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[ { "answer": " I'm going to give one, fairly well known to historians, example. A.J.P. Taylor famously did not read Mein Kampf, and discounted both its importance for understanding Hitler and any correlation between what Hitler wrote and his later actions. \n\n I should note that this is an example of misuse by non-use. Taylor, to make a very hefty book short, argued that Hitler was not really the central cause of the Second World War, and moreover, that his ideology was not \"that\" important. If I'm remembering correctly, he used an analogy about a car accident to describe the outbreak of war. \n\n Taylor not using Mein Kampf was such a big deal that Burk went out of his way to show conclusively that Taylor had not even read it. The book was and is indeed a gold mine of sorts, but only insofar as one is intent upon examining Hitler. This is why Taylor was pilloried to the extent he was: he essentially devoted a book to Hitler's innocence (in starting the war, Taylor in no way denies or diminishes the Holocaust or Hitler's role in it) but could only do so by ignoring key evidence (Mein Kampf) or alternating between claiming Hitler was lying, and not really serious at various points. If you ignore Mein Kampf, such an approach is indeed feasible, if still incredibly flawed. However, if you include Mein Kampf, the approach just sort of implodes immediately. Hitler was quite proud of being a warmonger...it was one of the only consistent and non-contradictory things in Mein Kampf. So for Taylor to argue that a warmonger who was actively seeking a war in order to overturn the established order and build a race based empire, was actually not really that keen on war, caused no small amount of scoffing in the halls of history faculties.\n\n As for how it will be different. I don't really see a \"My Struggle, and Zombies\" or any other light hearted stuff as being viable. A big part of that is of course, the book is awful. I don't just mean that in the message, plenty of books have hateful messages. Hitler was a good performer, and maybe a great deal is lost in translation, but that book reads like a rambling cavalcade of idiocies. \n\nThe first time I read it, I was so disappointed. I had steeled myself, reminding over and over that no matter how convincing or brilliantly the argument might be made, racism, anti-Semitism etc. are simply too easy and weakminded approaches to have in life. When I'd finished I was utterly confused. How could this book convince any even semi-educated person that Hitler was the star to hitch a wagon upon? I very suddenly understood how initially, educated Germans, much of the Jewish population, and those outside Germany honestly thought Hitler was some kind of comedian. Read seriously, the book is childish, riddled with contradictions and inconsistencies, and simply bad. Read as an intentionally paranoid cry for justice, blaming any party but oneself, the book is actually quite funny.\n\n One use I could see for the book, which I'm claiming right now and will demand royalties for if it should happen to appear on the market, is toilet paper. Nothing could be more suiting or proper than to read a bit of Mein Kampf, and then do with it exactly what ought to be done.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5287573", "title": "Religious views of Adolf Hitler", "section": "Section::::Public and private evolution of Hitler's beliefs.:Adulthood and political career.:Hitler's public rhetoric and writings about religion.:Religion in \"Mein Kampf\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 379, "text": "In \"Mein Kampf\" (1924-25), which was written while he was in prison after his failed 1923 putsch, Hitler combined elements of autobiography with an exposition of his racist political ideology . The personal reflections contained within \"Mein Kampf\" are nevertheless inaccurate and unreliable. In the work, Hitler uses the words \"God\", \"the Creator\", \"Providence\" and \"the Lord\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3191713", "title": "Nuremberg Laws", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 821, "text": "While imprisoned in 1924 after the failed Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler dictated \"Mein Kampf\" to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. The book is an autobiography and exposition of Hitler's ideology in which he laid out his plans for transforming German society into one based on race. In it he outlined his belief in Jewish Bolshevism, a conspiracy theory that posited the existence of an international Jewish conspiracy for world domination in which the Jews were the mortal enemy of the German people. Throughout his life Hitler never wavered in his world view as expounded in \"Mein Kampf\". The Nazi Party advocated the concept of a \"Volksgemeinschaft\" (\"people's community\") with the aim of uniting all Germans as national comrades, whilst excluding those deemed either to be community aliens or of a foreign race (\"Fremdvölkische\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19644", "title": "Mein Kampf", "section": "Section::::Contemporary observations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 340, "text": "The German journalist Konrad Heiden, an early critic of the Nazi Party, observed that the content of \"Mein Kampf\" is essentially a political argument with other members of the Nazi Party who had appeared to be Hitler's friends, but whom he was actually denouncing in the book's content – sometimes by not even including references to them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19644", "title": "Mein Kampf", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 398, "text": "Mein Kampf (, \"My Struggle\" or \"My Fight\") is a 1925 autobiographical manifesto by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. The work describes the process by which Hitler became antisemitic and outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany. Volume 1 of \"Mein Kampf\" was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926. The book was edited firstly by Emil Maurice, then by Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42478967", "title": "My Struggle (Knausgård novels)", "section": "Section::::Titles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 645, "text": "The title of the series, of both the English translation and the original Norwegian, is a translation of \"Mein Kampf\" and is thus a clear reference to Hitler. In an essay for the \"New Yorker\"s website, Evan Hughes explains how Knausgård, in interviews, \"has argued that a frightening characteristic that connects \"Mein Kampf\" to the writings of Anders Breivik, the perpetrator of the 2011 Utøya massacre, is that in the mind behind both texts there seems to be an 'I' and a 'we' but no 'you,' reflecting a dangerous blindness that allowed an otherwise impossible evil.\" The sixth book of the series includes a meditation on the Breivik attacks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32436176", "title": "Mein Kampf in Arabic", "section": "Section::::During the Suez war.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1199, "text": "In a speech to the United Nations immediately following the Suez Crisis in 1956, Israeli Foreign Minister Golda Meir claimed that the Arabic translation of \"Mein Kampf\" was found in Egyptian soldiers' knapsacks. In the same speech she also described Gamal Abdel Nasser as a \"disciple of Hitler who was determined to annihilate Israel\". After the war, David Ben-Gurion likened Nasser's \"Philosophy of the Revolution\" to Hitler's \"Mein Kampf\", a comparison also made by French Prime Minister Guy Mollet, though \"Time Magazine\" at the time discounted this comparison as \"overreaching\". \"Seen from Washington and New York, Nasser was not Hitler and Suez was not the Sinai,\" writes Philip Daniel Smith, dismissing the comparison. According to Benny Morris, Nasser however had not publicly called for the destruction of Israel until after the war, but other Egyptian politicians preceded him in this regard. The second generation of Israeli history textbooks included a photograph of Hitler's \"Mein Kampf\" found at Egyptian posts during the war. Elie Podeh writes that the depiction is \"probably genuine\", but that it \"served to dehumanize Egypt (and especially Nasser) by associating it with the Nazis.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1033852", "title": "Political views of Adolf Hitler", "section": "Section::::\"Mein Kampf\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 620, "text": "The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and exposition of his ideology. In \"Mein Kampf\", Hitler speaks at length about his youth, his early days in the Nazi Party and general ideas on politics, including the transformation of German society into one based on race, with some passages implying genocide. Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. In 1933, Hitler's first year in office, 1,000,000 copies were sold. The book acts as a reference, giving insight into the world view from which Hitler never wavered throughout his life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No. Energy and momentum are always conserved, but remember that momentum is a vector quantity with a direction, thus in your example the total momentum of both objects must remain zero (10-10=0) but that the individual momenta of each object need not be zero.\n\nIt is then important to determine whether your collision occurs *elastically* or *inelastically*. Elastic collisions preserve kinetic energy and momentum (thus the objects perfectly scatter). Inelastic collisions preserve momentum, but kinetic energy may be lost to heat, light, sound or deformation. The total energy is still conserved, but it is no longer all kinetic.\n\n* _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually, in an elastic collision (an ideal collision where no energy is lost to heat and the like), the two objects will bounce.\n\nObject 1 will move at -5 meters per second, and object 2 will move at 2 meters per second. The total kinetic energy and momentum are both preserved!\n\nHere is an elastic collision calculator to look at if you want to try out other numbers: _URL_0_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm a Mechanical Engineer and there are different energy techniques and models we use when calculating how objects deform. But basically the initial energy goes into deforming the object permanently. That is where quite a bit of the energy goes in an inelastic condition. Some of it also gets converted to heat (bend a paperclip back and forth and feel it get warmer). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20431", "title": "Momentum", "section": "Section::::Generalized.:Symmetry and conservation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 329, "text": "Conservation of momentum is a mathematical consequence of the homogeneity (shift symmetry) of space (position in space is the canonical conjugate quantity to momentum). That is, conservation of momentum is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not depend on position; this is a special case of Noether's theorem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "173961", "title": "Center of mass", "section": "Section::::Linear and angular momentum.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 451, "text": "The Law of Conservation of Momentum predicts that for any system not subjected to external forces the momentum of the system will remain constant, which means the center of mass will move with constant velocity. This applies for all systems with classical internal forces, including magnetic fields, electric fields, chemical reactions, and so on. More formally, this is true for any internal forces that cancel in accordance with Newton's Third Law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28758", "title": "Spacetime", "section": "Section::::Basic mathematics of spacetime.:Conservation laws.:Energy and momentum conservation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 202, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 202, "end_character": 511, "text": "The relativistic conservation law for energy and momentum replaces the three classical conservation laws for energy, momentum and mass. Mass is no longer conserved independently, because it has been subsumed into the total relativistic energy. This makes the relativistic conservation of energy a simpler concept than in nonrelativistic mechanics, because the total energy is conserved without any qualifications. Kinetic energy converted into heat or internal potential energy shows up as an increase in mass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1424913", "title": "Vis viva", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 535, "text": "was conserved. He called this quantity the \"vis viva\" or \"living force\" of the system. The principle, it is now realised, represents an accurate statement of the conservation of kinetic energy in elastic collisions, and is independent of the conservation of momentum. However, many physicists at the time were unaware of this fact and, instead, were influenced by the prestige of Sir Isaac Newton in England and of René Descartes in France, both of whom advanced the conservation of momentum as a guiding principle. Thus the momentum:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20431", "title": "Momentum", "section": "Section::::Electromagnetic.:Conservation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 395, "text": "In Newtonian mechanics, the law of conservation of momentum can be derived from the law of action and reaction, which states that every force has a reciprocating equal and opposite force. Under some circumstances, moving charged particles can exert forces on each other in non-opposite directions. Nevertheless, the combined momentum of the particles and the electromagnetic field is conserved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67088", "title": "Conservation of energy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 422, "text": "was conserved so long as the masses did not interact. He called this quantity the \"vis viva\" or \"living force\" of the system. The principle represents an accurate statement of the approximate conservation of kinetic energy in situations where there is no friction. Many physicists at that time, such as Newton, held that the conservation of momentum, which holds even in systems with friction, as defined by the momentum:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "422481", "title": "Mass–energy equivalence", "section": "Section::::Conservation of mass and energy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 922, "text": "If the conservation of mass law is interpreted as conservation of \"rest\" mass, it does not hold true in special relativity. The \"rest\" energy (equivalently, rest mass) of a particle can be converted, not \"to energy\" (it already \"is\" energy (mass)), but rather to \"other\" forms of energy (mass) that require motion, such as kinetic energy, thermal energy, or radiant energy. Similarly, kinetic or radiant energy can be converted to other kinds of particles that have rest energy (rest mass). In the transformation process, neither the total amount of mass nor the total amount of energy changes, since both properties are connected via a simple constant. This view requires that if either energy or (total) mass disappears from a system, it is always found that both have simply moved to another place, where they are both measurable as an increase of both energy and mass that corresponds to the loss in the first system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\n > Could life evolve in a gas giant and would it have to live on the core or could it live in the clouds? \n\nCould life evolve? This is an unknown. We only have one instance of life to compare it to. There is speculation that it could. \n > What kind of chemistry would it have to have and what kind of adaptations would we expect to see?\n\nThe chemistry would be dependent upon, first and foremost, whether life was possible. Then it would be dependent on what chemicals were available. The only chemicals we're familiar with as the basis of life are the ones we use - mostly carbon. \n\nThe adaptations would depend on the environment. Not all gas giants, like not all terrestrial planets, are alike. \n\n[This](_URL_0_) is from Stephen Hawking's Universe, and may be relevant to your interest. \n\nDavid Brinn, the SciFi author, postulated that the life forms in gas giants would grow very large to prevent being swept up or down in the storms of a gas giant, though I don't believe that's particularly scientific as his other ideas (in the uplift novels) pertaining to gas giant life forms seemed more a matter of convenience to the story. \n\nThere's also Ian Douglas's take on it in the Star Carrier series, where very (very) large buoyant life forms acted as hosts/platforms for tinier (roughly human sized) life forms. But again, purely speculation even if it is within the realm of possibility. \n\nI only bring those two up because their knack for writing well and, at least in William Keith/Ian Douglas's case, propensity toward \"hard\" SciFi. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "362748", "title": "Bespin", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 531, "text": "The planet is a gas giant that is about in diameter. Like most gas giants, it has a solid core that consists of metal followed by layers of metallic gases. Many of the layers of gas are poisonous, and the pressure and temperature are far above what a human could tolerate. But from approximately down from outer space, there is a habitable layer known as the Bespin Life Zone. This layer has an oxygen atmosphere with the temperature and pressure that makes it ideal for human life. It is in this layer that Cloud City is located.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47402", "title": "Titan (moon)", "section": "Section::::Prebiotic conditions and life.:Methane and life at the surface.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 268, "text": "It has been speculated that life could exist in the lakes of liquid methane on Titan, just as organisms on Earth live in water. Such organisms would inhale H in place of O, metabolize it with acetylene instead of glucose, and exhale methane instead of carbon dioxide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39863531", "title": "Habitability of red dwarf systems", "section": "Section::::Research.:Methane habitable zone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 358, "text": "If methane-based life is possible (similar to the hypothetical life on Titan), there would be a second habitable zone further out from the star corresponding to the region where methane is liquid. Titan's atmosphere is transparent to red and infrared light, so more of the light from red dwarfs would be expected to reach the surface of a Titan-like planet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11001", "title": "Fred Hoyle", "section": "Section::::Bibliography.:Science fiction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 411, "text": "Hoyle also wrote science fiction. In his first novel, \"The Black Cloud\", most intelligent life in the universe takes the form of interstellar gas clouds; they are surprised to learn that intelligent life can also form on planets. He wrote a television series, \"A for Andromeda\", which was also published as a novel. His play \"Rockets in Ursa Major\" had a professional production at the Mermaid Theatre in 1962.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3451267", "title": "HD 28185 b", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 247, "text": "Given the planet's high mass, it is most likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface. Since the planet has only been detected indirectly through observations of the star, properties such as its radius, composition, and temperature are unknown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15949", "title": "James Blish", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 323, "text": "James Benjamin Blish (May 23, 1921 – July 30, 1975) was an American science fiction and fantasy writer. He is best known for his \"Cities in Flight\" novels, and his series of \"Star Trek\" novelizations written with his wife, J. A. Lawrence. He is credited with creating the term gas giant to refer to large planetary bodies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "827792", "title": "Rare Earth hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Requirements for complex life.:A continuously stable orbit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 241, "text": "Rare Earth argues that a gas giant must not be too close to a body where life is developing. Close placement of gas giant(s) could disrupt the orbit of a potential life-bearing planet, either directly or by drifting into the habitable zone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is probably not going to be put in terms simple enough for strictly adhering to this sub-reddit's mantra (explained as if you were five years old). Oh well, I tried. :|\n\nDark matter backstory, short version: By watching the motion of the cosmos, specifically, other galaxies, and even clusters of other galaxies, we have noticed that there are similarities in the movements of these galaxies, and even the stars within those galaxies. These movements are best explained by what we're calling \"dark matter\".\n\nDark matter backstory, long version: We see a lot of stars in each galaxy... billions and billions. These stars all kind of \"glue\" each other towards one another, and battle in a cosmic, billion player tug-of-war game. BUT, we notice that there seems to be a bunch of invisible stars also pulling in all these, adding more \"glue\" in to the galaxy, and more players into the tug-of-war game. This \"glue\", and the \"ropes\" of the tug-of-war game obviously symbolize \"gravity\". The extra gravity coming from invisible sources has so far best been explained by the term \"dark matter\". We still don't know if it forms in clumps, like \"regular\" matter does with stars and solar systems, but we know that a huge halo-shaped band of dark matter seems to surround each galaxy. Also, the way that galaxies collide and merge suggests that there's lots of invisible tugging going on, from stuff we can't see: \"dark matter\".\n\nMore background: In theory, there are little pieces of this invisible stuff, \"dark matter\", everywhere around (and possibly even inside) Earth, pieces about the size of atoms (SMALL). These dark matter pieces should be banging into each other, like really fast bumper cars... even atoms, which are regular matter, do this quite often. Some of the dark matter pieces should be going quite fast, and when they hit, something magic happens (the complexity of scientifically explaining this next sentence is too much, but it does have to do with E=mc^2). An electron (regular matter) and a positron (\"anti-matter\"... different than dark matter, mind you!) appear out of thin air!!\n\nTo answer the question: So there we are... up there on the International Space Station... with our super cool Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (we'll call it AMS) instrument. AMS allows us to \"see\" electrons and positrons, and we point it straight out into space, away from earth, into the depths of the universe. Well, as it's turned out, we actually DO see some positrons. As of right now, the most likely explanation as to why these positrons are out there is because the little pieces of dark matter ARE actually colliding, like bumpercars, making positrons (and electrons too, of course) appear like magic.\n\nWe can't see these positrons on the surface of the earth, because they get obliterated by our atmosphere... if they touch our air, *BINK!*. A tiny explosion occurs. So, the best place to look for them is in space, and (for now) the best way to look for them is with AMS.\n\nIn the next few months, we'll gather more data which will allow us to say with greater certainty whether or not we really see the \"fingerprints\" of dark matter.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2541207", "title": "Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 332, "text": "The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, also designated AMS-02, is a particle physics experiment module that is mounted on the International Space Station (ISS). The module is a detector that measures antimatter in cosmic rays, this information is needed to understand the formation of the Universe and search for evidence of dark matter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2099069", "title": "Solo operations of Apollo 15", "section": "Section::::Day 1.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 267, "text": "The Alpha Particle Spectrometer measured the alpha particles emitted by the surface, specifically by the gaseous radon-222 and radon-220. It was optimized to detect particles of energies of 4.7 to 9.1 MeV. It was built into the same casing as the X-ray Spectrometer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37615833", "title": "2013 in science", "section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:April.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 222, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 222, "end_character": 336, "text": "BULLET::::- NASA scientists report that hints of dark matter may have been detected by the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station. According to the scientists, \"the first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25241081", "title": "US Orbital Segment", "section": "Section::::External elements.:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 2.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 375, "text": "The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) is a particle physics experiment that is mounted on the S3 truss segment. The AMS is designed to search for dark matter and anti-matter. Five hundred scientists from 56 different institutions and 16 countries participated in the development and construction of the AMS. The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer was delivered by the STS-134 crew.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2541207", "title": "Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 382, "text": "The alpha magnetic spectrometer was proposed in 1995 by the \"Antimatter Study Group\", led by MIT particle physicist Samuel Ting, not long after the cancellation of the Superconducting Super Collider. The original name for the instrument was \"Antimatter Spectrometer,\" with the stated objective to search for primordial antimatter, with a target resolution of antimatter/matter ≈10.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1419800", "title": "Cryogenic Dark Matter Search", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 881, "text": "The Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS) is a series of experiments designed to directly detect particle dark matter in the form of WIMPs. Using an array of semiconductor detectors at millikelvin temperatures, CDMS has at times set the most sensitive limits on the interactions of WIMP dark matter with terrestrial materials (as of 2018, CDMS limits are not the most sensitive). The first experiment, CDMS I, was run in a tunnel under the Stanford University campus. It was followed by CDMS II experiment in the Soudan Mine. The most recent experiment, SuperCDMS (or SuperCDMS Soudan), was located deep underground in the Soudan Mine in northern Minnesota and took data 2011-2015. The series of experiments continues with SuperCDMS SNOLAB, an experiment located at the SNOLAB facility in Canada that started construction in 2018 and is expected to start data taking in early 2020s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20688933", "title": "DAMA/LIBRA", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 490, "text": "is a particle detector experiment designed to detect dark matter using the direct detection approach, by using a matrix of NaI(Tl) scintillation detectors to detect dark matter particles in the galactic halo. The experiment aims to find an annual modulation of the number of detection events, caused by the variation of the velocity of the detector relative to the dark matter halo as the Earth orbits the Sun. It is located underground at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Italy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "'Flat' carbonated water is just water that is no longer supersaturated with carbon dioxide. It would still contain some residual CO2, depending on temperature, and would therefore still be very slightly acidic (ph 6 or so).\nI'm not sure what you mean by still water. If you are talking about distilled water, it would probably have less CO2 than flat carbonated water. This is because the CO2 is driven off when the water is heated to boiling, and it is likely that the water would then have been condensed and bottled without having time to reabsorb much CO2 from the atmosphere. Nonetheless conventional distilled water still has some dissolved gases and for lab work that requires water with *no* dissolved gases, further degassing is typically needed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "240561", "title": "Carbonated water", "section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 480, "text": "The acid gives carbonated water a slightly tart flavor. The pH level between 3 and 4 is approximately in between apple juice and orange juice in acidity, but much less acidic than the acid in the stomach. A normal, healthy human body maintains pH equilibrium via acid–base homeostasis and will not be materially adversely affected by consumption of plain carbonated water. Alkaline salts, such as sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, or potassium citrate, will increase pH.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "240561", "title": "Carbonated water", "section": "Section::::Health effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 335, "text": "By itself, carbonated water appears to have little impact on health. While carbonated water is somewhat acidic, this acidity can be partially neutralized by saliva. A study found that sparkling mineral water is slightly more erosive to teeth than non-carbonated water but is about 100 times less erosive to teeth than soft drinks are.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44731", "title": "Calcium carbonate", "section": "Section::::Solubility.:With varying CO pressure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 632, "text": "The effect of the latter is especially evident in day-to-day life of people who have hard water. Water in aquifers underground can be exposed to levels of CO much higher than atmospheric. As such water percolates through calcium carbonate rock, the CaCO dissolves according to the second trend. When that same water then emerges from the tap, in time it comes into equilibrium with CO levels in the air by outgassing its excess CO. The calcium carbonate becomes less soluble as a result and the excess precipitates as lime scale. This same process is responsible for the formation of stalactites and stalagmites in limestone caves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44603", "title": "Calcite", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Chemical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 1166, "text": "Calcite, like most carbonates, will dissolve with most forms of acid. Calcite can be either dissolved by groundwater or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Although calcite is fairly insoluble in cold water, acidity can cause dissolution of calcite and release of carbon dioxide gas. Ambient carbon dioxide, due to its acidity, has a slight solubilizing effect on calcite. Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. When conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together or it can fill fractures. When conditions are right for dissolution, the removal of calcite can dramatically increase the porosity and permeability of the rock, and if it continues for a long period of time may result in the formation of caves. On a landscape scale, continued dissolution of calcium carbonate-rich rocks can lead to the expansion and eventual collapse of cave systems, resulting in various forms of karst topography.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5912", "title": "Carbonate", "section": "Section::::Chemical properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 487, "text": "Carbonated water is formed by dissolving CO in water under pressure. When the partial pressure of CO is reduced, for example when a can of soda is opened, the equilibrium for each of the forms of carbonate (carbonate, bicarbonate, carbon dioxide, and carbonic acid) shifts until the concentration of CO in the solution is equal to the solubility of CO at that temperature and pressure. In living systems an enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, speeds the interconversion of CO and carbonic acid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28239489", "title": "Lime softening", "section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 423, "text": "As lime in the form of limewater is added to raw water, the pH is raised and the equilibrium of carbonate species in the water is shifted. Dissolved carbon dioxide (CO) is changed into bicarbonate (HCO) and then carbonate (CO). This action causes calcium carbonate to precipitate due to exceeding the solubility product. Additionally, magnesium can be precipitated as magnesium hydroxide in a double displacement reaction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "240561", "title": "Carbonated water", "section": "Section::::Health effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 331, "text": "Carbonated water may increase irritable bowel syndrome symptoms of bloating and gas due to the release of carbon dioxide in the digestive tract. It does not appear to have an effect on gastroesophageal reflux disease. There is tentative evidence that carbonated water may help with constipation among people who have had a stroke.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is a good question, and this will be a long answer! I'll try to hit on all the major points, and if you have any more questions I can try to answer them later. Keep in mind, there are a lot of different Christians with a lot of different ideas, so other people might give different answers on some of these topics.\n\n(I'll try to keep the language as something that a 5-year-old could understand, but I might slip up if I get carried away)\n\nI'm not exactly sure what you mean by \"Christian philosophy,\" so I'm going to skip that one right now. Could you tell me a little bit more about what you're looking for in that question so that I can answer it for you?\n\nThere are a lot of different groups of Christians, but you've mentioned some big ones, so we'll start with those! \n\nCatholics are a really really big group of Christians. While they believe that Jesus came to die for our sins, they have some extra beliefs as well. Catholics teach that the Pope is the only human who can talk directly to God, and that everything that he teaches about the Bible is completely correct. A lot of their other beliefs come from the teachings of the Pope, and there's a ton of them - probably too many to explain here!\n\nProtestants are another really big group of Christians, but they don't agree with the Catholics about the Pope or about who can talk to God. As a result, Protestants have a lot of different kinds of Protestants, because without a big boss figure to tell everybody exactly what to believe, different churches can take different positions on different minor beliefs. Even though every Protestant church has some basic belief similarities (about God, Jesus, being \"saved\" and the like), things such as which version of the Bible to use, how to baptize, and stuff like that can change from church to church.\n\nMormons are interesting, because many Catholics and Protestants will not call them Christians, but they call themselves Christians. Mormons believe that their founder received *extra* revelation from God, and that's why they have The Book of Mormon, The Pearl of Great Price, and Doctrines and Covenants. All of these were presented to the Mormon church by Joseph Smith as the word of God, and are treated as equal in truth to the Bible by Mormons.\n\nOther Christian offshoots (such as Jehovah's Witnesses) have similar extra teachings, and even some Protestant churches (some hardline Seventh Day Adventists, many Christian Scientists) have teachings that they regard as just as important as the Bible. This is another topic that could take lots and lots of time and research to explore.\n\nJesus, according to Christian teaching, was *the* son of God. He came to earth, lived a life without ever doing anything wrong, and then was sacrificed. This was the only way to make sure that people could be forgiven of their sins forever, since only a perfect sacrifice can perfectly cover over the bad things that people do that make it so that they can't be with God. It's also important that Jesus came back from the dead, because this shows that he is bigger than death!\n\nThe Bible is meant to be taken very seriously, since Christians believe that it is the word of God; however, there are metaphors in the Bible all over the place. Which parts *exactly* are metaphors is a pretty debated topic, and that's not something I can really say, but even metaphors can be taken seriously! For example, Jesus said that if your right eye causes you to sin you should cut it out. Most people take this as a metaphorical statement (Jesus, according to them, didn't want people to self-mutilate), but it is a metaphor telling us to be sure that we take whatever steps we need in order to avoid sinning.\n\nIt took me a while to type this, so I may have gotten a little off-track or confusing. If I can elaborate a little more or clarify something that's still obscure, please let me know!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is a good question, and this will be a long answer! I'll try to hit on all the major points, and if you have any more questions I can try to answer them later. Keep in mind, there are a lot of different Christians with a lot of different ideas, so other people might give different answers on some of these topics.\n\n(I'll try to keep the language as something that a 5-year-old could understand, but I might slip up if I get carried away)\n\nI'm not exactly sure what you mean by \"Christian philosophy,\" so I'm going to skip that one right now. Could you tell me a little bit more about what you're looking for in that question so that I can answer it for you?\n\nThere are a lot of different groups of Christians, but you've mentioned some big ones, so we'll start with those! \n\nCatholics are a really really big group of Christians. While they believe that Jesus came to die for our sins, they have some extra beliefs as well. Catholics teach that the Pope is the only human who can talk directly to God, and that everything that he teaches about the Bible is completely correct. A lot of their other beliefs come from the teachings of the Pope, and there's a ton of them - probably too many to explain here!\n\nProtestants are another really big group of Christians, but they don't agree with the Catholics about the Pope or about who can talk to God. As a result, Protestants have a lot of different kinds of Protestants, because without a big boss figure to tell everybody exactly what to believe, different churches can take different positions on different minor beliefs. Even though every Protestant church has some basic belief similarities (about God, Jesus, being \"saved\" and the like), things such as which version of the Bible to use, how to baptize, and stuff like that can change from church to church.\n\nMormons are interesting, because many Catholics and Protestants will not call them Christians, but they call themselves Christians. Mormons believe that their founder received *extra* revelation from God, and that's why they have The Book of Mormon, The Pearl of Great Price, and Doctrines and Covenants. All of these were presented to the Mormon church by Joseph Smith as the word of God, and are treated as equal in truth to the Bible by Mormons.\n\nOther Christian offshoots (such as Jehovah's Witnesses) have similar extra teachings, and even some Protestant churches (some hardline Seventh Day Adventists, many Christian Scientists) have teachings that they regard as just as important as the Bible. This is another topic that could take lots and lots of time and research to explore.\n\nJesus, according to Christian teaching, was *the* son of God. He came to earth, lived a life without ever doing anything wrong, and then was sacrificed. This was the only way to make sure that people could be forgiven of their sins forever, since only a perfect sacrifice can perfectly cover over the bad things that people do that make it so that they can't be with God. It's also important that Jesus came back from the dead, because this shows that he is bigger than death!\n\nThe Bible is meant to be taken very seriously, since Christians believe that it is the word of God; however, there are metaphors in the Bible all over the place. Which parts *exactly* are metaphors is a pretty debated topic, and that's not something I can really say, but even metaphors can be taken seriously! For example, Jesus said that if your right eye causes you to sin you should cut it out. Most people take this as a metaphorical statement (Jesus, according to them, didn't want people to self-mutilate), but it is a metaphor telling us to be sure that we take whatever steps we need in order to avoid sinning.\n\nIt took me a while to type this, so I may have gotten a little off-track or confusing. If I can elaborate a little more or clarify something that's still obscure, please let me know!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "186855", "title": "Christianity and Islam", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 234, "text": "Christianity is a monotheistic religion which developed out of Second Temple Judaism in the 1st century CE. It is founded on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and those who follow it are called Christians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25414", "title": "Religion", "section": "Section::::Specific religions.:Abrahamic.:Christianity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 685, "text": "Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth (1st century) as presented in the New Testament. The Christian faith is essentially faith in Jesus as the Christ, the Son of God, and as Savior and Lord. Almost all Christians believe in the Trinity, which teaches the unity of Father, Son (Jesus Christ), and Holy Spirit as three persons in one Godhead. Most Christians can describe their faith with the Nicene Creed. As the religion of Byzantine Empire in the first millennium and of Western Europe during the time of colonization, Christianity has been propagated throughout the world. The main divisions of Christianity are, according to the number of adherents:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5211", "title": "Christianity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 434, "text": "Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Its adherents, known as Christians, believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God and savior of all people, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Scriptures of Judaism, called Old Testament in Christianity, and chronicled in the New Testament. It is the world's largest religion with over 2.4 billion followers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "606848", "title": "Catholic Church", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 739, "text": "The Christian religion is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ, who lived and preached in the 1st century AD in the province of Judea of the Roman Empire. Catholic doctrine teaches that the contemporary Catholic Church is the continuation of this early Christian community established by Jesus. Christianity spread throughout the early Roman Empire, despite persecutions due to conflicts with the pagan state religion. Emperor Constantine legalised the practice of Christianity in 313, and it became the state religion in 380. Germanic invaders of Roman territory in the 5th and 6th centuries, many of whom had previously adopted Arian Christianity, eventually adopted Catholicism to ally themselves with the papacy and the monasteries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10557902", "title": "History of the Eastern Orthodox Church", "section": "Section::::Byzantine period.:Tensions with the Papacy.:Conversion of Eastern and Southern Slavs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 319, "text": "The forming of Christianity as state religion dates to the time of the Eastern Orthodox missionaries (Saints) Cyril and Methodius during Basil I (r. 867–886), who baptised the Serbs sometime before helping Knez Mutimir in the war against the Saracens in 869, after acknowledging the suzerainty of the Byzantine Empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26447", "title": "Resurrection", "section": "Section::::Religion.:Christianity.:Resurrection of the dead.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 949, "text": "Christianity started as a religious movement within 1st-century Judaism (late Second Temple Judaism), and it retains what the New Testament itself claims was the Pharisaic belief in the afterlife and Resurrection of the Dead. Whereas this belief was only one of many beliefs held about the World to Come in Second Temple Judaism, and was notably rejected by both the Sadducees and, according to Josephus, the Pharisees, this belief became dominant within Early Christianity and already in the Gospels of Luke and John included an insistence on the resurrection of the flesh. Most modern Christian churches continue to uphold the belief that there will be a final resurrection of the dead and World to Come, perhaps as prophesied by the Apostle Paul when he said: \"...he hath appointed a day, in the which he will judge the world...\" (Acts 17:31 KJV) and \"...there shall be a resurrection of the dead, both of the just and unjust.\" (Acts 24:15 KJV).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25727573", "title": "Early centers of Christianity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 441, "text": "Early Christianity (generally considered the time period from its origin to the First Council of Nicaea in 325) spread from the Eastern Mediterranean throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. Originally, this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish diaspora. The first followers of Christianity were Jews or proselytes, commonly referred to as Jewish Christians and God-fearers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Quoting myself from a previous answer to a similar question:\n\nIt depends on what you mean by police.\n\nIn Ancient Greece, city-states had publicly owned slaves who acted as a police force. They kept order and controlled prisoners, but they didn't investigate crimes. Most crimes were considered a private matter so the citizens dealt with them themselves.\n\nThe city of Rome never had a real police force, though it had a force of men set up for the protection of each ward. These men were responsible more for public order and physical protection and had no role in criminal justice.\n\nMost societies since then have had people who's duty was to \"keep the peace\" so to speak. One thing to keep in mind about criminal justice as a whole is that, for most of history, crimes were considered private matters between individuals. Eventually a new idea took hold in England; violating the King's Peace (through murder, theft, etc.) was not just a crime against an individual, but a crime against the whole kingdom. This brought about the prosecution of criminals even when no private citizen brought a case against them.\n\nIf, by police, you mean people who investigate crimes and arrest criminals, London's Bow Street Runners, founded in 1749, are regarded as the foundation of modern police. They were a formalization of the existing practice of 'thief-takers' - people who solved crimes for a fee. Prior to this, 'police' were basically only for keeping the peace in towns and cities; for example, the duties of Lieutenant General of Police, the foundation of the Paris police, were described as \"ensuring the peace and quiet of the public and of private individuals, purging the city of what may cause disturbances, procuring abundance, and having each and everyone live according to their station and their duties\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5236980", "title": "Criminal investigation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 437, "text": "Criminal investigation is an ancient science that may have roots as far back as c. 1700 BCE in the writings of the Code of Hammurabi. In the code it is suggested that both the accuser and the accused had the right to present evidence they collected. In the modern era criminal investigations are most often done by government police forces. Private investigators are also commonly hired to complete or assist in criminal investigations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45710", "title": "Forensic science", "section": "Section::::History.:Origins of forensic science and early methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 348, "text": "The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment. Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However, ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow concepts in forensic science that were developed centuries later.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24242019", "title": "Forensics in antiquity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 420, "text": "The ancient world lacked standardized practices of forensic science, which aided criminals in escaping punishment. Criminal investigations and trials relied on oaths, confessions and witness testimony. In a time when a distinction between science and such phenomena as religion, magic and superstition had not yet been made, some civilizations used practices such as the trial by ordeal to determine guilt or innocence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39073847", "title": "Mysteries of Isis", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1549, "text": "Greco-Roman mysteries were secret initiation rituals into which people entered voluntarily. They were dedicated to a particular deity or group of deities, and they used a variety of intense experiences, such as nocturnal darkness interrupted by bright light and loud music and noise, that induced a state of disorientation and an intense religious experience. Some of them involved cryptic symbolism. Initiates were not supposed to discuss some of the details of what they experienced in the mysteries, and modern understanding of these rites is limited by this secrecy. The most prestigious mysteries in the Greek world were the Eleusinian mysteries dedicated to the goddess Demeter, which were performed at Eleusis, near Athens, from at least the sixth century BCE to the end of the fourth century CE. They centered on Demeter's search for her daughter Persephone in Greek mythology. Eleusinian initiates passed into a dark hall, the Telesterion, and were subjected to terrifying sights, followed by a fiery light and a shout from the hierophant who presided over the ceremony. By this light the initiates saw objects that represented Demeter's power over fertility, such as a sheaf of wheat, and perhaps other images that referred to the myth of Persephone. In the mysteries of the god Dionysus, which were performed in many places across the Greek world, participants celebrated in a frenzy at night, in the open air. Dionysian celebrations were connected in some way with Orphism, a group of mystical beliefs about the nature of the afterlife.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3181541", "title": "On the Mysteries of the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Assyrians", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 292, "text": "On the Mysteries of the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Assyrians (), also known as the Theurgia and under its abbreviated Latin title De Mysteriis Aegyptiorum (\"The Egyptian Mysteries\"), is a work of Neoplatonic philosophy primarily concerned with ritual and theurgy and attributed to Iamblichus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37004", "title": "Greco-Roman mysteries", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1196, "text": "Mystery religions, sacred mysteries or simply mysteries were religious schools of the Greco-Roman world for which participation was reserved to initiates \"(mystai)\". The main characterization of this religion is the secrecy associated with the particulars of the initiation and the ritual practice, which may not be revealed to outsiders. The most famous mysteries of Greco-Roman antiquity were the Eleusinian Mysteries, which were of considerable antiquity and predated the Greek Dark Ages. The mystery schools flourished in Late Antiquity; Julian the Apostate in the mid 4th century is known to have been initiated into three distinct mystery schools—most notably the mithraists. Due to the secret nature of the school, and because the mystery religions of Late Antiquity were persecuted by the Christian Roman Empire from the 4th century, the details of these religious practices are derived from descriptions, imagery and cross-cultural studies. \"Because of this element of secrecy, we are ill-informed as to the beliefs and practices of the various mystery faiths. We know that they had a general likeness to one another\". Much information on the Mysteries come from Marcus Terentius Varro.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7126061", "title": "Divine judgment", "section": "Section::::Greco-Roman beliefs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 602, "text": "The mystery religions of the Hellenistic era offered initiates the hope of salvation through confession, judgment, and forgiveness, as well as ritual purity. The Isaic mysteries were influenced by the traditional religion of ancient Egypt, which had symbolized the judgment of the soul through its weight on the scale of truth. Orphic initiates were buried with devotional texts that provided instructions for navigating the hazards of the underworld and addressing the judges; the soul who speaks correctly will be given a drink from the pool of Memory before joining the heroes who have gone before.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's actually not known. Some think it's a placebo, some think there's something real about the acupressure.\n\n\nThey do work. _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27508128", "title": "Hologram bracelet", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 517, "text": "A hologram bracelet or energy bracelet is a small rubber wristband supposedly fitted with a hologram. Manufacturers have said supposedly that the holograms \"optimise the natural flow of energy around the body, and supposedly improve an athlete's strength, balance and flexibility\". Only anecdotal evidence supports these claims and tests performed by the Australian Skeptics, the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, and the RMIT's School of Health Sciences have been unable to identify any effect on performance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35035435", "title": "VITAband", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 539, "text": "VITAband was created by David Waxman and Jason Brown in 2007 and was launched in September 2009. The idea was conceived from medical ID bracelet but the designers had targeted athletes. So, they set out to design a medical ID bracelet that was comfortable to wear while jogging, running, cycling, hiking, etc., along with being versatile enough to use during exercise. VITAband is a combination of design and function which conveniently and securely stores emergency information remotely and offers access to money by contactless payment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15207557", "title": "Gyroscopic exercise tool", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 549, "text": "A gyroscopic exercise tool is a device used to exercise the wrist as part of physical therapy or in order to build palm, forearm and finger strength. It can also be used as a unique demonstration of some aspects of rotational dynamics. The device consists of a tennis ball-sized plastic or metal shell around a free-spinning mass, which is started with a short rip string. Once the gyroscope inside is going fast enough, a person holding the device can accelerate the spinning mass to high revolution rates by moving the wrist in a circular motion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8415747", "title": "Medical Mobile", "section": "Section::::The Columba bracelet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 541, "text": "It is a watch size bracelet combining \"hands free\" portable telephone, intelligent alert system and GPS positioning system. Design for people suffering from a cognitive disease. It enables to locate precisely, if necessary, the person wearing the bracelet (often a person suffering from Alzheimer's). At the time of an emergency situation, a need of help, wandering or straying, Columba allows, not only to locate the carrier, but also to speak to him and evaluate the situation, thanks to the hands free system integrated into the portable\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61199722", "title": "SafetyLine Lone Worker", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 267, "text": "BULLET::::- In 2017, SafetyLine introduced the use of motion detection, allowing a user to create an emergency alert by shaking the smartphone device or by having the smartphone device detect no motion or a falling motion by using the smartphones accelerometer data.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7249925", "title": "Steven Novella", "section": "Section::::Topics of interest.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 524, "text": "BULLET::::- Hologram bracelets – A hologram bracelet or power bracelet is a small rubber wristband fitted with a hologram. Manufacturers have said that the holograms \"optimise the natural flow of energy around the body, and so improve an athlete's strength, balance and flexibility\". Appearing on an episode of the television show \"Inside Edition\" Novella was asked if he believed the claims of makers of power bracelets. He replied, \"Not for a second. That is based upon nothing. That is literally made up marketing hype.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27508128", "title": "Hologram bracelet", "section": "Section::::Response.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 450, "text": "Several groups have investigated the effects of hologram bracelets on athletic performance. A 2011 study by RMIT University's School of Health Sciences found that there was an overall decrease in the balance and stability of wearers, although it was not statistically significant and the overall conclusion was that the bracelets had no effect on performance. The Australian Skeptics group found that the bracelets has no more than a placebo effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Take a look at the sidebar over at /r/magictcg - it has lots of great resources for new players.\n\nI also think that the best way to learn the game currently is to download the Magic Duels app on your phone/steam and play that. It introduces the rules to you slowly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1085487", "title": "Magic: The Gathering Online", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 409, "text": "Magic: The Gathering Online is a video game adaptation of \"\", utilizing the concept of a virtual economy in order to preserve the collectible aspect of the card game. It is played through an Internet service operated by Wizards of the Coast, which went live on June 24, 2002. Users can play the game or trade cards with other users. It is only officially available for the Microsoft Windows operating system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "805737", "title": "Magic: The Gathering video games", "section": "Section::::Magic: The Gathering Online.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 867, "text": "Magic: The Gathering Online is a 2002 game developed by Leaping Lizard Software and maintained by Wizards of the Coast itself since version 2.0 in 2004. It focuses purely on gameplay, and includes no additional storyline. Included are cards from all expansions starting with \"\" with the exception of the sets \"\", \"\", and \"\" which would not easily translate to computer play. Updates become available as new sets are printed. Games are held in chatroom-style sessions, and virtual cards can be won or purchased with real money. \"Magic Online\" offers a variety of both casual games in which players can use cards they own for fun, and competitive online tournaments in which players use purchased/traded tickets and booster packs to enter into events, both Limited (decks built with cards opened from boosters) and Constructed (decks built from a player's collection).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11877161", "title": "Magic: The Gathering (1997 video game)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 729, "text": "Magic: The Gathering is a video game published by MicroProse in April 1997 based on the collectible card game \"\". It is often referred to as \"Shandalar\" after the of , where the game takes place. The player must travel the land and fight random enemies to gain cards, and defeat five wizards representing the five colors. The player must prevent one color from gaining too much power, and defeat the planeswalker Arzakon, who has a deck of all five colors. Adventure game and role-playing game elements are present, including inventory, gold, towns, dungeons, random battles, and character progression in the form of new abilities and a higher life point total. An oversized version of Aswan Jaguar was included in the game box.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18830", "title": "Magic: The Gathering", "section": "Section::::Product and marketing.:Video games.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 405, "text": "With \"\" or MTGO for short, Wizards developed and released a computer version of the game themselves that allows players to compete online against other players using the original \"Magic\" cards and rules. Players purchase digital cards, and are able to play online against each other using their digital collections. \"Magic: The Gathering Online\" is the closest to paper magic of the digital alternatives.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55174413", "title": "Magic: The Gathering Arena", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 476, "text": "Magic: The Gathering Arena is an upcoming free-to-play digital collectible card game developed and published by Wizards of the Coast. The game is a digital adaption of the \"\" (MTG) card game, allowing players to gain cards through booster packs, in-game achievements or microtransaction purchases, and build their own decks to challenge other players. It is commonly referred to as \"MTG Arena\", \"Magic Arena\" or just \"Arena\" within the broader \"Magic: The Gathering\" context.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146563", "title": "Wizards of the Coast", "section": "Section::::History.:2010–present.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 631, "text": "In 2014, 20th Century Fox acquired the screen rights to \"Magic the Gathering\" to turn the property into a movie series with Simon Kinberg attached to the project. Wizards filed a lawsuit against Cryptozoic Entertainment and Hex Entertainment in 2014 alleging that their online card game \"\" was a \"Magic the Gathering\" clone. All three companies agreed to a settlement the following year. In 2015, it was reported that an estimated 20 million people played \"Magic the Gathering\" around the world and that the game had a thriving tournament scene, a professional league and a weekly organized game program called Friday Night Magic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18830", "title": "Magic: The Gathering", "section": "Section::::Product and marketing.:Video games.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 111, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 111, "end_character": 204, "text": "Cryptic Studios and Perfect World Entertainment have announced plans to create a \"Magic: The Gathering\" massively multiplayer online role-playing game, to be released for personal computers and consoles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You can feel light waves. Go stand outside on a bright day. It's a lot hotter in the sun than the shade, no? You just feel light in a different way than sound (usually, you feel infrared light the most, which feels like heat).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2158298", "title": "Visual impairment", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Communication.:Surroundings.:Sound.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 175, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 175, "end_character": 728, "text": "Sound is one of the most important senses that the blind or visually impaired use in order to locate objects in their surroundings. A form of echolocation is used, similarly to that of a bat. Echolocation from a person's perspective is when the person uses sound waves generated from speech or other forms of noise such as cane tapping, which reflect off of objects and bounce back at the person giving them a rough idea of where the object is. This does not mean they can depict details based on sound but rather where objects are in order to interact, or avoid them. Increases in atmospheric pressure and humidity increase a person's ability to use sound to their advantage as wind or any form of background noise impairs it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "631336", "title": "Atmospheric diffraction", "section": "Section::::Acoustical diffraction near the Earth's surface.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 565, "text": "In the case of sound waves travelling near the Earth's surface, the waves are diffracted or bent as they traverse by a geometric edge, such as a wall or building. This phenomenon leads to a very important practical effect: that we can hear \"around corners\". Because of the frequencies involved considerable amount of the sound energy (on the order of ten percent) actually travels into this would be sound \"shadow zone\". Visible light exhibits a similar effect, but, due to its much shorter wavelength, only a minute amount of light energy travels around a corner.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6101054", "title": "Acoustic levitation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 402, "text": "Sometimes sound waves at ultrasonic frequencies can be used to levitate objects, thus creating no sound heard by the human ear, such as was demonstrated at Otsuka Lab, while others use audible frequencies. There are various ways of emitting the sound wave, from creating a wave underneath the object and reflecting it back to its source, to using a (transparent) tank to create a large acoustic field.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41415", "title": "Noise", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 278, "text": "Noise is unwanted sound judged to be unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing. From a physics standpoint, noise is indistinguishable from sound, as both are vibrations through a medium, such as air or water. The difference arises when the brain receives and perceives a sound.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7206727", "title": "Sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation", "section": "Section::::Physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 1709, "text": "Light and sound are similar in various ways. They both can be thought of in terms of waves, and they both come in quantum mechanical units. In the case of light we have photons while in sound we have phonons. Both sound and light can be produced as random collections of quanta (e.g. light emitted by a light bulb) or orderly waves that travel in a coordinated form (e.g. laser light). This parallelism implies that lasers should be as feasible with sound as they are with light. In the 21st century, it is easy to produce low frequency sound in the range that humans can hear (~20 kHz), in either a random or orderly form. However, at the terahertz frequencies in the regime of phonon laser applications, more difficulties arise. The problem stems from the fact that sound travels much slower than light. This means that the wavelength of sound is much shorter than light at a given frequency. Instead of resulting in orderly, coherent phonon laser structures that can produce terahertz sound, tend to emit phonons randomly. Researchers have overcome the problem of terahertz frequencies by following various approaches. Scientists in Caltech have overcome this problem by assembling a pair of microscopic cavities that only permit specific frequencies of phonons to be emitted. This system can be also tuned to emit phonons of different frequencies by changing the relative separation of the microcavities. On the other hand, the group from the University of Nottingham took a different approach. They have built their device out of electrons moving through a series of structures known as quantum wells. Briefly, as an electron hops from one quantum well to another neighbouring well it produces a phonon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "215176", "title": "Infrasound", "section": "Section::::Human reactions.:\"Infrasonic\" 17 Hz tone experiment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 477, "text": "In presenting the evidence to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Professor Richard Wiseman said \"These results suggest that low frequency sound can cause people to have unusual experiences even though they cannot consciously detect infrasound. Some scientists have suggested that this level of sound may be present at some allegedly haunted sites and so cause people to have odd sensations that they attribute to a ghost—our findings support these ideas.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "631336", "title": "Atmospheric diffraction", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 278, "text": "BULLET::::- Sound wave diffraction is the bending of sound waves, as the sound travels around edges of geometric objects. This produces the effect of being able to hear even when the source is blocked by a solid object. The sound waves bend appreciably around the solid object.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "First, it would be important to look at the diet in Rome (understanding that Rome's history lasted a millennium and while many things changed, including medical practices, diet would have remained relatively unchanged). Grain and cereal was a large part of the diet and as a consequence so was fiber. Appendicitis is caused by the blockage of the appendix, often by stool (or in rare cases any inflammation such as cancer). Because of their high-fiber diet it would be very unlikely that many people developed appendicitis.\n\nThat being said, surgery was rarely practiced at all during the time. While medical practices did certainly advance throughout Rome's millennium. For most of the Republican period (~510 - 27 B.C.) the Hippocratic corpus is our most useful source (see the Hippocratic Oath in which it states \"I will not use the knife, not even on sufferers from stone, but will withdraw in favor of such men as are engaged in this work\"). During the Empire Galen tends to be our most useful source. While surgery and dissections became slightly more practiced (albeit more on animals than humans), the practice as a whole was comparatively non-existent.\n\nTL;DR as unlikely as it would have been to develop appendicitis, if the miracle occurred, surgery would not be an option and the disease would likely be a death sentence. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "99611", "title": "Appendix (anatomy)", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Appendicitis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 236, "text": "Appendicitis usually requires the removal of the inflamed appendix, in an appendectomy either by laparotomy or laparoscopy. Untreated, the appendix may rupture, leading to peritonitis, followed by shock, and, if still untreated, death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55112324", "title": "Surgical extirpation", "section": "Section::::Types of extirpation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 207, "text": "Extirpation of the appendix, or appendectomy, is the standard treatment utilized in cases of acute appendicitis. Approximately 300,000 individuals in the United States have their appendix removed each year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "70980", "title": "Appendicitis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 705, "text": "Appendicitis is caused by a blockage of the hollow portion of the appendix. This is most commonly due to a calcified \"stone\" made of feces. Inflamed lymphoid tissue from a viral infection, parasites, gallstone, or tumors may also cause the blockage. This blockage leads to increased pressures in the appendix, decreased blood flow to the tissues of the appendix, and bacterial growth inside the appendix causing inflammation. The combination of inflammation, reduced blood flow to the appendix and distention of the appendix causes tissue injury and tissue death. If this process is left untreated, the appendix may burst, releasing bacteria into the abdominal cavity, leading to increased complications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17451633", "title": "Malone antegrade continence enema", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 290, "text": "The operation involves connecting the appendix to the abdominal wall and fashioning a valve mechanism that allows catheterization of the appendix, but avoids leakage of stool through it. If the appendix was previously removed or is unusable, a neoappendix can be created with a cecal flap.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "99611", "title": "Appendix (anatomy)", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Surgery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 309, "text": "The appendix is also used as a means to access the colon in children with paralysed bowels or major rectal sphincter problems. The appendix is brought out to the skin surface and the child/parent can then attach a catheter and easily wash out the colon (via normal defaecation) using an appropriate solution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12624217", "title": "Abdominopelvic cavity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1065, "text": "Coming off the cecum (tiny tail piece) is the appendix. The appendix is a small organ attached to the large intestine in the lower right side of the belly.  When it gets infected, it's called appendicitis. When there is a buildup of bacteria, it can get in flamed and swollen and that leads to appendicitis. . Appendicitis is an inflammation of the appendix. It is a finger-shaped pouch that projects from your colon on the lower right side of your abdomen. The appendix doesn't seem to have a specific purpose; the cause of it is unknown. The article “Acute appendicitis” says that “Appendicitis is the most common abdominal emergency and accounts for more than 40 000 hospital admissions in England every year. Appendicitis is most common between the ages of 10 and 20 years, but no age is exempt. A male preponderance exists, with a male to female ratio of 1.4:1; the overall lifetime risk is 8.6% for males and 6.7% for females in the United States” (Simpson 1). Although there is no function for appendix, appendicitis is the most common abdominal emergency. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14053235", "title": "Lymphoid hyperplasia", "section": "Section::::Complications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 219, "text": "It is one common source of appendicitis, as it may cause an obstruction of the appendiceal lumen, resulting in the subsequent filling of the appendix with mucus, causing it to distend and internal pressure to increase.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "When we look really far away we do see galaxies forming.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12558", "title": "Galaxy", "section": "Section::::Observation history.:Distinction from other nebulae.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 310, "text": "In 1734, philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg in his \"Principia\" speculated that there may be galaxies outside our own that are formed into galactic clusters that are minuscule parts of the universe which extends far beyond what we can see. These views \"are remarkably close to the present-day views of the cosmos.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "428584", "title": "Starburst galaxy", "section": "Section::::Definition.:Ingredients.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 893, "text": "Studying nearby starburst galaxies can help us determine the history of galaxy formation and evolution. Large numbers of the very distant galaxies seen, for example, in the Hubble Deep Field are known to be starbursts, but they are too far away to be studied in any detail. Observing nearby examples and exploring their characteristics can give us an idea of what was happening in the early universe as the light we see from these distant galaxies left them when the universe was much younger (see redshift). However, starburst galaxies seem to be quite rare in our local universe, and are more common further away - indicating that there were more of them billions of years ago. All galaxies were closer together then, and therefore more likely to be influenced by each other's gravity. More frequent encounters produced more starbursts as galactic forms evolved with the expanding universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58935", "title": "Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure", "section": "Section::::Early 21st century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 295, "text": "BULLET::::- 2013 — The galaxy Z8 GND 5296 is confirmed by spectroscopy to be one of the most distant galaxies found up to this time. Formed just 700 million years after the Big Bang, expansion of the universe has carried it to its current location, about 13 billion light years away from Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29282822", "title": "UDFy-38135539", "section": "Section::::Significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 594, "text": "UDFy-38135539 (HUDF.YD3) is thought to be one of the first galaxies observed in the reionization epoch. Caltech astronomer Brant Robertson, commenting on the study, stated that the \"galaxy happens to reside at a very special time in cosmic history when the properties of gas in the universe were changing rapidly, and therefore this galaxy and others like it may teach us a lot about the early history of the universe\". Michele Trenti, an astronomer who was not involved in the study but provided commentary published with the report, says that the discovery of the distant galaxy represents a\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12558", "title": "Galaxy", "section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Formation.:Early galaxies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 272, "text": "Evidence for the early appearance of galaxies was found in 2006, when it was discovered that the galaxy IOK-1 has an unusually high redshift of 6.96, corresponding to just 750 million years after the Big Bang and making it the most distant and primordial galaxy yet seen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39328195", "title": "How It Began", "section": "Section::::Summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 557, "text": "The second third of the book examines the remote universe. Andromeda is seen as it was before humans evolved on the plains of Africa, and galaxies are all seen over time spans that dwarf our existence. The next stop is the massive Coma cluster of galaxies, a swarm of thousands of galaxies bound by invisible dark matter. This section continues with a visit to galaxies that created their stars long before the Earth formed and it finished with the time when stars first congealed out of gas in the expanding universe, 200 million years after the Big Bang.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14703618", "title": "Arp 87", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 354, "text": "The two galaxies were discovered on 10 April 1785 by William Herschel. The two are located about 330 million light-years (100 megaparsecs) away from the Earth. Arp 87 was observed by the Hubble Telescope in 2007, which revealed massive clouds of gas and dust flowing from one galaxy to another. Additionally, both galaxies appear to have been distorted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Many american bands can, and do make FAR more money playing overseas than the do in the US, in fact, thats where they really make their money, in Asia and Europe. They play a ton of shows, and the clubs and festivals are willing to pay them much more than american counterparts. You might be surprised how certain bands or types of music in the US which are niche or small popularity, have a huge following in Europe and Asia.\n\nAs an example, Punk music in the 90s was a major thing like this.\n\nWhile many punk bands had small followings in the US, and toured a lot, they were often not widely known to the US public, and shows were very cheap to go to in the US (which was a staple of the punk scene, shows were supposed to be cheap and dirty, and often small, there's very little money in that)\n\nHowever, these same bands in Europe often enjoyed far more mainstream success, would play to large crowds both in festivals and not, and just take in piles of cash since they were much more popular there. This is where many 90s era punk bands actually made their money, from touring Europe, not record sales, or US tours.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "17504583", "title": "SWR Triple 9 FM", "section": "Section::::Live Radio Gig.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 267, "text": "Bands that perform at a \"Live Radio Gig\" also receive multitrack recordings and mastered recordings of their set. This is a great initiative, as it gives local bands and artists access to professional recordings who otherwise may not be able to afford such services.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "62578", "title": "Bendigo", "section": "Section::::Culture and events.:Music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 482, "text": "Several live music venues offer local independent bands and artists performing on a regular basis. These venues include the Music Man Megastore, the Gold Dust Lounge at the Hotel Shamrock, and the Golden Vine hotel, also the Bendigo Blues Club. Also, several adult choirs and the Bendigo Youth Choir often perform overseas; the Bendigo Symphony Orchestra, the Bendigo Symphonic Band, the Bendigo and District Concert Band, several brass bands and three pipe bands perform, as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23267654", "title": "We Are the Fallen", "section": "Section::::History.:Universal Republic records (\"Tear the World Down\").\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 295, "text": "The band originally planned to release two songs for free over the internet every two months and afterward compiling them onto a record with orchestral interludes. They planned to tour theaters across the U.S. rather than clubs or arenas to focus on \"performance elements that go beyond music.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17567342", "title": "Rupa & the April Fishes", "section": "Section::::Touring.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 254, "text": "Their tours often mix traditional venue/festival shows with outreach to communities that cannot afford traditionally-marketed live music. The band supports greater democratization of the live musical experience, as well as adequately supporting artists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17343536", "title": "New Music Economy", "section": "Section::::Term usage history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 375, "text": "Bands & artists utilize new tools to book shows, accrue audiences who will attend shows, communicate tour dates to fans, sell tickets to fans, broadcast performances to fans who are unable to attend, provide attendees with immediate recordings of live performances, perform in creative venues ranging from vineyards (Wente Vineyards) to virtual worlds such as \"Second Life\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1946204", "title": "Music industry", "section": "Section::::History.:Rise of digital and online distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 613, "text": "Companies like Kickstarter help independent musicians produce their albums through fans funding bands they want to listen to. Many newer artists no longer see a record deal as an integral part of their business plan at all. Inexpensive recording-hardware and -software make it possible to record reasonable-quality music on a laptop in a bedroom and to distribute it over the Internet to a worldwide audience. This, in turn, has caused problems for recording studios, record producers and audio engineers: the \"Los Angeles Times\" reports that as many as half of the recording facilities in that city have failed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11352120", "title": "Failsafe Records", "section": "Section::::History.:Retrogenic Series.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 294, "text": "Many of these bands had sporadic recording works that were often left unreleased and unavailable to the public due to the lack of record labels willing to put money into financing local releases in New Zealand at the time, and the prohibitive cost to bands of undertaking pressings themselves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The response to crossbows appears to have been to make better armour. When powerful crossbows were common, the best armour was crossbow-proofed (i.e., successfully tested against crossbows).\n\nThe response to firearms was first, do nothing, since crossbow-proof armour stopped (i.e., had a good chance of stopping) bullets from early/mid 16th century hand-held firearms, with muzzle energies typically below 1000J. See _URL_2_ for some past discussion by /u/WARitter of the penetration of armour by early firearms. For more, see Alan Williams, *The Knight and the Blast Furnace*, Brill, 2003.\n\nSecond, as guns improved, make the armour thicker (which also makes it heavier). Bullet-proof (i.e., successfully tested against bullets - typically pistol bullets) armour varied in thickness. Examples from about 3mm thick to about 9mm thick are found. See A. Williams, D. Edge, T. Atkins, \"Bullet dents - \"Proof marks\" or battle damage\", *Gladius* 26, 175-209 (2006) for examples.\n\nThird, as the increase in thickness made the armour too heavy, get rid of the armour. The infantry was the first to discard armour. Cavalry retained bullet-proof armour for longer, and even when no longer wearing full armour, might still wear a bullet-proof breastplate. Siege engineers and specialist siege assault troops also retained heavy bullet-proof armour, in some case armour that would stop musket balls. These heavy siege armours were too heavy for regular wear on the battlefield, but in very high risk environments, could be useful.\n\nWhere does the Kelly Gang's armour fit into this? The armour was 4.5mm to 6mm thick (sources vary - /u/CChippy gives 3/16\" in _URL_1_ and other sources often give 1/4\"). Note that this is in the thickness range of bullet-proof armours of the 16th and 17th centuries.\n\nBlack powder pistols (see preceding link to past discussion of Kelly armour) of the type used against the armour typically had muzzle energies of about 300J. The rifles in use might have muzzle energies of about 1,500J, which would challenge the armour. Supposedly, the first version of the armour was found to not be strong enough, and thicker armour was made. From Williams, *The Knight and the Blast Furnace*, about 4.5mm of low-carbon steel armour (moderate quality) is required to stop about 1,500J.\n\nThe Kelly Gang were not facing muskets designed to penetrate armour on the battlefield (which could deliver in excess of 3,000J). This helped a lot. Even with this moderation of the threat they faced, their armour (at about the minimum thickness needed to stop bullets from the rifles they faced) was very heavy. Ned Kelly's armour was 44kg (97lb) (the other armours worn by the gang were lighter but less protective - Ned's armour had shoulder protectors and a rear apron, which the others lacked). This would have been rejected in the 17th century as too heavy for other than specialist siege/assault tasks.\n\nIn WW1, armour intended to stop bullets was used. One example, the [German brow plate, or *Stirnpanzer*](_URL_0_) was used to reinforce the German steel helmet to protect against bullets (the helmet, by itself, was *not* bulletproof). The Stirnpanzer was 5mm thick, about the same as the Kelly armours.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18432", "title": "English longbow", "section": "Section::::Use and performance.:Armour penetration.:Summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 668, "text": "Modern tests and contemporary accounts agree therefore that well-made plate armour could protect against longbows. However, this did not necessarily make the longbow ineffective; thousands of longbowmen were deployed in the English victory at Agincourt against plate armoured French knights in 1415. Clifford Rogers has argued that while longbows might not have been able to penetrate steel breastplates at Agincourt they could still penetrate the thinner armour on the limbs. Most of the French knights advanced on foot but, exhausted by walking across wet muddy terrain in heavy armour enduring a \"terrifying hail of arrow shot\", they were overwhelmed in the melee.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4371", "title": "Boiled leather", "section": "Section::::Military use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 576, "text": "Cuir bouilli was used for cheap and light armour, although it was much less effective than plate armour, which was extremely expensive and too heavy for much to be worn by infantry (as opposed to knights fighting on foot). However, cuir bouilli could be reinforced against slashing blows by the addition of metal bands or strips, especially in helmets. Modern experiments on simple cuir bouilli have shown that it can reduce the depth of an arrow wound considerably, especially if coated with a crushed mineral facing mixed with glue, as one medieval Arab author recommended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "493913", "title": "Plate armour", "section": "Section::::Late Middle Ages.:Effect on weapon development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 796, "text": "The evolution of plate armour also triggered developments in the design of offensive weapons. While this armour was effective against cuts or blows, their weak points could be exploited by long tapered swords or other weapons designed for the purpose, such as pollaxes and halberds. The effect of arrows and bolts is still a point of contention with regard to plate armour. The evolution of the 14th-century plate armour also triggered the development of various polearms. They were designed to deliver a strong impact and concentrate energy on a small area and cause damage through the plate. Maces, war hammers and the hammer-heads of pollaxes (poleaxes) were used to inflict blunt trauma through armour. Strong blows to the head might result in concussion even if the armor is not penetrated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1012887", "title": "Early modern warfare", "section": "Section::::Europe.:Firearms.:Decline of plate armour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 845, "text": "In virtually all major European battles during a period of 250 years (1400 to 1650), many soldiers wore extensive plate armour; this includes infantrymen (usually pikemen) and almost all mounted troops. Plate armour was expected to deflect edged weapons and to stop an arquebus or pistol ball fired from a distance, and it usually did. The use of plate armour as a remedy to firearms tended to work as long as the velocity and weight of the ball remained quite low, but over time the increasing power and effectiveness of firearms overtook the development of defenses to counteract them, such that flintlock muskets (entering use after 1650) could kill an armoured man at a distance of even 100 yards (though with limited accuracy), and the armour necessary to protect against this threat would have been too heavy and unwieldy to be practical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "221562", "title": "Jousting", "section": "Section::::Medieval joust.:High Middle Ages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 317, "text": "From the 11th to 14th centuries when medieval jousting was still practised in connection to the use of the lance in warfare, armour evolved from mail (with a solid, heavy helmet, called a \"great helm\", and shield) to plate armour. By 1400, knights wore full suits of plate armour, called a \"harness\" (Clephan 28-29).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1110369", "title": "Battle axe", "section": "Section::::History.:Europe.:The Middle Ages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 772, "text": "Steel plate-armor covering almost all of a knight's body, and incorporating features specifically designed to defeat axe and sword blades, become more common in the late 14th and early 15th century. Its development led to a generation of hafted weapons with points that concentrated impact, either to penetrate steel plate or to damage the joints of articulated plate. Increasingly daggers called misericords were carried which enabled a sharp point to be thrust though gaps in armour if an opponent was disabled or being grappled with. Swords styles became more diverse – from the two-handed zweihänders to more narrow thrusting instruments with sharply pointed tips, capable of penetrating any \"chinks in the armour\" of a fully encased opponent: for example, the estoc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15068", "title": "Infantry", "section": "Section::::Equipment.:Protection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 559, "text": "As firearms improved, armour for ranged defence had to be thicker and stronger. With the introduction of the heavy arquebus to piece standard steel armour, it was proved easier to make heavier firearms than heavier armour; armour transitioned to be only for close combat purposes. Pikemen armour tended to be just steel helmets and breastplates, and gunners little or no armour. By the time of the musket, the dominance of firepower shifted militaries away from any close combat, and use of armour decreased, until infantry typically went without any armour.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Germany has a stronger export economy than most of the rest of Europe. This is perceived by some people as keeping the exchange rate of the Euro higher against international currencies than it should be; a lower cost Euro is seen as beneficial to countries like Spain and Greece which are heavily reliant on tourism to fuel their economy, they also happen to be in the most financial trouble. A slow deflation **edit: devaluation, not deflation** of the Euro would also ease the some of the financial pressure of Spain and Greece since it would effectively devalue the portion of their debt held by non Eu members, although this is a relatively small portion of their debts if I remember correctly.\n\nThere is a lot more to the issue but this is ELI5 so I won't dig any deeper, I also haven't proposed any counter arguments about why Germany's economy being strong is good for Greece and Spain, since that is more complex too.\n\ntl:dr Germany's Economy is bad for Europe because it is indeed strong.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Germany has a very strong export market, meaning it exports a lot of goods, much more than it imports. The result is also that Germany receives more money from other countries than it pays them (not at least due to massive wage-dumping in Germany to keep their products' prices relatively low compared to other Euro-zone countries. A clear violation of the Maastricht treaty, but no one seems to care).\n\nWhen the recent crisis hit, Germany began with its \"austerity meassures\". It cut spending, it imported less, it paid less money to other countries. The other countries, however, were still buying German products, so there still was a steady stream of money into Germany, helping it to weather the crisis well. The (European) money basically massed in Germany, while less austere nations saw their financial resources dwindling.\n\nIf those austerity measures are emposed on a country with a low export rate, the economy in that country slows down due to the government no longer investing, and no profit from exporting goods to offset the lack of investments.\n\nThe problem is, many German politicians don't link the high export rates to the weathering of the crisis and believe it was austerity alone that did the magic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The best way to answer this question is by comparing the US to the European Union. \n\nThe US is both a political and an economic union. What does that mean? The US is an economic union because the entire US economy uses a single currency (the dollar), has a single monetary policy (managed by the Fed), a single set of export/import tariffs and regulations, etc. The problem with this arrangement is that some places might have a booming economy (San Francisco) while at the same time other places (Mississippi) might have a really slow economy. A one-size-fits-all national economic policy is not going to meet the needs of every place. That's why we have a political union too - so that rich places with a booming economy can pay taxes, which are transferred to places that need help. (That's effectively what social security, medicare, medicaid, food stamps, head start, etc do) \n\nIn Europe, they have an economic union but not a political union. So they have a one-size-fits-all economic policy that doesn't work well for some places (Greece). But every time the Greeks need help, the Germans balk at having to pay for it, and the whole Eurozone has a market spasm. \n\nSo TLDR: The European Union's economic policy is driven by Germany's economy (which is export driven and props up the Euro) but this in turn hurts some of the other countries in the Union. So Germany's economy isn't \"bad\" per se but their actions have hurt other countries in Europe. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4761539", "title": "Hans-Werner Sinn", "section": "Section::::Economic policy positions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 777, "text": "Sinn has called the German economy a \"bazaar economy\" because the share of input from abroad in German industrial production is on the increase. At the same time he points out that this is not to be equated with a breaking off of value added in exports. Instead Germany has decimated its domestic sector via excessive wage increases and has driven excess amounts of capital and skilled labour into the labour and knowledge-intensive export sectors, where fewer less-skilled workers can be employed as have been set free in the domestic sectors. At the expense of the domestic sectors, Germany has inflated value added in exports too strongly and at the same time has placed too much emphasis on the final stages of production. As a result, a pathological export boom occurred.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11930", "title": "Economy of Germany", "section": "Section::::Sectors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 329, "text": "Germany has a social market economy characterised by a highly qualified labor force, a developed infrastructure, a large capital stock, a low level of corruption, and a high level of innovation. It has the largest national economy in Europe, the fourth largest by nominal GDP in the world, and ranked fifth by GDP (PPP) in 2015.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11930", "title": "Economy of Germany", "section": "Section::::History.:Federal Republic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 484, "text": "The German economy practically stagnated in the beginning of the 2000s. The worst growth figures were achieved in 2002 (+1.4%), in 2003 (+1.0%) and in 2005 (+1.4%). Unemployment was also chronically high. Due to these problems, together with Germany's aging population, the welfare system came under considerable strain. This led the government to push through a wide-ranging program of belt-tightening reforms, Agenda 2010, including the labour market reforms known as Hartz I - IV.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16354915", "title": "Economy of Nazi Germany", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 654, "text": "The German economy, like those of many other western nations, suffered the effects of the Great Depression with unemployment soaring around the Wall Street Crash of 1929. When Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, he introduced policies aimed at improving the economy. The changes included privatization of state industries, autarky, and tariffs on imports. Although weekly earnings increased by 19% in real terms in the period between 1932-38, average working hours had also risen to approximately 60 per week by 1939. Furthermore, reduced foreign trade meant rationing in consumer goods like poultry, fruit, and clothing for many Germans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11867", "title": "Germany", "section": "Section::::Economy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 334, "text": "Germany has a social market economy with a highly skilled labour force, a large capital stock, a low level of corruption, and a high level of innovation. It is the world's third largest exporter of goods, and has the largest national economy in Europe which is also the world's fourth largest by nominal GDP and the fifth one by PPP.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11930", "title": "Economy of Germany", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 342, "text": "The economy of Germany is a highly developed social market economy. It has the largest national economy in Europe, the fourth-largest by nominal GDP in the world, and fifth by GDP (PPP). In 2017, the country accounted for 28% of the euro area economy according to the IMF. Germany is a founding member of the European Union and the Eurozone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65668", "title": "Mixed economy", "section": "Section::::Typology.:Mix of free markets and state intervention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 529, "text": "The German social market economy is the economic policy of modern Germany that steers a middle path between the goals of social democracy and capitalism within the framework of a private market economy and aims at maintaining a balance between a high rate of economic growth, low inflation, low levels of unemployment, good working conditions, public welfare and public services by using state intervention. Under its influence, Germany emerged from desolation and defeat to become an industrial giant within the European Union.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The atomic numbers of the fission fragments don't necessarily have to add up to the Z of the original nucleus. When fission occurs, the uranium nucleus splits into two heavy fission fragments, and some number of light particles, which could be protons, neutrons, alpha particles, or whatever. \n\nSo the Z of the two fragments doesn't necessarily have to sum to 92.\n\nAlso, as you mentioned, some of the fission fragments may decay very quickly after the fission, so by the time you actually measure the yields, they've decayed into other things.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "166796", "title": "Fissile material", "section": "Section::::Fissile vs fissionable.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 499, "text": "Uranium-235 fissions with low-energy thermal neutrons because the binding energy resulting from the absorption of a neutron is greater than the critical energy required for fission; therefore uranium-235 is a fissile material. By contrast, the binding energy released by uranium-238 absorbing a thermal neutron is less than the critical energy, so the neutron must possess additional energy for fission to be possible. Consequently, uranium-238 is a fissionable material but not a fissile material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31743", "title": "Uranium", "section": "Section::::Isotopes.:Natural concentrations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 483, "text": "Uranium-238 is not fissile, but is a fertile isotope, because after neutron activation it can produce plutonium-239, another fissile isotope. Indeed, the U nucleus can absorb one neutron to produce the radioactive isotope uranium-239. U decays by beta emission to neptunium-239, also a beta-emitter, that decays in its turn, within a few days into plutonium-239. Pu was used as fissile material in the first atomic bomb detonated in the \"Trinity test\" on 15 July 1945 in New Mexico.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "523973", "title": "Operation Castle", "section": "Section::::Experiments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 616, "text": "Many fusion or thermonuclear weapons generate much, or even most, of their yields from fission. Although the U-238 isotope of uranium will not sustain a chain reaction, it still fissions when irradiated by the intense fast neutron flux of a fusion explosion. Because U-238 is plentiful and has no critical mass, it can be added in (in theory) almost unlimited quantities as a tamper around a fusion bomb, helping to contain the fusion reaction and contributing its own fission energy. For example, the fast-fission of the U-238 tamper contributed 77% (8.0 megatons) to the yield of the 10.4 Mt \"Ivy Mike\" explosion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34801026", "title": "Accelerator-driven subcritical reactor", "section": "Section::::Safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 360, "text": "Unlike uranium-235, thorium is not fissile—it essentially does not split on its own, exhibiting a half-life of 14.05 billion years (20 times that of U-235). The fission process stops when the proton beam stops, as when power is lost, thus the reactor is subcritical. Only microscopic quantities of plutonium are produced and can be burned in the same reactor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20766780", "title": "Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid", "section": "Section::::Fission basics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 938, "text": "Natural uranium is a mix of several isotopes, mainly a trace amount of U-235 and over 99% U-238. When they undergo fission, both of these elements release fast neutrons with an energy distribution peaking around 1 to 2 MeV. This energy is too low to cause fission in U-238, which means it cannot sustain a chain reaction. U-235 will undergo fission when struck by neutrons of this energy, so it is possible for U-235 to sustain a chain reaction, as is the case in a nuclear bomb. However, the probability of one neutron causing fission in another U-235 atom before it escapes the fuel is too low to maintain criticality in a mass of natural uranium, so the chain reaction can only occur in fuels with increased amounts of U-235. This is accomplished by concentrating, or \"enriching\", the fuel, increasing the amount of U-235 to produce enriched uranium, while the leftover, now mostly U-238, is a waste product known as depleted uranium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11282061", "title": "Uranium-236", "section": "Section::::Creation and yield.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 663, "text": "The fissile isotope uranium-235 fuels most nuclear reactors. U-235 that absorbs a thermal neutron may go one of two ways. About 82% of the time, it will fission. About 18% of the time it will not fission, instead emitting gamma radiation and yielding U-236. Thus, the yield of U-236 per U-235+n reaction is about 18%, and the yield of fissile decay products is about 82%. In comparison, the yields of the most abundant individual fission products like Cs-137, Sr-90, Tc-99 are between 6% and 7%, and the combined yield of medium-lived (10 years and up) and long-lived fission products is about 32%, or a few percent less as some are destroyed by neutron capture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46293573", "title": "Laser Inertial Fusion Energy", "section": "Section::::LIFE.:Fusion–fission hybrid.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 981, "text": "Conventional fission power plants rely on the chain reaction caused when fission events release thermal neutrons that cause further fission events. Each fission event in U-235 releases two or three neutrons with about 2 MeV of kinetic energy. By careful arrangement and the use of various absorber materials, designers can balance the system so one of those neutrons causes another fission event while the other one or two are lost. This balance is known as criticality. Natural uranium is a mix of three isotopes; mainly U-238, with some U-235, and trace amounts of U-234. The neutrons released in the fission of either of the main isotopes will cause fission in U-235, but not in U-238, which requires higher energies around 5 MeV. There is not enough U-235 in natural uranium to reach criticality. Commercial light-water nuclear reactors, the most prevalent power reactors in the world, use nuclear fuel containing uranium enriched to 3 to 5% U-235 while the leftover is U-238.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Honestly it is a case of dose:body mass ratio. The weight of flies varies a lot based on side, type etc, but 10-20mg is common. When you spray an area even if the entire spray is only 1mg of active ingredient (the example on the wiki you posted is dichlorvos - an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor) enough would reach the fly to cause contractions in all of its muscles, stopping it from breathing and suffocating it. \n\nA human has a much larger body, and once the drug is absorbed it enters our blood stream and is distributed around the body. Very little makes it to the places where it can have any serious effects. From normal use there simply isn't enough to make an impact on a human. \n\nIt is like comparing how a pipette might hold 1ml and look full (the fly is the pipette and the 1ml is the amount of drug to kill it), but put that 1ml into a pint glass and it is only 1/568th of the glass - A 2 litre bottle of soda and its only 1/2000th not anywhere close to being full. What is enough to fill one thing isn't necessarily enough to fill another… What is enough to kill one thing isn't necessarily enough to kill another. \n\nOr a better analogy. A drop of poison in someones drink might kill them… put that same drop into an ocean someone is going to swim in, and watch as nothing happens. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "149463", "title": "Insecticide", "section": "Section::::Environmental harm.:Effects on nontarget species.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 404, "text": "Some insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that was recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake an insecticide granule on the ground for food and eat it. Sprayed insecticide may drift from the area to which it is applied and into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16334333", "title": "Pesticide application", "section": "Section::::Other application methods.:Application methods for household insecticides.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 688, "text": "Insecticide used for killing pests—most often insects, and arachnids—primarily comes in an aerosol can, and is sprayed directly on the insect or its nest as a means of killing it. Fly sprays will kill house flies, blowflies, ants, cockroaches and other insects and also spiders. Other preparations are granules or liquids that are formulated with bait that is eaten by insects. For many household pests bait traps are available that contain the pesticide and either pheromone or food baits. Crack and crevice sprays are applied into and around openings in houses such as baseboards and plumbing. Pesticides to control termites are often injected into and around the foundations of homes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12554930", "title": "Simulium", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 327, "text": "The flies are pool feeders. Their saliva, which contains anticoagulants, a number of enzymes and histamine, is mixed with the blood, preventing clotting until it is ingested by the fly. These bites cause localized tissue damage, and if the number of feeding flies is sufficient, their feeding may produce a blood-loss anaemia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1633981", "title": "Insect repellent", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 260, "text": "Some insect repellents are insecticides (bug killers), but most simply discourage insects and send them flying or crawling away. Almost any might kill at a massive dose without reprieve, but classification as an insecticide implies death even at lower doses .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3300682", "title": "Asilidae", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 286, "text": "The fly attacks its prey by stabbing it with its short, strong proboscis, injecting the victim with saliva containing neurotoxic and proteolytic enzymes which very rapidly paralyze the victim and soon digest the insides; the fly then sucks the liquefied material through the proboscis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42742734", "title": "Welfare of farmed insects", "section": "Section::::Slaughter methods.:Industrial farms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 273, "text": "Protix Biosystems kills its black soldier flies by shredding, since its end product is a powder. Death takes less than a second. Tarique Arsiwalla at Protix said shredding makes sense because Western consumers are more likely to accept powdered insects than whole insects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48265888", "title": "Diachlorus ferrugatus", "section": "Section::::Effect on humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 214, "text": "DEET is the most useful insect repellent, though may not prevent bites if the yellow flies are in large numbers. In this case, physical barriers such as gloves and headnets are the only truly effective protection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I am not sure what you mean by \"Republican period\" but I can give an answer for 15th around the \"peak\" of Venetian naval strength.\n\nFirst to briefly describe the Venetian 'navy'. It consisted of state owned galleys (few if any sail ships were such state-owned) of usually two types: the merchant 'great' galleys and war 'light' galleys. The merchant galleys were used in Venetian convoy system for trading valuable goods to/from particular locations (Alexandria, Beirut, Flanders, Constantinople, etc) and in this system the galleys were \"auctioned\" for a particular voyage to a highest bidder. The person - or usually a partnership of several people - who won the auction could select whoever he wanted as a commander - called a *patron* - and he had to be a noble. War galleys - which served either as Guard - patrolling certain seas and locations - or stored on land and deployed when needed fir action, would have the commander - in this case called *sopracomito* - elected for one season directly by the State. To be eligible for election you had to be a noble, over thirty years old and usually of good standing and in particular good financial status as often they had to pay advances and other costs for crew and provisions from their own pocket (which could maybe be reimbursed later, but definitely financial liquidity was needed. These position was highly coveted and many noblemen did their best to secure a sopracomitoposition for themselves.\n\nNow, this command post (patron / sopracomito) was basically the only officer rank on board that was noble. All the rest of the officer ranks were non-noble, and basically the ship was ran by non-nobles with the patron/sopracomito serving as overseer for trade/war matters. Now, it is not unreasonable to assume that in order to become a commander you had to have relevant experience. But how to get relevant experience, if no other officer posts were available for nobles? Well, one part of the solution was that the commander could bring aboard his retinue, like pages, servants, or just fellow passengers, and this was regularly used for commanders to 'accustom to the sea' their children or relatives or closely connected people of trust. Strictly speaking these people brought as retinue were not \"in the Navy\". They had no authority on the ship nor were they paid by the State. They were solely on the upkeep of the commander who had to pay all their expenses (or whatever other arrangement was made, but definitely not on official rolls). \nThe other option to serve as a noble on board was to be elected to be a 'bowman of the quarterdeck'. As opposed for ordinary bowmen who were non-noble, who counted 20-30 on board and were positioned on the benches with the rowers, the bowmen of the quarterdeck were noble and were stationed with the commander. There were initially four of them, then six, then eight for each galley. Their salaries and supplies were provided by the State/galley as part of the crew (they were naturally paid more). The secondary literature I am drawing from openly describes these positions as intended by the State to give young, poor, experiencing-hardship nobles a chance to get experience on the seas and opportunity to earn some money trading. They didn't have any offical say in running of the ship and were more intended as soldiers. However if a commander would die on duty, the next commander would come from the nobles on board. Initially the age minimum for bowmen was twenty, but it was lowered to eighteen, and exceptions were frequently granted for younger.\n\nSo how young the Venetians were when they started 'going to the sea'? Hard to say. One commander recorded he started taking his son along with him when the child was only four. Another noble records he went on his first voyage at fourteen under his uncle. But it's unclear if he went as a page/retinue or a paid bowmen. In each case that same noble was recorded to be going as bowmen on voyages at around twenty to twenty-two years old. From this few cases we might paint the picture that Venetians nobles started 'serving' (or being employed) on vessels at ages 14-20, with some frequently experiencing ship life and participating on voyages even younger if their parents/relatives would take them. \n\nAs a final note, I would just reference the non-noble ranks on board. The highest non-noble rank on board was a *comito* - usually translated as master. For all intents and purposes he was the main person in charge of ship for all matters naval. Although sopracomito could always overrule him. Second in charge was a *paron* who was also in charge of the bow (front) of the ship. They were aided by several men called *nochiero* who were lesser officers, and first step above oarsmen (where there would be junior and senior ones). All these officers could (and would) come from the oarsmen ranks and rise through ability. However all the officer positions on a galley were given through elections in Venice (and you needed to be a Venetian citizen, which could be gotten around by marrying a Venetian woman). \n\nIt was deemed beneficial to know how to read and write for junior officers, and for higher ranks you needed knowledge of mathematics and navigation. How young would you start? Hard to say, but for example Venetian conscription laws for oarsmen in time of war recruited from men aged twenty to sixty. As oarsmen were voluntary and often in short supply, younger men were often excepted. So again we may consider age of start being 16-20 (maybe as low as 14) if you were built well enough for the hard job of rowing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "59028087", "title": "Capitano Straordinario delle Navi", "section": "Section::::History and functions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 777, "text": "The Venetian navy had traditionally been a galley-based force. The first organized tactical formations of sailing ships—originally merchant vessels chartered for naval service—began being formed in the late 15th century. The position of \"Capitano delle Navi\" was established as the commander of the sailing squadron in the battle fleet, under the overall authority of the Captain General of the Sea. During the 17th century sailing ships of the line began to play a more important role and comprised a larger and larger portion of the Venetian battle fleet, particularly during the War of Candia, leading to the creation of divisions of the sailing battle fleet (the \"armata grossa\"), and the posts of \"Almirante\" and \"Patron delle Navi\" established in 1657 to command these. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14556929", "title": "Naval history of the Netherlands", "section": "Section::::A world power.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 753, "text": "With about 4,000 sailors the Dutch navy was a relatively small employer in peacetime, but in times of war thousands more were hired. Flag officers and captains were themselves responsible for hiring the ship's crew. Usually a ship's crew were hired for only one campaign, excluding the officers. Since the early 17th century, experienced captains were employed for long periods of time by the Dutch navy; they were responsible for the ships provisions, and when they bought supplies for less money than the government provided they could keep the rest, and a smart captain could make a small fortune this way in peacetime. In 1665, regiments of soldiers were deployed aboard the ships. These soldiers would later become famous and feared Dutch marines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59027878", "title": "Capitano delle Navi", "section": "Section::::History and functions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 535, "text": "The Venetian navy had traditionally been a galley-based force. The first organized tactical formations of sailing ships began being formed in the late 15th century. The position of \"Capitano delle Navi\" was established as the commander of the larger sailing ships built by the Venetian government, but he also assumed control—under the overall authority of the Captain General of the Sea—over all sailing ships in the battle fleet, which were mostly merchant vessels, chartered in Venice or abroad (usually Holland) for naval service.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49836682", "title": "Venetian navy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 759, "text": "The Venetian navy () was the navy of the Venetian Republic, and played an important role in the history of Venice, the Republic and the Mediterranean world. The premier navy in the Mediterranean for many centuries, from the medieval to the early modern period, it gave Venice a control and influence over trade and politics in the Mediterranean far in excess of the size of the city and its population. It was one of the first navies to mount gunpowder weapons aboard ships, and through an organised system of naval dockyards, armouries and chandlers, (the Venetian Arsenal, which was one of the greatest concentrations of industrial capacity prior to the Industrial Revolution) was able to continually keep ships at sea, and to rapidly make good any losses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7570560", "title": "History of the Republic of Venice", "section": "Section::::League of Cambrai, Lepanto and the loss of Cyprus.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 536, "text": "Difficulties in the rule of the sea brought further changes. Until 1545 the oarsmen in the galleys were free sailors enrolled on a wage. They were originally Venetians, but later Dalmatians, Cretans and Greeks joined in large numbers. Because of the difficulty in hiring sufficient crews, Venice had recourse to conscription, chaining the oarsmen to the benches as other navies had already done. Cristoforo da Canal was the first Venetian to command such a galley. By 1563, the population of Venice had dropped to about 168,000 people.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32910687", "title": "Royal Navy ranks, rates, and uniforms of the 18th and 19th centuries", "section": "Section::::Promotion and advancement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 320, "text": "Promotion and advancement within the 18th and 19th century Royal Navy varied depending on the status of the sailor in question. At the lower levels, most inexperienced sailors began in the rank of landsman – those joining ships at a very young age were typically entered in the navy as cabin boys or officers' servants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54297717", "title": "Genoese Navy", "section": "Section::::Equipment.:Sailors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 666, "text": "Genoese sailors were recruited from the city's populace or from the colonies. Many only served part time in the military, instead being professional merchant sailors, fishermen, or mercenaries. The republic also crewed many of its galleys with criminals, prisoners of war, and slaves. Conditions for sailors (both free and enslaved) were challenging, with disease being a constant issue. The navy encouraged captains to keep their crew alive by issuing heavy fines to those who lost too many men. The republic mandated that every galley in service be crewed with a barber - who also served as a surgeon - in order to maintain a standard of hygiene aboard the ship. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I am going to throw one out there and say that it is hardwired into the brain like many other traits that make up out collection of self-preservation instincts.\n\nGenerally Dopamine is released as a reward for doing things beneficial to staying alive... Exercising, eating, childcare, pets and fire \n(which is why we need fire and explosions on tv and films to like them more)\nTo stay healthy in caveman times; infections must not be allowed to take hold and you would be rewarded for avoiding such dangers. A cyst can become infected as can been seen in some of the horrific popping videos. A cleared out cyst can heal. NO cave people would clear infections if they were all repelled by such disgusting bodily gunge. those who could tolerate it survive infections. even within a tribe as long as there is someone who gets joy out of the bad jobs such as chiropracting (some hate it. some find it fascinating - same situation) or popping cysts; the welfare of the group improves.\n\nSo don't worry if you are the person who loves the videos of people apparently emptying toothpaste tubes out of their bodies under pressure. :/\n\nSomeones got to do it....", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10992432", "title": "What What (In the Butt)", "section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 201, "text": "BULLET::::- In the April 2, 2008 episode of \"South Park\", \"Canada on Strike\", the boys post a viral video on \"YouToob\" (a fictional version of YouTube) of Butters performing \"What What (In the Butt)\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "370273", "title": "Mac Hall", "section": "Section::::Digimon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 623, "text": "A notable in-joke with Mac Hall revolves around an attention grabbing gag involving \"Digimon\". Early on, Boyd and McConville noted that the top three search engine terms that led people to \"Mac Hall\" all had to do with Digimon-related pornography. So the joke was made that in order to boost traffic they would pander to the tastes of those people. As a result, a large number of websites of that persuasion linked to the comic, much to the chagrin and amusement of the authors. This particular gag sticks out, most likely because of its sexual content. However, it does not accurately reflect any of the comic's material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39369487", "title": "Late Night with Seth Meyers", "section": "Section::::Production.:Recurring segments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 603, "text": "BULLET::::- Popsicle Schtick: A lengthy and rarely-seen segment mainly used only on shows with few guests or if Meyers is performing ill, the show's writers and graphics departments come together to wrap around purposefully poorly-written jokes usually emblematic of the type seen on Popsicle sticks, with long and elaborate interludes performed by CGI popsicle sticks in costume, which have included parodies of \"Jesus Christ Superstar\" and \"Les Misérables\". In one of his annual Thanksgiving night appearances, Seth's father Larry stated \"Popsicle Schtick\" was his least favorite segment on the show.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42534127", "title": "King Worm", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 617, "text": "Ward's goal for the episode was \"to weird it up\" and play off bizarre ideas and imagery. Ward latter revealed on his Twitter that many scenes were inspired by popular \"YouTube Poops\", which are idiosyncratic and often nonsensical mashups which have been uploaded on the video site YouTube; Ward explained that he enjoyed the concept of Poops and wanted to put them in the episode. While storyboarding the episode, Xayaphone exaggerated the elongation of Finn's ears; this was originally going to be revised, but Ward liked that the effect because it fit in with the concept of an unstable and unreliable dream world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37683560", "title": "Dumb Ways to Die", "section": "Section::::Campaign.:Animated video.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 336, "text": "The video was animated by Julian Frost and produced by Cinnamon Darvall. It was uploaded to YouTube on 14 November 2012 and made public two days later. It featured \"Numpty, Hapless, Pillock, Dippy, Dummkopf, Dimwit, Stupe, Lax, Clod, Doomed, Numskull, Bungle, Mishap, Dunce, Calamity, Ninny, Botch, Doofus, Stumble, Bonehead and Putz\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4055613", "title": "Tootsie Pop", "section": "Section::::Commercials.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 778, "text": "Tootsie Pops are known for the catch phrase \"How many licks does it take to get to the Tootsie Roll center of a Tootsie Pop?\". The phrase was first introduced in an animated commercial which debuted on U.S. television in 1970. In the original television ad, a questioning boy poses the question to a cow, a fox, a turtle and an owl. Each one of the first three animals tells the boy to ask someone else, explaining that they'd bite a Tootsie Pop every time they lick one. Eventually, he asks the owl, who starts licking it, but bites into the lollipop after only three licks, much to the chagrin of the boy, who gets the empty stick back. The commercial ends the same way, with various flavored Tootsie Pops unwrapped and being \"licked away\" until being crunched in the center.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40969806", "title": "YouTube Poop", "section": "Section::::Techniques.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 404, "text": "Media sources of YouTube Poops include television shows, movies, cartoons, commercials, video games, and other videos obtained from YouTube or elsewhere. In the late 2000s, cutscenes from games released on the Philips CD-i platform (most notably, \"Hotel Mario\", , \"I.M. Meen\") were an incredibly common source in YTP's, because the campy and egregious nature of the animations made them ripe for satire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They're the same thing. Water is water. Some brands add (or, more often, don't bother to filter out) minerals that are good to you, but can often have a \"dirty\" taste. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1268562", "title": "Purified water", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 442, "text": "Purified water has many uses, largely in the production of medications, in science and engineering laboratories and industries, and is produced in a range of purities. It can be produced on site for immediate use or purchased in containers. Purified water in colloquial English can also refer to water which has been treated (\"rendered potable\") to neutralize, but not necessarily remove contaminants considered harmful to humans or animals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1268562", "title": "Purified water", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 623, "text": "Purified water is water that has been mechanically filtered or processed to remove impurities and make it suitable for use. Distilled water has been the most common form of purified water, but, in recent years, water is more frequently purified by other processes including capacitive deionization, reverse osmosis, carbon filtering, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, ultraviolet oxidation, or electrodeionization. Combinations of a number of these processes have come into use to produce ultrapure water of such high purity that its trace contaminants are measured in parts per billion (ppb) or parts per trillion (ppt). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "620957", "title": "Water dispenser", "section": "Section::::Water source.:Purified water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 343, "text": "Purified water is water from groundwater or municipal water supply and is produced by any one of several methods of purification including reverse osmosis, distillation, deionization, and filtration. The water is often treated by ultraviolet light or ozone for antimicrobial reasons and re-mineralized by injection of soluble inorganic salts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1268562", "title": "Purified water", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 692, "text": "Purified water is suitable for many applications, including autoclaves, hand-pieces, laboratory testing, laser cutting, and automotive use. Purification removes contaminants that may interfere with processes, or leave residues on evaporation. Although water is generally considered to be a good electrical conductor—for example domestic electrical systems are considered particularly hazardous to people if they may be in contact with wet surfaces—\"pure\" water is a poor conductor. The conductivity of sea-water is typically 5 S/m, drinking water is typically in the range of 5-50 mS/m, while highly purified water can be as low as 5.5 μS/m (0.055 µS/cm), a ratio of about 1,000,000:1,000:1.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7676521", "title": "Hiking equipment", "section": "Section::::Basic equipment and abilities.:Water kit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 929, "text": "Water must be purified of harmful living organisms and chemicals. Some commercial filters can remove most organisms and some harmful chemicals, but they are not 100% effective. Distillation filters, purifies, and removes some harmful chemicals. Chemicals with a lower or about equal boiling point of water are not eliminated by distilling. Iodine or chlorine dioxide solutions or tablets can be used to purify water. It can be boil water in a fire-resistant pot or water bottle. Water can be boiled in some flammable materials like bark because the water absorbs the heat. Pasteurization takes place at temperatures lower than boiling point, but knowing the temperature of the water and calculating the duration of treatment can be difficult. This technique is useful when only non-durable containers are available. Sunlight can be used with a clear container. Filters made from heat-treated diatomaceous earth can also be used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "214701", "title": "Water purification", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 232, "text": "Water purification may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, and fungi as well as reduce the concentration of a range of dissolved and particulate matter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1268562", "title": "Purified water", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Laboratory use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 315, "text": "Note that the European Pharmacopeia uses Highly Purified Water (HPW) as a definition for water meeting the quality of Water For Injection, without however having undergone distillation. In the laboratory context, highly purified water is used to denominate various qualities of water having been \"highly\" purified.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Several reasons: \n- Personal profit and short-term thinking; \n- Not believing that the problems are real; \n- Believing that market forces will solve the problems (generally accompanied by a belief that government intervention is a bad thing in just about everything); \n- An expectation that technology will solve the problems; \n- Underestimating the extent of the environmental issues. \n\nNormally, there's a combination of at least two of these reasons. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10091", "title": "Environmental law", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 396, "text": "An additional debate is to what extent environmental laws are fair to all regulated parties. For instance, researchers Preston Teeter and Jorgen Sandberg highlight how smaller organizations can often incur disproportionately larger costs as a result of environmental regulations, which can ultimately create an additional barrier to entry for new firms, thus stifling competition and innovation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24082675", "title": "Social and environmental impact of palm oil", "section": "Section::::Sustainability.:Persuading governments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 859, "text": "It may be possible to persuade governments of nations that produce competing products to enact protectionist legislation against the products of deforestation, an approach that was presented in a report by the National Farmers Union (United States) and Avoided Deforestation Partners. The 2010 report estimates that protecting the of mostly tropical forest that are lost annually worldwide would boost American agricultural revenue by $190–270 billion between 2012 and 2030. However, several conservation groups, including Conservation International, Environmental Defense Fund, National Wildlife Federation, and The Nature Conservancy, presented a rebuttal to the report, stating that it was \"based on the assumption, totally unfounded, that deforestation in tropical countries can be easily interrupted, and its conclusions are therefore also unrealistic.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12233", "title": "Greenpeace", "section": "Section::::Forest campaign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 757, "text": "Greenpeace aims to protect intact primary forests from deforestation and degradation with the target of zero deforestation by 2020. Greenpeace has accused several corporations, such as Unilever, Nike, KFC, Kit Kat and McDonald's of having links to the deforestation of the tropical rainforests, resulting in policy changes in several of the companies under criticism. Greenpeace, together with other environmental NGOs, also campaigned for ten years for the EU to ban import of illegal timber. The EU decided to ban illegal timber in July 2010. As deforestation contributes to global warming, Greenpeace has demanded that REDD (Reduced Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) should be included in the climate treaty following the Kyoto treaty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59576576", "title": "Wellhead protection program", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 340, "text": "U.S. Congress by the National Environmental Policy Act 42 U.S.C. § 4331(a) recognizes it is not acceptable to abuse renewable natural resources that would prevent their use by future generations. The role of the Federal government in water resources is shifting from resource development to environmental protection and water conservation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23136449", "title": "Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels", "section": "Section::::Implementation.:Europe.:European Union.:Reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 280, "text": "Environmental groups found that the measures \"are too weak to halt a dramatic increase in deforestation\". According to Greenpeace, \"indirect land-use change impacts of biofuel production still are not properly addressed\", which for them was the most dangerous problem of biofuels\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13109", "title": "Global warming controversy", "section": "Section::::Political questions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 135, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 135, "end_character": 259, "text": "Various campaigns such as 350.org and many Greenpeace projects have been started in an effort to push the world's leaders towards changing laws and policies that would effectively reduce the world's carbon emissions and use of non-renewable energy resources.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10183", "title": "Environmental movement in the United States", "section": "Section::::Environmentalism and politics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 451, "text": "Fewer environmental laws have been passed in the last decade as corporations and other conservative interests have increased their influence over American politics. Corporate cooperation against environmental lobbyists has been organized by the Wise Use group. At the same time, many environmentalists have been turning toward other means of persuasion, such as working with business, community, and other partners to promote sustainable development.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "/u/robinthebum wrote about it at _URL_0_\n\nThis is not to discourage more discussion. I'd love to see more data, debate, and questions.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9550", "title": "Electricity", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1016, "text": "Long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the \"Thunderer of the Nile\", and described them as the \"protectors\" of all other fish. Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Several ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by electric catfish and electric rays, and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects. Patients suffering from ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning \"ra‘ad\" () applied to the electric ray.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14105333", "title": "Electric power system", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1595, "text": "By 1888, the electric power industry was flourishing, and power companies had built thousands of power systems (both direct and alternating current) in the United States and Europe. These networks were effectively dedicated to providing electric lighting. During this time the rivalry between Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse's companies had grown into a propaganda campaign over which form of transmission (direct or alternating current) was superior, a series of events known as the \"War of Currents\". In 1891, Westinghouse installed the first major power system that was designed to drive a synchronous electric motor, not just provide electric lighting, at Telluride, Colorado. On the other side of the Atlantic, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky of AEG and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown of Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon, built the very first long-distance (175 km, a distance never tried before) high-voltage (15 kV, then a record) three-phase transmission line from Lauffen am Neckar to Frankfurt am Main for the Electrical Engineering Exhibition in Frankfurt, where power was used light lamps and move a water pump. In the US the AC/DC competition came to an end when Edison General Electric was taken over by their chief AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, forming General Electric. In 1895, after a protracted decision-making process, alternating current was chosen as the transmission standard with Westinghouse building the Adams No. 1 generating station at Niagara Falls and General Electric building the three-phase alternating current power system to supply Buffalo at 11 kV.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14676401", "title": "Changes in the Land", "section": "Section::::Precontact ecosystem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 671, "text": "Cronon felt the best evidence of an extant symbiotic relationship between the Indians and the environment was the early naturalist’s depictions of the extraordinary abundance of trees, fish, birds, and mammals. While the Native Americans certainly altered and manipulated the environment, their controlled burning actually had a reciprocal ecological benefit for both the Native Americans themselves and the indigenous animals. Thinning the canopy and forming an edge effect attracted more game, helped re-populate game, and increased the rate at which nutrients returned to the soil. When Europeans arrived, New England was not a pristine forest as many people imagine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39141864", "title": "Streetcars in Mexico City", "section": "Section::::History.:Electric streetcars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 226, "text": "January 15, 1900, was the first day of electric streetcar service between Chapultepec and Tacubaya. Animal-powered street railways would continue to operate in the city along with electric streetcars for another thirty years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "803661", "title": "History of technology", "section": "Section::::By period and geography.:20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 129, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 129, "end_character": 422, "text": "Electrification spread rapidly in the 20th century. At the beginning of the century electric power was for the most part only available to wealthy people in a few major cities such as New York, London, Paris, and Newcastle upon Tyne, but by the time the World Wide Web was invented in 1990 an estimated 62 percent of homes worldwide had electric power, including about a third of households in the rural developing world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1268745", "title": "International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 421, "text": "It was founded in 1891, two years before George Westinghouse won the electric current wars by lighting up the Chicago World's Columbian Exposition with AC current, and before homes and businesses in the United States began receiving electricity. It is an international organization, based on the principle of collective bargaining. Its international president is Lonnie R. Stephenson, and is affiliated with the AFL-CIO.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1270916", "title": "Meralco", "section": "Section::::History.:La Electricista.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 417, "text": "Organized in 1891 and beginning operations in late 1894, La Electricista was the first electric company to provide electricity to Manila towards the close of the Spanish era. La Electricista had built a central power plant on Calle San Sebastian (now Hidalgo Street ) in Quiapo, Manila. On January 17, 1895, its streetlights were turned on for the first time and by 1903, it had about 3,000 electric light customers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Such a complicated problem! _URL_0_ A simple quick answer for you is that since your pan is made up of two different materials, the thermal conductivity and amount of energy held by those materials is different and will be radiated off/exchanged at different rates and total amounts.\n\nThe heat capacity of aluminum is **0.89690 J/(g K)**\nThe heat capacity of Teflon (PTFE) is **1.4 J/(g K)**\n\nThe thermal conductivity of aluminum is **235 W/(m K)**\nThe thermal conductivity of PTFE is **0.25 W/(m K)**\n\nThe bottom of the pan probably had already lost a lot of its heat before you noticed the heat radiating off the top.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "244601", "title": "Effects of nuclear explosions", "section": "Section::::Direct effects.:Thermal radiation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 586, "text": "When thermal radiation strikes an object, part will be reflected, part transmitted, and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage, like anti-flash white paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2796131", "title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics", "section": "Section::::The first quantum theory: Max Planck and black-body radiation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 238, "text": "Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object due to the object's internal energy. If an object is heated sufficiently, it starts to emit light at the red end of the spectrum, as it becomes red hot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61867", "title": "Trombe wall", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 314, "text": "When this radiation strikes objects the energy is absorbed and then re-emitted in the form of longer-wavelength infra-red radiation that does not pass through glass as readily. Hence heat becomes trapped and builds up in an enclosed structure with high internal heat capacity and glass surfaces that face the sun.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5848456", "title": "Radial (radio)", "section": "Section::::Grounding radials.:Electrical hazards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 443, "text": "Any metal object within the near field of the radiator must also be tied to this system, or the metal will become energized with radio-frequency voltage, and become an electric shock hazard, as well as potentially affecting or distorting the antenna pattern as a parasitic radiator. In one unusual case, the strip mall built around the WSB AM tower near Atlanta has every metal object (such as plumbing and ductwork) grounded for this reason.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30872182", "title": "Non-ionizing radiation", "section": "Section::::Types of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation.:Thermal radiation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 568, "text": "Parts of the electromagnetic spectrum of thermal radiation may be ionizing, if the object emitting the radiation is hot enough (has a high enough temperature). A common example of such radiation is sunlight, which is thermal radiation from the Sun's photosphere and which contains enough ultraviolet light to cause ionization in many molecules and atoms. An extreme example is the flash from the detonation of a nuclear weapon, which emits a large number of ionizing X-rays purely as a product of heating the atmosphere around the bomb to extremely high temperatures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5081562", "title": "Arc flash", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 492, "text": "In addition to the explosive blast, called the arc blast of such a fault, destruction also arises from the intense radiant heat produced by the arc. The metal plasma arc produces tremendous amounts of light energy from far infrared to ultraviolet. Surfaces of nearby objects, including people, absorb this energy and are instantly heated to vaporizing temperatures. The effects of this can be seen on adjacent walls and equipment - they are often ablated and eroded from the radiant effects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1748563", "title": "Solar irradiance", "section": "Section::::Irradiance on Earth's surface.:Absorption and reflection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 445, "text": "Part of the radiation reaching an object is absorbed and the remainder reflected. Usually the absorbed radiation is converted to thermal energy, increasing the object's temperature. Manmade or natural systems, however, can convert part of the absorbed radiation into another form such as electricity or chemical bonds, as in the case of photovoltaic cells or plants. The proportion of reflected radiation is the object's reflectivity or albedo.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Feminists focus on *female* rights. They rarely touch on male perceptions. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Those depictions of men are power fantasies. Few women want to have breasts so big that their spines crumple over into a crescent moon shape, but big muscles are something many men wish they could have. Both of your examples are male-oriented.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you want to play devil's advocate? I've never actually read a bodice ripper, but I've spoken to plenty of women who have. \n\nThat bare chested macho man in the romance novel actually has a character. He speaks, has motivations, and is actually relevant to the plot in some fashion. That's why it's called a \"romance\" novel as opposed to a \"sex\" novel. Sure there's lots of that, but there's also a bunch of emotional satisfaction and such.\n\nHaving played a lot of videogames, that scantily clad female is largely incidental to the whole thing. They could be removed from the game with no consequence whatsoever, they're just there for eye candy. \n\nIn short, a romance novel treats Fabio like a person, a video game treats the pinup as a body. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Romance novels are entirely about sex, so of course they're going to have characters focused on sex appeal. But video games aren't about sex, so why should female video game characters be designed based on sex appeal?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34903083", "title": "Gender representation in video games", "section": "Section::::Portrayal of men.:Stereotyping and violence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 661, "text": "Men in games tend to be shown as muscular and big. For instance, men in video games have chests that are about 2 inches (6%) larger, heads that are about 13 inches bigger, waists that are 5 inches wider, and hips that are 7 inches wider, than in reality. They are often characterized as overtly aggressive and violent. Following the releases of \"Grand Theft Auto V\", the developers were met with criticism regarding both the portrayal of women and torture, but also that of men. Two of the main characters, Trevor Philips and Michael De Santa, have since been interpreted by some as portraying men as \"liars, cheats, bad husbands and fathers, and psychopaths\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19220448", "title": "Video game controversies", "section": "Section::::Other controversies.:Portrayal of gender.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 102, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 102, "end_character": 909, "text": "In 2004, the game developer, Eidos, remodeled Lara Croft for \"\". The character was modified to have a more believable figure with less revealing clothing. In 2005, Terry Flew, academic, expressed a similar opinion: gender bias and stereotyping exists in many games. Male characters are portrayed as hard bodied, muscled men while female characters are portrayed as soft bodied, nearly naked women with large breasts, portrayed in a narrowly stereotypical manner. Females are usually constructed as visual objects in need of protection who wait for male rescue, whereas men are portrayed with more power. According to Flew, such depiction of females in games reflects underlying social ideas of male dominance and themes of masculinity. Although not all video games contain such stereotypes, Flew suggests that there are enough to make it a general trait and that \"...different genders have different gaming.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34903083", "title": "Gender representation in video games", "section": "Section::::Portrayal of women.:Sexualization.:Forms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 688, "text": "Female video game characters have been criticized as having a tendency to be subjects of the \"male gaze\". A print ad for the fighting game \"Soulcalibur V\" received some controversy for simply being a close up of female character Ivy Valentine's breasts with a tagline. In two sequels of fighting games \"Soulcalibur\" and \"Tekken\" that take place several years after the original issue, recurring male characters were all aged but all female characters were kept the same age or were replaced by their daughters. Many games, particularly fighting games, also feature pronounced \"breast physics\", which make the breasts of female characters bounce or jiggle in sometimes exaggerated manner.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34903083", "title": "Gender representation in video games", "section": "Section::::Portrayal of women.:As player characters.:Prevalence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 326, "text": "Playable female characters were found to appear less frequently than male characters in reviews for popular games in a 2006 study from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. A 2007 study by Melinda C. R. Burgess et al. found that men are featured much more often than women on the covers of console video games.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34768888", "title": "Media depictions of body shape", "section": "Section::::Video games.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 466, "text": "In 2009 a content analysis of 150 top-selling video games found that games rated for children depicted female characters as significantly thinner than female characters in games rated for adults. Females in video games had significantly larger heads, but smaller chest sizes, waists, and hips than the average American woman. In 2008, a study showed that after playing video games, both female and male college-aged participants had significantly lower body esteem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34903083", "title": "Gender representation in video games", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 649, "text": "Although women make up about half of video game players, they are significantly underrepresented as characters in mainstream games, despite the prominence of iconic heroines such as Samus Aran or Lara Croft. The portrayal of women in games often reflects traditional gender roles, sexual objectification, or stereotypes such as that of the \"damsel in distress\". Male characters are often stereotypically depicted as big and muscular, and LGBT characters have been slow to appear in video games as a result of the heteronormativity of the medium. Women have a major role of being cast as supporting characters because of gamer preferences and sales.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "181669", "title": "Russ Meyer", "section": "Section::::Female empowerment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 787, "text": "Yet in his research, McDonough also notes that Meyer's female characters were limited in how powerful they could appear; often the female lead is raped (\"Up!\" and \"Lorna\") or brutally murdered (\"Beyond the Valley of the Dolls\", \"Supervixens\", \"Lorna\" and \"Blacksnake\"). While Russ Meyer may have championed powerful woman characters, he also forced them into violent and terrifying situations, making them prove their physical and mental strength against tremendous odds. He also ensured that women's breasts were at least semi-exposed during these ordeals for comic or erotic effect. Furthermore, according to frequent collaborator and longtime lover Kitten Natividad, Meyer's love of dominant women extended to his personal life, and he was almost always in a tumultuous relationship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Good question. There are a couple of factors to take into account. The first thing is that much of the Russian Civil War was fought by fairly small forces. [According to PBS,](_URL_1_) Russia mobilized 12,000,000 soldiers during the First World War, lost 1,700,000 killed, 2,500,000 captured or MIA, and 4,950,000 wounded, a whopping casualty rate of 76.3%. Even acknowledging that some wounded would recover enough to fight again, that's a devastating count. \n\n\nHowever, Russia's population was 166,000,000, in 1914, [according to Spartacus Educational](_URL_0_), so even given these devastating losses, there were still men of fighting age, including men involved in industry who had not been conscripted into the army. In fact, feeding Russia's population during the Civil War was a major problem, and more died from famine and disease than combat or political violence. \n\n\nBut you still certainly have a good point, and indeed the initial phase of the Russian Civil War was fought by small bands of soldiers and irregulars. Bruce Lockhart, a British diplomat sent to Moscow, estimated that the Bolshevik Army had 213,000 soldiers in 1918, split between those fighting the Whites in Siberia, in the Caucasus and Central Asia, and screening the German Army in the west. \n\nMost of these were ill-disciplined worker's militias, deserters, Chinese laborers, and Austro-Hungarian (mostly Hungarian) POWs who joined out of conviction or to avoid starvation in abandoned prison camps. The backbone was formed from 23,000 committed Communist Lithuanian riflemen, who were rushed from front to front to deal with crises. So while there were still troops, the numbers were greatly reduced from the Russian Amy's wartime strength.\n\nThe Whites had even worse problems recruiting soldiers. General Denikin's Volunteer Army, the main White force in South Russia, set up recruiting offices in the Don, but only had around three thousand soldiers for most of the year, plus several thousands Don Cossacks. The vast majority of officers preferred not to get involved. The fact that the Volunteers often beat much larger Red forces is attributable to the fact that most of the them, even in the rank-and-file, were officers, and they were much better disciplined than their opponents. In North Russia, the British-backed government in Archangel never raised considerable numbers of troops (and those they did often deserted en masse), while the backbone of the Siberian Whites in 1918 was the 70,000-strong Czech Legion. So, we can see that only small numbers of men actually fought during the first phase of the war, on very vast fronts, and that the best fighters were not Russians, but foreign soldiers. \n \nThe war kicked up a notch in 1919, and both sides were forced to conscript soldiers. The Reds also conscripted former officers into the Red Army and coerced them to fight by holding their families as hostages. However the majority of the conscript soldiers on both sides were not very interesting in fighting, and tended to desert when it suited them. White armies converged Red Russia in 1919 from three sides, reaching their high-water mark in 1919, but the Reds possessed Russia's populous, industrial center, while the Whites were confined to the peripheries in the Baltic, Ukraine, and Siberia. Thus, the Reds could raise far more troops, and with the help of internal lines could focus on one threat at a time. While the Reds could replace losses, the Whites had a much harder time doing so. In Siberia, the Reds usually conscripted prisoners that they took, but the Whites shot theirs or stripped them and left them to freeze to death, rather than enlisting them. By the autumn of 1919 every major White threat had been defeated and the war was as good as over, but it continued for several more years. \n\nSo, I hope that answers your question. In short, the major points:\n\n1.) Russia took huge losses in WWI, but still had a massive population.\n\n2.) The war was fought by relatively small numbers of soldiers.\n\n3.) Both sides did have trouble finding soldiers (especially willing ones), and resorted to conscription or enlisting prisoners by force. \n\n\nSources: \n\nRichard Pipes, *Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime*\n\n\nMr. Lockhart to Mr. Balfour, \"Memorandum on the Internal Situation in Russia\", *British Documents on Foreign Affairs*, Doc. 5. \n\nJohn Bradley, *The Allied Intervention in Russia*\n\n\nJonathan Smele, *Civil War in Siberia: The Anti-Bolshevik Government of Admiral Kolchak*\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "395296", "title": "White movement", "section": "Section::::Theatres of operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 554, "text": "The Whites and the Reds fought the Russian Civil War from November 1917 until 1921, and isolated battles continued in the Far East until 1923. The White Army—aided by the Allied forces (Triple Entente) from countries such as Japan, the United Kingdom, France, Italy and the United States and (sometimes) the Central Powers forces such as Germany and Austria-Hungary—fought in Siberia, Ukraine, and the Crimea. They were defeated by the Red Army due to military and ideological disunity, as well as the determination and increasing unity of the Red Army.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25682", "title": "Red Army", "section": "Section::::History.:Russian Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 936, "text": "At the start of the civil war, the Red Army consisted of 299 infantry regiments. The civil war intensified after Lenin dissolved the Russian Constituent Assembly (5–6 January 1918) and the Soviet government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918), removing Russia from the Great War. Free from international war, the Red Army confronted an internecine war against a variety of opposing anti-Communist forces, including the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine, the \"Black Army\" led by Nestor Makhno, the anti-White and anti-Red Green armies, efforts to restore the defeated Provisional Government, monarchists, but mainly the White Movement of several different anti-socialist military confederations. \"Red Army Day\", 23 February 1918, has a two-fold historical significance: it was the first day of drafting recruits (in Petrograd and Moscow), and the first day of combat against the occupying Imperial German Army.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36388091", "title": "Spring Offensive of the Russian Army (1919)", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 615, "text": "At the end of the year 1918, the situation on the Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War was unclear. Both sides fought for the Kama river. The Supreme Command of the Red Army prepared for major offensives on the Southern and Western fronts, hence there were no supplies for the Eastern front. At the end of December the Whites conquered Perm on the northern flank, but the Reds captured Ufa on the southern flank. On 22 January 1919 the Red 1st Army connected with the Army of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which had advanced from Middle Asia. On 24 January the Red 4th Army captured Uralsk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25192184", "title": "Bukhara operation (1920)", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 697, "text": "The Russian Civil War erupted on 7 November 1917, pitting the Bolshevik led Red Army against the monarchist White Army. During the first two years of the conflict communist troops failed to make considerable progress in the Central Asian theaters, as the majority of Red Army forces were tied on other fronts. In spring 1918, a group of British and American intelligence agents visited Tashkent in an effort to train and supply anticommunist guerrillas in the region. The mission was headed by American diplomat Roger Tredwell, who participated in the creation of the Turkestan Anti–Bolshevik Union which acted as an intermediary between the Western Allies and the Fergana Valley Basmachi rebels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34665", "title": "1919", "section": "Section::::Events.:March.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 292, "text": "BULLET::::- Russian Civil War: The White forces in Siberia under the command of Admiral Alexander Kolchak attack the positions of the Red Army in the Spring Offensive. The Whites crush the 5th Red Army under Jan Blumberg, and capture Okhansk, Osa, Sarapul and finally Ufa over the next days.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2542158", "title": "Compendium of postage stamp issuers (R)", "section": "Section::::Russian Civil War Issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 169, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 169, "end_character": 578, "text": "The Russian Civil War (25 October 1917 – October 1922) was a multi-party war in the former Russian Empire fought between the Bolshevik Red Army and the White Army, the loosely allied anti-Bolshevik forces. Many foreign armies warred against the Red Army, notably the Allied Forces and the pro-German armies. The Red Army defeated the White Armed Forces of South Russia in Ukraine and the army led by Aleksandr Kolchak in Siberia in 1919. The remains of the White forces commanded by Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel were beaten in the Crimea and were evacuated in the autumn of 1920.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21142569", "title": "Australian contribution to the Allied Intervention in Russia 1918–1919", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 836, "text": "The Russian Civil War (1917–1921) began after the provisional government collapsed and the Bolshevik party assumed power in October 1917. The principal fighting occurred between the Bolshevik Red Army and the forces of the White Army, a group of loosely allied anti-Bolshevik forces. During the war several foreign armies took part, mostly fighting against the Red Army—including the Western allies—and many foreign volunteers fought for both sides. Other nationalist and regional political groups also participated in the war, including the Ukrainian nationalist Green Army, the Ukrainian anarchist Black Army and Black Guards, and warlords such as Ungern von Sternberg. Despite some pressure from Britain, the Australian Prime Minister, William Hughes, had refused to commit forces to Russia following the end of World War I in 1918.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\"Kinetic theory\" may be the term you're looking for, if that helps you in future googling.\n\nSo, \"pressure\" is just the molecules smacking against each other, and applying forces to each other when they collide. The other main force they're feeling is gravity.\n\nIf these forces don't cancel out, then there will be a net force, and the fluid will move. So if you have some bunch of particles, and gravity is pulling them down faster than the collisions are pushing them up, then they will move downwards. If there's already other molecules down there, the fluid will start to get denser and hotter.\n\nDensity is just the number of particles you have in a space, and temperature is just how fast they're going. So denser and hotter means more collisions, and stronger collisions. So denser and hotter things have higher pressure.\n\nNote that these are *local* things. Pressure comes from how hot and dense some part of a fluid is - the total amount of fluid or whatever doesn't directly matter. All that matters is how hot and dense it is.\n\nThe other part is that *uniform* pressure doesn't apply a force. You need a *pressure gradient*. That is, if you're getting pushed evenly on all sides, you don't get pushed anywhere. But if you get pushed more from the bottom than from the top, then you will get pushed up.\n\nSo what happens in a fluid is that, if it's not in equilibrium with gravity, it will start to collapse down and compress itself, and you end up with a gradient of density and/or temperature, which means there's a gradient of pressure, which means that it can support itself against gravity.\n\nAnd if it can support itself against gravity, it can support other things against gravity too: and that's buoyancy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34248218", "title": "Buoyant density centrifugation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 206, "text": "Buoyant density centrifugation (also isopycnic centrifugation or equilibrium density-gradient centrifugation) uses the concept of buoyancy to separate molecules in solution by their differences in density.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41042161", "title": "Calculation of buoyancy flows and flows inside buildings", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 338, "text": "Buoyancy force is the defined as the force exerted on the body or an object when inserted in a fluid. Buoyancy force is based on the basic principle of pressure variation with depth, since pressure increases with depth. Hence buoyancy force arises as pressure on the bottom surface of the immersed object is greater than that at the top.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "245982", "title": "Buoyancy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 726, "text": "Buoyancy () or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at the top of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in a fluid is greater than at the top of the object. The pressure difference results in a net upward force on the object. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the pressure difference, and (as explained by Archimedes' principle) is equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the volume of the object, i.e. the displaced fluid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "766619", "title": "Cyclonic separation", "section": "Section::::Cyclone theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 285, "text": "The buoyant force component is in the inward radial direction. It is in the opposite direction to the particle's centrifugal force because it is on a volume of fluid that is missing compared to the surrounding fluid. Using formula_9 for the density of the fluid, the buoyant force is:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60831908", "title": "Buoyancy engine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 434, "text": "For underwater applications, buoyancy engines typically involve a hydraulic pump that either inflates and deflates an external bladder filled with hydraulic fluid, or extends and retracts a rigid plunger. The change in the vehicle's total volume alters its buoyancy, making it float upwards or sink as required. Alternative systems employing gas obtained from water electrolysis, rather than hydraulic fluid, have also been proposed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6233014", "title": "Neutral buoyancy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 945, "text": "The mathematician Archimedes discovered much of how buoyancy works more than 2000 years ago. In his research, Archimedes discovered that an object is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the water displaced by the object. In other words, an inflatable boat that displaces 100 pounds (45 kilograms) of water is buoyed up by that same weight of support. An object that floats in the water is known as being \"positively\" buoyant. An object that sinks to the bottom is \"negatively\" buoyant, while an object that hovers at the same level in the water is \"neutrally\" buoyant. Scientists later discovered ways to manipulate buoyancy and developed equipment such as the life jacket, which is filled with compressed air and helps to lower a person's average density, assisting in floating and swimming, as well as certain diving equipment (including submarines and submersibles) which have air chambers similar to swim bladders to regulate depth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "62251", "title": "Ctenophora", "section": "Section::::Description.:Common features.:Locomotion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 566, "text": "It is uncertain how ctenophores control their buoyancy, but experiments have shown that some species rely on osmotic pressure to adapt to water of different densities. Their body fluids are normally as concentrated as seawater. If they enter less dense brackish water, the ciliary rosettes in the body cavity may pump this into the mesoglea to increase its bulk and decrease its density, to avoid sinking. Conversely if they move from brackish to full-strength seawater, the rosettes may pump water out of the mesoglea to reduce its volume and increase its density.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The book that taught me most about the Weimar Republic and the two World Wars was *The Lost Revolution: Germany 1918 to 1923* by *Chris Harman*. From the publisher:\n\n*Without an understanding of this defeat, the great barbarisms that swept Europe*\n*in the 1930s cannot be understood. The swastika first entered modern history in*\n*the uniforms of the German counterrevolutionary troops of 1918 to 1923—and*\n*because of the defeat in Germany, Russia fell into the isolation that gave Stalin*\n*his road to power.*\n\nAvailable in [English](_URL_0_) and German (*Die verlorene Revolution*).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Since you suggested the 'near east':\n\n_Ataturk_, Andrew Mango. One of the most important statesmen in the 20th century, and one of the most admirable ones too (I'm not a Turk, but reading about him it is easy to see why he is so inspirational). The story of Ataturk is the story of Turkey in the first half of the 20th century, so it's kind of a 2-in-1 in a sense. Though unfortunately Mango doesn't spend all that many pages about his legacy.\n\n_The Arabs, A History_ by Eugene Rogan. I was tempted to suggest Albert Hourani's _A History of the Arab People_ but Rogan's book is more recent and covers the 90s and 00s as well as everything before them (his book stretches from the 16th century to 2009; Hourani's book was published in the early 90s and so misses the recent events).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*The First Total War* by David A. Bell is an excellent summation of the state of Europe previous to the Napoleonic Wars, The French Revolution, and Napoleonic Europe. The book's main point is to show the beginning of the concept of what we now call total war. It's an extremely informative and engaging book that covers a lot of ground in an extremely important time/place of history.\n\nUnfortunately, when it comes to Medieval history, you get a lot of books that make too many *certain* claims about what happened in one place or who did what, when in reality there is no way to know. For this reason, I would recommend reading some scholarly articles to actually learn how we (as historians) decide what happened during the Medieval era. Read some primary sources and ask yourself, \"What can I learn from this?\" For instance, read *Beowulf* and a few scholarly articles that focus on what we can learn from it. By doing so, you'll already have a better idea about what Medieval history actually is, than a lot of people that have read a bunch of secondary source material.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If I was to recommend one book over all the of the history of Russia and the Soviet Union. I would recommend A People's Tragedy by Orlando Figes. It gives a complete summary of the events leading to the 1917 Revolution and the brief aftermath. It is a great read and gives a detailed formation of the reasons on why the Bolsheviks won over the others and what it meant for Russia. It is an easy read, and reads almost like a novel. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Conceived in Liberty, by Murray Rothbard. I am on Book 2 and have never read a more thorough, more American book on the Revolution. Told from a libertarian perspective, but not colored by excessive bias, it gives the reader more than just a chronology. It is a rich cross section of the individual motives that came together in synchronicity to cause the revolution. Additionally, Rothbard pays much needed attention to the oft neglected 17th century.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Dreadnought by Robert K. Massie. It's a fascinating look into the years leading up to World War One, focusing mostly on Europe. Massie researches everything he writes to an incredible degree, yet still manages to keep it from being dry. He paints vivid pictures of the people involved and doesn't miss anything.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'd recommend a 'Big History' try Why The West Rules for Now by Ian Morris.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For an understanding of how modern cities (especially New York City) got built, or unbuilt, I can't recommend enough \"The Power Broker\" by Robert Caro. Even if you have no knowledge of New York in particular, it's a seminal book about the twin rise of the modern city and the automobile, urban planning, and bureaucratic power in the 20th century. Ostensibly a biography of Robert Moses, it's probably more accurate to call it a biography of New York. \n\nAlso generally considered to be one of the great nonfiction works of our era.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'd recommend 'Birth of the Modern: 1815-1830' by Paul Johnson. I'm re-reading it now and it's both very broad, very detailed, and imminently readable. Basic thesis is how the matrix for the modern mind was formed during this time period. \n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you don't mind a long book that's a bit focused, you should look into [Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945](_URL_0_), which is pretty much what it says on the tin. It's a good read, if a bit dry at times, and covers pretty much everything in its subject area. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A very broad book that I'm reading right now (and it seems really good so far) is [Guns, Germs, and Steel](_URL_0_) by Jared Diamond.\n\nIt deals with patterns of human history, specifically why Eurasian societies conquered and survived others (and not the other way around). Also, it's a Pulitzer Prize winner.\n\nEdit: You should know I'm not a historian or anything. Just a regular guy", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Either Tacitus' *Annals* or Livy's *Ab Urbe Condita*. Both are great primary sources on Roman history, which is amazingly interesting. Or, for a modern text, *From the Gracchi to Nero* by Scullard.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Monarchy*. An amazing book, filled with over a thousand years of information about an important monarchy. \n\nEdit: a word", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I would recommend [1491](_URL_0_). It's a great look on what we now know about the Americas before Columbus, and it's an easy read (written by a journalist). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "**The Development of America:** *Nature's Metropolis* by Cronin is, without a doubt, a classic that analyzes the development of the Chicago area. This is way more than a history of a city. Cronin focuses on how trade, immigration, and a huge number of other phenomena affected society, culture, economy, and environment. His arguments about the Chicago-dominated Midwest can be (loosely) applied to other regions in America to give you a MUCH better understanding of this young nation.\n\n**Pre-1492 World History:** I am by no means an expert, but I read *Old World Encounters* by Bentley in a World History Readings class and thought it was quite good. It doesn't focus on any culture in a vacuum. Instead, Bentley focuses on interactions and cross-cultural influences primarily between Asia and Europe before 1492. \n\nAny others can feel free to improve on my recommendation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Andrew Gordon- A Modern History Of Japan. It's incredibly broad, but is a good introduction to changes in Japanese society over the past two hundred years or so.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Take Rothbard off the list. He was more of a propagandist than a historian.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[A Short History of Nearly Everything](_URL_0_) by Bill Bryson\n\nThis book is phenomenal. It has science, history, humor. It shows a side of the history you've never seen before. It has been referred to as 'the science book everyone wishes hey had in school'.\n\nDo yourself a favor and pick it up. Promise you won't be disappointed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No one has mentioned 'Lies My Teacher Told Me'? A great history of the US.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't know how nobody's posted this, but [Herodotus' *Histories*](_URL_0_) is about as essential as it gets for the classics. It was written in the mid-5th century BC and covers a huge range of topics from politics and geography to cultural clashes and ancient traditions. It's also widely regarded as the genesis of history as a subject of study.\n\nI can't say this next bit any better than Wikipedia can, so here:\n\n > Perhaps most importantly, it stands as one of the first [and only] surviving account of the rise of the Persian Empire, the events of, and causes for, the Greco-Persian Wars between the Achaemenid Empire and the Greek city-states in the 5th century BC. Herodotus portrays the conflict as one between the forces of slavery (the Persians) on the one hand, and freedom (the Athenians and the confederacy of Greek city-states which united against the invaders) on the other.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I would strongly recommend the work of Robert Fisk. In *The Great War for Civilization: The Conquest of the Middle East,* he chronicles his travels over a thirty year career as a correspondent in the Middle East, and provides a borderline absurd amount of historical context to accompany his first hand accounts of the numerous conflicts that he reported on and important figures whom he interviewed. At over 1300 pages, it might displace a book or two off your list, but it is an incredible and enlightening read.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm gonna get downvoted for this but \"A People's History of the United States\" by Howard Zinn. Just some great counter-history to the typical bullshit we learn about in school. But people also think he's a radical asshole, so it might depend more on your personal viewpoints than desires to learn history, but I still recommend it.\n\nBut I would also highly recommend something else. Do you like movies? If you like movies as well as history I strongly recommend reading the literature about historical film. My personal favorites are: \n\n\"History by Hollywood\" by Robert Brent Toplin\n\nOr \"Film Nation\" by Robert Burgoyne.\n\nThey'll definitely change your perspective about how you watch historical/political films, and even make you love some movies that you like even more because some are actually good historical representations\n\n\nAnd I'm gonna add one more here. You should also read some Social History. But I'm not gonna recommend any typical social history books. I'm gonna recommend George Orwell's \"Down and Out in Paris and London\" (NOTE: This is NOT a history book but more of a journalistic approach, but who's to say that just because it isn't a \"history\" book, that it's not good history???) I just think it's fantastic, it's about class in you guessed it... Paris and London, during the earlier parts of the 20th century and it gives you an entirely different perspective", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm no expert, but here's a couple that have helped me out as a student. (I'm South Asian, so these books come from a South Asian perspective.)\n\nVincent Smith's *The Oxford History of India*. Gives a completely different perspective on the area than most books by Indian authors, but doesn't really cover the Indian independence movement or the political climate after the first world war. If you're interested, I can recommend some other books that focus on Indian independence.\n\nP. K. Hitti's *History of the Arabs*. Eugene Rogan's book is pretty much a modern history of the area. This book is about the start of Islam and the rise of the great Islamic empires back when Europe was in the middle ages. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*Framing the Early Middle Ages* by Christopher Wickham.\n\n*Renaissance of the Twelfth Century* by Charles Homer Hasksins.\n\nThe second book is a tad outdated, yes, but those two books together? They'll blow your current assumptions about the \"Dark Ages\" to smithereens.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You're missing a major aspect of early new world history. I would recommend you add *A General History of the Pyrates* by Daniel Defoe. You may know Defoe for his books *Robinson Crusoe* and *Moll Flanders* but this is not a fictional tale. It is considered one of THE primary sources of pirating history. It can get a bit heavy sometimes and it was written in the early 1700s so it reads a little rough but you will come away knowing far more about pirates than you could have known there was to know. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can *really* recommend *China: A History* by John Keay.\n\nIt is among the most readable history books I know of and it's extremely up-to-date and China is definitely worth 'spending a book on'. \n\nIt goes right from the neolithic period up to the present.\n\n[Here](_URL_0_)!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Memory and the Mediterranean](_URL_4_) and [The Structures of Everyday Life](_URL_5_). Hell, anything by Braudel. One of the most important historians of the 20th century.\n\n[Alexander to Actium](_URL_6_) by Green. \n\n[Rubicon](_URL_8_) is passable considering the broad audience it was written for. A nice intro to the era for the uninitiated.\n\nI don't think you can look at modern works of history without giving credit to Focault, but good luck, his stuff isn't easy. If you're an academic masochist who likes to [punish](_URL_7_) yourself to the point of [madness](_URL_0_), then try his [Archeology of Knowledge](_URL_2_).\n\n[The Eastern Origin of Western Civilization](_URL_1_) by Hobson is great, highly readable, and pretty balanced for the \"East vs. West\" field.\n\n[Orientalism](_URL_3_) by Said is standard reading for World/Asia historians. Difficult at times, but essential.\n\nAnd despite what other have said, I would recommend Zinn's infamous American history simply for the fact that you shouldn't only read good books. Sometimes it's just as useful to read ones that are controversial, biased, or just plain bad. Or ones that you know you're gonna hate. I probably learned more about historical methods in grad school by reading many mediocre texts than a few fantastic ones. Stuff like Zinn is worth reading and studying no matter what anyone tells you, espeically if you approach it from a historiographic and technical point of view.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "An Intellectual History of Psychology--Daniel Robinson. It's actually more of a history of philosophy starting from the pre-Socratics, and he's good about covering the general zeitgeist of the periods as well. It's also all from a hermeneutic perspective, which is important to keep in mind.\n\nThe 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons In History--Michael H. Hart. The guy is rather eurocentric and I don't care for a lot of his political views, but the book itself isn't. He goes through each person--first giving a very well laid-out biography, explains why he/she was important and then gives a brief argument on why the person is placed where he/she is. Very well written. He actually gives a very good argument for Muhammed being number 1.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1. Age of Revolution 1789-1848\n2. Age of Capital 1848-1875\n3. Age of Empire 1875-1914\n\nThese three books by Eric Hobsbawm form a thematic trilogy about the rise of industrial capitalism in the 19th century and how it directly led to colonial imperialism. \n\nIf you want to understand just how deeply economic systems can change society, this is your book. Yes, it is dry, but damn it is important to understand this.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Try \"[The Iron Wall](_URL_0_)\" by Avi Schlaim. It's the history of the modern Israeli/ Arab conflict that is impeccably written and sourced. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Jacques Gernet - A History of Chinese Civilization", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Russell's A History of Western Philosophy isn't a bad way of filling in some gaps.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Samurai - A Military History by Stephen Turnbull is a very interesting look at japans history, particularly in reference to the development of their culture. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*King Leopold's Ghost* by Adam Hochschild. I warn that it's extremely dry, and it took two readings required by two different classes to appreciate it, but this book opened my eyes to colonialism in Africa, specifically in the Belgian Congo. \n\nBasically, Belgium was able to convince the other European powers to give little ol' Beligium a massive portion of Africa filled with rubber and gems, all between the US Civil War and WW1.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "All of these works are very specific. Especially Kuhn's is simply specialist literature, even if it is an important work in the field. I would avoid the hell out of Rothbard because it's an ideological work. I don't think A People's Tragedy is free of bias either. But finding a neutral work about the Soviet Union is impossible anyhow.\n\nThe only book on your list with a big scope is Arabs A History.\n\nIf you want to know \"all the things\" you need at least some survey works. You still don't even have one for the modern age so I propose 'A History of the Modern world' by R.R. Palmer (10th edition).\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt's not perfect. It's not an exciting read like Jared Diamond or Howard Zinn. It's not on the edge of modern research. But it's a comprehensive book and the best of its kind. \n\nFor European Medieval History I found \"Introduction to Medieval Europe 300-1550\" by Blockmans and Hoppenbrouwers (A Belgian and a Dutch Historian) very rewarding.\n\n_URL_2_\n\n\nFor the history of the near East during the last 40-ish years, I would strongly recommend Robert Fisk's The Great war for Civilization. Some of the more conservative stock might see this work as biased. But this book is incredible. It's an enthralling read and completely unique in its kind. It's also an obligatory work for anyone interested in recent Middle East history.\n\n_URL_3_\n\nAlso, check out this thread: _URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "William L Shirer - the Rise and Fall of the Third Reich - Many books to choose from for probably one of the most important events in modern history, exploring the causes of the 2nd world war and the consequences.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Diarmaid MacCulloch's *History of Christianity: The First 3000 Years*. \n\nIf you have any interest in Religion or the discussion or Religion, or understanding a major part of the spiritual side of the last 2000 years of history, it's essential.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not a historian but I am a fan of literary fiction that leads into my personal investigation of what is factual history (my mother has a PhD in anthropology and I have read these books on her suggestion...)\n\n* [The Killer Angels](_URL_1_) - about a few days during the most bloody battle of the American Civil War. Much of the book is speculative (read: historical fiction and internal monologues we can never really know about) but really got me interested in the time period.\n\n* [All The Shah's Men](_URL_2_) - A history of the American government's involvement in the Iranian coup in the 50's. My father grew up in Iran and I think this is one of the only books he's read in his whole life. Quite the eye opener.\n\n* [Gates of Fire](_URL_0_) - The \"real\" story of the 300 soldiers of Sparta made famous by the comic book by Frank Miller/the movie directed by Zack Snyder.\n\nAgain, these books aren't factual but they got me to research and learn about their related subjects. They help me remember what was factual and what was fictional because they are all fantastic reads.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think some of the recommendations here are too specific for someone who wants to know \"all the things\". But if the OP is content with them, great! \n\nSome general world history recommendations, in no particular order:\n\n * A World History (by Ponting)\n * A History of the Modern World\n * Human Drama: World History from 500 to 1450\n * The Heritage of World Civilizations\n * Why the West rules for now\n * Guns, Germs and Steel \n * The World That Trade Created\n * Carnage and Culture\n * After Tamerlane\n * Europe: A History (Davies)\n * Sailing from Byzantium: How a Lost Empire Shaped the World \n * Ecological Imperialism\n\nI don't want to recommend only one book, as everyone has a different taste when it comes to history books. Look them up, read a few pages on amazon online and decide for yourself if you will like the style and themes. If you want to spend a year with these books, a few minutes of having a look at them are well spent. I also recommend another look at the \"Master Book List\" in the sidebar and going through it. Its exactly what you're looking for!\n\nOxford's \"Short introduction to ...\" series is quite good too:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nHere are some earlier posts on r/AskHistorians, with similiar questions asked:\n\n* [What is a good book for learning world history from... the beginning?](_URL_2_)\n\n* [Could you guys give me a recommendation on a set of books that I could use to give myself a sort of general understanding of Western History?](_URL_3_)\n\n* [What is a good collection of books for someone with little history knowledge to learn the gist of history?](_URL_4_)\n\n* [I want to learn about world history, what are some good books or other resources ?](_URL_1_)\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"Maps of Time\" by David Christian. Another \"big history\" book... covers the beginning of the Universe to the present day.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Age of Revolution, Capital, Empire, And The Age of Extremes by Eric Hobsbawn?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What about *A History of the Modern World* by Palmer? It's very much a general overview, and I'm not sure that's what the OP wants, but it's incredibly well written. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*Traditions and Encounters* by Jerry Bentley and Herbert Ziegler. It's a fully fledged college textbook on world history and a very good one. As unbiased as humanly possible.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "* \"The French Revolution: A History\" by Thomas Carlyle\n* \"Lost to the West: The Forgotten Byzantine Empire That Rescued Western Civilization\"\n* \"Decline of the West\" by Oswald Spengler (a good book to learn about all of history)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In my opinion, the most important book in the last 15 years: *The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy*, by Ken Pomeranz, on amazon [here](_URL_0_). \n\nIt challenges and basically obliterates the traditional interpretations of Western ascendancy with a new, ecological interpretation of the industrial revolution.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*A History of Money* by Glyn Davies... always relevant to everything else.\n\nFor the Persians and the Greeks (always very important), a good one for a popular audience is Tom Holland's *Persian Fire*. A similar one on Rome (up to the end of the Republic at least) is *Rubicon* by the same author.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome. It's a bit older than most of the books mentioned here, but hey, it won a Nobel Prize.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you want to read one general history book, The People's History of the World by Chris Harman.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I realise this goes a bit further back than you might have wanted, but I seriously recommend *A history of the Ancient Near East* by Marc van de Mieroop. Whilst being relatively comprehensive, the book's focus is on producing an understandable summary of the ancient Near East and so in terms of gaining some kind of overarching perspective on the development of the ancient Near East it's pretty excellent.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Put Said into the bottom category. It's not objective history; it's impassioned whining.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[A Short History of Nearly Everything](_URL_0_) sounds like the right book for you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Thanks for making this thread. There are quite a few books on that list I'll be picking up very soon. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No love for french historians? I've been reading recently a lot about the Capetian kings, here's some books about that era:\n\n**Jacques Le Goff**, *Saint-Louis* (1996) (But seriously, any book he ever wrote. I never see him or any of his book mentionned here, but me and my collegues agreed that he might be the most famous french historian nowadays)\n\n**Georges Duby**, *Trois Ordres ou l'Imaginaire du féodalisme* (1978) (Major book that has been quoted in almost every medieval history book I've been reading since I started University)\n\n**Marc Bloch**, *Les rois thaumaturges* (1924) (Marc Bloch was the \"master\" if I can say of Le Goff, who was the thesis director of Duby)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "With the internet authority my flair bestows upon me, I am recommending you read *Why the West Rules* by Ian Morris first. It basically details the history of the entire world, and does a good job of presenting different historical and archaeological theories. By reading it you will be able to fit the more specific works you have into a nice chronology.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century* by Barbara W. Tuchman would make a good bonus for you. Guess what its about?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I just saw that you read German. If you're interested in the subject, some of the best scholarship throughout the past several centuries has on the subject of the Late Roman Republic/Age of Augustus was originally in German. There is an interesting history itself in the magnetic attraction Germans have felt towards Augustus that I don't think has been fully explored (at least in English texts that I've seen).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A little late to the party here, and this isn't strictly a history book, but I really think a great primer would be *The Tragedy of Great Power Politics* by John Mearsheimer. He's one of the world's premise international relations scholars, and here he tests his theory of 'offensive realism' against the historical record, covering the period from the Frech Revolution to the end of the Cold War. Gives a great and convincing explanation of the strategic decisions and power calculations behind all the great-power wars (and avoided wars) throughout that period. Highly recommended.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Lies My Teacher Told Me -- Loewen\n\nFantastic book, but skip the sequels. \n\n > A People's History of the United States -- Howard Zinn\n\nGreat stuff written by a great guy! Loewen's book references his quiet a bit. I'd encourage you to read up on Zinn's own bio/background, as well.\n\n > A History of the Modern world -- Palmer\n\nThere are far better books than this antiquated piece of shit.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Marking this thread", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Debt: The First 5000 Years by David Graeber\n\nA very insightful book on economic history of the world.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43992428", "title": "Trout and Salmonid Collection at Montana State University", "section": "Section::::Highlights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 318, "text": "BULLET::::- This is the oldest book in the collection. Roughly 12 other libraries in the world hold this volume; six in the US (including two copies held by Harvard), three in France and three in Germany. It is thought to be the first book to ever mention, although it is in passing, fish or fishing in the New World.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1520610", "title": "The Discworld Companion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 337, "text": "The book compiles a precise (and often quoted directly from the books concerned) definition of words, lives of historical people, geography of places and events that have appeared in at least one \"Discworld\" novel, map, diary, non-fiction book and the short stories \"Troll Bridge\", \"Theatre of Cruelty\", and \"The Sea and Little Fishes\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20711649", "title": "100 Classic Book Collection", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 417, "text": "100 Classic Book Collection, known in North America as 100 Classic Books, is an e-book collection developed by Genius Sonority and published by Nintendo, which was released for the Nintendo DS handheld video game console. First released in Europe in December 2008, it was later released in Australia in January 2009, and in North America in June 2010. The game includes one hundred public domain works of literature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13661122", "title": "1,000 Places to See Before You Die", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 429, "text": "Among the \"1,000 places\" in the book are historic ones such as Robert Louis Stevenson's home in Western Samoa and the trail of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the United States, cultural ones such as the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in the United States and La Scala in Italy, and natural ones such as the Grand Canyon in the United States and the Dead Sea in Israel. The book blends well-known places with rather unknown ones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "430035", "title": "Great books", "section": "Section::::Series.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 629, "text": "The \"Great Books of the Western World\" is a hardcover 60-volume collection (originally 54 volumes) of the books on the Great Books list (about 517 individual works). Many of the books in the collection were translated into English for the first time. A prominent feature of the collection is a two-volume Syntopicon that includes essays written by Mortimer Adler on 102 \"great ideas.\" Following each essay is an extensive outline of the idea with page references to relevant passages throughout the collection. Familiar to many Americans, the collection is available from Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., which owns the copyright.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1351576", "title": "Uncle John's Bathroom Reader", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 571, "text": "Their volumes contain information on subjects such as quotes, dumb criminals, palindromes, anagrams, urban legends and hoaxes, failed inventions, the history of everyday things, and accidental discoveries, as well as articles on pop culture and 'celebrities' such as Emperor Norton (see Features). Throughout the books, there are what the BRI calls \"running feet\" - short fun facts on the bottom of each page. A typical example is \"An object on Jupiter would weigh 144,000 times more than it would on Pluto.\" Some books have one running foot that simply says \"Hi, mom.\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1351576", "title": "Uncle John's Bathroom Reader", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 985, "text": "Volumes dedicated to a single topic have been released, under the title \"Uncle John Plunges Into...\", for example: history, presidents, and the universe. There are also books on individual U.S. states, the weather, numbers, quotes, the year 2000, a special book for mothers, cat lovers, dog lovers, horse lovers, love, \"Uncle John's Book of the Dumb\", and several \"Bathroom Readers for Kids Only!\". Though most of the books were written by the Bathroom Readers' Institute, some of the ones that are based around a specific subject are written by a lone author, who is not in the Institute. Additionally, the Institute will often publish articles and other contributions sent in from readers. Recurring articles such as \"Flubbed Headlines\", \"Oops\", and \"Classifieds\" often depend on these contributions. Currently, the institute publishes three books a year; a \"classic\" reader, and two \"plunges into\" editions, one for a location such as a U.S. state, and another of a specific topic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "One way of doing it is to shoot the scene twice without moving the camera. The first time, they shoot the scene when the actor plays the first role, the second time the second role. These two versions of the scene are then blended over each other.\n\nAnother version uses blue-screen in which one of the takes (or both) are shot in front of a blue canvas (or green), which is then replaced by a real background.\n\nIn these cases, the actor never touches the other character because it's, well, impossible. There is, however, techniques that allow this. One way is to compose the picture in a way that cuts the arm (usually around the elbow), and another actor is touching the character. The blend-over scene fades out the fact that there's just a \"magic hand\" there.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "556447", "title": "Body double", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 385, "text": "In some productions, a scene calls for two characters in the same shot, both of whom are portrayed by a single actor. A body double can portray one of the characters, while the credited actor plays the other, thus enabling both characters to appear simultaneously on camera. An example of this is the identical cousins on \"The Patty Duke Show\", back view double played by Rita Walter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "556447", "title": "Body double", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 362, "text": "A production scene \"photodouble\" portrays a double of the lead actor for the director. A double will be seen on camera during the movie. Some of these many double-acted scenes could be long or wide establishing shots, complicated over-the-shoulder main lead actor's dialogue sequences or in quick insert close-up shots involving only showing actor's body parts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1087430", "title": "180-degree rule", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 471, "text": "In a dialogue scene between two characters, a straight line can be imagined running between the two characters, and extending to infinity. If the camera remains on one side of this line, the spatial relationship between the two characters will be consistent from shot to shot, even if one of the characters is not on screen. Shifting to the other side of the characters on a cut will reverse the order of the characters from left to right and may disorient the audience.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2304509", "title": "Puberty Blues", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 721, "text": "The lead roles were cast after an extensive selection process. Lead actor in the film, Nell Schofield, said that \"It's a very honest and realistic movie. It touches on this and it touches on that. I really like it. It's subtle and doesn't preach: 'This is the way of life.'\" Schofield felt that \"Different sections of the audience will perceive different levels. The parents who go and see it will come out and either believe it or it will give them a bit of a jolt. They'll start looking at their kids a different way and try to bridge the generation gap.\" She added that \"The film is feminist in a way. I think it is also a comment on peer group pressure, male chauvinism in teenage groups, school and parent hassles.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "224148", "title": "Cinerama", "section": "Section::::History.:Drawbacks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 850, "text": "The system also required a bit of improvisation on the part of the film producers. It was not possible to film any scene where any part of the scene was close to the camera, as the fields of view no longer met exactly. Further, any close-up material had a noticeable bend in it at the joins. It was also difficult to film actors talking to each other where both were in shot, because when they looked at each other when filmed, the resultant image showed the actors appearing to look past each other, particularly if they appeared on different films. Early directors sidestepped this latter problem by only shooting one actor at a time and cutting between them. Later directors worked out where to have the actors looking to create a natural shot. Each actor was required not to look at his fellow actor, but at a cue placed where he needed to look.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4062150", "title": "The Face of Another (film)", "section": "Section::::Themes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 314, "text": "The film uses several doublings of shots, both by repeating shots verbatim and by placing the main character in nearly identical shots twice. The most obvious example is in Okuyama's two separate rentals of apartments, once masked, and once with his new face. These doublings highlight Okuyama's double existence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33729909", "title": "Enteng ng Ina Mo", "section": "Section::::Release.:Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 295, "text": "In regards to the film's concept of doing a cinematic crossover of two established characters, Philbert Ortiz Dy stated that \"filmmakers were content to just have the two big stars together on screen, giving them dialogue from other movies and pushing towards some ridiculous adventure climax\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Despite their seemingly mundane and formulaic inscriptions, the raising of runestones in Late Viking-Age Sweden, particularly around Uppland, was a fashionable and calculated effort by (mostly) affluent locals to display their wealth, status and allegiance. The primarily Christian iconography and inscriptions of the stones reveal a changing society, in which it may have been beneficial for an individual or clan to publicly advertise their new-found conversion and have others follow their example.\n\nA few good sources on all things to do with these inscriptions are Michael Barnes' *Runes: A Handbook*, and Judith Jesch' *Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse* ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22666", "title": "Old Norse", "section": "Section::::Phonology.:Orthography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 364, "text": "Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark, runic Old Norse was originally written with the Younger Futhark, which only had 16 letters. Because of the limited number of runes, several runes were used for different sounds, and the distinction between long and short vowels wasn't retained in writing. Medieval runes came into use some time later.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17838644", "title": "Medieval runes", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 383, "text": "The medieval runes, or the futhork, was a Scandinavian 27 letter runic alphabet that evolved from the Younger Futhark after the introduction of dotted runes at the end of the Viking Age and it was fully formed in the early 13th century. Due to the expansion, each rune corresponded to only one phoneme, whereas the runes in the preceding Younger Futhark could correspond to several.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8910122", "title": "Fot", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 747, "text": "Most early medieval Scandinavians were probably literate in runes, and most people probably carved messages on pieces of bone and wood. However, it was difficult to make runestones, and in order to master it one also needed to be a stonemason. During the 11th century, when most runestones were raised, there were a few professional runemasters. Fot was active as a runemaster in southern Uppland during the late Viking Age. His work is representative of the runestone style known as the Urnes style. This runestone style is characterized by slim and stylized animals that are interwoven into tight patterns. The animal heads are typically seen in profile with slender almond-shaped eyes and upwardly curled appendages on the noses and the necks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8909843", "title": "Balle (runemaster)", "section": "Section::::Work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 926, "text": "Most early medieval Scandinavians were probably literate in runes, and most people probably carved messages on pieces of bone and wood. However, it was difficult to make runestones, and in order to master it one also needed to be a stonemason. During the 11th century, when most runestones were raised, there were a few professional runemasters. Balle was active in the later 11th century and his work is representative of the Urnes runestone style. Balle signed about twenty-four surviving runestones in south-western Uppland and northern Södermanland. He often signed his name in the form of Old Norse poetry as exemplified on runestone U 729 in Ågersta. There are also an additional twenty runestones that have been attributed to him for stylistic reasons. Balle was noted for the consistency of his use of a dot as a punctuation mark between the words of his runic inscriptions, and often used dotted e-, g-, and y-runes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1265771", "title": "Younger Futhark", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 371, "text": "The lifetime of the Younger Futhark corresponds roughly to the Viking Age. Their use declined after the Christianization of Scandinavia; most writing in Scandinavia from the 12th century was in the Latin alphabet, but the runic scripts survived in marginal use in the form of the medieval runes (in use ca. 1100–1500) and the Latinised Dalecarlian runes (ca. 1500–1910).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17838644", "title": "Medieval runes", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 540, "text": "In the early 13th century, the runes began to be threatened by the Latin letters as the medieval Scandinavian laws were written. Until then, the laws had been memorized and recited by the lawspeakers. Still, when the runes began to experience competition, they went through a renaissance. A thorough reformation of the runes appeared and the medieval runes reached their most complete form. This may be because the laws were written down, and the oldest manuscript with a Scandinavian law, the Codex Runicus, was written entirely in runes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "822093", "title": "Runes", "section": "Section::::Runic alphabets.:Medieval runes (12th to 15th centuries).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 484, "text": "Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of the total number of Norwegian runic inscriptions preserved today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in Bergen since the 1950s, mostly on wooden sticks (the so-called Bryggen inscriptions). This indicates that runes were in common use side by side with the Latin alphabet for several centuries. Indeed, some of the medieval runic inscriptions are written in Latin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In general, the issue here is that when people say they have \"white\" pride, they are saying \"I am proud that I am not black.\" as opposed to people having pride in their specific heritage. No one has a problem with people having pride in being Irish, German, Italian, Polish. Those get celebrated. \n\nBut \"white\" just means that you are of European descent. In practice, it gets used by white supremacists. \n\nNow, you're going, \"Yes, but black people have black pride!\" And that's because their heritage and history were destroyed by slavery. They can't trace their ancestry back to a specific culture or country. So all they have is the common background of being of African-descent. They use \"Black pride\" to show solidarity in the face of adversity. \n\nNo one uses \"white pride\" in a positive manner. It is used to show superiority over black people, not a celebration of a rich cultural history. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Mainly because it's socially acceptable to be proud of being from an ethnic group that has been oppressed or is a minority. As a Frenchman in Canada, I can be proudly French here. If I were too openly proud to be French at home, it would be seen as a far right political message. Basically, pride is considered oppression if it comes from the majority, but as liberation if it comes from the minority. It also works for other stuff than color, like sexual identity, tattoos, religion....", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because white Europeans colonized much of the world, and white pride embraces the belief that it is right and good because in their minds white people are superior/better/etc. \n\nVery few other cultures are built on the destruction of others, and certainly no culture besides western european culture exists in the shadow of a fallen empire, leaving myriad indigenous cultures broken in its wake. \n\nSo when those other cultures (or groups of people with similar skin colors and thus similar racial experience) take pride in what remains of their damaged heritage, it is an act of perseverance against adversity, rather than an assertion of adversity.\n\nNow there are other places in the world where expressing some forms of pride would be considered racist -- and i'm thinking largely of animosity between the Japanese and the Chinese, who spent lots of time treating eachother very poorly. \n\n( All that said, \"white\" is not a culture, in the same sense. Europeans can be into like \"Norse pride\" or \"Dutch pride\" and we recognize they are honoring historical heritage of their people. No one thinks it's racist for Scottish tribes to run around in colorful kilts and Fuji whatever they do. But if they are celebrating \"white pride\" that means that they are celebrating something else entirely.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "White pride is not inherently racist, but expressions of white pride almost always are. \"Pride\" movements are intended to push back against marginalization and stigmatization. White people, in almost every nation on earth, have no stigma or marginalization to push back against. So what is the purpose of \"white pride\"? Almost always, the purpose is to give a platform and lend legitimacy to the white supremacist movement.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"White Pride\" is used as a slogan by white supremacist groups in the US\n\n'\"White Power! White Pride!\" as \"a much-used chant of white separatist movement supporters\"'\n\nThe slogan \"White Pride Worldwide\" appears on the logo of Stormfront,", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It would be racist if there was privilege among people of color. I’ve never met someone with “white pride” that wasn’t also a racist. \n\nIf white privilege didn’t exist, if slavery never happened, if systemic racism still wasn’t a thing, and if people of color were not still marginalized; then maybe “white pride” wouldn’t be viewed as racist. \n\nMy fiancée is from the Caribbean. She takes pride in her heritage. Not because she’s black, but because she knows her history, where her roots come from, what her family has had to endure, and how she came up. For me to tell her I have “white pride” would mean what exactly? That I grew up being afforded opportunity? That I’m not looked down upon for my skin color? That I’ve been given jobs because I’m white (I have; was literally told so)? That I didn’t grow up in a shack and shit in a can? Should I be proud that the color of my skin has had no negative impact on my life? \n\nThere is no adversity in being white, what are you proud of? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In most parts of the world, Caucasians have not been subjected to systemic social and governmental prejudice due to the colour of their skin. Caucasians as an ethnic group have never really been made to feel unnecessarily ashamed of being white on a grand scale. \n \nIn addition, Caucasians have been historically guilty for the vast majority of racial prejudice throughout the years, mostly thanks to colonialism and the cancerous expansion of the British Empire between the 16th and 18th century. \n \n \n'White Pride' is seen as inappropriate because, really, we've got no reason to be particularly proud of being white. Especially with our particularly bloody past. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "US centric answer here, but;\n\nVarious \"color\" pride doesn't happen; the only one that's socially acceptable is black pride, and the rest of it is *specific to a given ethnicity*. Swedish or Finnish or Italian or Irish or Russian pride is fine, because it's the celebration of a given ethnicity. White pride is inherently racial, so it's not.\n\nThe specific reason black pride is acceptable is entirely because of the fact that, up until relatively recently, black people in the US didn't really know their ancestry beyond \"somewhere in west Africa.\" As a result, they ended up banding together into one larger group based on a shared cultural history (e.g. slavery).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because \"white pride\" is everyday. At least in the U.S. being a part of the majority (in this case, white) means that you are the default that others have to adhere to. When there's a film full of white people, we call it a movie, but when the cast is all black it's a \"black\" movie. The standard of commercial beauty is European. It's not considered beautiful to the masses to have a big nose, etc. When we get taught history in school, we learn all about American and European history. When it comes to Latin American history, you would have to take it as an elective - it isn't required to be taught (and in my opinion if more people were taught Latin American history, they would understand how the US meddled in South/Central American countries and the events that followed was a catalyst for people leaving and immigrating here). There's no point in having a celebration to celebrating whiteness, since it's already being celebrated subtly everyday. Black, Latino, Asian, Native American pride, etc. Is a way to be proud of your heritage despite the discrimination you face by the majority.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Its that in most (if not all) practical instances of white pride there is anti-blackness. \n\n1) The confederate flag: White people fight tooth and nail to be able to fly this racist memento under a guise of white pride or solidarity. Why if you see the problem with racism and better yet slavery, would you want to emblem and align yourselves with a flag that proudly endorsed slavery, inequality, and injustice. Is there no other way to show or prove solidarity. Its like saying I want to start a club for bald guys and we are the most unified sect of bald guys. How do we show that? Well theres only one group I know that we could align with that share a characteristic of what we signify. Lets be skinhead neo nazis. Your message is baldness so be nazis makes as much sense as you want to show white pride so you align with open racists. \n\n2) All lives matter: This was a slogan coined only in retort to the original sentiment, the “Black Lives Matter” (BLM) movement. Where to even start on this one. BLM was started to bring awareness to the fact that there is a landslide of injustice when it comes to how black people are and have been mistreated in situations with law enforcement. Black people are being killed at an alarming and disproportionate rate and regardless of why you think that is, its a problem. The message is literally a reminder to law enforcement who kill or show extra assertions of aggression toward black people that out lives matter so please stop killing us. Its a cry for justice and peace. Whit people took that message and in response said “no, black lives dont matter. All lives matter.” And yes all lives do matter but for one, all lives arent in danger in simple traffic stops. And for two how heartless do you have to be to tell people with a message of mourning that what theyre advocating for doesnt matter. Their relatives, family etc. That thats not what they should be saying they should instead advocate for everyone. Another analogy, say your dad dies and at the funeral people come in and tear all the decorations down and tell you its because this shouldnt be your fathers funeral. This this be a memorial service for everyone who has ever died. Its wildly and disgustingly insensitive. And All lives matter again is flown under the flag of ideology that white people matter too. Its white soldarity. But again contains a message of insensitive anti-blackness\n\nThe list goes on but you get the message.\n\nTL,DR - i understand that white people do genuinely think they’re showing solidarity in acceptable ways and would like to but it almost always has direct sub texts of anti-blackness. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When blacks were enslaved and brought to America, they became property of their owners. Being property, families were split up and it was hard to keep track of who your mom's mom and dad's dad were, what country they came from, and so on.\n\nWhen slavery ended, black people could only trace back their history to when they were slaves. Because of this, they formed a new cultural identity which was soecial to black people in America. Almost all were and are a part of this group, which is just called Black or African American, because that's as deep as their roots go. It is not based on their skin color, but rather based on something every one of those sharing their skin color experienced.\n\nWhites in America can find out who their great great grandparents were because if you came to America and you were white or not a slave, there was a record kept. Therefore, whites' cultural identity is traced back to their shared experiences.\n\nThere is nothing that most people consider racist about being proud to be Irish, for example. Even poorer whites (and many blacks) will have regional American pride such as \"southern pride\" which, despite the South's racially tense history, is also not considered by the mainstream to be racist.\n\nSo in conclusion, the words \"black and white\" are not black and white. To have \"black pride\" is to be an African American who shares the experience of other African Americans who descend from slaves. To have Irish or Southern pride is also a reference to descent and cultural identity, for example what your grandma always cooked for dinner or the way you spoke, the way you were raised and the values that were instilled in you by your family. \n\nWhite people are not a monolith and share very different heritage, even though we might look a whole lot alike. \n\nTherefore, to say you are proud to be white is to say you are simply proud that your skin color is white. You are not saying you are proud of your specific heritage. When American blacks say they have black pride, their heritage and experience IS all the same because their race and culture in the United States are not distinguishable because by having black skin, it means they were forced into slavery.\n\nTo say you are proud of your culture is not racist regardless of the color of your skin.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Its not inherently racist, but I can see why people would consider it as such. As a comparison, I am an atheist, which automatically puts me in the 5% of the US population. When the church preaches about being persecuted it kinda pisses me off, as Christians are literally the biggest religion worldwide. So in the same manner minorities frown upon \"white pride\", I frown upon the church's persecution complex. It just seems kind of nonsensical to organize pride events for a majority. The need to express pride arises because you are an exception to the norm. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pride movements tend to emerge from opposition - the pride movement happens because the overwhelming social message otherwise is shame. White pride doesn't happen because the same structural opposition doesn't exist against white folk.\n\nEdit: not \"doesn't happen\" so much as \"feels somewhat different\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Have you ever heard the phrase \"every month is white history month\"? Same logic. These movements are formed on the presupposition that white people have it better historically, socially, and economically. To a certain extent, this is true, but not *every* white person has it better, so it's hard to notice. Yes, on the surface it is hypocritical, but hypocrisy is the point of these things. To balance out previous slights is the reason.\n\nFair warning, you don't want to go down this road, questioning the way our society treats white people. Black becomes white, up becomes down. All things true become false, and the most vile, twisted things from the hearts of men become welcomed friends under the guise of jest. Complain as you like, but remember that there are literal Nazis dangling a false solution in front of your nose as they listen in. That path leads to ruin.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Simple thing I'd like to answer to some of these answers. Usually it is safe to have pride in your ethnicity and not your race. The difference with black people is that Americans stole their heritage through slavery to the point where many black people can't trace their ancestry and specific ethnicities back like white people can. This is why black people celebrate a collective african and black american culture", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "827889", "title": "White pride", "section": "Section::::Use as an identity marker.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1183, "text": "Political and social scientists commonly argue that the idea of \"white pride\" is an attempt to provide a clean or more palatable public face for white supremacy or white separatism and that it is an appeal to a larger audience in hopes of inciting more widespread racial violence. According to Joseph T. Roy of the Southern Poverty Law Center, white supremacists often circulate material on the internet and elsewhere that \"portrays the groups not as haters, but as simple white pride civic groups concerned with social ills\". Philosopher David Ingram argues that \"affirming 'black pride' is not equivalent to affirming 'white pride,' since the former—unlike the latter—is a defensive strategy aimed at rectifying a negative stereotype\". By contrast, then, \"affirmations of white pride—however thinly cloaked as affirmations of ethnic pride—serve to mask and perpetuate white privilege\". In the same vein, Professor of Education at University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Cris Mayo, characterizes white pride as \"a politically distasteful goal, given that whiteness is not a personal or community identity, but has been a strategy to maintain inequities of privilege and power.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1934570", "title": "Angry white male", "section": "Section::::In Australia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 577, "text": "The Liberal Party (major centre-right) senator Eric Abetz, arguing against Section 18C of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975, says it's \"passing strange\" that the Australian Human Rights Commission does not seem to care about what he perceives as \"racist terminology\" such as angry white man but it does care if another color is used to describe someone: \"One cannot help but think that the term 'white' can only refer to skin colour and therefore [you] are making reference to a skin colour [and] one assumes it must have been on the basis of race that the comment was made\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2337609", "title": "Black pride", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 371, "text": "Black pride is a movement in response to dominant white cultures and ideologies that encourages black people to celebrate black culture and embrace their African heritage. In the United States, it was a direct response to white racism especially during the Civil Rights Movement. Related movements include black power, black nationalism, Black Panthers and Afrocentrism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1655005", "title": "White privilege", "section": "Section::::In South Africa.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 571, "text": "\"Afrikaner whiteness\" has also been described as a partially subordinate identity, relative to the British Empire and Boerehaat (a type of prejudice towards Afrikaners), \"disgraced\" further by the end of apartheid. Some fear that white South Africans suffer from \"reverse racism\" at the hands of the country's newly empowered majority, \"Unfair\" racial discrimination is prohibited by Section Nine of the Constitution of South Africa, and this section also allows for laws to be made to address \"unfair discrimination\". \"Fair discrimination\" is tolerated by subsection 5.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1134331", "title": "Racial Discrimination Act 1975", "section": "Section::::Scope of the Act.:Prohibition of racial discrimination in certain contexts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 419, "text": "Racial discrimination occurs under the RDA when someone is treated less fairly than someone else in a similar situation because of their race, colour, descent or national or ethnic origin. Racial discrimination can also occur when a policy or rule appears to treat everyone in the same way but actually has an unfair effect on more people of a particular race, colour, descent or national or ethnic origin than others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1655005", "title": "White privilege", "section": "Section::::Applications in critical theory.:Critical race theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 756, "text": "Critical race theorists such as Cheryl Harris and George Lipsitz have said that \"whiteness\" has historically been treated more as a form of property than as a racial characteristic: In other words, as an object which has intrinsic value that must be protected by social and legal institutions. Laws and mores concerning race (from apartheid and Jim Crow constructions that legally separate different races to social prejudices against interracial relationships or mixed communities) serve the purpose of retaining certain advantages and privileges for whites. Because of this, academic and societal ideas about race have tended to focus solely on the disadvantages suffered by racial minorities, overlooking the advantageous effects that accrue to whites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33210860", "title": "Somatocentrism", "section": "Section::::Perception.:Racism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 457, "text": "Racism is defined by a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. Racial differences are most easily compared by the phenotypical differences between peoples of a different race, i.e. skin tone, facial features, hair color, and body type. To place social value on any trait, whether positive or negative, is a product of somatocentric values.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hey y'all, \n\nIf you are a first time visitor, welcome! This thread is trending high right now and getting a lot of attention, but it is important to remember those upvotes represent interest in the question itself, and [it can often take time for a good answer to be written](_URL_4_). The mission of /r/AskHistorians is to provide users with **in-depth and comprehensive responses**, and our [rules](_URL_1_) are intended to facilitate that purpose. *We remove comments which don't follow them for reasons including unfounded speculation, shallowness, and of course, inaccuracy*. Making comments asking about the removed comments simply compounds this issue. \n\nSo please, before you try your hand at posting, check out the [rules](_URL_1_), as it would [break our hearts](_URL_6_) to have to ban you.\nIt is very rare that a decent answer doesn't result in due time, so please do come check back on this thread in a few hours. If you think you might forget, send a [Private Message](_URL_3_!) to the [Remind-Me bot](_URL_0_), and it will ensure you don't!\n\nFinally, while we always appreciate feedback, it is unfair to the OP to further derail this thread with META conversation, so if anyone has further questions or concerns, I would ask that they be directed to [modmail](_URL_2_), or a [META thread](_URL_5_[META]). \n\nThank you!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The answer to that goes back to the early days of the recording industry. You're right, country, blues, gospel and southern gospel artists all borrow relentlessly from each other, and that tradition goes back to the 1800's before the genres got clearly separated out (I can't speak to mariachi or norteno as I haven't studied those). As I understand it, in the early 1900's as the recording industry was coming online, \"race\" records and \"hillbilly\" records were created as niche markets - race records selling to lower class African Americans, hillbilly records selling to lower class white Americans. The musics sounded very similar at that point, but it was the marketing of the artists that separated them out by race. Now whites were more than happy to listen to black music, and vice versa, but it was how they were marketed that created the initial distinction between the genres, which became country and blues, respectively, and once distinguished they became statements of identity. Their religious counterparts, gospel and southern gospel, have a slightly different history, as they both emerged from hymns but southern gospel also was influenced by rural singing conventions. Each of those genres borrowed from each other, but were more clearly separated even from the beginning because Sunday morning is the most segregated hour of the week in the U.S. - much less opportunity for artists to share music, although once the Pentecostal movement got going in the early 1900's, that allowed for a lot more crossover since it started out inter-racial.\n\nWhy it's remained that way is simply that music is a very powerful means of creating a sense of personal and group identity. Music, of all kinds, acts physically (resonance of sounds in the body), emotionally (connection of sounds to emotional states), and textually (in the lyrics) to reinforce particular social narratives and ways of being in the world. Once country music was successfully labeled white by the marketing arm of the recording industry, that took on a life of it's own thanks to the racial dynamics of American culture. It becomes a self perpetuating cycle where whiteness becomes a significant feature of country music, and vice versa, as a shortcut for distinguishing between and reinforcing the social and racial class structures. Food, clothing, and other cultural items work much the same way.\n\nSome Sources:\n\n* Don Cusic, The Sound of Light: A History of Gospel Music\n* Michael Harris, The rise of gospel blues: the music of Thomas Andrew Dorsey in the urban church\n* Cecelia Tiichi, High lonesome: the American culture of country music\n* Sarah Thornton, Club cultures: music, media, and subcultural capital\n* Benjamin Filene, Romancing the folk: public memory & American roots music\n* James Goff, Close harmony: a history of southern gospel\n* Robert Darden, People Get Ready!: a history of black gospel from Africa through present\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To give a short answer: while these early forms were similar, segregation of performers both by music producers and American society in general, contributed to a divergence in genres, though blues continues to be an incredibly important influence on country\n\nEarly on in the history of American music, you're correct that what evolved into country music borrowed heavily from especially blues and gospel, as well as other forms like tejano and cajun music. It is also important to note that these genres also borrowed from each other. Similar themes and songs (trains, the legend of John Hardy, etc.) appear all across what could be termed folk music in the 20's and 30's.\n\nPotentially the biggest industry-produced effect that pushed along these schisms was the distinction between white and \"colored\" artists early on in recording history. Music by black artists and marketed for a black audience was \"race music,\" while music by white artists and marketed for a white audience was \"hillbilly music.\" Other music forms you mentioned that were popular within Hispanic and Latino communities were recorded but, since the bigger artists in those genres sang in Spanish, those styles had little popular appeal until the Latino population grew later in the century. My knowledge of early Latino music is a incomplete so if I am wrong, please correct me.\n\nThe Blues-Country schism was also reinforced by segregation and the institutionalization of both genres. Early in music recording history, it would've been unusual to find an artist of either race who sang only country or only blues. But the broad local appeal of the sounds led to commercial success, and of course there were forces which wanted to capitalize on that success. The WSM Barn Dance started in 1925, but its name soon changed. In 1927, while introducing African American harmonica player DeFord Bailey, announcer George Hay called the program the \"Grand Ole Opry\" for the first time, and it would eventually become the dominant stage in country music and end goal for aspiring country artists. I have no knowledge of the Ryman Auditorium, the Opry's home, being segregated. However, it is likely, though hard to determine, that small-time black country artists had reduced appeal due to the Jim Crow laws of the states they performed in, which contributed to the appearance of country as being white.\n\nThe two genres also developed differently and diverged. Blues gave birth to jazz. A jazz-infused country styled called Western Swing was born in the 40's. The Grand Ole Opry became able to determine what styles would get national exposure. In a way, what the Opry said was country was what became country. By the mid 40's to mid 50's, this was Honky Tonk. This was a sound that was blues-influenced but not similar to blues the way old hillbilly music was. Still, in the Honky Tonk era, Blues had a tremendous impact on country music. Hank Williams, a white country music star (one of the legends of country music), learned guitar from a blues musician. But the blues forms that impacted country no longer had appeal to the urban African American in post-Great Migration Chicago and it would take the electrification of the blues to reintroduce it as a popular form. Later, the country music establishment purposefully changed styles to a mass-appeal Nashville Sound which kept little from the Honky Tonk style immediately preceding and had little visible blues influence, so even the older blues players had little interest in mainstream country anymore.\n\nThere have been black artists who have been influential in country music, but it wasn't until the 60's, with Ray Charles releasing an album of traditional country songs and Charley Pride becoming the first black performer on the Grand Ole Opry since DeFord Bailey's firing in 1941. However, the introduction of Outlaw Country, whose performers sometimes released songs glorifying the South, which was sometimes tied to the Civil War, understandably turned a lot of Black listeners away and towards other sounds like funk, disco, and what would eventually become hip-hop.\n\nBlack country artists exist today, but the location of country's center in the South, the harsh Jim Crow laws in much of country's market, the controversial inclusion of the Confederacy in some styles of country, the early industry-driven distinction between blues, country, and other folk music, and the shifting interest of black audiences away from both country and blues, led to country being a white-dominated genre.\n\nPBS I believe recently did a nice miniseries called [American Epic](_URL_0_) that explores a few different artists of the 20's and 30's across a broad range, including country, blues, tejano, and hawaiian.\n\nThis is also like my second answer on here so let me know if I can do better. It's nice to see American folk musicology get covered.\n\nEDIT: Thought I might add how fitting this question is for the theme, as I generally consider the 1940s to be the time where blues and country significantly diverge stylistically.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hi!\n\nI'm actually doing a lot of research about Nashville, Austin, country music, and authenticity right now so I'm in the thick of this question. I think other posters have covered an in-depth history of the genre and the development of the music itself, but you might find some of this interesting.\n\nCountry music, as a genre, was marketed heavily to white Southerners in the first half of the twentieth century as a way to connect to rural roots. It served as a form of cultural validation for self-conscious Southerners in a time where you see a lot of Southern pride movements occurring. The South was attempting to demonstrate to the rest of the country that the region was competitive in education, technology, and industry. There was a distinct urban/rural cultural divide; members of the \"cultural elite\" of large Southern cities wanted to distance themselves from the rural images traditionally associated with the South. In Nashville, the National Life Insurance Company started a high-powered radio station called WSM in 1925. The station played mostly opera and classical music, but began playing a \"barn dance\" style program where \"old-timey\" or \"hillbilly\" musicians would play traditional music and act as hillbilly characters on air. One day, a classical music program out of Chicago was playing on the air. The announcer quipped that there was \"no place in the classics for realism.\" WSM's barn dance program ran directly after, and announcer George Hay gave the Grand Ole Opry its name:\n\n > “…for the last hour, we have been listening to music taken largely from grand opera and the classics, and heard Dr. Damrosch tell us there in so no place for realism in that kind of music. In respectful contrast to Dr. Damrosch’s presentation, for the next three hours we are going to present nothing but realism.”\n\nand, later, satirizing the high-brow attitude of the opera program:\n\n > \"From now on we will present the Grand Ole Opry.\"\n\nThus begins the *official* association with country music and authenticity. While Hay would often have African American artists on his show (the previous comment was actually made directly after a performance by an African American harmonica player), it's important to understand that this program spoke to the identity of *white* southerners at a time when you see a lot of \"old south\" longing occurring (Gone With the Wind, confederate monuments, even the resurgence of the KKK). White southerners, particularly those in the working class, were tired of feeling like their culture was wrong or undignified. This isn't my area of expertise, but I'd argue that the use of African American sounds in country music was legitimized because white working-class southerners felt like this music was \"authentic\" because of the working-class roots of African Americans. \n\nThe history of the recording industry in Nashville is long and messy, but one of the most interesting things I read today applies here. Historian Jeremy Hill suggests that in the midst of the civil rights movement, the country music industry marketed music to \"ordinary white folks\" without directly claiming any racial preference. He quotes Tandy Rice, who was later president of the Country Music Association. Rice was asked in 1967 about the appeal of country music and how it contrasted with leftist policies:\n\n > \"Right now, country music is stable, like the great backbone of the country. The lyrics are simple, and sincere, not about civil rights and such. These folks don't go for the Bob Dylan, Joan Baez kind of thing. The lyrics are about what concerns everyday folks.\"\n\nNow, country music has changed drastically over the years- I'm particularly interested in the countercultural \"Cosmic Cowboy\" movement that occurred in Austin in the 1970s- but the core of the genre has always been a white search for identity. In short, country music wasn't just marketed as \"southern\" music. It was marketed as *white* southern music.\n\nSources:\n\n* Jeremy Hill, *Country Comes to Town: The Music Industry and the Transformation of Nashville*. This book in particular covers the relationship between race, country music, and Nashville. \n\n* Craig Havighurst, *Air Castle of the South: WSM and the Making of Music City, USA*\n\n* Joli Jensen, *The Nashville Sound: Authenticity, Commercialization, and Country Music*\n\nAnd if you're interested in the Cosmic Cowboy movement in Austin, I really like Jason Mellard's *Progressive Country*.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3352", "title": "Blues", "section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 611, "text": "The musical forms and styles that are now considered the blues as well as modern country music arose in the same regions of the southern United States during the 19th century. Recorded blues and country music can be found as far back as the 1920s, when the record industry created the marketing categories \"race music\" and \"hillbilly music\" to sell music by blacks for blacks and by whites for whites, respectively. At the time, there was no clear musical division between \"blues\" and \"country\", except for the ethnicity of the performer, and even that was sometimes documented incorrectly by record companies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31413267", "title": "White power music", "section": "Section::::White power country music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 935, "text": "Country music has spawned several subgenres, including white racist country music — also referred to as \"segregationist music\" — which came about in response to the American civil rights movement. The songs expressed resistance to the federal government and civil rights advocates who were challenging well-established white supremacist practices endemic in the Southern United States. There were also changes in the music recording industry in the 1940s and 1950s that allowed regional recording companies to form across the United States, addressing small specialized markets. B.C. Malone writes: \"the struggles waged by black Americans to attain economic dignity and racial justice provided one of the ugliest chapters in country music history, an outpouring of racist records on small labels, mostly from Crowley, Louisiana, which lauded the Ku Klux Klan and attacked African Americans in the most vicious of stereotypical terms.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3569998", "title": "Culture of the Southern United States", "section": "Section::::Music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 1019, "text": "In general, country music is based on the folk music of white Southerners, and blues and rhythm and blues is based on African American southern forms. However, whites and blacks alike have contributed to each of these genres, and there is a considerable overlap between the traditional music of blacks and whites in the South, particularly in gospel music forms. A stylish variant of country music (predominantly produced in Nashville) has been a consistent, widespread fixture of American pop since the 1950s, while insurgent forms (i.e. bluegrass) have traditionally appealed to more discerning sub-cultural and rural audiences. Blues dominated the African American music charts from the advent of modern recording until the mid-1950s, when it was supplanted by the less guttural and forlorn sounds of rock and R&B. Nevertheless, unadulterated blues (along with early rock and roll) is still the subject of reverential adoration throughout much of Europe and cult popularity in isolated pockets of the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1616933", "title": "Music history of the United States", "section": "Section::::1940s and 1950s.:Roots of country music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 754, "text": "With a honky tonk root, modern country music arose in the 1940s, mixing with R&B and the blues to form rockabilly. Rockabilly's earliest stars were Elvis Presley and Bill Haley, who entertained to crowds of devoted teenage fans. At the time, black audiences were listening to R&B, doo wop and gospel, but these styles were not perceived as appropriate for white listeners. People like Haley and Presley were white, but sang in a black style. This caused a great deal of cheeze controversy from concerned parents who felt that \"race music\", as it was then known, would corrupt their children. Nevertheless, rockabilly's popularity continued to grow, paving the way for the earliest rock stars like Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Little Richard and Fats Domino.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2681485", "title": "Origins of the blues", "section": "Section::::Growth of the blues (1920s onward).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 639, "text": "The musical forms and styles that are now considered the \"blues\" as well as modern \"country music\" arose in the same regions during the nineteenth century in the southern United States. Recorded blues and country can be found from as far back as the 1920s, when the popular record industry developed and created marketing categories called \"race music\" and \"hillbilly music\" to sell music by blacks for blacks and by whites for whites respectively. At the time, there was no clear musical division between \"blues\" and \"country\", except for the race of the performer, and even that sometimes was documented incorrectly by record companies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5825171", "title": "Blue Guitars", "section": "Section::::Album number two – Country Blues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1007, "text": "Country Blues was the natural development, the original Blues would go, once it had arrived in the American South: it was a dark time, a time of fear, people had to work hard during slavery, even harder after they had been released, wandering around unemployed, aimlessly. Racism and KKK made the situation even worse, which reflected in the music, instrumentation gradually changed and the lyrics told stories of fear (KKK Blues), aimless wandering (Walkin' Country Blues), alcoholism (Too Much Drinkin'), but also the flight from prevailing conditions, maybe with another perspective for life and the future in the big cities (Ticket for Chicago). But also themes of movement (Steam Train Blues) and the faith in God and Religion (If You've Got A Friend In Jesus) were made topics in the songs, as well as the occasional search for some recreation and a good time (Dance All Night Long). The social and personal problems found their way into the music and started to change the Blues on a profound level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27052778", "title": "List of genres", "section": "Section::::Music genres.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 282, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 282, "end_character": 485, "text": "BULLET::::- Country music: American popular music that began in the rural regions of the Southern United States in the 1920s. It takes its roots from southeastern American folk music and Western music. Blues modes have been used extensively throughout its recorded history. Country music often consists of ballads and dance tunes with generally simple forms and harmonies accompanied by mostly string instruments such as banjos, electric and acoustic guitars, fiddles, and harmonicas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The Red Army was very vast within the Second World War. Therefore there was a few different elite units. The major ones of these we're called Guard units. When an army proved itself as a well trained fighting force, they would get a Guard title attached to their title. One of the notable we're the 2nd Guard Army which participated in the Battle of Stalingrad as part of Operation Uranus which led to the circling of the German Sixth army. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Red Army engineer shock brigades received metal body armor to protect them. I cannot find details for the life of me, but here's a video about them (English transcript in subtitles): _URL_0_ ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Look up:\n\n* Rotmistrov's 5th Guards Tank Army\n* Katukov's 1st Tank Army\n* Chuikov's 62nd Army\n \nThey are among the most famous ones.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9028581", "title": "Yakov Kreizer", "section": "Section::::Battles in Belorussia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1889, "text": "At the start of World War II the Red Army was notorious for its poor battlefield quality because a large number of its newly appointed commanders lacked initiative and skill. Kreizer was among a few senior officers who prepared his troops adequately for the requirements of the modern mobile war. In July 1941 Kreizer became the first Red Army General to outfight the Wehrmacht in a large-scale engagement. Kreizer's division took position along the Minsk-Moscow highway and faced the main brunt of German Army Group Center in its drive to Moscow, spearheaded by Heinz Guderian. Guderian, who in that time was widely considered the world's best commander of armoured forces, had at his disposal forces that were far superior to those of Kreizer in manpower, in number of tanks and in air support. In the battle of Borisov Kreizer stalled the advance of Guderian's elite panzer corps for two days, killed more than one thousand German troops, and destroyed several dozen tanks and twelve warplanes. When German numerical superiority made further defense of Borisov impossible, Kreizer skilfully conducted a fighting retreat along the highway to Orsha. In the subsequent battle of Orsha Kreizer stalled Guderian's panzers for twelve days. His resistance gave the Red Army enough time to bring up reserves to take up defensive positions along the river Dnieper. The battlefield skills and valor of Kreizer's troops and his ability to prevent Wehrmacht domination of the unfolding battle, in spite of German superiority in numbers and materiel, delivered a blow to the myth of German invincibility. The action of Kreizer and his men inspired Soviet confidence in the Red Army's capacity to defeat the Germans. At 35 years old Kreizer was promoted to Major-General; from being a divisional commander, he was promoted to commander of the 3rd Army, without ever having served at the corps level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14726613", "title": "Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 763, "text": "The strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II were major military events carried out between 1941 and 1945 on the Eastern Front or in 1945 in the Far East during the Second World War. Such operations typically involved at least one Red Army Front - the largest functional unit of the Soviet armed forces. The operations could be defensive, offensive, a withdrawal, an encirclement, or a siege - always conducted by at least two Services of the armed forces (the ground forces and the air forces) and often included the naval forces. In most cases the Stavka divided the strategic operations into operational phases which were large operations in their own right. In very few cases the phases were tactical, such as those requiring amphibious landings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33865507", "title": "44th Army (Soviet Union)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 478, "text": "The 44th Army () of the Soviet Union's Red Army was an army-level command active during World War II. Initially part of the Transcaucasian Front, its main actions included the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran and the Kerch amphibious landings (both in 1941), before being transferred to the Southern Front on 6 February 1943. There it took part in the Rostov, Donbas and Melitopol offensives. The army was disbanded in November 1943 and its units were transferred to other armies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14441898", "title": "150th Rifle Division", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 403, "text": "Its Red Army′s predecessor fought on the Eastern Front of World War II from 1941 to 1945. It gained fame as a formation, whose soldiers raised the Soviet flag over the Reichstag shortly before the end of the war. The nickname ‘Idritskaya’ was given to the Soviet division on July 23, 1944, by the order № 207 for its heroic battle in the town of Idritsa. The Division fought at Schneidemühl and Berlin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10698279", "title": "List of Soviet divisions 1917–45", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 448, "text": "The Red Army formed at least 42 divisions during the Second World War which had substantial ethnic majorities in their composition derived from location of initial formation rather than intentional \"nationalization\" of the divisions, including four Azeri, five Armenian, and eight Georgian rifle divisions and a large number of cavalry divisions in the eastern Ukraine, Cuban region, and Central Asia, including five Uzbek cavalry divisions. See .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13359931", "title": "Red Army tactics in World War II", "section": "Section::::Theoretical development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 301, "text": "The basic tactical principles of the Red Army remained those used during World War I, primarily trench warfare, until the emergence of theoreticians such as Uborevich, Tukhachevsky and Triandafillov who transformed the tactical, operational and strategic conduct of war in Soviet military philosophy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48653374", "title": "54th Army (Soviet Union)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 827, "text": "The Red Army's 54th Army was a Soviet field army during the Second World War. It was first formed in the Leningrad Military District in August, 1941, and continued in service in the northern sector of the Soviet-German front until the end of 1944. It spent much of the war attempting to break the German siege of Leningrad, in which it helped to achieve partial success in January, 1943, and complete success one year later. During these operations the soldiers of the 54th served under five different commanders, most notably Col. Gen. I.I. Fedyuninsky in the winter of 1941–42. After helping to drive Army Group North away from Leningrad and into the Baltic states in the first nine months of 1944, the army was deemed surplus to requirements on the narrowing front, and was officially disbanded on the last day of the year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "To my knowledge, nothing stops them. In fact there have been numerous complaints of people never getting what they order off of Kickstarter. It's very much buyer beware. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Nothing. You have no claim to anything when you donate. You aren't pre-ordering, you aren't buying it, you are donating money and you may (or may not) receive anything in return.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9278572", "title": "Direct Payments", "section": "Section::::Direct Payments in Practice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 717, "text": "Direct Payments are intended to empower service users by allowing them control and choice over the services they use to meet their needs. Each person on the scheme is given an amount of money to be managed by themselves, possibly with the aid of others such as family or an external advocacy organisation. This money can be used to purchase any service or services that meet the person's assessed needs. As the money given to the person is given in lieu of the local authority providing the care, the money remains public money belonging to the local government who makes the payments. Users must, therefore, account for the money every step of the way so the local government can maintain its auditing requirements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14193830", "title": "Clandestine human intelligence", "section": "Section::::Support services.:Finance.:Informal value transfer systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 133, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 133, "end_character": 218, "text": "Another means of transferring assets is through commercial shipment of conventional goods, but with an artificially low invoice price, so the receiver can sell them and recover disbursed funds through profit on sales.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2781797", "title": "Fedwire", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 966, "text": "More recently with the advancement in mobile technologies, many alternative modes of electronic funds transfers have emerged. These alternative modes are changing the way people make payments in that fewer and fewer people are using traditional banking methods to transfer money. Rather than transfer money from bank to bank, they are opting to transfer the funds directly to the other party via a mobile application. With fewer people using traditional banks, and fewer people transferring money from bank to bank, the volume of transactions going through Fedwire on a daily basis is also likely to decline. With this type of electronic funds transfers, corporations act much like the Fed by using their commercial bank accounts for processing and transferring payments between individuals. Many of these systems like PayPal, Venmo, Google Pay and Bitcoin are accessible on mobile devices and are much cheaper for consumers than a wire sent via the Fedwire system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35094579", "title": "International Money Transfers System Leader", "section": "Section::::Services.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 928, "text": "Sending and receiving money transfers is the core of company’s services. The transfer is not strictly refer to a concrete bank-recipient, which means the transfer can be given out at any location in the receipt country. In order to forward money a Sender-Client presents funds at any Leader System location for transfer service, receives the Money Transfer Control Number (MTCN) from an operator and transmits it to the recipient. The natural person, a recipient, can come to any location, presenting the MTSN and a photo ID. The data proves correct, the operator gives out the money. The transfer is delivered instantly, taking 2–3 minutes. Besides paying out cash, a sum can be transferred to the Client’s bank account of the recipient. The Sender can monitor the transfer status online at the System website. Besides, a Client can forward the transfer to a recipient online through leomoney.ru, the company’s own web portal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27613051", "title": "National Payments Corporation of India", "section": "Section::::Services.:Unified Payments Interface.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 202, "text": "Once the fund transfer is initiated, money is debited from payer's bank account and deposited in the recipient's bank account in real-time. This system works 24x7, including weekends and bank holidays.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41913", "title": "Subscription (finance)", "section": "Section::::Oversubscription.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 296, "text": "A funding round is oversubscribed when the company has obtained funding commitments from investors that, in aggregate, amount to more money than the company needs or intends to raise. The term may be used informally to describe a state where there is more money available than the company needs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13735738", "title": "Payment and settlement systems in India", "section": "Section::::Electronic Clearing Service (ECS Credit).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 424, "text": "Known as \"Credit-push\" facility or one-to-many facility this method is used mainly for large-value or bulk payments where the receiver's account is credited with the payment from the institution making the payment. Such payments are made on a timely-basis like a year, half a year, etc. and used to pay salaries, dividends or commissions. Over time it has become one of the most convenient methods of making large payments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Water boils at typical engine temperatures, isn't viscous enough to actually lubricate very well, and is highly corrosive to unprotected metal surfaces. It's about the worst common liquid you could use for this job.\n\nThe oil is there to coat and lubricate all the moving parts of the engine so they don't corrode or grind. Engines get very hot during operation and the metal is easily oxidized so you need a liquid that won't boil off, is very chemically inert, and is thick enough to stay on surfaces when they're moving very quickly.\n\nMotor oil checks all three of those boxes for a very low cost.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "oil has lubricant properties, it reduces friction, it clings to surfaces, it does not break down under heat, pressure, and sharp agitation.\n\nWater would fail simply by virtue of its boiling point, but there are other suitable lubricants, but the one we use is the best bang for the buck, though we now move more to synthetic oils which are quite different even though we dont really give them credit as being different.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "522468", "title": "Synthetic oil", "section": "Section::::Performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 250, "text": "Oil needs to be changed because it gets contaminated with combustion by-products that accumulate at about the same rate regardless of oil type. Some vehicles require synthetic; therefore, check your vehicle's owner manual to see what is recommended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "392547", "title": "Fuel oil", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 717, "text": "Residual fuel oil is less useful because it is so viscous that it has to be heated with a special heating system before use and it may contain relatively high amounts of pollutants, particularly sulfur, which forms sulfur dioxide upon combustion. However, its undesirable properties make it very cheap. In fact, it is the cheapest liquid fuel available. Since it requires heating before use, residual fuel oil cannot be used in road vehicles, boats or small ships, as the heating equipment takes up valuable space and makes the vehicle heavier. Heating the oil is also a delicate procedure, which is impractical on small, fast moving vehicles. However, power plants and large ships are able to use residual fuel oil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47880216", "title": "Externalities of automobiles", "section": "Section::::Negative externalities.:Costs for water pollution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 267, "text": "Lubricants and fuels used by automobiles are harmful when they leak into the groundwater. Oil refineries and particularly the mining of unconventional oil like oil shales and oil sands can be extremely harmful for the surrounding water resources and bodies of water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7635170", "title": "Energy in the United States", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 215, "text": "While petroleum is also used as a source for plastics and other chemicals, and powers various industrial processes, today two-thirds of oil consumption in the US is in the form of its derived transportation fuels. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "158705", "title": "Oil spill", "section": "Section::::Cleanup and recovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 470, "text": "BULLET::::- Vacuum and centrifuge: oil can be sucked up along with the water, and then a centrifuge can be used to separate the oil from the water – allowing a tanker to be filled with near pure oil. Usually, the water is returned to the sea, making the process more efficient, but allowing small amounts of oil to go back as well. This issue has hampered the use of centrifuges due to a United States regulation limiting the amount of oil in water returned to the sea.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9279937", "title": "United States energy independence", "section": "Section::::Approaches.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 388, "text": "In the United States, oil is primarily consumed as fuel for cars, buses, trucks and airplanes (in the form of gasoline, diesel and jet fuel). Two thirds of US oil consumption is due to the transportation sector. A national strategy designed to shift all transportation to a combined use of alternative fuels and plug-in hybrids is predicted to make the US independent of petroleum (oil).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21188370", "title": "Fuel", "section": "Section::::Chemical.:Liquid fuels.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 521, "text": "Most liquid fuels in widespread use are derived from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure inside the Earth's crust. However, there are several types, such as hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, jet fuel and bio-diesel which are all categorized as a liquid fuel. Emulsified fuels of oil-in-water such as orimulsion have been developed a way to make heavy oil fractions usable as liquid fuels. Many liquid fuels play a primary role in transportation and the economy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Meat that you buy (most meat) is drained of blood.\n\nThe red juices aren't blood, they're water mixed with various components of meat. I know it's tempting to think that blood is just meat juice, but quite literally the redness of the meat itself is caused by a different chemical than the redness of blood.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because it isn't blood. It's myoglobin. Red meats, such as beef, are composed of quite a bit of water. This water, mixed with a protein called myoglobin, ends up comprising most of that red liquid.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11633366", "title": "Blood as food", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 365, "text": "Blood is the most important byproduct of slaughtering. It consists predominantly of protein and water, and is sometimes called \"liquid meat\" because its composition is similar to that of lean meat. Blood collected hygienically can be used for human consumption, otherwise it is converted to blood meal. Special fractions of animal blood are used in human medicine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18940", "title": "Meat", "section": "Section::::Production.:Slaughter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 318, "text": "Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1232658", "title": "Shechita", "section": "Section::::Post-procedure requirements.:Kashering.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 508, "text": "Because of the biblical prohibition of eating blood (, , ), all blood must be promptly removed from the carcass. All large arteries and veins are removed, as well as any bruised meat or coagulated blood. Then the meat is \"kashered\", a process of soaking and salting the meat to draw out all the blood. If this procedure is not performed promptly, the blood is considered to have “set” in the meat, and the meat is no longer salvageable to eat except when prepared through broiling with appropriate drainage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2811711", "title": "Blood meal", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 287, "text": "Blood meal is a dry, inert powder made from blood, used as a high-nitrogen organic fertilizer and a high protein animal feed. N = 13.25%, P = 1.0%, K = 0.6%. It is one of the highest non-synthetic sources of nitrogen. It usually comes from cattle or hogs as a slaughterhouse by-product.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11633366", "title": "Blood as food", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 450, "text": "Many cultures consume blood as food, often in combination with meat. The blood may be in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, a cured salted form for times of food scarcity, or in a blood soup. This is a product from domesticated animals, obtained at a place and time where the blood can run into a container and be swiftly consumed or processed. In many cultures, the animal is slaughtered. In some cultures, blood is a taboo food.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3997", "title": "Blood", "section": "Section::::Culture and religion.:Islam.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 160, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 160, "end_character": 620, "text": "Blood is considered unclean, hence there are specific methods to obtain physical and ritual status of cleanliness once bleeding has occurred. Specific rules and prohibitions apply to menstruation, postnatal bleeding and irregular vaginal bleeding. When an animal has been slaughtered, the animal's neck is cut in a way to ensure that the spine is not severed, hence the brain may send commands to the heart to pump blood to it for oxygen. In this way, blood is removed from the body, and the meat is generally now safe to cook and eat. In modern times, blood transfusions are generally not considered against the rules.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5793408", "title": "Tiết canh", "section": "Section::::Typical preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 968, "text": "The freshly drawn blood is collected in a bowl, and prevented from premature coagulation (hãm huyết), by mixing it with some fish sauce of certain proportions, usually three to five soup spoons of fish sauce for one quart (approximately 1 liter) of blood. Finely chopped meat such as cooked duck innards (gizzards, for example) and duck meat are put in a shallow dish along with a sprinkling of crushed peanuts and chopped herbs such as Vietnamese coriander, mint, etc. The blood and fish sauce mixture is then diluted with some watery broth left from cooking the meat and/or gizzards to promote blood coagulation, then quickly poured into the prepared meat dish. The finished dish can be kept cool in the refrigerator, which allows the blood to maintain its coagulated state, when immediate consumption is not called for right away. If the dish is removed from the refrigerator and left to sit at room temperature for a while the blood will return to a liquid state.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The main way your body gets energy is by converting sugars to carbon dioxide and water. Fats and muscle tissue go through a somewhat similar process. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > how does it actually leave your body?\n\nPrimarily through your breath. You breath in (some) O2, and breathe out (some) CO2. The extra carbon in there comes from your body \"burning\" sugars, converting sugar + O2 into H2O and CO2, which you breathe/sweat/urinate out, as appropriate.\n\nFun fact, plants use a similar process in reverse. That is, the solid bulk of trees is made up (mostly) from carbon in the air. Thus trees grow from material in the air, not material in the ground as many people seem to think.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's already been said that it's due to co2. Just have to think of the human body as an engine. We burn fuels and have waste. Also when we sleep we may sweat depending on temperature and we also radiate heat. So all the weight loss is accounted for.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In wrestling we call it floating weight, and if I am ever close on weight I will sleep with 2 sweatshirts and sweatpants on to sweat out weight.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Weight increasing activities: \n* Drinking \n* Eating \n \nAlmost negligible weight increasing activities: \n* Breathing in (O2 and weight of air in your lungs) \n* Sticking things in/on your body (makeup, injections, piercings, etc...) \n\nMeasurable weight decreasing activities: \n* Exhaling over time (CO2, water vapor, weight of air in your lungs)\n* Perspiring\n* Urinating (big)\n* Bowel Movement (surprisingly not as big)\n\nAlmost negligible weight decreasing activities:\n* Exfoliating skin\n* Cutting/shaving/shedding hair (possibly measurable if long head hair)\n* Excreting other body fluids (bleeding, blowing nose, spitting) \n* Other (popping zits, clipping nails, drying off from a shower, etc...)\n\nI weigh over 200 lbs and have lost up to 8 pounds between the heaviest point in a day (right after dinner) and the lightest point (morning after a hot, long sleep & going to the toilet).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We have to take into account the fact that, as mammals, we are endothermic, meaning we have to generate large amounts of energy to keep our body temperature a nice, toasty 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (This is, in fact, where most of your daily Calories go). We are extremely inefficient creatures (energy wise).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Fat Fairy comes and takes it while you are asleep. She uses her magic wand to \"poof\" the fat into her magic sack and then takes it home to make soap which she sells by the sea shore. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the fat is fuel which is converted into energy. U should look at your body from an energy point of view and not weight. Fat can burn, creates heat!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44442017", "title": "Sleep and weight", "section": "Section::::Can Sleeping More promote Weight Loss?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 953, "text": "While health professionals almost unanimously agree that if an individual is already getting 8 hours of sleep, then another half hour won't make them lose weight; however, in cases where a person is used to getting 5 hours of sleep per night and they start getting 7–8 hours, it is common to see them start to shed pounds, especially in obese individuals. What causes this phenomenon? Two hormones, ghrelin and leptin, closely associated with appetite are key in the sleep and weight relationship. Ghrelin is the hormone that controls appetite and tells the body when to eat, and when one is sleep-deprived, they have more ghrelin. Leptin on the other hand, is the hormone that tells one to stop eating, and when an individuals is sleep deprived, they have less leptin. In order to keep these hormone levels in balance, a person needs to get adequate sleep so they do not feel the need to excessively eat in an effort to gain energy and reduce fatigue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "400199", "title": "Weight loss", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 670, "text": "Weight loss, in the context of medicine, health, or physical fitness, refers to a reduction of the total body mass, due to a mean loss of fluid, body fat or adipose tissue or lean mass, namely bone mineral deposits, muscle, tendon, and other connective tissue. Weight loss can either occur unintentionally due to malnourishment or an underlying disease or arise from a conscious effort to improve an actual or perceived overweight or obese state. \"Unexplained\" weight loss that is not caused by reduction in calorific intake or exercise is called cachexia and may be a symptom of a serious medical condition. Intentional weight loss is commonly referred to as slimming.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "400199", "title": "Weight loss", "section": "Section::::Unintentional.:Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 464, "text": "Unintentional weight loss may result from loss of body fats, loss of body fluids, muscle atrophy, or a combination of these. It is generally regarded as a medical problem when at least 10% of a person's body weight has been lost in six months or 5% in the last month. Another criterion used for assessing weight that is too low is the body mass index (BMI). However, even lesser amounts of weight loss can be a cause for serious concern in a frail elderly person.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18603506", "title": "Weightlessness", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 515, "text": "Weight is a measurement of the force on an object at rest in a relatively strong gravitational field (such as on the surface of the Earth). These weight-sensations originate from contact with supporting floors, seats, beds, scales, and the like. A sensation of weight is also produced, even when the gravitational field is zero, when contact forces act upon and overcome a body's inertia by mechanical, non-gravitational forces- such as in a centrifuge, a rotating space station, or within an accelerating vehicle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8500284", "title": "Ivan Ukhov", "section": "Section::::Personal life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 908, "text": "In a 2010 interview, Ukhov was asked about reports that his weight fluctuated. \"Is it true that two days before an event you stop eating?\", Ukhov answered: \"No, I am responsible about these things, my weight when I am competing is about 85 kg (185 lbs.), but in the off-season my weigh can go up to 105 kg (231 lbs). I lose the kilos quickly when I am doing weight training. It only takes about two weeks to lose the weight.\" Another question was: \"Many athletes complain that they feel weak when they lose only a few kilos, but here we are talking about 20kg (44 lbs). What does your coach think about this?\", and Ukhov responded: \"We had a training camp in Spain, and I think the extra weight helped. A bit of extra weight protects the muscles and ligaments. It is like training with a barbell – only it always with you.\" Although he stands well over 6 feet tall, Ukhov described his physique as \"stocky\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19048", "title": "Mass", "section": "Section::::Definitions.:Weight vs. mass.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 1168, "text": "The force known as \"weight\" is proportional to mass and acceleration in all situations where the mass is accelerated away from free fall. For example, when a body is at rest in a gravitational field (rather than in free fall), it must be accelerated by a force from a scale or the surface of a planetary body such as the Earth or the Moon. This force keeps the object from going into free fall. Weight is the opposing force in such circumstances, and is thus determined by the acceleration of free fall. On the surface of the Earth, for example, an object with a mass of 50 kilograms weighs 491 newtons, which means that 491 newtons is being applied to keep the object from going into free fall. By contrast, on the surface of the Moon, the same object still has a mass of 50 kilograms but weighs only 81.5 newtons, because only 81.5 newtons is required to keep this object from going into a free fall on the moon. Restated in mathematical terms, on the surface of the Earth, the weight \"W\" of an object is related to its mass \"m\" by , where is the acceleration due to Earth's gravitational field, (expressed as the acceleration experienced by a free-falling object).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14476384", "title": "Mass versus weight", "section": "Section::::Buoyancy and weight.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1053, "text": "Again, unlike the effect that low-gravity environments have on weight, buoyancy does not make a portion of an object's weight vanish; the missing weight is instead being borne by the ground, which leaves less force (weight) being applied to any scale theoretically placed underneath the object in question (though one may perhaps have some trouble with the practical aspects of accurately weighing something individually in that condition). If one were however to weigh a small wading pool that someone then entered and began floating in, they would find that the full weight of the person was being borne by the pool and, ultimately, the scale underneath the pool. Whereas a buoyant object (on a properly working scale for weighing buoyant objects) would weigh less, the \"object/fluid system\" becomes heavier by the value of object's full mass once the object is added. Since air is a fluid, this principle applies to object/air systems as well; large volumes of air—and ultimately the ground—supports the weight a body loses through mid-air buoyancy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Money, good lawyers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > even if it was obvious that they did it?\n\nBeing \"obvious\" isn't enough. The prosecution has to **prove** that they did it, beyond a reasonable doubt. Something as wishy-washy as \"it's obvious\" would be a *terrible* basis for a legal system.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A good defense lawyer's job is to plant a seed of doubt in the jury's mind. It could be obvious that he did it but if the lawyer can show how it was even remotely possible that someone else did it then the jury has to give him the benefit of the doubt. If he's good he'll take the remotest fact and stretch it into a reasonable doubt. They also work to get evidence thrown out. That was a lot of what happened with OJ, a lot of the best evidence that we saw on tv was never shown to the jury. I saw a special where they interviewed some members of the OJ jury a few years after the trial and they were pissed about the evidence they didn't get to see. They all said if they had seen some of those things the verdict might have been different. A good lawyer can find technicalities that can rule even some of the most damning evidence thrown out. The jury is only allowed to base their decision on what they see in the court room. \n\nThe prosecutor must convince the jury that the guy did it and it is impossible that any one else could have. Any little bit of doubt, no matter how small, and the jury is not supposed to convict someone.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There must be *admissible evidence* which is sufficient to prove guilt *beyond a reasonable doubt*.\n\nThe courts don't allow just any sort of innuendo or speculation to be presented to jurors. It may be \"obvious\" to people watching television that someone is guilty, but juries don't get the same information. And there is good reason for that, because the information reported by the media doesn't get the same scrutiny as the information presented to the jury.\n\nWe want juries who decide people's fate to make their decisions for the right reasons and to base their reasoning on credible testimony and relevant evidence beyond a reasonable doubt.\n\nWhat is obvious to the public may seem \"likely\" to a person on the jury. But \"likely\" is not beyond a reasonable doubt. \"Probably guilty\" is not good enough for a conviction.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20831798", "title": "Ramona Moore homicide", "section": "Section::::Arrest.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 668, "text": "Since the early 19th century, American courts have tried over 400 murders in which the victim's body had not been found; Bonie's case would have been the first in the Bronx. \"It's like running a 100-meter race when the criminal gets to start at the 20-meter mark,\" a former federal prosecutor told the \"Times\". \"When you don't have a body, you don't have the best evidence in the crime.\" But, prosecutors in Manhattan had gained convictions for con artists Sante and James Kimes in the 1998 murder of their landlady, Irene Silverman, without her body having been found. The prosecutor allowed conviction of Bonie was possible if other aspects of the case were strong.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "123451", "title": "Homicide", "section": "Section::::Criminal homicide.:Murder.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 612, "text": "In some jurisdictions, a homicide that occurs during the commission of a dangerous crime may constitute murder, regardless of the actor's intent to commit homicide. In the United States, this is known as the felony murder rule. In simple terms, under the felony murder rule a person who commits a felony may be guilty of murder if someone dies as a result of the commission of the crime, including the victim of the felony, a bystander or a co-felon, regardless their intent—or lack thereof—to kill, and even when the death results from the actions of a co-defendant or third party who is reacting to the crime.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1067305", "title": "Ronald Ryan", "section": "Section::::Appeal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 654, "text": "At the trial, Mr Justice Starke had directed the jury: \"In certain circumstances, the crime of murder may be established even though the accused had no intention of killing. And that is so in these circumstances. If a killing occurs by an act of violence in the course of a commission of a felony involving violence, or in the furtherance of the purpose of such felony, the accused is guilty of murder, even though there is no actual intention of killing.\" There was long legal argument on when the escape felony finished, did it stop once Ryan and Walker left the prison property or did it continue until they were caught in Sydney nineteen days later?\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52062458", "title": "People v. Bland", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 798, "text": "People v. Bland, 28 Cal. 4th 313 (2002), is a United States criminal case interpreting attempted murder. The defendant fired multiple shots into a car with three people, killing the driver, and injuring the other two. The evidence showed he intended to kill the driver, but did not specifically intend to kill the others. The court wrote \"The crime of attempt sanctions what the person intended to do but did not accomplish, not unintended and unaccomplished potential consequences.\" However, the court found a person could concurrently intend to kill more than just the person targeted, both the target and others in the \"kill zone\" of the shots, such as when a person sets off a bomb targeting a person who is surrounded by others, who would be guilty of murder of everyone killed by the blast. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9437868", "title": "Honor killing", "section": "Section::::Methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 321, "text": "Methods of killing include stoning, stabbing, beating, burning, beheading, hanging, throat slashing, lethal acid attacks, shooting and strangulation. The murders are sometimes performed in public to warn the other individuals within the community of possible consequences of engaging in what is seen as illicit behavior.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12521667", "title": "Ashanti Empire", "section": "Section::::Legal system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 608, "text": "In a murder trial, intent must be established. If the homicide is accidental, the murderer pays compensation to the lineage of the deceased. The insane cannot be executed because of the absence of responsible intent - except for murder or cursing the King; in the case of cursing the king, drunkenness is a valid defense. Capital crimes include murder, incest within the female or male line, and intercourse with a menstruating woman, rape of a married woman, and adultery with any of the wives of a chief or the King. Assaults or insults of a chief or the court or the King also carried capital punishment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5170842", "title": "Capital punishment in Iran", "section": "Section::::Capital crimes.:Qesas crimes (murder).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 285, "text": "The perpetrator may be convicted for murder in the case of a confession, if there are two witnesses to the crime, if there are 50 sworn testimonies, and/or if one or more people testifies 50 times against the defendant. However, in practice, judges also allow circumstantial evidence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's a matter of much debate, and historians views have varied greatly over the years. Once, pretty much all historians thought that the migrations in fifth-century Europe were all great movements of people. Now, however, many believe that many of the barbarian groups were primarily military forces. Overall, it varied massively. For instance, the Belgic settlement in late Iron Age southern Britain seems to have only been the movement of the political and cultural elite, but the early migrations of Goths into the Roman Empire definitely included a high proportion of non-combatants (this is attested by written sources and art). Moreover, there also would have been migrations such as the Anglo-Saxon ones, that included a lot of non-combatants even though if was not a case of entire populations on the move. Quite simply, it varied a great deal and there was something of a spectrum; it wasn't just a case of army or nation, sometimes it was a bit of both. The Norman conquest of England might seem like a classic example of just the elite and army migrating, but it led to a lot of traders, craftsmen and even some peasants moving from the continent to Britain.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53106115", "title": "Gornji Žirovac", "section": "Section::::History.:Military Frontier.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 381, "text": "During the period of Military Frontier, mass migrations of the population went on all the time in both directions and in several waves. First fleeing away from Turks, then those who collaborated with the Turks were fleeing after their fall, and in the second direction people fleeing from the vengeance of those arriving. Most were from Potkozarsko area and from the Sana'a basin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22987358", "title": "Christianity in the 11th century", "section": "Section::::Spread of Christianity.:Scandinavia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 212, "text": "Migrations of peoples, although not strictly part of the 'Migration Age', continued beyond 1000, marked by Viking, Magyar, Turkic and Mongol invasions, also had significant effects, especially in eastern Europe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1299531", "title": "British Iron Age", "section": "Section::::The people of Iron Age Britain.:Celtic movement from the continent.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 251, "text": "There was certainly a large migration of people from Central Europe westwards during the early Iron Age. The question whether these movements should be described as \"invasions\", or as \"migrations\", or as mostly \"diffusion\" is largely a semantic one. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46187677", "title": "History of human migration", "section": "Section::::Modern history.:World wars and aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1122, "text": "The First and Second World Wars, and wars, genocides, and crises sparked by them, had an enormous impact on migration. Muslims moved from the Balkan to Turkey, while Christians moved the other way, during the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. In April 1915 the Ottoman government embarked upon the systematic decimation of its civilian Armenian population. The persecutions continued with varying intensity until 1923 when the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist and was replaced by the Republic of Turkey. The Armenian population of the Ottoman state was reported at about two million in 1915. An estimated one million had perished by 1918, while hundreds of thousands had become homeless and stateless refugees. By 1923 virtually the entire Armenian population of Anatolian Turkey had disappeared. Four hundred thousand Jews had already moved to Palestine in the early twentieth century, and numerous Jews to America, as already mentioned. The Russian Civil War caused some three million Russians, Poles, and Germans to migrate out of the new Soviet Union. Decolonization following the Second World War also caused migrations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4756121", "title": "Assyrian-Canadians", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 345, "text": "The first period of known mass-migration came just after the Assyrian Genocide in the dying days of the Turkish Ottoman Empire. The second and perhaps largest wave of migration into came during the Iran–Iraq War. Under the shadow of war, Saddam Hussein's al-Anfal Campaign constituted a major force for migration for Iraq's Assyrian population.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8613", "title": "Diaspora", "section": "Section::::Twentieth century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 279, "text": "The twentieth century saw huge population movements. Some involved large-scale transfers of people by government action. Some migrations occurred to avoid conflict and warfare. Other diasporas were created as a consequence of political decisions, such as the end of colonialism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48988031", "title": "History of human settlement in the Ural Mountains", "section": "Section::::The Middle Ages.:Migration period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 264, "text": "The migrations of Avars-Warhonits, Turks of Ashina, the Pechenegs, the Guzs, the Hungarians-Magyars, and Kipchaks nomads from the Southern Ural region or passing through the Southern Ural towards the west and Central Europe began during the early Medieval period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "First, shadows. We *should* all know by now that this is caused by blocking light, places where no light reaches a surface are darker places where the light can reach are brighter.\n\nSo in the case of when your glasses cast a shadow it means less light is able to reach the surface. The reason why this happens even though your glasses are 'clear' is called refraction^1\n\nIn it's simplest form; If you think of light as a line when light passes through certain objects (which obviously have to be opaque otherwise it would create a shadow). The material it passes through can change the direction of our light. Due to this the light would hit another area then one would expect when it would go straight forward, as we are used to with the regular shadows from for example the sun.\n\nNow if you have the surface of your glasses; they are not completely flat the surface is bend and thicker in some areas than others. That in combination with the refraction makes the light leaving the other side of your glasses not travel in the same direction as it did before it hit the glasses. Therefor at the right distance no light will reach certain areas because the light has been redirected.\n\nOne of the most common examples of the same principle is a kindergarden science experiment where you use a magnifying glass to focus sunlight to burn a hole in a piece of paper. [See this illustration!](_URL_0_). Now moving away from the heat creation in this experiment the direction of light is the same principle. Also as illustrated at the focal point (where the paper burns) is where all the light is. \nBut around it there is a shadow because all the light has been redirected.\n\nNow if you move it up far enough, enough light from outside sources would reduce the strength of the shadow because of outside light sources crossing over.\n\n* ^1 [Wikipedia Refraction](_URL_1_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "168430", "title": "Circle of confusion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 226, "text": "Real lenses do not focus all rays perfectly, so that even at best focus, a point is imaged as a spot rather than a point. The smallest such spot that a lens can produce is often referred to as the \"circle of least confusion\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "603273", "title": "Magnification", "section": "Section::::Magnification as a number (optical magnification).:By instrument.:Magnifying glass.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 223, "text": "If instead the lens is held very close to the eye and the object is placed closer to the lens than its focal point so that the observer focuses on the near point, a larger angular magnification can be obtained, approaching\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74845", "title": "Contact lens", "section": "Section::::Usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 397, "text": "Make sure the soft lens is not inserted inside-out. Edge of a lens turned inside out has a different appearance, especially when the lens is slightly folded. Insertion of an inside-out lens for a brief time (less than one minute) should not cause any damage to the eye. Some brands of lenses have markings (e.g. numbers) on the rim that make it easier to tell the front of the lens from the back.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29767475", "title": "Flat lens", "section": "Section::::Traditional lenses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 457, "text": "Traditional curved glass lenses can bend light coming from many angles to end up at the same focal point on a piece of photographic film or an electronic sensor. Light captured at the very edges of a curved glass lens does not line up correctly with the rest of the light, creating a fuzzy image at the edge of the frame. (Petzval field curvature and other aberrations.) To correct this, lenses use extra pieces of glass, adding bulk, complexity, and mass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2704", "title": "Optical aberration", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 381, "text": "With an ideal lens, light from any given point on an object would pass through the lens and come together at a single point in the \"image plane\" (or, more generally, the \"image surface\"). Real lenses do not focus light exactly to a single point, however, even when they are perfectly made. These deviations from the idealized lens performance are called \"aberrations\" of the lens.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "195698", "title": "Wide-angle lens", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 269, "text": "Longer lenses magnify the subject more, apparently compressing distance and (when focused on the foreground) blurring the background because of their shallower depth of field. Wider lenses tend to magnify distance between objects while allowing greater depth of field.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15790548", "title": "Ultra wide angle lens", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 269, "text": "Longer lenses magnify the subject more, apparently compressing distance and (when focused on the foreground) blurring the background because of their shallower depth of field. Wider lenses tend to magnify distance between objects while allowing greater depth of field.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Never.\n\nRadioactivity never disappears, it simply gets weaker with time. This is due to half life. A half life is a set amount of time during which half of the radioactive material decays. After decay, it is probably harmless. After 1 half life, half of the original material remains, after 2, a fourth, after 3, an eighth. It gets smaller but never quite hits zero.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "197767", "title": "Radioactive decay", "section": "Section::::Mathematics of radioactive decay.:Decay timing: definitions and relations.:Half-life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 112, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 112, "end_character": 329, "text": "This relationship between the half-life and the decay constant shows that highly radioactive substances are quickly spent, while those that radiate weakly endure longer. Half-lives of known radionuclides vary widely, from more than 10 years, such as for the very nearly stable nuclide Bi, to 10 seconds for highly unstable ones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37257", "title": "Radioactive waste", "section": "Section::::Nature and significance.:Physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 719, "text": "The radioactivity of all radioactive waste weakens with time. All radionuclides contained in the waste have a half-life — the time it takes for half of the atoms to decay into another nuclide — and eventually, all radioactive waste decays into non-radioactive elements (i.e., stable nuclides). Since radioactive decay follows the half-life rule, the rate of decay is inversely proportional to the duration of decay. In other words, the radiation from a long-lived isotope like iodine-129 will be much less intense than that of a short-lived isotope like iodine-131. The two tables show some of the major radioisotopes, their half-lives, and their radiation yield as a proportion of the yield of fission of uranium-235.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "701333", "title": "Nuclear fission product", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1275, "text": "The produced radionuclides have varying half-lives, and therefore vary in radioactivity. For instance, strontium-89 and strontium-90 are produced in similar quantities in fission, and each nucleus decays by beta emission. But Sr has a 30-year half-life, and Sr a 50.5-day half-life. Thus in the 50.5 days it takes half the Sr atoms to decay, emitting the same number of beta particles as there were decays, less than 0.4% of the Sr atoms have decayed, emitting only 0.4% of the betas. The radioactive emission rate is highest for the shortest lived radionuclides, although they also decay the fastest. Additionally, less stable fission products are less likely to decay to stable nuclides, instead decaying to other radionuclides, which undergo further decay and radiation emission, adding to the radiation output. It is these short lived fission products that are the immediate hazard of spent fuel, and the energy output of the radiation also generates significant heat which must be considered when storing spent fuel. As there are hundreds of different radionuclides created, the initial radioactivity level fades quickly as short lived radionuclides decay, but never ceases completely as longer lived radionuclides make up more and more of the remaining unstable atoms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20825543", "title": "High-level radioactive waste management", "section": "Section::::National management plans.:North America.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 925, "text": "Since the fraction of a radioisotope's atoms decaying per unit of time is inversely proportional to its half-life, the relative radioactivity of a quantity of buried human radioactive waste would diminish over time compared to natural radioisotopes (such as the decay chains of 120 trillion tons of thorium and 40 trillion tons of uranium which are at relatively trace concentrations of parts per million each over the crust's 3 * 10 ton mass). For instance, over a timeframe of thousands of years, after the most active short half-life radioisotopes decayed, burying U.S. nuclear waste would increase the radioactivity in the top 2000 feet of rock and soil in the United States (10 million km) by ≈ 1 part in 10 million over the cumulative amount of natural radioisotopes in such a volume, although the vicinity of the site would have a far higher concentration of artificial radioisotopes underground than such an average.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15354874", "title": "Long-lived fission product", "section": "Section::::Evolution of radioactivity in nuclear waste.:Medium-lived fission products.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 727, "text": "After several years of cooling, most radioactivity is from the fission products caesium-137 and strontium-90, which are each produced in about 6% of fissions, and have half-lives of about 30 years. Other fission products with similar half-lives have much lower fission product yields, lower decay energy, and several (Sm, Eu, Cd) are also quickly destroyed by neutron capture while still in the reactor, so are not responsible for more than a tiny fraction of the radiation production at any time. Therefore, in the period from several years to several hundred years after use, radioactivity of spent fuel can be modeled simply as exponential decay of the Cs and Sr. These are sometimes known as medium-lived fission products.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4222539", "title": "Nuclear safety and security", "section": "Section::::Hazards of nuclear material.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 924, "text": "Since the fraction of a radioisotope's atoms decaying per unit of time is inversely proportional to its half-life, the relative radioactivity of a quantity of buried human radioactive waste would diminish over time compared to natural radioisotopes (such as the decay chain of 120 trillion tons of thorium and 40 trillion tons of uranium which are at relatively trace concentrations of parts per million each over the crust's 3 * 10 ton mass). For instance, over a timeframe of thousands of years, after the most active short half-life radioisotopes decayed, burying U.S. nuclear waste would increase the radioactivity in the top 2000 feet of rock and soil in the United States (10 million km) by ≈ 1 part in 10 million over the cumulative amount of natural radioisotopes in such a volume, although the vicinity of the site would have a far higher concentration of artificial radioisotopes underground than such an average.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1728145", "title": "Effective half-life", "section": "Section::::Radionuclides.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 326, "text": "When radionuclides are used pharmacologically, for example in radiation therapy, they are eliminated through a combination of radioactive decay and biological excretion. An effective half-life of the drug will involve a decay constant that represents the sum of the biological and physical decay constants, as in the formula:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The electromagnetic spectrum of light is very, very long. We call colours the wavelengths that we can see with our eye. But there is a lot more in the electromagnetic spectrum than the range between 390 and 700 nm. The wavelength is a particular feature of the wave, imagine a sinusoidal wave (a nice smooth curve that starts at 0, goes up to 1, down to 0, continues to -1, returns to 0). The distance between the first and last 0 is called the wavelength. It can be a nanometer (Xrays), several hundreds of nanometers (visible light), it can be several meters (radio). And I'm talking real distance. As in the wave starts at the wall and ends 1 meter later (and then it repeats itself). Probably you've heard of frequency, frequency is the inverse of the wavelength. Long wavelength, low frequency; short wavelength, high frequency.\n\nThe first colour we see is red (700 nm), before that we call light infra-red. Then we see all the colours of the rainbow ending with violet (390 nm), beyond that we call light ultra-violet. A few species can see a bit in the ultra-violet range. It is believed that insects choose certain flowers because of their pattern in the UV, and not by the bright visible colours that we see.\n\nIn total, you would have (in increasing wavelength):\n\ngamma rays - X rays - UV - visible light - infrared - television and radio waves.\n\nEdit: your wall totally emits infrared radiation, because it is at a certain temperature. It will emit less than you, unless your wall is crazy hot. This principle is why nocturnal vision cameras work. It is electromagnetic radiation, yes, but it's not a \"colour\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\nI am not color blind but I am not very color sensitive either. Women tend to see more colors or be able to recognize more subtle differences. So it is probable that your wall is painted from two different cans of paint that are \"different\" but not enough for you to notice. It would also be possible to intentionally mix the paint so that they are sufficiently different that my sister would notice but I would be oblivious and say they are the same.\n\nHere is a good article on the subject.\n_URL_0_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So first of all, there's no such thing as color.\n\nThe phenomenon you call color is really the excitation of different parts of your eyeball, as interpreted by your brain. Different wavelengths of light excite your retina in different ways, and your brain interprets that as different colors. But in the absence of an eye, just a world out there with only blind creatures walking around in it, there is no color. There is no color *out there in the world* really, because color only happens inside a brain. \n\nOur eyes and brains understand a specific wavelength range, and our eyes don't respond to light outside that range. Other animals' eyes and brains understand different ranges, some higher, some lower. \n\nWe don't even really know if non-human animals consider colors colors. There's evidence that in different human cultures, the different language we use to describe colors actually alters how we perceive them. So a dog, without language at all, we have no idea how it conceptualizes color, or even IF it does.\n\nAnd different physical materials have different patterns of light wavelengths that they reflect (which our eyes pick up, and our brain interprets as the color that each different material \"is\", although it's really NOT that color, that's an interpretation happening in your brain). And certainly they reflect wavelengths outside our range of perception, so an animal that could see that wavelength would perceive a color (assuming animals perceive/conceptualize color at all, which we don't know that they do) that we can't perceive, when they see that wavelength. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hi! Neuroscientist here. See my other comment response in this thread for a detailed explanation. Short version, yes, your wall is secretly many other colors. You can DETECT many wavelengths of light, but not *tell them apart*. If you could, you'd be able to tell the chemical composition of things by sight.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41464", "title": "Visible spectrum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 336, "text": "The spectrum does not contain all the colors that the human eyes and brain can distinguish. Unsaturated colors such as pink, or purple variations like magenta, for example, are absent because they can only be made from a mix of multiple wavelengths. Colors containing only one wavelength are also called pure colors or spectral colors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7397", "title": "Color blindness", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Design implications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 710, "text": "Designers need to take into account that color-blindness is highly sensitive to differences in material. For example, a red-green colorblind person who is incapable of distinguishing colors on a map printed on paper may have no such difficulty when viewing the map on a computer screen or television. In addition, some color blind people find it easier to distinguish problem colors on artificial materials, such as plastic or in acrylic paints, than on natural materials, such as paper or wood. Third, for some color blind people, color can only be distinguished if there is a sufficient \"mass\" of color: thin lines might appear black, while a thicker line of the same color can be perceived as having color.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20598932", "title": "Hilbert space", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Color perception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 127, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 127, "end_character": 677, "text": "Any true physical color can be represented by a combination of pure spectral colors. As physical colors can be composed of any number of spectral colors, the space of physical colors may aptly be represented by a Hilbert space over spectral colors. Humans have three types of cone cells for color perception, so the perceivable colors can be represented by 3-dimensional Euclidean space. The many-to-one linear mapping from the Hilbert space of physical colors to the Euclidean space of human perceivable colors explains why many distinct physical colors may be perceived by humans to be identical (e.g., pure yellow light versus a mix of red and green light, see metamerism).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25921922", "title": "Impossible color", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 571, "text": "BULLET::::2. Colors that cannot be seen directly from any combination of retina signal output from one place in one eye, but can be generated in the brain's visual cortex by mixing color signals from the two eyes, or from more than one part of the same eye. Examples of these colors are yellowish-blue and reddish-green. Those colors that appear to be similar to, for example, both red and green, or to both yellow and blue. (This does not mean the result of mixing paints of those two colors in painting, or the result of mixing lights of those two colors on a screen.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "508278", "title": "Benham's top", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 325, "text": "The phenomenon is not entirely understood. One possible reason people see colors may be that the color receptors in the human eye respond at different rates to red, green, and blue. More specifically, the latencies of the center and the surrounding mechanisms differ for the different types of color-specific ganglion cells.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2116016", "title": "CIE 1931 color space", "section": "Section::::CIE xy chromaticity diagram and the CIE xyY color space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 484, "text": "Since the human eye has three types of color sensors that respond to different ranges of wavelengths, a full plot of all visible colors is a three-dimensional figure. However, the concept of color can be divided into two parts: brightness and chromaticity. For example, the color white is a bright color, while the color grey is considered to be a less bright version of that same white. In other words, the chromaticity of white and grey are the same while their brightness differs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "302812", "title": "Color vision", "section": "Section::::Mathematics of color perception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 240, "text": "A humanly perceived color may be modeled as three numbers: the extents to which each of the 3 types of cones is stimulated. Thus a humanly perceived color may be thought of as a point in 3-dimensional Euclidean space. We call this space R.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Assuming you do mean \"struggle\" and not \"stubble\" (which is actually pretty funny in itself), a simple google search within quotation marks brings up this:\n\n_URL_0_ \n\nIllinois House of Representatives, December 20th, 1839. The quotation is in the last paragraph. I don't know how reputable that is, but it gives you a place and date that you can verify or discount as well as a title (*The Writings of Abraham Lincoln* vol. 1). Happy hunting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "307", "title": "Abraham Lincoln", "section": "Section::::Presidency.:The Civil War.:Gettysburg Address (1863).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 118, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 118, "end_character": 232, "text": "Lincoln spoke at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863. Defying his prediction that \"the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here\", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12384", "title": "Gettysburg Address", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 739, "text": "Not even the day's primary speech, Lincoln's carefully crafted address came to be seen as one of the greatest and most influential statements of American national purpose. In just 271 words, beginning with the now iconic phrase \"Four score and seven years ago,\"‍ referring to the signing of the Declaration of Independence 87 years earlier, Lincoln described the USA as a nation \"conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal,\" and represented the Civil War as a test that would determine whether such a nation, the Union sundered by the secession crisis, could endure. He extolled the sacrifices of those who died at Gettysburg in defense of those principles, and exhorted his listeners to resolve\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10890860", "title": "Presidency of Abraham Lincoln", "section": "Section::::American Civil War.:Eastern Theater to 1864.:Gettysburg Campaign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 1103, "text": "In November 1863, Lincoln was invited to Gettysburg to dedicate the first national cemetery and honor the soldiers who had fallen. His Gettysburg Address became a core statement of American political values. Defying Lincoln's prediction that \"the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here\", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history. In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789, following ratification of the United States Constitution, but with the 1776 Declaration of Independence. He defined the war as an effort dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all. The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end as a result of the losses, and the future of democracy in the world would be assured, that \"government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth\". Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective: a new birth of freedom in the nation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12384", "title": "Gettysburg Address", "section": "Section::::Lincoln's sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 309, "text": "Several theories have been advanced by Lincoln scholars to explain the provenance of Lincoln's famous phrase \"government of the people, by the people, for the people\". Despite many claims, there is no evidence a similar phrase appears in the Prologue to John Wycliffe's 1384 English translation of the Bible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "112663", "title": "State Line City, Indiana", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 365, "text": "On February 11, 1861, Abraham Lincoln stopped in State Line on his way from Springfield, Illinois, to Washington, D.C., for his inauguration. He dined at the Frazier Eating House, then gave a short speech to a crowd in the public square before resuming his journey. A historical marker on the site commemorates the event, and records the words which Lincoln spoke:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12384", "title": "Gettysburg Address", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 523, "text": "U.S. Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts wrote of the address and its enduring presence in American culture after Lincoln's assassination in April 1865: \"That speech, uttered at the field of Gettysburg  ... and now sanctified by the martyrdom of its author, is a monumental act. In the modesty of his nature he said 'the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here; but it can never forget what they did here.' He was mistaken. The world at once noted what he said, and will never cease to remember it.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17048150", "title": "Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 792, "text": "Lincoln composed his address in the back room of his brother-in-law's store in his hometown of Springfield, Illinois, using four basic references: Henry Clay's 1850 speech on compromise, Daniel Webster's reply to Hayne, Andrew Jackson's proclamation against nullification, and the United States Constitution. Lincoln's soon-to-be Secretary of State, William Seward, later made suggestions that softened the original tone somewhat, and contributed to the speech's famous closing. Lincoln for his part took Seward's draft of the closing and gave it a more poetic, lyrical tone, making changes such as revising Seward's \"I close. We are not, we must not be aliens or enemies but fellow countrymen and brethren\" to \"I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies.\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sweet, salty. Why else?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think it's more the taste of my nuts, but I'm sure the butter helps too", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It is a good protein food source that has a pleasant (to most humans at least) taste.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Largely, because they think it tastes good. Their brains are wired to reward them consuming the particular chemical compounds, much like humans like the taste of chocolate and sugary things.\n\nNow, if we had only been programed to like food that is actually healthy for us...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "51782172", "title": "Greg Murray", "section": "Section::::Book.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 594, "text": "In March 2016, Murray's photos of dogs eating peanut butter were featured in a Daily Mirror article. His photo series of dogs eating peanut butter quickly went viral. Over the next few months, Murray's photography was featured by \"Huffington Post, Elle Magazine, Today, Bark Post, Mashable, San Francisco Chronicle, The Telegraph, Thrillist, Uproxx, Elite Daily, American Photography's Pro Photo Daily, Good Housekeeping UK, MSN, Bored Panda, My Modern Metropolis, Cleveland Magazine, Cleveland Plain Dealer, Fox News Network\" and other local, national and worldwide websites and publications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "289691", "title": "Tahini", "section": "Section::::Nutritional information.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 294, "text": "Tahini's relatively high levels of calcium and protein make it a useful addition to vegetarian and vegan diets, as well as to raw food diets when eaten in its unroasted form. Compared to peanut butter, tahini has higher levels of fiber and calcium and lower levels of sugar and saturated fats.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51782172", "title": "Greg Murray", "section": "Section::::Book.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 282, "text": "In May 2016, Murray signed a book deal with Gibbs Smith. \"Peanut Butter Dogs\" is expected to be released on March 14, 2017. The book contains photos of over 150 dogs eating peanut butter. A majority of the dogs were adopted from shelters or in a foster homes waiting to be adopted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "289786", "title": "Peanut butter", "section": "Section::::Other uses.:As an ingredient.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 303, "text": "Peanut butter is included as an ingredient in many recipes: peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, peanut butter cookies, and candies where peanut is the main flavor, such as Reese's Pieces, or various peanut butter and chocolate treats, such as Reese's Peanut Butter Cups and the Crispy Crunch candy bar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "289786", "title": "Peanut butter", "section": "Section::::Other uses.:As an ingredient.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 475, "text": "Peanut butter's flavor combines well with other flavors, such as oatmeal, cheese, cured meats, savory sauces, and various types of breads and crackers. The creamy or crunchy, fatty, salty taste pairs very well with complementary soft and sweet ingredients like fruit preserves, bananas, apples, and honey. The taste can also be enhanced by similarly salty things like bacon (see peanut butter, banana and bacon sandwich), especially if the peanut butter has added sweetness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "289786", "title": "Peanut butter", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 366, "text": "Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast, or crackers, and used to make sandwiches (notably the peanut butter and jelly sandwich). It is also used in a number of breakfast dishes and desserts, such as peanut-flavored granola, smoothies, crepes, cookies, brownies, or croissants. It is similar to other nut butters such as cashew butter and almond butter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3995361", "title": "Puppy chow (snack)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 266, "text": "The snack's name is based upon its look and consistency, which can resemble the Dog Chow brand of dog food in its appearance. Many tend to make the snack during special events such as holidays and gaming. It is a popular snack to make for children and adults alike.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A trademark is more than just the words, it is the entire presentation of the logo. While other restaurants can still use the description of \"Mild\", they cannot use the specific font and color scheme of the trademarked packets. Other companies can call their products \"cola\" but they can't use the red and white curly font without Coke going after them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7903060", "title": "Fair use (U.S. trademark law)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 657, "text": "Many trademarks are adapted from words or symbols that are common to the culture, as Apple, Inc. using a trademark that is based upon the apple. Other trademarks are invented by the mark owner (such as Kodak) and have no common use until introduced by the owner. Courts have recognized that ownership of a trademark or service mark cannot be used to prevent others from using the word or symbol in accord with its plain and ordinary meaning, such as if the trademark is a descriptive word or common symbol such as a pine tree. As a result, the less distinctive or original the trademark, the less able the trademark owner will be to control how it is used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1392493", "title": "Industrial property", "section": "Section::::Trademarks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 1172, "text": "A trademark is a sign, or a combination of signs, that distinguishes the goods or services of one company from those of another. Such signs may use words, letters, numerals, pictures, shapes and colors, or any combination thereof. An increasing number of countries also allow for the registration of less traditional forms of trademarks, such as three-dimensional signs (like the Coca-Cola bottle or Toblerone chocolate bar), audible signs (sounds such as the roar of the lion at the beginning of films produced by MGM), or olfactory signs (such as the smell of a particular type of motor oil or embroidery yarn). However, many countries have set limits on what may be registered as a trademark, generally allowing only signs that are visually perceptible or can be represented graphically. Trademarks are used on goods or in connection with the market - ing of goods or services. The trademark may appear not only on the goods themselves but also on the container or packaging in which the goods are marketed. When used in connection with the sale of goods or services, the sign may appear in advertisements, for example, in newspapers, on television or in shop windows.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15673153", "title": "Trademark distinctiveness", "section": "Section::::The spectrum of distinctiveness.:Arbitrary marks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 567, "text": "An arbitrary trademark is usually a common word which is used in a meaningless context (e.g. \"Apple\" for computers). Such marks consist of words or images which have some dictionary meaning before being adopted as trademarks, but which are used in connection with products or services unrelated to that dictionary meaning. Arbitrary marks are also immediately eligible for registration. \"Salty\" would be an arbitrary mark if it used in connection with e.g. telephones such as in \"Salty Telephones\", as the term \"salt\" has no particular connection with such products.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38385458", "title": "Abercrombie & Fitch Co. v. Hunting World, Inc.", "section": "Section::::The spectrum of distinctiveness.:Arbitrary marks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 567, "text": "An arbitrary trademark is usually a common word which is used in a meaningless context (e.g. \"Apple\" for computers). Such marks consist of words or images which have some dictionary meaning before being adopted as trademarks, but which are used in connection with products or services unrelated to that dictionary meaning. Arbitrary marks are also immediately eligible for registration. \"Salty\" would be an arbitrary mark if it used in connection with e.g. telephones such as in \"Salty Telephones\", as the term \"salt\" has no particular connection with such products.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "218856", "title": "United States trademark law", "section": "Section::::Acquiring trademark rights.:Distinctiveness.:Descriptive.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 363, "text": "Descriptive terms immediately describe the goods, or some important characteristic of the goods. Trademark law does not protect descriptive terms unless achieve \"secondary meaning\" in the minds of consumers. That is, trademark rights accrue when the public comes to associate the descriptive term with a \"particular company\" rather than the \"product in general\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "218856", "title": "United States trademark law", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 377, "text": "A trademark is a word, phrase, or logo that identifies the source of goods or services. Trademark law protects a business' commercial identity or brand by discouraging other businesses from adopting a name or logo that is \"confusingly similar\" to an existing trademark. The goal is to allow consumers to easily identify the producers of goods and services and avoid confusion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38385458", "title": "Abercrombie & Fitch Co. v. Hunting World, Inc.", "section": "Section::::The spectrum of distinctiveness.:Generic terms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 686, "text": "A generic term is the common name for the products or services in connection with which it is used, such as \"salt\" when used in connection with sodium chloride. A generic term is not capable of serving the essential trademark function of distinguishing the products or services of a business from the products or services of other businesses, and therefore cannot be afforded any legal protection. This is because there has to be some term which may generally be used by anyone—including other manufacturers—to refer to a product without using some organization's proprietary trademark. Marks which become generic after losing distinctive character are known as genericized trademarks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hypoxemia is having low oxygen content in your blood, while hypoxia is moreso the effects felt from not having enough oxygen. So in a sense hypoxemia can cause hypoxia", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is actually a significant distinction though they often overlap.\n\n*Hypoxemia* is when you have a low concentration of oxygen in your blood. We typically define this around PaO2 < 60 (this counts only the dissolved oxygen in the blood, while most oxygen in blood is attached to hemoglobin).\n\n*Hypoxia* is when you have inadequate supply of oxygen to your *tissues*.\n\nIn a patient with anemia (low hemoglobin concentration), although the partial pressure of oxygen dissolved in the blood is NOT low, the total amount of oxygen IS. This can lead to inadequate supply of oxygen to the tissues.\n\nIn patients with heart failure or blood loss or shock, their organs are not getting enough blood, and thus, not enough oxygen even though though the oxygen content in the blood is NOT low.\n\nCertain toxins, like cyanide or certain metabolic conditions (like septic shock), can impair your cells' ability to USE oxygen. Thus, even though the blood has lots of oxygen and there is good blood flow to the tissues, the tissues can still be hypoxic.\n\nSomeone who has a blood clot in one of their arteries or severe swelling of an extremity can have blockage of blood flow. Oxygen content of blood is normal, but the tissue beyond the blockage can become hypoxic.\n\nCases where they overlap would be someone who has lung disease and thus can't get oxygen into the blood and thus oxygen is low in both the blood and the tissues.\n\nHypoxemia often causes hypoxia, but hypoxia can be caused by other things. You need to understand the difference to be able to treat them--Someone with pneumonia may need a more aggressive ventilation strategy to get oxygen in the blood. Someone with anemia may need a blood transfusion. Someone with dehydration or blood loss may need IV fluids to increase blood volume, etc.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2596815", "title": "Hypoxemia", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 290, "text": "\"Hypoxemia\" refers to the low level of oxygen in blood, and the more general term \"hypoxia\" is an abnormally low oxygen content in any tissue or organ, or the body as a whole. Hypoxemia can cause hypoxia (hypoxemic hypoxia), but hypoxia can also occur via other mechanisms, such as anemia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2596815", "title": "Hypoxemia", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 347, "text": "Hypoxemia refers to insufficient oxygen in the blood. Thus any cause that influences the rate or volume of air entering the lungs (ventilation) or any cause that influences the transfer of air from the lungs to the blood may cause hypoxemia. As well as these respiratory causes, cardiovascular causes such as shunts may also result in hypoxaemia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2596815", "title": "Hypoxemia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 265, "text": "Hypoxemia is an abnormally low level of oxygen in the blood. More specifically, it is oxygen deficiency in arterial blood. Hypoxemia has many causes, often respiratory disorders, and can cause tissue hypoxia as the blood is not supplying enough oxygen to the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2596815", "title": "Hypoxemia", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 219, "text": "In an acute context, hypoxemia can cause symptoms such as those in respiratory distress. These include breathlessness, an increased rate of breathing, use of the chest and abdominal muscles to breathe, and lip pursing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2596815", "title": "Hypoxemia", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 408, "text": "Serious hypoxemia occurs (1) when the partial pressure of oxygen in blood is less than 60 mm Hg, (the beginning of the steep portion of the oxygen–haemoglobin dissociation curve, where a small decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen results in a large decrease in the oxygen content of the blood); or (2) when hemoglobin oxygen saturation is less than 90%. Severe hypoxia can lead to respiratory failure \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13292", "title": "Hypoxia (medical)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 457, "text": "Hypoxia is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either \"generalized\", affecting the whole body, or \"local\", affecting a region of the body. Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during hypoventilation training or strenuous physical exercise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2596815", "title": "Hypoxemia", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 327, "text": "Hypoxemia is usually defined in terms of reduced partial pressure of oxygen (mm Hg) in arterial blood, but also in terms of reduced content of oxygen (ml oxygen per dl blood) or percentage saturation of hemoglobin (the oxygen-binding protein within red blood cells) with oxygen, which is either found singly or in combination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I have absolutely no clue what you are talking about. I started to have small inkling, but then, where do animals come into play?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think that it is to kind of hype the breed and make it sound more exotic. Also, to be nitpicky and descriptive of the colors. As someone who has a \"blue\" cat, it really is different looking than a normal grey one. If I weren't comparing her to other grey cats I'd just call her grey, but I think the \"blue\" label came about to distinguish a very peculiar effect of having greyish and silver fur in different layers. It is a cooler(as in not warm) shade of grey, so I guess that's why they chose blue.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because we don't have very good words to describe various shades of brown and grey, so when I say \"give me that brown dog\", there might be 10 dogs that match that. But if I say \"give me that orange dog\", that is more descriptive, and people will know exactly which on you mean, even if it is more brown than orange.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13455478", "title": "Animal coloration", "section": "Section::::Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration.:Incidental coloration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 459, "text": "Some animals are colored purely incidentally because their blood contains pigments. For example, amphibians like the olm that live in caves may be largely colorless as color has no function in that environment, but they show some red because of the haem pigment in their red blood cells, needed to carry oxygen. They also have a little orange colored riboflavin in their skin. Human albinos and people with fair skin have a similar color for the same reason.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45105839", "title": "Albinism", "section": "Section::::Biological colouration.:Animal colouration.:Structural colours.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 639, "text": "Animals can also appear coloured due to structural colour, the result of coherent scattering perceived as iridescence. The structures themselves are colourless. Light typically passes through multiple layers and is reflected more than once. The multiple reflections compound one another and intensify the colours. Structural colour differs according to the observer's position whereas pigments appear the same regardless of the angle-of-view. Animals that show iridescence include mother of pearl seashells, fish, and peacocks. These are just a few examples of animals with this quality, but it is most pronounced in the butterfly family.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13455478", "title": "Animal coloration", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 336, "text": "Animal coloration is the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of light from its surfaces. Some animals are brightly colored, while others are hard to see. In some species, such as the peafowl, the male has strong patterns, conspicuous colors and is iridescent, while the female is far less visible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13455478", "title": "Animal coloration", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 913, "text": "There are several separate reasons why animals have evolved colors. Camouflage enables an animal to remain hidden from view. Animals use color to advertise services such as cleaning to animals of other species; to signal their sexual status to other members of the same species; and in mimicry, taking advantage of the warning coloration of another species. Some animals use flashes of color to divert attacks by startling predators. Zebras may possibly use motion dazzle, confusing a predator's attack by moving a bold pattern rapidly. Some animals are colored for physical protection, with pigments in the skin to protect against sunburn, while some frogs can lighten or darken their skin for temperature regulation. Finally, animals can be colored incidentally. For example, blood is red because the heme pigment needed to carry oxygen is red. Animals colored in these ways can have striking natural patterns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52166221", "title": "Archaeology of Malawi", "section": "Section::::Later Stone Age.:Chongoni Rock Art Area.:Central African rock art traditions.:The Red Animal tradition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 269, "text": "This tradition comprises the depiction of animals and human figures always in red. Animals are usually outlined and filled completely and tend to naturalistic in style. There is usually stylization that does not allow the viewer to recognize the species of the animal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "425938", "title": "Animal cognition", "section": "Section::::Research questions.:Concepts and categories.:Perceptual categories.:Natural categories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 1087, "text": "Many animals readily classify objects by perceived differences in form or color. For example, bees or pigeons quickly learn to choose any red object and reject any green object if red leads to reward and green does not. Seemingly much more difficult is an animal's ability to categorize natural objects that vary a great deal in color and form even while belonging to the same group. In a classic study, Richard J. Herrnstein trained pigeons to respond to the presence or absence of human beings in photographs. The birds readily learned to peck photos that contained partial or full views of humans and to avoid pecking photos with no human, despite great differences in the form, size, and color of both the humans displayed and in the non-human pictures. In follow-up studies, pigeons categorized other natural objects (e.g. trees) and after training they were able without reward to sort photos they had not seen before . Similar work has been done with natural auditory categories, for example, bird songs. Honeybees (\"Apis mellifera\") are able to form concepts of \"up\" and \"down\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1713221", "title": "Self colour", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 355, "text": "The term can also be used to distinguish between colour and pattern; patterns are unpigmented areas with pink skin and white hair. In this definition, an animal has only one self-colour, which is the sum effect of all the genes acting on the pigment. For example, a black and tan piebald Dachshund has patterns (piebald) and self-colours (black and tan).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Some areas may become less extreme. But in any place the environment and our use of it is built around a certain climate. In places that are regularly flooded, agriculture on the floodplains relies on the regular flooding to provide water and silt for nutrients. Loss of regular flooding would have a very severe effect. In areas that do not regularly flood, people build houses on the river banks, and regularly flooding there would be devastating.\n\nClimate change is going to increase the amount of heat in the atmosphere, and this will increase the amount of water evaporated, and the amount of energy available to create storms. This is the reasoning behind the predictions of more extreme weather.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When something heats up it gains more energy, or more importantly when something gains more energy it heats up.\n\nSo the atmosphere has more energy in it because the light is trapped by the extra \"greenhouse gases\" and therefore it heats up. Although the overall temperature increases sounds like only a tiny amount, because of the shear volume of the atmosphere it is actually a massive amount of energy.\n\nmost weather patterns are driven by the difference is air temperature, hot air expands causing a high pressure area and colder air creates a low pressure area. The difference in the overall energy of these area, as well as humidity, and how compact or spread out they are, greatly influences the phenomena that we see in the weather.\n\nCyclones (Typhoons, Hurricanes) Are driven my this heat and pressure change. Therefore we will see wilder weather as it heats up.\n\nTL;DR More heat = more energy = more extreme weather. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5042951", "title": "Global warming", "section": "Section::::Observed temperature changes.:Short-term slowdowns and surges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 375, "text": "Because the climate system has large thermal inertia, it can take centuries for the climate to fully adjust. While record-breaking years attract considerable public interest, individual years are less significant than the overall trend. Global surface temperature is subject to short-term fluctuations that overlay long-term trends, and can temporarily mask or magnify them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22115620", "title": "Regional effects of global warming", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 604, "text": "Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming. The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide. When the global temperature changes, the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth. In particular, land areas change more quickly than oceans, and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics, and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13984801", "title": "Wildlife observation", "section": "Section::::Issues leading to the extinction of animals.:Climate change.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 526, "text": "Climate change is one of the most heavily discussed topics around the world today, both politically and scientifically. The climate that Earth is currently experiencing has been steadily changing over time due to both natural causes and human exploitation. Climate change has the potential to be detrimental to wildlife across the world, whether that be through rising sea levels, changes in temperatures through the years, or deforestation. These are just a few of the examples of the contributing factors to climate change.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5042951", "title": "Global warming", "section": "Section::::Effects.:Impacts on humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 755, "text": "The effects of climate change on human systems, mostly due to warming or shifts in precipitation patterns, or both, have been detected worldwide. The future social impacts of climate change will be uneven across the world. All regions are at risk of experiencing negative impacts, with low-latitude, less developed areas facing the greatest risk. Global warming has likely already increased global economic inequality, and is projected to do so in the future. Regional impacts of climate change are now observable on all continents and across ocean regions. The Arctic, Africa, small islands and Asian megadeltas are regions that are likely to be especially affected by future climate change. Many risks increase with higher magnitudes of global warming.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39130107", "title": "Iona Capital", "section": "Section::::Strategic Areas of Investment Focus.:What is Climate Change?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 375, "text": "The issue of climate change is one that has rapidly gained traction in the last ten years as there has been a unprecedented increase in the Earth's temperature. Scientist's argue that the reason behind this involves the trapping of the sun's heat in the Earth's lower atmosphere, due to greenhouse gases in the upper atmosphere re-reflecting heat energy back onto the earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38978504", "title": "Climate change and gender", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1282, "text": "Climate change is a lasting variation in the global climate in response to natural and/or human factors. Climate change, and more specifically global warming, can cause glaciers to melt and sea levels to rise, pushing saltwater into freshwater systems. Significant changes like the salinization of water push species to new locations, directly impacting global ecosystems. Climatic changes affect weather patterns, increasing the frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, and extreme weather events. These types of conditions also result in natural disasters. While climate change is not solely destructive, the negative impacts of global warming on health and agriculture are greater than the benefits for the majority of the world and increase as global temperatures rise. A two-degree rise in temperature threatens 25 percent of all plant and animal species on the planet with extinction. These climatic changes cause the most harm for the most vulnerable populations or those who lack the ability to cope with and adapt to climate change because of a lack of access to essential resources. Marginalized groups like women, children, the elderly, and the impoverished have less access to and control over resources and therefore are more negatively impacted by climate change.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24051690", "title": "History of sustainability", "section": "Section::::21st century: global awareness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 443, "text": "\"The climate system is already moving beyond the patterns of natural variability within which our society and economy have developed and thrived. These parameters include global mean surface temperature, sea-level rise, ocean and ice sheet dynamics, ocean acidification, and extreme climatic events. There is a significant risk that many of the trends will accelerate, leading to an increasing risk of abrupt or irreversible climatic shifts.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]