content is archived, it could be outdated. Birgit Knudsen defends PhD on March 20 March 14, 2012 After years of experimental research, psychologists still don't know from what age young infants start to understand the actions and behaviour of the people around them. In order to understand infants' cognitive processing, psychologists usually track infants' eye movements while the infants watch an adult performing a task. Knudsen, however, directly focussed on the ways that babies react to information they get from their environment. Point to new location In her first study, she investigated if 18- and 24-month-old infants correct an adult who is mistaken about the location of an object (a toy) before the adult begins searching in the wrong (previous) location. Both age groups corrected the adult by pointing to the object's new location when the adult didn't know about the location change and showed intend to find the toy. "This study proves that infants take others' intentions and knowledge states into account when responding to their actions," Knudsen states in her dissertation. Photo by Igor Jandric. Another study, with even younger infants, suggested that already by 12 months of age, infants tailor their responses to what others know or do not know, taking the others' emotional attitude (positive or negative) into account. "My studies consistently show that infants use their theory of mind abilities and tailor their communicative acts accordingly," Knudsen says. "Infants are able to communicate their sensitivity to others' beliefs spontaneously and appropriately across different contexts."

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http://www.mpi.nl/news/news-archive/birgit-knudsen-defends-phd-on-march-20

2013-06-19T06:23:25Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142617/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Our first Whole Sky Imagers used spherical mirrors. An early system is shown in use in the photo below, taken during a field test in 1963. Although mirrored systems such as this are still in use today, we found that the design was somewhat limited, because the mirror tended to degrade, and if the full surface of the sphere is not shaded, the measurements are adversely impacted by stray light. During the C-130 program discussed on this web site, a combination of cameras with fisheye lenses and scanning radiometers were used to document the sky and terrain. The fisheye systems took pictures of the upper and lower hemisphere (above and below the aircraft) at high resolution, and the scanners provided radiometrically calibrated data at approximately 5 degree resolution in zenith angle and 6 degree in azimuth angle. The head of our group at the time, Richard Johnson, had the idea of combining the capabilities of the fisheye cameras and the scanning radiometers by using a solid state digital CCD camera in conjunction with a fisheye lens and appropriate sun shades, and calibrating the CCD cameras to provide radiance distribution. Furthermore, by using two filters, a red and a blue, we could use the ratios of the calibrated signals in each pixel to identify clouds (relatively high red/blue ratio) and clear sky (low red/blue ratio) within the image. Our initial digital WSI systems were first developed and fielded in the early 1980’s. By the mid to late 1980’s, a series of fully automated digital WSI systems had been designed and built, and were deployed at several sites throughout the continental US. This system was housed in an environmental housing, and fielded in environments such as Montana (including all winter), the deserts of California and New Mexico, and in the moist environement of Florida. The system was controlled by an early PC computer, with electronics designed and built by MPL to control the peripherals such as the filter changer. Sample raw and processed data are shown below. Data were acquired at full resolution every 10 minutes, and reduced resolution every minute. They were processed through QC routines within a few days at MPL. Approximatly 1 year of data from 4 sites at 1-minute resolution has been processed and evaluated to yield Cloud Free Line of Site statistics, as discussed in the Related Research section of this web site. See the References section, for several references on this instrument. by the Marine Physical Laboratory, SIO.

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http://www.mpl.ucsd.edu/people/jshields/wsi/earlier.day.wsi.htm

2013-06-19T06:21:19Z

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In addition to major specific objectives established by each academic department, Missouri Southern State University has implemented a general education program that contributes toward the development of the whole person, as an individual and as a member of society. The faculty has established the following ten general education learning goals for all students graduating with a baccalaureate degree. Communicating: To develop students' effective use of the English language and quantitative and other symbolic systems essential to their success in school and in the world. Students should be able to read and listen critically and to write and speak with thoughtfulness, clarity, coherence, and persuasiveness. Higher Order Thinking: To develop students’ ability to distinguish among opinions, facts, and inferences; to identify underlying or implicit assumptions; to make informed judgments; and to solve problems by applying evaluative standards. Managing Information: To develop students’ abilities to locate, organize, store, retrieve, evaluate, synthesize, and annotate information from print, electronic, and other sources in preparation for solving problems and making informed decisions. Valuing: To develop students’ abilities to understand the moral and ethical values of a diverse society and to understand that many courses of action are guided by value judgments about the way things ought to be. Students should be able to make informed decisions through identifying personal values and the values of others and through understanding how such values develop. They should be able to analyze the ethical implications of choices made on the basis of these values. Social and Behavioral Sciences: To develop students’ understanding of themselves and the world around them through study of content and the processes used by historians and social and behavioral scientists to discover, describe, explain, and predict human behavior and social systems. Students must understand the diversities and complexities of the cultural and social world, past and present, and come to an informed sense of self and others. Students must fulfill the Missouri statute requirements for demonstrated knowledge of the United States and Missouri constitutions. Humanities and Fine Arts: To develop students’ understanding of the ways in which humans have addressed their condition through imaginative work in the humanities and fine arts; to deepen their understanding of how that imaginative process is informed and limited by social, cultural, linguistic, and historical circumstances; and to appreciate the world of the creative imagination as a form of knowledge. Mathematics: To develop students’ understanding of fundamental mathematical concepts and their applications. Students should develop a level of quantitative literacy that would enable them to make decisions and solve problems and which could serve as a basis for continued learning. The mathematics requirement for general education should have the same prerequisite(s) and level of rigor as college algebra. Life & Physical Sciences: To develop students’ understanding of the principles and laboratory procedures of life and physical sciences and to cultivate their abilities to apply the empirical methods of scientific inquiry. Students should understand how scientific discovery changes theoretical views of the world, informs our imaginations, and shapes human history. Students should also understand that science is shaped by historical and social contexts. International Cultural Studies: To develop students’ understanding of how cultures and societies around the world are formed, sustained and evolve. Students should understand world affairs, international issues, and cultures other than their own as seen through the history, geography, language, literature, philosophy, economics, or politics of the cultures. Students will acquire empathy for the values and perspectives of cultures other than their own and an awareness of the international and multicultural influences in their own lives. Health and Wellness: To provide students with the knowledge and self-management skills that will assist them in adopting healthy lifestyles. This will encompass all areas of wellness: physical, emotional, spiritual, social and intellectual. Students will understand the relationship between lifestyle management, quality of life, and societal health and productivity.

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Move your mouse over each flight day for details on the mission. View Earth through the eyes of the Landsat-7 satellite. This interactive feature outlines advancements in both commercial and military aircraft. Find out when the space station is over your city, or track where it is right now. Find out when the U.S. launched its first satellite and other historical tidbits with photos that highlight 50 years of NASA milestones and a decade of space station assembly.› Download calendar (8.6 Mb PDF) Free, interactive videoconferencing and webcasts allow you and your students to participate with NASA. Explore optics and the history of telescopes, from Galileo to NASA's Great Observatories, by using this interactive Web site. Mars and Earth are at their closest this month, so now is your best chance to see our planetary neighbor. Watch as Clay Anderson talks about growing plants on the space station and asks students to get involved.› View This Video Find posters, lesson plans and other educational resources about the Red Planet. Learn more about NASA spacecraft studying our home planet. Take part in this interactive event on Oct. 19, 2007. Join team members in a Live Chat on Sept. 25, 2007. Use these video, print and online resources in your classroom.

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2013-06-19T06:36:49Z

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Teachers’ Guide II This Nuffield Combined Science teachers’ guide covers the sections five to ten of the course which were planned to be taught to students aged 12-13. Section 6: Water Section 7: Small things Section 8: Earth Section 9: Insects Section 10: Energy Appendix I: Notes on the illustrations in the activity pack Appendix II: Suggestions for ways of assessing children’s reactions to Combined Science The material of this Teachers' Guides is arranged in sections, subsections, and experiments. Within this general grouping the material is arranged in the following way: • Section diagrams give the contents, show the links with other Sections, and indicate the number of periods thought necessary for each piece of work. • Route Diagrams used to outline the content of some of the subsections, and to indicate possible arrangements of the experiments. • Introductions setting out the general aims, philosophy, and content are discussed at the beginning of each subsection, and before most of the experiments. • Experiments with requirements lists, figures, notes on practical details followed by the experimental procedure together with teaching notes which exemplify the philosophy which underlies Combined Science and give guidance on the depth of treatment. HEALTH and SAFETY Any use of a resource that includes a practical activity must include a risk assessment. Please note that collections may contain ARCHIVE resources, which were developed at a much earlier date. Since that time there have been significant changes in the rules and guidance affecting laboratory practical work. Further information is provided in our Health and Safety guidance.

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2013-06-19T06:50:37Z

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Still images from camera traps set up near the India-Pakistan border revealed the presence of rare snow leopards in the region earlier this year and have now been stitched together into a new video that shows the leopards eating, as well as other species that roam the area. The camera traps were set up by the conservation group WWF-India in 2010 in Kashmir, just a few miles from the line of control separating the Indian province from Pakistan. In February of this year, the cameras revealed the presence of at least two snow leopards. They were only the second photographic evidence ever captured indicating snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are now living in the region. The photo captures yielded more than 500 photographs of the two animals. These photos have now been put together in a sort of flip-book-like video that shows one of the leopards prowling and eating a recent kill. After the snow leopard is gone, other predators and scavengers, such as the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), come in to feast on the leftovers. Feral and domestic dogs also make an appearance in the video, gnawing on the carcass of the kill. Wildlife in the contentious area suffered during years of armed conflict, but the relative peace of recent years has helped species recover, WWF-India said in the video. The IUCN, an independent international body that assesses the status of species around the globe, has listed snow leopards as endangered since at least 1986. The big cats, known for their cloudy gray fur and dark spots, are native to Central Asia's high mountains, and their numbers have been decreasing. Reliable numbers are difficult to establish, but it is estimated that between 4,000 and 6,500 snow leopards are left in the wild. Recently, camera traps have also spotted snow leopards in Afghanistan, Bhutan, Siberia and Tajikistan, where the notoriously shy creatures stole one of the cameras spying on them. - Images: Snow Leopards & Mountain Creatures of Wild Tajikistan - Camera Trapped: Wonderful and Weird Wildlife Around the World - The Wild Cats of Kruger National Park © 2012 OurAmazingPlanet. All rights reserved. More from OurAmazingPlanet.

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Diaries and Journals Maggie Gehrke with travel journal. RG0849-6 97 98, sf 92202 The word diary is from the Latin diarium or "daily allowance." In China, as far back as 56 A.D., journals were kept as documents. And in tenth century Japan, "pillowbooks," so named because they were kept in the bedchambers of courtesans, recorded poetry and dreams as well as actual events. In Europe during the Renaissance, well-to-do young men kept travel journals. Soldiers recorded their experiences during the French and Indian Wars and the American Revolution. And in America, explorers and settlers moving west documented their travel, in part to aid those who followed them into the wilderness. By the mid-seventeenth century, the personal journal or diary emerged, a tool with which their authors tried to make sense and order of their world and for those of a religious mind, record their personal failings and give thanks for blessings received. In secular matters, diaries recorded some of the most important events of the day, oftentimes from the point of view and in the words of the people most directly involved. As education became common and the materials with which to write became affordable, the number of diaries increased. By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, men and women of almost all economic and social classes were recording their daily, or near daily, activities, thoughts, and aspirations. In the twenty-first century, diaries continue to be kept in traditional volumes, and ever-changing electronic formats offer diarists new ways to record their lives. Diary of J.A. Hill, Civil War Soldier Hundreds of Civil War diaries expand our understanding of the war from the soldiers' point of view. These diaries are revealing, not just for their accounts of battles and hardships, but for what they tell us about the tedium of life in camp and on the march, the frustration at the delay in getting accurate news about the progress of the war, and the relief of discharge, realizing that you had survived to return to family and friends. Born in 1845 in Illinois, James Hill came west to Nebraska in 1867 after serving for three years in the 102nd Illinois Volunteers. Hill purchased a small tract of land northwest of Falls City, ultimately increasing his holdings to 640 acres. He married twice, and in 1905 retired to Falls City, where he died in 1925. James Hill noted on the front cover that he purchased his first diary for 60 cents on February 24, 1864, at Camp Butler in Springfield, Illinois. Even though he did not have the book in his possession until late February, he felt compelled to add entries for January and most of February from memory, and for some dates he notes: This and several following days are left blank because I did not keep a diary at that time. Hill delayed enlistment because of an unspecified illness. When he did join his unit, he quickly found himself in the hospital. Feb. 4, 1864 To day I went to what they call the Hospital it is no better than the barracks all of the Hospitals are full we have to sleep on boards. In addition to his health woes, which continued through the entire time of his service, Hill's diaries include information on camp life, occasional skirmishes, lists of his expenses, and finally his discharge from the army. His entries are notable, not for their dramatic accounts of battle, but rather for his description of the tedium that was daily life in camp. To day staid in camp all day and done nothing We had inspection by General Ward and some other officers. I got a gun to day to day is clear and pleasant Thursday, March 23, 1865 In camp all day. we had a beautiful day. I saw some rebel soldiers this evening on their way home. They say that the rebel cause is gone up Wednesday 12, 1865 Glorious news this morning Richmond & Petersburg ours and 30 thousand prisoners. I was engaged getting boards to build my tent larger Raleigh N.C. Apr 29th (1865) To day I am staying at our Div Hospital waiting for transportation to Washington. The war is over and we are all going Home. The Div is going to march through. We will most probably leave here to night and then good bye to Dixies Land I will go home and be a citizen once more The city of Raleigh is in mourning to day for the death of President Lincoln they are firing a gun every half hour all day Hospital Boat H.S. Spaulding May I am on my journey Home to day We are pursueing our way at sea off the coast of Virginia I begin to think that I will see my home once more. I am troubled with Dropsy in my abdomen One year ago to day our Colonel came to us at Wauhatchie Station Tenn and gave us marching orders for that great campaign against Atlanta since that time I have passed through some rough times but I expect to go home now to Long after the war had ended and James Hill had moved on to a new life in Nebraska, he reread his diaries and recalled his life as a soldier. Tucked away in the back of his 1865 diary are two entries from 1869 and 1871, in which he reflects on his life as recorded in these volumes: Feb 2nd 1869 To day I inspected these books and find a good many things here which awaken old thoughts and feelings and also I see evidences of past Hopes which are now blasted forever James March 29th 1874 Inspected these books again and am resolved to lead a different life in the future. J.A. Diaries and Journals J.A. Hill, Civil War W. Richards, Surveyor J.S. Morton, Statesman Sara J. Price, Teacher W. Danley, Businessman J. & E. Green, Farmers S. Buck, Farm Wife S. & E. Allis, E. & L. Correll, W.J. Bryan, Orator Lucy Drexel, Student Viola Barnes, Student Willa Cather, Author C. Calvert, Educator Myrtle Soulier, Student B. Watson, Porter Margaret and Edward Frances M. Creech, Sierra Nevada Bunnell,

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In Christian antiquity the dove appears as a symbol and as a Eucharistic vessel. As a Christian symbol it is of very frequent occurrence in ancient ecclesiastical art. On a sarcophagus or on other funeral monuments the dove signifies: The reservation of the Holy Eucharist for the use of the sick was, certainly since early medieval times, effected in many parts of Europe by means of a vessel in the form of a dove, suspended by chains to the baldachino and thus hung above the altar. Mention may be made here of the (two) doves occasionally represented in the Roman catacombs as drinking from a Eucharistic chalice (Schnyder, "Die Darstellungen des eucharist. Kelches auf altchr. Grabinschriften", in "Stromation Archaeologicon", Rome, 1900, 97-118). The idea of the Eucharistic vessel was probably taken from the dove-like receptacle used at an early period in the baptisteries and often suspended above the fonts. These vessels were usually made of gold or silver. This was no doubt always the case if the vessel was designed to be the immediate holder of the Blessed Sacrament, since the principle that no base material ought to be used for this purpose is early and general. But when, as seems generally to have been the case in later times, the dove was only the outer vessel enshrining the pyx which itself contained the Blessed Sacrament, it came about that any material might be used which was itself suitable and dignified. Mabillon (Iter Ital., 217) tells us that he saw one at the monastery of Bobbio made of gilded leather, and one is shown to this day in the church of San Nazario at Milan which is enameled on the outside and silver gilt within. The exact time at which such vessels first came into use is disputed, but it was certainly at some early date. Tertullian (C. Valentinian. cap. iii) speaks of the Church as columbae domus, the house of the dove, and his words are sometimes quoted as exhibiting the use of such vessels in the third century. The reference, however, is clearly to the Holy Spirit. In the life of St. Basil, attributed to St. Amphilochius, is perhaps the earliest clear mention of the Eucharistic dove. "Cum panem divisisset in tres partes . . . tertiam positam super columbam auream, desuper sacrum altare suspendit" (When he had divided the bread into three pieces . . . the third part placed in a golden dove, he suspended, etc., Vita Bas., P.G., XXXIX). St. Chrysostom's expression concerning the Holy Eucharist, convestitum Spiritu Sancto, clothed with the Holy Spirit (Hom. xiii, ad pop. Antioch.), is generally taken to allude to this practice of reserving the Holy Eucharist in a dove, the emblem of the Holy Spirit. The same idea is expressed by Sedulius (Epist. xii) in the verses, "Sanctusque columbae Spiritus in specie Christum vestivit honore" "And the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove has robed Christ in honour". The general, and certainly the earliest custom, both East and West, was to suspend the dove from the ciborium or baldachino. At a later period in some parts of the West, especially in Rome, a custom grew up of placing a tower of precious material upon the altar, and enclosing the dove with the Blessed Sacrament within this tower. Thus, in the "Liber Pontificalis" which contains ample records of the principal gifts made to the great basilicas in the fourth and succeeding centuries, we never find that the dove was presented without the tower as its complement. Thus in the life of Pope Hilary it is said that he presented to the baptistery at the Lateran turrem argenteam . . . et columbam auream. In the life of St. Sylvester (ibid.) Constantine is said to have given to the Vatican Basilica pateram . . . cum turre et columba. Innocent I (ibid.) gave to another church turrem argenteam cum columba. APA citation. (1909). Dove. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05144b.htm MLA citation. "Dove." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05144b.htm>. Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Michael C. Tinkler. Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. May 1, 1909. Remy Lafort, Censor. Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York. Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.

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AFTER a tantalisingly successful run at sequencing parts of the extinct woolly mammoth's genome, the project is now stalled for lack of funds. Hendrik Poinar of the McMaster Ancient DNA Centre at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, and his team hope that sequencing the genomes of extinct animals will reveal otherwise inaccessible data on their evolutionary history, population, diversity and other key traits. Cracking the woolly mammoth genome might help solve the mystery of what killed off these animals as the last ice age waned about 12,000 years ago, and provide hints about the demise of their fellow megafauna. Until recently, only mitochondrial DNA from fossilised remains of mammoths had been sequenced. Nuclear DNA was a much more difficult proposition because the sequence is far longer and there are only two strands per cell. Until this year, only a few nuclear genes had been sequenced from frozen mammoths. Then in January, Poinar, along with Ross MacPhee of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City and colleagues, announced that they had run a gram of mammoth bone through a new machine that sequenced 28 million base pairs from small fragments of DNA. They used computer analysis to match 13 million of those base pairs to the published genome of the African elephant. The overlap between mammoth and elephant was 98.55 per cent, which is consistent with an evolutionary split between the two about 5 million years ago (Science, vol 311, p 392). Last month, Poinar told delegates at a meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in Ottawa that his team's results had improved over seven additional runs, with each run yielding 20 million base pairs, adding up to a few per cent of the mammoth genome. The team now needs about $500,000 to pay for 100 more runs on the sequencing machine and is applying for grants, MacPhee says. "We accept cheques in any convertible denomination." The mammoth is a logical starting point for studying extinct giant animals from the ice age. Its remains are among the most abundant in permafrost, and the fact that its genome is similar to that of the modern elephant is a boon. Comparing the two genomes allows scientists to weed out sequences that belong to contaminants in the fossil remains, such as soil bacteria. Efforts to sequence other extinct species could follow success with the woolly mammoth. French explorer Bernard Buigues has collected and stored remains from more than 1000 frozen ice-age fossils - including those of musk oxen, moose and caribou - in a cave he dug out of the Siberian permafrost, and is cooperating with Poinar's team. The same technique is also being used to sequence the Neanderthal genome (see "The Neander code") If you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. Have your say Only subscribers may leave comments on this article. Please log in. Only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article

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By 2/5/2008, nearly eight feet of snow had fallen on this U.S. Forest Service’s summer visitor center in Tahoe National Forest northeast of Sacramento. High resolution (Credit: NOAA) West Coast winter storms may lack the “star power” of East Coast hurricanes. They aren’t named at birth or routinely tracked by the media. But the impact of these western cyclones, spawned over Earth’s largest ocean and nourished by long ribbons of moisture from the tropics, can be even more devastating than their famous cousins back East. Huge, soggy systems slam the coast with torrents of rain, powerful winds, and — at higher elevations — deep snows. Widespread power outages, flooding, and debris flows can follow, rivaling the destruction of major hurricanes. In the path of these storms lies the city of Sacramento, deep in the flood-vulnerable basin of the American River and downstream from the massive Folsom Reservoir. A second large river, the Sacramento, flows along the western edge of the city. Folsom Dam, built on the American River near Sacramento in 1955, contains up to a million acre-feet of water. High resolution (Credit: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation) A system of levees protects the city from inundation by the rain-swelled rivers. One or more levees giving way could drown parts of Sacramento under 20-plus feet of water. One big miss on a major storm forecast may be all it takes to catch water managers off guard and turn a background risk into nightmarish reality. To prevent such a disaster, NOAA’s Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL) is funneling years of West Coast storm research into the Hydrometeorology Testbed—a combination of high-tech sensors and brainpower aimed at the Sacramento area. ESRL researchers are working closely with NOAA’s National Weather Service forecasters and other partners to provide the data, tools, and understanding needed to develop high-precision weather forecasts with longer lead times. “We need to be able to say with confidence, ‘A week from now we’re expecting a flood that will significantly threaten the levees,’” said HMT project manager Tim Schneider. Satellite data taken Dec. 3, 2007, showing a long ribbon of moisture, or “atmospheric river,” as it hit Ore. and northern Calif. High resolution (Credit: NOAA) For three winter storm seasons, NOAA has deployed an assortment of radars, wind profilers, rain and snow gauges, automated weather stations, and other sensors along the north fork of the American River, turning its basin into one of the most monitored areas in the country. Daily weather balloon launches increase from twice a day to every three hours during severe weather observations. This year one of NOAA’s off-duty Hurricane Hunter aircraft will fly into the huge storms when they’re still distant over the Pacific, gathering data specially requested for the Hydrometeorology Testbed, among other observations. In 2009 a fleet of robotic aircraft, including a high altitude, long-endurance Global Hawk and smaller, lower-altitude vehicles, will fly below, into, and above the storms. NOAA researchers are testing the vehicles’ ability to gather data unattainable by manned aircraft and help fill in the missing pieces needed for better West Coast forecasts. More than 30 inches of rainfall over several days caused major flooding and debris flow from the White River in Ore. High resolution (Credit: U.S. National Forest Service) “What keeps me awake at night is the thought of seeing Sacramento under water,” said NOAA/ESRL scientist Marty Ralph, who led the core research behind the testbed and manages NOAA’s Unmanned Aircraft Systems program. “Here at NOAA we’re doing all we can to develop the best forecasts possible to prevent that kind of catastrophe.” East Coast hurricanes may get the media glare in late summer, but for the next few winters NOAA will be shining its own spotlight on these powerful Pacific storms and the safety of those living in their path.

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Relationship violence is a pattern of abusive and coercive behaviors used to maintain power and control over a former or current intimate partner. An abusive relationship means more than being hit by the person who claims to love or care about you. Abuse can be emotional, psychological, financial, sexual, or physical and can include threats, isolation, and intimidation. Abuse tends to escalate over time. When someone uses abuse and violence against a partner, it is always part of a larger pattern to try to control her/him. This type of abuse is also referred to as psychological abuse. It is often the form of abuse that is most difficult for people who have never been abused to understand. When taken out of context, emotional abuse may look "normal." For example, joking about a mistake someone has made can be a normal part of a relationship. However, when it is part of ongoing insults, criticism and put-downs, it reinforces a victim's feelings of worthlessness. Other examples of emotional abuse include: People who have been abused consistently say that emotional abuse is the most difficult form of abuse to recover from. Bruises and broken bones can heal, but recovering from feeling worthless is a much more difficult process. Money is a difficult thing to negotiate in a healthy relationship. When someone is abusive, money becomes a way to control the victim. Economic abuse can include: The most obvious form of sexual abuse involves forcing someone to have sex. More subtle forms include: Sexual abuse in an intimate relationship can be very confusing. Because the victim has consented to be with this person sexually, they may feel that they have to agree to everything their partner wants. In a healthy relationship, a person's sexual boundaries are always respected. Physical abuse can include: In many abusive relationships, physical abuse is not very frequent. However, once someone has been physically abusive, the threat of it happening again can be a powerful way to control the victim.

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A new supercomputer simulation shows the devastating power of "The Big One:" a massive magnitude 8.0 earthquake on the San Andreas fault rolling across Southern California. The video tracks severe ground motion as it begins to the north, near San Luis Obispo, and fans south across the landscape into Los Angeles, Orange and San Diego counties, as well as farther inland. About 25 million people live in the affected area, with shaking felt as far away as Yuma, Arizona, Ensenada, Mexico, and as far north as Fresno. Scientists at the San Diego Supercomputer Center at UC San Diego created the video, what they call the "largest and most detailed simulation of a major earthquake ever performed," to help emergency response teams better prepare for such a disaster. The project was coordinated by the Southern California Earthquake Center at the University of Southern California with help from Ohio State University. The simulation is a finalist for the Gordon Bell prize, awarded for outstanding achievements in high-performance computing.

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Bilingual Infant Signing Q: I want to encourage my baby to use signs. However, we are already using two spoken languages in our home. Will my baby get confused if we add signs to the mix? When children first start learning about language, they make one-to-one correspondences between words and the objects (or actions) they represent. For example, a baby in an English-only environment makes the connection, the white stuff in my bottle = ‘milk’ However, babies in bilingual environments will have two labels from which to choose. For example, infants from a French/English setting can use either ‘milk’ or ‘lait.’ However, because of their developmental need to establish a one-to-one correspondence, these babies will initially choose either ‘milk’ OR ‘lait,’ but usually not both – at least not at first. the white stuff in my bottle = ‘milk’ OR ‘lait’ As babies grow into toddlers and acquire larger vocabularies, they start to figure out that there can be two totally different words that share the same meaning. In other words, through exposure to both languages, children eventually conclude that ‘milk’ = ‘lait’ This process can take a long time, and this is where using signs can help. By giving infants the same visual symbol (sign) for both ‘lait’ and ‘milk,’ you make the job of connecting the object with the meanings of both words MUCH easier for babies. When the baby hears the French word “lait” and sees it paired with the same sign used when he hears the English word “milk,” the result is “Aha! These words mean the same thing!” Simply put, the sign speeds up recognition of the equivalence between the two words. Rather than confusing your bilingual child, using infant sign language will help smooth the road to understanding and speaking both languages. For more information on the Baby Signs® Program, please call 1-877-497-2229 or visit www.babysigns.ca

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http://www.ohbabymagazine.com/toddler/bilingual-infant-signing-2/

2013-06-19T06:49:18Z

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Understanding the complex situation of stateless ethnic Russians in Estonia—discussed in a recent blog post by Lauri Malksoo—requires understanding the history of Estonia itself. Situated on the coast of the Baltic Sea, at the crossroads of the Eastern and Western cultural space, Estonia has often been called a borderland. For nearly 700 years, this territory and its people were governed by foreign rulers. It wasn’t until World War I put Estonia on the political map of Europe in 1918 as a fully independent state, thus realizing the dream of a nation of just a million people. But independence did not last long. As the result of the secret pact between Hitler and Stalin in 1940, Estonia was forced into the Soviet Union under the dictatorship of Stalin, one of the cruelest dictators of history. The Soviet occupation not only meant a new flag and a new anthem but for thousands of native inhabitants it also meant losing their home and property, deportation to Siberia, and in many cases shooting to death without trial. The Soviet repressions lasted for decades—from the mass deportations in 1949 to the persecution of dissidents in the 1980s. During these times a seemingly harmless act such as using the colors of the Estonian flag in fabrics or flower arrangements could end in a “25 plus 5”—25 years of strict prison regime plus 5 years of forced settlement deep in Siberia. Although the United States and several other Western governments never recognized the occupation of Estonia, Moscow did what it could to secure its power and neutralize opposition. An effective tool was changing the population structure, deporting ethnic Estonians to Russia and resettling ethnic Russians in Estonia. This policy was particularly successful in the Eastern part of Estonia where the Estonian-speaking population virtually disappeared. In 1989, only 31 out of 1,000 people spoke Estonian as their native language in the furthest east and third biggest town in Estonia, Narva. Understandably, the Soviet officials and soldiers who settled in Estonia truly believed in the Stalinist regime and saw themselves as “liberators.” But the majority of Russian immigrants, numbed by the Stalinist propaganda, probably never actually realized they lived in a territory violently stripped of its independence. When the bloodless “Singing Revolution” in 1991 restored Estonia’s independence, the citizenship rights of those who had been Estonian citizens before the Soviet occupation were also restituted and automatically granted to their descendants on the principle of jus sanguinis. The citizenship policy can thus not be considered harsh but in fact the only one possible, since in the legal sense no new country was created but the independence of an already existing state was restored.

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http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/voices/back-roots-debate-over-citizenship-estonia

2013-06-19T06:41:45Z

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en

The terrestrially growing orchid species Geodorum recurvum (Roxb.) Alston 1931 is endemic to South China (Guangdong, Hainan, Yunnan), North Thailand and Vietnam. In 1795 the Scottish botanist William Roxburgh (1751 – 1815) described the Geodorum recurvum orchid species as Limodorum recurvum Roxb 1795, which is still accepted as a synonym. In 1931 the English botanist Arthur Hugh Garfit Alston (1902 – 1958) changed the botanical name to Geodorum recurvum. Inflorescences reach a length up to about 20 cm and carry up to about 20 white flowers. Single Geodorum recurvum flowers get a size of about 2 cm. Flowering period: February. © Orchids Flowers.com Image: Geodorum recurvum (Roxb.) Alston 1931

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http://www.orchids-flowers.com/orchids/geodorum-recurvum-roxb-alston-1931/

2013-06-19T06:40:42Z

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en

Gaiozoic Era - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Used to designate the geological period on Earth from the Great Expulsion onwards. Some prefer to imply a shorter time span, given the implications of the Fermi Paradox, and refer to this period as the Gaiacene Epoch. Holocene Epoch - Text by M. Alan Kazlev and Stephen Inniss On Old Earth the Holocene ("entirely recent") is the most recent but one epoch in geologic time, lasting from about 12,000 BT (10,000 b.c.e.) to the Great Expulsion. This brief span of time from the birth of agriculture until the end of human baseline dominance on the species' home planet was the Golden Age according to most Anthropist sects. It was preceded by the Pleistocene and succeeded by the Gaiacene.

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http://www.orionsarm.com/eg-article/464e92819ef09

2013-06-19T06:23:46Z

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en

Fur. Polar bears' fur consists of a dense, insulating undercoat topped by guard hairs of various lengths. It is not actually white—it just looks that way. Each hair shaft is pigment-free and transparent with a hollow core that scatters and reflects visible light, much like what happens with ice and snow. Polar bears look whitest when they are clean and in sunlight, especially just after the molt period, which usually begins in spring and is complete by late summer. Before molting, oils from the seals they eat can make them look yellow. In zoos, polar bears have been known to turn green due to colonies of algae growing in their hollow hair shafts. This happened at the San Diego Zoo in 1979. No harm came to the bears, and zoo veterinarian Phillip Robinson restored the bears to white by killing the algae with a salt solution. Skin. Polar bears have black skin under which there is a layer of fat that can measure 4.5 inches (11.5 centimeters) thick. But it is their fur, not their fat, that prevents bears from suffering nearly any heat loss. In fact, adult males quickly overheat when they run. - Scientific Finding. Scientists used to think that polar bears' hollow hairs acted like fiber optic tubes and conducted light to their black skin. In 1988, Daniel W. Koon, a physicist at St. Lawrence University in Canton, New York, and graduate assistant, Reid Hutchins, proved this false. Their experiments showed that a one-fifth inch strand of polar bear hair conducted less than a thousandth of a percent of applied ultraviolet light. So, the black skin absorbs very little ultraviolet light. Instead, Koon believes keratin, a basic component of the hair, absorbs the ultraviolet light.

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http://www.polarbearsinternational.org/about-polar-bears/essentials/fur-and-skin

2013-06-19T06:42:44Z

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A database is a named collection of SQL objects ("database objects"). Generally, every database object (tables, functions, etc.) belongs to one and only one database. (But there are a few system catalogs, for example pg_database, that belong to a whole installation and are accessible from each database within the installation.) An application that connects to the database server specifies in its connection request the name of the database it wants to connect to. It is not possible to access more than one database per connection. (But an application is not restricted in the number of connections it opens to the same or other databases.) Note: SQL calls databases "catalogs", but there is no difference in practice. In order to create or drop databases, the PostgreSQL postmaster must be up and running (see Section 3.3). Databases are created with the query language command CREATE DATABASE: CREATE DATABASE name where name follows the usual rules for SQL identifiers. The current user automatically becomes the owner of the new database. It is the privilege of the owner of a database to remove it later on (which also removes all the objects in it, even if they have a different owner). The creation of databases is a restricted operation. See Section 7.1.1 for how to grant permission. Bootstrapping: Since you need to be connected to the database server in order to execute the CREATE DATABASE command, the question remains how the first database at any given site can be created. The first database is always created by the initdb command when the data storage area is initialized. (See Section 3.2.) By convention this database is called template1. So to create the first "real" database you can connect to template1. The name "template1" is no accident: When a new database is created, the template database is essentially cloned. This means that any changes you make in template1 are propagated to all subsequently created databases. This implies that you should not use the template database for real work, but when used judiciously this feature can be convenient. More details appear below. As an extra convenience, there is also a program that you can execute from the shell to create new databases, createdb. createdb does no magic. It connects to the template1 database and issues the CREATE DATABASE command, exactly as described above. It uses the psql program internally. The reference page on createdb contains the invocation details. Note that createdb without any arguments will create a database with the current user name, which may or may not be what you want. CREATE DATABASE actually works by copying an existing database. By default, it copies the standard system database named template1. Thus that database is the "template" from which new databases are made. If you add objects to template1, these objects will be copied into subsequently created user databases. This behavior allows site-local modifications to the standard set of objects in databases. For example, if you install the procedural language plpgsql in template1, it will automatically be available in user databases without any extra action being taken when those databases are made. There is a second standard system database named template0. This database contains the same data as the initial contents of template1, that is, only the standard objects predefined by your version of PostgreSQL. template0 should never be changed after initdb. By instructing CREATE DATABASE to copy template0 instead of template1, you can create a "virgin" user database that contains none of the site-local additions in template1. This is particularly handy when restoring a pg_dump dump: the dump script should be restored in a virgin database to ensure that one recreates the correct contents of the dumped database, without any conflicts with additions that may now be present in template1. It is possible to create additional template databases, and indeed one might copy any database in an installation by specifying its name as the template for CREATE DATABASE. It is important to understand, however, that this is not (yet) intended as a general-purpose "COPY DATABASE" facility. In particular, it is essential that the source database be idle (no data-altering transactions in progress) for the duration of the copying operation. CREATE DATABASE will check that no backend processes (other than itself) are connected to the source database at the start of the operation, but this does not guarantee that changes cannot be made while the copy proceeds, which would result in an inconsistent copied database. Therefore, we recommend that databases used as templates be treated as read-only. Two useful flags exist in pg_database for each database: datistemplate and datallowconn. datistemplate may be set to indicate that a database is intended as a template for CREATE DATABASE. If this flag is set, the database may be cloned by any user with CREATEDB privileges; if it is not set, only superusers and the owner of the database may clone it. If datallowconn is false, then no new connections to that database will be allowed (but existing sessions are not killed simply by setting the flag false). The template0 database is normally marked datallowconn = false to prevent modification of it. Both template0 and template1 should always be marked with datistemplate = true. After preparing a template database, or making any changes to one, it is a good idea to perform VACUUM FREEZE or VACUUM FULL FREEZE in that database. If this is done when there are no other open transactions in the same database, then it is guaranteed that all tuples in the database are "frozen" and will not be subject to transaction ID wraparound problems. This is particularly important for a database that will have datallowconn set to false, since it will be impossible to do routine maintenance VACUUMs on such a database. See Section 8.2.3 for more information. Note: template1 and template0 do not have any special status beyond the fact that the name template1 is the default source database name for CREATE DATABASE and the default database-to-connect-to for various scripts such as createdb. For example, one could drop template1 and recreate it from template0 without any ill effects. This course of action might be advisable if one has carelessly added a bunch of junk in template1. It is possible to create a database in a location other than the default location for the installation. Remember that all database access occurs through the database server, so any location specified must be accessible by the server. Alternative database locations are referenced by an environment variable which gives the absolute path to the intended storage location. This environment variable must be present in the server's environment, so it must have been defined before the server was started. (Thus, the set of available alternative locations is under the site administrator's control; ordinary users can't change it.) Any valid environment variable name may be used to reference an alternative location, although using variable names with a prefix of PGDATA is recommended to avoid confusion and conflict with other variables. To create the variable in the environment of the server process you must first shut down the server, define the variable, initialize the data area, and finally restart the server. (See Section 3.6 and Section 3.3.) To set an environment variable, typecsh or tcsh. You have to make sure that this environment variable is always defined in the server environment, otherwise you won't be able to access that database. Therefore you probably want to set it in some sort of shell start-up file or server start-up script. To create a data storage area in PGDATA2, ensure that the containing directory (here, /home/postgres) already exists and is writable by the user account that runs the server (see Section 3.1). Then from the command line, type To create a database within the new location, use the command CREATE DATABASE name WITH LOCATION = 'location' where location is the environment variable you used, PGDATA2 in this example. The createdb command has the option -D for this Databases created in alternative locations can be accessed and dropped like any other database. Note: It can also be possible to specify absolute paths directly to the CREATE DATABASE command without defining environment variables. This is disallowed by default because it is a security risk. To allow it, you must compile PostgreSQL with the C preprocessor macro ALLOW_ABSOLUTE_DBPATHS defined. One way to do this is to run the compilation step like this:gmake CPPFLAGS=-DALLOW_ABSOLUTE_DBPATHS all

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http://www.postgresql.org/docs/7.2/interactive/managing-databases.html

2013-06-19T06:48:45Z

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Clinicians can learn about health effects of different kinds of radiation from the Veterans Health Initiative (VHI) study guide, Veterans and Radiation (3.43 MB, PDF). The study guide covers effects of ionizing radiation used in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, in U.S. atmospheric nuclear weapons tests that ended in 1962 and also present in small amounts in depleted uranium used in the Gulf War. The guide also covers non-ionizing radiation from radar and other sources. - Adverse health effects of radiation - Atomic Veterans - Nasopharyngeal radium irradiation - Depleted uranium - VA research on radiation - Possible use of ionizing radiation as terrorist weapon The guide is useful for VA and non-VA health care providers caring for Veteran patients. Veterans and the public also may be interested in the guide to learn more about symptoms and treatment. Go to radiation exposure for information geared to Veterans, including how to apply for VA benefits. Download free viewer and reader software to view PDF, video and other file formats.

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http://www.publichealth.va.gov/vethealthinitiative/radiation.asp

2013-06-19T06:42:47Z

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en

Children’s literacy nonprofit Reading Is Fundamental and the National Writing Project have collaborated with Boston-based educational media production firm FableVision to create an early reader to teach children ages six to eight about science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) concepts. The book, The Curious Adventures of Sydney and Symon in: Water Wonders, illustrated by Peter H. Reynolds and Renee Kurilla, is the second creative collaboration among the three groups following their 2008 activity book for preschoolers, Our Book by Us. Water Wonders, which is available in both English and Spanish, features siblings and scientists Sydney and Symon Starr, who ask questions and conduct experiments with help from their family and teachers. “Sydney and Symon are the perfect ambassadors to show children the importance of learning about the world around them and using reading and writing to solve problems and share new ideas,” says Sharon J. Washington, executive director of the National Writing Project. The first printing of 10,000 copies is being distributed by RIF and NWP to schools and programs nationwide in disadvantaged communities. It is also available for free download at RIF.org and at NWP.org, and FableVision is producing an interactive Telefable™ that will be available for view on the RIF Web site later this month. In addition, Fablevision’s literary and entertainment agency is planning a commercial trade series based on Sydney and Symon.

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http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/childrens/childrens-industry-news/article/46417-early-reader-collaboration-for-rif-national-writing-project-fablevision.html

2013-06-19T06:36:17Z

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Web Design Specialists. Functions are blocks of code that are separated from the normal flow of your program. You can make "calls" to these blocks of code at anytime. After the execution of the statements in the function is complete, program flow continues at the point where the original call was defining a function There are four parts needed to define a function: the keyword function, the name, the arguments, and the statements of the function. Below is the format of a function. The function name should be descriptive and define what the function does. Arguments are incoming values, which the function needs to perform its statements. Some of your functions may not require incoming values, so the argument list is optional. If you omit the arguments, the first line of the function will have format: To call a function, you need to specify the function name followed by a list of the actual values you are sending to the function, if there are any. You may make a call to the function examples demonstrate various ways of using functions. Below is an example of a function whose purpose is to simply print a line. No arguments are needed. The function call is made within the Below is an example of a function whose purpose is to simply print a line. No arguments are needed. The function call is made within the<script> section of the code. component, the function call needs to be nested inside another set of <script> tags. Without it, the browser would simply print print_line("I'm printing another line."); onto the screen. This example also shows how to use an argument in the function. In the function call, I am sending the string "I'm printing another line." to the function. The function calls this string "message." It then prints message. Not only can a function accept incoming values, but it can also return a value back to the function call. In the example below, the function call is the right side of an assignment statement. The variable total gets the value that is returned from the function calc_total. The function call sends three values to the calc_total; 1, 2, and 3. The function renames these values number1, number2, and number3. The variable, answer, gets the sum of the three numbers. The function then returns the value of the variable answer. If then else

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.really-fine.com/javascript_functions.html

2013-06-19T06:16:45Z

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en

European Directive on Batteries and Accumulators was published on 26 September 2006. It aims to minimise the impact of batteries on the environment and encourage the recovery of the materials they contain Directive has been made UK law through two new sets of regulations: Batteries and Accumulators (Placing on the Market) Regulations 2008 - became law in September 2008 were placed on the use of mercury and cadmium in batteries - new batteries must be labelled with the crossed out wheeled bin symbols (shown below) to help consumers choose batteries and recycle them Waste Batteries and Accumulators Regulations 2009 Cd, Hg and Pb underneath the wheelie bin symbol shows whether the battery contains, cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) or lead (Pb). - became law on 5 May 2009 were introduced for how batteries should be recycled and treated and recycling targets for waste batteries introduced which affect all producers and retailers of - all retailers who sell more than 32 kg a year of portable batteries will need to provide free in-store recycling points for waste batteries from 1st February 2010 UK targets for the Waste Batteries and Accumulators Regulations 2009 currently collects less than 3% of waste portable batteries, one of the lowest rates in Europe. So these targets are challenging! of retailers offering FREE in-store recycling facilities for waste batteries will be available in 2010 on this site. bank locator to find nearest recycling sites for waste batteries. Just type in your postcode and select 'batteries'. Use the following links to find: which batteries can I recycle?

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http://www.recycle-more.co.uk/nav/page2412.aspx

2013-06-19T06:36:44Z

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en

Gascoigne was born in Middleton, Leeds in 1612, The son of a minor country gentleman. His father was Henry Gascoigne, esq., of Thorpe-on-the-Hill in the parish of Rothwell, near Leeds, Yorkshire. His mother was Margaret Jane, daughter of William Cartwright. Little is know of his ealy life except that he claimed he was educated at the University of Oxford although no record has yet been found of this. In the late 1630’s Gascoigne, was working on a Keplerian optical arrangement when a thread from a spider’s web happened to become caught at exactly the combined optical focal points of the two lenses. When he looked through the arrangement Gascoigne saw the web bright and sharp within the field of view. He realized that he could more accurately point the telescope using the line as a guide, and went on to invent the telescopic sight by placing crossed wires at the focal point to define the centre of the field of view. He then added this arrangement to a sextant modelled on the instrument used by Tycho Brahe, although Tycho’s sextant was only a naked-eye instrument. The sextant was five feet in radius, and capable of measuring the distance between astronomical bodies, such as the angle between the Moon and a fixed star, to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. Gascoigne then realised that by introducing two points, whose separation could be adjusted using a screw, he could measure the size of the image enclosed by them. Using the known pitch of the screw, and knowing the focal length of the lens producing the image, he could work out the size of the object, such as the Moon or the planets, to a hitherto unattainable degree of accuracy. Gascoigne probably met the Lancashire astronomer William Crabtree sometime in 1640. After making observations at Gascoigne's home, Crabtree was much taken with these inventions and immediately saw their significance. On his return to his home in Broughton Spout, just outside Manchester, he wrote to Gascoigne asking if he might obtain such instruments and also wrote to his friend Jeremiah Horrocks about them. He wrote again to Gascoigne on 28th December 1640 saying, My friend Mr. Horrox professeth that little touch which I gave him hath ravished his mind quite from itself and left him in an Exstasie between Admiration and Amazement. I beseech you Sir, slack not your Intentions for the Perfection of your begun Wonders.Sadly Horrocks died before he could try out the instruments but Crabtree and Gascoigne did use them to try to corroborate Horrocks's theories about the elliptical orbit of the Moon. This invention was later taken up and improved by the scientist and astronomer Richard Towneley who was the nephew of Gascoigne's friend Christopher Towneley. Towneley later brought the instrument to the attention of Robert Hooke, who used it to calculate the size of comets and other celestial bodies. The micrometer, as it became known, was to lie at the heart of astronomical measurement down to the twentieth century. In 1642 Civil War broke out in England and Gascoigne received a commission as Providore for Yorkshire in the army of King Charles I. Crabtree lived in Salford,just outside Manchester both of which were on the parliamentary side and all correspondence between the two ceased. Gascoigne died at the Battle of Marston Moor, Yorkshire, on 2nd July 1644 as did the Charles Towneley, the father of his friend Richard Towneley. After Gascoigne's death some of his papers and fragments of correspondence between Crabtree and Gascoigne came into the possession of Christopher and Richard Towneley. They brought them to the attention of John Flamsteed, The first Astronomer Royal, who came to see Horrocks, Crabtree, and Gascoigne as the founding fathers of British research astronomy and the intellectual heirs of Galileo and Kepler. He began his massive three folio volume Historia Coelestis Britannica (1725) by printing five pages of their surviving letters and observations, made between 1638 and 1643. Many of Gascoigne's papers and correspondence were lost during the English Civil War and later in the Great Fire of London, but most of what is known to remain is kept in the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford.

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http://www.reference.com/browse/William_Gascoigne_(scientist)

2013-06-19T06:24:06Z

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en

Dams that have been built on the Mekong River’s tributaries in Laos are inadequately designed, causing an irregular water flow that damages river ecosystems, a Lao researcher who studies dams in the hydropower-driven country says. The sudden changes in the volume of water flowing downstream have a negative impact on fish and other aquatic life, he told RFA's Lao service, speaking on condition of anonymity. “The reservoir[s] [are] small and not able to store a large quantity of water. The release of water is not regular, which has an impact on the river[s’] ecosystems, on biodiversity,” he explained. If a dam’s reservoir is too small, when there is a heavy rainfall, water must be released from the reservoir. The sudden release of water floods the area below the dam and causes a rapid change in river flow, he explained. “The area downstream from the dam[s], is no longer the same. Sometimes there is the erosion of the riverbanks and a loss of aquatic life,” he said. The researcher said his observations were based on his research on the Nam Lik, Nam Mang 3, and Nam Ngum 2 dams, hydropower projects built on rivers in the southern part of northern Laos. Most of Laos’s dams have a similar design, rendering them unable to store large enough volumes of water, he said. With plans to export most of the power from the dams to Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, or China, Laos has said it hopes to become the “battery” of Southeast Asia. Less than half of Laos’s population has access to electricity, and the country has embraced hydropower as part of its poverty reduction plans. As of the beginning of this year, Laos had 14 operational hydropower dams, 10 under construction, and 56 proposed or in planning stages, according to an online government report. The most controversial one is the proposed Xayaburi dam which studies show could have a major impact on the regional environment and threaten food security. Environmental groups have opposed the dam, saying it would block fish migration and sediment flow on the Lower Mekong, affecting the millions of people in Southeast Asia who rely on the river’s ecosystem for their food and livelihoods. The Mekong River originates in China and flows through Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Reported by Nontarat Phaicharoen for RFA’s Lao service. Translated by Somnet Inthapannha. Written in English by Rachel Vandenbrink.

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http://www.rfa.org/english/news/laos/dams-06132012182530.html/story_main?textonly=1

2013-06-19T06:48:48Z

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|By: Sharon O. Kleinpeter| It is doubtful if LaSalle in his 1687 exploration of Louisiana ever set foot in Bienville Parish. But, in 1690 the area was explored by Don Domingo Teran DeRios who was sent from Mexico to scout the complete area of the Caddo Federation of Indians. He was considered the first white leader to sight Lake Bistineau. Father Masinettes, who was with the expedition, established a mission called "Mission Loretteto". This site is believed to be near present day Ringgold, Louisiana. In 1700, Bienville and St. Denis explored the areas west of the Mississippi River. In 1714, St. Dennis founded Natchitoches, the first permanent settlement in present Louisiana. Bienville Parish was part of Natchitoches County. Originally, Bienville Parish was a part of the Territory of Orleans, then it was known as the Catholic Parish of St. Francis. In 1805 it became part of Natchitoches County which was changed to Natchitoches Parish in 1807. In 1828 old Natchitoches was divided and portions of it (including present Bienville Parish)became Claiborne Parish. In 1848 the lower part of Claiborne became Bienville Parish, it being named in honor of the "Father of Louisiana", Jean Baptiste Le Moyne Bienville. Legislative Act 183, creating Bienville Parish, was enacted during the administration of Governor Isaac Johnson. Mt. Lebanon became the first permanent stable community in Bienville Parish. Reuben Drake came to the area, scouting land for his South Carolina families. A church and school were at the top of their priority list. For many years these people and their descendants led the state in Christianity and education. Mt.Lebanon University and its Female College branch were the pride of the region and owed their existence to the Louisiana Baptists. The college was moved to Pineville in 1907 and became Louisiana College. The town of Sparta was the first parish seat. It was the cultural and political center of the parish until the late nineteenth century. It was built on an incredibly sandy, eight-acre tract of federal land which was transferred to the parish. Wagon roads led to Sparta from almost all the communities in the parish as early as the 1850's and perhaps sooner. Despite its centralized location, Sparta proved to be a remote community. Unfortunately, Sparta was located far away from any navigable watercourse. Merchants had to haul their goods from Lake Bistineau, 18 miles away, or from the Ouachita River. But it was the coming oft he railroad that doomed Sparta. The railroad was constructed in the northern part of the parish thus cutting off the town of Sparta. Arcadia and Gibsland, 20 miles north of Sparta, became boom towns and the economic focus of the parish began to shift. In 1890 citizens of Arcadia and Gibsland petitioned the state legislature for permission to hold a referendum to decide whether or not to move the parish seat. In the third referendum, Arcadia carried the election by 65 votes eliminating other candidates, Bienville and Gibsland. Controversy still surrounds what the residents call "the midnight raid". Approximately thirty minutes after the final tabulation of the ballots six wagons, loaded with Arcadians, surrounded the deserted Sparta courthouse. Some of the Arcadians entered the building and tossed out most of the parochial records to their waiting companions. In a wild chase which ensued, it is more than likely that some records were lost.Many newspaper articles referred to that night in 1893 as the night "Bienville government was stolen". Undoubtedly, the early settlers envisioned a prosperous land as a legacy to future generations. But the road to prosperity took a sharp turn with the beginning of the Civil War. Dr. Philip C. Cook in his article "Bienville Parish: A History of Progress" gives the following account of that period of Bienville Parish history. "Religious, social and educational institutions were becoming a familiar part of BienvilleParish life, along with the government and political activities that were characteristic of the older regions.All evidence points toward a Bienville Parish in 1860 that was well on its way toward fulfilling the dreams and ambition of its settlers. Yet that same year marked the beginning of a disastrous war that would destroy this progress and long retard the entire region. While human losses were high, the Civil War took a much greater toll in the economy of the parish.The boom years of the 1850's and the strong demand for cotton had led everyone who could possibly do so to stake everything on cotton farms and slaves. Fortunes large and small were lost and more significantly, away of life was 'gone with the wind'. Although genteel plantation culture never existed to a great extent in Bienville Parish, the hopes and dreams of the more numerous common farmers were oriented that way.Instead, the abolition of slavery ended those dreams and produced a somewhat leveling effect, wiping out wealth and reducing many of the previously affluent struggling for survival." Economic recovery was slow as a nation torn apart by war had to heal many wounds and find new ways of doing business. The dependence on cotton had lulled innovative minds to sleep. But the drastic decline in cotton prices in 1877 was a chilling wake-up call. King cotton was dethroned. The coming of the railroad infused new hope in a tired land. The rails opened up markets for a natural resource that had been overlooked - timber. Sawmills came into the parish to harvest virgin timber.Sawmills brought jobs. Jobs and the sale of timber supplemented the income derived from cotton farming.The timber industry continues to dominate the economy of Bienville parish today. In 1934 Bienville Parish became famous as the location where law officers gunned down the infamous criminals "Bonnie and Clyde". The back-country outlaws were accused of killing 12 people, nine of them policemen. In 1967 Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway portrayed the outlaws in a movie. Local residents have mixed emotions about the notoriety gained for the parish. Many feel that the movie glamorized the outlaws who were really cold-blooded murderers.

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Definition of Twelfth cranial nerve Twelfth cranial nerve: The hypoglossal nerve. The twelve cranial nerves, including the hypoglossal nerve, emerge from or enter the skull (the cranium). The hypoglossal nerve supplies the muscles of the tongue. Paralysis of the hypoglossal nerve affects the tongue. It impairs speech (it sounds thick) and causes the tongue to deviate toward the paralyzed side. In time, the tongue diminishes in size (atrophies).Source: MedTerms™ Medical Dictionary Last Editorial Review: 6/14/2012 Get breaking medical news.

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Connecting with Your Child’s School Counselor for a Successful School Year Understand the expertise and responsibilities of your child’s school counselor. School counselors make a measurable impact in every student’s life, assisting with academic, career and personal/social development. Professional school counselors are trained in both educating and counseling, allowing them to function as a facilitator between parents, teachers and the student in matters concerning the student’s goals, abilities and any areas needing improvement. School counselors provide services not only to students in need, but to all students. Meet or contact your child’s school counselor at least three times per school year. The beginning of a school year is an excellent opportunity to initiate contact with your child’s school counselor and doing so can ensure your child’s positive school experience. Find out who the counselor is and what his or her experience and background are. By communicating with one another at the beginning, middle, and end of the school year, parents and counselors can have a definite impact on a child’s success. Discuss your child’s challenges and concerns with the school counselor. As a parent, you know your child best. However, the school counselor can help you better understand your child as a student. It’s important to encourage your child’s expression of needs, hopes and frustrations. School counselors are trained to help your children. Learn about your child’s school and social connections from the school counselor. When you need information or assistance, your child’s school counselor can help you get in touch with the appropriate school officials; learn about school policies on behavior, attendance, and dress; know the school calendar of important dates and stay connected with the school in many other ways. The school counselor can also help you locate resources in the community when you need them. Work with the school counselor to identify resources and find solutions to problems. If your child is having a problem at school, it is important to work with your child’s school counselor to find solutions. Discuss resources available within and outside of the school, and get information on how such programs can benefit your child. Your school counselor can be a valuable partner in your child’s education and preparation for life beyond school. Suggested Web Sites Kids Health: Going back to school for kids Firstgov.gov: Back to School

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May 3, 2010 Near-Earth asteroid 2005 YU55 was "imaged" by the Arecibo Radar Telescope in Puerto Rico on April 19. Data collected during Arecibo's observation of 2005 YU55 allowed the Near-Earth Object Program Office at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory to refine the space rock's orbit, allowing scientists to rule out any possibility of an Earth impact for the next 100 years. The space rock was about 2.3 million kilometers (1.5 million miles) from Earth at the time this image of the radar echo was generated. The ghostly image has a resolution of 7.5 meters (25 feet) per pixel. It reveals 2005 YU55 as a spherical object about 400 meters (1,300 feet) in size. Not only can the radar provide data on an asteroid's dimensions, but also on its exact location in space. Using Arecibo's high-precision radar astrometry capability, scientists were able to reduce orbit uncertainties for YU55 by 50 percent. "At one time we had classified 2005 YU55 as a potential threat," said Steve Chesley, a scientist at JPL's Near-Earth Object Program Office. Prior to the Arecibo radar passes on April 19 thru 21, we had eliminated almost all upcoming Earth flybys as possibilities of impact. But there were a few that had a low remaining probability of impact. After incorporating the data from Arecibo, we were able to rule impacts out entirely for the next 100 years." With more observations in the coming years, scientists may be able to accurately plot 2005 YU55's orbit even further out. NASA detects, tracks and characterizes asteroids and comets passing close to Earth using both ground- and space-based telescopes. The Near-Earth Object Observations Program, commonly called "Spaceguard," discovers these objects, characterizes a subset of them, and plots their orbits to determine if any could be potentially hazardous to our planet. JPL manages the Near-Earth Object Program Office for NASA's Science Mission Directorate in Washington. JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. More information about asteroids and near-Earth objects is at: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/asteroidwatch. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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Apr. 6, 2011 Certain cases of major depression are associated with premature aging of immune cells, which may make people more susceptible to other serious illness, according to findings from a new UCSF-led study. The findings indicate that accelerated cell aging does not occur in all depressed individuals, but is dependent upon how long someone is depressed, particularly if that depression goes untreated. The study was published online in March 2011 by the journal PLoS ONE. "There's a lot more to depression than feeling blue," said first author Owen Wolkowitz, MD, a professor of psychiatry at UCSF. "As if feeling depressed is not bad enough, we are finding that long-term depression may be associated with damage to cells in the body, and this may predispose patients to certain physical diseases." Previously considered a mental illness affecting only the brain, major depressive disorder, or MDD, now is believed to be tied to significant physical damage outside the brain, explained Wolkowitz. For example, depressed individuals are more likely to develop the diseases of advanced age, including diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis, stroke and dementia. In probing the links between depression and physical disease, the research team explored aging of the immune system as measured by the shortening of telomeres in immune cells taken from the blood. Telomeres are tiny units of DNA-protein complexes that seal off and protect the ends of chromosomes and act as a biological clock controlling a cell's life. Telomere shortening predicts earlier onset of several major age-related diseases and earlier mortality, and may serve as one index of human longevity. The researchers compared the length of telomeres in 18 individuals with MDD not currently receiving antidepressant medications to the length of telomeres in 17 healthy controls. Overall, telomeres of the depressed group did not differ from those of the healthy group; however, individuals with nine or more years of untreated chronic depression showed significant telomere shortening, even after accounting for chronological age. The degree of shortening in this subset of the depressed group corresponded to about seven years of "accelerated cell aging." Telomere shortening also was associated with higher levels of inflammation and oxidative stress in patients, both linked to cell damage and premature aging. Oxidative stress is an imbalance between destructive "free radical" molecules and the body's ability to neutralize them with antioxidants. The authors suggest that telomere shortening in very chronic depression may reflect an individual's cumulative exposure to biochemical stressors that promote cell death and increase the likelihood of physical disease. "While this finding itself might seem depressing, there is yet good news: many lifestyle factors like exercise and aspects of diet have been linked to longer telomeres," said co-author Elissa Epel, PhD, an associate professor in the UCSF Department of Psychiatry. "So while our personal history matters, it is possible that what we do today may matter even more, in terms of protecting our telomeres." Epel and co-author Elizabeth Blackburn, PhD, UCSF professor of biochemistry and biophysics, pioneered research on the impact of psychological stress on several biological markers of cell aging. Blackburn shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her telomere research and co-discovery of the cellular enzyme telomerase. Telomerase helps repair and restore telomeres, protecting cells from damage related to premature aging. In related work, the research team recently reported in the journal Molecular Psychiatry, available here, that individuals with MDD show increased activity of the telomerase enzyme. Depressed individuals with the lowest telomerase activity before antidepressant treatment, and those with the greatest increase in activity during treatment, showed the strongest antidepressant responses. These findings suggest that the seemingly paradoxical increase of telomerase in untreated depressed individuals indicates their bodies are attempting to compensate for the damage to their telomeres. Increases during treatment, on the other hand, may represent true improvement in depression. "We speculate that telomerase may provide a biological marker for antidepressant responses," Wolkowitz said. "Once we better understand these systems, we will be in a stronger position to treat depression and possibly prevent some of its associated physical illnesses." As a next step, UCSF researchers plan to replicate these preliminary findings in a larger sample of depressed individuals in order to explain why certain people develop shortened telomeres and physical disease, and how that process can be combated. Depressed individuals not taking antidepressants are currently being enrolled for this ongoing study, and interested participants may inquire at (415) 476-7254 or firstname.lastname@example.org. Additional UCSF co-authors are Synthia Mellon, PhD; Jue Lin, PhD; Victor Reus, MD; Rebecca Rosser; Heather Burke, PhD; Eve Kupferman, PhD; Mariana Compagnone, MD; and J. Craig Nelson, MD. Co-authors from other institutions are Firdaus Dhabhar, PhD, of Stanford and Yali Su, PhD, of Kronos Science Laboratory. The studies were funded by the National Institute of Mental Health, the O'Shaughnessy Foundation, the Bernard and Barbro Osher Foundation, and UCSF. Additionally, Blackburn, Epel and Lin are co-founders of a new company called Telome Health, Inc., which is developing applications of telomere biology to identify disease risk and to improve wellness. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: - Owen M. Wolkowitz, Synthia H. Mellon, Elissa S. Epel, Jue Lin, Firdaus S. Dhabhar, Yali Su, Victor I. Reus, Rebecca Rosser, Heather M. Burke, Eve Kupferman, Mariana Compagnone, J. Craig Nelson, Elizabeth H. Blackburn. Leukocyte Telomere Length in Major Depression: Correlations with Chronicity, Inflammation and Oxidative Stress - Preliminary Findings. PLoS ONE, 2011; 6 (3): e17837 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017837 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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Symptoms of Hereditary Spherocytosis? The symptoms of spherocytosis are minor in some children, but for most children with this condition it is more serious. First they may get these common symptoms of anemia: - Pale skin, lips or nail beds compared to their normal color - Feeling tired or irritable - Feeling dizzy or lightheaded - Rapid heartbeat They may also have jaundice (yellow color in the whites of the eyes; maybe yellow tint in the skin for some skin colors). This happens when red blood cells break down and their pigment, called bilirubin, builds up in the body. Children with spherocytosis are also at risk for gallstones because their bodies make extra bilirubin, the pigment in bile. Bile is a liquid made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. The gallbladder squeezes bile into the intestine to help digest fats. If substances in the bile harden, they can form little stone-like objects. These are gallstones. The stones can cause pain, infection or other problems if they get stuck in the tubes that lead out of gallbladder. Hereditary Spherocytosis Diagnosis To check for spherocytosis, the doctor will examine your child and may feel her abdomen to see if her spleen is enlarged. Blood tests will provide the other details the doctor needs to make a diagnosis. Here are some of the things the doctor may look for in your child's blood: - The level of red blood cells. This shows whether the child has anemia. The test is called a complete blood count, or CBC. - The percent of immature red blood cells in the blood. These are called reticulocytes. The level is higher in people with spherocytosis. - The shape of the red blood cells as seen under a microscope. Red blood cells that look round instead of flat are a sign of spherocytosis. - How fragile the red blood cells are. This is measured by seeing how many cells in the sample remain intact after they are treated with a solution (osmotic fragility) or kept at a certain temperature (incubated fragility). - Whether the blood contains antibodies that can destroy red blood cells. This is called the Coombs' test. - The level of bilirubin and of an enzyme called LDH (lactate dehydrogenase). Both are higher in people with spherocytosis.

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What is Organizing? The common term for a group of workers looking to join a union is “Organizing.” Workers organize for various reasons, be it to improve their working conditions, increase their pay or benefits, and/or to create a better working environment. We encourage you to read more about us to see if joining our union is right for you and/or your coworkers. The American Promise is that if we go to school, work hard, and become a productive and faithful employee, we can then expect to support a family, raise and educate our children, enjoy a healthy and fulfilling life and retire with dignity. We weren’t supposed to have to win the lottery, or be a corporate executive to enjoy the American dream. That was the vision of middle class Americans, who once modeled the image of what it was to be an American. The middle class is disappearing in direct proportion to the demise of the American union movement. After World War II, nearly 30 percent of our work force belonged to unions. Today, barely half that are organized. Today, a few own the world’s resources while most live in poverty. Wages of $8 per hour are common. For most of these workers there is no health insurance or retirement plans. The result? Taxpayers across the United States are making up for what employers should be paying with public assistance programs. That’s corporate welfare. Why are wages so low? Because that’s the easiest way to increase profitability. The result? Today, the wealthiest one percent own as much of our nation as ninety percent of the rest of us. Corporate CEO’s can earn 500 times the wages paid their workers. The freedom to form unions is a basic human right. In 1935, the US Government enacted the National Labor Relations Act that said, “Employees shall have the right to form…labor organizations…to bargain collectively…(and employers may not) interfere with…the exercise of…this right.” In 1948, the US joined four-fifths of United Nations member states to ratify the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which included the right of all people to come together in unions. Workers form unions because there is power in numbers. Where unions are strong, employers must bargain collectively to set the terms and conditions of employment. The demand for profits must then be compromised with fairness toward workers. How Employers Prevent Unions? When American workers seek to exercise the right to form a union, they nearly always run into a buzz saw of employer threats, intimidation and coercion such as: • Captive audience meetings • One-on-one meetings with supervisors • Threats to close or move the workplace if workers vote to unionize • Hiring professional consultants (union-busters) to coordinate anti-worker campaigns • Firing workers for union activity According to Human Rights Watch, the treatment of workers by employers and the failure of the US government to prevent it constitute a serious violation of human rights. Their report says, “Many workers…are spied on, harassed, pressured, threatened, suspended, fired, deported or otherwise victimized in reprisal for their exercise of the right to choose a union.” The consequences have been devastation for all of American society. When collective bargaining is suppressed, wages lag, inequality and poverty grow, race and gender pay gaps widen, society’s safety net is strained and civic and political participation are undermined. What Have Unions Done for Us? 5-day work week Family and medical leave Fair treatment for women, people of all ethnic backgrounds, and those with disabilities Union members earn 28 percent more than nonunion workers. But stronger unions raise living standards and improve the quality of life for everyone. In the 10 states in which unions are the strongest, there is less poverty, higher household income, more education spending, and better public policy than in the 10 states where unions are weakest. Unions Encourage Democracy: Unions encourage voting and other forms of political participation by members and other social groups with common interests. Political Scientist Benjamin Radcliff has estimated that for every 1 percent decline in union membership there is a 0.4 percent decline in voter participation. Page Last Updated: Jun 29, 2010 (11:54:19)

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A Copyright Tutorial By Lesley Ellen Harris As a journalist, you are, whether you realize it or not, dependent upon copyright law. It is the underlying basis which enables you to make your living. The right to use the copyright in your creation is what you grant to your editor and publisher in exchange for money. Thus, for a writer, understanding copyright is as essential as understanding the rules of grammar. As a journalist, the knowledge of copyright will not only ensure your own rights are protected, but it will help provide you with a foundation for covering stories relating to the Internet, free trade agreements, and situations of international copyright violations (as in China). Below are some frequently asked questions about copyright. What is copyright? Copyright is, literally, the "right to copy" a creation. Copying may include reproducing (as in photocopying, photographing or scanning into a computer), performing public, publishing in print or electronic format, adapting, translating and broadcasting. Only the owner of copyright may do these things with a creation or authorize others to do so. What are electronic rights? Electronic rights are part of the "bundle" of rights which the copyright gives to owners of copyright materials. If you own a work, you own the electronic rights in it unless you have given them away. By assigning or licensing other rights such as the right to publish a book, you do not automatically assign or license your electronic rights. In fact, writers are regularly advised to retain their electronic rights and negotiate them at a later time for additional compensation. Electronic rights covers a variety of rights including website rights, database rights, on-line rights and CD-ROM rights. You can separately negotiate for each type of What is protected by copyright? Copyright exists in every original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic work and in sound recordings and audiovisual works. As examples, copyright protects books, scripts, songs, computer software, CD-ROMs, paintings and videos, as long as they are original, that is, they have not been copied and their creation involved some skill and labour. Is there copyright in ideas? No. There is no copyright in ideas, information, facts, history or news events. The expression of these ideas, etc. are protected by copyright. To illustrate this point, copyright will protect the words used in a book on how to build a log cabin, but anyone may, without permission, build a log cabin following the instructions in the book. How do I obtain copyright in a work? You have copyright in your work from the moment it is created. Once the creation is in a fixed form (e.g. on paper or in your hard drive), you automatically have copyright protection if you are a Canadian citizen or resident or are otherwise eligible for protection in Canada. No registration or deposit of your work is required. Should I register my work? There is a voluntary registration system for a fee of $35. Registration information can be obtained from: The Copyright Office, Canadian Intellectual Property Office, Industry Canada, Place du Portage, Phase I, 50 Victoria Street, Hull, Quebec K1A 0C9. The telephone number is (819) 997-1725 and the fax number is (819) 953-6977. Since the Canadian Copyright Office will not accept deposits of copyright works, some creators deposit their works in the U.S. Copyright Office, or if it's a television or film treatment or script, with the Writers' Guild of Canada. Also, some creators sent a copy of their work to themselves by registered mail and only open it, if necessary, before a court of law. Do I have to mark my work with the copyright symbol? Although not mandatory under Canadian copyright law, marking your work with the copyright symbol, author's name and date of publication, is a good reminder to others that copyright exists in your work. © Jane Doe 1997 How do I get copyright in other countries? If you have copyright in Canada, you are protected in over 100 countries according to the laws where that work is used. For example, you have protection in the U.S. under U.S. copyright laws. Similarly, Americans have copyright protection in Canada under Canadian copyright How long does copyright last? n Canada, the general rule with respect to literary works is that copyright lasts for the life of the author until fifty years until the calendar year end of his or her death. For example, an author who dies on March 3, 1950 has copyright protection in her works until December 31, 2000. Who owns the copyright in my writings if I work for a magazine, the government or a company? If you are an employed writer, your employer owns the copyright in the works you create during your employment unless you have agreed otherwise. However, if you are a freelance writer with a magazine or a government contract, you are usually not considered an employee and you will probably own the copyright in your work. A contract outlining ownership of copyright will provide the greatest certainty for freelancers and independent contractors. Are staff writers on magazines and newspapers considered employees under copyright law? Yes, but such writers have the right to stop the publication of an article if the employer attempts to publish it somewhere other than in a newspaper, magazine or similar periodical. Which is better: selling or licensing the copyright in my work? The general rule is not to sell your copyright. Each time your work is photocopied, translated, performed in public, or made into a film or play, you, as the copyright owner are the only one entitled t authorize such uses of your work and to be paid for them. Therefore, license your copyright, that is, license those rights which the editor, etc. required with respect to the work, and explicitly retain all other rights (for example, electronic rights). Do I need a contract each time I sell or license my work? The law requires a written agreement whenever you sell copyright in a creation or "grant an interest" by means of a license. Thus, when you give mere permission to publish an article in a newspaper, for example, you do not need an agreement in writing. However, it is always a good idea to have something in writing so both parties are aware of the conditions concerning the use of the copyright Who owns copyright when an author dies? Copyright may be passed on to a person's heirs, either specifically in a will, or as part of the estate of the author. Are there other rights related to copyright which a writer has in his or her work? All authors, even after they have sold or licensed the copyright in their works, retain moral rights. These moral rights give the author the right to claim authorship, remain anonymous or use a pseudonym. Also, authors may restrain any distortion, mutilation or other modification of their work which would be prejudicial to their honour or reputation. Further, authors may restrain any "prejudicial" use of their creations in association with any product, service, cause or institution. Unlike copyright rights, moral rights cannot be assigned or licensed; however they can be waived, that is, the author can agree not to exercise one or all of them. Can moral rights be violae when a magazine article is violated? This is not a likely situation. The distortion or mutilation will be considered as such only if it is judged to be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation. An example of such a situation might be where a screenplay is a distorted interpretation of a stage Can small parts of an article or book be photocopied? Yes, "small portions" may be used without permission of the copyright owner if for the purposes of private study, research, criticism, review or newspaper summary. However, no court has ever interpreted the amount which constitutes a "small portion." Some speculate that copying an entire one-page poem would be a violation of copyright, whereas copying one page of a 300-page book would not be, unless that one page was the substance of the whole book. How can I know when my works are photocopied in schools, businesses It is next to impossible for authors to be aware of every photocopy being made of their work. However, there are associations of copyright holders, known as "collectives", which collect money for photocopying and distribute the money to its copyright holder members. The collective for the reprography of English-language materials is CANCOPY at 6 Adelaide Street East, Suite 900, Toronto, Ontario MSC 1H6. The telephone number is (416) 868-1620 or 1- 800-893-5777; the fax is (416) 868-1621; and E-mail is admin@CANCOPY.com. This article does not constitute legal advice. Should you have any concerns about your rights, contact a lawyer. Lesley Ellen Harris is a Copyright & New Media Lawyer and author of the book "Canadian Copyright Law" (2nd. ed., 1995, McGraw-Hill) -- see http://www.mcgrawhill.ca/copyrightlaw. Ms. Harris can be contacted at tel. 416.226.6768 and by E-mail at Rages Over Electronic Publishing Rights Rights (and Wrongs) It's Worth Publishing, It's Worth Paying For and documentation: When not to worry Sources, 489 College Street, Suite 201, Toronto, ON M6G 1L9. Phone: (416) 964-7799 FAX: (416) 964-8763 Include yourself in Sources Mailing Lists and Media Names & Numbers Names & Number

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http://www.sources.com/SSR/Docs/SSR39-1-CopyrightTutorial.htm

2013-06-19T06:36:58Z

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en

Every society has to prepare its young people for a place in adult life and teach them societal values through a process called education. Function of Education Education is an important agent of socialization and encourages social integration, especially in countries with diverse populations, such as the United States. Through their schools, students from a variety of cultural backgrounds come into contact with mainstream culture. The vast majority of the children in the United States attend public schools, but these schools are far from equal. Public schools located in affluent, predominantly white, suburban areas tend to have more modern facilities and smaller class sizes than schools in urban, less affluent areas, which means that economic status often determines the quality of education a student receives. Children whose parents are wealthy enough to send them to private school enjoy an even greater advantage. Studies show that graduates of private schools are more likely to finish college and get high-salary jobs than are graduates of public schools.

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http://www.sparknotes.com/sociology/social-institutions/section5.rhtml

2013-06-19T06:23:37Z

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There are two types of Alzheimer’s disease - early start and late start. In early start of Alzheimer’s disease, symptoms first appear before age 60. Early start of Alzheimer’s disease is much less common, accounting for only 5-10% of cases. However, it tends to progress rapidly. The cause of Alzheimer’s disease is not entirely known but is considerate to include both genetic and environmental factors. Prior theories regarding the accumulation of aluminum, lead, mercury, and other substances in the brain leading to Alzheimer have been disproved. The only way to know for certain that someone had this disease is by microscopic examination of a sample of brain tissue after death. The brain tissue shows "neurofibrillary tangles" (twisted fragments of protein within nerve cells that clog up the cell), "neuritic plaques" (abnormal clusters of dead and dying nerve cells, other brain cells, and protein), and "senile plaques" (areas where products of dying nerve cells have accumulated around protein). Although these changes occur to some degree in all brains with age, there are many more of them in the brains of people with this disease. The obliteration of nerve cells (neurons) leads to a decrease in neurotransmitters (substances secreted by a neuron to send a message to another neuron). The correct balance of neurotransmitters is critical to the brain. Early start of disease can run in families and involves autosomal dominant, inherited mutations that may be the cause of the disease. So far, three early onset genes have been identified. Late onset of Alzheimer, the most common form of the disease, develops in people 60 and older and is thought to be less likely to occur in families. Late onset of this disease may run in some families, but the role of genes is less direct and definitive. These genes may not root the problem itself, but simply boost the likelihood of pattern of plaques and tangles or other Alzheimer - related... [continues] Cite This Essay (2011, 01). Alzheimer Disease 2. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 01, 2011, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Alzheimer-Disease-2-555764.html "Alzheimer Disease 2" StudyMode.com. 01 2011. 01 2011 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/Alzheimer-Disease-2-555764.html>. "Alzheimer Disease 2." StudyMode.com. 01, 2011. Accessed 01, 2011. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Alzheimer-Disease-2-555764.html.

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2013-06-19T06:49:25Z

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en

Discusses Texas' strategies to implement the U.S. EPA's rule on regional haze. Topics Under This Category: Overview-Regional Haze Overview of haze-forming pollution and the EPA's Regional Haze rule to reduce haze in national parks and wilderness areas. Regional Haze - Resources EPA documents, links, and contact information related to regional haze, BART, and the CAIR. Regional Haze SIP Appendixes, February 25, 2009 A list of the appendixes for this revision to the State Implementation Plan (SIP) for air quality. Regional Haze: CENRAP/CENSARA Texas belongs to the Central Regional Air Planning Association (CENRAP) and Central States Air Resource Agencies (CENSARA); nine states which work together reducing regional haze. Regional Haze: Rulemaking (BART and CAIR) Rulemaking related to Best Available Retrofit Technology and the Clean Air Interstate Rule to reduce regional haze. SIP Revision: Regional Haze The Regional Haze State Implementation Plan (SIP) revision is the plan Texas must submit to the EPA to show how the state will reduce regional haze in the air to natural background conditions.

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http://www.tceq.texas.gov/airquality/sip/texas-sip/bart

2013-06-19T06:49:44Z

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On June 13, 2010, the New York Times ran a front-page story about the hyping of genomics. Headlined “A Decade Later, Gene Map Yields Few New Cures,” the article asserted that the Human Genome Project, the results of which were announced at a White House press conference in June 2000 and published in detail in February 2001, had yet to deliver on its promise to find the root causes of many common diseases. The genome, the story argued, held more complexity than many scientists had imagined, making it difficult to isolate the functions of the three billion DNA units, or base pairs, whose sequence the project had determined. Other journalists, and bloggers, soon weighed in somberly on the dearth of results from the project, which had taken 13 years and $3 billion to complete. The coverage outraged Eric Lander, who was one of the leaders of the Human Genome Project and now directs the Broad Institute, a leading biomedical-research center that is a collaboration of Harvard University and MIT. “I’d like to see a quote where I ever hyped it,” says Lander. “I’m on record saying this is going to take a long time, and that the next step is to find the basis of disease, and then you have to make drugs. I said this is going to help our children’s children. Going from the germ theory of disease to antibiotics that saved people’s lives took 60 years. We might beat that. But anybody who thought in the year 2000 that we’d see cures in 2010 was smoking something.” Lander cites a long list of technological advances and scientific insights that have come in the project’s wake. The price of sequencing DNA has dropped from hundreds of millions of dollars per person to mere thousands. The number of single-gene aberrations known to cause disease—illnesses that are invariably rare and follow a simple Mendelian pattern of inheritance—has jumped from around 100 to nearly 3,000. The growing list of common diseases that have been traced to multiple genetic variants includes everything from types of blindness to autoimmune diseases and metabolic disorders like diabetes. Studies have linked more than 200 genes to cancer—nearly three times the number that had been known of before. Lander concedes that many features of the human genome have only recently come into clear focus—features suggesting that it’s more of a moving target than was previously thought. Genes, traditionally described as regions of DNA that code for proteins, have long been a main focus of researchers, of course. Recent studies, however, have emphasized the extraordinary power of DNA regions that do not hold the code for a protein itself but, rather, control the on/off switches that direct gene “expression,” or the extent to which that protein is actually produced. An entire world of microRNAs has moved to center stage because of their ability to silence genes. The fledgling field of epigenetics is showing how two organisms with identical genetic sequences can have different characteristics because of heritable non-DNA factors like methyl groups, which are common reactive chemical entities that alter the behavior of genes. Many diseases have now been linked to extra or missing copies of genes, a phenomenon called copy-number variation. Researchers are also paying increased attention to transposons and other mobile genetic elements that can cause mutations, sticking themselves inside genes or deleting them altogether. None of these factors are newly discovered, Lander stresses. But during the past 10 years, features once considered bit players have taken on the status of lead actors, now often commanding as much attention as genes themselves. So indeed, the genome contains far more inconvenient truths than was supposed a decade ago. The very idea of what we inherit and what we pass on has changed. Yet it is “the height of silliness,” Lander contends, to suggest that this complexity makes it more difficult to develop diagnostics, treatments, and cures. He gives the example of recent studies that have linked nearly 100 genes to lipid metabolism. One of these, which has a tiny effect by itself, is the target of the statin drugs that many people take to lower cholesterol. That dozens of genes are involved in a problem, then, does not mean you need dozens of drugs to attack it; rather, he says, it reveals that there are dozens of ways to intervene. “All biological science works by collecting the complexity and recognizing it is part of a limited repertoire of events,” he says. “What’s exciting about the genome is it’s gotten us the big picture and allowed us to see the simplicity.” The main challenge today is to catalogue and bring order to what often looks like chaos—a task that is hardly surprising to those who have worked on the genome for years. As Marc Vidal, a geneticist at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, says, “From the mid-1990s, there was a strong sense that just sequencing the genome wasn’t going to be enough.” The increased understanding of the human genome has been driven largely by rapid advances in technology. And the single most profound advance has been in the cost and the speed of sequencing. “The cost dropped by a factor of 10 every year for the last five to six years, so it’s a truly amazing exponential decrease compared to the computer industry,” says Harvard University geneticist George Church, who helped develop many key sequencing technologies. Even with the advances in technology, however, it still costs in the neighborhood of $20,000 to sequence a complete human genome—a lot less than $3 billion, but still a high price tag. And the field’s main strategy for connecting genetic makeup to observable traits—genotype to phenotype—is to compare large numbers of individuals in hopes of identifying the differences that might explain, for example, why one group develops schizophrenia and another does not. During the past decade, genome-wide association studies, which screen many individuals in order to identify genetic variations shared by people with a particular disease, became the standard technique for comparing DNA from large groups of people without the need for complete sequences. These studies have received intense scrutiny: they were the focus of the New York Times article Landers assailed and of many critiques in the scientific literature. The first round of these studies attempted to discover disease genes by focusing on mutations involving variations in a single DNA base pair—mutations that were relatively common, affecting more than 5 percent of the population. The idea is that these common variants, called single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), tend to occur in certain patterns within the genome and get passed down together. Thus, they serve as markers for surrounding DNA: people who share sets of SNPs, which are known as haplotype blocks, should turn out to share the same versions of specific genes. A study called the HapMap project, which looked at more than 200 people from four different populations, established a catalogue of human variation that researchers hoped would allow genome-wide association studies to find everything from genetic factors that make people sick to evolutionary traits in populations. The associations between specific haplotypes and traits did not pinpoint genetic causes but spotlighted small regions on chromosomes—regions that were thought to hold the answers. But it turned out, as Duke University geneticist David Goldstein argued in a critique published in the April 23, 2009, issue of the New England Journal of Medicine, that “common variation is packing much less of a phenotypic punch than expected.” A study on height, Goldstein noted, had found 20 variants that together explained only about 3 percent of the variation found in humans. These sorts of results have led some researchers to scratch their heads about “missing heritability” and the “dark matter” of the genome. A key problem in using genome-wide association studies to search for the genetic roots of disease, Goldstein contended, is that many common diseases might be attributable to a number of rare variants rather than to a few common ones. He also reasoned that these studies will have little relevance in cases where large numbers of genes each make a small contribution to a disease, because “in pointing at everything, genetics would point at nothing.” An essay in Cell a year later by Mary-Claire King and Jon McClellan of the University of Washington in Seattle fired another salvo at the genome-wide association studies. They agreed with Goldstein about the role of rare variants in disease, and they further argued that the same mutation might cause different illnesses in different people, while different mutations might all cause the same illness. Moreover, they wrote, if a mutation is so rare that it’s found only in a few individuals and their immediate families, analyzing thousands of unrelated people will miss the genetic roots of disease. They concluded that the number of genetic pathways to disease is “far greater than previously appreciated.” Such criticisms miss the point, according to geneticist David Altshuler of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, who says the attacks on genome-wide association studies ignore abundant evidence that these studies have uncovered important links to disease. Some studies that tried to tie common variants to common traits found very weak associations, he concedes, but he points to several that revealed relatively large genetic factors in diabetes, heart disease in South Asians, kidney failure in African-Americans, and sickle-cell anemia in Europeans, among other illnesses. Altshuler acknowledges that genome-wide association studies have their deficiencies, but he says that given the cost of sequencing, this shortcut has been a great boon to science. “In 10, 20 years, will you put a drop of blood in a machine and get a perfect sequence, and that’s all you do? Yes,” he says. “In 2010, is that all you should do? Not unless you’re rigid. It costs a lot more to sequence.” Even the complete DNA sequence assembled by the Human Genome Project had a critical limitation: each individual harbors much more variation than it detected. We have a diploid genome, with one chromosome inherited from each of our parents. Thus, we have two copies each of 23 different chromosomes, but the Human Genome Project simply sequenced 23 chromosomes—a composite set assembled from several individuals. In 2007, Craig Venter, who led a private sequencing effort that was a leading competitor to the Human Genome Project, worked with Stephen Scherer, a medical geneticist at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto, to sequence his complete diploid genome and found more than four million differences between the chromosomes he inherited from his mother and his father. Extrapolating from this finding suggested that the amount of variation between humans was not 0.1 percent, as the Human Genome Project had estimated, but more like 0.5 percent. “For all studies, you should look at the genome in a diploid context,” says Scherer. “That’s where we need to go.” Over the last decade, researchers have charted many nuanced features of the genome, and they are now fine-tuning sequencing methods and other technologies that will expand their understanding of the genomic landscape. But by and large, the dream of applying that knowledge to benefit human health remains just that. Finding usable medical information amid the huge amount of genomic data is an immense challenge. A variety of different schemes now attempt to make sense of these mountains of data, aiming to catalogue all proteins (the proteome), RNA molecules (the transcriptome), metabolites (the metabolome), and interactions (the interactome). But some researchers argue that it’s crucial to put this vast collection of data in biological context. Sydney Brenner, a scientist at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, and the University of Cambridge in England, takes a particularly harsh view. “This ‘omic’ science has corrupted us,” says Brenner, who won a Nobel Prize in 2002 for leading a project that four years earlier completed the first entire sequence of a multicelled organism, the worm Caenorhabditis elegans. “It has created the idea that if you just collect a lot of data, it will all work out.” Brenner contends that the organizing principle for thinking about the genome can be found in the cell, the basic unit of life. In an essay he published in the January 12, 2010, issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Brenner outlined a project called CellMap, which would catalogue every type of cell in the body and detail how different genetic regions (not genes) behave in each cellular environment. He compared it to a city map that identifies each house, the people who live inside it, and the interactions within and between the houses. “I think we should be doing genetics, not genomics,” says Brenner. “When you do genetics, you are focusing on function. When you do genomics, these are just letters and numbers. Nobody bothers about the connections.” A cell-centric approach is only one possible route to understanding genomic data. But the conviction that DNA sequences and other genetic information won’t be medically useful until they are better connected to biology is a common one among scientists. Instead of starting with DNA and hoping to determine how it leads to complex diseases, they say, the focus needs to be on patients and what, biologically speaking, has gone wrong; then researchers can try to understand the underlying genetics. “Let’s start with the patient and work backward,” says Altshuler. “Something that has profoundly diminished the biomedical impact of [genomic] work is the unquestioned faith that everything can be learned in reductionist approaches and model systems. We need them, but we need substantial investment in studying the human being.” Harvard’s Church agrees that not enough has been done to link genomic data to observable traits. In 2004, he launched a Personal Genome Project that ultimately aims to sequence the DNA of 100,000 people who voluntarily share their medical records and facts about their lifestyles. Without that information, understanding how an individual’s DNA sequence causes or is linked to diseases is problematic, says Church: “It’s a barrier to interpretation. It ends up oversimplifying what has to be one of the most complicated biological problems—how humans work.” Daunting as the challenge has been to uncover the genetic basis of diseases, Altshuler says great strides have been made over the past decade. “The era of mapping genes for diseases is going to be over very soon,” he predicts. “I’m not sure whether it will be five years or 10 years—and I don’t mean we’ll explain all the heritability. But once we’ve sequenced a hundred thousand people or a million, we’ll know what there is to know.” A decade after the completion of the Human Genome Project, scientists are still finding fundamental surprises in the way we inherit diseases (see “The Genome’s Dark Matter” ). Still, despite the unknowns, researchers are beginning to use genome data to unravel one of medicine’s greatest mysteries: how and why a cell turns cancerous (see “Cancer’s Genome”). The gap between the promise of the Human Genome Project and the realization of that promise in the clinic will surely narrow as researchers discern the complex and subtle details of the genomic landscape and the conditions that shape it. That this is taking time should come as no surprise. As Lander says, “When people say the genome is so much more complicated than we thought, you have to step back and say, ‘How simple did you think it would be?’ ” Jon Cohen is an author and science journalist based in San Diego. His latest book is Almost Chimpanzee: Searching for What Makes Us Human, in Rainforests, Labs, Sanctuaries, and Zoos.

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http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/422140/the-human-genome-a-decade-later/

2013-06-19T06:16:52Z

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en

Volunteer corn is not a crop… it’s a weed that grows from grain left in fields after a harvest. Farmers should treat volunteer corn like a weed and manage it early in the season. Three main reasons why volunteer corn should be managed early: - Volunteer corn competes with newly planted crops for nutrients. - Volunteer corn attracts corn rootworms. - If left untreated, volunteer corn could potentially reduce the benefit of crop rotation. Like any weed, volunteer corn competes with the growing crop for nutrients. Volunteer corn is a yield robber! It’s even more competitive with soybeans. Soybean yields can be reduced by populations of volunteer corn at 8,000 to 16,000 plants/acre. Corn yield also can be reduced by populations of volunteer corn of at least 8,000 plants/acre, according to research trials by the University of Minnesota. Another reason volunteer corn is a concern is because it creates a “safe harbor” for corn rootworms. Corn rootworm typically hasn’t been a problem when fields are rotated annually between corn and soybeans because soybeans starve out rootworms that hatch in spring. However, volunteer corn allows rootworm larvae to complete their feeding cycles. In addition to being a food source for rootworm larvae, volunteer corn that is not controlled by tasseling attracts corn rootworm beetles for egg laying. The beetles lay their eggs in the soil around the base of the volunteer corn. The eggs will remain dormant until they hatch the next spring. Bottom line: Higher numbers of volunteer corn can build higher corn rootworm populations for the next growing season. Higher rootworm numbers are especially problematic when those fields are planted to corn the following year in a corn-soybean rotation or in continuous corn.

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2013-06-19T06:48:29Z

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en

What is it? A camp where students will build and study the physics of a life-size Mario Kart: a go kart that uses a real Wii remote to control just about everything. What will you learn? Students will learn about Physical Computing – the use of computers (in this case an Arduino microprocessor and Motion Capture Video) to interact with the physical world. Programming, Electronics, Engineering and Motion will all be explored. 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. daily Ages: High School (entering 9-12 grades) Students will have the opportunity to learn about the construction, design and programming of the LEGO MINDSTORMS® robots. Through a series of hands on training missions, students will learn how to navigate their robot using light, distance and touch sensors to solve increasingly complex problems. The week will end with teams of students competing in a STEM-based competition similar to what they might experience competing in a FIRST LEGO League. Campers will need to bring a sack lunch except on Thursday. 8:30 A.M. to 3:00 P.M. daily Ages: 10-14 years Main Camp Objectives: - Mechanical construction: - Complete construction of a functioning mini-sumo robot. These are autonomous vehicles, designed each to push an opponent off of a 30" circular arena. - Computer programming (IsoMax Forth language) permitted and encouraged, but not required. - All necessary code for effective functioning of the sumo will be provided. - Students with a special interest in code often make significant contributions to the camp through code development and exploration. The camp culminates with a public mini-sumo robot competition, to which parents are invited. Ages: Rising eighth grade through rising high school juniors Cost: $345. Add about $200 for the residential option The Physics Competition (formerly known as Physics Olympics) is a series of six competitive physics events for high school students in grades 9-12. The competition stresses creativity and ingenuity as well as understanding of physics related principles and is intended to stimulate interest in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). Events include: self-propelled catapult, mousetrap car, bridge building, soda straw arm, challenge problem and material recovery facility (MRF). The MRF is sponsored by the Iowa Recycling Association. Christopher Stark, Ph.D., Carnegie Postdoctoral Fellow will present "Finding the Needle in the Haystack: How Exozodiacal Dust May Obscure Images of Extrasolar Earth-like Planets." The Department of Physics will host the UNI/Area Education Agency 267 Regional Physics Competition for high school students. Events include self-propelled catapult, mousetrap car, bridge building, soda straw arm, challenge problem and material recovery facility (MRF). The MRF is sponsored by the Iowa Recycling Association. The College of Humanities, Arts and Sciences is providing lunch and information about programs for participating students and teachers. Regional winners and runners-up advance to the State of Iowa Physics Competition on April 17 at the McLeod Center. Leo Rodriguez, Department of Physics, Grinnell College, will present Black Holes and Quantum Gravity. Paul Shand, department of physics, will present “Magnetic Nano-things.” An object is said to be “nanoscale” if one or more of its linear dimensions is less than 100 nanometers. Examples of nanoscale structures include films, nanoclusters, nanoparticles, nanocrystals and nanotubes. Shand will discuss the physics and applications of magnetism at the nanoscale. Technologies based upon nanoscale magnetism will be discussed as well as current research in magnetic nanostructures at UNI. "Get Prepared for the Future" will be presented by Dr. Guang Jin, Global Manufacturing Engineering Manager at John Deere Waterloo Works.

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http://www.uni.edu/unicalendar/category/department/executive-vice-president-and-provost/college-humanities-arts-and-sciences/physic?mini=calendar%2F2013-04

2013-06-19T06:23:08Z

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en

Who would have believed it? Cleaning up pollution may lead to more hurricanes! We're not sure how this might effect tornadoes, but recent research suggests that cleaning up air pollution from factories in North America and Europe could have helped to cause more disastrous hurricanes in the US in recent years. Since 1995, according to NOAA, severe hurricanes have become much more frequent in the US. It was always assumed that natural causes were behind the temperature fluctuations that lead to hurricanes, but a new study suggests that tiny airborne particles from industrial pollution (as well as from volcanic eruptions), are the more likely culprit. In the April 5th edition of the Financial Times, Pilita Clark quotes climatologist Ben Booth as saying, "Until now, no one has been able to demonstrate a physical link to what is causing these observed Atlantic ocean fluctuations, so it was assumed they must be caused by natural variability. Our research implies that far from being natural, these changes could have been largely driven by dirty pollution and volcanoes. If so, this means a number of natural disasters linked to these ocean fluctuations, such as persistent African drought during the 1970s and ’80s, may not be so natural after all." Come meet all your favorite Dreamland hosts in beautiful, UNpolluted Nashville at our Dreamland Festival in May, where we SPEAK YOUR LANGUAGE.

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http://www.unknowncountry.com/news/heres-irony-cleaning-air-causes-more-hurricanes

2013-06-19T06:24:14Z

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August 26, 2010 CONTACT: Jessica Mikulski Penn Study Sheds Light on How the Brain Transitions Between Sleep and Awake States Under Anesthesia “Neural Inertia” May Explain the Brain’s Resistance to Changes in Consciousness “One major unanswered question in neuroscience is how the brain transitions between conscious and unconscious states,” said senior author Max B. Kelz, MD, PhD, assistant professor of Anesthesiology and Critical Care. “Our results suggest that the brain keeps track of whether it is conscious or offline in an unconscious state. We are working to understand the mechanisms through which the brain accomplishes this feat. Studying general anesthetics in animal models offers a controllable means to investigate this newly recognized behavioral barrier that separates conscious from unconscious states.” Induction of anesthesia is commonly attributed to drug-induced modifications of neuronal function, whereas emergence from anesthesia has been thought to occur passively, with the elimination of the anesthetic from sites in the central nervous system (CNS). If this were true, then CNS anesthetic concentrations on induction and emergence would be indistinguishable. However, by generating anesthetic dose response data in both fruit flies and mice, the researchers demonstrated that the forward and reverse paths through which anesthetic-induced unconsciousness arises and dissipates are not identical. Instead the animal subjects exhibited a delay in return to a state of consciousness despite the reduced concentration of the anesthetic. The researchers observed that once a group of animal subjects underwent a transition from wakefulness to anesthetic-induced unconsciousness, the subjects exhibited resistance to the return of the wakeful state. Based on their findings, the authors propose a fundamental and biologically conserved state, which they call neural inertia, a tendency of the CNS to resist transitions between consciousness and unconsciousness. “The findings from this study may provide insights into the regulation of sleep as well as states in which return of consciousness is pathologically impaired such as some types of coma,” said Kelz. “This line of research may one day help us to develop novel anesthetic drugs and targeted therapies for patients who have different forms of sleep disorders or who have the potential to awaken from coma but remain stuck in comatose states for months or years.” The study was conducted by a collaborative team of researchers from several departments and centers at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine including: Eliot B. Friedman, Department of Medicine, Center for Sleep and Respiratory Neurobiology, and the Institute for Translational Medicine; Yi Sun, Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care; Jason T. Moore, Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care and the Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences; Hsiao-Tung Hung, Department of Medicine and the Center for Sleep and Respiratory Neurobiology; Qing Cheng Meng, Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care; Priyan Perera, Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care; Steven A. Thomas, Department of Pharmacology; Roderic G. Eckenhoff, Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care; and Amita Sehga, the Center for Sleep and Respiratory Neurobiology. Penn Medicine is one of the world's leading academic medical centers, dedicated to the related missions of medical education, biomedical research, and excellence in patient care. Penn Medicine consists of the Raymond and Ruth Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania (founded in 1765 as the nation's first medical school) and the University of Pennsylvania Health System, which together form a $4.3 billion enterprise. The Perelman School of Medicine has been ranked among the top five medical schools in the United States for the past 16 years, according to U.S. News & World Report's survey of research-oriented medical schools. The School is consistently among the nation's top recipients of funding from the National Institutes of Health, with $398 million awarded in the 2012 fiscal year. The University of Pennsylvania Health System's patient care facilities include: The Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania -- recognized as one of the nation's top "Honor Roll" hospitals by U.S. News & World Report; Penn Presbyterian Medical Center; and Pennsylvania Hospital -- the nation's first hospital, founded in 1751. Penn Medicine also includes additional patient care facilities and services throughout the Philadelphia region. Penn Medicine is committed to improving lives and health through a variety of community-based programs and activities. In fiscal year 2012, Penn Medicine provided $827 million to benefit our community.

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http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/news/News_Releases/2010/08/anesthesia-sleep-wake-transition/print.html

2013-06-19T06:42:59Z

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Don't Rule Out Adult-Onset Asthma Approximately 25 million people in the U.S. have been diagnosed with asthma as of 2009, according to the CDC. It is often thought of as a childhood condition, but asthma affects more adults than children. In some cases, asthma may not be diagnosed until adulthood. Asthma is a chronic disease marked by wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing. These symptoms are caused by chronic inflammation of the airways, increased mucus, and thickening and narrowing of the bronchial tubes. Several possible causes What causes adult asthma? No one knows for sure. Higher levels of air pollution, a lack of exercise, and spending more time indoors may be to blame. Experts say that other factors also can increase your risk: Viral infections, including upper-respiratory infections such as colds Family history of asthma Exposure to tobacco smoke or other irritants Aspirin and over-the-counter (OTC), nonsteroidal, anti-inflammatory medications, such as ibuprofen or naproxen, also can cause asthma attacks in some people. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and beta-blockers—both given to treat heart disease and high blood pressure—may make asthma worse. You may have asthma now and not even know it. Coughing or wheezing when you're vacuuming, gardening, or exposed to dogs or cats could be a sign of the condition. Other symptoms may include shortness of breath and tightness in your chest. Even a dry, hacking cough that lingers after what seems to be a mild cold could mean you have asthma. See your health care provider if you notice changes in how you breathe. He or she can determine if you have asthma or another condition with similar symptoms, such as chronic bronchitis. If you do have asthma, you'll probably start treatment for it right away with medication. Your health care provider will probably prescribe a short-acting bronchodilator if you have mild and intermittent symptoms. For moderate or persistent symptoms, your health care provider may also prescribe an anti-inflammatory drug. This may be combined with a long-acting bronchodilator or given as two separate inhalers. An oral anti-inflammatory drug may also be added for moderate or persistent symptoms. Try these tips to help manage your condition and prevent asthma attacks: Make a list of the OTC and prescription medications you already take. Show it to all your health care providers and update it at every visit. Get your treatment plan in writing from your health care provider. It should list your asthma medications and doses and when to take them. Learn to use a peak flow meter. It can help you anticipate an asthma attack and adjust your medications accordingly. Avoid asthma triggers, such as smoke, mold, and pollen. Respiratory infections also can worsen asthma. Talk with your health care provider about ways to prevent them. Have the following paperwork on hand in case of an asthma attack: an updated list of your medications and dosages, your health insurance ID card, the name and address of the closest hospital, and the names and phone numbers of your health care providers.

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Disorientation occurs when directions and distances get confused. Happens for users new to a system, or if the system is particularly bland, or low resolution. Also occurs with lots of fast moving strobing, and highly fluid situations. Below, we offer a selection of links from our resource databases which may match this term. Related Dictionary Entries for Disorientation: Resources in our database matching the Term Disorientation: Results by page The brain is built to handle such a 3D world, and employs a number of tricks to counter disorientation. These are tricks we can utilise in 3D spatial simulations, to help minimise disorientation there; but first we have to understand what the brain's tricks are, and how they operate. Industry News containing the Term Disorientation: Results by page A vest being developed by scientists at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) could help people with balance disorders to regain their balance. This could cut short the rehabilitation or balance retraining exercise period, reduce... Researchers at the University of Leeds have found a previously unknown mechanism through which pain is signalled by nerve cells. A discovery that could explain the current failings in the drug development process for painkillers and which m... According to a new review of neuroscientific research, coercive interrogation techniques used during the Bush administration to extract information from terrorist suspects are likely to have been unsuccessful and may have had many unintende... Primates' brains see the world through triangular grids, according to a new study published online Sunday in the journal Nature. Scientists at Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, have identified grid c...

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VIRGINIA KEY, Fla. — A collaborative research team is soon to begin one of the largest hurricane research projects ever undertaken to better understand dramatic, rapid changes in tropical storm intensity that have baffled forecasters for years. Featuring expertise that includes the University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Science, the University of Washington, National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the U.S. Navy, the Hurricane Rainband and Intensity Change Experiment (RAINEX) will study how the outer rainbands and inner eye of a hurricane interact to influence a storm’s intensity. The National Science Foundation (NSF) provided $3 million to fund this study that may shed light on how and why a storm can change in strength in only a matter of hours. “While great progress has been made in forecasting hurricane tracks, we need to improve in forecasting hurricane intensity,” said Steve Nelson, director of NSF’s physical and dynamic meteorology program, which funded RAINEX. “There are many factors that affect the intensity of hurricanes. RAINEX will investigate one of those factors: the interactions between hurricane rainbands and the eyewall. From RAINEX, we will better understand the impact of rainbands on a hurricane’s maximum winds.” While researchers have studied the eye and outer rainbands of hurricanes extensively, “few, if any, experiments have ever examined these two components together and how their interaction might affect a storm’s strength,” said Dr. Shuyi Chen, an associate professor of meteorology and physical oceanography at Rosenstiel School and a project principal investigator. “The outer bands of a hurricane often have strong winds and lots of rain, and that can actually affect the overall intensity of a hurricane.” RAINEX will study this interaction using data recorded from hurricane research flights. Beginning Aug. 15 through the remainder of this year’s Atlantic hurricane season, two NOAA P3 aircraft, along with a U.S. Navy P3 aircraft will fly simultaneously into hurricanes well before they threaten landfall. Flying in the hurricane’s outer bands and punching into the eyewall on most flights, the aircraft will use sophisticated Doppler radar and GPS dropsondes to record wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, and other critical data. The University of Washington and NCAR will provide expertise in airborne Doppler radar analysis. Rosenstiel School will construct a state-of-the-art hurricane model using the data collected from the research flights. “National Science Foundation funding allows the Navy aircraft to be added to the research. It will play a key role by observing the outer part of the storm while the other two aircraft observe the inner part,” said Dr. Robert A. Houze Jr., a professor in atmospheric sciences at the University of Washington and a principal investigator. “Ideally, we’ll obtain a physical explanation of a hurricane’s intensity change in terms of the relationship between the inner and outer parts of the storm. These storms can jump up in intensity or drop a full category in a day, and the intensity changes are a big challenge.” Much of what scientists currently know about the interaction between the outer rainbands and the eyewall of a hurricane comes from the state-of-the-art numerical models developed for hurricane research and prediction, which can provide very detailed information but may not be completely accurate. But what researchers need is solid data to validate these models. One of the breakthrough aspects of RAINEX is the use of the three Doppler radar-equipped aircraft. Although eyewall flights are a routine part of hurricane research, this is the first field study to include simultaneous flights in and near rainbands. NCAR’s Wen-Chau Lee will be the lead scientist for the Naval Research Lab’s P-3 as it profiles rainbands. Dropsonde sensors will measure temperature and wind as the instrument falls from the plane through a storm. On most flights, the ELDORA Doppler radar will collect data as a P-3 circles rainbands from six miles away, with occasional flights through a rainband, as needed. “My main interest is in the rainband structure,” Lee said. “These flights can be turbulent, especially when we’re penetrating the rainbands. I think that’s the wild card – the challenge of the experiment — to capture internal rainband structure and its interactions with the eyewall in those conditions.” Once the data are collected, the researchers will assimilate them into hurricane models to gain a better sense of whether the storm’s circulation speeds up or slows down as rainbands wrap around the hurricane. Additionally, the researchers will share this information with hurricane operational centers and national environmental prediction centers around the world. “We look forward to working with our colleagues from the Universities of Washington and Miami and NCAR during the next phase of NOAA’s Intensity Forecasting Experiment,” said Robert Rogers, field program director for NOAA’s Hurricane Research Division. “Having the U.S. Navy P-3 fly with the NOAA P-3s will expand the area covered by airborne Doppler radar to include the rainbands as well as the inner core. This data will improve our understanding of intensity change and contribute toward the development and evaluation of the next generation operational hurricane model.” # # # Ivy Kupec, Communications Director University of Miami Rosenstiel School 305-421-4704 (o) 305-984-7107 (m) Robert Houze, Atmospheric Sciences Professor University of Washington, Seattle Vince Stricherz, Science Writer University of Washington, Seattle Erica Rule, Atmospheric & Oceanic Research Lab National Science Foundation Public Affairs Office Naval Research Laboratory

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March 7, 2013 Following the largest study ever conducted on the forest elephant in Central Africa, conservationists say the species could vanish within the next decade. The study comes as 178 countries gather in Bangkok to discuss wildlife trade issues, including poaching and ivory smuggling. August 17, 2011 In the rainforests of Central Africa, hunters are finding their way into once inaccessible terrain, spelling disaster for forest elephants. December 23, 2009 Noelle and Darwinia, two leatherback sea turtles from Gabon, are now wearing satellite tracking devices as they swim through the seas, aiding researchers studying the species' movements. Interested members of the public can also keep up with the turtles progress online. May 18, 2009 Scientists discover the world’s largest nesting population of leatherback sea turtles on the beaches of Gabon. The finding offers new hope for the future of this endangered species. October 27, 2008 Poorly planned roads, which are spreading across Central African wilderness areas, attract poachers and cause fear and death among forest elephants.

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Texcoco Lake is part of the Mexico Valley hydrologic basin located in the center of the Neovolcanic Axis that crosses the national territory from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico. The area has an extension of 10,000 hectares (24,691 acres). Due to the hydraulic management activities taking place in the area, it is currently formed by reservoirs and temporary ponds, mainly: Nabor Carrillo Lake, Recreativo Lake, Xalapango Lagoon, Cuatro Caminos, Charcas de Potreros, and La Cruz. The Federal Government is responsible for the area, administered by a Texcoco Lake Manager within the National Water Commission (CONAGUA), a branch of the Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT). The climate is temperate semi-arid, with warm summers. Minimum rainfall is 460 millimeters and maximum is 600 mm per year, beginning in May and ending in October; the maximum temperature is 32° C between April and June, and from October to March the minimum temperature is close to 0° C. The area receives annually an average of 150,000 migratory birds that travel through the Central Migratory Flyway. To date, 150 bird species have been identified, among them 30 are shorebirds. The area is a key breeding, wintering, feeding, and resting ground for several species of shorebirds. Regarding migratory species, the area holds record counts of up to 40,000 individuals per year of Wilsons´s Phalarope, Phalaropus tricolor. Among the representative resident species are American Avocet, Recurvirostra Americana; Black-necked Stilt, Himantopus mexicanus; Killdeer, Charadrius vociferous, and Spotted Sandpiper, Actitis macularius. Snowy Plover, Charadrius alexandrinus, is not a resident species but it uses the place as a nesting area. During the 17th century, the Texcoco Lake was the most important water body in the Mexico Valley watershed; however it drained until its bed was exposed and consequently degraded to a point of desertification. Since 1971, an environmental improvement program resulted in the ecosystem restoration. This work and the scenic beauty of the place have attracted the attention of different sectors of society, which has been strengthened by an environmental education program directed to the general public. As part of this program, CONAGUA celebrates the Texcoco Lake’s Wild Fauna Day, which takes place the first Saturday of December since 1999. During the event, migratory bird watching visits through the reservoirs, environmental education and outreach activities are carried out. Despite its current condition, ecological and social characteristics, and proximity to Mexico City, the wetlands of Texcoco Lake still are a key area for shorebirds and a representative number of other resident and migratory waterbirds. There are two main types of vegetation in the area: aquatic/sub-aquatic, and halophyte. The latter one is the most widely distributed in the area, and the pioneer species on the emerged lands of Texcoco Lake. This species is well adapted to the predominant conditions, showing tolerance to high soil salinity and frequent floods. Through the restoration work carried out in 10,000 hectares (24,691 acres), several environments have been created, including 6,000 hectares (14,815 acres) of halophyte grasslands prairies of Egagrostis obtusiflora and Distichlis spicata, forested areas with Tamarix spp., and Casuarina spp., shallow ponds and bulrush areas; the other 4,000 hectares (9,876 acres) comprise artificial reservoirs that regulate wastewater, treated water, and rain waters. Aquatic and sub-aquatic vegetation is represented by bulrush species, Scirpus lacustris, S. californicus, S. paludosus, and Typha angustiflora. Most of the shorebirds use the artificial reservoirs and temporary ponds as resting and feeding grounds. So far, 30 shorebird species have been recorded. The species that breed in the area are: Himantopus mexicanus, Recurvirostra americana, Charadrius vociferus, Actitis macularius, which use the shallow ponds. The H. mexicanus population nest on the grassland next to the ponds; R. americana prefers areas with scarce vegetation, and C. vociferus uses sandy and pebble beaches. Charadrius alexandrinus nests on dry soils where the difference in salt colors creates mimetic effects. Phalaropus tricolor is the most representative migratory bird species with annual numbers up to 40,000 individuals. Flora and Fauna It is important to mention that with the environment restoration work there has been a gradual recovery of wildlife species. Among the invertebrates, there are some hemiptera, which traditionally have been used to feed poultry. Among the fish, there is Gyrardinichtis viviparous, a species of ecological importance because it was part of the fauna of the former Mexico Valley lagoon complex. Amphibians are represented by salamanders of the genus Ambystoma spp., and three frog species: Hyla eximia, Rana pipiens, and Rana holecina. Among the reptiles of the area are: Pituophis deppei that inhabits the grasslands, lizards of the genus Scalaris spp., and a water snake of the genus Thamnophis spp. Mammal community is made up of small- and medium-sized species, who live primarily in the grasslands. Rodents are abundant: Microtus mexicanus, Peromyscus maniculatus, and Reithrodontomys megalotis, shrews of the genus Crhyptotis spp., Tuzas of the genus Papogeomys spp. There are also long-tailed weasels Mustela frenata, ground squirrels Spermophilus mexicanus, rabbits Sylvilagus floridanus, and hares Lepus californicus. Disturbances, Impacts, and Threats Illegal hunting, wild dogs, and conversion in land use are among the main impacts and disturbances to shorebirds in the area. Encroachment, due to the surrounding population growth, is a constant threat to the site (past, present, and future). Therefore, CONAGUA Hydraulic Security keeps a 24-hour monitoring service in Texcoco Lake area. Priority management measures for the site include a permanent hydraulic program, maintenance of restored areas, and wastewater treatment, as well as a monitoring program for the birds’ nesting zones. There is also an environmental management program aimed at restoring the vegetation cover through the improvement of saline and sodium soils. Hydrological resource management sustains the wetland system through the construction of hydraulic infrastructure, river channeling to regulate pluvial run-offs, as well as wastewater discharge, and the operation of wastewater treatment plants to ensure enough water for the area. A monthly monitoring program of both resident and migratory shorebirds and waterbirds is carried out by the Texcoco Lake Manager’s Office. Monitoring data have been used as indicators to assess the environmental condition and habitat restoration during the last years. The monitoring shows records of species that were not present few years ago. Additionally, the Environmental Education and Outreach program raise awareness about the area among different sectors of society through several activities such as field trips, bird watching, research support, and outreach material distribution that provides information about the site. Outreach materials like the "Texcoco Lake" poster have been produced with the support of CONAGUA and DUMAC. The poster focuses on shorebirds diversity in the area and the importance of their conservation. The return of wildlife to the area is a measure of the success of the ecological restoration process. Thanks to integral management work it has been possible to establish diverse environments such as grassland prairies, forests, and wetland areas (shallow ponds, deep water bodies, and bulrush areas), which have attracted a diversity of fauna, mainly birds. References and Documents There are several references and documents about the research carried out in the Texcoco Lake area, including general migratory bird information and some specific information about shorebirds, which are listed below: Alcántara, J. L., L. A. Gonzalez Olvera, B. E. Hernández Baños y E. Díaz Islas. 2001. El AICA Lago de Texcoco y su avifauna. Chávez, C. M. T., E. Galicia-Zamora y A. Vega-López. 1991. Biología y uso del hábitat de reproducción en Himantopus mexicanus (Aves: Recurvirostridae) en Ex-Lago de Texcoco. Mem. XI Congr. Nac. de Zool. UADY.Mérida, Yuc. Chávez, M. T., L. A. Huerta y E. Valles. 1986. Evaluación ecológica del estado actual de la comunidad de aves acuáticas del ex-lago de Texcoco. Departamento de manejo de Recursos Bióticos. Comisión del lago de Texcoco. SAR.H. México. 10 pp. Gerencia del Lago de Texcoco. 1996. Estimaciones poblacionales de aves en el Lago Nabor Carrillo. Reporte Interno. Comisión Nacional del Agua. 5 pp. González-Olvera, L A. 1995. Algunos aspectos sobre la biología y ecología de la reproducción del pato mexicano (Anas plalyrhynchos diazi) en el ex Lago de Texcoco. Tesis de Licenciatura. Fac. Ciencias. UNAM.97 pp. Huerta, LA., M. T. Chávez y J. M. Chávez. 1986. Plan de manejo y desarrollo para la conservación y uso público de la comunidad de aves acuáticas del ex Lago de Texcoco. Comisión del Lago de Texcoco. SARH. México, D. F. 22 pp. Loa, E., A. Estrada y E. Carrera. 2006. Propuesta: Programa de Conservación y Manejo para las Aves Playeras en el Lago de Texcoco, Estado de México. DUMAC. México. Valles Rosales Evaristo. 1986. Estudio de Algunos Aspectos de la Ecología de las Aves de Ribera en el Ex Lago de Texcoco. Tesis de Licenciatura. Facultad de Ciencias. UNAM. Valles, E. 1986. Estudio de algunos aspectos de la ecología de las aves de ribera en el ex Lago de Texcoco. Tesis de Licenciatura. Fac. Ciencias. U.N.A.M. 96 pp. Valles, R. E., A. Huerta y M. T. Chávez. 1981 La composición actual de la avifauna del Ex-lago de Texcoco, Mex. Comisión del lago de Texcoco. SAR.H. México. 22 pp. Click on each thumbnail to see a bigger picture. The Texcoco Lake is an Important Bird Area (IBA No. 1), as well as a potentially Important Wetland for shorebird distribution within the National Shorebird Program of Mexico; and it is also contemplated in the CONABIO Priority Hydrological Region No.68. The area comprises resting, feeding, and breeding grounds for several shorebirds. Nabor Carrillo Lake has been recognized as one of most important sites within the Phalaropus triciolor range, which is also the most abundant species in the area. Since 1999, the “Texcoco Lake’s Wild Fauna Day” is carried out on the first Saturday of December, as part of the outreach activities that take place in the Texcoco Lake. During the event diverse stakeholders, including representatives from the government, institutions, educational centers, NGOs, and social organizations, participate in several activities promoting conservation of the area and other wetlands. Additionally, management activities implemented by the Texcoco Lake Manager’s Office are reported to the audience, highlighting the fact that they have favored the habitat restoration for the various bird species that are currently observed in the area. Also, the Texcoco Lake Manager’s Office continuously offers guided tours mainly aimed at students (from primary, secondary, middle, and superior education). This activity fosters the knowledge on the area and the importance of integrated water management. Cooperation agreements, developed and maintained by CONAGUA, are aimed at strengthening the hydro-ecological management and the environmental improvement of the area, which has been undertaken by CONAGUA for several years. These will allow for the continued support of joint activities, such as with DUMAC (www.dumac.org). Pond management is one of the aspects to strengthen, given the larger number of both resident and migratory species using them. The referred actions, considering the proximity of the Texcoco Lake to the largest city in the world, will allow raising public awareness in the medium and long term about the importance of conserving this area for the benefit of the environment in the Mexico Valley. José Heber Marquez Technical Secretary for Lago Texcoco Management Entity National Water Commission (CNA) Ducks Unlimited de Mexico, A.C. (DUMAC) Hydraulics Specialist, Lago de Texcoco Management Entity National Water Commission (CNA) Coordinator, Central Region Ducks Unlimited of Mexico, A.C. (DUMAC)

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This is a colobus monkey. Click on image for full size Courtesy of Corel Photography Tropical Rain Forest Primates Monkeys and their cousins are all primates. Humans are also primates. There are many species of monkey in the tropical rain forests of the world. Monkeys can be divided into two groups: new world monkeys and old world monkeys. New world monkeys live only in South and Central America. Spider monkeys live in the rain forests in the Andes mountains. They look very strange with their long noses. Spider monkeys eat mostly fruit and nuts. They are joined by the howler monkeys. These primates are so named because they have a special sac that makes their sounds louder. Old world monkeys live only in Africa and Asia. The colobus monkey is one such kind. These monkeys eat leaves. They live in small groups of 15, but other primates live in larger groups of up to 200. There are too many species to discuss here, but we can name a few. Chimpanzees, orangutans and gorillas are all called pongids. Gorillas are too big to climb trees, so they are found on the forest floor. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! Learn about Earth and space science, and have fun while doing it! The games section of our online store includes a climate change card game and the Traveling Nitrogen game You might also be interested in: Tropical rainforests are home to thousands of species of animals, plants, fungi and microbes. Scientists suspect that there are many species living in rainforests have not yet been found or described....more This picture of the Earth surface was taken from high above the planet in the International Space Station. In this view from above, we can see that there are lots of different things that cover the Earth....more Like the other creatures of the desert, birds come up with interesting ways to survive in the harsh climate. The sandgrouse has special feathers that soak up water. It can then carry the water to its...more Deserts are full of interesting questions. How can anything survive in a place with hardly any water? Why is it so dry to begin with? You can find at least one desert on every continent except Europe....more You can find insects almost anywhere in the world. So it should be of no surprise that there are plenty of insects in the desert. One of the most common and destructive pests is the locust. A locust is...more There are several species of mammals in the desert. They range in size from a few inches to several feet in length. Like other desert wildlife, mammals have to find ways to stay cool and drink plenty...more Biomes are large regions of the world with similar plants, animals, and other living things that are adapted to the climate and other conditions. Explore the links below to learn more about different biomes....more

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Fungus Inside Us: A New Health Frontier? - 2:13 PM - Categories: Health The big, weird world of creatures inside you may be even bigger and weirder than anybody thought. Fungi are the latest addition to human menagerie, joining bacteria and viruses in forming the teeming, biological kingdom-spanning superorganisms of our bodies. “We were all fascinated with the diversity and sheer mass of microorganisms that live inside our intestines,” said immunobiologist David Underhill of the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center. “So we started asking: What do we know about fungus in the gut?” In a June 8 Science study, researchers led by Underhill and postdoctoral student Ilian Iliev link gut fungus to colitis, an inflammatory bowel disease. While the findings may be presently useful to colitis researchers, the implications are sweeping: Scientists might ask the same questions of internal fungi as they do internal bacteria, the importance of which is now a buzzing research frontier. In the last decade, researchers have linked resident communities of bacteria — which outnumber human cells in a body by 10 to 1 — to diseases and fundamental processes, from diabetes and heart disease to metabolism and immune system function. Even viruses are in on the act. Appreciation of this so-called microbiome represents a sea change in awareness of bacteria: No longer are they external entities that sometimes cause disease, but rather an essential, positive component of human health. Whether fungi also play a part is a question relatively few researchers have asked. A handful of studies have suggested a limited role, primarily in skin and mouth conditions. He and Iliev were intrigued several years ago by population-wide genomics studies that linked a cellular component called CARD9 to slightly higher rates of inflammatory bowel disease. CARD9, the researchers knew, played a crucial role in the immune system’s detection of fungal cells, and mice with CARD9 deficiencies were especially vulnerable to fungal infections. “That got us to ask: How could a signaling molecule involved in antifungal immunity be involved in inflammatory bowel disease? Is there a fungus in there?” Underhill said. The new study represents three years of research on that question. Underhill and Iliev’s team first designed molecular probes to detect fungi in mouse stools. They found hundreds of species and then, to make sure it wasn’t a mouse-specific phenomenon, repeated the search in rats, rabbits, dogs and people. Again and again, they found a wealth of gut fungi. Next they engineered a strain of mice lacking dectin-1, a cellular component that interacts with CARD9 in tagging fungal cells for immune system disposal. With their fungal detection systems haywire, the mice developed severe intestinal inflammation, similar to colitis. “We think the fungus gets into the tissue and isn’t recognized and killed,” Underhill said, and to test this possibility they dosed the mice with an antifungal drug. The mice recovered. Underhill and Iliev then looked at genetic data from hundreds of ulcerative colitis patients seen at Cedars-Sinai. Among people with the most severe afflictions, who could not be treated and required surgery to remove their colons, they found strong links to mutations affecting dectin-1. “I think it makes a pretty strong case that there are common fungi in the gut that are normally non-pathogenic that can cause problems if not properly managed,” said Andrew Gewirtz, an Emory University gut bacteria specialist who was not involved in the study. Underhill warned that the findings haven’t yet been duplicated in another patient group, a necessary step in ensuring the link to colitis. A fungal link to colitis is, however, just a first hypothesis. Underhill and Iliev’s mouse scans found some 200 fungal species, fully half of which had never been described before. Only a few species were present in mouse food, suggesting that fungi are an established part of gut communities. “The paper is great. It raises awareness for the fungal microbiome in the gut that we know is there but somehow is underappreciated,” said Peer Bork, a bioinformaticist at the European Molecular Biological Laboratory. Bork’s own research on gut bacteria has found global patterns analogous to blood type distributions. Whether that holds true for fungi is a now a question to be investigated, along with possible fungal roles in metabolism, immunity and other physiological processes. “People study all that in the context of the gut bacteria, in the context of viruses in our microflora,” Underhill said. “You can map all those questions to fungi.” Citation: “Interactions Between Commensal Fungi and the C-Type Lectin Receptor Dectin-1 Influence Colitis,” by I.D. Iliev; C.N. Reyes; C.A. Becker; M. Dubinsky; D.P.B. McGovern; D.M. Underhill; V.A. Funari; K.D. Taylor; Q. Nguyen; S.P. Strom; J. Brown; J.I. Rotter; P.R. Fleshner at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, CA; H.L. Wang; D.M. Underhill. Vol 336, Issue 6085, June 8 2012.

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2013-06-19T06:18:12Z

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Wondermondo informs you about the most interesting, beautiful, mysterious locations on Earth. Currently described 412 landmarks. The second largest hot lake in the world is Boiling Lake in Dominica - only the Frying Pan Lake in New Zealand is larger. Did you know? Crossection of Vrtiglavica cave with waterfall. Note that the scale is distorted - lower part is "squeezed". Gatis Pāvils, basing on measurements of JDD Koper and other speleologists, CC-BY-SA-3.0 - Arorae navigational stones (Kiribati) are unique megaliths. These standing stones were erected in the late 19th century and served as a navigational aid for islanders sailing towards other islands. - The newest impact crater on Earth is Carancas impact crater in Peru. This 13.5 m wide crater was blasted by 1.6 - 2 m wide meteorite in 2007. - El Mirador, Guatemala. This Mayan pyramid is 72 m tall and its volume exceeds the volume of the largest pyramids in Egypt. - The tallest waterfall in France is Grande Cascade de Gavarnie – Gavarnie Falls. This 422 m tall waterfall forms a magnificent backdrop of Cirque de Gavarnie – the most dramatic landscape in Pyrenees. - The famous Avenue of the Baobabs consists of giant Grandidier's baobabs (Adansonia grandidieri) - rare species, which grows only in the dry forests of western Madagascar. Dysommina rugosa eels in Nafanua Eel City. Alia Expedition Home Page / free for non-commercial educational use. - In the centre of Sahara, in Chad is located active geothermal area - Soborom geothermal field with hot springs. - Chir Batti in India is one of sites with unexplained light phenomena. Sometimes here are observed balls of light floating near the ground level. - The coldest place on Earth most likely is Dome A in Antarctica. Thus far the lowest measured temperature reached here -82.5°C (July 2005) but scientists consider that it might fall even as low as -102°C. Map of the described landmarks This map shows only the "Rank 1" and "Rank 2" monuments. Red dots are architecture monuments, pink - archaeological, blue - geological and meteorological, green - biological. All landmarks are visible on this map! Wondermondo offers an exclusive table where are listed 191 impact structures - all scientifically confirmed impact structures on Earth! Fenruary 18, 2013 Few countries in the world have such visually stunning landmarks as Namibia - it is no wonder that the landscape of Namibia has been used in movies to depict life on other planets. Highlights of Namibia are: - Ecosystems. In Namibia is located the eerie Succulent Karoo Ecosystem with thousands of life forms not met anywhere else in the world. Such plants as Welwitschia mirabilis or Aloe dichotoma create unusual sight which resemble life on another planet. - Cliff formations, canyons. This is characteristic for many desert countries and Namibia is no exception - here are found numerous unusual cliff formations. Some of most impressing are Fish River Canyon and the 700 m tall Spitzkoppe. There are several unique landmarks without analogues - such as the largest piece of natural iron in the world (Hoba meteorite), the largest underground lake, 50 m long crystals and some others. Kubu Island is unusual place: a granite island with giant baobabs and mysterious ruins rising over seemingly endless, white salt flats. June 17, 2013 Step by step the medieval trade town on Island of Mozambique is regaining its former glory. After a century long decay this historical town gains from the economical development of Mozambique and turns into exotic tourist destination. June 10, 2013 BagelBelt, Wikimedia Commons, public domain. The best known natural landmark in Lesotho is Maletsunyane waterfall. It belongs to top-league waterfalls of the world due to its impressive height (192 m), magnificent setting, rather wide stream and "clean", uninterrupted fall. June 5, 2013 Although there are taller waterfalls in Swaziland, the beautiful Phophonyane Falls are the best known. June 2, 2013 The new Sheikh Zayed Mosque testifies the ambitions of Abu Dhabi to become a regional centre of culture and religion. It is one of the most beautiful religious buildings of modern times.

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http://www.wondermondo.com/

2013-06-19T06:30:36Z

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In the aftermath of the December tsunami, we posted a variety of articles about the idea of a distributed emergency alert system. Such a system should be able to work over a variety of media, without being tied to a proprietary network or format. It should be open, so that it could be modified to meet local needs and new requirements. And -- most importantly -- it should be embraced by existing emergency networks and first responders, and not simply serve as an idealized model. Such a system now exists: the Common Alerting Protocol, or CAP. CAP is an open, standardized alert information format usable to collect and disseminate warnings and reports of hazards and disasters, natural or otherwise; it's XML-based, so it's usable on a wide assortment of devices and media. CAP notes, documentation and commentary can be found at the wiki-based "CAP Cookbook." The protocol has been in development since 2001, but the tsunami seems to have accelerated its adoption. The April, 2005, draft of the v.1.1 protocol is available online (PDF). The underlying value of CAP is the standardization of message format: CAP defines a single message format with the essential features to handle existing and emerging alert systems and sensor technologies. This standard format can replace a range of single-purpose interfaces among warning sources and disseminations channels. CAP addresses the concerns about compatibility and operational complexity that have been stifling development. [...] A key benefit of CAP for sending alert messages is that the sender can activate multiple warning systems with a single input. Using a single input reduces the cost and complexity of notifying many warning systems. A single input message also provides consistency in the information delivered over multiple systems. People receive exact corroboration of the warning through multiple channels. This is very important, as research has found that people do not typically act on the first warning signal but begin looking for confirmation. Only when convinced that the warning is not a false alarm, do they act on it. CAP is designed to be compatible with all kinds of information systems and public alerting systems, including broadcast radio and television as well as public and private data networks. Rather than being defined for one particular communications technology, CAP is essentially a "content standard": a digital message format that can be applied to all types of alerts and notifications. The Office of Management and Budget has enjoined all Federal agencies to implement CAP. The U.S. Geological Survey is leading in CAP implementation for the Department of the Interior. Earthquake notifications in CAP format will be available from USGS by the end of June, 2005. CAP messages for landslides and volcanoes will be available by the end of September, 2005. These CAP messages will also be disseminated through a communications link to NOAA's HazCollect system. This allows distribution through NOAA All-hazards Radio and the Emergency Alert System (EAS) in cooperation with the Department of Homeland Security. Although CAP is an open standard, there's no indication that the format has been picked up by emergency services outside of the US. That's unfortunate; this is exactly the kind of technology that should be consistent globally. (Thanks, Art Botterell) I believe that CAP will get international recognition and acceptance, but it will take time. The flexibility of it will help to have a long-live and the chance to be adopted gradually. To have some example ... the EU project MEDSI (see www.medsi.org) incorporates CAP as one of the key vehicles to disseminate messages from and to a decision support system for crisis management and critical infrastructure protection... Could this be used to create a "disease reporting system" (aka epidemiological surveillance or monitoring system) based on community observers or on patients themselves? Imagine a blog where the blogger updates her health situation regarding (preferably non-pandemic) flu. Or, if you want to protect privacy, then report on one or more "proxies" - a teenager might tell about the current flu-state (yes or no) of her grandparents. An agregator could provide estimates that would work like a "sentinel network" - not a physician sentinel network, but a patient (or proxy) sentinel network. Negative information ("no, my grandma does not have symptoms of flu at the moment") would be useful too. Cases / (cases + non-cases). CAP is as redundant as the ARC was. It's a rebranding of the same things that have existed for some time - the question is whether it will ever be used - which is the same problem that ARC had. It's like calling collective intelligence, 'smart mobs'. ;-) Does anyone know where you can get some of the CAP messages from the USGS?

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http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/003065.html

2013-06-19T06:28:12Z

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The World Nature Organization (WNO) is dedicated to the protection of the environment at international level. Its main focus is on energy efficiency, climate protection, sustainable development and a sustainable energy supply. As a platform, the WNO tries to build bridges between business interests as well as development and environmental protection while, at the same time, making the economic value of nature apparent. According to experts, at least two percent of the gross domestic product should be put into green investments in order to achieve the transition to a green economy over the long-term. To achieve this, the WNO is dedicated to making an exchange of ideas – including between science and business – possible through conferences, conventions and information events. Economic growth is threatened by ever-dwindling resources. The struggle for these will strongly influence international competition and the markets of the future. The WNO, therefore, supports the international promotion of an economy which uses energy and raw materials sparingly. Through the WNO, the benefits of green investments should be made apparent. A green economy carries technological innovations and creates new jobs.

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http://www.worldnature.org/about-wno

2013-06-19T06:14:55Z

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During this stage children can become very mobile in the swimming lesson. The child's physical development on land means that they can walk up and down stairs, run, jump, throw and kick balls. This increased coordination means that the propulsive swimming skills start to become more controlled. The child can now combine both the paddling and kicking actions used in swimming. This allows them to swim more efficiently through the water. The child will also be capable of performing water safety and survival skills such as swimming in both the horizontal and vertical plane. Parents and swimming teachers will also notice social and emotional changes in the child as they begin to play realistic games and become interested in interacting with other children. The child will show a strong desire to play independently in shallow water. This water play is important to teach children their boundaries in the water and must always be done under strict adult supervision. While independent play is important to develop a love and respect for the water, to develop a great swimming ability, children must be exposed to repetitive manipulation of the basic swimming skill. Learn how to teach all the required swimming skills to the 18 to 24 moth old child.

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http://www.worldwideswimschool.com/catalog/products.php?cPath=83

2013-06-19T06:49:54Z

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It's World Diabetes Day and researchers have just announced the discovery of new clues about the genetic origins of the disease. A new study reveals that genes on chromosome number 6 are involved in type 1 diabetes, sometimes called juvenile diabetes. The area on chromosome 6 contains MANY genes that are involved in malfunction of the immune system, including juvenile diabetes. In a new study, scientists analyzed 850 sibling pairs from the United States and Great Britain to compare the genes of affected siblings to those of their healthy brothers and sisters. They found that two particular genes, called HLA-A and HLA-B, were involved in the destruction of INSULIN producing cells in the pancreas and accelerating onset of diabetes. Researchers then verified these findings in more than 10,000 other people, suggesting the new genes are a common trigger in type 1 diabetes. Doctors say these two genes provide NEW targets for therapies to fight the disease, including the potential to develop a vaccine that PREVENTS type 1 diabetes altogether. For more information, you can call the following numbers: Case Management Services (Carolina Access Medicaid or Health Choice) 763.0200 Free Screening for Diabetic Eye Disease (Medicaid or no insurance) 763.0200 x114 New Hanover Health Dept Diabetes Education 798.6773 Brunswick Co Health Dept Diabetes Education 253.2336 Pender Memorial Hospital Diabetes Education 259.5451 x306

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http://www.wwaytv3.com/comment/reply/4987

2013-06-19T06:18:32Z

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Public health campaigns have emerged across the country to promote behaviors that can help reduce America’s waistline, but several of these campaigns have been criticized for reinforcing stigmatization of obese individuals. Research shows that stigmatization of overweight and obese individuals can exacerbate health effects already associated with obesity, impair weight-loss efforts, and potentially lead to increased weight gain. In a new study that examined how the public perceives these campaigns, Rudd Center researchers found that campaigns that are viewed as stigmatizing are no more likely to instill motivation for improving lifestyle behavior compared to neutral campaigns. The study was published online in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine and highlights the need for careful selection of language and visual content used in obesity-related health campaigns. Read more. Researchers at the Rudd Center have quantified the number of food and beverage ads viewed by Hispanic youth on both Spanish- and English-language television. Regardless of language, the majority of ads promote nutritionally poor products, such as fast food, sugary cereals, and candy. The study was published in JAMA Pediatrics, and is the first of its kind. Using data obtained from Nielsen, a media research company, researchers examined advertising viewed by Hispanic and non-Hispanic youth in 2010. On average, both Hispanic and non-Hispanic youth saw 12-15 television food ads every day and most of the ads were for fast food, breakfast cereals, restaurants and candy. For Hispanic youth, 75 percent or more of these ads appeared on English-language television. Despite watching similar amounts of television, Hispanic youth viewed fewer food and beverage ads than their non-Hispanic peers because those ads appear less frequently on Spanish-language television. Read more. The New York City Department of Health is appearing before the Appellate Division of the New York State Court today to fight the March ruling that blocked Mayor Bloomberg’s initiative to limit the portion size of sugary drinks. The aim of the measure is to combat obesity through reducing consumption of sugary drinks. A judge called the law arbitrary and beyond the Department of Health’s authority one day before it was set to take effect. “Portion sizes, especially for sugary drinks, have spun wildly out of control over the last 15 years,” said Marlene Schwartz, PhD, Rudd Center Acting Director. “New York City’s effort to limit the sale of sugary drinks to 16 ounces - which is still 2 servings - is a perfectly logical response. The Department of Health is responsible for protecting the health of the citizens they serve. Research shows that sugary drinks contribute to poor diet, weight gain, and the development of type 2 diabetes. Efforts to decrease sugary drink consumption are clearly aligned with their mission.” Schools that implement strong nutrition standards for snacks sold at school increase student meal participation and school revenue, according to a study just published by the Rudd Center and the Harvard School of Public Health. The study, published in the American Journal of Public Health, provides support for efforts to implement strong national nutrition standards for all food sold at school while promoting student participation in the National School Lunch Program. Read more.

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http://www.yaleruddcenter.org/

2013-06-19T06:49:37Z

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(Gaon of Vilna; 1720–1797), Torah scholar, kabbalist, and communal leader. The Gaon of Vilna (known also by the acronym Gra, for Gaon Rabbi Eliyahu) was a spiritual giant, a role model and source of inspiration for generations, and the central cultural figure of Lithuanian Jewry. Eliyahu ben Shelomoh Zalman was born into a rabbinical and scholarly family, and following a short period of study in a heder, studied Torah with his father. At age 7, he was sent to study with Mosheh Margoliot, rabbi of Keydan (Lith., Kėdainiai). Soon thereafter, he began to study on his own, and at 18, left Vilna to go into “exile”—a period of wandering through Jewish communities of Poland and Germany. Upon Eliyahu’s return to Vilna, he shut himself in his house and devoted his energy to Torah study. He continued in this path throughout his life, supported by the local Jewish community. When Eliyahu was 35 years old, Yonatan Eybeschütz, who was suspected of Sabbatian leanings, turned to him, seeking support and referring to him as “one who is unique, saintly, holy, and pure, the light of Israel, possessing all-embracing knowledge, sharp and well-versed, with 10 measures of esoteric knowledge . . . whose praise is recognized in all of Poland . . .” (Eybeschütz, Luḥot ha-‘edut , p. 71). It seems, then, that the Gaon of Vilna had already achieved legendary status during his lifetime. Portico at the entrance to the synagogue of the Vilna Gaon, Vilna, ca. 1930s. (YIVO) Gaon of Vilna held no official office, and served neither as a communal rabbi, judge, nor head of a yeshiva. His standing and authority can best be explained with the help of the designation given to him by his disciples and admirers: “ha-Gaon he-Ḥasid” (the genius, the saint). The term gaon recognized his extraordinary achievements in the study of Torah. His learning encompassed all fields of Torah: the Written Law and the Oral Law, both the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds, the Tosefta’, halakhic midrashim, and works of commentators to the Talmud and of halakhic codifiers. In addition, he mastered kabbalistic literature. The Gaon’s scholarship was extraordinary from a qualitative perspective as well. He recoiled from any demonstration of intellectual acuity as a goal in its own right; instead, he was uncompromising in striving to discover the true meaning of a text. Following the pattern of medieval commentators, he raised questions about the correct reading of Talmudic texts. Rather than deciding between various extant readings, he daringly proposed emendations wherever an existing text appeared faulty. Owing to his fluency in the entire corpus of Talmudic literature, he was able to support his emendations with parallels found elsewhere in rabbinic literature. The designation “Ḥasid” that was also attached to the Gaon honored his moral virtues and mystical qualities. A striking expression of his piety was seen in his severely ascetic lifestyle, entailing his nearly total abstention from worldly affairs and frivolous social contact. The Gaon maintained that avoiding communication was a prophylactic measure to prevent interpersonal transgressions, and that abstention from worldly affairs allowed him to devote time and effort to the service of God, first and foremost, and to the study of Torah. The Gaon’s piety was also expressed in his attitude toward mysticism. He not only mastered kabbalistic literature but also described personal rare and sublime mystical experiences, encompassing migrations of the soul and revelations of magidim (angelic teachers). Even though the Gaon generally refrained from involvement in communal affairs, two instances caused him to veer from this pattern. The first involved a quarrel between the Vilna community and its rabbi, Shemu’el ben Avigdor. The controversy began in the beginning of the 1760s and centered on control of communal institutions and sources of revenue. Here the Gaon joined those who opposed the city’s rabbi, after having been persuaded that the rabbi violated the commandments of the Torah and conducted himself in a morally objectionable manner. The parties to the conflict turned to Polish authorities, whose intervention led to the imprisonment of a number of Jews, including the Gaon. The Gaon is also famous for his role in the struggle against Hasidism. In the late 1760s and the early 1770s, he heard testimony on deviant conduct of people associated with the new Hasidism founded by the Ba‘al Shem Tov. Hasidim were accused of unruly behavior during prayer, of altering prayer texts, and of establishing new prayer groups, thus disassociating themselves from existing synagogues. They were also accused of sinning by neglecting Torah study and of hunting for recruits to their movement among young students. The Gaon particularly condemned three practices: (1) Hasidim were said to turn somersaults prior to prayer, an act of self-abasement that they claimed brought a person to modesty and humility; the Gaon, however, viewed the practice as idolatrous; (2) Hasidim were said to scorn Torah scholars (the Talmud refers to one who scorns Torah scholars as a heretic); and (3) he held that a new, Hasidic interpretation of a passage in the Zohar was a grave perversion of the meaning of the text. Based on these testimonies, the Gaon concluded that Hasidim fell into the category of heretics. Following this ruling, he and the leaders of the Vilna community assembled for an emergency meeting during the intermediate days of Passover 1772, and declared war on Hasidism. Some important Jewish communities answered the call of the Vilna leadership and joined the struggle. It is important to emphasize that this was not merely a conceptual debate. The Vilna community and others that joined it availed themselves of coercive and punitive measures available to them to suppress Hasidim and to seek to eradicate the movement. The organized struggle continued for about three decades. It is difficult to imagine that the Gaon would have decided to fight Hasidism had it not been for the traumatic memory of the Sabbatian movement’s turning into an antinomian sect. More than anything else, he acted under the terrible impression left by the struggle with the Frankists in the 1750s. The Gaon viewed the new Hasidism as an extension of the Sabbatian heresy, and he was determined to fight it to the end. It is not surprising, then, that he totally rejected the attempts by Hasidic leaders to discuss their differences. But the Gaon’s resolute position and the immense authority that he enjoyed throughout Lithuania precluded any possibility of compromise between the Hasidim and their opponents, the Misnagdim, during his lifetime. Viewed in historical perspective, the Gaon’s battle against Hasidism was a failure. Not only did Hasidism not disappear, but in the last third of the eighteenth century it gained strength and continued to spread to new areas of Eastern Europe. In the next generation, Ḥayim of Volozhin, the Gaon’s leading disciple, openly admitted that the Hasidim were not heretics and reconfigured the struggle against them as a conceptual and educational one. In some writings of nineteenth-century maskilim in Eastern Europe, the Gaon is described as a harbinger of the Haskalah. This assertion is based on his positive attitude toward the study of sciences, on criticisms that he leveled against the educational system, and on the fact that he wrote books on geometry and Hebrew grammar. The assertion does not, however, stand up to critical analysis. The Vilna Gaon’s views on science did not, in effect, veer from what was accepted among the traditional scholarly elite. He maintained that such study was vital for a proper understanding of various halakhic issues. As opposed to the maskilim, he assigned no independent value to such study. The Gaon’s criticism of the educational system also linked him to the outlook of scholars of previous generations—first and foremost that of Maharal of Prague. And the “books” the Gaon wrote on geometry and grammar were but notes that he had taken for personal use, rather than works that were intended to spread knowledge. The image of the Gaon as the harbinger of Enlightenment tells us more about the enormous authority that he enjoyed during the nineteenth century—and the need of maskilim to attach themselves to such authority—than about his actual positions. The Vilna Gaon’s books were published posthumously. They include commentaries and emendations to the Bible, the Mishnah, Midrash, the Shulḥan ‘arukh, and to several classic kabbalistic texts: Tikune Zohar, Sefer yetsirah, and Sifra’ di-tseni‘uta. The Gaon’s works on geometry and grammar were also published. But his influence did not result from the dissemination of his writings. More than anything else, it was the Gaon’s image as symbol and example of exceptional excellence in Torah study that established his position in the collective consciousness. As such, the Vilna Gaon continues to serve as a source of inspiration and example. Joseph Avivi, Kabalat ha-Gera: Gilui Eliyahu (Jerusalem, 1992/93); Jacob Israel Dienstag, Rabenu Eliyahu mi-Vilna: Reshimah bibliyografit (New York, 1949); Immanuel Etkes, The Gaon of Vilna: The Man and His Image, trans. Jeffrey M. Green (Berkeley, 2002); Louis Ginzberg, Students, Scholars, and Saints (1928; rpt, Lanham, Md., 1985); Israel Klausner, Vilna bi-tekufat ha-Ga’on ([Jerusalem], 1941/42); Bezalel Landau, Ha-Ga’on he-ḥasid mi-Vilna (Jerusalem, 1966/67). Translated from Hebrew by David Strauss

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2013-06-19T06:34:36Z

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New Discovery ‘will rewrite Stonehenge’s history’ Researchers from Leicester and Wales have shed new light on the origins of bluestones at Stonehenge- long believed to have come from ‘sacred hills’ in Wales. Geologists from the National Museum Wales, University of Leicester and Aberystwyth University, have uncovered new evidence of its origins - which brings into question how the rocks were brought to the Salisbury Plain. One type of bluestone at Stonehenge, the so-called ‘spotted dolerite’, was convincingly traced to the Mynydd Preseli area in north Pembrokeshire in the early 1920s. However, the sources of the other bluestones - chiefly rhyolites (a type of rock) and the rare sandstones remained, until recently, unknown. Now the team of geologists have further identified the sources of one of the rhyolite types, which also provides the opportunity for new thoughts on how the stones might have been transported to the Stonehenge area. Their findings are published in the March 2011 edition of the Journal of Archaeological Science. Dr Richard Bevins, Keeper of Geology at Amgueddfa Cymru, in partnership with Dr Rob Ixer, University of Leicester and Dr Nick Pearce of Aberystwyth University, have been working on the rhyolite component of the bluestones, which leads them to believe it is of Welsh origin. Through standard petrographical techniques combined with sophisticated chemical analysis of samples from Stonehenge and north Pembrokeshire using laser ablation induction coupled mass spectrometry at Aberystwyth University, they have matched one particular rhyolite to an area north of the Mynydd Preseli range, in the vicinity of Pont Saeson. The Bluestones are a distinctive set of stones that form the inner circle and inner horseshoe of Stonehenge. Much of the archaeology in recent years has been based upon the assumption that Neolithic Age humans had a reason for transporting bluestones all the way from west Wales to Stonehenge and the technical capacity to do it. Dr Ixer, who has been attached to the University of Leicester Department of Geology for two decades, said: “For almost 100 years the origins of the bluestones and how they got to Salisbury Plain from Southwest Wales has been matter of great debate but now due to a combination of expertise, abundant material and new techniques it is becoming possible to finally answer those questions. “From the 8,000 samples of rock available, the exciting part was to match the Stonehenge rocks with rocks in the field in order to find their geographical source - this was initially done microscopically. However this is difficult as rocks from every outcrop have to be described and matched and that takes detailed long term knowledge- Dr Richard Bevins from National Museum Wales has 30 years experience of sampling and collecting just these rocks in southwest Wales and once the very unusual mineralogy of some of the debitage was recognised microscopically he was able to identify the source of a major group of volcanics to Pont Season north of the Preseli Hills. “The important and quite unexpected result based on microscopical work needed to be confirmed and this has been done recently based on very detailed mineralogical analysis with Dr Nick Pearce from the University of Aberystwyth. “The first result was the recognition that the huge sandstone Altar stone does not come from Milford Haven but from somewhere between West Wales and Herefordshire and has nothing to do with the Preseli Hills. This calls into question the proposed transport route for the Stonehenge bluestones. “The second unexpected result was that much of the volcanic and sandstone Stonehenge debris does not match any standing stones (so far only 2 stones out of thousands from the debris match)- it may be the debris is all that is left of lost standing stones- it is difficult to see what else it could be. “The third is that the geographical origins for many of the Stonehenge rocks are not from impressive outcrops high on the hilltops but in less obvious places, some deep in valleys.” Dr Ixer said that work already undertaken and more in progress suggests that, unlike the belief of the last 80 years, namely that all of the Stonehenge bluestones were from taken from the top of ‘sacred’ Preseli hills and moved southwards to the Bristol Channel and then onto Stonehenge, most or all of the volcanic and sandstone standing stones and much of the debris at Stonehenge comes from rocks in the low-lying ground to the north and northwest of the Preseli Hills and, if, they were moved by man, then they travelled initially in the Irish sea before heading south and east. “But as ever Stonehenge asks more questions than it answers. These Stonehenge surprises will continue for a few years to come and once again the history of Stonehenge will have to be re-written.” - Ends - Notes for the Editor: The original press release can be accessed here: The paper Stonehenge rhyolitic bluestone sources and the application of zircon chemistry as a new tool for provenancing rhyolitic lithics is published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 38, Issue 3, March 2011, Pages 605-622. Click here to read an expert opinion on this research.

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http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/press-releases/2011/february/new-discovery-2018will-rewrite-stonehenge2019s-history2019

2013-06-19T06:49:36Z

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The impact of air pollution on health also translates in very high medical expenses associated with respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses, absenteeism, lost of productivity and serious damage to other living beings and the environment. In Latin America, the economic cost of the health impacts of air pollution is estimated between 2 and 4% of GDP. It is also important to recognize the efforts carried out to reduce GHG emissions at the local level. Cities are responsible for 70% of the world energy consumption and for more than half of carbon dioxide emissions. Therefore, international agreements arranged by local governments are paramount to reduce global emissions. Recent developments in the international negotiations on climate change should lay the foundations for increased mitigation efforts. Local and national governments in Latin America have signed important international agreements to combat climate change and reduce air pollution. The Cancun Declaration, agreed in 2010 by the Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), represents consensus among most Latin American countries to take mitigation actions. This agreement has defined two mechanisms to facilitate financial and technical transfers that are fundamental to build local capabilities for climate mitigation.

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http://zunia.org/post/clean-air-and-climate-change-mitigation/?no_cache=1&cHash=46c710b090b8032fe5edfac21285d21f

2013-06-19T06:37:05Z

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en

In the action movie "Kill Bill" the lead character goes by a nickname, "Black Mamba." She's a killer: She strikes quickly and fatally — just like her namesake the black mamba snake, the most feared snake in Africa. The mamba is found throughout most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and is incredibly fast, traveling at speeds up to 12 miles per hour. It's also large; the second largest snake in Africa, and aggressive and territorial, characteristics not usually attributed to snakes. The black mamba actually isn't the most deadly snake on the continent; that honor belongs to the Puff Adder Viper, which is also the most common poisonous snake in Africa and has the most contact with humans. But villagers and experts alike fear the intense pain and suffering the mamba inflicts on its victims. Its poison is neuro-toxic. Unlike most poisonous snakes where the venom travels slowly through the blood stream, allowing a victim time to get treatment and to isolate the poison using a tourniquet, the black mamba's poison goes straight for the nerves, attacking the central nervous system and shutting down major organs. Twenty minutes after being bitten you may be lose the ability to talk. After one hour you're probably comatose, and by six hours, without an antidote, you are dead. A person will experience "pain, paralysis and then death within six hours," says Damaris Rotich, the curator for the snake park in Nairobi. "The kind of experience that the person goes through is really horrible." A trained biologist, Rotich has studied the complex effects of snake bites on humans, including the black mamba. In Kenya, Rotich says it's hard to keep official statistics of how many humans die of snake bites each year, but it's estimated that the number is in the tens of thousands. The problem became so severe that the Ministry of Health along with the World Health Organization launched a country-wide campaign five years ago to educate people about snake bites. In rural villages where people are more likely to be bitten, Rotich says education was needed to make villagers understand that traditional, home remedies were not effective, particularly in the case of the black mamba. "There are people who believe that mambas feed on cow milk so they actually go to cow sheds to actually suckle milk to treat the bite," she says. "But if one has been bitten and venom has been injected and no medical intervention, such as administering the anti-venom, is done quickly, for sure that person will die." Snake anti-venom works much like a vaccine, says Dr. Mercy Njuguna, the marketing manager for Sanofi Pasteur, a French pharmaceutical company that manufactures snake anti-venom for primarily Africa. "You need the snake to make the anti-venom" she says. For years each type of snake had its own anti-venom, but health care workers often had problems identifying what type of snake had bitten a victim, leading to precious lag time between the bite and administering the serum, or worse administering the wrong one. In response pharmaceutical companies have developed an all-in-one anti-venom serum for the region. The anti-venom now administered counteracts bites from Africa's 10 most poisonous snakes, including the mamba. "We have 10 anti-venoms in one," says Njuguna. "It saves time and lives." But the process to make the anti-venom serum is a long and cumbersome one.

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http://abcnews.go.com/Health/PainManagement/story?id=4521055&page=1

2013-05-19T19:31:13Z

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en

Women's fundamental contributions in their households, food production systems and national economies are increasingly acknowledged, within Africa and by the international community. This is due, in no small part, to women's own energetic efforts to organise, articulate their concerns and make their voices heard. At both grassroots and national levels, more women's associations have been formed, taking advantage of the new political openings to assert their leadership roles. They are also pressing for an expansion of women's economic and social opportunities, and the advancement of women's rights. By improving their own positions, they are simultaneously strengthening African society as a whole, as well as enhancing the continent's broader development prospects. But women in Africa continue to face enormous obstacles. The growing recognition of their contributions has not translated into significantly improved access to resources or increased decision-making powers. Neither has the dynamism that women display in the economic, cultural and social lives of their communities through their associations and informal networks been channeled into creating new models of participation and leadership. Beyond such political challenges, the material conditions under which most women live and work continue to deteriorate in many countries due to economic and social decline, wars and conflict, and the spread of AIDS. Women constitute the majority of the poor and the illiterate in both urban and rural areas in Africa and many young women between the ages of 15 and 25 have been pushed into sex work and face the risk of HIV/AIDS infection. Among the majority of rural and low-income urban dwellers, women perform all domestic tasks, while many also farm and trade. They are responsible for the care of children, the sick and the elderly, in addition to performing essential social functions within their communities. They seek to manage the environment, although their struggle for survival often results in environmental damage from activities such as fuel-wood collection. Rural women so to speak, provide the backbone of the rural economy in much of sub-Saharan Africa. About 80 per cent of the economically active female labour force is employed in agriculture and women comprise about 47 per cent of the total agricultural labour force. Food production is the major activity of rural women and their responsibilities and labour inputs often exceed those of men in most areas in Africa. Women also provide much of the labour for men's cultivation of export crops, from which women derive little direct benefit. Women are responsible for 70 per cent of food production, 50 per cent of domestic food storage, 100 per cent of food processing, 50 per cent of animal husbandry and 60 per cent of agricultural marketing. Yet they face constraints in access to land. Across Africa, agricultural intensification, population growth and economic change have led to substantive shifts from common property systems of tenure towards more centralised resource control. In the process, women and poorer people generally have lost out. Where land reform schemes have been introduced, they often have displaced complex systems of land use and tenure in which women had certain rights in common law and local practice, if not in legislation. New land titles usually have been registered in the name of a male household head, regardless of women's economic contribution to the household, their customary rights or the increasing number of female-headed households. Labour is also a bottleneck for female farmers, as men have left rural economies in search of more viable livelihoods and women have lost access to male help on farms or the money they may have previously provided.The only means for most women to increase their yields is through even harder work, using more labour-intensive methods to maintain soil regeneration and fertility. Where technical innovations such as irrigation techniques have made more than one cropping season possible, as in many parts of the Sahel, increased women's labour has been crucial in meeting the intensified work demands. Though women have not simply accepted increasing demands on their labour time as examples from rice development schemes in The Gambia, Cameroon and Nigeria have shown, women often have bargained with men to increase what they get in exchange for the labour they expend on family fields. In addition to land and labour, women face problems of access to other inputs, including credit, technology, extension services and agricultural training and marketing. Many credit associations and export-crop marketing cooperatives limit membership to household heads in many countries, thereby excluding most married and unmarried women. Banks demand collateral in the form of landed property and male approval before making loans to women, while men often have been reluctant to support women's applications. Most resources and technical assistance have been channeled to men growing export crops, with improved seeds and tools going to larger commercial farmers, almost invariably men. Only 5 per cent of the resources provided through extension services in Africa are available to women, although, in some cases, particularly in food production, African women handled 80 per cent of the work. As the world therefore honours rural women, our problem-solving equation to these aforementioned problems must hit the ground running otherwise food security would continue to be threathened. As a matter of fact, food security in Africa cannot be assured without improving the situation of women producers. Women have shown themselves to be ready to take advantage of new opportunities. Evidence from a World Bank study in Kenya suggests that if women had the same human capital endowments and used the same production factors and inputs as men, the value of their output would increase by some 22 per cent. Given women's key roles in food production, if these results from Kenya hold for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole, then simply raising the productivity of women to the same level as that of men would increase total production by 10-15 per cent, eliminating a key constraint to food security.

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http://allafrica.com/stories/201210161085.html

2013-05-19T19:51:42Z

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en

Guatemala is, unquestionably, the heart of the Mayan world. Within its territory, the Mayas' greatest cities flourished, centers of commerce and culture for the Meso-American region. The greatest of these, Tikal, attracts thousands of visitors every year, but there are hundreds of other archaeological sites that scientists have not even begun to study. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as its spectacular art, monumental architecture, and sophisticated mathematical and astronomical systems. Initially established during the Preclassic period, many of these reached their apogee of development during the Classic period (c. 250 to 900), and continued throughout the Postclassic period until the arrival of the Spanish. At its peak, it was one of the most densely populated and culturally dynamic societies in the world. The Mayan civilization shares many features with other Mesoamerican civilizations due to the high degree of interaction and cultural diffusion that characterized the region. Advances such as writing, epigraphy, and the calendar did not originate with the Maya; however, their civilization fully developed them. There are 21 Maya languages in Guatemala. Of those, we list in this page the following: Ch'orti', Q'anjobal, Akateko and Jakalteko. In another page: Mam, Ixil, Q'eqchi', K'iche', Tz'utujil, Achi, and Poqomam. Not listed yet in GeoNative: Poqomchi, Itzaj, Mopan, Chuj, Tektiteko, Awakateko, Uspanteko, Sipakapense, Sakapulteko, Kakchiquel, and Poqomchi. There are also several Maya languages in Mexico (as Yucatec and Tzotzil, see this page). The language of the Classical Maya civilisation was of the Cholan sub-family of Mayan languages. Ch'orti' is the present-day Guatemalan language closest to that spoken by the builders of Tikal. The Mayans Culture is considered to be one of the largest culture in the American continent because of their knowledge in sciences, astrology and more. They developed a mayan calendar based on the movement of the planets, the mayas used this calendar to predict future astrological events and now there is a belief that the ending of the mayan calendar in 2012 means the end of the world as we know it. To learn more and to create your own perspective of things you can click here to read more about the year 2012 This civilization was born during the third millennium before Christ, living in a 320,000 square kilometers territory, taking in regions of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize and part of El Salvador. Through the centuries they were able to form a great civilization. the main Mayan tribes gave origin to todays several dialects. This civilization had the power for over 2000 years; from the VI century B.C. to the XV century they lived and formed three periods: Preclassic (Periodo Preclasico) From the 1500’s B.C. to the year 292 A.D.; this was the period where Agriculture began (corn cultivation). Monochrome ceramic, stone carving and the construction of the first buildings in places like Kaminal Juyú, Izapa, El Baúl, Tikal, Uaxactún, Dzibilchaltún are part of this period as well. During this time the Mayans appear in Guatemala, Mexico and Honduras, this period is considered a time of small development. Archaelological evidence suggests the construction of ceremonial architecture in Maya area by approximately 1000 BC. The earliest configurations of such architecture consist of simple burial mounds, which would be the precursors to the stepped pyramids subsequently erected in the Late Preclassic. Prominent Middle and Late Preclassic settlement zones are located in the southern Maya lowlands, specifically in the Mirador and Petén Basins. Important sites in the southern Maya lowlands include Nakbe, El Mirador, Cival, and San Bartolo. In the Guatemalan Highlands Kaminal Juyú emerges around 800 BC. For many centuries it controlled the Jade and Obsidian sources for the Petén and Pacific Lowlands. The important early sites of Izapa, Takalik Abaj and Chocolá at around 600 BC were the main producers of Cacao. Mid-sized Maya communities also began to develop in the northern Maya lowlands during the Middle and Late Preclassic, though these lacked the size, scale, and influence of the large centers of the southern lowlands. Two important Preclassic northern sites include Komchen and Dzibilchaltun. There is some disagreement about the boundaries which differentiate the physical and cultural extent of the early Maya and neighboring Preclassic Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec culture of the Tabasco lowlands and the Mixe-Zoque– and Zapotec–speaking peoples of Chiapas and southern Oaxaca, respectively. Many of the earliest significant inscriptions and buildings appeared in this overlapping zone, and evidence suggests that these cultures and the formative Maya influenced one another. Takalik Abaj in the Pacific slopes of Guatemala, is the only site where Olmec and then Maya features, have been found. This period, from the year 292 to 900 A.D witnessed the peak of large-scale construction and urbanism, the recording of monumental inscriptions, and a period of significant intellectual and artistic development, particularly in the southern lowland regions. They developed an agriculturally intensive, city-centered empire consisting of numerous independent city-states. This includes the well-known cities of Tikal, Palenque, Copán and Calakmul, but also the lesser known Dos Pilas, Uaxactun, Altun Ha, and Bonampak, among others. The Maya participated in long distance trade with many of the other Mesoamerican cultures, including Teotihuacan, the Zapotec and other groups in central and gulf-coast Mexico, as well as with more distant, non-Mesoamerican groups. For example the Tainos in the caribbean, also archaeologists found gold from Panama in the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza. Important trade goods included cacao, salt, sea shells, jade and obsidian. This period can be divided into two stages: The Early Period and The Late Period. The Early Period (periodo temprano) and the LATE PERIOD (periodo tardio). The Early Period goes from the year 292 to the year 650 A.D.; during this time the “teocrático” system governed the society in the Usumacinta, Chiapas, Yucatan, Petén and part of Honduras territories. The mathematic sciences were developed, as well as astronomy, chronology, hieroglyphic writing, ceramic arts and sciences like medicine. This Empire built big cities like PIEDRAS NEGRAS, TIKAL, UAXACTÚN, QUIRIGUA, BONAMPAK, PALENQUE, COPÁN; cities like TIKAL, PALENQUE and COPÁN are the most important ones. The Late Period In this period, the Mayan Culture flourished and it reached its maximum splendor and acme, developing arts, agricultural advances, highly developed numeration system, a solar and religious calendar and also a new sophisticated construction systems for pyramids and buildings. The most important Mayan cities of this period were Tikal, Uaxactún, Piedras Negras, Copán, Quirigua Yaxchilán, Boanampak and Palenque, in the southern area were Kaminal Juyú, and in the northern area cities like Chichen Itza, Uxmal, Xpuhil, Hochob and Labna were the major ones. During the succeeding Postclassic period, development in the northern centers persisted, characterized by an increasing diversity of external influences. like the previous period this has two stages; the "Early Period" (periodo temprano) is the first stage, starting in the year 900 to the year 1250; and the second stage called “Late Period” (periodo tardio) from the year 1250 to 1527 A.D. In this period the Mayan empire decadence began due to influences of foreign groups, these groups began to exercise pressure over the Mayan people, their religion and government, creating wars, which created great disorganization and disintegration for the great Mayan civilization that culminated with the Spanish invasion in 1527. All through the “New Empire” the most powerful cities were: Chichen Itzá, Uxmal and Mayapán. According to historians the origin of this great Mayan Race is still unknown, and not even the exact meaning of their name "MAYA" has been deciphered yet, We also ignore the reason who most of their people disappeared. If they emigrated to faraway lands or unknown directions is still a mystery. The ending of Mayan Civilation For reasons that are still debated, the Maya centers of the southern lowlands went into decline during the 8th and 9th centuries and were abandoned shortly thereafter. This decline was coupled with a cessation of monumental inscriptions and large-scale architectural construction. Although there is no universally accepted theory to explain this “collapse,” current theories fall into two categories: non-ecological and ecological. Non-ecological theories of Maya decline are divided into several subcategories, such as overpopulation, foreign invasion, peasant revolt, and the collapse of key trade routes. Ecological hypotheses include environmental disaster, epidemic disease, and climate change. There is evidence that the Mayan population exceeded carrying capacity of the environment including exhaustion of agricultural potential and overhunting of megafauna. Some scholars have recently theorized that an intense 200 year drought led to the collapse of Mayan civilization. The drought theory originated from research performed by physical scientists studying lake beds, ancient pollen, and other data, not from the archaeological community. El Mirador BasinSource information: Wikipedia.org The Mirador Basin is a geographically defined elevated basin found in the remote rain forest of the northern department of Petén, Guatemala. The basin is dominated by low lying swamps called bajos. The basin is surrounded by rugged karstic limestone hills on the east, south, and to a lesser degree, the western side, forming a triangular geographical trough covering more than 2169 square kilometers. The region belongs to the Maya Biosphere Reserve that represents the last large area of intact tropical forest left in Mesoamerica. Archaeological and environmental studies conducted by the Mirador Basin Project, Directed by Dr. Richard Hansen, previously known as the Regional Archaeological Investigation of the North Petén, Guatemala (RAINPEG) Project, have identified data relevant to the origins and early development of the Maya in this area that is exceptional. The research and development of the Mirador Basin is in close cooperation and collaboration with the Guatemalan Institute of Anthropology and History (IDAEH), the Guatemalan Ministry of Culture and Sports (Cultura y Deportes), the Guatemalan Institute of Tourism (INGUAT), the National Council of Protected Areas, Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas (CONAP), and the Presidency of the Republic of Guatemala. In addition, the project is working closely with community organizations in the department of Petén. The IDB, along with The National Geographic Society, FAMSI, FARES, and the Carlos Novella Foundation, among other private sponsors, have given economic support to the project. During the past two decades, the region has been the object of scientific investigations at the large Middle and Late Preclassic sites of El Mirador, Nakbe, Tintal, Wakna, the recently discovered site of Xulnal, and numerous smaller settlements, dating mostly to the Classic period, such as La Florida, Maaxte, Zacatal, Chan Kan, Tsab Kan, Pedernal, Isla, La Muerta, and La Muralla. Dozens of additional sites are dispersed within the Basin, including several extremely large ones such as Naachtun in the northeast corner which is currently under investigation by a team from the University of Calgary in Canada (Director: Kathryn Reese-Taylor). The primary settlement of the major sites in the basin dates to the Middle Preclassic (ca. 1000 BC-350 BC) and Late Preclassic periods (ca. 350 BC-AD 150), with relatively little overburden from the large scale constructions and extensive settlements that characterized the Classic periods (AD 250-900) of Lowland Maya civilization.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://aroundantigua.com/culture/mayas.htm

2013-05-19T19:36:36Z

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en

The routine feeding of antibiotics to livestock has released yet another thorn into the proverbial side of your food supply. Those antibiotics are being transferred, via manure, into the U.S. food supply. University of Minnesota researchers, in a study funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, evaluated whether food crops accumulate antibiotics from soil covered with antibiotic-containing manure. In a greenhouse setting, corn, lettuce and potatoes were grown on soil that contained hog manure with a commonly used veterinary antibiotic added. The antibiotics were uptaken by all three crops, into both their leaves and tissue. Meanwhile, the antibiotics also transferred to the potato tubers, suggesting that root crops like carrots, radishes and potatoes may be particularly at risk of antibiotic accumulation. Though the researchers said the effects of consuming plants that contain antibiotics are “largely unknown,” it’s thought that the contamination could cause allergic reactions or the development of antimicrobial resistance (which renders antibiotics ineffective). The findings also have implications for organic farmers, who often use manure as their main source of fertilizer. Journal of Environmental Quality July/August 2007, 36:1224-1230 Science Blog July 11, 2007

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2007/07/13/are-there-antibiotics-in-your-lettuce.aspx

2013-05-19T19:30:08Z

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en

A microphone is an example of a transducer, a device that changes information from one form to another. Sound information exists as patterns of air pressure; the microphone changes this information into patterns of electric current. The recording engineer is interested in the accuracy of this transformation, a concept he thinks of as fidelity. A variety of mechanical techniques can be used in building microphones. The two most commonly encountered in recording studios are the magneto-dynamic and the variable condenser designs. In the magneto-dynamic, commonly called dynamic, microphone, sound waves cause movement of a thin metallic diaphragm and an attached coil of wire. A magnet produces a magnetic field which surrounds the coil, and motion of the coil within this field causes current to flow. The principles are the same as those that produce electricity at the utility company, realized in a pocket-sized scale. It is important to remember that current is produced by the motion of the diaphragm, and that the amount of current is determined by the speed of that motion. This kind of microphone is known as velocity sensitive. In a condenser microphone, the diaphragm is mounted close to, but not touching, a rigid backplate. (The plate may or may not have holes in it.) A battery is connected to both pieces of metal, which produces an electrical potential, or charge, between them. The amount of charge is determined by the voltage of the battery, the area of the diaphragm and backplate, and the distance between the two. This distance changes as the diaphragm moves in response to sound. When the distance changes, current flows in the wire as the battery maintains the correct charge. The amount of current is essentially proportioinal to the displacement of the diaphragm, and is so small that it must be electrically amplified before it leaves the microphone. A common varient of this design uses a material with a permanently imprinted charge for the diaphragm. Such a material is called an electret and is usually a kind of plastic. (You often get a piece of plastic with a permanent charge on it when you unwrap a record. Most plastics conduct electricity when they are hot but are insulators when they cool.) Plastic is a pretty good material for making diaphragms since it can be dependably produced to fairly exact specifications. (Some popular dynamic microphones use plastic diaphragms.) The major disadvantage of electrets is that they lose their charge after a few years and cease to work. There is no inherent advantage in fidelity of one type of microphone over another. Condenser types require batteries or power from the mixing console to operate, which is occasionally a hassle, and dynamics require shielding from stray magnetic fields, which makes them a bit heavy sometmes, but very fine microphones are available of both styles. The most important factor in choosing a microphone is how it sounds in the required application. The following issues must be considered: This is a measure of how much electrical output is produced by a given sound. This is a vital specification if you are trying to record very tiny sounds, such as a turtle snapping its jaw, but should be considered in any situation. If you put an insensitive mic on a quiet instrument, such as an acoustic guitar, you will have to increase the gain of the mixing console, adding noise to the mix. On the other hand, a very sensitive mic on vocals might overload the input electronics of the mixer or tape deck, producing distortion. Any microphone will produce distortion when it is overdriven by loud sounds. This is caused by varous factors. With a dymanic, the coil may be pulled out of the magnetic field; in a condenser, the internal amplifier might clip. Sustained overdriving or extremely loud sounds can permanently distort the diaphragm, degrading performance at ordinary sound levels. Loud sounds are encountered more often than you might think, especially if you place the mic very close to instruments. (Would you put your ear in the bell of a trumpet?) You usually get a choice between high sensitivity and high overload points, although occasionally there is a switch on the microphone for different situations. This is the feature that runs up the price of microphones. The distortion characteristics of a mic are determined mostly by the care with which the diaphragm is made and mounted. High volume production methods can turn out an adequate microphone, but the distortion performance will be a matter of luck. Many manufacturers have several model numbers for what is essentially the same device. They build a batch, and then test the mics and charge a premium price for the good ones. The really big names throw away mic capsules that don't meet their standards. (If you buy one Neumann mic, you are paying for five!) No mic is perfectly linear; the best you can do is find one with distortion that complements the sound you are trying to record. This is one of the factors of the microphone mystique discussed later. A flat frequency response has been the main goal of microphone companies for the last three or four decades. In the fifties, mics were so bad that console manufacturers began adding equalizers to each input to compensate. This effort has now paid off to the point were most professional microphones are respectably flat, at least for sounds originating in front. The major exceptions are mics with deliberate emphasis at certain frequencies that are useful for some applications. This is another part of the microphone mystique. Problems in frequency response are mostly encountered with sounds originating behind the mic, as discussed in the next section. Microphones produce a very small amount of current, which makes sense when you consider just how light the moving parts must be to accurately follow sound waves. To be useful for recording or other electronic processes, the signal must be amplified by a factor of over a thousand. Any electrical noise produced by the microphone will also be amplified, so even slight amounts are intolerable. Dynamic microphones are essentially noise free, but the electronic circuit built into condensor types is a potential source of trouble, and must be carefully designed and constructed of premium parts. Noise also includes unwanted pickup of mechanical vibration through the body of the microphone. Very sensitive designs require elastic shock mountings, and mics intended to be held in the hand need to have such mountings built inside the shell. The most common source of noise associated with microphones is the wire connecting the mic to the console or tape deck. A mic preamp is very similar to a radio reciever, so the cable must be prevented from becoming an antenna. The basic technique is to surround the wires that carry the current to and from the mic with a flexible metallic shield, which deflects most radio energy. A second technique, which is more effective for the low frequency hum induced by the power company into our environment, is to balance the line: Current produced by the microphone will flow down one wire of the twisted pair, and back along the other one. Any current induced in the cable from an outside source would tend to flow the same way in both wires, and such currents cancel each other in the transformers. This system is expensive. As I said, microphone outputs are of necessity very weak signals, generally around -60dBm. (The specification is the power produced by a sound pressure of 10 uBar) The output impedance will depend on whether the mic has a transformer balanced output . If it does not, the microphone will be labeled "high impedance" or "hi Z" and must be connected to an appropriate input. The cable used must be kept short, less than 10 feet or so, to avoid noise problems. If a microphone has a transformer, it will be labeled low impedance, and will work best with a balanced input mic preamp. The cable can be several hundred feet long with no problem. Balanced output, low impedance microphones are expensive, and generally found in professonal applications. Balanced outputs must have three pin connectors ("Cannon plugs"), but not all mics with those plugs are really balanced. Microphones with standard or miniature phone plugs are high impedance. A balanced mic can be used with a high impedance input with a suitable adapter. You can see from the balanced connection diagram that there is a transformer at the input of the console preamp. (Or, in lieu of a transformer, a complex circuit to do the same thing.) This is the most significant difference between professional preamplifiers and the type usually found on home tape decks. You can buy transformers that are designed to add this feature to a consumer deck for about $20 each. (Make sure you are getting a transformer and not just an adapter for the connectors.) With these accessories you can use professional quality microphones, run cables over a hundred feet with no hum, and because the transformers boost the signal somewhat, make recordings with less noise. This will not work with a few inexpensive cassette recorders, because the strong signal causes distortion. Such a deck will have other problems, so there is little point trying to make a high fidelity recording with it anyway. Many people have the misconception that microphones only pick up sound from sources they are pointed at, much as a camera only photographs what is in front of the lens. This would be a nice feature if we could get it, but the truth is we can only approximate that action, and at the expense of other desirable qualities. These are polar graphs of the output produced vs. the angle of the sound source. The output is represented by the radius of the curve at the incident angle. The simplest mic design will pick up all sound, regardless of its point of origin, and is thus known as an omnidirectional microphone. They are very easy to use and generally have good to outstanding frequency response. To see how these patterns are produced, here's a sidebar on directioal microphones. It is not very difficult to produce a pickup pattern that accepts sound striking the front or rear of the diaphragm, but does not respond to sound from the sides. This is the way any diaphragm will behave if sound can strike the front and back equally. The rejection of undesired sound is the best achievable with any design, but the fact that the mic accepts sound from both ends makes it difficult to use in many situations. Most often it is placed above an instrument. Frequency response is just as good as an omni, at least for sounds that are not too close to the microphone. This pattern is popular for sound reinforcement or recording concerts where audience noise is a possible problem. The concept is great, a mic that picks up sounds it is pointed at. The reality is different. The first problem is that sounds from the back are not completely rejected, but merely reduced about 10-30 dB. This can surprise careless users. The second problem, and a severe one, is that the actual shape of the pickup pattern varies with frequency. For low frequencies, this is an omnidirectional microphone. A mic that is directional in the range of bass instruments will be fairly large and expensive. Furthermore, the frequency response for signals arriving from the back and sides will be uneven; this adds an undesired coloration to instruments at the edge of a large ensemble, or to the reverberation of the concert hall. A third effect, which may be a problem or may be a desired feature, is that the microphone will emphasize the low frequency components of any source that is very close to the diaphragm. This is known as the "proximity effect", and many singers and radio announcers rely on it to add "chest" to a basically light voice. Close, in this context, is related to the size of the microphone, so the nice large mics with even back and side frequency response exhibit the strongest presence effect. Most cardioid mics have a built in lowcut filter switch to compensate for proximity. Missetting that switch can cause hilarious results. Bidirectional mics also exhibit this phenomenon. It is posible to exaggerate the directionality of cardioid type microphones, if you don't mind exaggerating some of the problems. The Hypercardioid pattern is very popular, as it gives a better overall rejection and flatter frequency response at the cost of a small back pickup lobe. This is often seen as a good compromise between the cardioid and bidirectional patterns. A "shotgun" mic carries these techniques to extremes by mounting the diaphragm in the middle of a pipe. The shotgun is extremely sensitive along the main axis, but posseses pronounced extra lobes which vary drastically with frequency. In fact, the frequency response of this mic is so bad it is usually electronically restricted to the voice range, where it is used to record dialogue for film and video. You don't need a special microphone to record in stereo, you just need two (see below). A so called stereo microphone is really two microphones in the same case. There are two kinds: extremely expensive professional models with precision matched capsules, adjustable capsule angles, and remote switching of pickup patterns; and very cheap units (often with the capsules oriented at 180 deg.) that can be sold for high prices because they have the word stereo written on them. Use of a single microphone is pretty straightforward. Having chosen one with appropriate sensitivity and pattern, (and the best distortion, frequency response, and noise characteristics you can afford), you simply mount it where the sounds are. The practical range of distance between the instrument and the microphone is determined by the point where the sound overloads the microphone or console at the near end, and the point where ambient noise becomes objectionable at the far end. Between those extremes it is largely a matter of taste and experimentation. If you place the microphone close to the instrument, and listen to the results, you will find the location of the mic affects the way the instrument sounds on the recording. The timbre may be odd, or some notes may be louder than others. That is because the various components of an instrument's sound often come from different parts of the instrument body (the highest note of a piano is nearly five feet from the lowest), and we are used to hearing an evenly blended tone. A close in microphone will respond to some locations on the instrument more than others because the difference in distance from each to the mic is proportionally large. A good rule of thumb is that the blend zone starts at a distance of about twice the length of the instrument. If you are recording several instruments, the distance between the players must be treated the same way. If you place the microphone far away from the instrument, it will sound as if it is far away from the instrument. We judge sonic distance by the ratio of the strength of the direct sound from the instrument (which is always heard first) to the strength of the reverberation from the walls of the room. When we are physically present at a concert, we use many cues beside the sounds to keep our attention focused on the performance, and we are able to ignore any distractions there may be. When we listen to a recording, we don't have those visual clues to what is happening, and find anything extraneous that is very audible annoying. For this reason, the best seat in the house is not a good place to record a concert. On the other hand, we do need some reverberation to appreciate certain features of the music. (That is why some types of music sound best in a stone church) Close microphone placement prevents this. Some engineers prefer to use close miking techniques to keep noise down and add artificial reverberation to the recording, others solve the problem by mounting the mic very high, away from audience noise but where adequate reverberation can be found. Stereo sound is an illusion of spaciousness produced by playing a recording back through two speakers. The success of this illusion is referred to as the image. A good image is one in which each instrument is a natural size, has a distinct location within the sound space, and does not move around. The main factors that establish the image are the relative strength of an instrument's sound in each speaker, and the timing of arrival of the sounds at the listener's ear. In a studio recording, the stereo image is produced artificially. Each instrument has its own microphone, and the various signals are balanced in the console as the producer desires. In a concert recording, where the point is to document reality, and where individual microphones would be awkward at best, it is most common to use two mics, one for each speaker. The simplest approach is to assume that the speakers will be eight to ten feet apart, and place two microphones eight to ten feet apart to match. Either omnis or cardioids will work. When played back, the results will be satisfactory with most speaker arrangements. (I often laugh when I attend concerts and watch people using this setup fuss endlessly with the precise placement of the mics. This technique is so forgiving that none of their efforts will make any practical The big disavantage of this technique is that the mics must be rather far back from the ensemble- at least as far as the distance from the leftmost performer to the rightmost. Otherwise, those instruments closest to the microphones will be too prominent. There is usually not enough room between stage and audience to achieve this with a large ensemble, unless you can suspend the mics or have two very tall stands. There is another disadvantage to the spaced technique that appears if the two channels are ever mixed together into a monophonic signal. (Or broadcast over the radio, for similar reasons.) Because there is a large distance between the mics, it is quite possible that sound from a particular instrument would reach each mic at slightly different times. (Sound takes 1 millisecond to travel a foot.) This effect creates phase differences between the two channels, which results in severe frequency response problems when the signals are combined. You seldom actually lose notes from this interference, but the result is an uneven, almost shimmery sound. The various coincident techniques avoid this problem by mounting both mics in almost the same spot. This is most often done with two cardioid microphones, one pointing slightly left, one slightly right. The microphones are often pointing toward each other, as this places the diaphragms within a couple of inches of each other, totally eliminating phase problems. No matter how they are mounted, the microphone that points to the left provides the left channel. The stereo effect comes from the fact that the instruments on the right side are on-axis for the right channel microphone and somewhat off-axis (and therefore reduced in level) for the other one. The angle between the microphones is critical, depending on the actual pickup pattern of the microphone. If the mics are too parallel, there will be little stereo effect. If the angle is too wide, instruments in the middle of the stage will sound weak, producing a hole in the middle of the image. [Incidentally, to use this technique, you must know which way the capsule actually points. There are some very fine German cardioid microphones in which the diaphragm is mounted so that the pickup is from the side, even though the case is shaped just like many popular end addressed models. (The front of the mic in question is marked by the trademark medallion.) I have heard the results where an engineer mounted a pair of these as if the axis were at the end. You could hear one cello player and the tympani, but not much else.] You may place the microphones fairly close to the instruments when you use this technique. The problem of balance between near and far instruments is solved by aiming the mics toward the back row of the ensemble; the front instruments are therefore off axis and record at a lower level. You will notice that the height of the microphones becomes a critical adjustment. The most elegant approach to coincident miking is the M.S. or middle-side technique. This is usually done with a stereo microphone in which one element is omnidirectional, and the other bidirectional. The bidirectional element is oriented with the axis running parallel to the stage, rejecting sound from the center. The omni element, of course, picks up everything. To understand the next part, consider what happens as instrument is moved on the stage. If the instrument is on the left half of the stage, a sound would first move the diaphragm of the bidirectional mic to the right, causing a positive voltage at the output. If the instrument is moved to center stage, the microphone will not produce any signal at all. If the instrument is moved to the right side, the sound would first move the diaphragm to the left, producing a negative volage. You can then say that instruments on one side of the stage are 180 degrees out of phase with those on the other side, and the closer they are to the center, the weaker the signal produced. Now the signals from the two microphones are not merely kept in two channels and played back over individual speakers. The signals are combined in a circuit that has two outputs; for the left channel output, the bidirectional output is added to the omni signal. For the right channel output, the bidirectional output is subtracted from the omni signal. This gives stereo, because an instrument on the right produces a negative signal in the bidirectional mic, which when added to the omni signal, tends to remove that instrument, but when subtracted, increases the strength of the instrument. An instrument on the left suffers the opposite fate, but instruments in the center are not affected, because their sound does not turn up in the bidirectional signal at all. M.S. produces a very smooth and accurate image, and is entirely mono compatabile. The only reason it is not used more extensively is the cost of the special microphone and decoding circuit, well over $1,000. The above techniques work well for concert recordings in good halls with small ensembles. When recording large groups in difficult places, you will often see a combination of spaced and coincident pairs. This does produce a kind of chorusing when the signals are mixed, but it is an attractive effect and not very different from the sound of string or choral ensembles any way. When balance between large sections and soloists cannot be acheived with the basic setup, extra microphones are added to highlight the weaker instruments. A very common problem with large halls is that the reverberation from the back seems late when compared to the direct sound taken at the edge of the stage. This can be helped by placing a mic at the rear of the audience area to get the ambient sound into the recording sooner. A complete description of all of the procedures and tricks encountered in the recording studio would fill several books. These are just a few things you might see if you dropped in on the middle of a session. This provides the engineer with the ability to adjust the balance of the instruments at the console, or, with a multitrack recorder, after the musicians have gone home. There may be eight or nine mics on the drum set alone. The microphones will usually be placed rather close to the instruments. This is partially to avoid problems that occur when an instrument is picked up in two non-coincident mics, and partially to modify the sound of the instruments (to get a "honky-tonk" effect from a grand piano, for instance). The interference that occurs when when an instrument is picked up by two mics that are mixed is a very serious problem. You will often see extreme measures, such as a bass drum stuffed with blankets to muffle the sound, and then electronically processed to make it sound like a drum again. Studio musicians often play to "click tracks", which are not recorded metronomes, but someone tapping the beat with sticks and occasionally counting through tempo changes. This is done when the music must be synchronized to a film or video, but is often required when the performer cannot hear the other musicians because of the isolation measures described above. Recordings require a level of perfection in intonation and rhythm that is much higher than that acceptable in concert. The finished product is usually a composite of several takes. Some microphones are very sensitive to minor gusts of wind--so sensitive in fact that they will produce a loud pop if you breath on them. To protect these mics (some of which can actually be damaged by blowing in them) engineers will often mount a nylon screen between the mic and the artist. This is not the most common reason for using pop filters though: Vocalists like to move around when they sing; in particular, they will lean into microphones. If the singer is very close to the mic, any motion will produce drastic changes in level and sound quality. (You have seen this with inexpert entertainers using hand held mics.) Many engineers use pop filters to keep the artist at the proper distance. The performer may move slightly in relation to the screen, but that is a small proportion of the distance to the microphone. There is an aura of mystery about microphones. To the general public, a recording engineer is something of a magician, privy to a secret arcana, and capable of supernatural feats. A few modern day engineers encourage this attitude, but it is mostly a holdover from the days when studio microphones were expensive and fragile, and most people never dealt with any electronics more complex than a table radio. There are no secrets to recording; the art is mostly a commonsense application of the principles already discussed in this paper. If there is an arcana, it is an accumulation of trivia achieved through experience with the following problems: There is no wrong microphone for any instrument. Every engineer has preferences, usually based on mics with which he is familiar. Each mic has a unique sound, but the differences between good examples of any one type are pretty minor. The artist has a conception of the sound of his instrument, (which may not be accurate) and wants to hear that sound through the speakers. Frequency response and placement of the microphone will affect that sound; sometimes you need to exaggerate the features of the sound the client is looking for. It is easy to forget that the recording engineer is an illusionist- the result will never be confused with reality by the listener. Listeners are in fact very forgiving about some things. It is important that the engineer be able to focus his attention on the main issues and not waste time with interesting but minor technicalities. It is important that the engineer know what the main issues are. An example is the noise/distortion tradeoff. Most listeners are willing to ignore a small amount of distortion on loud passages (in fact, they expect it), but would be annoyed by the extra noise that would result if the engineer turned the recording level down to avoid it. One technique for encouraging this attention is to listen to recordings over a varitey of sound systems, good and bad. Many students come to me asking for a book or a course of study that will easily make them a member of this elite company. There are books, and some schools have courses in recording, but they do not supply the essential quality the professional recording engineer needs, which is experience. A good engineer will have made hundreds of recordings using dozens of different microphones. Each session is an opportunity to make a new discovery. The engineer will make careful notes of the setup, and will listen to the results many times to build an association between the technique used and the sound achieved. Most of us do not have access to lots of professional microphones, but we could probably afford a pair of general purpose cardioids. With about $400 worth of mics and a reliable tape deck, it is possible to learn to make excellent recordings. The trick is to record everything that will sit still and make noise, and study the results: learn to hear when the mic is placed badly and what to do about it. When you know all you can about your mics, buy a different pair and learn those. Occasionally, you will get the opportunity to borrow mics. If possible, set them up right alongside yours and make two recordings at once. It will not be long before you will know how to make consistently excellent recordings under most conditions. Peter Elsea 1996

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The spectra of stars are not simple smooth 'rainbows' of colours, Rather they are punctuated by absorption and emission lines. Spectroscopy is the technique of splitting light (or more precisely electromagnetic radiation) into its constituent wavelengths (a spectrum), in much the same way as a prism splits light into a rainbow of colours. However, in general, a spectrum is generally more than a simple 'rainbow' of colours. The energy levels of electrons in atoms and molecules are quantised, and the absorption and emission of electromagnetic radiation only occurs at specific wavelengths. Consequently, spectra are not smooth but punctuated by 'lines' of absorption or emission. Old style spectroscopy was carried out using a prism and photographic plates. These days, modern spectroscopy uses diffraction gratings to disperse the light, which is then projected onto CCDs (Charge Coupled Devices) similar to those used in digital cameras. The 2-dimensional spectra are easily extracted from this digital format and manipulated to produce 1-dimensional spectra like the galaxy spectrum shown below. These 1-dimensional spectra contain an astonishing amount of useful data: - The precise position (wavelength) at which known emission and absorption lines are detected can be used to measure the redshift of the observed object. For example, if the Hβ (486.2 nm) hydrogen line is detected at 487.8 nm, we calculate that the object has a recession velocity of 1,000 km/sec. Apart from measuring distances, this type of analysis can also be used to detect spectroscopic binaries and extrasolar planets. - The widths of both the absorption and emission lines can be used to measure the internal velocity dispersion of complex objects (e.g. the average velocity of stars within galaxies). This is achieved through measurement of spectral line broadening from which the velocity broadening can be calculated. - Many (indeed most) absorption and emission lines are produced by metals. The depths or heights of these lines can be used to estimate the abundances of the metals responsible. In stars, these also permit the measurement of the temperature and pressure of the stellar atmosphere. In objects such as galaxies, they permit an estimation of age, though the spectra are somewhat susceptible to the age-metallicity degeneracy making this a difficult procedure. - Finally, the overall shape of the spectrum contains clues to many other aspects of the observed population including age and interstellar reddening (extinction). The enormous quantities of information contained within a single spectrum makes spectroscopy one of the most powerful tools at an astronomer's disposal. See also: abundance ratio.

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- An introduction to Diabetes - Audio Interviews and Stories about Diabetes - Some of the experts you can hear in this section - Useful Contacts and links An introduction to Diabetes What is Diabetes? Diabetes Mellitus is a condition where the amount of glucose (sugar) in the blood is too high because the body cannot use it properly. Normally the body produces and uses a hormone called insulin to get the glucose from our food into all the cells of the body where it’s needed for energy. In diabetes this mechanism doesn’t work and the glucose doesn’t get into the cells properly. There are two main types of diabetes. In Type 1 diabetes the body is unable to produce any insulin at all. In Type 2 the body can still make some insulin but either it doesn’t make enough or the insulin which is produced doesn’t work properly (insulin resistance.) There is no cure for diabetes and it can lead to serious long-term complications if it’s not controlled properly. - More than 2.5 million people in the UK have diabetes - More than half a million people have diabetes but don’t know it - Diabetes is the leading cause of blindness in working age people - Diabetes increases your risk of heart attack by up to five times - 85-95% of people with diabetes have Type 2 - There are over 7,000 people with Diabetes living in Barking & Dagenham What You’ll Find out Here Diabetes can cause problems with your eyes, your feet, your heart and your kidneys. It is a serious, long-term condition and there is no cure for it. But these complications can be delayed and even prevented if your diabetes is well-controlled. In these pages you’ll learn from national and local experts and patients what you can do to keep your diabetes well-controlled. You’ll find out about how and why to keep an eye on your blood glucose level. You’ll hear practical information from local experts about how to look after your feet and your eyes. A Barking and Dagenham dietitian will give you a detailed breakdown of how to start managing your diabetes with a healthy diet. And there’s advice on exercise, tablets and insulin as well as practical guides to how diabetes may affect your job, going on holiday and fasting during Ramadan. There’s also a section on where to turn for more information and an introduction to your local support group. Click on the chapters below to listen to the interviews Introduction - Being diagnosed with diabetes is NOT the end of the world! A range of opinions from several of our experts and people with diabetes. Just to show you that diabetes doesn’t need to hold you back. Think positive and take heart from some of these comments. Chapter 1 - What IS diabetes? With Cathy Moulton, Simon O’Neill, Dr. Sarah Jarvis Diabetes occurs because the body can’t use glucose properly. So too much of it stays in the blood instead of getting to the cells where it’s needed for energy. There are two types of diabetes – Type 1 and Type 2! Here is a little bit of science about what is meant to happen and what actually does happen in diabetes. Chapter 2 - Is it serious? With Dr. Edel Casey, Cathy Moulton, Simon O’Neill Diabetes is very serious. It can lead to blindness, amputation, heart attacks and significant problems with your feet and kidneys if it’s not well-controlled. There is no cure for diabetes. But with good control you can delay or prevent the complications. Chapter 3 - Am I at risk? With Dr. Sarah Jarvis, Cathy Moulton, Dr. Khash Nikookam The Exact cause of Type 2 diabetes isn’t yet known but several factors can make developing it more likely. They include being overweight, having a family history of diabetes and getting older. If you are of South Asian or Afro-Caribbean origin you are at least five times more likely to develop diabetes than if you are white. Chapter 4 - The symptoms of diabetes With Simon O’Neill, Cathy Moulton Feeling thirsty all the time? Going to the loo more often? Feeling very tired? Losing weight? There are many symptoms of diabetes and they’re not always obvious. At least half a million people in the UK have diabetes without knowing it! Diabetes UK calls it “The Silent Assassin”. Chapter 5 - Discovering you have diabetes With Dr. Edel Casey, Simon O’Neill, Elaine Whitlock, Cathy Moulton, Dr. Khash Nikookam You may feel angry. You may experience denial or grief. You may feel guilty or resentful. Everyone’s different. There’s no right way to react to finding out you have diabetes. Find out here about some of the feelings you’re likely to experience. Chapter 6 - First steps With Dr. Khash Nikookam, Cathy Moulton, Dr. Edel Casey, Simon O’Neill It can be a big shock being told you have an incurable, long-term condition. But with good management and a healthy lifestyle you can delay or prevent the serious complications of diabetes. All our experts advise taking some time to reflect and finding out as much as you can about your condition. Chapter 7 - Finding out more With Dr. Edel Casey, Dr. Sarah Jarvis, Simon O’Neill If you have Type 2 diabetes you need to look after your health very carefully. The more you know about your diabetes, the better-equipped you are to deal with it. Your healthcare team should be able to point you in the right direction but here’s some advice on useful places to look for reliable information. Chapter 8 - The complications of diabetes With Dr. Edel Casey, Cathy Moulton, Dr. Khash Nikookam, Dr. Felix Burden Diabetes is the leading cause of blindness in the working age population. It is also a leading cause of amputation and of kidney failure requiring dialysis. Here our experts outline the main complications of diabetes but remember – with good control you can delay or even prevent all of them! Chapter 9 - Looking after your eyes With Dr. Felix Burden, Gaynor Mandelson Do you have a thorough eye test each year? If you have diabetes you should have. Retinopathy can lead to blindness if it’s not picked up early. Regular eye tests can help make sure that problems are spotted (and can be treated) as soon as they occur. Chapter 10 - Looking after your feet With Dr. Edel Casey, Dr. Felix Burden, Dr. Khash Nikookam, Carolyn Simms With diabetes you may lose some (or all) feeling in your feet. This can mean you don’t notice when they become burnt or blistered or injured. Ulcers and other problems can develop without you being aware of them. So make sure you check your feet each day. Here’s some practical advice for day to day care. Chapter 11 - Blood glucose monitoring With Emma Day, Jill Hill, Simon O’Neill, Dr. Edel Casey You will probably have your blood glucose level checked by your GP every 2-6 months. But you may want (or be advised) to monitor your own levels. Find out how what you eat and how much exercise you take affects your blood glucose levels. Here’s a simple guide to why testing is important and when you should test more often. Chapter 12 - Using the results of your tests With Simon O’Neill, Dr. Sarah Jarvis, Jill Hill, Elaine Whitlock There’s no point in testing at all if you don’t use the results. Many factors such as what you eat, how you exercise, stress, illness and pregnancy can affect your blood glucose levels. If you can find out what affects your level you can make some adjustments to your lifestyle or medication and gain better control. Chapter 13 - The HbA1c test With Dr. Sarah Jarvis, Jill Hill, Simon O’Neill, Emma Day This test is performed by your doctor or nurse every few weeks or months. It measures the long-term amount of glucose in your blood by checking how much glucose is actually sticking to you red blood cells. It gives a better idea of how good your control has been over a period of about three months. Chapter 14 - Diet and exercise With Simon O’Neill, Pavita Bhachu, Dr. Khash Nikookam, Cathy Moulton The two most important things you can do to keep you diabetes well-controlled. Your initial treatment may also include medication and later treatment almost certainly will. But a healthy diet and regular exercise can play a huge part in managing your condition from the beginning. Chapter 15 - What should I eat? With Pavita Bhachu There’s no special diet for diabetes. But it’s important that your meals are balanced and regular and low in fat, sugar and salt. Diet (with exercise) is one of the best tools you have to control your diabetes and small changes can make a big difference. This is a brief introduction to healthy eating for diabetes based on something called “The eatwell plate”. Chapter 16 - More about carbohydrates With Pavita Bhachu Base your meals around starchy carbohydrates – foods such as wholemeal bread, cereals, rice, pasta, yam, chapatis and potatoes will help to control your glucose levels. Wholegrain varieties are best. High fibre is good. Learn more here. Chapter 17 - More about fruit and vegetables With Pavita Bhachu, Dr. Michael Mead We all know the target is 5 a day. If you have diabetes it’s a little more complicated because fruit contains a lot of sugar. Diabetes dietitian Pavita Bhachu talks here about how much fruit and veg you should be eating. And what exactly is a portion? Find out here. Chapter 18 - More about meat, fish and dairy With Pavita Bhachu Or protein. A brief guide to what to go for and what to avoid. Learn about the value of oily fish and pulses and lentils. And discover what a portion of cheese really looks like. (Small!) Chapter 19 - More about fat With Pavita Bhachu, Joy Black Know the difference between saturated fat and monounsaturated? Know which is better for you? Cutting back on fat is part of a general healthy diet but some fat is better than others. Find out here why pastries, pies and biscuits should be treated with caution and how much fat to use in your cooking. Chapter 20 - A word about alcohol and sugar With Pavita Bhachu There’s no need to give up alcohol just because you have diabetes. Try to stick to general healthy guidelines th ough. That is, 2-3 units per day for men, 1-2 units for women. And you don’t have to cut out cakes completely. Just be careful. Learn here what are the best options. Chapter 21 - The Glycaemic Index With Pavita Bhachu The Glycaemic Index is a way of measuring foods against one another. The GI ranks foods based on their overall effect on blood glucose. It’s not an exact science but it can tell you which foods are broken down slowly (Low GI and good for you!) and which are broken down quickly (High GI and not so good!). Here’s a brief guide to what’s what. Chapter 22 - Eating out With Pavita Bhachu Most people enjoy eating out and having diabetes doesn’t mean you can’t try different types of food such as Indian, Chinese or Italian. Here is some basic advice from diabetes dietitian Pavita Bhachu. Again the key is general healthy eating. Chapter 23 - Keeping active With Dr. Edel Casey, Cathy Moulton, Mari Fantocchi, Dr. Khash Nikookam Exercise lowers your blood glucose level. So it’s important to exercise regularly if you have diabetes. 30 minutes of moderate exercise, at least five times a week, is recommended. It doesn’t mean getting out the lycra and signing up at the gym! Even gardening and hoovering can be exercise. Chapter 24 - Beyond diet and exercise – Tablets and Insulin With Dr. Edel Casey, Dr. Khash Nikookam If regular exercise and a healthy diet alone are not controlling your blood glucose level effectively then you may need tablets or insulin to treat Type 2 diabetes. There are several different types of tablets and several different types and ways of taking insulin. At some stage you are likely to need one or other or both. Remember, it doesn’t mean you’ve failed. Chapter 25 - Hypoglycaemia With Dr. Felix Burden, Simon O’Neill, Dr. Edel Casey If you’re being treated with insulin or some other medications (tablets) your blood sugar level can become very low. If it falls below 4 mmol/litre you have hypoglycaemia (often called “having a hypo”.) It’s usually not serious – but it can be. So it’s important to know what your warning signs are and what to do when it happens. Chapter 26 - Will diabetes affect my work? With Cathy Moulton, Simon O’Neill, Elaine Whitlock Having diabetes doesn’t mean you can’t get or keep a job. But there are some jobs that won’t be open to you. Listen here for some advice about your rights, the Disability Discrimination Act and what to tell your boss. Chapter 27 - Going on holiday With Simon O’Neill, Dr. Edel Casey, Cathy Moulton This section contains useful advice about travel insurance and ID. You can also find out here about packing and storing your medication. Diabetes shouldn’t stop you doing anything as long as you plan your trip carefully. Chapter 28 - Ramadan With Simon O’Neill and Cathy Moulton The Koran requires fasting during the month of Ramadan from sunrise to sunset. People with diabetes do NOT have to fast during Ramadan. Here are a few tips for fasting safely if that is your choice. Chapter 29 - Your healthcare team With Dr. Edel Casey, Simon O’Neill, Elaine Whitlock, Dr. Khash Nikookam, Bill Foulkes When you’re diagnosed with diabetes you’ll come into contact with a range of healthcare professionals. The team will include your GP and practice nurse. You may also be meeting specialist diabetes nurses, dietitians, optometrists (for your eye care), podiatrists (for your feet) and others. You’ll probably see one or two quite frequently and you may form a close bond. Chapter 30 - Your local support group in Barking and Dagenham With Dr. Edel Casey, Elaine Whitlock, Alan Bide, Marian McCullagh, Bill Foulkes The Barking and Dagenham Diabetes Support Group meets on the second Monday of each month at Dagenham and Redbridge football Club. Anyone can turn up and every month there’s a different guest speaker including specialist nurses, dietitians, podiatrists, reps from the blood glucose monitoring device makers and others. Pick up tips and advice on everything you need to know. Sec Elaine Clark 020 8984 8611. Chapter 31 - Structured education With Dr. Edel Casey, Jill Hill, Marian McCullagh Living with diabetes is a lifelong learning process. Structured education is a planned course that should cover all aspects of diabetes. There are several different courses. You are likely to be offered a programme called DESMOND if you have Type 2 diabetes. This is available in Barking and Dagenham. Chapter 32 - Your annual review With Dr. Edel Casey, Simon O’Neill, Dr. Khash Nikookam It’s like your MOT. You should make sure you have your eyes and feet checked at least once a year. Your blood pressure and cholesterol levels should be tested more often. Here’s what you should be making sure you get from your healthcare team. Chapter 33 - Always look on the bright side Some inspirational comments and views from some of the experts and people with diabetes you’ve heard on these pages. Think positive. Some of the experts you can hear in this section Dr. Edel Casey Consultant Diabetologist, King George Hospital Dr. Khash Nikookam Consultant endocrinologist at King George Hospital; clinical lead for Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Barking Havering and Redbridge University Hospitals NHS Trust. Registered dietitian specialising in diabetes, NHS Barking and Dagenham. Nurse Consultant for Diabetes and Diabetes Team Leader, NHS Barking and Dagenham. Chairman of Barking and Dagenham Diabetes Support Group. Diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes eight years ago. Secretary of the Barking and Dagenham Diabetes Support Group. Elaine cared for her husband until he died in 2008 from the complications of diabetes. Senior Podiatrist/Diabetes Lead, NHS Barking and Dagenham. Optometrist, Henry Morgan Opticians, Dagenham. Diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes in 2000 following admission to hospital after a stroke. Lives in Dagenham; diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes in 1999. Director of Care, Information and Advocacy, Diabetes UK; he has Type 1 Diabetes. Consultant Community Diabetologist and Clinical Director, Long Term Conditions, Heart of Birmingham Teaching Primary Care Trust. Dr. Sarah Jarvis GP with interest in diabetes; co-author of Diabetes for Dummies. Diabetes Nurse Consultant, NHS Birmingham East and North. Dr. Michael Mead GP in Leicester; Medical Advisor to the Blood Pressure Association Manages Cardiac rehabilitation Service for Barking Havering and Redbridge, based at King George and Queen’s Hospitals Senior Physiotherapist in Cardiac Rehabilitation at Barking Havering and Redbridge University Hospitals Trust based at King George Hospital Useful Contacts and links - Diabetes Support Group - Meets 2nd Monday of each month (except August) 8.00pm – 9.45pm at: - Dagenham and Redbridge Football Club - Victoria Road - RM10 7XL - Secretary Elaine Clark - 020 8984 8611 - E-Mail: firstname.lastname@example.org - Diabetes UK - Macleod House - 10 Parkway - NW1 7AA - 020 7424 1000 - Careline: 0845 120 2960 open Monday-Friday, 9am-5pm - Diabetes Specialist Nursing Service - Marks Gate Health Centre - Lawns Farm Grove - Chadwell Heath - RM6 5LL - 0208 465 3470 - NHS Barking and Dagenham - The Clock House - East Street - IG11 8EY - 020 8591 9595 - Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation - 19 Angel Gate - City Road - EC1V 2PT - 020 7713 2030

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Spoked wheels have been around for millenia, and have reached a high degree of refinement in bicycle wheels. Bicycle wheels must operate for years with no maintanance, support hundreds of pounds of weight, and be as light as possible. There are a number of possible spoke configurations, but the one that is used on most bikes is the “triple cross” tangential pattern. If you look at bike wheels, the spokes are attached to the hub tangentially, and each spoke crosses another spoke three times, hence the “triple cross”. This tangential spoke pattern was invented by renowned bike designer James Starley, and was patented in England in 1874. When properly made, each spoke has a certain amount of tension on it when unweighted, pulling the hub towards the rim with a force of about 50 pounds per spoke. When the wheel is weighted, by weight pressing down on the axle, the hub tries to move toward the ground. When it is does this, the three spokes directly below the hub become unweighted, and the rim deflects a small amount, about .001 inches. That is about the thickness of a piece of paper. The tire around the rim deflects a good deal more than that. Although the three spokes under the hub are unstessed, the other remaining spokes pull equally on the hub, and prevent it from moving in relation to the rim. As the wheel is weighted and rolled, the rim is thus constantly flexing at the spot under the hub, and the spokes are constantly being unstressed and stressed as they come under the hub. Below is an exaggerated view of the wheel under weight. These spokes appear to cross more than three other spokes because the spokes on both sides of the wheel are shown. Each spoke only touches and crosses three spokes on its side of the wheel. When a rider hits a hard object, such as railroad tracks or a curb, the spokes most likely to break are the spokes that are above the hub and closest to vertical, and they are most likely to break where the spoke head enters the rim hole. The hub basically shears them off the head of the spoke. This information has almost no practical value, but isn’t it fascinating! Of course some sites go into the physics of things like spoke strain and hub deflection, such as Held by Downward Force by John Forester, and Henry P. Gavin’s paper on Bicycle Wheel Spoke Patterns and Spoke Fatigue.

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Saturday, December 27, 2008 A fire door is a type of door, or barrier used as a passive fire protection item within buildings to prevent the spread of fire or smoke which may consist of dangerous chemicals. It is usually the only means of allowing people to pass through a fire-resistance rated wall assembly. Fire doors are made of a combination of materials, such as: * gypsum (as an endothermic fill) Apart from the door leaf (the swinging panel of the door) there is the door frame which also has to meet fire rated regulations, intumescent strips, smoke seals, door hardware and the structure that holds the fire door assembly in place. Together, these components form an assembly, typically called a “doorset” which holds an hourly rating. All of the components of the fire door assembly must bear a listing agencies label to ensure the components have been tested to meet the fire rating requirements. Door hardware includes, but is not limited to: manual or automatic closing devices * door sweeps Edges of a fire door usually need to have fire rated seals which can be composed of: * An intumescent strip, which expands when exposed to heat * Neoprene weatherstripping * Smoke gasketing to prevent the passage of smoke Intumescent seals are crucial in the fire performance of a fire resisting door set and as such the correct seal should always be used as these products differ in chemical composition, expansion rate, expansion volume and charring characteristics. Some fire doors are equipped with internal windows which also have a rating, or have been incorporated at the time of the door test and be subject to the overall door’s product certification. Fire-resistive windows must remain intact under fire conditions and hose stream impact resistance, and can include: * wire mesh glass * liquid sodium silicate fills between two window panes * ceramic glasses * borosilicate glass Wired glass typically withstands the fire, whereas the sodium silicate liquid also acts to insulate heat transfer, due to the endothermic action of this chemical. Fire doors are not necessarily all noncombustible. A fire door is but one of many passive fire protection components used to compartmentalise fire and thus keep it in the compartment of origin, so either it runs out of fuel or it is extinguished, or, at the very least, enough time has been bought to enable evacuation of the building. Fire door failure Fire doors are sometimes rendered unable to provide its listed fire resistance by ignorance of the intended use and associated restrictions and requirements, or by inappropriate use. For example, fire doors are sometimes blocked open, or carpets are run through them, which would allow the fire to travel past the fire barrier in which the door is placed. The door’s certification markings are displayed both on the door leaves and the fire door frames, and should not be removed or painted over. Such neglect is the responsibility of the building owner, who should educate occupants on the safe use of all safety related items, to ensure fire safety and compliance with the fire code. Sometimes fire doors have apparently very large gaps at the foot of them, an inch or two even, allowing air movement, especially in dormitory facilities. This can lead the occupants of a building to question their status as ‘real’ fire doors. Testing of fire doors include a maximum door undercut of 3/4 inch. Corridors have a fire rating of one hour or less, and the fire doors in them are required by code to have a fire rating of 1/2 or 1/3 hr, the intent of which is mainly to restrict smoke travel. Most fire doors should be kept closed at all times, however some are designed to stay open under normal circumstances, only to shut automatically or manually in the event of a fire. Whichever method is used, the door’s movement should never be impaired by a doorstop or other obstacle. Proper intumescent and smoke-seal bounding of fire doors should be routinely checked and ensured, as should the action of the door closer and latch. Some fire doors are held open with an electromagnetic coil, which may be wired to a fire alarm system via relays. If the power fails or the fire alarm is activated, the power to the coil is cut and the door closes on its own. Rated fire doors are tested to withstand a fire for a specified period. There are 20, 30, 45, 60 and 90-minute-rated fire doors that are certified by an approved laboratory (e.g. Underwriters Laboratories). The certification only applies if all parts of the installation are correctly specified and installed. For example, fitting the wrong kind of glazing may severely reduce the door’s fire resistance period. Construction and Installation issues As well as ensuring the door is hung properly and squarely, it is also very important that where a fire door is installed, any gaps left in the opening between the wall and the door frame must be properly filled with fire resisting material. In building design drawings with poor identification of which walls do in fact have a fire-resistance rating, it is often necessary to check the door schedule in the specifications to be able to trace what walls are rated and how long they are rated for. This is an indicative sign about the architect and the degree of care taken particularly with items relating to passive fire protection. To avoid confusion about any fire protection measures including fire doors, it is best for the architect to provide a separate set of drawings that clearly outlines which walls and floor have a fire-resistance rating and exactly what that rating is. It is also important to point out especially which walls are firewalls and which walls and/or floors are designated as occupancy separations, as the nature of passive fire protection devices that must be used in those special cases can be substantially different from such devices that are used in ordinary fire separations. Buy.com is an online retailer based in Aliso Viejo, California. It began by selling computers and electronics in 1997 and has since expanded into many other categories. Initially the company sold items below cost and intended to make up the losses from the sale of advertising and ancillary services like warranties and equipment leases. Buy.com sold $111 million worth of goods and services in 1998, its first full year, beating Compaq’s record for most first-year sales of any company. Founder Scott Blum sold his stake to SoftBank in 1999 for $195 million just before the company first filed to go public. Stock values plummeted in the year following Buy.com’s initial public offering and in 2001 Blum reacquired Buy.com and took it private for 17 cents per share. What got my attention was some of the witty youtube videos floating around promoting buy.com.. They are hilarious.. You are sure to buy something if you see the ads.. Saturday, December 20, 2008 Looks like I may have to go to Hyderabad for a few days.. Business of course.. But I do hope there is scope for pleasure.. Sunday, December 14, 2008 by Stephanie Watson (howstuffworks.com) Their ads claim they can help you “feel more fit,” “boost your energy” and “melt away the pounds.” Who needs diet and exercise when a little pill can erase the weight quickly and easily? With more than 60 percent of Americans now considered overweight or obese, diet drugs have turned into a multibillion dollar industry in the United States. But although diet pills promise a quick fix, can they deliver? Can they help you lose weight? And if so, can they help you keep it off? Weight-loss questions aside, several diet drugs over the last decade have been associated with serious heart problems and other health-related issues, and diet pills have even been linked to a number of deaths. In this article, we will look at the wide variety of diet pills available, find out how they work and what their side effects are and see if they live up to their promises. Diet Pill Varieties Diet drugs are available in several different forms, including prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs and herbal supplements. Prescription drugs such as Meridia and Xenical are only available with a doctor’s prescription. They are carefully regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, and their use is closely monitored by the prescribing doctor. Over-the-counter drugs are available without a doctor’s prescription, right in your local drugstore or supermarket, and are also regulated by the FDA. According to AnneCollins.com, “Products considered by FDA to be over-the-counter weight control drugs [as opposed to dietary supplements] are primarily those containing the active ingredient phenylpropanolamine (PPA).” In 2000, the FDA requested that drug manufacturers voluntary reformulate PPA-containing products in the wake of evidence that phenylpropanolamine can increase the risk of stroke, so there are few diet drugs on the market that still contain this ingredient. OTC drugs also fall under the jurisdiction of the FDA’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Herbal diet supplements are also available without a prescription. You’ll typically find a huge variety of these in health food and nutrition stores as well as in regular supermarkets. Herbal supplements are often labeled “all natural” and are considered by the FDA to be food products as opposed to drugs. As such, they fall under the jurisdiction of the FDA’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition and are regulated differently from OTC drugs. There is also a selection of diet aids that are administered by patch, as a powder or in liquid form. These types of drugs may fall into any of the above categories — it is only the delivery method that is unique. Prescription Diet Pills Different diet pills work in different ways depending on which ingredients they contain. Appetite suppressants such as sibutramine (Meridia), diethylpropion (Tenuate) and phentermine (Adipex-P, Fastin, Anoxine-AM, etc.) affect the appetite-regulating region of the brain called the hypothalamus. They work by blocking the re-uptake of the chemicals serotonin and norepinephrine, which create that feeling of satiety you get after eating a big meal. With more of these chemicals circulating in your brain, you feel full, so you eat less. Prescription fat blockers, such as orlistat (Xenical), inhibit the action of an enzyme called lipase. When we eat foods with fat in them, lipase normally breaks down the fat when it gets to the intestinal tract. With a lipase inhibitor in effect, a percentage of the fat ingested is removed from the body through bowel movements instead of being broken down and absorbed. Many prescription drugs are used as diet aids even though that was not their intended purpose. Some antidepressants are used “off-label” as diet aids because they have been shown in studies to help patients lose weight and keep it off for several months. Researchers are also studying certain drugs normally used to treat epilepsy (topiramate and zonisamide) and diabetes (metformin) for their weight-loss potential. Because diet pills are such a lucrative business, pharmaceutical companies are pushing to introduce more products to the market. More than 100 new weight-loss medications are either in development or in clinical trials as of January 2005. One of the most promising is rimonabant (Acomplia), which acts on a protein in the brain called the endocannabinoids. Endocannabinoids are similar in structure to the active ingredient in cannabis (marijuana) and may be responsible for appetite control. Rimonabant blocks the endocannabinoids from reaching their receptors in the brain. By blocking this protein, the drug reduces food cravings. In clinical trials, one-third of obese people who were given Acomplia lost more than 10 percent of their body weight and were able to keep it off for up to two years. The drug also has a few welcome side effects: It increases HDLs (”good cholesterol”) while lowering triglycerides (a form of fat that is carried in the bloodstream). Acomplia may even help smokers kick the habit. Other promising drugs affect appetite-related hormones. One blocks ghrelin, which the stomach sends to the brain to increase appetite. Another mimics a hormone called PYY, which tells the body it’s full. Who Should Use Prescription Diet Pills? Prescription diet pills aren’t for the person who wants to shed a few pounds to fit into a holiday party dress or tuxedo. Only people who are “obese” (those who are 30 percent over their ideal weight, or have a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 30 or more - or who have a history of high blood pressure or diabetes are good candidates for prescription diet medications, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Even though approximately 16 percent of American children are overweight, most diet pills are not recommended for use by children under the age of 16. The exception is orlistat, which can safely be used by teens 12 and older. If you watch late-night TV, you know that it seems like every other ad is touting the miraculous claims of the latest over-the-counter diet pill. OTC Diet Pills Some over-the-counter pills (such as Xenedrine, Dexatrim and Zantrex-3) once used a powerful combination of the stimulant ephedra and caffeine to help users shed pounds. They reportedly worked in combination by increasing energy expenditure — or thermogenesis (it is thought that caffeine increases metabolism by increasing the breakdown of fatty acids) — and reducing appetite (ephedrine acts on the satiety center in the hypothalamus). But since late 2003, when the FDA banned the sale of ephedra-containing drugs due to evidence of increased risk of heart attack, these formulations have replaced ephedra with a mixture of vitamins (such as thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B-6, folic acid), an ephedra-like substance called synephrine that is found in certain citrus fruits, and caffeine. The combination reportedly increases energy while boosting metabolism. There are many herbal weight-loss supplements on the market today, and they utilize different mechanisms to reportedly aid in dieting. Here are some of the more common ingredients and their reported weight-loss mechanisms: * Herbal ephedra, caffeine, guarana and country mallow - Increase metabolism * Guar gum, glucomannan and psyllium - Cause a “full” feeling * Hydrocitric acid, green tea, conjugated linoleic acid and pyruvate - Slow fat production * Chitosan (or chitin - substance found in the exoskeleton of shrimp and other shellfish) - Block fat from being absorbed So as you can see, there are a lot of diet pills out there, all claiming to help you lose weight in one way or another. But do they really work? And what kinds of side effects can you expect? Do Diet Pills Really Work? Many over-the-counter diet pill manufacturers say their product will help you see miraculous weight loss — like losing up to 30 pounds in 30 days — without diet or exercise. Their claims sound too good to be true, and most of them are. A few pills, especially the newer prescription varieties (such as Meridia and Xenical), have been shown in clinical studies to help dieters shed a few pounds. But the majority of the ads you see on the Internet and TV are for products that are unregulated, untested and unproven. Even the most effective diet pills are only meant to be taken for a short period of time — usually six months or less. During that time, doctor-prescribed weight-loss drugs can trim anywhere from 5 to 22 pounds, or up to 10 percent of your body weight. But after six months, your body develops a tolerance to these drugs’ effects, and weight loss plateaus. After that, if you don’t also follow a healthy eating and exercise plan, the weight will come right back. Side Effects of Diet-pill Use Different diet pills contain different ingredients, so their side effects vary: As fat blockers like orlistat (Xenical) remove excess fats via the intestines, they may cause uncomfortable cramping, gas and diarrhea. Because these drugs also reduce the body’s absorption of essential vitamins and nutrients, people who take Xenical are advised to take a daily multivitamin supplement. Sibutramine (Meridia) and other similar appetite suppressants stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, which can raise blood pressure and heart rate. This increases the risk of heart attack and cardiac arrest, especially among people who already suffer from high blood pressure, irregular heartbeat or heart disease. In fact, between February 1998 and March 2003, the FDA received reports of 49 deaths related to sibutramine. Other, more minor side effects include constipation, headache, dry mouth and insomnia (because the chemicals in these drugs also influence sleep patterns). Herbal diet pills, even though they’re “all natural,” can have potentially dangerous side effects depending upon their ingredients. “Herbal” doesn’t necessarily mean “safe.” Also, because they are considered part of the food industry and are therefore regulated differently by the FDA, there is no guarantee that they can live up to their manufacturers’ claims. Dangerous Diet Pills In the mid-’90s, the diet pill industry was booming. In 1996, more than 18 million dieters in the United States were taking a cocktail of the appetite suppressants fenfluramine (or dexfenfluramine) and phentermine, nicknamed fen-phen — many with great success. But suddenly, doctors around the country were seeing previously healthy patients who were taking fen-phen developing a potentially fatal heart disease. In September 1997, the FDA announced that it was withdrawing the “fen” drugs from the market because of their link to heart problems. Phentermine is still available on its own. Another popular diet pill ingredient in the ’90s was a powerful amphetamine-like stimulant called ephedra (or the Chinese herb ma huang), which, in combination with caffeine, triggered measurable weight loss. The problem was, because it sped the heart rate, ephedra also dramatically increased the risk of heart attack and stroke. Ephedra is related to epinephrine (adrenaline), which, during times of stress, constricts blood vessels, elevates heart rate and gets the body ready to fight or flee. At least 155 people died from taking medications containing ephedra. In late 2003, the FDA announced that it would ban the sale of all ephedra-containing drugs. In response, manufacturers of over-the-counter diet pills such as Dexatrim, Metabolife and AcuTrim began removing the ingredient from their products and now produce ephedra-free versions. The following is an extract from bodybuilding.com written by doggiejoe. Oh ephedra, ephedra, where is my ephedra? It’s been well over a year since you were able to purchase ephedra legally over the counter. The loss was a huge one and nearly took out the heart of the supplement world. But we got through it. Yes, ladies and gentleman, we got through it. Later on in this article you’ll see the products that helped us get over the loss of ephedra. Without the benefit of ephedra, supplement companies were left with no option but to create new fat burning products. The initial fat burners that came out after the ban weren’t that great to say the least. The leading brands Xenadrine and Hydroxycut from the ephedra era produced some disappointing post-ephedra supplements. They had everyone believing that their post ephedra products were going to be just as good or better than the original. Boy, were we fooled. That led everyone to believe that without ephedra there wouldn’t be another best fat burner that actually worked. But with the loss of ephedra, it also brought about new exciting ingredients to light. Here are some of the ingredients that came to light: Green Tea Extract Green tea came from China, and is said to have been used for thousands of years. It was never really regarded as a fat loss agent until ephedra was banned. Green tea is a very versatile ingredient that can be used by the body in many different ways. It also works as an anti-inflammatory. What has been overlooked is its effectiveness in also reducing fat in your body. It is a great ingredient to cut down on fat and is even better for your overall health. It is also good at giving you energy throughout the day, so you can replace your regular coffee with green tea. R-ALA is the purest form of ALA (Alpha-Lipoic-Acid). What it does, is that it speeds the removal of sugar from the blood. It’s quickly turning into a widely used fat loss ingredient. It also works for energy because it helps break down sugar for the production of ATP, which helps your body go. This helps carbs be used as energy and not be stored as fat. It even works as an anti-aging product and it is also proven to expand your total lifespan. Basically CLA is a fatty acid that in turn helps you lose fat. It is naturally occurring and can be found in meat and diary products. Not only will CLA help you naturally burn off fat, but it will also build muscle. CLA is also proven to improve your food intake efficiency. Not only can CLA make you lose fat, but also once you dropped the amount of weight you desire it will help you maintain that weight. In some studies it shows to even improve concentration and sleep.

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Researchers restore the sight of blind mice using gene therapy Posted May 22, 2007on: University of Florida researchers used gene therapy to restore sight in mice with a form of hereditary blindness, a finding that has bearing on many of the most common blinding diseases. Writing online in today’s (May 21) edition of Nature Medicine, scientists describe how they used a harmless virus to deliver corrective genes to mice with a genetic impairment that robs them of vision. The discovery shows that it is possible to target and rescue cone cells — the most important cells for visual sharpness and color vision in people. “Cone vision defines whether someone is blind or not,” said William W. Hauswirth, Ph.D., the Rybaczki-Bullard professor of ophthalmic molecular genetics in the College of Medicine and a member of the UF Genetics Institute. “If you can usefully deliver a gene specifically to cone cells, there are implications for all blinding diseases, not just inherited ones. Even in two very common types of blindness, age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy, if you can target cones you might be able to rescue that vision.” Scientists experimented with mice with a form of hereditary blindness called achromatopsia, which affects about 1 in 30,000 Americans by disabling cone photoreceptors in the retina. The disease results in nearly complete color blindness and extremely poor central vision. Within two months of the gene therapy injection into the subretinal space of the mouse eyes, scientists measured the electrical activity in the retinas, finding that 19 of the 21 treated eyes positively responded to therapy, and 17 of those 19 had electrical readings from their retinas on par with those taken in normal mice. When the mice were between 6 and 7 months old, tests showed 18 of the 21 treated eyes continued to respond normally. In addition, a separate, smaller group of treated mice were evaluated using an exam akin to an eye test at the doctor’s office. In experiments overseen by Robert B. Barlow, Ph.D., a professor of ophthalmology at State University of New York Upstate Medical University, the mice were surrounded by four computer monitors that simulated the appearance of being inside a moving drum that had vertical stripes on the walls. Scientists knew the mice could see the stripes because sighted animals naturally move their heads in the same direction as the moving stripes. By making the stripes ever-narrower — similar to how the letters get smaller toward the bottom of an eye chart — researchers could assess the mice’s visual abilities. As a group, all of the mice displayed normal visual acuity in their treated eyes. “People can talk and tell us what they see,” said lead researcher John J. Alexander, Ph.D., a postdoctoral fellow in the department of ophthalmology at UF. “Animals are much more difficult. What makes this test so fantastic is that it involves an animal’s natural response, and the results tell us that the animals’ brains are involved in the process, that they are actually seeing something.” In addition to cones, which number about 6 million in the retina, the eye’s rod cells are important for low-light and peripheral vision and exist in much greater amounts, with populations of more 100 million. But treating cones could play a role in diseases that begin with the destruction of rods, such as retinitis pigmentosa, which affects about 1 in 3,000 Americans. “This is the first to my knowledge of a cone-targeted gene therapy that restores function in an animal model where cones are the primary defect,” said Richard Weleber, Ph.D., a professor of molecular and medical genetics at Oregon Health & Science University who was not involved in the research. “This validates the concept that it is possible to deliver a gene therapy targeting the cone system, and that is incredibly important for a number of degenerative diseases.” Source: University of Florida

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Forty-five years ago today, on June 7, 1967, Israeli forces marched triumphantly into the Old City of Jerusalem, and for the first time in two millennia, the Jewish people gained sovereignty over the Western Wall and the Temple Mount, Judaism’s holiest sites. Concerned about international reaction, Israeli cabinet ministers were initially ambivalent about capturing the Old City. Despite the misgivings, including from the head of the National Religious Party, the Israeli Knesset redrew Jerusalem’s boundaries on June 28, 1967, annexing what had been Jordanian Jerusalem and well beyond. By virtue of the reconstituted borders, Jerusalem nearly tripled in size. Of course, it is now rote in American and Israeli political discourse that the entirety of the trebled Jerusalem is the undivided and eternal capital of Israel. It follows, or so the argument goes, that Israel must not cede any portion of Jerusalem to the Palestinians in a future peace deal. Faced with the competing Palestinian claim for a capital in East Jerusalem, many people who support in principle a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict see it as impossible in practice, contributing to the current inertia in peace-making efforts. The ostensibly unassailable assumption that Jerusalem must remain Israel’s undivided and eternal capital, however, fails to take into account the evolution of Jerusalem’s boundaries. The historical changes to Jerusalem’s borders disprove the notion of eternal indivisibility and debunk the argument that no just and agreeable solution to Jerusalem can be found. The Jewish connection to Jerusalem dates back more than 3,000 years to the time of King David, who conquered the city from the Jebusites and made it his capital. The available archeological evidence suggests that David’s city was a mere half a square kilometer and was located just south of what is the walled city today. David’s son Solomon would later build the First Temple, and through the 7th Century, the city expanded both to the west and to the north. While the borders of Jerusalem continued to evolve somewhat, it wasn’t until the 1860s that Jerusalem’s population spilled beyond the walled city. Following World War I, the newly created League of Nations granted the British a mandate for Palestine and they redrew Jerusalem’s borders, extending the municipal boundaries to the west, with the Old City roughly marking the easternmost portion of the city. The UN Partition Plan of 1947 terminated the British mandate, and on May 14, 1948, Israel declared independence, sparking a war with the surrounding Arab nations. The war ended with an armistice agreement in 1949, leaving Israel in control of the western portion of Jerusalem and Mount Scopus in the east, and the Jordanians with the eastern portion, including the Old City. That was where matters stood until Israel captured the eastern portion of Jerusalem in the Six Day War in June 1967 and created the borders we know today. The new boundaries include not only the Old City, but also 28 Palestinian villages beyond the Old City that previously had never been considered part of Jerusalem in its 3,000-year history. Set against this historical background, it is incumbent upon those who are unwilling to give up any portion of East Jerusalem to a future Palestinian state to explain what is sacred about this recently acquired territory. Abraham Lincoln once posited, “How many legs does a dog have if you call the tail a leg? Four. Calling the tail a leg doesn’t make it a leg.” So it is with Jerusalem. Calling the Palestinian village of Beit Hanina Jerusalem doesn’t make it Jerusalem. At least not in a way that has any meaning for the Jewish attachment to Jerusalem. Perhaps that is why two of Israel’s past prime ministers, Ehud Barak and Ehud Olmert, were prepared to cede the Palestinian neighborhoods in present-day Jerusalem to a future Palestinian state. This is not to say that difficult decisions surrounding Jerusalem do not remain. It is beyond debate that the Old City and its immediate environs are Jerusalem in the purest sense. Any final agreement will therefore require painful and creative compromises. We will never find out if these compromises are reachable, however, if we are content to repeat the false mantra that Jerusalem, as it was drawn 45 years ago, is indivisible and eternal.

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Issue Date: March 8, 2010 By probing the skies with laser light, for 40 years researchers have been learning about the clouds, aerosols, and chemical constituents that make up Earth's atmosphere. Directly analogous to radar, which stands for radio-wave detection and ranging, the collection of light-based detection and ranging (LIDAR) methods relies on pulsed laser beams being scattered from atoms, molecules, and particles in the atmosphere and reflected back at a telescope positioned near the laser source. One version of the technique, based on Rayleigh scattering from nitrogen and oxygen molecules, is used to study climate change by determining variations in seasonal temperature profiles through altitudinal "slices" between 35 and 90 km, according to Vincent B. Wickwar, a physics professor and staff member at the Center for Atmospheric & Space Sciences at Utah State University, Logan. Other LIDAR methods probe changes in the concentrations of ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapor throughout that altitude range and provide data that are key to understanding the abundances of those species and the chemical reactions they undergo. At somewhat higher altitudes, a highly sensitive method based on resonance-scattering LIDAR is used to measure trace-level products of meteorite disintegration, including sodium, potassium, iron, calcium, magnesium, and aluminum. Back at ground level, researchers such as Joshua P. Herron, a staff scientist at Utah State's Space Dynamics Laboratory, are working at the Army's Dugway Proving Ground nearby to develop a LIDAR-based system for remotely detecting nerve agents and various other harmful chemical and biological species via their infrared and fluorescence signatures. - Chemical & Engineering News - ISSN 0009-2347 - Copyright © American Chemical Society

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Central Christian Academy supports this belief in our Preschool education department through the use of our comprehensive curriculum planning that encompasses a variety of learning styles. We believe that your preschool child should learn through a hands-on, exploratory process that is guided by our well educated teachers. From the arrangement of the classroom, to the specific teacher language utilized, your child will learn a variety of skills and concepts to prepare them for kindergarten and beyond. Kindergarten readiness is important. We ensure that each child is ready for kindergarten through teaching the Common-Core aligned preschool curriculum, developing individual child portfolios throughout the year and completing individual child learning assessments (such as the Kindergarten Readiness Indicator Checklist http://arkansased.org/parents/pdf/kric_booklet_teachers.pdf). - Music, Movement and Finger Plays: Our preschool classes participate in two organized faith based musical programs per year (Christmas and Spring). The daily classroom is equipped with a variety of musical instruments, and movement materials. Songs for learning colors and phonetic sounds are used during circle times and throughout the day. These songs are shared with parents, so they can be reinforced at home. - Bible Focus: Daily bible lessons are shared through a variety of materials, such as flannel board stories, finger plays, songs and reading scripture from the Bible. - Language/Cognitive: Language development in our preschool classrooms is always fun to listen to! Children at this age are quite the talkers, and teaching them to speak properly and to communicate their thoughts clearly is important! We often ask children to remember to “use their words. Our teachers implement a variety of language activities in their daily lesson planning such as finger plays, rhyming games, phonics, and other fun activities. - Gross Motor: Preschool children are on the move! Encouraging gross motor play through supervised activities inside and outside is important. Our gross motor activities also incorporate encouraging peer interaction, cooperative play, following directions and reinforcing the daily curriculum theme. Indoor activities range from an indoor mini-trampoline, parachute activities, to even an indoor obstacle course through the classroom on rainy days! Our outdoor play space is age appropriate for your preschool child. We offer two separate preschool outdoor play areas, with varying levels of equipment. - Social/Emotional: In addition to academic kindergarten readiness, we also believe that encouraging social-emotional growth and development of preschooler’s is very important. Your preschool child is learning about themselves, their desire to have control in their environment, their ability to utilize a longer attention span, and the intricacies of interacting with their peers. Our teachers nurture these social emotional skills daily through peer mediation and role playing. - Sensory Exploration: Preschool children enjoy sensory exploration, in other words they like to touch and feel and smell and explore! We build on sensory exploration in the classroom by incorporating language/cognitive skills, gross and fine motor skills and movement. Our preschool classroom is equipped with a variety of equipment to promote sensory exploration, such as a sand and/or water table, play dough, and different writing materials. Even through graphing the smells, tastes and feeling of different items is integrating sensory exploration into science, math and language concepts. You should see the chart they create about broccoli! We provide all your child’s meals for breakfast, lunch and PM snack according to the Special Nutrition Program. We email our weekly menu so that you are always informed about our healthy menu. Special dietary restrictions may apply. Health and Safety is very important at Central Christian Academy. That is why we have a Registered Nurse on staff part time and ensure that our staff is diligent in hand washing practices and daily hand washing procedures. In addition, we have magnetic locking security features on the exterior doors and webcams in all of the classrooms.

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Climate change, Restoration and Resilience 22 July 2010 | News story “We need to continuously, strongly and publicly argue that carbon sequestration is only one of many ecosystem services that forests can provide”. “Climate change has focused our attention on the need for urgent and decisive action if we are to avoid the Earth passing a point of no return beyond which the future will be out of our hands” declared IUCN Deputy Director-General Dr William Jackson earlier this month in a keynote speech to the 18th Commonwealth Forestry Congress in Edinburgh. Delegates were meeting in the Scottish capital to clarify the connections between forestry and finance, agriculture and energy generation in relation to climate change, with the aim of influencing government policies. Speaking of the tipping points, caused by rising temperatures, which could lead to this ‘point of no return’ - including loss of the world’s tropical forests - Jackson was nonetheless eager to point out that climate change is not the only process that can result in irreversible dramatic changes: “it is important to acknowledge that several other ‘planetary boundaries’ are directly relevant to forests, particularly land use change and biodiversity loss and that these two issues are inextricably linked to and interact with climate change.” The Earth’s forests, which provide a substantial carbon reservoir, are also a source of an estimated 17 % of current global greenhouse gas emissions, as a result of deforestation and forest degradation. FAO has recently estimated that the annual global net loss of forests is 5.2 million hectares, and that approximately 13 million hectares of forests were converted to other uses or lost through natural causes each year between 2000 and 2010. Addressing deforestation and forest degradation is therefore, Jackson urged, “a fundamental element of a global strategy to stabilize green house gases”. One notable global approach to mitigate climate change is ‘REDD-plus’, (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation). REDD-plus aims to reduce emissions of green house gases from forests, through: responding to deforestation and forest degradation; conservation and sustainable management of forests; and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries. The REDD-plus approach has made considerable progress and yet alone it will not be enough – it is only a part of the solution to climate change. In the longer term, Jackson stressed, “it is essential that all reasonable approaches to stabilize green house gases are used”, particularly the potential technological and engineering solutions. He urged delegates to unite in pursuing other key responses: “There are 1 billion hectares of degraded forest lands and secondary forests worldwide that are potentially suitable for restoration….we need to seize the opportunity that forest restoration can play in climate change”. However, strategies such as REDD and restoration are best achieved through including all relevant actors and stakeholders in informing decisions. The greatest challenge this entails is that those with most to gain or lose through managing forests, the rural poor, are often those least well equipped to take part in negotiations. Changing perspective from global issues to local realities, Jackson explained that forests are not only important to stabilizing green house gas emissions, but also for their role in helping people adapt to the inevitable consequences of climate change: “forests can help build long-term resilience and … avoid inappropriate adaptation because forest-based solutions can build on local needs and capacities, with proper consideration to groups such as women and indigenous peoples”. Dr Jackson closed by aspiring to a future where the forests are seen as a fundamental part of combating climate change, while equally being recognized for their value “in relation to land use change and biodiversity loss as well as in the wellbeing of people … and in leading us to a more sustainable ‘green economy’”. Read the full speech here.

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Volunteer corn has proven to be more than just a nuisance, with major yield reductions to both corn and soybean crops, says Purdue Extension Weed Scientist Bill Johnson. Problems with the weed arise when corn kernels that dropped during harvest persist in the soil, overwinter and grow in the spring. With 70% of Indiana's annual corn crop resistant to glyphosate, or Roundup Ready, volunteer corn has become increasingly difficult to control. "We're rotating Roundup Ready corn with our soybean crop, which is typically 95% Roundup Ready," Johnson says. "With glyphosate being the primary herbicide used on soybeans, we simply are spraying it on a weed that it was not designed to kill." With heavy, untreated infestations, the weed can cause up to a 40% yield reduction in soybeans or up to 30% in corn. "Volunteer corn is more frequently a problem in fields where farmers use fall tillage, because it buries the corn seed and allows it to overwinter," Johnson says. "It is less of an issue in a strict no-till system because of rodents and weathering." The weed also becomes more of a problem in fields where a lot of corn hit the ground during the previous harvest. If that's the case, Johnson says farmers need to scout before planting so they know what controls to employ and where. Volunteer corn is fairly simple to control in soybeans because farmers can use post-grass herbicides. "We simply need to encourage growers to spray these a little bit earlier in the summer than we typically would," Johnson adds. The weed is much more difficult to control in cornfields – especially those planted in continuous corn. The best methods are spring tillage and using non-glyphosate, preplant herbicides. "Producers need to control volunteer corn before they plant their corn crops," Johnson says. "Spring tillage is more reliable, but if it's a no-till operation farmers need to spray." Volunteer corn also can lead to significant corn rootworm problems. "In the past, farmers rotated corn and soybeans. Soybean fields have zero rootworms because when the insects hatch, they have nothing to eat," says Purdue Extension Entomologist Christian Krupke. "With volunteer corn, those rootworms have something to feed on, so farmers need to kill this weed as early as possible."

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A Study of Inflation Prices have gone up. So have wages (the price of labor). So has the quality of many goods purchased. How can we compare today with yesterday, when we are not talking about the same things? Take wages, to begin with. We can compare per capita incomes between two time periods. Or we can compare median family incomes. But is the work the same? Are the hours worked the same? Is the investment (mainly education) in employability the same? Are the sources of income the same (employment vs investment, inheritance, etc.)? In fact, none of these things are constant over time, making comparisons about changes in wages very difficult. What really matters, though, is what you have the power to buy using the resources readily available to you. Most often, we think of the resource of personal labor, although the use of capital that you control is also a resource. We assume that all capital is built up through the application of personal labor at some time in the past. Therefore it is reasonable to think about how much can be bought using some unit of labor as a standard. However, the capital in an economic system has the effect of increasing the productivity of labor. That is, an hour of labor in the absence of capital is not the same as an hour of labor expended in the presence of capital, such as by using a sophisticated machine. Capital can also be abstract, in that a worker with education or experience has more “human capital” than a worker with neither. And then there are activities that are not easily valued in monetary terms, such as the labor of an artist, whose work may not be valued until he is dead. Some would like to measure the value of labor by “how hard it is,” but even that is not clear since our standards of “hardness” change over time, and what is hard for one person may be easy for another. Furthermore, there is much labor that is not counted in the economy, especially in the past. Consider a farm family circa 1900, with a farmer, his wife, and six children. We would be likely to count this operation as the labor of one man, yet it is likely that there are eight people doing the work. Consider that today, a stay-at-home mom is doing work she is not “getting paid for,” while the same work, being hired out by a “working” mom, is counted in the economy. There are difficulties in comparing the things that we buy, too. Say we are comparing houses. Is a house bought in 1900 the same as a house bought in 2000? Even if it has the same square feet? No way. And as we look back on this from our vantage point 100 years in the future, our perceptions of this house are not the same as the perception of the original owners. For example, we might think the oak woodwork is extremely valuable, because it would be expensive to replicate today, while the original owners considered it to be quite ordinary. We would consider the lack of an indoor toilet to be a severe deficit, yet the original owners might have considered an outdoor toilet more practical, if they would even have considered anything else. How about a car? Is a Ford Model T equivalent to a Ford you can buy today? Or, how about a horse? Is a horse of 1900 the same as a horse of 2000? Even if the horse is the same, its purpose and value might be very different. People often think of inflation as being a general trend of rising prices. This is not exactly true. Inflation is actually an increase in the supply of money, which is controlled by the government. When the money supply is increased, the money units are devalued and therefore buy less. In an expanding economy, it would be normal to increase the money supply to keep pace with the increasing value of goods available in the economy. If the money supply increases faster than the value of goods, the result will be a general rise in prices. Contrary to popular belief, government does have very good control over inflation. This control is not immediate in its effect, but over a period of one or two years the government can manipulate inflation to its liking and for its own purposes. Why does the government want inflation? Primarily for two reasons: 1) The government carries a huge debt. As money is devalued, so is the debt. 2) Inflation allows the government to collect more taxes through “bracket creep.” Furthermore, when the public cries out because of bracket creep, the government looks “good” by generously increasing deductions and thus pretending to lift the tax burden. The general population may also have the perception that they are better off because of inflation. This is because they see their incomes “rising,” and although they are aware that prices of goods are rising too, this is not as concrete in their minds as the increase in wages which they can probably recite from memory.

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In linguistics, the augment is a syllable added to the beginning of the word in certain Indo-European languages, most notably Greek, Armenian, and the Indo-Iranian languages such as Sanskrit, to form the past tenses. Indo-European languages Historical linguists are uncertain whether the augment is a feature that was added to these branches of Indo-European, or whether the augment was present in the parent language and lost by all other branches (see also Proto-Greek). Ancient Greek In Ancient Greek, the verb λέγω légo “I say” has the aorist ἔλεξα élexa “I said”. The initial ε e is the augment. When this comes before a consonant, it is called the "syllabic augment", because it adds a syllable. Sometimes the syllabic augment appears before a vowel, because the initial consonant of the verbal root (usually digamma) was lost: - *έ-ϝιδον → (loss of digamma) *ἔιδον → (synaeresis) εἶδον When the augment is added before a vowel, the augment and the vowel are contracted, and the vowel becomes long: akoúō "I hear", ḗkousa "I heard". This is sometimes called the "temporal augment", because it increases the time needed to pronounce the vowel. Homeric Greek - ὣς φάτο — ὣς ἔφατο hṑs pháto — hṑs éphato "so he/she said" - ἦμος δ᾿ ἠριγένεια φάνη ῥοδοδάκτυλος Ἠώς, êmos d' ērigéneia phánē rhododáktulos Ēṓs, "And when rose-fingered Dawn appeared, early-born," Modern Greek Unaccented syllabic augment disappeared during the Byzantine period as a result of the loss of unstressed initial syllables. However, accented syllabic augments remained in place So Ancient ἔλυσα, ἐλύσαμεν "I loosened, we loosened" corresponds to Modern έλυσα, λύσαμε. Temporal augment has not survived in the vernacular, which leaves the initial vowel unaltered: Ancient ἀγαπῶ, ἠγάπησα "I love, I loved", Modern αγαπώ, αγάπησα. |ध / dhã||दधति / dadhãti||अधत् / adhãt||अदधत् / adadhãt||put| |गम् / gam||गच्छति / gacchati||अगमत् / agamat||अगच्छत् / agacchat||go| - Phrygian seems to have had an augment. - Classical Armenian had an augment. - Yaghnobi, an East Iranian language spoken in Tajikistan, has an augment. Non-Indo-European languages The term has also been extended to describe similar features in non-Indo-European languages. For example, in Nahuatl, the perfect ō- prefix is called an augment. It is also a common term in Bantu linguistics. - Herbert Weir Smyth. Greek Grammar. par. 429: syllabic augment. - Smyth. par. 435: temporal augment. - Browning, Robert (1983). Medieval and Modern Greek (p58) - Sophroniou, S.A. Modern Greek. Teach Yourself Books, 1962, Sevenoaks, p79 - Coulson, Michael. Teach yourself Sanskrit. p. 244. Hodder and Stoughton, 1976, Sevenoaks. - Clackson, James. 1994. The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek. London: Publications of the Philological Society, No 30. (and Oxford: Blackwell Publishing) |This linguistic morphology article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|

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Springfield Model 1873 ||This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (April 2011)| |Springfield Model 1873| Springfield "Trapdoor" rifle |Place of origin||United States| |In service||1873–1892 (some were still used during the Spanish–American War and Philippine–American War)| |Used by||United States Army| |Wars||Black Hills War, Indian Wars, Spanish–American War, Philippine–American War| |Designer||Erskine S. Allin| |Number built||approx. 700,000| |Variants||Cavalry Carbine with 22 in (560 mm) barrel Cadet Rifle with 30 in (760 mm) barrel |Length||51.875 in (1,317.6 mm)| |Barrel length||32.625 in (828.7 mm)| |Rate of fire||approx. 10 rounds a minute| |Muzzle velocity||1,350 feet per second (410 m/s)| The Model 1873 "Trapdoor" Springfield was the first standard-issue breech-loading rifle adopted by the United States Army (although the Model 1866 trapdoor had seen limited issue to troops along the Bozeman Trail in 1867). The gun, in both full-length and carbine versions, was widely used in subsequent battles against the American Indians. The Model 1873 was the fifth variation of the Allin trapdoor design, and was named for its hinged breechblock, which opened like a trapdoor. The infantry rifle model featured a 325⁄8-inch (829 mm) barrel, while the cavalry carbine used a 22-inch (560 mm) barrel. It was superseded by an improved model, the Springfield Model 1884, also in .45-70 caliber. Selection process In 1872–1873 a military board, headed by Brigadier-General Alfred H. Terry, conducted an examination and trial of 99 rifles from several domestic and foreign manufacturers including those from Springfield, Sharps, Peabody, Whitney, Spencer, Remington, and Winchester pursuant to the selection of a breech loading system for rifles and carbines for the U.S. Military. The trials included tests for: accuracy, dependability, rate-of-fire, and ability to withstand adverse conditions. Both single shot and magazine equipped systems were considered but, at the time, the single shot was deemed to be more reliable. Firing tests were held at the Springfield Armory and Governor's Island where the average rate of fire for the Springfield was 8 rounds per minute for new recruits and 15 rounds per minute for experienced soldiers. The board recommended "No. 99 Springfield" which turned out to be the Model 1873. The rifle cartridge was designated as ".45-70-405", indicating a .45 caliber, 405-grain (26.2 g) bullet propelled by 70 grains (4.5 g) of black powder. It had a muzzle velocity of 1,350 feet per second (410 m/s), making it a powerful and effective load for the skirmish tactics of the era. A reduced-power load of 55 grains (3.6 g) of powder (.45-55-405) was manufactured for use in the carbine to lighten recoil for mounted cavalry soldiers. This cartridge had a correspondingly reduced muzzle velocity of 1,100 feet per second (340 m/s) and a somewhat reduced effective range. Use in combat The rifle was originally issued with a copper cartridge and used in the American West during the second half of the 19th century, but the soldiers soon discovered that the copper expanded excessively in the breech upon firing. This sometimes jammed the rifle by preventing extraction of the fired cartridge case. A jam required manual extraction with a knife blade or similar tool, and could render the carbine version of the weapon, which had no ramrod to remove stuck cases, useless in combat except as a club. After the annihilation of Lieutenant-Colonel George Armstrong Custer's battalion (armed with the carbine and .45-55 ammunition) at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876, investigations first suggested that jamming of their carbines may have played a factor, although archaeological excavations in 1983 discovered evidence that only 3.4 percent of the cases recovered showed any indication of being pried from jammed weapons. The cartridge was subsequently redesigned with a brass case, since that material did not expand as much as copper. This was shown to be a major improvement, and brass became the primary material used in United States military cartridges from then to the present. After the Little Big Horn disaster, troops were required to perform target practice twice a week. The black powder Model 1873 continued to be the main service rifle of the U.S. Military until it was gradually replaced by the Krag-Jørgensen bolt-action rifle (using smokeless powder) starting in 1892. It still was used by secondary units during the Spanish–American War in Cuba and the Philippines, although it was at a major disadvantage against the Spanish forces armed with 7 mm Spanish M93 Mauser bolt-action rifles using smokeless powder. Reenactor firing a Springfield Model 1873 breech-loading rifle at Fort Mackinac in 2008

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Lieutenant Colonel Henry Pleasants Inside the Mine Supervising the Arrival of Gunpowder Union lieutenant colonel Henry Pleasants, seated on the bench in the foreground, oversees the arrival of powder into the mine that he designed as an offensive weapon during the Petersburg Campaign. With the siege mired in stalemate, Pleasants came up with a bold initiative. He directed his 48th Pennsylvania Infantry to dig a long tunnel beneath Confederate lines, pack the terminus with explosives, and then detonate it. On July 28, 1864, soldiers from the 48th began carrying four tons of powder in 320 twenty-five pound kegs into the mine. Harper's Weekly artist Alfred R. Waud, who was a witness to the events, made this pencil sketch of the scene. A handwritten caption on an attached piece of paper describes the perilous job of hauling the kegs full of powder. Soldiers assigned to this duty carried two kegs at a time in a grain bag thrown across their shoulders. A portion of the route was exposed to enemy fire, necessitating waiting for an open opportunity and then dashing for cover. On the morning of July 30th Pleasants lit the fuse, but it went out because of a break in the line. Two volunteers ventured into the mine, repaired the problem, and then scrambled out as fast as they could. The ensuing blast was the largest man-made explosion in the Western Hemisphere to that point. At least 278 Confederates—most of them South Carolinians and Virginians—were killed instantly.

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Please enter the word you see in the image below: I thought you would be interested in this article from environment: YALE magazine, the Journal of the Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies. Deforestation amounts to a double blow to global climate stability, since vanished trees can neither take up atmospheric carbon dioxide nor store volumes of carbon aboveground and in their root systems. Recent estimates suggest that about 15 percent of the ongoing rise in greenhouse gas emissions is linked to world deforestation (when the extra carbon emitted from forests underlain by peat is included). And a slew of analyses—from U.S.-based McKinsey & Co.; The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, prepared for the government of the United Kingdom; and other reports—have suggested that avoiding future deforestation, particularly in the developing tropics, could be one of the least-expensive paths to reducing projected climate change. At the most recent round of international climate change negotiations in Cancún, in December, one of the few successes negotiators could point to was an initial agreement on an outline to do just that. Dubbed REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), the approach being contemplated can look like a harmonious marriage of environmental and economic blessings. The general idea: rich industrialized nations (or their emitting industries) somehow pay poorer nations (or entities within them) to protect and maintain their forests via direct payments as part of a credit-based carbon cap-and-trade system. Developing nations, particularly those in the tropical south, win a flood of new income. By picking what amounts to the low-hanging fruit, the richer industrialized nations of the developed north win a cheaper route to greenhouse gas mitigation. Read the Full Article Environment: YALE magazine is Published by the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies Copyright ©2007-2013 environment:YALE magazine Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies 195 Prospect Street New Haven, Connecticut, USA

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September 03, 2001 On this morning photo taken in early August, a pair of jet contrails are seen paralleling each other over the skies of suburban Maryland. The older one is on the left and the younger one on the right. When contrails cross the sky, the atmosphere, at the level of the jet aircraft, has to be near saturation. On this morning, not only was the atmosphere above 25,000 feet sufficiently moist to allow the contrails to be visible over most of the sky, but light winds aloft kept them from rapidly dispersing.

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Passover, a major Jewish holiday, begins at sunset on April 19th this year. It goes on until April 26th. At Passover, Jews celebrate their ancestors' escape from slavery in Egypt thousands of years ago. Families gather for a special meal, called the seder. From a special plate, they eat roast lamb, bitter herbs, a mixture of apples and nuts, and other Passover foods. Each food has a meaning. For example, the apples and nuts are a symbol of the bricks the slaves had to make. Matzoh, a special bread, is eaten all through Passover. It is flat because it contains no yeast, or any other ingredient to make it rise. During Passover, religious Jews do not eat anything with these ingredients in it.

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en

Sequoya was the wold-famous inventor of the Cherokee alphabet . The Cherokee were one of the most powerful tribes in North America when the white man first arrived. The son of a white man named George Gist or Guest and a Cherokee woman, Sequoya was called Sikwayi by the Cherokees but to his father's people he was known by his father's name, George Gist. Sequoya's father was an American scout who was taken prisoner by the tribe. Sequoya was born about 1760 in the Cherokee town of Taskigi, Tennessee . In those days if a Cherokee wanted to read and write it was impossible to do so in his own language for no Cherokee alphabet existed. At the age of 50, Sequoya, who was unable to read or write, started to work out a system of writing. He listened to the Cherokees and found they used 85 syllables . He then had to invent 85 signs which he managed with the aid of an English Twelve years passed before he had completed his weary task. The head men of the Cherokees approved the alphabet and within a year thousands of Cherokees could read and write in their own language As a tribute to his achievement and labours, the American Government awarded him a pension which kept him in comfort for the rest of his life. To honour him even further, his name was given to the giant redwood tree of California, the sequoia . These trees are the oldest living things on the earth. Many of them are 2,000 and 3,000 years old while some of the bigger redwoods are estimated to be up to 5,000 years old.

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2013-05-19T19:46:45Z

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en

The Locked Shields Of The Minivan Centurions An axiom of military tactics is that as the lethality of weapons increases so does the distance between warriors in battle. Before gunpowder, when the primary weapons were the sword and dagger, men were tightly packed together to achieve mass and mutual protection. In addition to the blades, each man carried a shield that consisted of a heavy shank of wood bolted onto a metal boss that served as a handle. If the battle was fierce enough, the wooden part would need replacing. And it often did. We picture that kind of soldier in an open arena using the shield to ward off blows in single combat. But that’s gladiator stuff. The real purpose of the warrior’s shield was as part of a wall formed in conjunction with the other soldiers in his unit. When two sides joined in battle, their leaders would call for the formation of opposing shield walls. Each warrior would lock his shield with those of the men to his left and right. It was from behind this Shield Wall that the armies would fight, massing their sword-power together to overcome their enemy. The side whose Shield Wall was first broken was the side that was overcome. Break the wall and you break the man. The Romans were most skilled at this. Their leaders were Centurions, who commanded eighty men each. It was the Centurion’s job to train his men and deploy them in combat. He picked the high ground to form his Shield Wall, called his men into it and then exhorted them to keep it locked, to fight, survive and win. On the strength of its skilled Centurions, the Roman Army could survive and win against a determined and larger foe because in the heat of battle the Centurions kept their shields locked. Break the wall and you break the man. And so it was until the advent of gunpowder, which rendered the wooden shield obsolete. Men still massed together to achieve superior firepower, but with only their flesh and bones to act as a shield. While the Civil War found men massing in the open, WWI had them spread into trenches and WWII spread them further into foxholes. Today, infantrymen fight as far apart as they can to protect the unit from the lethality of the enemy’s weapons, but they still mass fire and still retain the emotional bond of the Shield Wall. For while the weapons have changed the warrior heart has not. We still fight together, behind the Shield Wall, or we are overcome. Break the wall and you break the man. I have had the opportunity to workout at a lot of great parks and schools in F3Nation, but I have to admit to being partial to Freedom Park in Charlotte, because that is where it all started. Not only is it a great workout location, but it serves the community in a thousand different ways. I probably spend an average of 7 hours a week there in one capacity or another. Go there on a Saturday morning in the Spring or Fall and you will see the parking lots stuffed full of minivans and the fields overrun with kids playing soccer and baseball. There is so much sweet America there it will make your teeth hurt. When the World is running particularly amuck, a day in Freedom is all I need to keep me focused on what we have here, what is worth protecting. The World may be afire, but we have Freedom Brothers. We have Freedom. Is it likewise in every park that is part of F3Nation? I imagine so. That is really why we do this, isn’t it? One day after soccer I was walking towards the minivan with my daughters when the youngest one asked me why there were never any police officers at Freedom Park. I had never thought about it until that moment, but she was right. Except at the front gate (enforcing the no-left turn rule) I had never seen a police officer or even a #ShoulderTalker patrolling the park. So I answered, “they are probably at other places in Charlotte where they are needed.” Which prompted her older sister (in her older sister voice) to say, “yeah Sarah, we don’t need them here because we have the daddies.” Little Sister: “rigggght, we have the daddies to keep us safe at Freedom. The police are at the parks without the daddies.” At that, I kind of looked away so my daughters wouldn’t see the tears in my eyes, and I noticed that I could see about five other F3 guys within nine-iron distance, coaching soccer or cheering their kids on. And I knew there were another 20 F3 men that I couldn’t see from where I was standing. But they were there. It occurred to me that if the bad guys came to Freedom they might have thought it easy pickings because they would see no police on duty. But they would be mistaken. If Evil comes to Freedom it will have the daddies to contend with, and it will not stand a chance. While we might be outnumbered Brothers, we have locked our shields and will keep them locked in the heat of battle. Alone, I may go down fighting but I am still easily overcome. But I do not fight alone. I fight behind the Locked Shields of the Minivan Centurions. That Shield Wall will not be broken.

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2013-05-19T19:28:38Z

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Fungi constitute an essential component in forest and grassland ecosystems because of their roles as parasites of plants and animals, decomposers of organic matter, and mutualistic symbionts such as in lichens and mycorrhizae. Data on distribution patterns of macrofungi are important for understanding the evolution of fungi and the relationship between fungi and their associated plants. Although the climatic and phytogeographical affinities between eastern Asia and eastern North America have been recognized since the time of Linnaeus (e.g., Boufford, 1994; Raven, 1972; Wu, Z.-Y., 1983), the possibility of a similar relationship between macrofungi of eastern Asia and eastern North America remains to be tested (Wu & Mueller, 1997). Basic questions such as the extent and level of similarity between the mycotas (fungal equivalent to flora and fauna) of the two regions have not been rigorously addressed. Two of the factors contributing to this situation are: 1) mycotas in many areas of the world, including Asia and North America, are not adequately known, and 2) a serious lack of interaction and information exchange between mycologists in Asia and North America. While the global occurrence and distribution of many macrofungi will remain unknown for many years, meaningful comparisons of the mycotas of eastern Asia and eastern North America can be made, and are the focus of this project. This binational project has two scientific objectives: 1) obtain preliminary data on the occurrence, habitat and diversity of macrofungi in China, and compare these data to the mycota of eastern North America; 2) test several general biogeographic hypotheses by investigating genetic divergence among and within geographically isolated populations of species that have eastern Asia, eastern North America, and Central America disjunct distributions. * Project Significance We collect and analyze data directly relating to four important issues: 1) developing baseline information for studying changes in fungal communities, 2) assessing biodiversity, 3) investigating biogeographic relationships, and 4) detecting genetic divergence within and among allopatric populations. Baseline information for studying changes in species composition of macrofungi: Microorganisms including fungi are crucial to many ecosystem process and thus the maintenance of biodiversity (Hawksworth & Ritchie, 1993), but they have received much less direct attention than plants and many groups of animals. Macrofungi (fungi forming conspicuous sporocarps) are mostly either ectomycorrhizal or saprobic. Ectomycorrhizal fungi form a mutually beneficial, often times obligatory, relationship with vascular plants and provide the plants with access to the key elements that are essential for plant growth (Read, 1991). Saprobic fungi are actively involved in nutrient recycling and vegetational succession in forest ecosystem. Therefore, knowledge of the diversity and ecology of macrofungi is crucial for forest management plans and conservation efforts, and they can also be used as a bioassay of ecosystem health. A rapid decrease in the number and frequency of macrofungi has been documented in Europe, and many macrofungi are considered endangered species (Cherfas, 1991; Ing, 1993). Many studies have indicated that the decline of macrofungi is due to the effects of air pollution (Arnold, 1991; Fellner, 1993; Såstad & Jenssen, 1993) and/or soil disturbance (Termorshuizen & Schaffers, 1991; Arnolds & Jansen; 1992), and this decline has been found to precede a dramatic decline in forest health (Pegler et al., 1993). Currently these important trends are only well-documented for Europe and comparable data from other regions of the world are lacking. Quantitative data on fungal diversity are scant for North America (Ammirati et al., 1994; Bills et al., 1986; Cripps & Miller, 1993; O'Dell & Ammirati, 1994; Schmit & Mueller, 1995; Villeneuve et al., 1989; Walker et al., 1994). As part of this project, standard sampling of macrofungi communities in four study sites, two in China and two in U.S., have been initiated and preliminary data on macrofungal diversity are being gathered and compared. Biodiversity issues: Floristic studies have suggested that China has a richer biodiversity than North America (Pei, 1984; Shetler & Skog, 1981). However, this has not been verified in fungi. The number of documented fungal species in China is only 8,000, in contrast to 12,700 for U.S.A. (Tai, 1979; Zhuang, 1993). However, fungi in the U.S.A. have been much more intensively sampled than in China. The Fanjing Mtn. range in southwestern China, for example, is an area uniquely rich in plant species. Floristic data showed that the Fanjing Mtn. range houses about 1,550 vascular plant species, with tropical and temperate elements as well as Sino-Himalayan and Sino-Japanese elements (Zhou, 1990). Villeneuve et al. (1989) showed that the average ratio of the number of macrofungi vs. the number of vascular plants in boreal forests of Quebec, Canada is 1.8. This is similar to the later estimate put forth by Hawksworth and Ritchie (1993). If we use Villeneuve et al's ratio of 1.8 to estimate, there may be over 2,700 species of macrofungi in Fanjing Mtn. range. Currently, there are only about 400 species (i.e. 15%) recorded from Fanjing Mtn. (Wu, X. -L., 1990). The commonly accepted hypothesis for the richer plant diversity in Asia is that Asian flora was less affected by Pleistocene glaciation, which caused great extinction of species in eastern North America (Graham, 1972). Comparative data of fungal biodiversity may give us insights on the correlation between biogeographic history and fungal diversity. Fungal biodiversity also may be related to other geographical elements (e.g., latitude, climate, etc.) as suggested by data on animals and plants (Schluter & Ricklefs, 1993). Villeneuve et al. (1989) surveyed the mycota in boreal Canada and showed that: 1) differences in frequency and diversity of ectomycorrhizal and saprobic fungi existed between deciduous and coniferous forests, and between open and closed stands; 2) species richness decreased toward the north and with increasing altitude; 3) the diversity of saprobic fungi was related to that of vascular plants, while the diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi was related mainly to the percent cover of ectomycorrhizal hosts. Other studies showed that variation also occurred in relation to sample size, time, year, and degree of disturbance (Ammirati et al., 1994; Bills et al., 1986; Cripps & Miller, 1993; O'Dell & Ammirati, 1994; Villeneuve et al., 1989; Walker et al., 1994). Currently, there are several ongoing efforts by Field Museum researchers and collegues to further investigate macrofungal biodiversity in North and Central America (http://www.nybg.org/bsci/res/hall/costaric.html; http://archive.fieldmuseum.org/candr/botany/botany_sites/sniif/localfungi.htm) This study is designed to compare the fungal diversity of two disjunct continents along south to north gradients. Results from this study will make it possible to compare data from other areas and to understand basic patterns of fungal diversity in the north temperate zone. Quantitative studies focusing on the occurrence and diversity of macrofungi corresponding to vegetation types, geographic gradients, climate, and ecological elements such as our study are crucial to understanding the global pattern of fungal diversity. Biogeographic relationships: An affinity between the mycotas of eastern North America and eastern Asia has been suggested due to a number of taxa that presumably occur in both areas, including several that are reported to have disjunct distributions. However, this hypothesis has never been tested. In a previous study (please see the publications page), we calculated the Simpson Coefficient of Similarity (Simpson, G. G., 1960) for the four north temperate regions (i.e. eastern Asia, Europe, western North America and eastern North America) for four distinct groups, i.e. genera Amanita, Lactarius, and Ramaria, and the family Boletaceae. While mycotas from different areas on the same continent generally are more similar than mycotas separated by oceans, the similarity between eastern North America and eastern Asia can be quite high. Values range from relatively low to a value that is comparable to or higher than that between eastern and western North America. These results provided a gross estimate of the relationship between the mycotas of eastern Asia and eastern North America on the basis of documented taxonomic treatments. However, an important weakness of such studies is that many European and North American fungal names were used to describe the fungi found in areas of eastern Asia, but these studies were conducted by mycologists who had virtually no experience with the mycotas of Europe and North America. Similarly, North American mycological studies rarely deal with the Chinese mycota. Clarifying the taxonomy and distribution of selected fungi in both eastern North America and China is an important focus of this project. A recent phylogenetic study on the biogeography of the mushroom genus Pleurotus conducted by Vilgalys & Sun (1994) has shown that the earlier evolving species groups have a broad distribution while more recently evolved groups are mainly restricted within the Northern Hemisphere. In addition, recent species radiations may have occurred within the Northern Hemisphere in that genus. These data documented the utility of phylogenetic analyses in understanding fungal biogeographical relationships. We are conducting a phylogenetic study of several disjunct macrofungi species based on DNA sequencing data. Results from these analyses are being used to test the presumed relationship of the mycotas of China and eastern North America. Genetic divergence: Many widely distributed macrofungi that have previously been viewed as a single species are now found to be morphologically and genetically divergent. For example, the fungus Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. was believed to be homogeneous and occur in temperate and boreal forests throughout the northern hemisphere. However, enzyme and DNA data have shown that genetic divergence exists among allopatric populations (Garbelotto et al., 1993; Otrosina et al., 1992). Similar cases can be found in Armillaria mellea (Vahl.: Fr.) Kummer sensu lato (Anderson & Ullrich, 1979; Andersen et al., 1980, 1987), Collybia dryophila (Vilgalys, 1991), Laccaria laccata and L. bicolor complex (Gardes et al., 1991; Mueller, 1992), and Pleurotus species (Vilgalys et al., 1993; Vilgalys & Sun, 1994). Wu's previous studies on the wood-rooting fungus, Clavicorona pyxidata (Pers: Fr.) Doty, indicated that genetic divergence existed between eastern Asian and eastern North American populations (Wu, Q. X., 1991). This coral fungus has been reported from eastern North America, Europe and China. Morphological variation among collections from different geographical areas is either not recognized or considered minor. Collections from North America, Europe and China are completely intercompatible. However, variation in enzyme extracellular laccase electrophoretic mobility suggests that populations from China are genetically different from populations of North America and Europe (Wu et al., 1995). The genetic differentiation may be an indication of lack of recent gene exchange due to significant geographical and ecological barriers. Further studies to assess genetic divergence within disjunct taxa at the molecular level are therefore a primary goal of this study. * Methodology and Work Plan This research has two major components: 1) field work to determine the generic and species composition for each study site and to obtain material for the DNA analyses, and 2) laboratory work to investigate genetic divergence among allopatric populations using DNA analysis techniques. Both field and laboratory parts are essential to reach the goals of this project. Study sites: Four study sites are being sampled for comparison of the North American and Chinese mycotas and for investigating biogeographic relationships. These are: 1) Highlands Biological Station, North Carolina, U.S.A., 2) the Huron Mtn. Reserve, Michigan, U.S.A. 3) Changbai Mtn., Jilin, China, 4) a site in southwestern China that is yet to be determined. Geographic and vegetation information of the sampling plots is shown in the Study Sites page. In addition, in the western hemisphere two other study sites have been established. One is a temperate site, i.e. Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, Indiana, and the other is a montane neotropical site at San Gerardo de Dota, Costa Rica. Mycological surveys in both areas are funded through ongoing projects of Greg Mueller and his collaborators. Information on macrofungi from these sites are available for comparisons with data obtained during this project. Field work: Each of the study sites described above are represented by two sampling plots. The plot location are determined based on forest maturity, stand size, absence of disturbance and edge effects, and accessibility. The total sampling area of each plot is 1000 square meters. The occurrence of macrofungi in each sampling plot are surveyed one to two times each year. A list of fungal and vascular plant species are being recorded for each plot, as well as information on the surrounding habitat and substrate association. Macrofungi occurring outside of the plots are also collected to document species richness and to obtain samples for the DNA analyses. Identification: Macrofungi are a collective term for fungi that form conspicuous sporocarps. They are mostly members of Agaricales, Aphyllophorales, and Gasteromycetes, as well as some species of Auriculariales, Dacrymycetales, Tremellales, and Ascomycetes. Determination of these fungi is based on sporocarp macro- and micromorphological characters, cultural features, and chemical reactions. Currently, there are no comprehensive taxonomic treatments for either North American or Chinese macrofungi. Published monographs and/or local treatments and diagnostic keys are used as identification references. Biodiversity data analysis: The concept of biodiversity incorporates two components: richness in number of species and relative abundance of these species (Whittaker, 1972). Richness can be measured by the number of species present in a specified sample. Lists of macrofungal species that occur in each site are being generated, and species richness data are being compared using coefficients of similarity with data from other studies by means of normalization. Frequency data are used to represent relative abundance of a species. Assessing genetic divergence: The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region contains two spacer regions each about 300 bp long and the 5.8S rDNA that is subtended by the spacers. Most species level phylogenies within the fungi have been based on ITS and/or partial lsrDNA. Direct sequencing of the ITS region of rDNA has also been shown to be appropriate for understanding patterns of geographic speciation of macrofungi (Vilgalys & Sun, 1994). In this study, representatives from each population of selected disjunct species are being selected for sequencing of the ITS regions. Computerization: Specimen information are being entered into Field Museum's databases and will be made available to both the U.S. and Chinese mycological community. Geographical coordinates, altitude, and other precise locality fields are included to facilitate incorporating the data into Geographical Information Systems. * Scientific Benefits The main products of the project will include establishing permanent sampling plots, joint scientific publications and databases, complementary collections of specimens and cultures, and enhanced collaboration between U.S. and Chinese mycologists, and the conservation and forest management communities of U.S. and China. This study is generating baseline information for maintaining forest ecosystems in subtropical and temperate regions and is providing new evidence for understanding biogeographic relationships. It is increasing our knowledge on speciation and gene flow in macrofungi. The participants are also gaining firsthand experience on the fungi of each country and establishing an infrastructure for continued cooperation between the Chinese and U. S. mycological community. China is an ideal choice for studies on biodiversity in the Northern Hemisphere and for studies on relationships of macrofungi between eastern Asia and eastern North America. Conserving the biodiversity of China is to preserve an important sample of the world's biodiversity. This is especially challenging and urgent because of the rapid growth of the economy and the Chinese population at the present time. One of our primary study sites, Chang Bai Mtn., is internationally recognized as an important resource of biodiversity and is designated as a Man and the Biosphere Preserves. Information on biodiversity is important for effective long-term management of the forest preserve. * U.S. - China Cooperation The combined expertise of the U.S. and Chinese participants are necessary for the successful completion of this project. Principle investigators, Drs. Qiuxin Wu and Gregory M. Mueller (The Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, USA) work closely with three Chinese participants, Drs. Jiangchun Wei and Shoyu Guo (Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China), and Mr. Sha Meng (Chief, Wildlife Management Division, Ministry of Forestry). Another Chinese mycologist, Dr. Yongqing Huang, also from the Institute of Microbiology, has recently joined our project. His research is funded by a grant from the World Bank entitled "Biodiversity Research and Information Management Project" in China. The personnel, information resources and their commitment to mycology programs of both the Institute of Microbiology and the Field Museum are well suited for this binational cooperative project (for more information, see Links). For the Chinese participants, this project provides assistance in developing protocols for biodiversity surveys in China, information on current advances and concerns in mycological research of the United States, and opportunities for observing the vegetation and fungi of North America. For the U.S. participants, this project provides opportunities of hands-on experience with the Chinese fungi, complimenting our current research activities in North and Central America, and increasing the accessibility by U.S. mycologists to the herbarium and collection information systems of China. In addition, this project has an education component in which one U.S. college student is funded each year to join our field trips in China. This program exposes the U.S. students not only to mycological research but also to a different culture. Aleksa Kosinski, a graduate from the University of Illinois at Chicago, participated in the program in 1996. David Quist, a graduate from the University of Washington, joined us in 1997.

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United States Flag As you work to make this United States flag, tell your child what the colors and shapes represent.Materials - Red and blue paper - Large white paper - Star stickers - Help your child tear or cut a large blue square and strips of red paper. - Glue the strips and square onto white paper to make a flag. - Stick stars on the blue square. - Tape the flag to a dowel and fly the flag proudly! More on: Activities for Preschoolers Copyright © 1998 by Patricia Kuffner. Excerpted from The Preschooler's Busy Book with permission of its publisher, Meadowbrook Press. To order this book visit Meadowbrook Press.

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2013-05-19T19:46:08Z

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